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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031452984 
 
MANUAL OP RELIGION 
 
 AND or THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHFRCH. 
 
MANUAL OE EELIGION 
 
 AND OP THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 
 
 TOE THE USB OF 
 
 UPPEK CLASSES IN PTTBIilC SCHOOLS IN GI-EBMANY 
 
 AND FOR 
 
 W. ffitocateii JKen in ©meral. 
 
 BT 
 
 KAEL GOTTLIEB BEETS CHNEIDEE. 
 
 TUANSLATBI) FROM TBE GEBMAN. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS. 
 
 1857. 
 
VI TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 such a student requires and is anxiously looking for, is 
 certainly to be found in the works of our religious 
 writers ; but it is so scattered, so miKed up with con- 
 troversial matter, that to collect it in a tangible form 
 is one of the most difficult and disheartening tasks that 
 can well be imagined. I am not the only one who has 
 had to contend with these difficulties ; they have been 
 partaken by all those who, like me, were desirous of sys- 
 tematizing their religious education. During a long re- 
 sidence in Germany at a later period of my Ufe, I was 
 struck with the difference which exists in this respect 
 between that country and England ; and, thanks to my 
 intimate intercourse with some distinguished men at the 
 head of public instruction, I had good opportunities of 
 ascertaining how rich German Literature is in the very 
 books I had so often wished for, and the absence of which 
 had been to me and to others a source of so much toil 
 and trouble in my own country. 
 
 In each of the numerous States of Germany, Manuals 
 of great merit have been produced by independent writers 
 for the use of public instruction. There, all the differ- 
 ent Schools, from the strictest orthodoxy and the most 
 enlightened liberalism to the most extreme rationalism, 
 condense in popular Manuals their peculiar views and 
 religious opinions. There Marheinecke,* Ludewig,t 
 
 * ' Lehrbueh des CkristKohen Glaubens und Lebens :' 2nd edition, 
 Berlin, 1836. {PhilosopMcally treated.) 
 
 t ' Handbucli beim Eeligions-TJnterrioht :' Halle, 1830. {Liberal ) 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. YU 
 
 Schmieder,*Osiander,tKiiiewel,tPalmer,§Hagenbacli,|| 
 Simon,^ Ideler,** Bretschneider,tt prepare for the use 
 of upper classes in schools, books of comparatively easy 
 comprehension, replete with profound knowledge and 
 equally profound convictions. 
 
 In the great variety of publications of that sort by 
 the different Theological Schools, the elementary work of 
 Bretschneider, the first edition of which was published in 
 1834), appeared to me a fair specimen of a concise and 
 clear treatise, steering between the extremes. The book 
 has had the great advantage of having, during several 
 years, gone through the ordeal of practical use and en- 
 lightened criticism. Long before the Author determined 
 on publishing it, he had used it as a Manual in the 
 
 * ' Evangelisches Lehrbuch fiir Sohuler der oberen Classen :' Num- 
 berg, 1839. {Orthodox:) 
 
 t 'LehrbucbzumChristlioheiiEeligions-Unterricht :' Tiibingen, 1839 . 
 {Liberal^) 
 
 J ' Christliobes Eeligionsbuob fiir miindige Christen :' 3rd e'lition, 
 Berlin, 1843. {Orthodox.) 
 
 § ' Lehrbuch der Religion und der Geschichte der ChristUohen Kirohe :' 
 Darmstadt, 1843. (The first edition Liberal, the latter Orthodox.) 
 
 II 'Leitfaden zum Christliohen Religions-Unterricht :' Leipzig, 1853- 
 (Liberal.) 
 
 li ' Christhche EsUgions-Lehre fur die oberen Classen,' 3rd Cursus ■ 
 Leipzig. {Rationalistic.) 
 
 ** ' Lehrstiicke der EvangeHsch-viuirten Kirohe in Zuzammenhang.' 
 {Liberal.) 
 
 t+ ' Lehrbuch,' etc. {Liberal.) 
 
 In this hst I have given the most approved works in different locali- 
 ties. The terms Orthodox, Liberal, nationalistic, are attached to mart 
 the School to vrhich they incline, and are the names by which these 
 Schools designate themselves in their controversies in Germany. 
 
VIU TKANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 " Gymnasium/' where it was his duty to give religious 
 instruction to the upper classes. 
 
 In explaining the object he had in view, the Author 
 expresses himself in the following manner : — " I have 
 not hesitated to publish this Handbook^ which is in- 
 tended for the educated classes in general^ but more es- 
 pecially for those who devote themselves to the pursuit 
 of scientific knowledge, although from the nature of its 
 contents it is addressed to the young students who do 
 not purpose taking degrees in Theology. Yet I flatter 
 myself that it may be adapted to the instruction of en- 
 lightened men at large, and that it will be read with 
 some profit even by those amongst them who have at- 
 tained the maturity of life. At a time when infidelity, 
 coldness of heart, indifierence, and irreligion on the one 
 side, and Superstition, Mysticism, and Pantheism, dal- 
 lying with obsolete ecclesiastical forms, on the other, 
 are so often met with; when moreover Proselytism, 
 which especially prevails amongst the higher ranks of 
 society, stealthily takes advantage of those conflicting 
 opinions, and of the ignorance of many people as to the 
 nature of Christianity and of the Protestant and Roman 
 Churches, — at such a time I thought it very necessary 
 to afford such a knowledge of Religion in general, and 
 of Christianity and its various forms in particular, that 
 Religion should be firmly rooted in the public mind, 
 and preserved from philosophical and theological false 
 lights; that veneration for Scriptural Christianity and 
 for the Protestant Church should be revived, and any 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 deviation from them towards infidelity and indifference, 
 as well as towards Superstition and Mysticism, pre- 
 vented. Agreeably to this view, I thought it necessary 
 to lay down, in the First Part, some philosophical prin- 
 ciples, and to expound, in the Second, the Philosophy 
 of Religion, which has proved very useful during my ex- 
 perience of eight years ; and then I considered that the 
 mala object of the History of Religion was to acquaint 
 the reader with the nature of each particular Church, 
 and with the origin of its peculiar features. 
 
 " It would be highly gratifying to me, if the learned 
 thought, and experience confirmed, that the philosophical 
 doctrine here propounded, and all that is said regarding 
 the Scripture and the History of Religion, is calculated 
 to lay the foundation of a Christian faith, which, keep- 
 ing pace with the progress of science, would incur no 
 danger of being shaken by scientific researches, and be 
 able to prevent the stronger beads amongst the stu- 
 dents and the educated, from falling into infidelity and 
 irreligion, or, owing to their ignorance of the real value 
 of evangelical knowledge and the Church, from becoming 
 a prey to wily Proselytism." 
 
 I availed myself of some leisure hours, during my 
 last stay in Germany, to translate for my own use, and 
 from the last revised and corrected edition, the religious 
 part of Bretschneider's book ; but I soon found, in ap- 
 plying the book to the education of my children, that 
 my task would remain incomplete if I suppressed the 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 philosophical part of the Treatise. The objection which 
 at first had arisen in my mind to the use of that part, 
 had been also the subject of some critical and friendly 
 observations made by others to the Author himself, to 
 which, iu a subsequent edition, he made the following 
 reply :— 
 
 "There are some suggestions of which I could not 
 avail myself because they would have made the book too 
 bulky ; and there are others, and especially the applica- 
 tion to Theology drawn from the Kantian Philosophy, to 
 which I could not give admission. The Introduction to 
 Philosophical Theology I have somewhat shortened ; but 
 I could not make up my mind to omit the whole of 
 Philosophical Theology, as some had advised me to do, 
 and this from well-weighed grounds. As Religion rests 
 on faith in the Ideal, which is entirely the province of 
 Philosophy, a religious doctrine, intended for cultivated 
 minds, without Philosophy, is a structure without a foun- 
 dation; and it was not my intention to write such a 
 book, for the public are not in need of it, being, as it 
 were, inundated with popular religious handbooks. As 
 class-books are generally our favourite books through all 
 life, to which we refer all the information we subse- 
 quently acquire, I have adopted for this Manual such an 
 arrangement as it may stand in after-life, for those who 
 have not attended in a special way to theological matters, 
 as a book to which they may revert, and refer what their 
 own studies and reading may teach them on religious 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. XI 
 
 matters. Hence so many references in the notes, and 
 the great number of quotations, which are only intended 
 to promote individual inquiry; for I do not think that 
 the teacher ought, in giving instruction, to develope all 
 the indications contained in the notes, or sift all the 
 passages he quotes." 
 
 On my return to England, I thought that a book 
 which has proved so useful to myself and to others 
 might not be without interest to English readers in 
 general, and to teachers in particular, as combining 
 within itself the Dogma, the Ethical part, and the His- 
 tory of the Church, and treating the whole in a strictly 
 scientific arrangement and method ; and I hope it may 
 serve as a safe guide, if not as a whole, at least in its 
 essential parts. Another inducement for the publica- 
 tion of this Translation is my conviction that, notwith- 
 standing the numerous publications which have of late 
 appeared, religious and philosophical Germany is as little 
 known in England, as religious England is in Germany ; 
 that the most erroneous notions exist, in this respect, 
 between the two great Protestant countries ; that in the 
 present difficult times it is of the utmost importance 
 that all the Protestant denominations should live in 
 friendship and mutual esteem; and that such an end 
 cannot be attained, and the difference of the growth of 
 Christian life among different nations duly appreciated, 
 without a thorough acquaintance with the state of the 
 religious education of the people. 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 The Author, in alluding to the use which is to be 
 made of his Handbook in public schools, gives some 
 practical hints, which, coming from so experienced a 
 teacher, must be of interest. "It is," he says, "in that 
 respect rather difficult to lay down any general rule of 
 application, because this will depend on the fact as to 
 whether the instruction is given by one or by several 
 teachers, whether the book is used in one or several 
 classes, and how many hours are devoted to it every 
 week. I will therefore confine myself to the remark, 
 that instruction on Christian Morals might be com- 
 menced in some of the lower classes, and this would 
 be followed by that part which is introductory to the 
 Holy Scripture. One might also, in some of the lower 
 classes, go through the fundamental principles of Bib- 
 lical Theology, which would have afterwards to be de- 
 monstrated in one of the upper classes. With the more 
 advanced pupils the First, Second, and Sixth Parts must 
 be thoroughly investigated; and the Third, Fourth, 
 and Fifth in such a way, at least, as to fix a general 
 judgment upon each subject, and to point out the con- 
 nection of the whole. If the teacher be not too sparing 
 of his time, know how to make the most of it, do not 
 indulge too much in philological elucidations, and insist 
 on the pupils being properly prepared each hour for his 
 lessons, he wiU be able to go through the course of his 
 Lectures easily in the ordinary academical time." 
 
Xlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Teausi^toe's Peepace .... . . T 
 
 Inteodttotion .... . . .1 
 
 PART I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS TO PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 I. On Knowledge by the Senses . . . . 9 
 
 II. On Knowledge by Reason . . .... . 14 
 
 (a.) On Understanding .... ... 14- 
 
 (b.) OnEeaaon . ... 26 
 
 III. Relation of the various Soiu'ces of Human Knowledge ... 30 
 The Idea of Deity ... . . .30 
 
 PART II. 
 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 A. Theoretical Religions Ideas ... 35 
 
 I. Theology . 35 
 
 (1.) On God in Himself . . 35 
 
 (2.) On God's Relation to the World . . . 47 
 
 II. Anthropology . 55 
 
 S. Practical Religious Ideas . .62 
 
 I. Divine Law and Dut> . . .62 
 
HANDBOOK OE RELIGION 
 
 AND 07 THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 §1- 
 The object of this Manual is to afford such a knowledge 
 of Religion in general^ and of the Christian Religion in 
 particular, as all educated men, especially those who are 
 engaged in scientific pursuits, ought to possess (Theo- 
 retical Religion, Theology) ; and thus to awaken, purify, 
 and vivify their religious feelings (Practical Religion, 
 Religious Life) . In the first place, religious truths, as 
 they develope themselves in the human heart (Philoso- 
 phical Theology), wiU be treated of; in the second, it will 
 be shown how, by the means of a Divine enlightenment, 
 these truths are historically developed, and have attained 
 their perfection in Christianity (Revealed Theology) . 
 
 §2. 
 
 Every one is in want of such instruction. 1. For Re- 
 ligion is not only the highest stage of the human mind, 
 by which we raise ourselves above the animals, and 
 ennoble our nature, but it solves the highest problems 
 
» INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of life, quickens the seeds of all that is good, and begets 
 those convictions relating to the general conditions of 
 our existence and of the world, by which the peace of 
 our heart is firmly established and invariably main- 
 tained (a). Religion therefore is a natural and indis- 
 pensable condition of the human being {b) ; and its 
 essential elements axe knowledge or faith, works, and 
 feelings (c), but in such a way as knowledge should be 
 the leading criterion, and the spring that purifies the 
 works and feelings; whence the necessity of religious 
 instruction {d). 
 
 2. Moreover it behoves a Christian to know the origin 
 and essence of his religion, and the events relating to 
 the church of which he is a member, the benefits he en- 
 joys, the rights he exercises. 
 
 3. Lastly, the learned ought to pay an earnest atten- 
 tion to religion as to a mental phenomenon which has 
 the most powerful influence upon the laws, the civiliza- 
 tion, and the state of the world. 
 
 (a.) Spalding, ' Religion eine Angdegenheit des Menschen ' (Ber- 
 lin, 1806). ' Die Eeligion an sich und in ihrem Terhaltnisse zur Wis- 
 sensoliaft, Kunst und Leben, imd zu den verschiedenen Pormeu 
 derselben,' von Amad. Wendt. (Salzbacli, 1813, 8vo.) 
 
 (h.) All nations therefore, if ever so little raised above the mere 
 animal state, have a religion. Arist., De Coelo, i. 3 : rrdyres &v8parroL 
 Trepl BeZi' fitouiri iTr6\ri\f/iv. Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 16 : " In om- 
 nium animis Deorum notionem impressit ipsa natura. Quse est enim 
 gens, aut quod genus hominum, quod non habeat sine doctrina antici- 
 pationem quandam Deorum ?" 
 
 (c.) Not in one of these three alone. See § 99. 
 
 (d.) See §§ 95, 99. How practical religion depends upon know- 
 ledge, see §§ 100, 102. In Religion, knowledge is to be obtained by 
 instruction ; the working and awakening of religious feelings by the 
 active appropriation of instruction, by example, and by worship. 
 
 §3. 
 Religion (a), ia the historical sense, is faith in the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 existence of superhuman powers (Gods), who are to be 
 feared and venerated by man (6) ; in a philosophical 
 sense, is faith (c) in the objective {d) reality of religious 
 ideas and of a supernatural world, combined with such a 
 mode of thinking and acting as is conformable to this 
 faith. 
 
 (a.) Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 28: "Qui omnia, quae ad oultum 
 Dei pertinerent, diligenter retractarunt, sunt dioti religiosi, ex rele- 
 gendo, ut elegantes es elegendo, tanquam a diligendo diligentes, et in- 
 telligendo intelligentes ; liis enim verbis omnibus inest vis legendi 
 eadem, quse in reUgioso." Lactantius, Institut. Div. iv. 28 : " Hac 
 conditione gignimur, ut generati nos Deo justa et debita obsequia prse- 
 beamus, tunc solum noverimus, hunc sequamur. Hoc vinculo pietatis 
 obstrieti Deo et religati sumus ; unde ipsa religio nomen accepit, non, 
 ut Cicero interpretatus est, a relegendo." 
 
 (J.) Cicero, De Invent, ii. 35 : " Eeligio est, quse superioris cujus- 
 dam naturse (quam divinam vooant) ciu-am CEerimoniamque affert." — 
 Usual definition, Modus Setcm cognoscendi et colendi. 
 
 (c.) Faith, a firm belief in the truth of what is not immediately 
 perceivable as a fact (either by Consciousness or by Experience). 
 (Heb. ii. 1.) Knowledge, a firm behef in the truth of what is imme- 
 diately perceivable (either by Consciousness or by Experience) . — Paith 
 therefore is an indirect knowledge derived from facts. If the fact be 
 founded on Consciousness, faith is rational. If it be founded on nature 
 or experience, faith is historical. To ielieve is to cliug to an opinion 
 as true, but with the uncertainty as to the value of his judgment. — 
 Ahmmg (presentiment, vague notion), is the admission of truth, not 
 upon grounds clearly understood, but upon sentiment. 
 
 id.) OhjecHoe, i. e. they possess a reality independent of the ap- 
 prehension of our mind. (Biblical names, <l>60os rod ©eoiJ, \aTpeia, 
 evff4$eLa, Sov\eia, dpTjiTKeia.^ 
 
 §4. 
 
 With Religion is not to be confounded, 1. Supersti- 
 tion (a), i. e. the belief in such a condition of the super- 
 natural world, or in such a connection between the in- 
 visible and the visible world, as would be in contradiction 
 with the laws of reason and with experience. 
 
 2. " Schwdrmerei" {b), religious infatuation, eccen- 
 
 B 2 
 
■1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tricity, excitement (MomierSj Quakers, Shakersj Ply- 
 moutli Brethren, Swedenborgians, etc. etc.), that is, the 
 delusion by which the highest truth and reality — the 
 objects of knowledge and faith — are realized according 
 to the capricious impulses of imagination, to an over- 
 excitement of feelings invariably connected with an un- 
 ruly mode of acting. 
 
 (a.) Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 : " Superstitio, in qua est timor 
 iaanis Deorum, — ^religio, quae Deorum cultu pio continetur." Ibid., 
 ii. 28 : " Qui totos dies precabantur et inunolabant, ut sui sibi liberi 
 ^wpersUtes essent, superstitiosi sunt appellati ; quod nomen postea 
 latius patuit." Laotantiua, Instit. Christ., lib. iv. 28 : " Superstitiosi, 
 qui aut superstitem defunctorum memoriam colunt, aut parentibus 
 suis superstites oolebant eorum imagines domi, tanquam deos peuates." 
 Servius, in the commentary to the eighth book of the -ffineid : 
 "Superstitio est timor superfluus et deUrus; aut ab aniculis dicta 
 superstitio, quae multis superstites per setatem delirant et stultse sunt ; 
 aut secuudiun Lucretium superstitio est superstantium rerum, i. e. 
 coelestium et divinarum, quae super nos stant, inanis et superfluus 
 timor." Donatus (ad Terent. Andr. ni. 2, 7) : " Superstes nunc eal- 
 Tus ; alias superstites sunt senes et anus, quia astate multis super- 
 stites jam delirant. Unde et superstitiosi, qui Deos timent nimis : 
 quod signum est deliramenti." 
 
 (J.) The German word Schwa/rmerei (ranting) is probably derired 
 from the swarming of bees, expressing an irregular motion attended 
 with noise. It must not be confounded with enthutiasm, which arises 
 from a clear insight into the high value of an object. The extreme 
 degree of Scfmiirmerei, bordering on a kind of madness, is caJled 
 Fanaticism (fanatictis, ieom fano, famim). 
 
 §5. 
 
 The contrary of Religion is unbelief, which shows 
 itself theoretically by this — that the unbeliever does not 
 acknowledge the truths of religious ideas, which, in his 
 opinion, are mere delusions; practically, by this — that 
 (let him acknowledge them or not) he does not feel their 
 value, and consequently does not conform his actions to 
 them, in which case unbelief is called irreligion. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 XInhelief is not only want of faith, but rejection of it. In relation — 
 
 1. To the idea of the Deity, it is called Atheism, which theoretically 
 ' is disbelief m a Sv/preme Seing ; practically, imgodliness, impiefg. 
 
 2. In relation to the idea of freedom it is immoralHy, which, logi- 
 cally or theoretically, is termed determimsm, fatalism ; practically, 
 want of eomcientiowsness. 
 
 3. In relation to the idea of immortality, it is epiawrism, which, 
 theoretically, is materialism, practically, sensuality. 
 
 §6. 
 
 The subjective conceptions, the individual forms of 
 religious ideas, and the effect they have upon life, con- 
 stitute Religion in a subjective sense. K these ideas are 
 defined and expressed by notions and words, so as to 
 form a whole and a doctrine resting upon arguments, 
 they constitute Religion in an objective sense, — Theology. 
 
 (Private religion, and public or social religion.) 
 
 §7- 
 The different kinds of Rehgion, arising from the diffe- 
 rent modes of apprehendiag rehgious ideas and of laying 
 their foundations, are : — 
 
 1. According to the number of venerated objects: 
 Polytheism (idolatry, heathenism, paganism) ; Dualism 
 (Zoroaster's system, or Ormuzd = Kingdom of Light, 
 and Ahriman= Kingdom of Darkness), and Monotheism 
 (Mosaic, Christian, and Mahometan religion) . 
 
 According to the mode of human development (which begins by 
 the apprehension of the material world) may have developed them- 
 selves, first Fetishism, Zoolatry, and Astrolatry, then Polytheism, and 
 lastly, Monotheism. 
 
 §8. 
 
 2. According to the source from which the perception 
 of religious ideas flows, we may distinguish philosophical 
 religion, discovered by the spontaneous efforts of reason 
 
b INTBODUCTION. 
 
 (a), and positive (6) religion resting upon an historical 
 authority. If the latter be based upon the fact that it is 
 God himself, who, by some extraordinary means, has 
 given instruction, it is called revelation; and if it be de- 
 posited in documents, and thus absolutely sanctioned, 
 statutory religion. 
 
 (o.) Philosophical religion has formerly been termed natural reli- 
 gion, in opposition to revelation ; this expression however has of late 
 been restrained to the knowledge of Gkid derived from nature, or to 
 physico-theology. 
 
 (S.) Religio positiva, i, e. podta, externa aactorUate nixa, etc. 
 
 §9. 
 
 The knowledge of the various existing religions, which 
 have not only a dogmatical connection (a), but also bear 
 a geographical (6) and historical (c) relation to each other, 
 forms an important part of the history of civilization of 
 mankind [d). 
 
 (a.) The religions ideas, though perceived in a different manner, are 
 -inherent to, and may be traced in, every man's mind. Moreover most 
 religions have in common the conception of a golden age, of good and 
 evil spirits, of sacrifices and lustrations, revelation and incarnation of 
 Gods, etc. 
 
 (6.) Egypt and Judsea ; Egypt, Greece, Italy ; Chaldsea and Pa- 
 lestine. — Judaism, Christianity, and Mahometanism from Western 
 Asia. 
 
 (o.) India, Egypt, (Greece) ; Moses, Zoroaster, Christ, Mahomet. 
 
 {d.) ' Qrandriss der Gesohichte aller Eeligionen,' by Christoph 
 Meiners (Lemgo, 1787-8). ' AUgemeine kritisehe Geschichte der Be- 
 ligionen' (Hanover, 1806-8), by the same author. ' TJeber den Q^ist 
 der Religiositat aller Zeiten und Volker,' by J. K. P. Schlegel (Ha- 
 nover, 1819). — According to Hassel's Statistics (Weimar, 1823), 
 out of the 1,000,000,000 inhabitants of the globe, 382,823,700 are 
 Monotheists, viz. 252,565,700 Christians, 120,105,000 Mahometans, 
 3,930,000 Jews. Conf. § 242. 
 
 §10. 
 An exposition of religious doctrines, systematically (a) 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 arranged and supported by principles and demonstrations, 
 is called scientific theology {b), or, Science of Religion. 
 
 (o.) 'SidTTiiut, a well-ajTaiiged whole, — in speaking of systems of 
 doctrine, an ensemble of propositions subordinate to a higher and 
 main principle ; in a wider sense, an ensemble of propositions forming 
 a logical whole, according to general ideas connected with each other. 
 The contrary of a system is an aggregate. (Necessity of giving a sys- 
 tematical arrangement to all our thoughts.) 
 
 (b.) @eo\oyla, i. e. l^yos irfpl toS 0eo5 ; whence, ia Herodot., ii. 53, 
 Homer and Hesiod are called 8e6Koyot ; whilst the fathers of the Church 
 gire that name to the writers on Biblical subjects. SeoKoyia, doctrine 
 of the Trinity, is the title of the Apocalypse. Since Abeilard (twelfth 
 century) fleoA.0710 is used for the scientific exposition of religious 
 truths in general. 
 
 §11. 
 
 Theology and Religion differ — 
 
 1st. As to their nature, in this, that the one is merely 
 doctrine, knowledge; the other, faith, feeling, work. 
 
 2ndly. As to their end, that the one teaches how a 
 true knowledge of religion is to be acquired, how to 
 be demonstrated and defended ; the other sanctifies and 
 blesses the heart. 
 
 3rdly. As to form, that the one has the scientific form, 
 the other has not. 
 
 4thly. As to matter, that the one contains more (de- 
 monstrations, history) than the other. 
 
 5thly. As to age, that religion precedes theology. 
 
 6thly. As to their dignity, that theology exists for the 
 sake of religion ; religion for its own sake. 
 
 §12. 
 Theology may be divided almost in the same way as 
 religion (§§ 7, 99) . The most important division (§ 8) 
 is the one into philosophical and positive (rational and 
 experimental) religion. 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (FhilosopTiy of religion, although often used as identical with ra- 
 tional theology, is, properly speaKng, phUoaophy applied to a positive 
 religion.) 
 
 §13. 
 
 Philosophical theology is a scientific deduction of re- 
 ligious ideas by human reason, combined with an inquiry 
 into their objective reality. It must precede every posi- 
 tive theology. 
 
 §14. 
 
 Religious ideas, like all others, emanate from reason ; 
 hence man alone — ^not the animal destitute of reason — 
 is capable of religion. The nature and value of rational 
 knowledge cannot be appreciated, unless the nature of 
 the Understanding itself, and of its products, is inquired 
 into, — an inquiry by which the validity of religious ideas 
 is ascertained. 
 
 (The perception by the senses, as the first and most lively, appears 
 to the generality of men to he also the most true ; whilst ideas appear 
 to them as mere iancies. Tendency to materialism and atheism.) 
 
 §15. 
 
 We must therefore prelude, as an introduction to 
 Philosophical Theology, by some remarks, 1st, on Know- 
 ledge by the Senses; 2nd, on Knowledge by Reason; 
 3rd, on their respective value. 
 
PART I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS TO PHILOSO- 
 PHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 I. On Knowledge by the Senses. 
 
 §16. 
 
 Within the sphere of sensible knowledge come aU no- 
 tions (a) acquired through the senses (sights hearings 
 touch, etc.) . AU notion produced by the apprehension 
 of the sensesj is called intuition {Anschauung) (b). The 
 complex of sensible beings is called sensible world, and 
 the complex of our intuitions experience (c) . 
 
 (o.) Vorstelhmg, representation, i. e. the apprehension of an object 
 brought to our consciousness ; whatever enters our consciousness, or 
 that with which consciousness combines itself. Representation there- 
 fore is the general expression, the different species of which are in- 
 tuition, notion, and idea. 
 
 (i.) Intuition is, properly speaking, only used for the perceptions 
 by sight ; then {apotiorifit denominaUo) for every perception by the 
 senses. Not only the perceptions of "light," "sun," etc., are intui- 
 tions ; but of " sound," " hardness," " softness," etc. Intuitions by 
 touch are also called " sensations." Intuition is not to be confounded 
 with " Notion." 
 
 (c.) Experience =Kiiowledge a posteriori {parte), in contradistinc- 
 tion to Knowledge by Reason (a priori). 
 
 §17. 
 To form a representation through the sensesj we want — 
 
10 PEELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 1. An impression made by the object upon the sensible 
 organ ; 2. An active power of the soul to perceive this 
 impression in consciousness (receptivity, spontaneity). 
 The soul therefore, by directing iatentionally conscious- 
 ness upon other objects, may lessen, interrupt, or entirely 
 obliterate the sensible impression (a) . 
 
 (a.) E. g. In bodily pain, grief may be silenced by fixing conscious- 
 ncBB upon consolatory considerations ; the instigation of the senses to 
 evil, by presenting to the mind the dictates of duty and honour, etc. 
 
 §18. 
 
 The correctness of sensible Perception requires — 1. A 
 normal constitution (a) and action {b) of the sensible 
 organs (correct Receptivity) ; 2. A normal action of the 
 soul, or the natural freedom of consciousness (correct 
 Spontaneity) (c). 
 
 (a.) Wanting in cases of bhndness, dea&ess, lameness, 
 (i.) Wanting in sleep, fainting, disease. 
 
 (o.) Wanting in deep meditation, ecstasy, passion, fear, melancholy, 
 etc. 
 
 §19. 
 
 The objects of sensation, as far as they are our repre- 
 sentations (subjectively conceived), are ca^edi phenomena 
 {^aivofieva) , i. e. objects represented as in time and 
 space. The objects abstractedly considered, i. e. as that 
 upon which our representation of them is based objec- 
 tively, the Things in themselves, voovfjueva (a) . The know- 
 ledge acquired by the means of the sensible Faculty does 
 not make manifest the Thing in itself, but only the im- 
 pression it produces on the senses (6). We can therefore 
 perceive only those qualities of Things in themselves which 
 fall under the senses (c). 
 
 (a.) A rose, e.g., is a phenomenon, as far as it exists as an intuition 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY THE SENSES. 11 
 
 in our representation; but the principle of this phenomenon, that 
 which produces it, is tlie Thmg in itself. 
 
 (S.) It is not the Thing itself (Object) that is involyed in the repre- 
 sentation, but the sensation alone which the Thmg produces. All per- 
 ceptions by senses, such as size, shape, hardness, etc., merely express 
 what impression a thing makes upon the senses. 
 
 (c.) Had we fewer senses, we should he depriyed of many repre- 
 sentations of the material world, as it is the case with persons bom 
 blind or deaf ; had we one or some senses more, the world of phe- 
 nomena would become richer for us ; a sense, e. g., which would reach 
 other celestial bodies. — ^Possibility of some more senses (Magnetism ?). 
 
 §20. 
 
 The original and necessary Form {a) under which, or 
 the fundamental intuition according to which, aU things 
 are apprehended by the senses (brought to our con- 
 sciousness), is, — 
 
 1. Space, or the representation of extent, with three 
 different dimensions, — ^length, breadth, and depth (height) 
 (b) ; and 
 
 2. Time, or the representation of duration, with three 
 dimensions also, — past, present, and future (c) . 
 
 For aU objects are conceived as existing som&where 
 and somewhen. 
 
 (a.) Form, i. e. manner of apprehending ; condition under which 
 sensible representations are possible. The word Zme may be used 
 instead of Form. 
 
 (J.) Seal Space, i. e. Space which is conceived as filled with objects ; 
 absolute Space, i. e. Space in itself (abstractedly) without the concep- 
 tion of its being filled with objects. 
 
 (c.) Ueal Time and absolute Time, as above. Every part of Space or 
 Time is called a Quaatit^. (Pure and apphed mathematics.) 
 
 §21. 
 
 Space and Time therefore are not representations pro- 
 duced by external objects, but both must necessarily 
 precede all perception by the senses {a). For 1. were 
 
12 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 this not the case, they could not necessarily have three 
 different dimensions (§ 30) ; because experience can teU 
 us that something is, but not that it cannot be other- 
 wise. 
 
 2. They have not, Kke notions derived from intuitions, 
 several characteristics (b) ; and 
 
 3. The qualities which must be ascribed to time and 
 space are only possible on the condition that we possess 
 both these notions previous to all experience, — that we 
 possess them as fundamental laws, which we apply to all 
 sensible perception (c). 
 
 (a.) I. e. We know beforeliand, that every sensible object must be 
 represented as being someaiiere and somewAeM. (Hence the necessity 
 of mathematics, and the possibihty of persons bom bhnd being mathe- 
 maticians.) 
 
 (S.) Space contains the only characteristic of extent (in three direc- 
 tions) ; Time the only characteristic of dviration (in three relations). 
 Length, breadth, and depth are no different species of Space, but parts 
 of the same Space ; the same applies to Time. 
 
 (o.) Space and Time must be considered as — 
 
 1. Inf/nite m extent, because our Eepresentative Faculty, which can 
 conceive absolutely nothing without Space and Time, cannot possibly 
 conceive a No- Space and a No- Time. The end is again to be con- 
 cpived as something, and therefore as another Space and another 
 Time, and so forth. For the same reason, Space and Time exist in our 
 representation. 
 
 2. la intensity infinMeh) diinsible. The smallest part of extent and 
 duration, for the very reason that it is represented as a part, admits of 
 another division. The representation therefore of something simple 
 (indivisible and not subject to the condition of Time) is impossible. 
 
 3. They are contimious, i. e. we cannot conceive anything between 
 Space and Space, Time and Time, which would not be Space, not 
 Time (=Nothing) ; and 
 
 4. Uniform, i. e. of the parts of Space and Time, none differ from 
 each other ; because the form of the representative faculty is one and 
 the same in all representations. 
 
 §22. 
 It cannot be known by experience that there is some- 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY THE SENSES. 13 
 
 thing in the sensible objects themselves which corre- 
 sponds precisely to our Eepresentation of Space and Time 
 (a), because in this case a comparison would be required 
 between the things in themselves and our representation 
 of them [b) ; and for such a comparison we should want 
 another faculty of knowing external objects, which we 
 do not possess. 
 
 (a.) I. e. That extent and juitapoBition exist in the objects them- 
 selves exactly in the same manner as they do in our representations. 
 
 (i.) With this must not be confounded the correction of one sense 
 by another (the sight, e. g., by the touch), by which we rectify only the 
 subjective sensation produced by the objects, but do not feel what 
 they are without our representation. 
 
 §23. 
 
 But this we are taught by our consciousness ; that in 
 the objects themselves there must be something analogous 
 to our representations of Time and Space ; for the mere 
 Form of the sensible representation, without the existence 
 of any object, would give an empty Space and an empty 
 Time («) . The application of the Porm however varies 
 (6), and this modification is always produced by the 
 objects themselves, as it is attested by our consciousness, 
 the assertions of which are superior to all doubts and to 
 aU arguments. Hence it follows, that not only the ex- 
 istence of the objects is certain, but that, objectively, they 
 possess qualities according to which our representations 
 of them are formed. 
 
 (o.) Without an object we have the mere Form = extent, duration ; 
 without an object we should not be able to apply the Porm. The 
 reason why we think of some part of the heaven not as mere aether, 
 but filled with something, a comet for instance, does not exist within 
 but without ourselves. It is the same with respect to the reason why 
 we think of two clocks as not striking at once, but the one after the 
 other, of a war terminated by peace, etc. 
 
 (i.) It cannot be imagined that the application of the Form was de- 
 
14 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 termined before the impression of tlie object, except where the form 
 itself (absolute Space and absolute Time) is considered, as in pure ma- 
 thematics. We can quote also, as it were, by anticipation this prin- 
 ciple of Theology, that the wisdom and goodness which gave us the 
 power of apprehending by the senses, must be supposed to have 
 arranged it conformably to the qualities of the objects. 
 
 (It is possible and probable that the objects possess some properties 
 for which we have no sense, and which therefore do not come within 
 the limits of our consciousness.) 
 
 II. On Knowledge by Reason. 
 
 §24. 
 Reason, in a -wide sense^ is the faculty of thinking, 
 i. e. of bringing representations to the unity of con- 
 sciousness, which is done by dividing and combining 
 them. In a special sense, Reason is the Faculty of pro- 
 ducing Ideas, and then it is distinguished from Under- 
 standing (a), i. e. the faculty of forming notions, judg- 
 ments, and conclusions. 
 
 (a.) Hitherto Understanding and Reason have not been sufficiently 
 distinguished. Kant stiU considered the Understanding as the faculty 
 of forming notions and judgments, Keason sis the faculty of forming 
 arguments. 
 
 (a.) On Understanding. 
 §35. 
 
 By dividing and combining the representations already 
 acquired the Understanding forms Notions. A Notion is 
 a representation formed by separating {abstracting) those 
 characteristics (a) which are common {b) to various re- 
 presentations (c) , and by combining them in a new re- 
 presentation (a Unity) in Consciousness. 
 
 {a.) The component elements of Notions are called characteristics; 
 they are parts of a representation. They may be divided iato general 
 and special chflracteristics (e. g. in the Notion " body," heavy elec- 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 15 
 
 trio) ; affirmative and negative (e. g. just and unjust) ; essential and 
 accidental (e. g. heavy is essential in the Notion " body ;" round is 
 accidental ; round is essential in the Notion " ball ;" wooden is acci- 
 dental). 
 
 (i.) Notions immediately derived from intuitions are called Notions 
 of lower abstraction (e. g. fish, plant) ; Notions derived from other 
 Notions are called Notions of Mgher abstraction (creature, being), 
 which however are not to be confounded with Ideas (§ 43). 
 
 (o.) JB. g. From the intuition of all human individuals, those charac- 
 teristics which are common to them all (body and reasoning mind), 
 are abstracted and combined in a new representation — " man." Cha- 
 racteristics which are not common to all, e, g. ill, wise, vicious, must 
 not be included in the Notion, else it becomes too na/rrow. If, on 
 the other hand, the pecuhar characteristic is wanting, the Notion is 
 too wide (e.g. man is an organic being). 
 
 §36. 
 Notions are divided — 
 
 1. According to their quantitative ea?tosio«, into general 
 and particular (a); according to the quantity of their 
 comprehension, into simple and compound notions (6). 
 
 2. According to their quality (the manner in which 
 they exist ia our consciousness) they are distinct or in- 
 distinct (c). 
 
 3. According to their relation to each other, — absolute 
 or relative (d), concordant or conflicting (e). 
 
 4. According to their modality (their relation to the 
 representative faculty), — possible or impossible (/), ex- 
 perimental or abstract [g) . 
 
 (a.) According as they express a Genus or a Species, e. g. Man, Eu- 
 ropean. The general Notion referred to a higher one may become a 
 particukr Notion (e. g. creature, man) ; and the particular Notion 
 referred to an inferior one, may again become a Grenus {e.g. European, 
 German). The representation of an Individual (e. g. moon, Cicero) is 
 not a Notion, but an Intuition. 
 
 (S.) Simple, if they contain only one characteristic (e. g. something) ; 
 compound, if they contain several characteristics. 
 
 (c.) Distinct (as to extension), when all Species and Individuals 
 which the Notion embraces are known ; the notion " man," e. g.. 
 
16 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 taken in the representation of man as circumnavigator ; distinct (as 
 to comprehension), when the characteristics of the Notion are com- 
 pletely understood ; e. g. " man " in his quality as " wise." (A No- 
 tion is clear when it is so far known as to be sufficiently distinguished 
 from others.) 
 
 {d) Absohie notions, which do not express a relation (wise, just) ; 
 relatme notions, e. g. high, long, large, and all comparatires. 
 
 (e.) Concordcmt notions, which may he represented as existing 
 together, e. ff. wisdom and goodness ; conflictmg notions, on the con- 
 trary, are, everlasting and transitory, square and circle. — Principium 
 contradictionis. — Conflicting characteristics must not be included in 
 the same Notion. The Opposition, of Notions is twofold : 1. a con- 
 tradActory opposition if the affirmation of the one includes the negation 
 of the other, without the negation of the one including the affirmation 
 of the other. This is always the case when there are more than two 
 terms of Opposition ; e. g. richness and poverty, between which lies a 
 third, competency. 2. A contrwry opposition, if two Notions exclude 
 each other entirely ; in this case there is no third term, and therefore 
 the negation of the one necessarily includes the affirmation of the 
 other; e.g. simple and compound, everlasting and temporary. — Prin- 
 cipium contrarietatis. — Every object must possess, of two qualities 
 standing in contrary opposition to each other, either the one or the 
 other. 
 
 (/.) Possible notions, the characteristics of which may be united 
 in our consciousness ; e.g. a, golden hill j — " a flat hill" would be an 
 impossible notion. 
 
 {g.) Umpirical notions, which are given by experience (e.g. town, 
 animal) ; abstract notions, formed by Keason (virtue, wisdom). — To 
 these, among others, belong the Ideas. 
 
 §27. 
 
 The contents of Notions are found either, by Induc- 
 tion, i. e. by comparing aU, or at least most of their spe- 
 cies and iadividnals (synthesis) {a) ; or by examining 
 and comparing what they contain, according to the sense 
 attached to the word that represents them, and putting 
 these elements together (analysis) {b) . 
 
 {a.) It is most frequently used in Notions of the lower abstraction 
 (§'25, J), especially in natural objects. 
 (J.) More frequently used in Notions of the higher abstraction ; 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 17 
 
 e. g. embarrassment is used for a state of indecision, disappointed ex- 
 pectations, great anxiety, shame in consequence of a detected weak- 
 ness, etc. 
 
 §28. 
 
 A Notion tecomes distinct — 
 
 1. Partly by description, when not aU its character- 
 istics are specifiedj but those only by which it is to be 
 distinguished from others (a). 
 
 2. Partly by definition, i. e. a complete, precise, and 
 distinct statement of its essential characteristics, and of 
 its Genus (b) ; and 
 
 3. Partly by distinction, i. e. the explanation of its 
 difference from kindred and similar Notions (c) . 
 
 (a.) Description, especially to be applied to all Notions in natural 
 philosophy (necessarily and exclusively used for individuals), 
 (i.) The definition must be — 
 
 1. Complete, i. e. it must specify the essential characteristic, else 
 it would be too wide. 
 
 2. Precise, i. e. it shonld not contain a characteristic which is not 
 essential, else it would be too narrow ; e.g.& learned man is he who 
 knows and teaches science. 
 
 3. Distinct, i. e. it should contain neither a " trope'' {e.g. virtue 
 is the health of the soul) nor -■ tautology (e. g. a spirit is a spiritual 
 being), and should give the next genus of the defined object, and ex- 
 actly state the difference between this object and other subdivisions of 
 that genus ; e.g. a painter is (not a man, but) an artist, who possesses 
 the skill (not of painting, drawing, representing objects, but) of repre- 
 senting objects in a true and beautiful manner by colours. 
 
 (c.) E.g. Learned school and school of learned; amoral history 
 and the moral of history. 
 
 §29. 
 By separating and combining representations the Un- 
 derstanding forms Judgments. A Judgment is the per- 
 ception of the relation existing between two or more re- 
 presentations, and, if expressed in words, is called a pro- 
 position. Every Judgment contains three Terms : — 
 
18 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 1. The Subject, or the priaeipal representatioiij of 
 which something is asserted. 
 
 3. The Predicate, or the representation, which is com- 
 pared with the Subject, and either ascribed to or denied 
 of it. 
 
 3. The Copula, or the sign of this relation between 
 the Subject and Predicate. 
 
 B.g. Cicero — orator ; CScero was an orator. World — Grod ; the 
 world is not God. (In Grrammar, Substantive, Adjective, Verb.) 
 Often the Copula and the Predicate are contained in the Verb ; e.g. 
 I hear, i. e. I am hearing. Sometimes the Subject is hidden ; e.g. it 
 rains. 
 
 §30. 
 
 The Judgments are subdivided — 
 
 1. According to the quantity of their extension, into 
 general, particular, and individual (a). 
 
 2. According to the quantity of their comprehension, 
 into simple and compound [b) . 
 
 3. According to the quality or to the nature of the 
 copula, they are affirmative or negative (c) ; categorical, 
 hypothetical, and disjunctive {d) . 
 
 4. According to their relation to each other, they are 
 subordinate, equivalent, and conflicting (e). 
 
 5. According to the modality, i. e. their relation to 
 the representative faculty ; problematical, assertory, and 
 apodictical (/). 
 
 (a.) According as the Predicate is ascribed to the whole sphere of 
 the subject, or only to one species or individual ; e. g. all men are 
 mortal ; some men are wise ; Somer was a poet. 
 
 (i.) Simple, those which contain only one Subject and one Predi- 
 cate ; eompownd, those which contain several Subjects or several Pre- 
 dicates. (Compound Judgments really contain several Judgments.) 
 
 (c.) According as the Copula afitons or denies the Predicate of the 
 Subject. 
 
 {d.) Categorical Judgments purely affirm or deny the Predicate of 
 the Subject (Q-od is holy ; the world is not eternal). In hypothetical 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 19 
 
 Judgments this takes place under a certain condition (supposition 
 (e.ff. if the earth throws in all positions a circular shadow, it must 
 be round. In these Judgments is inrolTed a Syllogism). Biigmiatwe 
 Propositions are those in which either the Subject or the Predicate 
 have scTeral terms (e.g. either the GSxeeks or the Bomans are the 
 most, celebrated nation ; the aerolites come either from the atmo- 
 sphere, or from the moon, or from the cosmic space), 
 
 (e.) SuhordiMafe Judgments, when a Judgment comprises another 
 as a particular proposition (e.g. virtue is beneficial, — justice and be- 
 nevolence are beneficial). Eqmoalent Judgments are those which have 
 the same contents (e.^'. 2 -h 2 = 1 -)- 3 = 4, tautologies). Conflietmg 
 Judgments are those, the contents of which suppress each other (e. g. 
 man is immortal, he is not immortal). 
 
 (y.) According as the relation between Subject and Predicate is 
 considered ss possible (e.g. the planets are very likely to be inhabited, 
 swpposition) ; or as real (e.g. man is immortal, helief) ; or as neces- 
 sary' (e.g. God must be just, knowledge'^. 
 
 §31. 
 
 The correctness of Judgments partly depends on the 
 correctness of the notions forming the Subject and the 
 Predicate, partly on the suitable determination of the 
 Copula. 
 
 §33. 
 
 The Perception of the relation of dijQferent Judgments 
 to each other, accompanied by its reason (a) ; or the 
 deduction of one Judgment from another by means of a 
 third [b], is an Argument. 
 
 (a.) JS.g. All men have moral dispositions, consequently they have 
 a moral destination (these are called abridged Arguments, and are 
 really based upon a Syllogism). 
 (i.) U.g.- 
 "Wise men deserve esteem ; Plato deserves esteem, because 
 
 Plato was a wise man ; he was a wise man ; and all wise 
 
 Plato deserves esteem. men deserve esteem. 
 
 The two first Propositions are termed FroposiUones prcemissw, the 
 last one Conclmsio. 
 
 §33. 
 Arguments are either simple or compound. The sim- 
 
30 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 pk argument is called Syllogism. It consists of three 
 Propositions — Propositio major, Propositio minor, and 
 Conclusio [a), and contains three Notions, each of which 
 is repeated twice — Terminus major (which forms the 
 Predicate of the Propositio major and Conclusio) ; Ter- 
 minus medius, the middle Notion (the Subject of the 
 Propositio major and the Predicate of the Propositio 
 minor) ; and Terminus minor (the Subject of the Propo- 
 sitio minor and Conclusio) {b) . 
 
 (as.) ^,g. AH men are subject to error ; 
 
 I am a man ; 
 Therefore, I am subject to error. 
 (S.) In the foregoing argument, " subject to error" is the Terminus 
 major ; " man" the Terminus medius ; and " I " the Terminus minor. 
 They are to be put in this order : — 
 
 M(iddle notion), P(redicate), 
 
 S(ubject), M(iddle notion), 
 
 S(ubject), P(redioate). 
 
 §34. 
 
 The demonstrative power of Syllogism depends in 
 general on the subsumption of Notions, or on the Pro- 
 position, that what may be ascribed to the Genus, may 
 be equally said of the different Species and Individuals 
 comprised in this Genus; a Proposition, the truth of 
 which results from the manner in which Notions are 
 formed (§ 25). The formal truth of the conclusion de- 
 pends on this, that the three Termini (a) be used in the 
 same sense; the material truth on this, that the sub- 
 sumption in the Propositio minor be correct (b), and 
 that the connection between Subject and Predicate in 
 both Propositions be not a false (c), accidental (d), or 
 conditional (e), but a true, necessary, and unconditional 
 one. 
 
 {a.) The three termini, § 33, — e. g. all animals may be slaughtered, 
 Sempronius is an aiiimal, therefore, etc. 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY EEASON. 21 
 
 (i.) E.g. Arithmetic is a science ; reckoning by the fingers is arith- 
 metic ; therefore reckoning by the finger is a science. 
 
 (c.) E.g. He who has the fewest wants, possesses the piirest hap- 
 piness ; the beggar has the fewest wants j therefore he possesses the 
 purest happiness. 
 
 {d.) E.g. What makes man more perfect is to be desired ; suffering 
 makes man more perfect ; therefore, etc. 
 
 (e.) E. g. We must remove from others what is prejudicial to their 
 virtue ; richness is prejudicial to their virtue ; therefore, etc. 
 
 §35. 
 
 Compound arguments are those which have more than 
 two Premises. To these belong — 
 
 1. The hypothetical and disjunctive arguments, the 
 Propositio major of which contains a hypothetical or 
 disjunctive judgment (a). 
 
 2. The dilemma, an argument in which the Propositio 
 major contains a hypothetical judgment, with a disjunc- 
 tion in its second part, the terms of which are denied in 
 the Propositio minor, whence the conclusion is drawn, 
 that the hypothesis in the Propositio major is wrong [b) . 
 
 (a.) E.g. If we can sail round the earth, the earth must be round ; 
 we C(m sail round the earth ; therefore, etc. (the Propositio minor must 
 always deny or affirm the condition of the Propositio major, not the 
 consequence of this condition). — Disjunctive : the World is either eter- 
 nal or created ; it cannot be eternal, therefore it is created. (The op- 
 position between the disjunctive terms must be correct and complete ; 
 see § 38.) 
 
 (i.) E. g. If our soul is destroyed by death, God either carmot pre- 
 serve it, or does not wish to preserve it ; but God can preserve it, and 
 wishes to do so ; therefore it is not destroyed in death. (The Sophists 
 liked to use this kind of argument, " SyUogismus comutus, or croco- 
 dilinus." If the disjunction contains three, four, or more terms, the 
 argument is called trilemma, quadnlemma, poh/lemma.) The oppo- 
 sition in the disjunction must be correct and complete, else the argu- 
 ment is wrong. 
 
 §36. 
 
 3. Arguments by induction, in which, by comparing 
 
23 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 as many facts as possible, a judgment is derived as a 
 Conclusion (a) ; and 
 
 4. The " Sorites" (a string of Arguments), in which 
 several Propositions are so connected that the Predicate 
 of the preceding Proposition is made the Subject of the 
 following, to which a new Predicate is added, and so 
 forth, till you come to the final Conclusion, which re- 
 produces the Subject of the first, and the Predicate of 
 the last Proposition [b) . 
 
 (a.) "When Induction is complete, the result is not, properly speak- 
 ing, a Syllogism, but rather a proof of the correctness of a judgment 
 founded on experience. When Induction is incomplete, and from the 
 quaUties of known objects we conclude to the qualities of other simi- 
 lar, but unknown objects, a subsumption takes place, and an argument 
 by analogy is formed, the Propositio major of which is, "Objects of the 
 same kind are likely to be similar, not in one point only, but in many 
 points :" e. g. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, have mountains ; 
 therefore other planets are supposed to hare also mountains. 
 
 (i.) Xl.g. Drunkenness destroys the mental faculties ; what destroys 
 the mental faculties, deprives us of human dignity ; what deprives us 
 of human dignity, lowers us to the degree of animals ; therefore drunk- 
 enness lowers us, etc. (The connection between Subject and Predi- 
 cate must be true, invariable, and necessary, else the Conclusion is 
 wrong ; e. g. the boldness of others detects our faults ; what detects 
 our faults leads to self-knowledge; what leads to self-knowledge is 
 valuable ; boldness is valuable.) Bvei!y Sorites may be resolved into 
 several Syllogisms. 
 
 §37. 
 
 All Arguments are demonstrations, which however 
 produce only a discursive {a) knowledge or conviction. 
 Errors in demonstrating are — 
 
 1. Petitio principii (begging the question), if the 
 principle from which the Conclusion is drawn, presup- 
 poses the truth of this Conclusion {b) . 
 
 2. Arguing in a circle, if the same Proposition is used 
 as Propositio major and as Conclusio (c). 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 23 
 
 3. Argumentmn himium prolans, in which the Propo- 
 sitio major is wrong in all cases [d] . 
 
 4. The conclusion from something Possibk to something 
 Real; it contains a fallacy, because the Conclusio can 
 never contaia more truth than the Premises (e). 
 
 (a.) DiaoursiTe (discurro), because we must run through Wotion, 
 Judgment, and Argument, in order to arrive at the demonstration ; 
 it is therefore a mediate knowledge, and is opposed to intuitive, im- 
 mediate apprehension of truth. 
 
 (i.) S.ff. Amazons did exist, because we have records of them. 
 God exists, because there is a divine revelation. 
 
 (o.) ^.g. The senses make us acquainted with the objects as they 
 are, for they impart an objective knowledge. 
 
 (d.) JE.g. A revelation is impossible, because God cannot exercise 
 an immediate action upon our soul. (According to this, God is not 
 the Almighty, nor the creator of the soul.) 
 
 (e.) " A posse ad esse non valet conclusio." The Propositio major 
 would be, " All that is possible is also real." 
 
 §38. 
 
 The Understanding, like Sensibility, has two necessary 
 principal forms for the apprehension of all real things, 
 viz. Entity and Causality (a) . On account of the unity 
 of the thinking subject, the forms of Sensibility — Time 
 and Space — naturally combine themselves with these 
 latter in the act of thought, unless they are artificially 
 separated by abstraction {b) . 
 
 (a.) All things must be something (what they are and what consti- 
 tutes their entity), and must be in consequence of something (which 
 causes them). 
 
 (b.) Therefore anything we may represent to ourselves appears as 
 existing in Space, and the smallest poiiit that may be conceived is not 
 a simple one. Again, anything consequent upon another appeal's as a 
 subsequence in Time. 
 
 [^Kant, who called the Forms of Understanding " Categories," ar- 
 ranged them in the following fourfold manner : — 1. Qtumtitj/ ; Unity, 
 Plurality, Universality. 2. QaaUty : Reality, Negation, and Limita- 
 tion. 3. delation : Subsistence and Inherence (Substance and Acoi- 
 
24 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 deuce), Causality and Dependence (Cause and Effect), and Conunmiity 
 (reciprocal action). 4. Modality: Possibility and Impossibility, Ke- 
 ality (Existence) and Not-Existence, Necessity and Casualty. — The 
 first two classes being threefold, the two last sixfold (for "Com- 
 munity" is also twofold, being either " Conformity" or " Conflict"), 
 shows that these Categories are not of the same kind. Keahty in the 
 2nd class, and Existence in the 4th, are, as categories of Entity and 
 Being, the principal Condition of all thought and of all rational con- 
 ception ; whence Krug (' System der theoretischen PhUosophie,' Part 
 II. p. 81) considers "Reality" and "Being" as the fundamental Catego- 
 ries common to the Forms of SensibUity as well as of the Understand- 
 ing. The "Negation" in the 2nd class, and the "Impossible" and 
 " Non-Existing" in the 4th, cannot be the Eorms of the representation 
 of an Object by the Understanding, as they deny all representation, 
 but they are only the negatiye expression of a knowledge which is de- 
 rived from the objects ; they are the negative copula of Judgments. 
 It is also clear that " Entity" and " OausaJity," according to the 
 sehema of the 1st, 2nd, and 4th class, may be conceived by the Un- 
 derstanding as a Unity, Plurality, or Universality, as a Conditionality 
 or Non-Oonditionality, as a Possibility, Beality, or Necessity ; but, on 
 the contrary. Unity, Plurality, or Universality ; Negation and Limi- 
 tation, Possibility or ImpossibiHty ; Non-Existence and Necessity or 
 Casualty, — are neither an Entity nor a CausaUty.] 
 
 §39. 
 
 Both these Forms have only two sides in their ap- 
 plication, a positive and a negative one, namely, Entity 
 is either Substance or Non- Substance, i. e. Accidence. 
 Substance is what constitutes the essence of a thing, 
 and cannot be imagined separated from it, without an- 
 nihilating the thing itself. We distinguish between 
 logical Substance, i. e. the essential properties of a 
 thing, the properties that form the necessary contents of 
 a representation (a) and metaphysical Substance (sub- 
 stratum), the Subject which contains the essential pro- 
 perties, and forms their permanent unity [b) . Accidence 
 is what is added to the Substance, what is in or with an 
 object, but may be separated from it without annihilating 
 it (c). 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 25 
 
 (a.) "Eound" in the Notion "globe;" "reason" in the Notion 
 "man ;" " Ommseienoe" in the Notion " God." What is essential in 
 one notion may be accidental in another (see § 26). 
 
 (S.) Metaphysical Substance, the Thing w, itself, which is never 
 found in our representations, and therefore is = as. 
 
 (c.) " Quod accedit ad notionem" therefore " accidit ;" e. g. " fluid," 
 " solid," in the Notion " body ;" " ill," " clever," in the Notion " man." 
 Aocideuces indicate the Secoming, Substance the Seimg. Grod has no 
 Accidenoes, because we can realize Him only as BeiMg, and not as 
 Becoming. The Substance referred to a higher Whole, as a part of 
 this WTiole, may be an Accidence to this ; e.g. "to have a body" in 
 the representation of a "rational Being." 
 
 § 40. 
 
 Causality is either positive, Cause, or negative, Not 
 Cause, that is. Effect. Came (Reason, Condition) is 
 that by which something exists and is determined [a) ; 
 Effect (Consequence, Conditioned) is that which exists 
 because something else exists, which is the " conditio" 
 of the former {b) . 
 
 The reciprocal action is no third term of Causality, 
 because it merely means either that there are two causes 
 which produce the same or different effects (c) ; or that, 
 under peculiar circumstances and by different relations. 
 Causes may become Effects and Effects Causes {d). 
 
 (a.) .B. g. The rotation of the Earth round its axis, as the cause of 
 the alternation of day and night. Sufficient, insufficient Ground ; 
 subordinate, coordinate Ground ; physical, moral Causes. Language 
 seems not to admit any other differeacs between Qromnd and Cause 
 than this, namely, that Cause is an occasionally but repeatedly, and 
 Ground a constantly, acting principle. Convictions "therefore" are 
 not founded upon Causes, but on Grounds, because the influence of 
 these on our judgments is considered as a lasting one. This difference 
 however is not always observed by language. 
 
 (i.) JB. g. The alternation of the Seasons as a Consequence of the 
 inclination of the BcKptic. Necessary, accidental consequences ; 
 nearer, remote consequences. In God, as the Cause of ah. things, there 
 is no effect. 
 
 (c.) In the first case they act in harmony with each other, e.g. the 
 
 C 
 
26 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 Sim and the Moon, as the Causes of the Tides ; in the second case 
 they are conflicting, e.g. the claims of the lower propensities and those 
 of reason. 
 
 ((i.) The Cause, subject to no condition, is the ultimate Cause, and 
 therefore only one = God. 
 
 § 41. 
 The Notions of Entity and Causality — like those of 
 Space and Time, and for the same reason (§ 21)^ — are 
 not produced by experience, but are inherent to our 
 mind (§ 21) . Though it cannot be demonstrated that 
 the Thing in i<se|f corresponds to them (§ 22), yet there 
 must be some connection between these forms and the 
 objects, because otherwise, as mere forms, they would 
 be empty, and we could not find any ground in our 
 mental constitution for their existence and application, 
 either as a positive or as a negative condition of thought 
 (§ 23). 
 
 That we conceiTe here a mountain, there a plain (as Aecidences to 
 the Earth) ; whether light be a Substance or am Accidence (a mo- 
 tion similar to that of sound) ; to determine all this does not depend 
 on ourselves. It is the same with Cause and Effect, e.g. a comet and 
 the weather. 
 
 (b.) On Reason. 
 
 § 42. 
 Reason in the special sense, and as distinguished 
 from Understanding, is a creative faculty, and Ideas are 
 its products. 
 
 § 43. 
 Ideas [a) are conceptions formed by Reason according 
 to the law of perfection, which is involved in its essence, 
 and this by bringing plurality into a unity determined 
 by itself, as well as perceived by itself as perfect. 
 Ideas therefore are suggested by experience, but they 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 27 
 
 are not drawn, like notions, from experience : they spring 
 from Reason. 
 
 (a.) Ib-om the Greek iS4a, liteness, form. In Plato's writings 
 Ideas are the originai conceptions (schemes) of things, the patterns of 
 creation as they exist in G-od's mind : he considers them as the Unity 
 of Plurality. We mean by the word Ideas the standards (types) of 
 perfection which our Keason possesses. 
 
 (4.) -B. ff. By experience we come to the notion " Church," viz. by 
 abstracting and combining in a new conception those characteristics 
 which are common to all religious societies bearing the name of 
 "churches." But if we form the conception of a religious commu- 
 nity according to the highest design and standard which Beason finds 
 in itself for it, then we come to the Idea of Church. The Idea ex- 
 presses what should be (because the perfection has an intrinsical ne- 
 cessity) ; the Notion tells us what (experimentalh/) is. State, man, etc., 
 as they should he, are not Notions, but Ideas. To idealize a Notion 
 therefore means to determine its contents, not according to experience, 
 but according to the law of perfection, which belongs to Eeason. 
 The Idea, as the principle of all our attempts and efforts, is called 
 tJie Ideal. 
 
 § 44. 
 
 The Form under which Reason apprehends the Ideal 
 is the Form of intrinsic perfection. As the human mind 
 possesses three different faculties, the cognitive, the 
 appetitive, and the sensible faculty, — Reason also pos- 
 sesses a triple type of perfection, the True, the Good, 
 and the Beautiful (a), which are the foundation of all 
 Ideals. 
 
 (a.) " True is what, with respect to our conceptions and to the 
 Knowledge depending on them, has a general vahdity, and does not 
 contain any impossibility or contradiction ; G-ood, what with respect 
 to our aims and to the actions depending on them has also a general 
 validity, and contributes to the harmony of the whole." (Definition 
 given by Krug.) As far as every action is conditioned by a knowledge 
 which fills our consciousness, so far what is good is determined by 
 ■what is true, or what is true is also good (in relation to our appetitive 
 faculty). BeamUful is what, on account of the perfect form in which 
 it appears, affords a disinterested (not depending on the usefulness or 
 
 C 2 
 
28 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 the material of things) enjoyment. The Beautiful, being an Ideal,' 
 awakens the sentiment of the Ideal iu general, and consequently be- 
 longs to Eeligion, where the Infinite is brought nearer to the heart by 
 Symbols. Symbols which do not embody any Idea, or which are at 
 variance with the Idea in its pure essence, are offsprings of Supersti- 
 tion. Ideals of the Beautiful are images of Things possessing the Fofm 
 in its highest perfection. 
 
 § 45. 
 The proceedings of Reason in forming Ideas are like 
 those of Understanding in forming Notions, and consist 
 in separating and combining ; in other words, they re- 
 move from Ideas all the imperfections which are to be 
 fomid in experience, and attribute to them that fullness 
 and reality which, according to the law of Perfection 
 (§§ 43, 44), belong to the products of Reason. 
 
 M. g. In forming the Idea of " State," Beason points out the highest 
 end of human society, according to which (as the principle governing 
 the whole) it removes all limitations which are found in experience 
 (depending on local and temporary circumstances, on positive religion, 
 and constitution), and ascribes to it only the necessary characters de- 
 tenmned by this highest end, and harmonizing with it. 
 
 § 46. 
 Ideas being the type of all perfection, the possibility 
 of a gradual perfection of the human kind, and of all 
 human conditions, rests exclusively on Reason, or on the 
 power of producing Ideas (a) . The more Reason deve- 
 lopes itself in the human kind, the more pure and per- 
 fect is the Ideal becoming, which, for this very reason, 
 is always in advance when compared with Reality (S) . 
 
 (a.) Hence it follows that animals, being destitute of Reason, have 
 no perfectibility. Ideas form the province of Philosophy, which is the 
 fimdamental Science of all those Sciences which, Hke mathematics and 
 natural philosophy, are not confined within the limits of experience. 
 
 (S.) Ideas in their perfect state exist only in. Divine Eeason. The 
 Idea of a stiU rude age (the ideas of justice, of State, e. g.), if realized in 
 a succeeding time, ceases to be an Idea and becomes a Notion. 
 
KNOWLEDGE BY REASON. 29 
 
 §47. 
 
 The subjective certainty of tie Idea depends on the 
 necessity by which Consciousness is induced to admit 
 it (a) . The correctness of the Idea is proved by reflect- 
 ing on the manner in which it is formed, if it is formed 
 according to the law of perfection, and by comparing it 
 with other Ideas, with which it must not stand in con- 
 tradiction. On account of the very nature of Ideas 
 (§ 43), their objective reality cannot be demonstrated 
 within the sphere of experience (b) ; but we are not less 
 obliged to believe in their objective reality, than we be- 
 lieve in the perception of Sensibility and Understanding, 
 because Ideas are not arbitrary products of imagination, 
 but are awakened by external or internal experience; 
 because they are the perfect type of the imperfect things 
 we meet with on the field of experience, and because 
 they force themselves, as it were, upon us, who act ac- 
 cording to their suggestions (c) . 
 
 (a.) The necessary harmonious combination of single elements into 
 a perfect whole, is the foundation of the Idea, which, once peroeiTed, 
 must necessarily be admitted, e. ff. the Idea of Eight, of State ; and 
 the Ideal therefore is something which must be thought, and which 
 determines us accordingly. It is distinguished thereby from what is 
 possible, or ma^ be thought {i. e. something, the characteristics of 
 which do not imply a contradiction). The Ideal can never be consi- 
 dered in itself as something possible, but only in relation to the efforts 
 of our reason to attain it, as, for instance, in the realization of the 
 Idea of Morality. 
 
 (6.) The Idea therefore cannot be demonstrated, nor does it require 
 any demonstration, be the demonstration founded upon Experience or 
 upon Understanding. Experience cannot go beyond sensation. 
 
 (p.) Ideas must be real, not indeed in the limited sphei-e of experi- 
 ence, but in the universal sphere of existence. No positive legislation . 
 could claim an inherent right, had not the Idea of Eight a universal 
 reality ; there could exist no world, no religion, if God had no reality ; 
 no Church, if G-od's tingdom, no duty, if moraUty, were mere words. 
 
30 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 III. Relation of the various Sources of Human 
 Knowledge. 
 
 The Idea of Deity. 
 
 §48. 
 
 It is evident from the preceding remarks that there 
 are only two sources of human knowledge, experience 
 and reason. The first produces Intuitions, the second 
 Ideas. Understanding (§ 24) is only the source of 
 knowledge derived from intuitions and ideas by means 
 of Notions, Judgments, and Arguments. 
 
 §49. 
 
 The certainty of all our cognitions (those acquired by 
 the senses, as well as those acquired by reason) has its 
 foundation in the necessity with which our consciousness 
 feels itself impelled to approve of them. This necessity 
 again rests upon this, that we are conscious to have 
 formed our knowledge according to the original laws of 
 our cognitive faculty. Of this we become certain by 
 reflecting on the manner in which knowledge was ob- 
 tained. The laws of Sensibility and Reason therefore 
 are principles {axiomata), the certainty of which cannot 
 be demonstrated by other propositions, but is immedi- 
 ■ ately perceived in Consciousness. 
 
 §50. 
 
 These laws — those of sensible, as weU as those of 
 rational knowledge — determine our Consciousness with 
 equal necessity, and therefore have an equal claim, to be 
 considered as truths. The conviction they carry with 
 them may be called knowledge (immediate conscious- 
 ness) as well as belief (confidence in the laws of the 
 
KELATION OF THE SOURCES OF KNOWLEBGE. 31 
 
 cognitive faculty) («). In calling the perception by 
 senses knowledge, we do not mean to say that it produces 
 a stronger conviction than Knowledge by Reason (b) . 
 
 (a.) Knowledge by senses also reeeiTes its certainty from the confi- 
 dence in the correctness of the impression made by the objects. 
 
 (5.) The inclination to place the experimental above the rational 
 Knowledge, partly arises from Keason not being adequately developed, 
 and partly from the ignorance of the nature of both kinds of Know- 
 ledge. The delusions of SensibUity, as to the existence and qualities 
 of things, are innumerable. 
 
 §51. 
 
 The Idea of Ideas, or the absolutely Perfect, is the 
 Idea of Deity (a) . Reason arrives at it in the same way 
 in which it forms all Ideas (§ 45j : — 
 
 1. By removing from it all that experience shows to 
 be conditioned and limited, i. e. partly the form of Sen- 
 sibility (Space and Time), partly the negative side of 
 the Forms of Understanding (§§ 39, 40, Accidence and 
 Eifect), both being conditioned (6), so that God appears 
 as the fundamental Substance, immaterial and eternal 
 (in relation to which all other Substances are Acci- 
 dences), and as the absolute Cause (in relation to which 
 all other Causes are Effects) (c) . 
 
 2. By aiBrming of the Idea of Ideas (God) aU Reali- 
 ties and Perfections, inasmuch as they can be connected 
 as a Unity in our Consciousness {d). 
 
 {a) Therefore a definition of Grod in few words would be : God is 
 the most perfect Being. (Query, whether a definition of Grod can be 
 given ?) 
 
 (b.) JS.g. The absolute Being cannot be limited by Space, nor by 
 Time (origin, end). 
 
 (e.) Hence the definition, &od is the necessary Being, the Creator, 
 Preserver, and Governor of the World. 
 
 (d.) jE.g. Omnipotence, Omniscience, etc. Hence the definition, 
 God is the Being the most real. 
 
32 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 §52. 
 On the other hand, it would be erroneous to conceive 
 that which is given by experience (the external world, 
 § 16) as an Idea (a), for this would be at variance with 
 the nature and power of Sensibility, which is the faculty 
 of perceiving the particular and imperfect. Reason only 
 being ^the faculty of perceiving the universal and per- 
 fect (6) . Reason alone therefore would be able to raise 
 the visible world to the Absolute. But this would go 
 against Reason itself, because Reason would then make 
 unlimited what is limited, infinite what is finite, i. e. 
 would do something contradictory, and, as it were, false 
 to its own nature (c) . 
 
 (a.) An infinite time, an infinite space, an iajSnite matter. 
 
 (S.) The Senses neyer give a totality of intuitions, but only single 
 Perceptions, and with these Beason forma a Whole, by following its 
 natural laws, which lead to such a conception. 
 
 (a.) The Senses do not show anything but fragments of real Space 
 and real Time (§ 20), i. e. Space and Time in a conditioned, limited 
 state. An unconditioned Time, an infinite Time, and an infinite 
 Space therefore, are contradidiones m adjecto (= an infinite Finite, 
 an unconditioned Conditioned) ; that is, nothing but empty words. 
 
 §53. 
 If nevertheless the material world has sometimes been 
 considered as something Absolute, the reason is that, 
 according to our experience, the representation of the 
 World can reach an extreme limit neither in Space nor 
 in Time (a), which has given rise to the erroneous opi- 
 nion that the infinity of the material world may be de- 
 monstrated by experience [b), whilst the reason really 
 lies in the subjective impossibility of using another form 
 for the representation of material objects, but that of 
 Time and Space (c) . It is from the confusion of a sub- 
 jective impossibility with the objective infinity of things 
 
RELATION OF THE SOURCES OP KNOWLEDGE. 33 
 
 that Materialism, and the belief in the necessity of Na- 
 ture, arise (d). Idealism and Pantheism are only an in- 
 verted Materialism. 
 
 (a.) It is impossible to conceive the end of Time and Space, be- 
 cause, to attaia it. Time and Space would be again required (see 
 § 21, c). 
 
 (J.) As all things apprehended through the medium of Sensibility 
 must necessarily be represented as existing in Time and Space, it fol- 
 lows that, when we try and realize the end of Time and Space, we 
 must bring forth another representation of Time and Space, and this 
 without ever being able to bring to an actual reality the representation 
 of the Mnd in Consciousness ; consequently the Infinity of sensible 
 objects is a mere subjective representation (_Schem, appearance), with- 
 out any objective reality. 
 
 (c.) This takes place when we seek the reason why all things are 
 apprehended in Time and Space, and no representation can take place 
 without this Form, not in ourselves, but in the objects. By not suffi- 
 ciently observing ourselves, we attribute to the objects those necessary 
 laws under which Sensibflity can only be affected by them. Time and 
 Space appearing as infinite in extent and contents (see note i), if we 
 seek in the objects the reason of this appearance, we give birth to the 
 notion of the infinity and eternity of matter, to the negation of all 
 simple (spiritual) Substances, and the conception of a mechanism of 
 nature, as a contimious (§ 21, c) connection of material causes and 
 effects (therefore, » negation of the Spiritual in general, of God, of 
 the immateriality and immortality of the Soul, of Providence, of 
 moral freedom). 
 
 {d.) Materialism, Idealism, and Pantheism equally affirm the iden- 
 tity of all things, and they differ only in this, that MateriaUsm ac- 
 knowledges the reality of those things only which are perceptible by 
 the senses, considering all rational and spiritual substance as mere 
 delusions. Idealism denies the reahty of the visible world, and con- 
 siders both the sensible and the spiritual world as mere subjective 
 conceptions. FoMtJieism either (like Spinoza) gives up the World in 
 favour of the Idea of Deity, and considers the former as a modifica- 
 tion of the Divine Substance, or (hke ScheUing) sacrifices God to the 
 World, and makes a Deity of the World in its infinity. Thus each 
 of these opinions assumes the identity of all things (in opposition to 
 Theism, which separates God and the spiritual from the material 
 world and is therefore Dualism), and tries to solve the apparent con- 
 tradiction of the infinity of material objects, by identifying the latter 
 with the ideal world. 
 
 c3 
 
34 PEELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 §54. 
 
 The Idea of Deity^ and the Ideas determined by it, 
 are called religious Ideas; they are, according to the 
 ideal type of the True, the Good, and the Beautiful 
 (§ 44), either theoretical Ideas, which refer to the know- 
 ledge of God (God and His relation to the world), or 
 practical Ideas, which refer to the religious life (the 
 divine law and the moral freedom), or testhetical Ideas, 
 which refer to the external form in which Religion ma- 
 nifests itself (Church, God's Kingdom) . 
 
35 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 A. THEOEETICAL EELiaiOTTS IDEAS. 
 
 I. Theology. 
 
 1. On God in Himself. 
 
 §55. 
 
 In afl5rmiiig the existence of God, we not only affirm 
 that the Idea of God (§ 51) exists as an Idea in the 
 human B,easonj but that it has also a reality independ- 
 ent of our Reason. As the unity of Consciousness («. e. 
 Personality) belongs to the Notion of a rational Being, 
 we must attribute this same personality to God, whereby 
 also His difference from all that is beside Him (= World) 
 is expressed. The belief in a God whose nature differs 
 from that of the world is called Theism or Deism [a) . 
 
 (o.) See § 5 and § 53. 
 
 §56. 
 
 The existence of God neither can nor requires to be 
 demonstrated, i. e. deduced from a higher principle ; be- 
 cause the Idea of God is, by its intrinsic necessity, quite 
 as evident as a mathematical truth (see §§ 48-50) . De- 
 monstrations, therefore, brought forth to prove the exist- 
 ence of God, have no other bearing but to show how 
 
36 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 the belief in God is a natural and necessary principle 
 of Reason, and all such demonstrations rest upon the 
 proposition, " the Unconditioned must exist, because the 
 Conditioned exists" (a) . 
 
 (a.) See the special demonBtrations. This Argument does not ex- 
 press anything but the right of Reason to form Ideas, or the law ac- 
 cording to which it ascends from the imperfect to the perfect. The 
 beKef in God therefore is essential and necessary to our Beason. 
 
 §57. 
 
