afarnell JUttioersitg ffitfacarg 
 
 Strata, S^etn $atk 
 
 BERNARD ALBERT SINN 
 
 COLLECTION 
 
 NAVAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 BERNARD A. SINN. '97 
 
 1919 
 
Comall Univerally Library 
 V115.G7 B78 1860 
 
 A manual for naval cadets / 
 
 olin 
 
 3 1924 030 751 790 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030751790 
 
MANUAL FOR NAYAL CADETS 
 
 JOHN M'NEILL BOYD 
 
 CiPIAiir E.N. (.H.M.S. A.rAi) 
 
 'And well the docile crew that skilful urchin guides ^ — Byron 
 
 SECOI«'D EDITION 
 
 LONDON 
 
 LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS 
 
 1860 
 
TO THE 
 
 COMMISSIONERS FOR EXECUTING!- THE OFFICE OF 
 
 LORD HIGH ADMIRAL OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, &c. 
 
 HIS GRACE THE DUKE OP SOMERSET 
 
 VICE-ADMIRAL THE HON. SIR RICHARD SAUNDERS DUNDAS, K.C.B. 
 
 REAR-ADMIRAL THE HON. FREDERICK THOMAS PBLHAM, C.B. 
 
 CAPTAIN CHARLES EDEN, C.B. 
 
 CAPTAIN CHARLES FREDERICK 
 
 SAMUEL WHITBREAD, ESQ. M.P. 
 
 firstSewetorj/- REAR-ADMIRAL THE EIGHT HON. LORD CLARENCE 
 EDWARD PAGET, C.B. M.P. 
 
 &«!i«JSeM'ci!<M^- WILLIAM G. ROMAINE, ESQ. C.B. 
 
 THE SECOirS BDlTlOir OF 
 PUBLISHED USDEE THEIE BAWCTION 
 
 ST THEIE OBEDIENT BEETAKX 
 
 THE AUTHOR 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This -worli advances no pretensions to originality. It is 
 what its title indicates — A Manual. The subjects, there- 
 fore, of which it treats, must more or less have been 
 handled before, and, no doubt, more ably, fully, and clearly. 
 The scientific and mechanical explanations, which the 
 writer has found it necessary to give in different parts of 
 his work, are of course little more than repetitions of defi- 
 nitions and principles which many treatises supply ; and if, 
 in the statement of such principles, well known terms and 
 formulae of expressions have been employed, it must be 
 recollected, that the language of science is technical, and 
 from its arbitrary precision forbids the use of any tongue 
 but its own. 
 
 The Publication of such a book may seem to require ex- 
 planation, if not apology ; and^perhaps the best one the 
 writer can give, will be found in the circumstances which 
 suggested the work, and which have led to its appearance 
 in print. 
 
 In the course of a somewhat long and arduous profes- 
 sional career, the writer discovered, not unfrequently, con- 
 siderable ignorance prevailed among Naval Cadets on 
 points intimately connected with their duties. This may 
 have arisen partly from their education, previous to en- 
 trance in the service, not being made to bear directly on its 
 requirements, partly from the extensive range of information 
 on various subjects required in a naval officer, and partly 
 from the want of some plain works containing a good deal 
 
 A 4 
 
viii PEEFACE. 
 
 of instruction in short compass. As the writer has ever 
 taken a lively interest in the improvement of young officers 
 under his command, he was induced not only to direct 
 their studies generally, but to assist them in those studies 
 by a supply of papers, diagrams, and illustrations, calcu- 
 lated to throw some light on the subject before their minds. 
 These papers grew upon his hands, and suggested the idea 
 that, if collected and arranged, they might be of more ex- 
 tensive use to those youthful members of the profession for 
 whose advantage they had been originally prepared ; and 
 that without the slightest intention of authorship. 
 
 Under these impressions, the writer felt it his duty to 
 place the following papers before the Lords of the Admi- 
 ralty, leaving it to their judgment to decide whether they 
 were likely to contribute towards the end desired, or whether 
 they were only worthy of place among other well in- 
 tentioned but useless writings ' which never see the light. 
 Being himself entirely unambitious of the honour of author- 
 ship, and conscious that his etchings had but little claim on 
 the favourable consideration of the public, he was con- 
 tented to leave the question in the hands of his profes- 
 sional superiors, as an evidence, at all events, of his desire 
 to serve a profession to which he has been all his life 
 ardently attached. 
 
 The decision of their Lordships left bim no choice as to 
 further steps. They were pleased to express a judgment 
 that the pages laid before them were calculated to be use- 
 ful, to intimate their "approval of their contents, and to 
 eviuce that favourable opinion in the strongest manner 
 in their power by voting a sum of money towai'ds the pub- 
 lication of the work, ordering a number of copies on their 
 own accoimt, and placing it on the li^t of books which 
 officers are required to provide themselves with on joining 
 the navy. 
 
PBEPACE. IX 
 
 Thi8 act, as liberal and encouraging on the part of the 
 Lords of the Admiralty as it was flattering to the compi- 
 lation they had heen pleased to honour with their approval, 
 necessitated its publication. The Author felt that it would 
 be but a doubtful proof of the attachment he feels for the 
 service to which he belongs were he from apprehension of 
 criticism, or feelings of false delicacy, to suppress a work 
 which his superiors have honoured with their commenda- 
 tion. 
 
 In the handling of the several subjects the Author desires 
 to express his obligations to those professional friends who 
 have conferred upon him the benefit of their remarks on 
 some points which he was permitted to bring under their 
 personal notice.* 
 
 In using certain expressions, such as "ought," "should," 
 &c., the Author is anxious to disclaim anything approach- 
 ing to a tone imperious or dictatorial. He does not affect to 
 prescribe to any what should be the line of conduct adopted, 
 but simply means to convey that, according to his ideas, 
 the course or acts suggested ai'e the proper ones to be 
 taien imder the circumstances. 
 
 It win also be observed that iu some chapters the ordinary 
 style of this work has been departed from, and another 
 more involving personal address substituted. The Author 
 found that, in laying down directions for the performance 
 of certain routine duties, it was more convenient and con- 
 densed to suppose himself speaking to those for whose 
 benefit his book is intended, than to clothe these necessary 
 directions in a style abstract and more diffuse. In fact, 
 when dtities such as the "handling" of gear came to be 
 specified, it was found impracticable to convey directions 
 
 any other mood than the imperative. 
 
 * The remarks on construction are taken by permission chiefly from Mr, 
 Fincham's *' Outlines of Naval Architecture." 
 
DIEECTIONS TO THE BINDER. 
 
 The two plates of Signal Flags to face page 1. 
 
 The plate of Union Jack to face page 506. 
 
 The eight plates of Flags to follow the Unioa Jack, in the order as 
 
 numbered. 
 The plates of Masts to follow those of the Flags. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 WATER AKD AlK. 
 
 Hydrodynamics. — Impenetrability of Matter. — Density, Volume or 
 Bnlk, Cohesion, Extension and Divisibility. — Oxygen, Nitrogen, 
 and Hydrogen. — Carbonic Acid Gas. — Ventilation. — Composition 
 of Water and Air. — Hydrostatic Press. — Density of Water and 
 Air Page 1 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 DISPLACEMENT AND SHAPE. 
 
 Hydrostatics in connection with Naval Architecture. — ^Displacement. 
 —Capacity of Ships.— Shape. ^ Size.— The Duke of Wellington. 
 
 — The Great Eastern Iron and Wooden Ships.— Fluid Kesist- 
 
 ance >•- ..... .6 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 Atmospheric Aiiv-its Density. — Effect of Heat on Air. — Causes of 
 Whirlmnds and Hurricanes Velocity and Perpendicular Pres- 
 sure of Winds. — Barometer. — Weight of the Atmosphere.— Prin- 
 ciple of the Barometer. — Aneroid Barometer. — Thermometer. — 
 Table of comparative Degrees of different Thermometers. — Ad- 
 miral Fitzroy's useful Rules. — Wind and Weather Journal. — The 
 Siphon - 12 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 CONSTEDCTION. 
 
 Wet Docks. — Locks. — Dry Docks. — ^Angle Blocks. —Culverts. — ^The 
 Caisson or Floating Dam. — Slips. — Shores. — The Cradle. — Patent 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 Slip.— Graving Dock. — Coffer Dam. — Floating Dock.— Timbers 
 used in Ship- building. — Seasoning Timber. — Kyanising and Bnr- 
 nettising.— Bramah's Forcing Pump. — Timber-bending Machines. 
 
 — Mechanical Properties of Matgrials used in Construction. — 
 Marine Glue, — its great adhesive Power. — Strength of Timber — 
 of Cast Iron. — Transverse Strength of various Materials. — Table 
 of Experiments on the Transverse Strength of Cast Iron Bars. — 
 Tensile Strength and Power to resist Compression. — Iron. — Steel. 
 
 — Soft Metal. — Vulcanised Indian Rubber. — Air Pumps. — Steam 
 Pipes. — Weights, Size, and Specific Gravities of Substances used 
 in the Construction of Vessels — Bolts and Nails. — Adhesion of 
 Nail. — Mould Loft. — Sheer Drawing. — Sheer Plan. — Half- 
 breadth Plan. — Body Plan. — Keel. — Stem. — Apron. — Knight- 
 heads. — Stern-post. — Body-post A Frame of Timbers. — ^Dead- 
 wood. — Keelson. — Beams. — Carlings. — Hawse Holes. — Breast- 
 hooks and Crutches. — Biders. — Trussing. — Side Heelsons. — Steps. 
 
 — False Keel. — Gripe. — Limbers. — Planking. — Channels. — Bill- 
 boards. — Cat Head. — Head Knees. — Gammoning Piece. — Decks. 
 — Biding Bits. — Port's Sides. — Spindle of the Capstan. — Com- 
 pressors. — Scup pers. — Hawse Bucklers. — Hold. — Magazines. — 
 Engine Eoom. — Caulking, Sheathing, and Coppering. — The 
 Rudder — its Chocks.— The Figure Head. — The Pump. — Fire 
 Engine. — Chain Pump. — Massie's Pump. — Bilge Pumps. — Body 
 Post and After Deadwood. — Burthen of Ships. — Symbols used to 
 characterise Vessels. — ^Amount of Materials for a 120-gun ship. 
 
 Page 26 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 PLOA.TIHQ. 
 
 Difficulties in Launching. — The Bombay. — The Sulphur. — ^The Am- 
 buscade. — Remarkable Triumph in the case of the Gorgon. — Sir 
 Howard Douglass's Rules for estimating Bulk and Buoyant Capa- 
 cities of Spars. — Table of Contents of Round Timber.— Rules for 
 Measurement of Open Vessels. — Rafts of Ships' Ma*erials. — Rafts 
 of Trees — Loss of Weight experienced by different Bodies when 
 Immersed in Sea Water.— Specific Gravity— its Meaning. — Rule 
 to determine the Magnitude of any Body from its Weight and 
 vice versd -- ----.,04 
 
 CHAP. VL 
 
 STOWAGE.. 
 
 Use of Ballast.— Stability.— Weight of Bal'.ast informer and present 
 Times. — Centre of Gravity. -Connection of Centre of Gravity 
 
CONTENTS. Xiii 
 
 •with Displacement. — Eesultant of the Pressure of Water. — ^Dis- 
 tribution of Weights. — Effect of Trim on Sailing. — Natural In- 
 clination to " hogging." — Problem of Stability. — Ship heeling 
 under Canvas. — Connection of Stability with Trim and Form. — 
 Effect produced by moving certain Weights through different 
 Spaces. — The Water Level. — Dr. Arnott on Fluid Resistance. — 
 Ballast— Tanks - - , - - - Page 77 
 
 CHAP. TIL 
 
 MECHANICAI/ POWERS. 
 
 A Force. — Gravity. — Direction of a Force. — Telocity. — Power as 
 distinguished from Strength. — Unit of Work. — The Motive 
 Powers angmented, regulated and directed by Machinery. — 
 Levers. — Wheel and Axle. — Capstan, — Leverage. — Patent 
 Capstan. — Concentrated and diffused Powers. — A Train. — Tackles, 
 — ^thelr Theory. — List of Tackles. — ^ Inclined Plane. — Wedge. — 
 Screw. — Compound Machine. — Crane. — Compound Wheel and 
 Axle. — Friction. — Friction in connection with Blocks - 92 
 
 CHAP. Tin. 
 
 THE TELESCOPE. 
 
 Achromatic Telescope Composition and Effects of Light. — ^Lenses. 
 
 — ^Pencil of Rays. — Refracting Telescope. — Composition of Light. 
 — Object Glass of an Achromatic Telescope - - 118 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 MASTS. 
 
 Timber used for Masts. — Single Tree and Made Masts. — Hoops. — 
 Rubbing Paunch. — Names of different Parts of a Mast. — Enees. 
 — Tressle-trees. — Battens. — Bolsters. — Tenon. — Lower Cross 
 Trees. — ^Tops. — Necldaces. — ^Lower Caps. — Top-masts. — Mizen- 
 top-masts. — ^Top-mast Cross-trees. — Necklace for Hanging-blocks. 
 — Top-mast Caps. — Fids. — Top Tackles. — Top-gallant and Royal 
 Masts. — Heels. — Bowsprits. — Bee-blocks. — Gammoning Fish. — 
 Saddle. — Bowsprit Caps. — Jib-booms.— Yards. — Average Talue of 
 
 Spars. — Weight and Dimensions of Spars. — Masting Derricks. — 
 
 Mast Strops. — Masting Spars. — Masting and Dismasting with 
 own Resources. — Handling a Bowsprit. — Neat Performance in the 
 History of Masting. — ^Lower Mast Sprung or Wounded. — Bow- 
 sprits and Lower Tards. — The Thetis. — Lightning Conduc- 
 tors - - 122 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 bquipmknt: kigoino. 
 
 Manufacture of Bopes. — Tarns. — Strands Hawser-laid Rope. — 
 
 Cables. — Shroud -laid Eope. — SpunTarn. — Sennit. — Nettle Stuff. — 
 Foxes. — Eeef Points or Gaskets. — Coir Kope. — Splices. — Worming, 
 Parcelling, Serving and Backing. — Throat, Round and Flat 
 Seizings.— Straps.— Table of Size of Hemp, Chain, and Wire 
 Eope. — Ditto of Strength of Chain, Hemp, and Wire Rope. — Ditto 
 of Threads and Weight of Bolt Rope. — Ditto of Number of Threads, 
 Weights and Strength of Hemp Cables. — Ditto of Number of 
 Threads and Weight of Ha\rser-Iaid Rope, three Strands. — Ditto 
 of Number of Threads and Weight of Hawser-laid Rope, four 
 Strands. — Ditto of Weight of Tacks. — Signal-halyards. — Blocks. 
 — Table of Size of Rope Stropping. — Table of Weight of Wooden 
 Blocks. — Ditto of Size and Weight of Purchase Blocks. — Hooks. — 
 
 Metal Blocks.— Thimbles Iron Blocks. — Standing Rigging. — 
 
 Running Rigging. — Cutting Out. — Mast-head Pendants. — Fore- 
 most Shroud. — Stays. — Rigging Ship. — Placing lower Cross-trees. 
 — Placing Tops. — Taking Tarns. — Bowsprit. — Gammonings. — 
 Mau-ropes. — Stage.— Bobstay Collars. — Forestay Collars. — Bob- 
 stays. — Bowsprit Shrouds. — Cap Bobstay. — Bumpkins. — Setting 
 up Bowsprits. — Setting up Bobstays. — Rigging a Lower Mast. — 
 The Cap. — Lower Lift Blocks. — Stays. — Turning in Lower 
 
 Rigging. — Shrouds ends up. — Turning in Cutter Stay Fashion. 
 
 Reeving. Lanyards. — Setting up Rigging — Stays. — Rattling. 
 Futtock Rigging. — Comparison of Chain and Rope Gear. — 
 Getting up Top-masts. — Placing Cross-trees. — Rigging Top- 
 masts.— Necklace.— Tye Blocks.— Main-top-mast Back Stay. — 
 Lanyards.— Jib Stay.— Topmast Caps.— Span Blocks.— Getting up 
 Top-gallant Masts — Top-gallant Rigging.— Trysail Masts.— Jib- 
 boom.— Jib Traveller. — Funnel. — Foot-ropes. — Guys. — Martin- 
 gale.— Spritsail Gaffs. — Dolphin Striker.— Heel Chains.— Crupper. 
 —Jib Stay.— Traveller.— Whiskers.— Flying Jib-boom. Page 148 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 EQUIPMENT: RIGGING. 
 
 Lower Slings.— Jeer Blocks.— Getting Lower Yards in.— Rig Lower 
 
 Yards.— Lower Jeer Blocks.— Top-sail Sheet or Quarter Blocks 
 
 Truss Strops — Clue Garnet.— Rolling Tackle.— Jaokstays Foot 
 
 Ropes.— Yard Tackle.— Pendants.-Brace Blocks Leech Lines. 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 — Slings. — Rigging Topsail Tarda. — Mizen Topsail Yards. — 
 Parrel. — Quarter Blocks. — Brace Blocks. — Topsail Lifts. — 
 Bigging Upper Yards. — Lifts and Braces. — Heaving up Lower 
 Yards. — Trusses. — Top-sail Halyards. — Fly-Blocks. — Crossing 
 Top-sail Yards. — Upper Yard Ropes. — Spanker-boom and Gaff. — 
 Topping Lifts. — Boom Sheets. — Throat Halyards. — Peak Hal- 
 yai'ds. — Vangs. — Throat Downhaals. — Outhauler. — Brails. — 
 Signal Halyards.— Running Rigging. — Jib Halyards. — Flying 
 Jib Halyards. — Fore- top -mast Staysail. — Main-top-mast Staysail. 
 — ^Top-gallaBit and Royal Staysails. — Main and Fore Staysail. — 
 Second Jib. — Courses. — Clue Garnets. — Buntlines. — Leechliues. — 
 Fore Bowlines. — Reef Pendants. — Topsails. — Sheets. — Cluelines. — 
 Reef Tackles. — Topsail Cluelines. — Top-gallant Sails. — Top- 
 gallant Buntlines. — Royals. — Fore-top Bowlines. — Main-top 
 Bowlines. — Studding Sail Gear. — Studding Sail Booms. — Fore 
 Guys. — Halyards. — Tripping Lines. — Fore-top-mast Stud-sails. — 
 
 Tacks, Sheets, and Downhauls Topping Lifts. — ^Tack and Lower 
 
 Halyard. — Blacking down - - - - - Page 193 
 
 CHAP. XIL 
 
 KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 Worming. — Serving. — ^A Short Splice. — ^Eye Splice. — Long Splice.— 
 Flemish Eye.— Cut Splice.— Wall Knot.— To Crown a Wall 
 Knot.— To Double Wall a Wall Knot.— To Double Crown a Wall 
 Knot. — Stopper Knot. — Shroud Knot. — French Shroud Knot. — 
 Buoy Rope Knot. — Miscellaneous Knots. — Matthew Walker's 
 Knot. — Single Diamond Knot. — Double Diamond Knot.— Sprit 
 Sail Sheet Knot. — Turk's Head. — A Selvagee. — To lengthen a Rope 
 by additional Strands. — ^Bends and Hitches. — Grummet. — Round 
 Seizing. — Throat Seizing - - ... 217 
 
 CHAP. XTIL 
 
 ANCHOB3 AND CABLES. 
 
 Admiralty Anchors. — Porter's and Rodgers' Anchors. — Jury 
 Anchors. — Mitchel's Screw Anchors. — Chain Cables. — Admiralty 
 Specification of Chain Cables. — Splicing Tails. — Anchor Shackles. 
 — Cable Swivels. — Cable Shackle. — ^Admiral Elliot's Splicing 
 Shackle. — Sir Thomas Hardy's Mooring Swivel. — Messenger and 
 Crane Chains. — Clear Hawse Shackle. — Slip Stopper. — Top 
 
 Chains. — Mast-head Slings Table of STumber and Weights of 
 
 Anchors, and Number and Size of Cables and Messengers. — Table 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 of Splicing Shackles, Mooring Swivels and Chains, as to Weight 
 and Value. — Kules for finding the Weight of Open-linked Chains. 
 —To flnd the Weight that may be lifted by Chains. — Table of 
 Strain, Size, Value, and Weight of Chain Cables and Anchors. — 
 Dimensions of Lookers for 200 -fathom Chain Cable.— Getting in 
 
 Cables.- Getting in Anchors.— Fish Davit Fish Block.— Waist 
 
 - Anchor.— Cat-Block.— Cat.— Stock-Tackle.- Stream Anchors. — 
 Gangers. — Object of the Buoy. — Hemp Cables - Page 236 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 STORES AND PKOVISIONS. 
 
 Hoisting in Spare Spars. — Getting in Provisions and Stores. — De- 
 scription, Contents, and Weight of Packages and Iron Tanks. — 
 Empty Casks. — Slop Clothing. — Marine Necessaries. — Forage. 
 
 — Beligious Books. — Iron Tanks. — Weight of Provisions and 
 Stores for a Ship of each Kate - - - - . . 2S3 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 OKDNANCB. 
 
 Gun Metal. — Parts of a Gun. — Parts of a Gun Carnage. — External 
 and Internal Appearance of Gun Carriage. — Parts of a Carronade. 
 — ^Angle of Dispart. — Sights. — Line of Metal. — Centre of Metal. 
 —Tangent Scale. — Calibre of a Gun. — ^Axis of a Piece. — Windage. 
 
 — Vents. — Shot and Shell. — Mortars. — Proof Charges of Brass 
 Guns. — Howitzers. — Table of Proof Charges. — Gunpowder. — Its 
 Component Parts. — Powder Marks. — Cartridges. — Metal Cases. — 
 
 Dimensions of Powder Packages. — Shell. — Metal Fuses. Blue 
 
 Light. — Long Lights.— Slow Match. — Port Fires. — Bickford's 
 Fuse. — Signal Kockets. — Congreve Rockets. — Carcasses. — Tubes. 
 —Gun Cotton. — Lignine. — Field-piece Carriages, Table of their 
 Weight and Dimensions. — Elevation and Plan of 9-pounder 
 Brass Field Carriage — Weights and Dimensions of Small Arms 
 in use. — Shot. — Canister. — Grape. — Shrapnell Shell. — Getting 
 
 in Guns. — Duty- of the Gurnet. — Rigging Tard Purchase. 
 
 Raising Guns - . - . . . 266 
 
 CHAP. XVL 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 Material and Value of Boats. — Carvel and Clinker. — Diagonals. 
 
 Chain Slings.— Plug Ho!es.— Mast Steps.— Weights and Tonnage 
 of Boats. — Coppermg of a 42-foot Pinnace Launch. — Fitting 
 
CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 Gun Slides. — Hoisting in and stowing Boom Boats. — Mr. Tin- 
 month's Experiments to ascertain the Properties of Spars. — 
 
 Runners and Tacldes Securing Lizards. — Hooking on. — Foul 
 
 Hook. — Hoisting out. — Yard Tackle Pendants. — Top Burtons. 
 —Snatches. — Mode of stowing Barge and Pinnace. — Stowing 
 Boom Boats in one — Advantages of - - - - Page 284 
 
 CHAP. xvn. 
 
 sahos. 
 
 Parts of Sails — Weight and Price of Canvas used. — Strengtheuers. 
 — Eyelet Holes, Clues, and Foot Ropes. — Cutting. — Courses. — 
 Top Sails. — Boom Main Sails. — Size and Proportion of Sails for 
 different-sized Boats.-r-Different Modes of pointing Sails. — Table 
 of Yards and Size of Canvas required for certain Sails for Ships 
 of different Rates. — Table showing the Purposes for which the 
 Classes are suitable. — Table of Weight of Sails. — Table of Time 
 required to complete certain Sails of certain Dimensions. — Table 
 of a Man's daily Work, and of Length, Number, and Weight of 
 Points in Sails of different Class Ships. — Sail Tackle. — Bending 
 Sails. — Topsails. — Courses. — Spanker. — Head Sails. — Jibs. — 
 Lacings. — Top-gallant Sails and Royals. — Boom Main-sails. — 
 Try-sails.— Studding Sails.— Making Sail.— Furling Sails • 294 
 
 CHAP. xvni. 
 
 ACTION OF WIND UPON SAILS. 
 
 Area and Centre of Effort. — Axis of Rotation. — Natural and direct 
 Resistance. — Their Effect on a Ship's Progress. — Advantage of 
 flat and Disadvantage of curved Surfaces. — Power of Sails illus- 
 trated irom the Lever. — Carrying a good Helm — Tacking and 
 Wearing - - ■ ■ - - - - 323 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 Measures of Time. — The Pendulum. — Compensation Balance. — Table 
 of Length of Pendulum vibrating Seconds in different Latitudes. 
 
 Tables of British Weights and Measures. — Miscellaneous 
 
 Weights and Measures. — Relative Value of British and French 
 Weights and Measures. — French Decimal System.— Relative Value 
 of British and Foreign Measures of Length.-^Relative Value of 
 British and Foreign Commercial Wteights. — Lead Lines. — Log 
 Lines. — Measuring Distance by Sound - - - 331 
 
XrUl CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 OKGAKISATIOir. 
 
 Berthing.— Hammocks and Bags.— Clothing.— Watch Quarter and 
 Station Bill.— Form of Watch Bill.— Conduct Book.— Form for 
 Routine and Executive's Order Book.— Mvistering by Divisions. — 
 Meals.— Cleaning Decks.— Wet and Dry Stoning.— Spitting Kida. 
 — Collingwood's System of Arrangement. — Head Shoots. — Con- 
 stant Attention to be paid to Ventilation. — Observance of the 
 Lord's Day .-.---. - Page 843 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 FBBPABmO FOB SEA. 
 
 Xoadstone. — Compasses. — Cause of Variation of the Needle. — Mr. 
 
 Barlow's Correcting Plate. — Steering Gear. — Tillers and Yokes 
 
 Twiddling Lines. — Paint Work. — Life Buoys. — ^Night Signals. — 
 Rules for Passing Ships. — Line of Battle. — Order of Sailing. — 
 Line of Bearing. — Close and Open Order. — Inspection of Ships. — 
 The Things to be attended to.— Loosing Sails - - - 368 
 
 CHAP. XXIL 
 
 HANDLING BOATS. 
 
 Steam Boats and Tackles. — Carrying Stores. — Store Warrants. — 
 Carrying Sail. — Precautions before Shoving Off. — Passing to Lee- 
 ward of a Vessel. — Steraway. — Small Helm.— Blowing oif Land. 
 — Boarding. — Swinging at Ebb. — Management of Boats in Broken 
 Water.— General Bnles for Rowing to Seaward..— Broaching-to. — 
 Drognes. — Eules for attempting to Land through a heavy Surf. — 
 Getting a Boat up on a Bekch. — Dangers to be apprehended on 
 Boarding a Stranded Vessel. — Taking Boats in Tow. — Saluting. — 
 Watering. — Warping. — General Duties. — Lowering and Hoisting. 
 .^Hooking on for Hoisting. — Fitting Quarter Davits 367 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. 
 
 ANCHORING. 
 
 Anchoring on Signals — ^Mooring.— Position of the Anchors, and 
 ■ Direction of Wind necessary to be considered in Mooring.— Taut 
 
 Moor._^Mooring in aTide Way.— Foul Hawse. — Clearing Hawse. 
 
 - Mooring Swivel."— Putting on the Swivel after Mooring.— Securing 
 i Cables.— The Fastenings. — Unmooring.— Foul Anchor. — Anchor- 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 ing. -Single Anchor. — Creeping for Anchors. — Carrying an An- 
 chor out by Boats. — Stream Anchors. — Carrying Anchor by 
 
 Boats when the Ship is ashore Heaving off. — Carrying Anchors 
 
 with Boats. — Re-stowing Waist Anchors. — To stow the Waist 
 Anchor with the Davits. — Striking Lower Tarda and Top- 
 masts ..„--.--- Page 390 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 HANDLING THB SHIP. 
 
 Experience, Promptitude, and Invention, necessary for Command, — 
 Coiling Eopes. — Casting. — Tacking. — Sailing in Line. — Wearing. 
 — Cracking on. — Taken Aback. — Man Overboard. — Taking a Ship 
 
 in Tow under Sail Warping. — Shaking out Eeefs Fore and 
 
 Aft Sails. — Setting Upper Sails. — Taut Gear. — Deadening Way, — 
 Collision. — Setting Studding Sails — Taking in Studding Sails. — 
 Taking in Sail. — Reefing Topsails. — Setting Courses.— Boxing 
 off. — Taking in the Driver. — Taking the Jib in. — Sending Top- 
 gallant Masts and Yards down.— Weather Brace carried away. — 
 Weather Reef Tackle carried away. — ^Weather Topsail Sheet and 
 Clueline carried away. — Main Tack and Clue (xamet gone. — Top- 
 sail Brace and Parrel carried away. — Top-gallant Brace and 
 Parrel carried away. — Bobstays gone — the best Remedy. — Pre- 
 venter Braces, Lifts and Cluelines. — Reefing Topsails and Courses. 
 — Reefing Courses. — Taking in a Course.— Reducing a Topsail. — 
 Taking a Topsail in when Blowing Hard.^^Sending a Topsail up 
 in Bad Weather. — Sending a Topsail up Reefed. — Unbending 
 Sails. — Shifting Top-gallant Masts. — Shifting Topmasts. — 
 Shifting Jib-boom. — Broken Spars. — Rudder gone. — To Steer with 
 
 a Cable. — Landing the Rudder Slacking Lower Rigging. — 
 
 Swifting in Rigging. — Cutting away Masts. — Casting Rigging 
 adrift. — To get a Lower Yard down inside the Rigging — Trim- 
 ming Sails. — Making Sail. — Backing and Filling. — Boats making 
 for the Ship.— Dredging. — Club Hauling. — Heaving Down. — 
 Scale of Blocks, Falls, Pendants, Strapping and Shrouds used in 
 Heaving down different] Classes of Ships. — Captain Harris's 
 Account of Heaving down, the Melville. — The Success and the 
 Croesus repaired - - - - - US 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 The Marine Steam Engine.— Fuel. — Coal. — Patent Fuel. — Good 
 Stoking. — Draft of Chimney. — Blast-pipe. — Damper.— Properties 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 of Stefim, — Newcomen'3 Atmospheric Engine. — Elastic Force of 
 Vapour. — Temperature of Steam — Instrnments employed for 
 testing.— Pressare of Steam.— Boilers.— Heat operates on Solida 
 by Conduction, on Fluids by Connection. — Latent Heat.— Eadia- 
 tion. — Marine Boilers. — Water Space. — Steam Cheat. — Flue 
 Boilers. — Liability to bursting. — Communication or Stop Valves. 
 —Feed Pumps.— Hot Well.— Water Gauge.— Priming.— Land 
 Engines.— Reverse Valves.— Blow-off Cocks.— Brine Pumps. — 
 Man-hole..^Mud-hole. — Steam Gauge.— Safety Valve.— Waste 
 Steam Funnel. — Drip Pipe. — Steam Pipe. — Throttle Valve. — 
 Force of Steam. — The Cylinder. — Eduction Pipe. — The Eccentric 
 
 Slide Valves. — ^Expansive Gear. — Escape Valves. — Condenser. — 
 
 Air Pump and Hot Well. — Kingston Valves. — Foot, Delivery, 
 
 Blow-through, and Snifting Valves. — The Piston. — Piston Rod 
 
 Stuffing Box. — Glands. — Direct-acting Oscillating Engine. — 
 Dead Point. — Trunk Engines. — ^Indicator.— Horse Power. — The 
 Screw. — Marine Propeller. — Pitch of a Screw. — The Slip. — 
 Handling the Propeller. — Distilling Apparatus. — Action of 
 Parts of Engine in Distillation. — Steerage of Screw Ships Page 347 
 
 CHAP. XXVL 
 
 FLAGS. 
 
 The Royal Standard.— Blazon of the Prince Consort's Standard. — 
 The Prince of Wales's Standard. — ^Union Jack. — Admiralty Flag. 
 — Flag of the CSnque Ports. — Signal Code - - - - 601 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 List and Average Prices of Articles necessary for a Cadet's Equip- 
 ment. — Chests and Drawers. — ^Admiralty Circular on Expense of 
 Messes. — Article irom The Times. — Necessary Expenses and 
 Official Pay of Young Officers. — Taking in a Course. — ^Falconer's 
 Shipwreck cited. — Admiralty Circular on Qualifications of Naval 
 Cadets. — Midshipmen, — their Examinations. — ^Instruction by the 
 Naval Instructor.— List of Instruments and Books required by 
 each Cadet. — Examination on leaving the Training Ship. — Form 
 of Certificate to be given to Officers on passing for Midshipmen. — 
 Form of the Passing Certificate in Seamanship for the Rank of 
 Lieutenant or Master.— Form of Passing Certificate for a Lieu- 
 tenant in Gtunnery. — ^Form of Passing Certificate at the Royal 
 Naval College for a Lieutenant or Master. — Number of Observa- 
 tions required to be taken by a Candidate before Examination 507 
 
Over InterrofftLtory Pendant ask Sblp*B nsme in 
 
 Nnvy List. 
 Over Geographical ditto ask from whence Ship 
 
 come. 
 Under ditto ditto ditto -whither bonnd. 
 AlwafB used In making Ship'8 name. 
 
 IP Church 
 
MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 WATER AND AIB. 
 
 The Theory of naval architecture is founded on those hranches 
 of the science of watery fluids which are comprehended in the 
 term Hydrodynamics. Those are — Hydrostatics, which treat of 
 their pressure when at rest ; Hydraulics, which treat of them in 
 motion ; and Pneumatics, which treat of the pressure and motion 
 of air and other elastic fluids. 
 
 The Questions then arise, what is water ? and what is air ? 
 Every substance which comes under the cognizance of our 
 senses is called matter, and is made up of atoms, each of which, 
 however minute, has length, breadth, and thickness, and occupies 
 a space into which another cannot enter until the first has been 
 displaced. If, for example, we immerse a solid in a vessel 
 full of water, a portion will overflow equal in bulk to that of the 
 body which is submerged. This property of matter is called its 
 Impenetrability. 
 
 In some bodies the atoms are closer together than in others, 
 and, although of similar volume, would have greater gravity. 
 This is the Density of matter,* The quantity of space which 
 
 * The earth is a mass of matter, about 5| times heavier than an equal 
 Tolume'of water ; or, what is the same, the mean density of the earth is 5|. 
 The total weight of the earth is more than 6,000,000,000 billions of tons. 
 B 
 
2 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 a body occupies, is called its Volnme or Bulk. AH bodies on or 
 near the earth possess gravity (or weight), and tend towards the 
 earth's centre with a force called centripetal, proportionate to 
 their respective densities. Maids press equally in all directions, 
 upwards, downwards, obliquely, and laterally. Solids press only 
 downwards. The pressure of a fluid on a lighter body or a 
 rarer fluid, arises from the heavier fluid seeking to maintain 
 its own level, or the level of its own weight. The extraneous 
 body is therefore driven upwards, as in the case of gases, steam, 
 vapour, smoke, &c. 
 
 Most substances are made up of two or more others, so in- 
 timately associated, either by mechanical mixture or by che- 
 mical combination, as not to be separable, except by extraordinary 
 means. The component parts are held together by an attractive 
 force called Cobeslon, which is greater in solids than in fluids, 
 and altogether absent in gases. When solids are exposed to a 
 certain degree of heat they change their state: some are con- 
 verted into liquids ; liquids into vapours ; and again, by a like 
 loss of heat, these revert to the liquid state ; and liquids, by due 
 degrees of cold, are solidified. In others, the conversion is into 
 smoke. This property of matter is called its extension. In 
 some cases these substances may be taken to pieces, and each 
 part further investigated — a property of matter which is called 
 its Divisibility ; but when they resist all separation, they are 
 called simple or elementary. 
 
 Those substances which it most concerns us to considet in 
 reference to the question we are investigating, are Oxygen, 
 ■Nitrogen, and Hydrogen. 
 
 Oxyeren is only known as gas. It is a little heavier than 
 atmospheric air, and 740 times lighter than water. It is the 
 principle of combustion or burning, and indispensable to the 
 support of animal or vegetable life. All substances which are 
 capable of combustion in common air, burn with far greater 
 intensity in an atmosphere of pure oxygen ; but were it inhaled 
 by animals in this form, they would expire from excess of vital 
 action. 
 
 IVltrogen, or azote, has neither colour, taste, nor odour. It 
 extinguishes flame, cannot support life, and counteracts the 
 activity of oxygen in that mechanical mixture of these two gases 
 which compose our atmospheric air. < 
 
WATER AND AIE. • 3 
 
 Hydrogen is the lightest and most inflammable of all material 
 substances, being bulk for bulk more than fourteen times as light 
 as common air. 2,000 feet of this gas will weigh only 1 1 lbs. j 
 while the same volume of common air will weigh 160 pounds. 
 For this reason, it is used in the inflation of balloons. Phosphu- 
 retted hydrogen is generated by the decomposition of animal 
 bodies, and has produced such phenomena as the " Will o' the 
 "Wisp," &c. Sulphuretted hydrogen is extremely poisonous, and 
 is generated freely during the combustion of tallow or wax 
 candles. 
 
 During consumption by fire, fermentation, or decay of or- 
 ganised bodies or vegetables, as well as during the respiration of 
 animals, carbonic add gas is constantly produced. It is also 
 thrown off by vegetation during the night ; but its noxious effects 
 upon the atmosphere are neutralised by the larger quantities of 
 oxygen which plants generate in daytime. It extinguishes light, 
 and produces suffocation. Being heavier than air, it remains at 
 the bottom of wells and mines, causing the " choke-damp," which, 
 however, may be dispersed by throwing in water. A compound 
 of this gas with hydrogen, called carburetted hydrogen, issues 
 from stagnant waters, decomposed matter, and under the name 
 of " fire-damp," produces explosions in coal mines. 
 
 Air from the lungs of animals, when inhaled a second time, 
 acts as a poison,, which is more or less deadly as the oxygen is 
 more or less vitiated. A man consumes 26 cubic feet of oxygen 
 daily, and generates nearly a cubic foot of carbonic acid hourly. 
 Wood, much saturated, absorbs oxygen, and thus generates car- 
 bonic acid gas ; and all vegetable matter emits carbonic acid at 
 night. These are facts which naturally present serious objec- 
 tions to unnecessary exposure in night-boatwork on rivers, and 
 too frequent deck-washing, and demand every possible con- 
 trivance for ventilation. 
 
 " To form just conceptions of what Ventilation is, and how it 
 is in general to be accomplished, an engineer has to consider that 
 the ocean of air, called the atmosphere, which rests on the 
 surface of the earth, and at the bottom of which men live, as 
 certain aquatic animals live at the bottom of the sea, is about 
 50 miles high or deep ; and that the portion of this ocean which 
 can be contaminated by any process of animal or vegetable life, 
 or by the decomposition of organic bodies when dead, may be 
 B 2 
 
4 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 regarded as less deep generally than the fiftieth part of one mile, 
 estimated from the surface of the earth. This comparatively 
 insignificant stratum, therefore, may be regarded as the home or 
 lurking place of all epidemic diseases and insalubrious air ; the 
 more exact statement, indeed, being, that these are generally 
 confined to the still much smaller portions of air contained in 
 houses, or other enclosed places. Then the fact is to be kept in 
 mind, that the whole mass of the atmosphere at any moment 
 over a city or other place, is always travelling away to leeward 
 with the speed of the wind, and is carrying with it whatever 
 impurity may ascend from below, which impurity is then 
 resolved quickly into the pure elementary oxygen, carbon, &c., 
 of which all effluvia consist. Man can no more contaminate 
 permanently the deep atmosphere over him by his proceedings 
 at t^e bottom of it, than 'he >can contaminate the Atlantic Sea, by 
 what he may do on the shores. Then he has to learn, with the 
 same mechanical certainty as he can substitute the pure water of 
 a passing tide or river stream for defiled water near the shore, 
 he may substitute pure air from the atmosphere iox any air near 
 him that has become unfit for his use." * 
 
 These substances enter into the composition of water and air, 
 though in difEerent proportions. Water -consists of eight parts (by 
 weight) of oxygen and one of hydrogen, and air mainly consists 
 of one measure of oxygen and four of nitrogen. Both are fluids, 
 and have many properties in common. The watery ocean 
 extends over three parts of the earth's surface, and the aerial 
 surrounds the -globe to n, height of 45 miles.f Both have 
 impenetrability, inertia, and momentum. Bodies, specifically 
 lighter, float upon their surface, and heavier bodies sink. Both 
 gravitate towards the earth's centre, and press equally in all 
 directions. This equality -of fluid pressure on the bodies of animals 
 
 * Amott'B Fhyaics. 
 
 t The surface of the sea is estimated at l.'iO millions of square miles, taking 
 the whole surface of the globe at 197 miJtioDS. The Pacific Ocean covers 78 
 millions of square miles, the Atlantic 25, the Indian Ocean 14, the Southern 
 Ocean to 30 degrees 25, the Northern Ocean ij, and the Mediterranean 1 mil- 
 lion ; the Black Sea 170,000, the Baltic 175,000, the North Sea 160,000. 
 
 The depth of the ocean is one of those secrets of Nature which the in- 
 genuity of man has failed as yet to penetrate. It has been inferred from a sup- 
 posed physical relation that it is equal to the height of the mountains. Lieut. 
 Maury does not consider this supposition, or the different reports of soundings 
 which have exceeded 2!i,000 feet, to be deserving of confidence. 
 
"WATER AND AIR. 
 
 is sustained by the counteraction of fluids contained in their 
 system ; and when the water inside a ship has risen above the 
 level of a leak, the entrance of more will be considerably re- 
 tarded. " This equality of pressure in all directions at any point 
 in a fluid in equilibrium, is the fundamental principle from which 
 all the reasonings of hydrostatics are to be deduced. The 
 particles glide over each other with perfect freedom, each 
 particle pressing equally on all the particles that surround it, and 
 is equally pressed upon by these. It also presses equally upon 
 the solid bodies which it touches, and is equally pressed upon by 
 these." » 
 
 This property of thus transmitting pressure, is one in virtue 
 of which a liquid becomes a machine ;- for if a quantity be sub- 
 mitted to compression, the effect is equally diffused through 
 the whole ; and a given pressure, made on one inch of the 
 surface of a fluid contained in a. vessel, is instantly borne by 
 every inch of the surface of the vessel, however large, and 
 by every inch of the surface of any body immersed in the 
 fluid. Thus, in the hydrostatic press; which is used in the pro- 
 cess of forcing the preservative solution into timber, if the small 
 piston of « (-Fij. 3.) have only one 
 thousandth of the area of the larger 
 one, e, and be pressed down with a 
 force of 500 lbs., it will cause the 
 large one to rise with a force of lOOO-c 
 times 500 lbs. In the construction 
 of the Britannia Bridge, a press of 
 this kind was made use of, which, 
 lifted a weight of 1,144 tons. The 
 
 internal diameter of the great cylinder was 22 inches, and that 
 of the ram or smaller piston, 20 inches. 
 
 Water is of the same density throughout, and is incompressible. 
 Air has different degrees of density, and is elastic. To the gene- 
 ral law that heat causes expansion and cold contraction, water is 
 but partially obedient, while air obeys that law under all con- 
 ditions. A cubic foot of distilled water weighs 1000 ounces avoir- 
 dupoisk Sea water contains from 3 to 4 per cent, of salt. Fresh 
 water boils at 212° Fahrenheit, and begins to freeze at 32°. Sea 
 water freezes at 28|°. At this point, the atoms become fixed 
 
 • Tomlinson*s Nat. Philosophy. 
 B S 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
6 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 in crystals, and continue to expand until they form ice, which 
 being 8 parts in 100 lighter than water, floats on its surface.* 
 Nine cubic inches of water become ten by freezing ; and a cubic 
 inch, confined and frozen, expands with a force equal to nearly 13 
 tons, — a fact which, if not considered in the arrangement and 
 management of those pipes and valves which in ships commu- 
 nicate with the sea, may lead, and has led, to dangerous acci- 
 dents, f 
 
 Bodies of greater density than water, when completely im- 
 mersed, lose just as much of their weight as that of the quantity 
 of water they displace ; a consideration intimately affecting 
 all such operations as the carrying of guns, anchors, rudders, 
 &c., underneath boats, or weighing sunken vessels, &c. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 DISPLACEMENT AND SHAPE. 
 
 Bodies which float on the surface of water are borne upwards 
 by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced ; but those 
 bodies whose bulk does not displace a quantity of water equal to 
 their weight will sink, unless floated in a vessel sufficiently 
 large to displace a quantity of water heavier than their united 
 weights. A ship, therefore, destined to carry a certain amount 
 of tonnage, must be so constructed as to displace a quantity 
 of water equal to that amount, and her own weight besides.. This 
 consideration involves the distinct connection of hydrostatics 
 with naval architecture, especially as affecting the subject of 
 displacement. 
 
 • Liebig tells us that " during the act of freezing, the temperature remains 
 at 23° Fahrenheit. Nevertheless water may be cooled as low as 5° without 
 becoming solid, if the fluid be in a state of perfect rest, but that the least dis- 
 turbance is sufficient to effect congelation." 
 t Ice ^ inches thick will bear Infantry. 
 
 4 „ Cavalry or light guns. 
 
 6 „ Field-guns (heavy). 
 
 8 I, 24-pouaders on sledges. 
 
 U. S. Manual. 
 
DISPLACEMENT AND SHAPE. 7 
 
 Ploating bodies immerse a portion of their bulk in the fluid 
 on which they are borne. They float because they are specifi- 
 cally lighter than the fluid j that is, a given mean measure of 
 the one is lighter than a given mean measure of the other. On 
 placing such bodies on water, they sink until a balance is es- 
 tablished between their weight and that of the water pushed 
 aside to permit its immersion. The portion immersed displaces 
 exactly its own form and bulk of the fluid, and the weight of 
 that bulk of fluid is precisely equal to that of the floating body. 
 The body being the ship, and the fluid, water, the amount of 
 water thus removed will be her dlsplaoement. The number 
 of cubic feet contained in the body below its line of flotation 
 is obtained from the drawings, and will be the exact measure 
 of the quantity of water displaced. Then the weight of a given 
 measure of water being known, the weight of the quantity of 
 water displaced (and consequently the weight of the floating 
 body at any line of flotation) may be known also. But this is 
 a simple question of mensuration. The builder is not to accom- 
 plish his w^ork simply in reference to the quantity of materials 
 he has at his command. He has a certain amount of weights 
 in the form of men, guns, masts, and stores (according to the 
 rate of the ship ordered to be built), given him as data of pro. 
 cedure, and he must so manage his material, as to produce 
 a structure capable of accommodating those weights, without 
 detriment to the necessary amount of buoyancy. There is little 
 or no remedy if the attempt turn out a failure. If on being 
 equipped, it appeai-s that the form and dimensions of the part 
 immersed are not such as to displace a quantity of water equal 
 to the weight of the ship and her material, the ship will sink 
 so low in the water, as to be inefficient for her purpose; and she 
 must in that case be reduced to a lower rate by the withdrawal 
 of a certain quantity of guns, ballast, and stores. On the other 
 hand, if it appears, on being equipped, that the form and dimen-" 
 sions of the part immersed are such as to displace a greater* 
 weight of water than that of the ship and her material, she will 
 be so high as to be crank, leewardly, and otherwise defective. 
 It would be needful in this case to increase her ballast and other 
 weights to a degree that would affect her sailing qualities. This 
 discrepancy might be owing to ignorance or miscalculation on 
 the part of the architect, or to mistake or fraud on the part 
 B 4 
 
8 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 of the shipwright ; for there must not only be propriety of 
 dimensions, but suitability of materials. In other words, the 
 dimensions may be out of proportion for the purpose for which 
 the vessel is required ; or the scantling may be stouter or 
 slighter, the timber greener or better seasoned, or specifically 
 heavier or lighter. 
 
 Having thus briefly considered the subject of the ship's capacity, 
 it is desirable to treat of that of Sbape, a question which involves 
 the laws of hydraulics. We know that water in motion presses 
 more or less upon an obstacle exposed to its action, according to 
 the position and form of that obstacle; and that an object moves 
 through water at rest with more or less facility, according to its 
 shape. The hand placed in running water perpendicularly or 
 horizontally, offers different amounts of resistance; and, moved 
 in that position through still water, encounters different amounts 
 of resistance. The great question then to determine was that of 
 the form of a vessel which wonld oppose to the water the least 
 possible resistance; and to that question have our various schools 
 of ship-building applied themselves with more or less success. 
 Bluff bows and fine runs, " the dolphin's head and mackerel's 
 tail," were for a long period considered the main desiderata. 
 The "bruise waters" gave way to "long bows and full after- 
 bodies ; " the " long hollow floor " to the " peg-top " pattern ; 
 narrow "cribs " to excessive breadth of beam; light draught of 
 water to deep draught; and enormous quantities of ballast to none 
 whatever. Each and all of these systems have had their respec- 
 tive advocates ; all bent upon ascertaining that particular form 
 which could be most easily propelled, or in other words, offer the 
 least resistance. 
 
 Numerous experiments were made with a view of solving this 
 question. Pieces of wood of equal bulks, but of different shapes, 
 were drawn across the surface of a water trough by equal powers 
 of traction, and that which performed the transit in the shortest 
 time was considered to have furnished the desired model. But 
 when this shape came to be tested by the rnder trial of practice, 
 it was found to be a success only under partial circnmstances. 
 In strong breezes and smooth water it succeeded to admiration ; 
 but in opposite circumstances, and with a, propelling power 
 acting in any other direction than the parallel, it proved to be a 
 failure. The reason of this soon became obvious. SufScient 
 
DISPLACEMENT AND SHAPE. 9 
 
 consideration had not been bestowed on the fact that a vessel's 
 lines and shapes alter relatively to the state of the water through 
 which she moves. In other words, the ship which opposed com- 
 paratively little resistance to a smooth sea, presented unexpected 
 resistance to a broken one. The forms of fish again were sup- 
 posed to supply the desired pattern ; but here it was overlooked 
 that the rapidity of the motion of the fish depends probably quite 
 as much on muscular power, as upon peculiarity of shape. In 
 the case of birds, for example, it is notorious that speed of flight 
 does not always depend on equality or even similarity of bulk. 
 All this tends to prove, that while great importance is to be 
 attached to the question of shape, no degree of excellence in that 
 respect will necessarily ensure rapidity in sailing. That depends 
 on many considerations besides ; such as the adaptation of the 
 weight to be carried to capacity and form, the distribution of that 
 weight in the vessel, harmony between shape and rig, and, above 
 all, the handling of the ship. Craft of undoubted speed have 
 ceased to be constant winners after a change of owners j and some 
 of the old school ships have held their own with modern ones. 
 That may be the result either of seamanship or of trim, or of 
 both, — questions which will come more appropriately under 
 notice in a diflerent section. 
 
 One fact has been established by experiments made in refer- 
 ence to the question of Form in our own days. It has been 
 proved that (due attention being paid to construction) rapidity 
 of sailing is in proportion to increase of bulk. Of this our own 
 navy exhibits many illustrations. To select one — The Duke of 
 Wellington is equally remarkable for speed and handiness; 
 proving that as far as her dimensions have gone, increase of size 
 promotes rather than hinders velocity. But the most remark- 
 able application of the theory which modern times furnishes is 
 presented in the instance of the Great Eastern, now in process 
 of construction. 
 