 The ontological [a) demonstration is founded on the 
 argument, " to the most real Being all realities must be 
 attributed; Existence or absolute Independence is a 
 reality ; therefore it must be attributed to the Supreme 
 Being." However little this argument, in this form, 
 may demonstrate {b), still it contains the truth, that 
 Reason is impelled by its own nature to believe in an 
 absolute Being, that the existence of the Imperfect pre- 
 supposes the Existence of the Perfect (c), and that the 
 Idea of Perfection would not be our highest standard, 
 were it not real {d) ■ 
 
 (a.) The name is taken from Oniologia, i. e. doctrine of the fonda- 
 mental properties of things, which formed the first part of metaphysics 
 before Eant. The ontological demonstration had already been used by 
 Sextus Empiricus advers. Mathem. ix. 88-91. The Schoolman An- 
 selm of Canterbury, in hia ' Proslogio,' o. 2 and 3, brought it into a 
 better form. Besides, see Descartes, Princip. i. 18, and chiefly Moses 
 Mendelssohn, in his ' Morgenstunden,' p. 306. 
 
 (i.) The Argument is wrong, because in the Propositio major we 
 speak of logical or ideal, in the Propositio minor and in the Conclu- 
 sio, of real Existence (see § 34) . It is wrong also, because the Pro- 
 positio minor is wrong ; for Existence is not a Reality or Quality 
 which adds to the Notion, but a mode of apprehending the Idea. 
 
 (c.) We perceive a gradual progression towards the last term of 
 perfection, which, in the sphere of experience, is man. Reason however 
 can follow up this progression to the highest perfection. As we per- 
 ceive a part of the progression to be real, it is certain that all oonse- 
 
ON GOD. 37 
 
 quent terms must be real also (="the Unconditioned must exist, be- 
 cause the Conditioned exists"). 
 
 (d.) The Idea of the " Perfect" which is the criterion of thought 
 and reason, must contain a reality, else the existence of the Idea itself 
 could not be explained (= " the TTnconditioned must exist, because the 
 Conditioned exists"). 
 
 § 58. 
 The cosmological [a) demonstration starts from the 
 casualty [b) of the world, arguing thus : — That which is 
 accidental must have its cause in something that is ne- 
 cessary : the world is accidental, therefore it must have 
 its cause in something that is necessary (" the Uncon- 
 ditioned exists because the Conditioned exists") ; that 
 which is necessary must have in itself the cause of its 
 existence, and must moreover be the cause of all exist- 
 ence. According to this conclusion God has been de- 
 fined, " Ens a se, natura necessaria, causa mundi " (c) . 
 
 (a.) Cosmological, because it rests upon the doctrine of the conUngen- 
 tia mundi, which used to be expounded in the " rationaUs cosmologia," 
 a part of metaphysical science. This demonstration was first clearly 
 perceived by Anaxagoras ; then exposed by Leibnitz, Mendelssohn, 
 Cnw8!W, Siljinger ('DUucidationeB de Deo, Mundo et generalibus rerum 
 Affeotionibus,' Tubing. 1746, 4th ed. 3), Hberha/rd, Dedekmd, Kamt 
 (Miscel. 2nd vol.). 
 
 (J.) Accidental is that which has the cause of its existence not in 
 itself, but in something other than itself, and which might be different 
 &om what actually is. Necessary is what has in itself the cause of its 
 existence, and cannot be otherwise than it is. We say that the world 
 is accidental, because whatever we perceive within the sphere of our ex- 
 perience appears as result and effect, and consequently as accidental 
 (§ 21). It has been objected that although all perceptible pa/rts of 
 the world are conceived as accidental, it does not follow that the whole 
 also, which we do not know, should be so. The necessity however to 
 consider the whole sphere of experience as accidental does not depend 
 on our experience, but rather on the necessary form of Space and 
 Time, under which we must conceive all that comes within the limits 
 of experience. 
 
 (c.) It has been said that this is a barren Notion, which becomes 
 the Notion ' G-od ' only when the ontological demonstration is com- 
 
38 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 bined with it. This however ia not the ease, for Reason itself, or 
 rational Consciousness, conceives itself as originating in Time, and 
 therefore cannot realise the necessary Being but as a rational and 
 moral one. 
 
 § 59. 
 The physico-teleological {a) demonstration starts from 
 Teleology [b), and argues as follows: — As the suitable- 
 ness (c) which we perceive everywhere in the world 
 cannot be the effect of casualty [d), nor belong to the 
 nature of things themselves {e), but must flow (accord- 
 ing to the law of causality) from a rational cause differ- 
 ing from the world; the world must have a rational 
 Creator (/), to whom aU the attributes must be ascribed 
 which are required for forming and executing such a 
 plan. 
 
 (a.) Physico-teleological, because it infers Grodfrom'the arrangement 
 of things {ipiais, rerum natura). This demonstration is often used in 
 the Bible, being the most impressive and the most forcible one ; e. g. 
 Psalms viii., is., and civ.; Job soxvii.— xli.; Matt. vi. 25, aqq. ; Acts 
 xiv. 15, sq., xvii. 24, sq. Socrates, in Xenophon's Memorabil. 
 i. 4, 5, sqq., iv. 3, 3, sqq. Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 37, sqq. ; Qusest. 
 Tuscul. i. 29. Bonnet's ' Betrachtungen fiber die Natur' (ed. 5, Leip- 
 zig, 1805). T. F. Dahlenburg, ' PhUosophie und Eeligion der Natur' 
 (3 vols., Berlin, 1797) . B. G-. Walther, ' Betrachtungen uber die Natur 
 fiir Verstand imd Herz' (Weiniar, 1800). 
 
 (6.) Teleology = doctrine of ends, purposes. Finality = conception 
 of a rational Being intending to realize them. Suitableness (conformity 
 to the end in view) of nature = such an arrangement of things by which 
 the Conception of a Supreme Beason is formed. 
 
 (o.) The purposes are, Kfe, duration, welfare. The suitableness in 
 the arrangement of things may be demonstrated in the following ex- 
 amples : — the JEaHh — rotation, inclination of the eohptic, roundness, 
 gravitation, moimtains, valleys, etc. ; limng idngs — their duration, 
 abode, instinct, structure (fishes, birds, waders, and climbers), circu- 
 lation of the blood, nutrition, plants, seed-production, variety of 
 food, human body, senses, etc. 
 
 {d.) Accident, Casualty, does not explain anything, but shows that 
 we are not able to iind the connection between cause and effect. To 
 the ignorant therefore most things appear to be accidental. Accident 
 
ON GOD. 39 
 
 cannot produce what is intentional and constant, e. g. difference of the 
 sexes, lasting proportion of the number of births in each of them. 
 
 (e.) national purposes cannot emanate but from rational Conscious- 
 ness, which Nature does not possess. The so-caUed " essential forces" 
 (the force of gra-vitation, e. ^.) act unconsciously even in man, e. ^. in 
 generation. 
 
 (/.) The Creator of the world must also be a moral Being, for the 
 very reason that moral Beings exist. That the world has been created 
 out of nothing ; that the Creator is not a mere architect of the world 
 — of an elementary Substance previously existing, — are consequences 
 resulting from this demonstration. The various applications of the 
 forms of sensibility, and the slow and gradual discovery of the laws of 
 nature, are sufficient demonstrations of their objective validity, (Conf. 
 §23.) 
 
 § 60. 
 The moral (a) demonstration, derived from the abso- 
 lute prescription of the moral law, rests on the following 
 propositions : — " Man's highest good {b) is his capability 
 of morality and happiness. The one is a requirement of 
 his mind ; the other, of his sensible nature. Man can 
 only realize (render real in his own person) moraUty, 
 but not happiness, as this depends on certain external 
 conditions, which he is often bound to sacrifice to mo- 
 rality. Therefore, either a Supreme Being must exist, 
 who governs nature (which does not foUow the moral 
 laws) in such a way as to bring into harmony in man 
 virtue and happiness, or the voice of Conscience (the 
 commands of duty, marked by Eeason with an absolute 
 necessity) is unjust and irrational. The latter proposi- 
 tion being morally impossible, we are obliged to believe 
 the former to be true, therefore to believe in God (c) ." 
 
 (a.) So called from the moral principle on which it rests. It has 
 first been thoroughly investigated by Kant (' Kritik der reiuen Ver- 
 nunffc,' p. 620, sqq.) ; C. H. Jacob, ' Ueber den morahschen Beweis fiir 
 das Dasein Gottes' (2nd ed., Lieb., 1V98). 
 
 (5.) According to Kant's expression, morahty is the supreme (su- 
 premum) good; morahty and happiness the perfect good (bonum 
 
40 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 cousummatum). The Being, in which the perfect good is absolutely 
 realized, is the highest good (summum bonum) ; morality and happi- 
 ness combined in a world, the highest derwed good (the best world), 
 (c.) Kant therefore called the bdief in God a postnlatmn of the 
 practical It>eason. The next consequence drawn from his demonstra- 
 tion is, the immortality of the soul endowed with a new sensible na- 
 ture. But this harmonization of morality and happiness could not be 
 erentually accomplished, unless we suppose the existence of God. 
 Besides, the Notion of happiness is rather vague and relative. Strictly 
 speaking, we can only say. If the Conditioned (imperfect morality and 
 happiness) is real, the Unconditioned (a holy and blessed God) must 
 also possess a reality, being the reason of the former. 
 
 § 61. 
 It has been considered as an historical demonstration 
 of the existence of God {a), that the belief in his exist- 
 ence is to be found amongst all nations who have attained 
 a certain degree of intellectual development, however 
 small it may be (6) . But this only shows (c) that the 
 belief in God is natural to human Reason. If taken se- 
 parately, there are none of the preceding arguments that 
 may be considered as fully demonstrative, but to obtain 
 a demonstration they must be combined together (d). 
 
 (a.) Already mentioned by Plato, De Legibus, x. Aristotle, De 
 Coelo, i. 3. CSoero, De Nat. Deor. i. 16, sq.; De Legibus, i. 8 ; Quaest. 
 Tuso. i. 13. Seneca, Epist. 117 : " Veritatis argumentum est, aliquod 
 omnibus videri, tanquam Deos esse," etc. Lactantius, Instit. Div. 
 i. 2. 
 
 (i.) Not always in one God, but in supernatural powers in general. 
 
 (o.) For even an error may be general for a long time, e. g. the 
 opinion that the stars revolve round the earth ; that the representa- 
 tion of Space and Time is derived from the objects. 
 
 {d.) On all these demonstrations see ' Theocles ; ein Gesprach iiber 
 den Glauben an Gott,' v. J. A. H. Tittmann (Leipz., 1799) ; ' TTeber 
 das Dasein Gottes,' v. Chr. Garve (Breslau, 1802) ; ' Pistevon, oder 
 iiber das Dasein Gottes,' v. Sintenis (Leipz. 1807). 
 
 § 62. 
 As Reason, in its demonstration of the existence of 
 
ON GOD. 41 
 
 Grod, is invariably led to the conception of one God, 
 there is no ground to believe in more than one God (a) ; 
 a proposition which we must firmly maintain, not only 
 for the sake of the unity of science, but also on account 
 of the practical consequences it carries with it {b) . 
 
 (a.) Mml in the world having been considered as dbsohiteh) ex- 
 isting, has led to Dualism, or to the doctrine of an evil principle co- 
 existing with the good. 
 
 (6.) Unity of the moral law, of the plan of the world, of Providence. 
 Disadvantages of Polytheism. As only one God exists, we do not re- 
 quire a personal name for Him. A proper demonstration of the One- 
 ness of God cannot be given by Reason ; for it is not a divine attribute, 
 and relates only to the Oneness of the divine Consciousness, where hes 
 the highest power. 
 
 § 63. 
 
 If we divide the Idea of the highest perfection into 
 those parts which may be distinguished in our thought 
 (for objectively they are inseparable), we arrive at the 
 conception of the divine qualities or attributes, which 
 are all necessary elements of the divine nature. 
 
 Our conception of the divine Perfection is formed by 
 analogy, i. e. by borrowing from our limited Conscious- 
 ness the perfections which, though real, are far from 
 containing the ftdlness of the divine perfections, and are, 
 as it were, a mere symbol of them. 
 
 There is no reason to believe that our finite Reason possesses the type 
 of all perfections. — Atlthropopathism, Anthropomorphism. 
 
 § 64. 
 
 According to the manner in which Ideas are formed 
 (§ 45) we divide the attributes of God, 
 
 1. Into negative or general, which refer at once to 
 God's knowledge, will, and existence, and are general 
 conditions of His essence ; and 
 
42 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 2. Into affirmative or special, which affirm the perfec- 
 tion of God's knowledge, will, and existence. 
 
 § 65. 
 The general or negative attributes are — 
 
 1 . Timelessness, i. e. that condition of the diviue Being, 
 according to which the Conception of Time — 
 
 2. Spacelessness, that condition according to which 
 the Conception of Space — must be removed from His 
 Knowledge, WiU, and Existence. 
 
 3. Independence, according to which His knowledge, 
 will, and existence are not determined by anything 
 besides Him, but by Himself alone. 
 
 4. Invariableness, according to which His absolute 
 perfection can be neither increased or diminished, nor 
 its quality changed. 
 
 Grod's attribute of not being subject to tbe condition of space 
 (= Simplicity) has been called His "Spirituality;" but in using this 
 word, they have had only in view the Substance of Q-od. His not 
 being subject to time has been called " Eternity." Infimty is nothing 
 but a negative expression for absolute perfection, and being a meta- 
 phorical one, ought not to be used. InoomparabiUty and Incompre- 
 hensibility are no attributes, but relations to the human understanding. 
 
 § 66. 
 By analogy we distinguish in God Intellect, WiU, and 
 Existence. Accordingly He possesses — 
 
 (1.) The most perfect Intellect, 
 i. e. the most perfect knowledge (a) of Himself and of 
 aU things [■= Omniscience) , which therefore is not sub- 
 ject to the conditions of time and space, is independent 
 and invariable, and consequently is the knowledge the 
 most true and the most distinct (6) . 
 
 (a.) Intellect, not as is the case with man, a facvMy, but an aclms 
 = God Himself considered as a knowing Being. His Intellect there- 
 
ON GOD. 43 
 
 fore ia identical with His Omniscienee. His knowledge is the most per- 
 fect, because He is the principle of all knowledge. 
 
 (J.) Timeless, therefore eternal (neither reminisceutia, nor scientia, 
 nor prcBsoientia) I «pacefe««= not bound to images and intuitions; in- 
 dependent, nothing is imparted to Him, but all is an inherent neces- 
 sity of his nature : He creates truth, and is the source of all real 
 knowledge ; imiariahle= ah/ray a equal to Himself therefore no ab- 
 straction, no discursive (§ 37) knowledge, but transcendental intui- 
 tion. 
 
 § 67. 
 God possesses — 
 
 (2.) The most perfect Will, 
 i. e. the power to do what is conformable to His per- 
 fection (a) . It is only in our thoughts that Will is se- 
 parate from the most perfect Intellect ; in God both are 
 the same power (6), and God can only possess the most 
 perfect Will in as far as He possesses the most perfect 
 Intellect. God's Will in relation to the particular 
 effects of which it is the cause, is called God's decree 
 (decretum), which, if formed with regard to a condi- 
 tional, finite Will, is called a conditional (hypothetical) 
 decree, — if not, an unconditional decree (c). 
 
 (a.) Therefore it is not an attempt, an inclination, a desire. 
 
 (J.) Will = the most perfect Intellect considered as acting with the 
 most perfect knowledge ; or, God Himself considered as willing. 
 
 (c.) It is called so only in relation to the moral world, or to the 
 Will of moral Beings, which is created by God, and similar to his own 
 WUl. The divine Will is not thereby hmited, for it is freely that it 
 binds itself to a conditioned will, which exists only by the former. 
 Nor does God's WiU thereby become a double one, but it remains one 
 and the same decree (viz. to rule the moral Beings according to the 
 relation in which they stand to the diviae WiU = obedience, disobe- 
 dience), alternating only in its execution (reward or punishment, 
 granting or denying). 
 
 § 68. 
 
 God's Wm is {§ 65) also— 
 1. Timeless, i. e. eternal WUl. 
 
44 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 2. Spaceless, i. e. bound, neither in its nature, nor in 
 its effects to the condition of Space, and therefore of 
 means (operative Omnipresence) {a). 
 
 3. Independent; it cannot be determined by any- 
 thing external to it ; its power is spontaneous and abso- 
 lute, and contains the absolute motive which determines 
 all things {Omnipotence) [b). 
 
 4. It is invariable, i. e. it is always equal to itself, 
 neither increasing, nor diminishing, nor changing {Ho- 
 
 (c). 
 
 (a.) Grod does not, like man, require to be present (near in Space) 
 ia order to act upon something ; nor does He require any mediators. 
 If He mate use of such (Angels, men) it is not because He requires 
 them, but in order to give them the opportunity of exercise and ac- 
 tion. Immediate action = when He chooses He imparts to His con- 
 ception the highest power : symbolically, " Grod spake." 
 
 (J.) Wo law can be prescribed to G-od by anything besides Him, 
 The Question: Whether Q-od can do what is impossible (=what is 
 nothing) ? 
 
 (c.) In G-od therefore there is no desire, no hesitation, no deli- 
 beration. Bepentance is ascribed to &od by an anthropological pro- 
 ceeding, namely by man altering his relation to a conditional decree 
 of God. 
 
 § 69. 
 The preceding general determinations are often com- 
 prised under the Notion of Freedom of God's Will, 
 which, in relation to the origin of the divine WUl, is 
 called Spontaneity; in relation to the action of God 
 {extra se). Omnipotence ; and in relation to the motives 
 of action, founded only on the highest perfection. Holi- 
 ness (a). 
 
 (o.) Holiness (= the perpetual harmony between the divine Will 
 and the most perfect Intellect, or the Perfection itself) is, therefore, a 
 moral necessity. The expression, that it is God's love towards him- 
 self, contains the same meaning. By virtue of His HoUness God is 
 the source of the moral law. 
 
ON GOD. 45 
 
 §70. 
 
 From analogy to the human mind, we attribute both 
 to God's Intellect and Will, 
 
 1. Omniscience ; the attribute according to which God 
 has the most perfect purposes, and chooses the most per- 
 fect [a) means for their execution. We must believe in 
 this perfection on theoretical grounds (6), but it cannot 
 be demonstrated by experience (c) . 
 
 3. Goodness; the attribute according to which God 
 wishes the welfare of aU creatures, and rejoices in it {d). 
 It is universal and immutable. 
 
 (a.) Most perfect, i. e. in conformity with His perfection. 
 
 (J.) Because God possesses the most perfect Intellect and Will. 
 
 (e.) Because we cannot embrace the whole, nor can we know the 
 aim of all developments and changes. 
 
 (d.) It follows from, the Notion of the highest perfection, and is 
 partly evident also from the contemplation of nature and of ourselves. 
 
 §71. 
 
 3. Justice ; or that attribute of God according to which 
 His most perfect Intellect and WiU are declared to the 
 world by law and requital {justitia legislativa and distri- 
 butiva). Divine laws are rules of life prescribed to 
 created beings [a) . Requital consists in this, that God 
 retributes every creature according to its relation to the 
 ends of creation (6) . We may distinguish — 
 
 1 . Natural requital, i. e. the good or evil consequences 
 which, according to the natural arrangement of things, 
 arise from obedience or disobedience to the divine pre- 
 scriptions (c) ; and 
 
 2. Positive requital, which, without arising from the 
 nature of things, is connected by God with the observ- 
 ance of, or the deviation from. His commandments (c?) . 
 With regard to moral beings, the diviae law is called 
 
46 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 the moral law, and the requital is either reward or 
 jmnishment. Happiness is a reward, evil a punishment ; 
 both springing from the dictates of conscience, which 
 tells us that happiness is attached to obedience, evil to 
 disobedience. 
 
 (a.) They extend as well over the physical as over the moral world. 
 
 (i.) God is just also to ammals. 
 
 (e.) IE. g. If the plant, the animal, do not develope themselres ac- 
 cording to the law of &od (which only takes place when they are pre- 
 vented irom doing so by external circumstances), they must perish. 
 Natural consequences of temperance and intemperance, of veracity 
 and falsehood, etc. 
 
 {d.) Positive requital appUes only to moral Beings, especially in the 
 future world, which brings forth a new arrangement of all outward 
 circumstances, determined by the moral state of man. The natural 
 requital to moral Beings is often too hard, often too mild, not always 
 equal (without respect of persons), not even existing at aU times; 
 therefore a positive requital is required in order to compensate the 
 natural one. The ultimate came of requital hes in Grod=in His love 
 of Perfection, and the highest end of requital is to give satisfaction to 
 this love. The correction of the sinner is only a subordinate end of 
 punishment, which is inflicted without always producing amendment. 
 
 §72. 
 Finally : — 
 
 (3.) The most perfect existence or life 
 belongs to God, To Exist is to act ; limng Existence — 
 and to act dynamically (not mechanically only) — is what 
 constitutes a rational Existence, or a dynamical action 
 with consciousness. The most perfect life or existence 
 of God, therefore, is the most perfect consciousness (a) 
 combined with the most perfect action (6) . 
 
 (a.) It is immutable, the most vivacious, the most distinct, full, 
 and comprehensive. 
 
 (i.) I. e. The relation of God's knowledge and activity to Himself. 
 Human consciousness arises from the opposition of the Self and the 
 Object. God is object to Himself: for if the object were the World, 
 the World would be eternal. The World however is eternal in God's 
 Intellect (Plato's Eternal Ideas). 
 
ON GOD. 47 
 
 §73. 
 God's existence is (§ 65) — 
 
 1. Timeless, i. e. God is eternal, never began, and will 
 never cease. 
 
 2. Spaceless, i.e. there is nothing sensible in Him, 
 like in man, but all is immaterial, transcendental. 
 
 3. Independent, i. e. He is Himself the cause of his 
 existence [aseitas). He is therefore in need of no ex- 
 ternal cause; and 
 
 4. Immutable, always equal to Himself. 
 
 §74. 
 
 The Notion Beatitude expresses only that God is con- 
 scious of the fullness of His existence (by analogy) ; the 
 Notion Majesty or Glory, the relation of His absolute 
 Perfection to the world, of which He is the Creator, the 
 Lord, the Governor, and Ruler. 
 
 2. On God's Relation to the World. 
 
 §75. 
 
 From the necessary existence of God, which carries 
 with it the highest perfection, necessarily follows, that 
 all things besides God (a) exist only by Him, i. e. have 
 been created by Him (6). The Creation is an Actus 
 of the Divine will, and as such is incomprehensible to 
 our finite Reason (c) . That God is the Creator of the 
 World, not only as to its form, but as to its matter also, 
 is implied in the Notion of Creation out of nothing (d) . 
 Creation did not take place in, but without Time, for 
 Time began with Creation. 
 
 (a.) The World in the most general sense = the complex of all that 
 exists besides God. World in the common and in the biblical sense. 
 (6.) To create, different from to produce, to form. 
 
48 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 (c.) Incomprehensible, i. e. it cannot, like all God's operations, be 
 conceived by any analogy. Equally incomprehensible is the action of 
 man's wiU upon his body, the creative power of his mind. Biblical 
 Symbol, " God spake." 
 
 (d.) Oreatio ex nihilo ; according to the Vulgate, 2 Maccab. vii. 28, 
 iirotTiffev ^| oiiK ivriDv. (Ex nihil n nihil fit.) Eternity of matter, Hy- 
 lozoism. Theory of Emanation. 
 
 §76. 
 
 The contemplation of nature («) affords probable 
 grounds for the opinion that created things {b) have 
 entered^ and will enter in future, into cosmical arrange- 
 ments different from their original one, or that there 
 are periods of formation in the creation. Indeed, it is 
 probable (c) that there are periods of creation, when the 
 number of beings is increased; for as there are mate- 
 rials which, having fulfilled their end, are destroyed, 
 there may be others called into existence to serve the 
 Creator's purposes. 
 
 (a.) E.g. What Geology says on the periods of formation of the 
 earth, on the now extinct species of plants and animals, on the subse- 
 quent appearance of the human race ; what Astronomy says on the 
 nebuUe, the appearance or disappearance of stars, on Comets, on Aero- 
 lites, etc. 
 
 (J.) Matter of the «;orM= the primordial substances of which things 
 consist ; JPorm of the world = the nexus eosmicus which connects them 
 (Cosmos, Mundus). 
 
 (c.) It is in accordance with the Onmiscience, Omnipotence, etc., of 
 God. 
 
 §§ 77, 78. 
 
 As our knowledge of God, of the World, of nature, 
 and development of things, is but an imperfect one, we 
 can neither say what the highest end of Creation is, nor 
 can we demonstrate from experience that the world is 
 the best possible one (a), i. e. that it is the most perfect 
 means towards the end iq view. The latter must be be- 
 
GOD S RELATION TO THE WORLD. 49 
 
 lieved on account of the perfection of God ; and it is in 
 this perfection that the reason for the creation of the 
 world (6), as well as its highest end, are to be sought, 
 for God cannot be determined in His decrees but by 
 Himself. 
 
 (ff.) Tlie lest, not in the sense which the Eudemonists assign to 
 the word, viz. such as bestows the greatest amount of welfare upon 
 man. 
 
 (i.) This is the meaning, when we say God has created the world 
 for His glory. The Eudemonists considered the happiness of man, and 
 the moral Stidemonisfs, his moral education, as the end of Creation ; 
 both opinions too narrow. 
 
 §79. 
 
 As we cannot tell what is the end of creation, God 
 does not require a justification (a) for the existence of 
 physical evil (6), (i.e. subjectively, the sufferings of liv- 
 ing beings; objectively, the things and arrangements 
 which produce those sufferings) ; nor can Dualism, which 
 is contrary to Reason, be deduced from it. 
 
 (a.) ^!)iZ= whatever interrupts or diminishes the happiness of sen- 
 sible Beings, — physical, moral evU ; material, spiritual evil. 
 
 (S.) Theodicy (@e6s, SiKaia), justification of God. This inquiry has 
 only a subjective bearing and object, viz. to set our notion of evil in 
 accordance with our idea of God's goodness. Leibnitz, 'Essai de 
 Theodicfe, sur la bont^ de Dieu, la liberie de I'homme, et I'origine du 
 mal' (Amsterdam, 1747). ViUaume, 'TJeber den TTrsprung und die 
 Absichten des TJebels' (aus dem Franz., 3 TheUe, Leipzig, 1784-87). 
 Kant, Ueber das Misslingen aller Philosophischen Versuehe in der 
 Theodicfe, in der Berliner Monatssohrift (Sept. 1791) ; and again in 
 his Miscellaneous "Writings, vol. iii. 
 
 §80. 
 For besides that many evils could be avoided, and are 
 brought upon us by ourselves (a) ; that others exist only 
 in our imagination (6) ; that others, again, are the con- 
 ditions of greater enjoyments (c) ; physical evil, in ge- 
 
50 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 neral, exists only in the perception depending on sensa- 
 tion, wMcli is not the same in all beings {d), and is there- 
 fore always transitory, i. e. forming the transition to an- 
 other kind of existence (e) ; in a moral respect they are 
 an important means of spiritual development (/), but 
 hardly commensurate with the immorality of man {g), 
 and lose all their power if borne with that resignation 
 to the moral and physical laws of God which morality 
 demands (A). 
 
 (a.) "We distinguish amoidahle eviU (e.g. war, fraud, the conse- 
 quences of vice) and metaphysical or ima/voiddble evUs, as the natural 
 limitation of things, which renders uninterrupted happiness impos- 
 sible. 
 
 (5.) Imagma/ry evils, when our imagination shows us a better state, 
 in comparison with which we consider our present state as an evil; 
 e. g. want of riches, long life, unsatisfied claims, wounded honour. 
 
 (o.) ^.^. Hunger, thirst; work, rest; sickness, health. (Dissonance 
 raises the value of harmony.) A higher organization gives a higher 
 feeling of joy as well as of paiu. 
 
 ((?.) Evil exists only in the sensation of living beings ; e. g. an earth- 
 quake is not an evil for the earth. EvU is also a relative notion ; cold, 
 e. g., is agreeable to the polar bear, painful to the Hon. Dififerent affec- 
 tions of the senses ; possibility of becoming accustomed to evil, hardiness. 
 
 (e.) There is no absolute physical evU, none before Grod. 
 
 (f.) Of the mental and moral powers. Necessity is the mother of 
 inventions ; moral field of performance of duty. 
 
 (y.) The Earth has much Inore numerous and more lasting enjoy- 
 ments than man's morality deserves. 
 
 (fi.) 'Eivesy physical evU is to be referred, as a single case, to a 
 general law of nature, to the law of opposition, according to which 
 life springs out of death, joy out of grief. This alternating movement 
 forms the existence of all finite being. It is only for our individual 
 feeling that this opposition is an evil. But as piety demands an en- 
 tire resignation with regard to our material welfare, the submission 
 to the divine law of nature is a necessary consequence of it. 
 
 §81. 
 The world being a means for the Creator's purpose, 
 and being created by His will alone, its duration is en- 
 
GOD S RELATION TO THE WORLD. 51 
 
 tirely dependent on this will, and its history must be a 
 gradual fulfilment of the ends of the Creator. Both, 
 considered as depending on God^s Will, are called Pro- 
 vidence (a) ; the former Preservation, the latter Govern- 
 ment, of the world. 
 
 (a.) Tlp6voia, providenUa. Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 22 : " TlpSvuia, 
 providentia, inhismaxime est oocupata, primum ut mvmdus quam ap- 
 tissimus sit ad permanendum, deinde ut nulla re egeat, maxime autem 
 ut in eo eximia pulchritudo sit, atque omnis omatns." 
 
 §83. 
 
 Preservation is that operation of the divine Will by 
 which the uninterrupted existence of the World is main- 
 tained; or the dependence of all created things on the 
 Creator, with regard to their duration, in every moment 
 of time (a) . It refers as well to the form as to the matter 
 of the world [b) . Individual things are only preserved 
 because they are the means for the accomplishment of 
 the ends of creation ; accordingly, it is not in contra- 
 diction with what we mean by Preservation that indivi- 
 dual things, after having fulfilled their purpose, are de- 
 stroyed (c) . 
 
 (a.) It follows from the Creation of tlie world, and from its not 
 having a necessary Existence (called creaMo confmua by the School- 
 men). 
 
 (i.) Especially the preservation of genera and species by continuous 
 generation. 
 
 (c.) B. g. The genera of plants and animals ; the heavenly bodies 
 and solar systems. 
 
 §83. 
 
 The divine Government of the world is that operation 
 of God by which all changes (a) that take place in the 
 world are made subservient to the aim for which it has 
 been created, in order that the world do not cease to be 
 conformable to the perfection of the Creator, and to be 
 
 D 2 
 
52 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 a reflex of His Omnipotence, Wisdom, Goodness, and 
 Holiness (6). The demonstration of the Government of 
 the world can, strictly speaking, be derived only from 
 God^s absolute perfection (c), and not so well from expe- 
 rimental considerations, though these also may produce 
 a strong conviction [d) . 
 
 (a.) They form the ohjeot of the G-ovemment of the World, they 
 are the continuous "fieri" of things ; the things themselves are the 
 objects of Preservation. Preservation and Government therefore are 
 closely connected. 
 
 (5.) For some, this purpose is the vrelfare of the vfhole in connec- 
 tion with the greatest possible welfere of the individual ; for others, it 
 is the attauunent of the highest good (§ 60) ; for others, the glory of 
 G-od as it manifests itself in the happiness of His Creatures. "We can 
 judge of the ends of God, with a certain degree of certainty, only with 
 regard to the human kind; this end being, for man, the development 
 of all his faculties, preparing bim for a more perfect state. 
 
 (e.) God being immutable, the end of creation is invariable also ; 
 and as the created things could not have determined this end them- 
 selves, the reason of all their modification, in conformity with this end, 
 must be in God. The moral demonstration of the necessary Existence 
 of a Governor of the World (see § 60). 
 
 (d.) A teleological demonstration would be, that nature shows that 
 wise purposes are attained by it. (This demonstration is impossible, 
 because we do not know the ends of Creation.) More important and 
 more convincing is the one, that the history of men and nations 
 clearly shows a guidance according to wise and good purposes. 
 
 §84. 
 
 The Divine Government of the world extends, without 
 any exception, over aU things, even over the most tri- 
 fling (a), because they belong to the whole [b) ; " great" 
 and " little " being only relative Notions, which are of 
 no import before God. ' The question however, whether 
 God governs the world mediately or immediately, i. e 
 either through the laws according to which it is arranged, 
 so that everything is necessary therein, as in a work of 
 Art, God preserving only the laws and powers, or so that 
 
GOD'S UELATION TO THE WORLD. 
 
 53 
 
 ■ffis being and operation themselves are the power that 
 moves and regulates all things — this question has been 
 answered in different ways (c) . 
 
 (a.) This has been denied by Cicero (De Nat. Deor. ii. 66, iii. 35), 
 Bayle, and Voltaire. They thought to honour G-od in stating that, 
 like a human goTemor, He only considered the whole, not the single 
 parts. 
 
 (J.) The genera are nothing without their different species, the latter 
 nothing without the individuals. G-reat effects from small causes. 
 
 (a.) The world has been considered as a maehine, and accordingly 
 an immediate action of Grod has been considered either as an improper 
 assistance or as a disturbance of the laws of nature. It is on that 
 ground that miracles have been denied, or, if admitted, have been con- 
 sidered as a necessity (miraoulum restitutionis, fatum). Others have 
 considered God as the immediate cause of all actions, and the mediate 
 causes as opportunities for actions (systema causarum oooasionalium). 
 Others hare assumed that God and the mediate causes act together, 
 but in such a way as the efforts of the latter to be directed by God 
 towards his ends. 
 
 §85. 
 
 According to what has been said in § 53, the concep- 
 tion of a physical mechanism of nature (a) is nothing 
 but a subjective delusion. Consequently we must also 
 assume that God, by virtue of His most perfect existence, 
 is in a constant causal connection with the World. It is 
 through this connection that not only the laws of nature 
 and the human Reason are preserved, as well in their 
 essence as in their regular operation, but the separation 
 and combination of all created things are determined; 
 which, in fact, constitutes the course of the world. We 
 cannot understand the way in which God acts in this 
 respect (indeed we do not understand any operation of 
 God), but we can explain it by analogy (5). 
 
 (a.) Physical science, as the science of natural things, can never lead 
 to a supernatural cause, nor even inquire for one. It is the science of 
 the material world. 
 
 (i.) E. g. Notes and harmonies are given to the musician ; but their 
 
54 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 oombiDation into a whole arises solely from the spontaneous activity 
 of his mind, which determines the position and sequence of every note. 
 Human reason, as an image of the Divine reason, is also self-acting ; 
 it combines and separates (but does not preserve) the products of Na- 
 ture, e.g. in cutting or planting trees, cultivating the soil, etc. 
 
 §86. 
 
 We 'have seen (§ 79 sqq.) that physical evils are not 
 repugnant to a divine Providence ; and that this Provi- 
 dence does not abolish the self-activity (freedom) of the 
 rational beings wiU. be seen from a correct view of the 
 relation in which God stands to the rational world. 
 
 §87. 
 
 The totality of Creatures which possess Reason, in as 
 far as they follow the same law given to them by Rea- 
 son, is called the moral Jcingdom of God («). Our expe- 
 rience shows us only one such genus, Man. That there 
 are however some other kinds of rational beings be- 
 sides our own {b), is a supposition supported by the fol- 
 lowing considerations : — the innumerable multitude of 
 worlds, larger and more perfect than our Earth ; the 
 variety of kinds of beings destitute of Reason ; the gra- 
 dual, undeniable progression of beings in Nature, which 
 renders improbable that so wide a gap between God and 
 man should not be filled up ; and finally, the doctrine of 
 the immortality of the soul. 
 
 As to their nature and condition, however. Reason 
 does not tell us anything. 
 
 (a.) Kingdom : which requires a Rule, and the Oneness of the 
 Ruler. In general the world is the Kingdom of God. 
 
 (i.) Aai/ioy€s, Sufi6r>ia, genii j in the Scripture, iyy^Koi, Olf^m ; 
 Zoroaster, Izeds, i. e. suppHcaturi, interoessuri. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 55 
 
 II. Anthropology. 
 § 88. 
 
 As regards man, we call Personality (a) the Unity of 
 Consciousness, i. e. that by which we feel ourselves to be 
 the same and identical beings, whatever be the apprehen- 
 sion and modification of our Consciousness. The subject 
 which is the foundation of Consciousness, and connects 
 into a Unity all the powers of our Being, is called the 
 "Ego" (Self), or the Soul (b), the activity of which 
 therefore consists in Consciousness (c) . 
 
 Consciousness — incomprehensible as to its principle 
 and nature — is the synthesis of Being and Knowing {d) 
 in the Self, or the Knowledge of Being. It is double 
 according as the Thinking Subject refers the object of 
 thought either to himself (Self- Consciousness) or to 
 something other than himself. 
 
 (a.) Whatever we think, suffer, etc., is accompanied by the Self, 
 which conceives itself as different from his perceptions, volitions, and 
 sensations. It remains also identical in the remembrance of the past 
 (after sleep, faiating). 
 
 (J.) The manifestation of the Self are the products of faculties, and 
 these must have a suhstratum (§ 39). 
 
 (e.) The more perfect the Consciousness, the more perfect the life 
 (God's ConBciousness). 
 
 (d.) This is the reason why neither Kchte's IdeaJism nor Sohel- 
 ling's Philosophy of Identity can be justified by demonstration. The 
 origia of Consciousness cannot be explained, because it could only be 
 done by reflection preceding Consciousness, whilst all reflective opera- 
 tion presupposes Consciouflness. There is no demonstration beyond 
 Consciousness (§ 49). 
 
 §§ 89, 90. 
 In man's consciousness a double system of faculties is 
 found : — the sensible system, the basis of which we call 
 body ; and the rational system, the basis of which we call 
 mind {a). 
 
56 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 We do not know the nature of either, because Con- 
 sciousness makes us acquainted with their manifestations, 
 but not with their essence. As these manifestations are 
 essentially different (b), and as Reason does not neces- 
 sarily develope itself (as the sensible faculties do) (c), we 
 must conclude that body and mind are principles essen- 
 tially different from each other (d) . 
 
 (a.) Uved/ia and ffivxh, ^'PJ and ^\ mind and sovd. Soul, i. e. prin- 
 ciple of life ; in this sense we can speak also of the soul of animals. 
 Soul is the mind, considered as animating the body. 
 
 (i.) Our sensible nature is the source of Intuitions ; Eeason, of 
 Ideas, The one is the principle of propensities ; the other, the prin- 
 ciple of the moral dictates that check the propensities, and are not 
 derived from experience. The Soul perceiyes in Consciousness the 
 Body as its property, and is raised by reflection above the stream of 
 sensible hfe. 
 
 (e.) See §§ 95, 145. 
 
 (d.) Therefore the Soulis simple, i. e. not material. May conscious- 
 ness, identity of consciousness, thought and will, be attributed to 
 matter ? Opinions of the ancients on the Soul, see Cicero, Tusc. 
 QuKst. i. 9, 10. 
 
 § 91. 
 
 As to the connection between Mind and Body, Con- 
 sciousness asserts that it is the closest possible (a), and 
 that both have an immediate reciprocal action upon each 
 other (b) . Experience shows, that on the side of the Body, 
 this connection is effected by the nervous system (c) . 
 
 (a.) This is shown by the impossibility of separating them during 
 life ; by the necessity with which changes going on in the one are felt 
 by the other; by the necessary connection of the forms of Sensi- 
 bility and the forms of Eeason, as also by the rapidity of their mutual 
 action, e. g. in music or speaking. 
 
 (6.) In Consciousness Body and Soul appear as determined by each 
 other without any interference of a third element ; e. g. when Will 
 moves our hand to write ; when we feel a bodily pain. This has been 
 called inflamts pTu/sicm. The hypothesis of occasional camses (i.e. 
 that God Himself takes the opportunity of the changes occurring in 
 the body to produce the corresponding changes in the soul, a-nd vica 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 57 
 
 versd, — Descartes and his followers), and the hypothesis of the "ha/r- 
 motiia prcestaUlita" (i.e. that G-od has originally determined both 
 mind and soul to an entirely harmonical series of modifications, which 
 develope themselTes independently of each other, but come to the 
 same resvilt — Leibnitz) are unnecessary, imfounded, and explain 
 nothing. 
 
 (e.) The nervous system is a condition of the human life. The two 
 principal seats of the nervous system are the brain and the ganglia ; 
 consequently, insanity, as far as originating with the body, has its 
 source in one of these two points. — Magnetism. The question as to 
 the seat of the soul contains scarcely any sense, and is superfluous. 
 
 § 92. 
 
 Consciousness cannot teach us anything with regard 
 to the origin of the Soul, because it makes its appear- 
 ance later than the Soul. But that the human Soul is 
 called into existence, together with the body, by the act 
 of generation («), and that it has its, origin in God only, 
 as far as God is the principle of aU power and activity 
 and therefore of the generative also, is an opinion sup- 
 ported by experimental observations ; namely the analogy 
 between the origin of the Soul and that of aU other cre- 
 ated beings ; the human monsters (6) ; the influence of 
 the generating on the generated being (c) ; the heredi- 
 tary disposition to certain arts, to mental habits, and in- 
 sanity ; the mental peculiarities of mongrels {d) ; the de- 
 generation of whole families and nations (e) . 
 
 (flj.) This has been called Traducianism (Tradudam), because it 
 teaches that the Soul is begot "jper tradmiem," by a graft. This 
 opinion could only appear as a mere assumption when contrasted 
 with the conception of " matter," held formerly. Creatiani are those 
 who pretend that the Souls are created by Grod, and united to the body 
 at the time of conception. Prmexistentiani, those who beHeve that 
 all souls were previously created by Q-od, and come into the human 
 bodies either for punishment or by their own will (Plato, PhUo, the 
 Eabbins).. 
 
 (J.) Imbeciles, Cretins ; the appearance of the latter bound to cer- 
 tain countries. 
 
 (o) M.g. If the two parents, or one of them, is in a state of 
 
 d3 
 
58 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 dnmkeimesB, grief, cheerfulnesB, during the act of generation. (Hiife- 
 land, 'Die Kimst das Leben zu Terlangem,' part ii. page 87.) 
 
 (d.) E.g. Half-oastes, etc., who are distinguished by peculiar differ- 
 ences of mind and feeHngs. 
 
 (e.) ^.g. Of the Komans at the time of the Emperors (Conf. Plu- 
 tarch, De sera Wuminis vindicta, p. 223 sqq., ed. Eeisk) . According to 
 frequent experience it seems to he highly probable that marriages be- 
 tween consanguineous persons lead to the degeneration and extinction 
 of the race. 
 
 § 93. 
 Just as little does Consciousness tell us the origin of 
 the human kind, which Reason however must refer to 
 God (§ 75) (a). Experience does not decide the ques- 
 tion, whether all men descend from one pair only, or 
 from several, simultaneously created (5) ; but experience 
 has hitherto shown that all men belong to ome genus, 
 being identical in the essential properties (c) of body and 
 mind, and differing only by the degree of those proper- 
 ties, and in some inessential points (d). 
 
 (o.) I. e. It cannot be admitted that man is the product of a pe- 
 culiar mixture of the terrestrial powers of nature. Nature does not 
 produce anything of the kind. The difference and the relation of sexes 
 cannot he explained by a chemical action of natural powers. But even 
 if it were so, the natural powers would only be the means employed by 
 the Creator. 
 
 (J.) Blmneabaoh! s ' System der verschiedenen Menschenracen.' KmsPs 
 Yermischte Schriften, 1 TheU, TSo. 7, 8. One pair would be sufficient 
 to people the earth. History leads to Asia as the original seat of the 
 human race. Our ancestors called themselves aboHgiMes, yiiyevus, 
 airix^'"'^'- Sometimes more, sometimes fewer human races have 
 been admitted. The black colour of the Negro is produced by a black 
 colouring of the " Malpighian net," which the White race does not 
 possess. The Half-castes propagate their kiad, which is not the case 
 with animals (mules). 
 
 (e.) Interior structure of the body, limbs, senses, law of sensible 
 perception, Reason and its laws, are the same everywhere. 
 
 {d.) The degree of bodily strength, of feeUngs, of intellectual 
 powers. Non-essential points are colour, shape of lips, hair, nose, 
 cheeks, bones, etc. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 59 
 
 § 94. 
 
 With regard to the hody^ man does not differ much 
 from animals ; what especially distinguishes him is his 
 upright positionj and the permanence of his sexual pro- 
 pensity («). The nervous system, the propensities, and 
 the perceptive faculties, are common to men and ani- 
 mals; and it cannot he disputed that the animals, at 
 least some kinds of them (6), possess a sort of understand- 
 ing which draws conceptions out of intuitions (c) . 
 
 (a.) The inner parts of the human body are not essentially different 
 from those of animals. The upright position is necessarily determined 
 by the direction of the axis of the eye, the connection between the 
 head and nect, the structure of the spine, of the hips, shanks, feet, 
 and hands. Aiiimala possess permanent sexual orga/ns, of which plants 
 are destitute ; man possesses a permanent sexual iprojpensity^ which 
 animals have not. — -Influence on matrimony, on social and oiTil insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 (i.) Monkeys, elephants, dogs. 
 
 (e.) -E. g. The fox, in outwitting his prey ; the fear of guns, wliich 
 arises in animals from experience ; their faculty of distinguishing who 
 is a sportsman and who is not ; the structure of their nests, and the 
 choice of their places, etc. (Whether animals have souls, i/vxds ?) 
 (Transmigration of Souls.) 
 
 § 95. 
 
 What essentially distinguishes man from animals is 
 Reason, or the faculty of Ideas ; there is no trace of this 
 faculty in animals (a) . Accordingly they utter material 
 {pocem, (pcov^v), but not articulate sounds (loquelam, 
 XaXiav) like man; they do not follow a certain rule 
 (which can only proceed from Reason) in their actions, 
 hut their propensities (instinctm), which are bound 
 within invariable limits {b) ; they have sensible, but no 
 mental feelings (c), and are not susceptible of any im- 
 provement, but become necessarily what they must be- 
 come according to the nature of their species {d). 
 
60 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 (a.) They do not improve their condition : their works, e. g. those 
 of the bees, proceed from instinct, accordingly they hare not improved 
 since the beginning. 
 
 (J.) E. g. The sexual propensity, that of nutrition. 
 
 (c.) They do not perceive beauty in looking at a picture, a land- 
 scape ; they do not possess the sense of honour, of the Good and 
 Perfect ; but they possess a musical sense. 
 
 (d.) AH foxes are equally cunning ; all tigers equally cruel ; they 
 are all equally skilful (bee, nightingale). (Influence of man on the 
 development of animals.) When an animal is fiiU grown it is per- 
 fectly developed. AninmlH have no history. 
 
 § 96. 
 
 In consequence of his Reason, man possesses over the 
 animals the advantage of — 
 
 1. The entire range of ideal knowledge, besides the 
 faculty of reflecting on himself. 
 
 2. The faculty of acting in accordance with what his 
 reason perceives and knows, or freedom j wherefore his 
 natural propensities, being subjected to a higher rule, 
 have no invariable limit. 
 
 3. The faculty of intellectual feelings ; and, in conse- 
 quence of all that, 
 
 4. Infinite perfectibility. 
 
 See § 95. Man therefore, even when fiill-grovm, does not become 
 what he possibly could be. — Difference of character, of feelings, of 
 knowledge, in different persons, — gradations of progress. Necessity 
 of education, 
 
 § 97. 
 The whole human race is perfectible like the indivi- 
 dual, and it certainly has improved since the beginning 
 in knowledge (a), in morals (6), and feelings (c), as well 
 as in the social institutions which depend on Reason (d) . 
 This progress is founded on the Ideas revealed by 
 Reason (e). 
 
 {a.) Religion, knowledge of nature, arts, manufactm'cs. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 61 
 
 (i.) Necessarily follows from an increased culture of Eeason, moral 
 teaoMng, devotion, philanthropy, human dignity, abolition of slavery, 
 education of the female sex. Talue of asceticism and of external wor- 
 ship. (The complaints of old people on the decrease of morality are 
 generally psychological self-delusions.) 
 
 (c.) Peelings : — taste, arts (music), sense of truth, right, human dig- 
 nity. 
 
 (d.) Constitution of State and Church, laws, jurisdiction. 
 
 (e.) This progress towards perfection has often been denied, — 
 
 1. Because people did not consider all times (e. g. from Abraham 
 to the present day), but particular periods only ; 
 
 2. Because they did not embrace all nations and the spread of 
 culture ; 
 
 3. Because progress may for some time appear as regression ; 
 
 4. Because it has been argued from a premature degree of civiliza- 
 tion among certain nations, — the Greeks, for instance, which, being an 
 anticipation, could not continue, — on the development of the whole. 
 
 §98. 
 The natural destination of all beings can only be de- 
 termined by their natural aptitudes ; the destination of 
 man therefore must be to develope all his mental and 
 bodily powers, and to use them according to the laws 
 prescribed to him. 
 
 Man ought — 
 
 1. To liue, i. e. to last according to the condition of his nature. 
 (Life is sacred. He has a right to exist. — Suicide.) 
 
 2. To act; to mate use of the faculties, physical and mental. (Ma- 
 trimony ; . occupation. — Error of Ascetics ; their contempt of matrimony 
 and of the world.) 
 
 3. To enjoi/ ; he has a right to rational recreation, and to gratify 
 with moderation his natural wants.— Sexual propensity. — ^Ascetics. 
 
 4. To suffer, viz. what arises from the necessary limitation of his 
 nature (illness, death), but not what petulanoy or malice inflicts upon 
 him. In this respect the principle of the Stoic School has a good 
 sense, viz. rh -riMs -rh Siio^oyovfucvois tj ipitret (rjy (Diog. La6rt. vii. 78). 
 
 §99. 
 Among those powers the mental faculties must come 
 
62 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 firstj being those which alone stamp man with the pecu- 
 liar character of humanity («) . They ought to be de- 
 veloped to an equal degree, for exclusiveness (6) is to be 
 avoided. It is because he possesses Reason that man is 
 the im,age of God. 
 
 (a.) Intellectual, moral, eesthetical development. 
 
 (i.) Exelueive cultivation of luteUeot produces cunning, malicious, 
 and cold characters. Exclusive cultivation of the juoral feelings leads 
 to erroneous opinions, to obstinacy and fenaticism. Exclusive sesthe- 
 tical cultivation leads to mysticism and fenaticism. On the spiritual 
 nature of man depends his dignity, i. e. a condition according to which 
 his destination is not relative, but absolute (he is not the means for a 
 purpose, but a purpose ia himself). 
 
 B. PEACTICAIi EBLIGIOUS IDEAS. 
 I. Divine Law and Duty. 
 
 §100. 
 
 As man has a double nature, a sensual and a spiritual 
 one, so has he, as Consciousness tells him, a double prin- 
 ciple of action, viz. the impulse of his sensual and the 
 impulse of his spiritual nature : they may both agree or 
 be at variance with each other (a) . The impulse of Sen- 
 sibility is called propensity (instinct), which, naturally 
 concentrating itself upon the external object, and not 
 considering the rules of Reason, is called a blind propen- 
 sity. The impulse of Reason is called law, dictate {dic- 
 tamen rationis) , and is the knowledge of the Good {b), 
 together with the sense of its dignity. The Good, being 
 unquestionably desirable, appears in Consciousness as a 
 duty (a rule we feel bound to follow unconditionally) . 
 
 (a.) IB.g. The love of property and the duty of industry; the in- 
 stinct and the duty of self-preservation. The propensities may thus 
 receive the name of duties, e.g. the sexual propensity is, in matrimony, 
 called the conjugal duty. 
 
DIVINE LAW AND DUTY. 63 
 
 (6.) The True and the Good are essentially the same (see § 44). 
 Morally good is what, from reasons which are equally yaUd for all 
 rational Being, ought to determine our wiU. 
 
 §101. 
 
 The condition of the mind so determined is (active) 
 appetite and (passive) aversion. Both are always com- 
 bined. The object of propensity is always what is agree- 
 able to the senses, and is induced to appetition or aver- 
 sion by a sensation of liking or disliking. The moral 
 determinations proceeding from this are called appetites, 
 which when lasting are called inclinations, and when 
 mastering exclusively the mind are called passions. The 
 Good alone is the object of duty, which impels to appeti- 
 tion or aversion by moral knowledge and feelings. The 
 lasting moral determinations founded upon this state of 
 mind are called habits {Gesinnungen) , and when they 
 exercise an exclusive power upon the mind they are called 
 virtues. 
 
 § 102. 
 
 The law or commandment of Duty, as manifested by 
 Consciousness, is imperative {ein Sollen, thou shalt), and 
 claims an absolute obedience, and consequently the sub- 
 ordination of propensities, imperativus categoricus. Every 
 intentional iniraction of it is followed by an internal re- 
 proach to ourselves and an order to return to the normal 
 state (a). The Idea of the Good (§ 77), like all Ideal, 
 has its source in Reason (6), and cannot be derived from 
 the world of phenomena, where nothing corresponding 
 to the prototype of duty is to be found. 
 
 (a.) Conscience is not only the "science" (knowledge) of what we 
 have done, but the species of, this knowledge, the knowledge of the 
 relation of our actions to duty. Where " science" is deficient, there 
 conscience is deficient also (e. g. in the savage), and as the one increases, 
 the other increases also. The sense resulting from this " science" 
 
64 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 is often called Conscience. When our consciousness of the demands 
 of duty is obscured by heedlessness or passion, it not seldom happens 
 that the feeling produced by the half-extinguished knowledge precedes 
 the full and clear knowledge. 
 
 (J.) This accounts for the moral law being invariably and necessa- 
 sarily the same. The same appUes to the Idea of the Secmtiful, which 
 is not drawn from experience, and is nowhere to be met with in the 
 world of phenomena. The law of duty often commands to oppose the 
 course pf the external world. 
 
 §103. 
 
 The truth of the law of duty is equal to the truth of 
 everything that is ideal {a) ; it is a truth above all de- 
 monstration, declared as such by our conscience and by 
 the necessity with which it determines our conscious- 
 ness; whence it follows that we are unquestionably bound 
 to obey the demands of duty, and to listen to our propen- 
 sities only as far as duty allows us to do so. It is also 
 evident from this that reason alone stamps man with the 
 character of humanity (§ 99), whilst projpensities are 
 common to man and to animals; and that Reason alone 
 also is able to perceive the universal laws and the uni- 
 versal truths, and to become conscious of them by the 
 power of reflection. 
 
 (o.) The criterion for what is subjeotiyely true is the necessity with 
 which consciousness feels itself determined (see § 49). Reason being 
 identical in all men, truth must have the same validity for all men. 
 The True, as a motive, is good, because it is as imperative as the Q-ood 
 to all men, or because its nature is to be universal, either absolutely or 
 relatively (in particular relation, e. g. in matrimony) : the contrary of 
 it is evil. (Seneca, Ep. 70 : " Sapientia est semper idem veUe et idem 
 noUe, Hcet iUam exceptiunculam non adjicias, ut rectum sit, quod velis. 
 Won potest cuiquam semper idem placere, nisi rectum.") 
 
 § 104. 
 The law is Divine, — 1. On account of its origin, man 
 with all his faculties being the product of the highest 
 
DIVINE LAW AND DUTY. 65 
 
 causality. In this respect the law has no higher autho- 
 rity than propensity, hecause the latter is equally a law 
 or an ordinance of God as much as the material world. 
 Propensity therefore is not bad in itself (there is nothing 
 absolutely bad), but only as far as it is at variance with 
 the law of duty (§ 100). 
 
 2. On account of its essence ; because it is (what pro- 
 pensity is not) a reflex and an image of the highest per- 
 fection, or of the Divine nature (see § 67), and because it 
 is also the law of the Divine agency (§ 69 ; conf. Matt. v. 
 45, 48 ; Luke vi. 36) . It is therefore by his Reason 
 and by his obedience to the commandments of duty that 
 man becomes the image of God. 
 
 3. On account of its ^roOTM^^a^iow; because it has been 
 promulgated as diviae law, which is not the case with 
 propensity. (See Revelation.) 
 
 §105. 
 
 The most general law, the law which embraces all 
 others, is, to act always according to such maxims (a) as 
 are not at variance with what Reason acknowledges to 
 be good, and are necessarily considered as a universal 
 rule for all men, guiding them either absolutely or rela- 
 tively, according to peculiar circumstances (b). Hence 
 it is evident that all moral progress of mankind depends 
 on the progress of Reason towards the knowledge of the 
 True and Good (c), and that the Idea of the abso- 
 lutely True and Good (the Idea of the Deity) must be 
 the first developed in our mind. 
 
 (a.) Maxim = a subjective principle which direeta the actions of 
 individuals ; I/Md = an objective principle of general import for beings 
 of the same kind, existing under equal circumstances. 
 
 (6.) Keason, if once conscious of this principle, can never fall into 
 an error as to its general form, but it may in its application to indi- 
 
66 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 vidual caaea. This principle may be expressed in different ways : the 
 shortest is " Act in conformity with the human dignity." 
 
 (c.) An exception to this is the individual to whom the law of duty 
 has been made known externally under the authority of a Divine (re- 
 vealed) law. It is always an error leading to Fanaticism to believe 
 that the moral education of man can be achieved without his reason 
 being trained. Moral imperfection can only give way before a more 
 accurate notion of things. (See also §§97 and 99.) 
 
 §106. 
 
 The general law of a rational mode of acting finds its 
 application, — 
 
 1. With every rational being who bears a real and 
 known relation to us, or with whom there may be some 
 connection (a), i. e. with ourselves, with our feUow-crea- 
 tures, and with God. 
 
 2. With all objects destitute of Reason, if they stand 
 in the same relation to us as under 1 {b), with the addi- 
 tion of a peculiar interest which our Keason takes in 
 them (c), i.e. with the organic creation and its products 
 and with the works of man. 
 
 (a.) Therefore we have no duties towards the angels, nor the inha- 
 bitants of countries yet undiscovered. 
 
 (i.) Not towards the sun, the stars, rivers, natiu'al powers, etc., but 
 towards plants or animals. 
 
 (c.) I. e. Kespect for Eeaaon, its rational purposes and use, e. g. 
 towards worts of art, plantations, buildings. 
 
 §107. 
 
 With respect to their internal relation to each other, 
 duties are either general (perfect, unconditioned), which 
 are binding on aU men as on rational beings («), and 
 special duties (imperfect, conditioned), which arise from 
 particular circumstances into which we find ourselves 
 voluntarily or involuntarily placed (6) ; according as 
 those circumstances are variable or invariable, the spe- 
 
DIVINE LAW AND DUTY. 67 
 
 cial duties may be divided into variable (c) and inva- 
 riable [d) . 
 
 (a.) B. g. To love Gi-od, man, oiirselTes j to act for the benefit of man- 
 kind; to work for our own perfection ; humility before &od, modesty 
 before man ; the duty of preserving our own life. 
 
 (4.) E.g. Duties towards magistrates, towards strangers — in time of 
 war, of general ealamiiy — ^towards the sick, the forsaken, or the perse- 
 cuted. 
 
 (e.) E. g. In persecutions, sickness, war. 
 
 (d.) To those belong, — all official duties, the duties of husbands, 
 parents, children, etc. 
 
 § 108. 
 
 In applying the law of duty to single cases, a collision 
 of duties may arise, i. e. sucli a relation of different duties 
 to each other as will cause one duty to override the other 
 partly or entirely (a) . Two cases may ensue from this : 
 we may be obliged, in order to fulfil one prescription, 
 either to omit an action prescribed by another (6), or to 
 commit one which is forbidden by another (c) . 
 
 (a.) We do not speak here of the collision of rights and claims with 
 duties ; the former ought always to be subordinate to the latter. Fic- 
 titious collisions resulting from unwillingness to perform a duty. 
 
 (i.) -B. g. If we ought at the same time to assist two different per- 
 sons, one of whom only we possibly can assist ; the duties of self-love, 
 and of love towards others. 
 
 (e.) E.g. If a duty caraiot be fulfilled but by immoral means ; if we 
 cannot save our reputation but by a falsehood at the bar. 
 
 § 109. 
 
 If one command of duty must be neglected in order to 
 fidfil another, we ought to prefer the invariable to the 
 variable one [a); the more to the less urgent {b); the one 
 of greater general use to another of less public import- 
 ance (c). 
 
 (a.) A father therefore should not postpone the duty of educating 
 his own children to the duty of educating other men's children. The 
 
68 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 duty of denouncmg a crime, or bringing an accusation at the bar, is 
 not demanded from a man against his wife, or from children against 
 their parents. The soldier, the physician, are always bound to observe 
 the duty to expose their hves. 
 
 (J.) According to time and to circumstances. A person, e. g., who 
 haTing to attend two friends lying sici at two different places, goes to 
 >iim who is most grievously afflicted, or, if both are in the same bodily 
 condition, to him who is more in need of assistance, or to the nearest, 
 or, if all those circumstances are the same in both, to whom he is most 
 indebted. The duty of keeping our room when we are iU is more im- 
 perative than the one of going to church ; the duty of extinguishing 
 an extensive fire is more imperative than the one of giving consolation 
 to a suffering feUow-creature. 
 
 (c.) If the one is not to be preferred as being invariable or more 
 urgent. The duty of denouncing a thief is greater than the one of 
 preserving his good reputation ; the duty of paying taxes greater than 
 the one of increasing our own comfort. 
 
 §110. 
 
 The second case, that we are obliged to act against one 
 duty in order to fulfil another, can only happen when an 
 action, forbidden by the law, becomes a means for fulfil- 
 ling a higher and more important duty. If this means 
 be an action immoral in itself and for all men, it can 
 never be allowed, and is always a trespass («) ; but if it 
 be an action which, under certain circumstances, may be 
 allowed (6), or which, being indifferent in itself, becomes 
 immoral under certain circumstances (c), then it is only 
 allowed if it be a smaller, remediable, and uncertain evil, 
 serving to prevent a greater, irremediable [d), and cer- 
 tain (e) one, which cannot be prevented by any other 
 means (/). 
 
 (a.) M. g. To commit perjury; to blaspheme God; to deny religion; 
 to betray the State or the Sovereign; to assassinate a man (Sand's 
 deed against Kotzebue) ; to steal in order to give to others ; rebellion 
 against legal authorities : deeds like these can never be in accordance 
 with the will of God, however urgent the circumstances which com- 
 mand them may appear, and he who thinks them to be justifiable 
 
FREEDOM^ VIRTUE, AND SIN. 69 
 
 blasphemes Profidenoe, as if it were not able to attain its ends -with- 
 out human crime, and violates the duty of submission to the prori- 
 dence of God. 
 
 (b.) E. g. To beat a man (parents and children); to wound any 
 one (surgeon, self-defence); to destroy a building. 
 
 (c.) E. g. Coition ; concealing one's conTiotion. 
 
 (d.) E. g. If a commander sets a village on fire in order to gain a 
 victory, or in a retreat sacrifices the rear for the salvation of the whole 
 aiTQy. Amputation of a bmb, in order to save life. 
 
 (e.) If the evil be uncertain, or its being prevented by illegal means 
 be problematical, then the action is not allowed. 
 
 (f.) E.g. If I cannot escape a murderous attack but by first attack- 
 ing and wounding the murderer : and even in this case one ought not 
 to mean to kill him, but only to prevent him from doing harm. These 
 conditions are never to be lost sight of ; and therefore the iTesuitioal 
 principle, " that the end justifies the means," is a source of crime. In 
 the same way, proselytism by presents, promises, or threats, is incon- 
 sistent with this rule ; for the end (supposing it to be good and urgent) 
 may be attained in such cases by many other and allowed means. 
 
 II. Moral Freedom, Virtue, and Sin. 
 
 §111. 
 
 The manner in which man is determined to his actions, 
 either by propensity or by duty, is the same in both cases ; 
 it is a knowledge having its source either in Sensibility 
 or in Reason, of which he becomes conscious ; therefore 
 there is no volition without knowledge (6), for no voli- 
 tion can be produced unless a representation — from Sen- 
 sibility or Eeason — takes hold of our Consciousness with 
 such a power as to silence for a time all other motives, 
 and to impel us to act according to it. 
 
 (a.) He therefore who is not capable of quick conceptions is diJl ; 
 he in whom one conception does not easily overcome the others is 
 irresolute (wavering). Our feelings also do not impel us to action 
 until we become conscious of them. 
 
 (i.) If knowledge remains doubtful (in suspense), no act of wiU re- 
 sults from it, but only an inquiry in order to complete the knowledge. 
 If the inquiry do not bring any result, we look for a motive out of our- 
 
70 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 selves, in the advice of others, or in drawing lots, etc., or there will be 
 no volition. 
 
 §112. 
 
 Man has, as his Consciousness tells him, power over 
 his thoughts (a) . He can either call them into, or keep 
 them from his Consciousness ; he can either take hold of 
 them, and, by intentionally fixing his Consciousness upon 
 them, render them so vivid as to fill Consciousness with 
 them ; or remove them from Consciousness, and, hy pur- 
 posely turning away Consciousness from them, weaken 
 them to such an extent as to suppress all their influence 
 over him. This is called mental Spontaneity (self-power, 
 or self-activity) (6), which however is imperfect in man, 
 because of the imperfection of his nature (c) . 
 
 (a.) Meaning of the expression "to banish something from our 
 mind." Belief from bodily and mental pain by directing our Con- 
 sciousness on other subjects. In the hour of temptation we call to 
 our assistance the consideration of duty and honour. Things of 
 which we are not conscious do not exist for us ; and as long as we 
 keep them away from consciousness, it is as if they did not exist at all. 
 
 (J.) It is a spontaneous energy, by which the mind shows that its 
 nature differs from that of the material world. It may be called JVee- 
 dom, but it is an inteUeotual freedom, — a freedom of thought, not of 
 wUl. 
 
 (o.) This Spontaneity is perfect only in G-od. The influences of the 
 external world often force upon us considerations which we cannot re- 
 move, but to which other considerations may be opposed to counter- 
 balance them, e. g. the consideration of a Divine wise government of 
 the world, — to the thought of an injury inflicted on us. 
 
 § 113. 
 Man, therefore, has also the faculty of removing from 
 his Consciousness the thought of what is agreeable to 
 the senses (§ 101), or at least to render it powerless, 
 and thus prevent his actions from being determined by 
 propensity ; he can, on the other hand, awaken and esta- 
 blish in his mind the notions of the Good and Duty, and 
 
FREEDOM, VIRTUE AND SIN. 71 
 
 the motives derived therefrom, and cling to them as to 
 the rules that shall direct his actions. This spontaneous 
 faculty has been called in Moral Science ^ee<fom of will, 
 an improper and only negative expression, which has 
 often caused the notion itself to be misunderstood (a). 
 More properly it should be called rational Independence, 
 which consists partly in this, that man finds in himself 
 the rule of his conduct (the moral law), and therefore is 
 governed by a rational legislation {b) ; and partly that 
 he can determine his actions agreeably to this legisla- 
 tion, without being prevented from doing so by what 
 there is fatal in the influence of propensity (c). Thus, 
 not only we have a personal share in our actions (merit 
 or guilt), but we acquire that dignity which attaches to 
 personality, and, with regard to others, we become pos- 
 sessed of a well-defined sphere of rights. 
 
 (o.) Freedom, derived from positive relations, is notlmig but the 
 absence of external oompulsion, consequently a negation. In apply- 
 ing this notion of freedom to the human will (liierias arbitrU, liherum 
 a/rbitriwm), it vras thought that not only the external compulsion, 
 but any internal and moral one also, had to be removed, and freedom 
 was considered as the faculty of doing what we like, — the choice be- 
 tween propensity and duty, between evil and good, by the mere act of 
 will, i. e. without the will being determined by motives. If this be 
 the case, as the law of duty does not allow of any choice, virtue would 
 be a resignation of freedom ; the correction of others would be an en- 
 croachment on their freedom ; the choice of evil would be necessarily 
 connected with freedom and virtue ; and, consequently, the foundation 
 of sin ought to be sought in God. WiU, in general, is that faculty by 
 which the Soul determines its own inner state. But WiU, considered 
 in its external activity, is a WiU always determined by some motive 
 suggested by Sensibility or Eea«ou. 
 
 (S.) Autonomy of Reason, which we obey, because we must need 
 acknowledge it to be true and good. We submit wiUingly to the 
 natural laws also, because we see that obedience to them is in confor- 
 mity with the moral law. 
 
 (c.) That freedom is not the choice between G-ood and EvU, but 
 the self-determination to the Grood, is also expressed in the ancient 
 
72 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 sentence, ii6vos 6 aotphs 4\ei9epos koI iras &ippav SoSXos (Cicero, Parad. 
 5). The same is stated in the New Testament : conf. John viii. 37. A 
 faculty producing immorality whilst its object is to produce morality, 
 is a contradiction, whether we consider it as a notion or as a reality. 
 
 § 114. 
 
 The readiness or habit to act according to law is 
 virtue. ^ 
 
 1. Its material element is the conformity of the action 
 with the expression of the law [a). 
 
 2. Its formal element consists in this, that the obe- 
 dience to the law proceeds from its knowledge {b), from 
 the respect for its divine dignity, and from other motives 
 which are in accordance with the law (c). 
 
 Man, and Man only [d), therefore, in the normal state 
 of his Reason (e), is capable of virtue. When man ac- 
 knowledges the law as a Divine law, and his submission 
 to it proceeds from veneration, love, and gratitude to- 
 wards God, virtue is called Piety (/). 
 
 (a.) This is legality, the " justitia civihs" of the Canon Law (see 
 Bretschneider, Handbuoh der Dogmatik, part ii. page 3). It is no 
 virtue if it proceed from compulsion, chance, or immoral motives, 
 e.g. the accidental coincidence of propensity and duty, as in the case 
 of charity from vanity ; the submission to the law from prudence, 
 for the sake of profit resulting from it. If the motive is immoral, the 
 action itself is immoral also, though it is materially in conformity with 
 the law, e.g. to speak the truth in order to injure. 
 
 (5.) The child therefore, before its reason is awakened, has neither 
 virtue nor vice. The same applies to the savages, if the law (e. g. not 
 to kdU those whom they have overcome) is not yet known to them. 
 So far there is, in either case, no conscience. 
 
 (c.) This is moraUtg, jiislitia spirituaUs. Its difference from the 
 " prudence" of the Eudemonists. 
 
 {d.) Animals and lifeless things have neither virtue nor sin, — do 
 neither right nor vrrong. In &od also there is no virtue, because 
 Holiness is essential to him. 
 
 (e.) An insane person lias neither merit nor gmlt, because he has no 
 power over his thoughts. A man who is carried away by passion is 
 
FKEEDOM, VIRTUE, AND SIN. 73 
 
 like the insane, inasmuch as he has lost this power ; but he is unlike 
 him inasmuch as the loss is his own fault, for not haTuig accustomed 
 himself to submit to the law, which he could and ought to hare done. 
 Just as httle as the hoMt of doing good does not, in particular cases, 
 take away fi-om the merit of the Tirtuous ; as little is the gmlt of the 
 wicked diminished by his having been accustomed to do evil, and his 
 having acted under the influence of this habit. 
 
 (/.) The Notion of " morahty" is not contained, originally, either 
 in the word mrtue {virtus), nor in the Grreek oper^ ; but it is con- 
 tained in the word piety {pietas), as well as in euffe/Seia. 
 
 §115. 
 
 Virtue therefore, as sometliing moral, does not exist 
 absolutely, but relatively, i. e. it exists only because and 
 as far as God's law is known and followed by rational 
 beings as the rule of their conduct ; or, an action which 
 is in conformity with the Divine law can, in the sphere of 
 reality, only be called virtue inasmuch as the author of 
 this action is a moral being, determining himself with 
 Consciousness and according to the Divine law. Absolute 
 virtue is holiness, and exists only in God. 
 
 Virtue, as such, is not something absolute, but the relation of human 
 actions to the law. This relation however does not alter the real 
 relation of objective things. Whether the waves carry away a boat 
 from the shore in such a direction as to save a ship wrecked, or whe- 
 ther a man detaches it and steers towards the ship wrecked in order 
 to save her, does not make any difference in the sphere of reahty. 
 Nor does it make a difference in the objective world whether the poor 
 are assisted from vanity or from benevolence; whether an army gains 
 a victory from love of their country or from ambition. The effect and 
 the connection of consequences with the course of the world remain 
 the same. It is only in its relation to the acting subject that the 
 action is virtuous. 
 
 §116. 
 
 Hence it follows that Virtue is not a principle originally 
 existing in the human kind, or in the individual, but is 
 something ff rowing (becoming) — 
 
 1. As to its principle; the law first appearing as a 
 
 E 
 
74 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 rule of prudence^ or as a compulsory law under public 
 authority ; then as a Divine law of the powerful, or as a 
 law given by God as the absolute Sovereign and Lord 
 of man, and founded on fear and hope; and lastly, as 
 a law absolutely good, claiming obedience for its own 
 sake. 
 
 2. As to its extent ; because virtue appears — 
 
 a. "With regard to others, first a^ justice and recipro- 
 city of right (in this case it is Hmited and negative, and 
 confined to avoiding to do others injury) ; and then as 
 a universal and active duty of love, which does not re- 
 quire any reciprocity. 
 
 b. With regard to ourselves, first as a prohibition 
 against injuring ourselves ; then, as a command to per- 
 fect ourselves. 
 
 c. "With regard to God, first as external worship, in 
 order to propitiate Him ; then, as prayer and adoration 
 in spirit, by which virtue itself is raised to the dignity 
 of the highest worship of God. Virtue, or submission 
 to the law, can be perfect only if the Idea of Immor- 
 tahty is added to it ; because it is only then that sen- 
 sual life ceases to be regarded as the highest object, and 
 that the law appears as the universal law for all rational 
 creatures, and more sacred than life. 
 
 This marks the degrees of moral progression, which, according to 
 the Scriptures, Eevelation itself has followed. 
 
 §117. 
 It is not every action at variance with the Divine law 
 that is sin, but only that which a rational being, in pos- 
 session of Reason and knowing the law, wills and does 
 (see §115) in defiance of it (a). If man knows the law 
 to be a Divine law, sin is called ungodliness (6). 
 
 (a.) Every action therefore which, though being in material con- 
 
FREEDOM^ VIRTUE, AND SIN. 75 
 
 formity witli the law, proceeds from motives condemned by the law, 
 is sin ; e. g. to aesiat a poor man, in order to induce him, out of gra- 
 titude, to bear false witness in our favour. (The other points wiU be 
 explained in § 144.) 
 
 (J.) 'AjMpTla, peocaftim, fault, do not, properly speaMng, imply a 
 moral meaning, as is the case with the words cttre'jSeia, irapdfians, im- 
 pietas, sin, ungodliness. Sin. is no Idea, but a Notion ; as Idea it 
 would be the Conception of an evil principle : still less can original 
 sm be an Idea ; it is rather an historical Conception. 
 
 §118. 
 
 Sin therefore (also called moral Evil) is nothing ab- 
 solute, but, like physical Evil (§ 80), something relative, 
 i. e. it only exists because and in so far as God's law is 
 known to, but not observed by, rational beings, although 
 it might have been observed by them ; or, bad thoughts 
 and bad actions are, objectively, in the sphere of reaUty, 
 sins only as far as their author is a moral being, who 
 determiaes himself with consciousness according to the 
 Divine law. 
 
 See § 115. If Sin, as such, were something absolute, and not merely 
 one of the relations between the human will and the law, it would 
 exist necessarik/, and Evil would have its reason either in the Divine 
 WiU or in a specifically evil principle. In this case, also, the relation 
 of the action to the law does not alter the real state of things. Whe- 
 ther a man is struct down by a tree or by a murderer, — whether a town 
 is laid in ashes by an animal which drags the firebrand into a bam, 
 or by the wretched hand of an incendiary, — gives the same objective 
 result, and the connection of the result with the course of the world ia 
 the same in both cases. It is only in the relation of the action to the 
 rational agent, who is aware of the law, that the fact becomes sin, and 
 ia acknowledged and judged as sin by all moral beings and by God 
 Himself. A case of murder without intention, of arson against the 
 will of the acting subject, either does not exist at all as sin, or exists 
 as a different sin, e.g. as heedlessness, passion. 
 
 §119. 
 Sin does not originally exist in man, because the im- 
 pulse of his sensual nature is neither good nor bad, and 
 
 E 2 
 
76 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 because it only arises together with the knowledge of the 
 law (a) . 
 
 The existence of Sin is owing to this, — 
 
 1. That man is not born in the possession of virtue 
 or of freedom, — not in a state of actual perfection, but 
 only with the faculty of attaining it, — a faculty he is 
 bound to cultivate by struggling against his sensual pro- 
 pensities, in order that he may have a personal share in 
 his fulfilment of the law (guilt or merit). 
 
 2. That the growth of his sensual nature is a physical 
 necessity, and coincides with the growth of his body 
 (§ 95), while this is not the case with his Reason (§ 96 
 sc[. and § 145), which requires to be trained. Thus man 
 is first governed by sensual propensities. As Reason 
 grows, these are gradually controlled by moral feehngs, 
 and consequently virtue does not require a lasting, but 
 a transitory struggle with our sensual nature. Freedom 
 is the termination of the struggle, by the victory of the 
 moral feelings. The time of struggle is the time of 
 Sin, i. e. of hesitation between propensity and duty, a 
 hesitation which did not exist before the struggle, and 
 disappears again with the victory or freedom. 
 
 (a.) See Eom. iii. 20, t. 13. 
 
 §120. 
 
 As this process of development begins anew with every 
 human individual, and as a sudden transition from the 
 knowledge of the law to perfect obedience is impossible. 
 Sin must be general. As the mere training of the Un- 
 derstanding, unassisted by Reason, does not impart the 
 knowledge of the moral law, the Understanding may be 
 vanquished by the propensities, and lead a man, nay a 
 whole age, to a greater degree of wickedness or to the 
 immoral caution of selfishness. But Reason, being the 
 
FREEDOM, VIRTUE, AND SIN. 77 
 
 essence of the mind, can never disappear ; and therefore 
 a continuous increase of evil cannot, either with respect 
 to the individual or to the whole race, be supposed, un- 
 less Reason be destroyed. On the contrary, a continuous 
 decrease of sin may take place. For whenever an age is 
 approaching to freedom, the younger generation has the 
 benefit of the instruction and example, is early placed 
 on a higher scale of freedom, and its development is 
 secured and quickened by means of educational institu- 
 tions, laws, etc. Moreover we may assume that as the 
 physical and mental condition both depend on genera- 
 tion (§ 93), the offspring of a moral age is born with a 
 higher capacity for freedom, and with less vivacious sen- 
 sual propensities. 
 
 §121. 
 
 Sin therefore is not lasting, but transitory (a) ; it does 
 not proceed from the nature of freedom, nor is it given 
 at once or always connected with it (either as possible 
 or as real) [b) ; but it precedes freedom, leads to it, and 
 disappears. It is not a being, like freedom, but some- 
 thing becoming, a transition to freedom. The Evil there- 
 fore which follows Sin is likewise not absolute nor last- 
 ing, but leads to freedom and happiness (c), and is felt 
 as a punishment only as long as our Conscience declares 
 us guilty : on this account it is considered by the pious 
 as a parental chastisement. 
 
 (a.) Sin could have a real and independent existence only if there 
 were men or a class of Beings who never grew better, but who, though 
 conacioiis of the law, were in a state of continual disobedience to it. 
 
 (6.) This would be the case if freedom were considered, according to 
 common opinion, as not determined by motives or a choice, which 
 would make of freedom a dcmble-dded feculty. 
 
 (c.) If this were not the case, it could not be explained how Q-od 
 can at once punish and love the sinner. 
 
78 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 §123. 
 
 Although man must contribute himself to his moral 
 education, he does not thereby acquire merit before God, 
 i. e. a claim to any reward but that which necessarily 
 proceeds from the nature of virtue : he only becomes 
 what he ought to become, and thereby only worthy of 
 his existence and of his rational nature (Luke xvii. 7- 
 10). It is only in consequence of mistaking the Notion 
 of freedom (as a choice according to mere wiU) that the 
 assumption of the meritoriousness of virtue could arise (a), 
 which would at once take away the guilt of siu [b). 
 
 (a.) In this case we should consider it as very meritorious to resign 
 our freedom of choice in order to please God. 
 
 (5.) If God had given man the choice between obedience and dis- 
 obedience, and if obedience were a voluntary sacrifice of the right of 
 choosing, then the alternation of obedience and disobedience would be 
 a rule given by God Himself, and therefore not to be punished ; and 
 an exclusive disobedience only would make one liable to punishment. 
 
 §123. 
 
 As Sin is not lasting, but a transition to freedom, we 
 do not need to justify God for its existence ; it is quite 
 in accordance with the law of development which we find 
 in the whole universe (as far as we know it). The ques- 
 tion therefore, why Sin exists among men, is identical 
 with these — ^why men are born as children, and not as 
 grown-up persons ? why they are born as men, with a 
 sensual body, and not at once as angels ? in short, why 
 there are periods of development and different stages 
 among Beings ? To ask this question would be foolish, as 
 there is nowhere an answer to be found (see §§ 76-79). 
 
 §124. 
 Now we can easily answer the question, Whether God 
 
FREEDOM, VIRTUE, AND SIN. 79 
 
 knows the free actions of man beforehand ; which would 
 necessarily have to he answered in the negative if freedom 
 were a faculty of choosing between Good and Evil («). 
 But, according to what we have stated, the question comes 
 to tKis — 
 
 1. Whether God knows that man, horn unfree, will 
 only gradually advance towards freedom, and will there- 
 fore commit sia at the beginning of his moral educa- 
 tion? 
 
 2. Whether He knows the progress each individual 
 will make towards freedom, and how far he will advance 
 in it (6) ? 
 
 3. Whether God knows how man will act in each par- 
 ticular case, — whether according to rational motives or 
 according to propensity (c) ? 
 
 Those questions are plainly to be answered in the affir- 
 mative. 
 
 (o.) It has been answered in the negative by Cicero, De Divinat. 
 ii. cap. 5-7 ; Socin., Prseleot. Theol. cap. 8-18. If freedom were the 
 faculty of choosing undeterminable by reasons, Grod could not infallibly 
 know beforehand what would be the result of the choice ; for this is 
 only possible when the will is in every case necessarily determined by 
 reasouB, and accordingly no choice is possible. Therefore if choice be 
 admitted, either prescience or freedom must be denied. 
 
 (S.) This progress rests on two principles :— 
 
 1. On the whole natural constitution of man and on his mental 
 power; and 
 
 2. On the influence of the external objects on man (education, 
 moral condition of the age, company, situation, events). 
 
 &od, as Creator and Governor of the World, knows both, and con- 
 sequently their result also. 
 
 (c.) It is an error to deduce single actions from single resolutions or 
 from undetermined acts of choice by our wiU. They are rather results 
 of our moral condition in general, as it happens to exist at certain 
 periods of our life ; or the result of the general relation between our 
 moral feelings and propensities at a certain period, and of the influence 
 of the external world connected with that relation. The guilt or merit 
 in particular actions arises from the guilt or merit we have in that ge- 
 
80 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 neral relation (see § 114, e). The morality of our actions therefore is 
 the morality of our moral condition in general, applied to the parti- 
 cular manifestations of our wiU. (In a metaphysical respect, the ques- 
 tion of God's prescience is of no importance, as God's knowledge is not 
 dependent on time : see § 66.) 
 
 §125. 
 
 Freedom, even if a false meaning be given to the word 
 {a), cannot be in contradiction with a Divine govern- 
 ment of the world, by which all is necessarily determined. 
 For if freedom consists in this, that man determines 
 himself according to God's law or will alone, setting 
 aside every other motive, and if sin is nothing but a 
 temporary, transitory companion of the development 
 towards freedom, — if virtue and sin are only relative 
 notions, — then the events occurring in the moral, are 
 just as much determined by the will of God as the events 
 occurring in the physical, world. The human will is 
 unable to give to the course of the world a direction con- 
 trary to the will of God, because man has the control of 
 his actions but not of their consequences, the latter being 
 modified by the development of the whole ; and this ex- 
 plains also how sin is brought into harmony with the 
 Divine will by its consequences being turned in the pro- 
 per direction. (Crucifixion of Christ by the Sanhedrim 
 and Pilate.) 
 
 (a.) One might think that freedom (as the faculty of deciding for the 
 one or the other course, — the faculty of acting or not acting) would 
 estabhsh, by this choice, a causaKty on which God could have no de- 
 termining influence, and which therefore would render his prescience 
 uncertain. But such a causality would be restrained within certain 
 limits ; and as it would determine the action, but not its consequences, 
 God would be able to bring its objective result into harmony vrith His 
 predestination, by giving the proper direction to the consequences. 
 
THE RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY. 81 
 
 3. The Religious Community. 
 
 (The Church.) 
 
 §126. 
 
 As all men possess the same Reason, and the same ap- 
 titude for religion, and therefore also the same religious 
 destination, religion can and ought to be common to all 
 men. Those in whom the religious ideas have arrived 
 at full consciousness and have become the ruling princi- 
 ple, constitute the Kingdom of God, i. e. a community 
 which feels itself totally dependent on God and acknow- 
 ledges the absolute authority of His law. The life and 
 aim of this community must be the fulfilment of the law 
 of God ; for this is what renders it holy, and enables it 
 to go beyond the bounds of Time and Space, and to em- 
 brace all Beings in the Universe who have arrived at the 
 same Knowledge. 
 
 §127. 
 
 As the inward feelings manifest themselves outwardly, 
 the religious community will have something external in 
 common, — worship and virtuous life; and as there is 
 always an attraction between kindred objects, those reli- 
 gious men who are connected by time and space will 
 assemble to give joint utterance to their religious sen- 
 timents, and will gradually form a public religious com- 
 munity representing externally the idea of the kingdom 
 of God. (Church.) 
 
 §128. 
 This religious community is moreover necessary, if re- 
 ligious ideas are to be universally spread and are to form 
 the rule of Hfe. For as they generally proceed from 
 single individuals, taught or inspired by God, as from 
 historical centres (§ 145), it is necessary — 
 
 E 3 
 
82 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 1. That they should be promulgated as a doctrine 
 (common belief), and thereby, if possible, tendered to 
 the reason of every one. 
 
 2. That they should be fostered in our Consciousness, 
 so as to become the rule of our actions, or to beget a re- 
 ligious life. 
 
 Thus the object of the religious community is given. 
 But as the general medium of mental communication is 
 language and external representation, ministry and wor- 
 ship are required. 
 
 §129. 
 In order to found and preserve both, the members of 
 the community must assemble so as to form an external 
 society, which is concerned in nothing else but the foun- 
 dation and preservation of these two institutions, and 
 which cannot have any control over the belief and the re- 
 ligious life, both being something internal. {Liberty of 
 Conscience.) 
 
 §130. 
 
 The end of the Ministry is, first, to enlighten, by en- 
 lightening to amend, and, by means of both, to produce 
 peace and comfort (a). As by its nature it has no con- 
 nection vrith the government of the religious commu- 
 nity, so it is independent of the same in the perform- 
 ance of its duty, listening to none but the spirit of truth. 
 (Liberty in teaching.) 
 
 (a.) Any virtue or consolation that does not proceed from the 
 knowledge of truth, or is not in accordance with it, is false and super- 
 stitious. 
 
 §131. 
 
 Worship is partly an expression of the perception of 
 truth and of the influence of religious ideas (devotion, 
 prayer, singing) ; partly a material representation of the 
 
IMMORTALITY. 83 
 
 Ideal, for the purpose of viTifying the religious Ideas in 
 the human mind (festivals, ceremonies) ; it can therefore 
 be established only by common agreement {a), and can 
 have no other object but to produce a moral effect on the 
 individual, and not (as the Roman worship does) to act 
 supernaturally in the world. 
 
 (».) Eight of the Church to fix its own Liturgy. 
 
 C. Theoketico-Practical Idea of the Religious 
 Being, or of Immortality. 
 
 § 132. 
 
 As there is a reality corresponding to all religious 
 ideas (§ 47), we must admit that there is a life of per- 
 fection corresponding to the rational and religious Hfe, 
 which in these earthly relations is always imperfect, — a 
 life consisting in the closest approximation to absolute 
 Reason, or in a continually progressing duration of our 
 mind, preserving its consciousness (a), — the immortality 
 of the Soul (b). This is the necessary consequence of 
 the considerations on Religion developed in the preced- 
 ing sections. 
 
 (a.) It is on Consciousness that personality rests (§ 88). If the 
 mind were to return to God or to the universe (Pantheism), con- 
 sciousness being dissolved, future hfe would be of as Httle value to us, 
 and as unimportant to our destination, as if a higher but totally dif- 
 ferent consciousness were bestowed upon us. In both cases the " Self" 
 would be destroyed. 
 
 (5.) Im/mortaUty (hBavaaia, immortalitas) means only that the 
 death {Bivwros, mors) of the body is not the termination of the spiri- 
 tual life also ; but it does not express that the mind is by its essence 
 simple and indivisible, and consequently cannot be dissolved (lupBapala, 
 inoorruptibilitas). The most interesting writings on this doctrine are, 
 Moses Mendelssohn, ' Phsedon, oder ilber die IJnsterblichkeit der 
 Seele ;' Ch. P. Sintenis, ' Blpizon, oder fiber meine Fortdauer im 
 Tode ;' Jean Paul Eichter, ' Das Campanerthal.' Conf. Tiedgen, 
 
»4 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 "'-Urania ;' Bretschneider, ' ITeber Tod, Auferstehimg und TJnsterb- 
 lichteit' (Sermons). On the history of the behef in Immortality see 
 Hugge, ' Gteschiohte dee GHaubens an tTnsterblichkeit, Auferstehimg, 
 Grericht und Vergeltung.' 
 
 § 133. 
 
 Unless we believe in the Immortality of the Soul^ we 
 cannot teHeve ia the Reality of the Absolute Being, 
 whose image we are. For it would not be in accordance 
 with God's Wisdom that He should have ends in view 
 which He does not accomplish^ or that He should use 
 nugatory means. He cannot therefore have given man 
 faculties for a destination unattainable without Immor- 
 tality. And, according to His Goodness, we must as- 
 sume that He will gratify the longing for Immortality, 
 inherent to the human mind, and will not deprive the 
 soul of an existence for which it is constituted. Accord- 
 ing to His Holiness, it cannot be supposed that he would 
 permit a rational and moral Being, an image of Himself, 
 having an absolute value, to be annihilated. According 
 to His Justice, we must expect that in a future life God 
 will compensate the imperfection of requital we see in 
 the present existence. 
 
 § 134. 
 
 The human mind, which is essentially different from 
 the body (a), cannot share its fate in death. Every 
 earthly creature reaches its full development — its des- 
 tination, — in the course of its earthly Existence ; so does 
 the human body. But the intellectual, moral, and 
 sesthetical education of the Soul is, on account of the 
 nature of the present existence (6), not accomplished; 
 and does not therefore fulfd its destination, viz. Ration- 
 ality, which is the condition of moral progress (c) . Now 
 as we see all classes of earthly creatures completely fulfil 
 
IMMORTALITY. 85 
 
 their destination, we must conclude that to the human 
 mind also, the noblest we know, the faculty is given to 
 reach its destination — immortality (d). 
 
 (a.) See § 90. It is not from the body that Eeason can be derived, — 
 Reason, which apprehends the Ideal and aU that is above the sensible 
 perception, — Beason, the law of which is opposed to the propensities 
 of the flesh. It is not this planet that can iastil into our mind the 
 desire of perfection and immortality. The demonstration of the im- 
 mortality of the Soul or of its indissolubility by physical powers, 
 drawn from its Immateriality or Indivisibility, has no value what- 
 ever. Such indivisibihty of the Substance is not a religious Idea, but 
 rather a physical notion belonging to Ontology. 
 
 (i.) Ars longa, vita hrevis. Our life is not sufficiently long to de- 
 velope, far less to exhmist, our spiritual faculties. When the spiritual 
 life is iu its full growth, the decay of the body begins. Could our 
 mind explore other Worlds, there would be no limit to its development. 
 Sleep, sickneBS, working for our sustenance, shorten still more the time 
 of our spiritual culture. 
 
 (e.) Perhaps it wiU be said that if the spiritual faculties cannot be 
 fully developed iu the Individual, they may attain their full growth in 
 the Kind. But, being limited by the body, the development must be 
 imperfect in the whole Kind also. Man, a rational being, cannot be a 
 means, but an end. If the Individual has a mere transitory exist- 
 ence, we cannot find any reason for the development of the Kind. 
 Among animals and plants, the individuals, if not intentionally pre- 
 vented, come to maturity. Among men there is not one who actually 
 b^mes what he might be. It is a law of nature that every being 
 ■fliould attain its end ; and this law will be still more absolute if we 
 derive Nature from G-od. 
 
 § 135. 
 
 The Moral Law reveals itself to our Consciousness as 
 claiming implicit obedience ; that is to say, as a law 
 rising above the sensual life, and demanding that we 
 should sacrifice all pleasurable feehngs, and even the 
 sensual life itself, to duty (a). This demand would be 
 absurd and contradictory if the sensual life constituted 
 the whole existence of man, because in this case the pre- 
 servation of life would be the highest good and law. But 
 
86 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 from the existence of the demand follows the possibility 
 of meeting it ; and as this cannot be accomplished with- 
 out the Soul beiag immortalj Immortality must be ad- 
 mitted {b). 
 
 (a.) S. g. The soldier, the physician, the magistrate ; the virtuous 
 man, if he cannot save his life except by Tice. 
 
 (5.) Eant founded his demonstration on this, That Beason, in re- 
 quiring us to aim at the highest good, would demand something im- 
 possible and contradictoiy if Immortality did not exist ; that Keason 
 however cannot contradict itself (see Kant's ' Kritik der praotischen 
 Vemunfifc,' p. 219 «j.). Without the Immortality of the soul, the 
 same contradiction would be found in the Idea of a Deity (see § 133). 
 Strictly speaMng, from the propositions of this paragraph, we cannot 
 derive an eternal duration of the soul, but only the necessity of a 
 second hfe. The moral demonstration of Immortality may already 
 be found ia Lactant. Instit. Div. lib. vii. cap. 9. 
 
 § 136. 
 
 As there are Realities corresponding to all IdeaSj we 
 must admit the existence of a spiritual kingdom of God, 
 or of a community of rational beings, to which we be- 
 long by our spiritual nature, but from which we are ex- 
 cluded by our body. The dissolution of the latter cannot 
 but produce a more intimate connection with that king- 
 dom, which could not be conceived without the identity 
 of Consciousness. The concretion of bodily elements 
 into an individual form has only a relative and limited 
 end. As soon as this end is attained, the form disap- 
 pears, and the matter returns to the whole, to be used 
 for similar purposes. But the formation of the spiritual 
 principle into Individuality (the essence of which is 
 Self-Consciousness) has an absolute value and an infi- 
 nite object ; therefore this Individuality does not cease, 
 but, according to the law of development, continues ad- 
 vancing in the Knowledge of the Universe, as the grow- 
 ing Kingdom of God. 
 
IMMORTAIitTY. 87 
 
 § 137. 
 The belief in Immortality is confirmed — 1. By the 
 aspect of the universe, which displays a vast number of 
 arenas for the activity of Beings who are to be educated 
 to freedom, showing a physical connection in the world, 
 that renders the existence of a spiritual one highly pro- 
 bable, and the knowledge of which, without Immortality, 
 would be a useless labour. 2. By analogous phenomena in 
 Nature, — larvse, caterpillars, butterflies, — which show the 
 possibility, at least, of a metamorphosis of beings, not 
 to speak of the coming of man himself to this earthly 
 existence. 3. By the fact that all nations, which have 
 attained to a certain degree of civilization, possess that 
 belief. — What has been said on the apparition of de- 
 ceased persons, being a practical demonstration of Im- 
 mortaUty, is a delusion {a). 
 
 (a.) See the folloTring sections. The Besurrection of Christ has 
 no relation to this question, being no apparition of a spirit. 
 
 § 138. 
 
 Two principal objections have been directed against 
 the belief in Immortality : — 
 
 1. That the dead never give any sign of the conti- 
 nuance of their spiritual existence. To this it may be 
 answered — that such a physical demonstration of a s^- 
 ritual existence is impossible ; that, were it possible, we 
 have no criterion by which to judge of the identity of the 
 apparition with the spirit of the deceased ; that such an 
 apparition would be useless for our belief; and, even 
 supposing it to have an influence on our belief, it would 
 be injurious to our peace and virtue, and finally, incom- 
 patible with the condition of perfect spirits (Luke xvi. 
 19-31). 
 
88 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 § 139. 
 2. It has been objected that there is no perceptible 
 difference between the death of man and that of animals 
 (a) ; thatj without Sensibility, it. would be impossible for 
 our miad to perceive the physical world and to act upon 
 it (6) ; and that, from the close connection between the 
 body and the soul (c), it is highly probable that the lat- 
 ter wiU be extinguished in death. 
 
 (o.) If we take both as external phenomena, there is no difference ; 
 but ImmortaHty does not relate to man as a material phenomenon. 
 Besides, there are some differences. The animal has become what it 
 possibly could become, man has not ; the one has no faculties pointing 
 to a second Ufe, the other has ; the one dies without being conscious 
 of its death and without any desire, both are observed in a dying 
 man ; the one has neither guilt nor merit, in man virtue remains un- 
 rewarded, vice unpunished. 
 
 (6.) This goes too far, and cannot be demonstrated. 
 
 (o.) The connection, it is true, is a very close one (§ 91) ; but the 
 identity of their essence does not follow therefrom. There exists a 
 similarly close connection between the foetus and the mother. Could 
 not the soul receive a higher orgcm immediately after death ? And 
 could not this organ be developed out of the body, and form a distinct 
 and independent existence ? Or could not new senses, now latent, 
 be developed, like the senses of the foetus in the mother's womb ? 
 
 § 140. 
 
 As to the condition of the future Existence, Reason 
 can only say, that it will be freed from the bounds of the 
 earthly life, dependent as it is on a mortal body (a), and 
 that it will consist in a greater development of Reason 
 {b), and in a higher activity (c). 
 
 (a.) Therefore no sickness, no hunger, no poverty, no death, no 
 being bound to the same place, but the reverse of it, the conditions of 
 which however we are unable to determine. 
 
 (J.) Consciousness and Activity form the Notion of Existence, 
 national Consciousness, i. e. higher perception of what is true and 
 good, and hereby higher freedom. 
 
 (c.) Internal as well as external activity. More than this cannot 
 
IMMORTALITY. 89 
 
 be demonstrated with regard to this point ; anything that goes be- 
 yond this will be mere fancy, as may be found in Lavater's ' Aus- 
 siohten in die Ewigkeit' (Ziirich, 1782). 
 
 § 141. 
 
 The Goodness of God, the identity of the destination 
 and culture of individuals (a), and the Idea of a kingdom 
 of God, speak in favour of the hope that the dead wiU 
 see each other again in the state of perfection, i. e. that 
 they will recognize each other, and enter anew into 
 mutual communication. This is an expectation, on the 
 physical or moral possibility of which no doubt can be 
 raised [b). 
 
 (a.) An extension of the mental culture is impossible in a state of 
 seclusion. Longing for intercourse with beloved persons. Happiness 
 without sympathy. 
 
 (S.) The difference in the mental development of various indivi- 
 duals appears vride only when compared with the shortness of hfe. 
 
 §142. 
 The transition to another life is not a reward deserved 
 by man's virtue, but it is a gift of God (a). From the 
 Idea of a moral requital and from the Notions of Free- 
 dom and Sin, it follows that this new state cannot be 
 the same for all individuals, but must be different (5) 
 accordiag to their moral condition. Those who have 
 not attended here to their moral education cannot ex- 
 perience happy consequences from this neglect — they 
 must be punished. Eternal punishment however is at 
 variance with the Goodness, Justice, Omnipotence, and 
 Wisdom of God, as well (c) as with the nature of 
 Sinid). 
 
 (a.) In hving according to the Will of God we only pay Him our 
 thanks for granting us this earthly existence (see § 122). 
 
 (J.) Gl-od win love him who has become free, more than the Unfree ; 
 
90 PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 the former being similar to Him. Among the conditions of happi- 
 ness, suhjeotive receptimty for it is one, and this is not to be found in 
 a sinful heart, which cannot become happy (feel itself happy) even in 
 tMs world. 
 
 (o.) It cannot be the will of Gk)d that temporal trespasses should 
 be visited by eternal punishment, for it would be inconsistent with his 
 Goodness and Justice; nor would it be in accordance with His Wisdom 
 and Power to see frustrated his purposes with regard to men. A con- 
 tinual increase of eui is hnpossible, and would lead to a total destruc- 
 tion of IBeason. 
 
 ((2.) Sin is not lasting, is nothing absolute ; therefore punishment 
 cannot be lasting either (§ 119). 
 
 § 143. 
 
 The belief in Immortality makes the destination of 
 this life (§§ 91 sq.) appear as a preparatory one for the 
 future, or as an education ; and this belief leads us to 
 consider the law of duty as a universal law, extending 
 beyond the limits of the earthly life, and bearing an ab- 
 solute validity which is not conditioned by the present 
 existence. 
 
91 
 
 PAET III. 
 
 ON THE EDUCATION OP THE HUMAN RACE 
 TO FREEDOM BY GOD, OR ON DIVINE 
 REVELATION. 
 
 I. On Divine Enlightenment in General. 
 
 § 144. 
 
 The question, whetlier the human Reason attains to 
 religious ideas and moral freedom by itself and without 
 a higher instruction, or whether external assistance and 
 higher instruction are required, is one which cannot be 
 decided by our Consciousness. For as such knowledge 
 has now become the property of mankind, and is tendered 
 to all men by an early instruction, there is not one mind 
 among the civilized nations which grows up without feel- 
 ing the influence of verbal and written instruction. 
 
 §145. 
 
 Experience however seems to show that the human 
 Reason has not been developed without external assist- 
 ance, for, 
 
 1. In those individuals who, amidst civilized nations, 
 grow up without education, and in savages who have 
 no intercourse with civilized nations, the sensual nature 
 
92 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 is fully developed, the Understanding to some degree, — 
 both from their inward power, — ^but Reason is not deve- 
 loped at all (o). 
 
 2. Those nations which have preceded others in the 
 culture of Reason have now been stationary or retrograde 
 for some centuries. This would be impossible if Reason, 
 like our sensual nature or like the germ of a plant, were 
 able to grow by its own power {b) . 
 
 3.' All intellectual and moral progress has been pro- 
 duced by extraordinary men or circumstances (c). 
 
 4. AH rational culture seems to be propagated by in- 
 struction, and when this fails, to decline, — a fact which 
 leads us back to a first cause, from which this instruc- 
 tion was imparted to the human mind {d). Moreover 
 Reason could not be considered as a free-acting and 
 creative mental faculty, if its development and growth, 
 like that of our sensual nature, were necessarily depend- 
 ent on our physical development (e). 
 
 (a.) Example of eMldren who have teen neglected ; of people wlio 
 have grown up without instruction ; sarage nations of America, in the 
 South Sea, in New Holland. A development of the Understanding can 
 only take place with regard to Judgment and Eeasoning based on ex- 
 ternal experience. Therefore they have perhaps a Petish, but no Q-od ; 
 an isle of the dead, but no Immortality ; propensities, but no mo- 
 rality ; e. g. love of children, as a natiu'al propensity only (which 
 animals have also), but not proceeding from the idea of duty ana 
 human dignity ; their patriotism is like the attachment of a pigeon to 
 its house, and does not proceed from the Idea of Fatherland. How 
 many thousands of years may have passed away since the islands of 
 the South Sea, New Holland, and the Interior of Africa have been 
 peopled, without any advance having been made in the culture of 
 Reason ? 
 
 (6.) -B. g. The Chinese, Indians, Russians iu former times, Turks. 
 
 (c.) Namely as far as historical accounts go. History cannot lead 
 us back to the starting-point of the culture of I^eason, because his- 
 tory itself begins later than this. Abraham, Moses, Pohi, Confucius, 
 Zoroaster, Pythagoras, etc. The invention of letters, of linen-paper, 
 of the art of printing, etc. 
 
ON DIVINE ENLIGHTENMENT. 93 
 
 (d.) The propagation of intelleetual culture waa the work of schools, 
 or of verbal and written instruction, by which the spirit of great men 
 was transmitted to others. 
 
 (e). This would be the case if Reason were, as many think, only 
 an organ for the perception of the Supernatural, an opinion contra- 
 dicted by all the facts here quoted. 
 
 § 146. 
 
 It does not follow from it that the awaking and train- 
 ing of Reason cannot take place without the operation of 
 an external Causality ; for the data of history state only 
 what has occurred, but neither what is possible nor what 
 is necessary. Still we see that such instruction is de- 
 sirable, and not at all superfluous to mankind (a). But 
 as the highest aim of the culture of Reason is the great- 
 est perfection and freedom, this education cannot pro- 
 ceed from the external, but from the supernatural world, 
 — ^it must emanate from the most perfect Reason. 
 
 (a.) This supposition is supported by the numerous aberrations and 
 foUies into which man has in all ages been led by religion. Fetishism, 
 human Tictims, superstition, unnatural torments, etc. 
 
 § 147. 
 
 This operation of God, in rousing and educating the 
 human Reason, is called Enlightenment, or, commonly, 
 Revelation (a), and can be considered in two different 
 ways, as Manifestation or Inspiration ; namely, — 
 
 1. God can endow single individuals with a consider- 
 ably greater intellectual power than others ; so that their 
 mind, partly by its own activity, partly awakened by ex- 
 traordinary situations, circumstances, and events, which 
 exercise an enlightening influence, is raised to the know- 
 ledge of religious ideas, and makes of them the teachers 
 of their time and of their people. Such an enlightenment 
 has taken place in all ages among many nations (b). 
 
94 DIVINE KEVELATION. 
 
 (a.) Revelation, aTroKd\u\\iis, revelatio, — generally, disclosure of what 
 is secret, hidden, unknown ; — better. Enlightenment. 
 
 (J.) To these belong the wise men, who foretMnk for ages and na- 
 tions, and who show them the path of truth, and the founders of the 
 religions of all nations, especially in ancient times (except those who, 
 like Mohammed, have made up a new religious system out of previously 
 existing elements). In these cases miaa seeks &od. Acts xvii. 27 : 
 Ztjtch' Thv Kiptov. Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 66, " Nemo vir magnus 
 sine aliquo afflatu divino unquam fait." The Ancients derived Art, as 
 something Ideal, from Divine Inspiration. Luoian, Incyn. : Avtci rav 
 Texvay fp-ya Sapa tSc Bewv iffri. 2 Mos. xxxv. 30 sq., xxxvi. 1 sq. 
 
 §148. 
 
 2. God, being the omnipotent Creator of men, can en- 
 lighten them and raise their minds to the knowledge of 
 the ideal world (Inspiration) {a), and thus enable them 
 to become the teachers and educators of mankind. 
 
 Inspiration is, by its nature, superior to Revelation, be- 
 cause it is not a discursive knowledge, as the latter is, 
 and becomes the criterion by which Revelation itself is 
 judged, and according to which we must separate from 
 religion the false elements which the Understanding has 
 intermingled with it. 
 
 (a.) The expression impiratio (e/tirmv, eioirvevffTta, breath of God) 
 is a symbol of spiritual action. That Q-od speaks to man (priiia, 
 \6yos 0eo5) is a similar symbol. The difference between instruction 
 by men and inspiration by G-od is not to be found in the thing itself, 
 but in the means ; because the former is given by means of words, the 
 latter without words. 
 
 § 149. 
 
 God, being the Almighty and a pure Spirit («), can 
 illuminate the human mind, although it is quite as in- 
 comprehensible to us how this may be accomplished as 
 how the immediate activity of our mind takes place {b) . 
 Human Reason can, no doubt, receive such impressions ; 
 for the objection, that the connection of the laws of 
 thought would be destroyed by them, is of no value (c). 
 
ON DIVINE ENLIGHTENMENT. 95 
 
 (a.) See § 85. God would have less power than the intermediate 
 causes which act upon our mind, were He not able to exercise an im- 
 mediate action on it ; nor could he be the Creator of the mind. 
 
 (i.) How, e, g., the will produces a movement of the body, sound 
 excites a representation in the soul, etc. 
 
 (e.) Beaton is not a machine ; the laws of Understanding are mere 
 forms without any contents, and can be filled up iu very different 
 ways without being destroyed. There is, it is true, a connection 
 between the mental conceptions ; but it is not a necessary one, and 
 may be interrupted either by the miud itself or by external influence. 
 Example of a teacher who instructs children ; of a person who puts 
 aside a series of ideas, and takes it up again at another period. 
 
 § 150. 
 
 We may also assume that God wishes to enlighten the 
 human mind, as the end of this operation. The training 
 of man to fifeedom is in close connection with His 
 holiness^ and in accordance with His goodness and wis- 
 dom (a). 
 
 (a.) It has been objected that God could have created men in such 
 a way as not to want His assistance. This objection is arrogant and 
 vmbecoming ; it rests moreover on a supposition which is altogether 
 unfounded, viz. that the spiritual world, like the germ of a plant, is 
 ruled in its developments by necessity, — a thing which is not only 
 contradicted by experience (§ 145), but would exclude God from all 
 coimection with the spiritual world. 
 
 § 151. 
 
 On the other hand, it does not seem possible that he 
 who is inspired can be immediately, without the help of 
 reflection, conscious of the divine origin of the inspira- 
 tion ; for the Idea only, and not its cause, is apprehended 
 by our consciousness. The agency of God in the moral 
 world therefore will be just as little perceived by us as in 
 the physical ; this agency will always appear as a natural 
 one. 
 
 (a.) The so-called yvaplffii.aTa of Revelation, started by the an- 
 cient theologians, are of no avail. Those only can be true which are 
 
96 DIVINE KEVELATION. 
 
 derived from the intrinaic value of the truth coming within the reach 
 of our tnowledge (see Bretschneider's ' Handbuch der Dogmatik,' 2nd 
 part, 112). It is quite a delusion, which can only lead to I'anaticism, 
 to see, as Mystics do, a diviue operation in the sudden and unexpected 
 apprehension of truth, or iu the extraordinary feelings vrith which this 
 apprehension is attended. 
 
 §153. 
 The Divine instruction can only find the proof of 
 its Divine origin in its own nature, and in its relation 
 to human Reason. On the one hand — positive side — it 
 must irresistibly act upon our Consciousness by its ideal 
 perfection, and by its accordance with the laws of Reason ; 
 and on the other — negative side — ^it should not con- 
 tain anything inconceivable to our Reason and contra- 
 dictory to its laws (a). The religious Ideas inherent to 
 our Reason (§ 54) are the only principles possessing this 
 intrinsic test ; therefore whatever we may find in a posi- 
 tive revelation, or whatever may have been added to it 
 by human invention, is to be judged agreeably to these 
 religious ideas as its criterion (5). But on the other 
 hand, it would be absurd not to admit any revealed doc- 
 trine unless it be established by demonstration founded 
 upon experience, or the Understanding. For Revelation 
 is given neither for the Senses nor for the Understand- 
 ing, but for Reason, in which it has to start, or to pre- 
 pare the disclosure of new truths. Revelation therefore 
 can never be against Reason, though it may contain 
 points which are beyond the reach of Reason, i. e. it 
 may teach doctrines the nature, efficacy, and connection 
 of which are not clearly perceived by Reason (c). 
 
 (a.) That which is against the laws of Season is for us an impossible 
 conception {i. e. nothing) : e. g. Grod being holy, and still acting pas- 
 sionately. That many people believe things which are contradictory 
 to each other is no objection to what we have said. Either they do 
 not know the laws of Keason, or do not know the question ; and in 
 both cases they are not aware of the contradiction, or they omit, inten- 
 
ON DIVINE ENLIGHTENMENT. 97 
 
 tionally, one of the contradictory characters of their conceptions. Mis- 
 used passages of Scripture, 1 Cor. ii. 14; 2Cor.x.5; Col.ii. 8;Eph.ii.3. 
 
 (S.) This right is acknowledged by Christianity in its warnings 
 against felse Eerelation (Matt. xxiv. 4 ; Luke xxi. 8 ; 1 Thess. ii. 4 ; 
 oonf. Jer. xiv. 13, vi. 13) ; conf. § 283. Moses (Dent. xiii. 1-3) con- 
 siders the Idea of God as the criterion for true prophets ; Jesus and 
 Paul (Matt. vii. 15-20 ; Bom. ii. 14, 15) refer to the Idea of !Preedom 
 and Divine law. This does not uiclude too great a concession to Beason, 
 because the Ideas are nothing arbitrary, but are given by God. In test- 
 ing therefore an historical revelation by these Ideas, we only compare 
 Divine with Divine, — something which is already acknowledged to be 
 Divine with something the Divine origin of which is to be ascertained. 
 
 (p.) IE. g. The conception of a creation by God, of an agency of God, 
 His existence without Space and Time, His Government of the World, 
 etc. These doctrines are called Mysteries ; and, strictly speaking, all 
 Religion, and man himself, as having Religion, are Mysteries. 
 
 §153. 
 Miracles [a), i. e. those phenomena in the external 
 world which cannot be derived from a physical cause^ 
 but must be derived from God, and Prophecies (b), i. e. 
 positive, distinct predictions of future and contingent 
 events, can never be the main demonstrations of inspi- 
 ration, but accessory and subsidiary arguments required 
 only at the introduction of a revelation, till Reason is 
 sufficiently trained by it to understand and feel the in- 
 ner truth of the Divine word (see note/). For, on the 
 one hand, there will be always some uncertainty, in more 
 than one respect, as to their truth (c) ; on the other, mi- 
 racles and prophecies cannot give a direct demonstration 
 of a doctrine [d) ; and it is the truth, otherwise proved, of 
 the doctrine in behalf of which they are performed, that 
 affords the proper authority for their having been pro- 
 duced by a supernatural operation (e) . Hence Luther 
 and the older theologists attached no importance to such 
 demonstrations (/) . 
 
 (a.) Miracles, as well those which the interpreter of the Divine reve- 
 lation performs, as those which are performed on him. 
 
98 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 (b.) Prophecies, either told by the interpreter of the Eeyelation or 
 fulfiEed in him. (Difiference from presage, prediction and fortune-tell- 
 ing, conjecture.) 
 
 (c.) The supernatural cause itself can never fall under the senses, 
 we only infer it. The certainty of the inference however will rest on 
 the supposition that we know all the laws and forces of Nature, which 
 really is not the case. There always remains the poasibiHty of a law 
 of Nature still unknown to us, or of an undiscovered natural force 
 (new discovery of Galvanism, etc.). If Grod himself would declare 
 that a miracle has been performed by Him, this declaration, being a 
 miracle again, would require the same demonstration. Besides, much 
 depends on the trustworthiness and impartiality of the reporters, espe- 
 cially if they were not eye-vritnesses. The whole antiquity is fuE of 
 reports of miracles ; they are still admitted by the Catholic Church. 
 The same may be said of Prophecies. 
 
 (d.) The demonstration does not go further than to prove that God 
 wrought the miracle ; from which the inference is drawn that God 
 would not have done so had the interpreter of the Divine revelation 
 not spoken the truth. That the interpreter is a virtuous man, and 
 that he teaches the truth, is what must be first ascertained, otherwise 
 a miracle wi\i have to be considered as an imposture. (Miracles were 
 also performed by others : Matt. xii. 27 ; John xiv. 12 ; there are also 
 false miracles : Matt. vii. 22, xxiv, 24 sq. ; 2 Thess. ii. 9 ; Gal. i. 8 ; 
 Deut. xiii. 2 sq,). The same may be said with regard to Prophecies. 
 Here the demonstration, that originally the Prophecies were really de- 
 clared with precision, and that their fulfilment is not accidental, nay, 
 why man himself should not sometimes have a clear insight into th 
 fiiture, is particularly difficult. 
 
 (e.) Prophecies and Miracles, in support of that which Reason is 
 obliged to consider as felse and contradictory, can never be of Divine 
 origin. 
 
 (f.) Luther says (in his ' KirchenpostiUe, HimmeHahrt Christi'), 
 " Those visible works are (as Paul says, 1 Cor. xiv.) s^s only for the 
 ignorant, tmbelieving mass, and for the sake of such as are still to be 
 converted ; but we, who know and beHeve in the Gospel, wherefore 
 should we want them ? For the heathen, Christ had to give some 
 external signs which they might see with their eyes and hold with their 
 hands ; but Christians must have much higher, heavenly signs, com- 
 pared with which the former are but earthly ones. Therefore we shall 
 not wonder that they have now ceased, the Gospel being proclaimed 
 everywhere amongst those who did not know of God before, and whom 
 he had to convert by external miracles, thrown out to them like apples 
 and pears to children." 
 
THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. 99 
 
 § 154. 
 
 As the education of man for moral freedom was the 
 chief end of his creation as a rational being, and as Rea- 
 son requires instruction for its development (§ 145), it 
 may be expected, nay it follows from God's wisdom and 
 goodness, that the Divine enhghtenment began with the 
 beginning of the human kind. And as Eeason follows 
 the law of development, not only this instruction must 
 have had a commencement, but must be gralduaUy pro- 
 gressing, being only then complete when the doctrines of 
 God, of Freedom, of Divine Law, and Immortality will 
 be fully developed ; because then only every condition of 
 moral freedom will be realized (a) . 
 
 (a.) According to the Scripture, the DiTine iiiBtruction began with 
 the human kind, was continued through all ages, and has been fulfilled 
 in its progress by Jesus Christ ; for it was by bim that the religious 
 Ideas were ftJIy developed, especially the last Idea, that of Immor- 
 taUty. It is in the intrinsic truth of this development that we find the 
 most certain demonstration, that the Holy Scripture contains the his- 
 tory of the Divine Revelation, or is the code of this Revelation. 
 
 II. On the Holy Scriptures, being the Code of 
 THE Doctrines and History op Revelation. 
 
 § 155. 
 
 The Holy Scriptures (a) may be viewed under two 
 aspects : — 1. The historical aspect, as the archives of the 
 ancient Jewish and of the Christian religion; and 2. The 
 religious aspect, as having been written by divinely en- 
 lightened men, and as containing the authentic history 
 and doctrine of Divine Revelation. 
 
 (a.) 'H ypoupii, ii aytit ypa<j>ii, tA Upa ypdii/mTa, rh Pi$\la. The super- 
 
 f2 
 
100 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 scriptions, subscriptions, and diTision into chapters, and verses were 
 not made by the writers themselves. 
 
 § 156. 
 
 The Holy Scriptures consist of compositions belonging 
 to diflFerent times («) and various writers^ and exhibit a 
 great diversity of intellectual culture^ of style and opi- 
 nioUj which, in using them, must be taken into account. 
 They are divided into the Old Testament [b), which con- 
 tains the archives of the Jewish religion, e.g. ; and the 
 New Testament, which contains those of the Christian 
 religion. The division of the whole Bible into chapters 
 and verses dates from the thirteenth century, and is 
 often defective (c). 
 
 (o.) Moses lived B.C. 1500 ; and therefore if the latest book in the 
 New Testament was written towards the end of the first century, the 
 Bible embraces a period of 1600 years. 
 
 (i.) Testammtmn, StaB'liKri, ma. Language, contents, tendency, 
 and reUgiouB oulttire, distinguish the two Testaments markedly from 
 each other. 
 
 (e.) See § 182. The first printed Bible appeared at Mayence, in 
 1462 ; and the first complete edition of Luther's translation, in 1534. 
 
 1. The Old Testament. 
 § 157. 
 The Old Testament is usually divided into three parts, 
 — ^the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa (a) . Ac- 
 cording to their contents, the books of the Old Testa- 
 ment may be divided into legal, historical, poetical, and 
 philosophical compositions. The Rabbins and Talmud- 
 ists say that these writings were collected by Ezra after 
 the Captivity, with the aid, as is rather improbably pre- 
 tended, of the Synagoga Magna, a College of one hun- 
 dred and twenty learned men. According to 2 Mace, 
 ii. 13, the collection was enlarged by Nehemiah ; still later 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT. 101 
 
 the Hagiographa were added {b) ; and the whole may 
 have been completed about the close of the persecutions 
 by the Syrian Kings (c). Later writings were not re- 
 ceived into this sacred collection, but several of them {d) 
 were appended to the Greek translation of the Old 
 Testament, which was made about fifty years after the 
 death of Alexander , the Great, and, by means of this 
 translation, were admitted, under the name oi Apocryphal 
 writings (e), into the Christian Church and into our 
 German Bibles. 
 
 (a.) This division is ancient, being found in Josephus, Philo, the 
 New Testament (Luke xxir. 44), and in Jesus Sirach (Prolog. 1). 
 Sometimes, as in Matt. v. 17, the division is twofold, v6iios koI irpo- 
 ^Tai. Besides the strictly prophetical books, those of Joshua, Samuel, 
 and the Kings were also included under the designation of prophetical 
 books, because they were understood to have been written by Prophets. 
 Hagiographa, D'jina is a title of stitt later origin ; in Luke xsiv. 44 
 they are called if'aA/uof, in Sirach and Josephus -rk i,\\a. They con- 
 tain the writings which were either the latest collected, as the Psalms 
 and Job ; or the latest composed, as Ezra, N ehemiah, the Chronicles, 
 Daniel, and the writings of Solomon. 
 
 (5.) Ta irepX twv fiaa'l\4ti)V Kal •7rpo(p7jTwj/ Kctl Tct Tov AavlSy Kal hri- 
 aro\hs ^aaiKiav (the Persian) ircpl avaBrniAruv, are stated to be the 
 subjects of the coUeotion. 
 
 (e.) The time cannot be exactly determined ; perhaps 150 B.C. 
 
 {d.) The Maccabees, the third book of Ezra, Tobit, Wisdom, 
 Sirach, Baruch, and parts of Esther (the Pseudepigrapha of the Old 
 Testament). 
 
 (e.) The word a/pocryphal first arose in the Christian church, and 
 is opposed to ccmomcal. Luther appended the apocryphal writings 
 to his German translation, because they are " useful to be read." The 
 books of Jesus Sirach and Wisdom are valuable for their morality, 
 and the second book of Maccabees for its historical contents. 
 
 §158. 
 
 With the exception of a few passages in Chaldee, the 
 language ia which the Old Testament was written is the 
 Hebrew (a), one of the most ancient languages known. 
 
102 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 cognate with the Phcenician, from which its alphabet 
 was borrowed {b), and one of the oldest daughters of the 
 oriental mother-tongue. Its golden age was under, and 
 immediately after, Solomon ; about the time of the Cap- 
 tivity it degenerated, and under the Maccabees it ceased 
 to be spoken by the people, — a new dialect, called the 
 Aramean, having been formed under the influence of the 
 Chaldee and the Syriac, and became the popular lan- 
 guage (c). 
 
 (a.) The name Hebrew is iisually derived from 'T??, qui trcmmt, and 
 is supposed to have been given to Abraham after he had crossed the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 (i.) The Phoenician alphabet, which was preserved in the written 
 characters of the Samaritans, had sixteen letters. Ezra transcribed 
 the ancient manuscripts which he collected (and others followed his 
 example) into the more recent Chaldaic rectangular character, which 
 we still possess, and which has the following sis additional letters, 3, 
 s, D, D, 1, D. The vowels, points, and accents are, at least for the 
 most part, of later origin. 
 
 (c.) So also there is an ancient (Koran) and a modem Arabic, an 
 ancient and a modem Grerman, and a sacred language (Sanscrit). 
 Chief work : ' History of the Hebrew Language and Character,' by 
 Win. Gesenius (Leipzig, 1815, 8vo.). 
 
 (a.) The Historical Books. 
 
 §159. 
 
 Some of the writers of the Old Testament histories are 
 altogether unknown {a); probably they were priests who, 
 being the depositaries of knowledge and acquainted with 
 the art of writing, wrote down the most important events 
 of their times, and laid up these records in the Temple. 
 The Old Testament histories contain partly still more 
 ancient written narratives, sometimes entire and some- 
 times in extracts, and partly oral traditions, which were 
 combined into one whole : they are all characterized by 
 great simplicity (b), but particularly by the theocratical 
 
THE HISTOKiCAL BOOKS. 103 
 
 principle^ according to which God is regarded as the real 
 though invisible King of the people, and the Interpreters 
 (prophets) (c) as his representatives. On this principle, 
 aU political arrangements and events were referred to 
 God as their author [d). 
 
 (a.) The titles of the boots were assigned at a later period, and, 
 with the exception of Moses, Ezra, and Nehemiah, are indicative, not 
 of the authors, but of the contents. 
 
 (b.) The simplicity of these histories appears in the absence of all 
 commentary on the events recorded, in their brevity, in the artlesa- 
 ness both of the style and the connection, and in the tone which per- 
 vades them. (Poverty of abstract terms, and abundance of symbolical 
 expressions.) 
 
 (c.) tfJl, from «53, to interpret or expound; hence Joshua., the 
 successor of Moses, was also a prophet. There arose afterwards a 
 special prophetical order. 
 
 (d.) Hence the political command to root out the Canaanites was 
 G-od's command ; poUtioal ordinances were his statutes ; every national 
 misfortune his punishment ; obedience to the Mosaic law was the chief 
 means of procuring his favour ; ^the people were His people, and He 
 was their &od. (Meritoriousness of the external worship of God in 
 the Temple, according to the theocratic law.) 
 
 §160. 
 
 The Mosaic writings («) contain the history of the 
 primitive ages of mankind, the history of the Patriarchs 
 and the "origin of the Israelitish Nation, their departure 
 from Egypt, their march to Canaan, and the Mosaic 
 legislation {b). In particular, the First Book of Moses 
 contains the oldest recorded information regarding the 
 first ages of the world and the beginning of all civiliza- 
 tion (c). The Pentateuch comprises many single com- 
 positions {d) written by Moses himself, and deposited in 
 the Ark of the Covenant, but also several pieces (e) 
 written after the time of Moses, and deposited in the 
 same place, which have been arranged in their present 
 form by a later writer (probably in David's time). 
 
104 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 (a.) Together, IlevTwredxos, vohimen qningue Ubrorum ; the single 
 boots, in the Alexandrine translation, bear the names Tiveais, 'EloSos, 
 AewtikiSs, 'ApiBiiol {Nwmeri), and AevTspov6iuoy. The Hebrews call them 
 rniFin, and designate the separate Boots according to the first word 
 of each. 
 
 (S.) Genesis : history of the origin of all things, of the first men, 
 and the fathers of the Israditish nation till the time of Joseph, B.C. 
 1750. ExoSms gives an account of the Israehtes in Egypt, the birth 
 of Moses, the departure of the Israehtes from Egypt, and the com- 
 mencement of the legislation of Moses. Only parts of this Boot are 
 from the hand of Moses ; the remainder was written at a later period 
 from oral tradition. I/eviUous : the principal contents of this Book 
 are laws concerning the priests, and those services which belonged to 
 their functions. Numiers: the numbering of the people, genealo- 
 gical tables, religious and civil laws. Deuteronomy gives a concise 
 repetition of the laws, exhortations of Moses, and his farewell to the 
 people. 
 
 (o.) Cosmogony, Geogony, Paradise, the Deluge, the peopling of the 
 earth. The Boot of G-enesia nowhere claims for itself the authorship 
 of Moses. It contains primeval compositions by several writers (oh. i., 
 ii. 4 ij., vi. l-T and 11-24). The great simpKoity of its statements, 
 and of the idea which it gives of God, is a proof of its high antiquity. 
 
 (d.) JB.^'. Exod. xvii. 14, xxiv.Msj.; Kings xxxiv. 27; Numb.xxxiii. 
 2; Deut. xxviii. 58, 61, xxix. 19, xxxi. 9 s(i. The titles of the 
 single sections, Exod. vi. 14 ; KTumb. ynriii 1. The concluding forms, 
 Levit. vii. 37 sq., xxxvii. 34. 
 
 (e.) E. g. The repetition, Deut. v. 2-6 ; compare Kings iv. 10-13. 
 Numb. ix. 15-23, compare Exod. xl. 36 sq. The diversity of expres- 
 sion ; for instance, the first three boots for the most part use Sinai, 
 Deuteronomy always Horeb. In the second boot God is generally 
 called Elohim ; in the third to fifth, Jehovah-Elohim. The farewell and 
 death of Moses ; the law regarding the King, Deut. xvii. 14. As soon 
 as a new statute was annexed to the constitution of the State, it was 
 placed vrith the collection of standing laws in the Ark of the Covenant 
 (see 1 Sam. x. 25). 
 
 (/.) According to 2 Kings xxii. 8, 2 Chron. xiv. 4, the Boot of 
 the Law, which had been forgotten, was again found. The Samaritans 
 receive only the Pentateuch as Hoh/ Scriptures, rejecting the other 
 boots of the Old Testament. 
 
 § 161. 
 The Eook of JosHua embraces the history of the 
 
THE HISTOKICAL BOOKS. 105 
 
 Israelites dining seventeen years under his administra- 
 tion. This Book consists of several parts {a), and is 
 composed partly from old records {b), and partly from 
 oral tradition (c). It belongs probably to David's time. 
 
 (a.) The first eleven chapters are complete in themselves, as the 
 concluding words of ch. xi. prove. Ch. xx. contains a separate sta- 
 tute. 
 
 (i.) A more ancient composition is quoted, x. 14, the poetical lan- 
 guage (v. 12) of which the later author interprets according to a later 
 view or tradition. 
 
 (c.) X g. The taking of Jericho and the passage over the Jordan. 
 
 (d.) See ch. xxiv. This Book speaks, xii. 10, xv. 63, of Jeru- 
 salem (or Salem), and often describes the more modem condition of a 
 later period. 
 
 § 163. 
 
 The Book of Judges (a) (these mean. Leaders of the 
 people) comprises the history of the Israelites in their 
 heroic age, under the dominion of several chiefs, after 
 the death of Joshua (b.c. 1444-1100); and also contains 
 several ancient compositions [6) and more lately recorded 
 oral traditions (c) : when it was written is uncertain. 
 Appended to it is the Book of Ruth, a domestic nar- 
 rative, written in the spirit of the ancient times, pro- 
 bably preserved because, by containing the history of 
 the ancestors of David, it was of especial value to the 
 Jews. 
 
 (a.) Hebrew D'OBiti {Suffetes of the Carthaginians). Deborah, 
 Jephtha (Iphigenia in Aulis), Abimelech, Samson (Hercules). It is 
 the heroic age of the Hebrews ; the unorganized Republic . of the 
 Twelve Tribes. The influence of the prophets and priests* as inter- 
 preters of the theocratic Head. 
 
 (i.) Oh. ii.-xvi. is in itself a very ancient part ; xvii., xviii., and i. 
 are later pieces. 
 
 (c.) IE. g. The history of Samson. 
 
 * Judges i. 1, ii. 1, iv. 4-6, vi. 8 «?., xx. 18. 
 
 F 3 
 
106 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 § 163. 
 
 The two Books of Samuel (a) continue (after some 
 historical blanks) the history of the people under the 
 rule of the High-Priest Eli and under that of Samuel. 
 They give an account of the institution of the kingly 
 government, with the histories of the first two kings, 
 Saul and David, which are treated of especially in rela- 
 tion to the then existing theocracy, against which Saul 
 rehelledj but which David {b) respected. Ancient wri- 
 tings and oral traditions have been used here also (c) . 
 
 (a.) Originally the two Books were in one ; the present title is of 
 later date ; in the Alexandrian version they are called the Book of the 
 Kings. Schools of the Prophets. 
 
 (i.) David, a man after God's heart. 
 
 (c.) 2 Sam. i. 18. The twofold narration, that David was admitted 
 to the court of Saul as (oh. xvi.) a player on the harp, and, according 
 to ch. xvii., as the conqueror of Goliath. 
 
 § 164. 
 The two Books of Kings (a) continue the history of the 
 nation, which, after the death of Solomon, was divided 
 into two kingdoms until the Captivity (nearly 570 years 
 B.C.). They contain partly extracts from the lost annals 
 of the two kingdoms (5), and partly oral traditions (c). 
 Their author, and the time of composition, are unknown. 
 
 (o.) These hooks were also originally one ; the division is of later 
 date. They treat especially of the kingdom of Israel. 
 
 (i.) E.g. 1 Kings xiv. 19, 29, and other places. 
 
 (e.) XI. g. The history of the Prophets Elijah and Elisha. Accord- 
 ing to the tradition of the Jews, Jeremiah is the author. 
 
 §165. 
 The Books of the Chronicles (a), which commence with 
 David and conclude with Cyrus, are extracts from the 
 same annals (see § 164) and from other ancient vnitings, 
 
THE POETICAL BOOKS. 107 
 
 and relate particularly to the destiny of the kingdom of 
 Judah. According to the Talmud, Ezra was their author. 
 
 (a.) These were originally but one book, D'tpTi 'laT (Ephemerides) ; 
 the Alexandrines, napoXei'Trdjue^'a (SnpplemeHta). 
 
 §166. 
 
 The Book of Ezra takes up the history where the Books 
 of the Chronicles leave it, and relates the rebuilding of 
 the Temple, the opposition to the work, and the admi- 
 nistration of the State under Ezra. It is probable that 
 from the seventh to the tenth chapter only it was written 
 by Ezra. The Book of Nehemiah contains the memorable 
 occurrences of its author's age and administration. The 
 Book of Esther records a highly adorned legend from 
 the time of the Captivity ; it is of modem date, and is 
 unsanctioned by profane history. It appears to have 
 gained its place among the Holy Scriptures as the his- 
 tory of the origin of the Feast of Purim, which the Jews 
 still celebrate. Amongst the Apocryphal books of the 
 Old Testament, only the Pirst Book of Maccabees is au- 
 thentic, and of historical value. The Books of Judith 
 and Tobit are traditions, written for religious and moral 
 purposes. 
 
 (b.) Poetical Books. 
 §167. 
 
 Hebrew poetry, which is not to be measured by theo- 
 ries derived from the Greeks and Romans, is distin- 
 guished by its religious character [a) and by the paral- 
 lelism of the phrases which compose it (6) : it comprises 
 the Prophetical writings, the Psalms, the Song of Songs, 
 and, in respect of its form, the Book of Job. The pro- 
 phets in particular (c) were necessary members of a theo- 
 cracy, mediating between the nation and their ideal Head, 
 
108 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 whose will they announced oracularly ; they had great 
 political influence, but were also often persecuted {d} . 
 They gave counsel, warned against unsound political 
 measures, and rebuked idolatry, vice, and transgression 
 of the law. Hence their oracles are often political, and 
 not quite intelligible to us. 
 
 (a.) I. e. Their contents are chiefly religious, and their inspiration 
 is attributed to the Spirit of Grod. 
 
 (i.) Farallelism is when sentences consisting of two members are 
 such that the second member expresses the same as the first, only in 
 other words, or expresses an idea cognate with that contained in the 
 first member, or more nearly defines it. Had the Hebrews the know- 
 ledge of verse ? The rhythm in the sbfle is unmistakable, and is felt 
 even in Luther's masterly translation : see Psalms ii., civ., and cxxxix. 
 ' Vom G«iste der Hebraisohen Poesie' (The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry), 
 von J. G-. Herder (Dessau, 1782) ; also in his entire works, parts 1 
 and 2. 
 
 (c.) The Prophets ai-e divided into four major and eight minor, ac- 
 cording to the amount of their written remains : viz. Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel, and Daniel ; Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonali, Micah, 
 Kahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 
 
 (d.) They formed the opposition to tyranny and unsound policy : 
 Ehjah, Jeremiah, Isaiah. See their authorization, Deut. xviii. 18-22. 
 
 §168. 
 
 According to the superscriptions, which however are 
 of later origin and not always to be depended on, most 
 of the one hundred and fifty Songs in the Book of 
 Psalms (a) are from the pen of David, who, partly as a 
 sacred minstrel, partly as founder of the Temple music 
 (see 1 Chron. xxiii. 25-33, xxv. 1-31), marks an epoch. 
 Asaph, the Sons of Korah, and others who are not named, 
 also contributed. The Psalms comprise hymns (nVrin), 
 didactic poems ('^Sto), elegies (]i'i*), prayers (nteip) (c), 
 alternative {d) and processional songs, with others com- 
 posed on various occasions ; embrace a long period (nearly 
 a thousand years), and may have been first collected, i. e. 
 
THE POETICAL BOOKS. 109 
 
 ■written npoE a roll, after the Captivity. Their value as 
 religious and poetical compositions, is various, hut for the 
 most part it is very high (e) . 
 
 (a.) Hebrew, D'fep iBp ; the Alexandrian translation, Va\/ioi. 
 
 (J.) Moses, Psalm xc. David, to whom seventy-two Psalms are 
 expressly ascribed. Asaph (1 Chron. vi. 24, xv. 17, xvi. 5), twelve 
 Psalms. Hiram, Psalm Ixxxviii. Ethan, Psalm Ixxxix. The Sons of 
 Korah (a company of minstrels, 2 Chron. xx. 19), eleven Psalms, etc. 
 
 (c.) Many superscriptions relate to the music and the mode of exe- 
 cution, and are unintelligible to us. Dnpp, monumental poems, which 
 were engraven on stone and metal, and hung up in the Temple (Luther ^ 
 ' Giildenes Kleinod,' golden jewel) . ni^pn Tifi, Luther, ' Lied im 
 hohem Chor,' Song in the loftier Choir ; properly. Song of Degrees, 
 i. e. either hymns for the journeys to Jerusalem, or hymns in a certain 
 rhythm. 
 
 (d.) Selah, which occurs fifty-one times, is explained to be the abbre- 
 viation of the formula indicated by the initial word 2D nbsn^ ^te^T, 
 i.e. 'Turn back, singers,' Da capo. Processional songs: Psalms Iv., 
 Ixviii., and xxiv. 
 
 (e.) There are eight alphabetical psalms : Psalms xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., 
 cxL, cxii, cxix., cxlv. ; cursing Psalms, e.g. Psahn cxxxvii. 8, 9 : dis- 
 tinguished Psalms, ii., xxix., xlv., Ixv., civ., cxx.-cxxxiv., cxxxix. ; 
 Psalms xxii., xlii., xliii., btxxix., exxvi. ; Psalms 1., kxv. 
 
 §169. 
 
 Isaiah lived under the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah ; was sprung, according to tradition, from 
 the royal family ; wrote the annals of the kingdom (I'Sip) ; 
 and, which however is very uncertain, is said to have been 
 sawn in pieces in the reign of Manasseh. His writings 
 contain several compositions (a) of high value {b) ; they 
 were collected after the Captivity, but not chronologically 
 arranged, and from the fortieth chapter onwards have 
 been augmented by the oracles of later prophets. 
 
 (o.) Also ch. xxxvi.-xxxix., an extract from his annals of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 (i.) E. g. Ch. xi., xiv., xxi., lii., liii. His life of Hezekiah has been 
 lost (see 2 Chron. xxvi. 22). 
 
110 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 §170. 
 
 Jeremiah^ the weeping prophetj who gave warning in 
 vain of the impending ruin of the State (the Cassandra 
 of the Hebrews), and whose urgent calls to righteous- 
 ness and reformation brought down upon himself perse- 
 cution (a), lived towards the end of the Jewish State and 
 in captivity ; and, after being liberated by the Chaldeans, 
 went to Egypt, where history loses sight of him. His 
 Lamentations (ro'», Bpfjvoi) are elegiac waiHngs over 
 the ruins of Jerusalem and the sufferings of the people. 
 
 (o.) He employed Baruch to write out his compositions, whicli were 
 burnt by order of King Jehoiada, but Jeremiah once more replaced 
 them. His funeral songs for Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 25) have been lost. 
 
 §171. 
 
 Ezekiel, a native of Palestine, and of a sacerdotal fa- 
 mily, lived under the Captivity (a), and sang on the banks 
 of the Chaboras. His language is not so pure as Isaiah's, 
 but he excels all others in fancy ; he goes too much into 
 particulars, and is everywhere fond of symbols. Besides 
 predictions relative to his own time, his writings contain 
 moral passages (ch. xiii., xxxiii. 8-30), and exhortations 
 to the people that they should endure their condition, and 
 hope for better times. 
 
 (o.) He was one of the ten thousand Jews whom Nebuchadnezzar 
 removed at the second carrying away into Babylon (ch. i., xxxvii. 1- 
 11, xl.-xlvi.). 
 
 §172. 
 Daniel, of a distinguished family, was taken to Baby- 
 lon when a youth, and there educated for the service of 
 the State on account of his beauty and talent. He lived 
 under the Mede Cyaxares II. and the Persian Cyrus, be- 
 came Minister of State and president of the Magi, and 
 
THE POETICAL BOOKS. Ill 
 
 may have contributed much to the return of the Jews. 
 His death is unknown. The book which bears his name 
 treats of the fortunes of the Jews and Babylonians, and 
 the prophetical parts of it of the fate of the Macedo- 
 nian kingdom under Alexander the Great (a). It is not 
 by Daniel, but belongs to the time of the Maccabees ; it 
 has received a mass of fabulous additions, founded on tra- 
 dition, some of which have been preserved in the Alex- 
 andrian translation (6) . 
 
 (a.) Oh. Tii. 11. From our ignorance of the then state of things, 
 much is unintelligible ; but nothing is applicable to modem times. 
 
 (b.) E. g. The Prayer of Azariah, the history of the three men in 
 the fire, the history of Susanna, of Bel and the Dragon. 
 
 § 173. 
 Hosea lived under Uzziah and Hezekiah, in the king- 
 dom of Israel, which, torn by intestine factions and dis- 
 graced by deeds of violence, always sought foreign aid ; 
 and against this the prophet declaimed. His writings 
 possess a moral, but no poetical valne. Joel probably 
 lived about the time of the downfall of the kingdom of 
 Israel ; we have only a fragment from his pen, a descrip- 
 tion of Sennacherib's campaign, and of his fall, which 
 wholly belongs to the golden age of Hebrew poetry. 
 
 § 174. 
 Amos, a contemporary with Isaiah, lived in the king- 
 dom of Israel, and, from being a shepherd, appeared pub- 
 licly under Jeroboam II. as the denouncer of idolatry, 
 despotism, luxury among the great, and prevailing vices ; 
 on this account he was persecuted, and is said to have 
 been put to death. His writings, which he collected 
 himself, are rich in maxims and images, chiefly borrowed 
 from pastoral life. Of Obadiah (a), whose personal his- 
 
112 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 tory is entirely unknown, we have only an oracle against 
 
 the Idumeans. 
 
 (a.) I. e. Servant of God, prophet : it ia perhaps not a proper 
 name (nomen proprmm) at all. 
 
 § 175. 
 The Book of Jonah is ranked with the poetical hooks, 
 merely because the history and fortunes of a prophet (a) 
 are its subject. The Chaldaisms in it prove that it must 
 have been written after the Captivity. That it is not 
 purely historical is certain [b); but it may be doubted 
 whether it is merely a moral fiction (c) or an oral tra- 
 dition exaggerated into the miraculous, subsequently 
 committed to writing, and founded upon an historical fact, 
 viz. Jonah's journey to Nineveh [d) . 
 
 (a.) See 2 Kings xiv. 24 sq. 
 
 (J.) Apart from the consideration that a man cannot live in the 
 belly of a fish, it is well known that the Sicmms, ]i'jV|7, does not grow 
 up to a shady bush in one night, but in half a year ; and history 
 makes no mention of Nineveh having ever worshipped Jehovah. 
 
 (o.) -B. ff. To destroy the favourite notion of the Jews, that God 
 hated the Gentiles. 
 
 (d.) The latter is probable. Had his journey to Nineveh a poUtical 
 object P Was he an ambassador from King Jeroboam II. to the 
 Assyrian King Phul, for the purpose of averting the intended in- 
 vasion ? Was the " great fish" a ship, distinguished by the sign of a 
 sea monster ? (Similar stories of Hercules and Hesione, of Perseus 
 and Andromeda.) 
 
 § 176. 
 Micah, of whom we have only a few oracles, lived 
 under Ahaz and Manasseh, and denounced idolatry and 
 unrighteousness. Nahum, distinguished for his noble 
 language and creative genius, lived under Hezekiah or 
 Manasseh, and prophesied ruin to the Assyrian kingdom 
 on account of the oppressions to which it subjected the 
 nations. Habakkuk, of whom we merely know that he 
 
THE POETICAL BOOKS. 113 
 
 lived under the Captivity^ bewails the misfortunes of his 
 people, and points to divine retribution and better times : 
 as a poetj he occupies a high rank (eh. iii.). Of Zepha- 
 niah (Sophonias) we have only two orations, one against 
 the idolatry of the Jews, and another against the vices of 
 Jerusalem. Haggai returned from the Captivity and 
 saw the building of the Temple, which is the theme of 
 his orations. 
 
 § 177. 
 
 Zechariah and Malachi (a) lived after the Captivity. 
 The Book of Zechariah consists of two parts, of which 
 the former (ch. i.-viii.) relates to the Restoration of the 
 Kingdom and Temple ; and the latter (ch. ix.-xiv.), which 
 of itself forms a work apparently of older date than 
 Zechariah himself, contains orations against the nations 
 hostile to the people of Judah, and promises better times. 
 Malachi's orations relate to the then condition of his 
 people, and to the constitution of the restored State. 
 In both prophets' the hope of a Messiah is remarkably 
 prominent. 
 
 (a.) Malaehi, 8. e. ambassador, prophet : is it an official designation? 
 
 § 178. 
 The Song of Songs {Canticum Canticorum) is a collec- 
 tion of amatory songs of great beauty, in which love and 
 fidelity are commended. These were admitted among 
 the sacred writings by the collectors of the Old Testa- 
 ment, partly because they were ascribed to Solomon («), 
 and partly because the old prophets had compared the 
 loving relation which subsists between God and his 
 people to that which subsists between the bride and her 
 lover. An allegorical interpretation of these Songs was 
 already at hand when the writings of the Old Testament 
 were being collected. 
 
114 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 (a.) Some Aramean words, and the prefix w, suggest a later origin. 
 
 (S.) See, e. g., Hos. i. 2, ii. 2 sq., particularly t. 16, 19 sq. ; Bzekiel 
 xvi. and xsvi. ; Isaiah 1. 1, hv. 1-8. Compare Matt. ix. 15, xxii. 2, 
 XXV. 1-12 ; John iii. 29. 
 
 (c.) Didactic Books. 
 
 §179. 
 To the didactic or philosophical writings belong, in 
 respect of their contents, the Book of Job, and the Pro- 
 verbs and Ecclesiastes of Solomon. The Book of Job, 
 of which the author is unknown (a), and the story of 
 which seems to be founded on real events, is of great 
 value, whether regarded as a religious or as a poetical 
 work, inasmuch as it shows how man, incapable of com- 
 prehending the higher wisdom of the Creator, must yet, 
 in the most painful dispensations, maintain his faith in 
 the wisdom and goodness of God. The apocryphal Book 
 of Wisdom is the counterpart of Job, showing that God's 
 retributive justice punishes the wicked and rewards the 
 good with equal certainty. 
 
 (as.) It is even doubtful whether the author was an Israelite or 
 an Arabian ; history rather points to the latter. It is probably very 
 ancient, and the Arabians still venerate Job as a saint. 
 
 §180. 
 
 The Proverbs* are a collection of sayings to lead man 
 to wisdom, — to the just contemplation of Divine and 
 human things. As the author himself says (i. 1, x. 1, 
 XXV. 1, XXX. 1, xxxi. 1), they are the sayings of various 
 wise men, although many of them may have originated 
 with Solomon, particularly those in chapters x.-xxiv. 
 The value of these Proverbs is various, and their appli- 
 cation must be determined by the principles of Chris- 
 
 * D'^^P, Xlapainlai. 
 
THE NEW TESTAMENT. 115 
 
 tianity. The apocryphal Book of Jesus Sirach contains 
 a still richer collection of such wise sayings, which are, 
 in like manner, of tinequal value. 
 
 §181. 
 
 Ecclesiastes, or Kohalath (a), as the Aramean words in 
 it and the complaint against voluminous authorship (xii. 
 12) indicate, is not hy Solomon, and must have been 
 written after the Captivity. The vanity and transitori- 
 ness of all that on which men ordinarily set a high value 
 is the theme. It is often doubtful whether certain 
 sceptical passages should be considered as expressing 
 the author's own sentiments or those of the adversaries 
 whom he controverts [b); hence the Jews regarded the 
 use of this book as perilous, and it is not once cited in 
 the New Testament. 
 
 (a.) nVip, the Orator, Preacher, or the OoRection ; " Der Schatten 
 au3 der Versammltmg der TJnterwelt" (the spirit of Solomon ; for the 
 author speaks in the name of this ting) : the meaning is uncertain. 
 The Vulgate translates it Ecclesiastes, and the Alexandrine yersion, 
 *EKKA7;(na(rT^s. 
 
 (J.) E.g. ii. 1-10, 16 ; iii. 12, 19 sq. ; v. 17-19 ; is. 3-10. The close 
 of ch. xii. xiii. xir. contains rery religious sentiments, many of which 
 are as true as beautifully expressed, e. g. iv. 1 sq., y'a. 2-6, xii. 12 sq. 
 The Lutheran translation is rather defective. Concerning the places 
 in which the belief in immortality is omitted, see § 245, remark (S). 
 
 2. The New Testament. 
 
 §182. 
 
 The New Testament is divided into historical (the four 
 Evangelists and the Acts of the Apostles), epistolary 
 (the letters of the Apostles), and prophetical writings 
 (the Revelation of John) . It contains the records of the 
 religion of Christ, and embraces the writings of the 
 
116 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 Apostles and their immediate followers. These writings 
 are declared by the Christian Church to be canonical (a), 
 i. e. genuine, and written imder the inspiration of the 
 Holy Ghost, and should consequently be the rule {Kavdv) 
 of faith and life to Christians. The collection of these 
 writings was made by degrees {6), and not without great 
 circumspection. The authenticity of all the books we 
 now have of the New Testament was not unanimously 
 admitted imtil the end of the fourth century. 
 
 (o.) liavdv, Measure, Eule. Only the writings of the Apostles them- 
 selTes, or such as, like the Grospels of Mark and Luke, were approved 
 of by the Apostles and written under their superintendence, were ad- 
 mitted by Christians into the Canon. 
 