 In the case of this vessel, it has been carried to such a singular 
 extreme as to warrant notice. Her distinguishing feature is 
 length. The Atlantic waves are calculated rarely to exceed 
 28 feet in height, and 600 in length, whilst in moderate gales, 
 they are about 300, and in fresh weather about 120 feet in length ; 
 and it is expected that as the ship will be water borne, even in 
 extreme circumstances, by two waves at the same time, she will 
 
10 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 bestride the heaviest seas, and thus aroid those descents into the 
 troughs which compel shorter-Teasels to traverse additional space, 
 and so to lose time in struggling upward against a powerfully 
 resisting medium. The annexed sketch {Fig. 4.) is on a scale 
 of proportion. 
 
 The ship is of iron, 692 feet long over all, 83 feet beam, 114 
 feet across the paddle-boxes, and nearly 60 feet deep : the sides 
 are tied together by double decks and 10 transverse bulk-heads. 
 
 As to the comparative excellence of wood and iron in ship- 
 building, Mr. Fairbairu remarks : " Iron ships of the same 
 external dimensions as wooden are both lighter and stronger, 
 and consequently have more space for cargo. Their original 
 cost is less, but their comparative durability is not yet decided." 
 
 But the whole of this subject of ship-building, with reference to 
 the question of fluid resistance, is admitted by the most eminent 
 writers and the more experienced practical men to be one, 
 even now, of extreme difficulty. The creation and failure- of 
 the several schools of naval architecture are but so many 
 steps towards the ultimate discovery of the form according tq 
 which ships should be constructed. Builders of high reputa- 
 tion have carried out their own theories only to arrive at the 
 discovery that results did not correspond to the expectation. 
 Naval men have done the same, and with the same result. Both 
 — the scientific architect and the practical seaman — have foun4. 
 out that scientific knowledge, and practical experience, separately, 
 have failed to solve the problem. It was probably this which 
 led Mr. Fincham to say: — "The theory of resistances remains 
 in about the same condition that it was left by Du Buat, and 
 experiment has done little since the date of Colonel Beaufoy's 
 
 labours And until the perfection of a theory of naval 
 
 architecture shall have been sought in new inquiries on this 
 subject, the naval architect must look chiefly to the navy itself 
 for suggestions to improve the forms of ships. " 
 
 This last acknowledgment appears to suggest the only 
 probable plan for the construction of vessels answering under 
 trial to the theoretic anticipations of their designers. That 
 which has failed under separate talents, may possibly succeed 
 under conjoint ones. Abstract science and personal experience 
 may, when combined and assistant to each other, give us the 
 great desideratum. Since the above quotation was written, we 
 
DISPLACEMENT AND SHAPE. 
 
 11 
 
 /( ./ 
 
12 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 have seen its idea reduced to fact in one of our own naval 
 departments. Practical knowledge and seaman-like experience 
 preside over one of our most important Boards; and the modern 
 ships which grace our navy are the best illustrations of the 
 soundness of the remark of the distinguished architect whose 
 views I have cited. 
 
 CHAP. UI. 
 
 The composition and extent of atmosplierlc air, its nature a£ far 
 as regards subjection to the law of gravity, the absence of cohesive 
 attraction among its particles, and their equality of pressure at 
 every point, have already been noticed. We have now to consider 
 its weight, compressibility, elasticity, mobility, and the different 
 purposes to which these properties are applied in connection with 
 naval architecture. Air is of different degrees of density through- 
 out ; a cubic foot weighing on the average V2 oz. The particles 
 of the lower strata, yielding to the pressure of those above, 
 become so much reduced in bulk that there is usually as much 
 air within 3| miles of the earth as there is altogether beyond 
 that altitude (Fig. 5.) f and the whole body exerts a pressure of 1 5 
 pounds on every square inch of the globe's surface, equal to 15 
 tons on the human frame. Air expands in proportion to the 
 diminution of pressure, and when entirely extracted from a 
 close vessel, a vacuum is formed. To compress air into twice 
 its density requires a force of 15 lbs. 3 oz., into four times 
 its density, 45 lbs. 9 oz., and so for other diminutions less 
 one. In a thoroughly exhausted receiver animals soon expire, 
 vegetation and combustion cease, gunpowder will not explode, 
 smoke descends, bodies of different densities fall with equal 
 rapidity, water and other fluids turn to vapours, sound is in- 
 distinctly heard, and heat imperfectly transmitted. The nature 
 of a vacuum, the elasticity of air, and the force of atmospheric 
 pressure will readily be understood by alternately closing and 
 opening the vent during the common operation of washing out a 
 gun barrel. 
 
WINDS. 
 
 13 
 
 Scale of 
 miles. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Supposed Limit of th< Atmosphere. 
 
 " J^p&ftJM 
 
 2 inches 
 
 3 inche!) 
 
 4 inches 
 
 5 inches 
 
 Feet. 
 
 A. Himalaya - -- - 28,000 
 
 B. Alps (Mont Blanc) -15,650 
 
 C. Andes (Sorata)- - 25,250 
 
 d. Ben NevU - - - 4,350 
 
 e. Snowdon • - • 3^557 
 /. Humboldt and Bonp- 
 
 land on Chimborazo I8|576 
 
 Feet. 
 
 g. Dalkdth Mine, Corn- 
 wall .' - - -. 1,440 
 
 A. Gay-Lussac's Balloon 
 
 Ascent, in 1804 - 23,000 
 
 t. Cirri) or Mare's Tail 
 
 Clouds 30,000 to 30,000 
 
 k. Rain Clouds 1,000 to 7,000 
 /. Deepest soundine by 
 Ross, in the Third 
 Antarctic Voyage - 27,600 
 
14 MANtTAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Air conveys, but is a bad conductor of, heat. The solar rays 
 pass through it, and their heat is radiated from those bodies 
 (as earth and sea) on which they fall. Hence, the lower strata 
 are first heated, and, being thus rarefied, necessarily ascend, 
 their place being supplied by colder ones.* Some quarters of the 
 globe — as the equatorial regions — receive more heat than 
 others. Land derives more heat from the sun during the day 
 than sea, and cools more rapidly during the night. Currents of 
 air are thus created, and this is the chief cause of such periodic 
 winds as trade winds, monsoons, land and sea breezes. Sir 
 Humphry Davy says, "the immediate cause of the. pheno- 
 mena of heat is motion, and its laws are precisely the same as 
 those of the communication of motion : " and another writer re- 
 marks that " every body moved in a right line and continually 
 reacted upon, is necessarily turned into a circle; every atom 
 projected with velocity into a medium of atoms, is necessarily 
 . turned into an orbit, greater or less as the force of the projection, 
 or the intensity of the atomic motion called heat. When re- 
 duced in bulk, the orbits are reduced, and their motion or heat 
 imparted to other bodies around." 
 
 This rotatory motion, gathering force from opposition, from 
 collision with currents of different densities and gravities, or from 
 the results of rarefaction, is presumed to be the leading cause of 
 wtairlwlnds and burrleanes. In application of the subject of 
 hurricanes to the management of vessels. Colonel Eeid recom- 
 mends that a ship caught on the right side of a hurricane be put 
 on the starboard tack, and when caught on the left side, on the 
 port tack, as the wind will gradually draw aft, and the danger of 
 the ship being taken aback by its heading will be thus avoided. 
 Admiral Fitzroy also supplies a concise rule for avoiding the 
 centre or strongest part of a hurricane, cyclone, typhoon, tornado, 
 or circling storm. Thus: — 
 
 " With your face toward the wind, in north latitude, the centre 
 of the circling storm will be square to your right. In south 
 latitude, square to your left. 
 
 " The apparent veering of the wind, and the approach or retreat 
 of the dangerous centre, depend on your position in the circular 
 whirl or sweep. 
 
 " Draw a circle; mark the direction of the rotation by an arrow 
 with the head towards the left hand (against the movements of 
 
■WINDS. 15 
 
 a watch's hands) in north latitude ; but towards the right (or with 
 the hands of a watch) if in south latitude. The direction of the 
 wind, and the bearing of the centre, show your position in the 
 meteor, for such it is, though perhaps hundreds of miles in 
 diameter; and the veering of the wind, or the contrary, and its 
 change in strength, will show how the meteor is moving bodily 
 — over a region of the world, revolving horizontally — or inclined 
 at a certain angle with the horizontal plane. 
 
 " If the observer be stationary, in north latitude, and the centre 
 pass on his polar side, he will experience a change of wind from 
 southward by west towards north ; but if it pass between him 
 and the equator, the change will be from southward by east 
 towards north, but otherwise in south latitude, as his place in 
 circles sketched will show more clearly than words." It would 
 carry ns beyond the limits of this work to enter at greater length 
 on the consideration of the important subject of the nature and 
 laws of these revolving storms. Nor is it necessary to do so, as 
 that subject will be found lucidly treated of in a short pamphlet 
 pitblished by order of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty*, 
 and also in a work written by a distinguished American ofScer.f 
 
 The subject of the velocity of wind as demonstrated by its per- 
 pendicular pressure on the squrn-e foot, has come under the 
 experiments of Mr. Smeaton. To him we are indebted for the 
 following tiible, intended to show these relative proportions, and 
 so to give an adequate conception of the force of air in motion. 
 The firet column shows its velocity, and the second its power of 
 pressure. 
 
 ,,., ,. . _ Perpeudicular force on one square foot in 
 
 Miles per hour. •■ lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 1 . . . O'OOS Hardly perceptible. 
 
 2 . . . 0-020? 
 
 3 . . . 0-044 J Jnst perceptible, 
 
 4 . . . 0-079 
 
 5 . . . 0-123 
 
 Grentle. 
 
 • " Remarks on Revolving Storms/* 
 
 + The " Physical Geography of the Sea," by M. F. Maury, LL.D., Lieut. 
 17. S. Navy. In this admirable book, the author has included a philosophical 
 account not only of the winds, but also of the currents of the sea, its tem- 
 perature and depths, the wonders that are hidden there, and the phenomena 
 that display themselves at its surface j and this in a manner which must not 
 
16 
 
 MAMUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Miles per hour, 
 
 10 . 
 
 15 . 
 
 20 . 
 
 25 . 
 
 30 . 
 
 35 . 
 
 .40 . 
 
 45 . 
 
 50 . 
 
 60 . 
 
 80 . 
 
 100 . 
 
 Ferpendicnlar force on one square foot in 
 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 , 0-492 1 
 . 1-107 J 
 , 1-9681 
 3075 J 
 , 4-429 1 
 , 6-027 J 
 . 7-873 1 
 . 9-963 J 
 , 12-300 
 , 17-715 
 , 31-490 
 , 49-200 
 
 BriGk. 
 Very brisk. 
 High Wind. 
 
 Very high wind. 
 
 Storm. 
 Great storm. 
 Hurricane. 
 Violent Hurricane. 
 
 The principal use to the sailor of that well-known instrument 
 the Barometer is to announce atmospheric changes, and so 
 prognosticate storms. Many instances are on record of seamen 
 having been, by its motions, warned of the approach of danger 
 when there was little or nothing in the appearance of the sea or 
 sky to excite alarm. It may therefore be instructive to devote a 
 few pages to the explanation of its principles and construction ; 
 as well as quote some practical observations and rules respecting 
 its use as a weather glass ; premising that in, or rather at the 
 approach of foul weather, the atmosphere is lighter, and in fair 
 weather heavier. 
 
 The weight of the atmosphere may be ascertained by placing 
 an exhausted tube in a vessel filled with fluid. The fluid being 
 forced by the atmospheric pressure on its surface, will mount 
 into the vacuum, till the weight of the air and that of the fluid 
 in the tube balance each otherj the fluid in the tube will then 
 represent a column of air of the height of the atmosphere, and 
 the diameter of the tube. Water, under the weight of air, 
 will rise in a vacuum to a height of 34 feet. . But mercury being 
 13 times heavier than water, will only rise ^ part of that quan. 
 
 only be interesting to all, but especially instructive and useful to those who go 
 down to the sea in ships. He has fairly 
 
 " Laid his hand upon the Ocean's mane, 
 And play'd familiar with his hoary loclis.-' 
 
WINDS. 17 
 
 tity. This is the priuciple on which the Barometer is formed. 
 A glass tube, usually 36 inches in length, and one-third of an inch 
 internal diameter, closed at on^ end and open at the other, is 
 dried, and, care being taken to prevent the introduction of air, 
 filled with quicksilver under an exhausted receiver. The open 
 end is then stopped, the tube inverted and plunged upright in a 
 vessel full of quicksilver. The stopper being taken out, the 
 quicksilver in the tube will fall until it is balanced, leaving the 
 upper end in vacuo. The weight of this column of quicksilver 
 will be about 15 lbs., and its height about 30 inches. Were the 
 tube suflSciently long, and water employed instead of mereury, 
 it would be supported at a height of 34 feet. If a barometer 
 were carried to any high position, the mercury would fall in pro- 
 portion to the height, indicating thereby a decrease of atmo- 
 spheric pressure. In this way, making allowance for variation 
 of temperature, the height gained is at once indicated. 
 
 The column of mercury falls about ^ of an inch for each 
 hundred feet of elevation above the sea level, but varying when 
 it becomes much more elevated. 
 
 " The tides are affected by atmospheric pressure, so much that 
 a rise of one inch in the barometer will have a coiTCsponding 
 fall in the tides of nine to sixteen inches, or say one foot in each 
 inch. 
 
 " Vessels sometimes enter docks, or even harbours, where they 
 have scarcely a foot of water more than their draught ; and as 
 docking, as well as launching large ships, requires a close calcula- 
 tion of height of water, the state of the barometer becomes of 
 additional importance on such occasions." 
 
 It will be observed that the surface of the mercury is convex 
 when ascending, concave when falling j a difference arising from 
 friction, or a tendency of the particles of quicksilver to cling to 
 the sides of the tube. 
 
 The height of the mercury in the tube is measured by a scale 
 of inches, divided into tenths, and by the Vernier, which is a scale 
 of eleven tenths divided into 10 equal parts, so as to divide the 
 scale of tenths into hundredths. By this arrangement we obtain 
 the broad or rough height of the mercury, and (when extreme 
 precision is required), the additional fractional quantities. The 
 vernier being moveable, is adjusted to the level of the mercury, 
 and the number of degrees between that level and the last degree 
 c 
 
18 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 on the barometrical scale, which the mercury has 
 represents exactly the ascent or depression of the fluid. 
 
 In .the figure the height of the 
 column is more than 29*5 inches, 
 hut less than 29'6. In order to measnre 
 the hundredths of an inch, we place the 
 zero or top of the vernier scale exactly 
 IcTcl with the top of the mercury, and 
 observe that of all the lines on the 
 vernier only one can coincide with a 
 line on the scale. In the figure the 
 line marked 6 on the vernier, coincides 
 with a line on the scale : and as from the 
 top of the mercury to these coincident 
 lines there are 6 pairs which do coin- 
 cide, and as each pair deviates hy^l^th 
 of an inch more than the pair below it, 
 the uppermost pair must evidently differ 
 by ijgths of an inch. We thus get the 
 height of the mercury in one figure, 
 which is 29| inches, and iggths inch ; 
 or, expressed decimally, 29-56.* 
 In his " Directory for the Pacific Ocean," Mr. Findlay observes : 
 " The barometer measures the weight of the atmosphere above 
 its place, in exactly the same manner that other ponderables are 
 weighed in a balance. The weight of the column of mercury in 
 the tube is exactly equivalent to that of a column of air of 
 similar diameter the height of the atmosphere ; therefore, any 
 change in the one affects, or is affected by the other. Now it 
 has been found that strong winds lower the barometric column, 
 therefore there is less superincumbent air at those times ; and 
 this principle indicates some of the atmospheric conditions which 
 forebode the approach of or alteration in a storm. The mean 
 height of the barometer varies considerably in various parts of 
 the world, and therefore its changes, rather than its absolute 
 height, is the most important consideration." " The barometric 
 scales, as arranged in Europe for European purposes, have a 
 tendency to mislead : fair, change, set- fair, or stormy, mark the 
 
 * See Tomlinson'B Pneumatics. 
 
WINDS. 19 
 
 heights of the mercury indicative of a totally distinct character 
 in the atmosphere in the • tropical regions or elsewhere, and 
 ought therefore to be disregarded or obliterated from those 
 barometers which are to be used in other regions. It is perhaps 
 to this cause that the opinion is owing that the barometer is 
 useless in these parts." The same writer remarks, " The great 
 advantage of the Aneroid Barometer, is, that being more sensi- 
 tive than the mercurial one, its variations occur simultaneously 
 with their causes. Its mechanj^m consists of a small metallic 
 cylinder, which is exhausted of its internal air. The sides of 
 this cylinder are prevented from collapsing by a series of springs 
 and levers, which latter act on a moving hand, showing the 
 equivalent of the height of the mercury in an ordinary barometer. 
 The differing atmospheric pressure on the exhausted cylinder 
 causes its sides to close with greater, or the springs to separate 
 them with less, external pressure, thus varying the index with the 
 condition of the atmosphere. Like other pieces of mechanism it 
 is liable to derangement, and, as in the case of chronometers, 
 unless some means be used to detect any variation from the 
 correct standard, they must not be implicitly relied on. It must 
 therefore hold the relative value to the mercurial barometer that 
 the job watch does to the ship's chronometer. By testing its 
 action, and remarking its variable index error by the ordinary 
 barometer, it will hold a high place among the usefill instru- 
 ments to aid navigation."* 
 
 The Ttaermoineter is an instrument founded on the principle 
 that most bodies — fluids especially — expand by heat and contract 
 by cold. It is used for the purpose of measuring the amount of 
 heat in the atmosphere, or other substances brought into contact 
 with, or the vicinity of it. In construction it dilfers from the 
 barometer in having the tube closed at each end. The mercury 
 contained in the tube moves in a vacuum, caused by the ex- 
 pulsion of the air by boiling the mercury, and then closing the 
 top of the tube by means of the blow-pipe. There are three 
 descriptions of Thermometers in common use, all constructed on 
 the same principle, but differing in the divisions or graduations of 
 their respective scales. Fahrenheit's thermometer is generally 
 used in this country, and Reaumur's and Celsius's (or the Centi- 
 
 • Directory for the Pacific Ocean, p. 1209. 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 grade) on the Continent. To convert degrees of Reaumur into 
 those of Fahrenheit, the most convenient rule to follow is to 
 multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32 to the quotient ; or, after 
 multiplying and dividing as above, to subtract 32 from the 
 quotient, as the degrees may be positive or negative. Thus, 
 
 28° X 9=^^ = 63 + 32 = 95° J 
 4 
 
 28° X 9=?^S63-32 = 31° 
 
 And to convert degrees of Celsius into those of rahrenheit, the 
 following rule may be adopted, namely : Multiply by 9, divide 
 by 5, and add or subtract 32 to or from the quotient, as the 
 degrees may be positive or negative. Thus, 
 
 or, 
 
 36° x9=— = 63 + 32 = 95°; 
 -5 
 
 35°x9 = ?i^ = 63-32=31°. 
 5 
 
 "The following table will give at one view the comparative 
 degrees of' these three instruments from 212° Fahrenheit to 32°, 
 or freezing point. 
 
 Reaumur, 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 76 
 
 95 
 
 203 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 104 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 194 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 185 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 86 
 
 64 
 
 80 
 
 176 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 167 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 158 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 52 
 
 65 
 
 149 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 
 
 
 The principal uses of the thermometer on board ship are to 
 determine the state of temperature between decks and in the 
 engine room, to indicate the approach of icebergs, and to mark 
 the stages of the conversion of water into steam. 
 
WINDS. 21 
 
 Admiral Fitzroy gives us Ihe following useful rules in his 
 "Weather Guide": — 
 
 " The Barometer shows weight and pressure of the air, the 
 Thermometer heat and cold, or temperature. The state of the 
 ail foreieUs present weather; the longer the time between the 
 signs and the change foretold hj them, the longer such altered 
 weather will last, and on the contrary, the less the time between 
 a warning and a change, the shorter will be the continuance of 
 such foretold weather. 
 
 *'* Long foretold, long last. 
 Short notice, soon past/ 
 
 " * First the rain, and then the wind. 
 Topsail sheets and halyards mind. 
 But when the wind's before the rain. 
 Hoist the topsails up again.* 
 
 "In endeavouring to foretell weather, the general peculiarity 
 should always he remembered, that the barometric column 
 usually stands higher with Easterly than it does with Westerly 
 winds ; and with winds from the polar regions higher than with 
 those from the direction of the Equator. Hence the highest 
 columns are observed with North-east winds in Northern lati- 
 tudes, and with South-east in the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 " If the barometer has been about its ordinary height, say near 
 30 inches at the sea level, and is steady, or rising, while the 
 thermometer falls, and dampness becomes less, North-westerly, 
 Northerly, or North-easterly wind, or less wind, may be ex- 
 pected. 
 
 " On the contrary, if a fall takes place with a rising thermo- 
 meter and increased dampness, wind and rain (or snow) may be 
 expected from the South-eastward, Southward, or South-westward. 
 
 " Exceptions to these rales occur when a North-easterly wind 
 with wet (rain or snow) is impending, before which the baro- 
 meter often rises (on account of the direction of the coming wind 
 alone) and deceives persons who, from that sign only, expect 
 &ir weather. 
 
 " When the barometer is rather below its ordinary height, say, 
 near 29 j^ inches, (at the sea level onfy), a rise foretells less wind, 
 or a change in its direction towards the Northward, or less wet ; 
 but when the mercury has been low, say near 29 inches, the first 
 rising nsnally precedes and foretells strong winds, (at times 
 C 3 
 
22 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 heavy squalls) from the North-westward, Northward, or North- 
 eastward; after which violence a rising glass foretells improving 
 weather, if the thermometer falls. But if the warmth continue, 
 probably the wind will back (shift against the sun's course), and 
 more Southerly, or South-westerly wind will follow. 
 
 " The most dangerous shifts of wind, and the heaviest Northerly 
 gales, happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point. 
 
 *** First rise, after very low. 
 Indicates a stronger blow.' 
 
 " The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from 
 the South-east, Southward, or South-west; the greatest elevations 
 with winds from North-west, Northward, or North-east. 
 
 " Although the barometer generally falls with a Southerly, and 
 rises with a Northerly wind, the contrary sometimes occurs ; in 
 which cases the Southerly wind is dry, and the weather fine ; or 
 the Northerly wind is wet and violent. When the barometer 
 sinks considerably, high wind, rain, or snow will follow ; the 
 wind will be from the Northward if the thermometer is low (for 
 the season), from the Southward if the thermometer is high. 
 
 " Sudden falls of the barometer, with a Westerly wind, are 
 sometimes followed by violent storms from North-West or 
 North. 
 
 " If a gale sets in from the Eastward or South-east, and the 
 wind veers by the South, the barometer will continue falling 
 until the wind becomes South-west, when a comparative li'.U 
 may occur; after which the gale will be renewed, and the 
 shifting of the wind towards the North-west will be indicated 
 by a fall of the thermometer as well as a rise of the barometer. 
 
 " Wind usually veers with the sun, (right-handed in Northern 
 places, left-handed in Southern parts of the world). When it 
 backs more wind or bad weather may be expected. 
 
 " Instances of fine weatlier with a low glass occur exception- 
 ally, but they are always preludes to a duration of rain or wind, 
 if not both. 
 
 " After being warm and calm weather, rain or a storm is likely 
 to occur ; or at any time when the atmosphere has been heated 
 much above the usual temperature of the season. 
 
 "There may be heavy rains or violent winds beyond the 
 horizon, and the view of an observer, by which his instruments 
 
WINDS. 23 
 
 may be affected considerably, though no particular change of 
 weather occurs in his immediate locality. 
 
 " Whether clear or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset presages fine 
 weather; a red sky in the morning bad weather; a grey sky 
 in the morning fine weather. 
 
 " * When the aun sets in a clear. 
 An easterly wind you need not fear,* 
 
 " Soft looking or delicate clouds foretell fine weather, with 
 moderate or light breezes ; hard-edged oily -looking clouds, 
 wind. 
 
 "A dark, gloomy blue sky is windy ; but a light bright blue 
 sky indicates fine weather. 
 
 " Generally, the softer clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps 
 more rain) may be expected ; and the harder, more ' greasy ,' 
 rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming wind will 
 prove. Also a bright yellow sky at sunset presages wind; a 
 pale yellow, wet: and thus, by the prevalence of red, yellow, 
 or grey tints, the coming weather may be foretold very nearly. 
 
 " After fine clear weather the first signs in the sky of change 
 are usually small, curled, streaked, or spotted clouds, followed 
 by au overcasting of vapour, that grows into cloudiness. This 
 murky appearance, more or less oily or watery, as wind or rain 
 will prevail, is a sure sign. The higher and more distant the 
 clouds seem to be, the more gradual, but extensive, the coming 
 change of weather will prove. 
 
 " Misty clouds forming or hanging on heights, show wind and 
 rain coming. When sea birds fly far to seaward fine weather may 
 be expected ; when they hang about the land, expect stormy 
 weather, 
 
 " When distant objects are unusually visible, wet if not wind 
 may be expected. Unusual twinkling of the stars, halos, wind- 
 dogs, and the rainbow, are more or less significant of increasing 
 wind if not approaching rain. 
 
 " Squalls are generally preceded, or accompanied, or followed 
 by clouds; but the very dangerous 'white squall' of the West 
 Indies and other regions, is indicated only by a rushing sound 
 and by white wave crests. 
 
 " ' Descending squalls ' come slanting downwards off high 
 land, or from upper regions of the atmosphere, 
 c 4 
 
24 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS, 
 
 " A squall- cloud that can be seen throngli, is rot likely to bring 
 so much wind as a dark continued cloud extending beyond the 
 horizon." 
 
 In keeping the Journal, for the sake of brevity, the force of the 
 wind and state of the weather are expressed thus : — 
 
 WINDS. 
 
 0. Calm. 
 
 1. Light air: just perceptible. 
 
 2. Light breeze : ship going from one to two knots. 
 3 Gentle breeze : from two to four. 
 
 4. Moderate : four to six. 
 
 5. Fresh when royals can be carried. 
 
 6. Strong breeze : first reef and top-gallant sails. 
 
 7. Moderate gale : double reefs, topsails. 
 
 8. Fresh gales : treble reefed topsails and courses. 
 
 9. Strong gale : close reefs. 
 
 10. Whole gale: close reefed main-topsail. 
 
 11. Storm: storm staysails. 
 
 12. Hurricane: no canvas. 
 
 
 
 WEATHER. 
 
 b. 
 
 Blue sky. 
 
 p. Passing showers. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cloudy. 
 
 q. Squalls. 
 
 d. 
 
 Drizzling rain. 
 
 r. Rainy. 
 
 f. 
 
 Foggy. 
 
 s. Snow. 
 
 g- 
 
 Gloomy weather. 
 
 t. Thunder. 
 
 h. 
 
 Hail. 
 
 u. Ugly threatening weather. 
 
 1. 
 
 Lightning. 
 
 V. Visibility of objects. 
 
 m. 
 
 Misty. 
 
 w. Wet dew. 
 
 0, 
 
 Overcast. 
 
 
 jf- f under any letter denotes a great degree. 
 
 " Cirrus " expresses a cloud, like a lock of hair, consisting of 
 streaks, wisps, and fibres, vulgarly called " mares' tails." " Cu- 
 mulus," a cloud in dense convex heaps in rounded forms de- 
 finitely terminated above, indicating saturation in the region of 
 air, and a rising supply of vapour from below. "Stratus " is a 
 continuous extended level sheet, but must not be confounded 
 with the flat base of the Cumulus. " Cumulo-stratus," or anvil- 
 shaped cloud, is said to forerun heavy gales. "Nimbus," a 
 
SIPHON. 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 dense cloud spreading out into a crown of " Cirrus" above, and 
 passing beneath into a shower. 
 
 The Slpbon, which is so useful in discharging the contents of 
 one cask into another, in such places as the hold or between, 
 decks, where it would be difficult to raise one uppermost, is 
 constructed on the principle of atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The tube A f b, is filled with fluid, and the open ends being 
 stopped, it is then inverted, as in the figure, and the ends are 
 opened. In some cases, the tube is placed in the vessel, and the 
 air withdrawn by suction through a small mouth-piece on the 
 bent part ; upon which the tube be- 
 comes filled with fluid. The pressure 
 of the fluid in f a, tending to cause it 
 to flow out of the tube, is equal to the 
 weight of a column A p, reaching from 
 
 A, to the level of the highest portion 
 of the tube ; also the pressure of the 
 external fluid at a, tending to cause it 
 to flow into the tube, is equal to the 
 weight of a column of the height A c, 
 together with that of a superincum- 
 bent column of air; hence the fluid 
 is pressed at a inwards, by the weight 
 of a column of air, diminished by the 
 weight of a column of fluid o p. At 
 
 B, the fluid is pressed into the tube, by 
 the weight of a column of air, diminished by the weight of a 
 column of fluid d q. So long then as the column d q is greater 
 than the column c p, the fluid is pi'cssed into a with greater 
 force than into b, and therefore moves in the direction a f B, 
 until the surface c comes to the level of d. 
 
 The column will, however, be broken when c p is more than 
 30 inches in height if the fluid be mercury, and when more than 
 34 feet in height when the fluid is water. Thus a siphon cannot 
 be made to raise water more than 34 feet, or mercury more than 
 30 inches j or to raise it at all in a vacuum.' 
 
 * Moseley's Mechanics. 
 
26 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 COKSTBtTCTION. 
 
 Ships are built or repaired, according to] circumstances, on a 
 Slip, in a floating, or dry, or wet Dock. 
 
 Where there is a regular and considerable rise and fall of tide, 
 excavations are made in the land near the water, faced with 
 solid masoniy, and mostly having entrances fitted with gates or 
 Caissons, which serve either to retain or exclude the tidal waters 
 as desirable. Those on a larger scale, and which are always 
 kept full of water, are called wet docks or basins. These are, 
 in fact, artificial harbours, in which vessels are always kept afloat 
 whilst undergoing internal repairs, loading or unloading, fitting 
 for, or being kept ready for going to sea. Commercial wet 
 docks usually have " locks " (as in a canal) attached to them, so 
 as to admit of the entrance and egress of vessels at any time of 
 tide without losing more water than necessary. In Naval wet 
 docks, the ships generally requiring as much water outside as in, 
 one barrier in the form of a caisson is used, but which is seldom 
 worked excepting at high water. 
 
 The Dry Dock is both deeper and narrower. It is deeper 
 because it is necessary to have more water in the dock at the 
 time of docking a. ship than at its entrance. This is for the 
 purpose of gaining depth enough for the Angle Blocks on which 
 the keel of the ship is to rest, and is effected by having the floor 
 of the dock somewhat below the low water mark. Then after 
 closing the entrance, the dock is drained either by pumping, or 
 letting the water run off with the falling tide through channels, 
 called Culverts. It is narrower, because when not water borne, 
 the ship requires to be supported by Shores ; which, abutting on 
 the sides of the dock, bear against those of the ship on being set 
 taut by wedging. (.Fig. 8.) 
 
 Formerly, the ship when in dock rested on a row of square 
 blocks of wood, which were kept in their place with ballast. In 
 order to get at her keel for repairing or coppering, &c., it was 
 necessary to lift her bodily off the blocks by numerous shores 
 simultaneously driven up with wedges. This operation not 
 only involved the services of hundreds of mechanics, but strained 
 
CONSTEUCTION. 
 
 27 
 
 1 ^_i^i -5li?;| 
 
28 MANUAL FOn NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the ship at every fastening in consequence of her being thus 
 borne in the air. The Angle Blocks, which were introduced by 
 Sir T. Seppings, admit of removal and replacement in succession 
 at such places as require repair, not only with a very few hands 
 but without the least concussion to the ship. 
 
 The Caisson, or Floating Sam, is a vessel whose length is 
 equal to the breadth of the dock entrance. Both its ends are formed 
 like the bow of a ship, and the keel is continued up each stem. 
 It is ballasted and fitted with valves or penstocks, and so formed 
 that when full of water and in its place across the entrance, the 
 stem and keel fit accurately into a groove cut in the masonry on 
 the sides and across the bottom of the entrance, the passage of 
 water being thus prevented. When it is necessaiy to remove 
 the Caisson, the water is either run off at low water or pumped 
 out ; and as the entrance is widest at the top, the Caisson on 
 being floated up on the rising water becomes cleared of the 
 grooves and is withdrawn. One has lately been made for 
 Portsmouth of iron. It is 72 feet long on top, 21 feet wide, 
 
 29 feet deep, and 57 feet 7 inches long at the bottom ; has 4 
 pumps and 100 tons of ballast; the weight of hull is 150 tons. 
 These figures may convey a general idea of the weight of iron 
 sea-going vessels. 
 
 The Slip is an inclined plane formed of solid masonry on the 
 banks of a harbour or river, and carried out some distance 
 beyond the low water mark. Naval Slips have flood gates. 
 The ship's keel is laid on this on blocks, inclining to the horizon 
 at an inclination of | of an inch to a foot in her length. As the 
 fabric rises it is supported by Shores; and when the ship is 
 completed, the Cradle is placed underneath, and her weight by 
 a process of wedging transferred to it. (.Fig. 9.) When set close 
 up in its place, this cradle fits like an outside framing of bottom 
 timbers. It is supported by " stopping-pieces," and shores called 
 poppets, resting upon sliding ways which extend along the slip 
 in lines parallel to the keel. These ways are well soaped ; all 
 other supports and fastenings are knocked away, and the ship 
 glides into the water. The cradle then disengages itself, and 
 the ship is carried into the dry dock for the purpose of having 
 such fastenings as were temporarily cleated on the bottom, for 
 the top of the cradle to bear against, removed, and the process of 
 coppering effected. 
 
CONSTEUCTION. 
 
 29 
 
30 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Patent Slip is an adaptation of tlie common slip to the 
 purpose of repairing vessels. Carriages in number according to 
 the length of the vessel, fitted with cog-wheels and working on 
 corresponding racks, are run out under the bows of the vessel. 
 When secured upon these she is hauled up either by capstans or 
 steam machinery. 
 
 The Graving Book, according to naval distinctions, is open. 
 In it vessels are grounded at high water, for the purpose of re- 
 ceiving trifling repairs on the fall of the tide. Before the intro- 
 duction of copper sheathing, they were used for the purpose of 
 breaming or cleaning the bottom by fires. In the construction 
 of these docks, serious difficulties and great expenses are in- 
 curred. The soil may be so porous that the excavations may be 
 swamped at every high tide, so rocky as to require the severest 
 labour, or so soft that artificial foundations for the masonry have 
 to be formed. They are also subject to the inconvenience of 
 being dependent on tidal action and sufficient depth of water. 
 
 In building the sea walls, the foundations are laid dry by 
 means of the Coffer Dam, which is an enclosure outside the work 
 
 Fief. 10. 
 
 formed by a double row of iron-shod piles driven into the bottom 
 so close together as to be nearly water-tight. Clay is rammed 
 in between them, and the water inside pumped out. In 1812 an 
 
COWSTErCTION. 
 
 31 
 
 artificial foundation for the sea wall at Sheerness was formed by 
 building hollow masses of brickwork 22 feet square on plat- 
 forms of timber somewhat above the line of flotation. After 
 being floated to the site of the intended wall, they were raised 
 sufficiently high to appear above water at low tide, then filled 
 with shingle, and sunk. Flat-bottomed craft were placed over 
 them at high water, which, as the tide fell, pressed them through 
 the mud. Artificial, as well as natural, stones are used in the 
 construction of marine works. The artificial, either Beton or 
 Concrete, is a mixture of gravel, sand, lime, and water. 
 
 In building the new mole at Algiers, Beton was employed in 
 large masses of 20 tons each, formed 
 in cases that became disengaged on 
 lowering them into their places. In 
 what is called random work (^pierre 
 perdue) the masses are thrown into 
 the water and left to arrange them- 
 selves ; but in regular building, each 
 block of stone is fitted so accurately 
 as to forbid the use of slings, and is 
 suspended by an iron instrument of 
 a dove-tail form, called a " Lewis " 
 {Jig. 11), which is introduced piecemeal into a corresponding hole 
 in the centre of the stone. 
 
 The margins of rivers or harbours do not always afford 
 facilities for the construction of slips or docks just in those 
 plases where it is desirable to build or repair ships. The ground 
 may be already occupied ; the banks may be shallow and marshy ; 
 or there may not be a sufficiency of tide. Kecourse is then 
 had to a floating doolct which is a wooden, water-tight, flat- 
 botlomed, box-shaped vessel of sufficient capacity to bear, when 
 afloat, the weight of the vessel, workmen, and materials em- 
 ployed on her. In some cases this float works in an enclosure of 
 masonry, at the bottom of which, when full of water, the float lies. 
 When the vessel is brought over it, the valves are closed, the water 
 is pumped out, and the vessel is carried up on this great stage 
 to a dry level. When the repairs are completed, the valves are 
 opened, the stage sinks, and the vessel floats out. 
 
 Bat, in general, the float is open at the top, and one end is 
 fitted so as to remove or turn down when requisite. Not being 
 
32 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 connected with any other structure, it may be moved, whether 
 laden or unladen, to any part of the harbour. On turning the 
 end down, or removing it, the float sinks sufficiently to admit 
 the vessel. On replacing it, and pumping the water out, she 
 remains dry. Where there is " rise and fall," the float is beached 
 at high tide ; the water rans off on the ebb ; the end is caulked 
 in ; and on the next flood the float, being flat-bottomed, is 
 hauled still further up. 
 
 Moreover, however valuable for hauling up vessels slips may 
 be, there is always difficulty and strain with large ships. In 
 America, vessels are brought over a sunken hollow raft ; on the 
 exhaustion of the water from which, the ship is borne to the 
 surface and lies on a cradle high and dry, with a surrounding 
 platform for the shipwrights to work on. Thus the ship is kept 
 in a horizontal position, without risk of strain, and is always 
 floatable. , 
 
 A very complete substitute of this kind for the regular dock is 
 Taylor's. It is made of iron, with double sides in compartments. 
 Its entrance is closed by a Caisson, and the pumps are worked 
 by a steam-engine. When the ship is received, and the gate 
 closed, the water is immediately run oif to an equal level into the 
 empty compartments, and the remainder pumped out.* 
 
 The Timber chiefly used in the construction of a ship is oak, 
 elm, fir, teak, larch, and mahogany. Timber is purchased by 
 the load, a measure which contains 40 feet of rough timber, averag- 
 ing in weight about one ton. An 80-guu ship consumes as many 
 as 2000 trees, averaging about two tons each. 
 
 Timber is divided into three sorts, viz., Square, which is the 
 full size of the tree, having only its sides squared off ; Thick 
 Stuff, which is square timber cut into different thicknesses from 
 4| inches to 10, but the whole depth of the tree ; and Plank, which 
 runs from 4 inches down to li; all under that size being called 
 Board. 
 
 Deals occur in lengths of 10, 12, and 14 feet, varying in thick- 
 ness from 3 inches to § inch, and averages 9 niches in breadth. 
 
 • A very elaborate account of docks of all kinds will be found In a volume 
 recently published by Mr. Stewart of America. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 33 
 
 Those which are | inch thick, are flat deals; 11 inch are whole 
 deals. 
 
 Kyanlslng and Burnettlsing' are somewhat similar pro- 
 cesses, by which timber, canvas, and cordage are so readily 
 seasoned as to be preserved from the injurious effects of dry rot, 
 mildew, &c., and premature decay. In the former of these, the 
 article is steeped for a certain length of time in a solution of cor- 
 rosive sublimate and water. In the latter, as used in Her Ma- 
 jesty's dockyards, canvas and cordage are immersed for 48 hours 
 in a solution of chloride of zinc and water, in a wooden tank, in 
 the proportion of 1 lb. of the chloride to 4 of water. Timber is 
 placed in a wrought iron chamber, which contains about 20 loads 
 at once ; and after the air is exhausted from both timber and 
 chamber, by means of an air pump which is worked by a steam- 
 engine, the solution is forced into the timber by a Bramah's 
 forcing pump, which exerts a pressure upon it equal to 150 
 lbs. on the square inch for eight hours. 
 
 " Unless wood is previously well seasoned, to char or paint it 
 accelerates decay by preventing the natural escape of the juices ; 
 seasoning requires from two to eight years."* 
 
 The difficulty and expense involved in procuring suitably 
 curved timber for ship-bnilding purposes, as well as the labour 
 and waste incurred by " conversion," seem about to be diminished 
 by timber-bending machines. In these, straight timber, having 
 gone through a process of steaming, is bent into the desired 
 form ; not only increasing its value, but economising time and 
 avoiding that impairment of strength which is consequent on 
 cutting wood against the grain. We are told, for instance, that 
 in one of these machines a piece of straight oak, 14 feet long 
 and 1 6 inches square, whose value is about Si , after being bent 
 into the requisite angle is enhanced to three times its value, and 
 that ten such pieces may be thus shaped in as many hours.t 
 
 MECHANICAL PKOPKKTIES Or MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRTTCTION. 
 
 a- V c 
 
 J Timbers are joined together by scarphing, morticing, halving, 
 dovetailing, &c. {Jig. 12), and when great strength is required, 
 it is usual to make use of coakings, .bolts, and iron bracings. 
 
 * Aide Memoire. t Nautical Magazine. 
 
34 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Marine Glue has been very successfally used in joining 
 wood-work. 
 
 The best ordinary glue is made from the skins, horns, and feet 
 of animals. The materials afler repeated boilings and skimmings 
 are run off into moulds and dried ; but marine glue is com- 
 posed of india-rubber (or caoutchouc) and shellac dissolved in 
 naphtha. 
 
 Its great adhesive power has been tested thus : Two pieces of 
 African oak 18 inches long by 9 inches wide, and 4J inches 
 thick, having a bolt of l| in diameter passed through them from 
 end to end, were joined longitudinally by this glue. TWenty- 
 four hours afterwards an endeavour was made to drag them 
 apart by applying a strain to the extent of 19 tons. At this 
 point one of the bolts broke, but the junction of the wood re- 
 mained perfect. 
 
 Two blocks of African oak of similar dimensions, but bolted 
 in a different manner, so as to apply the strain at right angles 
 to the junction made with the glue at the centre. The wood 
 was torn asunder but the joint remained perfect. No transverse 
 section of the wood can be glued, since there is no restoring the 
 continuity of the fibres.* 
 
 The strength of timber is variable, being affected not only by 
 
 • For other experiments see the Uoited Service Journal, 1843. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 33 
 
 its place of growth, but by degrees of seasorjing. Trees that have 
 been grown ou mountainous districts are stronger than those 
 grown on plains. Koots and trunks are stronger than branches. 
 
 The strengtb of oast Iron is not reduced bv increase of 
 temperature, provided it be not heated so as to be red hot. 
 
 The tensile force of wrought iron is nearly four times as great 
 as that of cast iron. 
 
 The tenacity of metal is sometimes increased by hammering 
 or wire drawing ; that of copper being nearly double. The 
 consolidation is produced chiefly at the surface, and hence a 
 slight notch with a file will materially weaken a hard metallic 
 rod. 
 
 The strength of beams is affected by the form of their trans- 
 verse sections ; thus a rectangular beam (submitted to transverse 
 pressure), with its narrow side horizontal, is stronger than with 
 its broad side horizontal in the same proportion as the broad 
 side is wider than the narrow one. 
 
 A beam whose transverse section is wedge-shaped, placed 
 with its narrow edge upwards, supported at each end, the strain 
 being on any intermediate point, is stronger than another whose 
 section is equal, but whose form is rectangular. If, however, , 
 such beam be supported at only one point, it should be placed I 
 with its narrow edge downwards. 
 
 An iron bar 4 inches deep, and | inch thick, will carry nearly 
 four times as much as a bar of 1 inch square, though the 
 quantity of material is the same in both cases. 
 
 By increasing the distance between the supports of a beam, 
 the strength is proportionately diminished ; twice the distance 
 weakens it by one half, half the distance will enable it to bear 
 twice the pressure. 
 
 If the pressure be equally distributed over the whole beam, 
 instead of being concentrated at one point, the power of suspen- 
 sion will be twice as great as if it were applied at the middle 
 Each point of a beam has greater sustaining power the nearer 
 it is to the point of support, so that in loading, less weight should 
 be thrown on the centre than elsewhere. If a beam be twice as 
 broad as another, it will be twice as strong; but if it be twice 
 as deep, it will be four times as strong. 
 
 The strength of a beam supported at both ends, is twice as 
 great as that-of a single beam of half the length which is fixed 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 5IANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 at one end; and the strength of the whole heam is again nearly 
 doubled, if both the ends be firmly fixed.* 
 
 The.following figures are the results of experiments made on the 
 transverse strengtb of various materials similarly formed. 
 
 
 
 strength of a piece 1 foot 
 
 
 
 long, and 1 inch square. 
 
 English oak - 
 
 - 
 
 964 
 
 pounds. 
 
 M 
 
 - 
 
 436 
 
 11 
 
 Biga oak 
 
 - 
 
 714 
 
 i» 
 
 Riga fir 
 
 - 
 
 369 
 
 »» 
 
 Dantzic yellow fir 
 
 - 
 
 870 
 
 )» 
 
 American pine 
 
 - 
 
 658 
 
 »> 
 
 „ white spruce fir 
 
 570 
 
 »» 
 
 „ red pine 
 
 - 
 
 447 
 
 »» 
 
 New England fir or 
 
 yellow pine 
 
 367 
 
 >» 
 
 Cast iron bar 
 
 . 
 
 - 2691 
 
 
 In the next Table we have the results of experiments made on 
 the transverse strength of cast iron bars, all having the same 
 section, but difi'erently formed. 
 
 De9CripLion of Cast Inon Bars. 
 
 A bar of I inch Bqu.ire - - - 
 
 Half the above bar -.---_ 
 A bar of 1 inch square, the force acting in the di- 
 rection of the diagonal . . - - - 
 Half the above bar, do. 
 Bar of 2 inches det>p by i inch thick ; or the 
 
 depth to the breadth as 4 to 1 . 
 Half the above bar, do. - - . - _ 
 Bar of 3 inches deep by J inch thick; or the 
 
 depth to the breadth as 9 to 1 - - - - 
 Half of the bar, do. - - - - 
 Bar 4 inches by ^ inch thick ; or the depth to 
 
 ' the breadth asl6tol - -'. 
 Kdge or angle up - . - - . 
 
 „ angle down --.-.- 
 Hair the first triangular bar, angle up 
 Half the second triangular bar, angle down 
 A feather edged or X bar, 2 inches deep by 2 
 wide, with the edge up - - - 
 
 DiBtance 
 ofSup' 
 porta. 
 
 ft. 111. 
 
 3 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 8 
 I 4 
 
 1 4 
 1 4 
 
 Weight 
 
 tliat 
 
 broke the 
 
 piece. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 897 
 1P86 
 2320 
 
 851 
 1687 
 
 2185 
 4503 
 
 3588 
 6854 
 
 3979 
 1437 
 840 
 30.'i9 
 1656 
 
 3108 
 
 Weiuhl that 
 would break 
 a piece 1 ft. 
 
 lonft and 1 in. 
 deep of the 
 
 same propor- 
 tions as the 
 specimens. 
 
 lbs. 
 2691 
 28<I6 
 3093 
 
 802 
 748 
 
 728 
 761 
 
 354 
 33S 
 
 166 
 1660 
 
 970 
 1770 
 
 960 
 
 1035 
 
 * Mr. Dobson states that the results of experiments made for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the transverse strength of beams may be thus expressed : — 
 Let « be the weight which would sresk a t!eam of given length, and scantling, 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 37 
 
 The last column in the above table shows the weight that 
 would break a beam or bar 1 foot long and 1 inch square ; and 
 as the strengths of rectangular beams are as the breadths mul- 
 tiplied into tlie square of their depths directly, and as the lengths 
 inversely, we have this proportion : As the weight that will break 
 an inch bar one foot long is to the length of the given beam in 
 feet ; so is any given weight to the breadth multiplied Into the 
 square of the depth of the beam it would break; and one fourth 
 only of the breaking weight should be the total load on the beam 
 in practice.* 
 
 From the following Table, the tensile strength and power to 
 resist compression of any of the materials mentioned, may be 
 calculated by simple proportion. Thus— -as the weight in pounds 
 that would break a piece 1 inch square, is to 1 inch, so is the 
 weight to be supported to the area of the piece in inches which 
 would break by that weight. Four times that area should be 
 the size of the piece used to support such a weight. 
 
 Small bar iron is tested by bending it whilst cold into the form 
 of eye bolts or knots. If good, the broken pai-t will be of a 
 grey colour, with long fibres like small wires torn asunder ; but, 
 if bad, it will break short ofiF, and appear clear and crystallized. 
 
 Large bar iron is tested whilst hot by punching holes in it. . If 
 good, no fracture will appear beyond the sides of the holes, 
 otherwise it is bad. 
 
 With a certain limitation as to thinness, the strength of a tube 
 is greater than that of the same quantity of matter made into a 
 solid. 
 
 In columns, every piece of timber intended to sustain great 
 crushing force, should be at least as many inches in thickness as 
 it is feet in length. 
 
 Malleable iron plates are five times stronger than oak ; or 
 in other words, their powers of resistance to a force applied to 
 tear them asunder, is as 5 to one ; making an iron plate i inch 
 thick equal to an oak plank 2| inches thick. 
 
 fixed at one end and loaded at the other ; then 2 s would break the same beam 
 fixed at one end and uniformly loaded ; i s would break the same beam sup- 
 ported at each end and loaded in the middle ; 6 s would break the same beam 
 fixed at each end and loaded in the middle ; 8 s would break the same beam 
 supported at each end and uniformly loaded ; 12 s would break the same beam 
 fixed at each end and uniformly loaded. 
 d3 
 
38 
 
 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Force in lbs. 
 
 avoir, per. 
 
 8 ,uare inch to 
 
 pull'it 
 
 asunder. 
 
 Force in lbs 
 avoir, per 
 square inch to 
 crush it. 
 
 Ash ... 
 
 Beech - - - 
 
 Birch .... 
 Cedar - . . . 
 Deal, Christiania - 
 
 „ Norway Spruce - 
 
 „ English 
 
 Elm .... 
 
 Fir, Memel - - • 
 „ Riga 
 
 Larch .... 
 Mahogany- 
 Oak . 
 Pine, red 
 Teak .... 
 
 Cast-steel ... 
 Iron, Swedish malleable 
 
 „ English ditto 
 Cast-iron horizontal castings 
 Gun metal . . - 
 Wrought copper . 
 Brass .... 
 
 (■from 
 \to 
 
 ffrom 
 \to 
 
 f from 
 t_to 
 
 14130 
 
 12-225 
 
 1-500 
 
 12-346 
 17-600 
 
 7-000 
 
 9-720 
 15-040 
 
 9 540 
 12-203 
 12-240 
 
 8041 
 10-367 
 25-851 
 10 038 
 12-915 
 15-405 
 134-256 
 72-064 
 55-872 
 18-656 
 36-368 
 33-792 
 17-968 
 
 9-363 
 9-363 
 5-467 
 5-674 
 6-586 
 
 10-331 
 6-499 
 
 8-198 
 4-684 
 9-509 
 
 7518 
 
 12-101 
 
 12 tons. 
 