 (b.) At first, the Old Testament alone was used in the public wor- 
 ship of the Christians ; the New Testament was admitted later and by 
 degrees, as its several parts came to be known. The coUectiou of the 
 Wew Testament began in Asia Minor between the years 110 and 130, 
 and at first contained two parts, EuaYy^^'or and 'Airi<rTo\os : the for- 
 mer probably the G-ospel of Luke, the latter the Epistles of Paul -. 
 they were by degrees augmented and more widely disseminated. In 
 consequence of the state of the book-trade at that period, it needed 
 time before a work, especially a letter, could, by means of transcrip- 
 tion, he vridely circulated. 
 
 (c.) There were many counterfeit writings fakely attributed to the 
 Apostles (Apocrypha of the New Testament, the greater part of which 
 are lost ; the few now extant were collected by Kabricius, in the Codex 
 Libr. Apocryph. N. T.). According to Eusebius (Eocl. Hist. vol. iii. 
 ch. 25), who flourished in the early part of the fourth century, the four 
 Grospels, the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen Epistles of the Apostle 
 Paul, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the first Epistles of John and 
 Peter, were universally received as genuine in his time ; but the au- 
 thenticity of the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of 
 John, the Epistles of James and Jude, and the Revelation of John, 
 was still doubted by several communities and teachers. 
 
 (d.) The division into chapters was made by Hugo S. Caro ( + 1262) . 
 The first division into verses appeared in the Grreek text of Robert 
 Stephens's edition (1551). 
 
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS. 117 
 
 (a.) Historical Writings. 
 
 § 183. 
 
 The Gospels [a) are relations of the acts, fortunes, and 
 doctrines of Christ, drawn up for the exigencies of that 
 time, to show the Jews and Greeks who Jesus was, and 
 why he was to be held as the Christ, i. e. the Saviour 
 promised by God. As eye-witnesses of the life of Jesus 
 (Matthew and John), or as having been in the closest 
 intimacy with eye-witnesses (Mark and Luke), the Evan- 
 gelists were qualified to relate the truth [6) ; that they 
 also wished to give a true account, and really have done 
 so, is evident from their agreement in the main, and their 
 variations in trifling details, from the honesty with which 
 they relate what they might so easily have concealed, 
 and from the minute correctness of their delineation of 
 the character and doctrines of Jesus, which could not 
 possibly have been their own invention. 
 
 (o.) Gospels, i. e. glad tidings ; namely that the Messiah has ap- 
 peared, and that Jesus of Nazareth is that Messiah. 
 
 (S.) The first three Gospels agree in forty-two paragraphs so very 
 closely as to facts, and even in words, that there is every reason to be- 
 lieve in the eidstence of an earlier treatise on the doings and fortunes 
 of Jesus (original Gospel). According to Luke i. 1, there waa a 
 biography of Jesus prior to his. 
 
 (c.) According to Lake, only one of the malefactors reviled Jesus 
 on the cross ; according to Matthew and Mark, both did so. Mark 
 speaks only of one lunatic in the country of the Gergesenes, the others, 
 of several. Impostors would have avoided either the preconcerted 
 agreement or these contradictions. 
 
 (d.) They relate the frailties of the apostles, and the reproaches which 
 the Jews directed against Jesus (see also Matt. xxvi. 39-45, xivii. 63, 
 xxviii. 17). ' 
 
 (e.) Neither the whoEy ideal character of Jesus, nor parables such 
 as Luke xv. sq., xvi. 19 «2-> ^^^ delineations of the soul's condition, as 
 in Matt. xxvi. 36 sq., could have been created by men wholly unac- 
 
118 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 oustomed to literary pursuits. Nothing makes this so palpable as the 
 wretched quality of the apocryphal Gospels. 
 
 § 184. 
 
 MattheWj previously called Levi, a Galileaiij and, be- 
 fore he became an apostle, a tax-gatherer at the Lake of 
 Tiberias (Matt. ix. 9; Mark ii. 13, 14 ; Luke v. 27 sq.), 
 wrote his Gospel (according to Irenseus, Adv. Hser. iii. 
 1) A.D. 66, for the purpose of convincing the Jews that 
 Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. Accordingly he 
 gives the genealogical descent of Jesus from David, to 
 show that in him were fulfilled the prophecies of the Old 
 Testament; and he points to the miracles and prophe- 
 cies of Jesus himself, and to the excellence of his doc- 
 trine. Of Matthew's subsequent fortunes nothing is 
 positively known. Chapters i. and ii. have a special title, 
 and perhaps formed small compositions by themselves. 
 The history of the youth of Jesus, which was not fami- 
 liar to him, is, in Ms Gospel, as also in those of the other 
 Evangelists, very short and incomplete ; particularly re- 
 markable is the collection of the maxims of Jesus, chap, 
 v., vii., of his parables, chap, xiii., and of his prophecies, 
 chap, xxiii., xxv. 
 
 §185. 
 
 Mark, a disciple of the Apostle Peter (1 Pet. v. 13), 
 who was formerly called John (Acts xii. 13), and for a 
 short time accompanied the Apostle Paul (Acts xiii. 3), 
 was the son of Mary of Jerusalem (Acts xii. 12) ; and, 
 according to the ancient traditions (a) of the Church, 
 acted as Peter's interpreter to the Greeks, and wrote his 
 Gospel from data furnished by that apostle (d). It ap- 
 pears to be the oldest Gospel, and is eminently worthy 
 of belief. 
 
THE HISTORICAL WKITINGS. 119 
 
 (ffi.) According to Papias, Irenseus, Origen, and Jerome. 
 
 (i.) On that account sometimes called Peter's messenger. Peter 
 probably gave Mark the use of his ftospel, written in Aramean : it is 
 shorter than that of Matthew, but independent of it ; ch. xvi. 9, 
 20, appears to be an addition, and is wanting in several ancient manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 §186. 
 
 Ltike, probably a Gentile by birth, and a physician 
 (Col. iv. 14), was an intimate friend and companion of 
 the Apostle Paul. He wrote his Gospel for a distin- 
 guished Italian (Theophilus), probably a.d. 63, and com- 
 piled his narrative partly from then existing written do- 
 cuments, i. 1-3, and partly from oral traditions. It is 
 distinguished by a better arrangement of the subject mat- 
 ter, by a more detailed account of the youth of Jesus, 
 and by a more careful exposition of various occurrences 
 on which the other Evangelists but slightly touched. 
 
 §187. 
 
 John, a son of Zebedee, a fisherman on the Lake of 
 Tiberias (Matt. iv. 21 ; Mark i. 19, iii. 17), who was 
 an unlearned man (Acts iv. 13), remained in Palestine 
 (Gal. ii. 1 sq) after the death of Jesus, and, according 
 to the Church tradition, removed to Ephesus, where he, 
 after his return from banishment at Patmos (i. 9), died 
 at a great age, in the reign of Trajan. His Gospel, which 
 differs in its spirit and expression from those of the other 
 three Evangelists, and in which is found another selection 
 of facts (fl), has also a dogmatical purpose; namely, that 
 Jesus by his words, deeds, and prophecies, and by the 
 testimony of God and man, has proved that with him 
 the Divine Logos has been combined, and that He is to 
 be acknowledged as the Messiah (5) . 
 
 (a.) He has not related any of the many parables of the first three 
 Grospels, nor noticed the healing of demoniacs ; but relates chiefly the 
 
120 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 conversations of Jesus with his disciples, with the Jews, and with the 
 Apostles. The style of the discourses of Jesus bear the stamp of the 
 Evangelist himself. Has John written this Gospel as a supplement 
 to the foregoing three, or against Gnostics or John's disciples ? 
 
 (h.) The genuineness of paragraph ch. viii. 3-11, and the twenty-first 
 chapter, ia doubtful. 
 
 § 188. 
 
 The Acts of the Apostles, by Luke, is the coatimiation 
 of his Gospel. It embraces a period of thirty-three 
 years, and reaches to a.d. 65. This book comprises two 
 parts; the first of which, ch. i.-xii., states, from Ara- 
 mean soiirces, the events which happened at Jerusalem 
 after the death of Jesus; the second, ch. xiii.-xviu., 
 contains the history of the Apostle Paul, related after 
 his own account, until the time of his being led to 
 Rome, xxviii. 30. As Luke was with Paul in Jeru- 
 salem, and always accompanied him, his work is worthy 
 of the highest credit, and is of great value as the oldest 
 authentic record of the first establishment of the Chris- 
 tian Church. 
 
 (b.) The Epistolary Writings. 
 §189. 
 
 Paul, a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born at Tarsus 
 in Cilicia, and therefore (a) possessed of the rights of a 
 Roman citizen, studied the theology of the Pharisees 
 under Gamaliel at Jerusalem (Acts v. 24) . At first he 
 persecuted the Christians (Acts vii. 58, xxii. 3 sq., xxvi. 
 9 sq.), but became suddenly a friend to Christianity 
 through a fact not quite clear to us. From this time 
 he, as an Apostle, served with steadfast fidelity the 
 Christian cause, and to disseminate its doctrines under- 
 took the most dangerous journeys (c). He was perse- 
 cuted by the Jews and arraigned before the governor of 
 
THE EPISTOLARY WRITINGS. 121 
 
 the province (Acts xxii. sq.), but being a Roman citizen 
 he was led to Rome, wl/ere for some years he remained 
 as a prisoner at large (Acts xxviii. 30), and, according 
 to the Church's account, suffered martyrdom at the time 
 of the Christian persecution under Nero. He was the 
 most learned, and, regarding the spreading of Chris- 
 tianity amongst the Greeks, the most valuable Apostle. 
 He viewed Christianity as the specific cure for all man- 
 kind, and principally brought about the separation of 
 the Christians from Judaism and the Mosaic ordinances. 
 
 (a.) Augustus had presented to the inhabitants of this city, as a 
 reward for their tried fidelity, the privileges of Boman citizens (Plin. 
 T. 27, Appian Ht. 5) . Tarsus was at that time the chief place in 
 CiUcia, noted for Ghrecian learning and philosophy. 
 
 (b.) See the narratiTe of Luke (Acts ix. 1 sq., xxii. 6 sq., xxvi. 
 12 sq.). Paul himself, edthough he had inducement for it, does not 
 mention these events, 1 Cor. xv. 8, ix. 1. If on his way to Da- 
 mascus lightning struck near him ? or if the recollection of Stephen's 
 conduct and discourses worked on his mind ? or if the account, 2 Cor. 
 xii. 1-7, is to be placed in connection with it ? The conversion of 
 the persecutor to a zealous friend and professor of Christianity, will 
 remain always eminently remarkable, and can only be regarded as the 
 effect of an extraordinary cause. 
 
 (c.) He was obliged to fly from Damascus, and, at a later period, 
 from Jerusalem. He Kved some years concealed in Tarsus (Acts ix. 
 29 sq.) ; journeyed in Asia Minor, Cyprus, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Isauria, 
 Phrygia, Gralatia, Mysia, Bithynia, Greece (Athens and Corinth), and 
 Macedonia. Concerning his sufferings, see 2 Cor. xi. 23 sq. 
 
 §190. 
 
 We have thirteen of Paul's Epistles, which had been 
 already collected in the second century. The following 
 is most probably their chronological order (a): — 1. The 
 first Epistle to the Christians of Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 
 3 sq.) in Macedonia, probably written from Corinth 
 about the year 54. It contains a commendation of the 
 community, exhorts to an upright and Christian life, 
 
 G 
 
122 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 and sets before them the hope of the resurrection and 
 immortality. 2. The Second Epistle to the same (about 
 the year 55-57) warns of the abuse of the expectation 
 of the speedy second coming of Christ. 3. The Epistle 
 to the Galatians {b), written at Ephesus^ probably a.d. 
 57 or 56. It vindicates the authority of the Apostles, 
 and combats the opinion which was spread at this place 
 by Jewish teachers ia opposition to the Apostle's doc- 
 trines, that the Gentile converts should be circumcised 
 and be compelled to observe the Mosaic ordinances. 
 
 (a.) In the New Testament they are placed in order as to the im- 
 portance of the Churches to whom they were addressed. 
 
 (8.) Galatia/ — GaHo-Grsecia. A mass of people of Pannonia and 
 Ulyria had, mider the name of GaUi, vanquished Thracia and the 
 country by the Propontis long before the birth of Christ. Kicodemus, 
 the first king of Bithynia, called them to Asia Minor to his assistance 
 against Antiochus Soter ; they remained in that country, and became 
 mingled with the Grreels. Augustus made (B.C. 26) this country a 
 Boman proTiuce (Liv. xxxviii. 16, Hor. ii. 11). Paul Tisited Galatia 
 three times. 
 
 §191. 
 
 4. In the fii'st Epistle from Paul to the community 
 founded (Acts xviii.) by himself at Corinth, — which was 
 composed of Jews and Greeks, and which had fallen into 
 disorder from party divisions (1 Cor. i. 10 sq., iii. 3 sq., iv. 
 6 sq.), immoral conduct of some (1 Cor. v.), and litigious 
 disposition (ch. vi.), — he wrote against these disorders, 
 and answered different questions of the community (ch. 
 vii. sq.), especially concerning the value of celibacy (ch. 
 vii.), the partaking of meat offered in the idolatrous 
 sacrifices (ch. viii.-x.) of the Gentiles, the unveiling of 
 women during Divine service (ch. xi.), the inspired dis- 
 courses in the congregation (a) (ch. xii.-xiv.), and gives an 
 exhortation and rules respecting the maintenance of re- 
 ligious teachers (ch. ix.), the feast of the Lord's Supper 
 
THE EPISTOLARY WHITINGS. 123 
 
 (ch. xi.)j and the resurrection of the dead (ch. xv.). He 
 wrote it from Bphesus in the year 59. 
 
 (a.) To which the Apostle is not faTourable. His tnowledge of it 
 was not from personal experience, but from the report of the Corin- 
 thians alone. 
 
 §192. 
 
 As the party of Jewish Christians had been displeased 
 with this Epistle, and had calumniated it, he, in the 
 year 69, wrote (5.) another Epistle to the same com- 
 munity [a), in which he defends himself against the re- 
 proach laid on him, especially drawing attention to the 
 fidelity and disinterestedness with which he had fulfilled 
 his office, and exhorts to charity towards all fellow-be- 
 lievers. 
 
 (a.) On his journey into Macedonia ; therefore the style of writing 
 a more negligent, and not so clear as in other writings of the Apostle. 
 
 §193. 
 
 6. The Epistle to the Christian community at Rome, 
 which community, though its origin is uncertain {a), we 
 know to have consisted partly of Jewish Christians zea- 
 lous for the Mosaic law, and partly of heathen converts, 
 more especially from amongst the Jewish proselytes, — was 
 written from Greece a.d. 60, and had for its main object 
 the confutation of the notion of the Jewish Christians, 
 that the Christian could not become a partaker of Divine 
 grace and eternal life unless he kept the law of Moses 
 (ch. i.— xi.) . General directions for Christian deportment 
 form the conclusion (ch. xii. sq.). 
 
 (a.) There is no evidence that Peter founded it, although he proba- 
 bly had been in Borne. The Jews were numerous there, and tlie 
 Bomans frequently attended their synagogues (Juvenal,, Sat. xiv. 100). 
 
 (6.) The argumentation is partly didactic and partly polemical^ and 
 starts from the principles of the Jevrish Christians, according to which 
 
 g2 
 
134 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 no Christian could be saved without obedience to the Mosaic law. The 
 course of thought is the following : — " The heathen are indeed vicious, 
 although they might have known God by reason (ch. i.); but the Jews 
 are also vicious (ch. ii.), and have therefore no better right than others 
 to reward from Grod ; for not the outward circumcision, but the inward 
 sanctification, is pleasing to God (ch. iii. 25-2V) . The Jews have indeed 
 the advantage (ch. iii. 1 sq.), that the scheme of salvation through Christ 
 originated amongst them; but if the Jew does not accept this remedial 
 scheme and sins like the Gentile, then he cannot thereby become accep- 
 table to (righteous before) God (ch. iii.). Is it objected (ch. iv.) that 
 Abraham could not then have been acceptable to God? it is answered, 
 that Abraham believed in the Messiah promised to come (Gen. xv. 6), 
 and through this faith, not by keeping the Mosaic law, which was not 
 given tUl long after, became acceptable to God, and at the same time 
 the spiritual father of all who should beheve, even among the heathen 
 (ch. iv. 14). Further, since (ch. v.) Jesus aboKshed death as the 
 punishment of sin, and purchased everlasting life, and yet death befell 
 Gentiles and Jews alike, notwithstanding the Mosaic law of the latter, 
 it follows that the redemption through Christ must be destined for 
 the Gtentiles also, and cannot he made dependent on the observance of 
 the Mosaic law. Should any one conclude from this (ch. vi.) that 
 neither is the Christian bound by the moral law of the old Covenant, 
 and that, being redeemed, he may sin in security, the foUy of this is 
 shown; for as Christ died for sin, so we must die to it, and we do not 
 become partakers of Divine grace until we have put off our sins. By 
 the redemption of Christ (ch. vii.) the Christian Jew is also dead to 
 the law of Moses, and (v. 6) comes under the authority of the Divine 
 Spirit. These laws alone, the dead letter (v. 7), without the Holy 
 Spirit, serve only to awaken and stimulate the tendencies to sinful re- 
 sistance (v. 7-25) which he in the sensual nature of man, and conse- 
 quently lead to sin and eternal death, not to life. When therefore 
 (ch. vni.) the Christian (should he even not keep the law of Moses or 
 be a Gentile convert) is guided by the Spirit of God and of Christ, and 
 is freed from sin, he attains to that piety (v. 6) which the law re- 
 quires, and to eternal life (v. 4-14) . His obedience imder the guid- 
 ance of the Spirit is not slavish, constrained, unwilling, and therefore 
 worthless, Uke that which is yielded to the threatenings of the law ; 
 but childhke, free, and proceeding from love to God (v. 15-47), so 
 that he feels (v. 17-27) justified in entertaining that hope of immor- 
 tality* after which every human being ardently longs. For whom 
 
 * @iivaros, according to Jewish conceptions, the death-like condition 
 of the soul in Hades : fm^ the blessed life with God. 
 
THE EPISTOLAKY WRITINGS. 125 
 
 God has (v. 28-39) once called to Christianity and made pious 
 (righteous) through the Spirit, those he has destined to eternal life, 
 whether they adhere to the Mosaic law or not, and nothing can sepa- 
 rate them from God and Christ, and their salyation. It is true that 
 the Israelites receiyed (ch. ix. 4) the promise of the Messiah, and that, 
 as man (v. 5), this was descended from Abraham ; but all the natural 
 descendants of Abraham (the Jews) are not therefore, as such, God's 
 children (and heirs of eternal life); for Ishmael (t. 7-13), although a 
 natural son of Abraham, was excluded from the promise. Besides, 
 it depends (v. 14-33) on God's good pleasure whom he will call to 
 salvation in Christ ; therefore he may call the heathen, especially 
 (t. 30-33) as the Jews reject Christ. If then (ch. x.) the Jews con- 
 tend for the law of Moses, as if its observance alone could make ac- 
 ceptable in the sight of God, they do it from ignorance, though with 
 a good intention ; for not the Mosaic law, but faith in the mission and 
 resurrection of the Messiah, leads to eternal life, — a faith this which 
 the heathen also may receive, and in which therefore they ought to be 
 instructed. The conclusion however (ch. xi.) must not be drawn, that 
 because God accepts the G«ntites he rejects the Jews. Eather out of 
 free choice (v. 5) God has brought a part, though a small one, of the 
 Jews to Christianity, not because (v. 6) they observed the Mosaic law, 
 but according to his own grace, whilst he has left the others (v. 7-10) 
 to their blindness. This last he does, not as having rejected them 
 (v. lis}.), but in order that the preachers of the Gospel might be ne- 
 cessitated to turn to the Gteutiles. You, heathens, must not boast of 
 your call to salvation, nor despise the Jews ; for if they (v. 23-26) 
 did not continue in unbehef, they would also obtain salvation, and I 
 suppose (v. 25, livtrriipuiv) that God will allow them to continue in 
 unbehef only tiH aU the Gentiles shall have been brought into the 
 Mngdom of God. Honour therefore God's plan ; but be not proud of 
 his benefits." — The rest of the Epistle (ch. 12 sq.) contains exhorta- 
 tions to Christian behaviour, particularly with reference to heathen 
 magistrates, and to things indifferent in themselves, but reckoned sinfiil 
 by others. 
 
 § 194. 
 7. The Epistle to the Ephesians, written from Rome 
 (a.d. 63 or 64), describes the former sad coudition of 
 these Christians when they were Heathens, shows that 
 God destined salvation in Christ not only to the Jews, 
 but also to the Gentiles, and had chosen Paul to be the 
 
136 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 Apostle of the Gentiles, and exhorts to Christian beha- 
 viour and to the avoidance of former vices. 
 
 8. The Epistle written from Rome to the Christian 
 community which the Apostle's disciples had founded at 
 Colosse, in Phrygia, displays the Apostle's joy at their 
 conversion and the great value of Christianity ; exhorts 
 to steadfastness and fidelity in respect of Christianity ; 
 warns against errors, particularly those of Judaism and 
 Gnosticism (ch. ii. 8-33), and summons to the discharge 
 of Christian duties. 
 
 §195. 
 
 9. Paul's letter to his Colossian convert, Philemon, is 
 a letter of recommendation with which he sent back the 
 slave Onesimus, who had run away from his master Phi- 
 lemon, and had been converted by Paul in Rome ; it was 
 written from Rome a. d . 64. The Epistle to the Christians 
 at Philippi, in Macedonia, thanks the church there for 
 the pecuniary contributions with which they had assisted 
 the Apostle in his journeys, and exhorts the Jewish and 
 G«ntile converts to mutual harmony and to the Chris- 
 tian virtues (written from Rome a.d. 65), ch. xi.-xiii. 
 Both Epistles to Timothy, bishop of the church in Ephe- 
 sus, and the Epistle to Titus, bishop of the Christians in 
 Crete, contain directions to these men how they shoidd 
 discharge their office, how they should teach and insist 
 upon good morals, and what qualifications they should 
 require in the office-bearers of the church. 
 
 §196. 
 
 It is uncertain whether the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 i. e. to the Christian Jews, was written by Paul or not : 
 and even the ancient church doubted regarding it. It 
 was written in Alexandria, in the first century, and its 
 
THE EPISTOLARY WRITINGS. 127 
 
 main object is to reconcile the Christian Jews to the 
 abolition of the Jewish priesthood and Temple service, 
 by showing how abundantly these are replaced in Chris- 
 tianity, and how far Judaism is behind Christianity in 
 respect of essential dignity and power. 
 
 (a.) The author enters completely into the conceptions of the Jews, 
 and conducts his argument, which is admirably adapted to his readers, 
 in the following manner : — " Christ (ch. i. and ii.), as the Son of God, 
 is highly exalted above Moses and all angels ; therefore we are more 
 guilty if we do not foUow him, than the Israelites were (ch. ii. 7 sq.) 
 when they did not follow Moses. They who resisted Moses were de- 
 priyed only of the temporal rest in the promised land (v. 17-19), but 
 they who oppose Christ (ch. iy.) lose a higher, a heavenly country. 
 The Christian does not need Jewish sacrifices and high-priests, for 
 Jesus Christ is (ch. iv. 14 sq., v. 1 sq.) also a high-priest after the 
 order of Melchisedee, who (ch. vii.) also belonged not to the tribe of 
 Levi, but, being at once priest and king, was a type of Christ. Abra- 
 ham, the father of Levi and of the Levites, paid tithes to him, and 
 received his blessing. Had the Levitieal priesthood been perfect, then 
 would there have been no prediction (Psalm ox. 4) of an everlasting 
 high-priest after the order of Melchisedee. The priesthood of Christ 
 however is everlasting, since he lives for ever ; he is (ch. viii.) the hea- 
 venly high-priest, discharging his functions in the heavenly sanctuary,* 
 as the Mediator of a new, perfect Covenant. However glorious (ch. ix. 
 1-10) the sacrifices in the Jewish temple might be, the sacrifice of 
 Christ is stiU nobler (ch. ix. 11 sq.), for he ofiered his own blood, and 
 entered not into the earthly Holy of Holies, but into the presence of 
 Grod ; his sacrifice also needs not to be repeated, but is of everlasting 
 efficacy. The Levitieal sacrifices may therefore (ch. x. 1-18) be dis- 
 pensed with, since tliey could not purchase tbe forgiveness of sins lite 
 the sacrifice of Jesus. It is our duty consequently (ch. x. 19-39) to 
 faithfeUy adbere to this perfect high-priest, and not to fall away ; for 
 if he was punishable with death who despised the law of the eart.hly 
 priesthood, how much guiltier must he be who despises the Son of God, 
 this sacrifice! Eather we must believe with fidelity in him as the 
 ground of our eternal salvation, and so we shall save our souls, even 
 
 * !From Exodus xxv. 40, xxvi. 30, Numbers viii. 4, the Jews believed 
 that in heaven there was a counterpart of the Holy City, the Temple, and 
 all its holy places. See also Acts vii. 44 ; Heb. ix. 23, 24, xii. 21, 22. 
 
128 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 as (eh. xi.) the pious rnider the Old Testament wrought righteousness 
 in faith, and thereby became worthy of Q-od's love." Here then fol- 
 lows (ch. xii.) an exhortation to steadfastness iu Christianity during per- 
 secution, and (eh. xiii.) general instructions conclude the whole. 
 
 §197. 
 
 The Epistle written by the Apostle James the Less^ son 
 of iUphseus and bishop of Jerusalem (Acts xv. 13j 22), 
 to the converted Jews beyond Palestine (probably in the 
 year 52), is a circuit epistle, for the greater part of moral 
 contents, in which those parts are especially remarkable 
 where he declares that the temptation to commit sin 
 comes not from God, but from the nature of Man (ch. 
 i. 13 sq.) ; that the merely outward worship of God is 
 worthless (ch. i. 22 sq.), and that Christian charity does 
 not regard any difference of external advantages ; that 
 therefore the rich ought not to despise the poor (ch. ii. 
 1-13), as Faith without works of charity is valueless (v. 
 24, 26) (a). 
 
 (a.) Nominal contradictions between Paul and James concerning 
 the doctrine of Paith : on this account the genuineness of this Xlpistle 
 was by many in the ancient church quite unjustly doubted. 
 
 §198. 
 
 The Apostle Peter, originally Simon (Matt. iv. 18, xvi. 
 17 ; Luke v. 5; John i. 14), — who in the early Church 
 stood in high repute (Acts ii. 14, v. 1, ix. 32), and who 
 at a later period removed from Jerusalem on account of 
 persecution (Acts xii. 1-12), visited the Churches in Asia 
 Minor in the year 53, visited Antioch (Gal. ii. 11-21), 
 and went, according to the tradition of the Church, to 
 Rome, where he is said to have been crucified, — has left 
 behind a circuit Epistle addressed to Christians, in which 
 he exhorts the same to constancy under the existing and 
 the yet threatening persecutions, and therewith combines 
 
THE PROPHETIC BOOK. 129 
 
 many useful instructions for the conduct under particular 
 circumstances (servants, masters, rulers, magistrates). 
 The time and place of the composition are unknown. 
 The Second Epistle of Peter, which contains exhortation, 
 warning against false doctrine, defence of the expectation 
 of the speedy coming of Jesus to judgment, is scarcely 
 from the hand of Peter (a) ; but its author and the time 
 of its composition are unknown. 
 
 (a.) Origen is the first who speaks of this Epistle ; it met with much 
 contradiction in the Church, and was only admitted as gentdne in 
 , the fom-th century ; its style is very different from that of the First 
 Epistle (ch. iii. 2). 
 
 §199. 
 
 Whether the Epistle of Jude is by the Jude mentioned 
 in Matt. xii. 55, Luke vi. 16, Acts i. 13, is uncertain; 
 it contains an exhortation to fidelity to Christianity, and 
 a warning against immorality and the misleading of false 
 doctrines, and was not generally received as genuine until 
 the fourth century. In conclusion, we have from the 
 Apostle John three Epistles: the first is addressed to 
 Gentile Christians, exhorts them to fulfil their duties, 
 and warns them of those apostate Christians who had 
 become the enemies of Christ; the next two are pri- 
 vate letters to several persons, and are not of particular 
 importance. These were known at a later period, and 
 were not commonly accepted as genuine before the fourth 
 century. 
 
 §300. 
 (c.) The Prophetic Book. 
 
 The Revelation of John (a), or the Book of Visions, 
 had probably its origin in the first century, and was 
 received (133, by Justin Martyr) as the composition of 
 John, but was by many pronounced as counterfeit, espe- 
 
 G 3 
 
130 DIVINE REVELATION. 
 
 cially for its Chiliasm. It does not refer to our time, 
 but speaks throughout of the then time, for which reason 
 it has for us many obscurities, and celebrates by song in 
 visions, which are copied from the older Prophets, espe- 
 cially Ezekiel and Isaiah, the triumph of Christianity 
 over Judaism and Paganism, symbolizing Paganism, or 
 Kome, by Babylon; Judaism, by the earthly Jerusalem; 
 and Christianity, by the heavenly Jerusalem. 
 
 (a.) It IB the only prophetic poetic book of the New Testament, 
 and declares itself (ch. i. 1, 2, 9, xxii. 8) to be the work of John. 
 Abuse of the same. Luther declares it to be counterfeit. 
 
131 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 § 301. 
 
 According to the Scriptures, Divine Revelation began 
 with the origin of the human race (§ 154), and conti- 
 nued till the Christian Church was founded. We may 
 distinguish three periods in this Revelation: — 1. The 
 Patriarchal period (before Moses) ; 2. The period of 
 Moses and the Prophets (from Moses to Ezra and Nehe- 
 miah) ; 3. The Christian period (Jesus and the Apos- 
 tles) . In each of these periods one of the three religious 
 Ideas (§ 154) was particularly, though not exclusively, 
 perceptible, and essentially constituted the character of 
 that period ; viz. in the first, the Idea of the Deity ; in 
 the second, the Idea of the Divine Law ; in the third, 
 the Idea of Imm,ortality. 
 
 I. The Patriarchal Period. 
 
 § 202. 
 It is in this period that the Idea of God first appeared 
 in the human consciousness, and is represented as hav- 
 ing been awakened by God himself through the means 
 of symbols and words. But the idea of God could only 
 appear in such a form as the imperfect state of human 
 
133 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 knowledge^ and the simplicity of all relation among men 
 at that time^ would allow. God* therefore was known 
 as the Creator of all visible things (Gen. i. 1), who has 
 made all things well (Gen. i. 31) ; who, surrounded by 
 angels (Gen. xxviii. 12), has His throne in heaven, i. e. 
 is the Most High (Gen. xi. 5, ix. 10-17, xvii. 23, xxviii. 
 13), and to whom the worship of thanks, of offerings, 
 and humility is acceptable (Gen. iv. 3, iv. 7, xvii. 1, xxxv. 
 14) . As heralds and preservers of this faith appear the 
 Sethites (Gen. iv. 36), Melchisedec (Gen. xiv. 18), espe- 
 cially Abraham and his tribe (Gen. xii. 8, xxvi. 34 sq., 
 xxxiii. 30, xxxv. 1-7), whose descendants, as the deposi- 
 taries of the belief in God (Exod. iii. 6, 13, iv. 5), are 
 separated from other nations (Gen. xvii. 1 sq.), and dis- 
 tinguished by the circumcision as an outward sign (Gen. 
 xvii. 10 sq.). 
 
 Henee all important events, which oocuired in nature or amongst 
 men, were considered in a religious point of view, as we find in Gen. 
 vi. 7, 11, 18, and other places. God's Government of the World 
 always appears as a direct one. After Abraham we find no sensible 
 manifestation or word of God till Moses. We find such events 
 mentioned of those men only who had a marked influence on the deve- 
 lopment of the Idea of God. 
 
 §303. 
 
 Man is considered as a creature of God (Gen. i. 36, 
 ii. 7), in God's stead ; and, as His image, is made the 
 lord of the earthly Creation (Gen. i. 37, 30, ii. 19, 30), 
 endowed with the principle of life (Gen. ii. 7), which the 
 ancients sought in the blood as the condition of animal 
 life (Gen. ix, 4 ; Lev. vii. 36, xvii. 34) . All men descend 
 from one pair (Gen. x. 1-33). 
 
 §204. 
 From God's wisdom and goodness it was to be ex- 
 
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. 133 
 
 pected that the created man^ as father and prototype of 
 the whole racCj should possess every hmnaia. faeiclty ; and 
 therefore that faculty also which fits him for freedonij 
 though the Mosaic records are silent on the subject. 
 On the other hand, there could not be in the first man 
 any of those perfections which can only be developed by 
 life itself and its various conditions. To our conscious- 
 ness also the idea of a morally free existence presents 
 itself, not as something past, but as something to come, 
 as the aim of our efforts (a) . 
 
 (a.) The narrative of Q-en. ii. 9, 17, and Gen. iii., as the history 
 of the first eolosion of freedom, is quite in accordance with the na- 
 ture of freedom. Sin being something relative (§ 118), it can only 
 origiaate hy this, that man becomes conscious of the difference be- 
 tween good and evil (symbolically represented by the tree, Gen. iii. 
 5-7, xi. 22), and of the contradiction of sensual propensities with the 
 Divine law (represented by the command not to eat of the tree). But 
 as man has not yet sufficient energy, nor has he been sufficiently ac- 
 customed to silence these propensities which have already acquired a 
 preponderating influence upon him, he feels guilty in his conscience : 
 and loses the peace of mind (the Paradise), until the internal conflict 
 between the flesh and the spirit is terminated by the victory of the 
 latter, i. e. until he has become free (conf. § 234). 
 
 §205. 
 
 The Idea of a Divine law, as the summary of duties 
 prescribed for the various human relations, could only 
 very imperfectly exist in the beginning, when all rela- 
 tions between men were so very simple. Accordingly 
 we only find general directions concerning the feelings 
 of veneration and the obedience to God (Gen. iv. 7, xvii. 
 1) ; and besides this, the positive command not to mur- 
 der (Gen. iv. 11, ix. 5), and not to eat raw meat (Gen. ix. 
 3,4). 
 
 §306. 
 
 The Idea of Immortality, or of a life of the Soul after 
 
134 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 death, did not yet make its appearance in tlie human Con- 
 sciousness. We only find the conception of a continua- 
 tion of the bodily life on earth (Tree of Life, Gen. ii. 9, 
 iii. 22), connected with the notion (which also at later 
 periods is often met with) that sin leads to the loss of 
 life. Gen. v. 24 is represented as an exception from the 
 general rule. 
 
 II. The Period of Moses and the Prophets. 
 
 §207. 
 
 The belief in a Deity, hitherto a family belief, became 
 through Moses (1500 b.c.) the belief of a nation. Under 
 him, and through the religious and political constitu- 
 tion established by him, the Israelites were formed into 
 a separate nation, firmly adhering to the Idea of the 
 Deity (a) ; idolatry was most rigidly prohibited (b), and 
 the whole constitution assumed the form of a Theocracy, 
 God appearing as Ruler and Governor of the nation (c), 
 the High-Priests and Prophets being His agents (d). 
 Everything therefore that took place in the State was 
 represented, according to the theocratical principle, as 
 God's will ; all events in the history of the nation, as 
 God's sending (e) ; and the Idea of the Deity was iden- 
 tified with the notion of a national Lord or God (/) . 
 God being the invisible head of the State, Moses thought 
 it proper to clothe Him with terror {g), to inspire the 
 rude people with veneration for Him and the holy things. 
 As to His nature, God stiU appears the same as He did 
 in the Patriarchal period {h) ; and the Idea of the Deity 
 was further developed only in this one respect, that the 
 name of Jehovah [i), attributed to God, expressed the 
 eternity and immutabihty of his essence ; and that by 
 
PERIOD OF MOSES AND THE PROPHETS. 135 
 
 the conception of the Spirit of God {k), God's spiritual 
 activity was brought into relief. 
 
 (a.) Exod. It. 22, vi. 2-4, xix. 5 sq. ; Deut. iv. 20, vii. 6 sq. 
 
 (b.) Exod. XX. 3, 4, 23, xxiii. 13. In consequence of this separa- 
 tion of the Israehtes from the idolatrous nations, the Polytheistic 
 nations of Canaan were to be expelled, any contact with them to be 
 aroided, their sacred places to be destroyed ; Exod. xxiii. 23 sq., 
 32 sq., xxxiT. 12 sq. ; Deut. yii. 9 and 12. 
 
 (c.) The whole Constitution therefore appears as a law of God, and 
 the interdiction of Polytheism as the fundamental law of the State. 
 This was the only means to preserve Monotheism in those times, and 
 to make it the national religion of the people. 
 
 (d.) The tabernacle was the place where God answered the ques- 
 tions put to him, Exod. 25 sq., xxxiii. 7-11 ; High-Priests, Urim 
 and Thummim, Exod. xxTiH. 30 ; Lev. viii. 8 ; Num. xxvii. 21 ; Pro- 
 phets, Deut. xiii. 1-5, xviii. 15-22. Conf. § 167. 
 
 (e.) We therefore must not be surprised at seeing that whatever 
 happened to the enemies of the nation, whatever they did, and aU 
 commands of Moses and the other visible heads of the nation, was re- 
 ferred to God as its author, e. g. God (Moses) led the people, Exod. 
 xiii. 17 sq. ; God caused the east wind to blow, Exod. xiv. 21, xv. 10 ; 
 the people inquired of God (Moses), Exod. xviii. 15 sq. ; God went 
 before them in a piUar of cloud and in a piUar of fire, Exod. xiii. 21 sq. 
 A different expression is often used, e. g. Exod. iii. 21 sq., comp. vpith 
 Exod. xii. 35 sq. ; Exod. vii. 3, x. 1, 20, 27, xi. 10, comp. vrith Exod. 
 vii. 13, 14, 22, viii. 15, 32, ix. 34 ; Exod. xxxi. 1 sq. with xxxvi. 1 ; 
 Exod. xxxii. 16 with xxxiv. 27 sq. 
 
 (/.) Exod. ix. 1, X. 3 ; Numb. xiv. 13-17 ; Josh. xxiv. 1-25, x. 10 
 sq. ; Judges xi. 23 sq. ; 1 Sam. x. 18 sq. God's Government of the 
 World also is here considered as only relating to the fete of the 
 Israelites, and those nations with whom they are in conflict. 
 
 (g.) Exod. xix. ; Deut. v. 24 sq. ; Numb. iv. 15 ; 1 Sam. vi. 19. 
 
 (h.) Exod. xix. 5, 9, 11, xxxi. 17, Deut. iv. 89, i. 14, 17. It is 
 doubtfiil whether the expression " Holy," used of God (Levit. xi. 
 44, XX. 7, 8, xix. 2 ; Numb. xvi. 5, 7), means pure, faultless, or 
 merely refers to the sepaxate relation in which God stands as protect- 
 ing God of the Israelites. The thirty-second chapter of Deuteronomy 
 is evidently vmtten after Moses. 
 
 (».) Exod. iii. 14, vi. 3, mn', sempiternms, qiii semper est idem; in 
 the New Testament rh d koI rh d : Eev. i. 8, xxi. 6, xxii. 13. 
 
 (i.) Exod. xxxi. ^, XXXV. 31 ; Numb. xi. 17, 25. 
 
136 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 §308. 
 
 The doctrine of God has been further developed, 
 especially in and after the time of David. God was 
 more and more acknowledged to be the only Creator of 
 the world (Psalms viii., xix., xxxiii. 6 sq., civ.; Isaiah xhv. 
 6, 24, xlv. 12 sq. ; Job xxxviii.-xli.), and the source of 
 all life (Psalm civ. 29 sq., Job xxxiii. 4) ; the highest 
 Sovereign and Governor, not only of the whole nature 
 and its powers (Isaiah xliv. 27, xlv. 7, 8 ; Psalm civ. ; 
 Job xxxviii.), but also of kings and nations (Isaiah xl. 
 22 sq., xlv. 22 ; Psalm xxxiii. 8, 13-17, ciii. 19) ; who 
 determines the fate of every man (Job x. 8-12, xiv. 5 ; 
 Psalm xxii. 10, cxxxix. 16, xxxi. 16). He is described 
 as sitting in heaven (Isaiah xl. 22, Ixvi. 1 ; Psalm ii. 4, 
 cxv. 3, 16) surrounded by angels, who execute His com- 
 mands (Psalm ciii. 20 sq.\ Isaiah vi. \ sq.; 1 Kings 
 xxii. 19). His essence became likewise more under- 
 stood : He is described as a Being of light (Psalm civ. 
 2) , who is eternal (Isaiah xliv. 6 ; Psalm xc. 1-4, cii. 
 26-29; Job xxxvi. 26), pure, and holy (Deut. xxxii. 4; 
 Psalm V. 5, 6) ; of unwearied power (Isaiah xl. 28), in- 
 finite wisdom (Isaiah xl. 28 ; Psalm civ. 24 ; Prov. viii. 
 22-30 ; Job xxviii. 23-25) ; omniscient (Psalm cxxxix. ; 
 Isaiah xli. 21-24; Job xi. 7-9) ; omnipresent (Psalm 
 cxxxix. ; Jer. xxiii. 23 sq. ; 1 Kings viii. 27) ; omnipo- 
 tent (Psalm xxxiii. 9, cxlviii. 4-6, cxxxv. 6 ; Isaiah xl. 
 25 sy.) ; good, and merciful (Psalm civ. 31, cvi. 1, cxxxvi., 
 cxlv. 8 sq., ciii. 8-10, cxvi. 5) ; just (Psalm xxxiii. 5, 
 ciii. 6, cxi. 7 ; Job xxxiv. 10-12) ; true (Psalm xxxiii. 4 ; 
 Isaiah xl. 8 ; Psalm Ixxxix. 2 sy.) . The evils also are 
 derived from him and considered as punishments (Psalm 
 vi., xxxviii.; Isaiah liii. 4-12; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1), and it is 
 only later that Satan is mentioned as the author of evil 
 
PERIOD OF MOSES AND THE PROPHETS. 137 
 
 (1 Chron. xxi. 2, compared with 2 Sam. xxiv. 1 ; Zech. 
 iii. 1-9). 
 
 The passages, Job i. 6 aq., ii. ^sq.; 1 Sam. XTi. 14 ; 1 Kings xxii. 23 
 sq., are not quite certain. The 'mO, Levit. xvi. 5, 8, 10, 26. On the 
 Theodicy of the Book of Job, see § 179. 
 
 § 209. 
 We do not find in this period any more accurate 
 views of the spiritual nature of man. But it is the idea 
 of the divine law that here first appears with certainty. 
 Just as the Idea of a Deity has, from heing the property 
 of individual wise men, passed into the faith of the na- 
 tion by means of the conception of a national God ; so 
 the Idea of the divine law was to be introduced and 
 confirmed by the conception of a national law (a) . This 
 was done by the Mosaic law, by which all those duties 
 {b) which, in a weU-arranged State, must necessarily be 
 performed, were represented as God^s commands; but, 
 just on account of its being a national law, the Mosaic 
 law could not contain any prescriptions on the duties 
 towards men in general (c). As freedom had to begin 
 with the subjection of the sensual propensities, the law, 
 in a moral respect, was especially of a proMMtive cha- 
 racter [d) ; and Eeason yet being incapable of under- . 
 standing the intrinsic value of the law, this law had to 
 appear as the absolute command of a stern Ruler (e), 
 and obedience to it had to be effected especially by sen- 
 sible motives (by the dread of temporal evils, and by the 
 hope of temporal rewards) (/), and by basing it on the 
 feeling of national gratitude {g). Outward cleanliness 
 (Levit. xi. sq.) was partly necessary in those climates, 
 and partly meant to excite the feehng for the Pure and 
 Holy. External worship (Levit. i. sq. 16) was in- 
 tended to strengthen the Idea of the Deity in the minds 
 
138 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 of the people, and to nourish the veneration for God. 
 The meaning of the sacrifices was, that sin and punish- 
 ment do not exist absolutely, but are dependent on 
 God's Will, and that the way to freedom and life is 
 open for him who amends. 
 
 (o.) The Mosaic law appears throughout as a national law ; all its 
 single commandments, and also the Decalogue, are civil laws ; the 
 first and second Commandments are laws of State in a Theocracy. 
 There is no difference between moral and civil laws in the Mosaic 
 legislation, scarcely between a civil and an ecclesiastical law. 
 
 (S.) E. g. Veneration to the parents, Exod. xx. 12, xxi. 15, IV : 
 security of persons and property, Exod. xx. 13-17, xxi. 22 : matri- 
 mony and sexual propensity, Exod. xxii. 16, 19 ; Lev. xviii. 20 : pri- 
 vate vengeance, Lev. xix. 18 : foreigners, widows, orphans, Exod. 
 xxii. 21 aq., etc. 
 
 (o.) Levit. xix. 18 only means the love towards the fellow-country- 
 men, although in the New Testament this passage is applied to the 
 love towards all men. In the Mosaic law, the Book of Joshua, and 
 the Boot of Judges, God always appears as gracious only to the 
 Israelites, but as ungracious to other nations, on account of their 
 idolatry. 
 
 {d.) "Thou shalt not" is the common form, and the laws generally 
 point to the subjection of propensities, as seMshness, passion, ven- 
 geance, sexual propensity, etc. 
 
 (e.) The law is always pronounced as a positive one, proceeding 
 from the Will of the theocratic sovereign. God therefore is said to be 
 jealous with regard to obedience : Exod. xx. 5, xxxiv. 14 ; Deut. iv. 
 26, vi. 15. Hence this obedience is in the New Testament called a 
 slavish one. 
 
 (y.) As to punishments, see Exod. xxii. 24, xxiii. 22 ; Levit. xviii. 
 25, 28, 29, xix. 8, xx. 2-5, 10-13, xxvi. 14-4.1 ; Deut. vii. 10, xi. 
 16 «g., especially xxviii. 15-68. As to rewards, see Exod. xx. 6, 12, 
 xxiii. 25 ; Levit. xxvi. 6-13 ; Dent. iv. 40, v. 16, 29, vii. 12-15, xi. 
 13-15, especially xxviii. 1-14. 
 
 {g.) See Deut. x. 20 sq., xi. 1 sq. ; Levit. xxvi. 42. 
 
 §210. 
 In the Prophetical period especially, the following 
 points were more clearly elucidated: — That God loves 
 only those who keep clean from sin and are pious 
 
PERIOD OF MOSES AND THE PROPHETS. 139 
 
 (Psalm i., V. 5-7, xxxiii. 18 sq., ciii. 11-13, 17, 18) ; 
 that sacrifices do not please God by themselves, hut only 
 by the pure mind with which they are offered (Psalm xl. 
 7, 1. 8 sg., li. 18 sq.; Isaiah i. 11-18 j Jer. vi. 20; Hos. 
 vi. 6) ; that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of all 
 wisdom (Psalm cxi. 10; Prov.i.7 ; Job xxviii. 28), and the 
 practical worship of God is the maiu point (Isaiah Iviii. 
 1 sq. ; Micah vi. 6 sq.). On the other hand, we stUl find 
 the same motives for obedience (Psalm xxxiv. 10-23, 
 xxxvii. 73; Prov. ii. 21, iii. 7-10, x. 27), the same want 
 of knowledge of the general duties of man (Psahn vi. 
 11, XXXV., xciv. 1, 2, 13, 23; cix. ; cxxxvii.) ; morality is 
 stiU identical with the observation of the Mosaic law 
 (Psalm cxix.) ; and only in Ezekiel (xviii. and xxxii.) we 
 find an opinion expressed, that the misfortune of the de- 
 scendants cannot be a punishment for the faults of the 
 fathers. 
 
 §211. 
 The idea of the Divine law, and of a perfect obedience 
 to the same, could not possibly be fally appreciated in 
 this period, the Idea of Immortality not yet having come 
 into existence. A beginning of it may be found in the 
 conception of a subterranean abode of Shades (Psalm 
 xviii. 5, 6 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 5, 6 ; Job xi. 8), without life, 
 joy, or movement (a), whence nobody will return (Job 
 vii. 9 ; Psalm xlix. 8 sq. ; 2 Sam. xxii. 6) but by a mi- 
 racle (2 Kings ii. 1). The true conception of Immor- 
 tality was still entirely wanting (5). 
 
 (as.) ViMiS, the subterranean Empire of Darkness, often, but erro- 
 neously, translated "HeU" by Luther, a notion not yet knowB in the 
 Old Testament. See Psalm oxt. 17 sg[., vi. 6, Ixxxvni. 11 ; Jer. x;xxviii. 
 18 ; Job sir. 7-12, x. 18 sq. ; Psahn xlix. 6-16. In some of the 
 later writings this empire (though only in the form of a poetical fic- 
 tion) is considered more animated : Isa. xiv. 9-15 ; Ezek. xxxii. 21, 31. 
 
140 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (S.) The following passages, Ecol. ii. 16 sq., iii. 18-22, iv. 2, 3, ri. 
 4, ix. 1-6, and others, show this clearly ; they contain not so much 
 doubts on the Immortality of the Soul, as rather lamentations on so 
 many inexplicable questions, which are only to be solved by the doc- 
 trine of Immortality. The passages Job six. 25, Psalm xvi. 11, XTii. 15, 
 do not mean the resurrection of the dead ; and Isaiali xxvi. 19, Bzek. 
 xxxvii. 1-lOj mention it only as a poetical image. But in the Book 
 of Daniel, which belongs to the time of the Maccabees, the doctrine 
 of ImmortaKty is to be found (see Dan. xii. 1-3 and Mace, vii. 28 sq.) 
 
 III. The Revelation of Jesus Christ and the 
 Apostles. 
 
 1. Of the Christian Revelation in General, and its 
 Founders. 
 
 §212. 
 
 As introductory to Christianity, there was found in 
 the prophetical writings of the Mosaic period the anti- 
 cipation of a golden age of the Jewish nation, under the 
 dominion of a descendant of David, the Messiah ; from 
 whom a blessing on the Jews, the conversion of the Gen- 
 tiles, the promulgation of Grod's laws amongst all people, 
 and a perfect revelation, were expected. If all the pas- 
 sages in the Old Testament which point to a Messiah 
 cannot be considered as Messianic [a), yet in some pas- 
 sages the expectation is so certainly expressed {b), that 
 we have to acknowledge in them a dispensation of God's 
 providence preparatory to the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 (as.) The expression " that the Scripture may be fulfilled," and ex- 
 pressions of a similar kind, are only explanations and references for 
 the Jewish readers, who were accustomed to this usage. The pas- 
 sages Gen. iii. 15, xii. 8 ; Psalm ii., viii. 5, XTi. 10, xl. 8 sq., ex., 
 and many others in the Psalms, as well as in Zech. xi. 12 sq., xii. 10 sq., 
 xiii. 7, and in Isaiali vii. 14-16, are not Messianic. The 
 
CHRISTIAN REVELATION. 141 
 
 in Gren. xlix. 10 ; Hos. iii. 5 ; 2 Sam. vii. 16 ; Amog ix. 11 ; Joel iii. 
 1 sq. ; Zeph. iii. 9 sq, ; Zeoh. viii. 1 sq., are doubtful. 
 
 (i.) Isaiah U. 1 sq., ix. 2-7, xi. 1-16, xlii. 1 sq., ]x. 1 sq. ; Jer. 
 xxiii. 5-8, xxxi. 31 sq., xxxiii. 14 sq. ; Dam. vii. 13-28 ; Mieh. iv. 1 sq., 
 T. 1 sq. ; Haggai ii. 6 sq. ; Zech. ix. 9 sq. ; Kal. iii. 1, 4. Wtether in 
 Isaiah Iii. 1-15, and in the fifty- third chapter, we find the description 
 of the suffering Messiah, is uncertain ; in the time of Jesus these pas- 
 sages were explained as descriptire of him. 
 
 §313. 
 
 The Christian revelation announced itself as the per- 
 fect and last one (a), and therefore (what from its nature 
 it can also be) appointed for all times and aU people 
 (5), as it is evidently suited to the nature of mankind, in 
 aU. nations essentially the same, is compatible with every 
 form of government, and is neither bound to a holy 
 place nor does it prescribe actions (e. ff. pilgrimages) or 
 ceremonies which could not be oTiserved in all parts of 
 the world. 
 
 (a.) Matt. xxi. 37, xxriii. 18, 20 ; 2 Cor. iii. 11 ; Heb. i. 1, vii. 
 17-28. The kingdom of Christ is also described as one which wiU 
 endure untU the end of this world, e.g. 1 Cor. xv. 24-28, John t. 24. 
 
 (i.) Matt. xxTui. 18 sq. ; Luke xiii. 28-30 ; 1 Tim. ii. 4 ; therefore 
 the benefits of Christianity are described as being universal. 
 
 §314. 
 
 A perfect revelation could not be given until some 
 part of mankind was prepared to comprehend the idea of 
 one God and to renounce idolatry, nor could a speedy and 
 continuous propagation be expected untU the civilized 
 nations, by means of commerce and politics, were brought 
 into closer connection, and language and literature had 
 so far progressed as to render a quick interchange of 
 ideas possible. These conditions only commenced, and 
 kept a continued course, under Augustus Csesar, after the 
 
142 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 formation of the great Roman Empire. Before this time 
 a universal revelation could not have been made. 
 
 §215. 
 
 Christianity, during the course of eighteen hundred 
 yearsj has approached nearer and nearer, and is still pro- 
 gressing towards its destination, that of becoming a uni- 
 versal religion (a). No religion has at any time flou- 
 rished in so great a variety of country and climate, in 
 nations so differently civilized, and maintaiaed so peace- 
 able a union with such various governments, as the 
 Christian. As all things, including mankind and liberty, 
 are submitted to the law of gradual evolution, and fur- 
 ther, as Christianity is not alone an external but an 
 internal change of man, its spread could be only gra- 
 dual, and dependent partly upon the spiritual education 
 of the people, and partly upon the given probability of 
 an external spreading of the Christian Church (6) . 
 
 (a.) According to the calovilation of the British Bible Society, there 
 existed in the first century 500,000, in the second 2,000,000, in the 
 thirteenth 75,000,000, and at present there are existing 200,000,000 
 Christians, 140,000,000 Mahometans, 2,500,000 Jews, and 675,000,000 
 Heathens. Another calculation states 175,000,000 Christians, 9,000,000 
 Jews, 150,000,000 Mahometans, and 656,000,000 Heathens (compare 
 paragraph 9). Of the Christians it is calculated 90,000,000 are Eoman 
 Catholics, 35,000,000 belonging to the Greek Church, and 75,000,000 
 Protestants, or members of other religious sects. Mahometanism, 
 which is suited only to warm climates, and only accords with despotism, 
 has, by means of successful wars alone, disseminated its doctrines only 
 in warm countries. 
 
 (i.) The external spreading of the Christian Cliurch depended on 
 the discovery of the mariner's compass, the invention of gunpowder, 
 of printing, and the commencement of ocean navigation and universal 
 commerce ; before these events, the spread of Christianity in distant 
 lands was not possible. 
 
CHRISTIAN REVELATION. 143 
 
 §216. 
 
 Not only was the time of the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity well chosen for a perfect revelation, but equally 
 so was the people through whom the same was given, as 
 the Jewish nation, unlike any other, then had as their 
 national faith the belief in the true God, were filled with 
 the expectation of a coming Interpreter of the Divine 
 revelation, spoke and wrote the universal languages (the 
 Semitic, or Aramean, and the Greek), treated religious 
 subjects with zeal and reverence, and, though living dis- 
 persed in all the three parts of the world, yet stood in 
 connection at all times with Jerusalem {a) ; they were 
 therefore the most fitted to be the first bearers of the 
 revelation. The geographical position of Palestine also 
 made it a suitable country for the appearance of a general 
 revelation. Viewed in this connection, the former sepa- 
 ration of the Jews from other nations, their settlement 
 in Palestine, and their captivity, appear an intentional 
 preparation of the Divine wisdom. 
 
 (a.) Jerusalem was at that time one of the largest commercial towns 
 of the East, and commerce had then, as now, led the Jews into aU 
 countries near the Mediterranean ; but all attended the Temple ser- 
 vice at Jerusalem. 
 
 §217. 
 
 The Divine origin of the Christian revelation, shown 
 in the preceding paragraphs, is placed beyond a doubt ; 
 but the effect of Christianity on the mind and heart, and 
 its internal nature, must be to us the most decisive proofs 
 of its truth. It gives to aU who faithfully obey it {a) 
 that for which revelation exists (moral liberty), and de- 
 clares itself as a means of education of men in Freedom 
 or Rationality {i) . If then the ideal which Christianity 
 aspires to, namely the formation of mankind into one 
 
144 EEVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 family, in which shall reiga wisdom, peace, law, and 
 morality (c), Hke other ideals, is not reached, it has yet 
 in the course of time drawn nearer and nearer to this 
 ideal, and where it has not heen corrupted or counter- 
 feited {d), its efifects have been only beneficial to man- 
 kind (e). 
 
 (a.) This Jesus himself said, John vn. 17. It draws our attention 
 to the ideal of an all-perfect God : Matt. T. 48 ; 2 Cor. rii. 1 ; Eph. 
 IT. 23, 24 ; Col. iii. 9sq.; 1 Peter i. 15 sq. 
 
 (i.) John viii. 31-34 ; Eom. vi. 16-22 ; John i. 12, 13. This lies 
 also in the doctrine that Jesus has redeemed us from sin, which is 
 mentioned as the chief purpose of his mission : Matt. XTui. 11 ; Luie 
 xix. 10 ; John x. 10. Hence his name Jesus, <riijT^p. 
 
 (c.) Christianity represents mankind as equal in origin and descent, 
 equally heloyed hy God, having one Eedeemer, one Law, one Salva- 
 tion. The duty of universal charity; the dignity of man; slavery, 
 tyranny, etc. See ' Das Leben und dessen hSchste Zweoke in ihrer 
 allmahlichen Entvrictelimg und in ihrer VoUendung durch das Chris- 
 tenthum,' von C. C. W. Stark (2 parts, Jena, 1817). 
 
 (d.) The best is liable to abuse. Evils not proceeding from the 
 essence of Christianity, as Hierarchy, Inquisition, religious wars, can- 
 not be attributed to it, but to human passions. Christianity from the 
 sixth to the fifteenth century. 
 
 (e.) The extermination of idolatry, diminution of national animosi- 
 ties, misanthropy, slavery, tyranny ; the education of the female sex, 
 the awaking of cosmopolitism, erection of schools and colleges, freedom 
 to science, abolition of the traffic in slaves. See ' Die Wirkungen des 
 Christenthums auf den Zustand von Europa,' durch J. Eothe (aus 
 dem Danisch., 4 parts, Copenhagen, 1775); 'TTeher das Verhaltniss 
 des Christenthums zvx Entwickelung des menschhchen Geschleehts,' 
 von J. A.H. Tittmann (Leipzig, 1817). 
 
 §218. 
 
 No other proofs of the divinity of the religion of Jesus 
 than the foregoing are needed. The wonders performed 
 by Jesus, which certainly allow the inference that to him 
 was granted an extraordinary power (on which however 
 the metaphysical idea of a wonder (§ 153) is not with 
 certainty to be placed, and on which Jesus himself {a) 
 
CHRISTIAN REVELATION. 145 
 
 set only a relative value, like the proptecies [b) explained 
 by him, which, according to the ideas expressed, § 153, 
 cannot with fuU. certainty be argued, with the exception 
 of that of his resurrection, which from its result alone 
 obtains its importance), are only subjective evidence, 
 serving more to uphold the already established Faith than 
 to establish it. 
 
 (a.) See Matt. xii. 39 sg^., xvi. 1-4 j Mark viii. 12 ; Luke xi. 29 ; 
 John ii. 18 sq., iv. 48 : compare 1 Cor. xiv. 22 ; Matt. xii. 27 ; Luke 
 xi. 19 ; John xiv. 12. 
 
 (S.) See Matt. xvi. 21, xii. 38-40, xx. 18 sq., xxvii. 63 sq. ; Luke 
 xiii. 28-30, xviii. 32-34, xix. 42 sq., xxi. 6 sq. ; John x. 16. 
 
 §219. 
 
 The life of Jesus, as illustrative of man freed from sin 
 (John viii. 46 ; Heb. vii. 36 sq. ; 2 Cor. v. 21 ; 1 Peter i. 
 19, ii. 22 ; 1 Johniii. 5), shows what the Christian should 
 become (a). The conception of the plan of leading the 
 whole human family to such freedom shows the deepest 
 wisdom, the greatest strength of soul, and the highest 
 benevolence towards all mankind {b), and would, were 
 there no other proofs (c) existing, show most clearly that 
 Jesus was no self-deceived enthusiast. 
 
 {a.) The history of Jesus displays the Divine idea in his mission and 
 in the outpouring of the Spirit ; the idea of hberty, in his personal 
 morality, which compelled him to sacrifice his Ufe to obedience ; his 
 immortality, in his resurrection and ascension to hearen. 
 
 (i.) This subject is beautifully treated in ' Versuch fiber den Plan, 
 welehen der Stifter der christhchen EeHgion zum Besten der Menschen 
 entwarf,' von S. T. Reiohard (Wittenberg, 1708). Whether this idea 
 has been conceived by any of the sages of ancient times ? The com- 
 prehension of this idea was difficult especially to the Jevrs. 
 
 (c.) No criterion of enthusiasm is suited to Jesus. The enthusiast 
 is obscure and inconclusive ; he looks for the criterion of truth in fancy 
 and feeling, despises learning, the written word, and the worship of 
 his feUow-citizens ; he places the essence of piety in feeling and cere- 
 monies, makes for himself an individual morality, and considers the 
 
 H 
 
146 KEVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 end to justify the meana ; he is prone to persecute all who differ from 
 him in opinion, is attached to particularities and to an isolation of 
 himself. 
 
 §320. 
 
 Jesus' Christ {a), the Son of God, called with this pre- 
 dicate sometimes in a theocratical (b), and at others in a 
 physical (c) J metaphysical {d), and moral sense (e), was 
 bom, according to the general or Dionysian calculation, 
 in the year 753 A.tr.c, and in the forty-fifth year of the 
 reign of Caesar Augustus (Luke ii. 1) (/) . The Gospels 
 of St. Mark and St. John give no account of the birth, 
 childhood, and education of Jesus ; the two first chapters 
 of St. Matthew and St. Luke, which contain the relation 
 of his birth and infancy, appear to have been separate 
 small writings. According to them Jesus was conceived {g) 
 by the Spirit of God, born at Bethlehem, of Mary, a vir- 
 gin, of the house of David (Matt. i. 6-17; Luke iii. 23- 
 31), brought up at Nazareth (A), and, as it appears, edu- 
 cated for a rabbi, or doctor of the law, whilst he, accord- 
 ing to Jewish custom, learnt a handicraft (Mark vi. 3). 
 
 (a.) Jesus, i. e. the Saviour, Redeemer (Matt. i. 21), Christ, i, e. the 
 Anointed, King, rrtfo, the Messiah, is called in the Gospels XputT6s -. 
 with few exceptions by the women appellativwm Messiah ; but in the 
 apostolic writings mostly by the nomen, proprium Jesus. (Where the 
 Lutheran translation has "the Christ," "the Messiah" ia always un- 
 deratood.) 
 
 (6.) " Son of Q-od" ia uaed in a theocratical aenae in the Old Testa- 
 ment, regarding kinga either as representatives of &od or aa choaen 
 and selected by him (Psahn ii. 7, Ixxsii. 6), and is thus applied to the 
 Measiah, in whom the Jews expected to find a king. Thus, e.^.,Matt. 
 ivi. 16, compare with Luieix. 20 ; Matt, xxvii. 40, compare with Luke 
 xxiii. 35 ; John i. 50. The title " Son of Man," taken from Dan. vii. 
 13 sq., also denoted the Messiah. 
 
 (c.) Son of God, i. e. created by God (directly, as Adam), Lute i. 
 35 ; compare Matt. i. 18, 20. 
 
 (d.) Only by John and Paul was there united with Jesus, in a de- 
 gree, an essence of the Divine Logos (John i. 1, 14), or eternal spirit 
 (Hebrews ix. 14), a ray of the Nature of God (Hebrews iii. 12), pre- 
 
CHRISTIAN KEVELATION. 147 
 
 existent to the world (John i. 1, 2 ; Hebrews i. 10-12), and of a Di- 
 vine origin (Phil. ii. 6 sq,). This gave occasion for framing the subtle 
 theory of the person of Jesus declared in the Church's Athanaaian 
 creed. Whether Jesus receives (John i. 1-14, xx. 28 ; 1 John v. 20 ; 
 Eom. is. 5; 1 Tim.'iii. 16) the predicate God? The system of the 
 Subordinator (Arius) , which declared Jesus to be God in a subordinate 
 sense, rests upon John xiv. 28, xvii. 3 ; 1 Cor. ui. 23, viii. 6, xi. 3, xv. 
 27 sq. ; Acts iii. 14. In the Old Testament used for angels (Gen. vi. 
 T. ; Job i. 6 sq., xxxvui. 7). 
 
 (e.) In the moral sense of God pleasing men, whom he loves and re- 
 gards as children (2 Sam. vii. 14). This title is conferred upon God's 
 people (Exod. iv. 22 ; Hos. xi. 1 ; Eom. ix. 26 ; 2 Cor. vi. 18), and 
 on Christians (Matt. v. 9, 45 ; Luke vi. 35 ; Kom. viii. 14, 19 ; 1 
 Cor. vi. 18 ; Hebrews xii. 6-8) ; on Christ, as the beloved of God 
 (Matt. ui. 17, xvii. 5, xxvii. 43 ; Mark i. 11, ix. 7, xH. 6 ; Luke iii. 
 22, ix. 35 ; Col. i. 13 ; 2 Peter i. 17), who, as free from sin, is there- 
 fore the exact likeness of the absolute Being — of God (John viii. 32-36, 
 xiv. 9 £ ; 2 Cor. iv. 4; Col. i. 15 ; compare Eph. v. 1 ; Col. iii. 10). 
 
 (/.) The generally received calculation, made by the Eoman abbot 
 Dionysius the Less, probably placed the birth of Christ some years too 
 late ; because, according to that, he was not bom until after the death 
 of Herod the Great. Neither the time of the year, nor the day, of the 
 birth of Christ are exactly known. The ancient Church entertained 
 very different opinions on the subject. The Greek Church kept the 
 festival of the birth of Christ on the 6th of January ; the Western 
 Churches kept Christmas as the universal festival of the birth of 
 Christ only from the fourth century. Probably it took the place of 
 the Saturnalia, which concluded with the feast of the Solstice (25th 
 December), and was applied to the rising of the spiritual Imninary. 
 
 (ff.) Luke i. 35 ; Matt. i. 13, 20. The Jews considered Jesus to be 
 the son of Joseph and Mary : Mark vi. 3 ; John vi. 41 sq. 
 
 (h.) According to Luke, Joseph and Mary, before the birth of 
 Christ, lived at Nazareth (Luke i. 26, ii. 4, 39) ; according to Matthew, 
 at Bethlehem, and did not reside at Nazareth until a later period 
 (Matt. ii. 1, 22). 
 
 §331. 
 
 After John, a near relation of Jesus, had through the 
 not unusual rite of baptism admonished the Jews to 
 moral improvement, and had announced the approach of 
 the Kingdom of God (a), Jesus, in his thirtieth year, 
 
 h3 
 
148 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 came forth publicly as a teacher, and declared himself, as 
 he was obliged, in order to find entrance to his nation, to 
 be the promised Messiah (Matt. xvi. 13, xxvi. 64; Mark 
 viii. 27 ; John iv. 16), and the founder of the Kingdom 
 of God (Matt. iv. 17, x. 7 ; Mark i. 15 ; Luke iv. 43, 
 X. 9) ; but at the same time he corrected the earthly ex- 
 pectations which the Jews had of this kingdom, and took 
 no part in any political designs {b). From the people he 
 gained applause and belief, partly on account of the doc- 
 trine which he taught, partly on account of the miracu- 
 lous cures wrought by him. He was the most hated by 
 the Pharisees, Sadducees, lawyers, and priests. The first 
 were the defenders of the Jewish traditions, the greatest 
 zealots for the ancient creeds and ceremonial services, 
 and were the most powerful party in the state; the 
 Sadducees upheld strictly the Mosaic ordinances and 
 representations, but rejected traditions and the doctrine 
 of the resurrection, and denied the existence of spirits 
 and freedom. It appears (c) that Jesus escaped their 
 snares for three years, chiefly because he avoided Jeru- 
 salem ; but was taken hy them when, according to re- 
 ligious duty, he celebrated the Feast of the Passover with 
 his disciples : he was accused of uproar {d) before the 
 Roman prosecutor, Pontius Pilate, and was by his order 
 crucified. On the third day after this event, he showed 
 himself to his friends again alive, — an occurrence the 
 truth of which is sufiiciently warranted (e) ; was then 
 separated from this earthly sphere, and exalted to the 
 land of perfection (/) . 
 
 (a.) John belonged probably to the school of the Bssenes ; aocord- 
 iag to John i. 31, he did not know Jesus before he taught ; and even 
 at a later period (Matt. xi. 2-6, Luke vii. 18-21) was doubtful in 
 him. The Essenes rejected the taking of oaths, abstained from matri- 
 mony, despised riches, had a community of possessions, various classes 
 
CHRISTIAN REVELATION. 149 
 
 of the initiated, and lived in retirement from the world. (For an 
 Account of the Jewish sects, see Josephus, Antiquities, xiii. 5 and 
 rviii. 1, and Wars of the Jews, ii. 8.) It has been supposed that 
 Jesus also belonged to the Essenes ; but Jesus taught the belief in a 
 Providence and Eesurrection, both of which the Essenes denied j he 
 blamed the rigorous observance of the Sabbath, which they extolled ; 
 he permitted the Hberal use of various foods (Mark vii. 18), they 
 made use only of bread, water, salt, and hyssop ; he allowed the use 
 of oil,* they rejected it ; he placed but httle value on fasting (Matt, 
 xi. 9, Mark ix. 14-16), they a great one ; Jesus preferred friendly 
 intercourse with society, the Essenes loved retirement from it. 
 
 (i.) Matt. xi. 14 (Luke xvU. 20 sq.) ; John xviii. 33-37 ; see also 
 John vi. 15. He also intended his kingdom for G-entiles aa well as for 
 Jews (Matt. viii. Usq., xxi. 33 sq., xxii. 2 sq. ; Luke xiii. 23 sq. ; John 
 X. 16, xvii. 2) ; promoted moral improvement as the main condition 
 of prosperity (Matt. v. ui., xvi. 23 sq. ; Mark i. 1-8 ; Luke iii. ; John 
 i. 2 -29) ; foretold the fall of Jerusalem and the Jewish States (Matt, 
 xxiv. ; Mark xiii. ; Luke xxi.) ; taught his followers to renounce all 
 earthly recompense (Matt. xx. 27, 28 ; Mark ix. 30 sq. ; Luke ix. 23, 
 xviii. 31 sq.) ; and declared that the design of his mission related to 
 spiritual things alone (Matt. ix. 12 sq., xi. 28 sq. ; John xviii. 37). 
 
 (o.) This rests merely upon St. John in his Gospel mentioning only 
 three Passovers, which Jesus kept. Has John not left some unmen- 
 tioned ? 
 
 (rf.) Matt, xxvii. 11, 17, 22, 29, 37, 42 ; Mark xv. 2, 9, 12, 18, 26, 
 32 ; Luke xxiii. 2, 3, 37, 38. According to John, they accused him 
 of blasphemy, because he had called himself the Son of God ; John 
 XLx. 7, 8 ; compare ch. v. 18, and Levit. xxiv. 15, 16. 
 
 (e.) The doubt in the first instance, and the after firm faith of the 
 Apostles, their frank appeal to this fact, their sorrow for Jesus, the 
 number of Jews who became Christians (Matt, xxviii. ; Mark xvi. ; 
 Luke xxiv. ; John xx. sq. ; Acts ii. 22-41 ; 1 Cor. xv. 14-18). The 
 slight variation in the narrative only enhances yet more its credibility. 
 
 (/.) I. e. After that demonstration, he was exalted to heaven. The 
 Apostles generally considered that Jesus, after his Eesurrection, as- 
 cended to God in heaven : Mark xvi. 19 ; Acts iii. 21 ; 1 Peter iii. 
 22 ; 1 Tim. iii. 16 ; 1 Thess. i. 10 ; Eom. viii. 34 ; 3 Cor. v. 8. Luke 
 only relates a visible, ascension, ch. xxiv. 50 ; Acts i. 9-12. But he, 
 as well as Paul, was not an eye-witness of it. On the dogmatical im- 
 portance of this fact, see § 241. 
 
 * Matt. vi. 17, xxvi. 6 sq. ; Luke vii. 38. 
 
150 KEVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 On the life of JesuB, see J. J. Hess, Lebensgeschiohte Jesu (2 vols. 
 Ziirioh, 1794) ; Herder's Chiistl. Sohriften, Iste and 2te Saml. ; Das 
 Leben Jesu von If azareth, von J. 0. Qreiling, Halle, 1813 ; G-esehichte 
 des Christentkums und der Periode seiner ersten Einfiihrung in die 
 Welt durch Jesum und die Apostel, von G-. J. Planck (2 parts, &ot- 
 tingen, 1818). 
 
 3. Christian Doctrine of Faith. 
 
 §323. 
 
 The Christian revelation, as the last and therefore 
 perfect one, fully developed the ideas of God, of liberty, 
 and the Divine commandments, in as far as they had not 
 yet been promulgated, and added the idea of the redemp- 
 tion, or an immortal consummate life after death, thereby 
 essentially defining its character in relation to the earlier 
 revelation (a). 
 
 (a.) Others consider the idea of the Propitiation as the fundamental 
 idea of Christianity, whilst they grant man to be in a ruined condi- 
 tion, and submit to the Divine punishment, which Jesus, through the 
 atonement, has abolished ; but in that case the idea is too narrow, 
 as here also the salvation from a state of sin must precede the redemp- 
 tion from punishment. The Propitiation wiU be always considered as 
 a part only of salvation, as an acquisition of Life and freedom from 
 death, since it declares partly that immortality cannot be claimed as 
 the reward of virtue (§ 122), and partly that in the evolving circum- 
 stances of life occurrent srus do not hinder the execution of the Divine 
 purpose (Grace of Q-od). Compare § 245 sq. 
 
 §333. 
 Concerning the idea of God, Jesus and the Apostles 
 confirmed the doctrine of the earlier revelation (§§ 336, 
 243), especially that of the unity of the Divine Nature 
 (John xvii. 3 ; 1 John v. 20 ; 1 Cor. viii. 5 sg. ; Eph. iv. 
 6), but farther taught that God is an invisible spiritual 
 Being (a) and entirely perfect [1), possessing in himself 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OP FAITH. 151 
 
 his origin and counselj and needing nothing out of him- 
 self (c)j therefore the happiest (1 Tim. i. 11, vi. 15), upon 
 which most consummate hfe the existence and Hfe of the 
 universe depends {d) ; also a Being of absolute innate 
 goodness, from whom good only proceeds (e), and who 
 only imposes affliction in order to better (/). But as 
 through Jesus belief in God should become the property 
 of all men, so (in opposition to the Mosaic law) Chris- 
 tianity lays particular stress upon the goodness of God, 
 exhibiting him as Father to all men, watching over all 
 people, not excepting the wicked (g), and willing that all 
 should be brought to freedom and immortality through 
 Jesus {h). 
 
 (a.) Eom. i. 20 ; Col. i. 15 ; 1 Tim. i. 17. The same, together with 
 that erpressed by the image of light, aooording to the Scriptures, the 
 symbol of inner purity ; 1 Tim. vi. 16 ; John ir. 24, irveu/tio S @e6s. 
 "A spirit" (irvcO/io) is therefore also ascribed to Viim which differs 
 from any other, his Spirit (irv£v/ia 0coC) or that called the " Holy" 
 Spirit : Lute iii. 21 sq. ; Matt. iii. 16 ; John xt. 26 ; 1 Cor. ii. 10 sq. ; 
 Acts T. 2-4 ; 1 Cor. iii. 16 ; compare 2 Cor. ¥i. 16. 
 
 (S.) If this is not signified by t4\uos (perfect). Matt. t. 48, it is 
 certainly signified by the word " alone" frequently placed before the Di- 
 Tine attributes, as /nSvos &ya$is, Matt. xix. 16 ; fi6vos a\n9ip6s, John v. 
 44 ; it,6vos (ro(j>is, Eom. xvi. 25 sq. ; also 1 Tim. vi. 16. 
 
 (c.) Acts xvii. 24 sq. ; John v. 26 ; 1 Tim. vi. 16 ; Eom. ix. 6-24 ; 
 Eph. i. 5 ; 1 Cor. i. 21, 27 ; Acts xv. 18. 
 
 (d.) John V. 17, 26 ; Acts xvii. 27 sq. ; Eph. i. 11. 
 
 (e.) 1 Peter i. 15 sq. ; 1 John iii. 3, i. 15 ; James i. 13, 17. 
 
 (/.) 1 Cor. xi. 32 ; Heb. xii. 5-11. 
 
 (ff.) Matt. V. 45 ; Lube vi. 25 ; Matt. vi. 9, xxiii. 9 ; 2 Cor. i. 3 ; 
 1 John iv. 8, 16 ; Titus iii. 4, (j>i\avBpanria. 
 
 (h.) 1 Tim. ii. 4 ; Titus ii. 11. He caused all to be called, inclu- 
 ding the Gentiles : Matt. xxii. 2-10 ; Lute xiv. 16-24 ; Matt. xxi. 
 33-43, viii. 11 sq. ; John x. 16 ; Lute xv. 1-10, and the same, v. 11-32, 
 the beautiful narrative of the Prodigal Son, the syrdbol of an apostate 
 people, as the son of the house is of the Jewish people : further. Acts 
 X. 23, 34 sq., xi. 18. Eespeoting Paul, see § 220. 
 
152 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 §224. 
 
 As the Scriptures often mention the Spirit of God, and 
 St. John and St. Paul often make mention of the Son of 
 God, in a metaphysical sense, as uniting themselves in 
 Jesus, and making the idea of God, as a Spirit, clear, 
 whilst they represent him working in his most high 
 power as " Father," making and teaching the world ac- 
 cording to his most high reason as "Word" {a), and 
 sanctifying mankind according to the unrestricted bene- 
 volence ofhiswiU as "Holy Ghost :"t\as,{h), in union 
 with the dispute (c) which arose in the fourth century, 
 gave grounds for the forming of the Church's theory of 
 the Trinity {d), which, through the medium of the Ni- 
 cene and Athanasian Creeds, has become the universal 
 doctrine of the Christian Church, from which only the 
 Anti-trinitarians or Unitarians dissent (e). 
 
 (a.) h6yos, John i. 1-3, 14 St. Paul uses only the expression "Son.' 
 ti6yos, according to the Hebrew signification, " Word," creative teach' 
 ing ; according to the Greek, Reason : both are derived from one. 
 
 (i.) The placing together of the Father, Son, and Spirit ia the pas- 
 sages Matt, xxvui. 19 ; Mark xvi. 15 ; 1 Cor. xii. 4-6 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13 
 1 Peter i. 2. The passage 1 John v. 7, " There are three that bear 
 record in heaven," etc., is decidedly a later and counterfeit addition. 
 Only a single edition, and that a modern one (the Dublin or Mont- 
 fort) has this passage ; in all others it is missing, and therefore is not 
 to be found in the early editions of the German Bible. 
 
 (c.) The Arians, then Macedonians, Pneumatologists. Before the 
 Council of Nice (325), no unanimity existed respecting the doctrine of 
 the Son and the Spirit. 
 
 {d.) The essence of this doctrine is the assertion of the oneness of 
 the Divine substance, but at the same time of the threefold nature of 
 the subject, distinguished by the name of persons. Neither the expres- 
 sion "Trinity" nor "Persons in God" are to be found in Scripture 
 (comp. § 343). 
 
 (e.) Chiefly the Socinians (Poles and Transylvanians) and the Sub- 
 ordiuators (Arians, England). 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 153 
 
 §225. 
 
 Concerning the creation, preservation, and government 
 of the world, the Christian doctrine only precisely deter- 
 mines that God either created the materials of the world 
 or created it from nothing (Rom. iv. 17 ; Heb. xi. 3) ; and 
 only St. John and St. Paul use the ancient expression ia 
 regard to the Son of God (Heb. xi. 3 ; Rev. iv. 11 ; John 
 i. 2, 3, 10 ; Heb. i. 2 ; 1 Cor. viii. 6 ; Col. i. 16 sq.), that 
 the world was created by his Word, the government and 
 preservation extending even to the most insignificant 
 (Matt. X. 28-31). 
 
 §226. 
 
 Christianity likewise teaches the existence of higher 
 spirits. Angels (messengers), and describes them as spirits 
 (Heb. i. 14 J compare Col. i. 16), and therefore without 
 sensual necessities (Luke xx. 36 ; Matt. xxii. 30) ; as spi- 
 rits of light (Matt, xxviii. 3 ; Luke ii. 9 ; 2 Cor. xi. 14 ; 
 Mark xvi. 5), creatures of God (Col. i. 16), of high intel- 
 lectual and moral perfection (Luke ix. 26, xv. 10; 1 Tim. 
 V. 21 ; compare Matt. xiii. 41, 49, xxiv. 31, xxv. 31 ; 2 
 Thess. i. 7) ; and therefore as taking an actual share in 
 the foundation of Christianity (Luke i. 11, 26, ii. 9 sq., 
 xxii. 43 ; Matt, xxviii. 2 ; Acts i. 10, v. 19 sq. ; Heb. i. 
 14), but not perhaps being creatures worthy of Divine 
 worship (Rev. xix. 10, xxii. 9 : compare Col. ii. 18). The 
 names which have been attributed to some of them are 
 only symbolic ; to us they are typical of the freedom of 
 man in a state of perfection. 
 
 §227. 
 The Jews, during their captivity in Babylon, also ge- 
 nerally accepted the belief in evil spirits (James ii. 19 ; 
 Matt. X. 1, xii. 43; Luke xi. 24; 2 Cor. ii. 11; Eph. 
 
 H 3 
 
154 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 vi. 11 sq. ; John viii. 44) inimical to mankind^ which they 
 considered to be under the dominion of Satan or the 
 Devil (Matt. is. 34, xxv. 41), but yet in subjection to 
 God (James ii. 19) -,. some even considered them as fallen 
 angels (a). They were described as determined enemies 
 to the Redemption (Matt. iv. 1 ; John xiv. 30, xiii. 2, 
 27 ; 2 Cor. ii. 9-11 j Eph. vi. 10-19 ; 1 Peter v. 8 sq.) . It 
 was also believed that they, under the form of idols, suf- 
 fered themselves to be worshipped, and worked the oracle 
 (Acts xxvi. 18; Eph. ii. 2, vi. 12; 2 Cor. iv. 4; Col. i. 
 13 ; 2 Tim. ii. 26) ; and it was thought also that they 
 existed partly as bound in the nether world (2 Peter 
 ii. 4; Jude 6), partly as working freely amongst men 
 (1 Peter v. 8), partly as in the air (Luke x. 18 ; Eph. vi. 
 12, ii. 2), and partly as sojourning in desert places (Matt, 
 xii. 43 sq.). AU diseases in which man was not quite 
 master of his body or mind were attributed to their in- 
 fluence (demoniacal) . But while Jesus and his disciples 
 agreed in the then popular opinion, they deprived them 
 of all power over the souls of Christians by these means, 
 pointing them out as the cause of sin in the sensual 
 nature of men (James i. 14 ; Rom. i. 21-24, vii. 14, 25 ; 
 Gal. V. 19-24 ; compare Matt. xv. 19, 20), teaching that 
 Satan has no power over such as withdraw themselves 
 from the dominion of sin, and that Christ has destroyed 
 the power of the Devil (John xii. 31, xvi. 11 ; 1 John iii. 
 8-10, iv. 4, v. 18 sq. ; James i. 14, iv. 7). To us evil spi- 
 rits are typical of captivity, particularly those who cloak 
 their obedience to sensual inclination with the appear- 
 ance of wisdom {SatfiovuuBrj's ao^la, James ui. 15 ; com- 
 pare John viii. 44), and serve sin not from ignorance, but 
 from systematic irreligion. 
 
 (a.) See Jude 6 ; 2 Peter ii. 4. But this was not the muveraal 
 opinion, as Josephus declares them to be the departed souls of bad 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF PAITH. 155 
 
 men (' Wars of the Jews,' book 7, eh. vi. § 3). But Satan is nowhere 
 represented as a self-existent principle of evil, independent of Q-od, 
 Hke Ahriman in the religious system of Zoroaster. 
 
 §238. 
 Christianity agrees with the Old Testament in repre- 
 senting man as a creature of God (Matt. xix. 4; 1 Cor. 
 xi. 9, 15), and the whole race of mankind descending as 
 a family from one pair (Matt. ix. 4 ; Rom. v. 12, 15 sq. ; 
 Acts xvii. 26), possessing dominion over all other earthly 
 creatures (1 Cor. xi. 7; James iii. 9). But it also 
 teaches that the spiritual part of man, the independent 
 principle of all reasonable knowledge (1 Cor. ii. 11) and 
 aU moral freedom (Rom. vii. 14 sq. ; Gal. v. 17), differs 
 (Luke xxiv. 39 ; Matt. x. 28 ; Luke xxiii. 46) from that 
 of the sensual body, and that the aim of mankind is 
 conformity to the image of God in knowledge and 
 virtue (Eph. iv. 24; Col. iii. 9; 1 Peter i. 15; 2 Peter 
 i. 4; 1 John v. 18; Acts xvii. 28 sq.; compare 1 Cor. 
 xiv. 20; Matt. v. 48; 1 John ii. 3-6); therefore the 
 most important care of man is declared to be that for 
 his spiritual, and particularly his moral improvement 
 (Luke ix. 25, xii. 31 ; Matt. vi. 33 ; John vi. 27). 
 
 §229. 
 In man is found a twofold principle, which determines 
 him to action, — the carnal nature (the flesh), which is 
 ignorant of Divine law, and the spiritual or reasonable 
 nature (the soul), by virtue of which he has knowledge 
 of Divine law, and by that fixes his own sentiments 
 (Matt. xxvi. 41 ; Rom. vii. 14-25 ; Gal. v. 17-25) ; there- 
 fore the Gentiles also, as possessing reason, recog- 
 nize the law in the conscience (Rom. ii. 14 sq., 25 sq.). 
 The Christian throughout must not permit instinct, but 
 
156 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 the law of the Spirit, to predominate in himself (Rom. 
 vi. 6, 12, viii. 4-10, xiii. 14; 2 Cor. vii. 1; Gal. v. 16; 
 1 Peter i. 15, ii. 11 ; 1 John ii. 15 sq.), — what, in re- 
 gard to the early immorality of the Christians, was de- 
 nominated a new birth (Gal. vi. 15 ; Eph. ii. 10, 21, iv. 
 22; John'iii. 3 sq.). 
 
 §230. 
 In reference to the Mosaic dispensation, Christianity 
 has these peculiarities : — Istly, That it releases the Di- 
 vine law from the nature of a national law ; and there- 
 fore the whole Mosaic law, with but few exceptions, is 
 declared as cancelled to Christians (a) ; but, on the con- 
 trary, the moral precepts present a universal law for all 
 , reasonable creatures (5), written by God in their minds 
 (Heb. viii. 10 sq. ; Rom. ii. 14 sq., 25 sq.). 2ndly, That 
 Christianity considers these moral precepts, not merely 
 as the law of a sovereign power, but as in themselves 
 good and holy (Rom. xii. 2, compare vii. 12), and obe- 
 dience to it to proceed from love of goodness, especially 
 of God as the prototype of all perfection, thus promo- 
 ting not a servile but a childlike obedience (c). 3rdly, 
 That Christianity not only opposes the law to the 
 workings of instinct, but extends itself to the hallowing 
 of the whole internal disposition {d). 4thly, That Chris- 
 tianity declares the Divine law as absolutely valid, and 
 extending beyond this life (e). 5thly, That Christia- 
 nity acknowledges nothing as virtue that does not pro- 
 ceed from motives agreeing with the law(/). 6thly, 
 That Christianity entirely separates moral duty from 
 the ceremonial service and external worship of God, 
 unconditionally promoting morality {g). 7thly, That 
 Christianity imposes on its followers an imitation of the 
 exemple of Jesus as a, pattern of perfect morality ,(Rom. 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 157 
 
 xiii. 14 J Eph. iii. 17); and Stlily, That Christianity 
 extends the duty of charity beyond the narrow limits of 
 a nation to the whole human race. 
 
 (a.) This happened through the remarkahle resolution of the Apo- 
 stle (Acta XV. 1, 5-29). Exceptions are only, let, the eating of things 
 offered in sacrifice to idols, of Wood, and the flesh of strangled ani- 
 mals ; the two last were rather rules of diet for hot cUmates, than 
 moral laws : 2ndly, the iropvcla, i. e. incest (1 Cor. v. 1 sj.), or the mar- 
 rying within such degrees of blood-relationship as were prohibited by 
 the Mosaic law. Matt. t. 17 : the words here used concerning the 
 fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies in the person of Christ do 
 not contradict what Jesus himself declared (Matt. ix. 14-17 j Mark 
 ii. 21 «2. ; Luke t. 36 sq), i. e. that he would not found his doctrine 
 upon the Mosaic law. The Decalogue, as early recognized by Luther, 
 is regarded by us not as a Mosaic but a Christian law. The Sab- 
 batical laws were declared, in the early times, as not binding on Chris- 
 tians (Matt. xii. 1-8). 
 
 i.) This hes in Luke xv. 10 ; compare 1 Tim. ii. 4, 
 
 (o.) John xiv. 31 ; Rom. xiU. 5 ; 1 John ii. 3-6 ; Eom. viii. 15 ; 
 Gal. iv. 4-7 ; 1 John iv. 18 sj., v. 3 ; compare § 243 ; James iii. 13-18. 
 
 {d.) It is not merely of a prohibitory nature, like the Mosaic, of 
 which 1 Tim. i. 9 therefore speaks ; it is given to sinners as a counter- 
 action to the impulses of instinct, and only by threats (2 Cor. iii. 9 ; 
 G-al. iv. 5) and prohibition overthrows them (Rom. vii. 7, 8) ; against 
 which see Matt. v. 21-48 ; Luke xviii. 11 sj. ; compare Eph. v. 1. 
 
 (e.) Matt. xvi. 21-23 ; Mark viii. 31 sq. ; John xiv. 31 ; Matt, xviii. 
 8 sq. ; Mark ix. 43 sq. ; Luke xv. 26 sq. ; Acts xx. 23 sq. ; 2 Cor. xui. 8. 
 These particularly show the example of obedience towards God in the 
 death of Christ. 
 
 (/.) Matt. vi. 1-8, V. 16-18; Luke xiv. \2,sq. 
 
 (jg.) Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7, xv. 7 sq. ; Mark xii. 33 ; concerning Levi- 
 tical purity, see Matt. xv. 11-20, xxiii. 25 ; Acts x. 11 sq. ; Kom. xiv. ; 
 Titus i. 15 sq. ; Matt, xxiii. 5, 27 ; Luke xx. 46 sq. ; against which see 
 Matt. vii. 21-27, xix. 17 ; Rom. ii. 13, 25 sq., vi. 22 sq. ; Matt. xii. 
 47-50 ; James i. 22 sq., ii. 14 sq. 
 
 §231. 
 
 Christianity lays down no universal form for moral 
 actionSj since it is not a system, and announces itself as 
 Divine law in general as well as in particular ; still it 
 
158 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 gives general rules, which the law, stated in § 105, pro- 
 nounces in particular ; and there are references to God's 
 moral perfection as an ideal for our attainment (§ 236) ; 
 the precept of love to God (Matt. xxii. -36-40 ; Mark 
 xii. 29 sq.), i. e. to the Perfect One, because God being the 
 most perfect is the only object for the highest love of 
 reasonable beings ; the precept of love to ourselves and 
 others, which agrees with the esteem of the worth of the 
 rational nature of mankind (Matt. xxii. 36-40 ; James i. 
 9), in relation to the other commandment, to show to 
 others the respect and charity we expect from them 
 (Matt. vii. 12; Luke vi. 31). 
 
 §232. 
 
 An arbitrary choice between good and evil (§ 113) is 
 nowhere ia the New Testament attributed to man, and 
 still less is Freedom named ; but it calls him who obeys 
 instinct a slave, and only he who acknowledges the truth 
 and regulates himself according to the law a freeman 
 (Johnviii. 32 sq.; Rom. vi. 16-22; 2Cor. iii. 17; James 
 i. 25; 2 Peter ii. 19). But it is evident that all the 
 actions of men axe dependent on knowledge (§ 111), and 
 virtuous actions on the knowledge of good (a) ; and that 
 man has ia himself the power to call up the example of 
 good and duty (§ 113), and thereby to determine his will 
 to moral actions [b). 
 
 (a.) Matt. vi. 22, 23, " Tlie light of the body is the eye," etc. The 
 sense is, that as the kaowledge of all bodily actions is limited to the 
 bodily eye, so the knowledge of all moral actions is limited to the light 
 that is in you. Compare Liike xi. 34-36 ; John xi. 10 ; Eph. iv. 17 sq., 
 where the wickedness of the heathen is traced back to their ignorance ; 
 John i. 12, where it is said that all who have received the Divine 
 iUuroination become children of God, i. e. free. 
 
 (6.) This is shown by the example of Jesus in the history of the 
 Temptation (Matt. iv. 1 sq. ; Lukeiiv. 1 sq.), where the spirit of evU 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTKINE OF FAITH. 159 
 
 calls up each time a contradictory duty. " Moral degeneration and 
 improvement can only be the results of the formation,- or of the ob- 
 scuring and destruction, of certain trains of thought" (Beinhardt, 
 Moral, vol. i. p. 344). 
 
 §333. 
 
 It is expressly said that sin, or disobedience to the 
 law, are only relative (§ 118), and not arising before man 
 knew the law and referred his actions to it (John ix. 41, 
 XV. 22; Rom. iii. 20^ iv. 15, v. IS {a); James iv. 17); 
 therefore St. Paul rightly maintains (Rom. xiv. 23; 1 
 Cor. viii. 7) that indiflFerent actions become sins when 
 regarded by the actors as sinfcd {b) . 
 
 (o.) Bom. V. 13 is to be translated, before the promulgation of the 
 law by Moses, there were materially sins in the world ; i. e. men acted 
 against the law, but without recognizing the action as sinful, or them- 
 selves as guilty. 
 
 (h.) Bom. xiv. 23. The sense is, he who sinfully indulges in for- 
 bidden foods, with the doubt whether such indulgence is permitted, 
 commits a fault, because he lacis the condition of permission ; and 
 where this condition is wanting, the action (in itself indifferent) is 
 always sin. But it is impossible to pervert this passage and say, all I 
 do, if I consider it right, is not punishable j for this passage has au- 
 thority only in regard to indifferent actions, not in respect to such 
 sins as are forbidden by the law ; thus a murder, though its motive 
 may be a noble one, ever remains a crime. 
 
 § 234. . 
 
 The manner and way in which sin originated is, ac- 
 cording to the New Testament, exactly as described in 
 § 119, and its root is placed in the combat in which man 
 has to oppose his moral formation for freedom, to the 
 strength of the early awakened and ever-active instinct 
 of his sensual nature (Rom. ii. 5 ; Gal. v. 19 sq. ; James 
 i. 13-17). It is consequently taught that sin is uni- 
 versal (Rom. iii. 9, 23), and likewise that it originated 
 in the first man (a) . The state of perfect freedom is 
 
160 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 placed before us only as attainable in the future, after 
 the conquest of sin. 
 
 (o.) This lies in the passage Eom. v. 12 sq., where Paxil does not 
 say that the first man possessed and lost freedom, i. e. perfect virtue, 
 but only that he, like all his descendants, has sinned. The meaning 
 of the Apostle is this, that " the Divine grace, which vouchsafes eternal 
 Ufe through Christ by God, is not merely, as the Jews imagine, con- 
 fined to themselves, but plainly extended to all mankind ; for it will re- 
 voke the punishment of sin (everlasting death) , see § 239 . Sin however 
 is universal ; for since Adam sinned and his descendants likewise (al- 
 though before the promulgation of the law their deeds were not recog- 
 nized as sin), all feU under the same punishment. But like as sin and 
 punishment are universal, so must grace (by the redemption of Jesus) 
 be also universal to aboKsh sin and its punishment." (Comp. § 193.) 
 
 Prom this passage and the account in Gten. iii. (concerning which 
 compare § 204), the Church has derived its doctrine that Adam was 
 in a state of perfect Freedom ( = State of innocence, the image of G-od), 
 in which, had he not sianed, he would have remained ; but through the 
 eating of the fruit of the forbidden tree, he lost the Divine image and 
 became sinful, in which originated the lasting transmission of moral 
 corruption (i. e. original sin), according to which man, from that time, 
 has become naturally incapable of moral perception and inclination, 
 and naturally capable only of sin ; from which follows of itself that 
 each individually can be illuminated and bettered by no other means 
 than through an immediate operation of God (work of Grace). As 
 a part of the Christian Church (Austin, Calvin) holds the opinion 
 that man can neither promote nor oppose the operation of Grace 
 (the Lutheran Church maintains that man can oppose, and thereby 
 seeks salvation, though an imperfect one, in the self-efficacy of man), it 
 therefore follows that they only whom God has chosen will become 
 illuminated and bettered, which is called Predestination. But the 
 passages of Scripture, quoted for this doctrine, are partly such where, 
 according to the theocratical context of the Old Testament (see § 
 207, e), the accoimt is given of the obstinacy and blindness of the 
 enemies of God's people, partly such (as Kom. vni. 28-30, ix. 11-22, 
 vii. 11, 25) as give an account, not of God's election of certain Chris- 
 tians to happiness, but of His Goodness in calling the Apostles and 
 the first believers in Christianity from the Jews and Gentiles. (Com- 
 pare the discussion on the Epistle to the Bomans, § 193.) 
 
CHKISTIAN DOCTRINE OP FAITH. 161 
 
 §335. 
 
 As it needed Divine illumination to conform the 
 human race to liberty, so Christianity considers all 
 knowledge of good amongst the human race as proceed- 
 ing from this illumination, or the Spirit of God. And 
 although man, when once enlightened, can and wiU by his 
 own efficacy continue therein (John viii. 32 ; Matt. xiii. 
 23, xxii. 3 ; Acts ii. 41 ; Eom. x. 13-17), yet acquisition 
 of moral Freedom requires of the Christian great self- 
 exertion (Matt. iii. 2; Eph. i. 17, iii. 16; see passages 
 quoted in § 228). 
 
 §236. 
 
 Sin therefore (§ 121), according to the New Testa- 
 ment also, is not abiding, but transient, and should be 
 no longer found with the freed Christian (a); all general 
 evils, as well as those which hefall the improved Chris- 
 tian as the consequences of his renounced sins, lose their 
 character of punishment and become fatherly guidances 
 to good (5). 
 
 (a.) This say the phrases, " To put off the old man, and put on the 
 new, created after &od," see § 228 ; compare John i. 12 sq., iii. 3, 6 ; 
 Phil. iv. 8. And this also is included in the idea of a moral kingdom 
 of Grod, IQ which the Holy Ghost dominates. 
 
 (S.) Heb. xii. 4 sq. Guilt only remaias and retains its punish- 
 ment with those who sin against the Holy Ghost, and despise the 
 Divine illumination and commandments (Matt. xii. 31 sq. ; Mark iii. 
 28 sq. ; Luke xii. 10 sq.). 
 
 § 237. 
 
 If the human soul were not immortal (a), the sensual 
 life, and not the Divine law, would appear as the highest 
 rule for man's conduct ; the Divine revelation therefore, 
 of necessity, perfectly developes the idea of immortality, 
 and makes it the common property of all men ; and 
 
162 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 Christianity, in regard to the earlier Divine revelation, 
 exhibits, as a distinctive feature, this idea under the con- 
 ception of redemption from the power of death and sin. 
 
 (a.) Matt. X. 28, xvi. 26, 1 Oor. xv. 29-32, where St. Paul ex- 
 presses the idea. It would he foolish to suffer much or to sacrifice life 
 for those who are not immortal ; fooHsh in such a case to sacrifice life 
 to duty, as the rule for life would then be, " Let us eat and drink 
 (enjoy pleasure), for tomorrow (soon) we die." " Thet/ who are 
 hapUzedfor the dead," should have been translated — they who devote 
 themselves to destruction for those who are really dead and Uve not 
 again, — those who expect no immortality. 
 
 §238. 
 
 The idea of immortality (§ 132) was, by means of the 
 revelation (called manifestation, § 147), certainly not 
 whoUy unknown to the people, although not understood 
 by them in its purity. They certainly believed in a life 
 after death, but imagined it only as a sensual life, and 
 did not comprehend (a) the idea of a spiritual existence 
 with God, the resurrection of the soul to heaven. This 
 is shown in the idea of the resurrection of the dead {b), 
 promulgated in the religious system of Zoroaster (b.c. 
 600), with which system the Jews became acquainted 
 during their exUe, and partly adopted it (c), and also ia 
 the idea of the transmigration of souls, so prevalent 
 amongst the ancients {d). 
 
 (fl.) Ideas of the Greeks and Bomans : C. L. Struve, ' Historia 
 Doctrinse Grsecor. et Eomanor. Philosophorum de Statu Animajnim 
 post Mortem' (Altona, 1803). It was believed that only a few men 
 were raised (in their bodies) to the Grods ; these were then wor- 
 shipped as gods or demigods. The purer idea of Socrates was an 
 exception to the rule, and did not change the faith of the people. 
 
 (S.) The ' Zend-Avesta' contains a twofold idea, i. e. the idea of a 
 resurrection to a life on the perfect earth, and to a Hfe elevated to 
 Gtrotoman (the sphere of heaven, i. e. the more refined and purer parts 
 of ether). The second idea seems to be the later, as the ' Zend-Avesta' 
 in its present form can scarcely date its origin &om Zoroaster, espe- 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 163 
 
 ciaUy the book ' Bun-Delieseh,' whicli was written many years after 
 Zoroaster. See C. W. Fltigge, ' Q«8oliiolite des Gl-laubens an XJnsterb- 
 licKkeit,' etc., part ii. p. 250 sq. ; ' Zend- Areata, oder Zoroasters leben- 
 diges Wort,' etc., von J. F. Elenker (Riga, 1776-77, 3 parts), and 
 the extracts from it, 'Zend-Avesta im Kleinen,' etc., von Elenker 
 (Riga, 1789). 
 
 (o.) This is proved from what Joaephus says about the representa- 
 tions of the Pharisees, Saddueees, andEasenes. The Pharisees believed 
 the soul destined to a subterranean place of reward and puniahment, 
 and only partly beheved in the metempaychoais. The Saddueees 
 denied the Immortality of the Soul ; the Basenes believed that pious 
 souls went into an Elysium on the other side of the Ocean, and the 
 wicked into a subterranean Tartarus. StiU there were in Josephus's 
 time some philosophers among the Jews (like Philo, afer Plato), who 
 expected a resurrection of the soul to heaven (into the pure ether). 
 
 {d.) The doctrine of the Transmigration of Souls (jifTcvffufi.dTaa'is, 
 HCTefuf/ixao'is, transfigwatio), "metempsychosis," teaches that de- 
 parted souls enter successively into other bodies, either of men or ani- 
 mals. See 'Schickaale der Seele, Wanderungshypothese unter ver- 
 schiedenen Tolkern and in verschiedenen Zeiten,' von C. Th. Conz 
 (Konigab., 1791). Believera in this doctrine are to be found in India, 
 Egypt, among the Greeks (Pythagoras), Jews, etc. 
 
 §239. 
 
 In order to awaken the true idea of immortality^ it 
 was necessary, firstly, entirely to destroy the conception 
 of a continuous or renewed life of the soul on or under 
 this earth ; and secondly, to establish the idea of the tran- 
 sition of souls from an earthly to. a super-earthly habita- 
 tion (heaven). The ancient opinion of the Jews respect- 
 ing the nether world (a) had, in the time of Jesus, be- 
 come modified, inasmuch as they held it to be divided 
 into two parts, Paradise and Gehenna (5), the first being 
 the abode of good, the second of wicked souls (Luke xvi. 
 22, xxiii. 43; Acts ii. 31-34; 1 Peter iii. 19, iv. 6); this 
 state was however believed to be so imperfect and joyless 
 as to be called death (c), and was regarded as the conse- 
 quence of sin [d). The foundation of this opinion rested 
 
164 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 on the belief that the unregenerate man who continued 
 in sin could not attain the transition to a higher and 
 more blissM existence. 
 
 (a.) Vide § 22. In Luther's translation of the Bible, the expres- 
 sions are not distiuctly enough marked : the word Mell s! ands usually 
 for the Hebrew word Scheol and the Greet Modes, but it should only 
 be used where GeTienna is meant in the New Testament. 
 
 (i.) (Jehenna, TUma, the Hebrew DisTj !« " the valley of Sirmom," 
 where children were saoriSced to Moloch (1 Kings xi. 7 ; 2 Kings 
 XTi. 3, 4, Twi'i 10). In later times the bodies of criminals, unclean 
 animals, etc., were burned there ; hence the t«rm "Gehenna" was like- 
 wise used to denominate the place of punishment for wicked human 
 souls. Its figurative description has been derived in part from the 
 Dead Sea (hence the description of Hell as a lake burning with fire 
 and brimstone, fire-torment. Matt. xiii. 42 ; 2 Peter ii. 6 ; Acts xiv. 
 10), and in part from the ancient notion of Hades (hence as a place 
 of darkness, Matt. xxv. 30 ; Jude 6, 13), and in part from the grave 
 (hence the picture in Mark ix. 44-48). 
 
 (4.) In the New Testament death (flrii/oroj) is everywhere placed in 
 opposition to eternal life, and is there considered as the continuing 
 punishment for sin. In these passages the mortality of the body is 
 not understood, but the deprivation of life, especially eternal life, by 
 God. Thus John v. 24, when he says, " He that leameth my words, 
 and beUeveth in me, shall not come into condemnation (into judgment, 
 i. e. death in consequence of sin), but is passed from death unto life." 
 Parallel passages appear in this Epistle, and in Kom. v. 12 sg. ; 1 Cor. 
 XV. 21 sq., 54-57 ; 1 Thess. iv. 13 sq. ; 2 Tim. i. 10. The bodily death 
 is considered as a natural thing : vide 1 Cor. xv. 38, 42-50 ; 2 Cor. v. 
 1-4 ; Heb. xi. 13. 
 
 {d.) This is proved by Kom. v. 12 sq. 
 
 § 240. 
 
 Jesus and the Apostles, in reference partly to the 
 just-mentioned views of their Jewish contemporaries, 
 and partly to those of the Grreeks and Romans, teach 
 that there is after death a resurrection to a new life (a), 
 as the soul, after the death of its earthly body, shall be 
 newly clothed {b) with a body composed of the purified 
 elements of the natural one, and capable of knowledge 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 165 
 
 and feeling ; that it shall be entirely separated from this 
 earthly life (c) ; that with this entrance into a new life 
 there will commence a state of retribution {d), when they 
 who continue in sin shall be separated from the good, and 
 go for amendment (e) into a world full of sufferings (/); 
 but those who are freed from sin shall be received into 
 a more blessed and perfect sphere (ff), where, by mutual 
 intercourse [h), they shall attain to a state of still higher 
 perfection and happiness (i). Furnished with enlarged 
 powers of perception, these beings will appear in an en- 
 tirely new {k) world, of which we have no conception. 
 
 (a.) Although the Eesurreotion and the Ascension to heaven is de- 
 Borihed, 1 Cor. xv. 52, X Thess. iv. 16 sq., and in other passages, as but 
 one change which ■will happen but once, yet other passages may be 
 found where the heavenly hfe is represented as beginning directly after 
 the death of the individual. Thus, even if the statement of Luke xvi. 
 22 sq. and xxiii. 43 is not taken into consideration, it is yet plainly ex- 
 pressed in John v. 24 : " And shall not come into condemnation" (in 
 Luther's translation, " into judgment," " in das Gericht"), i. e. he shall 
 not come into the state of death in Hades, but has received the as- 
 surance that on his death he will rise to eternal hfe (oomp. 1 John 
 iii. 14 sq.). In his Epistle to Philemon, i. 23, St. Paul views " the de- 
 parture" and "the being with Christ" in heaven, as two states closely 
 allied. A similar idea is also expressed in 2 Cor. v. 8, Heb. ix. 27, iv. 
 1, where this life is compared to the Israelites' pilgrimage through the 
 wilderness, and the fehcity of heaven to their rest in the Land of Pro- 
 mise, and the entrance into the eternal as in timately connected with 
 the departure from this eartlily life. In Heb. xh. 22-28 the souls of 
 the departed, and in Eev. vi. 9-11, vii. 13-17, the souls of the Mar- 
 tyrs, are described as already dwelling in heaven : John v. 28, also Acts 
 xxiv. 15, refers to the general resurrection. 
 
 (i.) This idea is expressed by Paul, 1 Cor. xv. 51 sq. ; 2 Cor. v. 1-4; 
 PhU. iii. 21. This new body is called angeKe, heavenly, spiritual, glo- 
 rified, immortal : Luke xx. 35 sq. ; 1 Cor. xv. 42, 44, 47, 48, 52, 54 ; 
 Phil. iii. 21. 
 
 (c.) Fide the passages Note (as) and John xiv. 2, 8, " In my 
 Father's house are many mansions," etc. ; Phil. iii. 20, " Our con- 
 versation (better, Tiome) is in heaven j" Heb. iii. 1, i. 34 j compare 
 Acts ii. 31-84. Men are strangers and pilgrims on the earth, and 
 heaven is their country, Heb. xi. 13-16. 
 
166 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (d.) The fiaal retribution is described as a judgment and a sen- 
 tence, John V. 20, 29 ; Acts x. 42, XTii. 31 ; 1 Theas. iv. 16 j com- 
 pare Matt. xvi. 27 sq., xxv. 31 sq. 
 
 (e.) The separation of the good from the wicked, Matt. Tu. 22, xiii. 
 41 »5f., xxT. 31 sq. The world of suffering is represented, like Grehenna, 
 as second death (return to the state in Hades), Eev. xx. 6, 11-14 ; 
 xxi. 8 ; 1 John ui. 14 sq. The state of the wicked is the opposite to ever- 
 lasting life , (John iii. 16, v. 29). The wicked will be excluded from the 
 conununity of the just, and will suffer great pain in G-ehenna (Matt. 
 xiii. 48 sq. ; 2 Thess. i. 9). The punishment therefore will not consist 
 in the torment of a wicked conscience alone, but also in the state of 
 that world which they will inhabit. That their condition has grades 
 may be concluded from Matt. x. 15, xi. 22-24 ; Luke x. 12, xii. 47 sq. 
 Causes of damnation are mentioned in the New Testament, as, con- 
 tinuing in immorahty of Ufe (Eom. ii. 6-16 ; Matt. vii. 21, xxv. 41 sq. ; 
 
 1 Cor. vi. 9) ; constant and wilful rejection of the Divine revelation 
 (John iii. 18 ; 2 Thess. i. 8, h. 12), and apostasy from Christianity 
 (Markviii. 34: sq., xvi. 16) ; for "but he that beHeveth not," should be 
 "but he who turns apostate" (Heb. x. 26 sq. ; 2 Peter ii. 1-3). 
 
 (y.) The state of the wicked is hypothetically eternal, i.e. if they 
 do not repent. That repentance may and can happen, is taught not 
 alone by the nature of the matter itself, but also by Luke xvi. 27 sq. ; 
 moreover vide § 142. The overruling of sinful action to the fuither- 
 anee of Divine purposes, stipulates the possibihty of the repentant 
 sinner renouncing his sins, i. e. he can by this means become quiet in 
 his conscience. 
 
 (g.) This is contained in the expressions ' heaven,' ' paradise.' The 
 dehverance from the corruptions of the sinful nature, Kom. viii. 21 sq. ; 
 
 2 Cor. V. 1-9 ; 2 Thess. i. 7 ; 2 Cor. iv. 17. That grades of happiness 
 wUl exist, is found in Luke xii. 47 sq., xix. 16-19 ; Kom. ii. 6 ; 2 Tim. 
 iv. 8. 
 
 Qi.) John xvii. 24; 1 Thess. iv. 13-18; 2 Thess. ii. 1; Heb. xii. 
 22-24. 
 
 (j.) Matt. V. 8, XXV. 21; 1 Cor. xiii. 9-12, 13. The idea, verse 12, 
 " For now we see through a glass darkly," would be more correctly 
 expressed, " Now the future appears to us dark and obscure, as though 
 looking at it in a speculum (^ffoitTpov) :" verse 13, " Now abideth fiiith, 
 hope, charity." 
 
 (i.) 2 Peter iii. 7-13 ; Eev. xx. 1. As to the man bom blind, this 
 world would, if he received eyesight, appear as a new sphere j even bo 
 to the spirit endowed with enlarged faculties will be the appearance of 
 the next world (1 Cor. ii. 9). 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 167 
 
 §241. 
 
 The overthrow of the ancient theory^ that the departed 
 remained on earth, was especially effected by the resur- 
 rection and ascension of Jesus, as the emblem of that 
 which should happen to every Christian after death {a). 
 To comfort the then living respecting the fate of their 
 pious forefathers, who were (especially by the Jews) be- 
 lieved to be in the nether world, the Apostles taught 
 that redemption from the state of death was not alone 
 extended to the Living, but also to those departed prior 
 to the time of Jesus, and that He, when his soul rose 
 from Hades, had at the same time liberated from thence 
 the souls of their pious forefathers {li) . 
 
 {a.) Jesus himself, and especially his resurrection, are not considered 
 as the only pledges of immortahty (1 Cor. xv. 21 sq. ; John iii. 15 sq., 
 vi. 27, 29, 40, Tiii. 51) ; but the Holy Spirit also, or rather its opera- 
 tion, namely the enlightenment and sanotiflcation of the soul for a 
 better existence, which Paul calls the earnest of the eternal life (Eom. 
 viii. 11-17; 2 Cor. y.5sq.; Eph. i. 14, iv. 30). 
 
 (J.) Christ's descent into Hell : vide Eph. iv. 9 ; 1 Tim. iii. 16 ; 
 1 Peter iii. 19 sq. AH these passages are dark, and, when they plainly 
 teach a descent into Hades, can only be considered as consolatory to 
 the Jewish readers, but not as a doctrine of Eaith for us. 
 
 §242. 
 
 It was the especial caUing of Jesus to redeem man 
 from sin and the fear of death, or to lead him to free- 
 dom and the hope of immortality (Matt, xviii. 11 ; John 
 i. 12, 13, iii. 15 sq., 36, v. 24, viii. 51, xi. 35 sq., xvii. 2, 3). 
 Christianity therefore is throughout described as the in- 
 stitution of Salvation, and Jesus, as his name signifies (a), 
 the Saviour {Xarrjp), Prototype and Father of the free, 
 spiritual man, as compared with Adam, the Prototype 
 and Father of the natural, sinful man (Eom. v. 14 sq. ; 
 1 Cor. XV. 45 sq.). 
 
168 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (».) Jesus, according to the Hebrew, SaTiour, Redeemer, DeKverer, 
 one who brings blessings : Matt. i. 21 ; Luke i. 31, ii. 21 ; Johniv. 42. 
 
 §243. 
 
 Jesus proved himself a Saviour from sin, firstly, by 
 his doctrine, in which he not only instructed man in a 
 true knowledge of God, the Divine law, and immortality, 
 hut also intended this knowledge to he the common pro- 
 perty of all, and, hy this, enlightened and prepared men 
 for, and led them to freedom and to deliverance from the 
 dominion of sin (a), which is also to be regarded as a re- 
 conciliation of man with God, since sin is a state of en- 
 mity with God. 
 
 (a.) Lute iv. 18-21 ; John i. 12 sq. ; 1 John iii. 3-10 ; Eph. ii. 1-5, 
 iv. 20 sq. ; Tit. ii. 11, 12 sq. Christianity therefore is called, James i. 
 25, the perfect law of liberty ; Jesus, therefore a prophet (Matt. siii. 
 57), teacher (Matt, xxiii. 8, 10), the Ught of the world (John Tiii. 12, 
 xii. 46). 
 
 §244. 
 
 Jesus proved himself a Saviour from sin, secondly, 
 by his life ; his being the perfect model of a life of the 
 purest morality (a), which places before ns, even in very 
 difficult duties {b), the possibility of attaining to the 
 moral aim, and still further urges us to its imitation 
 by the symbol of retribution, consisting in the resurrec- 
 tion and ascension of Jesus to God {d), consequent on 
 his virtuous life; thus holding forth to us a powerful mo- 
 tive for the imitation of his example. 
 
 (a.) Heb. vii. 26 sq. ; 1 John. iii. 5 ; 1 Peter i. 19, ii. 22 ; 2 Cor. v. 
 21. The value of these apostolic testimonies. 
 
 (5.) In placing before us the duty of loving our enemies, of sacri- 
 ficing worldly advantages and life for duty, the suffering of wrong 
 without revenging it or redressing it by unlawful means. 
 
 (e.) fide § 282. The objects for our imitation are not so much the 
 several actions of Jesus, as the motives which formed the foundation 
 of his actions. To put on Jesus Christ, Eom. xiii. 14 ; Eph. iii. 17. 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 169 
 
 {d.) Pliilipp. ii. 8, 9. 
 
 (e.) Bom. iy. 25, "was raised again for our justification" (Redemp- 
 tion from sin) ; 1 Peter i. 3 ; compare John xii. 50 ; Luke x. 25 sq. 
 
 § 245. 
 
 Jesus proved himself a Saviour from sin, thirdlVj by 
 suffering death on the cross, which act is placed in con- 
 nection with the work of salvation for a threefold rea- 
 son : firstly, because it was the death of a sinless man ; 
 secondly, that of the Son of God ; and thirdly, because 
 it was a death determined by God, by the accomplishing 
 of which Jesus showed a perfect obedience to the Divine 
 command (a). The general opinion of Christ's death 
 is, not only (6) that he suffered for the best of men, 
 but more especially as a sacrifice for the sinner (c), and 
 for the atonement of sins committed prior to conversion 
 to Christianity [d) ; that this sacrifice cleanses from all 
 sin, and awakens to ai holy life (e) ; and that it laid the 
 foundation of the Christian Church, by means of which 
 mankind will be led to Freedom and be emancipated 
 from the dominion of sin (/) . 
 
 (o.) That Jesus died innocent, without sin, Heb. vii. 26 sq. That he 
 died as the Son of God, mde John and Paul, e. g. Bom. yiii. 32 ; John 
 iii. 14, Yi. 10, 17, 18. That he died in obedience to the Divine law, 
 Matt. xvi. 21-23 ; Mart viii. 31 sq. ; John xiv. 31 ; Bom. .. 19 ; 
 PhH. ii. 8 ; Heb. x. 5, 6. 
 
 (6.) John X. 11 sq., iii. 14 sq. ; 2 Cor. t. 21 ; Bom. w. 25. 
 (o.) John, etc. In these passages it is not declared how their sense 
 is to be understood, neither is there any mention of those sins for 
 which this sacrifice was offered. 
 
 (d.) This rests on the time being stated, Bom. v. 8, 11, " when we 
 were enemies with G-od," unconverted Christians. Comp. 6, 8 ; Heb. 
 yi. 6 ; 1 Peter ii. 24 ; and probably also John ii. 2. 
 
 (e.) 1 John i. 1. " The blood (j. e. the sacrificial death) of Christ 
 cleanaeth from sin," i. e. from all unrighteousness, from the further 
 commission of sin as verse 9 shows. From the death of Christ it is fre- 
 quently concluded that the Christian should no more commit sin, e. g. 
 1 Pet. u. 24 ; 1 Cor. vi. 20 ; Tit. ii. 14 ; compare v. 12 ; Heb. ix. 14. 
 
 I 
 
170 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (/.) Matt. xxvi. 28 ; compare xx. 28 ; luke xxii. 20 ; John xi. 50- 
 52 ; 1 John iii. 6 ; 1 Cor. Tii. 23 ; 1 Peter i. 18 sq. 
 
 §246. 
 
 The doctrine of the Atonement should partly destroy 
 the Theory of the state of death in the nether world, as 
 a puni^ment for sin; because this theory, in its sub- 
 jective consequences upon the human mind, weakened 
 the eagerness for moral freedom, since no mortal man can 
 feel himself perfectly innocent ; partly too it should abo- 
 lish the elder and more deeply rooted conception which 
 regarded sacrifices as reconciliatory equivalents for obe- 
 dience to the Divine law, which conception destroyed the 
 idea of the holiness of the law, and of the absolute neces- 
 sity of virtue; but these (ideas) should be so abolished as 
 to assure the mind of the pei^ect holiness of the law ; and 
 that the substitute provided (a) satisfied that holiness, 
 and took on himself the punishment of those only who 
 amended. Therefore the Christian revelation was by 
 these means connected with the ancient religious ideas, 
 in a manner the most conformable to them, without oc- 
 casioning a difference so wide as to endanger morality. 
 
 From the doctrines specified in § 245 we therefore 
 draw the important lessons: — 1. That, according to 
 God's will, punishment and sin shall be transitory ; that 
 therefore, when the sinner truly repents, the grace of 
 God and the way to eternal life shall not be closed to 
 him; for without this conviction the sinner would not 
 have courage to strive to amend his life. 2. That sacrifices 
 and other reconciliatory works are unnecessary and use- 
 less, since they abolish neither gmlt nor punishment, nor 
 can replace the want of obedience to the Divine laws. 
 The obedience to the will of God [b), shown by Jesus, 
 teaches, 3, That life is not our most valuable possession, 
 
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF FAITH. 171 
 
 but that the moral law, as a universal law, ranks higher 
 than life, and can demand life as a sacrifice to it ; that 
 liberty consists in obedience to the Good, and is not the 
 choice which may be made between good and evil ; and 
 that the destiny of man is not to enjoy the pleasures of 
 the world, but to execute the wiU of God. In conclu- 
 sion, 4, The death of Jesus, as it stands in connection 
 with his resurrection, is a confirmation of the truth of 
 his whole doctrine, upon which the early Church of 
 Christ, as an institution of Salvation, was founded, and 
 which we have still as a valuable pledge for our Faith in 
 the Christian doctrine in general, and especially in that 
 of immortality. 
 
 (as.) It waa a general opinion in the first centuries that the death of 
 Jesus as a ransom had liberated men fi-om the power of the nether 
 world, and procured for them a life with God (Immortality). But a 
 clearer idea was soon received, which was perfectly developed by the 
 schoolman Anselm (Archbishop of Canterbury, in the beginning 
 of the eleventh century), namely that by sinning man dishonours 
 God, and, since the majesty of God is eternal, brings on himself eternal 
 guiltiness, and therefore that the sacrifice of a mere mortal was insuf- 
 ficient, and that nothing less than the sacrifice of an incarnate God 
 could be accepted as of sufficient worth to satisfy and re-estabhsh the 
 blemished honour of the Deity, and to blot out the eternal guilti- 
 ness. This was the work of Jesus, whose voluntary sacrificial death, 
 as berQg the sacrificial death of an incarnate God, was of eternal 
 worth, the merit of which God transfers to man, on that ac- 
 count regarding him as innocent. — Jiistification. — This theory is 
 followed by Luther, and the symbolical books of our Church. On 
 the other hand, the opposition of the Socinians induced Hugo Grotius 
 (' Defensio Fidei Catholicse de Satisfactione Christ! adversus Faust. 
 Socin.,' Lugd. Bat. 1617-8) to receive this doctrine in the following 
 manner : — Not God himself, but the Divine law, is offended by sin. 
 Without infringing the hohness of the latter, God cannot remit the 
 punishment of eternal death, incurred by original sin, imless this 
 sin is atoned for by a substitute. Christ, the sinless, ofiered himself 
 to suffer the punishment for man, if by this means man might be 
 pardoned. God agreed to accept this death as a satisfectory equi- 
 
 i2 
 
172 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 Talent for the sin of man, and in consequence of this now pardons 
 him. 
 
 (S.) Fide John xiv. 31. 
 
 3. Christian Ethics. 
 
 §347. 
 Virtue, in the Christian sense {a), consists in the con- 
 stant striving to assimilate our minds to a likeness with 
 God, or, which is the same, to Perfection or Liberty, or, 
 to use the words of the New Testament, to pay a child- 
 like obedience (§ 230) to that which must be acknow- 
 ledged, either from Holy Scripture or from Keason and 
 Conscience, Eom. ii. 14, 15, to be the general {b) will 
 of God. This striving must be always progressive, 
 and have for its highest and noblest foundation love to 
 God (c) (or, in other terms, to Perfection) : Gal. vi. 9 ; 
 2 Thess. iii. 13; Col. i. 10; Phil, i, 9 sq. ; Matt. xxii. 
 35 sq. ; 1 John ii. 3-5, iii. 24, v. 3. 
 
 {a.) The word virtue in its moral sense is not to be found in the 
 Holy Scriptures, but other equivalent expressions, as observance of the 
 laws of God, SMtuoffini (Matt, v . 6, etc.), perfecting holiness, ayioaiin) 
 (2 Cor. vii. 1), euirt'/Seio, Godliness, Piety, and others. 
 
 (6.) Care must be taken in studying the Holy Scripture not to confoimd 
 general duties with those that regard the individual alone ; and of the 
 latter, those only are to be taken which, as general sentiments, concern 
 every man ; e.g. the demands of Jesus (Matt, xix. 31) only concerned 
 those who would be followers of His earthly Hfe : for us, its general 
 sentiment is, that the higher blessings are to be preferred to low and 
 transitory possessions ; that he who desires to be a true Christian must 
 hold love for earthly things as subordinate to the love for perfection 
 or heavenly things : it is therefore an abuse of these passages to infer 
 from them that voluntary poverty was a part of Christian perfection. 
 
 (o.) Eeinhardt explains the love of God in the New Testament ac- 
 ceptation of the expression (' Moral,' vol. ii. p. 34), as the ruling en- 
 deavour (arising from the full approval of aU institutions founded by 
 God for om- welfare and mental improvement) to become, by as exact 
 a fulfilment of his laws as possible, more and more worthy of His 
 approbation, and more and more Uke Him. 
 
man's duties towards himself. 173 
 
 §348. 
 
 Agreeably both to reason and law, there exists but one 
 virtue, because all law arises from one holy will of Grod, 
 namely the continuous and entire submission of our will 
 and actions to the commands of duty or the wiU of God. 
 But in regard to this matter there exist several virtues, 
 or individual duties (according to the difference of the 
 subject to which duty and its purport relate), which will, 
 according to § 106, be now more closely explained. 
 
 (a.) Man's Duties towards himself. 
 
 §249. 
 
 Man's duties to himself are restricted, according to 
 § 105, to this general rule, — treat thyself according to thy 
 dignity as man, or according to such rules as must be 
 regarded as general laws for all rational beings j or, strive 
 to conform thyself, as far as thy nature or circumstances 
 permit, to the likeness of God. 
 
 §350. 
 
 As it is designed that every man shall develope his 
 talents and powers agreeably to his nature, so the greater 
 the talents he possesses the more will duty require of him 
 to accomplish (a) (Matt. xx. 1 sq., xxv. 14 sq. ; Luke xii. 
 47 sq) . But all men must be satisfied with the gifts re- 
 ceived from Nature, because God has distributed them 
 (Rom. xii. 3-8 ; 1 Cor. xii. 7 sq.). Therefore it is the duty 
 of every man to become acquainted with himself (Matt. 
 vii. 3-5), i. e. with the natural talents he has received, 
 and his mental development in each period of his life. 
 
 (o.) In opposition to this endeavour, stands Idleness, the fault which 
 fears and shuns every exertion of power. Loitering, which flies from 
 
174 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 a purposeftil activity when attended witli exertion, and wastes time 
 either by doing nothing or by aimless doing, dreaming, playing. 
 Value of time ; consequences of a wise use of time, especially to stu- 
 dents : Ars longa, vita brevis. Importance of variety/ of knowledge, 
 especially in science ; duty of becoming acquainted with every science 
 wliich one has ability and opportunity to learn. (Study for a mainte- 
 nance.) 
 
 §251. 
 
 We must especially esteem the dignity of our rational 
 nature, and show this esteem in all our actions (James 
 i. 9, iii. 9) (a) ; we must also cultivate our mental, which 
 are our nobler powers, and on which our dignity rests 
 (Mark viii. 36; Luke is. 25, xii. 31, x. 40-42), and, 
 as they are capable of perfection, we must develope {&) 
 them more and more, till they approach the ideal of 
 perfection (Matt. v. 48), remembering our immortal de- 
 stination (Heb. xiii. 14). But as the aim of perfection 
 is endless (1 Cor. xiii. 9-11), it is necessary to com- 
 bine with the consciousness of our acquired perfection 
 and our merits, true humility (c) (2 Cor. x. 12 sg. ; 
 Rom. xii. 3, 16; Phil. iii. 12 sq.), i. e. to possess a lively 
 consciousness that we are stOl at a distance from oiu" 
 pattern (Jesus Christ). 
 
 (o.) Self-esteem, that feeling which reminds us in all our actions of 
 the dignity of a rational and iree being. In opposition to this stands 
 abjectness and servility. A servile nature cares so Kttle about human 
 dignity that it suffers this dignity to be wounded by others, and 
 wounds it carelessly in others ; that is, a being of such a nature suffers 
 himself to be treated as a something lower than man, and extends the 
 same treatment to his fellow-men. 
 
 (S.) This development should extend to all the mental powers 
 proportionally, as far as the natural talents and circumstances of 
 the individual allow (comp. § 98). Partial education of those es- 
 pecially intended for certain stations, e. g. Philologists, Theologians, 
 Jiuists. 
 
 (c.) In opposition to humility, stands pride, immodesty, self-suffi- 
 ciency. 
 
man's duties towards himself. 175 
 
 §252. 
 
 We must seek to enrich our intellect with useful 
 knowledge of every kind, especially such as belongs to 
 our profession, and carefully use for this purpose those 
 years exclusively devoted to the acquisition of know- 
 ledge (ffl). The True in every relation, but especially the 
 rationally true (Rom. xv. 14), being always the Good, 
 should be regarded by us as holy {b), and we must not 
 only zealously seek for it (Eph. iv. 13 sq. ; 1 Cor. xiv. 20 ; 
 Heb. xiii. 9), but also respect it above everything (Luke 
 xiv. 26 sq. ; Acts xx. 23 sq. ; 2 Cor. xiii. 8), and profess 
 and further it (Matt. xxvi. 69 sq. ; Acts iv. 19 sq., v. 29) . 
 Condemnation and persecution of the True is a great 
 moral crime (Matt, xxiii. 37 ; Luke xiii. 34 sq.) . 
 
 (a.) Special duty of students. It is impossible to retrieve that 
 which is lost in school or college. 
 
 (J.) The " Ime of the Tme" i. e. the constant striving to bring our 
 knowledge more and more into harmony and certainty, and, by ac- 
 knowledgment and representation, to maintain the dignity of a rational 
 being. To the lover of the True, therefore, not only is the quality of 
 the True and the freedom of his ideas from contradictions of import- 
 ance, but that the material of the True, the substance of his ideas 
 should be real, i. e. " perfectly conformable to his wants and his posi- 
 tion in this world" (Eeinhardt's ' Moral,' vol. ii. p. 184) is equally im- 
 portant. Opposed to the love of Truth, stands a lying disposition, 
 which delights in spreading deception, and goes as far as in the end to 
 belie itself (John viii. 44). Stubbornness of opinion^ delusions of self- 
 ishness respecting truth. 
 
 § 253. 
 
 But knowledge raises itself above mere self-serving 
 prudence to wisdom (Matt. x. 16), because it combines, 
 with the culture of the intellect, a formation to true 
 morahty. It is our duty to endeavour after a perfect 
 subordination (a) of our instinct to reason or Divine law 
 (§ 229), to make every moral perfection our own, and 
 
176 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 to avoid all immorality (Phil. iv. 8 ; Matt. vi. 19-23, 
 V. 29 sq.) ; for as the whole Divine law rests on one 
 holy foundation (James ii. 10, 11), all the command- 
 ments, not alone the easy, but the diflScult, should be 
 held sacred by us (Matt, xxiii. 24 ; Luke xi. 41 sg.). We 
 must therefore endeavour after a perfect knowledge of 
 the moral law, as well in regard to the nature as to the 
 amount of its commandments; and at the same time 
 strive after such stability of moral character (Heb. xii. 4, 
 xii. 13 ; comp. Matt. x. 28) as that virtue should become 
 a habit {b), and we should prefer the Divine law to every 
 human will (Matt. xv. 3, 6; Acts v. 29) and every 
 earthly advantage (Matt, xviii. 8 ; Mark ix. 43 sq.), ful- 
 filling this law from pure motives, and consequently 
 without venality (Lulie xiv. 12 sg'.) (§ 230 sq.). 
 
 (a.) Subordination of mBtinot to the Divine law is not, as monkish 
 asceticism commands, a destruction of instinct, which is unnatural 
 and in most cases impossible. Instinct in itself is not sinful, but only 
 becomes so when it stands above the law. — Self-control. 
 
 (i.) Virtue consists in victory over instinot, and is only in its 
 embryo (§ 110) when it struggles with sin. It is only from a wrong 
 idea of moral freedom (§ 113) that it can be believed that the per- 
 formance of every duty involves a struggle with the inclination to do 
 the opposite. The opinion that the fulfilling of duty from habit is no 
 virtue in the eyes of God is also false. 
 
 § 254. 
 
 As duty requires the whole spiritual nature to be 
 drawn near to the pattern of perfection, it is necessary 
 to awaken a taste for the perfect; and therefore not 
 only a taste for the True and Good, but also for the 
 Beautiful, must be aroused. For the Beautiful (§ 44) 
 (or the perfection of the Form) is a reflection of the 
 intrinsic excellence of the Creator, and a consequence 
 of His perfection, as well as the True and Good. From 
 
man's duties towards himself. 177 
 
 the internal order also, and moral beauty which arise 
 in man by the dominion of the True and Good, the 
 feeling for the Beautiful must awaken and show itself 
 in our external conduct. It is therefore our duty to 
 animate and exalt in our nature the taste for the Beau- 
 tiful, and thus to impart to our activity the Form of per- 
 fection. We must bring order and connection into our 
 knowledge, and learn to communicate («) it to others 
 in a pleasing, clear, and convincing manner. Our ac- 
 tions must be conformable not only to morality, but to 
 propriety [b), or the law of harmony and beauty. Thus 
 things in themselves allowable may, by their want of 
 propriety and decency (1 Cor. vi. 12, x. 33, 25), become 
 disallowable. As language is a product of reason, and 
 the means by which the spiritual education is exhibited, 
 we must endeavour to speak not only correctly, but well 
 and amiably (Col. iv. 6 ; James i. 26, iii. 1, 18 ; 1 Pet. 
 iii. 10), and avoid aU obscure, false, and even useless 
 talking (Eph. iv. 29, 31, v. 3 sq.) (c). The taste for order 
 and perfection must be visible in our works, in the ar- 
 rangement of our household, in our outward conduct, 
 attitudes, and attire, and in the choice of our amuse- 
 ments and pleasures (rf). The habits of our external 
 life, regulated according to the rule of perfection, react 
 beneficially upon the moral regulation of our minds. 
 
 (a.) Herein JesuB, by his mode of teaehiug, exhibits to us am in- 
 structive pattern. To acquire the art of communicating our ideas in 
 a clear manner is a duty towards our fellow-men (misunderstandings 
 and their disadvantages). Combine truth with clearness. 
 
 (J.) Propriety is the skill which unites the principles of a virtuous 
 mind with the claims of right conduct and good breeding, in such a 
 way that by it both are satisfied. There are many duties where the 
 suitable and pleasing manner in which we fulfil them is very essential, 
 e. g. in exercising charity, speaking truth, blaming, praising, where 
 frequently all good efieot of the action is destroyed by the defective 
 manner in which the same was performed. 
 
 i3 
 
178 REVBALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (o.) This is an especial duty for students : they must early accustom 
 themselves to speak correctly and well (talk with propriety, avoid 
 swearing, low expressions, vulgar abuse, common grammatical errors, 
 etc.). What politeness and good education here require, duty also 
 claims. The tongue is, still more than the countenance, a mirror of 
 the soul. 
 
 (d.) CleanlineBS, decent attire, attitudes, dress (use simplioity, avoid 
 singularity or offensiveness, overdressing, and uselessness in dress). 
 Paultiuess of rude and boisterous outbreaks of joy, of roaring, drinking, 
 joking, ribaldry, etc. 
 
 § 255. 
 
 The educated man, who lives conformably to duty, has 
 a claim on the respect of others or on their good opi- 
 nion, and to a treatment, i. e. honour (a), corresponding 
 with it. As we ought always to act according to prin- 
 ciples which have validity with every rational man, the 
 judgment of men wiser and better than ourselves, ought 
 not to be indifferent to us. Their esteem is not only an 
 assurance of the correctness of our conduct (6), but an 
 important and allowable means for the furtherance of our 
 welfare and moral progress. It is therefore our duty 
 to have a regard for our honour (1 Cor. is. 15 ; Phil, 
 iv. 8), to shun all appearance of evil (1 Cor. x. 33-29), 
 and to defend and restore our injured honour by law- 
 ful and dispassionate means (Matt. xii. 22 sq.; John 
 viii. 12 sg.) (c). 
 
 (a.) This is our natural honour ; the Jionowr helonging to rawJc is 
 that which is awarded by the laws to us as members of the community. 
 These species of honour are essentially different. The desire for ho- 
 nour is called ambition, — immoderate ambition, if it longs passionately 
 to be honoured before men only for the honour's sake, and especially 
 for civil honour. Love for natural honour preserves us from evil ; 
 ambition to gain civil honour easily leads to abjectness. 
 
 (5.) Especially for youth during the period of education, who must 
 trust to the judgment of enlightened and right-thinking men. 
 
 (o.) We should check our emotion and anger, and put off their ex- 
 pression until we are calm ; we should examine ourselves whether 
 
man's ditties towards himself. 179 
 
 we are the guilty party, or whether an insult was intended, etc. 
 (irritability, quarrelsomeness). Our irnl was not known to the an- 
 cient civilized nations, much as they valued honour and bravery 5 it is 
 a remnant of the middle ages, transmitted to us through the nobility 
 amd military, — a mockery of legal protection, a crime against the State, 
 our families, and ourselves, but no means of restoring honour except in 
 the opiuion of a email class of men bKnded by prejudices, to whom, if 
 they will not renounce it, we should leave it exclusively. 
 
 §356. 
 
 As sensitive life is the negative motive to our whole 
 earthly activity and human development, it is our duty, 
 1st, to preserve omr life, and not to shorten the earthly 
 term permitted us for education, either by direct (violent) 
 or indirect (gradual) destruction of our lives (a) ; 3nd, by 
 judicious means to restore our health, if it has suffered; 
 3rd, to maintain our body in integrity [b), to exercise its 
 powers and organs in useful (1 Cor. xiv. 1-19, 26) arts ; 
 and to honour the body as the work of the wisdom and 
 goodness of God by cleanliness (Matt. vi. 17), by a de- 
 cent and judicious dress, and by accustoming it to grace- 
 fulness and propriety (§ 254). As a chief means for pre- 
 serving health stands temperance, especially in eating 
 and drinking (Tit. ii. 1-6; 1 Tim. ii. 9; 1 Pet. iv. 3) ; 
 in amusements (Rom. xiii. 13), particularly in danciag 
 and other pleasures, allowable in a moderate degree 
 (John ii. Isq.; 1 Thess. v. 16) as a beneficial excitement 
 of the powers of our bodies (Eph. v. 18; Rom. xiii. 14; 
 Luke xxi. 34) . 
 
 (a.) But we may adventvu-e life for a higher possession. " Life is 
 not the highest possession" (Mark viii. 34-38; 1 John iii. 16). Ac- 
 cording to Beinhardt's ' Moral,' vol. ii. p. 521, it is right to venture or 
 sacrifice life under the following circumstances : in cases of ooUision ; 
 if we cannot save life but by a Ruthless denying of truth ; if we must 
 purchase it by crimes plainly against conscience ; if a lawful duty calls 
 to an undertaking attended with great dangers, or to death for the 
 
180 KEVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 general good or for that of individuals ; or when extraordinary events 
 call to duties which involve evident risk of life. 
 
 (i.) Mens mna m corpore semo. (Dangerous professions, or danger- 
 ous and ra«h deeds of vanity which risk life, health, and integrity of 
 the body.) Usefulness of judicious and moderate gymnastic exercises. 
 
 §257. 
 The duty of chastity is of especial importance, since 
 nothing (especially in youth) destroys the powers both 
 of mind and body more effectually than an early and 
 immoderate indulgence of the sexual impulse, particu- 
 larly unnatural lusts (Rom. i. 24, 16 ; 1 Cor. xi. 12, 20 ; 
 1 Thess. iv. 3 sq.; Gal. v, 19 sq.). Hence arise nerv- 
 ousness and injury to the cheerful development of the 
 whole life [a). The consequences of early excess produce 
 social disadvantages which it is frequently impossible to 
 remove, take away the power of exertions demanded by 
 duty and honour, lead to shamelessness and abjectness, 
 and generally unfit for the pleasures of a future happy 
 married life. 
 
 (a.) Nothing emasculates man »nd a whole age more than excess 
 of lust. Effeminacy, disgust for solid learning, disposition to loiter- 
 ing and sensual dissipations, overstrained sentimentaKty, morbid ima- 
 ginations, and with these an incUnation to superstition, riotousness 
 and bigotry, are the consequences as well as the symptoms of a dete- 
 rioration produced by the abuse of the generative powers. We would 
 strongly advise all youth to read Hufeland's remarks on the conse- 
 quences of lust (' Die Kunst das menscUiche Leben zu verlangern :' 
 The Art of prolonging Human Life, first part of the 2nd volume.) 
 
 §258. 
 
 It is our duty, for the preservation of Ufe, for the 
 furtherance of independence of action, for the forma- 
 tion of character, and for the fulfilment of social duties, 
 to strive after a certain degree of prosperity (2 Thess. 
 iii. 12 (a), but without passion or covetousness (1 Tim. 
 
MAN^S SOCIAL DUTIES. 181 
 
 vi. 6-10 ; Heb. xiii. 5 ; Luke xii. 15 ; Col. iii. 5), and 
 only by lawful and reputable means (Tit. i. 7), especially 
 by honest industry in our employments and by prudent 
 management of our gainings (1 John vi. 13 ; 1 Tim. vi. 
 
 6) {b). 
 
 (fl.) Voluntary poverty (e. g. religious orders) is therefore not merito- 
 rious, but contrary to duty. 
 
 (S.) Avarice, extravagance; dangeroftliela;tterto youth; immorality 
 of the same, especially in regard to parents, brothers, and sisters. 
 Games from thirst of lucre ; games of chance. 
 
 (b.) Of Man's Social Duties. 
 
 §359. 
 
 The general law for our feeling and action towards our 
 fellow-men is, according to § 105, " Feel and act towards 
 others on such principles as thy reason acknowledges to 
 be binding on all men ;" a law which Matt. vii. 13, Luke 
 vi. 31, has expressed in a poptdar manner; or, as duty 
 to ourselves and others rests on the same foundation, 
 namely respect for human nature, always act towards 
 others in the way which the feeling of respect for human 
 nature dictates. Christianity expresses this law in the 
 words " Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (Matt. 
 xxii. 36-40 ; Mark xii. 39 sq.) ; and in this law is com- 
 prehended our whole duty to man (Rom. xiii. 8, 10 ; Gal. 
 V. 14 ; James ii. 8) ; a love which not only urges to the 
 performance of every social duty, but (§ 354, h) gives 
 also the most beneficent and suitable form to the fulfil- 
 ment of duty (1 Cor. xiii. 1, 8). It is clear that this 
 love is to be understood as of a moral [a), not of a sensual 
 (pathological) kind, because it springs from love to God 
 (1 John iv. 7, 8, 11), and extends itself to strangers, 
 enemies, offenders, and wicked men. 
 
182 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (Oi) This love proceeds from a knowledge of, and respect for, human 
 dignity, and therefore extends itself to all mankind, and is not mere 
 natural kindness or inclination to benevolence. It is one of the great 
 merits of Jesus that he has made this love the ftmdamental law of his 
 practical doctrines. 
 
 §260. 
 Respecting the spiritual welfare of others, love requires 
 that we not only raise no obstacle to the fuU develop- 
 ment of their spiritual powers, but that by every lawful 
 means we further it. We must therefore (1) lead their 
 intellect to the knowledge of truth (Matt. v. 16 ; Luke 
 XV. 1 sq.), but only by allowed means, conformably to 
 the hberty of conviction in others, without importunity, 
 blind zeal (Matt, xxiii. 15), or force (Matt, xxiii. 34 sq. ; 
 Luke ix. 54 sq. ; Acts viii. 3 ; Gal. i. 13) (a) . Veracity is 
 therefore a social duty from which, when truth is de- 
 manded or expected of us, we ought never to swerve; 
 further (2), it is a duty to educate their will for the love 
 of the Good, and their taste for the perception of Pro- 
 priety (Mark ii. 17; Rom. xiv. 19, xv. 2), and for this 
 purpose to lead them to the Good by example, and to 
 avoid giving offence, to say nothing of intentional seduc- 
 tion to vice [6) (Matt, xviii. 6; Luke xvii. 1; Mark ix. 
 42; Rom. xiv. 13). 
 
 (a.) No proaelytism, intolerance, pia fraus, inquisitions, obscuring 
 system, nor the least persecution of the higher knowledge (Matt. xxui. 
 37 ; Luke xiii. 34 sq.). 
 
 (b.) Offence, anything by which we either mislead the moral judg- 
 ment of others or induce the domination of iostinct. Seduction by 
 youth of each other to laziness, excess — their great immorality. — 
 Value of example. 
 
 §261. 
 
 Philanthropy will generally be shown in the respect 
 paid to human nature, or the habit, under all circum- 
 stances, of feeling and acknowledging its dignity (Matt. 
 
man's social duties. 183 
 
 xviii. 1-11, XXV. 40) ; a hatit which stands opposed to 
 pride, misanthropy, and contempt of mankind (James ii. 
 1-9, iv. 6, i. 10; 1 Peter v. 5). Philanthropy is further 
 shown by a benevolent sympathy in all the affairs of man- 
 kind (a) ; in the zeal for all that concerns public bene- 
 fits, and in a lively regard for the welfare of others (Rom. 
 xii. 18; 1 Peter iii. 8), which, according to the example 
 of Jesus, ought not to be extinguished by suffering or 
 injury. In opposition to Philanthropy are, selfishness, 
 hard-hear tedness, rejoicing at the misfortunes of others, 
 envy, cruelty, etc. 
 
 (o.) " Homo sum, humani riiViil a me alieuum puto" (Terent. Heaut. 
 i. 1, 25). Cicero, De Offic. i. 9 j De Legib. i. 12. 
 
 §263. 
 
 In regard to the health and life of others, love demands 
 that we preserve the same; that therefore when their life is 
 in danger we endeavour to preserve it; that we nurse the 
 sick (Matt. xxv. 35 sq^.; 1 Thess. v. 14), and procure advice 
 and means to save their life or to restore their health [a); 
 and it equally forbids us to take life by our own hand or 
 to employ others in such a service (Matt. v. 21 ; Rom. 
 xiii. 9; James ii. 11) {b), or purposely to expose others 
 to a risk of life ; to undermine (c) their health by mali- 
 ciously grieving or vexing them (Matt. v. 21 sg. ; 1 John 
 iii. 15) ; to mutHate their bodies, or, from frivolity, to act 
 in such a way towards them as to endanger [d) their lives. 
 
 (a.) It is therefore importamt, especially for those educated for the 
 Church, to acquire some knowledge of medicine ; but they must avoid 
 mistakes, and, in doubtful ca£es, take the advice of a physician ; the 
 practice of recommending household medicines in doubtful cases, or 
 contrary to the opinion of a physician, is dangerous and reprehensible. 
 — Care against burying living persons. 
 
 (i.) Except in self-defence or in war, when the State defends itself 
 
184 
 
 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 against the encroaohiaents of other States, and in capital punishments, 
 where the State legally defends itself against individuals. 
 
 (o.) This is especially to be borne in mind by children and scholars 
 in their conduct towards parents and teachers. 
 
 (d.) Belonging to this is the penalismus* in schools, the compelling 
 to immoderate drinking, making dangerous jokes, especially by exciting 
 terror, imprudent use of arms, gunpowder, poison. — Duelling, espe- 
 cially of the quarrel-seeker. 
 
 §263. 
 
 Regarding the just claims others have on us^ duty and 
 love require that we fulfil them faithfully and willingly 
 (Matt. vii. 13j 31 ; James v. 5 sg.), for conscience' sake, 
 and neither from compulsion nor fear of the punishment 
 attendant on their non -performance ; on the other hand, 
 love requires that we demand from others services due 
 to us with equity (moderation of strict right) (Matt. vii. 
 13, xviii. 31). 
 
 §264. 
 
 Respecting the property of others, love requires not 
 only that we abstain from aU encroachments on it, either 
 by violence or cunning (Eph. iv. 38; 1 Cor. vi. 10), but 
 that we, without envy, further their prosperity (Gal. v. 
 30) . In regard to their honour or reputation, we must 
 neither exaggerate nor publish their faults (Matt. ix. 
 3-6), nor rashly put a disadvantageous construction 
 on their actions (Matt. vii. 1; James iv. 11), neither 
 spread false reports (aspersions) (Matt. xii. 37 ; Rom. i. 
 30; Eph. iv. 37), nor be guilty of intentionally deroga- 
 ting from their honour, nor of insulting them either by 
 word or deed (Matt. v. 33 ; Eph. iv. 31 ; Col. iii. 8), but 
 rather act in opposition to these, and maintain and 
 
 * Absurd and shameful treatment of freshmen by elder students in 
 colleges, etc. in Germany ; now nearly abolished. — Ed. 
 
man's social duties. 185 
 
 defend our neighbour's honour exactly as if it were our 
 own (1 Cor. xiii. 5-7). 
 