 156-375 
 
 103-040 
 164-864 
 
 " The mere dimensions of iron materials are not a sufficient 
 guide, if quality be not also caiefuUy considered. The continned 
 action of passing water, of heat, or of magnetism, have caused 
 curious alterations in the quality of iron, the very particles 
 seeming to have become altered in internal aiTangement and 
 form, after the lapse of a few years." 
 
 " Steel is used for slide faces, and though so hard, is liable to 
 ' cutting ' by steam. It heats and adheres sooner than malleable 
 iron." 
 
 Soft metal is a composition of copper 1 pound, tin 50 pounds, 
 and regnlus of antimony 5 pounds, valuable for lining stufiSug 
 boxes, &c., -where there is great heat and friction. When scre-w 
 
CONSTEUCTION. 39 
 
 propellers were first tried, hard bearings were used; but, be- 
 coming heated, and consequently welded to the shaft, were torn 
 out of place. Soft metals have been found to answer better, and 
 lignum vitsB is now preferred to all other materials for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 " Vulcanised Indian rubber is much used for valves, but requires 
 to be watched and frequently replaced, as it yieWs and loses 
 shape by degrees. It will evaporate under a very high degree 
 of heat." 
 
 Air pumps are lined with gun metal. The rods, buckets, and 
 propellers are also of this material 
 
 All the steam pipes are of copper. 
 
 The four following Tables may be found useful as bearing on 
 the weights of several substances used, more or less, in the con-t 
 struction of vessels. The 1st comprises cubic feet and inches^ 
 with specific gravity; the 2nd gives the weight of flat bar iron 
 in pounds, and fractional quantities; the 3rd comprises the 
 weight and thickness of different metals; and the 4th gives the 
 coi-respouding weight and length of iron square and round. 
 
40 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Ti.Bl/E J., containing the weight in pminds avoirdupois of a cubic 
 foot ; the number of cubic incites in one pound ; and also the 
 specific gravities of the substances chiefly used in construction. 
 
 
 Weight of a 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Names of bodies. 
 
 cubic foot in 
 
 cubic inclieB in 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 a pound. 
 
 
 Copper, cast - 
 
 549-25 
 
 3-146 
 
 8-607 
 
 Copper, sheet 
 
 .557-18 
 
 3-103 
 
 8-785 
 
 Bra^s, cast - 
 
 624-75 
 
 3-293 
 
 8-399 
 
 iron, cast 
 
 445-43 
 
 3-802 
 
 7-200 
 
 Iron, bar 
 
 476-93 
 
 3-623 
 
 7-600 to 7-800 
 
 Lead - 
 
 709-00 
 
 2-437 
 
 11-446 
 
 Steel, soft - 
 
 489-56 
 
 3-530 
 
 7-780 
 
 Steel, hard - 
 
 488-50 
 
 3-537 
 
 7-840 
 
 Zinc, cast 
 
 449-37 
 
 3-845 
 
 7-028 
 
 Tin, cast 
 
 455-75 
 
 3-790 
 
 7-291 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 619-50 
 
 2-789 
 
 9-810 
 
 Gun-metal - 
 
 549-00 
 
 3-147 
 
 8-460 
 
 Sand - 
 
 95-00 
 
 18-190 
 
 1-886 
 
 Coal 
 
 78-12 
 
 22-120 
 
 1-240 
 
 Brick - 
 
 12500 
 
 13-824 
 
 2168 
 
 Stone, paving 
 
 15100 
 
 11-443 
 
 2-481 
 
 Slate - 
 
 167-00 
 
 10-347 
 
 2-888 
 
 Marble - 
 
 171-37 
 
 10-083 
 
 2-695 
 
 White lead - 
 
 197-50 
 
 8-750 
 
 6-730 
 
 Glass - 
 
 180 00 
 
 9-600 
 
 2-453 
 
 Tallow - 
 
 59-06 
 
 29-258 
 
 
 Corii - 
 
 1500 
 
 115-200 
 
 •240 
 
 Larch . - - 
 
 34-00 
 
 50-823 
 
 ■522 
 
 Elm - 
 
 34-75 
 
 49-726 
 
 -588 
 
 Pine, pitch - 
 
 41-25 
 
 41-890 
 
 ■660 
 
 Beech - 
 
 43-50 
 
 39-724 
 
 -792 
 
 Teak - 
 
 46-56 
 
 37-113 
 
 -657 
 
 Ash - 
 
 47-50 
 
 36-370 
 
 •845 
 
 Mahogany - 
 
 53-25 
 
 32-449 
 
 •800 
 
 Oak - • - 
 
 60-62 
 
 28-505 
 
 •972 
 
 Oil of turpontino - 
 
 54-37 
 
 31-771 
 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 57-18 
 
 30-220 
 
 -915 
 
 Linseed oil - 
 
 58-25 
 
 29-655 • 
 
 
 Spirits, proof - 
 
 57-93 
 
 29-288 
 
 
 Water, distilled - 
 
 60-50 
 
 27-648 
 
 1-000 
 
 „ sea - 
 
 64-25 
 
 26-894 
 
 1-027 
 
 Tar - 
 
 63-43 
 
 27-242 
 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 64-12 
 
 26-949 
 
 
 Mercury 
 
 848-00 
 
 2-057 
 
 13-598 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 41 
 
 Table II. — 77ie weight of one foot of flat bar iron closely 
 hammered, in pounds and hundredtli parts. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 
 Farts of 
 
 an inch in thickness. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 TT 
 
 ■ff 
 
 ¥ 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 ■ff 
 
 ¥ 
 
 s 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-84 
 
 1-26 
 
 1-68 
 
 2-10 
 
 252 
 
 2-94 
 
 3-36 
 
 1- 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-94 
 
 1-41 
 
 1-89 
 
 2-36 
 
 2-84 
 
 3-31 
 
 3-78 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-52 
 
 1-05 
 
 1-57 
 
 2-10 
 
 2-62 
 
 3-15 
 
 3-67 
 
 4-20 
 
 0-29 
 
 0-58 
 
 1-16 
 
 1-73 
 
 2-31 
 
 2-89 
 
 3-47 
 
 405 
 
 4-62 
 
 0-32 
 
 0-63 
 
 1-26 
 
 1-89 
 
 2-52 
 
 3-15 
 
 3-79 
 
 4-42 
 
 5-04 
 
 0-34 
 
 0-68 
 
 1-37 
 
 2-05 
 
 2-73 
 
 3-41 
 
 4-10 
 
 4-78 
 
 5-46 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-74 
 
 1-4; 
 
 2-21 
 
 2-94 
 
 3-68 
 
 4-41 
 
 5-15 
 
 5-88 
 
 38 
 
 0-79 
 
 1-58 
 
 2-37 
 
 3-15 
 
 3-94 
 
 4-73 
 
 5-52 
 
 6-30 
 
 2 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-84 
 
 1-6S 
 
 2-52 
 
 3-36 
 
 4-20 
 
 504 
 
 5-88 
 
 6-72 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 0-45 
 
 0-89 
 
 1-79 
 
 2-68 
 
 3-57 
 
 4-46 
 
 5-36 
 
 6-25 
 
 7-U 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-94 
 
 1-89 
 
 2-83 
 
 3-78 
 
 4-72 
 
 5-67 
 
 661 
 
 7-56 
 
 2| 
 
 0-50 
 
 1-00 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 3-99 
 
 4-99 
 
 5-99 
 
 6-99 
 
 7-98 
 
 'l 
 
 0-53 
 
 105 
 
 2-10 
 
 3-15 
 
 4-20 
 
 5-25 
 
 B-30 
 
 7-35 
 
 8-40 
 
 0-55 
 
 1-10 
 
 2-21 
 
 3-31 
 
 4-41 
 
 5-51 
 
 6-62 
 
 7-72 
 
 8-82 
 
 0-58 
 
 1-15 
 
 231 
 
 3-46 
 
 4-62 
 
 5-77 
 
 6-93 
 
 8-08 
 
 9-24 
 
 0-60 
 
 1-20 
 
 2-41 
 
 3-62 
 
 4-83 
 
 6-09 
 
 7-25 
 
 8-45 
 
 9-66 
 
 3 
 
 0-63 
 
 1-26 
 
 2-52 
 
 3-78 
 
 5-04 
 
 6-30 
 
 7-56 
 
 8-82 
 
 10-08 
 
 If 
 
 0-66 
 
 1-31 
 
 2 63 
 
 3-94 
 
 5-25 
 
 6-56 
 
 7-88 
 
 919 
 
 10-50 
 
 0-68 
 
 1-36 
 
 2-73 
 
 4-09 
 
 5-46 
 
 6-82 
 
 8-19 
 
 9-55 
 
 10-92 
 
 071 
 
 1-42 
 
 2-83 
 
 4-25 
 
 5-67 
 
 7-09 
 
 8-51 
 
 9-93 
 
 11-34 
 
 0-74 
 
 1-47 
 
 2-94 
 
 4-41 
 
 5-88 
 
 7-35 
 
 8-82 
 
 10-29 
 
 11-76 
 
 0-76 
 
 1-52 
 
 305 
 
 4-57 
 
 6-09 
 
 7-61 
 
 914 
 
 10-66 
 
 12-18 
 
 0-79 
 
 1-58 
 
 3-15 
 
 4-73 
 
 6-30 
 
 7-88 
 
 9-45 
 
 1103 
 
 12-60 
 
 0-82 
 
 1-63 
 
 3-26 
 
 4-89 
 
 6-51 
 
 8-14 
 
 9-77 
 
 11-40 
 
 13-C2 
 
 4 
 
 0-48 
 
 168 
 
 3-33 
 
 5-04 
 
 6-72 
 
 8-40 
 
 10-08 
 
 11-76 
 
 13-44 
 
 Table in. — The weight of afoot superficial of wrought 
 and cast iron, S/'c. according to the atove thickness. 
 
 Wrought 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Iron - 
 
 2-52 
 
 5-04 10-08 
 
 15-12 
 
 20-16 
 
 25-20 
 
 30-24 
 
 35-28 
 
 40-32 
 
 Cast Iron 
 
 2-35 
 
 4-69 
 
 9-37 
 
 14-06 
 
 18-75 
 
 23-44 
 
 28-12 
 
 32-81 
 
 37-50 
 
 Brass 
 
 2-84 
 
 5-68 
 
 11-35 
 
 17-03 
 
 22-70 
 
 28-38 
 
 34-05 
 
 .39-72 
 
 45-40 
 
 Copper 
 
 2-89 
 
 5-78 
 
 11-56 
 
 17-34 
 
 23-12 
 
 28-90 
 
 34-68 
 
 40-46 
 
 ■16-24 
 
 Lead, cast 
 
 3-70 
 
 7-39 
 
 14-78 
 
 22-17 
 
 29-56 
 
 36-95 
 
 44-34 
 
 51-73 
 
 5912 
 
 Example. — To find the weight of a bar of iron 4 feet long, 
 2 inches wide, and | inch thick, by the above table: I foot weighs 
 5 04 pounds, which, if multiplied by 4 (tlie length), will give 
 20-16 pounds, or 20^ pounds, the weight. 
 
42 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Table IY., showing the weight of square and round iron of one 
 foot in length. 
 
 SaUARE IrjH. 
 
 Round Iron. 
 
 Wrought. 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Wrought. 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Scantling. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Diampter. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-20 
 
 I 
 
 0-16 
 
 015 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-46 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-34 
 
 0-84 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-66 
 
 0-61 
 
 1-31 
 
 1-22 
 
 1-03 
 
 0-96 
 
 1-89 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-48 
 
 1-38 
 
 2-57 
 
 2-39 
 
 2-02 
 
 1-88 
 
 Inch. 
 
 3-86 
 
 3-12 
 
 Inch. 
 
 2-64 
 
 2-45 
 
 1 
 
 4-25 
 
 3-95 
 
 li 
 
 3-34 
 
 3-10 
 
 5-25 
 
 4-88 
 
 4-12 
 
 3-85 
 
 6-35 
 
 5-90 
 
 5-00 
 
 4-64 
 
 7-56 
 
 7-03 
 
 6-94 
 
 5-52 
 
 ' 
 
 8-87 
 
 8-25 
 
 1? 
 
 6-97 
 
 6-49 
 
 10-29 
 
 9-57 
 
 8-08 
 
 7-52 
 
 11-81 
 
 10-98 
 
 9-28 
 
 8-62 
 
 2x 
 
 13-44 
 
 12 50 
 
 2 
 
 10-55 
 
 9-71 
 
 2f 
 
 15-17 
 
 14-11 
 
 H 
 
 2j 
 
 2- 
 
 2- 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2- 
 
 11-92 
 
 31-08 
 
 2? 
 
 17-81 
 
 15-80 
 
 13-37 
 
 12 40 
 
 2f 
 
 18-95 
 
 17-02 
 
 14-87 
 
 13-84 
 
 2i- 
 
 21-00 
 
 19-53 
 
 16-50 
 
 15-34 
 
 2| 
 
 23-15 
 
 21-53 
 
 18-20 
 
 16-91 
 
 ^1 
 
 21 
 
 25-41 
 
 23-63 
 
 19-97 
 
 17-56 
 
 27-77 
 
 25-83 
 
 21-81 
 
 20-29 
 
 3 
 
 30 24 
 
 28-12 
 
 3 
 
 23-75 
 
 22-09 
 
 3 
 ' 3 
 
 35-49 
 
 33-00 
 
 3- 
 3 
 
 97-88 
 
 25-92 
 
 41-16 
 
 38-28 
 
 32-34 
 
 30-06 
 
 3 
 
 47-25 
 
 43-94 
 
 3 
 
 37-12 
 
 34-52 
 
 4 
 
 53-76 
 
 50-00 
 
 4 
 
 42-22 
 
 39-27 
 
 4i 
 
 60-69 
 
 56-44 
 
 4i 
 
 4 
 
 47-66 
 
 44-33 
 
 4i 
 4 
 
 68-04 
 
 63-28 
 
 53-44 
 
 49-60 
 
 76-81 
 
 70-50 
 
 59-64 
 
 53-37 
 
 5 
 
 84 00 
 
 78-12 
 
 5 
 
 65-98 
 
 61-36 
 
 S 
 
 92-61 
 
 86-13 
 
 5| 
 
 79-82 
 
 74-19 
 
 101-64 
 
 94-53 
 
 6 
 
 95-00 
 
 88-35 
 
 5| 
 
 111-09 
 
 103-82 
 
 6| 
 
 111-54 
 
 103-70 
 
 6 
 
 12096 
 
 112-50 
 
 7 
 
 129-30 
 
 120-26 
 
 12 
 
 483-84 
 
 450-00 
 
 2 
 
 380-00 
 
 353-42 
 
 1 foot cube of wrought iron will weigh (average) 475 lbs. 
 „ close hammered . - 480 to 490 „ 
 
 „ east iron (average) - . - 450 „ 
 
CONSTEUCTION. 43 
 
 Bolts occur in great variety; their sizes are denoted by their 
 diameter, and their particular dimensions are determined by the 
 tension to which they are meant to be exposed. Generally 
 speaking, that should not exceed one fifth of their tabulated 
 strength. They are made both of iron, copper, and a com- 
 position of copper and zinc. The bolts are formed like the 
 letter f. Saucer-headed are flat, and collar-headed are thicker 
 for the head. When bolts have to resist great strain in the 
 direction of their length, their points are riveted, clenched, or 
 fore-locked over a ring, or washer. In other oases, their points 
 are merely jagged, being then rag-bolts, which are eabily drawn 
 out by a direct strain. Eye bolts have an eye formed in one 
 end, and are driven, when possible, edgeways to the strain they 
 have to bear. When the strain which they are intended to 
 resist is unusually great, they are formed with a shoulder, and 
 are driven through an iron plate with that projection in the 
 direction of the strain. 
 
 The adhesive force of nails or bolts is greater when driven 
 across the grain, than with it ; thus, a sixpenny nail, 73 to the 
 pound, 2i inches long, driven into dry elni to the depth of 1 
 inch across the grain, requires a force of 327 pounds to extract 
 it; whereas, driven with the grain, it may be extracted by a force 
 of 257 pounds. The same nail, driven 2 inches into dry oak, 
 requires a steady force of more than half a ton to extract it. 
 
 Screws 2 inches in length, -22 diameter at the exterior of the 
 threads, -15 diameter at the bottom, '305 depth of thread, and 
 having twelve threads in an inch, have been passed through 
 different pieces of wood, each of which was i inch thick, and 
 drawn out from the following woods by the annexed weights : — 
 Beech, 460 pounds; another specimen, 790 pounds; ash, 790 
 pounds; bak, 760 pounds; mahogany, 770 pounds; elm, 655 
 pounds. The force required to draw similar screws out of deal 
 and the softer woods was about half the above. 
 
 The following Table exhibits the relative adhesion of nails of 
 various kinds when forced into dry deal at right angles to the 
 grain of the wood. 
 
44 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Inches 
 long. 
 
 Forced 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Description of nails used. 
 
 to the lb. 
 
 inches into 
 
 requisite 
 
 
 avoir. 
 
 the wood. 
 
 to extract. 
 
 Fine Sprigs - 
 
 4560 
 
 0-44 
 
 0-40 
 
 22 
 
 Ditto 
 
 3200 
 
 0-53 
 
 0-44 
 
 37 
 
 Threepenny brads - 
 
 618 
 
 1-25 
 
 0-50 
 
 58 
 
 Cast-iron nails 
 
 380 
 
 1-00 
 
 0-50 
 
 72 
 
 Sixpenny nails 
 
 73 
 
 2-50 
 
 1-00 
 
 187 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1-50 
 
 327 
 
 Ditto 
 
 *•• 
 
 
 200 
 
 530 
 
 Fivepenny nails 
 
 139 
 
 2-'0O 
 
 1-50 
 
 320 
 
 A sixpenny nail driven into dry elm to the depth of 1 inch 
 across the grain, required » pressure of 327 lbs. to extract ; 
 and the same nail, driven endways, or longitudinally into the 
 same vfood, was extracted with a force of 257 lbs. The same 
 nail driven 2 inches endways into dry deal, was drawn by a 
 force of 257 lbs. j and to draw out one inch, under like circum- 
 stances, took 87 lbs. only. The relative adhesion, therefore, 
 in the same wood when driven transversely and longitudinally, is 
 100 to 78, or about 4 to 3 in dry elmj and 100 to 46, or about 2 
 to 1 in deal; and in like circumstances, the relative adhesion to 
 elm and deal is as 2 or 3 to 1. In other species of wood, the 
 requisite force to extract the nail was different : thus, to extract 
 a common sixpenny nail from a depth of 1 inch out of dry oak, 
 required 507 lbs. j dry beech, 667 lbs. ; green sycamore, 312 
 lbs. ; so that it vpould require » force of about half a ton to 
 extract a sixpenny nail which was driven two inches into dry 
 oak. A common screw of | inch was found to have an adhesive 
 force of about three times that of a sixpenny nail. 
 
 The ncould Xioft is a large apartment on the floor of which 
 the form and dimensions of every particular piece of wood that 
 is to be made use of in the construction of the ship is traced from 
 the drawings of the designer. 
 
 The Sbeer Drawing represents the ship in her length, 
 breadth, and depth, and is composed of three plans {fig. 13.). 
 
 The Sbeer Plan is a vertical section, passing through the 
 vessel in her whole length, fore and aft, dividing her into two 
 
COHSTEUCTION. 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
46 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 equal parts. On this plan are represented the length and depth 
 of the keel, the rake and height of the stem and stern-posts, the 
 position of the frames, water-lines, decks, ports, masts, channels, 
 rudder, screw aperture, &c. 
 
 The Half-breadtb Plan contains the several half-breadths 
 at every frame of timbers at the different heights of the water- 
 lines, main breadth, top sides, riband lines, &c. 
 
 The Body Plan represents transverse, or athwart sliips 
 sections of the ship, perpendicular to the keel. The several 
 breadths and particular form of every frame of timbers are 
 described on this. In the body plan, the half-breadths of the 
 fore body are shown on the right, and those of the after body on 
 the left of the middle line. 
 
 From these drawings, the form of the ship is "laid off" in 
 full size on the floor of the mould loft. Moulds of thin fir 
 boardings are then formed, and by these the timbers are worked 
 into shape. 
 
 The Xeel is made in several pieces, scarphed, ooaked, and 
 bolted together. As elm is considered a very durable wood 
 whilst under water, it is formed of that materia] : all the other 
 principal timbers are of oak. 
 
 The Stem, in consequence of its length of curvature, is 
 formed in two or three pieces. 
 
 The Apron, conforming to the shape, is placed in the con- 
 cave part of the stem, and connects it with the keel. 
 
 Tlie Knigrbt-beads rise from the apron on each side of the 
 stem, giving support to the bowsprit and the foremost ends of the 
 outer planking, called the hooded ends. 
 
 The Stern-post is connected with the after end of the keel 
 by tenons, and plates of metal ; its after part is fitted with 
 braces for the rudder, and the fore with the propeller bearing. 
 See page 437. 
 
 The Body-post. — In vessels intended for the screw, an 
 aperture is cut in the after part of the after deadwood,and this addi- 
 tional stern-post introduced at the fore part of the cutting. These 
 posts are connected at the lower part of the cutting by a metal 
 fitment, which is secured on the upper part of the keel. Where 
 the run is abrupt, the fore part of this aperture intrudes upon the 
 body of the ship, and the thwart ship-opening is planked in.* 
 
 • The run is the narrowing of the after iiart of the ship's bottom, as the 
 
CO-JJSTRUCTION. 
 
 47 
 
 A Frame of timbers is composed of the floor timbers, two 
 or more futtocks, and a top timber on each side, all of which 
 are connected by coaks. The frames give the form of the vessel 
 athwart ships j and that one which encloses the greatest space is 
 called the main-frame. They are distinguished into frames and 
 filling frames. Every alternate one is a frame, and the interme- 
 diate one a filling frame. The former extends from the keel to 
 the topsides, whereas the latter are frequently cut off at the ports, 
 
 The floors form the middle part of the frame ; they are 
 scored out and fastened along the upper side of the keel, fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 GROUND WAYS 
 
 ^ Pig. 14. A are the angle blocks, B false keel, C main keel, D keelson, £ 
 (iinbers, F limber plates, G limber strakes, H Garboard strakes. 
 
 extending as far forward and aft as the sharpness of the body 
 will admit of timbers being obtained with sufficient curvature to 
 form them. They generally extend on each side to one fourth 
 of the breadth, giving to the vessel a " flat " or a " rising floor," 
 according as the direction of these timbers is more or less hori- 
 zontal ; and a long or short floor, as the flatness may extend 
 more or less fore and aft. 
 
 A half-floor is one of the two pieces of which the floor is 
 sometimes composed. 
 
 The futtocks abutt upon the floor timbers, and connect the 
 floors with the top timbers. 
 
 entrance is that of the fore. They are said to be fine or clean if sharp, an i 
 full if otherwise. 
 
48 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Deadwood are chocks of timber fastened on the upper 
 side of the keel, in continaation of the foremast and outermost 
 parts of the floors, and shaped into the form of the ship at her 
 extremities. 
 
 The Keelson lies fore and aft on top of the keel and floors, 
 and being bolted through all, unites these timbers in one mass. 
 
 The Beams serve to support the decks, as well as to connect 
 and preserve the sides at their proper distance apart ; their ends 
 are secured above, by the water ways, beneath by the shelf piece, 
 and also by iron braces, or knees. 
 
 These are the principal timbers which form the skeleton of the 
 ship. The spaces that occur between the bottom ones are filled 
 in with wood, and the whole of their interior seams caulked. 
 
 The several pieces which compose the frames are so arranged 
 with reference to strength, that their ends overlap each other's 
 joinings or butts, and thus each frame derives support at its 
 weakest point from its adjoining one. 
 
 Carllngs are smaller beams which support the midship ends 
 and half beams, the coamings of hatchways, ladder-ways, Part- 
 ners, &c. 
 
 The Bawse boles are formed by placing large timbers, called 
 double futtocks, in the bows ; these are pierced, and lined with 
 thick iron pipes whose diameter is proportionate to the cables 
 borne by the ship, an arrangement that must be borne in mind 
 when dealing with heavy mooring tackle. 
 
 Size of chain. 
 
 Size of hawse pipe 
 in the clear. 
 
 Size of chain. 
 
 Size of hawse pipe 
 in tlie clear. 
 
 2| 
 2 
 
 If 
 If 
 If 
 
 21- 
 
 15- 
 14- 
 
 1| 
 
 if 
 
 1 
 
 I3| 
 12| 
 
 4 
 
 Breast-books and Crntcbes are iron fastenings which 
 connect the sides with the stem and stern-posts. 
 
 Riders are iron bands which run diagonally along the inside 
 of the frame- timbers. This additional strengthening is known 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 49 
 
 as trussing, and acts against that inclination which the ex- 
 tremities have to droop, called kogging. 
 
 The Side Keelsons are short internal keels, which are laid 
 about six feet on each side of the keelson. Their use is to divide 
 with the floor timbers, the strain caused by the heel of the main 
 mast in its step. 
 
 In steam ships there are no side heelsons, but similar timbers 
 called sleepers are placed in the same position, which, extending 
 along the bottom the whole length of the engine-room, form a 
 platform for the engine. 
 
 The Steps for the fore and main masts are fastened across the 
 keelson ; that of the mizen masts being usually fixed on the lower 
 deck beams. 
 
 The False Keel is an additional keel from 4 to 6 inches 
 thick, fastened on below the main keel. 
 
 The Cripe is a projection at the fore lower part of the stem. 
 The use of it and of the false keel is to prevent lee way, and pro- 
 tect the adjoining timbers, when the ship strilces the ground. 
 
 The Iilmbers are spaces left vacant between the limber strakes 
 and the keelson, forming passages for water to the pump well. 
 These are covered by solid iron plates which, resting on the edges 
 of the keelson and limber strakes, exclude such matter as would 
 be injurious to the pump valves. These plates, moreover, repre- 
 sent so much ballast. 
 
 The Planking is the internal, as well as the external, skin of 
 the ship. That which is outside is usually laid on in strakes 
 placed " anchor-stock fashion,'' which is considered the strongest 
 mode of arranging these layers. At that part near the water 
 line, called the bends, it is of oak ; and at that near the keel, 
 called the garboard strakes, of elm. This planking is fastened 
 by trenails — large wooden bolts which^ passing through and 
 through, secure both these coverings.* 
 
 Of the inner planking the principal is the ceilings in the 
 holds ; the sperketing, which run above tlie water ways ; the 
 clamps which ran under the shelf pieces j and the limber strakes. 
 which lie nearest the keelson (^fig. 16); all of which are chinsed.f 
 
 The Channels are strong platforms on the sides, abreast the 
 
 * III the resistance of transverse strain, trenails are superior to metal. In 
 the case of direct strain or separation, metal is the most efficient, 
 t Chinsing is a slight description of caulking. 
 
50 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 masts, giving greater spread to the rigging. The binding of the 
 dead eyes are let into the outer edges, and secured there by the 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig, 16. 1 Is the water way, 2 the shelf piece, 3 Iron brnce. 
 
 channel rail ; and an eye bolt is driven in on the after side of 
 each dead eye for the Innyards of the rigging. 
 
 The Bill Boards are iron-shod stools just before and abaft 
 the fore channels, on which the flukes of the anchors are stowed. 
 
 The Cat Head is a timber projecting on the top of the round 
 of each bow, by which the anchor is stowed. It is pierced with 
 sheaves, and fitted with eye bolts, thumb cleats, and slip. 
 
 The Head Knees project beyond the upper part of the stem, 
 supporting the figure-head at their outer parts and pierced with 
 holes for the bobstays in their lower parts. 
 
 The Gammoningr piece is fastened with the grain of the 
 wood in a fore and aft direction on the head knees, and is pierced 
 for the gammoning. 
 
 The Decks are laid both fore and aft, as well as diagonally. 
 The spaces left open for hatch and ladder ways are edged with 
 timbers; those fore and aft being called Coamings, those athwart 
 ship's head Ledges, those which surround the mast and capstan 
 holes. Partners. The decks are fastened by nails, called dumps, 
 driven, as all iro?i nails in ship-building are, with a twist of tarred 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 51 
 
 oakum round the head. The holes for the cahles are strength- 
 ened by chocks, lined with Iron, and are called the Trunks. 
 
 The Kldln^ Sits go through the decks, and are supported on 
 their fore side by knees, which are let down to the deck beams. 
 When there is a cross piece, it is hooked on the after side. All 
 ships of 28 guns and upwards have two pairs ; those which have 
 no cross piece, have moveable iron horns, called Battledores, pro- 
 jecting from the outside, which serve to keep the cabfes up in 
 their place. The hitts, as well as the hawse holes, are shod with 
 iron, and as this causes a severe nip to cables when riding out a 
 gale, great care is taken to keep the cable shackles clear of both, 
 as well as by veering a little occasionally (freshening the nip), to 
 keep the chafe off any one particular part of the cable. 
 
 Steam ships have additional after-bitts for towing purposes. 
 
 The Ports' Sides are formed by the timbers of the frame, and 
 their upper and lower parts by timbers, called Sills. The port 
 lids are made of fir of two thicknesses, placed opposite ways. 
 Each is pierced for a scuttle, which serves forventilation, and also 
 giving room for the rammer staff, when the guns are being 
 worked in such sea-way as necessitates the closing of the ports 
 whilst loading. Port lids are secured by a wooden bar across 
 the inside of the port ; through this two iron hooks project ; 
 these hook on to ring bolts in the lid, and are drawn in by iron 
 wedges: the port is triced up by a tackle and chain span. 
 
 The Spindle of tbe Capstan reeves through a metal bushed 
 hole in the partners, pivoting in a socket on the deck below. The 
 upper part passes through the main piece — the Barrel — on the 
 sides of which stand the Whelps ; these derive mutual support 
 from chocks that are let in at top and bottom. The top piece, 
 the Drum Head, is strengthened by metal bands, and is pierced 
 with holes for the bars, pins, and drop bolts. The lower part of 
 the whelps are enclosed by a metal band, on which the pauls are 
 bolted ; and a corresponding circular plate, the panl rim, 
 having cogs, is let into the partners, which, when the pauls are 
 down in the proper direction, serve to secure the capstan from 
 moving. 
 
 When ships have a double capstan, the point of the upper 
 spindle is secured to a plate, which is received on another on 
 the head of the lower capstan. These plates have corresponding 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 holes i and when it is desirable to connect both capstans, the 
 drop bolts are entered. (Fi'y. 17.) 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Capstans fitted for chain messengers are made with a Sprocket 
 Wheel, the teeth of which enter the messenger links. 
 
 In some cases the cable itself is taken pai'tly round the 
 capstan, the links either binding in corresponding indentations 
 made on a metal casting, or else working on a sprocket wheel. 
 
CONSTETJCTIOSr. 
 
 53 
 
 the cable being carried to its own side round a friction roller. 
 (F^. 18.) 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Wlien double capstans are supplied, the lower one only is 
 made to receive the chain messenger or cable. They are 
 usually worked in connection, as the upper decls affords most 
 space for the crews, but the lower capstan is seldom manned 
 unless much additional force is required. 
 
 Number and length of bars : — 
 
 18 guns 
 
 28 „ 
 
 36 „ 
 
 74 „ 
 
 80 „ 
 
 100 „ 
 
 120 „ 
 
 No. 
 10 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 Length in 
 Feet. 
 9-0 
 10-0 
 11-6 
 12-6 
 13'0 
 13-6 
 14-0 
 
 The Compressers are arrangements for controlling the 
 cables ; those mostly used are iron levers placed under the 
 beams over the cable lockers, and worked by tackles. 
 E 3 
 
54 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Scuppers are usually placed up and down ; but when given a 
 little rake aft, they discharge equally well, and do not admit 
 water so easily when the ship is rolling. The lee side of a lower 
 deck may be kept dry by boring the scupper plugs out and 
 fitting a leather valve at the small end. The Bow Scuppers will 
 be always out of repair and admit water, unless let well into the 
 wood and made to stand upright. 
 
 The Hawse Bucklers are wooden blocks, which, after the 
 plugs are driven in, close up the hawse holes inside. Those in 
 one piece are called Blind Bucklers. They are secured in their 
 place by iron bars. 
 
 The Hold is divided into the different compartments by strong 
 oak bulk-headings or partitions, the planks of which are tongucd 
 at the joinings of the edges with strips of iron. Those of the 
 magazine are treble, and formed diagonally, each layer running 
 in opposite directions, having felt and mortar between them. 
 The top or crown is covered with thick planking, and also 
 protected with mortar. 
 
 The Blairazlnes are entered through inner and outer handing- 
 rooms, the doors of which are perforated with holes sufficiently 
 large for the passage of cartridge-boxes j and both these rooms, as 
 well as the magazine itself, are lighted by lanterns placed in 
 separate adjoining chambers called light rooms. 
 
 The air necessary for lights and people employed in the sup- 
 ply of powder, is derived from the" limber passages. 
 
 The Enirine Room partitions are of iron. A bulk-head of 
 that metal running fore and aft on each side, leaving a space be- 
 tween itself and the ship's side, forms the coal bunkers. By this 
 arrangement the machinery is protected from injuries by hori- 
 zontal fire from an enemy. The bunkers are filled from the deck 
 overhead, and are discharged through openings into the stoke- 
 hole. As one or other of these apertures is always open, no 
 danger can arise from such explosions as occur where coal has 
 been so closed in as to confine the hydrogen gas always gene- 
 rated, and which ignites on the approach of flame. Several 
 colliers have very recently been seriously injured by neglect of 
 this precaution ; so that in the stowage of coal, its chemical 
 properties must be considered, or else they will force themselves 
 on our notice. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 55 
 
 In Caulking', the seams are driven open, reamed, and oakum 
 
 in proportion to the tlilckness of the planking driven in. They are 
 
 then covered and payed with pitch or marine glue. The planking 
 
 in the holds, called the lining, is only chintzed, i. e, the oakum is 
 
 • neither hardened in or payed. 
 
 In the numerous fastenings copper is used below water, and to 
 about 2 feet above its surface, and at the bows all the way up ; 
 and iron in the remaining part of the upper works.* 
 
 Bolt-nails cast of a mixture of zinc, copper, and grain tin 
 technically called " metal," are also used. 
 
 Many remedies have been applied to preserve the ship's 
 bottom from the lavages of marine animals, and from the 
 adherence of marine vegetables. Lead and wooden sheathing 
 obtained from the times of the Bomans until the introduction of 
 copper in 1761. In Sbeatbingr, the wood was closely studded 
 with nails, and then overlaid with pitch, a process which was called 
 graving. In Coppering'f the sheets are fastened on with compo- 
 sition nails; the sheets, being 4 feet long and 14 inches wide, are 
 placed lengthways, with the sheer of the ship. Their lower edges 
 overlap the upper ones of those below, and their after ones the 
 foremost of those abaft them. This metallic skin fits so ac- 
 curately as to wrinkle or become rent when the ship has been 
 strained, and thus denotes injury done to the fabric. 
 
 Copper sheets are described as 32 ounces, 28 ounces, 18 ounces, 
 16 ounces the superficial foot. The thickest are used near the 
 bows and water line. 
 
 The Figures on the sides of the stem and rudder mark the 
 ship's draught of water. They are each 6 inches long; the lower 
 part shows the feet, and the upper the inches. 
 
 The main piece of the Rudder is oak, with an elm edging 
 on the fore part ; the after parts, fir. Its head is circular and 
 iron hooped, and the holes for the tiller and for the key for the 
 
 * " A greater degree of oxidation goes on when the iron fastenings are sub- 
 jected at ttie same time to the action of salt water, and to that of the acids 
 contained in the oal^, than when exposed only to the oxygen of the atmosphere, 
 or in fresh water ; but an active galvanic arrangement is produced, and oxida- 
 tion goes on still faster when the bottom is coppered, and there are iron fasten - 
 ings ; because then there are two metals possessing different degrees of 
 oxidability, combined with a fluid, (fresh, or salt water) that -is capable of ox- 
 idating either." — Fincham's Outlines. 
 
 E 4 
 
56 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 spare tiller, are iron plated 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 the heel is covered by a sole piece. 
 The fore side of the rudder and 
 after side of the stern-post are 
 cut away (bearded) suflSciently to 
 permit the rudder being moved to 
 an angle of 42° from a fore and aft 
 line, which in steering is considered 
 the extreme point of efficiency. 
 There is a strong metal strap on 
 the after part near the water line to 
 which the rudder chains are fastened. 
 As it is with tackles from the 
 quarters to these chains that the 
 ship is steered when the rudder- 
 head Is carried away, this strap 
 should be well bolted through. 
 
 In steam ships, where the position 
 of the screw aperture interferes with 
 the use of the usual tiller, a yoke is 
 frequently used, and the rudder- 
 head fitted accordingly. 
 
 The head is hoisted up through 
 the " helm port: " the jointles enter 
 the gudgeons, and the rudder is 
 thus "hung."' 
 
 The Rudder Cbocks are blocks 
 of wood, which are forced in along- 
 side the head to keep it steady when 
 desirable, as well as to prevent the rudder from being easily un- 
 shipped on touching the ground : a, piece of wood, called the 
 TVoodloek, is nailed on the foreside between the upper pintles. 
 
 Rudders are usually one twenty-eighth part the length of the 
 ship. 
 
 All ships are supplied with materials with which a temporary 
 rudder may be made when necessary, {^exfig. 21.) 
 
 The Figure Head, which . probably owes its existence to an- 
 cient superstition, which supposed that the image of some saint 
 or hero confen-ed safety or success on the ship to which it was 
 attached, is part of a vessel rather decorative than useful, except 
 as serving to denote the ship. In other days of naval warfare, 
 
 Jury rudder made with a top- 
 mast and top-mast cap. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 57 
 
 it sometimes performed good service, being a formidable weapon 
 when propelled with force against an antagonist. When well 
 
 , New Pattern Rudder. 
 
 conceived and executed, it adds considerably to the beauty 
 of a vessel, and might even be turned to moral account in the 
 time of action ; for few British seamen would be reluctant to 
 follow where even the image of his Sovereign, or Nelson, or 
 "Wellington, or Collingwood led the way.* 
 
 * Drawings of figure heads will be found in great variety in that handsomely 
 illustrated old work, Charnock's " History of Marine Architecture.** For much 
 useful information on the subject of ship- building, we refer our readers to 
 " Fincham's Outlines," a Work from which we have, with the author's kind 
 permission, made several selections. 
 
58 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADKTS. 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Sketch of a temporary Rudder. 
 Per Admiralty Order qf the 2Bth Jantmiy, ] 839. 
 
 A. A piece of fir, sided one third less than post, fitted with iron pintles while 
 
 in dock, and supplied to each ship. 
 
 B. A piece fur the back, pither provided or taken from the ship's stores. 
 
 C. Spare top-mast, cut off clear of the shiver hole. 
 
 D. Iron bolts. E. Chocks. F. Iron pig ballast. 
 
 G. Screw eye bolt, in quarter-deck beam, to be put in when required. 
 
 H. Kope guys (through the heel chock E), to facilitate the hanging of the 
 
 rudder, 
 I. Gudgeon brace fitted to the stern-post while in dock, and supplied to the 
 
 ship. 
 K. Lower pintle to be four inches longer than the others. 
 
 In ships having a screw aperture, it would be necessary to cross the guys 
 underneath the after bearing. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 59 
 
 The common Pump, such as the wash-deck one, is constructed 
 with reference to atmospheric pressure, which, in ordinary condi- 
 tions, will force water into a vacuum to the height of 32 feet. It 
 is a pipe open at each end, having a moveable air-tight piston, 
 in which is a valve. There is also a fixed valve about 30 feet 
 from the lower end ; both these valves opening upwards only. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 On working the piston that part of the 
 tube which is below it becomes ex- 
 hausted of air J the atmospheric pressure 
 on the external surface of the well 
 forces the water up through the lower 
 valve to supply the vacuum, and fills all 
 the space between the valves with water. 
 On the descent of the piston, the water 
 rises through the upper valve, and is 
 on the ascent of the piston discharged 
 from the spout of the pump. Thus 
 every time the piston is raised, the 
 upper valve closes and the lower one 
 opens ; and every time it descends, the 
 upper one opens and the lower one 
 closes. Although the lower valve must 
 never be more than about 30 feet from 
 the surface of the water, yet when the 
 water has passed through the upper valve, it may be lifted to 
 any height, provided the tube and piston rod be sufficiently 
 long. (Fig. 22.) 
 
 The Fire Eng^ine is a double forcing pump ; and a continuous 
 flow of water is obtained by attaching an air chamber o. The 
 pistons are solid, having no valves ; and their motion is alter- 
 nate. In their ascents, a vacuum is formed in each cylinder 
 which is immediately occupied by water from the suction pipe A, 
 and their descents force that water into the air chamber, from 
 whence it is driven by the compressed air through the discharge 
 pipe. (JT^jf. 23.) 
 
 The Chain Pump {fig. 24) is an endless chain passing over a 
 skeleton roller, or sprocket-wheel, on deck, and through a curved 
 metal tube in the hold or pump well. A series of circular leather- 
 edged plates are fixed about 18 inches apart on this chain, and 
 
60 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 which stand at right angles with it. Both parts of this chain are 
 contained in separate cases ; on turning the upper wheel, which is 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fire Engine. 
 
 Chain Pump. 
 
 done by means of winches, the water is carried up between each 
 of the ascending plates, and is discharged overboard through the 
 Pump Dale. 
 
 These pumps cannot be made available in the event of the 
 ship being considerably inclined. In the case of the " Samarang," 
 when on shore, it was found that the inclination caused the 
 slack part of the chain to fall into a curve, and the descending 
 discs to overlap the trunk so much as to render them useless.* 
 In the "Algiers," nozzles were fitted on the metal dales on the 
 orlop decks, and thus when water was required in the lower part 
 of the ship for the extinction of fire, the hoses were connected 
 without interference with any of the gun-deck arrangements, or 
 injury to the hoses themselves. 
 
 Massle's Pump is a double action lift and forcing pump, 
 and has, in discharging as much as eleven tons in nine minutes, 
 claimed a superiority to others. 
 
 • See Treatise on Surveying. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 61 
 
 Steam ships are fitted with Bllire Pumps, which are worked 
 by the engine in extraordinary cases of leakage : and also with 
 hand pumps, for the purpose of feeding the boilers, when the 
 engines are not at work. These latter are turned when desirable 
 to such purposes as washing decks, &c., and are capable of con- 
 nection with the engine. 
 
 The pumps and main mast are all enclosed from the bottom of 
 the ship as far as the orlop deck. 
 
 The quantity of water discharged by a hand pump in a given 
 time, is determined by considering that at each stroke of the 
 piston, a quantity is discharged equal to a cylinder whose base is 
 the area of a cross section of the body of the pump, and height 
 the play of the piston ; thus, if the diameter be 4 inches, and the 
 play 3 feet, we have to find the content of a cylinder 4 inches 
 in diameter and 3 feet high. Now 4 inches is the | of a foot, or 
 •333, hence, -333 x -7854 = -llogDQ x -7854 = -08796 = the area 
 in square feet ; hence, -08796 x 3 = -2639 = the content of the 
 cylinder in cubic feet = the quantity of water discharged by one 
 stroke. A cubic foot of water weighs about 63-5 pounds ; there- 
 fore, -2639 X 63-5 = 16-756 avoirdupois; and an imperial gallon 
 is equal to ten pounds of water; whence dividing 16-756 by 10, 
 we get the number of ale gallons = 1-6756. 
 
 The resistance is equal to the weight of a column, whose base 
 is the area of the piston, and whose height is that of the surface 
 of the water in the body of the pump above the surface of the 
 water in the well, together with friction. 
 
 Let the body of the pump be 6 inches in diameter, and the 
 height to which the water is raised be 30 feet, the weight of the 
 piston and rod 10 pounds, and the friction | of the whole weight 
 of water. Then — 
 
 6^=36 =the pounds avoirdupois of 3 feet of the column of 
 water; but the column is 30 feet, therefore 3 : 30::36 : 360 
 pounds, the weight of the whole column. Adding the fi-ictiou 
 we have2f2 = 72, and this added to the weight of the column 
 gives 360 + 72 = 432 : and to this add the weight of the piston 
 and pump rod, 432 + 10 = 442=the whole resistance, which any- 
 thing greater will overcome. 
 
 If the pump handle be in the proportion of 10 to 1, the pump 
 may be wrought with a force of 45 pounds.* 
 
 » Grier's Mechanic's Calculator. 
 
62 JIANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Body Post and After Deadwood are bored through in 
 a fore and aft line, and the passage thus formed is bushed with two 
 metal pipes, through the innermost of which the screw shaft pro- 
 jects. The fore part of this pipe is made water-tight round the 
 shaft, by a collar and packing called the gland box, which is put on 
 inside the ship ; the after end is lined with strips of lignum vitse. 
 The projecting end of the shaft is fitted, on its appearance out- 
 side, with a metal head-piece into the mortise or "slot," of which 
 the foremost end of the boss of the screw drops ; and this con- 
 nection is made permanent by the downward pressure of rods 
 called Spanners, which reaching from the deck are screwed down 
 upon the frame when the boss has entered. The mortise must of 
 course be turned upright either to receive the screw or permit of 
 its disconnection ; the screw being kept upright during these 
 operations by means of a moveable trigger, which is so arranged 
 as to catch the upper blade when necessary. The shaft is made 
 in pieces of about 24 feet in length, which are connected by 
 fastenings called couplings. 
 
 The after part of the body and fore part of the stern-post, are 
 fitted with metal bearings on which the bosses of the screw rest 
 when it is in place. They are also faced by groovings of metal, 
 which serve to guide the screw during its ascent or descent. 
 These groovings are fitted with metal racks j the screw is sus- 
 pended in a framing commonly called the banjo, from which cor- 
 responding pauls project j and which, being permitted to act 
 upon the racks whilst hoisting the screw up, prevent danger in 
 the event of the ropes being carried away. There is no such pro- 
 vision made for lowering, and therefore great care is taken to 
 attend the falls daring that operation. The diagrams connected 
 with the article on steam may explain this fitment more clearly. 
 
 The common rule for finding the Burtben of Ships, or what 
 is called the Builder's Tonnage, is to multiply the length by the 
 extreme breadth, and that product by half the extreme breadth, 
 and divide the product by 94 ; thus : length x extreme breadth 
 X half the extreme breadth = the builder's tonnage. 
 
 The following is called the Parliamentary, or new rule. Divide 
 the length of the upper deck between the after part of the stem and 
 the foremost part of the stern-post into six equal parts. Depths: 
 at the foremost, middle, and aftennost of these points of division, 
 
FLOATING. 63 
 
 measured in feet and decimal parts of a foot the depths from the 
 under side of the upper deck to the ceiling at the limber strake. 
 In the case of a break in the upper deck, the depths are to be 
 measured from a line stretched in a continuation of the deck. 
 Breadths: divide each of those three depths into five equal parts, 
 and measure the inside breadths at the following points, viz.: at 
 |th and at |ths from the upper deck of the foremost and aftermost 
 depths, and at fths and 4ths from the upper deck of the midship 
 depth. Length: at halfthe midship depth, measure the length of 
 the vessel from the after part of the stem to the foremost part of 
 the stern post ; then to twice the midship depth, add the foremost 
 and aftermost depths for the sum of the depths : add together 
 the upper and lower breadths at the foremost division, three 
 times the upper breadths, and the lower breadth at the midship 
 division, and the upper and twice the lower breadth at the after 
 division, for the sum of breadths ; then multiply the sum of the 
 breadths by the sum of the depths, and this product by the 
 length, and divide the final product by 3500, which will give 
 the number of tons for register. If the vessel have a poop or 
 half-deck, or a break in the upper deck, measure the inside mean 
 length, breadth, and height of such part thereof as may be in- 
 cluded within the bulk head : multiply these three measurements 
 together, and dividing the product by 92-4, the quotient will be 
 the number of tons to be added to the result as above found. In 
 order to ascertain the tonnage of open vessels the depths are to 
 be measured from the upper edge of the upper strake. 
 
 The qualities of merchant vessels are denoted by certain 
 symbols. A designates the character of the hull ; the figure 1, 
 the efficient state of her anchors, cables and stores j when these 
 are insufficient the figure 2 is used. The character A is assigned 
 to a new ship for a certain number of years, varying from 4 to 
 12, according to the material and mode of building, but subject 
 to periodical survey. Tne character A may be "continued" or 
 " restored " for a time on condition of certain repairs. When a 
 vessel has passed the age for the character A, and remains fit for 
 sea service, she is registered M, in red. M in black form the 
 third class, consisting of craft fit for freights on short voyages. 
 Class E and I comprises vessels only equal to carrying goods 
 not liable to sea damage. 
 
64 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Although ships hare Increased in size considerably since the 
 publication of Mr. Edye's calculations, a selection from that 
 work will serve to exemplify the amount of materials employed 
 in the construction and equipment, as well as the value of a 
 120-gun ship. Timber, 2197; iron, 136; copper bolts, 47; 
 copper sheets, 18 ; metal nails, 3 ; pintles and braces, 2i ; lead, 
 9 ; oakum, 16 ; pitch and tar, 16 ; whiting and white lead, 91 ; 
 oil, 1| ; three coats of paint, 9| ; spars, 106 ; rigging, 60 ; sails, 
 11 ; cables and anchors, 90 ; ballast, water, fuel, guns, ammuni- 
 tion, provisions, stores, 1860 tons ; rope, 30,2S0 fathoms; blocks, 
 950 ; and trenails 64,458 in number. 
 
 Weight of the hull when launched, 2466 tons. Total weights 
 received on board, 2143 tons; expense of labour, 15,6431; of 
 materials, 77,8 7Si; of hull, 9.3,521/.; of spars, 3879/.; of rigging 
 and blocks, 2994/. ; of fui'niture and sea stores, 16,805/. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 FLOATING. 
 
 Besides the construction of the ship, and the formation of the 
 places whereon she may be built, there are frequently many 
 difficulties to be surmounted before the fruit of all this labour is 
 freely clear of the ground. For example, a river too shallow 
 for even the lightest draught of the vessel, has to be navigated; a 
 shifting sand, or newly formed bank, to be crossed ; and even 
 in some cases (as in Kussia), ships must be borne bodily on 
 " camels," which, being first filled with water, are secured to the 
 ship's sides, and then pumped out. (See figs. 25, 26.) 
 
 Again, it may be only necessary to get the ship on an even 
 keel, for all vessels sit deeper by the stern when empty. In 
 launching the " Bombay," e. g., her heel was lifted over a bank 
 that had formed outside the dock gates, by securing several large 
 lighters under the quarters on the same principle. 
 
 These considerations naturally suggest a notice of those pur- 
 poses, to which a knowledge of the laws of fluid pressure we have 
 
Floating. 
 
 65 
 
 already noticed may be applied.* Often in danger of foundering 
 or grounding, and frequently called upon to convey weights into 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 shoaler water than the ship's draught will admit of, we must be 
 prepared to assign to every boat, spar, and other buoyant body its 
 due amount of duty. The " Sulphur " grounded, and falling over 
 in a tidal harbour, became filled with water at each flow of tide- 
 
 Fig.26. 
 