 §265. 
 
 Towards the indigent, love requires our services, or 
 readiness to use our powers for their good, without re- 
 gard to compensation (Col. i. 12 sq., xxii.-xxiv.), and be- 
 nevolence (Rom. xii. 13, xv. 26 sq. ; Matt. xxv. 35 sq. ; 
 1 Cor. xvi. 1 sq.), by which we give willingly, according 
 to our power (Luke xxi. 1 sq.), to alleviate their sufferings; 
 it requires a loving interest and compassion, or such a 
 tender sympathy with their condition as shall urge us to 
 their relief (Luke x. 30 sq. ; Matt. xix. 20 sj., v. 7). In 
 the bestowal of benefits, love requires that we shun igno- 
 ble motives, reproachful giving; that we spare the feelings 
 of the receiver, and do not boast in our charity, nor de- 
 mand a slavish dependence or a return of services from 
 those we aid (Matt. vi. 1-4, v. 46 ; Luke vi. 32) . Love 
 binds the receiver of benefits to a reciprocal love or gra- 
 titude, i.e. a conduct by which is shown a lively sense 
 of the value of the benefit (a) . 
 
 (o.) Gratitude shows itself by word (gratias agere), by sentiment 
 (gratias habere), or by deed (gratias referre) ; by the last however 
 only so fer that no higher duty suffers. Ingratitude (Luke xtu. 11- 
 19) — which does not acknowledge the benefit, soon forgets it, attributes 
 it to base motives or denies it, and assails and grieves the benefactor, 
 — is a vice of which few, even of the inferior animals, are guilty. 
 The barest ingratitude is that shown by children towards their parents, 
 or scholars towards their teachers ; because the benefits received by 
 them are the most numerous, unrequitable, and almost always con- 
 nected vrith great sacrifice. 
 
 §266. 
 
 The duties of Friendship (John xv. 12, 17, xiii. 23, xi. 
 1 sq.) («) are, that we choose friends with caution, that 
 we treat them with candour, trust, and faith ; that we 
 
186 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 have a zealous care for their welfare, and do not forsake 
 them in misfortune, but strive to aid their intellectual 
 and moral improvement by love, caution, and fidelity. 
 True friendship must always be founded on esteem {b) . 
 Secret fraternizations are to be shunned, especially by 
 youth (c). 
 
 (a.) Krug defines rriendship (' Tugendlehre/ p. 303), " a connection 
 of two individuals founded on a higt degree Ojf mutual regard, to the 
 common furtherance of their perfection and happiuesB." Eeinhardt 
 (' Moral,' vol. iii. p. 528), " where two persons who feel pre-eminent 
 esteem and affection for each other, mutually show all the duties of 
 Christian brotherly love, as far as circumstances allow, and who in 
 everything share equally, with a confidence only possible in the closest 
 relationship." The weater the laws, the more imperfect the pubHc 
 security, and domestic life of the ancients, so much higher was the 
 value laid on friendship. 
 
 (J.) Intercourse with wicked or immoral people is always danger- 
 ous, but especially for youth. A due equality of age, mode of hving, 
 rank, education, and fortune, if not absolutely necessary, is generally 
 requisite to (perfect) friendship. 
 
 (o.) You cannot know vrith certainty beforehand the spirit and 
 tendency of such societies ; you engage yourself to an obedience, the 
 extent of which you cannot foresee, and lose part of your natural 
 liberty ; you incur a certain loss of time and power ; you come in 
 contact with those of whose good conduct you are uncertain; expose 
 yourself to the danger of becoming the tool of the prejudices and pas- 
 sions of a few, and of sharing in the contempt and punishment which, 
 by the faulty or unlawful conduct of single members, may befall the 
 whole community ; it is often dangerous to separate again from such 
 societies ; they are against the laws of the State. These remarks refer 
 especially to the orders and fraternities of Universities, which have 
 rarely benefited any, but which have proved mischievous to most. 
 Nearly the same may be said of religious societies and orders. 
 
 §267. 
 
 Love must also extend to our enemies, i. e. those who 
 endeavour to injure us (a) (Matt. v. 44-46 ; Rom. xii. 
 14, 20 sg. ; the example of Jesus, Luke xxiii. 34 ; compare 
 Acts iii. 17, vii. 60). We must not only fulfil the du- 
 
man's social duties. 187 
 
 ties of humanity towards them, and treat them as well 
 as other demonstrable duties and true prudence allow 
 uSj but must also do them justice, entirely suppress the 
 feeliags of revenge (Rom. xii. 17, 19 ; 1 Thess. v. 15), 
 and generously pardon offences which do not demand 
 resistance, or defend ourselves without wantonly irrita- 
 ting or wounding them, and at all times be ready to be 
 reconciled with them (Matt. v. 25, vi. 14 ^g'., xviii. 31-35; 
 Luke xii. 58, xvii. 3 sg.). 
 
 (a.) The Greets and Komans, especially the Stoics, also taught this 
 duty. WooU's ' Comment. Quid de Officiis et Amore erga Inimicos 
 ftrsecis et Komanis plaoeat ?' (Halle, 1789). " One who by allowed 
 means strives to obtain a possession after which we also seek, but 
 which can only be gained by ome of us, is our rival ; one who, in oiu' 
 way to the attainment of our (allowed) object, designedly places 
 hindrances, is our adversary or opponent ; one who does so from un- 
 righteous purpose, and whose actions prove disadvantageous to us, is 
 our infmrer, and if he continue to be hurtful to us, he is our enemy." 
 — Reiuhardt's ' Moral,' vol. iii. p. 254 sq. 
 
 §268. 
 
 Love commands us to be useful and benevolent to 
 strangers and foreigners (Luke x. 15 sq. ; 1 Tim. v. 10), 
 and hospitable (Heb. xiii. 2 ; 1 Pet. iv. 9) ; this we owe 
 to the honour of our country and our countrymen in 
 foreign parts. Towards age, Love requires that we show 
 respect, modesty, affectionate care, attention to the ad- 
 vice of its experience and wisdom, and forbearance with 
 its weaknesses (1 Tim. v. 1, 2) . Towards the dead, that 
 we commit their bodies with respect and decency to the 
 grave ; that we preserve their memory, defend their cha- 
 racter from unjust attacks (Luke xxiv. 10 sq.) , and fulfil 
 their expressly declared or understood last will, unless it 
 be contrary to duty and the real well-being of the living. 
 These last duties derive their special interest from the 
 prospect of immortality and reunion after death. 
 
188 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 §269. 
 
 The duty of children, especially in their early years, 
 towards parents (guardians) is to ohey (Luke ii. 51 ; 
 Eph. vi. 1 ; Col. iii. 31), when the latter require nothing 
 immoral ; to bear with meekness their faults and weak- 
 nesses, to imitate their virtues, and, by an affectionate 
 attention, industry, good conduct, and, when requisite, by 
 pecuniary assistance, to manifest the gratitude they owe 
 them as the authors of their being, the fosterers of their 
 childhood, and their most faithful friends (Matt. xv. 4-6 ; 
 Mark vii. 9-13). Duties similar to these, though in a 
 lesser degree, are owing by pupils to their faithful teach- 
 ers. Ingratitude towards parents and teachers has been 
 considered base, even by uncivilized nations (comp. § 
 265) . To servants we owe, not only the esteem which, 
 as human beings and Christians they are entitled to, but 
 justice, equity, patience, and kindness (Eph. vi. 9 ; Col. 
 iv. 1). 
 
 §270. 
 
 As the purpose of matrimony is not alone to propagate 
 the human race, but to develope it fiiUy, and as those 
 who can maintain a family are bound to marry, it follows 
 that a youth should pay an early regard to this important 
 relation. He should acquire that amount of knowledge 
 and skill which will place him in a position to maintain a 
 family, and render himself worthy of a loving wife and 
 conjugal felicity, by chastity and temperance ; he should 
 also carefully refrain from entering into early matrimo- 
 nial engagements, since experience teaches that these 
 generally terminate unhappily (a) . 
 
 (a.) A yoiitli xmdertalseB duties whicli he is not certain lie will be able 
 to fulfil ; lie does not possess sufficient knowledge and experience to 
 
man's social duties. 189 
 
 choose prudently; he places fetters which may be galling for his whole 
 future life, or can only be broken by a despicable perfidiousness. He 
 generally acts contrary to the will of his parents ; and, when he finds 
 himself in a position to marry, discovers the object of his premature 
 choice, in consequence of the early fading of women, to have lost the 
 bloom and freshness of youth. (Disadrantages of the fanciful, romantic 
 love of youth ; comparative difference iu the age of the sexes.) 
 
 §271. 
 
 In social intercourse Love requires^ 1. Veracity, or the 
 candid communication of our ideas, feeUngs, and will 
 (Eph. iv. 35 sq.), unless restricted by the duty of discre- 
 tion (John xvi. 13), which is stipulated for partly by cer- 
 tain duties, partly by the rights and well-being of others, 
 especially when, either by testimony or oath, a positive 
 duty exists to speak the truth («) . 3. Politeness, by which 
 we pay to every one that respect which his circumstances 
 and the established rules of propriety demand from us 
 (Rom. xii. 10; Phil. iv. 8; Col. iv. 6) (6). 3. Modesty, 
 which teaches us not to assert the merits and superiority 
 which we believe we possess unless from a sufficient cause; 
 never to overrate them, and readily respect and acknow- 
 ledge the merits and superiority of others (Phil. ii. 3) (c). 
 4. Sociability (peaceableness), by which we so conduct 
 ourselves as to live on good terms with every one (Rom. 
 xii. 18 ; Matt. v. 9 ; Heb. xii. 14), to preserve peace be- 
 tween ourselves and others (Eph. iv. 3 sq. ; Phil. ii. 3 sq.), 
 and heal rising dissensions (1 Cor. iii. 3, 11, 18; James 
 iii. 14 sq.) (d). 
 
 (a.) This occurs to youth when examined as witnesses to the bad 
 habits or offences of others. Here veracity is required as a duty to- 
 wards the Teacher, Schoolfellow, and those who have done wrong. 
 This differs from giving information, especially of a malicious kind. 
 Opposed to veraciti/ is falsehood, or an utterance against our better 
 knowledge of that which may hurt others. Dissimulation, deceit, false 
 witness, perjury (Matt. xv. 19 ; Bom. i. 29, 31 ; Eph. iv. 25), flatter- 
 ing (Ool. iii. 22 ; Eph. vi. 6), boasting, swaggering, etc. 
 
190 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (S.) Politeness is not opposed to candour, as no one is deceived by 
 it, and such conduct is required by all from us. We should acquaint 
 ourselves with the rules of conventional propriety, and accustom our- 
 selves to their observance. The opposite to politeness is rudeness, 
 rusticity (maimers which lay the foundation of many disagreements and 
 quarrels among youth). 
 
 (c.) Modesty is highly becoming in youth ; it raises their merits, and 
 disposes others voluntarily to acknowledge them. Impudence is gene- 
 rally the fruit of ignorance. 
 
 (d.) CensoriouBnesB, positiveness, irritabilify, anger. 
 
 §273. 
 As a social duty, love for tlie common weal, the choice 
 of a fixed and useful employment, and faithful industry 
 in the same, is required from us (Rom. xii. 11 ; Eph. iv. 
 xxviii. j 1 Thess. iv. 11); defence of our native country 
 in times of danger ; a ready performance of all that is 
 necessary to the preservation of the public good (Matt. 
 xxii. 21 ; Eom. xiii. 6, 7) ; respect for the civil ranks and 
 offices (Rom. xiii. 7 ; 1 Cor. xii. 14, 35 ; 1 Pet. ii. 17), 
 and obedience to (Rom. xiii. 1-5 ; Tit. iii. 1 ; 1 Pet. ii. 
 13 sq.) authorities and laws for conscience' sake j an obe- 
 dience which should not cease even when the laws and 
 constitution of the country either are or appear to be 
 defective (Matt. xxvi. 51 sq., xvii. 35-37) (a). 
 
 (a.) Christianity therefore does not recognize a right to cause revo- 
 lutions ; and experience also teaches that these are more destructive 
 than the evils they may redress. 
 
 §273. 
 
 Special duties for a youth who devotes himself to 
 science are, — 1. Industry in all branches of learning, but 
 especially in his chief study ; a zealous use of his irrepa- 
 rable time and never returning opportunities. 3. Earnest 
 endeavour for his moral education, especially in his trans- 
 ition from school to college, where youth, inexperience, 
 the strength of iuclLQation and feehng, the separation 
 
191 
 
 from parents and tutors^ make the greatest attention 
 and self-command necessary. 3. Ardent desire for es- 
 thetic improvement^ which excludes immodesty, rude- 
 ness, and all other bad habits, often foolishly considered 
 by the student as liberty (a). 4. Chastity, that health, 
 honour, and conscience may not be injured. 5. Thrifti- 
 ness, especially on account of the sacrifices made by pa- 
 rents. 6. Moderation in all pleasures, and avoidance of 
 all pernicious diversions, especially gaming and drinking. 
 7. To be cautious in Friendship ; to refrain from duelling 
 and secret societies. 8. To show respect towards teachers, 
 and obedience to existing laws. These duties are hallowed 
 not only by performing the general moral duties, but also 
 by paying regard to those owing by a youth to his pa- 
 rents, country, and himself. 
 
 (a.) Budeness, coarBeness, blimtneBS, and rusticity are not liberty, 
 but tbat wHoh their name imports. Liberty in social life cannot exist 
 independently of all authority, because without authority no common- 
 weal is imaginable. Liberty consists in obedience to that Law alone 
 which is the expression of the real or presumed pubho will, but not in 
 obedience to arbitrariness. To demand for ourselTes the protection of 
 the law, and to refuse om: own obedience to it, would be a gross incon- 
 sistency. Modesty, politeness, and a pleasing behaviour agree well 
 with social Hberty. 
 
 (c.) Duties towards God, the Divine Doctrine and the 
 Church. 
 
 §274. 
 
 The perfections of God, and the love shown by him to 
 us in the creation, preservation, and government of the 
 world, is the foundation of that love to Him which Chris- 
 tianity requires, according to which we worship in him 
 the highest essential Good, and acknowledge his will 
 (Law) not only as the wiU of the Almighty, which can 
 enforce obedience, but as the will of the most Perfect 
 
192 REVEALED THEOLOGY. 
 
 (wisest and most beneficent), which we find pleasure in 
 obeying [vide the passages § 230, c) . 
 
 §275. 
 Forasmuch as this love refers to God as our Judge, 
 and as the highest Lawgiver of the moral world, it is 
 called veneration (Heb. xii. 28; 1 Peter i. 17). Infrac- 
 tions of this duty are, misuse of the name of God (Matt. 
 vi. 9 ; Luke i. 49) ; frivolous swearing or appeals to the 
 name of God (Matt. vi. 34-37; James v. 12) ; and per- 
 
 (o.) An oath is a given assurance of the truth of a matter, joined to 
 an express appeal to God, the Omniscient and Just (jtiramentmn asser- 
 toriwm w\.d. promissorivmi). The passages Matt. v. 34-38, James t. 
 12, do not treat of oaths before magistrates, but of swearing in com- 
 mon life. Every one should thoroughly understand that which he has 
 to confirm by oath. Perjury is committed when we confirm by oath 
 that which we know to be false (Matt. v. 55, 37 ; 1 Tim. i. 10) ; it is 
 the grossest offence against the common welfere, the deepest degrada- 
 tion of the moral dignity of a human being, and blasphemy against the 
 omniscience and justice of God. Every reservatio meidaUs is highly 
 blamable. (Comp. Matt, xxiii. 16-22.) 
 
 §276. 
 
 This love, referred to God as the Ruler of the world 
 and our destinies, is called Trust, or firm faith that God 
 governs according to the highest wisdom and benefi- 
 cence (Matt. X. 29 sq. ; Heb. x. 35, xi. 1 sq. ; Rom. xii. 
 12 ; James i. 6, 7) . In our actions this trust is the faith 
 that God, if our intentions entirely conform to his wis- 
 dom, win do that for us which we are unable ourselves 
 to efiect by permitted means (Matt. vi. 26-33); but this 
 trust difiers as much from that superstition which does 
 not use the means at its command, but relies upon (e. g. in 
 illness) the direct interposition of God (Acts xxvii. 26-38), 
 and does not remove hindrances or prevent calamities 
 
DUTIES TOWARDS GOD. 193 
 
 under its control, but considers them to be the will of 
 God, — as from that daring bigotry which foolishly and 
 presumptuously runs into dangers, expecting at the same 
 time assistance from God (Matt. iv. 5, 7) . 
 
 § 277. 
 
 Love manifests itself in suffering and adversity: — 
 
 1. As Patience (James i. 12; Rom, xii. 12; 2 Cor. iv. 16 
 sq.), in so far as it suffers under the conviction that suf- 
 fering is the wise and beneficent dispensation of God, 
 thus moderating the feeling of displeasure, and showing 
 obedience to and trust in God (1 Cor. x. 13) by a calm 
 and patient endurance of trials (1 Pet. iv. 19), and by 
 using them as a means of correction (Heb. xii. 5, 11). 
 
 2. As Resignation (Matt. xxvi. 39-42), which, after fruit- 
 less use of allowed remedies, considers the sacrifice of 
 some blessings, or the acceptance of affliction, as the will 
 of God, to which it resigns itself with trust and tranquil- 
 lity. Love manifests itself as Gratitude to God in the 
 acceptance of gifts (Eph. v. 20; Col. iii. 17), with the 
 lively feeling that aU possessions proceed from Him 
 (James i. 17), and with the zealous endeavour to use the 
 same according to God's will (a) . 
 
 (o.) The Scripture often calls upon us to thank God by words or 
 praises, not because God needs them, but as a natural expression of 
 our Urely feeling of gratitude, which enhances this feehng in ourselves, 
 awakens it in others, and adds strength to it by obedience. 
 
 §278. 
 
 In regard to our actions. Love exhibits itself as obe- 
 dience to God; respecting the matter, it comprises all 
 Divine commandments and makes all duty to God; but, 
 respecting the mode, it consists in fulfilling all, even dif- 
 ficult duties, with ardour and cheerfulness, thus satisfy- 
 
194 KEVEALED RELIGION. 
 
 ing the feeling of love to God (veneration, trust, and 
 gratitude) (John iv. 34, xiv. 31 ; 1 John v. 2-4) . By 
 this obedience arising from love man co-operates with 
 God to the realization of the highest good, and makes 
 his will one with God's will (John xvii. 33, 33 ; 1 John 
 iii. 34). 
 
 §379. 
 
 The predominant feeling of our dependence on God is 
 religiousness, — internal, in as far as it is a feeling manifest- 
 ed hy our actions, bearing a constant regard to God (pious 
 life) ; external (or worship of God), when this feeling is 
 exhibited by corresponding outward signs (Col. iii. 16 ; 
 Eph. V. 19). Internal religiousness should be the foun- 
 dation of the external ; the latter, unless combined with 
 the former, is valueless (John iv. 34; James i. 36, 37, 
 ii. 36). Still the external should not be neglected, as it 
 is the natural expression of our internal feeling of admi- 
 ration of God, and of trust and gratitude towards Him ; 
 a worthy prerogative of rational beings, conformable to 
 our dependence on God, commanded as a duty, and not 
 only in itself, but especially by mutual intercoTirse, ex- 
 ceedingly effective to awaken in ourselves and others 
 internal religiousness. Jesus therefore observed external 
 religiousness (Matt. xiv. 3, 3; Luke vi. 13, ix. 16-18). 
 
 §380. 
 
 Religiousness, in as far as the internal feeling is ex- 
 pressed by an internal act, is called adoration {adoratio 
 Dei), which is due to God only (Matt. iv. 10; 1 Cor. viii. 
 6). Adoration is called, 1. Devotion, when it shows it- 
 self in an intentional turning of the soul to God from a 
 pious feeling ; 3. Prayer, or devotion in its true sense, 
 when this feeling is precisely expressed either by thought 
 or word (a) . 
 
DUTIES TOWARDS GOD. 195 
 
 (a.) The external expression of devotion by todily attitudes (tneel- 
 ing, folding of the hands, etc.) is unnecessary ; but, as a natural sign 
 of lively devotion, it is animating and edifying to others (Luke xviii 
 13; Matt. xxvi. 39). 
 
 §281. 
 
 Prayer should be devotionalj i. e. arising from iaternal 
 feeling, and therefore not loquacious (Matt. vi. 6, 7) ; we 
 should address it frequently and willingly to God (Eom. 
 xii. 12 J 1 Thess. v. 17), for spiritual blessings especially 
 (James i. 5-8 ; Matt. vi. 9-13) ; not in blind trust (3 Cor. 
 xii. 8, 9) , but with confidence in and resignation to the 
 higher will of God (Matt. xxvi. 39, 42). Such a prayer 
 is either one of praise of Him who is the highest Good 
 (Eph. V. 18-20 ; Col. iii. 16), or of thanksgiving for bene- 
 fits received (Eph. v. 20 ; 2 Thess. ii. 1-3), which sanc- 
 tifies every enjoyment (1 Tim. iv. 3 sq), or of supplica- 
 tion for that which others or ourselves stand in need of 
 (1 Tim. ii. 1 ; Luke xi. 2, vi. 23) (a). 
 
 (a.) The reasons for prayer are the same as those for external reli- 
 giousness mentioned in § 279. That there is an objective as well as a 
 subjective effect of prayer («. e. that God grants prayers) could only 
 be denied when the course of the world was considered as originally 
 regulated by God, and as continuing by necessity according to a sort 
 of mechanical contrivance, etc., or, when every direct influence of God 
 in the world was regarded as a wonder, and an interruption of the 
 regular course of natiu-e. Prayer iu the name of Jesus, i. e. for the 
 propagation and success of his cause (John xiv. 13 sg;., xvi. 23 «?.). 
 
 §282. 
 
 As a Divine revelation exists, so likewise exists a rela- 
 tion of man to the same, or duties towards the revealed 
 religion, its Eouuder, and the institutions for the preser- 
 vation and propagation of the revelation (or the Chris- 
 tian Church). Our duty to Jesus is to honour him as 
 the ambassador of God and interpreter of the revelation, 
 
 K 2 
 
196 REVEALED aELlGION. 
 
 because in him we honour God (John xiv. 7-10, xvii. 3] , 
 xxiii. 35 ; Heb. i. 4-14) ; to acknowledge him as the 
 Saviour or the temporal and eternal Benefactor of man 
 (Phil. ii. 9 sq. ; Rom. xiv. 9, 10 j 1 Tim. ii. 5 sq.) and the 
 highest ambassador of God ; to hear and obey the doc- 
 trine he has communicated to us (John i. 18 ; Matt, 
 xvii. 5) ; to love him (1 Cor. xvi. 22 ; John xiv. 15, 21); 
 to imitate his moral example (John xiii. 15 ; Phil. ii. 
 5; 1 John ii. 6; 1 Peter ii. 21), and to be grateful to 
 him (1 Cor. xvi. 23), with a gratitude which manifests 
 itself not only in the promotion of Christianity, but in 
 the observance of the festival of the Holy Supper, as an 
 institution made in remembrance of His merits (as). 
 
 (».) Lute xxii. 19, " This do in remembrance of me ;" compare 
 1 Cor. xi. 24 sj. This is the only proof of gratitude which the most 
 meritorious, remarkable, and influential mortal Being has required from 
 posterity. 
 
 §383. 
 
 To the interpreter of Divine revelation — if, after ex- 
 amining the subject ourselves, we acknowledge him as 
 such — we owe faith (John xii. 46, 48, xx. 39) (a) . But 
 since the purpose of revelation is truth (John xviii. 38, 
 comp. viii. 33, 43-47) ; since it requires constancy in faith 
 (Eph. iii. 17 ; Col. ii. 4-8), which can only be gained by 
 examination ; since it warns from error and delusion in 
 religion (Eph. iv. 14 ; Matt. vii. 15), and from mixing up 
 truth with error (Matt. ix. \Gsq. ; Luke v. 36 sq.) ; since 
 it pronounces every action, which does not spring from 
 the conviction that it is right, to be sin (Rom. xiv. 33) ; 
 since it warns from deceitful revelations, and calls upon 
 us to examine all which announces itself as Divine (1 
 John iv. 1 ; 2 Thess. ii. 9, 12) ; and since it requires not 
 a blind faith (1 Thess. v. 31), but a conviction based on 
 
DUTIES TOWARDS GOD. 197 
 
 reason (John xiv. 10^ 7, 17), it becomes not only allowable 
 but conformable to dnty, to rest our faith in Christianity 
 on well-examined reasons. 
 
 (a.) Neither the incredulity of the heathen, to whom Christianity 
 has not been announced, nor the disbelief of those to whom it cer- 
 tainly was announced but who were not fit to receive it, nor the want 
 of faith in the explanation of the Christian doctrine as laid down 
 by a Church, nor the doubts into which we may fall by an honest 
 seai'ohing after truth, are punishable. But guilt exists in the indifier- 
 ence which does not iaquire into the difference between the True and 
 False in religion (Luke xi. 23, and the denunciations of the Apostle, 
 Q-al. i. 5), in blamable ignorance (John iii. 10, ix. 39-41 ; Matt, 
 xsiii. 3V sq.), wflful bhndness to truth, and intentional persistence in 
 error (John ix. 40 sq., iii. 18, 19, xii. 48). In examining Christianity, 
 we should pay especial regard to its practical designs (1 Cor. xiii. 1- 
 13 ; Tit. iii. 8-10), as this is its main feature (James ii. 17 ; Matt. yii. 
 21, 22). Hence the avoidance of logomachy (2 Tim. ii. 14, 23 ; Tit. 
 iii. 9 sq.), and every useless quarrel disturbing tmity (Kom. xvi. 17 ; 
 1 Cor. i. 10 sq. ; 1 Tim. vi. 3, 5 ; Heb. xiii. 9), especially on doubtful 
 or trifling subjects (Eom. xiv., xv. 1 ; 1 Cor. vi. 12, viii. 10 sq., 
 X. 23 sq.). 
 
 §284. 
 
 We must endeavour to preserve and promulgate ac- 
 knowledged religious truth by every lawful means (Luke 
 xi. 53; Matt, xxiii. 14), to acknowledge it openly before 
 men (Matt. x. 32 sq. ; Luke ix. 26), even before scoffers 
 (Rom. i 16), and never to deny it either from regard to 
 men or from hope of gain (John xii. 42 sq. ; Acts iv. Vdsq.; 
 Matt. xxvi. 69 sq>j, still less to turn apostate (Mark xvi. 
 16; Matt. x. 32-38; 1 Cor. xvi. 13; Gal. i. 6; PhU. iv. 
 1) ; be ready to suffer for truth (1 Pet. iv. 14-16), and to 
 honour Christianity by a moral life (1 Pet. ii. 12, iii. 15 
 sg.) . Towards his fellow-Christians the Christian should 
 show a tender, brotherly love (John xiii. 34 sq. ; Rom. xii. 
 10; 1 Cor. xvi. 14; Gal. v. 6; 1 John ii. 9 sq). He 
 should respect his teachers (1 Tim. v. 17), and afford 
 them suitable maintenance (Gal. vi. 6; 1 Tim. v. 37 sq.; 
 
198 RETEALED RELIGION. 
 
 1 Cor. ix. 7 sg.), follow their exhortation (Heb. xiii. 17), 
 but not embrace their dogmas of faith (2 Cor. i. 34 ; 1 
 John ii. 27). 
 
 §285. 
 
 As the Church is the means of preserving, promulgat- 
 ing, and making the Divine revelation eflFective, it is our 
 duty to respect and support it, to fulfil our duties towards 
 it, and especially to join a public Church (Christian 
 festivals and worship of God) (Col. iii. 16). The last 
 duty, which coiucides with the external worship of God 
 (§ 279), is our duty towards the Christian communityj 
 an important means for enlightenment and amendment. 
 
 (Ueber die UnMrchliolikeit dieser Zeit im protestantisclien Deutsch- 
 lande, den Gebildeten der protestaut. Kirolie gewidmet, yon Dr. K. 
 a. Bretschneider ; Gotha, 1822.) 
 
 §286. 
 
 With regard to the special Church to which the Chris- 
 tian belongs, his duty is the same as towards the Catholic 
 Church and Christianity in general. He must especially 
 acquaint himself with the peculiarities of his Church, and 
 its superiority over others, and adhere steadfastly to it 
 (which follows from duty to truth itself), if he be con- 
 vinced that it answers the intention of Christianity. As 
 in rcHgious matters no force of any kind should be used 
 (a), the members of the various Christian communities 
 ought to show a kindly tolerance of each other (1 Cor. 
 iii. 5-15 ; Matt. vii. 1 ; Eom. xiv. 19 sq.), and abstain 
 from intolerance and a spirit of persecution (1 Cor. xiii. ; 
 Rom. X. 2 sg.; John xvi. 1-3), from all proselytism 
 (Matt, xxiii. 15) and creeping into families (2 Tim. iii. 
 6), and as much as possible to avoid all intercourse with 
 factious men (2 Thess. iii. 15 ; 2 John 10, 11). 
 
DUTIES TOWARDS ANIMALS. 199 
 
 (a.) Lactantius, Divinar. Inst. v. 19, 23, " Nihil tarn voluntarium 
 quam religio est, ia qua si animus adrersus est, jam sublata, jam 
 nulla est." Jesus and the Apostles used neither craft nor force. 
 This is found also in Matt, xsiii. 34 sq. ; Lake ix. 54 sq. ; Gral. i. 13 ; 
 1 Tim. i. 13. 
 
 (d.) Duties towards Animals and Inanimate Objects. 
 
 §287. 
 
 As it is the design of God that animals should have 
 their peculiar enjoyments (Matt. vi. 26, x. 29), and that 
 life and happiness should overspread the earth in the 
 richest degree, we have duties to observe towards ani- 
 mals (a) . It is certain that we may use them (1 Tim. 
 iv. 1-3 ; 1 Cor. x. 25 sq.) , and consequently limit their 
 increase ; but man, as the image of God, must rule over 
 them with justice and kindness, save them from excessive 
 labour, and bestow on them food and care (Matt. xii. 11), 
 abstaining alike from tormenting or from bestowing an 
 inordinate regard on them (Matt. xv. 26). 
 
 (a.) This the Stoics denied. — Conduct of the Hindoos to animals 
 on account of their faith in the doctrine of the Metempsychosis. 
 Holy animals. Mildness of the Mosaic ordinances (Deut. xxii. 1-7, 
 10, T. 14, XXV. 4 ! PrOT. xii. 10 ; Sir. vii. 20). 
 
 §288. 
 
 As the Beautiful is a reflection of the internal per- 
 fection either of the Creator or of man, and the taste 
 for it is a part of our duty, it is incumbent on us to 
 respect and preserve the beautiful both in the works 
 of the Creator and of man ; and, by studying them, to 
 awaken and cherish the taste for it in ourselves. Monu- 
 ments of human wisdom and art, and those erected to 
 merit, should be inviolable to us, from respect to man, 
 for their rational purpose, and as a means of improving 
 the aesthetic taste. We have the same duty to observe 
 
200 
 
 REVEALED RELIGION. 
 
 towards the Useful, from regard to duty towards others, 
 and, if at the same time it is beautiful, to preserve it, 
 for the before-stated reasons. The spirit of malicious 
 destruction is just as much opposed to the dignity of 
 man, as it is contrary to the spirit of Christian Ethics 
 (John vi. 10). 
 
201 
 
 PAET V. 
 
 THE ORDER OF SALVATION AND THE 
 MEANS TOWARDS IT IN THE CHRISTIAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 A. The Ordee of Salvation. 
 
 §289. 
 The way in which Redemption from sin to Liberty, 
 and thereby to Salvation, is accomplished in each indi- 
 vidual, gives the idea of the Christian order of salvation. 
 To this change (a) belong, 1st, acquaintance with the 
 True and Good, as it is revealed in Christianity (enlight- 
 enment. Acts xxvi-. 18 ; Eph. i. 13, 17) ; 2nd, full appro- 
 bation (Faith), because then only can knowledge influ- 
 ence the conduct (6) ; 3rd, acknowledgment of former 
 shortcomings and repentance (true sorrow) ; 4th, confi- 
 dence that freedom is possible (c), and that former sins 
 will not prevent the attainment of the everlasting end 
 (saving faith) {d) ; and, 5th, a really free style of action 
 (new obedience, good works), with perseverance and pro- 
 gress in the same. The state of Freedom is felt in the 
 mind as peace with God (Rom. v. 1, xv. 13) . 
 
 (a.) Called in the New TeBtament " new birtli" (see § 229 ; John 
 iii. 3-6). As by the first, or natural birth, comes the first or natural 
 man into existence (<rdp^, the flesh) ; so by the second, or spiritual 
 
202 THE OKDER OP SALVATION. 
 
 birth, comes the freed, spiritual second man (iryeSyua, the spirit), who 
 as such belongs to the Kingdom of G-od. MeTavoia is not called 
 penance, as Luther has translated it, but change of heart ; also ava- 
 KaivoKTis, the building up of the new man (Eom. xii. 2 ; Tit. iii. 5). 
 
 (S.) Paith, irlffTis, with the fundamental idea of trust. In the New 
 Testament therefore the whole redemption is often made to depend on 
 Faith ; this however cannot at all be admitted to exist without prac- 
 tice (Mart XTi. 16 ; John xii. 46 ; Eph. i. 13). 
 
 (c.) Is grounded on the moral nature of man, the example of Jesus, 
 and the promise of the assistance of Q-od's Spirit (John iii. 5, 6 ; 1 
 Cor. vi. 11, 19; Eph. iii. 16-19). 
 
 (d.) See what has been said respecting the design of the death of 
 Jesus (§ 246). 
 
 §290. 
 The external means for the working of this change is a 
 life of religious communion (Church), in which each 
 individual refers himself to the redemption through 
 Christ, and by which the Divine doctrine is sustained 
 and brought home to the feelings, and the redemption 
 is exhibited as individually realized. The internal bond 
 of this fellpwship, and at the same time the spiritual 
 meaning of the " New Birth/' is the word of God ; the 
 outer bond of the same, and the external means of pro- 
 moting redemption, are the ministry and worship (comp. 
 § 178). 
 
 B. Of the Church. 
 
 §291. 
 Under the title of Christian Church (a) is especially 
 imderstood the whole body of Christians, who are united 
 in one body ; who acknowledge Christ to be sent by God 
 as the teacher of religious truth, and as the Redeemer 
 from sins ; and who are bound to the observance and 
 respect of the precepts given by him and the Apostles. 
 This is the empirical notion of the Church. Viewed 
 
OP THE CHURCH. 303 
 
 ideally, according to what the Christian Community will 
 become, the Church is that body of Christians which 
 wUlj by means of Christianity, be truly led to Freedom. 
 As the criterion of the latter is something internal (ac- 
 knowledgment and consciousness), the ideal Church is 
 called the invisible Church (6) ; in the Scriptures, the 
 Kingdom of God (c). 
 
 (a.) Ohurcli ; the Q-erman word " Kirche" is derived sometimes 
 &om the abbreviation of the word ^ KvpLaxfi, namely OLKia ; at others, 
 from the ancient aong of the Church, " Eyrie," with which it was 
 oustomaopy for Divine service to begin. In the Lutheran transla- 
 tion it stands for ri 4KK\7)<rla, i. e. the multitude called together ; then 
 especially the multitude collected in one place ; then the oongrega^ 
 tion of Christians in one place, in one province, or the church uni- 
 versal on earth. To the Church belong — 1st, plurality of members ; 
 2nd, the bond that unites them, which in the universal Church is 
 Faith in Jesus, and to which are added, in the invisible Church, ge- 
 nuine Christian opinions and life. 
 
 (i.) This idea is often found in the Scriptures (1 Cor. iii. 16 ; Eph. 
 i. 22 sq., V. 25 sq.). The Augsburg Confession therefore defines the 
 Church, eongregaUo scmctorum. The Church, according to the opi- 
 nion of the CathoKc Church, is the community of Christians standing 
 under the dominion of the Bishop of Borne, or Pope. This definition, 
 considering the Bomish Church as a particular Church, is correct ; 
 false and arrogant, if considered as the definition of the Universal 
 Christian Church. 
 
 (e.) Kingdom of Gt-od, the kingdom of the Messiah ; in a Jevrish 
 sense, the earthly kingdom of power and blessedness which the Jews 
 expected from the Messiah ; in a Christian sense, sometimes the whole 
 body of Christians ; at others, all true Christians, whether Hving or 
 dead. In a general sense, Gtod's kingdom is the universe. 
 
 §293. 
 
 The universal Church has divided itself into many 
 parts, — particular Churches, i.e. separate Christian so- 
 cieties (ffl), which have united themselves into one parti- 
 cular whole by means of an external bond. They are 
 divided into two principal classes, the Traditional and the 
 Evangelical. To the former belong the Greek and Roman; 
 
204 THE • ORDER OP SALVATION. 
 
 of the latter, the Lutheran and Reformed Churches (5) 
 form a principal part. 
 
 (a.) In a poltical sense, the predicate Chwrch does not belong to a 
 religious party until it is publicly acknowledged as a lawful society, as 
 the Evangelical party since the Peace of Westphalia, 1648. 
 
 (i.) The points common to the Grreek and Eoman Church are the 
 Traditions in the writings of the Fathers and decrees of Councils, which 
 they accept in addition to the Holy Scriptures, and extend to moral 
 doctrines and Church constitution. The grounds of the division which 
 exists between them rest upon the treiditional supremacy of the Ko- 
 man Church, according to which the Bishop of Borne is the Primate 
 in the Church. The union of the Evangelical Church is negative, con- 
 sisting in the positive rejection of all tradition, — the maintaining that 
 the Scriptures alone are the guide for faith, morality, and Church go- 
 vernment. Their separation rests upon no principle, and is only 
 founded upon a different construction of the Scriptures in some points 
 of faith. Easy and desirable therefore as it may be to unite the' two 
 Churches, yet it is impossible, without the destruction of its whole 
 spirit, to blend the Evangelical with the traditional Church. 
 
 §393. 
 
 The question, which of these particular Churches is 
 the true Church, can only bear the sense (a), which of 
 them is the iest ; viz. that, negatively, it does not contain 
 anything which contradicts revelation and its purpose 
 [b) ; anA, positively, that it most truly receives Divine re- 
 velation, and is so regulated that the aim of Revelation, 
 moral Freedom, may he the most rapidly and securely 
 reached. All other criterion (c) is inadmissible. 
 
 (a.) Historically conceived, the expression "true Church" can only 
 point to those which had received their present arrangement from 
 Christ or the Apostles themselves. In this sense none is the true 
 Church ; least of all are the traditional Churches so, with their creeds, 
 their Popes or holy synods, their seven sacraments, their festivals, 
 their confessionals, their priesthood, — things which took their rise gra- 
 dually about the third century, when there were no apostles living. 
 Thus, the expression "true Church" can only apply to the relation of 
 a particular Church to the ideal Christian Church of the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
OF THE CHURCH. 205 
 
 (5.) This is the case with the Indulgences, the supremacy of the 
 Pope, the withholding of the cup from the Laity, the sacrifice of the 
 Mass, etc. 
 
 (o.) BeUflrmine (lib. iv. De Bccles. u. 3 sq.), and after him many 
 Eoman authors, give the following criterion of the true Church : — 
 " Ipsum Catholicae Ecclesise nomen ; antiquitas ; diutuma neque un- 
 quam interrupta duratio ; amplitude seu multitude Tere credentium, 
 episooporum auccessio ab Apostolis dedueta ; conspiratio in doctrina 
 cum ecolesia antiqua ; unio membrorum inter se et cum capite ; doc- 
 trinae sanetitas j doctrinaa efficacitas ; sanotitas vitse auotorum, seu ma- 
 gistrorum et populormn ; gloria miraculomm ; lumen propheticum ; 
 confessio adversariorum ; infelix exitus adversariorum eoclesiEe; feUcitas 
 ecolesise temporalis." 
 
 §294. 
 
 The foundation of a Church was indispensable for the 
 Divine revelation (comp. 128) j because it needed a com- 
 munity, a school, and mutual creed in order to receive 
 the revealed doctrine, to spread it wider, and to make it 
 effectual to the soul of man (Rom. x. 17), and because 
 religion must by the means of symbols (a) be brought 
 nearer to the feelings. Jesus, although in his own per- 
 son he remained in union with the Jewish Church, yet 
 desired that a Christian Church should arise (Matt. xvi. 
 18 sq.) that it should become universal (Matt. xxiv. 14; 
 John X. 16), that it should be possessed of Faith in the 
 one true God and in Jesus as his ambassador, and have 
 Baptism and the Eucharist as symbols. After the death 
 of Jesus, the Apostles formed a separate religious com- 
 munity (John xvii. 3), and solemnly renounced the Jew- 
 ish Church (Acts xv.). 
 
 (a.) Symbols, a representation of one thing by means of another, 
 different in their substances, but bearing analogous relation in their 
 signification. Oral symbols are all metaphors, as, the storm of his 
 anger ; representative symbols, as bread and wine ia the Eucharist, 
 the folding of the hands, the looking towards heaven in prayer ; they 
 must be judged according to their intrinsic worth, their moral and 
 
306 THE ORDER. OF SALVATION. 
 
 SBBthetie eJEfects, and eapecially according to their conformity to the 
 idea indicated by these acts. 
 
 §295. 
 That the risen Christ is the only head of the Christian 
 Church (Matt, xxviii. 18; Eph. i. 22 sq., iv. 5, 15 sq.; 
 Col. i. 18), and his representative on earth is the doctrine 
 laid down in the New Testament (1 Cor. iii. 11 ; Gal. i. 
 8) J according to which, as to Divine authority, the Chris- 
 tian Church must direct itself: the pretended supremacy 
 of the Bishop of Eome is without any foundation (a). 
 
 (o.) Matt. xvi. 18, John xxi. 15 sq., are generally appealed to, but 
 no mention of supremacy is found amongst the Apostles ; compare 
 also John xx. 21 ; Matt. xxTiii. 19 sq. Jesus blamed all ambition 
 (Matt, xriii. 1-12, xx. 25 sq. ; Luke xxii. 24-28, ix. 46 ; John xiii. 14 sq) . 
 The conduct of St. Paul and St. Peter (Acts xt. ; G-al. ii. ; 2 Cor. xi. 
 15). Still, if Jesus had conferred the supremacy on Peter, it was but 
 a personal preference, which ended with his death, and which Peter, 
 even had he been Bishop of Eome, which he was not, could not confer 
 on the succeeding Bomau bishops. There also exist no historical 
 data to prove that he made the supremacy to devolve on the Eoman 
 Bishops. Had Jesus willed a general supremacy in the Church, then 
 at the death of Peter it must have passed to John, the only Apostle 
 living at that time. The ancient Church never aoinowledged this su- 
 premacy. Neither has the Primate been able to sustain unity and 
 peace in the Eomish Church. It is impossible that Christianity 
 can be governed by one man from one place ; nothing in the Scrip- 
 tures contradicts Popery more than the whole of Matt, xxiii. and 
 2 Thess. ii. 3. 
 
 §296. 
 
 As an external community, the Christian Church re- 
 quires a regulated and managed power; aU Church do- 
 minion, i. e. the right to make and execute laws, rests with 
 the Church itself, which she has to administer according 
 to the New Testament, or, when this fails, according to 
 the design of revelation, or the exigencies of the Church 
 determiued hy the latter. The State, or the adminis- 
 
OF THE CHURCH. 207 
 
 trator of tlie same^ has no power on jus in sacra, hut jus 
 circa sacra, i. e. he cannot ordain^ hut can only inspect 
 in the Churchj and (with the exception of that which 
 is determined by the revelation itself, and which, as a 
 Christian, he must likewise obey) forbid ecclesiastical 
 arrangements if he consider them inconsistent with the 
 commonweal of the State ; he has also the right and ob- 
 ligation to protect the Church against external power. 
 
 §297. 
 
 To Church power belong, 1st, the right of pubhc 
 creeds, or the right to explain the constitution-book of 
 the Church (the New Testament), to acknowledge and 
 sanction («) the explanation as a system ; 2nd, the jus 
 sacrorum, or the right to regulate the whole worship and 
 the sacraments ; 3rd, the jus sacerdotii, or the right to 
 appoint teachers and Church officials; 4th, the jus dis- 
 ciplinm, or the right to insist on the fiilfilment by indi- 
 viduals of ecclesiastical duties, and, on their failing to 
 do so, to excommunicate them {excommunicatio) ; 5th, 
 the jus reformandi, the right to improve the public sys- 
 tem, worship, and constitution of the Church {b) ; 6th, 
 the jus regiminis, the right to govern herself by chosen 
 ofiScers. The Church can only entrust the executive 
 power to the head of the State, when that power belongs 
 to the Church. The legislative power rests with the 
 Church alone, because she has laid down in the Gospels 
 and their spirit a principle of Legislation (c). 
 
 {a.) Communion is tlie basis of the Church ; above all) the commu- 
 nion of religious conviction. Symbols, Boots. Each indiTidual stands 
 alone however, because each is personally responsible to Grod for his 
 actions, free to read the code of Eevelation, and, according to hia con- 
 science, to understand its meaning ; each has also the right to sepa- 
 rate himself entirely from ecclesiastical union. 
 
 (6.) This right proceeds from the necessity of regulating the empi- 
 
308 THE ORDER OF SALVATION. 
 
 rical Church conformably to the ideal of the Christian Church. When 
 the empirical Church has departed from this ideal, and constantly re- 
 jected all improvement, those who perceive this have the right to form 
 for themselves a new and improved ecclesiastical community. 
 
 (c.) The Church exercises the legislative power by representative 
 assembhes (synods) ; they however must submit to the decision of 
 Jesus and the Apostles. The Church delegates the executive power 
 either directly or indirectly to the head of the State, where this head 
 belongs to the Church, 
 
 C. Op the Holy Scriptures, or the Word of God. 
 
 §298. 
 
 As a merely oral tradition could neither preserve re- 
 velation nor keep it from corruption, nor secure its wide 
 diffusion amongst the nations, it was necessary to have 
 the Revelation faithfully transcribed in the Holy Scrip- 
 tures. As the Holy Scripture is the keeper of Revela- 
 tion, so likewise is the Christian Church the keeper of 
 the Holy Scripture ; and even if there were, in addition 
 to the Holy Scripture, an orally transmitted doctrine 
 (tradition), this would necessarily be subordinate to the 
 Scriptures («) . 
 
 (a.) TiapiSoffis, traditio, in ecclesiastical language, the oral doc- 
 trines of the Apostles in the Christian communities, gathered from 
 the teachers, transmitted, and by degrees written, by the Fathers of 
 the Church. Whether however only oral teaching of the Apostles 
 existed is not discovered ; whether the doctrines written in the Fathers 
 is the doctrrne of the Apostles or not, is not only indemonstrable, but 
 it is impossible to deny that what is found written in the Fathers ap- 
 proaches to anomaly and contradiction. An especial inspiration was 
 not needed in the drawing up of the BibHoal Vfritings if the authors 
 were in statu mspiratioms. There is not found iu the New Testament 
 any proof for that, which can be in this case taken particularly into 
 consideration. 
 
 §299. 
 
 As the Holy Scripture contains, credibly recorded, the 
 revelation = the word of God, it has in religious matters 
 
OF THE HSIiY SCKIPTUKES. 209 
 
 the authority of a rule {a), and with posterity stands in 
 the place of Jesus and the Apostles, or interpreters of 
 revelation (b). As it gives complete information respect- 
 ing that which, according to John xvii. 3, is requisite to 
 the salvation of man, it is sufficient for this purpose. The 
 authority of a rule does not belong to the Bible as a book, 
 but only to the word of God (c) contained in it. 
 
 (a.) That is, the word of God alone is the judge of the faith and 
 life of Christians ; or it can only he decided by this what Christian 
 doctrine and precepts are. This authority belongs to it because it alone 
 contains authentic information respecting the doctrines of Jesus and 
 the Apostles. 
 
 (i.) The Apostles, Tiewed in this light, were equal with Jesus, partly 
 because they were the constant hearers of his doctrines, partly because 
 they were especially educated as teachers of his rehgion, and partly 
 because they stood under the inspiration of the Divine enlightenment 
 (John xiv. 16 sq., 26, xv. 26, xvi. 7 ; Lute xxir. 49). 
 
 (c.) The word of Gl-od points out each declaration of the Divine 
 will ; it now takes place either in the heart of man (Heb. viii. 10 ; 
 Bom. ii. 15, i. 19 sq.) or externally, by the mouth of men enlightened 
 by G-od. The Scriptures contain more than the word of God. To 
 the last therefore is only to be ascribed what is by Jesus and the Apo- 
 stles represented as rehgious doctrine, and by them pointed out as the 
 true Faith. The authority of a rule belongs only to the critically cor- 
 rected original text, not to a translation (such as the Vulgate). 
 
 § 300. 
 
 For the Christian indeed is the whole Bible highly 
 edifying and important, since it contains the history of 
 the education of man, through Revelation, in moral Free- 
 dom ; but the above-stated (§ 230) determines the rela- 
 tion of the Christian to the earlier revelations ; the rela- 
 tion also of the Old and New Testaments ; and that the 
 New Testament alone has the authority of a rule, the 
 Old Testament only where it is confirmed by the New, 
 or where in chief points (a) it agrees with the same. 
 
 (a.) E.g. In the doctrine of Faith, of one God, the Creator, sua- 
 
210 THE ORDER OF SALVATION. 
 
 tainer, and governor of tlie world ; not however in the doctrine of 
 Hades. In Ethics, the greater part of moral precepts, but not all mo- 
 tives, as hate against enemies and the despising of foreigners. It must 
 be remembered that most of the Bibhcal books were written for the 
 necessities of their times, and therefore those parts must be distin- 
 guished which are only of local and temporary use from those which 
 are of a general one ; and that the Lutheran Bible is a translation ; 
 its words must not therefore be relied upon without reference to the 
 original text ; the age of the boots must be likewise considered, as weE 
 as the oriental style and mode of speech ; care must be bestowed on 
 their various definitions, and the fact itself must not be confounded 
 with the mode of relating it. In obscurity and contradictions the 
 student of these writings should attend to the counsel of some judi- 
 cious and learned friend. 
 
 §301. 
 
 Every ChristiaQ is not only permitted to read the 
 Holy Scriptures, but it is his duty to do so, for his own 
 enlightenment and improvement (a). The Laity should 
 pay the utmost attention to those parts of the Scripture 
 which are most instructive to them and the most easily 
 understood. 
 
 (a.) The Gospels are forgeneral use, and especially for baptized p^- 
 sons. The Epistles extend to all, are addressed to the whole community 
 of Christians, and were publicly read (in the first Christian congrega- 
 tions) . All Christians should be able to give a reason of their faith (1 
 Peter iii. 15; CoLui. 16; 1 Thess. v. 21). All are in their conscience 
 personally answerable for their obedience to Kevelation (Rom. xiv. 23) ; 
 finally, all Christians were in the Ancient Church permitted to read the 
 Bible. Hieronymus (Apolog. 1, contra JRuffin.) praises Pamphylius, 
 " Quod Scripturas quoque Sanctas non ad legendum tantum, sed ad 
 habendum tribuebat promptissime, non solum viris, sed etiam foeminis, 
 quas vidisset lectioni deditas." The withholding of the Bible from the 
 Laity was introduced by Gregory VII. The Coimcil of Tolosa, 1129, 
 attested the same, and the Tridentine Council (1129) advanced it to a 
 law. (Bible Society Extracts.) The Parent of all Bible Societies is 
 the British and Foreign Bible Society, instituted in England in 1804 : 
 since 1813 it has spread itself over the Continent. This Society has, , 
 from 1804 to 1824, distributed 8,444,328 Bibles. The Muscovites 
 distributed in eleven years 79,500 Bibles. In 1816, Pope Pius VII. 
 
OP THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS. 211 
 
 prohibited these societies in Catholic countries, denouncing them as 
 disgraceful undertalings and defilements of the Faith. 
 
 D. Of the Ecclesiastical Orders. 
 
 §302. 
 
 According to § 128, the Church has two requirements^ 
 1st, a ministry ; 2ndly, a worship. The Minister is the 
 servant of the Divine Word {ministerium verbi Divini), 
 and to him belong the religious instruction in schools 
 and churches (a) ; the conducting of public worship {b) ; 
 the administration of the Sacraments, and the special 
 care of souls {cura animarum) in the community. The 
 first servants of the Word were the Apostles themselves 
 (Acts vi. 3, 4) ; their successors were chosen partly from 
 the Apostles and partly from the community (c), and 
 were consecrated for their ofSce by the imposition of 
 hands {d) . Before the servants of the Word (pastors) 
 can be consecrated, they must be lawfully called to the 
 service (e). Although the Apostles did not institute any 
 particular clerical order, yet in the natural course of 
 things it soon arose. The representation of it as a priest- 
 hood (hierarchy) is however false (/), and the opinion 
 of the necessity of the celibacy of the clergy whoUy un- 
 founded {g). 
 
 {a.) The schools were founded by the Church (ancient Vestry 
 Schools) ; this institution was necessary, in order that youth should 
 not only be instructed in religion, but also learn to read and write. 
 Schools therefore were not alone Government institutions, but united 
 the interests of the Church with the State. It is at the Colleges and 
 TJniTersities however that the interest of the State must predominate. 
 
 (J.) Not only the conducting but the arranging of pubHo worship 
 belongs to the ministry (Augsburg Conf , art. 28) : " What opinion 
 then is to be held respecting Sunday and other like Church ordinances 
 and ceremonies ?" To that is answered, " that the Bishop or principal 
 Pastor may estabhsh ordinances, in order that the Church may proceed 
 without confusion. Such ordinances are requisite, that love and peace 
 
212 THE ORDER OF SALVATION. 
 
 may be kept in the Christian congregation j in those cases obedience 
 is due to the Bishops and head pastors." 
 
 (o.) The Apostle : see Acts xir. 23 ; 1 Cor. xii. 28 sq. ; Eph. ir. 11 
 sq. ; 2 Tim. ii. 2 ; Tit. i. 5. The communities : see Acts i. 15 sq., vi. 
 1 sq. ; compare 1 Tim. iy. 14. 
 
 (d.) The imposition of hands is an old Jewish custom, and indicates 
 the transmission of property iirom one to another, as a blessing (Q-en. 
 iviii. 14 sq. ; Matt. xix. 13 sq. ; Acts viii. 14 sq.), a crime, and a 
 punishment (Levit. i. 4, iii. 2, iv. 18, xxir. 14), or a dignity (Num. 
 xxvi. 18-28), or a healing power (Luie iv. 40 ; Mark r. 23, xvi. 
 18 ; Acts is. 12, xxviii. 8). The serrants of the Word were conse- 
 crated by this symbol (1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6), not only by the 
 Bishop, but by the community hkewise (Acts vi. 1-6, xiii. 1-3). This 
 ceremony was sometimes omitted (Acts ii. 38, 41, xviii. 8, xiv. 23). 
 Jesus himself, according to John xx. 22, made use of another symbol. 
 
 (e.) Pastor (parocMs), guardian of souls of a community. Preach- 
 ing expressed only a part of their office. The light of calling rests 
 with the Patron of the Church ; the right of sanctioning, with the 
 Sovereign, as the chief director of the Church ; only the latter there- 
 fore has the power to dismiss the minister of the Word, who, as a 
 person, is subject to the oivH power, and whose immunities are free 
 grants of the same. 
 
 (/.) The imposition of hands created no distinct order, it was prac- 
 tised on all who became Christians (Acts viii. 14-17, xix. 6, 7). All 
 had liberty to speak in the congregation (1 Cor. xii. 7-13, xiv. 1-40) ; 
 every Christian is called a priest of Q-od (1 Peter ii. 5-9), since they, 
 according to the fulfilled prophecy (Jer. xxxi. 33 ; Joel iii. 1 sq. ; 
 Heb. viii. 10 sq.), are aU filled with the Spirit of Q-od (1 John ii. 20, 
 21, 27). Priests: mediators between Q-od and Man, to present 
 prayer and sacrifice to Qod, and to oommunioate to man forgiveness 
 and mercy &om God. Accordiog to the Eomish Church, the Priests 
 are a class (hierarchy) who from the gifts of the Holy Ghost received 
 by them in consecration are, in cases of religion, infallible, entitled to 
 dominion over the Laity, and are alone competent to the administrar 
 tion of the Sacerdotal Sacraments. 
 
 (^.) See Matt. viii. 15, 1 Cor. ix. 5, and the formulaxy, " Let a 
 bishop be the husband of one wife" (1 Tim. iii. 2, iv. 8 ; Tit. i. 6), 
 which, however it may be explained, speaks against the ceHbacy of the 
 clergy, "Until the end of the third century, not only the lower clergy, 
 but the bishops and presbyters, married. Bishops refrained from 
 marriage : ceHbacy was only enforced as a law upon aU the clergy of 
 the West during the latter half of the eleventh century, by Pope 
 Gregory VII. 
 
OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS. 213 
 
 § 303. 
 
 Worship includes all solemn actions, by which reli- 
 gious ideas are exhibited, awakened, and can be made 
 effective in life. Ceremonies and religious Festivals be- 
 long to the public worship of God. The doctrine of the 
 Catholic Church, that worship is a saving work {ex opere 
 operato), has with justice been rejected by the Evangeli- 
 cal Church (see John iv. 24; Matt. xv. 8) (a). 
 
 (a.) The difference of tlie Catholic and EvangeHcal Churches is by 
 this distinctly determined. The former aims at extraordinary effects of 
 an external nature ; the latter, at producing internal effects on the spirit. 
 The former ascribes the effect to the power given to the Priest by 
 consecration, smd to the mysterious nature of the work ; the latter, 
 to the moral power exhibited in DiTine truth and worship, and the 
 influence of the same on the disposition. Between the Keformed and 
 Lutheran Chiirch there exists, as regards public worship, no essential 
 difference. The former has only studied a greater eimpUcity than the 
 latter, and has abolished many things, such as Church ornaments, 
 organs, etc., which the Lutheran Church has retained. 
 
 § 304. 
 
 In regard to public worship, the Apostles and Jew- 
 ish Christians for a long time retained the holyday of 
 the Jewish Sabbath, which was celebrated (a) by prayer, 
 singing, reading, and explaining of the Old Testament. 
 But in the first century the Apostles allowed the sub- 
 stitution of the first day of the week for the seventh, 
 in honour of the resurrection of Jesus [b) . The festival 
 of Sunday, as the day for the public worship of God, is 
 therefore (c) an Apostohcal command, which it is incum- 
 bent on the Christian however to obey on other grounds 
 {d) . The parts of Divine Service are preaching, prayer, 
 and singing. 
 
 (a.) This is to be seen in many parts of the Acts, also in the Krst 
 Epistle to the Corinthians. 
 
214 THE ORDER OF SALVATION. 
 
 (J.) It is therefore called (Eey. i. 10) ^ Kvpiaic^ soil, rinepa, where 
 the Kiipior is not &od, but Jesus (see also Acts xxi. 7 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 2 ; 
 Ool. iii. 16). 
 
 (e.) Much of the Mosaic Law is here transferred, namely the omis- 
 sion of all work (rest-day, whereas many make it a day for sensual 
 pleasures). This is retained, not on account of the Mosaic command- 
 ment, but that none should be prevented from participating in Divine 
 worship. 
 
 {d). On account of the effects on the community, nothing else can 
 compensate for public worship (see § 219). A reUgious and moral 
 revival is required by all, the greater part requiring even teaching. So, 
 as members of the Church, the partaking of the pubHo worship of G-od 
 is a social duty ; but no member must expect too much, nor require 
 a spectacle in pubKc worship — Through preaching, song, prayer, and 
 ceremonies, public worship advances equally the knowledge, feeling, 
 and religious life of the worshipper. 
 
 §305. 
 Of Ceremonies, Jesus ordained only two symbolical 
 services or religious rites in Ms Church — Baptism and 
 the Lord's Supper (a) ; which have become the ambigu- 
 ously termed Sacraments (b) . 
 
 (a.) The Chiu-ch by degrees added five other Festivals, the so-called 
 sacraments ; since the twelfth century she has increased their number 
 to seven, namely — 3. Penance, or absolution, according to John xx. 
 22 sq. 4. Confirmation. 5. Extreme unction (rnictio extrema), by 
 which the dying are prepared for death, according to James v. 14 sq., 
 which passage however relates to the curing of the sick person, oil at 
 that time being used as a universal medicine. 6. Marriage, because, 
 Eph. V. 32, livariipiov is translated in the Tulgate sacramentmn, al- 
 though this rite is neither symbolical nor of Christian ordination. 
 7. The ordination of Priests (sacerdotium), or the imposition of 
 hands ; this rite however was not confined to the clergy, but prevailed 
 equally amongst the laity. 
 
 (J.) Sacramentwm, taken from the so-called Vulgate : it is used for 
 IwSTiipiov, and by the Fathers for all sacred things ; the precise mean- 
 ing is therefore very uncertain. If therefore it is asked what are the 
 symboKcal rites Jesus himself ordained, the reply is, only two Sacra- 
 ments. 
 
OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS. 215 
 
 §306. 
 
 Baptism («) is the symbolical rite ib) by wbich, ac- 
 cordiag to the injunction of Christ {c), consecration to 
 Christianity is accomplished (d), by the dipping of the 
 person to be baptized into water, by means of which not 
 only he becomes entitled to all the privileges^ but also 
 takes on himself (e) all the liabilities of the Christian. 
 Infant baptism took its rise in the Apostolic Churchy and 
 is retained (/) on other grounds, as well as for its agree- 
 ment with the New Testament. 
 
 (a.) 'BdirTifffia: reKgious ablutions were customary amongst the 
 Greets and Bomans : see Matt, xxvii. 24 ; Ovid, Past. ii. 25 ; Tirg. 
 Georg. ii. 147 ; .Slueid ii. 719. We find also lustrations by water 
 cited as religious acts amongst the Egyptians, Persians, and Israelites 
 (2 Mos. XXI. 18, xix. 10-14 ; LeTit. xiv. 7 ; 3 Mos. xv.). The Essenes 
 had likewise a consecration by water : Joseph. De Bell. Jud. ii. 8, 7. 
 The Jews baptized the so-called Proselytes of the Gate. John Baptist, 
 (Is /lerdmiav (Matt. ni. 1 ; Luke iii. 1 sq. ; Joseph. Ant. xviii. 5, 2) ; 
 his disciples (Acts xix. 5 «?.) therefore were baptized prior to Chris- 
 tianity ; and the Anabaptists refer to this passage erroneously. 
 
 (i.) This rite becomes a festival when accomplished according to the 
 command of Christ, and as a religious action. To this the use of the 
 word of God is requisite, i. e. partly in the prescribed formulary " In 
 the name of the Father," etc., partly in the words of the promise 
 (Mark xvi. 16 ; compare the fourth article in Luther's Catechism). 
 
 (e.) Matt, xxviii. 19 ; Mark xvi. 15 sg. ; John ui. 5 ; Acts ii. 38, 
 41, viii. 12, 36 ; Eph. T. 25 sq. 
 
 (d.) Immersion was generally used, and had a symbolical meaning 
 (see Eom. vi. 3 sg'.). It was at first a siugle immersion, afterwards 
 threefold. In the twelfth century, in the Eastern Church, the ad- 
 sperdo, instead of immersion (retained by the Greek Church), became 
 customary. Water is the symbol of purity and entire freedom from 
 sin, to those who desire to conform themselves to Christ. 
 
 (e.) Compare the passages under (c.) ; compare Eph. iv. 5 1 Gal. iii. 
 27 sq. ; 1 Cor. xii. 13). The hope of eternal life is especially joined 
 to it, if the Christian, through a godly life, be made worthy of it. In 
 the third century exorcisms were used at the baptism of Gentiles and 
 heretics, because they were supposed to be under the dominion of the 
 DevU. About the fifth century exorcisms were extended to all who 
 
216 THE ORDER OP SALTATION. 
 
 were baptized, on account of the universality of original sin. Baptism 
 was applied for remiasion of original sin and everlasting danmation. 
 The Catholic Church taught that all unbaptized persons were damned. 
 The baptism of bells in the Eomish Church &st used in the eighth 
 century. 
 
 (/.) The expression of Jesus (Matt. xix. 15 sq. ; Mark x. 14 sq. ; 
 and Acts xvi. 15, 33, XTui. 8 ; 1 Cor. i. 16) mention the baptism of 
 whole femilies. By baptism children can lay claim to considerable 
 privilegea, can demand a Christian education ; they become boxmd to 
 acquaint themselves with the Christian religion, and are most specially 
 the object of brotherly love (sponsores, susceptores, propatres). The 
 dutyof the Christian education of the baptized belongs to their sponsors. 
 
 §307. 
 
 The Lord's Supper (a) is the festival {b) of Christ's or- 
 daining (c), celebrated by the partaking of consecrated {d) 
 bread and wine {e), by which we remember Christ's body 
 given up to death for the salvation of the worlds and his 
 blood shed for the same purpose, i. e. a remembrance 
 and solemn commemoration of the death of Jesus, by 
 which we strengthen our faith and animate our hopes of 
 eternal life (comp. § 246) . 
 
 (a.) AeiTryoj' KvpiaKSp, coena Domini (1 Cor. xi. 20) ; evxapurria, 
 Trpoffijiopd, Koivavia, comamnio (1 Cor. x. 16) ; aydirai, correctly, love- 
 feast (Jude, verse 12); where the rich gave food to the poor, with which 
 almsgiving the early celebration of the Lord's Supper was connected. 
 On account of prevailing abuses, this practice was in the fourth cen- 
 tury abolished. Missa, because the Catechumens were dismissed before 
 the administration of the Lord's Supper. — Ite, missa est ecclesia. 
 
 (J.) The festival consists, first, in the recitation of the formula 
 in which is expressed that man, resting on the appointment of Christ, 
 intends to accomplish a rehgions action ; secondly, in prayer (ivXoyia). 
 
 (c.) Matt. xxvi. 26-29 ; Mark xiv. 22-25 s Luke xxii. 19-21 ; 1 Cor. 
 xi. 23-25. In the early Church they feasted daUy ; in the fourth and 
 fifth centuries, only on Sundays ; about the seventh century, three 
 times yearly ; in the CathoUc Church, chiefly at Easter. 
 
 (c?.) The consecration which, through the formula and prayer, shows 
 that bread and wine are apphed to a religious purpose. 
 
 (e.) Bread and wine are symbols of the body and blood of Christ ; 
 
OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS. 217 
 
 Jesus had unleavened bread. The Host used in the eleventh century, 
 at which time breakiug the bread grew out of use. The withdrawal of 
 the cup from the Laity first oustomajy in England in the twelfth 
 century. It was first made lawful in the Eomish Cliurch by the 
 Council of Constance (1415) and the GPridentine Decrees. 
 
 (y.) The symbolical meaning of the breaking of bread and the pour- 
 ing of the wine is the breaking of the body and shedding of the blood 
 of Christ, both betokening his crucifixion. The words of Matt. xxvi. 
 28, " for the remission of sins," refers not to the act of the Lord's 
 Supper, as if this feast served for the forgiveness of sins, but to the 
 blood which is shed for sin. The expression, " This is" (my body, my 
 blood), is frequently used in the Scriptures to explain symboKcal dis- 
 courses ajid actions (e.^. Luke xxii. 20, "This cup is the New Testa- 
 ment," etc. ; Exod. xxlv. 8 ; Gal. iv. 24 ; Ezek. xii. 10). This expres- 
 sion, and many of the parabohe discourses of Jesus, were afterwards 
 taken singly, and the Lord's Supper viewed as a sacrifice (sacrifice of 
 the Mass), in which the priest presented (the symbols of) the body 
 and blood of Christ as a sacrifice to God, by which means he procured 
 bodily or spiritual benefits from God for the person for whom he ofiered 
 the sacrifice (soul masses). According to Heb ix. 12, vii. 23 sq^., Jesus 
 has offered one only sacrifice (himself), neither can rehgious actions 
 (good works) be transferred. The opinion that by consecration the 
 bread and wine become changed (Transubstantiation) was adopted by 
 Paschasius Eadbertus, 831, and is stUI the doctrine of the Koman 
 Church. Luther rejected transubstantiation, but at the same time 
 taught that by a mysterious means the body and blood of Jesus were 
 enjoyed by the partaking of bread and wine ; Zuingle, that bread and 
 wine were only tokens of the body and blood of Christ. Calvin struck 
 out a middle course, and taught that while partaking of the bread and 
 vrine the communicant, by faith, would be sensible of the bUssful in- 
 spiration of the body and blood of Christ. This last became the pubKc 
 doctrine of the Reformed Church. It is indispensable that the Chris- 
 tian should, by the observance of this rite, commemorate the death of 
 Jesus : " This do in remembrance of me ; " and (1 Cor. xi. 26) " So 
 often as ye eat this bread," etc. The beneficial efieots of the Lord's 
 Supper depends on the pious frame of mind of the receiver ; therefore 
 each of the before-named representations can exist, and ah have full 
 liberty to take their own view of the subject. 
 
 § 308. 
 
 Of the five festivals which the Church has annexed to 
 Baptism and the Lord's Supper, the Evangelical Church 
 
218 THE OKDER OF SALVATION, 
 
 has retainedj 1st, the religious rite of MarriagSj which 
 certainly is not -commanded in Scripture, hut is still very 
 conformable to it ; 2nd, the Confirmation of baptized per- 
 sops in their thirteenth or fourteenth year, which is not 
 njerely a voluntary acquiescence in the obligations taken 
 for them in their baptism, but is a solemn admission of 
 the Catechumens into the Evangelical Christian Church, 
 through which they undertake all the duties of an adult 
 member of this Church, and receive all the privileges of 
 the same (a) ; 3rd, Confession (charge of the keys), in- 
 eluding absolution, which is not founded on the passage 
 Matt. xvi. 19, John xx. 21 sq., but is simply a proper 
 preparation for the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. xi. 28) . The 
 confession is an admission given before the clergyman 
 that they, as sinful men, need the grace of God, and are 
 desirous of amending their lives ; whereupon follows the 
 declaration of the clergyman that, according to their 
 frame of mind, the forgiveness of their sins is certain [b) . 
 
 (fl.) It was customary in the ancient Church that the baptized mem- 
 bers (they baptized chiefly at Easter) should on Quadragesima Sunday 
 receive imposition of hands and be anointed on their foreheads, by 
 which means confirmation was solemnized by the Bishop in his dio- 
 cese. The Greek Church united this ceremony with Baptism, and 
 anointed the Catechumens with the holy oil (Chrism) on the forehead, 
 eyes, breast, etc. Confirmation became general in Pomerania in 1534 ; 
 later in Hesse ; and, at Spener' sinstigation, in IGT?, ia Frankfort. 
 Prom thence it became customary in other countries (Saxony, 1723). 
 
 (J.) The confession is placed on the so-called Lapsorum, that must 
 be confessed before the Bishop and congregation before absolution 
 could be given, i, e. before a person could be again received into the 
 ecclesiastical congregation. As the communities increased, confession 
 was made merely to the priest. In later times the priests taught that 
 they held the power to truly forgive sins, and therefore required in 
 confession that every sin should be expHcitly declared (auricular con- 
 fession commanded by Innocent III., 1215), because otherwise priest! 
 absolution would have been ineffectual for secret sins. (Dangers and 
 abuses of this mode of confession.) 
 
OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL ORDERS. 219 
 
 § 309. 
 
 In respect of ecclesiastical Festivals in the ancient 
 Churchy from the festival of Sunday proceeded that of 
 the birth of Christ (a), Easter {b), and Whitsuntide (c). 
 Good Friday was also in the early Church held sacred, 
 and on that day fasting {d) was observed. All the other 
 Festivals are of a later date : — ^the Circumcision, first in 
 the sixth and seventh century (e) ; the Feast of the Epi- 
 phany about the fourth century (/) j Advent at the same 
 time (ff) ; Candlemas in the sixth century, by Pope Pela- 
 gius; Maundy Thursday, 602, by Leo II. [h). The As- 
 cension dates probably from the fourth century; the 
 Trinity first probably from the fourteenth century ; the 
 Feast of St. John from the third century ; Michaelmas, 
 or the Feast of all Angels, was ordained by Pope Gelasius 
 in 493. The Annunciation was first introduced in the 
 sixth century. The Visitation of Mary was ordained 
 in 1889, by Pope Urban. Penance and prayer-days for 
 public calamities were in the sixth and seventh centu- 
 ries first held annually, at stated times. The most impor- 
 tant festivals are, without dispute, those which point out 
 the most remarkable passages in the Life of Christ, and 
 those which awaken a religious idea. 
 
 (a.) The 25tli December was chosen by the Eastern Church about 
 the fourth century. The "Western Church, until the foregoing century, 
 celebrated the birth of Christ on the 6th of January. J'or the rest see 
 §220. 
 
 (5.) Ostern (Easter), from wrstcmd, to rise (resurrection). The Chris- 
 tians in Armenia and Egypt very long kept the Jewish Passover. The 
 Christians in Asia Minor ate it, with the Jews, on the fourteenth day 
 of the month, after the first new moon succeeding the vernal equinox ; 
 the Eastern Christians, on the evening preceding the feast of the 
 Resurrection, which they observed on the first Sunday after the first 
 fiiU moon. The Council of Nice made the last custom legal. 
 
 (c.) Pentecost (perhaps a corruption of necTijKoirT^), according to 
 the Jews the Feast of Harvest and the giving of the Law from Sinai ; 
 
 L 2 
 
220 THE ORD£K OF SALVATION. 
 
 according to the Christians, the Festival of the Commencement of the 
 Church. It was first ordained as a feast in the eleventh century, and 
 wafi to be kept during three days ; it falls fifty days after Easter. 
 
 (d.) Charfreitag (Good Priday), ordained as a general Feast by 
 Constantine the Great, but had been customary much earlier. Pro- 
 bably derived from ca/rena, because on this day, in the ancient Church, 
 the Fast began ; it was a penance and fast-day, in which, according to 
 the example of Jesus, solemn prayer was made for enemies and perse- 
 cutoi^, but no loiee was bent or kiss given. The fast in the Apostolic 
 Church was kept for forty hours — from Good Friday 12 A.M. until 
 Easter 4 A.M. Since the third century the fiist was made voluntary 
 for thirty-sis days, and in the sixth or eighth century it began forty 
 days earlier ; hence Quad/ragesima, Jejimimm qaadragesimale. The 
 Carnival is a remnant of the old Bacchanalia (Carnival, from caro 
 vale). Pope Celestine III. in the twelfth century ordained that on 
 Wednesday in Passion Week the ashes of burnt ohve-branches and 
 other consecrated trees should be strewed over the congregations in 
 the churches, with the words Memento, qiiod cinis es : from this called 
 Ash Wednesday. 
 
 (e.) The Christians commence their civil year with the heathen ; 
 their ecclesiastical year with Easter. The Feast of the Circumcision 
 was first ordained in 1222. 
 
 (/.) On this day the Western Church for a long period kept the 
 birthday of Christ. 
 
 {g.) It is uncertain when Advent was first considered as the com- 
 mencement of the ecclesiastical year. During Advent a fast was kept, 
 and all pleasures denied. In England the ecclesiastical year begins 
 vipth the Annunciation. 
 