 Kafts of spars were constructed, and at low water lashed to the 
 leeside. Larger spars were secured athwart the upper deck, 
 whose ends projecting beyond the sides, rested on those rafts ; 
 up and down spars were also placed on the leeside, their heavier 
 ends resting on the ground, and tackles brought from their 
 heads to that side of the ship. Between the action of these 
 tackles, and that of the rising tide on the raft, the vessel was 
 finally uprighted. (See^. 27.) 
 
 In 1801, the Dutch frigate "Ambuscade," carrying a press of 
 Sail with the wind right-aft, imperceptibly shipped so much water 
 through the hawse holes (which in those times were very large 
 and low) as to go down suddenly when near the Great Nore. 
 At low water she was slung by cables rove through the ports, 
 » Chap. I. 
 ? 
 
66 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 and which were secured to five vessels, one being of 1063 tons, 
 the others of 100 tons burthen each. These cables, as well as 
 one from an anchor laid out ahead, for the purpose of overcoming 
 the cohesion of the silt, were hove taat with purchases; and as the 
 tide rose this vessel was carried uninjured into harbour, and 
 eventually pumped out. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 But the most remarkable triumph of ingenuity and persever- 
 ance on record is found in the case of the " Gorgon." This 
 vessel, a steamer of nearly 1200 tons, and 320 horse power, was 
 driven on shore in a gale, and embedded in the sand, to a depth 
 of almost 12 feet. Camels were constructed on the spot, tanks 
 made water-tight by introducing fearnought and lead with their 
 lids. Boilers were hoisted out and also made water-tight, and 
 these with casks, &c., affording altogether a buoyancy equal to 367 
 tons, were secured under the ship, by means of cables passed round 
 the bottom. These appliances, with the assistance of some screws, 
 rescued the ship from her periloiis condition, and the whole opera- 
 tion presents a picture of united energy and skill to which maritime 
 records afford no pai-allel. The details of these operations have 
 been narrated by one of the " Gorgon's " officers, as " not only an 
 account of the means used to restore the ship, but likewise to 
 point out to the young officer to what advantages the qualities of 
 perseverance . and forethought may be applied, if duly cultivated 
 in early life." * 
 
 * Kecovery of the " Go>gon,".by Captain Key, R. N. 
 
TLOATING. 
 
 67 
 
 III case this work should not be 
 within reach of reference, the dimen- 
 sions of one of the camels, whose 
 buoyancy was equal to 62 tone, may 
 be useful. 
 
 The planking was of 3-inch fir, 
 doubled at the edges, and nailed on 
 over 7 frames, whose scantling was 
 9 inches by 5. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Length 
 Height 
 
 Breadth on top - 
 Breadth of bottom 
 
 38 feet. 
 7 feet 4 inchesi 
 5 feet 10 inches. 
 
 10 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Although not exactly a case in 
 point, the story of another heaving 
 oif which occurred lately will prove 
 the value of a familiar acquaintance 
 with natural science. 
 
 The ship had been run stem on 
 very hard, and after unavailing efforts 
 to get her off, hung on a rock abaft 
 the fore-mast. The weights were run 
 aft ; balks of timber were placed 
 athwart ships before the place where 
 the ship hung, projecting through the 
 ports ; perpendicular shores were 
 placed under these from the ground ; 
 stages slung to the balks, and wedges 
 prepared for driving between their 
 outside ends and the shore heads. 
 Opportunity was then taken of the 
 first increase of water to set up the 
 wedges, remove the after weights, and 
 heave in on the purchases at the' same 
 time. On this, the ship started immedi- 
 ately; and, by a repetition of the same 
 process of leverage, was completely 
 cleared of the shore.* {See Jig. 28.) 
 
 * The dark lines are meant to show the first position ; the dotted ones the 
 second. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 MANUAL FOR NAVAI- CADETS. 
 
 In using tanks or casks the internal capacity is fonnd by multi- 
 plying the gallons by 10, which is the number of pounds in a 
 gallon of water ; subtracting the weight of the tank or cask, the 
 floating power will be attained. 
 
 One cubic foot of water is equal to 6-25 gallons, and each 
 gallon to 277-274 cubic inches. 
 
 Haying borrowed from Mr. Edye the means of ascertaining the 
 bulk of the regular spars, we shall refer to Sir Howard Douglas 
 for the following Rules and Tables for ascertaining the buoyant 
 capacities of irregular ones. 
 
 "To find the quantity of timber required to float a given 
 weight, the solid content must be first known. 
 
 " To find the solid content of a tree 30 feet long, having the 
 girth of the two ends 65 and 52 inches : — 
 
 " Multiply the square of the mean girth expressed in feet and 
 decimals, by 07956 (the area of a circle whose circumference 
 is 1), and the product by the length. 
 
 4-33 
 
 5-41 
 
 «<7r^ 4'87' X -07956 x 30 = 56-6 cubic feet. 
 2^9*74 
 
 Mean girth 4-87 
 
 Or, multiply the square of l of the mean girth by twice the 
 length : — 
 
 5) 4-87 mean girth of former tree, 
 
 •974 and -974» x 60 = 56-92 cubic feet. 
 
 "The quantity of water displaced by the total immersion of a 
 piece of timber is equal to its solid content, and the difference 
 between its weight and that of the fluid displaced, is the weight 
 the tree will float. The weight, for instance, of a cubic foot of 
 sea water is 1026 ounces, and that of male fir 650, which, there- 
 fore, will float 476 ounces. 
 
 " If the content of a tree in feet be multiplied by the difference 
 between its specific gravity and that of the fluid, the product 
 will be the weight in ounces which the tree will float. Thus, 
 a fir tree whose content is 56-6 feet ; 56-6 x 476=26,941 ounces 
 or 1684 pounds in sea water. 
 
FLOATING. 
 
 69 
 
 " To find the content of square or four-sided timber : — Multiply 
 the mean breadth by the mean thickness, and the product by the 
 length. 
 
 Table, containing the contents of round timber. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Mean 
 Girth. 
 
 Content. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Mean 
 Girth. 
 
 Content. 
 
 feet. 
 
 inches. 
 
 feet. 
 
 feet. 
 
 inches. 
 
 feet. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 12-5 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 43-.54 
 
 30 
 
 
 30 
 
 16' 
 
 30 
 
 
 56 
 
 52-25 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 17-5 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 60-96 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 14-21 
 
 25' 
 
 
 
 46-72 , 
 
 30 
 
 
 32 
 
 17-06 
 
 30 
 
 
 58 
 
 56-06 , 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 19-9 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 65-4 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 .16-05 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 60- 
 
 30 
 
 ■ 
 
 34 
 
 19-26 
 
 30 
 
 . 
 
 60 
 
 60- 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 
 22-47 
 
 35 J 
 
 
 
 70- 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 18- 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 53-37 
 
 30 
 
 ■ 
 
 36 
 
 21-6 
 
 30 
 
 
 62 
 
 64-05 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 
 25-2 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 74-72 
 
 25" 
 
 
 
 20-05 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 56-88 
 
 30 
 
 . 
 
 38 
 
 24-06 
 
 30 
 
 . 
 
 64 
 
 68-26 
 
 35, 
 
 
 
 28-07 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 79.-64 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 22-22 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 60-5 
 
 30 
 
 
 40 
 
 26-66 
 
 30 
 
 
 66 
 
 72-6 1 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 31-11 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 84-7 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 24-5 
 
 25' 
 
 
 
 64-21 
 
 30 
 
 > 
 
 42 
 
 29-4 
 
 30 
 
 
 68 
 
 77-05 
 
 35. 
 
 
 
 34-3 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 89-89 ' 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 26-88 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 68-05 
 
 30 
 
 
 44 
 
 32-25 
 
 30 
 
 
 70 
 
 81-66 . 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 37-63 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 95-27 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 29-38 
 
 25' 
 
 
 
 72- 
 
 30 
 
 > 
 
 46 
 
 35-26 
 
 30 
 
 
 72 
 
 86-4 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 41-14 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 100-8 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 32- 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 76-04 
 
 30 
 
 . 
 
 48 
 
 38-4 
 
 30 
 
 
 74 
 
 91-25 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 44-8 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 106-5 
 
 25 = 
 
 
 
 34-71 
 
 25- 
 
 
 
 80-21 • 
 
 30 
 
 \ 
 
 50 
 
 41-65 
 
 30 
 
 
 76 
 
 96-26 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 
 48-6 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 112-3 
 
 25' 
 
 
 
 37-55 
 
 25" 
 
 
 
 84-5 
 
 30 
 
 ■ 
 
 52 
 
 45-06 
 
 30 
 
 
 78 
 
 101-4 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 
 62-57 
 
 35 J 
 
 
 
 118-3 
 
 25' 
 
 
 
 40-5 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 ■ 
 
 54 
 
 48-6 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 56-7 
 
 
 
 ■' 
 
 F 3 
 
70 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 "The length ofapiece of timber is ISfeet 6inches ; the breadth 
 at the great and small ends, 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot 3 inches ; and 
 the thickness Ifoot 3 inches and 1 foot: required the content : — 
 
 1 6'5 the mean breadth ; 
 13 '5 the mean thickness. 
 16-5 X 13-5x222 
 
 1728 
 
 - = 28-6 cubic feet. 
 
 "A fir tree, ] foot square and 25 feet long, will float about 
 703 pounds. Cut into inch plank, it will make three cases of the 
 same size as the solid, excepting 6 pieces 1 foot square for the 
 ends, and 9 for interior compartments to give strength ; a case 
 of this size will float about 1212 pounds."* 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR HEASURINQ OPEN VESSELS. 
 
 A' barge is 10 feet long, 5 feet broad, 4 feet deep outside mea- 
 surement : thickness of planking, 2 inches ; weight of timber per 
 cubic foot, 50 pounds. To what depth will the barge sink when 
 loaded with 4 tons ? 
 
 Content of exterior, solid=10 x 5 x4 = 200 ; interior, ='9| x 
 4| x3|=l 72-92 ;.'. timber in the barge = 200 — 172-92 = 27-07 
 cubic feet. 
 
 Weight Timber in barge =27'07 x 50 = 1353. 
 
 Weight displaced water = 10 x 5 x depth x 62-5 = 3125 + depth 
 .'.3125 X depth = 1 353 + 4 x 2240 ; and depth, = 3-3 feet. 
 
 Eequired the same when the planking is 3 inches thick ? 
 Answer, 3-5 feet. 
 
 What load will just sink the barge ? Answer, 4-9 tons. 
 
 What load will sink the barge 3 feet? Answer, 3-58 tons. 
 
 How far will it sink when empty ? Answer, -433 feet. 
 
 RAFT MADE OF SHIP'S MATERUXS. (^Fig. 29.) 
 
 A quick way to rig a gun raft, in a ship of the line, is to range 
 the forty butts, empty and well bunged, close together length- 
 ways, in double rows, fore and aft on each side of the quarter- 
 deck, 20 on each side. Lay a jibboom or mizen-topmast, or spar 
 of that length, on top of each row, letting the ends project 
 equally. Lash the casks to the spars, and each cask to its 
 
 • Essays on the construction of Military Bridges. 
 
FLOATING. 
 
 71 
 
 neighbour, figure-of-eight ways, so that they will not separate on 
 being moved. Hoist them out, and place them one on each side 
 of a boom boat ; steady them there. Lay two spare half anchor 
 stocks flat side downwards across the boat, the length of the 
 gun slide apart. Chock them up underneath from the gunwale 
 strake, and lash their ends well down to the spars. Place the 
 gun slide on the stocks, either securing the foremost end with a 
 lashing, or boring a hole for the fighting bolt. Lash a smaller 
 spar across the ends of the large ones ; put the gun on the slide, 
 and, allowing for recoil, fit a breeching, with a piece of hawser 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 F 4 
 
72 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 long enough to clench over the foremost ends of the large spars. 
 The boat serves as a cabin, besides giving some 5 tons additional 
 buoyancy. The ammunition would be carried by a small boat 
 veered astern. 
 
 Four butts, slung under the bows of a 32-foot barge, will give 
 her sufficient buoyancy for a 32-pounder ; and if a platform of 
 hammocks be formed in the bottom, it may be fired without 
 injury to the boat. 
 
 BAIT OP TREES. {Fig. 30.) 
 
 This raft was composed of firs of an average diameter of 10 
 inches, and made in four sections, each of these being 30 feet 
 long and 13 feet wide. They were crossed on the upper 
 surface of their longest united length by spars 52 feet long, each 
 placed top and butt alternately; the whole structure measures 
 52 by 30 feet. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 The spars used were cut at a distance of half a mile from the 
 beach, and were selected, felled, lopped, cut into requisite lengths, 
 transported, and formed into a raft in two days, of seven working 
 hours, by 20 carpenters and a working party of 100 men. Eight 
 52-foot spars were first cut and placed in pairs on the beach, 
 perpendicular to the water, into which their small ends pro- 
 jected ; each of these spars being about 8 feet apart from its 
 fellow. Their butts and middles were chocked up, so as to give 
 
FLOATING. 
 
 73 
 
 greater inclination for launching. Posts were then driven in as at 
 p. Daring the transportation of the long spars, the carpenters were 
 employed preparing eighty balks of 13 feet long each, and these 
 were carried off and placed, as at b b. Lastly, twelve 30-foot 
 spars were placed on the balks, as at R R, and these balks and last- 
 placed riders w6re cross-lashed together. The pegs were then 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 SI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 rff 
 
 
 < — '- ! 
 
 — H i 
 
 )n 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 jj 
 
 : — 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 !==; 
 
 . i ^ 
 
 removed, the ways covered with sea-weed, and the four rafts 
 launched. Twelve more long spars were launched along with 
 the other eight ; and the rafts being brought with their longest 
 sides together, the large spars were hauled across them, and the 
 whole became united by lashings in several places. (Fig. 31.) 
 
 We have said that bodies ^of greater -densities than water, 
 when completely immersed, lose just as much of their weight 
 as that of the quantity of- water they displace; and it will be 
 well to remember the use that may be made of that hydrostatic 
 law in the case of raft or boatwork. - With a raft constructed for 
 the purpose of floating a shipwrecked crew, a great portion 
 of cargo might be carried underneath, the raft being thereby 
 relieved of weight; A cask of salt beef, for example, of 300 
 pounds, thus disposed of, would only weigh 11.6 pounds. , In 
 carrying guns, anchors, propellers, rudders, &c., underneath 
 boats, a certain quantity of their weight would also be sustained 
 by the water. For example, a gun is (say) 67 cwt., and 7 inches 
 in the bore. The weight of the gun in pounds divided by 440, 
 which is the number of pounds of iron in a cubic foot, gives a 
 quotient of 17"054, which is the number of cubic feet in the gun. 
 17'054 (ubjc feet of water multiplied by 64, which is the weight 
 
74 MANUAt, FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 of a cubic foot of water, gives ns 1091"456 as the weight of the 
 water which is displaced by the gnn : hence by the hydrostatic 
 principles which we have already considered, the difference 
 between these two sums, viz. the weight of the gun, 7504 pounds, 
 and that of the water, 1091 pounds, shows that the gun, when 
 suspended under water, weighs only 6413, or about 9 cwt. less 
 than it would in the air. 
 
 Putting the tooipion taut in, and closing the vent, would, 
 of course, add to the displacement, and consequent diminution 
 of weight ; for a cylinder of the same dimensions as the bore 
 would contain 2'672 cubic feet ; the weight of water displaced 
 would then be 1262, and that of the gun 6242 pounds, about 11 
 cwt. having been lost by immersion. 
 
 The weight of an anchor, propeller, rudder, or mass of stone, 
 &c., when under water, can, of course, be estimated in like man- 
 ner, especially as the Tables furnished contain the actual and 
 specific gravities of such different substances as we are likely to 
 come in contact with. 
 
 The following are the results of some experiments made for 
 the purpose of ascertaining the loss of weight experienced by 
 different bodies when immersed in sea water. 
 
 In air. In water. 
 
 Brass (cast) 
 
 Iron - . . - 
 
 Shingle ballast - 
 
 Cordage . - . 
 
 Small arms 
 
 Lead- - - . 
 
 Copper - . . 
 
 Salt beef - . - 
 
 Coals . - . 
 
 A suit of clothes and a pair of boots, which weigh 7 pounds 
 in the air, when well saturated with water, only weigh in water 
 1 pound. — Art Manual. 
 
 SPECIFIC GBAVITT. 
 
 The scientific term • specific,' which is always used in a com- 
 parative sense, means that the proportions of the body spoken gf 
 
 Ua.' 
 
 oz. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 oz. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
nOATING. 75 
 
 have reference to that of some other body. Specific gravity — or, 
 in other words, the comparative density of different substances — 
 enables a calculator to ascertain the bulk of a substance, if its 
 weight be given, or the weight if the bulk be given. To effect 
 this, of course, requires the existence of a standard ; and with 
 respect to solids and liquids, that standard is distilled water, of 
 which 1 cubic foot weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois. 
 
 The Specific Gravity of a solid body is ascertained (in ge- 
 neral) by ascertaining the difference of its weight in air and in 
 water. It may be that some substances are heavier and some 
 lighter than water. In the former case, the weight in air, then in 
 water, must be obtained, and the first quantity being divided by 
 the difference between the two quantities, the result will be the 
 specific gravity of the body. On the other hand, some sub- 
 stances are lighter than water. In that case, their weight in air 
 is united to that (in water) of a second substance applied to it to 
 make it sink, and the sum of the two reduced by the weight of 
 both in water. If we then divide the first quantity by the dif- 
 ference obtained by reduction, the result will be the specific 
 gravity of the substance. It is sometimes convenient to find the 
 specific gravity of Fluids. To do this, we must take some solid 
 substance, heavy enough to sink by its own weight in the fluid, 
 whose specific gravity we have previously ascertained, which we 
 must weigh both in the fluid and in the air. If we take the differ- 
 ence between these two weights, and multiply it by the specific 
 gravity of the solid, and divide the product by the fluid's weight 
 in the air, we shall arrive at the specific gravity of the fluid.* 
 
 " The specific gravity of a substance is, therefore, the number of 
 units of weight contained in a certain known volume or bulk of 
 it; which known volume or bulk is usually taken to be one unit 
 of the whole volume or bulk. The units of weight used in 
 measuring the specific gravity of a body, are not the same with 
 those used in determining its ordinary weight. Thus we do not 
 say that the specific gravity of a body is so many pounds in the 
 cubical foot, or inch, meaning by the term, 1 pound, the weight 
 
 * Generally speaking, it is convenient to take the rule that one cubic foot of 
 water = 1000 oz. avoirdupois. But sometimes, as above, water may be taken 
 as unit ; thus water sp. gr. 1 or 1000 ; iron 8 or 8000 ; platina, 21*5 or 21,500 
 the latter numbers expressing absolute weight in ounces of a cubic foot of the 
 substance. 
 
76' MANUAL FOR NAVAE CADETS. 
 
 of a certain quantity of water, determined as explained. But to 
 measure the specific gravity of a body, we always take, for our 
 unit of weight, the weight of a quantity of water of the same 
 volume with one unit of the volume of the body, whatever that 
 unit may be. Thus, if the volume is measured in cubic inches, 
 the unit of weight used in fixing its specific gravity is the 
 weight of one cubical inch of water. ".. . . "The specific gravity 
 of the body is, in point of fact, no other than the number 
 of cubical inches of water equal in weight to one of its cubical 
 inches. So, if the body be measured in cubical feet, its spe- 
 cific gravity is the number of cubical feet of water whose 
 weight shall equal one of its cubical feet. Thus, in the table 
 of specific gravity the number 8-900 stated as the specific 
 gravity of copper, means that each cubical inch, or cubical foot 
 of copper weighs the same with 8-900 cubical inches or cubical 
 feet of water. Thus, knowing the number of cubical feet in a 
 body, and knowing its specific gravity, we can tell how much 
 water it is equal in weight to, by multiplying their specific 
 gravity by the number of cubical feet — this specific gravity 
 being, in fact, the number of cubical feet of water equal in weight 
 to each cubical foot." * 
 
 Rule. — To determine the magnitude of any body from its 
 weight : — 
 
 Ae the specific gravity : to its weight in ounces : : 1 cubic foot 
 : its contents in cubic feet or inches. 
 
 To determine the weight from the magnitude : — 
 
 As 1 cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches : contents :: its specific 
 gravity ; weight. 
 
 * Moseley's Mechanics, 
 
STOWAGE. Y7 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 The Stowage of a ship has reference to stability, speed, easiness 
 of motion, economy of space, and convenience of access, and is, 
 therefore, a subject of the greatest importance. In the distribution 
 of the disposable weights, the first thing to be considered is the 
 Ballast. Its quantity, which is proportionate to the weight of 
 guns, masts, and other top weights, is determined by the builder 
 when designing the ship, whose form and size are so arranged 
 that she will carry the proposed quantity without being too much 
 immersed. 
 
 The purpose of ballast is to increase that quality in a, ship 
 called Stability, which enables her as much as possible to resist 
 inclination, and to recover her upright position. And as it 
 seems impossible to accomplish this without the existence of 
 some weight which will counterbalance the disturbing forces of 
 wind and water and the top hamper of the armament, the 
 supply of ballast is, in the first instance, stowed on the bottom of 
 the ship. ■ For, the weights above water are generally fixtures ; 
 whereas those below, such as water, provisions, fuel, &c., are 
 necessarily diminished by consumption. If, therefore, there 
 were no ballast, and the weights below water-level were removed 
 or reduced, the equilibrium would be dangerously affected, and 
 the ship could neither fight her guns, nor carry a sufficiency of 
 sail to be weatherly or speedy. It is true that a partial remedy 
 would be found in filling the tanks with salt water, but it must 
 be well remembered that mere immersion does not give stability. 
 With her crew sitting on the thwarts, or standing up, or seated 
 on the bottom, a sailing boat will have the same immersion, but 
 very different degrees of stability. 
 
 The VTeiebt of Ballast in modern times is much less than 
 formerly, on the idea that the increased solidity of the several 
 appliances required in a ship added miich to her stability. 
 Whether this were a correct supposition or not, other circum- 
 
78 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 stances defeated the supposed advantage. Thus, Mr. Fincham 
 observes: — "In the year 1783, the larger class of three-decked 
 ships had 340 tons of shingle, and 140 tons of iron ballast. In 
 1812, they had 60 tons of shingle and 340 tons of iron ballast ; 
 and when, some years later, iron tanks were supplied for the 
 ground tier, the use of shingle was discontinued. The extent of 
 change that has taken place may be illustrated by the ' Oaledonia,' 
 of 120 guns. In 1814 she had 340 tons of iron ballast and 60 
 tons of shingle ; and on being fitted out in 1835 she had no 
 shingle, and only 177 tons of iron ballast ; and at the present time, 
 the ballast of three-decked ships varies from 100 to 230 tons." 
 
 " Fixed rules have been given at difiPerent times to determine 
 what quantity of ballast should be used, and at present it is 
 much less than it was formerly, as the greater dimensions which 
 are now given to ships have increased their stability, whilst 
 the solidity of the timbers of the frame, chain cables, iron tanks, 
 and other heavy weights, which are now put on board ships, 
 increasing the weight below, and lowering the centre of gravity, 
 have still further added to the stability. The advantages in 
 point of stability which were thus gained, have been partially 
 lost by the recent increase in the weight of the armament 
 whieh is now borne by ships in the British navy, an increase 
 which is not wholly balanced by the greater quantity of shot and 
 shell that is stowed in the hold." * 
 
 Thus, the experiences of former times appear to be in favour 
 of ships carrying large proportions of ballast. The days of 
 St. Vincent supply instances of lengthened cruises made by ships 
 in company in large numbers. The fleet of Nelson chased across 
 the Atlantic twice, each ship holding her place^ Whether these 
 remarkable facts were the consequences of powerful stability 
 resulting from ballast, or merely those of a very h_jgh order of 
 seamanship, they are deserving of deep consideration. 
 
 As, in general, stability will be increased by increasing the 
 depth of the centre of gravity below the centre of buoyancy or 
 displacement, it may be well to define these terms. 
 
 The Centre of Gravity of any body is usually defined as that 
 point upon which the body would balance itself in any position, 
 when acted upon solely by the force of gravity. Its tendency is 
 
 * Fincham'a Outlines. 
 
STOWAGE. 79 
 
 always to assume the lowest position that it can have com- 
 patibly with the conditions in which the body is placed ; con- 
 sequently, when it is in such lowest position, the body will be in 
 stable equilibrium. 
 
 The same definition is applicable to the centre of gravity of 
 any system or combination of bodies. Suppose a rod to have 
 two equal weights, as at A and b. The point o, upon which it 
 would balance, is the common centre of gravity of those weights. 
 But if any increase or diminution of weight were to take place 
 on either side of c, the balance would be destroyed, and o would 
 no longer be the centre of gravity ; and to restore the balanocj 
 the prop must be moved towards that side where there was a 
 preponderance of weight; from which it appears that the relation 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 ■o ^ o. 
 
 between the centre of gravity and the weights on either side of it, 
 is the same as that between the fulcrum of a lever, or the point 
 of suspension of a balance and the weights which keep it in 
 equilibrium. 
 
 In scientific investigations, the centre of gravity of any body 
 or system of bodies, is used to represent the body or system 
 itself, all the mass and weight being considered as concentrated 
 at that point, and all measurements which concern their weight 
 or its eiFects being referred to that point. Thus, reverting to 
 the example above, the pressure weighing down upon the prop 
 at c is equal to the sum of the two weights A and b, and, in 
 any calculation involving the joint efiect of those weights, that 
 pressure and the point c at which it acts would be substituted 
 for the action of the individual weights. 
 
 A ship with all her weights in is, in fact, a system of bodies 
 connected together, and composed of the hull, Stores, &o., each 
 article having its centre of gravity, and the whole combined 
 having one common centre of gravity, upon which, when floating 
 at rest, the ship may be said to balance herself. 
 
80 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 But the water exerts a pressure upwards equal to the whole 
 weight of the ship. Hence, in all questions affecting the flota- 
 tion or the motions of a ship, we have to consider the effects of 
 two antagonist forces, — the weight of the ship and the pressure 
 of the water, — each of which must be treated as acting through 
 its own centre of gravity ; that of the former being called the 
 centre of gravity of system, that of the latter, the centre of 
 gravity of displacement, or immersion, or buoyancy. 
 
 A ship floating in the water, displaces a quantity of water 
 equal in weight to the whole ship and her contents, and equal in 
 bulk to that portion of her which is immersed. The result is 
 that the water,. in supporting the ship, presses upon all the part 
 which is immersed with an upward pressure equal to her weight. 
 As the surface of the part pressed upon is of an irregular shape, 
 and as all fluids exert their pressure at right angles to the 
 surface upon which they press, it follows that, in sustaining the 
 ship, the water presses in an infinite variety of directions, the 
 whole of which combined, may be represented hy a vertical line 
 passing through the centre of gravity of a body of uniform 
 density corresponding in shape and dimensions to the immersed 
 part of the hull of the ship. This line is called the Resultant of 
 the pressure of the water, and the centre of gravity through 
 which it passes, the centre of gravity of displacement. 
 
 When the ship is upright and floating at rest, these two 
 centres are in the same vertical line, the ship herself, by the 
 action of her own weight, adapting her trim so as to bring them 
 into tha;t position. But in a seaway, this state of things is 
 disturbed. The accumulation of water in the form of a wave, 
 changes the direction of the different pressures on the hull, and 
 with them the resultant of the pressure ; and the motion of the 
 ship which follows, is simply a series of efforts on her part to 
 recover her state of equilibrium or balance. For instance, a sea 
 pressing on the bow draws the resultant of the pressure further 
 forward than the centre of gravity of system. That point being 
 no longer adequately supported, sinks until a sufficient pressure 
 on her after body has been regained to bring the resultant back 
 into its old position. As the body of the sea, caiTying its 
 resultant with it, passes under the centre of gravity of system, 
 tie ship is balanced for a moment at her ordinary trim ; and as 
 it passes aft the balance is again disturbed,. and the bow sinks 
 
STOWAGE. 81 
 
 until it is again restored. The rolling motion is produced by 
 the same process. 
 
 From what has been said on the relative position of the centres 
 of gravity and displacement, it will appear, that if it be de- 
 sirable that a ship should float at a certain trim, it will be re- 
 quisite to arrange the weights in her so as to insure their common 
 centre of gravity being in a certain position. This arrangement 
 is accomplished when the sum of the moments of the weight 
 before the point determined on as the centre of gravity is equal 
 to the sum of the moments abaft it*, because the effect of any 
 weight in influencing the position of the centre of gravity is in 
 exact proportion to its distance from it ; a small weight at a 
 great distance producing the same effect as twice the weight at 
 half the distance. 
 
 If the trim of the ship were the only consideration, this 
 arrangement would be simple enough, but the effects of the 
 weights on pitching and rolling motion must also be considered. 
 It is a law in mechanics that, while the effect of a weight in merely 
 depressing or balancing the arm of a lever, is as its distance from 
 the fulcrum or axis, the momentum or power of the weight in 
 motion (as when a ship is pitching or scending) is as the square of 
 that distance. Thus, suppose 2 guns each weighing 5 tons, placed 
 the one at 40 and the other at 50 feet from the centre of gravity. 
 The moments of these guns, when the ship is at rest, will be as 
 5 X 40 = 200 to 5 X 50 = 250, their difference being 50 ; whereas 
 their momenta will be as 5x40^=8000 to 5 x 50'= 12,500, the 
 difference being 4500. These figures will give some idea of the 
 extent to which heavy weights placed at the extremities of a 
 ship may aggravate her pitching in a sea-way, and show the 
 wisdom of concentrating them as much as may be convenient. 
 
 There are many disposable weights, in the distribution of which 
 we may develop, or fail to develop, or even defeat, the design of 
 the builder; for although a ship when at rest may be apparently 
 in the best sailing irim, it does not follow that she is so in reality. 
 A certain line of flotation might be produced by stowing one half 
 of the disposable weights in the fore end, and one half in the 
 other; or the whole might be stowed in the centre. In either case 
 the ship might, according to the copper marks, be correct as to 
 
 * Tlie term " moment " meaning the product of any weight multiplied into 
 its distance from the centre of gravity. 
 
 a 
 
82 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 a stipulated measnre of draught, but the instant she entered 
 uneven water the difference in the modes of stowage would be 
 manifest. In the former case she would plunge heavily, strain 
 her fastenings, and break her cordage or machinery, and stop 
 her way; in the latter, all would be the reverse. For a ship, 
 when at rest, is not equally water-borne at all points. The 
 fuller midship sections are pressed upwards, whilst the finer 
 extremities are sustained, partly by the water and partly by 
 their connection with the central body. There is, consequently, 
 such a constant tendency in the foremost and after ends to 
 droop, that when ships are cleared of their material, it is found 
 necessary to load them with ballast, until all parts derive support 
 from the water, and thus to correct as much as possible the 
 natural inclination to " hogging." 
 
 It can easily be understood that, by stowing weights at the 
 extremities, not only is the " hogging " tendency encouraged, 
 but (when, as in a sea-way, the water has altogether receded 
 from under the fore-body and the wave has passed the centre) 
 the ship will plunge heavily until the bow meets with a material 
 resistance. In this way, the best of ships unfairly acquire an 
 unenviable reputation for pitching. 
 
 Foreseeing these possibilities, we find one architect saying, 
 " A ship badly constructed, whose faults are to be corrected by 
 stowage, will sail badly ; and that which is well constructed, 
 if badly stowed, will do no better; the. stowage, therefore, is an 
 essential, difficult, and delicate part of a ship's economy, to 
 perfect which the officers do very properly to act in concert with 
 each other."* And, another, " A ship of the best form will not 
 show her good qualities except it is at the same time well rigged, 
 well stowed, and well worked by those who command it." f 
 
 "If," writes a third, "we were to rely confidently upon all that 
 has been said of the great effects on the sailing of ships, resulting 
 from the moving of small weights, we should hardly know how to 
 limit the importance of stowage; but whilst the extent to which 
 small changes are said to affect the sailing of ships, may seem ques- 
 tionable, the fact is established beyond all dispute, that along 
 with alterations in the trim of most ships their sailing qualities 
 are altered. Experience has shown that the magnitude of such 
 
 » Du Hamel. t Chapman. 
 
STOWAGE. 83 
 
 effects depends greatly on the form, some ships being more 
 easily put out of trim than others. The investigation of the 
 subject requires yet to be pursued by practical' means, for hitherto 
 much is uncertain."* There appears to be more ground for 
 the belief in the effect of small changes on the sailing of ships 
 than this eminent architect seems prepared to admit. 
 
 The story of the difference of the speed between two horses 
 hitherto equal, arising from the circumstance of one rider having 
 inadvertently carried the key of the stable in his pocket, is cer- 
 tainly not much more incredible than the recouds of ships under 
 trial. But without contending for the possibility of speed being 
 dependent on such extreme nicety, there can be no question 
 about the tender sensibility of some ships. During one of the 
 trials between the "Barham" and "Vernon," the captain, on 
 coming on deck after a very short absence, exclaimed that there 
 was something wrong. It proved that a 5-inch hawser, which 
 had been spread on the booms- near the mainmast to dry, had 
 been in the interval reeled up near the bowsprit. On another 
 occasion, when both ships were sailing abreast on a wind, and 
 neither gaining, the men who were lying on the deck round 
 the mainmast were caused to stand up, and instantly the " Bar- 
 ham " moved ahead. The " key " to this refinement of sailing 
 quality was found on the quarter-deck ; but the principle and 
 cause of the success evidently lay in a great attention to stowage. 
 
 And this brings us to the problem of stability, or the resistance 
 of a ship to the pressure of her canvas, which is capable of the 
 same explanation as the pitching and rolling motions. 
 
 The pressure of the sails acting at their centre of effort on the 
 masts heels the ship over, and, in doing so, virtually alters the 
 shape of her immersed portion; by which alteration the resultant 
 of the pressure of the water and the position of the centre of 
 gravity of displacement are also changed. The centre of gravity 
 of system remaining fixed, the resistance to the heeling power 
 ■ is the effort of the ship to recover her state of equilibrium, and to 
 bring the two centres of gravity back into the same vertical 
 line. 
 
 In the annexed figure, A b c represents a ship heeling under 
 canvas : her centre of gravity of system being at Q i A B the 
 
 * Fincham's Outlines. 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CABETS. 
 
 water line, and d her centre of gravitj of displacement when 
 upright : d 6 her water line, and d her centre of gravity of 
 displacement when heeled over ; its position, having under- 
 gone a change consequent on the change of form from A B o 
 to o 6 c, produced by the inclination d E, is now the resultant of 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 the pressure of water. The action of the different forces may be 
 thus briefly explained. As the ship, on heeling, turns round an 
 axis passing through her centre of gravity, a a may be considered 
 as a lever, s the centre of effort of the sails pressing in the direction 
 s T to heel the ship, d the displacement (equal to the whole 
 weight of the ship) pressing upwards in the direction of the re- 
 sultant d Eto right her. 
 
 Draw o H at right angles to da. By a principle of the lever, 
 the power exerted by any force, acting obliquely on a lever, is 
 
STOWACiE. 85 
 
 proportionate to the distance from the fulcrum at which it acts, 
 that distance being measured on a line perpendicular to its line 
 of action. In the case before us, therefore, the displacement or 
 weight of the ship multiplied into G H, constitutes the force ex- 
 erted to right her. 
 
 From this it appears that the longer the line o H can be made 
 at a given angle of inclination, the greater will be the stability of 
 the ship. This may be done in two ways, 1st, by lowering the 
 centre of gravity of system, which is effected either by adding 
 to the quantity of ballast, or by lowering some of the weights 
 already existing in the ship ; 2ndly, by drawing the centre over 
 to windward, by means of shifting the ballast. 
 
 The point g illustrates the first method, and g' the second. In 
 either case a perpendicular drawn to the line d e from these 
 points would be longer than g h.* 
 
 Both these methods of increasing stability are practicable, and 
 are constantly resorted to in boats. The first, by filling the 
 breakers, and making the men sit down in the bottom of the 
 boat ; the second, by making the men sit up to windward. Of 
 the two, the former is unquestionably the safer, as the increase 
 of stability is permanent on either tack ; whereas, when the 
 latter method is adopted, if the boat should be suddenly taken 
 aback, before there is time for the men to regain their proper 
 seats, all the gain of stability on the one tack is exactly so much 
 loss of stability on the other ; and an upset must be the conse- 
 quence. This catastrophe has been known to happen in passing 
 under the stern of a ship, in a strong breeze, from the eddy wind 
 taking the sails in reverse. See article on Handling Boats. 
 
 It has been supposed that efficient stability could be given 
 under all the circumstances to which a man-of-war is subject by 
 Form alone, without any ballast; a supposition founded on the 
 results of further experiments with models. Masts were erected 
 on forms, each having different shape, but being perfectly homo- 
 geneous, and weights intended to measure their several inclina- 
 
 * The point E at which a vertical line, drawn from the true centre of gravity 
 of displacement, cuts another that has been drawn from the former one, is 
 called the niet& centre. By studying the direction of the different forces, as 
 indicated by the arrows, it will be obvious that unless this point be above the 
 centre of gravity, the vessel would upset. , 
 
 G 3 
 
86 
 
 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 tions were attached to lines, leading from the mast beads over 
 adjoining pulleys. 
 
 Fig. .34 
 
 Here we were supposed to have discovered the form for stabi- 
 lity unerringly, and amateurs flattered themselves that tbey had 
 solved a question whigh the most experienced architects have 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 admitted to be " pregnant with the most intricate difficulties ; to 
 surmount which seems to exceed the force of human under- 
 standing." 
 
STOWAGE. 87 
 
 "Fig. 34 exceeded yfj. 35 in stability, till the weights amount- 
 ed to 13| lbs., after which the excess was with fig. 35 ; 36 was 
 inferior to 34 and 35; and 37 inferior to all. Thns the power 
 applied was similar in its effects to the farce of the wind!"* 
 
 If the experimentalist had ever been in broken water, he might 
 have discovered what is well known to every coxswain of a jolly- 
 boat, that when a vessel is taken in a squall, having no way on, 
 she inclines much more at first than she does after gathering 
 way; and this is such a practical illustration of what Clairbois 
 himself says on this very point that it seems unnecessary to 
 argue on the unprofitable nature of all such experiments and the 
 utter fallacy of the conclusions which have been drawn from 
 them. " There is a Hydrostatic or Theoretic stability, which is 
 only true when the ship has no progressive motion, yet under 
 other circumstances, it differs widely from the Hydrodynamic or 
 Practical stability." f In the above case, stability is considered 
 with reference to only one disturbing element, the wind ; but 
 the effects of water in motion are entirely overlooked. In fact, 
 experiments made in cisterns, however interesting in a lecture- 
 room, and successful in Virginia Water, are inapplicable to the 
 rough practice of seafaring vessels. How far the stability or 
 general efficiencies of a ship should be derived from weight, a^id 
 how far from form, is a question which must be decided by judg- 
 ment and experience gathered under canvas. The laws by 
 which their action is regulated, and the manner in which their 
 influence may be augmented or diminished, constitute a depart- 
 ment of knowledge in which every sea officer should be well 
 grounded. 
 
 The following Table will convey an idea of the effects which 
 may be produced by moving certain weights through different 
 spaces. It gives the weight which it will be necessary to move a 
 distance of 40 feet, either aft or forwards, in order to produce an 
 alteration of 1 foot in the trim of the ship. 
 
 * Experiments by Mr. Gorge, mentioned in Charnock's History of Marine 
 Architecture. Since making tlie above lemarks, a recent number of the Me- 
 chanics' Magazine criticises some repetitions of these experiments. 
 
 t Clairbois' Treatise on Naval Architecture, translated by Captain Strange, 
 K.N. 
 
 O 4 
 
88 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Class of Vessel and Number 
 of Guns. 
 
 Length, 
 feet. 
 
 Breadth, 
 feet. 
 
 Weight to he 
 moved a dis- 
 tance of 40 
 feet. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1st Rate - - 120 
 
 306 
 
 55 
 
 112 
 
 2nd Bate - 84 
 
 193 
 
 52 
 
 90 
 
 4th Kate - - 60 
 
 174 
 
 44 
 
 58 
 
 5th Bate - 46 
 
 160 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 6th Rate - 28 
 
 120 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 Sloop - - 18 
 
 112 
 
 31 
 
 14* 
 
 The most certain mode however of preserving trim, is by 
 use of the Water Level. A leaden pipe bent upwards at both 
 ends is let into the lower deck beams under the planking, in a 
 fore and aft line, as nearly amidships as the hatchways will 
 permit, the ends are terminated with glass tubes, which are gra- 
 duated, and for greater security brought up alongside some 
 convenient stanchion. On the tube being filled, the water rises 
 to its level at each end, and the ship's most perfect trim marked 
 off when she is perfectly still. 
 
 Any subsequent alterations in the trim, either from expenditure 
 of stores, or variations of wind, are immediately denoted by the 
 levels, and may be at once rectified by the movement of dispos- 
 able weights, such as shot, any number of men, &c., so that at 
 sea, when it would be impossible to discover the trim by the 
 copper marks, it may be thus ascertained without difficulty j 
 and the effects of alterations in the force of the wind, otherwise 
 imperceptible, are declared by the amount of pressure by the 
 head, indicated by the level, f 
 
 This instrument will appear the more valuable when it is 
 remembered that, on carrying a press of sail, a, ship always 
 settles considerably by the head ; and that unless this tendency 
 be corrected by moving weights from the fore-body, (supposing 
 the sails to be well trimmed,) the increased resistance will neu- 
 tralise the propelling force. For although, as a general rule, 
 the gain by carrying a press of sail is little as compared with 
 the risk, yet there are times when that little might be of much 
 
 * Crueze on Naval Architecture. 
 
 t In the absence of a better, a temporary level may be constructed with a 
 length of good hose. 
 
STOWAGE. 89 
 
 consequence ; and we should be prepared, not only with good 
 gear to press on with, but with a good instrument to inform us 
 that speed is undiminished, if not increased. 
 
 Few things are more fallacious than the appearance of speed 
 which a vessel's movement presents. Judging from the quantity 
 of water dashed from her bows, and the noise made by her pas- 
 sage through the waves, one would infer a high rate of progress. 
 But it is found that all this time the ship's bows are unduly 
 depressed, and that the commotion of the water, supposed to 
 be evidence of speed, is, in fact, only evidence to more water 
 being displaced than is necessary. Thus, in a ship of the " Bar- 
 ham's " length and size, the depression has occasionally amounted 
 to 18 inches j the remedy adopted being, not that of reducing 
 sail at the expense of propelling power, but of adjusting trim, 
 and that by the help of the instrument described. 
 
 In treating on the subject of fluid resistance. Dr. Arnott ob- 
 serves : — "A boat which moves one mile an hour displaces a 
 certain quantity of water, and with a certain velocity ; if it move 
 twice as fast, it of course displaces twice as much water, and 
 requires to be moved by twice the force on that account ; but it 
 also displaces every particle with a double velocity, and requires 
 another doubling of the power on this account : the power then 
 being doubled on two accounts, becomes a power of four. In 
 the same manner with a speed of three, three times as many 
 particles are moved, and each particle with three times the 
 velocity; therefore, a force of nine is wanted to produce it ; and 
 so for a speed of four, a powerof sixteen is wanted ; and for a 
 speed of five, a power of twenty-five. The corresponding num- 
 bers, up to a speed of 10, are shown in the following table: — 
 
 Speed - - - 123456789 10 
 Corresponding resistance 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 
 
 So that the force of 100 horses would only drag a boat 10 times 
 as fast as the force of one horse. Arithmeticians express the 
 relation shown in this table, by saying ihat the power required to 
 move a body in a fluid increases as the square of the speed." 
 
 " If an engine of 49 or 50-horse power would drive a boat 
 7 miles an hour, two engines of 50, or one of 100, would be re- 
 quired to drive it 10 miles, and three such would only di'ive it 
 12 miles. For the same reason, if all the coal which a ship 
 
90 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 could conveniently carry were just sufficient to drive her 1000 
 miles, at the rate of 12 miles per hour, it would drive her 3000 
 at the rate of 7 miles per hour; and nearly 6000 at the rate of 5 
 miles per hour." * 
 
 These remarks are not only interesting, but strictly practical : 
 for they go to prove that, supposing we can counteract the 
 tendency to settle by the head, and preserve trim, we shall beat 
 another ship if we can out-carry her. 
 
 BALLAST 
 
 Is of iron in "pigs,'' of different weight and dimensions, cast with 
 a hole in each end. 
 
 No. to a 
 ton. 
 
 Length, 
 ft. m. 
 
 Breadth, 
 ft. in. 
 
 Depth, 
 ft. in. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Qrs.; 
 
 Lb». 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 2 S 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 1 6 
 
 6 
 
 4i 
 4| 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 1 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 5 
 
 5| 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 TANKS. 
 
 The Tanks are selected from the results of measurements made 
 with a skeleton frame, the intervening spaces being filled in with 
 battens, as they are stowed and chintzed. They are slung for 
 hoisting by a toggle in the manhole ; but the motaent it can be 
 dispensed with, the lid is shipped, so as to exclude dirt. When 
 the bottom (the ground tier) is stowed, the others follow. 
 
 Whilst watering, the rod of the pump is a useful correction for 
 a careless officer in the holds : often when the tank has delivered 
 100 tons, the greatest quantity of the water has, from neglect in 
 shifting the hoses, found its way to the Bilge8.f 
 
 * Elements of Fhyeics. 
 
 + The state of the well should be regularly reported in harbour, just as at 
 sea. Not very long since, a ship nearly ready for sea was found on a Sunday 
 afternoon with the holds full of water. The first lieutenant, who had no 
 superior in the serf ice, was (for once) out of the ship, and his deputy had ueg. 
 lected this customary duty. 
 
STOWAGE. 
 TAKKS. (,Fig. 38.) 
 
 91 
 
 i* 
 
 \. ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 N°l 
 
 : 600 GALLS. 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 S 
 
 \ 
 
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 BOO 
 
 
 V 
 
 
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 CD 
 
 N. 
 
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 N9 3 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
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 3.7 
 200 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^■. 
 
 •cd" 
 
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 N9 10 
 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 / 
 
 
 ^ 
 
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 \ \ \ 
 
 CD 
 
 ■\^ 
 
 N° 9 
 
 100 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \! 
 
 K°4 
 
 £00 
 
 ^K;.' "^^ 
 
 \s 
 
 1 1 ; 
 
 3.7 
 
 N9 II 
 264 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 Sj^ 
 
 \/ 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 IHl 
 
 / 
 
 
 \. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \^ 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 "■--,, 
 
 ■ "^^.-,1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 ?fii 
 
 C=? _ 
 
 ^ 
 
 : 1 
 
 SO 
 GALL? 
 
 
 >>^ 
 
 \l 
 
 G 
 
 30 
 
 'T^- 
 
 :*?=■::: 
 
 V 
 
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 N9I2 
 110 
 
 ) 
 
92 MANUAX FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 MECHANICAL POWEBS. 
 
 Mechanics is the science which treats of forces applied to bodies 
 either directly, or through the agency of some machine. 
 
 Any cause which alters, or tends to alter a body's state of rest 
 or motion, is called a Force. 
 
 The force with which we are most familiar, is that which 
 attracts every body on the earth's surface towards its centre, and 
 which causes the body, if free, to more towards that point ; and 
 if restrained, to press against the obstacle which prevents its 
 motion. This force is called Gravity. The amount of the pressure 
 exerted by different bodies varies with their magnitude. Thus, 
 the pressure exerted by a mass of lead containing 2 cubic feet, is 
 twice as great as that of a mass containing only 1 cubic foot. 
 Gravity is a uniform force, or in other words, exerts the same 
 influence on all bodies which contain the same amount of matter. 
 The pressure actually exerted by a heavy body in consequence 
 of its tendency to fall to the earth is called its Gravitation ; and 
 that which is exerted by a certain definite bulk is called a Pound. 
 All forces may be measured by the number of pounds weight 
 which they could sustain if applied in a direction opposite to that 
 of gravity, i. e. vertically upwards. 
 
 Besides the magnitude, it is necessary to take into considera- 
 tion the Direction of a force. By this is meant the straight 
 line in which it' tends to move the body, if free, and not coun- 
 teracted by any other force. Thus, if a force is produced by a 
 thrust of a rod, its magnitude is measured by the number of 
 pounds weight it would support if it were to act vertically 
 upward ; and its direction is that of the rod's length. 
 
 Forces applied to a body are said to be in equilibrium, when 
 the body," if originally at rest, still remains so after their applica- 
 tion, or, if in motion, continues to move in the same manner as 
 before, or as if they had not been applied at all. 
 
 Velocity is the degree of quickness or slowness of a body's 
 motion ; and, if uniform, is measured by the number of feet 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 93 
 
 described in a Unit of time. The units of time usually employed 
 are a Second and a Minute. The latter is the unit generally 
 employed when the motion of machines is considered. 
 
 The principal Moving Powers are the physical force of men and 
 animals (or living agents) ; the expansive force of steam and 
 gunpowder ; the action of water, and of wind ; and the elastic 
 force of metals when formed as springs. 
 
 Always directing motion, it is absolutely necessary that an 
 officer should know how (without overtasking) to apply the 
 " moving powers " to the greatest possible advantage, as well as 
 to form a right estimate of " work." 
 
 Great care must be taken to have a clear understanding of 
 the proper meaning of the term poweri as used in matters of 
 science. It is quite distinct from strength, or force, or pressure. 
 It always has reference to a quantity of work performed, or 
 which could be performed. Por instance, if it be said that a 
 man can lift off the ground a piece of iron of 300 pounds weight, 
 there is no information as to the power of a man — speaking 
 scientifically — conveyed by the knowledge of this fact, which 
 merely indicates his strength. But if it were stated how many such 
 pieces he lifted to a given height, and placed upon a truck in an 
 hour or in a minute, the amount of work which he performed 
 would then be known, and this would be the measure of his 
 power. 
 
 If one man loaded a truck with pieces of iron weighing 300 
 pounds each, and another man had to perform a similar duty 
 with pieces of 150 pounds each, the latter must lift double the 
 number of pieces to do the same amount of work. In this 
 case each of these pieces must have been raised from the ground 
 to the truck in half the time of the others ; that is, two lifts for 
 one must have been made. The quickness with which the 
 weights were lifted is called the Velocity with which they have 
 travelled, and this, in the case of the light weights, was double 
 that of the heavy ; and hence half the weight, raised with double 
 the velocity, gives the same amount of work done within the 
 same space of time, and the same amount of power is said to have 
 been exerted. 
 
 In a similar manner, let it be supposed that a man in a given 
 lime raises 10 pieces of iron, each weighing 300 pounds, that is 
 3000 pounds in all, 1 foot high, and that another man raises one 
 
94 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 of these pieces in 10 lifts one above another, each of 1 foot high, 
 that is 10 feet in all, this will be the same number of equal lifts, 
 and the two men will have done an equal amount of work. If 
 the weights raised be multiplied respectively by the distances to 
 which they have been raised, the result will be the power ; that 
 is, the same amount of power is exerted to raise 300 pounds 10 
 feet high, 3000 pounds 1 foot high, or 1 pound 3000 feet high. 
 
 Moreover, the work done by men and animals varies according 
 to the manner in which they exert their strength ; and in con- 
 sequence of their difference of form a general comparison is 
 impossible. A man can carry a weight equal to his own, and 
 yet his average force when thrusting at the height of the chest 
 is reckoned at but 30 pounds. A horse cannot draw up a hill 
 as much as three men could carry up the same ; yet on a level 
 road he would draw as much as seven men could. And either 
 of these agents might, by a single great effort, perform a piece of 
 work, and becoming exhausted, be unfit for further labour; whilst 
 another, by a series of moderate ones, might in due time effect 
 as great a result. So that physical force being intermittent, it 
 can only be estimated by its effects ; and hence it is that time 
 becomes an essential part of the consideration, the question 
 embracing, not merely the amount of action, but also the time in 
 which it is developed. 
 
 Weight and time, and height or distance, being then inter- 
 changeable with each other, it will easily be understood that it 
 becomes a convenient mode of expressing the power of a man or 
 horse, to say that one man or one horse can raise a given 
 number of pounds one foot high in one minute. 
 
 A Vnlt of work represents the labour required to raise 1 lb. 
 weight through the space of 1 foot, and has the same relation to 
 work as a foot (which is the measure of space) has to distance, 
 or a pound to weight. The labour expended in raising a body 
 is found by multiplying the weight of the body in pounds by 
 the space in feet through which it is raised. Supposing a man 
 to raise a weight of 1 pound 1 foot high, he does a unit of work ; 
 if he lifted a weight of 160 pounds 30 feet high, he would have 
 performed 4800 units of work, or (according to the above rule) 
 160x30 = 4800. 
 
 Again, if a man handed thirty 32-pound shot over the gun- 
 wale of a boat, 1 foot high, he would perform 960 units of 
 
MECHAOTCAL POWERS. 95 
 
 work. Say that he handed at the rate of one shot a second, and 
 that another man worked at the same rate with a luff gigger and 
 net filled for him with three shot at a hoist, the second man 
 would only perform the same number of units of work ; for 
 whilst the force of the first man was exerted through a space of 
 1 foot in a certain time, that of the other was exerted through 
 three times the space of 1 foot in the same time. In other wordsj 
 one would hand through 1 foot, and the other would haul through 
 3 feet of the tackle fall. 
 
 Again, if a man carry a 56-pound shot, at the rate of three 
 miles an hour, and another of 42 pounds at the rate of four 
 miles, the effect would be the same, viz. 168. 
 
 In the application of physical force, the individual weight of 
 the agent must be considered as well as his muscular force. 
 
 If a man be 150 pounds weight, and he went 40 feet up the 
 rigging, and let himself down in a bowline knot on the end of a 
 single whip, the other end being fast to a weight somewhat 
 lighter than his own, he would raise that weight 40 feet, and 
 perform a number of units of work equal to the number of pounds 
 in that weight multiplied by 40. If the end, however, were 
 made fast to some machinery (such, for instance, as the barrel of 
 a winch to which some weight was attached) the efficiency of 
 the force employed would be 150 x 40 = 6000, and this can be 
 caused to raise a weight of 6 pounds through a space of 1000 
 feet, or a weight of 1000 pounds through a space of 6 feet, or a 
 weight of 6000 pounds through a space of 1 foot. For the me- 
 chanical effect produced by a machine is measured by the work 
 done in a given time, or by the product of the force exerted, 
 and the distance gone through in a unit of time in the direction 
 of that force. 
 
 But, in thus making use of a man's individual weight, it must 
 be observed that, except whilst raising his body, his muscular 
 force is at rSst ; whereas in moving about whilst labouring, (as 
 in working the capstan or " walking away " with a tackle fall or 
 single rope,) he exerts his strength, both in thrusting or hauling, 
 in addition to carrying his body ; and the more nearly that is a 
 load to him, the less can he do in addition. So that, when we can 
 have a choice in the mode of application, it behoves us to consider 
 how to place our men at their work. "The very best and most 
 effectual posture in a man is that of rowing, wherein he not only 
 
96 MAinJAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 acts with more muscles at once for overcoming the resistance 
 than in any other position, hut as he pulls backwards, the 
 weight of his body assists by way of lever." * 
 
 This remark will, of course, apply to the case of men "facing 
 their work " at a " standing pull," for if we can place them with 
 their feet hearing against any fixture, we have just the same pos ■ 
 ture. 
 
 " The mean effect of the labour of an active man, working to 
 the greatest possible advantage, and without impediment, is 
 found, upon a moderate estimation, sufficient to raise 10 pounds, 
 10 feet in a second, for ten hours in a day ; or 100 pounds I foot 
 in a second, or 36,000 feet in a day, or 3,600,000 pounds 1 foot 
 in a day." f 
 
 The Motive Powers are augmented, regulated, and directed by 
 machinery of different descriptions. By these mechanical con- 
 trivances, a small force is enabled to overcome a great resistance, 
 or raise a great weight, as in the case of Tackles, Levers, Screws, 
 Wedges, and Cog-wheels whose circumferences bear upon axles 
 of other wheels. Intermittent motion is converted into uniform 
 motion, as in the case of the balance wheel of the land steam 
 engine: continuous motion is obtained, as in the case of the 
 rotatory leverage of the capstan ; great velocity is generated, as 
 in the case of the common spinning-wheel, or driving wheel 
 of some steam engines, where the circumference of a large wheel 
 acts upon that of a smaller one ; and the moving force is made 
 to impart motion to a weight in a direction different from that in 
 which the force itself moves, as in the case of leading blocks, of 
 tackle falls, or the cranks, side levers, eccentric, &c. of the engine. 
 
 But these, and many other advantages afforded by machinery, 
 cannot be obtained without proportionate disadvantage j for 
 what is gained In force is lost in velocity or time ; and what is 
 gained in speed or time is lost in force ; or, which is the same 
 thing, when force is economised, it is at the expense of time ; 
 and, when time is saved, force is expended. This is a law in 
 mechanics ; and as power is compounded of the weight or mass 
 of a moving body, multiplied into its velocity, it is evident that 
 there is no increase of power properly so called in the agency of 
 machinery. 
 
 In moving a great weight, a small force moves through a 
 » Desaguliers. t Engineers' Pocket-Book. 
 
MECHANICAL POWKKS. 
 
 97 
 
 space as many times greater than that through which the weight 
 moves, as the weight is greater than the force ; or, the rate at 
 which the weight is moved is so many times slower than that at 
 which the force moves, as the weight is greater than the force. In 
 generating a rapid velocity, the force moves through a space as 
 many times less than that through which the weight moves, as 
 the force is greater than the weight. And in varying the direc- 
 tion of motion, a greater quantity of the force is consumed in 
 overcoming friction, than would he the case did it act directly 
 on the weight or resistance. 
 
 The Lever, Wheel and axle, Pulley, Inclined Plane, Wedge, 
 and Screw, arc commonly called the Mechanical Powers. 
 
 The Wheel and axle, and Pulley, arc varieties of the Lever, 
 and the Wedge and Screw of the Inclined Plane. In their 
 separate condition, they are " simple machines," and when any 
 number of them are combined, they form a Compound machine. 
 
 LETER. 
 
 Xevers are of three kinds. When the fulcrum is between the 
 force and the weight, the lever is of the first order. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 Such is the steelyard (Jig. 45), or pump brake, or the hand- 
 spike as it is used in " raising " the breech of a gun at the order 
 " Elevate." (Fig. 40.) 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
98 
 
 MANITAI. FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 When the weight is between the fulcrum and the force, the 
 lever is of the second order. {Fig. 41.) 
 
 Z 
 
 n 
 
 Such is an oar, or a handspike as used in " pointing " a gun. 
 
 (Fig. 42.) 
 
 ^ " Fig. 42. 
 
 When the force is between the fulcrum and the weight, the 
 lever is of the third order. (,Fig. 43.) 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 b^ 
 
 wQ 
 
 Such is the foot-board of a turning lathe. 
 
 The steering wheel acts as a lever both of the first and second 
 order. (,Fig. 44.) 
 
 " Of whatever kind the lever may be, the conditions of equi- 
 librium of the power and weight will be such that they are 
 inversely as their distances from the fulcrum, this being the 
 general condition of equilibrium for all machines which turn 
 round a fixed axis. It follows, therefore, that in the above 
 figures we shall have f : w, : fa : eb ; or, if ^ express the distance 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 99 
 
 of the power from the fulcrum, and w the distance of the weight 
 from the fulcrum, we shall have F : -w: : w : p, or, which is the 
 same, p xp=w x w. 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 " This statement is a repetition of the general principle aifecting 
 machines which turn on an axis, in virtue of which, forces upon 
 them are in equilibrium, when their moments round the axle are 
 equal. The moment of the power is p x p, and the moment of 
 the weight is w x w. The tendency of the power to turn the 
 lever round its fulcrum in the direction of the power, is expressed 
 by the moment p x p, and the tendency of the weight to turn 
 the lever in the contrary direction is expressed by w x w." * 
 
 The distance of the force from the fulcrum is called its 
 Leverage ; and the effects of force will be proportional to its 
 leverage. Thus, if we remove the force to double its distance 
 from the fulcrum, its effect will be doubled; or to half its distance 
 we shall diminish its effect to one half. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 *' Hand-book of Natural Philosophy. 
 E 2 
 
 Engineers' Pocket Book. 
 
100 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 If we suppose the hook of the short arm of the figure to be 
 one inch from the centre of support, E a pound weight on the 
 long arm will always balance as many pounds suspended at 
 the short arm, as the pound is removed inches from the ful- 
 crum, supposing it to be slung horizontal ; thus in the figure 
 1 balances 4, 
 
 To ascertain the proportionate length of leverage necessary to 
 
 support a weight in equilibrium with a lever of the first order, 
 
 divide the weight to be raised by the force to be applied, and the 
 
 quotient will be the required proportion. Por instance : — Required 
 
 the proportionate length of leverage to balance a weight of 3 tons, 
 
 with a force equal to 12 cwt? Then 3tons = 60 cwt.sa=5. Here 
 
 the long arm is 5, and the short 1, inches, feet, or yards, as the 
 
 case may be, and an additional pound will raise the weight. 
 
 But, although this is effected by a force of only one fifth of the 
 
 weight, no " power " is gained, for the weight passes through 
 
 only one fifth of the space which the force does. The products, 
 
 therefore, arising from the multiplication of the respective weights 
 
 and velocities are the same. 
 
 Example 2. — A weight of 1 ton is to be balanced with a lever 
 
 8 feet in length, by a force of 4 cwt. ; required at what part of 
 
 the lever the fulcrum must be placed ? 
 
 20 cwt. , . , 
 
 ^ j.^^ =5 ; that is, the weight is to the power as 5 to 1 ; 
 
 o 
 
 therefore, = li foot, from the weight. 
 
 Example 3. — A weight of 40 pounds is placed 1 foot from 
 
 the fulcrum of a lever : required the power to balance the same 
 
 when the length of the lever on the other side of the fulcrum is 
 
 40 X 1 
 5 feet ? — z — = 8 pounds. — Answer. 
 
 (2.) When the fulcrum is at one extremity of the lever, and the 
 force at the other, let this rule be adopted : As the length of the 
 lever is to the distance between the weight and the fulcrum, so 
 is the weight to the force. 
 
 Example 1. — Required the force necessary to balance 120 
 pounds, when the weight is placed 6 feet from the force, and two 
 feet from the fiilcrum. 
 
 As 8 : 2 : : 120 : so.— Answer. 
 
 Example 2.— A beam 20 feet in length, and supported at 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 101 
 
 both ends, bears a weight of 2 tons at the distance of 8 feet from 
 
 one end, required the weight on eaoh support. ^ — — = 
 
 £\) leet 
 
 1 6 cwt. on the support that is furthest from the weight ; and 
 — ^ — =24 cwt. on the support nearest to the weight. 
 
 This lever shows the reason why two men carrying a burthen 
 (as a cask upon a pole) between them may hear unequal shares 
 of weight in reference to their strength. If the pole were 8 feet 
 long, and the cask 1 cwt., placed in the centre, each man will 
 bear 56 pounds ; but if placed 5 times nearer one man than the 
 other, the former will bear 5 times as much as the latter. Or 
 if the men were 12 feet apart; the cask being 240 pounds, and 4 
 feet from the first man, he will sustain twice as much as the 
 other : the first carrying 160 pounds, and the second 80 pounds, 
 for 160x4 = 80x8. 
 
 (3.) When the weight to be raised is at one end of the lever, 
 the fulcrum at the other, and the force is applied between them. 
 
 Rule. — As the distance between the force and the fulcrum is 
 to the length of the lever, so is the weight to the force. 
 
 Example. — The length of the lever being 8 feet, and the 
 weight at its extremity 60 pounds, required the force to be 
 applied 6 feet from the fulcrum to balance it. 
 
 As 6 : 8 : : 60 : 80 pounds. — Answer. 
 
 " A combination consisting of several levers acting one upon 
 another, as represented in the figure, is called a Compound lever. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 pi A p-' ^ pi A^^ 
 
 " The force at p produces an upward pressure at p', which bears 
 to p the same proportion as p' r to p f. Therefore, the efiect 
 at p', is as many times the force as the line P p is of p' p. Thus, 
 if p p be ten times p' f, the upward pressure at p' is ten times 
 the force. The arm p' f' of the second lever is pressed upwards 
 by a force equal to ten times that at p. In the same-manner 
 this may be shown to produce an effect at p" as many times 
 greater than p' as p' p' is greater than p" p". 
 
 " Thus, if p' p' be twelve times p" p", the effect at p" will be, 
 H 3 
 
102 MANUAI- FOE NATAl CADETS. 
 
 twelve times that of p'. But this last, was ten times the force, 
 and therefore p" will be 120 times the force. In the same 
 manner, it may he shown that the weight w is as many times 
 greater than the effect at p", as p" p" is greater than w f". If 
 p" p" be five times w p", the weight will be five times the 
 effect at p". But this effect is 120 times the force, and therefore 
 the weight would be 600 times the force. 
 
 " In the same manner the effect of any compound system of 
 levers may be ascertained by taking the proportion of the weight 
 to the force on each lever separately, and multiplying these 
 numbers together. 
 
 "In the above example, these proportions are ID, 12, and 5, 
 which, multiplied together, give 600. The levers are of the 
 first kind ; but the principles of the calculation will not be 
 altered if they be of the second or third, or some be of one kind 
 and some of another." * 
 
 ■WHEEL AND AXLE. 
 
 "Whatever advantage may be gained by the combined action 
 of lever upon lever, their applications involve so many incon- 
 veniences as to render such contrivances unfit for many purposes. 
 The same results are however obtained by the 'Wriieel and azl^, 
 which acts as a revolving lever, imparting a continuous, instead 
 ef an intermittent motion ; economising space, and possessing the 
 same mechanical properties as the straight lever. For thci 
 radius of the wheel is the long arm of the lever, and that of the 
 axle, the short one : the centre of the axle being the fulcrum.f 
 Moreover, the circumferences of different circles bear the same 
 proportion to each other, as their respective diameters do; conse- 
 quently the advantage gained is in proportion as the circum- 
 f«reniee or diameter of the wheel is greater than that of the axle, 
 and when the force acting on the cireumference of the wheel is 
 to the weight, as the radius of the axle (or barrel) is to that of 
 the wheel (say spoke or capstan bar), the force and weight will 
 
 * Hand-Book of Philosophy 
 
 t This will serve to explain the connection between short tillers and small 
 barrelled steering wheels ; as well as show the objection to cutting capstan 
 bars for the salce of convenience in stowage, or on account of their length inr 
 terfering with guns or bulkheads. 
 
MECHANICAI> POWERS. 
 
 103 
 
 be balanced. If the semi-diameter of the wheel in the figure be 
 six times greater than that of the barrel, the weight or resistance 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 ■will be balancea by a force of one sirth of its amount. But what 
 is gained in force is lost in time, for the force must move through 
 six times the space as the weight, and the weight rise or move 
 slower in proportion. 
 
 In the Capstan, the axle is placed vertically, the wheel, 
 (or levers, or bars,) moving horizontally. Its power is to be 
 estimated just as above mentioned. Its great utility consists in 
 its position, enabling us to apply force at every lever at the same 
 time.' 
 
 Let^^. 47 be a capstan, the semi-diameter of whose barrel 
 is 2 feet, the bars, 14 in number, being 14 feet long. We have 
 here a simple machine; and by applying any of the motive 
 powers to the extremity of its bar or bars, that power is made to 
 operate with seven-fold effect. 
 
 The force or useful effect of a man performing work by thrust- 
 ing at the height of the chest is 30 pounds. Hence, if we place 
 one man at the end of each bar, we have the means of sustaining 
 a weight or resistance which is equal to 2940 pounds.* 
 
 If the weight or resistance were greater than 7 times the 
 power, we must either put on more hands or more machinery. 
 The main-yard, for instance, is 5 tons; but if we reeve five 
 parts of gears, a power of 1 ton on the fall would balance it. 
 If we take the fall to the capstan, 420 pounds, or the force of 
 
 * By the term '* useful effect " is meant the degree of force which a man 
 or brute can maintain throughout a worlting day, ■* 
 
 H 4 
 
10-t MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 14 men at tlie tar ends, would balance it, and if we add 14 more 
 men, they could raise it with ease. 
 
 It may often he difficult if not impossible to compute the 
 amount of weight or resistance we have to contend with ; hut 
 we are always able to calculate the amount of our moving 
 power, and it may be useful to know how to do so. Say that 
 we place 5 men at each bar, we have then a physical force 
 equal to 2l00 pounds; but we must no longer consider the 
 machine as one affording a seven-fold advantage; for, giving 
 each man 2 feet elbow room, the leverage of the outside circle of 
 men would be as 7 to 1 ; the second would be as 6 ; the third as 
 5; the fourth as 4; and the fifth as 3 to 1. Now, to ascertain 
 the total amount of this combination of manual force and 
 mechanical power, we may either multiply the former by the 
 mean of the leverage, or multiply the force of each circle of men 
 by their respective leverages. * 
 
 Leverages 7 Number of men 70 
 
 „ 6 Force of each 30 pounds 
 
 „ 5 
 
 „ 4 2100 pounds 
 
 3 5 
 
 5)25 10,500 pounds 
 
 Mean 
 
 420x7 = 2940 pounds 
 420 X 6 = 2520 pounds 
 420x5=2100 pounds 
 420 X 4 = 1680 pounds 
 420x3 = 1260 pounds 
 
 10,500 pounds 
 
 Thus we see that with such a capstan 70 men may move a 
 weight of about 4J tons, connected with the barrel by a single 
 
 * In the event of placing an extra hand at each swifter, their force, 29401bs., 
 must be added to,these results; or in using the second mode of calculation, 
 the force of the outer circle of bands ma; be counted as 840x7=5880. 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 105 
 
 rope or chain, a task Tvhich -would require the force of 350 men 
 to accomplish if unaided by machinery. 
 
 But in the capstan, as in other machines, there are dis- 
 advantages as well as advantages ; for in moving the weight 
 (say 12 feet) the capstan must make one round turn, and the 
 70 men must exert their force through an average space of 60 
 feet and 60 units of time ; whereas the 350 men in moving the 
 weight 12 feet, would only exert their force thi'ough that space 
 and a similar number of units of time. In the first of these 
 cases, force is economised at the expense of time and space. In 
 the latter, time and space are gained, but at the expense of force. 
 
 It should be observed that while an equal share of work fell 
 on each of the 350 men, the inside men at the bars carried the 
 weight of their bodies through 36 feet, and the outside men 
 theirs through 84 feet, so that in long heaves we should frequently 
 " change rounds." • 
 
 In the Patent Capstan, the drum-head is connected with the 
 barrel by moveable bolts, and when these are down, the whole 
 machine revolves together as in the case of one of common con- 
 struction ; but when greater power is 
 required, the bolts are withdrawn, and '"' 
 
 the wheel- work shown in the figure 
 (Jig. 48.) is thrown into gear. The 
 leaves on the spindle act on cog 
 wheels, which act upon an annular 
 wheel on the barrel; the spindle and 
 barrel revolve in opposite directions, 
 the former making 1 turn whilst the 
 latter makes 3, affording a gain of 
 3 to 1. 
 
 By means of cogs or teeth, the axle of one wheel is brought 
 
 * In thrusting, as at the capstan, it is the muscular force more than the in- 
 dividual weight which tells, especially when the drum is placed high, and 
 the men are short ; as is evident from the attitude. Some French ships 
 have thicker drums, and 2 tier of bars, on the lower of which the shorter men 
 are stationed ; so that the force is not only well to the full extent of the lever, 
 but suitably arranged as to height. 
 
 One power, so important as to deserve the name of a prime mover, must 
 not be forgotten, and that is the fiddler ; but for work which is intermittent, 
 such as anchor work, to be a good one, he must have graduated at the Bars, 
 else be will not understand how to keep step, or modify and excite pace. 
 
106 
 
 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 to bear on the circumference of another on the same principle 
 as that which obtains in a combination of levers, and the 
 conditions of equilibrium are also similar. 
 
 The convenience of this combination ■will be comprehended 
 by bearing in mind, that If, for example, we want to raise 
 or move a weight through the space of 100 feet with as small 
 an exertion of force as 1 pound, that force must move through a 
 space of 100 feet, by whatever kind of machine we may employ. 
 Now, it is more convenient to describe 50 circles of 2 feet in 
 circumference with the arm, than to make one great vertical 
 stroke of a lever of 100 feet, or move round a circle 100 feet in 
 circumference with a horizontal one. Such a combination of 
 wheels is called a Train. The cogs on the surface of the wheels 
 are usually called teeth ; those on the axle, leaves ; and the axle 
 having leaves, the pinion. "When arranged, as in fig. 49, the 
 power is said to be Concentrated. 
 
 If the diameter of all the axles be multiplied together, and 
 also that of all the wheels be multiplied together, then the power 
 
 will be to the weight as the product of the axles is to that of 
 the wheels. Or the conditions of equilibrium may be obtained 
 by multiplying together the number of teeth on all the wheels, 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 107 
 
 and the number on all' the pinions, the power being on the 
 weight as the product of the latter is to the former.* 
 
 Leaves on the axle b of the first wheel a act on teeth on the 
 circumference of the second wheel e ; and as there are six times 
 as many teeth as there are leaves, e is turned once for every six 
 turns of a. In the same manner e, in turning six times, turns f 
 once ; therefore, the first wheel turns 36 times for one turn of the 
 last ; and as the diameter of a (to which the power is applied) is 
 3 times as great as that of the axle d (which has the resistance), 
 three times 36, or 108, is the difference of intensity between 
 weights or forces that will balance here. 
 
 When great velocity is required, the circumference of a large 
 cog wheel is made to act on that of the axle or rim of a smaller 
 one, in which case the power is said to be diffused. Were there 
 48 teeth on the rim of the larger wheel and 16 on the smaller, 
 one revolution of the former would produce three of the latter, and 
 in a train thus arranged, it is evident that the wheel farthest from 
 the force would move with the greatest rapidity. The extent of 
 motion that can thus be obtained, may be comprehended by 
 studying the number of revolutions made by the second hands 
 of a watch, or those of a driving wheel when used with the 
 propeller shaft. 
 
 Tackles {Jig. 50) are named according to the number of blocks 
 employed; and the arrangement and size of gear. The rope 
 rove is the Fall ; the part made fast the Standing part : and the 
 parthauled on, the running part, or end, or frequently also the fall. 
 
 Small tackles are usually called Jiggers; larger ones Barton's ; 
 still larger. Luffs; a heavy tackle or combination of such is a, 
 Purchase. A rope rove through a single fixed block is a whip, as 
 infig. 50, No. 1. Rove through a single moveable block, a Double 
 whip : this on a large scale is a Runner, as in Nos. 2. and 16. 
 Rove through two single blocks, the upper one being fixed, a 
 double whip, as in No 3. Rove through two single blocks, the 
 upper one being moveable, a Gun-tackle purchase, as in No. 11. 
 
 • Arnott's Physics. 
 
108 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 109 
 
 Rove through a double and single block, the standing part 
 being fast to the single block, a Luflf-tackle, as in Nos. 8. 12, 13. 
 Rove through two doubles, the standing part being fast to one 
 of them, a Twofold Purchase. Rove through two threefold 
 blocks, the standing part being fast to one of them, a Threefold 
 Purchase, as in No. 9. Rove through two fourfold blocks, the 
 standing part being fast to one of them, a Fourfold Purchase, as 
 in No. 10. 
 
 Combinations of tackles may be made variously; thus : No. 5. 
 is a Whip upon whip. No. 16. is a Runner and tackle. Nos. 
 4. 6, 7. 14, 15. are Spanish Bartons. The increased advantage 
 is found by multiplying their respective advantages into each 
 other ; for example, in No. 5. it is double on the first whip, and 
 double on the second, 2x2=4, giving a fourfold advantage. In 
 No. 16. it is double on runner, and quadrupled on the tackle ; 
 or 2 X 4 = 8, giving an eightfold advantage. 
 
 Perhaps the theory of tackles will be best understood thus : — 
 In No. 2. the strain is equally distributed between each part of 
 the rope ; and there being two parts employed in sustaining the 
 weight, it is balanced by an exertion of power equal to one half 
 of its weight ; and the same principle applies to tackles of all 
 kinds. Reeving the fall, as in No. 3, merely gives a more con- 
 venient lead, for the blocks which are fixed afford no mechanical 
 advantage. 
 
 The general rule for ascertaining the power necessary to raise 
 a weight with a tackle, is to divide the weight by twice the 
 number of sheaves in the lower block, the quotient being the 
 answer. Thus, in the threefold purchase No. 9, a power of 20 
 ewt. would balance a weight of 6 tons (friction not considered). 
 
 The more precise rule is to divide the weight to be raised by 
 the number of parts of rope leading to, from, or attached to the 
 lower block ; the quotient being the power required to produce 
 equilibrium, provided friction did not exist. Thus : in the case 
 of a fouifold purchase, the standing part of the rope being fast 
 to the lower block, the weight, 3000 lbs. would be balanced by 
 the power of 330 lbs. 
 
 To ascertain the amount of purchase required to raise a given 
 weight with a given power ; divide the weight to be raised by 
 the power to be applied, and the quotient will be the number of 
 cords (or parts of ropes) which must be attached to the lower 
 
110 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 block, thus : to balance a -weight of 19 tons with a power of 43 
 cwt. nine parts of rope at the moving block would be neces- 
 sary. And as, in working such a purchase, there would be much 
 friction and consequent increase of strain, a 3-inch rope, 
 which is equal to bearing a strain of nearly 60 cwt., should be 
 used. 
 
 To ascertain what amount of weight given tackling will 
 raise, the weight that the single rope will bear is multiplied by 
 the number of its parts at the moving block. 
 
 The proper size of ropes and blocks to be used as tackling 
 may be determined by reference to such Tables as those on pages 
 }52 and 161 ; and the amount of allowance that should be made 
 for the consequences of friction by considerations similar to 
 those advanced on pages 118 and 158 of this work. 
 
 LIST OF TACKLES. 
 
 The figures on the tackles in the engraving denote the advan- 
 tage ; — thus, In No. 5, it is 4 to 1 ; in 14, 16 to 1 ; that is to 
 say, a weight of 1 lb. on the fall of No. 5. would balance a 
 weight of 4 lbs. on the lower block — or in other words, one man 
 with this tackle could suspend as great a weight as four could 
 without it 
 
 LIST OF TACKLES. — Fig. 50. 
 
 No. 1. Whip. No. 10. Fourfold. 
 
 2. Double Whip. 11. Gun tackle purchase. 
 
 3. Ditto. 12. Luff, single block to 
 
 4. Whip upon whip. the weight 
 
 5. Double ditto. 13. Ditto, double block to 
 
 6. Spanish Barton. the weight. 
 
 7. Ditto. 14. Spanish Barton 16 to 1. 
 
 8. Luff-tackle. 15. Ditto 81 to 1. 
 
 9. Treble. 16. Runner and tackle. 
 
 17. Signal halyard down-haul. 
 
 The " Establishment " of spare disposable tackles of a ship 
 are — 
 
 Four runners and tackles, with their respective lashing blocks. 
 Four long tackles, the double blocks having a lashing eye. Two 
 
MECHANICAL POWEBS. Ill 
 
 mizen bartons. Four yard tackles; and, as there are great 
 numbers of fitted blocks and spare ends of coils, any number 
 of luffs may be rove -when requisite. 
 
 It must be observed that too much attention cannot be paid to 
 {he maxim, that fixed blocks give no gain, for tackles admit of 
 different applications. For instance, in No. 1. there is merely a 
 lead ; whereas in the runner In Nos. 16. and 2. with the same 
 reeve of rope, but having a moveable block, a resistance of a 
 certain amount would be overcome by about one half of its 
 amount. Also in Nos. 12. and 8. the advantage is 3 to 1 j 
 whereas in 13, with the same kind of tackle, it is 4 to 1. 
 
 In tackles, as in other machines, there is no increase of 
 " Power ;" for — the mechanical effects produced by any machine 
 being measured by the work done in a given time, or by the 
 product of the force exerted, and the distance gone through in a 
 unit of time, in the direction of that force — whatever is gained 
 in force is lost in time ; and whatever is gained in time, is lost 
 in force.* The convenience of a machine consists in enabling 
 a small force working by a succession of efforts through a great 
 space to raise a great weight, or to overcome a great resistance 
 through a small space. 
 
 The ascent of a weight attached to a tackle is as many times 
 less than the descent of the force as the weight itself is greater 
 than the power : thus, in a twofold purchase the force being one, 
 and the weight 4 cwt., and it being required to raise the weight 
 1 foot, each part of the rope must be shortened 1 foot, and the 
 force descend through 4 feet. 
 
 One man may be able, with a tackle having 10 plies of rope, 
 to raise a weight which it would require 10 men to raise at once, 
 without a tackle. But if the weight is to be raised a yard, the 
 10 men will raise it, by pulling at a single rope, and walking 1 
 yard, while the single man at his tackle must walk until he has 
 shortened the 10 plies of rope of 1 yard each ; that is, he must 
 walk 10 yards, or ten times as far as the 10 men did. In both 
 cases, therefore, we have just the same quantity of man's work 
 
 * Thus, the answering pendant is easily but slowly hauled down by one boy. 
 Put a raoveaWe block on the bight, as in No. 17., and to run away with it 
 we shall require several boys. In the first case we economise force, but 
 spend time ; in the latter, we expend force but gain velocity. 
 
112 MANUAL' FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 used to accomplish the same end ; in the one case performed by 
 10 men in 1 minute, and in the other hy 1 man in 10 minutes ; 
 and if the work continues longer, say a whole day for 10 men, 
 it will last ten days for the single man : there is, therefore, no 
 saving of labour from using tackles, but a loss, because of the 
 friction. The same is true of all other machines ; none of them 
 save labour, but they allow a small force to take its time to pro- 
 duce any requisite magnitude of effect. The real advantages of 
 machines are, that one man's effort or any small power, which 
 is always at command, by working proportionately longer, will 
 answer the purpose of the sudden effort of many men, even of 
 thousands, whom it might be most inconvenient, or expensive, 
 or even impossible to bring together.* 
 
 From all this, it may be observed, that when the resistance or 
 weight is great, it may generally be overcome by a judicious ar- 
 rangement of force ; and that when machinery can be dispensed 
 with, direct handling is the quickest of all modes for moving 
 weights. 
 
 INCLINED PLANE. 
 
 The Inclined Plane acts as a mechanical power by sustaining 
 a portion of the weight which is being raised by its assistance. 
 When the power acts in a direction parallel to the slope {fig. 
 51), and is to the weight as the height of the plane is to 
 P^ gj the slope, the power and weight will 
 
 be balanced ; but when the power is 
 applied in a direction parallel to the 
 base, it will only be to the weight as 
 the weight- is to the base. In fig. 
 51 the plane is twice as long as it 
 is high, and 1 pound at B balances 2 
 at A. If the plane were inclined to the horizon one third of its 
 whole length, a body could be kept from rolling down it by a 
 force equal to a third part of the weight of the body. 
 
 Examples. — If a plane be 6 feet high, and with a slope of 15 
 feet, what weight will 150 lbs. sustain ? 
 
 As 6 : 15 : : 150 : 375. — Answer. 
 • Arnotl*s PhysicB, 
 
MECHANTCAL POWERS. 113 
 
 It is required to raise a field-piece or cask, &c., weighing 1000 
 lbs., to a boat's gunwale, or a cart, or bank, &c., whicb is 5 feet 
 high, with a plane formed of skids 14 feet long ; what force must 
 be exerted to prevent either of these weights from rolling down ? 
 
 As 14 : 5 :: lOOO lbs. : 357| lbs.— Answer. 
 
 If a rope be passed round the weight, one end being fast, and 
 the other hauled on, it would be a Parbuckle, and would aftbrd 
 the same advantage as is shown in the tackle marked 2. 
 
 When two bodies are forced from one another by means of a 
 wedge in a direction parallel to its back. 
 
 Rule. — As the length of the wedge is to half its back or head, 
 so is the resistance to the power. 
 
 Example. — The breadth of the back or head being 3 inches, 
 and the length of either of its inclined sides 10 inches, required 
 the force necessary to separate 2 substances with a force of 150 
 lbs. 
 
 As 10 : IJ :: 150 : 22J lbs. — Answer. 
 
 WTien only one of the bodies is moveable. 
 
 Rule. — As the length of the wedge is to its back or head, so 
 is the resistance to the power. 
 
 Example. — The breadth, length, and force, the same as in the 
 last example. 
 
 As 10 : 3 : : 150 : 45 lbs. — Answer. 
 
 The Screw is a cord wound in a spiral direction round the 
 periphery of a cylinder, and is, therefore, an inclined plane, the 
 length being the circumference of the cylinder, and the height 
 the distance between two consecutive cords or threads of the 
 screw. Hence, the nearer the spirals are to one another, so much 
 greater is the force of the screw. 
 
 Rule. — As the circumference of the screw is to the distance 
 between the threads, so is the weight to the power. 
 
 Example. — The circumference of a screw being 8 inches, 
 I 
 
114 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 and its pitch, or distance between the threads, 1 inch, required the 
 power to raise 648 pounds ? 
 
 As S : 1 : : 648 : 81 pounds Answer. 
 
 When a winch or lever is applied to turn the screw, the power 
 of the screw is as the circle described by the handle of the winch, 
 or lever, to the Interval or distance between the spirals. 
 
 The different powers — the lever, wheel, tackle, and screw — 
 admit of various combinations, and, when combined, form 
 what is called a compound macbine. Thus in a ship we have 
 the lever acting on wheel, as in the side lever or sway beam 
 of the engine acting on the paddle, and as in the patent capstan ; 
 wheel upon lever, as in the steering gear ; tackle upon lever, as 
 in the compressor ; and wheel upon tackle, as in the capstan or 
 winch. 
 
 The Crane is a familiar machine, and the mechanical advan- 
 tage of it may be generally determined by finding that of each 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 part separately. Let the radius of the handle a (Jig. 52) be six 
 times that of the pinion b ; the radius of the wheel w ten times 
 that of its axle round which the fall is passed, and a power of 
 30 pounds be exerted j then as the threefold tackle is 6 to 1, 
 we have 30 x 6 x 10 x 6 = 10,800 pounds: a weight which 
 might be raised by a force equal to 30 pounds. 
 , The Compouna vrbeel and Axle (Jig. 53) is of Chinese 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 115 
 
 origin. It differs from others, inasmuch as with the common kind 
 power is gained only hy increasing the wheel and diminishing 
 the axle ; whilst, with this contriyance, the less difference there 
 he between the diameters of the two cylinders the greater will be 
 the power. As the rope unwinds from the small, it is taken up 
 by the larger one, and is shortened at each turn by the difference 
 of the circumferences. " If the weight rises j an inch only, while 
 the handle of the winch describes a circle of 50 inches, 1 pound 
 force at the winch will balance 100 pounds at D." • It is evident 
 the uncoiling rope acts in favour of the handle. 
 
 FRICTION. 
 
 Friction may be defined to be that which interferes with one 
 surface moving freely over another, and depends conjointly on 
 the inequalities of those surfaces, and the force of pressure upon 
 them. 
 
 Friction is independent of the extent of the surfaces in contact, 
 or of the velocity with which they move upon each other. 
 
 The surfaces being of the same nature, a double pressure will 
 produce a double amount of friction ; a treble pressure, a treble 
 amount, and so on. Friction is increased by time : thus, it re- 
 quires the application of a greater force to move a weight along 
 a horizontal plane from its position of rest, than to keep it after- 
 wards moving on the same plane. 
 
 Friction is greater in cases where the fibres of two moving 
 bodies are parallel, than when those of one are at right angles to 
 those of another. It is also greater when the natures of the bodies 
 are different, than when similar ; and it is always greater with 
 soft, and less with hard substances. 
 
 Thefriction of hard metals against hard is estimated at |; whilst 
 that of softer, such as tin upon tin, is about | of the pressure. 
 By the employment of unguents, the irregularities are filled up, 
 or the surfaces somewhat separated, and friction is dlminished.f 
 Thus, to drag a square stone of 1080 pounds weight along the 
 floor of a quarry, required a force of 758 pounds ; over a floor 
 of planks, 652 pounds ; placed on a frame of wood and dragged 
 
 * Arnott's Physics. 
 
 t In the case of most machines | of the pressure Is a fair estimate of the 
 frictiOD. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 MANUAL FOH NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 over planks, 606 pounds ; after soaping the woodwork, 182 
 pounds ; placed on rollers 3 inches in diameter, and dragged 
 along the floor of the quarry, 34 pounds. Thus placed and 
 dragged over planks, 28 pounds ; and on. interposing the rollers, 
 22 pounds.* 
 
 "When a weight hangs by a tackle at rest, all the parts of the 
 fall hear au equal strain, and the weight will be balanced by one 
 at the end of the fall as many times less as there are parts of the 
 rope at the block to which the larger weight is suspended. But 
 directly the fall is hauled upon, this is no longer the case. In, 
 consequence of friction, there will not be an equal strain on all 
 parts of the rope ; and it becomes necessary in calculating the 
 practical power of the tackle, not (as before) to multiply the 
 force by the number of parts of rope at the moving block, but 
 to find the strain or tension on each part, and add all together. 
 
 To do this exactly, is extremely difficult, if not impossible ; 
 as the different tensions of the parts depend upon so many 
 varying circumstances. Such, for instance, as the flexibility of 
 the rope, which differs according to its size, newness, dryness, 
 and material ; the relation of the diameter of the sheaves to that 
 of the pin ; the material of these and their condition, upon all 
 which the amount of resistance caused by friction depends, AU 
 we can do is to give some rough rule which may be to some 
 extent practically useful. 
 
 If A B D (fig. 54) be the sheave of a block turning from A by B 
 to D, c being the centre of the pin, then the friction will act at the 
 point E in the direction e f, and with a leverage E c. This will 
 have to be overcome by the fall acting along d g, with leverage 
 c D. The longer therefore c d is in proportion to e c, the easier 
 will the resistance by friction be overcome ; consequently, the 
 l^ins being the same, the greater the diameter of the sheave, the 
 easier the block will work. 
 
 The same rule applies to the capstan as well as the block. 
 The longer the bar, the more easily will the resistance of the 
 friction on the spindle be overcome.! 
 
 * Large round shot, when confined by strong grooved " ways," form effi- 
 cient and convenient rollers. 
 
 t *' The loss by friction is less as the bars are longer, or as power is applied 
 
 at a greater distance from the axis, It is least of all when the pressures are 
 
 , so distributed round the capstan as to be reducible to a ' couple.' The case 
 
MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 117 
 
 If the rope -which passes round the sheave of the block be 
 small, it will be more flexible ; a less force will be necessary to 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 " nip " it round the pin, and there will he less resistance by 
 friction against the inside of the shell of the block. 
 
 Perhaps we shall not be far wrong in ordinary cases if we 
 estimate one sixth of the original force to be consumed by friction 
 each time that the rope passes round a sheave. Thus, supposing 
 the tension or strain on the hanUng part to be 6, that on the next 
 will be 5, the next 4, the next 3, and so on. So that if the 
 strain on the fall of a two-fold tackle be 6, the tensions or strains 
 on the parts of the rope will be represented by the figures 6, 5, 
 4, 3, and their sum 18 will nearly represent the power of the 
 tackle instead of 24, which it would have been had there been no' 
 friction j or about one fourth of the force would have been con- 
 sumed by it. 
 
 in which the moving pressures upon the capstan are reducible to a couple 
 manifestly occurs when they are arranged round it in any number of pairs, 
 the two pressures of each pair being equal to one another, acting on opposite 
 sides of the centre, and perpendicular to the same line passing through it. 
 This symmetrical distribution of the pressures about the axis of the capstan 
 is therefore the most favourable to the working of it, as well as to the stability 
 of the shaft which sustains the pressure upon it." — Moseley's Mechanics. 
 1 3 
 
118 MANUAI. FOE NAVAL CADETS, 
 
 Suppose a weight of 24 to be suspended by the above tackle. 
 If the fall -would just bear a -weight of 6, the four parts would be 
 sufficient to suspend the -weight ; but if it were required to raise it, 
 we must have a rope at least one third stronger ; or equal to 
 sustain a weight of 8. The tensions would be, according to the 
 above rule— 8, 6|, 6| and 4, and their sum wiU be 24, which is 
 what we require to lift. 
 
 From these considerations we gather, that work is lightened 
 by using large blocks and small ropes ; that the Boatswain's rule, 
 that the hauling part of a fall bears double the strain of the 
 standing part, is not far -wrong ; that as the pin of a block is 
 more worn on one of its sides, it should be frequently turned ; 
 and that as sheaves nearest the standing part do least duty, they 
 should be shifted occasionally -with the others.* 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 THE TELESCOPE. 
 
 To comprehend the general principles on which the Acbro- 
 matlc Telescope is constructed, it will be necessary to un- 
 derstand certain facts respecting the composition and effects of 
 Light 
 
 " Vision or Sight is produced by the rays of light, which fall 
 from the sun (or other source of light) on an object ; being re- 
 flected from thence, so as to fall upon the retina or back part 
 of the eye ; thus, the moon is seen by the rays of light which 
 fall on it from the sun, being reflected back to the eye ; and a 
 tree or house, or any other object, is seen by the daylight which 
 falls on the tree or house, being in like manner reflected on 
 the eye."t 
 
 Transparent bodies of various forms are called ^Lenses, and 
 rays of light passing through any lens undergo certain changes 
 in their direction, according to its form and density. Thus, 
 the tendency of a convex lens is to concentrate parallel rays 
 
 * See page 158. 
 
 t Bell's Bridgewater Treatise. 
 
THK TELESCOPE. 119 
 
 passing through it, and bring them all to one point or focus ; 
 whereas that of a concave lens is to disperse them, hy throwing 
 them more apart from each other. The density of the lens, 
 or transparent medium, effects similar changes ; a ray passing 
 from a rarer to a denser medium, as from air into water, or 
 glass, is said to be refracted or bent from its straight direc- 
 tion — an effect, which may he observed in the bent appearance 
 of an oar when dipped in the water. A set of rays diverging 
 from any point is called a Pencil of rays ; the central ones being 
 called its Axis. 
 
 The distance of the focus of a double lens equally convex on 
 both sides is equal to the radius of the curve. From the nature 
 of a convex lens the axis of each pencil will pass straight 
 through the lens, but its other rays will be collected on the axis 
 in a focal line, at a distance beyond the lens equal to its radius. 
 If all light be excluded except that which passes through the lens, 
 and a screen be placed at the focal distance, the rays from the 
 object will present an inverted image of it on the screen. 
 
 It may be said, in passing, that this is what takes place in the 
 human eye. Its principal apparatus is a double convex lens, 
 called the crystalline humour, which is protected by a transparent 
 coat called the cornea. Between these, and surrounding the 
 crystalline humour, is a membrane, the iris, having a circular 
 hole called the pupil, furnished with a muscular provision, by 
 which its openings may be enlarged or diminished. In the back 
 part of the eye, is an expanded network of nerves (the retina), 
 which is connected with the brain by means of the optic nerve. 
 The visual rays from the object pass through the pupil to the 
 convex lens, which produces their inverted image on the retina, 
 whence the optic nerve communicates their impression to the 
 brain. 
 
 An inverted image being formed in the tube of the telescope 
 by the object glass A b, at ra m (Jig. 55), is presented in the natural 
 position of the object by means of the different refractive powers 
 of other lenses at m n, where it is viewed by the eye-glass, g h. 
 The use of the eye-glass is to cause the rays emerging from e p 
 to converge sufSciently to focalise on the retina ; and thus the 
 image is not only as minutely examined as though the object 
 were close, but, being magnified in proportion to the focal length 
 of the lens, is distinctly visible in all its details. For it is a law 
 I 4 
 
120 
 
 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 ill optics that we see everything in the direction of that line in 
 ■which the rays approach us last. Thus, for instance, in fig. 50, 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 a pencil of rays is shown diverging from the extremities of the 
 smaller arrow ; which rays, heing refracted hy the lens, are re- 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 ceived in the eye precisely as if they emanated from the larger 
 one. 
 
 Such, in general language, is the Refracting Telescope ; but the 
 term " achromatic " involves a few words on the composition 
 of llgtat as well as the substance of lenses. By darkening a room, 
 and placing a glass prism in an aperture in the closed shutter, so 
 that a ray of solar light will pass through it, it has been shown 
 Ihat such light is a compound of other lights, all of which have 
 different colours, and different degrees of refrangibility : and that 
 in passing through transparent media, or lenses of unequal thick- 
 ness, it becomes decomposed. In this mode of analysing light, 
 the different rays are dispersed, and appear on the wall as in 
 the order represented in fig. 57. Now, such being the com- 
 position of light, and as lenses act more or less like prisms, 
 dispersing colour, it follows that the image of an object 
 formed by single lenses must, from this interference of colour, 
 
THE TELESCOPE. 
 
 121 
 
 be indistrnct. This, opticians tried in vain to overcome, until it 
 ■was discovered that, by composing and combining two or more 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 ?~^ 
 
 — 1 
 
 t^^ 
 
 »1.LC 
 
 .-. => — . 
 
 'llDlto 
 
 -t==~~. 
 
 BLUE 
 
 
 OREEH 
 
 
 «Umv 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 lenses of different kinds of glass, eacb having different degrees 
 of dispersive power, and so forming them as to re&act the rays 
 in counteracting directions, this chromatic aberration could be 
 removed. Thus — 
 
 The object glass of an achromatic (free colour) telescope is 
 
 • 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 composed of a double convex lens of crown glass outside, and 
 another of flint glass, double concave, inside. 
 
 " By the refractive power of the convex crown glass lens (Jig. 
 58), the red rays in the pencil of light p q would, if not interfered 
 with, proceed in the direction Q 6. But the refractive power of 
 the concave flint glass lens, c a, acts from its form in a direction 
 contrary to that of A B, causing the rays either to diverge from 
 the axis, x y, or to meet it in points beyond v and r, towards t. 
 Suppose the curvature of this lens to be such that the red rays 
 in the pencil p Q would, after refraction in both lenses, meet the 
 axis in F (the ray Q i, r taking the direction b f), then the dis- 
 
122 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 persive power of this kind of glass exceeding that of the other 
 kind, the violet rays in the refracted pencil will tend farther 
 away from the axis than the red rays do, and thus will tend 
 towards the latter ; the ray Q c r, for example, taking the direc- 
 tion c F, It is conceivahle, therefore, that the curvatures of the 
 surfaces of the lenses may he such that, in each incident pencil, 
 the red and violet rays (the extreme rays of the spectrum), shall 
 after refraction unite at the place of the image : and that thus 
 the fringe due to these colours, may he destroyed, In uniting 
 these rays, the others are hrought so near together, that,>for 
 ordinary purposes, the image is as free from colour as can he 
 desired." * 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 The tlmlier used for masts and yards is principally Scotch, 
 Norwegian or Riga firs, or Canadian pine. Besides these, the 
 Indian poon-wood, and the New Zealand cowdie are occasionally 
 used for masts. 
 
 Pine may be distinguished from firs by the structure and 
 growth of their leaves : those of the pine are slender and filaceous, 
 and more or less long according to the species, two, three, or 
 more of those thin leaves proceeding from the same bud. The 
 leaves of the fir are straight and separate, and aU proceeding 
 from one slight stem, similar t» the teeth of a comb. 
 
 The timber from Canada consists chiefly of the white or 
 yellow pine, and the white, red, and black spruce. 
 
 The standing masts are generally made of yellow, and the 
 topmasts of red pine : the white, red, and black spruces are but 
 little used except for small spars. 
 
 The finer and more compact the grain, the nearer the concen- 
 tric layers are to circles or ellipses, and the closer they are con- 
 nected, the stronger is the timber, and the less likely is it to be 
 
 * National Encyclopedia. 
 
MASTS. 123 
 
 defective. Also, as resin is not only beneficial in giving strength 
 and elasticity, but in presei-ving timber from insects, fermenta- 
 tion, and decay, the more strongly it is charged with that matter 
 the better. The colour of good firs should be of a bright yello\r, 
 ■with a reddish cast alternately. When on the contrary, the 
 layers are open with tints of pale red near the heart, and white 
 spots intermixed; or of a dark red, with the resinous particles 
 of a blackish colour, the timber is in a state of decay. Like- 
 wise if when cut transversely, the wood is not of a uniform 
 colour, but interspersed with veins, and the smell either gone or 
 fetid, it may be considered near a state of decay. The shavings 
 of good timber will beartwisting several times, whereas those 
 of bad are brittle. 
 
 In examining timber, all rind galls and rotten places are 
 bored into and laid open. If the butts or knots have a sus- 
 picious appearance, small portions of the former are sawn off 
 until the extent of decay is ascertained; and the latter are 
 struck with the mallet to see that they are not artificial knots 
 put in with hot resin to supply the place of bad knots that have 
 been bored out. 
 
 Masts are most liable to decay at the heel, partners, and cap ; 
 bowsprits at the cap, under the gammoning, and at the heel. 
 Masts are most liable to spring at the partners, taU of cheek 
 piece, and hounds ; bowsprits at the cap, and on top between 
 the gammoning and cap. 
 
 When a spar " buckles " or what is called having the grain 
 upset, and the fibre in different parts takes a sinuous form, it is 
 a sign of much weakness. When the outer fibres are found 
 broken in the form of steps, or what is called Jacob's ladders, 
 the defect seldom admits of repair. 
 
 Mast timber is specified as inch masts, and hand masts. The 
 former are square and are described by their number of inches 
 in diameter ; the latter are taken in their natural round state, 
 those which measure less than six hands in circumference are 
 termed spars ; those from six to five, cant spars ; from five to four, 
 barling ; and from two to one, small spars. 
 
 The smaller kind of standing, or lower masts, as well as 
 yards, are made when possible of one stick, and are then called 
 single tree; the larger are composed of several pieces 
 
124 
 
 MANUAI, FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 HADE MASTS. 
 Fig. 59. 
 No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 ] [ 
 
MADE MASTS. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 No. 6, 
 
 125 
 
 m 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 ■s 
 
 IT 
 
!• 126 MANUAL POB NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
MADE MASTS. 127 
 
 arranged in various manners, and united by scarphs, coaks, and 
 iron hooping, tliese are called made masts or made yards. 
 