 \ (h.) Pope Sergius, in 690, ordered the burning of consecrated 
 tapers, hence the name Candlemas. Maundy Thursday : in many 
 places the feet of twelve persons are washed on this day. 
 
231 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §310. 
 
 The History of the Christian Church (a), which to all, 
 and especially the learned, is of high importance, wiU be 
 here related, as far as such history is necessary to the 
 understanding of the present state of the Christian 
 Church. This history arranges itself into three great 
 periods, namely, I. From its foundation until its entire 
 division into the Latin and Greek Churches (from a.d. 
 33 to 1053) ; 2. From that period to the Reforma- 
 tion (a.d. 1053-1517) ; and, 3. From the Reformation 
 up to the present time. In each period the special view 
 taken is, 1, the external state of the Church j 2, its 
 social constitution; and, 3, the state of its religion and 
 doctrine. 
 
 (a.) Those desirous of gaming an instructive view of the whole are 
 strongly advised to read Lud. Tim. Spittler's 'Gtrundriss der Q-e-, 
 schichte der christl. Kirche, fortgefiihrt bis auf die neuesten Zeiten 
 von T. T. Plank' (Gottingen, 1812). T. F. W. Thym, ' Historisohe 
 Entwickelung der Schieksale der ohristliohen Eeligion und Kirche fiir 
 gebildete Christen' (Berlin, 1800). H. Ph. C. Henke, 'Allgemeine 
 Gteschiohte der christhchen Kirche naoh der Zeitfolge,' 1788-1802 ; 
 continued by T. S. Tater up to 1817. 
 
222 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 FIRST FEBIOD. 
 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHKISTIAN CHUECH, 
 UNTIL ITS ENTIRE DIVISION INTO THE LATIN AND 
 G-EBEK CHUECHES (A.D. 33-1053). 
 
 §311. 
 The history of the Church in this period, in conse- 
 quence of the following facts, ranges itself under three 
 subdivisions : — 1st, From its foundation until Constan- 
 tine, or, until the public acknowledgment of Christia- 
 nity in the Roman Empire (a.d. 33-312) ; 2nd, from 
 Constantine until the invasion of the Mahometans 
 Into the Christian world (a.d. 312-634) ; 3rd, from that 
 time until the entire separation of the Greek and Latin 
 Churches (a.d. 634-1053). 
 
 1. Of the External State of the Christian Chttrch. 
 §312. 
 The Christian Church arose on the first Pentecost after 
 the death of Jesus (a.d. 33) ; at that time (Acts ii.) the 
 Apostles commenced their public teaching of Christi- 
 anity, and received by baptism into the Church nearly 
 3000 converts. The bonds which united the Christian 
 Church at Jerusalem were, unity of faith in Jesus as 
 the Messiah, unity in religious ceremonies, the festival 
 of the Eucharist, its brotherly love, and a community 
 of goods : on these principles the Mother Church was 
 formed and conducted by the Apostles John, Peter, and 
 James (Acts ii. 41 sq.). The Christians spread through- 
 out the neighbouring cities, especially after the death of 
 the almoner Stephen (the first Christian martyr. Acts 
 vi. 7) and the first great persecution of the Church at 
 Jerusalem (Acts viii. 1) ; in consequence of which the 
 Christians (with the exception of the Apostles) dispersed 
 
EXTERNAL STATE OP THE CHTJHCH. 223 
 
 themselves into Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Antioch, in which 
 places they founded new communities (Acts xi. 19). After 
 this, Christianity was peaceably propagated in Judaea, Ga- 
 lilee, and Samaria (Acts ix. 31). Peter visited the com- 
 munities (Acts ix. 32 sq.), and became convinced that the 
 Gentiles also might be admitted into the Church (Acts 
 X., xi.). A Church was formed (Acts xi. 20 sq.) for the 
 Gentiles, the Greeks especially, at Antioch, at which place 
 the followers of Christ were first called Christians (Acts 
 xi. 26). 
 
 §313. 
 
 This admixture of Jews and Greeks in the Church 
 would have easily led to a dangerous separation (Gal. ii. 
 11 sq.), if Providence had not raised up the Apostle Paul 
 iu the Church (§ 189) . He and his assistant Barnabas 
 promulgated the Christian doctrine in Syria, Asia Minor, 
 and Macedonia (Acts xiii. sq.). A second persecution, 
 but of a trifling nature, arose at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 1, 
 2) . On the whole, Christianity spread undisturbedly in 
 Judaea, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Armenia ; there 
 were flourishing communities in Antioch, Ephesus, Co- 
 riuth, Thessalonica, and even in Rome, where the mono- 
 theistic doctrine found a ready hearing, and where Paul 
 lived as prisoner at large and taught for two years (Acts 
 xxviii. 30 sq.). In a.d. 66, under the Governor Gessius 
 Floras, the Jewish war broke out, which terminated in 
 the destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersion of the 
 people (a.d. 70) . By this means the Mother Church of 
 Jerusalem was destroyed {a), and the separation of Chris- 
 tianity from Judaism was efiected. Some time after, the 
 remnant of the Palestine Christians reappeared under 
 the derisive title of Ebionites or Nazarenes, who were dis- 
 tinguished by their regarding the Messiah only as a man. 
 
 a.) A small number took refuge at Pella, in Perea. 
 
224 HISTOKY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §314. 
 
 The persecutions continually arising under the Em- 
 perors, or their provincial governors, could not stop the 
 propagation of Christianity in the Eoman Empire, partly 
 from their not being either consistent or lasting, partly 
 from these seasons of persecution being always followed 
 by periods of tranquillity (a), partly from Christianity 
 being frequently protected by the most powerful men in 
 the State [b), and also by the superior morality of its fol- 
 lowers ; but especially because, as a Monotheism, it was 
 welcome to the better part of the moral community, who 
 deeply felt the want of a new foundation for a religious 
 life, since Polytheism had fallen into entire disrepute 
 amongst the educated (c) . 
 
 (a.) Cominodus, CaracaEa, HeliogabaluB, had a relish for vice only. 
 
 (S.) Severus (a.d. 222-235) favoured the Christiana, allowed them 
 to build churches, to acquire landed property, to elect church officers. 
 P hilip also (a.d. 244-249) befiiended them. After the death of 
 Qalerius, the Christians had eis many as forty churches in Eome. 
 
 (c.) This explains the cause of the numerous proselytes from Juda- 
 ism at that time, who, without accepting the Mosaic law, embraced 
 Monotheism. How welcome to them must that Christian Monothe- 
 ism have been, wliich did not enforce on them obedience to the Jewish 
 law! 
 
 §315. 
 
 The persecution in Rome, under Nero, would have 
 been but of trifling consequence to the Christians (who 
 at that time were often confounded with the Jews), had 
 not the two Apostles Peter and Paul (according to 
 Church tradition) lost their lives in it. The persecution 
 under Domitian (a.d. 96) [a) fell more heavily on the 
 Christians ; still more those under Decius (a.d. 249-251) 
 [b), and Diocletian (a.d. 284) (c) ; and the rising Church 
 would have fallen into the greatest danger had the steps 
 
EXTERNAL STATE OF THE CHURCH. 225 
 
 taken against it been continued on a rigorous system. 
 Other persecutions were mere ebullitions of a heathenish 
 mobj or the malice of single governors; the cause of 
 these being the opinion that the Christian sect was dan- 
 gerous to the State (d). Christianity found adversaries 
 too among the heathen philosophers (Celsus, Lucian, 
 Porphyrins), who attacked it with the weapons of sophis- 
 try and ridicule ; and therefore it was not without reason 
 that the Christians defended their cause by writing 
 (Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Melito). 
 
 {a.) EeBpeeting the state of the Christians at that time see the re- 
 markable letter of Pliny, Epist. x. 97 sq., written about A.r. 104. 
 
 (6.) The Christians were forced, by dread of capital punishments, to 
 idolatrous sacrifices, to a renunciation of their faith before magis- 
 trates. Many turned apostate, some only feigned to do so ; many suf- 
 fered death, others toot refuge in desolate places, where they for a 
 time remained and hved as anchorites (Paul of Thebes). 
 
 (o.) Diocletian, who at first favoured the Christians, was, by his 
 feUow-ruler Galeriua, moved to severity against them. Churches were 
 destroyed. Bibles burned. Bishops killed. (Martyrs and their autho- 
 rity. ConfessoreSj iraditores, delafores.) 
 
 (d.) This opinion originated in the firm refusal of the Christians to 
 worship the statues of the Emperors, or to sacrifice or burn frankin- 
 cense before them. From their hatred to idolatry, they also appeared 
 to be enemies to the state rehgion ; some also refused mihtary service 
 to the heathen Emperors. To these must be added their rebukes of 
 the sensual idolatries, gladiatorial amusements, combats with beasts. 
 
 §316. 
 
 Christianity at length, under Constantine, reached the 
 throne : he, in conjunction with his fellow-ruler Licinius, 
 granted an edict of toleration (a.d. 312 sq.) to the Chris- 
 tians, by which they enjoyed equal rights with other re- 
 ligious sects; and had the churches and possessions, of 
 which they had been formerly deprived^ restored to them, 
 and the clergy released (a.d. 313) from all civil service 
 and taxes. When Constantine became monarch (a.d. 
 
 l3 
 
226 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 324) he declared himself in favour of Christianity, and 
 in every way farthered its propagation amongst his sub- 
 jects, built splendid churches, and endeavoured to ren- 
 der Byzantium, to which place he removed his seat (a.d. 
 330), an entirely Christian town, and in many instances 
 reformed the laws to a nearer agreement with Chris- 
 tianity {a) . 
 
 (a.) He abolished the combats of gladiators, crucifixion, and concu- 
 binage; ordered the discontinuance oflabour on the Sabbath; abolished 
 punishments for cehbacy, and rewards for fruitful marriages ; limited 
 the power of fathers and slaveholders over their children and slaves, 
 prohibited their taking their hves. Though he may not have introduced 
 the worship of relics and saints, he supported it by his example. He 
 was buried in the Apostolic church at Constantinople, and thus intro- 
 duced the custom (contrary to that of the Romans) of burials in and 
 close to churches within towns. It is not true that he was baptized 
 (a.d. 324) by the Eoman Bishop Sylvester, or that he bestowed on him 
 the Patrimomtim Petri: the record of this is forged. 
 
 §317. 
 
 The sons of Constantine (a.d. 337-361) were as zea- 
 lous Christians as their father had been; and though 
 after their death Julian (a.d. 360-363) apostatized and 
 used every effort to restore Heathenism, and attacked 
 Christianity by writing, yet his reign was of too short a 
 duration, and the old Polytheism too deeply sunk, for 
 him to effect any change of importance. His successors 
 were most zealous in furthering the Christian cause; 
 and Theodosius (a.d. 379-395) issued a strict prohibition 
 of all idolatry {a), granted civil power to excommunica- 
 tions, and by a decree of the Senate caused Christianity 
 to be declared the religion of the State; he inflicted also 
 severe civil punishments on the followers of Arius. Thus 
 Polytheism rapidly disappeared, and was only to be met 
 with occasionally in the country [b). 
 
EXTERNAL STATE OF THE CHURCH. 237 
 
 (a.) Milder laws, respecting the poor, prisoners, debtors, slaves, 
 widows, etc., were owing to the Christian spirit. 
 
 (i.) Hence the name Paganism, Meligicm of the villages. 
 
 §318. 
 
 Christianity now took exclusive possession of aU the 
 Roman provinces. Christian churches were already 
 founded on the Rhine and in the south of Gaul. In 
 the latter country the Christian doctrine was promul- 
 gated principally by Bishop Martin of Tours (a.d. 400) ; 
 in England converts were made by the Roman Abbot 
 Austin (a.d. 396 sq.) ; in Scotland, by Palladius (430) ; 
 in Ireland, by Patricius (432). The Emperor Valens 
 (a.d. 376) allowed the Goths, only upon condition of 
 their embracing Christianity, to cross the Danube on 
 their way to Dacia, Moesia, and Thrace (UlphUas) . The 
 Vandals, Alani, etc., who dispersed themselves over the 
 Roman empire about the year 400, as well as the Franks, 
 Anglo-Saxons, and Lombards (a.d. 596) (a), were also 
 converted. Christianity had advanced from Egypt (327) 
 to Ethiopia by Frumentius, and had spread through Per- 
 sia, Armenia, and Iberia. Missionaries from England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland bore it to the German forests; 
 Columban (a.d. 610) to Suabia, Bavaria, Franconia; and 
 Gallus (613) into Switzerland. 
 
 (o.) Their king, Autharic, obtained the hand of a Bavarian princess 
 in marriage only upon the condition of becoming a Christian. 
 
 §319. 
 
 In the meantime Mahomet, a most dangerous adver- 
 sary of Christianity, had been born in Mecca, in Arabia 
 (a.d. 570), had announced himself as a prophet, and, by 
 teaching the strictest Monotheism and by the extermi- 
 nation of all unbelievers, had laid a firm foundation for 
 
228 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 his religion and dominion in Arabia {a) . After his death 
 (632) his disciples (the Kaliphs)^ proceeding from Arabia, 
 conquered (634 sq.) first Syria and Palestine, then Per- 
 sia and Egypt (640), and, advancing to India, vanquished 
 Northern Africa (697) and Armenia (706) ; then pro- 
 ceeded (711) to Spain, and, with the exception of a few 
 mountainous regions, conquered that country and Por- 
 tugal, and were only prevented from conquering Prance 
 by a defeat they suffered near Poictiers under Charles 
 Martel (732). They also gained a footing in Sicily ; and 
 wherever they prevailed the Christians were obliged to 
 profess Mahometanism or to become slaves. 
 
 (a.) His religious doctrines he published in the Koran. His chief 
 dogma was, " There is but one Grod, and Mahomet is his prophet." 
 He prohibited the drinking of wine, permitted polygamy, commanded 
 prayers to be made fiTe times daily, and an annual fast {Samadan) to 
 be kept in the ninth month, and very strictly commanded an annual 
 pilgrimage to Mecca. He enjoined circumcision, inculcated fatalism, 
 and gave a very sensual description of the pleasures of Paradise. He 
 acknowledged Moses and Jesus as divine ambassadors, but announced 
 himself as the last ambassador of Q-od, sent to finish the work they 
 had begun, and to re-estabhsh their religion in its purity. His fol- 
 lowers reckon from his flight from Mecca to Medina (a.b. 622). 
 
 §320. 
 
 Christianity received in Europe some compensation 
 for the losses it had sustained in its infancy. Kilian 
 (a.d. 692) taught it in Wurzburg ; WUlebrod at the same 
 time in Batavia, Priesland, and Westphalia. In 696 Rud- 
 brook taught it in Bavaria, where, in 717, the bishop- 
 rics of Saltzburg and Friesingen were founded ; but Win- 
 fred, or Boniface, especially rendered great service to the 
 Germans : he introduced Christianity into Thuringia and 
 Hesse, and in 740 founded the Monastery of Fulda, and 
 appointed bishops for Wurzburg, Eichstadt, and Erfurt, 
 while he took for himself the archiepiscopal chair at 
 
EXTERNAL STATE OF THE CHURCH. 229 
 
 Mentz. He died a.d. 755. Charles the Great, after his 
 conquest of the Saxons (785, but more effectually in 803), 
 compelled them to be baptized, and manifested his regard 
 for the preservation of Christianity by the erection of 
 various bishoprics (a) . 
 
 {a.) Osnaburg, Bremen, Terden (780) ; Paderbom, Minden, Mun- 
 Bter(803). 
 
 §331. 
 
 Ansgar, or Anscher, the apostle of the North, a monk 
 of the Monastery of Corva, in 832 announced Christia- 
 nity in Denmark, and its king, Harold, was baptized in 
 826. From thence Ansgar travelled into Sweden, and 
 in 831 became Archbishop of Hamburg, and the whole 
 of the North became subject to him. Christianity visited 
 Norway as early as 830, and from thence extended to 
 Iceland and Greenland. In Germany Otho the Great 
 (a.d. 936) was its especial promoter amongst the Sla- 
 vonic nations (a) . The Normans, who had settled in 
 France, became Christians after Duke Rollo, in order 
 to marry GiseUa, daughter of Charles the Simple, had 
 been baptized. The monk Methodius (830) converted 
 the Bulgarians. The Moravians, who had already re- 
 ceived some instruction from Bavarian missionaries, were 
 converted, in the middle of the ninth century, by the 
 Greek monks Methodius and Cyrillus, the latter of whom 
 had invented a Slavonic alphabet, in order to complete 
 a translation of the Bible. From thence Christianity en- 
 tered Bohemia and Poland (in the year 1000 the Arch- 
 bishopric of Gnesen was founded) . It was admitted in 
 Russia in 670, and became predominant there (988) when 
 the Grand Duke Vladimir, on account of his marriage 
 with the sister of the Emperor Basilius, was baptized. 
 In Hungary Christianity began to flourish about 973, 
 
230 HISTORY OF THE CHEISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 uader the Duke Geysa, and in 997 under the King Ste- 
 phen. The latter propagated it in Transylvania. 
 
 (a.) He founded the bishopries of Misnia, Zeitz, Merseburg, Bran- 
 denburg, HaTelberg, Magdeburg. 
 
 §322. 
 
 Up to this period the Christian Church formed one 
 united body. The cause of its division arose partly from 
 the partition of the Roman dominions (a.d. 395) into the 
 Eastern and Western Empire ; partly from the fall of the 
 Western Empire (476) ; partly from the jealousy of the 
 Patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople respecting the 
 pre-eminence of their patriarchates (a) j in which the con- 
 tending parties taxed each other with differences of doc- 
 trine and usage (b) . The dispute (c) at length ended in a 
 complete and lasting breach ; and in the year 1053 the 
 Patriarch Michael Cerularius solemnly excommunicated 
 the Pope Leo IX., together with the whole Latin Church, 
 and the latter excommunicated the Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, together with the whole Greek Church. From 
 that time until the present day these Churches remain 
 separate. 
 
 {a.) The Roman Patriarch toot upon himself the title of JEpiscopm 
 (Ecumenicus, i. e. universal Bishop, and asserted his precedence over 
 the Patriarch of Constantinople, who would concede neither. It 
 was respecting Bulgaria especially, where Greek and Bromau mis- 
 sionaries had worked together, that the two Patriarchs contended. 
 The Grreek Emperor had assigned to the Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople lUyria and Epirus, which had otherwise belonged to the Soman 
 diocese. 
 
 (S.) The Greeks denied the proceeding of the Holy G-host from the 
 Son, rejected the Saturday's fast, the ceUbacy of the clergy, the eating 
 of a,TiirTia.lH which had not been slaughtered. 
 
 (e.) Especially the htigation between Pope Nicholas I. and the Pa- 
 triarch Photius (858 «j.) . 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 231 
 
 II. The History oj? the Church Constitution.* 
 
 §323. 
 
 Determinate ordinances in regard to the constitution 
 of the Church are not to he found in the New Testamentj 
 hut these were gradually formed hy circumstances and 
 necessity. The single communities received wardens. 
 Elders {Trpea-^vrepot) , amongst whom, even in the earliest 
 times, one seems to have been distinguished as superior, 
 by the title of Bishop (eTrtWoTro?) (Acts xiv. 23, xx. 28 ; 
 1 Tim. iii. 1 sg. ; Tit. i. 7) . Deacons (Acts vi. 1 sq., 
 1 Tim. iii. 8 sq.) were also ordained, who acted as al- 
 moners to the poor, and who probably ranked next to 
 the Elders. Deaconesses were also appointed, to take 
 charge of the needy among the female sex, but they were 
 not allowed to preach (Rom. xvi. 1; 1 Tim. v. 9). The 
 members of the community willingly committed the de- 
 cision of civil lawsuits to the Elders (1 Cor. v. 1-5) . The 
 Apostles or the communities themselves exercised the 
 right of ecclesiastical jurisdiction (1 Cor. v. 5, xvi. 22 ; 
 1 Tim. i. 20) . In important decrees the Elders and the 
 whole community had a voice as well as the Apostles 
 (Acts vi. 2-5, XV. 2, 6, 22, 23, xvi. 4) . The intercourse 
 of the several communities was maintained by the travels 
 of their members and the Apostles, and especially by cir- 
 cular letters (Col. iv. 15 ; 1 Peter v. 1, 2 : catholic epis- 
 tles) . It was natural that the communities of the most 
 important towns should gain, by number and riches, a 
 superiority over the neighbouring smaller communities, 
 
 * A chief work about the same is ' G-esohiohte der ohristlich-tirch- 
 Hchen Gegellschafts-Terfassung,' von Gh-. T. Planck (Part V., Hannover, 
 1803-1809 ; im Ausznge von A. Overbeck, Stuttg. 1823-8). ' TJeber die 
 apostolischen Gemeinden: TJeber die TJrverfassung der apoBtoliechen 
 Christen-Q-emeinden,' von T. E. Greiling (Halberst. 1819). 
 
233 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 which superiority devolved also on their wardens, e.g. 
 those of Jerusalem^ Antioch, and Corinth. 
 
 § 324. 
 
 In the second century not only the Bishops ranked 
 more decidedly above the Elders (Presbyters), but the 
 subordination of the other church-servants to them was 
 also more furthered. The Bishops of the rural commu- 
 nities {Chorepiscopi, from X'^P^) ranked considerably 
 lower than those of the larger towns. In the third cen- 
 tury the church ofiBces were increased by Sub-deacons, 
 Exorcists, Ostiarii, Catechists, Cantores, Acolytes, and 
 the authority of the Bishops through these was consider- 
 ably augmented; among whom the Bishops of Rome, An- 
 tioch, and Alexandria obtained pre-eminent authority; 
 but a subordination of Bishops under one or a few did 
 not yet exist. The use of the Old Testament led to the 
 comparison of the Bishops with the Jewish Priests, and 
 paved the way for the opinion which regarded their order 
 as one especially holy. 
 
 §325. 
 
 The further improvement of the Church constitution 
 was accomplished by the institution of Synods, or public 
 meetings, in certain districts, of the wardens of the 
 Church, especially Bishops. The disputes with Marcian 
 (who entirely rejected the Old Testament) and Montanus 
 caused the Asiatic Bishops (a.d. 160-170) to hold Syn- 
 ods, or Councils, which for the first time opposed to false 
 doctrines their authority as representatives of the uni- 
 versal or catholic Church to heretics, and the traditional 
 system of religion. This example was followed in other 
 provinces when disputes arose ; and particularly the Afri- 
 can Church and Cyprian asserted the authority of Synods, 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 233 
 
 the judicature of Bishops, and the necessary unity of the 
 Church, in" the quarrel about heretical baptism. The 
 originating of the discipline of penance also caused the 
 authority of the Bishops to be raised, since persons ex- 
 communicated on account of some given offence were 
 only readmitted into the Church gradually, and through 
 various degradations, in which the Bishops and Priests 
 had always the chief voice; and this authority in the 
 course of time greatly increased. 
 
 § 326. 
 
 The conversion of Constantine to Christianity was a 
 • memorable event in the formation of the hierarchical 
 system. He gave from the State treasuries rich stipends 
 to clergymen, presented to the Church a part of those 
 possessions which had belonged to the idol temples, and 
 permitted it to receive legacies and acquire property (a). 
 The clergy itself he made a privileged class, freed it from 
 civil charges, gave it the privilegium fori {b) , and even 
 granted to it a kind of jurisdiction in civil matters (c) . 
 The ecclesiastical offices were further increased by Arch- 
 presbyters, Notaries, Stewards, Defensores ; the occupa- 
 tions of these latter were more strictly defined (<^) ; subor- 
 dination to the Bishops was more stringently observed (e) ; 
 and the clergy were still further elevated by external 
 marks of distinction (/) . The idea of an especial power 
 of ordination, and holiness of the whole Order, more and 
 more extended {g), and, according to the existing spirit 
 of the age, was further strengthened by the general in- 
 crease of celibacy among the higher ecclesiastics {h) . The 
 clergy had also jurisdiction in matrimonial affairs ; and 
 from this the people became accustomed to regard ma- 
 trimony as a sacrament («). 
 
 (a.) The practice of bequests to the Church spread so much, that 
 
234 HISTORY OP THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 scarcely any one died without leaTing it some legacy ; and at the end 
 of the fourth century the Church was in possession of the tenth part 
 of all territories, so that the State was obliged to limit its acquisitions. 
 The income of the Church was divided into three parts, — one third the 
 Bishop received, one third fell to the other clergy, the remainder was 
 intended for alms and the maintenance of the Church {fabrica ec- 
 clesiiB). The Bishops were the administrators of the Chm-ch pro- 
 perty, and distributed it ; and although the Synod of Chalcedon 
 (a.d. 451) tad appointed special administrators, the distribution still 
 remained with the Bishops. 
 
 (J.) Constantine and Marcian ordained that disputes between 
 clergymen should only come before a forum eccledastioum j Justi- 
 nian, in the seventy-ninth of his ' Novels,' ordained that Monks, and 
 soon added all clergymen, could only be accused before a Bishop. 
 From their sentence however am appeal to the Emperor was allowed. 
 
 (o.) The Bishops were allowed to accept and decide all lawsuits 
 freely brought before them by the parties concerned, and the civil 
 authorities were obliged to execute their decisions. 
 
 (d.) The Bishops alone had the power of ordination, confirmation, 
 and making the holy Chrism. The Presbyter had advantages above 
 the Deacons, being privileged to baptize, to administer the Lord's 
 Supper, to give the blessing, and to absolve. The church-servants, 
 of lower rank than Deacons, were obliged to attend them at the 
 altar, but they were to keep at a respectful distance from it and 
 the Sacristy. 
 
 (e.) No Clergyman was allowed to travel without a permit, or letter 
 of recommendation, from his Bishop. From the fifth century the 
 higher clergy alone appeared in the Synods. 
 
 {f.) The wearing a particular dress by the clergy during church 
 service originated in the fourth century ; the Bishops, Archdeacons, 
 etc., wore distinct dresses. The tonsure was also usual in the fourth 
 century. 
 
 (jr.) In the fourth century it was still determined that clergy- 
 men could never he excommunicated, but that their most severe 
 punishment should be expulsion from the clerical order ; no clergy- 
 man was allowed a voluntary return to the ranis of the laity, for by 
 ordination an indcKble character arose, which could not be effaced by 
 deposition. 
 
 (A.) The Monks, originally laymen, received ordination about the 
 fifth century, and were gradually mingled with the clergy. 
 
 (j.) In matrimonial causes it had been usual {professio matrimonii 
 in, ecclesid) to. give information to the Bishop, by whom it was pub- 
 licly announced in the Church ; the nuptial ceremony (ienedicUo 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 235 
 
 sacerdotalis), after the fourth century, became a religious ceremony, 
 and its legitimacy was by Charles the Great made to depend on this 
 obser?ance. 
 
 §327. 
 
 The division of the Roman Empire into four parts 
 (a.d. 332) was also the cause of a similar division of 
 the Church; and the Bishops of Home, Antioch, and 
 Alexandria were called Metropolitan Bishops and soon 
 after Patriarchs, under which title the Bishop of Con- 
 stantinople was included, and which was likewise hono- 
 rarily bestowed on the Bishop of Jerusalem (a) . The 
 Patriarchs had equal rights, and the superiority of the 
 B.oman Bishops had arisen only from the superior dignity 
 of the town (6) . Hence arose a hitherto unknown sub- 
 ordination of the Bishops, and the rural Bishops entirely 
 ceased (c). 
 
 (a.) There arose the order of Patriarchs (with equal rights), Metro- 
 pohtans (afterwards called Archbishops), i. e. Bishops of a MetropoUs, 
 Bishops, Archdeacons, etc. The title of Patriarch was first acknow- 
 ledged at the Synod of Chaloedon (451), Prior to this they were 
 called Primates, SxwrcTuB. The extent of their dioceses was not at the 
 beginning strictly determined, but they soon learned how to enlarge 
 them. 
 
 (J.) The superiority was adjudged to him by the Synods of Con- 
 stantinople (381) and that of Chalcedon (451). 
 
 ((!.) The Synod of Laodicea (360) entirely abolished them. The 
 Churches in the country were attended by clergymen from the towns, 
 whom the Bishops appointed and paid ; for this they retained how- 
 ever the whole income of the former Exu'al Bishops. Pees for baptism, 
 marriages, etc., had been usual since the second century, and from 
 custom grew into law. The Church of the town, of which the Bishop 
 was the head, was called Oathecl/ra Episcopi (Cathedral church) ; the 
 others, subordinate to the Bishops, Hcclesice PleboMCB. 
 
 §328. 
 
 In the same proportion as the power of the Bishops 
 increased under Constantiae and his successors, did the 
 Emperors assume power over the Christian Church. 
 
236 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 After becoming Christians, they considered themselves 
 as heads of the Church (a) . They filled the more im- 
 portant episcopal chairs according to their will ; ruled in 
 and summoned the hitherto free Synods, and were the 
 first who gave authority to their canons, not only in cases 
 of discipline, but in matters of faith. They also gave 
 cabinet commands concerning not only ecclesiastical af- 
 fairs, but dogmas, and theological phraseology (6) ; and 
 even when they permitted the Councils to decide, they 
 frequently directed the decision (c), and reserved to them- 
 selves the punishment of criminals — of the so-called he- 
 retics {d). The Bishops at this time favoured the Impe- 
 rial power, and often appealed to it to act as umpire in 
 their disputes ; and but a few Roman bishops protested 
 against it. Simplicius and Gelasius, at the end of the 
 fifth century, said to the Emperors Zeno and Anastasius 
 that they went too far. 
 
 (<5.) In Rome the CsBBars liad made themselves PonUfices maximi, 
 heads of the College of Augm-s, which superintended the State reli- 
 gion, and the Christian Emperors retained this title, until it was at 
 last laid aside by Grratian. It was therefore but natural that they 
 should consider themselTes as heads of the Church. 
 
 (d.) Thus HeracKtus ordained (630) that it should he believed and 
 taught that only one will existed in Christ. 
 
 (c.) Thus Leo (726) abohshed image worship, and Irenseus restored 
 it (787). 
 
 (d.) The Emperor Maximus gave the first example, by the execu- 
 tion of PriscUiau (385), which act was blamed by Bishops Ambrose 
 of Milan and Martin of Tours, not on the ground of the action, but 
 because it had been done by the Emperor. 
 
 §339. 
 
 The Laity gradually lost all influence in ecclesiastical 
 
 matters, partly from the power of the Emperors and 
 
 partly from that of the Priesthood. As early as the 
 
 fourth century they had no influence in the appointment 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 237 
 
 to ecclesiastical offices ; and in the choice of Bishops, in 
 which their voice was still obliged to be heard, their will 
 was rendered less and less effective by the influence of 
 the Emperor and the decree that the choice of a Bishop 
 was void unless ratified by the Metropolitan. Their par- 
 ticipation in the legislative power ceased entirely, as this 
 power was exclusively exercised by the Emperors and the 
 Synods, where only the higher Ecclesiastics appeared, and 
 as the Synods succeeded in establishing the idea that 
 their canons were of universal authority, not on account 
 of their being the delegated organs of the community, 
 but because they were inspired by the Holy Ghost, and, 
 as priests, infallible, their decisions thus lost the nature 
 of laws, and gained that of oracles, to which the laity 
 were obliged to submit, otherwise they were excommu- 
 nicated or regarded as rebels against God. The ban, 
 when it ceased to be decreed by the communities, and 
 was pronounced by the clergy alone, who became also 
 possessed of the civU authority, was another means of 
 terrifying the laity into obedience. 
 
 §330. 
 
 The barbarous nations (Goths, Franks, etc.) who in- 
 vaded the Roman Empire accepted Christianity and its 
 ecclesiastical government as there established, and their 
 Kings acted in regard to the Bishops of their realms, as 
 the Roman Emperors had acted and stiR were acting 
 towards their Bishops. These Bishops became more 
 nearly connected with the realm by the feudal system, 
 as they were at the same time vassals of the crown; 
 while this increased their political influence, it made 
 them more dependent on the regal power. 
 
238 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHUKCH. 
 
 §331. 
 A hierarchy already existed,- but without an ecclesias- 
 tical head, being under subjection to the Emperor. None 
 of the Patriarchs, -with the exception of the Roman, could 
 arrive at supremacy. All circumstances tended to effect 
 this. He in rank was the first, his opinion was fre- 
 quently consulted, and from thence there was but one 
 step to his arbitrary authority (a) ; still, as long as the 
 Greek Emperors held Rome in subjection, the Roman 
 Patriarchs (until the middle of the eighth century) re- 
 mained their subjects, their patriarchates were ratified 
 by them, and for their possessions the Emperors exacted 
 imposts. The Patriarch Vigilius in the sixth, and Mar- 
 tin I. in the seventh century, were expatriated to Con- 
 stantinople for disobedience ; and it was not until the 
 decay of the Imperial power in Italy that the endeavour 
 for supremacy in the Church made by the Roman Bishops 
 became effective. 
 
 {a.) The celebrated Constitution of Valentinian III., a.d. 445, or- 
 dained the Eoman Bishops to be a Court of Appeal ; but as Valenti- 
 nian held the office of Emperor only in some of the Western provinces, 
 this Constitution was valid in those places only. The Papal jurisdic- 
 tion appears from this to have been conferred by the Emperor, and 
 consequently revocable. Some provincial synods, as those of Sardis, 
 attributed the supreme right of judgment to the Roman Bishops. 
 
 §332. 
 
 This progress in supremacy was assisted, 1st, by the, 
 favourable relation into which the Roman Church en- 
 tered with those of England and Germany, with the 
 latter especially, through Boniface (o) . These Churches, 
 founded by the Roman Bishops, were the first to acknow- 
 ledge the Roman Patriarchs as the real supreme autho- 
 rities in the Church (this relation extended to a part of 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 239 
 
 the Gallic Churches) (6) . 2ndj by the connection of the 
 Roman Church with the Regents of France, when Pepin 
 caused the Patriarch Stephen, a.d. 751, to ratify his 
 usurpation of the French throne, and Boniface to conse- 
 crate him as his legate; stiU later (a.d. 754) caused the 
 Patriarch Stephen II., when he personally visited Gaul, 
 to reanoint him. On the other hand, it was probably 
 disadvantageous to the progress of the Papacy that 
 Charlemagne, who had been called upon by Hadrian I. 
 to assist him against the Lombards, was crowned by 
 Leo III. as Emperor of the West (800) (c). 
 
 ((?.) Boniface felt himself honoured by being made Legate of the 
 Roman Patriarch, and he moved the Grerman Bishops to sign an act 
 of submission to the Patriarch (V43). On this subject he wrote as 
 follows to his Mend Ludbert, in England: — "Decrevimus subjec- 
 tionem Eomanse Ecclesise servare veUe Sancto Petro, et Tioario ejus 
 Telle subjici, et per omnia prseoepta ejus sequi canonice." 
 
 (i.) The Gallic Bishops, perceiving from the Germans the value of 
 Eome as » protection against regal power, vowed nearly the same 
 obedience to it as the Germans had done, and took the insignia of 
 their dignity (pallium) from Eome. 
 
 (c.) It might certainly appear as if the Patriarch had the power to 
 make a present of the Empire ; but by this he called a dignity into 
 existence which since the fourth century had been accustomed to be 
 viewed as the head of the Church and Roman Patriarchs. Charle- 
 magne treated the Eoman Bishops as his vassals and subjects, hence 
 the Popes would have reached their aim much more speedily if the 
 Western Emperors had not been re-established. 
 
 §333. 
 
 The advancement of the Papal power was assisted 
 however more than anything else by, 3rd, the forged 
 collection of Decretal Epistles called the Pseudo-Isido- 
 rical Epistles (a), which appeared in the middle of the 
 ninth century (830-840), first in Mayence, where they 
 probably had been fabricated. They contain pretended 
 canons of the Councils, and judgments and decrees of 
 
240 HISTORY or THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 the Romau Bishops, of which however few are genuine. 
 Among those which are fictitious, the most unprece- 
 dented assertions are made respecting the supremacy of 
 the Roman Bishop, e. g. that he is vicar of God and 
 Christ over all Christendom; the only Bishop, and all 
 other Bishops therefore only his vicars, whom he alone 
 may appoint, remove, and dismiss; that he is the only 
 judge of all Bishops, and declare it to be an encroach- 
 ment upon the rights of the majesty of God for a layman 
 to judge a Bishop, whom he is not allowed even to ac- 
 cuse ; the Roman Bishop alone can found new bishoprics, 
 summon Councils, and ratify their decrees; he alone can 
 be umpire in all religious matters. 
 
 (o.) About the middle of the sixth century, a Eomau Abbot, Dio- 
 nysius, collected the Canons of the CouncUs and the Decrees of the 
 Soman Patriarchs, and his hook was a chief source of the then exist- 
 ing ecclesiastical laws. They were enlarged from time to time, and 
 the enlarged collection made by Isidore, Bishop of Se-viUe, was espe- 
 cially celebrated. There suddenly appeared an altogether different 
 collection, under Isidore's name, that was Tery soon extensively circu- 
 lated by the Eomish and other Bishops, to whom it was rery wel- 
 come ; stiU, gross as the deceit was, in the then uncritical times they 
 were accepted as genuine, and supplanted the true writings of Isidore. 
 This collection contained sixty epistles of the earliest Boman Bishops, 
 and a multitude of forged decrees, in which these Bishops, while speak- 
 ing in the ecclesiastical language of the eighth and ninth centuries, refer 
 to writings of the seventh, etc. 
 
 §334. 
 
 The theory of the Popedom existed in the collection 
 of the Pseudo-Isidore, and the Roman Bishops soon 
 found means to establish the same in practice. The new 
 rights adjudged to them in the Pseudo-Isidore were 
 however only carried out or acknowledged in their pa- 
 triarchates. Nicholas I. annulled the judgment of the 
 Bishops of Lorraine (who had in two synods, 860, 862, 
 
HISTORY OF THE CHURCH CONSTITUTION. 241 
 
 divorced King Lothaire's Queen Teutbergej and expelled 
 her from the' throne) j and caused Lothaire to solemnly 
 reinstate her (a) . When the Prankish Bishops had dis- 
 missed the Bishop Rothart of Soissons^ by a synodical 
 decree (861), Nicholas reinstated him, proving from the 
 Pseudo-Isidore that he alone had the power to convene 
 synods and judge Bishops (b). The temporal princes 
 appKed more frequently to the Pope respecting the 
 founding of new bishoprics. The conferring of the pal- 
 lium, — formerly a mere ceremony, which had been per- 
 formed first by the Emperors, and afterwards by the Pa- 
 triarchs as their substitutes, — now became the sign of the 
 real collation to office, and the Popes usurped to them- 
 selves alone the privilege of conferring it. In the dis- 
 putes of Bishop Arnolph of Rheims, whom Hugo Capet 
 (991), in a synod at Rheims, caused to be dismissed, for 
 rejecting the exclusive right of the Roman Patriarchs 
 to judge Bishops, Pope John (who, 992, had by a decree 
 dismissed the Bishops, of which that synod was composed, 
 conquered, the Bishops being forced by the mob to obey 
 this decision. 
 
 (a.) Nicholas laid down for tlie first time as a rule that aU who did 
 not obey the decrees of the Roman Bishops should be excommunicated; 
 that subjects owed no allegianoe to those kings who did not obey the 
 will of God (the Pope). 
 
 (J.) These were two novel and unprecedented assertions, which cer- 
 tainly were spiritedly contradicted, but which the Roman Bishops 
 persisted in repeating until usage sanctioned them. 
 
 §335. 
 
 The Roman Bishops also usurped the right of dis- 
 pensation; and Gregory annulled (998), in a synod at 
 Rome, the dispensation granted to Robert of France, by 
 his Bishops, for his marriage with Bertha, and com- 
 manded the royal pair to separate, on pain of excommu- 
 
 M 
 
242 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 nication, whicli command was obeyed. They also laid 
 exclusive claim to the right of penancej and turned the 
 canonical punishments into money, so that there were 
 in the tenth century penance-dues. The monks and 
 monasteries hitherto submitted only to the Bishops in 
 whose diocese they were planted, became less subject to 
 their jurisdiction, and, from the middle of the ninth cen- 
 tury, fell more and more under the immediate authority 
 of the Pope. As the Eoman Bishops had made them- 
 selves masters of the people, they had gained power in 
 all countries, by which they terrified and compelled Bi- 
 shops and Princes to act according to their will. At this 
 time (875), Pope John VIII. attained his aim, by in- 
 ducing Charles the Bald to accept the Imperial crown 
 at Rome from his hands. He now, for the first time, 
 asserted that the bestowal of the Imperial crown was a 
 prerogative of the Apostolic Chair, which acted therein 
 by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost. The Roman Bi- 
 shops would have gained their aim earlier, if it had not 
 been that in the middle of the tenth century the choice 
 of the Pope depended on internal factions (Theodora and 
 Marozia), through which very worthless Bishops (John 
 XI. and XII.) were elected to the Papal chair, and the 
 Emperors (a) resumed their ancient right of appointing 
 and dismissing the Roman Pontiffs. 
 
 (a.) Otho the Great dismissed John XII. and caused the election 
 of Leo VIII. Henry III. dismissed, in the Synod of Sutri (1046), 
 three Popes who claimed that dignity, and caused Clement II. to be 
 elected. 
 
 §336. 
 
 But aU the power obtained by the Roman Bishops 
 only extended to their own patriarchate (a). The Eastern 
 Church neither had nor would acknowledge the Pseudo- 
 Isidore, or the usurped authority derived from it. At that 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 243 
 
 time (1053) the solemn separation of the two Churches 
 and the oppression of the Eastern Christians by the 
 Mahommedans took place : but Rome had HUdebrand^ 
 and from that moment the power of the Roman Bishops 
 rapidly rose to the Papacy. 
 
 («.) This Patriarchate only gradually increased. In the fourth 
 century it only eomprised the ecclesioe subiirhicarice, or the Churches 
 of Central Italy. Pope Leo (a.d. 440) first included G-aul in his dio- 
 cese, and moved the Western Emperor Valentinian III. (who governed 
 but a few provinces) to add, by the constitution of 445, the Western 
 provinces to the Eoman Patriarchate. Lower Italy long remained 
 dependent on Constantinople. 
 
 III. History or the Religion and Doctrine or 
 THE Church. 
 
 .§ 337. 
 It is clear from the New Testament that, until the 
 death of the Apostles, a precise system of religious doc- 
 trine was not thought of, and only a commencement of 
 this idea is to be found in the writings of the Apostles 
 John and Paul. The Practical was still the main point. 
 Short and simple was still the confession required from 
 Catechumens (Acts viii. 37, xvi. 31 sg.) ; and disputes 
 respecting Faith were held in abhorrence as mischievous 
 (Rom. xvi. 17; 1 Cor. i. 10 sq., iii. 1 sq. ; 1 Tim. vi. 3- 
 5 ; 2 Tim. ii. 14, 23) . Divine worship, modelled after 
 that of the Jewish Synagogue, consisted in the festivals 
 of the Agapse and Eucharist, in prayer, song, and the 
 reading and explaining of the Old Testament (Col. iii. 
 16; 1 Tim. ii. 1, iv. 13). Mutual brotherly love (Rom. 
 xii. 9 sq. ', 1 Cor. xiii. 1 sq.; 1 John ii. 9 sq. ; Heb. xiii. 
 2; Acts xi. 28, xii. 25), propriety of life, peaceful in- 
 dustry, chastity, and civil obedience, were especially in- 
 culcated. 
 
 M 2 
 
244 HISTOEY OF THE CHETSTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §338. 
 
 Nevertheless a further development of religious doc- 
 trine was inevitable. Before the time'of Jesus, the Jews 
 and Greeks had formed a philosophy respecting religious 
 matters, which was higher than the doctriae held by the 
 mass of the people, and was often concealed from them. 
 This bore the general undefined name of jvaxTK, science 
 (a), which especially concerned the relation of God to 
 the world, the nature of physical' and moral evil, and 
 appeared in the so-called Eastern religious Philosophy 
 (Zoroasterism, Rabbinism, Gnosticism, Manichseism) {b), 
 as Natural Philosophy, and in Platonism more especially 
 as speculative Theology (c). This religious Philosophy 
 was also by neophytes applied to Christianity, and hence 
 arose the necessity of more precise rules of Christian 
 doctrine. 
 
 (a.) In the New Testament, yySiffis is used, not only in regard to the 
 higher Christian knowledge (1 Cor. viii. 1, 7, 10, 11 ; 2 Cor. xi. 6), 
 but also to the Jewish (Luke xi. 52 ; Eom. ii. 20 ; 1 Tim. vi. 20). 
 The term rymffTiKoi is therefore Tague, referring to all who possess, or 
 profess to possess, a religious knowledge superior to the popular beUef, 
 and which is unknown to the mass of the people (compare Col. ii. 8, 18). 
 
 (b.) The doctrine of Emanation and jEons was the foundation of 
 this philosophy ; and in morals, the conception that matter (the body) 
 was corrupt, and the source of ah. sin and wickedness. Many Gnostics 
 therefore attributed the creation of the material world to an evil spirit 
 (Demiurgus). Cerinthus, Satuminus, BasUides, Valentinian, Tatian. 
 
 (c.) The nature of this we see from Philo ; the Divine Logos is ther 
 the firstborn son (Thought) of God, the Creator and Teacher of the 
 world ; the body, a prison of the immortal soul, the liberation o 
 which from the influence of the body is the way to Perfection. — Athe- 
 nagoras, Clement of Alexandria, Origen. 
 
 §339. 
 The first occasion for a public declaration of what was 
 to be held as Christian doctrine of Faith, probably arose 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 245 
 
 from the confession required from Catechumens (Matt. 
 xxvi. 19), which was gradually increased, until, probably 
 in the second century, it received the form it now has 
 in the Apostolic Symbol (a). An ecclesiastical theology 
 could only be formed by the institution of Synods (§ 335) , 
 which could not extend over the whole Church until the 
 Emperor Constantine and his successors had rendered it 
 possible to hold general synods, i. e. synods of the Em- 
 pire. Ecclesiastical dogmas therefore, properly speaking, 
 commenced with the disputes of Arianism, or in the Coun- 
 cil of Nice (a.d. 325). 
 
 (a.) The Apostolic Symbol was certainly not drawn up by the 
 Apostles themselves, but it has the highest claim of any to antiquity. 
 All Christian Churches accept it, and it forms the text of the second 
 part of Luther's Catechism. 
 
 §340. 
 
 Towards the end of the second century, they had al- 
 ready in the ceremony of baptism spoken of the Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost, as of the Hypostases, or persons 
 which composed the Divine Trinity (TertuUian) . But 
 although towards the end of the second century Praxeas, 
 and in the third (250-260) Sabellius, and Paul of Sa- 
 mosata, rejected the Hypostasis, and both the latter had 
 pronounced Jesus to be a man endued with Divine 
 power ; yet no determinate doctrine was formed on this 
 point until the time of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius 
 (317 sq.), who found faultwiththe expression (understood 
 in a Platonic sense) (a) that the Son was " begotten by 
 the Father'' (out of His Substance), and therefore of the 
 same substance with the Father {6/ji,oovcrto<;) , and taught 
 that the Son was a mere creation of God. Constantine 
 therefore convened the First General Council at Nice, in 
 Bithynia (325), where, principally at the desire of the 
 
246 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Alexandrian deacon Athanasius (+ 373), the opinion of 
 Arius was condemned, and he was banished. Still the 
 dispute continued : Arius found many followers in Con- 
 stantinople and other places. A synod at Antioch (341) 
 condemned Athanasius, and Arianism flourished in the 
 court of Constantinople, under Constantius; while in 
 the "West, under Constantine, the Nicene Creed prevailed. 
 After Constantius (350) had become sole monarch, Arian- 
 ism extended to the West, to the Eastern and Western 
 Goths, the Suevi, and Vandals. When Theodosius de- 
 clared himself for the Nicene Creed, the Arians were 
 punished as heretics, and their meetings forbidden. In 
 the General Synod held at Constantinople, and convened 
 by Theodosius, the Nicene Creed was again victorious, 
 and was without difiiculty resanctioned {b) . The Emperor 
 now enacted the strictest penal laws against the Arians, 
 who, by this means, gradually became extinct, and the 
 Goths, Suevi, and other nations, by degrees renounced 
 the doctrine. 
 
 (a.) According to the Platonic idea of the Fathers, the Son was the 
 external idea of Groi, essentially (as Hypostasis) proceeding, from 
 eternity, from Him. 
 
 (i.) Our Nicene Confession of Faith is that of this Synod, and holds 
 uniTersal authority in Christian doctrine, and is only rejected by the 
 Anti-trinitarians. The third general Creed, Symiolma Athanasiamim, 
 or Synib. Qidcunqtie, is not by Athanasius, but from the sixth century ; 
 it however contains the doctrine of the Trinity, as it has remained from 
 that time, and forms the public confession of the Church. 
 
 §341. 
 
 From the disputes caused by Arius, others arose re- 
 specting the union of the Divine and human nature in 
 Christ. Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, held that 
 though Mary could be called the Mother of Christ, as 
 man, she could not be called Mother of God (430 sq.). 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 247 
 
 He was on this account accused of heresy, and his oppo- 
 nent, Cyril, by intrigue procured his condemnation and 
 banishment by the Synod of Ephesus («) . His adherents 
 remained principally in Persia, received from Barsanius 
 definite regulations ( + 485), and exist at the present 
 day. 
 
 (a.) They now prefer the title of Chaldaio COiristiaiiB, from their use 
 of the Chaldaio language in their services. They are to be found in 
 Syria, CUicia, Bithynia, as well as ia India, etc. They number about 
 400,000 souls. In their CJhurch they allow no pictures, have three 
 sacraments (Baptism, the Eucharist, and the consecration of priests), 
 and consider Jesus as two persons m one. 
 
 §343. 
 
 Eutyches, an abbot in Constantinople, asserted, in the 
 Nestorian dispute, that in Jesus (after his birth) there 
 existed but one nature (Monophysites) . Although his 
 opinion conquered in the Council of Ephesus (449), yet 
 in the fourth CEcumenical Synod of Chalcedon (451) it 
 was condemned ; and it was there determined that there 
 were in the person of Jesus two distinct natures united. 
 The Monophysites however formed a sect, still in exist- 
 ence («) . The question now arose, had the human nature 
 in Christ a distinct wUl (Monothelites) ? The sixth (Ecu- 
 menical Synod at Constantinople (680) affirmed two wills 
 in Christ. But the Monothelites stUl exist, under the 
 title of Maronites {b) . As to the opinion of EHpandus 
 and Felix, Bishops of Tolosa and Urgel, in Spain (782), 
 that Christ was the Son of God through adoption (Adop- 
 tionists), Charlemagne caused it to be condemned by the 
 Synods of Ratisbon (793) and Frankfurt-on-the-Maine 
 (794), and this opinion soon disappeared. 
 
 (o.) The Monophysites remained in Egypt, Ethiopia, and Armenia ; 
 they number perhaps eight and a half miUions. They are subdivided 
 into four Sects : 1st, Jacobites, from Jacob Baradaus, Bishop of Edessa 
 
248 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 ( + 578), who gave them a definite Church in Syria and Asiatic Turkey, 
 under the Patriarch of Antioch ; 2nd, the Copta, in Egypt, under the 
 Patriarch of Alexandria ; 3rd, the Abyssinians, under their own Pa- 
 triarch ; 4th, the Armenians, in Turkey, in the Caucasus, Russia, and 
 other lands (about two millions), under the Chief Patriarch of the 
 monastery of Btchmiadzin, near Brivan. 
 
 (i.) They derive their name from their founder, John Maron (seventh 
 century). They Uve iu Lebanon, and are iu number about 150,000. 
 
 §343. 
 
 The question naturally arose from these disputes, 
 " What then is the Holy Ghost?" Some (Macedonius, 
 Pneumatomachites) pronounced it to be a creature and 
 messenger of God ; others considered it as a power and 
 effect of God ; until the (Ecumenical Synod of Constanti- 
 nople (381) adjudged to the Holy Ghost personality and 
 equal worship with the Father and the Son. From these 
 disputes the Church formed the doctrine of the Trinity, 
 or of three equal eternal Persons iu one Divine Being, 
 as it is contained in the Athanasian Creed (a) . 
 
 (a.) This is the public doctrine of the Greek Church, and (with the 
 exception of one formula) of the Roman and Evangehcal (English, 
 Lutheran, and Reformed) Churches. 
 
 In the Nicene Creed, where the Spirit is spoken of as qui ex Patre 
 procedit, the addition of the single word Filiogue had been made in 
 Spain, and this eoufessiou of Faith gradually became generally used in 
 the West. The Greek Church took xmibrage at this addition, and 
 asserted that the Spirit proceeded, i. e. derived his personality, from 
 the Father alone, — a doctrine which it has since retained. 
 
 §344. 
 
 Whilst keeping by these doctrines carefully at a dis- 
 tance from Polytheism, yet, by the worship of the Virgin 
 and the Saints, they drew near to it. In the/ourth cen- 
 tury the immaculate purity of the Virgin and efiScacy of 
 her intercession with Jesus was asserted ; and at the end 
 of that century the assertion was ventured that she had 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 249 
 
 borne clauso utero. The worship of Saints arose from 
 respect to the martyrs and the conception of the holiness 
 of monks. Temples and altars were erected^ feasts were 
 dedicated to them, and they were regarded as tutelar dei- 
 ties of countries and towns, and as powerful intercessors 
 with God. Prom this arose the usage — and the custom 
 became general in the sixteenth ceAtury — of ornamenting 
 churches with pictures, especially of the Virgin, Martyrs, 
 and Saints, to pray near them, and to observe other 
 signs of worship. This iconolatry, after long and violent 
 struggles (736 sq), was at length, by the influence of 
 two imperial women (a), permitted in the Church; and 
 it was laid down as a rule that the images of Saints were 
 to be adored by genuflexions, kisses, illuminations, and 
 incense. 
 
 (o.) The Empress Irene won over the Council of Nice (787), and the 
 Empress Theodora that of Constantinople (847), to iconolatry. The 
 Emperor Leo the Isaurian (726), and Leo the Armenian (813) re- 
 jected and prohibited this worship. 
 
 § 345. 
 
 Respecting the idea of moral freedom, a bitter dispute 
 arose (413 sq^.) between Pelagius and Coelestius on one 
 side, and the illustrious Bishop of Hippo, Austin, on the 
 other ; since Austin, who understood neither the Hebrew 
 nor the Greek text of the Scripture, but only held to the 
 Latia, taught (eomp. § 334) that by Adam's fall mankind 
 had been punished, in the body with death, in the soul 
 with the loss of knowledge and desire for good, so that 
 man could only by the grace of God become enhghtened 
 and ameliorated ; therefore the amelioration and blessed- 
 ness of man is only the result of an unavoidable Di- 
 vine decree (predestination) . The ideas of Austin were 
 modified by the Monk Cassianus and some others at 
 
 M 3 
 
350 HISTORY OV THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Marseilles (Semipelagians), in as far as they allowed man 
 a compliance with and inclination towards the Divine 
 grace ; a modification which was gradually accepted gene- 
 rally in the Latin Church, whilst in the Greek Church 
 the doctrines of Austin never found an entrance (a) . 
 
 (a.) The elder Cliurcli Fathers ascribed to man a general Freewill, 
 and taught that original sin was blotted out by baptism, that nerer- 
 theless after baptism the Christian should sin no more if he would 
 escape condemnation. The origin of Sin they asserted to be less the 
 result of the fall of man than that of continual demoniacal influence, 
 and ascribed idolatry to the same source. 
 
 §346. 
 The doctrine, highly injurious to morals, gradually 
 arose of a Christian perfection or piety which performed 
 more than the Divine law required, — a supererogatory 
 virtue which, as it was not the direct duty of all, acquired 
 therefore an especial merit before God. Those who at- 
 tained this perfection were called Saints ; and the idea 
 was soon formed, that their superabundant merits were 
 bestowed on others who had sinned against the Divine law, 
 and that by these the defective moral worth of others 
 could be compensated (a). The component elements of 
 the Christian perfection, called also good works {bona 
 opera), which were believed to be partly confirmed by the 
 New Testament (6), were celibacy, voluntary poverty, 
 almsgiving, voluntary fasts, and every kind of mortifica- 
 tion of the body, prayer, blind obedience to the priest- 
 hood and to superiors of monastic orders, retirement from 
 the world, its business, works, and enjoyments, which 
 were considered dangerous, and apt to corrupt man (c) . 
 
 (a.) It was asserted later by the Popes that the Church was in pos- 
 session of all these superabundant merits, and had the power to be- 
 stow them upon any one, by which means the moral guilt contracted 
 by moral crimes was remoTcd. These were called Indulgences (indul- 
 ff entice), and the written certificate of this imputed merit, a Letter of 
 Indulgence. 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 251 
 
 (i.) It was bdieved that they were not strict commandments (moral 
 laws), because they could not be kept by all men, but counsels (consilia 
 evangelica). The recommendation of ceKbacy was founded on 1 Cor. 
 vii. 1-9, although verses 26-29 clearly demonstrate that the Apostle 
 only dissuaded from marriage on account of the imminent hard times ; 
 and he (1 Tim. iv. 3) very much blames those who wish to hinder 
 marrying. Prayer and alms are founded on Acts x. 4, 31, Heb. sjii. 
 16, although both passages only assert that the exercise of this duty 
 is pleasing to God. Voluntary poverty is founded on Matt. vi. 19 ; 
 Mark x. 21-24; Luke xii. 33, xiv. 33, xviii. 22, xvi. 9 (see § 247, h). 
 These opinions were greatly upheld, because the Old Testament was 
 used for a longer time among the Christians than the New, and the 
 former was held to be as binding as the latter. The rights of the 
 priests (Tithes), Pastings, Alms, condemnation of heretics. Matrimo- 
 nial laws were chiefly based on the Old Testament. 
 
 (c.) This perversion of morality arose partly from the Eastern 
 philosophy, which considered all matter, including the human body, 
 as something corrupt and sinful, and therefore placed the highest 
 merit in a severe treatment of it ; partly from the Platonic Alexan- 
 drian philosophy, which regarded the body as the prison of the soul, 
 and therefore placed the same value on abstinence (iyKparela) and 
 contemplative life. Strict fasting, contempt of worldly employments, 
 abstinence from second marriage and carnal intercourse in matri- 
 mony, were taught ; and great value was laid on mortification of the 
 body, perpetual virginity, and childless marriages. The eating of 
 meat and drinking of wine were regarded by Tatian as incompatible 
 with perfection. His disciples were called Enkratites, Severiani. 
 Cyprian highly praised, and pronounced as expiating from sins after 
 baptism, almsgiving, especially offerings to the Church, celibacy, and 
 the vow of abstinence in matrimony. Ambrose (39Y) praised perpe- 
 tual virginity. Salvianus (430) knew no higher virtue than generosity 
 towards churches and monasteries, by which all sins were cancelled. 
 Monastic life was called particularly religious, and was considered the 
 true regeneration of a Christian. Gregory the Great ( -^ 604) asserted 
 that prayer and good works did everything. 
 
 §347. 
 
 A product of this morality was Monachism, which first 
 originated in the East {a), and was afterwards trans- 
 plantedj though in a better form {b), into the West, by 
 which celibacy (c) also was gradually forced on the clergy;, 
 
252 HISTORY OP THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 and wMch assisted very greatly to disseminate bigotry and 
 prejudice, and to destroy true morality {d). 
 
 (a.) Prior to tlie third century, ascetics (austere livers) and ancho- 
 rites, who practised abstemiousness, existed, especially in Egypt and 
 the Thehan Desert; persecution limited their number, especially 
 under Diocletian. Anthony and Pachomius gave them a regular in- 
 stitution (MonacU). Monaohism extended through Syria and the 
 West, and from thence travelled into Italy and Gaul. StiU the vow 
 for remaining in this state was not at that time made binding for Ufe ; 
 this was first introduced by Basilius (370), Bishop of Neocaesarea. 
 
 (b.) Benedict de Nursia gave (515) a strict rule to the Monks 
 living ia Italy, accordiag to which they were bound to prayer and 
 other devotional exercises, to hard work, especially agriculture, to 
 study, and the instruction of youth (Benedictines) ; he introduced a 
 novitiate and solemn vow, to which belonged also blind obedience to 
 the head of the Order, and a compulsory continuance in the same. He 
 erected his chief monastery in Monte Casino (529). This monastery 
 was superintended by an Abbot, invested with supreme authority, 
 and assisted by a senatws seniortom, afterwards the Chapter of a 
 monastery. The reformation of these monasteries by Odo, Abbot of 
 a Benedictine monastery at Clugny, in Burgundy. — Order of Clugny, 
 Cluniacenses. 
 
 (e.) In the fourth century the Provincial Synods advised ceMbacy 
 to the clergy ; the Popes Ciricius and Innocent commanded it, but 
 without success. The Council of Constantinople (692) permitted 
 clergymen, with tbe exception of Bishops, to continue in, but not to 
 contract, marriage. When the Monks (fifth century) also received 
 ordination, their example and authority constrained the clergy stiU 
 more to cehbacy. Clergymen often entered the monastic life, and 
 imitated at last monastic regulations. Austin had already founded 
 an establishment intended as a common residence for the clergy. 
 Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz ( + 769), perfected this, and lived with 
 his clergy according to the mode pursued in the cloisters ; these were 
 now called Canonioi, and from this arose the Chapters. 
 
 (d.) Eegarding the monastic virtues, Henke says (Ku-chengesch. 
 vol. i. p. 234), " A virtue, which stood superior to the world, was 
 preached, the austerity of which affrighted, and from which men fled ; 
 on the one hand it was proud ; on the other, cowardly, ungratefid, 
 uufeehng, and idle." Concerning the state of morals, the same writer 
 says (vol. ii. p. 76), " The corruption of morals (in the tenth century) 
 spread hke a pestilence, chiefly from Rome, through Italy. Impudence 
 and shameless contempt of every law of decency appeared to become 
 
RELIGION AND DOCTRINE. 253 
 
 the character and fashion of the age. The cloisters were asylums of 
 debauchery and Toluptuousness." 
 
 §348. 
 
 From the time of Constantine (300 sq.) the previously 
 simple worship of the Church became more magnifi- 
 cent and multifarious in its forms. The burning of in- 
 cense, holy water, and the use of pictures in churches 
 became customary; the festivals were multiplied, and 
 became more brilliant. Ambrose (+ 397) introduced 
 chanting into the Latin Churches ; Gregory the Great 
 especially (-f 604) rendered the liturgy more solemn, 
 particularly the Communion service ; and, by his influ- 
 ence, the Mass became the chief part of Divine worship 
 (o). In the eighth century Hkewise the practice com- 
 menced of celebrating Divine worship, especially the 
 Mass (even beyond Italy), in the Latin tongue. Bap- 
 tism was blended with exorcism, and it was held (in con- 
 sequence of the doctrine of original sin) to be absolutely 
 necessary to salvation. The Eucharist, from the time of 
 Ambrose called the Mass, was degraded, particularly by 
 the canon of Gregory on the Mass, to a mere ceremony ; 
 and from this time it was considered to be a bloodless 
 sacrifice, offered for the forgiveness of sins of the de- 
 parted (soul masses) and living (6). 
 
 (a.) Gregory's ' Sacramentarium ;' see in Muratori, Liturg. Eom. 
 Vet., torn. ii. 
 
 (i.) Previous to the Eucharist being considered a sacrifice, Eonifaoe 
 had celebrated masses, without communicants, for the departed, for 
 the sick, and in order to obtain fine weather. These conceptions 
 were further strengthened by the doctrine of Transubstantiatiou, pro- 
 pounded by Paschasius Eadbert (831), a monk of Corve, which doc- 
 trine was subsequently generally accepted in the West. 
 
254 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §349. 
 
 The ideal of immortality was at first contaminated hj 
 ChUiasm, or the doctrine of a Millennium, whichj in the 
 first centuries as well as in the following, found many 
 friends ; but it was still more contaminated by the doc- 
 trine of 'Purgatory, or the behef in a purifying fire for 
 souls after death, in which (in the second half of the 
 sixth century) in connection with the Mass, originated 
 soul-masses, or masses for the redemption of souls from 
 purgatory ; these soon became a prolific source of profit 
 to the clergy. 
 
 SECOND PUSIOD. 
 
 FROM THE ENTIRE SEPARATION OE THE G-REEK AND 
 LATIN CHURCHES UNTIL THE REFORMATION. 1053- 
 1517. 
 
 I. The Greek Church. 
 
 §350. 
 
 Several attempts were made for the reunion of the 
 Greek and Latin Churches (a), but they were unsuccess- 
 ful, because the Roman Patriarchs (who in the meantime 
 had become Popes) required the acknowledgment by the 
 Greeks of that claim to supremacy, which the Greeks 
 firmly refused, although the danger from their Mahome- 
 tan enemies still increased, and they frequently applied 
 for aid to the West. 
 
 (a.) The attempts commenoed ia 1097 only widened tlie breach. 
 The ambassadors sent by Michael Palseologus to the Council of Lyons 
 (1274) accepted all that was required by Pope Gregory X, but the 
 Greet Church did not approve of their steps, and the Council of 
 Constantinople annulled (1285) aJl. The like occurred with respect to 
 the union established from fear of the Turks in the Synod of Eerrara 
 
THE GEEEK CHURCH. 25 
 
 (1438) ; to which the Grreek Emperor Palseologus had consented, but 
 which was not accepted by the Greek Church. 
 
 § 351. 
 
 The principal levers wMch set in motion the Crusades, 
 or the wars for the liberation of the Holy Land from 
 the Saracens [a], were, the cry for help of the Eastern 
 Christians, the interest of the Popes, the doctrine of the 
 time, which considered pilgrimages as the surest road to 
 heaven, the sufferings to which the Western pilgrims on 
 their way to Jerusalem were exposed from the enemies 
 of Christianity, pious enthusiasm, and the adventure- 
 loving spirit of chivalry. The success of the Crusades 
 founded for some time (1099-1187) a Latin kingdom at 
 Jerusalem ; but the Greeks profited little by them ; in fact 
 a Latin army conquered Constantinople, and founded 
 (1204-1261) a Latin kingdom in that place, during which 
 time the Greek emperors transferred their seat to Nice, 
 until Michael Palseologus (1261) reconquered the lost, 
 and destroyed the Latin, empire. 
 
 (a.) The first Crusade was projected by Peter of Amiens, and sanc- 
 tioned by Pope Urban II., in the Council of Clermont (1095). G-od- 
 fi-ey de Bouillon conquered Jerusalem the 15th June, 1099, and be- 
 came Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. The second Crusade was set 
 on foot by Pope Eugene III. and Bernard of Clairvaux, in which King 
 Louis VII. of France and the Emperor Conrad III. went to Palestine, 
 1146, but returned 1149. After this, the Sultan Saladia of Egypt con- 
 quered Jerusalem (1187), so that only Antioch, Tyre, and TripoU re- 
 mained in possession of the Christians. Pope Clement III. invited 
 Frederick Barbarossa to a Crusade (1189), which was rendered ineffec- 
 tual by the death of that emperor in Syria, and the plague which swept 
 away a greater part of the armies. The fourth Crusade was under- 
 taken by Eichard Cceur de Lion of England and Phflip II. of France 
 <1191). Philip soon returned ; but Eichard routed Saladia, and, after 
 having made a truce (1192), he likewise returned home. A fifth 
 anny, which went out under Henry VI. (1195), was beaten. The 
 sixth Crusade, under Count Baldwin of Flanders, took (1204) Con- 
 stantinople, and there founded a Latin Empire. A seventh, led by 
 
256 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 Frederick II. (1228) to Palestine, obtained, by treaty, possession of 
 Jerusalem ; Frederick crowned himself King of Jerusalem, and then 
 returned. The eighth army of Crusaders was led by Louis IX. (Saint), 
 King of France, to Egypt, where they were routed, and Louis made 
 prisoner, 1254 ; nevertheless, after he was ransomed (1268), he led a 
 new army to Africa, and conquered Carthage ; but, with the greater 
 part of his army, he died before Tunis, of the plague. Ptolemais, the 
 last stronghold of the Christians, was lost in 1291. 
 
 §352. 
 
 The Turksj who had accepted the doctrines of Maho- 
 met and had fought victoriously against the Crusaders, 
 founded, under Othman or Osman (in the year 1320), 
 the present Ottoman or Turkish Empire, which abeady, 
 in the middle of the fourteenth century, had gained a 
 firm footing ia Europe, but which was certainly shaken 
 by the Mongols, who, under Timour Beg, or Tamerlane, 
 had also vanquished Christian Russia (from 1230-1477) ; 
 yet it revived. Mahomet I. took (1453) Constantinople ; 
 the shadow of a Greek empire in Trebizond disappeared 
 in 1461, and the Greek Church fell under the despotism 
 of the Mahometans, who sold to the highest bidder the 
 Patriarchal Chair of Constantinople, which was permitted 
 to exist for the vanquished. After the expulsion of the 
 Mongols, a new and free branch of the Greek Church was 
 founded in Russia. (Respecting the schismatical parties 
 who remained in the East, see § 382 sq.) 
 
 §353. 
 
 In the constitution and doctrine of the Greek Church 
 nothing of consequence was at this period altered. A sect 
 of devotees, under the name of Bogomilians or Euchites, 
 who, it is said, professed very free principles (a), were, by 
 force, subdued by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus. The 
 Grand-Duke Ivan Vasilievitch, after having freed from 
 
THE LATIN CHURCH. 257 
 
 the dominion of the Mongols those Russians who were 
 under the Patriarch of Constantinople (1477), gave them 
 a Patriarch of their own, whom they retained until Peter 
 the Great. 
 
 (a.) They rejected the Old Testament, the doctrine of the Trinity, 
 the worship of pictvires and relics, despised Baptism, the Eucharist, 
 chm:oheB, and clergymen. 
 
 II. The Latin Church. 
 (a.) Its External Fate. 
 
 §354. 
 
 The propagation of Christianity in the Eastern coun- 
 tries made during, this period but slow progress, and in 
 no way supplied the great loss suffered by the Church 
 from the Mahometans. Otto, Bishop of Bamberg, con- 
 verted (1134) the Pomeranians; in 1186 the natives of 
 Rugen were, by force of arms, brought to Christianity ; 
 the Fins, 1157 ; 1148 sq. (by Henry the Lion) the Wends ; 
 1230, the Livonians and Esthonians ; 1283, by the Teu- 
 tonic Order, the Prussians ; and, after a long struggle, 
 the Lithuanians were converted through the marriage 
 (1386) of the Duke JageUo with the Christian Queen of 
 Poland. In Spain the Christians gradually subdued the 
 Moors, and entirely destroyed their power by the con- 
 quest of Granada (1492) . 
 
 (b.) Church Constitution. 
 §355. 
 
 In this period the Theocratic monarchy of the Bishops 
 of Rome, who were now called Popes (a), was accom- 
 plished in their gradually extended Patriarchal dio- 
 ceses (6). It reached its greatest height under Inno- 
 cent III. ( + 1216), after which it again sank gradually, 
 
258 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 since the tisiirpatioii of the Popes has never been so uncon- 
 ditionally ackaowledged by the Princes and the Church, 
 although the Popes to the present day have not with- 
 drawn one of their pretensions. From the commence- 
 men of this period alone, the origin of the Roman Ca- 
 tholic Church, i. e. an existing Christian community under 
 the Pope as supreme Bishop, is dated; and from this 
 time only did the election of the Pope become quite inde- 
 pendent of the authority of the Emperor (c). 
 
 (a.) Formerly every Bishop, especially the Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 was called Papa (Father, Grandfather). Gregory VII. first appro- 
 priated to himself and the Roman Patriarchs this title exclusively, as 
 well as the title of the Soman Bishop's CSiair, Sedes Apostolica, Apo- 
 stolical Chair, which, before, every Church that had been founded by 
 an Apostle had possessed. 
 
 (i.) See § 336 {a). Calabria and Sicily were only after the fall of 
 the Greek Empire entirely subjected to the Eoman Patriarchal Chair. 
 
 (e.) Gregory VII., before he became Pope, had, through Nicholas 11., 
 ordaiaed that the right to choose the Pope should be only assigned 
 to the highest priests of 'Ro'me{Cardin,ales). Innocent IV. ( + 1254) 
 bestowed on the Cardinals the red hat. Boniface VIII. ( + 1303) 
 doubled the Papal crown. 
 
 §356. 
 
 The Popes asserted and vindicated that the Christian 
 Church was a commonwealth, independent of all earthly 
 power, whose absolute head was the Pope, as infallible 
 Vicar of God and Christ. All Christian kings and 
 princes, with their dominions, were subject to this spi- 
 ritual monarchy, and therefore also tributary to it {a). 
 All worldly power was only an emanation of the spiritual, 
 as the light of the moon is only one reflected from the 
 sun, and the 'Popes could therefore dethrone and instal 
 emperors, kings, and princes [b) . In the church itself ab- 
 solute obedience was due to the decisions of the Pope (c) ; 
 he alone could call oecumenical councils and sanction 
 their decrees. The Pope was Bishop of all Christendom, 
 
THE LATIN CHURCH. 259 
 
 and the other Bishops only his vicars ; he alone had there- 
 fore the ecclesiastical jurisdiction [d) ; he alone could in- 
 stal and depose Bishops (e) ; he was the only authentic 
 expositor of all Church laws, and could give dispensations 
 from them (/). The Popes Gregory VII. (1073-1085), 
 Adrian IV. (1154-1159), Innocent III. (1198-1216), 
 Innocent IV. (1242-1204), and Boniface VIII. ( + 1303), 
 distinguished themselves especially by vindicating these 
 doctrines. 
 
 (a.) These were the principles of Gregory Til. ; he also asserted 
 that the homage of foot-Mssing was due from Princes to the Pope. 
 He was the first who omitted inserting in his letters the year of the 
 Emperor's reign. Frederick I., at lus coronation in Eome (1155), 
 was compelled to acknowledge the Pope's supremacy by holding the 
 stirrups of Pope Adrian. 
 
 (i.) Gregory VII. dethroned the Emperor Henry IV., excommu- 
 nicated him, and compelled him to submit to a disgraceful penance in 
 the Court of Canossa. When the German Princes could not agree on 
 the election of an Emperor, Innocent III. arbitrarily declared Duke 
 Otho of Saxony Emperor. Innocent IV., at a Synod held at Lyons, 
 pronounced (1245), " as Vicar of God," excommunication on the Em- 
 peror Frederick II., declared bJTn dethroned, and absolved all his sub- 
 jects from their oath of allegiance. Henry II. of England was obliged 
 to humble himself before Adrian IV., and to be scourged by the 
 monks ; but he had also received (1056) from the Pope the permission 
 to conquer Ireland, which the latter had given him under the promise 
 to pay to Home an annual tribute for every house. Innocent III. ab- 
 solved the subjects of John of England from their oath of allegiance 
 (1208), and gave England to the King of Erance. John was obHged 
 to buy his pardon by promising to pay an annual tribute of one thou- 
 sand marks for England and Ireland to Eome. The first King of 
 Portugal, Alphonso I., was also obliged to promise (1179) a yearly 
 grant to St. Peter's chair. 
 