 Tbe boops are either driven on while hot, or else being 
 made with hinges, are drawn tightly together by screws — those 
 of the latter kind are called clasp hoops. 
 
 The hoops of masts are covered on the fore part by a batten 
 called the rubblngr pauncb which prevents their edges from 
 injuring or retarding the lower yards, whilst striking or getting 
 them down. 
 
 No. 4 is au athwart ship view, and No. 5 is a fore and aft 
 view of a conunon made mast, in which the principal pieces 
 are cc the spindle, which is frequently made in two pieces; 
 the side trees, bb ; the fore and aft fishes, dd ; and the cheeks, aa. 
 
 No. 2 is an athwart ship view of a made mast, in which aa 
 is the spindle; bb the cheeks; ec the side trees, and dd the 
 lengthening piece. 
 
 No. 1 and 6 are sections of Sepping's made mast. These 
 masts are composed of several square pieces, varying in length, 
 and placed end to end, with their butts under the hoops. They 
 are formed with both ends alike, so that in case of injury the 
 defective pieces may be replaced by sound ones, or shifted end 
 for end. 
 
 " The different parts of a mast are distinguished by the names 
 of the body, the hound and the head ; the part from the lower end 
 to the place where the rigging stops * is called the bounding ; 
 from thence to the upper end is called the beadlnir; from 
 the uppermost deck downwards, is called the bowsing. The 
 portion of mast from the lower part of the heading to the 
 termination of the projecting wood left for the purpose of strength, 
 and for supporting the mast above f, is called the bounds % ; the 
 upper or projecting part of the hounds is called the stops ; and 
 the space from the lower part of the hounds to the heel, is called 
 the body of the mast." 
 
 Tbe Knees, as shown in No. 4, p. 124, are formed of Elm, 
 and are bolted to the fore-sides of the hounds pointing outside 
 of the fore and aft line, thus affording more support to the 
 tressle-tree, and giving more space for the jeer blocks. 
 
 • The eyes of the rigging. t The topmast. t Or cheelts. 
 
128 MANUAL FOB NATAL CADETS. 
 
 The Tressle-trees aa, No. 4, p. 124, are also of hard wood; 
 in length l| of the top, staned fore and aft on each side of the 
 projecting part of the hounds, are let in, bolted together, and are 
 plated on their upper fore part in the wake of the topmast fid. 
 Their after ends are fitted with clasps and lugs to which the 
 truss blocks are pinned. 
 
 The Battens are slips of wood nailed on the mast-heads 
 over the hoops, which prevent the rigging from catching on the 
 upper ones when getting it over, and from being frayed by 
 lower ones when placed. 
 
 Tlie Bolsters are soft wood chocks, placed at the sides of 
 the mast-heads, and nailed on the tressle-trees ; they are rounded 
 on the upper outside edges, and being of the same breadth 
 as the tressle-trees, overhang them as much as the trees are 
 let in. Their use is to preserve the rigging from the bad effects 
 of a " dead nip " on a sharp edge. 
 
 Tlie Tenon is that part of the heel which enters the step ; 
 all masts are iron hooped at the shoulder of the tenon.- 
 
 Tlie loTrer Cross Trees are of hard wood, in length ^ of 
 the top's breadth, stand athwart ships in scores on the tressle- 
 trees, one abaft the mast-head, the other before the heel of the 
 top-mast, and are secured by saucer-headed bolts, driven through, 
 and nutted under the tressle-trees. 
 
 This is a most important fastening. In stripping ship, 
 carpenters will be " drifting " and unclenching their bolts, if not 
 forbidden. In a case where these cross bolts were started, the 
 trees were upset whilst the half-tops were being tripped, and tops, 
 trees, and the men on the mast-head fell, and were smashed on. 
 the deck. Some years afterwards, when paying off a line-of- 
 battle ship, these same bolts with others had " only just been 
 drifted," in spite of a given warning, and the same consequences 
 would have followed, had not the danger been discovered in 
 time. 
 
 The lower sling cleats are nailed | of the length of the mast- 
 head upon its after part. 
 
 Ekings are pieces of wood placed in the wake of hoops, so as 
 to form a round underneath them, 
 
 TOPS, 
 
 Tops are made of fir, and are in breadth at the fore-eroes 
 
MASTS. 129 
 
 tree j and at the after one ^ the whole length of the top-mast ; 
 fore and aft they are | of their breadth at the fore cross-tree. 
 
 Tops are made hoth -whole and in halves. They are 
 strengthened by upper cross-trees which stand immediately- 
 over the lower ones, to which they are secured by four fore- 
 locked bolts in each. The edges are fitted on each upper side, 
 with iron rims for the fiittoek plates ; there is a lubbers-hole 
 hatch cut on each side, which, if enlarged, would be stiU more 
 convenient for sending up and do-wn sails, spars, and caps. 
 Sockets for the hand-rail stancheons are let into the after rim ; 
 in the middle of the fore-part, a hole is cut for the lower yard 
 slings, and a hard wood or iron bolster is fixed on it abaft the 
 hole over which the chains ride. 
 
 NECKLACE. 
 
 The Necklaces are chain strops, made with ears and screws 
 (page 130). Two of these are hove on round each lower mast, 
 below the knees, for the purpose of securing the fnttock shrouds. 
 The ears are placed at the after part of the mast, so as not to be 
 injured by the lower yard. Mizen masts are sometimes fitted 
 with a hoop for this purpose. 
 
 LQ-WEB CAPS. 
 
 ItOxreT Caps were formerly made of elm, but are now generally 
 made of mahogany ; the smaller kind of one piece, the larger 
 frequently in two, which are coaked together. Both sorts are 
 strengthened by bolts driven through and clenched, as well as 
 by an iron hoop one third of the depth of the cap in breadth. 
 
 They are in breadth two diameters, and in depth, one inch 
 less than the diameter of the top-mast. 
 
 They have four eye bolts for the top blocks, which stand 
 with their eyes athwart ships, on the lower side, their ends 
 being clenched on iron-plates on top. The after ones are 
 placed in a line with the middle of the mast-head, the fore- 
 most ones in a line with the centre of the hole for the top- 
 mast. 
 
 They have also an iron-plate bolted on the upper side -with an 
 eye on each end, to which the lower lift blocks are secured. 
 
 K 
 
130 MANUAL rOS NAVAL CADETS. 
 Fig. 62. 
 
MASTS. 131 
 
 TOP-MASTS. 
 
 Top-xuasts are almost always made of one stick, the only- 
 addition being the Hounds and filling pieces on the fore part 
 and sides of the heel. Their half dumb sheave below the fid- 
 hole, and the live sheave above it, are cut diagonally through 
 the mast in opposite directions. These are for the ropes (the 
 top-tackle pendants) which are used in striking or getting up 
 the masts. In main-top-masts, the live sheave is cut from the 
 after eight-square on the starboard side, to the foremost one on 
 the port side. In fore-top-masts, it is cut from the after eight- 
 square on the port side to the foremost one on the starboard 
 side. As the live sheave gear is used as the main purchase, 
 whilst that of the dumb is merely pulled up as a preventer, 
 this manner of cutting the sheave holes brings the working 
 falls on opposite sides of the deck, and thereby gives more 
 elbow room to the crew. 
 
 nnzen-top-masts are cut at the hounds with a sheave-hole 
 for the top-sail halyards. 
 
 The heels and hounds of all top-masts are iron hooped, and 
 the upper part of their fid-holes iron-plated. 
 
 The top-mast cross-trees and tressle-trees are let in and 
 bolted together, forming one fitment, as in p. 130. The tressle- 
 trees are in length |, the given length of the top-gallant-mast. 
 The foremost cross-tree is twice the length of the tressle-tree, 
 and is connected at each end with a sweep-piece, the middle of 
 which is secured on the fore ends of the tressle-trees; this 
 sweep-piece is faced with leather, and preserves the top-gallant 
 sail from chafe and entanglement with the mast-head fitments. 
 The after cross-tree is about one foot longer than the fore. An 
 iron strap ties the frame together near its extremities. The 
 ends of the cross-trees are scored, and fitted with roUers for the 
 top-gallant shrouds and pins to keep them in place. The hole 
 for the top-mast head is iron-plated on the under side. The 
 fore sides of the tressle-trees are fitted with cheeks and sheaves, 
 and their foremost ends with eye-bolte, none of which are calcu- 
 lated to bear great strain. (See Rigging Top-masts.) 
 
 The cross-trees being festened by fore-locked bolts may be 
 shifted when requisite. 
 
 The XTecUace for the hanging blocks is placed, and the 
 S 2 
 
132 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ■bolsters after Tjeing scored out, are fitted on top of them, and 
 nailed on before issue. It is well to have more than one of the 
 lower links of each leg open linked, lest after getting the mast 
 rigged and on end, the legs prove to he too long. 
 
 Top-masts Caps are made out of one piece in the same 
 proportion to the top-gallant mast, as the lower cap is to the 
 top-mast. They are iron-hound, and have four eye-holts standr 
 ing athwart ships on the lower side, two heing abreast the 
 after, and two abreast the foremost part of the round hole. The 
 points of these bolts are clenched on top. These bolts are for 
 the mast ropes, and as the foremost bolts are very far forward, 
 care must be taken that the hauling parts are never taken to 
 them. 
 
 A sheave is sometimes placed inside the cap band, which is 
 intended to be used in lieu of a block, but as blocks have more 
 sweep and play, they are preferred. 
 
 Fids for top-masts are diflFerently fitted. The common one 
 is an iron bar, thrust edge upwards through a corresponding 
 hole in the heel of the mast, both ends resting on the tressle- 
 trees. These should always be secured in the top with a strong 
 lanyard j for when dragged out whilst striking top-masts in a 
 gale, they are frequently left lying on coils of wet rope, and are 
 very liable to be rolled out. 
 
 In some top-masts the fid hole is cut away upwards on one 
 side, and downwards on the other ; the fid pivots on a bolt on 
 one side of the centre, and is thus made heaviest on the side of 
 the downward cutting in the mast. The tressle-tree also is cut 
 away on that side, and the ciitting is covered by the arm of an 
 iron lever, which as it pivots on the tressle-tree, may be placed 
 fore and aft, or athwart ships at pleasure. 
 
 When the mast is fidded, the heaviest end and the fid rest on 
 the lever, which is then lying along the top of the tressle-tree ; 
 the other end being borne by the opposite tressle-tree. 
 
 In striking, the Top Tackles are hauled well taut, the pin 
 which secured the lever from moving is taken out, and a jigger 
 on the lever end pulls it out from underneath the end of the fid : 
 which then falling down through the cutting in the cross-tree 
 stands aslant inside the heel of the mast, and admits of its being 
 lowered. (JFig. 63.) In Adding, when the fid is squared, the lever 
 is hauled in underneath, and is pinned as before. The advantage 
 
masts; 
 
 133 
 
 here is that masts may he struck without -waiting to let go any 
 gear, and also that the fid is more readily squared than the 
 moveable one is handled. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 TOF-GALLAKT AND BOYAL UASTS. 
 
 Top-Gallant and Royal IKasts are formed in one, the 
 only addition being the pieces on the sides and fore part of the 
 K 3 
 
134 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 heel. The hounds are worked out of the stick, and those of the 
 top-gallant masts are hooped. 
 
 Main-top-gallant masts are made with a live sheare hole 
 for the mast rope cut from the after eight-square on the star- 
 hoard side to the foremost on the port. 
 
 Fore-top-gallant are cut for these ropes from the after port 
 side : but as top-gallant masts are frequently " converted " spars, 
 this must not he taken as a general rule ; and the possibility of 
 an exception should be borne in mind when handling these spars. 
 
 The mast-heads are each cut with a sheave hole for the yard 
 rope ; and the heels with athwart ship holes for the fid. 
 
 The heels of Top-gallant Masts are frequently cut open under- 
 neath the fid hole, so as to admit of snatching the bight of the 
 mast rope in a sheave which is placed in the cutting. When 
 there is length enough of heel, holes are bored below the sheave 
 and a bolt is rove through them, and fore locked whenever the 
 rope is scored. 
 
 In some cases a mere catch is placed across the bottom of the 
 cutting. 
 
 Both these fitments are intended to keep the rope in its place 
 in the event of the lizard slipping off when the mast is moving. 
 Should it do so, the mast tilts over end, and if the fastening on 
 the heel is strong enough, the rope brings it up. A bolt is 
 strong enough : a clump is not. If the heel is too short for a 
 bolt, put in two clump sheaves in lieu of one large one, and then 
 there will be sufficient space. 
 
 The Heels should be fitted with catch irons on the foremost 
 side, to prevent them from being swayed through the tressle- 
 trees — an accident by no means unfrequent. 
 
 Top-gallant fids are of wood, in two pieces which are pinned 
 together when in place. 
 
 By cutting a lizard hole aslant through the mast, something 
 more than the length of the top-mast head from the royal sheave 
 holes, time wiU be gained in sending the top-gallant mast up ; 
 for the royal rigging and royal yard rope may be placed and 
 rove simultaneously with the casting off of the lizard : other- 
 wise there must be two stoppages. 
 
 Nothing is more common in the chapter of accidents than 
 misfortunes with top-gaUant masts ; and nothing is easier than to 
 bum out a hole through the mast, athwart it, a little below the 
 
MASTS. 135 
 
 lower side of the top-mast cap -when the mast is fidded. Have 
 an eye bolt, with a lanyard spliced into it, kept constantly at 
 the top-mast head. Splice the end of the lanyard round a 
 shroud that it may never be mislaid. Always keep it in the 
 hole whilst striking until the fid is out, and enter it when the 
 mast is going up the instant the. hole appears above the tressle- 
 trees. 
 
 Bowsprits are single tree, or made of four principal pieces, 
 the upper and lower trees or main pieces, and two side fishes, 
 which are doweUed, bolted, and hooped together in the same 
 manner as made masts. In single tree bowsprits the wood is 
 left on the outer end so as to form stops for the rigging, and 
 thus avoid the ii^urious effects of nailing on cleats. Made 
 bowsprits are cleated for the purpose of preventing the collars 
 from working aft. 
 
 That part of the bowsprit which rests upon the stem is 
 called the bed ; inside of that the scarph or bowsing ; and | of 
 the given length in from the outer end, the beeseating, or head. 
 
 Rees are now done away with. The Bee-blocks are hard 
 wood chocks bolted on each side of the bowsprit close to the 
 cap, and pierced with sheave-holes cut in reference to the par- 
 ticular lead of rope : in these the fore-top mast stays, and some- 
 times the fore and fore-top bowline and fore guys, are rove. 
 
 Gammonings fisli is a stout piece of wood secured on the 
 upper side of the after half of the bowsprit, which protects the 
 spar from being injured by the gammoning ; it is scored out for 
 the chain in the wake of the stem holes. 
 
 Saddle for the heel of the jib-boom is fixed on the bowsprit 
 5 of the boom's length from the cap. 
 
 Bowsprit Caps are in length five, in breadth two, diameters 
 of the jib-boom : in thickness one inch less than the diameter 
 of that spar. They are iron-bound, and strengthened by bolts 
 driven through and clenched ; four of these are eye bolts, hav- 
 ing their eyes on the after side ; to these the heel chain and 
 man ropes are secured. 
 
 A bowsprit cap being liable to be dragged off when fouled, is 
 fastened by an eye bolt driven through it and the spar : the eye 
 projects beyond the lower part of the cap, and the point is 
 K 4 
 
136 MAJsruAL roK naval cadets. 
 
 nutted on top of the bowsprit. This fastening is frequently- 
 forgotten by a candidate when questioned on the subject of tak- 
 ing off caps. 
 
 Jib-booms are made eight-square at the heel, with a notch 
 on the top for the crupper ; an iron shod score across the heel 
 for the heel chain, and a sheave hole through that end of the 
 spar for the heel rope. The point is shouldered for the rigging, 
 and squared to receive the flying boom iron, so that the flying 
 boom will stand on the starboard upper quarter of the jib-, 
 boom. 
 
 The extreme outer end is scored for the top-gallant stay, and 
 inside the shouldering a sheave is placed for the jib-stay. 
 
 The flying boom steps in the cap, is shouldered for the rig- 
 ging, has a sheave in the point for the royal stay, and another in 
 the heel for the heel rope. These spars are frequently made 
 for small vessels in one piece. 
 
 Lower and top-sail yards are fitted at the hoops with eye 
 bolts through which the jack stays are rove. 
 
 . All yards are made of fir. The lower and topsail yards are" 
 formed either of one stick, or of two pieces joined by vertical 
 Boarphing or tongueing. They are strengthened in the slings 
 (or middle parts) and quarters by oak battens, and in different 
 parts of their whole length by iron hoops. 
 
 The quarter irons are secured on lower yards by clasp hoops, 
 and may be easily removed ; yard-arm boom irons are fixtures. 
 
MASTS. 
 
 137 
 
 Average Value of Spars, 
 
 
 Tbree- 
 
 Two- 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Spars. 
 
 decKer. 
 
 decker. 
 
 Frigates. 
 
 Frigates. 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 ■Mast - - 
 
 430 to 473 
 
 333 to 432 
 
 256 to 334 
 
 88 to 248 
 
 
 Top - - 
 
 100—117 
 
 96—117 
 
 66— 96 
 
 32— 61 
 
 •S-i 
 
 Top -gallant 
 
 16— 21 
 
 16— 21 
 
 11— 16 
 
 7— 11 
 
 ^ 
 
 Yard - - 
 
 116—153 
 
 102—153 
 
 79 — 102 
 
 30— 54 
 
 
 .Top-yard - 
 
 40— 44 
 
 38- 44 
 
 32— 38 
 
 15— 29 
 
 
 'Mast - - 
 
 339 — 366 
 
 299 — 341 
 
 216 — 300 
 
 63 — 210 
 
 (B ■ 
 
 Top- mast - 
 
 91 — 107 
 
 91 — 107 
 
 62— 91 
 
 30— 60 
 
 o -i 
 
 Top-gallant 
 
 12— 16 
 
 11— 16 
 
 8— 10 
 
 5— 8 
 
 ^ 
 
 Yard - - 
 
 79 — 102 
 
 56 — 102 
 
 45— 54 
 
 24— 41 
 
 
 .Top-yard - 
 
 32— 38 
 
 29— 38 
 
 25— 29 
 
 11— 21 
 
 
 Mast - 
 
 99 — 100 
 
 79— 99 
 
 60— 84 
 
 37— 59 
 
 S 
 
 Top - - 
 
 41— 48 
 
 38— 48 
 
 26— 38 
 
 13— 26 
 
 
 Top-gallant 
 
 7— 9 
 
 7— 8 
 
 6— 7 
 
 4- 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 Yard - . 
 
 28— 33 
 
 26— 33 
 
 22— 26 
 
 11— 22 
 
 
 Top-yard - 
 
 17— 23 
 
 15— 23 
 
 13— 15 
 
 8 — 13 
 
 Bowsprit - - 
 
 174 — 185 
 
 140 — 176 
 
 100 — 140 
 
 30 — 99 
 
 Jib-boom - ~ 
 
 29— 30 
 
 27— 30 
 
 21— 27 
 
 8—18 
 
 Spanker-boom - 
 
 38 - 44 
 
 33— 44 
 
 27— 33 
 
 12 — 25 
 
 The following Tables of weight and dimensions of spars are taken 
 from Mr. Edye's ".Calculations ; " but they do not include those of 
 such great size as are now in use In the new class of first rates. 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 Lengtb. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ,=• 
 
 ^ 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 •^ 
 
 B 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 cfi 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 
 tons.'cvt. 
 
 
 
 yds. in- 
 
 Ions. cwt. 
 
 
 
 jds. to. 
 
 tona. cwt. 
 
 ISO 
 
 
 36 28 
 
 15 18 
 
 120 
 
 
 39 32 
 
 20 2 
 
 120 
 
 
 27 8 
 
 5 8 
 
 M 
 
 
 36 
 
 15 12 
 
 84 
 
 
 39 22 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 
 27 8 
 
 5 6 
 
 74 
 
 
 32 30 
 
 10 4 
 
 74 
 
 
 36 
 
 14 6 
 
 74 
 
 4J 
 
 24 23 
 
 3 16 
 
 .•iO 
 
 ^ 
 
 32 30 
 
 10 18 
 
 50 
 
 
 36 
 
 14 6 
 
 SO 
 
 a 
 
 26 16 
 
 5 1 
 
 .•in 
 
 g 
 
 30 6 
 
 9 7 
 
 50 
 
 g 
 
 33 6 
 
 12 16 
 
 .10 
 
 ti 
 
 24 
 
 3 11 
 
 4R 
 
 0) 
 
 27 18 
 
 6 4 
 
 46 
 
 a 
 
 30 
 
 7 18 
 
 46 
 
 i^. 
 
 21 25 
 
 2 9 
 
 afi 
 
 o 
 
 26 34 
 
 6 2 
 
 26 
 
 g 
 
 29 12 
 
 7 16 
 
 26 
 
 
 20 25 
 
 2 8 
 
 2R 
 
 
 21 18 
 
 2 9 
 
 28 
 
 23 24 
 
 3 2 
 
 28 
 
 ^ 
 
 18 
 
 1 9 
 
 18 
 
 
 19 33 
 
 2 13 
 
 18 
 
 
 22 27 
 
 3 2 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 1.5 18 
 
 1 7 
 
 10 
 
 IS 6 
 
 1 17 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
138 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 Length. 
 
 Wdght. 
 
 » 
 
 ^ 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 .=. 
 
 1- 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 ED 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 Ul 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 5ds. In. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 ;cli;. in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 ydfl, in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 m 
 
 
 30 13 
 
 3 15 
 
 120 
 
 
 34 28 
 
 5 3 
 
 120 
 
 
 24 20 
 
 1 7 
 
 84 
 
 
 29 33 
 
 3 15 
 
 84 
 
 
 34 IS 
 
 6 3 
 
 84 
 
 •a 
 
 24 27 
 
 I 7 
 
 74 
 
 ■E 
 
 23 4 
 
 2 15 
 
 74 
 
 i 
 
 32 8 
 
 4 4 
 
 74 
 
 ^S 
 
 23 18 
 
 I 1 
 
 50 
 
 28 4 
 
 2 16 
 
 ,10 
 
 32 8 
 
 4 4 
 
 m 
 
 'T 
 
 23 IS 
 
 1 1 
 
 60 
 
 ^ 
 
 28 4 
 
 2 15 
 
 m 
 
 32 28 
 
 4 4 
 
 50 
 
 a 
 
 23 18 
 
 1 1 
 
 46 
 
 V 
 
 23 29 
 
 1 16 
 
 46 
 
 e 
 
 27 9 
 
 2 10 
 
 46 
 
 .a 
 
 19 24 
 
 13 
 
 % 
 
 o 
 
 23 19 
 
 1 16 
 
 26 
 
 CO 
 
 26 34 
 
 2 10 
 
 26 
 
 i 
 
 19 24 
 
 13 
 
 •i» 
 
 
 18 12 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 s 
 
 21 
 
 i 1 
 
 28 
 
 =■ 
 
 IS 18 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 
 18 6 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 
 18 7 
 
 12 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 lU 
 
 
 16 11 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 i 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 i. 
 
 i 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 .& 
 
 s 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tds. in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 no 
 
 
 20 34 
 
 2 6 
 
 110 
 
 
 22 34 
 
 2 11 
 
 120 
 
 
 16 17 
 
 17 
 
 84 
 
 . 
 
 20 26 
 
 2 6 
 
 84 
 
 J 
 
 23 
 
 2 11 
 
 84 
 
 s 
 
 16 28 
 
 17 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 19 8 
 
 2 2 
 
 74 
 
 
 21 22 
 
 2 6 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 16 32 
 
 16 
 
 fiO 
 
 R 
 
 19 8 
 
 2 2 
 
 SO 
 
 a 
 
 21 22 
 
 2 6 
 
 SO 
 
 16 32 
 
 16 
 
 m 
 
 
 19 8 
 
 2 2 
 
 60 
 
 i. 
 
 21 22 
 
 2 6 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 16 32 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 S' 
 
 16 34 
 
 I 4 
 
 46 
 
 a 
 
 18 
 
 1 8 
 
 46 
 
 13 24 
 
 9 
 
 26 
 
 01 
 
 15 10 
 
 1 4 
 
 26 
 
 a 
 
 18 
 
 1 8 
 
 26 
 
 V, 
 
 13 18 
 
 9 
 
 W 
 
 g 
 
 12 26 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 ■« 
 
 14 14 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 *> 
 
 10 29 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 b, 
 
 12 6 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 S 
 
 12 3!i 
 
 11 
 
 
 p{ 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 12 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 
 jds. in. 
 
 tons, cwt 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 yds 
 
 in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 120 
 
 1 
 
 21 18 
 
 1 
 
 120 
 
 
 24 20 
 
 1 9 
 
 120 
 
 -6 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 21 20 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 s 
 
 24 27 
 
 1 9 
 
 84 
 
 fi 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 74 
 
 20 18 
 
 16 
 
 74 
 
 >, 
 
 23 18 
 
 1 2 
 
 74 
 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 .10 
 
 r! 
 
 20 18 
 
 16 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 23 18 
 
 1 2 
 
 .10 
 
 ~ 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 s 
 
 20 IS 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 ? 
 
 23 18 
 
 1 2 
 
 .10 
 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 46 
 
 
 17 28 
 
 13 
 
 46 
 
 i 
 
 19 24 
 
 14 
 
 46 
 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 ■s 
 
 17 20 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 a 
 
 19 24 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 ^ 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 
 13 24 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 
 16 18 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 s 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 ■s 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 f» 
 
 12 IS 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 s 
 
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 .i 
 
 13 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 % 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 & 
 
 S 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight 
 
 m 
 
 0} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 10 12 
 
 tons. 
 
 cwt 
 
 
 
 yd. 
 
 in. 
 
 tons, cwt 
 
 
 
 yds 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 ' ■ 
 
 U 
 
 B 
 
 120 
 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 12(1 
 
 ,, 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 a 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 84 
 
 ^ 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 84 
 
 II 
 
 R 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 74 
 
 S 
 
 9 22 
 
 U 
 
 4 
 
 74 
 
 
 11 
 
 (1 
 
 8 
 
 74 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 M1*J 
 
 9 22 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 SO 
 
 ■&., 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 R 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 g"! 
 
 9 22 
 
 U 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 g.n4 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 R 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 7 29 
 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 ae 
 
 9 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 n 
 
 no 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 
 7 33 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 (1 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 s 
 
 fi 
 
 V7 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 s 
 
 6 13 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 C4 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 & 
 
 8 22 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 y 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 
 .B 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 18 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
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 a 
 
 
 
 
MASTS. 
 
 139 
 
 .i 
 
 i 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 # 
 
 1 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Si 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yds 
 
 in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 yds. 
 
 in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 
 
 yds. in. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 120 
 
 
 as 
 
 1 
 
 11 3 
 
 12(1 
 
 
 17 
 
 IK 
 
 1 1 
 
 120 
 
 
 23 7 
 
 1 2 
 
 84 
 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 84 
 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 1 1 
 
 84 
 
 ■ 
 
 23 13i 
 
 1 2 
 
 74 
 
 ,; 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 8 8 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 74 
 
 & 
 
 22 27 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 ■c 
 
 22 
 
 n 
 
 8 8 
 
 50 
 
 Ifi 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 o 
 
 22 27 
 
 17 
 
 60 
 
 S* 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 8 8 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 n 
 
 17 
 
 60 
 
 "f 
 
 22 7 
 
 17 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 fi 
 
 4 19 
 
 4fi 
 
 1» 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 ■s 
 
 18 21 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 17 
 
 26 
 
 £ 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 26 
 
 19 12 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 
 14 
 
 !ll 
 
 2 1 
 
 28 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 28 
 
 a 
 
 14 23 
 
 8 
 
 IS 
 
 
 14 
 
 Ifi 
 
 1 13 
 
 18 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 
 19 12 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 16 32 
 
 10 
 
 
 ilOguns 
 90 guns 
 
 80 guns 
 
 70 guns 
 
 50 guns 
 
 56 guns 
 
 26 guns 
 
 18 guns 
 
 IS guns 
 
 cwt. qr. 
 
 ™t 
 
 .qr. 
 
 cwt. qr 
 
 TY 
 
 cwt. qr. 
 
 cwt. qr. 
 
 cwt. qr. 
 
 rr 
 
 Bowsprit cap 
 Fore lower cap 
 
 10 2 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 9 i 
 
 6 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 14 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 13 2 
 
 13 2 
 
 10 1 
 
 5 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 1 
 
 IVIain lower cap , 
 
 14 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 13 2 
 
 13 2 
 
 10 1 
 
 9 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 1 
 
 Mlzen lower cap . 
 
 6 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 1 
 
 3 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 Studding sails: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lower booms No. 2 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 n 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 7 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 2 
 
 Main-top booms No. 2 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 9 2 
 
 5 
 
 4 2 
 
 4 
 
 Fore-top booms No. 2 
 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 9 2 
 
 9 
 
 6 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 2 
 
 Main-top-gallant 
 booms . No. 2 
 
 7 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 Fore-top-gallant 
 booms . No. 2 
 
 B 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 The hounds, tressle-trees, chain necklaces, bolsters, mast-head 
 hattens, howsprit cap and hoom-irons are fixed in their places 
 before the spars are issued from the mast-house. 
 
 Ships are ' masted ' b;' sheers rigged either on the Dock 
 sides, on a hulk, or from their own resources. 
 
 To rig small sheers. Two spars of about equal length and 
 strength are placed side by side, having their heels near the 
 place where it is desirable they should stand, and a lashing is 
 passed round the heads, which becomes tautened when the heels 
 are separated. The heels are lashed so as to prevent them from 
 sliding from their place ; the working tackle and guys are secured 
 over the head lashing ; the heads are lifted off the ground, and 
 the sheers uprighted by the guys. 
 
 To get up a heavy pair, the process would be similar, except- 
 ing that the tackle would be used in uprighting, and the heads 
 would be lifted to a certain height by a small pair. 
 
140 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Large sheers on the margin of sea walls are got up after 
 securing the heels on shore, by lifting the heads with - tackle 
 irom the mast-head of a vessel moored in front, and the aid of a 
 small pair raised at their heels. 
 
 In Hulks the heels of the sheers are stepped on a stool huilt on 
 the side ; the heads are home off by a spar (a spur), stepped 
 against the mast at the deck, and supported by guys and tackles 
 from the mast-head. The mast is purposely bmlt, and of great 
 strength, and the vessel is counter ballasted. iFig, 64.) 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 In places where there are no regular masting establishments, 
 the process of fitting a sheer hulk, and masting a ship would be 
 so similar that one description will answer for both. 
 
 Small spars are hung over the side as Fenders. Suitable sheer 
 spars being brought alongside, are either parbuckled, or hoisted 
 by Derricks to the upper deck, largest ends forward, and 
 placed with their small ends crossing on the taffiail. A lashing 
 is passed round these small ends, over which the two purchase 
 blocks, gantUne blocks, and fore and aft guys are secured. The 
 
MASTS. 141 
 
 heels of the sheers are placed at the sides, nearly ahreast the mast 
 hole on chocks of hard wood, and after being cleated, are lashed 
 from forward and aft, through the adjoining ports. The deck is 
 shored up underneath. The purchase and fore guys are carried 
 as far forward as possihle, the falls being taken to the capstan. 
 If the sheers are very large, additional guys — belly guys — are 
 put on half-way up the sheer legs. A small pair of sheers are 
 raised inside the large ones, about half way aft, their heads 
 di-ooping rather aft. Tackles are led from these to each leg of 
 the large sheers, somewhat abaft the line of the heels of the 
 small ones. The fore guys of these small ones must of course 
 be strong. Runners and tackles are best. The large sheers are 
 rsiised to a certain height by the tackles from the small sheer 
 heads. A pull on the runners lifts them still higher, and then 
 the main pxirchase does the rest. (,Figs. 65, 66.) 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 The Mast Strops, which are warped ones, are lashed on the 
 masts before launching. To these, the lower purchase blocks 
 are toggled j gantlines and knotted man ropes are put on the 
 mast-heads ; and the mast being hove up into an upright posi- 
 tion over the deck, the heel is directed into the partners, and 
 lowered into its Step. It is usual to take a mast in or out on 
 that side on which the after-most sheer-leg stands.* 
 
 * The gantlines should be stopt together under the blocks, so as to prevent 
 them from unreeving. When such an accident occurs, the men being aloft, 
 
142 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 In the ease of a ship, the sheers are moved forward or aft hy 
 deck tackles, the guys being carefully attended at the same time. 
 In getting the howsprit in, the sheers are drooped over the bows 
 plomb out to the length of the bowsing. 
 
 In all cases of drooping, extra lashings are put on the heels 
 from the direction to which the sheers droop. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 The Masting Spars are got down by lashing their heads sepa- 
 rately to the lower mast, casting their cross-lashing off, and 
 lowering them down by tackles which are triced up by the 
 gantlines. 
 
 In Masting or Dismasting with one's own resources, it is 
 necessary to measure the lengths for slinging the masts very 
 accurately, so as to make sure of carrying the heel clear of the 
 upper deck, and yet avoid, if possible, top-heaviness. When the 
 spars are short for the work (as in the case of the top-masts of a 
 high ship), the masts must be slung so low as to make top-heavi- 
 
 andthe sheers removed — hauling lines are made ftom the unlaid yams of 
 the man ropes and gantline block strops. 
 
MASTS. 143 
 
 ness unavoidable. In going out, when the heel of the mast is 
 near the upper-deck partners, tackles are put on ahore from 
 each side of the upper deck, and a particularly strong and long 
 one led from below through the lower mast-holes, is lashed to 
 the heel, and well cleated each way. These tackles are tautened, 
 until when, the heel being clear of the partners, they are eased 
 away, and the mast lowered head foremost overboard. 
 
 In coming in, the mast is slung above the balancing point 
 and hoisted up with an extra tackle alongside the sheers ; the 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 purchases are then lashed low enough down, and the heel is 
 confined to the side by the turns of a greased hawser passed 
 through the ports ; or, in a merchant ship, through the ballast-hole. 
 When the heel is nearly up to the highest bight, deck-tackles 
 are lashed on from all sides, which are cleated in their place. 
 These are tautened as the mast rises, and guy the heel, when 
 high enough, into the mast-hole. 
 
 In handling a Bowsprit with our own resources, the fore -top- 
 mast is of course struck, and the fore-mast secured with runners 
 and tackles. Hang the heel of the top-mast with a hawser, and 
 unreeve the ends of the pendants from the top-mast ; unhook the 
 top-tackles, send the eyes of the pendants down abaft the top, 
 
144 
 
 MAinjAI, FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 hook on the top-tackles, carry them aft, and lash the lower 
 hlocks to the skids ; if not long enough, tall the falls -with the 
 main ones. Place the spare fore and main-top masts -with their 
 heads across the forecastle netting, and lash them together, 
 their heels being on each side of the fore-mast ; on the upper 
 side of these mast-heads, lash the two main-top blocks, and on 
 the lower a threefold purchase block. Send the points of the 
 fore-top pendants down over the fore-top, reeve them through 
 the top-blocks on the spars, and make the ends fast to the fore- 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 mast head.* Reeve a fall through the purchase block ; upright 
 the spars with the long tackles, led from the fore-mast pendants ; 
 secure the heels to the side ; shore the deck underneath ; lash well 
 from forward ; droop with the top tackles, until the heads over- 
 look as far from the fore side of the hole as the length of bowsing ; 
 lash the lower purchase block a little more than halfway out on 
 the bowsprit, and put a long tackle from the sheer heads to the 
 
 * The pendaDtB probably will not admit of being doubled until the sheers 
 are raised by the long tackle. 
 
MASTS. 
 
 146 
 
 bowsprit cap. Let the bowsprit come up, or hang athwart ships 
 when suspended, so as to clear the figure head ; top or lower, to 
 liking, with the top tackles. The purchase fall should lead to 
 the deck in a line with the sheers. 
 
 A neat performance in the history of KXasting on one's own 
 resources was in the case of an English line-of-battle ship, which, 
 having lost her own main-mast, helped herself in one ope- 
 ration to that of a captured frigate. Sheers were formed of the 
 main top-masts, whose heads were supported by guys set up 
 to the fore top-masts which were rigged out tiirough the main;" 
 deck ports on the off-side. A derrick was made of the main 
 yard, which was secured at its lower quarter to the sheer leg 
 on the working side, the pressure at this point being relieved by 
 an athwart ship spar, thrusting outwards by means of a tackle 
 led across the deck. The purchase on the upper arm of the 
 derrick took the mast out, the frigate was dropt astern, the mast 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 lowered until the sheer purchase " looked " well up and down, 
 when that tackle brought it in.* 
 
 Besides carrying duplicates of all spars, except the lower ones, 
 
 * When, in dismasting, a mast is jammed in tlie step, a gentle roll given to 
 the ship will start it. 
 
146 
 
 MANUAL rOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ships are supplied with wooden and iron Fishes. The former 
 are nearly long enough to reach from the deck to the lower mast 
 hounds; the latter are about 18 feet long, and are invaluable 
 articles. There are also rough spars of different sizes, as well 
 as spare anchor stocks, and large oak planks, all of which are 
 available for jury rigging in emergency. 
 
 When a Xower mast is sprung or wounded below the head, 
 it is supported by runners and tackles, the fish are placed up 
 and down, and lashed round the mast by wooldings which are 
 set taut by wedging. If the head is sprung, the top-mast is 
 struck, the heel hung by a top chain, chocks are placed between 
 the masts, and wooldings passed round all. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 The bowsprit may be strengthened in a similar manner by 
 rigging in the jib-boom. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Bowsprits and Lower Yards may be fished in several ways ; 
 and altogether replaced by a combination of ship's materials. 
 In all ships the main top mast, driver boom, and mast fishes 
 
MASTS. 
 
 147 
 
 are alioat the same length as the howsprit : these, 
 with two studding-sail booms, being woolded together 
 form even more than its girth. 
 
 Top stud-booms are half the length of their yards 
 and with a top sail-yard and some small spars for fiUini 
 pieces are readily ' lashed up ' into a good substitut 
 for a lower yard. 
 
 The fore yard of the " Thetis "was carried away a 
 the slings into two separate pieces. These wer 
 sent down, stript of the rigging, and battens place 1 
 straight along the deck, with their lower sides down 
 wards, the ragged ends trimmed, and the fractui 
 shut in by bowsing the pieces together with tackles o 
 different sides. Two iron fish were then nailed on th 
 fore-side of the middle, and the yard chocked steadil 
 as it lay. The after part of the middle was then ci t 
 away in a form to receive a half-anchor stock, whic 
 was bolted through to the yard. One long fish, whic 
 had meanwhile been tapered and hollowed, was place 1 
 at the after side of the yard, shutting in the ancho 
 stock, and nailed on. Chain straps were then passe I 
 round all in several places and set taut with iro 
 wedges ; between these the wooldings were hove oi 
 and work having been commenced at S a. m., the yar I 
 was in its place and sail set on it by 5 p.m. The shi[ 
 had meanwhile been turning to windward, a mize 
 top-sail having been set as a fore top-sail, and 
 reefed main top-sail bent to the spare main top- sail 
 yard as a fore-sail. The hoops taken off the bunt c ( 
 the yard were driven on the ends of the fish, and thi 
 yard did duty long after without showing a symptoi 
 of weakness. (,Fig. 71.) 
 
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS 
 
 Were formerly made of wire rope or chain. It haj 
 however, been proved that the electric-fluid will in 
 variably select for itself the line of shortest conductio: 
 offered by the best conductors, either in building! 
 ships, &c. For instance, in lowering the masts, th 
 bights were frequently left hanging slack, and a sea 
 man, happening to be in contact at the moment of 
 action, became the shortest course. 
 L 2 
 
148 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 They are now made of copper (which is the best of conductors) 
 nailed on in double strips, about 1^ inches wide and 4 feet long 
 each, on the after side of masts and lower side of jib-boom and 
 bowsprits. The connection is formed at the caps by a hinged flap, 
 which may be turned back whilst handling the spar, but should 
 always be replaced. Each upper mast-head is adapted to receive a 
 spindle which terminates the conductor at top, and the lower ends 
 of the conductors are connected with bolts passing through the 
 ship's bottom. Besides this there are similar strips of copper 
 leading under the decks, from the fore and main masts to the 
 stem and stem ; and others which traverse the beams, and 
 terminate also in bolts through the bottom, which are clenched 
 on the sheathing. 
 
 When the top-gallant-masts are down, the spindle should be 
 placed on the top-mast head. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
 RIGGING. 
 
 Excepting the wheel ropes, which are usually of hide, all Rope 
 used in the navy is hempen. 
 
 The size of rope is denoted by its circumference, and its 
 nature by the mianner of its fabrication. It is either white or 
 tarred, contains three or more strands, and up to the size of 
 five inch, is made up in Coils. 
 
 The hemp is first spun into Tarns or Threads, each of 
 which is supposed to be equal in strength to bear a weight of 
 100 pounds. 
 
 Several yarns spun up together form Strands. Three or four 
 strands laid up together form Bawser-lald rope. {Figs. 72, 73.) 
 
 Three such three-stranded ropes laid up together form Cable : 
 the smaller kinds of which are called Cablets and Hawsers. 
 {Fig. 74.) 
 
 Yarns are spun up right handed. Strands intended for 
 right-handed rope are spun up left-handed; and those for left- 
 handed rope right-handed. 
 
 The large four-stranded hawser-laid rope which is made up 
 round a small rope in the heart, being chiefly used for standing 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 149 
 
 rigging, is commonly called Staroud-Iald rope. The rope re- 
 presented in the sketch Figt. 72, 73, is right-handed. 
 Fig. 73. Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 Threads of an inferior quality wrought into the form of rope 
 are called Etimholine, or twice laid ; those twisted up moderately 
 taut, and seldom exceeding 9, are called Spun yarn. Spun 
 yam plaited into a soft flat rope is called Sennit. 
 
 Threads, usually two, unlaid, rubbed down, twisted up the 
 reverse way, and then spun up together right-handed, are called 
 xrettle stuff. 
 
 Threads twisted together by hand in short lengths, are called 
 Foxes. 
 
 Foxes plaited together after forming an eye, make Reef 
 Points or Caskets. 
 
 " In hawser-laid rope the strength of each yam ' is greatest in 
 the smaller sizes : thus, in a 12-inch rope the average strength 
 is 76 pounds; in 6-inch, 78 pounds ; in I|-inch, 93 pounds ; in 
 1-inch, 95 pounds ; and in |-inch, 104 pounds per thread. 
 
 " All rope made with 4 strands is weaker than that which is 
 made with 3 in proportion of about |. 
 
 " A strain of half the full length of any rope or chain, con- 
 stantly or even frequently applied, will eventually (before its 
 evident decay from wear) break it : this maxim applying witJt 
 greater force to crane chain than to chain cable, and with still 
 greater force to rope, particularly cable laid."* Italian hemp is 
 
 * Tinmouth. 
 I. 3 
 
150 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 considered superior to all others. Three-and-a-half-incli ropes 
 were tested in 1856 ; and whilst the one make of Riga hemp 
 hroke at 3 tons 15 cwt., that of Neapolitan did not carry away 
 until a strain of 5 tons was applied. 
 
 Cat-falls, gunners' gear, bolt rope, lanyards of lower rigging, 
 topsail ties, halyards, lifts and braces are all made of Italian hemp. 
 
 Coir Rope is made from the fibres of the cocoa-nut tree. It is 
 equal in strength to hempen rope of the same size, and is but 
 two thirds of the weight. As it floats it is most useful for warps, 
 but decays rapidly when stowed away wet. 
 
 The rough rule for measuring the strength of ropes, is to 
 multiply it by its circumference and divide by five ; but this 
 applies only to the very best cordage. 
 
 To ascertain its weight, the square of Its circumference divided 
 by 4 equals the weight of a fathom in pounds ; or multiply the 
 square of the circumference by the length in fathoms, and divide 
 by 480 for weight in cwts. 
 
 The general rule for coiling down ropes is, right-handed rope 
 with the sun, left-handed ropes against the sun. (See Bitting 
 Cables.) 
 
 When ropes are broken, they are joined by Splices. If 
 they reeve through blocks, a Long splice is used ; otherwise a 
 Short splice. In short splices when there is no service,, the 
 ends should be put through twice each way ; when the ends are 
 served down, once and a half is suiBcient. 
 
 All splices are weaker than the rope itself by one eighth. 
 
 When a strand of a rope is chafed, it is cut out and another 
 interwoven in lieu. 
 
 When rope is exposed to much chafe, it is preserved by filling 
 up the openings with spun yarn or strands, n process which is 
 called 'Worming'. This is covered with strips of taiTcd canvass ; 
 which is called Parcelling, and this is again with turns of spun 
 yam, called Serving. Tar before worming; worm and parcel 
 with the lay, and serve against the lay, as a general rule ; but. 
 as it is an object to exclude wet, the eyes of standing rigging 
 are parcelled towards the centre: thus the upper edges are 
 covered after the manner of slate roofing. 
 
 Backing is smaller stuff laid in after worming, so as to make 
 the rope more round. 
 
 Tbroat Seizings are put on when ropes cross ; the turns are 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 151 
 
 passed round and round six over seven, without any crossing 
 turns. 
 
 Round Seizings have two cross turns. 
 
 Flat Seizings have no riding or upper turns. 
 
 All Seizing Stuff should be well stretched before use ; and 
 excepting throat seizings, are generally hove on over parcelling. 
 
 Rope intended for particular purposes, where much strain is 
 only borne at one end, are made up tapered, so that the hauling 
 part is light, whilst that which is belayed is stout. Such are 
 lower tacks and sheets. 
 
 Of the three different modes of turning in dead eyes, the splice 
 is the weakest ; the cutter stay fashion next ; and the old way of 
 securing with throat and end seizings, is so strong as to break 
 the rope.* 
 
 In forming cables, the splicing tails are stronger than the arti- 
 - ficial eye, but the tails must be well covered. 
 
 Straps made of small rope are said to be Warped ; when of 
 yams, Salvagee. The warped are stronger than rope of the 
 same size. 
 
 Two men can worm and serve seven fathoms of 3| inch 
 rope in an hour j or worm, parcel, and serve 3 fiithoms of 7-inch 
 in an hour. 
 
 Three men can worm, parcel, and serve 2 fathoms of 12-inch 
 in an hour. 
 
 One man can make 9 feet of 9 yam sennit in an hour. 
 
 Six men can make an Elliott's eye in 1 day In a 24-inch cable. 
 
 Four men can do the same with a 15-inch cable: but will re- 
 quire an occasional help for a pull. 
 
 Table showing the sized chain or wire rope which is used as a 
 substitute for hempen rope. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 
 
 Chain. 
 
 
 Wire. 
 
 3 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 - 1| 
 
 4 
 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 - 
 
 - 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 - 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 - 2| 
 
 7 
 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 - 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 - 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 - 31 
 
 9 
 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 - 4 
 
 10 
 
 
 - 
 
 1| 
 
 - 
 
 - 4| 
 
 11 
 
 
 - 
 
 1| 
 
 - 
 
 - 5 
 
152 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAl CADETS. 
 
 Table, showing the strength of chain, hemp, and 
 wire rope. 
 
 Hawser Laid 
 Rope. 
 
 Bound Linked Crane 
 Chain. 
 
 Wire Rope. 
 
 e 
 H 
 
 ■cS 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 
 ' 
 
 .r=- 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 cwts. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lln. 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 tons. 
 
 12 
 
 2940 
 
 40 -o 
 
 1- 
 
 730 
 
 30^6 
 
 15,569 
 
 % 
 
 40 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 I'i 
 
 
 36-7 
 
 62-3 
 
 27-0 
 
 36 
 
 108 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 
 33-6 
 
 57-4 
 
 24-7 
 
 
 % 
 
 32 
 
 96 
 
 16 
 
 101 
 
 
 30 7 
 
 52-8 
 
 22^6 
 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 15. 
 
 10 
 
 2136 
 
 27-0 
 
 1p 
 
 48-4 
 
 20-6 
 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 84 
 
 14 
 
 H 
 
 
 25-2 
 
 44-1 
 
 18-8 
 
 
 3| 
 
 24 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 1712 
 
 22-6 
 
 40-1 
 
 17-0 
 
 
 3| 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 8| 
 
 
 20 2 
 
 36-3 
 
 15-3 
 
 7,481 
 
 17 
 
 SI 
 
 8- 
 
 8 
 
 1379 
 
 180 
 
 32-7 
 
 13-6 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 7- 
 6- 
 
 n 
 
 
 15-8 
 
 
 29^3 
 
 12-0 
 
 6,490 
 
 2| 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 
 13-8 
 
 IS 
 
 li 
 
 26-1 
 
 10-5 
 
 5,600 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 5- 
 
 61 
 
 
 120 
 
 231 
 
 91 
 
 4,500 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 4- 
 
 6 
 
 834 
 
 10-3 
 
 g0^4 
 
 7-9 
 
 4,000 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 2 
 1- 
 
 51 
 
 712 
 
 8-7 
 
 B 
 
 4 
 
 17-3 
 
 6-8 
 
 3,449 
 
 l| 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 .7-2 
 
 
 14-6 
 
 . 5-6 
 
 2,900 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 .*! 
 
 413 
 
 59 
 
 12-0 
 
 4-6 
 
 2,538 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 4-7 
 
 ^ 
 
 9-7 
 
 3-8 
 
 2,001 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 37 
 
 77 
 
 3'0 
 
 1,583 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 203 
 
 2-8 
 
 5-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 1,060 
 
 
 
 
 
 a| 
 
 
 21 
 
 4-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 827 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 P 
 
 30 
 
 1-1 
 
 S81 
 
 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 
 1-23 
 
 1-9 
 
 •75 
 
 392 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 •88 
 
 s 
 
 1^0 
 
 •42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •56 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■51 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 
 
 •46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 •28 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 153 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 S 
 
 >§ 
 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 JS 
 
 
 ^ (N r-i OT CM CN CM 
 
 E ^ WO«WCT(NOO 
 
 
 1 
 
 in-<*om«)OTi*(Nco 
 i-H d CO -<l* to 00 a» 
 
 
 .1 
 
 Hid 
 
 ^<MW-<f>ntOt*Q0CO 
 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 era 
 
 t 
 1 
 
 rH|(N 
 
 .«5O(0T(«OX'3'«tTt< 
 jQ O* ^ <N ^ (N tN 
 
 2 ^ « O'CC CO « « O O 
 
 iSoowcotfico^int^ 
 
 ^ r-< r- .-I 
 
 
 1 
 
 CqOiOOSSSOCDfflCO 
 
 F^cocs»f:'^50oo«(N 
 i-t <N eo -* CD *>. 
 