 (c.) In the well known BuU Vna/m stmctam of Pope Boniface VIII. 
 (1302), it was asserted, "that all human creatures are subjected to 
 the Pope ;" and that no one could be saved who did not believe this, 
 and did not obey the decisions of the Pope. (The infaUibihty of de- 
 cisions of the Pope was afterwards limited to those decisions which 
 were given from the Cathedra Petri [the presiding chair in the Papal 
 Consistory, hence called Sullce eos Cafhedra].) 
 
260 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 (d.) Gregory VII. demanded of tlie Archbisliops an oath of vassaJ- 
 age, in which they were obliged to vow obedience to his Legates also. 
 It was this Pope who introduced the Legates. Alexander assumed 
 that to the Popes exclusively (1173) belonged the right to canonize 
 saints. Innocent III. asserted their right to absolve from canons: 
 and they agreed in declaring that all ecclesiastical jurisdiction pro- 
 ceeded from the Pope. 
 
 (e.) This was effected by Gregory VII., who tried to wrest from the 
 princes the right of the direct appointment of bishops and abbots, 
 a right which the Princes in Germany lost by the Concordat of 
 Worms (1122). 
 
 (f.) They often absolved subjects from the oath of allegiance to 
 their sovereigns. Clement VI. gave to the confessor of the King of 
 !Pranoe the power to absolve the King, his Queen, and his successors 
 from all oaths the keeping of which might become troublesome to 
 them, those oaths and vows only excepted which concerned religious 
 affairs. 
 
 §357. 
 
 The most important supporters of Popedom, raised 
 and strengthened by the power of the Popes, in addition 
 to the ignorance and bigotry of the time, were the Inter- 
 dict (a) ; the acquisition of independent territories, where- 
 by the Popes ranked amongst the reigning princes (6) ; 
 the large revenues which they tried to procure by any 
 means and ways (c) ; the canon law, spread by the Uni- 
 versity of Bologna (rf) ; the defective constitution of the 
 German Empire, which lessened the power of the Em- 
 peror ; the Crusades (e) ; and the new Orders, the reli- 
 gious orders especially, which were all directly dependent 
 on the Pope (/) . 
 
 (a.) The Excommunication was called an Interdict when it ex- 
 tended over whole coimtries, which happened especially under Inno- 
 cent III. and his successors. Spittler says (in his ' GTundriss der 
 G«schichte der christUchen Kirche,' p. 314), "It must have been a 
 most awfal sight when a whole country was under am interdict. All 
 external religious service was to cease at once [churches were closed ; no 
 Mass was read] ; altars were stripped of their ornaments ; all statues 
 of the Saints [miraculous images] were thrown down (or covered) ; no 
 church bell was heard ; no dead were buried in consecrated ground ; 
 
THE LATIN CHTJKCH. 261 
 
 they were buried, without prayer and song, in unoonseorated soil. 
 Matrimonial blessings were not pronounced at the altar, but in the 
 churchyard ; no one was allowed to salute another ; every appearance 
 announced that the whole country was laden with a curse. What an 
 indelibly deep impression must' such a ceremony have made on an age 
 full of superstition, which placed tie whole worship of God in cere- 
 monies [and believed that closing the churches was closing heaven 
 also] ! How must a nation have cursed its prince, who, by his sins 
 (disobedience against the Pope), deprived his whole country of tem- 
 poral and eternal happiness ! 
 
 (5.) The present Pope's territory. The statement that Constantino 
 the Great had presented a territory to the Eoman Bishops (Patrimo- 
 niwrn Petri) is a fable. Through Pepin they received the Exarchate 
 of Eavenna, a donation which Charlemagne confirmed, and to which 
 he added Benevento and Etruria ; but he stiLI had and exercised su- 
 premacy over the territory of the Popes. Charles the Bald gave the 
 Popes, on the reception of the Imperial crown, the sovereignty over 
 their territory. Gregory ¥11. induced the Margravine Mathilde to 
 leave her possessions to the Apostolic Chair, of which Innocent III. re- 
 ceived at last the Margraviate of Anoona and the Dukedom of gpoleto, 
 usurping besides the sovereignty in Home after having bound the \ra.- 
 perial pnefectus uriis to allegiance. 
 
 (c.) See § 356, i. The Popes further drew money from paUiums, 
 dispensations, exemptions of cloisters, indulgences, from the latter 
 more especially, when Clement YI. by a Bull sanctioned publicly 
 (1350) the tenet on the disposal of the abundant merits of Christ, the 
 saints, and martyrs, which the Popes had to administer. Boniface 
 VIII. (1301) invented the lucrative Jubilee, when all pilgrims coming 
 to Home should receive plenary indulgence for money. It was to be 
 solemnized only every hundredth year J but Clement TI. decreed (1350) 
 that it should be kept every fiftieth year ; Urban TI., that it should 
 be kept every thirty-third year (because Christ had hved to that age), 
 and Paul II. ( -(- 1471) every twenty-five years. Boniface IX. (1390) 
 decreed that indulgences could be obtained by sending the money, 
 which would have been spent for travelling, to Eome. The Popes also 
 sent, if they were in want of money, indulgence-sellers (Stationaries) 
 into different countries ; and for the appointments to bishoprics and 
 abbeys they caused heavy taxes to be paid to themselves. John XXII. 
 appropriated (1318) to the Papal chair the one year's income of each 
 ecclesiastical office (Armates). He had gathered in his twenty years' 
 reign a treasure of 20,000,000 gold florins. Paul II. decreed (1470) 
 that the income of each ecclesiastical office, every fifteenth year, was to 
 be paid to the Papal exchequer {Qiimdem). They reserved for them- 
 
262 HISTORY or the christian church. 
 
 selves fiirtlier the fnictas medii temporis, i. e. the ineome during the 
 vacancy of any ecclesiastical office; th.e fntctus male perceptos, i. e. the 
 income before the Papal sanction of the choice was received ; and (after 
 the thirteenth century) they claimed in Germany the_/«« spolUoiexu- 
 manim, the right to inherit the property of deceased clergymen. AH 
 this flowed from the tenet that the Pope was the only Bishop of 
 Christianity, and that aU ecclesiastical property belonged to the Papal 
 Chair. 
 
 (d.) At the University of Bologna (where often 10,000 students 
 from all countries were collected), not only Justinian's Roman Law 
 was taught, but also, especiaEy after 1140, the Canon Law, on which 
 Gratian's Abridgment soon became distinguished. This included not 
 only the decrees of the Popes, but also the Pseudo-Isidore, and was 
 from time to time increased by additions. Still this University be- 
 came dangerous to the clergy, because, as the Boman law was taught 
 there, the study of Boman hterature was awakened, and by this means 
 a class of jurists was formed, who not only brought more correct ideas 
 of Eight in circulation, but also offered to princes judicial instead of 
 ecclesiastical advice. 
 
 (e.) The Crusades weakened the power of princes and of the higher 
 nobility, brought an immense landed property into the hands of Bi- 
 shops, monasteries, and chapels, farthered the sale of indulgences, and 
 offered to the Popes many opportunities. !Prom the Crusades arose 
 also the titiilar bishops (in partiius mfidelmni) and the Papal grand- 
 vicars. The Bishops frequently styled themselves from this time " by 
 the grace of Grod and the Apostohc Chair." 
 
 (/.) The Order of arammont (1083), the Carthusian Order (1086), 
 Anthony Brothers (1095), Cistercian Monks (1098), the Premonstra- 
 tensians (1122), the Dominicans' Order (1215), the Order of Mendi- 
 cant Friars (the Franciscan Friars, Minorites), 1210, Austin Friars 
 (1201). The Orders of Mendicant Friars were especially active 
 satellites of the Popes. The Crusades gave birth to the ecdesiasti- 
 cal Orders of Knights, 1118, the Knights of St. John (since 1310 
 Knights of Rhodes, and since 1530, when Charles V. presented to 
 them Malta, Knights of the Order of Malta) ; the Order of Knights 
 Templajs, 1118, abolished by Clement V., 1311 ; the Teutonic Order, 
 1190. 
 
 §358. 
 
 The causes of the decay of the Papal power were al- 
 ready active. It began to decrease under Boniface VIII. 
 King Philip IV. of Prance was the first who successfully 
 
THE LATIN CHtJRCH. 363 
 
 opposed the Popes (a), and, after the death of Boniface, 
 induced Clement V. (1305) to transfer the Papal seat 
 from Rome to Avignon, in France, where it remained 
 for seventy-two years. This made the Popes appear as 
 instruments of the Kings of France, in whose power they 
 were; excommunication and interdict lost their force, 
 and the Popes their influence in the election of the Em- 
 perors (6) . These consequences became still more appa- 
 rent when the contention arose concerning Papal elec- 
 tions, between those Antipopes who condemned and ex- 
 communicated each other (c), and when the great prin- 
 ciple of the Catholic Episcopal system, that a General 
 Council was superior to the Pope, was first generally 
 asserted and carried into execution by the Councils at 
 Pisa (1409), at Costnitz (1414), and at Basle (1431), and 
 was in France, if not in other countries (§ 430), laid down 
 as a principle of church law [d] . 
 
 (a.) This lie efiFecfced, 1, by forbidding all remittances of money out 
 of the country ; 2, by causing it to be taught that a General Council 
 could judge the Pope ; 3, by resting his power on the States of the 
 Kealm ; and, 4, thus freeing his royal authority from subjection to 
 the Church. " Sciat," he wrote to the Pope, with the pungent wit of 
 Ms time, " Sciat tua magna fatuitas, in temporalibus nos alicui non 
 subesse ; secus autem credentes fatuos et dementes reputamus." 
 
 (i.) Wien John XXII. excommunicated the German Emperor 
 Louis, and laid an interdict on those countries which should acknow- 
 ledge bim as Emperor, the States appealed against it, 1327, to a 
 General Council. In 1328 Louis caused himself to be crowned in 
 Home, with the imperial crown, by four Bomau barons ; and, in an 
 assembly of the Eoman people, John to be dethroned, and Nicholas 
 T. to be elected. The electoral union at Eennes (1338) destroyed for 
 ever the Pope's influence over the election of the Emperors. 
 
 (e.) Urban YI. in Home, and Clement Til. in Avignon, who even 
 demanded a Council. Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII. In order to 
 redress these disorders, the University of Oxford called a General 
 Council, and the Sorbonne in Paris proved that the Pope should defer 
 to it. The Council at Pisa dethroned both Popes, and chose Alexan- 
 der V. There were now three Popes. The Council at Costnitz de- 
 
264 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 throned two, and Martin V. was chosen. It was at the same time 
 decided that a General Council was superior to the Pope, and that he 
 must suhmit to the reformftd Canons (which however were never 
 made) of the same, and that a General Council should be held every 
 ten yeajs. 
 
 (d.) The Council at Basle met of its own authority, summoned the 
 Pope, and proved that he was only caput mimsteriale in the Church, 
 and that the legislative power belonged to a Greneral Council only ; 
 they dethroned him, and elected Felix T. The reigning Princes how- 
 ever did not support these courageous decisions. 
 
 §359. 
 The Papal system^ whiclij although it had never re- 
 mained undisturbed^ and was never brought to the de- 
 gree of perfection desired by the Popes, was (in addition 
 to these quarrels) shaken, and its overthrow unavoidably 
 prepared, by the consequences of the Crusades [a) ; by the 
 advancement of science [b) ; the foundation of many Uni- 
 versities (c) ; the Grecian literature transplanted into Italy 
 by Greek refugees ; the invention of printiag (1440 sq.); 
 the licentiousness of many Popes [d) ; the abuses which, 
 as the development of the social and political state of 
 nations progressed, gradually became intolerable; and 
 by the numerous attacks of the opposing parties, whose 
 power continued increasing. 
 
 (a.) The consequences of these were — ^more intimate acquaintance of 
 nations ; increase of ideas, wants, arts, commerce ; furtherance of geo- 
 graphy and natural philosophy ; mechanics ; the use of the magnetic 
 needle and glass (probably also of gunpowder, paper of linen rags) ; 
 the diminution of slavery ; the lowering of the higher nobility ; the 
 opulence of cities ; and the increase of the secular Princes' power. 
 
 (i.) In the twelfth century, Peter Abeilard and Peter the Lom- 
 bard, in Prance ; in the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon, Thomas 
 Aquinas, Baymond Lully ; in the fourteenth century, WiUiam Occam, 
 John Duns Scotus, Nicholas de Lyra, John Tauler, Dante Alighieri, 
 Franc. Petrarch, John Boccaccio ; in the fifteenth century, .^neas 
 Sylvius, John Gterson, John Huss, John Keuchlin, Lorenzo Valla, 
 Thomas-^-Kempis, etc. 
 
THE LATIN CHURCH. 265 
 
 (e.) In the episcopal cities connected with chapters and oloisterB, 
 there abeady elated schools, which Charlemagne governed. In Paris 
 (date uncertain) there arose a school, which soon ireoeived the title of 
 University, and which, in the twelfth century, especially began to 
 flourish. In the middle of the thirteenth century, a clergyman, Robert 
 of Sorbonne, founded in this University a theological college, the after- 
 wards celebrated Sorbonne. Academies were founded in the thir- 
 teenth century at Pavia, Modena, Naples, Capua, Toulouse, Lisbon, 
 Oxford, Cambridge, Salamanca, and academic degrees were instituted. 
 The Universities at Prague, 1348 ; Vienna, 1365 ; Heidelberg, 1386 ; 
 Cologne, 1388 ; Erfurt, 1392 ; Leipzig, 1409 ; Eostock, 1419 ; Oreifs- 
 wald, 1456 ; Basle, 1460 ; Freiburg, 1463 ; Ingolstadt, 1472 ; Mainz, 
 1477; Tiibuigen,1477; Copenhagen, 1479; Wittenberg, 1502 ; Prank- 
 furt-on-the-Oder, 1506, were also founded. As cities flourished, the 
 lower schools arose. 
 
 (d.) Innocent VIII. had so many natural children that his income 
 was scarcely sufficient to maintain them. Alexander VI. was one of 
 the worst men ; his successor, Juhus II., a warrior. 
 
 (c.) History of the Religion and Doctrine. 
 
 §360. 
 
 The public doctrine of the Western Church in this 
 period suffered few changes ; yet the Popes strengthened 
 many things which had been hitherto only usages (a) . 
 The Aristotelian philosophy became from the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries predominant in the Schools (hence 
 scholastic Philosophy). This, though in the beginning 
 favourable to the established church doctrines [b), yet as 
 it led to a more solid and connected method, it soon 
 became dangerous to the Popes and to the Church (c). 
 Worship, on the other hand, became more and more 
 superstitious {d); the number of useless festivals were 
 increased (e); indtdgences were still more extended, and, 
 by this and the immorality of the monks, ethics and 
 morals became more and more corrupt (/). 
 
 (a.) Innocent III. at the Lateran Synod, 1215, sanctioned Transub- 
 
 N 
 
266 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 stantiation, and decreed that every adult, on pain of condemnation to 
 the pubKc works; should confess all his sins (auricular confession) at 
 least once every year, and should at Easter receive the Lord's Supper. 
 He also repeated the prohibition of the Council at Tolosa (1129) to 
 translate the Bible into the vulgar tongue. 
 
 (6.) Especially in its first period. Ansebn ( + 1109) laid down the 
 doctrine of the Expiation, and Peter the Lombard that of the Sacra- 
 ments. 
 
 (e.) Especially in the second age of the Scholastic Divinity (Hales, 
 Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus), when, by making a difference be- 
 tween theological and philosophical truth, they cunningly obtained 
 permission to preach doctrines which contradicted the Church doc- 
 trine. Innocent III. therefore decreed at the Lateran Synod (1215) 
 a limitation of the use of the Aristotelian philoBophy, which decree 
 however had no effect. 
 
 {d^ In the twelfth century the attempt was already made to with- 
 hold the cup in the Lord's Supper from the laity, and the doctrine of 
 the Concomitance (that the blood of Christ is already in the body of 
 the same) was appealed to, to justify the withdrawal. For some time 
 suckers (fistulcB Eucharisticce) were used. The Synod of Costnitz le- 
 galized (1415) the withholding of the cup. The enclosing of the Host 
 in a case {Semonstrance), its worship, and, in the thirteenth century, 
 the ringing of bells at the elevation of the Host, came into vogue. 
 The Latin tongue was exclusively used in Divine service. The wor- 
 ship of Saints and reUos was still more increased. 
 
 (e.) In the twelfth century the feasts of the Immaculate Conception 
 of Mary, the Transfiguration of Christ, and Mary Magdalene. In the 
 thirteenth century the Corpus Christi Day, the feast in honour of the 
 spear with which Christ was pierced (1354), and the feast of the Nati- 
 vity of Mary ; in the fourteenth century, the feast of the Tisitatiou 
 of Mary, and the feast of the Wounds of St. Francis. 
 
 (f.) Kespecting this, see Henke's Kjrchengesch.,part ii. p. 406 sq. 
 
 §361. 
 
 Besides men who rose singly either against the Hier- 
 archy and its corruptions {a), or tirged the improvement 
 of morals and the exercise of faith (6) , united bodies of 
 men, who perceived the corruptions of the Church and 
 tried to abolish them, increased in number, to whom the 
 hated name of Heretic (c) was given, and whom the 
 
THE LATIN CHURCH. 267 
 
 Cturcli strove to extirpate by the institution of the infa- 
 mous Inquisition {d). The crimes of these heretics how- 
 ever consisted principally in rejecting the Papal system, 
 the false doctrines and abuses which had been forced 
 upon Christianity. 
 
 (a.) Arnold of Brescia (first half of the twelfth century), who urged 
 that the clergy should return to the simpKcity of life and the poverty 
 of the Apostles. The priest Peter of Bruges (burnt 1124) and the 
 monk Henry of Lausanne ( + 1149) attacked the Mass, the sacrifices 
 offered for the dead, and the baptism of children. Bernard of Clairraux 
 also taught that Grod alone could forgive sins ; that good works are not 
 an indemnification for guilt; that the Mosaic dispensation was less 
 complete than Christianity, and that the Pope should be a brother, 
 not a ruler, of the other Bishops. The lawyers Marsilius of Padua 
 and John of &hent (1324 sq.) denied that Peter had a primateship, 
 and that the Church should have a visible head ; and taught that the 
 Emperor had the chief inspection over the Pope and Clergy, and that 
 the Bishops had been originally all equal, etc. 
 
 (i.) The so-called Mystics, especially John Tauler at Strasburg 
 ( + 1361), John de Kuysbroek in Brabant ( + 1381), Gerhard Groot 
 ( + 1334), in whose converts the Bible was read in the vulgar tongue, 
 Thomas-^-Kempis at Zwoll {De Imitatione Christi, pubhshed more 
 than eighteen hundred times). 
 
 (c.) In the tenth century there appeared in France, Germany, Italy, 
 and other countries, men who despised and blasphemed the Koman 
 Church, who were called Manichees. 
 
 (d.) Instituted in Prance by Gregory IX., at the Council at Tou- 
 louse, 1229, against the Waldeuses, independent of Bishops, and con- 
 ferred upon the Order of Dominicans (1233) ; it was increased by In- 
 nocent IV., who enacted that all enemies of God and the Chtu-ch 
 should (if condemned by the Inquisition) be pubhcly burnt by the 
 civil authorities ; that, if they recanted from fear of death, they should 
 be imprisoned for life. The children of heretics, to the second genera- 
 tion, were to lose aU civil rights, unless these innocent children had 
 informed the Inquisition of the secret wickedness of their parents. It 
 was also to proceed against the guilty without accusers. All civU 
 officers were to be bound by oath to obey the decrees of the Inqui- 
 sition, or were to expect that after a space of twelve months the or- 
 thodox authorities would take possession of the country under their 
 jurisdiction. Whoever harboured, protected, or defended heretics, fell 
 under similar punishment. A heretic could convict another, etc. In 
 
 N 2 
 
268 HISTORY or the christian church. 
 
 Grermany, under the Emperor Frederick II., the attempt was made to 
 introduce the Inquisition, but the Inquisitor, Conrad de Marburg, 
 was soon killed by the GJerman knights, whereupon the attempt was 
 withdrawn. See Henke's ' Kirchengeschichte,' part ii. p. 302 sq. 
 
 §362. 
 
 The Albigenses and "Waldenses, who are at present 
 not quite extinct {a), belonged to these bodies; the Beg- 
 hards, or the Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit [b), 
 the Stedingers (c), the Wickliffites in England {d), and 
 the Hussites in Bohemia (e) . 
 
 (o.) There were already early in the south of France, particularly 
 in Gascony, Albigensian (therefore Alhigensis) Christians, who contra- 
 dicted the Papal system and the introduced abuses. There are also 
 traces to be found which show that from the eighth century enemies 
 of the Popedom existed in the valleys of the Itahan Alps (Piedmont, 
 Savoy), who were called Valdenses ; but in the twelfth century they 
 became more known, when a merchant from Lyons, Peter de Vaux 
 (Peter Waldus) (1170), attempted to form a community according to 
 apostohc morals and church constitution. These rejected the Papal 
 authority, read the Holy Scripture in the vulgar tongue (which Peter 
 Waldus partly translated), had a kind of community of goods, were 
 strict in their morals, and rejected indulgences, auricular confession, 
 purgatory, intercession for the dead, the mass, and the worship of 
 Saints. They were certainly severely persecuted ; they however ex- 
 tended themselves and maintained their doctrines, accepted some things 
 from the Beformers, and still exist, chiefly in the valleys of Piedmont 
 (niimbering about 15-20,000 souls). Napoleon gave them church- 
 hberty, which they however have lately lost again.* Their confession 
 of faith is to be found in ' Der Katechismus der reohtglaubigen 
 bohmischen Briider,' by Joh. Gyrk, 1554. 
 
 (6.) Beghards ; especiaUy in the countries along the Ehine, and in 
 France. They were Pietists, who despised the clergy and distinguished 
 themselves by strict morals, severe expiations, and much fanaticism. 
 
 (o.) Stedinger, at the mouth of the Weser. These were enemies of the 
 clergy and Roman divine service; they were (1232), in a crusade raised 
 by the Pope against them, overpowered, and most of them killed. 
 
 {d.) John Wicldiff, Professor at Oxford, attacked the supremacy 
 
 * They enjoy it now again under the free institutions of Piedmont. — Ed. 
 
THE GREEK CHURCH. 269 
 
 of the Pope, monastic tows, and Trausubstantiation j pronounoed all 
 arbitrary preeepta annexed to the Gospel to be the product of supersti- 
 tion, and translated and explained the Bible to the people, by which 
 he gained great applause. After his death (1384) his disciples were 
 to be found chiefly in England. 
 
 (e.) John Huss, Professor at Prague, a pupil of Wicklifif, attacked 
 the Popedom, indulgences, the immorality and indecorous riches of the 
 clergy, and other faults of the Church ; and James de Miess, a preacher 
 at the same place (+1429), the withholding of the cup ia the Lord's 
 Supper. With this Jerome of Prague agreed. Huss and Jerome were 
 by the Council of Costnitz condemned and burnt (1415 and 1416), as 
 heretics. The effect of the Imperial safe-conduct was rendered useless 
 by the principle that it was not necessary to keep faith with heretics. 
 His disciples (Hussites) defended themselves by arms ; and the Coun- 
 cil of Basle (1433) was at last obliged to grant them the use of the 
 cup in the Lord's Supper. 
 
 TMIBD PUSIOD. 
 
 FEOM THE EEPORKATION UlirTIL THE PRESENT TIME. 
 1517 sq.) 
 
 I. The Greek Church. 
 
 §363. 
 
 Mahomedanism placed invincible obstacles in the way 
 of the propagation of the Greek Church in the East. On 
 the other hand, it spread considerably by the growth of 
 the Russian empire : since 1554 Astrakhan, 1581-1598 
 Siberia, 1654 the Cossacks in the Ukraine, were sub- 
 jected to the Russian sceptre. Christianity was by these 
 means brought into these countries; and in the eigh- 
 teenth century it advanced to the Ostiaks, Kalmuks, and 
 Laplanders. The orthodox Greek Church (respecting 
 the sepEirated Church see § 341 sq.) numbers now proba- 
 bly about 45,500,000 souls, of which 34,500,000 live in 
 Russia, 6,500,000 in the Turkish empire, and 3,500,000 
 in the Austrian States (a) . 
 
270 HISTORY or THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 (a.) Hasselt numbers in Eussia 40,351,000 Greek Christians, in- 
 cluding the heretical sects. Von Humboldt numbers 33,000,000 of 
 Greek Cihristians in Europe. 
 
 §364. 
 
 The Popes often, it is true, took pains to reunite the 
 Greek with the Roman Church ; but all attempts made 
 in this case were without success {a), and they only suc- 
 ceeded in establishing a kind of union in those places 
 where Catholic princes had subjects of the Greek per- 
 suasion (United Greeks), as, 1596, in Poland, but espe- 
 cially in the Austrian States {b). 
 
 (a.) Pope Gregory XIII. (1585) founded a Greek College at Rome. 
 The Patriarch Cyril Kontaru, at Constantinople, declared himself for 
 the Koman faith, but was strangled 1640, and his innovations gave 
 occasion for the Metropolitan of Kief to write an Orthodox Catechism 
 {Orthodoxa Confessio lEccles. Orient.), which was approyed of by all 
 four Patriarchs (at Constantinople, Antioeh, Jerusalem, and Alexan- 
 dria), 1542, and received the authority of a creed in the Greek Church. 
 
 (J.) In Hungary and the incorporated countries ; the Union suc- 
 ceeded less in Transylvania and WaUachia. It was only demanded of 
 them to acknowledge that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Son, 
 Purgatory, soul-masses, and the primacy of the Pope. In Croatia and 
 Slavonia, in 1795, there were 377,9V7 Greeks, of which number only 
 8552 were United Greeks. 
 
 §365. 
 
 In the constitution of the Greek Church in the Eastern 
 countries nothing is changed. According to its prin- 
 ciples, the legislative power rests with Church Synods, 
 the execution rests with the four priestly orders, — Patri- 
 archs, Bishops, Presbyters, and Deacons. The Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, with the title of CEcumenic Patriarch, 
 has the superiority and a permanent Synod at his side, 
 by whom he is chosen ; the choice is then confirmed 
 by the Sultan, on payment of a large sum of money. 
 The Russian Church had in the beginning a Patriarch 
 
THE GEEEK CHURCH. 271 
 
 at Moscow^ as fifth Patriarch ; but Peter the Great abo- 
 lished this dignity and instituted the Holy Synod, — a 
 kind of Consistory, in ■which the Emperor, as head of the 
 Russian Church, had a veto. The schismatical sect of 
 the Raskolniki, which arose after 1654, refased to accept 
 the improved liturgy, and therefore separated from the 
 Russian Church; their number in northern Russia is 
 not inconsiderable (a) . 
 
 (a.) See ' G-escliiohte der Irrlehren and des Sectenwesens in der 
 Griechisoh-Eussischen Kirche,' by Strahl; in the ' Kirohenhisto- 
 risehes AroMv Ton Staudlin, Tzschimer and Vater,' Jahrg. 1824. 
 
 § 366. 
 
 The doctrines of faith in the Greek Church remained 
 essentially the same, as the attempt faUed which Cyril 
 Lukaris made for a Reformation (o). The Greek Church, 
 like the Roman, receives the Holy Scriptures as the 
 source of knowledge of the faith, with the exception of 
 the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, Tradition, 
 the Fathers, according to whose decisions the Scripture 
 is to be explained (b), and the canons of QEcumenical 
 Synods (c) ; on the other hand, it rejects the Papal de- 
 crees, the proceeding of the Holy Ghost from the Son, 
 the doctrine of the inability of man to amend, of predes- 
 tination, of indulgences, of the efficacy of supererogatory 
 merits, of purgatory ; but considers fasting, almsgiving, 
 and the reciting of certain prayers, as meritorious before 
 God. In conformity with the Acts of the Apostles 
 XV. 20, its members abstain from blood and from things 
 strangled. At the present time it represents the Eastern 
 Church as constitated in the eighth and ninth centuries. 
 
 (a.) He was in 1602 Patriarch of Alexandria, and became in 1621 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. He knew the doctrine of the EvangeUo 
 Church, and sent young clergymen to G-ermany and England. In hie 
 
272 HISTORY OP THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 doctrine of faith (1629), lie professed chiefly the doctrines of the Eng- 
 lish Church. Through intrigues of Kome, he was four times deposed, 
 and at last, in 1638, strangled. 
 
 (J.) The Fathers dated the Greet Church only as far back as to 
 John Damascenus ( + 760); the Latin, to Peter the Lombard ( + 1160). 
 
 (o.) The Greek Church accepts only seven CEcumenical Synods, one 
 at Nice, three at Constantinople, one at Ephesus, one at Chalcedon, 
 and a second at Nice (787) . 
 
 §367. 
 
 The Greek, like the Roman Church, numbers seven 
 Sacraments (a), admits the worship of Saints and pic- 
 tures, the mass, fasting, and convents, which are still 
 principally governed hy the rules of St. Basil, but does 
 not absolutely forbid the clergy to marry (6) . 
 
 (a.) See § 343. Baptism is celebrated by dipping three times, and 
 Confirmation is solemnized immediately after baptism. Both the bread 
 and wine are taken at the Lord's Supper, and both administered in a 
 spoon. The wine is mixed with water. A special mention of com- 
 mitted sins is not required at confession. Extreme Tlnction is used as 
 a means of recovery, and therefore often repeated. 
 
 (b.) The mmiber of the Saints is fixed, and cannot, as in the BrOman 
 Church, be ircreased. They use pictures in place of images. The 
 chaplet is just as customary as in the Boman Church. Bishops and 
 Archbishops are not allowed to many, and are chosen from the regular 
 clergy. The inferior clergy may marry, but only once, and before ordi- 
 nation ; they are forbidden to marry widows. The Laity is also pro- 
 hibited from marrying more than three times. 
 
 II. The Western Church. 
 
 1 . Of the Reformation and the Churches which have 
 arisen from it. 
 
 §368. 
 
 From the facts related in § 358 and following, the de- 
 sire for a Eeformation of the Church was awakened in 
 
REFOKMED CHURCHES. 273 
 
 the minds of the people, so that there was wanted only 
 an occasion to call it into life (a) . This occasion was af- 
 forded by the Papal seller of Indulgences (Stationary), 
 Tetzel, whose shamelessness, and the sad moral conse- 
 quences arising from it, gave courage to Martin Luther, 
 Doctor and Professor of Theology at Wittenberg (6) (Oc- 
 tober 31, 1517), to lay down publicly ninety-five Theses, 
 upon which to dispute with any one. Educated by the 
 reading of Austin's writings (the study of which was his 
 duty as an Augustinian monk), he attacked not only the 
 abuses of Indulgences, but also the whole doctrine on 
 which they were based, — the forgiveness of sins on ac- 
 count of good works. The people, tired of the irksome 
 extortions of money and of abuses so often reproved in 
 vain, highly approved of Luther's step. The insolent at- 
 tacks of his enemies assisted stiU more to rouse general 
 attention to the subject. 
 
 (a.) Among others, EeucUin especially rendered serrice in prepar- 
 ing the way for the Eeformation, by farthering the knowledge of the 
 Hebrew language. But above all stood Erasmus of Rotterdam, an 
 elegant and spirited writer, formed by the reading of the Classics, who 
 improved the theologicaJ. method, propagated philological and exe- 
 getieal studies, and exercised, by writing and preaching, the most bene- 
 ficial influence upon the Reformation. 
 
 (6.) Luther, bom in Eisleben, 1483, attended the school at Eise- 
 nach, and (1502) the University of Erfurt, entered (1505) the Order of 
 Augustinian Friars, and became (1512) Professor of Theology at Wit- 
 tenberg and Doctor of the Holy Scripture {Doctor in JBMiis). He 
 married, in 1528, Catherine of Bore, and died in 1546, on a journey 
 into Mansfeld, in Eisleben, February 18th. 
 
 §369. 
 
 The spirit of the age had taken such a turn that the 
 Papal ban against Luther and his disciples, which ap- 
 peared va. 1520, was received with scoffing and contempt, 
 and was in most places, as well as Saxony, not allowed to 
 
 N 3 
 
274 HISTOKY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHUKCH. 
 
 be published. The quarrel led Luther further in know- 
 ledge. He blamed the withholding of the cup, the mass, 
 the celibacy of the clergy, monastic life, and the pri- 
 macy of the Pope, appealed to a General Council, and 
 renounced, with his disciples, the Papal Church, by the 
 solemn burning of the Canon Law book (December 10, 
 1520). The power of his German preaching, his pene- 
 tration, his clearness, and his firm keeping to the Holy 
 Scriptm-e, gained him friends in aU parts of Germany. 
 Philip Melanchthon (a), his colleague, was to him of the 
 greatest assistance in the rising Reformation of the 
 Church. 
 
 (a.) Melanchthon (properly Schwarzerde), bom in 1497, at Bretten, 
 in the Palatinate, entered in 1518 the TJniversity of Wittenberg, as 
 Professor of the Greek language. He deserres the name of Prceceptor 
 Germama. He combined with solid learning practical sense and fine 
 taste, true and deep piety, which alone gave him, in spite of his natural 
 timidity, the courage to further steadfastly the work of the Reforma- 
 tion a^d so many dangers. Luther's great courage rested not alone 
 upon the steadiness of his rehgious sense, but also upon the natural 
 valour of his disposition. 
 
 §370. 
 
 The severe edict issued against Luther by the Impe- 
 rial Diet at Worms (1521), did not take effect, and Lu- 
 ther found leisure at Wartburg to undertake the trans- 
 lation of the Holy Scriptures into the German language, 
 which he partly published ; an admirable work, by which 
 he rendered the Reformation the greatest service. The 
 revolt of the peasants (1524 sq^ woidd have becorhe dan- 
 gerous to the Reformation, if Luther had not manifested 
 his abhorrence most energetically against these violences. 
 Still his enemies foimd in it a welcome cause of odious 
 accusations, which have been repeated in our time. 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES. 275 
 
 § 371. 
 Excommunicated by the ban of the Pope from the 
 communion with the Roman Church, which obstinately 
 rejected aU improvements, Luther, and all who believed 
 with him, obtained the right to found a new church com- 
 munity (§ 297 b). The first step to this was the new 
 ritual, drawn up by Luther, 1527, by command of the 
 Elector John, of Saxony ; and further, after the uselessly 
 held Imperial Diet at Spires (1529) (a), the Confession 
 drawn up by Melanchthon, which was delivered at the 
 Imperial Diet at Augsburg, June 25, 1530, by the Princes 
 and States who had embraced the Reformation, and which 
 has remained a General Confession of the Evangelic 
 Church founded by Luther, and forms the basis of the 
 doctrine and constitution of this Church. The political 
 acknowledgment of the Evangelic Church in Germany 
 by the Emperor and the Empire took place only first in 
 the Treaty of Passau, 1552 ; then in the religious Peace 
 at Augsburg, 1525 ; and in the Westphalian Peace after 
 the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), 
 which had been stirred up by the Jesuits. The rights 
 of the Evangelic Chiu-ch were confirmed by the Congress 
 of Vienna (June 9, 1815), although the Pope then, as in 
 1648, protested against it. 
 
 (a.) The Evangelical States entered a Protest against the Edict of 
 Spires, and from this they were termed Protestants. 
 
 §372. 
 
 Which countries in Germany had embraced at that 
 time the Lutheran Reformation, may be seen from the 
 signatures to the Confession of Augsburg («). But the 
 Reformation had extended itself also to Bohemia, Aus- 
 tria, Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. In the Aus- 
 trian dominions the Evangelic Christians were several 
 
^/b HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 times greatly oppressed (especially in 1671-1681), and 
 principally at the instigation of the Jesuits, until the 
 Emperor Joseph II. introduced, 1781, toleration, which 
 was also formally confirmed at the Congress of Vienna. 
 In Poland, sects who dissented from the Catholic Church 
 received equal rights (1573), which they have preserved 
 through the latest changes. The Lutheran Reformation 
 had, through John Jansen, reached Denmark in 1521 ; 
 it was accepted and introduced by the Kings Frederick I. 
 and Christian III. (1536), and from thence went to Nor- 
 way and Iceland. In Sweden it was introduced by the 
 Brothers Olof and Lorenzo Peterson, in 1519, and the 
 King Gustavus Vasa solemnly introduced it in 1527. 
 Albert, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, quitted 
 the Order, married, changed Prussia into a secular duke- 
 dom (1525), and introduced the Lutheran Reformation, 
 which spread also to Courland and Livonia. By emi- 
 gration, especially from Wiirtemberg, it reached North 
 America, from the Danish Colonies to the East Indies 
 (Tranquebar), and was still further propagated (6) by the 
 later-formed sect of Evangelic Brethren. " 
 
 (a.) The Augsburg Confession was signed by tbe Electors of Saxony 
 and Brandenburg, the Dutes of Liineburg and Saxony, the Landgrave 
 of Hesse, the Prince of Anhalt, the towns of Numberg and Eeutlingen. 
 To this Confession were afterwards annexed, as symboKc books of the 
 Lutheran Church, the two Catechisms by Luther, the Apology of the 
 Augsburg Confession, the Articles of Smalcald, and the Concordat 
 Formulary, which together form the Concordat accepted in Germany 
 by the Electors of Saxony, the Palatinate, Brandenburg, the Dukes of 
 Saxony, Brunswick, Liineburg, Mecklenburg, Wiirtemberg, and a great 
 munber of Princes and Free Cities. 
 
 (5.) The Lutheran faith preyails in Saxony, Brunswick, Oldenburg, 
 Mecklenburg, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Livonia, Esthonia, Cour- 
 land, Finland. The greater part of the subjects of Baden, of "Wiirtem- 
 berg, Hesse, Hanover, Prussia, are Evangelical ; they are numerous 
 m Bavaria, Hungary, and Transylvania ; less numerous in Bohemia, 
 Moravia, Austria, Russia, America. The number of Lutherans is about 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES. 277 
 
 thirty millions. The sect of the TJnited Brethren Kkewise adliere to 
 the Augsburg Confession ; their number is not accurately ascertained. 
 This sect arose from the Moravian Brethren, a branch of the Wal- 
 denses and Hussites, who still exist in Moravia, Silesia, Dresden, Ber- 
 lin, Poland, and Lithuania. The Count Nicholas Louis de Zinzen- 
 dorf (born May 26, 1700) harboured several Moravian Brethren at his 
 estate of Berthelsdorf, near Zittau, and allowed them to settle at Hut- 
 berg (1722), from whom arose Hermhut : he joined them to a com- 
 munity of Evangehc Brethren, who acknowledged the Augsburg Con- 
 fession (1727) . They hold the doctrine of the sinfulness of man and 
 the atonement of Christ, and are especially distinguished by their 
 church discipline and constitution. As they do not consider the 
 differences between Lutherans and Reformers as essential, and receive 
 both parties into their community, Ziuzendorf (1744) divided the com- 
 munity into three divisions, called Tropes (Tp(Jirot TratSe/as), namely the 
 Moravian, Lutheran, and Eeformed Tropes. Each Trope has its own 
 Antistes, or Bishop, and the Lord's Supper is administered in each 
 separately. Doctrines, Divine service, and church constitution, are 
 however universal among them. The church government is exercised 
 by the community, directed in each place by oecumenical synods, and 
 by a permanent committee of these synods, the principal conference of 
 the Union having its seat at Berthelsdorf The chief places in Germany 
 where these communities are found are Niesky, Kleinwelke, Gmadau, 
 G-nadenfeld, Neusalz, Neudietendorf, Bbersdorf, Neuvried, etc. ; besides 
 these, there are colonies in Denmark, Holland, England, Zealand, 
 Bussia, North America, Greenland, West India, South America, the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Compare ' Von der Entstehung und Einrioh- 
 tung der Evangehschen Brudergemeinde,' by Ch. E. Schulze (Gotha, 
 1822). 
 
 §373. 
 
 Contemporary with Luther was Ulrich Zwingle (born 
 January 1, 1484, at Wildhausen, in Toggenburg), and 
 since 1518 pastor at Zurich. He began the Reformation 
 in Switzerland, in the same spirit as Luther, had as as- 
 sistants CEcolampadius, Capito, Ehenanus, and taught 
 the new doctrine in many cantons (October 11, 1531), in 
 Alsace and Swabia. By Calvin — who, since 1536, was 
 Professor of Theology at Geneva — the work was not only 
 continued, but greatly advanced, especially in France, and 
 
278 HISTORY or the christian church. 
 
 the form of church-government was more clearly .defined. 
 The Reformed Church was, like the Lutheran, acknow- 
 ledged in Germany at the Peace of Westphalia, and after- 
 wards, at the Congress of Vienna. The reason why the 
 Swiss Reformation did not come to a common tmder- 
 standing with that of Saxony was, hecause Zwingle held 
 a different opinion on the Lord's Supper (§ 307), and 
 because Calvin stuhbomly adhered to his doctrine on 
 Grace and Absolute Predestination (234 a), from which 
 arose differences in some institutions concerning the 
 Divine service (a) . These differences have been now con- 
 sidered so unimportant, that a union of the parties has 
 been carried out with great success (since 1817) in Nas- 
 sau, Baden, the Palatinate of the Rhine, and in Prussia. 
 The doctrine of absolute predestination has, in its strict- 
 est form, been insisted on in Holland, especially by the 
 Synod of Dordrecht (1618) against the disciples of James 
 Arminius (Arminians, or Remonstrants), who denied it; 
 at present there exist about 40,000 of this sect. 
 
 (a.) The Eeformers rejected the wafer, fonts, candles, organs, and 
 church music. 
 
 §374. 
 The Helvetic, or Reformed system, spread into the 
 Netherlands, particularly after a long and bloody strug- 
 gle with Spain, and at length became predominant in 
 the northern Provinces, which formed (1609) a separate 
 State. In France, where the Reformers were very nu- 
 merous, 30,000 were brutally massacred on Saint Bar- 
 tholomew's Eve (night of the 25-26th August, 1572), 
 which act the Pope praised as a work pleasing in the 
 sight of God. They had toleration granted to them by 
 the Edict of Nantes, passed by Henry IV. ; but after 
 Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes (1652), they 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES. 279 
 
 were greatly persecuted (a). At the French Revolution 
 they again obtained church rights, which they still pos- 
 sess. By the conversion of the Electors of the Palatinate, 
 1583, and of Brandenburg, 1614, and the Landgrave of 
 Hesse, 1593, the Reformation prevailed in the dominions 
 of these Princes ; and by the influence of Calvin and 
 of the Church of Geneva, Presbyterianism in Scotland, 
 i. e. the Church which dominates in that country, was 
 connected with the Reformation (6). The new doctrine 
 spread also in the Dutch colonies, in America, Russia, 
 Hungary, Prussia, and Transylvania. The number 
 of Reformers (including the Presbyterians) is about 
 12,000,000. 
 
 (a.) Those English. Protestants who had taken refuge in Switzer- 
 land, under the persecution of Queen Mary, — and after her death had 
 returned to Englajid, but were attached to Calvin's Presbyterian con- 
 stitution and rejected episcopacy, and would not acknowledge the su- 
 premacy of the Sovereign in church matters, nor take the oath of 
 supremacy, — received the name of Puritans. 
 
 (6.) The churches and schools of the Eeformers were destroyed, 
 they were pronounced civiUy dead, were oppressed by new taxes, and 
 Cathohc priests were sent into their houses : they were flogged by 
 dragoons to Mass, they were plundered, tortm-ed, and killed, and the 
 Reformed clergymen were executed. Half a million of them took 
 refuge in foreign countries ; one- twentieth part lost their lives. Eight 
 Breformed clergymen were, from 1745-17YO, executed. In Nimes, a 
 few years before, above 2000 Protestants had been murdered. 
 
 §375. 
 
 The English Episcopal Church is a branch of the 
 Reformed Church. King Henry VIII. ( + 1547), from 
 disgraceful motives, renounced allegiance to the Pope ; 
 yet the Reformation was accomplished only after the 
 cruel government of Queen Mary (1552-1558) ; and the 
 fundamental laws of the English Church, called the 
 Thirty-nine Articles, were published under Elizabeth, 
 
280 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 1571. This Clmrcli, which dominates in England and 
 Ireland (though in the latter country two-thirds of 
 the inhabitants are Catholics), prevails also in all the 
 English colonies, and especially in Australia and North 
 America {a). Its promotion is owing principally to the 
 Bible and Missionary Societies. This Church may num- 
 ber about 12,000,000 followers. 
 
 (o.) In North America, the Church had, in 1808, five Bishops, 
 225 pastors, 238 churches. All Christians who do not belong to the 
 Episcopal Church (including the Lutherans and Calvinists) are in 
 England called Dissenters, and do not enjoy ftdl church rights. 
 
 §376. 
 A general creed, which, like the Augsburg Confession 
 received by the Lutherans, might be accepted by all Re- 
 formed communities, does not exist. In Switzerland, 
 the Confessio Helvetica IT., and the Helvetic Consensus 
 Formulary (" Formula Consensus Ecclesiarum Reforma- 
 tarum"), drawn up by Heidegger; in Germany, the 
 Heidelberg Catechism, compiled by Zacharias Ursinus, 
 1563 ; in Holland, the Confessio Belgica, and the canons 
 of the Synod of Dordrecht; in France, the Confessio 
 Gallica ; and in England, the Thirty -nine Articles of the 
 English Church, are received as containing the funda- 
 mental doctrine of faith. 
 
 § 377. 
 
 The followers of the Saxon, Swiss, and English Refor- 
 mation have the common name of Evangelical Christians, 
 or, in opposition to the traditional Churches (§ 292), of 
 Evangelical Churches (a), since they all, in opposition to 
 the Roman and Greek Churches, acknowledge the princi- 
 ple that the word of God alone, contained in the canonical 
 books of the Holy Scriptures, can give the highest rules 
 
REFOKMED CHURCHES. 281 
 
 of faith and life to Cliristians ; that the canons of the 
 Councils, the decisions of the Church Fathers, are subject 
 to this authority ; and that the judicial authority of the 
 Pope in religious matters is entirely inadmissible ; and 
 therefore they make the reading of the Holy Scriptures 
 the duty of every Christian. The English Episcopal 
 Church attributes to the Fathers a higher authority, 
 still subordinating them to the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 (a.) There are supposed to exist 75,000,000 of Evangelical Chris- 
 tians. Humboldt however gives Europe 52,000,000 Protestants, and 
 America 11,287,000. 
 
 § 378. 
 
 With regard to the doctrine of God the Son, and the 
 Holy Grhost, they unanimously, -with the Eoman Church, 
 embrace the three general creeds (the Apostolic, Nicene, 
 and Athanasian), but reject aU worshipping of Angels, 
 Saints, and Mary, as weU as relics. In the doctrine of 
 moral freedom they teach, in common with the Roman 
 Church, the existence of original sin arisen through the 
 fall of man; they however differ as to its consequences («) . 
 Hespecting the forgiveness of sins, they teach that the 
 atonement was made only once, by Jesus ; that its influ- 
 ence is eternal. Acting upon this principle, they reject 
 all propitiatory atonement by the priest and the so-called 
 good (expiatory) works, the mass, and every other means 
 of expiation (by fasting, almsgiving, praying, pilgrimages, 
 gifts to churches and monasteries, which is the doctrine 
 of the Roman Church), and assert that only by faith in 
 the reality of the atonement can men become partakers 
 of it. In regard to the Divine law, they reject the doc- 
 trine of Christian perfection which the Roman Church 
 has introduced, and with it the merits of the Saints, 
 monachism, indulgences, and all sanctification through 
 
283 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 mere voluntary works. They unconditionally permit 
 their clergy to marry. Respecting the idea of immor- 
 tality, they reject unanimously the doctrine of Purgatory, 
 and the soul-masses connected with it. 
 
 (a.) According to the Boman Churoli, man has, since the Eall, still 
 the power of perceiving and desiring the Grood, and therefore the 
 power to work aetiTcly for his improvement. According to the Lu- 
 theran Chm'ch (at least as far as the Concordat Formulary has autho- ■ 
 rity) man has lost that power, but can still resist or yield to the amend- 
 ing grace of God, and therefore co-operate passively to his improve- 
 inent. According to the Reformed Church, he does not possess the 
 power of doing; so, but he resists the amending Grace ; and there- 
 fore it depends absolutely on the Will of God (predestination) whe- 
 ther man shaU be bettered or not. This is at least the definition 
 given by the pubho confessional writings, which only can here be 
 considered. 
 
 § 379. 
 
 Regarding public worship, all the evangelical Churches 
 embrace two sacraments. Baptism and the Lord's Sup- 
 per ; they differ respecting the explanation of consecra- 
 tion (§ 307) (a) ; and respecting external worship, they 
 do not maintaiQ a strict conformity, because they do not 
 consider it as essential, and because nothing is positively 
 taught in the Scriptures on this point. AU however 
 consider preaching as a chief part of Divine service. In- 
 stead of the private confession retained in the Lutheran 
 Church, a general confession has been lately substituted 
 in most Churches. The Reformed Church has only a 
 preparation for the Lord's Supper. Confirmation in the 
 English Church is solemnized by Bishops only. 
 
 (o.) It is rather the opinion of Calvin than that of Zwingle, on the 
 spiritual presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, 
 that has been embraced as a public doctrine by the Reformed, as well 
 as by the English Church. 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES. 283 
 
 § 380. 
 
 With respect to Church constitution, they altogether 
 reject the usurped primacy of the Roman Bishop, and 
 the rights of the hierarchy as a divinely instituted guar- 
 dian of the laity, and have in common the principles, 
 (1) that Christ is the invisible Head of the Church, who 
 governs them through the Holy Ghost and the Word of 
 God ; (3) that Church power is invested in the Church 
 as a community; and (3) that this power is to be ex- 
 ercised not by the clergy alone, but by the clergy and 
 laity conjointly. In practice this constitution has worked 
 differently according to the different countries where it 
 exists («). 
 
 (a.) In the Lutheran and Eeformed ChurcheB the rank of clergy- 
 man is conaidered generaEy as a rank appointed by the Church for 
 the instruction of the community and the administration of Divine 
 worship, though Bishops have been retained in Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Prussia. The EngKsh Episcopal Church alone pronounced the episco- 
 pal dignity as divine, through their possessing the transmitted power 
 of consecration. In most countries the reigning prince, if he belong 
 to the Church, is considered as its head or its executive power. In 
 England the legislative power in Church matters is exercised by the 
 Eing and Parliament (to which the Bishops also belong) ; in Ger- 
 many the church constitution was formed more accidentally. The 
 Evangelical sovereign, assisted by Consistories and Synods, exercises 
 the legislative and executive power, as a power conferred upon him 
 expressly or tacitly by the Church. In repubhcs (Switzerland, Eree 
 Cities) the first magistrate takes the place of the sovereign. If the 
 sovereign be a Koman Cathohc, the directing right is conferred by 
 him upon an Evangelical college. The Presbyterian Church in Scot- 
 land is governed by Presbyteries (consisting of clergymen and laity). 
 Provincial Synods, and by the General Assembly, held evei-y year at 
 Edinburgh, to which the Presbyteries send their representatives. 
 
 §381. 
 
 With regard to public teaching, the Evangelical 
 Churches have not, in the course of time, undergone 
 
28-i HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 any change, though the convictions of their followers 
 appear to have done so. The influence of Freethinking, 
 proceeding from Italy, France, and England (at the end 
 of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century), though hostile to Christianity and partly to all 
 religion, was but transient ; a deeper influence was felt 
 from the explanations of the Holy Scripture, founded on 
 a subtle Philology (Ernesti), from the critico-historical 
 treating of Theology (Semler), from a more profound 
 and fertile Philosophy (Kant), and from a refined taste, 
 which began with the classical writers of Germany (Gel- 
 lert, Weise, Ramler, Hagedorn), and with which the ge- 
 neral progress in aU sciences, and the increase and im- 
 provement of all learned institutions, powerfully co-ope- 
 rated. The consequence of this was, that not only a 
 greater tolerance was exercised towards different opinions 
 on matters of faith (Frederic the Great, Joseph II.), espe- 
 cially when these differences had no influence on morals ; 
 but Theology, which previously had been ecclesiastical 
 (symbolic) , became now biblical ; and it was acknowledged 
 that a difference existed between the Church and the 
 Evangelical doctrine, and that the New Testament was 
 the true source of the Christian doctrines (Michaelis, 
 HeUmann, Storr, Reinhard). Hence was maintained 
 the opinion, that the doctrine contained in the Holy 
 Scripture proceeded directly from God ; that its autho- 
 rity rested on its direct Divine origin, and was therefore 
 raised above human reason, — not needing its sanction, 
 and claiming its subjection (Supematuralism). 
 
 § 382. 
 
 Under the influence of Philosophy and historical cri- 
 ticism another system was also started, i. e. Rationalism, 
 
THE ROMAN CHURCH. 285 
 
 ■which either considered the opinion of direct Divine 
 revelation to be inadmissible, and adjudged to Reason, 
 as the first and most universal source of revelation, the 
 right of religious instruction j submitting also to its 
 judgment the doctrines of Jesus and the Apostles, whom 
 it acknowledged as teachers of religion raised up by Di- 
 vine Providence (Critical Rationalism) (a) ; or it consi- 
 dered the religious ideas of reason as a Divine revelation, 
 these ideas being represented symbolically in the doc- 
 trines and usages of Christianity (Mystical Rational- 
 ism) {b). But these opinions did not however change 
 the morahty or practical part of Christianity. 
 
 (a.) Eohr, Wegsoheider ; Critical Bationalism separates from Chris- 
 tianity, or considers as an adaptation to the religious opinion of the 
 time of Jesus, all that is not in accordance with philosophical Theo- 
 logy- 
 
 (b.) Marheinecke, Daub, Sohleiermacher, and all who embrace the 
 Pantheistic Ideahsm, and place rehgion in an internal feeling of God 
 and our dependence on him. They use the forms of the orthodox 
 ecclesiastical system as a symbolical representation of Ideahsm, or 
 Philosophy of Nature. 
 
 2. The Romish Church. 
 
 § 383. 
 
 The Popes exerted, though unsuccessfully, every means 
 in their power, to suppress the Reformation. The stabi- 
 lity which the new Churches had gained ; the distinct 
 form that marked their doctrine, expressed in their pub- 
 lic confessions; the powerful appeals of the Catholic 
 Princes, of the German Emperor especially, for a Gene- 
 ral Council, to which the Protestants also had always 
 called; and above all, the necessity of preserving the 
 ancient system, upon which the power of the Popes and 
 clergy rested, — all these causes combined, at length so 
 
286 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 far ^evailed over tte Popes as to induce them to con- 
 vene a General Council at Trent, which (though with 
 many interruptions) continued to be held from 1533 to 
 1542. The Popes however, through craftiness, but more 
 especially through the influence of the Jesuits, so far suc- 
 ceeded in their aims as to contrive that the decrees of 
 the Council should be issued according to their will. 
 This Council therefore, instead of reconciling the anta- 
 gonistic Churches, served only to perpetuate their se- 
 paration. The decree of Pius IV., that no one but the 
 Pope should have the right to explain the decrees of the 
 Councils, was to no purpose; and Sistus V. in 1586 con- 
 stituted a special body, whose business it was to make 
 this explanation. A Catholic Catechism, after the model 
 of the Lutheran, was also framed {Catechismus ex Decreto 
 Concilii Trid., or Catechismus Romanus), which by G-re- 
 gory XIII. (1572) was raised to the rank of a symbolic 
 book (a) . By these means the Roman Church was more 
 decidedly separated from the Evangelical, and formed its 
 system as it exists at the present time {b). 
 
 (a.) The Council of Trent liad not been allowed to discusB the 
 dogmas of the Pope and the Church. In order to further the unity 
 of the Church now appeared a Komish Breviary (1568), a Missal 
 (1570), and a Book of Martyrs (1586). 
 
 (b.) The CounoU of Trent and the Catechism confirmed those doc- 
 trines of the Eomiah Church which had gradually grown up, especially 
 in those points which hitherto had not received any solemn eortfirma- 
 tion. It was alleged that the Holy Scriptures were obscure and ia- 
 sufficient, and therefore the laity should not be allowed to read them 
 iu the vulgar tongue ; that Tradition was equal vrith the Scripture, and 
 that the former should be used to explain the latter ; the sense of Tra- 
 dition was however to be fixed by the Pope. This Council pronounced 
 all books of the Vulgate, and also the Apocryphal- books of the Old 
 Testament, as canonical and of equal authority ; that the Vulgate (the 
 old Latin translation) was the authentic text of the Scriptures, i. e. the 
 only text having authority in Church matters and in deciding dis- 
 putes ; and that the Church is their only legitimate interpreter ; tliat 
 
THE ROMAN CHURCH. 287 
 
 the Churoli (Bishops) possessed a lasting inspiration, the same as the 
 authors of the Scriptures, and that its decisions were infallible ; that 
 without the Church it is impossible to be saved ; that all doctrine 
 contrary to the opinion of the Church was therefore nothing but he- 
 resy, and that every means should be tried to convert heretics, even 
 though they had been condemned ; and that the priesthood is an order 
 instituted by Christ to govern the Church, and possesses the legislative 
 and executive power. Pnrther, the Seven Sacraments were sanctioned, 
 and with them Transubstantiation, adoration of the Host, the with- 
 holding of the cup, the Lord's Supper as a bloodless sacrifice, the 
 Mass, Indulgences, Invocation of Saints, the worshipping of images, 
 the necessity of fasting and good works, purgatory and soul-masses, 
 almsgiving, fasting, and other exercises of penance of the Hving, in 
 order to effect the speedier redemption of souls out of purgatory. The 
 Catechism accepted also the opinion of a limbus of the Fathers. 
 
 § 384. 
 
 The Popes (Pius IV.) to strengthen their power intro- 
 duced the oath of Faith, which all Bishops^ Abbots^ ec- 
 clesiastics, and converts were obliged to take on their 
 appointment (a) . They also introduced the prohibition 
 of books (6). Sixtus V. appointed (1586) an especial 
 committee of judges of books, or qualificators. Blind 
 faith, obedience, and humility towards the clergy, and 
 zeal in the external forms of worship of God, became 
 now the indispensable qualifications of the Romish Chris- 
 tian. The notorious Bull In Ccena Domini (c) marked 
 the crowning point of all Papal pretensions. 
 
 (a.) According to this prqfessio fidei, all swear a faithful obedience 
 (peram ohedientio/m) to the Pope, and pledge themselves to reject and 
 curse all errors and heresy which the Church (the Pope) condemns, 
 curses, and rejects. 
 
 (J.) Paul IV. pubUshed the first catalogue of prohibited books 
 (Index Lihromm ProTiiUtorum) (1557) ; Pius IV. a second (1564), 
 in which was included the Bible in the vulgar tongue. Even now this 
 catalogue is constantly increased. The lately deceased Pope, Pius VII., 
 as well as the present, have emphatically renewed the prohibition of 
 the Bible. 
 
 (c.) The BuU In Gcma Dommi, issued by Pius V. a.d. 1567, which 
 
288 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 up to the present time is annually read aloud in Eome on the Thurs- 
 day in Passion Week. It curses all heretics and all protectors of the 
 same, all princes who make alliance with them. It pronounces a 
 ban against aU those who subordinate the Pope to a G^eneral Council, 
 and consider it necessary to subordinate his commands to the sanction 
 and examination of governments. 
 
 § 385. 
 
 A great support to the Pope arose in the Order of 
 Jesuits {Fr aires Sodetatis Jesu), founded by Ignatius 
 Loyola, authorized by Pope Paul III., 1540, and fully 
 established under its second General, Lainez (1567). 
 The members of this Order were bound by oath to bhnd 
 and unconditional obedience to their superiors (a). The 
 publicly acknowledged purpose of the Order is the de- 
 fence of the Pope and Papacy, the extermination of aU 
 heresy, and particularly the destruction of the Evangeli- 
 cal Churches {b). Effectively however they showed that 
 they really strove after the elevation of their Order above 
 princes (c) and nations, and became particularly danger- 
 ous to those princes over whom they sought to gain as- 
 cendency as father confessors, especially by a loose and 
 highly dangerous morality [d). The Catholic Princes, 
 especially those of Spain and Portugal, therefore, caused 
 the Order to be entirely abolished (1773) by Pope Cle- 
 ment XIV. They remained however publicly in Silesia 
 and Russia, and secretly (ex-Jesuits) in other countries, 
 and were restored by Pope Pius VII., a.d. 1814, at the 
 desire of the Court of the Bourbons, because the Order 
 spread the belief that the French Revolution had only 
 been a consequence of their abolition. 
 
 (a.) The Jesuit is bound to execute all which his superior com- 
 mands, even immoral acts. The head of the Order resides in Home, 
 and holds secret correspondence with all the branches of the Order. 
 They are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, who gave the 
 Jesuits the right to preach everywhere, to administer the Sacraments, 
 
THE KOMAN CHURCH. 289 
 
 and to dispense with Church discipline, fasts, and such-like. At the 
 end of the sixteenth century, the Order numbered more than ten 
 thousand members. They prefer recruiting their members amongst 
 those possessing either high station, great riches, or distinguished 
 mental gifts. 
 
 (b.) By means of their pupil, the Emperor Ferdinand II., they 
 kindled the Thirty Years' War in Germany. In England, they un- 
 ceasingly fanned the spirit of rebellion, and were universally suspected 
 to be the originators of the Gunpowder Plot, 1605. The Massacre on 
 St. Bartholomew's Day in France was particularly their work. To 
 convert the Bvangehcal princes to Popery, to attack the Evangelical 
 Church in pamphlets, and especially to throw out suspicions against 
 it as the author of all poMtical revolutions^ — this is their chief work in 
 our days. 
 
 (c.) They teach the legality of regicide, if a prince will not obey 
 them and the Pope. According to a calculation, sixty-eight Jesuitical 
 authors have propounded this doctrine ; and no Jesuit dares to print 
 anything without the permission of his Order. Chatel, a tool of the 
 Jesuits, attempted to murder the King of France, Henry IV. ; and 
 BavaiEao, who had been a monk, perpetrated the deed (1616) at their 
 instigation. When the King of Portugal (1758) was shot, they were 
 accessories. In Paraguay they secretly estabUshed a kingdom of their 
 own, which they tenaciously maintained against the Spaniards. In 
 Martinique and other West Indian islands they carried on secret com- 
 mercial operations as a Society, even after they were forbidden. 
 
 (d.) Jesuitical moraUty has become synonymous with immorality. 
 They distinguish between philosophical and theological sins, i. e. be- 
 tween doing evU without the vrill to offend Q-od, and doing it with this 
 will. The latter only is sin. If any reason or purpose for a forbidden 
 deed, which should render it venial, can be shown, then the deed is not 
 punishable (Prohahilism). An action would be allowed if it were only 
 apparently useful. A sin is not punishable, if, in committing it, we 
 think of G-od. The end sanctifies the means. Perjury and murder 
 are allowed, if they are committed for the honour of God, the Eo- 
 man Church, or their Order. Assassioation of an heretical king, of 
 a perverse prince, or the rebellion of an ecclesiastic against his hege 
 lord, is allowed. Mental reservations are allowed to witnesses, etc. 
 It is allowed to swear that such and such a thing has not been done, 
 if at the time something else is thought of, or with the mental reser- 
 vation of its not having been done today, yesterday, or before birth. 
 — See Pascal's 'Lettres Provinciales' (1656) ; Arnaiild, 'La Morale 
 Pratique des Jesuites' (8 vols. 1669-95) ; Perrault, ' La Morale des 
 J&uites, extraite fidelement de leurs Uvres ' (1667) ; ' Das Evangehum 
 
 O 
 
290 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 der Jesviiten,' by Franz Grerhardt( Leipzig, 1822) ; ' G-eheime Verhal- 
 tungsbefehle der Jesuiten, oder Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu' (Aix- 
 VChapeUe, 1825). 
 
 §386. 
 
 Although the Popes have always tried to establish the 
 authority of the Papal System in all Catholic States, and 
 have never given up, even in the present day, the least 
 of their pretensions (a), they have been prevented from 
 gaining their object. For the GaUican Church firmly 
 supported the principles of the Episcopalian system, ac- 
 cording to vrhich the assembly of Bishops is above the 
 Pope (6) ; and in the long Jansenistic dispute was formed, 
 in the Catholic Netherlands, a Catholic party, still extant, 
 which is out of communion with Rome (c). Joseph II., 
 and the other Catholic Princes, resolutely asserted the 
 right of assent to the publication of Papal decrees, as 
 necessary to their legal authority (the placitum regium) . 
 The dissolution of the German Empire destroyed all the 
 Ecclesiastical States of that Empire; and the Papal States 
 themselves were, under Napoleon (1809), for a time, lost 
 to the Roman Church, till they were restored (1814) to 
 Pope Pius VII. after the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 (o.) When in a Concordat more authority is ceded to Princes than 
 is conformable with the dignity of the Boman Guria, the Pope still 
 tacitly reserves to himself the right to withdraw these merciful grants. 
 Pope Pius VII. issued a letter to the Elector (afterwards King) of Ba- 
 varia, in which the decree " that any other than a Catholic can be 
 citizen of the State" is highly disapproved of, and its withdrawal 
 strongly urged. In the instruction given to the Pope's Nuncio, at 
 Vienna, 1803, concerning the confiscation of the lands of the Ecclesi- 
 astical Prinqes of Germany, which were to be given to the Evangelical 
 Princes as a compensation, it is stated — " The Church has estabUshed 
 as a punishment the confiscation of the property of heretics. In regard 
 to the dominions and fiefs, it is a strict rule of the Canon Law tha,t the 
 subjects of an openly heretical prince remain absolved from all allegi- 
 ance, feith, and obedience to him. He who is but httle versed in his- 
 tory must know the sentences of deposition pronounced by Popes and 
 
THE ROMAN CHURCH. 291 
 
 Councils against Princes who persevere ia heresy. Certainly it is not 
 now possible to strictly apply this holy maodm against enemies and 
 rebels ; but even if the Church cannot exercise her right, cannot de- 
 prive the followers of heresy of their princely dominions and declare 
 their property to be forfeited, can she ever positively suffer that they 
 (these heretical Princes) shall receive new principalities and estates, 
 and thus rob herself?" 
 
 (6.) The Kings of Prance not only asserted the right to appoint to 
 bishoprics and monasteries, but Louis XIV. also decreed that the 
 four principles, or the so-called GaUican Church liberties, should be 
 acknowledged by the bishops of his kingdom (1682), namely — 1. That 
 the Pope has no authority whatever over the secular supremacy of 
 Kings. 2. That the spiritual power of the Popes should be subordi- 
 nate to the decrees of General Councils. 3. That the Papal decisions 
 in law affairs should have authority only in as far as they agreed witli 
 the decrees of Councils and usage. 4. That the Pope's decisions in 
 matters of faith should only have authority when they were approved 
 by the Church. 
 
 (o.) Comehus Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, at his death (1638), left a 
 book ('Augustiaus') in which he brought forward Austin's doctrine on 
 the Moral Corruption of Man, and attacked the lax opinions of the 
 Jesuits, teaching a stern doctrine on Penitence. The Jesuits caused 
 this book to be prohibited (1643) by Pope Urban VIII., and made use 
 of the quarrel which arose from this to overthrow all their opponents. 
 A large part of those thus oppressed fled to the Netherlands, and 
 formed a church at Utrecht, independent of the Eomish jurisdiction, 
 which, in spite of all Jesuitical enmity, has been maintained to the 
 present day, and which pronounces the Pope as fallible, and subor- 
 diuates him to the General Councils. See Henke's ' Eirchengeschlchte,' 
 vol. V. p. 155 sq. 
 
 §387. 
 
 That which the Roman Church lost in Europe was 
 richly made up to her in the Spanish and Portuguese 
 colonies^ especially in America ; since the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese^ wherever they came, forcibly introduced the 
 Romish profession, especially in Mexico, Chili, Peru, the 
 Brazils, and the African coast (Mozambique), in the East 
 Indies (Goa), and in the West Indian Islands. Their 
 missionary zeal, especially that of the Jesuits, extended 
 also to other countries out of Europe (China and Japan), 
 
392 HisTOEY or the christian chuech. 
 
 and received a better foundation from the Society for 
 the Propagation of the Faith, founded 1622, to which 
 was added (1627) a Seminary for the education of mis- 
 sionaries. The entire number of Romish Christians is 
 estimated at above 100,000,000 («). 
 
 (a.) Others reckon more, e.g. Humboldt states that in Europe 
 alone 103,000,000 exist, and in America 11,287,000. 
 
 3. Some smaller Christian Sects following the 
 Reformation. 
 
 §388. 
 
 The Anabaptists — under which name all fanatics were 
 included, who, at the time of the Reformation in Ger- 
 many, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, deceived by 
 millenarian dreams, created disturbances by pretended 
 revelations, rejecting infant baptism and re-baptizing 
 adults, and rejecting also all public authority, the mili- 
 tary service, and the taking of oaths — despite the seve- 
 rity used against them, were not entirely extirpated; 
 and at length they were assembled and organized by Si- 
 mon Menno, a Catholic priest, who joined them, 1536 ; 
 hence their name, Mennonites. But they are not una- 
 nimous among themselves, and they are scattered (to the 
 number of perhaps 350,000 souls) in Holland, Westpha- 
 lia, Prussia, England, and North America (a). 
 
 (a.) According to the latest calculation there are 6000 in Kussia, 
 and 100,000 in North America. 
 
 § 389. 
 
 The Unitarians, founded by the brothers Lselius and 
 Faustus Socinus {born at Siena, 1525 and 1539), first 
 extended to Poland, and afterwards to Transylvania, 
 where they still enjoy religious freedom. After their 
 
SMALLER PROTESTANT SECTS. 293 
 
 expulsion from Poland, they (1661) dispersed into Prus- 
 sia, Brandenburg, Silesia, Holland, and England; but 
 particularly into North America. They absolutely re- 
 ject the doctrine of Three Persons in the Godhead (hence 
 their name), the doctrine of atonement for sin by the 
 death of Jesus, original sin, eternal punishment in hell, 
 the mysteries in the sacraments; and, further, they re- 
 ject punishment by death, war, the taking of oaths, but 
 they acknowledge the Holy Scriptures as the rule of 
 faith and life ; in their explanation, however, they make 
 use of the axiom, that nothing ought to contradict human 
 reason. Their number in Europe consists of about 
 50,000 souls. Their doctrines are to be found in the 
 Catechism published at Rakow in 1605. 
 
 §390. 
 
 The Schwenkfelders were founded by a Silesian noble- 
 man (Caspar Schwenkfeld, born 1490) : they teach that 
 the external word of God in the Scriptures is not suffi- 
 cient, but must be accompanied by an internal word 
 Inspiration) ; that eating and drinking in the Lord's 
 Supper is an appropriation of the Spirit of Christ ; that 
 adults only, and not children, are to be baptized; that 
 the ministry and the Church Constitution are unneces- 
 sary. They exist chiefly at Liegnitz; but they have 
 spread, by emigration, into North America, where they 
 have formed communities. 
 
 §391. 
 
 The Swedenborgians, founded by Immanuel Sweden- 
 borg (born at Stockholm, 1689, died 1773), teach, ac- 
 cording to the writings of Swedenborg (a), that the Bible 
 has a threefold sense, — the Hteral sense, the inner spi- 
 
394 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 ritual sense (which their founder has disclosed) ^ and the 
 heavenly sense, known only to angels; that the Last 
 Judgment has already taken place, and that the Hea- 
 venly Jerusalem exists in the interior of Africa; that 
 God has appeared, first in Christ, then in Swedenborg. 
 They reject the doctrines of the Trinity, justification 
 through Christ, election, and the resurrection of the 
 flesh. This sect is to he found in Sweden, England, the 
 East Indies, and North America. 
 
 (a.) 'GottUche Offenbaanngen bekannt gemacht durch Immanuel 
 TOn Swedenborg ; aus der lateinischen Ursohrift, von J. F. T. Tafel' 
 (Leipzig, 1823). According to Tafel there are in England fifty com- 
 munities, and in America more than twenty preachers. 
 
 § 392. 
 
 The Independents, a party separated from the Pres- 
 byterians, insist particularly on the following points, 
 namely, that every community has the right to exist as 
 an independent church, body, or society, and that it 
 should be self-governed and entirely independent from 
 any other community, because each stands immediately 
 under Christ. This sect rose in England at the end of 
 the sixteenth century, and is stiU numerous in that 
 country, but particularly in North America («) . 
 
 (a.) The Independents in North America are called Congregation- 
 alists, because sometimes they call together synods of preachers for 
 the direction of chm-ch matters. These have now twenty-five thou- 
 sand churches, and foEow the doctrine of the Keformed Calvinistic 
 Church. 
 
 §393. 
 
 The Methodists, a sect of the English Episcopal 
 Church, whose Liturgy they retain, are devotees (Pietists) 
 who profess the possession of a better method of Chris- 
 tian life and perfection than that of the Episcopal Church 
 
SMALLER PROTESTANT SECTS. 295 
 
 (hence their name). Their doctrines and constitution re- 
 semble those of the Evangelical Moravian Brotherhood, 
 and therefore they teach chiefly the doctrines of the na- 
 tural corruption of manj of the forgiveness of sins and 
 amendment of life through Christ, without differing 
 essentially from the Evangelical Church, except in their 
 strict moral discipline, their internal constitution, and 
 the doctrine that a lie, even in a case of necessity, is not 
 allovrable. 
 
 This sect was founded by John Wesley (born 1703, 
 died 1791), and is very numerous (half a million) in 
 England and North America (a). 
 
 (a.) According to an American paper, the whole number of Metho- 
 dists amounted, a.d. 1822, to 526,500. 
 
 § 394. 
 
 The sect of Quakers (a) was founded (1647) by George 
 Fox, a shoemaker, born 1634, at Drayton, in Leicester- 
 shire, who in his nineteenth year set himself up as in- 
 spired and illumined by heavenly light to make a strict 
 reform of morals, and gained followers in England and 
 America. The noble William Penn ( -1- 1718) moderated 
 their fanaticism, supplying them at the same time with a 
 free State, by the acquisition of Pennsylvania. They 
 teaqji that there is in man a spark of the Divine Being 
 (the inner light), which is suppressed by the body, but 
 which stands higher and is also more universal than the 
 external word, the Bible; that the flesh will not rise 
 again, and that all sinful, however trifling, pleasures must 
 be avoided. They make obeisance to none, call every 
 one thou, take no oaths, do not fill any magisterial office, 
 nor serve in war. They reject the external Divine service, 
 have therefore no singing, no baptism, no Eucharist, no 
 priests; but hold meetings, in which each one mounts the 
 
296 HISTORY OP THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 pulpit who feels himself awakened by the inner light, 
 or, where this is not the case, they separate in silence. 
 Their manners and church discipline are strict, and their 
 dress, in the highest degree, simple {b) . 
 
 (a.) They take their name from the circumstance of Fox having 
 cried out to a judge in a trial, " QaaJce before the word of God ! " 
 
 (S.) They reject the chase, theatrical amusements, dancing, and 
 games of hazard, also trading in articles of luxury or implements of 
 war. Since 1786 a small community has established itself in the Tale 
 of Peace (Friedensthal) in Pyrmont. In England (where they num- 
 ber probably 600,000) they have toleration, and in America (where 
 there are 300,000), like all other religious sects, they have freedom. 
 In later times they have relaxed from their strictness. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 JOHN EDWAED TATLOB, PEDTTEE, 
 LITTLE QUEEN STKEET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. 
 
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