 
 
 HIN 
 
 i-'(NCO-<*'WeDI>-0OQO 
 
 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 cotOTj-cncoeoeooos 
 
 ^Cl ^ (N f-i (N (N 
 
 £OC0C0OC0OtNCTi-< 
 
 jSOO^CQTiit^OStN-'*' 
 
 
 1 
 
 lO-^OcOCOO-^WCO 
 •-■Offi — cooomioeo 
 
 rH CT CO ^ CO CO OS 
 
 
 
 Hid 
 ^dco-^wtot^ooao 
 
 
 a 
 
 .J 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 1 
 
 3 2 
 
 1 3 4 
 
 3 18 
 
 4 3 21 
 7 15 
 9 2 21 
 
 12 2 18 
 14 1 9 
 
 
 ■A 
 
 tNOSOOSOSOOSOSCO 
 i-i IM CO ■* CO J>- 
 
 
 
 ^c<)coT*<ioeot^coar 
 
 
154 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Transporting 
 Cables. 128 Fa- 
 thom, 20-thread 
 Yarn. 
 
 1 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 2 1 19 
 
 3 25 
 
 4 4 
 4 3 10 
 
 6 6 
 
 7 1 1 
 
 8 1 25 
 
 9 2 20 
 
 11 1 5 
 
 12 3 18 
 14 3 19 
 16 3 21 
 18 3 23 
 
 
 
 ■qiSnajjs 
 
 BtD^-r-OOODOSOBOOOOOOOi-H 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 (^OV00O-*«©00OO(M(NWOOO 
 
 Sr»o-<tQO«eoo-*ao(Nt^^<o^«i 
 &«3t^t^t^aooDosa>0)00— <^<N(N 
 
 
 
 rHOoo^o-^tMOisoeooeOCTJt-eOQO 
 
 OOOOQOOSO^<MTJ<OOOC)CO<OOS(M 
 
 oo050^co-fl'meDt--ooo — iNcctft 
 -'i— (N(N«CT(N(N(N(NCOCO-TOCO« 
 
 
 II 
 
 c sfo S"- •sr« sr™ ^% T« tJTco 
 
 r-'^(N(N(N(M(NQ4(N(N'M(N(NlM9l 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 •qiSnaJis 
 
 
 
 Weights. 
 
 2QOOOOOOooeO-«h{NOOO-*OcOOeO 
 S (N ^ Si I-I C^ -HCT^ 
 
 S:<N<NCOOCQ(NO(NOO<M<NCQOCO.-<©1 
 
 cr 
 
 ^>M(MlNCq(NC0CQC0«'*-*Ttf»0»0i£3(0O 
 
 
 
 eDO««)O(MT)>«0a0OT^<N(N(MC0(M(N 
 
 I'-ccostor-.flotcacqoii^iocotNf-'Oiooo 
 
 0«050t>.C3000CsOO'-'CMCOTPOiO«Dt* 
 
 
 b5 
 
 H|« HfM HlW HiN H|« r-l|M rt|M rt|« rH|« 
 
 
 * 
 
 Cables, 101 Fathom, 
 20-thread Yarn. 
 
 ■qjSuaJIS 
 
 ^ ip-->t^Ti'0OCOCOinQO{Mt-Tj<CT'-'lM 
 
 
 i 
 
 w_0 '-WtNOCOCOCOCOtNO-tCOfNOWC-l 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 r*'»-»'(MOQO*n<NO>CO(NOOCOOOCOQO« 
 (NCOifSl^OiOCOSOOO— '»i7C0«l>-(N«>eN 
 
 
 m = 
 
 CN ^"oo -^^^ To T;!r« ^V ^"oo %^a. ^"o 
 
 I-I 
 
 
JEQTJIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 155 
 
 Table, sJwwing the number of Threads and Weight of Hawser-laid 
 Hope, three strands, tarred, 113 fathoms. 
 
 SO-thread Yarn. 
 
 26-thread Yam. 
 
 30-thread Yam. 
 
 Siie. 
 
 Thxead. 
 
 ^IS'l 
 
 WeiBht, 
 White. 
 
 Weicht, 
 White.' 
 
 Weight, 
 Tarretl. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 WeiBht, 
 Tarred. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 i 
 
 
 cwts. qrs.lb8. 
 
 cwts,qrs. Ihs. 
 
 cwts.qr! 
 
 
 .lbs. 
 17 
 
 cwtB.qn 
 
 
 .lbs 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 cwts.qr' 
 
 .lbs. 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 G 
 
 2di 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 OM 10 
 
 
 
 1 H 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 li 
 
 12 
 
 1 20 
 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 1} 
 
 18 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 2 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 H 
 
 21, 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 14 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 3 24 
 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2U 
 
 39 
 
 n 
 
 33 
 
 1 20 
 
 
 
 3 26 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 61 
 
 2i 
 
 42 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1 1 
 
 23 
 
 51 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 2| 
 
 SI 
 
 1 3 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 5 
 
 63 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 V 60 
 
 2 iG 
 
 .1 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 90 
 
 H 
 
 G9 
 
 2 1 24 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 1 
 
 26 
 
 87 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 3* 
 
 81 
 
 2 3 IG 
 
 2 
 
 1 18 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 2 3 
 
 18 
 
 102 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 123 
 
 H 
 
 93 
 
 3 1 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 1 
 
 10 
 
 117 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 Ml 
 
 4 
 
 108 
 
 3 3 12 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 132 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 159 
 
 *i 
 
 120 
 
 4 1 4 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 4 1 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 180 
 
 H 
 
 135 
 
 4 3 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 3 
 
 5 
 
 168 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 H 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 225 
 
 5 
 
 168 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 6 2 
 
 18 
 
 207 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 249 
 
 5^ 
 
 201 
 
 7 20 
 
 6 
 
 3 26 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 3 
 
 22 
 
 252 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 2J0 
 
 8 2 8 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 6} 
 
 282 
 
 10 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 16 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 351 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 327 
 
 11 2 20 
 
 9 
 
 2 26 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 11 2 
 
 17 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 37.5 
 
 13 1 16 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 13 1 
 
 13 
 
 468 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 426 
 
 15 24 
 
 12 
 
 2 20 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 
 534 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 483 
 
 17 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 14 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 603 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 540 
 
 19 I 4 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 19 1 
 
 4 
 
 675 
 
 
 
 
 
 9J 
 
 603 
 
 21 2 4 
 
 17 
 
 3 22 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 20 21 2 
 
 1 
 
 753 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 66G 
 
 23 3 4 
 
 19 
 
 3 8 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 12 23 3 
 
 8 
 
 834 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOJ 
 
 735 
 
 26 1 
 
 21 
 
 3 14 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 12 26 
 
 25 
 
 918 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 8117 
 
 28 3 8 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 28 3 
 
 5 
 
 1008 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 832 
 
 31 2 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 31 1 
 
 23 
 
 1101 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 960 
 
 34 1 4 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 34 1 
 
 4 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
156 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Hawser-laid, four strands, tarred, 106 fathoms. 
 
 
 
 20-thread Yam 
 
 
 25-thread Yam. 
 
 . SOHhreadYam. 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 WeiBbt. 
 
 
 
 
 iwta. 
 
 qn.1l>i. 
 
 
 
 EWta.qT«. 
 
 bs. 
 
 
 
 cwts. qrfi.lb8. 
 
 
 3 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 (1 17 
 
 11 
 
 21- 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 6» 
 
 « 
 
 I 21 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 U 
 
 If 
 
 30 
 
 2 26 
 
 
 A 
 
 82 
 
 2 
 
 3 17 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 3 19 
 
 
 3| 
 
 95 
 
 3 
 
 1 12 
 
 ik 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 2i 
 
 61 
 
 I 26 
 
 
 4 
 
 108 
 
 3 
 
 3 t 
 
 •i 
 
 91 
 
 1 1 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 63 
 
 1 2 2 
 
 
 4i 
 
 121- 
 
 4 
 
 1 3 
 
 2¥ 
 
 64 
 
 1 3 
 
 111 
 
 2sL 
 
 72 
 
 I 2 27 
 
 
 4 
 
 13t 
 
 4 
 
 2 27 
 
 3 
 
 73, 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 8* 
 
 ■"89 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 101 
 
 2 1 21 
 
 
 fl' 
 
 169 
 
 5 
 
 3 if: 
 
 3# 
 
 102 
 
 2 3 
 
 2C 
 
 122 
 
 2 3 22 
 
 
 H 
 
 204 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 115 
 
 3 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 139 
 
 3 1 t2 
 
 
 fi 
 
 243. 
 
 S 
 
 2 IC 
 
 4 
 
 132 
 
 3 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 15(> 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 
 6i 
 
 286 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 149 
 
 4 1 
 
 3 
 
 4* 
 
 177 
 
 .4 1 5 
 
 
 7 
 
 329 
 
 II 
 
 2 16 
 
 4 
 4i 
 
 166 
 
 4 3 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 198 
 
 4 3 4 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 377 
 
 ,13 
 
 1 in 
 
 
 
 
 220 
 
 5 1 9 
 
 
 8 
 
 ,^0* 
 
 10* 
 
 429 
 490 
 546 
 611 
 
 672 
 741 
 
 'l6 
 17 
 19 
 21 
 •/3 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 7 
 
 2 13 
 
 3 2 
 24 
 
 5 
 7* 
 
 209 
 252 
 299 
 350 
 405 
 465 
 
 6 
 
 7 n 
 
 8 2 
 10 
 U 2 
 13 1 
 
 (■ 
 
 27 
 10 
 
 16 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 245 
 
 5 3 20 
 
 
 Hawser l.iid, 106 laclmnis. 
 four strands, tarred, 30- 
 thread. Shrouds and^tays. 
 
 
 'i 
 
 25 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 II 
 
 815 
 
 2H 
 
 3 9 
 
 8 
 
 633 
 
 15 1 
 
 7 
 
 >l 
 
 30 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 m 
 
 893 
 
 31 
 
 2 10 
 
 8* 
 
 602 
 
 17 1 
 
 (i 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 3 19 
 
 
 !2 
 
 671 
 
 34 
 
 1 11 
 
 9 
 
 670 
 
 19 I 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 51 
 
 1 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9J 
 
 751 
 
 21 2 
 
 11. 
 
 a 
 
 63 
 
 1 2 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 828 
 
 23 3 
 
 5 
 
 2f 
 
 72 
 
 1 2 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10* 
 
 913 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 89 
 
 2 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1003 
 
 28 3 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 101 
 
 2 1 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 1097 
 
 31 2 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 122 
 
 2 3 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 1195 
 
 34 1 
 
 11 
 
 3? 
 
 139 
 
 3 1 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i'4 
 
 1297 
 
 37 1 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1!)6 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 1404 
 
 40 1 
 
 11 
 
 ti 
 
 177 
 
 3 1 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13i 
 
 1510 
 
 43 1 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 198 
 220 
 
 245 
 
 4 3 4 
 6 1 9 
 
 5 3 20 
 
 Tachs, 25 -thread yarn, tapered. 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 %t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r%. 
 
 3 hi. 
 
 3iin. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 Hin. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 Si in. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 Hin. 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 21 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 16 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 21 
 
 2 7 
 
 2 24 
 
 3 16 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 1 4 
 
 1 2 
 
 30 
 
 1 26 
 
 2 1- 
 
 3 1( 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 I 8 
 
 1 2 10 
 
 1 3 20 
 
 2 1 C 
 
 40 
 
 2 16 
 
 3 VS 
 
 1 14 
 
 1 1 21 
 
 1 3 2 
 
 2 13 
 
 2 2 8 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 3 ."■ 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 1 11' 
 
 1 3 .' 
 
 2 24 
 
 2 2 17 
 
 3 24 
 
 3 3 
 
 60 
 
 3 22 
 
 1 1 6 
 
 1 2 21 
 
 2 17 
 
 2 2 17 
 
 3 2C 
 
 3 3 12 
 
 4 2 C 
 
 70 
 
 1 V, 
 
 1 2 2 
 
 1 3 2.'' 
 
 2 2 1 
 
 3 11 
 
 3 2 2! 
 
 4 2 
 
 6 1 
 
 80 
 
 1 1 2 
 
 1 2 27 
 
 2 1 C 
 
 2 3 13 
 
 3 2 5 
 
 4 27 
 
 5 16 
 
 6 
 
 90 
 
 1 1 201 1 3 23 
 
 2 2 4 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 3 26 
 
 4 3V 
 
 5 3 4 
 
 6 3 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 157 
 
 Siffnal-balyards stu£f is made of strands that have been 
 laid up in opposite 17375, so as to lessen that tendency to taking 
 in turns -which is so inconvenient in hoisting flags.* It is 
 laid up in lengths of 113 fathoms, and from | to \\ inch in 
 circumference. 
 
 Blocks of ships are made of elm, having either metal or lig- 
 num vitse sheaves, with a metal touching and iron pin. 
 
 Their size is denoted by the length of the shell, and their 
 quality by their degree of flatness or thickness, number of 
 sheaves, scores for stropping, and nature of stropping. For 
 instance, a brace block is (say) 20-inch, single, thin, and double 
 scored. A tye block is, single, thick, and iron bound. 
 
 Clump Blacks are made shorter and thicker, and have metal 
 sheaves, which are smaller in diameter than those of other 
 blocks which reeve the same sized rope. Tack and sheet blocks 
 are of this description. 
 
 SliouldeT blocks are made with a projection left on one 
 side of the top of the shell, which bearing against the place of 
 connection, prevents the falls from being jammed. Such are 
 Purchase and Fore tack blocks. 
 
 The Fiddle block is a large and small single block made 
 on end in one piece, each being equally large in the swallow. 
 The parts of rope are kept more clear of each other in this kind 
 of block, and as they do not cross, there is less friction ; but as 
 the upper sheave is smaller in diameter, there is a loss of power. 
 
 Sister blocks are also two in one on end, but are of the 
 same size. They are only used where two different ropes lead 
 from similar directions, but well apart, as in the case of topsail 
 lifts and reef-tackles. 
 
 Strop bored blocks have a projection left on each side of 
 the lower part of the shell, through which the strop passes, and 
 which is supposed to keep small gear out of the swallow. They 
 are used for reef-tackles and clue garnets. 
 
 Iron stropped blocks have either a swivel or standing hook. 
 In the case of snatch blocks, the binding is cut through to 
 
 • In fitting flags, Sennit distance lines are less liable to take turns than is 
 rope of any other kind. 
 
158 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 receive the rope, and is connected by a clamp, which should be 
 locked whenever the rope is rove. 
 
 Blocks should frequently be examined, not only as to strap- 
 ping, but also by knocking the pin out, and inspecting the 
 bouching. The loss of power, and strain on rope occasioned by 
 a worn bouch is considerable. The working blocks of tackles, 
 (for instance, the fly-block of top-sail halyards) are always more 
 worn than the lower ones, and therefore without waiting until 
 the sheaves shriek and become dumb, the blocks should be 
 shifted or the sheaves transposed. This remark applies also to 
 quarter-davits. Thatsheave on which the hauling part of the rope 
 works does most duty : for although it is assumed in mechanics 
 that strain is equally bom by all parts of a rope in a tackle, 
 practice proves that the hauling part is most worn and strained. 
 If, for example, we have a weight of 3 cwt. suspended by a 
 luff-tackle, the upper block being fixed, and we hang a weight 
 of 1 cwt. to the fall, the 3 cwt. would be balanced, but the fixed 
 block would bear a weight of four cwt. And there is something 
 of this kind which calls for greater strength, and frequent altera- 
 tion in upper blocks (see p. 118). 
 
 All blocks which stand horizontally — as lower brace blocks — > 
 must be placed with the square end of the pin upwards ; as, when 
 the shell shrinks, it is liable to fall out if placed otherwise. 
 
 Banging:, Tye,- and Quarter blocks undergo great strains 
 when bracing sharp up ; if the former are two blocks, the 
 weather halyards should be eased up sufiaciently. 
 
 Cat Blocks are liable to split, if not unhooked before fishing 
 the anchor. So are Teer Blocks, if hove together, as some- 
 times happens in the excitement of heaving up lower yards. 
 
 The Language of Blocks is a most useful study. When 
 their natural desire to " look to their work " is not gratified, 
 they complain loudly. " If that block could speak, what would 
 it say?" was a favourite question of a celebrated old officer 
 who was not friendly to the over neat rigging mania that ob- 
 tained in those times, when foot-ropes were stopt up, and gear 
 was unrove to make a ship look " nice." 
 
 There is a regular proportion for the size of rope stropping ; 
 and the blocks are fitted either with a hook and thimble, a 
 lashing eye, or with a tail. The splice of the strop is always 
 placed at the lower part of the block. 
 
 A block is double stropped when it is desirable to give it a 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 159 
 
 different stand to what it would have with a single one, as in 
 the case of brace blocks. 
 
 Gun Tackle Blocks are usually stropped with a grummet. 
 One man can fit about 11 of these in a day of 9I hours' work : or 
 12 common, serving his own strop. 
 
 Blocks should be three times the size of the rope rove in them. 
 
 The standing part of the rope in small tackles is either 
 spliced into the strop of one of the blocks, or clenched into a 
 becket in the strop. In the latter way , the rope can more readily be 
 temporarily applied to other purposes, or disconnected or stowed 
 away in places which might be too small to contain the blocks 
 also. In the case of two fold blocks, the splice or becket is 
 placed on one side of the lower part of the strop, so that the 
 standing part of the fall may look straight into its reeve. 
 
 In the case of large tackles, the standing part of the fall is 
 brought up alongside the fixed block and secured either round 
 the neck of its strop, or to the place at which the block is 
 attached. When the standing part is made fast at the moving 
 block, it is generally rove through the becket and clenched 
 round the neck of the strop. This keeps the block upright 
 whilst overhauling down, and prevents a " Thorofoot." In 
 either mode of applying the tackling, the block will be re- 
 lieved of some strain by taking the standing part to the fixture 
 or to the weight. 
 
 Table of size of rope stropping. 
 
 Blocks. 
 
 Hflpe. 
 
 Blocks. 
 
 Rope. 
 
 Blocks. 
 
 Rope. 
 
 Blocks. 
 
 Rope. 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 11 
 
 3J 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 S 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2i 
 
 13 
 
 *i 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2* 
 
 U 
 
 ^ 
 
 1!) 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Block strops if covered at all, should be so with matting 
 laced on. A pointed strop is seldom dry ; soon decays invisibly, 
 and breaks without warning. 
 
160 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Weight of wooden blocks. 
 
 Descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Descrip- 
 tion. ' 
 
 Size. 
 
 WeiRht. 
 
 Descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 cwt. qrs. ti>s. 
 
 
 in. 
 
 cw(..]-B. lbs. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 cwt. qr8.Jbs. 
 
 Single. 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 Of 
 1 
 
 Double. 
 
 4' 
 
 1 
 1} 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 '* 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Treble. 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 " 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 ' 
 
 7 
 
 n 
 
 „ 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 '* 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 8 
 
 D 6 
 
 „ 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 ."i 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 ,^ 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 6| 
 
 ' 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 „ 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 '* 
 
 u 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 ,, 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 " 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 J 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 ,j 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 " 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 jj 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 It 
 
 13 
 
 1 3 
 
 " 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 
 14 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 1 14 
 
 ' 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 jj 
 
 15 
 
 1 7 
 
 „ 
 
 15 
 
 1 24 
 
 " 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 ^j 
 
 16 
 
 I 11 
 
 „ 
 
 16 
 
 2 7 
 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 J, 
 
 17 
 
 1 24 
 
 „ 
 
 17 
 
 220 
 
 
 Ig 
 
 1 4 
 
 J 
 
 18 
 
 2 3 
 
 1) 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 * 
 
 19 
 
 I 13 
 
 J, 
 
 19 
 
 2 1.5 
 
 
 19 
 
 3 18 
 
 " 
 
 20 
 
 1 21 
 
 jj 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 „ 
 
 20 
 
 1 1 10 
 
 '1 
 
 21 
 
 1 24 
 
 jj 
 
 21 
 
 3 .8 
 
 „ 
 
 21 
 
 1 1 19 
 
 " 
 
 22 
 
 2 6 
 
 j^ 
 
 22 
 
 1 4 
 
 J, 
 
 22 
 
 1 2 
 
 " 
 
 23 
 
 D 2 26 
 
 jj 
 
 23 
 
 1 24 
 
 ,, 
 
 23 
 
 1 2 10 
 
 '* 
 
 24 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 24 
 
 1 1 17 
 
 „ 
 
 24 
 
 1 2 20 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 18 
 
 2.5 
 
 1 2 4 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 3 17 
 
 ", 
 
 26 
 
 1 8 
 
 !! 26 
 
 1 3 2 
 
 26 1 
 
 2 14 
 
 The largest sized blocks made in one piece are 28 inches. 
 Careening blocks, -vrhich are built, are as large as 42 inches, and 
 are usually made with metal sheaves. 
 
 The principal obj eotion to many fold blocks is that the partitions 
 cannot without being unwieldy be made thick enough to resist 
 great pressure at the middle part of the pin. Upon the perfect 
 straightness of which pin diminution of friction greatly depends. 
 
 Table of the size and weight of purchase blocks, and the number 
 allowed to each rate. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 Fonr- 
 fold. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Three 
 fold. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Two- 
 fold. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 in. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 42 
 
 ■>. 
 
 8 3 
 
 >.. 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 1 
 
 
 36 
 
 ■ •. 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 2 
 
 ... 
 
 5 
 
 Ships of Line 
 
 3U 
 
 1 
 
 4 3 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 3 
 
 >•■ 
 
 3 2 
 
 1st Class Frigates 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 
 2na „ 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3rd „ 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 2 3 20 
 
 1 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 5th „ 
 
 20 
 
 
 >•* 
 
 2 
 
 3 20 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 7th 
 
 17 
 
 ... 
 
 ••• 
 
 2 
 
 2 9 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 Remaining Ships 7 
 and Brigs - i 
 
 16 
 
 >•• 
 
 ••• 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 ... 
 
 15 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 1 23 
 
 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 161 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Hooks. There are no rales laid down for the 
 relative proportion of hooks to blocks, and as they 
 are al-ways liable to open and break, it is safer, 
 unless they are evidently very strong, to use a 
 shackle, lashing or strop and toggle. More 
 accidents happen from open hooks than from 
 chain or cordage. Great support may be given a 
 hook by slipping a link or shackle over the point, 
 thus, ^5'. 75.* 
 
 Figures 76, 77, 78, and 79, represent sections 
 of hooks at their curved parts on a scale of half 
 the actual size. These proportions have been adopted in the 
 iron factories, and are warranted to bear the weights noted on 
 each. As the inner fibres of the curve are exposed to a tearing 
 asunder strain, whilst the outer bear only a crushing strain, the 
 upper edges of these hooks are thickest. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Fig, 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. Fig. 79. 
 
 Metal Blocks being very much shorter in the shell than 
 wooden, are frequently used under circumstances in which 
 wooden ones would for want of space be impossible or incon- 
 venient, such as steering gear, lifting machinery, mounting 
 and dismounting guns. They are also used as quarter blocks in 
 ships fitted with chain top-sail sheets. 
 
 TtalmUes are made both perfectly round, and also with the 
 ends nearly joined. Two are sometimes united for the purpose 
 of giving easy play to the adjoining strops or block, as well as 
 a different stand ; as in fitting lower and top-sail brace blocks. 
 
 * One great advantage in Bothway'B blocks is, that the hook may be un- 
 shipped and. a shackle substituted at pleasure. 
 M 
 
162 MANUAL POK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Iron Slocie. 
 
 Weight to 
 
 Diajneter 
 
 Thickness 
 
 size of 
 
 Steof 
 
 Length of 
 
 WeiBhtof 
 
 Weiehtof 
 Blicks. 
 
 CBTXy. 
 
 of Sheaves. 
 
 of Sheaves. 
 
 Ropeosed. 
 
 
 Block. 
 
 (Double.) 
 
 (Treble.) 
 
 tons. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 in, dlam. 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 li 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 
 6i 
 
 9 
 
 lOi 
 
 21 
 
 3i 
 
 13 
 
 II 
 
 Iff 
 
 2 
 
 K 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 3} 
 
 35 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 S3 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 ^f 
 
 IJ 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Quad- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ruple). 
 
 
 8 
 
 8i 
 
 li 
 
 3* 
 
 11 
 
 P 
 
 16i 
 
 89 
 
 n 
 
 11 
 
 9f 
 
 n 
 
 4 
 
 l^ 
 
 125 
 
 110 
 
 In dealing with iron gear, it is well to bear in mind that the 
 limit of elasticity of wrought iron bars of 1 inch square, is about 
 10 tons, within which it stretches about 10555 part of an inch to 
 each ton of strain, returning to its former dimensions on the 
 remoTal of strain. Beyond this the fibres become permanently 
 fixed, and the brealsing strain is about 25 tons. The rule in 
 practice is not to subject such iron to more than 5 tons on every 
 square inch of section. 
 
 STANDING RIGGING. 
 
 Each mast is supported from forward by " stays," fr^>m aft by 
 " back-stays," and sideways by " shrouds." In order to 
 connect additional supports when necessary, each lower and top- 
 mast has its " pendants"." The fore-mast is supported from 
 forward by the bowsprit, and therefore the bowsprit has an 
 extra number of stays. These above-mentioned ropes constitute 
 the Standing Xisging. 
 
 BITNNING BIGGING. 
 
 Each upper-mast is provided with the means of lowering or 
 raising it ; in top-masts called " top-tackle gear," in top-gaUant- 
 masts, " mast ropes." Each yard is supported in its middle (the 
 lower by " chain slings," the upper by " ties ") and at the arms 
 by "lifts." Each yard is moved about by its own "braces," 
 carries a sail, and is fitted with a " jack-stay," to which the 
 head of the sail is bent. Each saU has its sheets for spreading 
 and halyards for hoisting it ; also its " clue garnets," or " clue 
 lines," or " down hauls," or buntlines, or leechlines, &c. &c., for 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 163 
 
 taking it in ; and each yard is provided -with a " foot rope " for 
 the men to stand on whilst furling the sail. 
 
 These and such like ropes constitute the Running IUsirlngr< 
 
 CUTTING OtIT. 
 
 To cut the lower shrouds out of the " warp." To the length 
 of the mast from the " deck to the lower side of tressle-tree," 
 add the height of the thickness of the tressle-tree and bolster (on 
 one side), and the depth which the chains are below the deck ; 
 take this as a perpendicular, and the length froili the mast-hole 
 to the outer edge of the channel as a base, and the hypothenuse 
 will be the length of one leg of the first pair. Fix two pegs in 
 the ground this length apart ; make the bare end of the warp fast 
 to one of them, and fake the warp round and round both 
 pegs, each turn outside the other until you have got the number 
 of pairs required. When there is an odd shroud on each side, 
 carry their bight of the warp Ij fathom beyond the others, cut 
 through all at the standing end, and mark the bights in their 
 middle, numbering from the first pair in the centre to the last 
 outside. 
 
 After thus cutting out the rigging, each piece of rope is hove 
 out taut by tackles on the bare ends, the rope usually stretch- 
 ing one inch in a foot ; their middle parts are then wormed, 
 parcelled, served, and formed into eyes of one round and a 
 quarter of the mast-head in length by seizings. 
 
 Mast-Iieaa Pendants are formed in like manner. The 
 after leg is cut one-third the length of a shroud, and the fore- 
 most one about one fourth of that length, so that when the 
 runners are made fast to them and employed in staying the 
 masts, the tackles may support the mast at two places, and thus 
 prevent its bellying, besides leading clear of each other. 
 
 A thimble is spliced into the end of each leg. When there 
 is an odd shroud its eye is formed by a splice ; it is placed 
 aftermost and called a swifter. Single pendants are generally 
 formed in the eye with a cut splice. 
 
 The Foremost Sbroud is always served the whole way 
 down ; and if the upper part be done with thick sennit or small 
 rope, there will be no occasion (except in very heavy motion) 
 for swab-like mats. The other shrouds are served one third the 
 length of the mast from deck to lower side tressle-trees. 
 u 2 
 
164 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Stays are fitted with lashing (Flemish) eyes, the half 
 collar being spliced into the long part. The eye itself is abont 
 twice the length of the cross-tree. 
 
 The Bobstay and Bowsprit sbroud collars are made 
 with lashing eyes : the latter with long and short legs ; and if 
 the shroud be chain, with a thimble instead of a heart. 
 
 The Pore stay collars are frequently made of warped 
 straps. 
 
 The Bobstays are leathered or served with sennit in the 
 wake of the stem hole, and the collar seiaings protected by a 
 bolster. 
 
 SIOGINO SHIP. 
 
 The masts having gantlines on their heads are placed according 
 to design in their proper attitude by means of wedges driven in 
 at the " partners." Battens are supplied for the purpose of 
 measuring their stand, preserving their straightness, and guard- 
 ing against belly, whilst setting up the shrouds and stays. 
 
 PLACmrc lOWEB CKOSS-TKEES. 
 
 The starboard gantline is bent to the middle of the foremost 
 cross-tree on its upper side, and stopped to the port arm three 
 parts out; this supposes the cross-tree to be on the starboard 
 side of the deck. When the arm is well over the tressle, cut the 
 stop, sway across, and so on with the others. Bolt them well 
 down immediately. 
 
 PCACINC TOPS. 
 
 There is no rule as to whether the tops go on before or after 
 the rigging. The mast is less disturbed in the partners, if the 
 runners are first steadied up ; but the men work better and more 
 safely, fewer things fall from aloft, and the eyes of the rigging 
 are better placed if the tops are put on at once. 
 
 A word about taking: turns. The cleats all stand aslant, 
 and many a man, especially in fitting out, does not know how to 
 take one properly. If it be taken the wrong way, on the order 
 to lower it jambs ; and most probably, when he is trying to clear 
 it, the rope goes with a jerk out of his hands. The wrong way to 
 deal with a weight is this ; at the word " high enough," give the 
 cp-der " belay " or take a turn ; " anybody " tries to do so ; the 
 men on the fall " stand easy ; " many let go ; the weight that 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 165 
 
 took the whole party to raise, is suddenly borne by but a few of 
 them and begins to fall ; " anybody " misses his " catch ; " down 
 by the run goes the weight on top of somebody, and the faU, 
 thus jerked away, " whips " everybody off their feet. Or else 
 anybody does catch his turn ; but it is thus ^g. 80), and the 
 rope must be pulled up again to clear it. 
 
 The right way is to name one or two men to attend the stopper, 
 seeing that it is a dry one, and warning them not to quit until 
 ordered ; two more at least to belay and lower, and to see that 
 there is a clear place to belay at. At the word, " high enough," 
 give the order " stopper ; " when that is done, " belay," and then, 
 " off-stopper ; " — the turn will be taken thus — (Jig. 81). 
 
 Fig. 80. Fig. 8i. 
 
 With very heavy weights, there ought to be a turn kept during 
 the hoist, and the slack given in. In lowering, one man should 
 stand behind and pay the fall clear of kinks into the other's 
 hands ; this especially should be done in lowering boats. 
 
 The least surging occurs in lowering, when you can have 
 figure-of-eight turns over two normans or pollards, or cleats. 
 
 Lowering on the capstan is very trying to rope ; as, from the 
 turns having a tendency to rise in a spiral direction up the 
 whelps, it is necessary to surge occasionally, that is,' suddenly 
 to slack the rope, that it may return to its place. The two cap- 
 stans that may be observed revolving in opposite directions at 
 the sheers, are arranged with the view of obviating this danger. 
 They are connected by toothed wheels, and the rope is carried 
 round each in the figure-of-eight fashion. In working the capstan, 
 keep the pauls down, stationing a blacksmith to attend them, 
 and always swift the bars. 
 
 To get the tops over (say) Main-half-top starboard. Bring 
 
 both gantUnes to the starboard side of the mast-head ; send the 
 
 hauUng parts down between the cross-trees, and the bending 
 
 ones abaft the after cross-tree. Lay the half-tops on the deck 
 
 M 3 
 
166 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 on their o-wn sides, tops upwards, and foremost ends forwards. 
 Hitch the ends of the gautUnes round the middle of the lubher's 
 hole trap, and stop them down to the top rim at the futtook plate 
 hole, ahreast this hitch. Lash hoards — an ordinary deal will 
 answer — athwart the tressle- trees, on their foremost and after 
 parts ; drive holts into these hoards, in a line with the centre of 
 the mast-head, leaving their upper ends projecting ahout six 
 inches. 
 
 Bend the mizen gantline to the after part of the half-top through 
 one of the stanchion holes. Trice up, and guy aft clear of 
 the after cross-tree. When the top hangs on the side of the 
 mast-head, it is easily placed with reference to its fore and aft 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Starboani Half Top. 
 
 Port Half Top. 
 
 position, and on lowering and bearing off the rim, the middle 
 parts wiU hear against the holts, and the top will fall exactly in 
 its place on the cross-trees. 
 
 In sending up whole tops, (say main,) place the gantlines on 
 each side of the mast-head, having the hauling parts between 
 the cross-trees and the bending ends abaft the after ones. 
 
 Stand the top athwart ships on the deck on its after end, 
 having its lower side facing forward, and let it lean with its 
 fore edge against the after part of the main mast. 
 
 Bend the gantlines on their own sides, by passing them from 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 
 
 167 
 
 before the top, and consequently along its under side, through 
 lubber's hole, through an after futtock plate hole, so as to keep 
 the top heaviest on the fore part, and hitch the ends to their 
 own parts. Stop the gantlines to the fore part of the top through 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 holes made for the purpose ; bend the mizen gantlines to the 
 after part through the Stanchion holes, guy aft and sway away. 
 When the stops are up to the blocks, the foremost edge of the 
 top will be pointing over the mast-head, and by hauling on the 
 mizen gantlines it will be prevented from tilting aft when the 
 stops are cut : this being done, the gantlines are pulled up, the 
 tops fall over the mast-head, and is placed on the cross-trees, and 
 bolted down. (.Figs. 84, 85.) 
 
 A mizen top is more easily sent up on the fore side, on ac- 
 count of the aid derived from the main gantline. Send it up 
 after-part uppermost, bending the gantlines to the foremost fut- 
 tock holes underneath the top, and stopping them at the after 
 part of the top, guying off with the main gantline. In short, 
 in sending up whole tops from abaft, sling so as to be top- 
 heavy on the fore part ; in sending down, sling so as to be top- 
 heavy on the after part. As the mizen generally goes up and 
 comes down before all, it must be top-heavy on the after part in 
 the former, and on the fore part iji the latter case. 
 M 4 
 
168 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 BOWSPKIT. 
 
 The Bowsprit is filled up at the hole, and thus derives sup- 
 port there from the timbers, as the masts do at the partners ; hut 
 it is also secured by two chain or rope-lashings called Gam- 
 monings, passed over the fore ends of that filling piece on top 
 of the bowsprit called the gammoning fish, and through holes 
 in the stem. Chain is now invariably used, but the process of 
 passing and setting up is similar. 
 
 The fish and holes are tarred, the ends of the chain passed 
 over the bowsprit (from the starboard side) through the holes 
 in the stem, and shackled to their own parts ; the turns are then 
 passed with the other ends, so that the foremost ones on the 
 bowsprit are the aftermost ones on the stem. Each turn is hove 
 taut, as it is passed by reeving the gammoning through snatch- 
 blocks made fast to the bobstay holes on the cutwater, bringing 
 the bight through the hawse hole and toggling on to tackles 
 led from the capstan. Before shifting the tackle, each turn is 
 secured by nails driven through the chain into the gammoning 
 fish or saddle, and also by wedges driven into the stem hole. 
 The last are frapping turns, passed over some well greased hide, 
 and set up by a tackle on a runner led through a block on the 
 bumpkin. 
 
 The outer gammoning is set up first ; otherwise from its 
 greater power of leverage the inner would be slackened. (,Fig. 
 45), page 99. 
 
 With rope gammonings, racking turns of spun-yam would be 
 used instead of nails. 
 
 Chain gammonings have been found to stretch considerably 
 after much use, and should therefore receive the earliest atten- 
 tion when about to refit. 
 
 The man-Topes are spliced into eye-bolts on each side of 
 the cap, and set up to the knightheads. When the forestays are 
 up, these are attached to them by stirrups. 
 
 The stagre is made of two spars; their heels secured on the 
 head rails, and their heads crossed, lashed together, and sus- 
 pended from the bowsprit ; a platform of gratings enables the 
 men to " clothe " the bowsprit. 
 
 The bowsprit is secured outside, downwards by the bobstays 
 and sideways by the shrouds ; the forestays pull upwards, and 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 169 
 
 if they did so outside the botstays, the spar would he strained; 
 they are, therefore, generally secured between them. 
 
 The rigging of the bowsprit is connected with that spar by 
 collars, which are made of single rope strops with lashing eyes 
 in their ends, and hearts seized in their bights. 
 
 The hearts in the Bobstay collars are seized in the middle 
 of the bight ; and a bolster is stopt on between the fore end of 
 the heart and after part of the seizing on the upper side, to 
 protect the seizing irom chafe. 
 
 The Sbroud collar hearts are seized in about one-third from 
 the end. 
 
 The Forestay collars are double strops, with lashing eyes, 
 having double scored hearts secured in the middle of their 
 bights by seizings on each side. The splice of Ihe strop lies in 
 the larger score on the outside of the heart, and the inner turns 
 of the seizings lie in scores cut on the inside of its legs. 
 
 All these collars are Added out first, and then hove on taut 
 round the bowsprit before their respective cleats, by lashings 
 set up with a Spanish windlass. 
 
 When the forestay collars are warped straps, the lashing and 
 heart is on the upper quarter. In some cases the strap is rove 
 through its own part without any lashing. This warped strap 
 plan is not " establishment," and therefore there is no pattern. 
 The difficulty is to keep them from slewing round ; their great 
 utility is neatness, holding less wind, less liability of being shot 
 away, and affording more room for handling the jib-boom. 
 The best kind, as they nip hardest, are made of small chain. 
 The heart fashion has one merit which the warps have not ; 
 that is, in the case of the crupper breaking or slipping, the heel 
 of the jib-boom is prevented from flying up high enough to wring 
 the cap. 
 
 The bobstay collars are lashed on top s the forestay collars 
 below, and the shroud collars on top of the spar. 
 
 Bobstays after being wormed, parcelled from their middle 
 part towards their ends, and served with sennit, are rove, 
 middled, and spliced; the hearts seized in, with the splice in 
 the wake of Hie score s and the lanyards set up with tackles. 
 These lanyards, as well as those of stays, "are more certain of 
 bearing equal strain on all parts if set up on both ends and all 
 together j and as the collars now lie well apart, there is. no 
 
170 MANUAX FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 difficulty experienced in securing the lanyards at one and the 
 same time. 
 
 Bowsprit Slirouds are now mostly of chain or wire rope, 
 haying a rope lanyard at the collar, or a slip at the bows ; the 
 latter being the readiest fitment for getting clear of the bowsprit 
 when carried away. 
 
 The bowsprit collars should if possible be hove on before the 
 spar is shipped. 
 
 The Cap bobstay is an extra fitment ; reaching firom the 
 lower stem hole to a bolt placed in the bowsprit on its under 
 side, abaft the dolphin striker. 
 
 When possible, the collars should be lashed on before launch- 
 ing the spar. 
 
 The Bumpkins are stepped on the bows, clamped at the 
 head rails, and secured downwards with chain braces con- 
 nected by lanyards to an iron band near its point 
 
 The foretack blocks are placed on outside the band. 
 
 Whichever way the collars may be fitted, the clothing com- 
 mences at two thirds the length of the bowsprit from the knight- 
 head. This is the customary proportion ; and if it admits of the 
 foreyard being braced up as much as the mainyard, there can be 
 no great object in carrying it further out. We must believe 
 that this proportion was the result of long experience among 
 mast makers : for it is often only when a spar has been returned 
 to their hands that injuries are detected -, and they are therefore 
 the best judges as to the amount of strain which a spar can bear. 
 It is, however, more desirable than ever to get a good angle for 
 the lower stays. Some steam ships contrive to carry courses 
 effectively with the fore and aft sails when steaming near the 
 wind, on occasions where the other square sails would not nearly 
 draw. 
 
 The following is the order in which the bowsprit rigging 
 occurs in each method, reckoning from inside : 
 
 Heart plan. (Fig. 86.) 
 
 1. Inner bobstay collar. 
 
 2. Bowsprit shroud, do. 
 1. Forestay, do. 
 
 I. Bobstay, do. 
 
 2. Bowsprit shrouds collar. 
 1. Forestay, do. 
 1. Bobstay, do. 
 
EQUIPMENT : BIGGINS. 
 
 171 
 
 Si trap or bale sling plan. 
 
 1. 
 
 Inner forestay collar. 
 
 1. Bobstay collar. 
 
 1. 
 
 Bobstay, do. 
 
 In this way the forestay is 
 
 2. 
 
 Bowsprit shrouds, do. 
 
 placed inside for convenience 
 
 1. 
 
 Forestay do. 
 
 in removing the collar when 
 
 1. 
 
 Bobstay, do. 
 
 requisite. 
 
 2. 
 
 Bowsprit shrond, do. 
 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 SETTING UP EOBSTAT3. 
 
 When from want of space a difficulty is experienced in set- 
 ting the lanyards up on each end, the next best method is 
 this: — 
 
 Make the standing parts of the lanyards fast with a running 
 eye round the bowsprit close to their respective collars, and 
 reeve as many turns through the hearts as may be without 
 riding : the object then is to set up in a line with the stand of the 
 bobstays as much as possible. If there is any place on the stem 
 
172 MANUAL FOB NATAL CADETS. 
 
 ■where the lower blocks of the luffs can be hooked to, take them 
 there : if not, they must either be hooked to straps on the lower 
 parts of the bobstays or to the hawse holes. Hook the doubles 
 below, the singles to the lanyards ; lead the falls inboard 
 through blocks on the bowspirit, and put long tackles again upon 
 these. If the lanyards are rove with their standing parts on 
 opposite sides alternately, the blocks may be kept clear of each 
 other. When every thing has been drawn into its place, 
 shorten up for a final pull, and walk all three down together * ; 
 rack the turns, and pass the riders, pulling them up short of 
 cutting into the lower turns : rack these again, half hitch, seize 
 down, and expend the end. 
 
 A shorter but less orthodox way is, to put the single blocks of 
 the long tackles on the lanyards, hook the doubles at the 
 hawse holes, lead the falls through blocks on the bowsprit, and 
 put tackles on them. 
 
 The standing parts of the lanyard are also sometimes made 
 fast with running eyes above the hearts of their respective 
 collars. When they are round the bowsprit, the coUars — 
 when round the neck of the collars the seizings — are relieved 
 of a certain amount of strain ; but a£ the breaking of seizings 
 would only involve the chances of a spring, whilst the carrying 
 away of the collars would most likely include the loss of the 
 spar ; the most experienced riggers prefer taking the end round 
 the bowspirit. Besides this, the standing part looks more 
 directly to its reeve, does not kink the heart, and leaves more 
 space for rendering the other parts. 
 
 Bowsprit caps are taken off and put on, after first fitment, 
 with the jib-boom, just as the lower caps are with topmasts ; to 
 do so point the spar, lash it, heave out, bumping it beneath. 
 The connecting bolt will be found on top of the bowsprit (see 
 page 135). 
 
 RIG A LOWER MAST. 
 
 Shift the gantlines to the after part of the tressle-trees for 
 the rigging. Put a large toggle on the end of each gantline, 
 and bend rounding lines to them. In sending up the rigging, 
 put a stout temporary seizing on each pair of dirouds, about one 
 
 * The rule however is — spt the outer one up first — for the same reason as 
 that noticed with respect to gammoning, page 168. 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 173 
 
 third down, and instead of bending the gantline, insert the toggle 
 nnder the seizing, and stop the upper part of the eye of the shroud 
 to the gantline. When the holster is tarred, and covered with 
 canvass, the starboard pendants are first put on, then the port ; 
 their longest legs being aft. Trice the runners up, and lash 
 them to the after legs of the pendants, clap the long tackles on 
 the short ones, and take a good up and down pull on all fotir 
 pendants, which will settle the foundation of the lower rigging 
 very much. Pass a lashing across abaft the mast from one after 
 pendant to the other, and carry the runners forward hand taut. 
 The rule is then to place the foremost pair of starboard shrouds 
 on first, then the foremost pair on the port side, and so on ; but 
 in the absence of very experienced riggers, there is more cer- 
 tainty of keeping the mast perfectly straight, if the after swifters 
 are put on the first thing after the pendants, and the mast placed 
 by them and the runners at once. On future occasions of 
 setting up rigging, the convenience of being thus able to place 
 the mast in the first instance will be found considerable. 
 
 In either case where the mast is large its straightness will be 
 best preserved by lashing the runners to the mast on its fore 
 part, one at the hounds and the other near the belly, and to 
 keep the lower one on as long as possible, even after the stays 
 are up ; so that the mast being thus a fixture at every point, the 
 rigging is given time to draw in to exactly equal degrees of 
 tension. 
 
 When there is time, it is well to pull and beat down each pair, 
 of shrouds as they are placed ; and if the runners are fast to the 
 mast, all four legs of the pendants are available for attaching 
 tackles to. 
 
 Too much care cannot be taken in getting the eyes drawn 
 into their proper places at once. Slack rigging in heavy 
 weather is frequently caused, not so much by its " giving out," 
 as by its " settling down " at the mast-head. It is also very 
 important that the seizings should not " ride." 
 
 It is more convenient to place the futtock rigging and scotch- 
 men before setting up very taut. 
 
 The Cap is sent up through lubber's hole by the gantlines, 
 both of which are brought to the same side for this purpose. It 
 is placed in the top with its lower side downwards, and will be 
 more easily got through the hole if it be sent up before setting 
 
174 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 up the rigging. As there is enough space, and as the men are 
 less exposed to danger, the riggers prefer this mode to sending 
 the cap up before all.- 
 
 The lower Hit blocks are double, and are stropped into 
 the eyes of the iron hand on the cap, before sending the cap 
 aloft. Chain is now generally used for strapping, connected by 
 a shackle. 
 
 The gantlines are shifted to the mast-head for the Stays, 
 which are triced up with their legs on each side of lubber's 
 hole, and the eyes are lashed one above the other abaft the 
 mast-head. 
 
 In some cases the stays are carried over the foremost cross- 
 trees, for the purpose of giving more room for the lower yard to 
 brace up. 
 
 If the rigging is short, luffs are hooked to salvagee straps on 
 the ends of the shrouds, and thus pulled down. Indeed, if there 
 is a command of time, it is well to do this, whatever length the 
 shrouds may be ; for they can be much better marked for turning 
 in when taut up and down, and the ends will be as small as the 
 standing part. 
 
 TURNING IN LOWER RIGGING. 
 
 There is a confused and unmeaning way of speaking about 
 " turning in dead eyes." One says, " with the lay j" another, 
 " right-handed ; " another, " with the sun ; " another, " pass the 
 end underneath the up and down part ; " another, " throw the 
 end to your right." The puzzled candidate for the passing day, 
 makes a tour of channels j for the question, " How do you turn 
 in a dead eye ? " is inevitable : he cannot escape it, often cannot 
 find out how to answer it. 
 
 Let us speak about the right way first, and the present custo- 
 mary way afterwards ; the former has reference to the good of 
 the rope ; the latter chiefly to appearance. 
 
 Take a piece of small right-handed rope, and hold about six 
 inches of it taut out in both hands ; twist it up tightly, and keep 
 twisting as you bear your hands towards each other : the rope 
 will make a natural curl, thus : 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 Fig. Sr. 
 
 175 
 
 You have, in making the « turn in," kept the turn or twist in 
 the rope ; it is now as closely laid up at the bent part as any 
 other, and consequently as little open to receiTe wet. 
 
 Again, with a similar piece of rope, untwist, and on bearing 
 your hands together, it will form a natural curl, thus : 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 Yon have taken a turn out, and the strands lie open to wet. 
 
 It is true that, in making a turn with a large rope, you would 
 neither twist nor untwist, but nearly the same effects would be 
 produced. 
 
 Whether then in the loft or in the nettings ; whether with our 
 own shroud rope, which is always right-handed rope, or with 
 foreign, which is sometimes left; the only thing necessary to 
 
176 
 
 MANUAL rOH NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 consider in the matter of turning in a dead eye, is to keep the 
 turn in the rope, the reason being " so as to keep the ■wet out." 
 
 If the shrouds are to he ends up, 
 put a dead eye in the first curl, as in 
 fig. 87, with its upper hole next the cross, 
 (the scores being always well tarred 
 first,) pass spun yam seizings through 
 the lower holes round the sides of the 
 curl to keep the dead eye in its place. 
 With a bolt through the upper hole 
 (^fig. 89) and a strand, rig a Spanish 
 windlass, and heave the end close to, 
 and taut in (" breaking in " is the 
 term), pass a throat seizing round the 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 cross. Make the standing part of the shroud fast somewhere, 
 haul the dead eye hand taut from thence and make it fast. With 
 a jigger on the standing part, pull the end taut up along it, 
 heaving the curved parts together at the same time ; pass the 
 quarter and end seizings (the quarter is a round one), and cap 
 the end. {Fig. 90.) 
 
 To turn in cutter stay fashion -, put a temporary seizing on 
 the cross of the curl as in fi^. 87 ; carry the end round the 
 standing part, and heave it taut alongside its own part.; then 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 
 
 177 
 
 seize those two end parts together with a throat seizing, making 
 the eye as small as possible, put a quarter seizing (a flat one), on 
 
 as well, about six inches nearer the end ; cut the temporary seiz- 
 ing on the cross, open out the clench, put in the dead eye, drive 
 the clench down, keeping the dead eye with a little cant against 
 the pull of the lanyard. 
 
 In all cases shrouds are placed with their ends inwards; other- 
 wise the ends would be exposed to fray and wet. K put over 
 the mast-head properly, these shrouds will naturally hang with 
 their ends forward on the starboard side, and aft on the port 
 side ; but all ends will be inside, and the dead eyes will stand 
 fore and aft without any sheer batten. 
 
 It is merely because this is not thought sightly that altera- 
 tions are made, and the general practice now is to turn rigging 
 in with the ends inside and aft : the strict rule, however, still 
 
 * No. 1 is a starboard shroud, as seen from outside ; No. 2 is a port shroud, 
 as seen from inside the ship. 
 
178 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 o1)tains. " With the lay " is the rule : ends aft and inwards is 
 merely the present custom. 
 
 Two seamen should turn in a dead eye with 11 inch rope 
 in a workmanlike manner in 2 hours. 
 
 When channels are fitted with iron gear the shrouds are 
 seized into thimbles. (,Fig. 92.) 
 
 These plates occupy the place of the lanyards, as a, 6 in A. 
 The lower plate b, formed as a link (shown wholly in B), is 
 attached to the chain plate ; the upper plate, a, is double, receiv- 
 ing the shroud on a thimble through its hight ; both are adapted 
 for reefing, and are secured together by riding bolts, 1 and 2. 
 
 For setting up, a screw purchase is attached in connection with 
 both plates, as shown in D. 
 
 Directions. — A and C represent a profile and front view of 
 the plates as first fixed, and previous to any application of the 
 screw, the shroud being turned in as taut as possible by tackle. 
 
 D shows the application of the screw purchase. For the 
 process of setting up, take out bolt 3., which is always free, 
 merely serving as a guide pin. Nos. 1. and 2. are the riding bolts, 
 and consequently bear the strain of the shroud : fix the screw 
 on the plates, as in D. Fix connecting bolt 6. into the hole 
 previously occupied by the guide bolt 3., and work the screw 
 upwards or downwards to adjust the proper distance for con- 
 necting 7. This done, commence heaving down as soon as the 
 action of the screw relieves the riding 1. and 2. : withdraw No. 1. 
 only. The upper hole in plate B being sufficiently longitu- 
 dinal (say J inch) to give it freedom the moment the strain 
 is off. No. 2. pin may be left in till the shroud is hove down 
 as taut as desired, and No. 1. pin properly secured again to its 
 advanced place. No. 2. is then shipped in advance and the 
 point secured, on which the screw is " come up " and unshipped, 
 and the guide pin replaced. The operation on this shroud being 
 now complete, the same process is continued to the rest of the 
 shrouds successively. 
 
 These fitments interfere less with ports than dead eyes, and set 
 up more easily ; but would occasion more damage if struck by 
 shot. 
 
 REEVING THE I.ANTABDS. 
 
 Xanyards are always rove of well stretched rope. The rule is 
 to reeve them so as to have the standing part under the end of 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 
 
 179 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 n 2 
 
180 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the shroud j thns the strain in pulling up is throim chiefly on 
 the upright part of the shroud, to the relief of the seizing. 
 
 The Chains are usually prepared with eye-holts having 
 thimbles, into which the standing ends of, the lanyards are 
 spliced. These eye-bolts are driven on the after side of each 
 dead eye, so as to meet the arrangement of turning in we have 
 alluded to. The hauling part of the lanyard also leads better 
 in sitting up than if it were in the after hole. In the absence 
 of eye-bolts the end is secured round the strop of the lower dead 
 eye, or else it is knotted inside the upper one. 
 
 Lanyards are always half the size of the shroud. 
 
 BETTING UP RIGGING. 
 
 After the Knnners are set up take the first pull with the long 
 tackles alone, greasing the entering parts of the lanyards well. 
 PuU up in pairs, with their opposites ; beat the eyes and clenches 
 down, putting a wad of junk on the part struck to preserve the 
 rope. Commence with the foremost shrouds ; and if the runners 
 give out as the after ones' are tautened, pull them up again. As 
 the mast is secured in the partners by the wedges, it may be pre- 
 served in its natural straight line by due attention to the battens. 
 
 For the final pull, keep the after swifter fast, let go the rest. 
 Set up the stays, and when fast, let go the upper runner, or both 
 if abreast each other ; hook lufiFs to strops on the shrouds, toggle 
 their lower blocks to the lanyards, hook the long tackles on to 
 their falls with Blackwall hitches, having end enough for round- 
 ing down with, and pull up as before in pairs and opposites, 
 beginning forward. If the stays give out, they must be pulled 
 up again. Set the swifters up with the long tackles alone. 
 
 The Lanyards are secured by racking turns taken on aU parts, 
 passing the ends taut through between the upper ends of the 
 upper dead eyes and the shrouds, and expending them round 
 the shroud. 
 
 It is not unusual to half hitch the lanyards, but the Eiggers 
 do not adopt the custom. 
 
 The number of pulls which rigging should have depends so 
 much on the state of the weather, as to forbid roles. If a fine 
 dry night and warm morning succeeded a satisfactory puU on 
 the preceding day, one pull about noon would take down as 
 much as was good for it ; but even then, that must be to an ex- 
 tent dependent on the destination of the ship. To plunge sud- 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIfiGING. 181 
 
 denly into a -wet, cold climate with very taut rigging -would be 
 ruinous ; but going into a hot one, the tauter the better. 
 
 Stays are usually turned in with hearts or round thimbles, 
 either cutter stay fashion or end up. The main stays are some- 
 times passed round the cross piece of the fore bitts and secured to 
 their own parts. Such fastenings, however, are neither so readily 
 made as lanyards, nor admit of the stays being so easily slackened. 
 These will be found important considerations whilst setting up 
 the rigging on future occasions, as everything stands fast until 
 the stays are adjusted and secured. 
 
 Stay lanyards, when possible, should be rove on their bights, 
 and set up on both ends at the same time. The top burtons on 
 luffs will be sufficient setting up purchase, so that the long tackles 
 need not be withdrawn from their employment on the shrouds. 
 The eyes and lashings must be kept clear of each other at the 
 mast head, and the fork of the stays exactly middled whilst 
 pulling up. 
 
 Stay lanyards which set up on the end are rove on the same 
 principle as that which applies to those of the shrouds ; namely, 
 the standing part under the end part of the stay. The eyes of 
 the stays are usually triced up whilst setting up the shrouds at 
 first, and are never set up until the rigging eyes are beaten 
 down. The mast meanwhile hangs on the runners; which 
 when lashed to the pendants, cause the mast to belly forward, 
 affording an additional reason for lashing the runners to the 
 mast, one being close up to the tressles. 
 
 Network of rope is preferable as a covering for lanyards to 
 matting. It is more easily made and removed ; and as it admits 
 air, and does not retain wet, is a better preservative. 
 
 BATTLtNG.* 
 
 RattUne stuff should be well stretched before use. In sparr- 
 ing and rattling the rigging, commence from below ; a departure 
 from the horizontal is more readily detected there than it would 
 be aloft, and the trouble of rattling down afresh in the event 
 of error avoided. Let all the spare ends of spars be aft, other- 
 wise they will interfere with lower yards and saUs going up. 
 
 * In stripping ship, it is usual to leave a line of rattlines on a pair of shrouds 
 to the last moment. See that the shrouds are pairs, else the object will be de- 
 feated and the work be clumsily managed. 
 Jl3 
 
182 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 In refitting rattlines, sling a spar with a span on a whip outside 
 the rigging ; two men can thus attend themselves, and avoid 
 the delay of shifting seizings on a hatten. Rattlines are clove 
 hitched crossings outside on the intervening shrouds, and seized 
 to the foremost and aftermost hut one. An occasional one, a 
 catch rattline, is carried to the after swifter. Rattlines are 
 placed fifteen inches apart, jmd secured at the ends, (flat of the 
 eye fore and aft) with nettle stuff. K on splicing the eye the 
 rattline be a little too long, and the rope has been well stretched, 
 it may be twisted up. In rigging of nine shrouds a man will 
 clap on four rattlines in an hour. 
 
 Marling spikes must he fitted with lanyards, which should be 
 hitched to the shrouds, or worn round the neck. The two lower 
 rattlines are made of rope sufficiently strong to hear the weight 
 of the several men who crowd there whilst waiting for orders to 
 go aloft. 
 
 Before sparring, the shrouds are slightly frapped together in a 
 fore and aft line, and when the rattling is completed the frap- 
 pings are cut away. 
 
 rUTTOCK BIGGING. 
 
 Futtock rlgglngr is sometimes of rope. The lower ends of 
 the shrouds are lashed to the lower rigging, which is either sup- 
 ported there by a " spider " from the mast, or " cat harpen legs " 
 from the shrouds themselves to their opposites. Although in a 
 large sized gang the rope fitments are lighter, there are so many 
 reasons against them, that they have become obsolete. 
 
 A comparison of chain and rope gear ran thus : — 
 
 Futtocks - - - - 
 Necklace or harpens 
 Coppering masts - * - 
 Gammoning . - - - 
 Protecting woodwork - 
 
 Ch^. 
 
 Rope. 
 
 Weieht. 
 
 Value. . 
 
 Weifiht. 
 
 Value. 
 
 cwt.ats.lb6. 
 12 3 
 12 7 
 
 27 
 29 2 18 
 
 1 a 
 
 £ t. i. 
 
 14 13 
 13 17 5 
 
 6 3 
 35 19 1 
 
 2 6 6 
 
 cwt. qiB. Ib&. 
 8 16 
 4 3 18 
 
 n 2 u 
 
 £ a. d. 
 12 17 9 
 10 10 11 
 
 16 19 3 
 
 50 24 
 
 72 19 
 
 24 2 27 
 
 40 7 11 
 
 The dead eyes of the top-mast rigging are iron strapt, and 
 those recently made swivel as the lower ones do. They are 
 
EQUIPMENT : EICMJING. 183 
 
 connected -with the necklace of the lower masts hy chain and 
 iron bar shrouds : the foremost ones are usually chain. If the 
 lower rigging has been well placed, there will he no difficulty 
 in leading each futtock between the lower shrouds, and placing 
 iron Scotchmen to prevent chafe ; but if the lower shrouds ride, 
 there will not only be difficulty in reeving them, but constant 
 fray afterwards. This is a fitment that demands great ^tention, 
 for thick iron plates and a whole strand have been cut through 
 In some ships during a gale. 
 
 GETTING UP TOP-MASTS. 
 
 If possible bring the top-maits alongside, so that the hawsers 
 may be used in the live sheaves without shifting. Let us say 
 main-top-mast in the water on the starboard side. Lash a top 
 block on starboard side of main-mast head. Take as large a 
 hawser from the capstan through the top block as it will reeve ; 
 reeve the end through the mast hole in the top between the 
 stays, and then through the live sheave hole in the top-mast 
 from aft forward (the after side will be known by the lightning 
 conductor), and hitch it securely. Lash the hawser taut up 
 from the hitch round the mast about two-thirds from the heel ; 
 hook the long tackle of that side to this lashing, and prevent the 
 lashing from slipping up by backing it from the fid hole with a 
 stout piece of rope. Heave the mast up with the capstan and 
 long tackle, keeping the heel aft so as to clear the head of the 
 top rim. Lower it down main hatchway until the head can be 
 pointed through the stays and mast hole ; then heave up, plac- 
 ing the round hole of the main cap over the mast hole, and land 
 the heel of the mast on the deck close to the main-mast. Of 
 course if the top-mast is shorter than the distance between the 
 lower side of the tressle-trees and the deck, it may be entered at 
 once without being lowered down the hatchway, the mast being 
 hung or chocked up at the heel whilst the hawser is being 
 doubled. Cast the lashings and end of the hawser off, trice its 
 end up with the port gantline through the mast hole, and hitch 
 it round the mast head on the port side. Heave up ; and when 
 the mast head is sufSciently through the cap, lash them 
 together. Heave up again, and by means of slue ropes on the 
 heel, the cap may be placed on the main-mast head. Place the 
 N 4 
 
184 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 cap shore, and as it is liable to work out, secure it with a lan- 
 yard. Land the mast on the deck again. If it be short, the 
 head must be lashed round the main-mast before its top is clear 
 of the tressle-trees. 
 
 . Light up the hawser ; hook both top blocks to their respective 
 bolts on the after sides of the cap. Hitch the end of the hawser 
 now to tj^ foremost cap bolt on the port side ; reeve the port 
 top tackle pendant through its top block, and heave the top-mast 
 up for trial, entering the fid. Lower the mast, single the haw- 
 ser, lash it as before, using the tackle, and place the mast on the 
 deck, heel aft on the starboard side. Get the other top-mast up 
 in like manner, putting gantlines on the head when through the 
 cap, and fidding it for trial before rigging. Try the cross trees 
 on the spare mast, and then place them on the main cap with the 
 top-mast gantlines j lower the top-mast until the cross trees can 
 be placed on the top-mast head, then heave the mast up to the 
 striking mark. Reeve the port pendant through the dumb 
 sheave ; round the upper top tackle block up nearly as high as 
 the necklace ; haul the pendant taut through, and half hitch its 
 end in the foremost cap bolt starboard side, seizing the end down. 
 Haul this tackle taut, and belay ; then unreeve the hawser and 
 reeve the starboard top tackle gear, using the live sheave ; haul 
 in taut, belay, rack, and coil up the falls. The other masts are 
 to be similarly handled, bearing in mind that the live sheave of 
 fore top-mast is on the port side, and that the mizen top-mast is 
 certainly short, may be entered at once, and must not be landed 
 up and down the mizen-mast without a head lashing. Stow the 
 spare fore and mizen top-masts on the port side, the former heel 
 aft, the latter head aft 
 
 CROSS TREES. 
 
 To place cross trees on a lower cap without the aid of the 
 top-mast Suppose it to be the main and on the portside — 
 unreeve the starboard gantUne, pass its end up through the 
 round hole in the cap, down before all, and bend it underneath 
 the cross tree to its port tressle-tree ; bend the port gantline 
 also to the port tressle-tree, and stop it out along the starboard 
 cross tree ; bend a guy from the fore top. Trice up and guy 
 off. Throw a couple of ropes' ends over the lower cap, from 
 the starboard side of the top ; bend them to the starboard 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 185 
 
 ends of the cross trees. Cut the stops, weigh down, and the 
 gantline through the cap hole will carry the cross tree on top 
 of the cap. 
 
 KIGOING TOP-MASTS. 
 
 The Hecklace is a chain strop, having two open linked 
 legs on each side. This is placed on the mast head above the 
 cross trees, and then the bolsters, which are scored out under- 
 neath, are fitted snugly on top of them, forming a smooth 
 rounded foundation for the rigging. The necklace and bolsters 
 are secured on the cross trees before sending the cross trees 
 aloft 
 
 The Tye blocks, which are iron stropped are shackled to the 
 foremost of the necklace legs on each side : and as these blocks 
 are pressed against the mast by the rigging and drag of the 
 weather halyards, the edges of their binding should be well 
 rounded off, and the pin ends covered with leather before 
 shackling on : this last-mentioned operation will be more easily 
 performed before setting up the rigging than afterwards. 
 
 These blocks are frequently called hanging blocks, in contra- 
 distinction to those on the top sail yards through which the 
 tyes reeve, and which are also called tye blocks. The experi- 
 ment of shackling hanging blocks to bolts driven and clenched 
 through the tressle-trees was once tried in a three-decker and 
 a ninety gun ship in the Mediterranean ; the fitment in both 
 ships carried away, and the plan was for ever discarded. 
 
 Put the gantlines on the cross trees, and place the rigging ; 
 pendants first, then shrouds, commencing with first pair starboard 
 side ; then the back stays ; then the stays. Top-mast pendants 
 have but one leg. The sister blocks are seized in between the 
 foremost shrouds below the seizing before sending the shrouds 
 up ; but these blocks have been tried in pendants separate from 
 the shrouds, and found very efScient. Top-mast rigging is fitted 
 in the eyes, and turned in with the dead eyes just as the lower 
 rigging. The upper fore top-mast stay is rove through a sheave 
 in the bees on the starboard side ; and the lower one, after hav- 
 ing been passed through hanks for the stay-sail, is rove in the 
 bees through a sheave on the port side, which is placed abaft 
 the other, so that the luff of the sail when set, may be clear of 
 the starboard stay. The main top-mast stays are rove accord- 
 
186 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ing to the nature of the estahlishment. If the ship has a large 
 fore-trysail, these stays are rove through iron hound hlocks on 
 the fore-mast head near the cap. If not, one sets up in the 
 fore-top ; and the other, after reeving through a clump hlock on 
 the after-part of the fore-mast below the top, sets up on deck. 
 In this latter case, the lower stay of the two should be well pro- 
 tected with chafing battens, as the main braces usually cross 
 over it. The mizen top-mast stay sets up in the main top. 
 The masts being rigged, the sail tackles are hooked to the mast 
 heads, the top burtons to the pendants, and the top tackle falls 
 manned. As the dumb sheaves are only preventers, the bulk 
 of the strength is thrown on the life falls, and the masts fidded. 
 When the fid is in, equalise the strength and lift the masts ; 
 let go the live gear, and by lowering on the other, the masts 
 will bfe slued square. When full rigged, this effect is produced 
 generally by taking top-^llant braces from one mast to the 
 cross trees of another. 
 
 When the mast is placed, the sail tackles, having been carried 
 forward, are steadied up. When the tackle blocks are thus 
 down, they can be squared and the pendants marked at the nips 
 in the tops, taking care that there will be drift enough for un- 
 fidding — allowing for stretching — and also that after the mast 
 has been lowered, in " striking," the upper blocks wiU not be so 
 high as to hook the futtock rigging on pulling up the tackles. 
 In reeving the falls, commence by reeving first through the lead- 
 ing block on the lower block, and have the swivel block upper- 
 most; so that turns may more readily be taken out of the 
 falls. If there are no reeving lines kept in the top blocks, the 
 top-sail bunt lines wiU carry the pendants up quite as well ; 
 bend them to the pendants about half way down, and stop the 
 becket, the end to the bunt line. With top blocks hooked, top 
 tackle gear should be rove, with the jeers brought to, in less than 
 ten minutes ; therefore they should always be nnrove after use.* 
 
 The foremost Main-top-mast Back Stay is mostly fitted as a 
 shifting one, having a runner and tackle instead of a dead eye. 
 
 * It has been recommended, in cases where top tackle gear is suspiciously 
 worn, to truss lower yards to whilst fidding top-masts ; for, in the event of the 
 gear breaking, the heel of the mast would be brought up by the yard. As 
 such precautions haTe been found to be successful in the arrest of danger, the 
 suggestion is very valuable. 
 
EQUIPMENT : KIGGING. 187 
 
 French ships sometimes have stout long tackles, which are used 
 for hoisting pinnaces out with; the back stay, being hauled 
 out to the lower yard arm, is secured there with a strop and 
 toggle, and the lower block is overhauled to where it may be 
 wanted. 
 
 All back stays should be served with sennit in the wake of 
 braces, so as to avoid the use of matting. 
 
 The Iianyards are rove either with a knot on the standing 
 end, under the end of the shroud, or else passed with a running 
 eye round the neck of the lower dead eyes. 
 
 The rigging is set up with a Runner and the Top Burtons, 
 the falls of which are led on deck. 
 
 The fore Top-mast Stays, after reeving through the sheave 
 holes at the bees, pass through holes in the sprit sail gaffs, and 
 set up in the head. They are well served some distance up, to 
 protect them from the chafe of the jib sheets. 
 
 The Jib Stay is sent up before them, but the legs are passed 
 down through their collars, and lashed abaft the mast head 
 below them ; thus being more clear of the foot of the top 
 gallant sail, and less straining to the mast head. Some jib 
 stays are fitted with the end to a slip at the jib-boom, and 
 set up on deck abaft aU after passing through a block at the 
 mast head. 
 
 The Jib and Stay sail Halyard Blocks are shackled on to the 
 necklace at fore top-mast head ; but a better lead is found by 
 substituting eye-bolts for those which connect the foremost 
 cross tree to the tressle-tree. These being driven from beneath, 
 and clenched above, afford means for hanging the head halyard 
 blocks in a favourable position. 
 
 The top-masts are fitted, either with rail clasp hoops or else 
 the shrouds are crossed abreast the hanging blocks by futtock 
 staves, which serve to confine the top gallant rigging below the 
 cross trees. 
 
 The Top-mast Caps are sent up by the two mast-head gant- 
 lines sent down before all, the blocks of which should be placed 
 as high as possible. Hitch the ends to the foremost eye-bolts, 
 seize them to the after ones, and stop them at the fore part of 
 the square hole. When the cap is up to the blocks, bend ropes* 
 ends to its after end ; pull down on these as the stops are cut and 
 the gantlines are pulled up, and the cap will find its place. 
 
188 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Span Slocks are single, hanging one on each side of the 
 fore and main top-mast caps, for the top-mast studding sail 
 halyards : the strops lie on top of the caps, and are seized to the 
 cap holts on each side. 
 
 The fore top-mast is also fitted with span fiddle hlocks in long 
 pendants on each side for the lower stud sail halyards, and top- 
 mast stud hoom topping lift. 
 
 GETTING tip TOP-GALLANT MASTS. 
 
 Lay the masts on the deck abreast their respective lower 
 masts ; heels aft, and lightning conductors upwards. 
 
 Reeve the mast ropes from the deck through lubber's hole, 
 either through a block or cheek on the after side of the cap, 
 through the mast hole, down before all on that side of the lower 
 stay on which the top-gallant mast is j reeve it then through 
 the lizard, downwards through the sheave hole ; take two half 
 hitches with the end of the lizard through the royal sheave hole, 
 or burn out a hole 18 inches below it aslant through the mast, 
 and reeve the lizard through this. But whichever way it be 
 done, there will be frequent mishaps unless two good hitches 
 are taken with the lizard : send the end of the mast rope up on 
 the same side of the stay through the mast hole, and make it 
 well fast to the foremost bolt in the top-mast cap on the opposite 
 side. 
 
 TOP-GAIiLANT KIGGING. 
 
 The Eyes are seized in the bight, stay spliced in. With 
 fore-top-gaUant mast, put the stay, first over the funnel, then 
 flying jib-stay, flying jib-halyard block, starboard shrouds, port 
 shrouds, and backstays : the others, excepting the jib-stay 
 and block, are rigged in like manner. The stay being low- 
 est is more clear of the sail. Sway the mast up until the head 
 has well entered the mast hole, then mark the mast rope at the 
 bitts with a piece of bunting through the strands ; cast off the 
 lizard. If the rigging has not been placed on the funnel aloft, 
 send it up abaft with a mast-head gantline bent on below the 
 seizings, and stopped to the funnel ; place the ftinnel on the cap 
 over the round hole, and enter the mast head to steady it. If 
 the royal rigging goes on a funnel, send it up the same way, 
 and fix it on the royal mast head. Ship the truck, reeve signal 
 halyards, sway the mast, reeving royal halyards and lifts ; settle 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGSING. 189 
 
 the top-gallant funnel in its place, and when the sheave is ahove 
 the cap, reeve the top-gaJlant yard rope. Lash the span blocks 
 for top-gallant studding sail halyards, send the stays dovra before 
 all, score the rigging in the cross-trees, and reeve it through the 
 rail hoops, and the top-gallaut lifts through the thimbles in the 
 shrouds. Lash on the Jacob's ladder abaft all, and fid the mast ; 
 steady up the stay at once, for as it is underneath, we do not 
 ■wait for the rigging eyes to be pulled down. Connect the ends 
 of the shrouds in the tops with a long splice, having a double 
 block with a thimble in the upper part of its strop running on 
 the bight thus formed, so that it may be always fairly middled ; 
 with this block and another made fast to the lower rigging, 
 reeve a tackle, and set up. In sending top-gallant masts up 
 whilst rolling, these tackles are carefully attended. 
 
 Royal funnels are not " supplied," but are frequently made on 
 board. Sometimes, a projection from the upper edge goes 
 through the truck, and is secured there as a nut on top. 
 
 Another way for Royal Rigging is to have the rigging and 
 truck placed on a piece of wood exactly similar to the mast 
 head itself above the sheave hole, cut out underneath, and into 
 which cutting the mast head enters. 
 
 Care must be taken here that the conductor be reached by the 
 spindle. 
 
 There is usually a Grummet put on the mast under the lower 
 edge of the funnel. Some top-gallant masts, as well as top- 
 masts, have a metal rack on the foreside of the heel, with a 
 .paul on a bolster, which stands across the tressles ; this serves 
 to bring the mast up in the event of the mast ropes carrying 
 away. 
 
 Top-gaUant Mast Ropes should be frequently surveyed, the 
 nip at the standing part freshened, the rope turned end for end, 
 and worn places cut out. When the mast is sent down, the 
 mast rope is parcelled in the wake of the top rim ; and when 
 the masts are up, all the lightning conductor plates on the Caps 
 must be placed in connection. 
 
 The Fore-top-gallant Stay passes over a score on the jib- 
 boom end ; the Fore-royal Stay over one on the flying boom- 
 end. Both these reeve through a sheave in the dolphin striker, 
 and set up in the head. 
 
 The Main-Top-gallant and Royal Stay are sometimes brought 
 
190 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 to the fore cap ; but usually the top-gallant only ; the royal 
 reeving through a hole in the after fore-top-mast cross tree. 
 Mizen-top-gallant stay is brought to main-top ; mizeu-royal to 
 main cap. 
 
 TRY-SAtL HAST8. 
 
 All ships hare a main and mizen try-sail mast, and some 
 have a fore. Brigs have no main : some have a fore. They are 
 coppered for the greater part dovrn, and the after sides have 
 hoops for the sails rove on them, they are stept with their heads 
 through a hole in the top. Their heels rest either on the deck, 
 or in a crutch on the mast hoops. 
 
 THE JTB-BOOM 
 
 Is pointed over the knight-heads: a whip on the "fore stay 
 takes it into its place on the bowsprit, with the end pointed 
 through the cap hole, lightning conductor downwards. 
 
 The heel rope is rove through a block at the cap passed inside 
 the stays, through the sheave hole in the heel of the boom, and 
 hitched to the other cap bolt. 
 
 Tbe jrtb Traveller, if intended to be used, is then put on 
 the boom. 
 
 Tlie Funnel, having a grummet driven on close down to 
 protect the eyes of the rigging from being cut by the edges of 
 the flange, is then fitted on the boom .end, which, after being 
 tarred, receives the eyes of the rigging in the following orSer : — 
 
 Foot-ropes. The eye of these is formed by a cut splice, 
 and the ropes are knotted, or turk's-headed, at every three feet. 
 When the boom is hove out the after ends of the ropes are 
 secured to the upper bolts of the caps on each side, sufficiently 
 slack to admit of the furiers leaning to the best advantage over 
 the spar, and for greater convenience as to increase of spread, the 
 ropes are seized to the guys on each side about eighteen inches 
 abaft the eyes of the rigging. 
 
 The safety and efficiency of the furiers may be greatly in- 
 creased by seizing jack stays along the top of the boom, and 
 hanging the bights of the foot ropes in stirmps. 
 
 Guys. One on each side of single rope with an eye splice 
 at each end, one of which goes over the tunnel, the other over 
 
EQUIPMENT : KIGGING. 191 
 
 the end of the sprit-sail gaff. Starboard one is placed first on 
 the funnel, then the port. 
 
 The Martingale. Single rope ; eye splice at each end, one 
 of -which goes over the funnel, the other over and close up to 
 the shoulder on the point of the dolphin striker. 
 
 In some cases the martingale is a chain, shackled to an iron 
 band on the boom end and dolphin striker, the back ropes 
 having a thimble seized into their bight shackling to the same 
 band on the dolphin striker. 
 
 Tbe Sprit-sail Gaffs are whipt out jaws foremost by bur- 
 tons on the top-mast stays. 
 
 Tbe Solpbln Striker in like manner by a whip on the cap. 
 The gaffs are slung close outside the outer bobstay collar, and 
 the dolphin striker just inside the cap by jaw ropes round the 
 bowsprit. 
 
 The lower eye of the martingale and eyes of the back ropes 
 are placed over the lower end of the dolphin striker, and the 
 eyes of the after guys, jumpers, jib guys, and topping lifts over 
 the ends of the gaffs. 
 
 The fore-top sail tackle, or jib halyards, are made fast to the 
 outer end of the boom, which, keeping as much strain on them 
 as win keep the heel from rising off the saddle, is rigged out by 
 the heel rope and secured by the heel chain and crupper. 
 
 When out to its proper place the heel of the boom should be 
 abaft the saddle and well abaft the lower part of the stay heart, 
 so to ensure bringing up the heel in the event of the sail tackle 
 or halyards breaking. The bowsing will thus be about one 
 third of the spars' length. 
 
 Tbe beel chains are round, linked, and of different lengths, 
 having a slip on one leg and a large link on the other j these are 
 shackled to the lower bolts of the cap on each side. The long 
 leg is passed inside the collars, scored in the heel of the boom, 
 and is connected with the short one (which is passed inside the 
 outer collar) by the slip ; thus preventing the boom from working 
 in when the heel rope is let go. 
 
 Tbe Crupper is a piece of round chain which, passing under 
 the bowsprit outside the inner shroud collars, is scored in the 
 notch on top of the boom's heel, and connected by a slip at the 
 side abaft the inner fore stay collars; thus keeping the heel down 
 when the tackle on the point is let go. 
 
192 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Great nicety is required in keeping these chains of a correct 
 length, for if too long, the hoom works inwards and upwards at 
 the heel, throwing gaffs and dolphin striker out of drawing ; and 
 if too short, causing much delay in shifting the spar. The chain 
 should be cut so that the slips may occur at places where they 
 will he most free of being nipt by rigging ; and as the spar Is 
 not weakened by making a hole cut horizontally through the 
 heel outside the outer fore stay collar, a heel chain Is lightened 
 of useless weight and more readily connected when shortened 
 and roTC there. 
 
 On pulling up the sprit- sail lifts and guys, the gaffs come 
 nearly horizontal. The back ropes are steadied up, and the sail 
 tackle removed. 
 
 The Tib Stay is rove through its hanks, through the sheave 
 hole in the boom end, through another iu the dolphin striker ; and 
 its end, which is pointed and " becketed," set up iu the head. 
 
 The Traveller is supplied in case it should be thought 
 desirable to bring the jib-stay and tack to it, setting the stay up 
 by reeving it through a block at the mast head, and fitting the 
 end with a tackle on deck. In such case the traveller is worked 
 by an outhauler through the sheave hole iu the boom. The 
 object of this kind of fitment is to admit of the jib being eased 
 further in ; but excepting for the second jib, it is now seldom 
 employed. 
 
 Small ships have Whiskers, iron out-riggers projecting from 
 the cathead, instead of sprit-sail gaffs ; through the ends of 
 which the jib guys are rove, setting up in the fore chains, but 
 clear of the anchor flukes. 
 
 The mere weight of jib-boom rigging is very considerable, and 
 when this gear is always kept taut, the spar is invariably badly 
 warped. 
 
 When the jib-boom is fitted with a funnel, it is very convenient 
 to fix two iron projections on the fore part of the bowsprit cap, 
 under the round hole outside ; these serve to support the funnel 
 exactly in a line with the hole whilst shifting the boom. 
 
 A seizing, half way out on the boom, passed round the flying 
 boom, gives great support to each spar. 
 
 Tbe Vlylae Tib-boom is rigged out on the starboard side by 
 a heel rope from the jib-boom end ; the heel steps in a cleating on 
 the foreside of the bowsprit cap ; the martingale reeves through 
 
EQUIPMENT : KIGGING. 193 
 
 the dolphin striker, the guys through the -whiskers or gaffs, 
 setting up in the head. 
 
 When the jib stay sets up on deck, make the standing part fast 
 at the boom end by a slip, and when the jib is bent, make the tack 
 fast round the boom with a strop and toggle ; keep a short piece 
 of rope spliced into the eye at the end of the stay, and in shift- 
 ing or unbending the jib, after hauling the sail down, hitch this 
 piece of rope taut to the stay above the hanks, knock off the slip 
 and haul in the sail and stay. As the out-haul block remains at 
 the boom end, the out hauler will carry the stay and new sail 
 out. Another way is to reeve the end' as usual through the jib- 
 boom and dolphin striker after passing it through the hanks. 
 Make the down-haiJ block and tack of the sail fast to the boom 
 end with a strop and toggle, but also lash them both so slackly 
 to the stay above the sheave hole that the strop and toggle will 
 bear the strain when the jib is set. To shift jib, send a man out, 
 haul down, let go the stay and toggle, and the down haul will 
 bring the sail and stay in without a stoppage. The new sail is 
 rove on the stay, the tack being seized to it as before, and hauled 
 out by the reeving line ; the bight of the halyards is passed 
 round the sail near the tack to keep it off the bowsprit. 
 
 A ring bolt let in flush with the wood on top of the heel of 
 the jib-boom is convenient for handling the spar, as also are 
 double stay-sail halyards for shifting it. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 
 
 LOWER SLINGS 
 
 Are chain straps round the lower masts' heads, to which the 
 lower yards are hung. The after parts are cleated up clear of 
 the rigging eyes, and the foremost hang down through holes cut 
 in the fore part of the tops amidships, before the foremost cross- 
 trees. 
 
 ■ There is a slip in the foremost end by which the slings on 
 the yard are connected, 
 
 o 
 
194 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 7eer blocks at the mast head are douhle or treble according 
 to size of ship, double strapped -mth lashing eyes, Trhich, after 
 passing through holes in the tops, are secured abaft the lower 
 mast head. 
 
 GETTING LOWER YARDS IN. 
 
 Boom Irons are easily broken, and if there is no jetty or other 
 place to guy off to, rig the fish davits in the fore parts of the 
 fore and main chains, on opposite sides. Lash the jeer blocks 
 on the yards before launching, bring the yards alongside under 
 the davits, having the proper yard arms forward, as the case 
 may be. Reeve three parts of the jeers, hoist the yards up with 
 the fish to the bunts, taking through the slack of the jeers j guy 
 the yards as square as possible when they are above the net- 
 tings; i»ut off guys on the yards, to prevent the davits from 
 canting inboard, overhaul the fish, ease in the off guys, and 
 heave up the jeers. Land the yards nn chocks in the nettings, 
 and lash them. Lower yards are also got on board by stopping 
 out the mast-head purchase, (whether jeers or hawser) on the 
 fore-mast quarter ; but the rising arm butts against every pro- 
 jection on the side, and generally staves in the hammock 
 netting. 
 
 mo LOWER YARDS. 
 
 The lower Jeer blocks are single, thick, double scored, 
 fitted with two single strops, having long and short legs, with 
 an eye in each end. The blocks thus stand fore and aft, one on 
 each side of the slings of the fore and main yards ; looking 
 straight into the swallow of the mast-head jeer blocks. The 
 long legs are passed round the after part of the yards, and the 
 eyes are connected on the fore side wiih a rose lashing. The 
 Cross j ack yard is fitted in the middle with a metal band having a 
 lug, to which a shackle for the slings or jeer block is connected. 
 
 The Top-Sail sbeet or quarter-blocks are single, thick 
 and double stropt ; thus standing athwart ships one on each 
 side under the fore and main yards, close outside the jeer- 
 strops. The eyes of the strops are lashed together on top of the 
 yards, and the blocks prevented from being dragged outwards 
 with the puU of the sheets by a span lashed round the strops of 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 195 
 
 each pair above the blocks and nnder the yard. The cross 
 jack yard is usually fitted with a double block in the bunt, 
 through which the top-sail sheets reeve from their own sides 
 passing down on the opposite ; thus permitting the yard to 
 brace np better. 
 
 The more closely quarter blocks, and the places for belaying 
 top-sail sheets can be brought together, the less strain is there 
 on gear, and the further and more easily (imless the sheets be 
 started) will yards brace up. 
 
 The Truss Strops come next ; they are usually of rigging 
 chain, double ; with a thimble rove through the bight abaft the 
 yard. (See page 202.) 
 
 The Clue gramet blocks are single stropt, standing athwart 
 ships outside the truss strops, underneath the yard, a little before, 
 the centre, so as to be clear of the topsail sheets. 
 
 The Rolling tackle strop is generally a grummet ; a thimble 
 is seized in it on top of the yard, and then it is driven taut up 
 on the quarter. 
 
 Tackstays go on first over the yard-arms. The eyebolts on 
 the yard are served with rope yams, and the upper eyes of 
 the stirrups are then placed over them ; the jackstays are then 
 rove through the eye-bolts, and are set up in the bunt of the 
 yard. 
 
 Bead-earing Strops are next pot on. 
 
 Then the Foot Hopes, which, after being rove through the 
 stirrups, are secured abaft the yard in the bunt. In large ships, 
 it is very convenient to fit quarter foot ropes, which crossing 
 the bunt from each quarter, enable the men to get a footing on 
 that part of the yard. Flemish horses, also, at the yard arms 
 (as in topsail yards) facilitate reefing courses. 
 
 Then the Vard tackle pendants, the splice being placed 
 under the yard. The pendants are brought taut along the yard, 
 by tricing lines which are rove through checks on the after side 
 of the yard ; and it is usefiil to fit a strop and toggle round the 
 yard and pendant close to the block, so that the yard tackle may 
 be worked from that point when necessary. 
 
 Then the Brace Blocks. The yard arm strops are single ; 
 those on the blocks are double, placed so that the blocks may 
 lie horizontal. For greater ease in bracing up, the largest 
 o 2 
 
196 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Wocks on the main yard are sometimes placed on the fore side, 
 and all the pins must be square ends upwards. 
 
 Lastly ]tlft Blocks ; these are single, and single stropt. 
 
 The Iieecli line and Slab line Blocks are seized to the 
 jack-stay for a full due, when, on bending sails, their proper 
 position is determined. 
 
 The Slings are double chain strops, vhich, being passed 
 round the yards between the jeer strops, are rove through a 
 shackle in their bight. There are large shackles in the upper 
 ends through which, when the yards are up in their places, 
 the tongues of the mast-head sling slips are passed and secured. 
 
 AVhether the bight part should be before or abaft the yard is 
 a disputed point. Whichever way tends most to prevent the 
 yard from being slued by the pull of the sail must be best. 
 
 Turk's-head all foot ropes on each side of the stirrups ; other- 
 wise, when the yards are manned, the men of light weight will 
 be thrown too high, whilst those who are heavy will scarcely be 
 able to reach over the yards. Moreover, if a foot rope carries 
 away, which sometimes happens when the men are tossing up, 
 they will be ^eatly endangered. 
 
 The Fore yard is rigged just as the main, excepting that there 
 are no brace blocks on the fore side. 
 
 The Cross jack yard is fitted with truss strops, lifts, brace 
 blocks, jack-stay, and foot ropes; there are generally iron 
 bands, to which the slings and topsail sheet blocks are con- 
 nected. In some cases, the topsail sheets are rove through one 
 double block in the hunt of the yard underneath, reaching the 
 deck on their opposite sides. In this way, the yard braces np 
 easier. 
 
 Cheeks, having sheaves nailed on the after side of lower yard- 
 arms, are very useful for whips or reef burtons. 
 
 Repairs required at lower yard arms may frequently he 
 effected without sending the yards down by bracing up on oppo- 
 site tacks until the yards lock in, and then slinging a platform 
 of gratings. 
 
 EIGGING TOPSAIL YARDS. 
 
 Hoist the topsail yards in, with reference to the yard-an^ 
 that is to be forward in going up. Try all the boom irons and 
 
EQUIPMENT : KIGGING. 197 
 
 tie blocks to both sets, and mark corresponding notches on all 
 parts with a cold chisel before sending one set of yards aloft, 
 and stowing the other set of yards and iron fitments away. 
 ,. Fore and Main Topsail Yards are fitted alike. The Mizen 
 Topsail Yard has only one band and not any boom irons. Tye • 
 bands are two iron bands in the middle part of the yard, having 
 lugs on top to which the iron bound swivel tye blocks are con- 
 nected by a bolt and forelock ; the bolt ends should be covered 
 with leather, and the edges of the binding smoothed down so as 
 to preserve the mast from chafe. 
 
 These lugs on the bands stand athwart ships ; thus giving 
 play to the shackling, which would be nipt as the yard sally's 
 over to either side if they stood fore and aft. The swivel per- 
 mits the tye block to adapt itself to the stand of the tye when 
 the yard is braced up. 
 
 The Parrel is to the yard what the traveller is to a boat's 
 yard. It is made of two pieces of rope, which are wormed, 
 parcelled and served ; one piece being longer than the other : 
 the four ends have eyes spliced in ; the short is placed x>n top 
 of the long leg, its ends being equally distant from those of the 
 other. They are then marled together, covered with leather, 
 and seized together at the short ends. The Parrel, when in 
 use, is placed abaft the mast, with the seam of the leather out- 
 side ; the long ends are passed round the yard from underneath, 
 outside the tye bands, and are lashed to the short ones ; and a 
 greasy mat is secured to the yard between it and the mast. 
 
 The Quarter Blocks are double, single stropt, lashing eye, 
 put on outside the parrel, and are lashed to each other undef 
 the yard, as are those under the main and for the same reason. 
 Some prefer reeving the top-gallant sheet and clue line through 
 separate blocks, as an accident to one sheave of the double 
 block renders two ropes unserviceable. The Cap clue line is 
 considered the best fitment of any. 
 
 The Rolling tackle strop. Served eye bolts, head .earrings, 
 jack-stay, stirrups, foot ropes, lift and brace, as before men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The Flemish horse is a yard-arm foot rope, reaching from the 
 neck of the boom iron to the outer quarter of the yard. It is 
 put on after the lift. 
 
 O 3 
 
198 MANUAL FOB NATAL CADETS. 
 
 The Yard arm strops are single, the Brace blocks two 
 Stropt, placed on account of the up and down spread of the 
 braces, perpendicular. 
 
 Preventer hrace pendants are very convenient fitments, the 
 double whip being put on without risk or delay. 
 
 Topsail lifts are both double and single : the former kind, 
 after reeving through the sister blocks, are rove through blocks 
 at the yard-arms which go on outside all the other rigging : 
 the ends are secured at the mast head. With single lifts, the 
 end goes with a spliced eye over the yard-arm. The double 
 lifts relieve the sister blocks and top-mast rigging of much 
 strain. 
 
 The Cheeks for the top-gallant sheets are scored out as 
 snatches, so that the bight of those sheets may be thrown out, 
 instead of unreeving the end when about to send the yard 
 down. 
 
 The Foretop-sail yard is rigged as the main. In the case of 
 the mizen, the Flemish horse is spliced into an eyebolt at the 
 yard-arm, and the brace blocks face forward, 
 
 BIOGING nPPEK YARDS. 
 
 With Top-gaUant yards the jack stays are kept in place by 
 means of leather beckets, which are nailed on top of the yard, 
 their ends setting up in the bunt. The parrels are fitted with 
 lashing eyes. The foot ropes set up on opposite quarters. A 
 grummet-strop is worked on each quarter, in which a thimble is 
 seized. Through this the lizard is rove when the yard rope is 
 stopped out. The yard-arms are generally fitted with snatch 
 cheeks for the royal sheets, and the earring of the sail when 
 bent is passed through the sheave hole. 
 
 Quarter blocks are double, the strops being fitted with lashing 
 eyes ; but as these yards are so frequently sent up and down, it 
 is usual to fit strops on the yard, to which the quarter-blocks 
 are hooked or shackled, the blocks remaining at the mast-head 
 when the yards are down. 
 
 Slings, to which the yard ropes may be bent without opening 
 out the sails, are also convenient. 
 
 The Lifts are single, having an eye splice which goes over the 
 yard-arm. 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 199 
 
 The Braces are fitted either double, or single -with whips on 
 the ends. 
 
 Royal yards are fitted with jack stays, foot-ropes, lizard strops, 
 quarter hlooks, parrels, as are top-gallant yards. 
 
 The eye holts in the arm ends of these yards are generally 
 removed, the jewel blocks being fitted with strops, which go 
 over the yard-arms, and the tripping lines are bent to the foot 
 ropes. 
 
 I.IFTS AND BRACES. 
 
 In reeving Running gear, as the difference of length in ships 
 of the same class occasionally causes the establishment to run 
 short, it is safest, and, generally speaking, most economical to 
 *■ reeve and cut." 
 
 Pass the end down through the coil before hauling it off. 
 Brace all the yards about ; overhaul yard tackles well down ; 
 run the topsail yards up for clue lines ; take a good stretching 
 pull, and leave a long enough end before cutting. 
 
 The ends of the Jeers, being fitted with becl«ts, are taken 
 three times round the capstans, then passed through leading 
 blocks and holes in the deck and rove, beginning aloft from aft 
 forward ; then either hitched round the yards, or, what is better, 
 to strops on the yards for the purpose. 
 
 The Main preventer braces reeve through blocks on the 
 foremast under the tressle-trees, and are frequently crossed, not 
 only to give the brace a greater angle in bracing up, but also 
 that one order for lee or weather braces may suffice ; and also 
 that in tacking, the main-brace men may stand clear of the 
 main-tack men. 
 
 The After main'braces have a tackle on the standing part, 
 the hauling end reeving through a leading block on the quarter. 
 Both parts are rove through the cringles of tricing lines, so 
 that the lee ones may be triced up clear of the quarter davits, 
 &c. 
 
 The Fore braces are led from the main bitts through lead- 
 ing blocks on the main-mast under the tressle-trees, through the 
 brace blocks, and then made fast alongside the leading blocks. 
 It is well to fit these also with tricing lines from the main stay 
 on the shifting main topsail yard side, so as to be able to frap 
 the brace in whilst shifting. 
 
 o 4 
 
200 MANUAL FOR NATAI. CADETS. 
 
 Cross-Jack braces lead to the main-mast, and for the same 
 reason given for the main, are frequently crossed. When so, 
 the leading Mocks should run very freely, so that the lee brace 
 may not girt the trysail when set. These braces have been led 
 aft to the poop of large ships with great advantage in manoeu- 
 vring. For there is always more trouble in getting a ship off 
 the wind than to it, and more risk incurred generally in bearing 
 up than otherwise. A ship will often hang with the wind 
 abeam, and the hehn hard up, to a dangerous extent, when a 
 ready touch of the after braces, and tack tricing line, (which 
 may be given by the quarter master and signal man,) would 
 release the ship from her balance. 
 
 The Fore and main lifts are rove from the deck through 
 the foremost sheave of the cap lift block first, so that the hauling 
 parts which are the overhauling ones may not jam against the 
 lee top-mast rigging on bracing up ; then rove full, the end 
 being fast round the yard-arm with a running eye ; but it is best 
 to clench the end, leaving about two or more fathom spare in 
 lieii of topsail eheet stoppers. (Sec Preventer Lift, Chap. XVI.) 
 
 The Cross-JaclE lifts are single, being either rove through 
 cap blocks, or passed over a saddle which is scored out on top 
 of the cap. 
 
 The Tard tacltles falls are rove through the upper sheaves 
 of the fiddle, or after sheaves of the double blocks in the pen- 
 dants, then rove full and made fast to the lower blocks. The 
 quarter tricing lines are rove through blocks in the bunt and 
 quarters of the yards bent to the strops of the upper blocks. 
 The bill tricing lines are rove through blocks under the tops, 
 and bent to the necks of the strops of the lower blocks. This 
 gear is well overhauled, so as not to hang the yard in going up. 
 
 The Fore topsail braces are rove from the main bitts, 
 through leading blocks under the main tressle-trees, then through 
 others on the fork of the main stay, through the yard-arm 
 blocks, and up to the main top-mast head, where they are made 
 fast. The leads on the stay serve to keep them clear of the foot 
 of the main topsail. 
 
 The MCaiii topsail braces are rove from the mizen bitts, 
 through leading blocks on the mizen mast, then through the 
 yard blocks, and up to the mizen top-mast head, where they 
 are made fast. The mizen top-mast is much relieved by carry- 
 
EQUIPMENT-: EIGGING. 201 
 
 ing the ends through leads down to the after part of the mizen 
 chains.* 
 
 The nxizen topsail braces go to the main cap ; 
 
 The Top-gallant braces to the top-mast heads ; 
 
 The Royal braces to the top-gallant mast-heads. 
 
 The IKEizen upper braces lead variously to the main top. 
 
 In large ships, the top-gallant braces are double ; the lift, 
 brace, and top-gallant studding halyard block being marled 
 together. Double braces are, however, inconvenient on account 
 of the block, and a strong single brace, having a vrhip on it 
 under the lead, seems to give sufficient purchase. 
 
 The Topsail lifts are rove from the deck through lubber's 
 hole on each side, through the lower sheave of the sister blocks. 
 
 Top-gallant lifts are rove from the tops on each side, 
 through thimbles which are seized into the top-gallant shrouds 
 below the eye seizings, and go with an eye splice over the 
 yard-arms. 
 
 The Royal lifts go from the tops in like manner, through 
 thimbles in the royal rigging. In crossing upper yards, the 
 work wiE be more quickly and neatly effected by having the 
 lower lifts tailed and worked on deck. Moreover, the yards 
 will be more readily squared, and the tops cleared. 
 
 HEAVING UP LOWER YARDS. 
 
 The fore bowlines are bent to the fore yard ; these, as well 
 as the preventer main, and cross jack braces and lifts, are 
 attended, so as to keep the yards off the masts, and steady. The 
 after main braces are overhauled, and triced up, the capstan 
 bars are shipped and swifted f , the pauls let down against the 
 " walk back " turn, and care being taken to stop heaving in 
 time, so as not to split the jeer blocks by heaving them together, 
 the yards are hove up. A few hands on the lifts will keep the 
 yard square whilst going up, and thus lighten the heave ; for 
 
 * Fitting the After mizen top-mast back stays' with a runner and tackle, so as 
 to set up the weather one well aft, also gives much support. 
 
 f It is not necessary to say more, than that great disasters have occurred 
 from neglecting the use of the swifter and paul, and it is well to remember that 
 no small accident can happen with a capstan* 
 
202 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CAEtETS. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 the least tilt -woods the sheaves, and thereby increases friction 
 very considerably. 
 
 Connect the slips, lash the tongues points 
 aft with good spun yam, mark the jeers for 
 future service at the hitches of the bending, 
 and at the stoppering places on the hauling 
 parts, walk back ; and when the slings have 
 got the weight, unreeve the jeer falls, and 
 reeve the short ones, which are in fact pre- 
 venter slings, and should never be dispensed 
 with. The "Britannia,'' for one instance 
 among many, carried away her chain main 
 yard sUngs twice during her last commission, 
 the yard being brought up each time by the 
 preventers. 
 
 The hauling ends of the lower lifts, which 
 may be tapered, are fitted with a purchase 
 which must be moveable, on account of strik- 
 ing the yards ; and none seem to be more approved of than as 
 in the sketch, fig. 93, the end itself composing the tackle. 
 
 Get the length for yard tackle falls, and tricing gear, cut, trice 
 up, and square yards. 
 
 Trusses are either of chain or rope as preferred. The standing 
 ends are rove through the thimbles in the strops on the yards, 
 crossed abaft the masts above the futtock rigging, and made 
 fast to the quarters of the yards ; the hauling ends are pulled up 
 by tackles from the after ends of the tressle-trees. There is one 
 of these pendants on each side of the fore and main yards ; but 
 the cross jack yard has only one, both ends of which reeve 
 through thimbles on the yard, and are set up with tackles as 
 above mentioned. The eyes of these pendants, when of rope, 
 are made Flemish pattern, so as to unreeve whilst striking lower 
 yards. 
 
 The most approved fitment is to have the thimbles on the 
 yard connected to the truss strop by a shackle, and thus without 
 nnreeving any gear, the whole fitment, whether of chain or rope, 
 maybe disconnected. The pendants are kept up in a line with 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. 203 
 
 the yard, hj means of thumb cleats, on the after part of the 
 mast, which with chain gear is iron shod. 
 
 In fitting Jiiis gear for the first time, the yards must be moved 
 sharp up, before cutting the rope or chain. 
 
 The pendants are kept well greased; and are fitted with 
 tricing whips for the purpose of overhauling them ; chain ones 
 overhaul their own weight so completely on being let go, that 
 the yard hangs at once, pivoting on the slings. 
 
 TOP-SAII, HALTABDS. 
 
 The Topsail halyards are runners and tackles, a fact worth 
 remembering in the event of one being suddenly injured. The 
 fore and main have one pair on each side, the mizen only one 
 pair. One pair of the fore and main is fitted with double blocks 
 above and single below, the others with singles only. The 
 upper ones are the " Fly-Blocks." The doubles are rove on 
 opposite sides, and are used with the watch : the singles are also 
 on opposite sides, and are used with the hands. The runner 
 part is called the tye. The main is single on the starboard side ; 
 the fore and miaen are single on the port side, and these tyes are, 
 for the purpose of shifting the yards and squaring the fly-blocks, 
 cut long enough for the ends to reach the deck with a fathom to 
 spare when the fly-blocks are rounded close up : these ends are 
 tapered and plaited. The ends of the double block tyes are cut 
 long enough merely to hitch round the top-mast head, when the 
 fly-blocks are square above the lower caps, and the yards are on 
 the caps. The single fly-blocks are triced up when doubling 
 the tye with a whip on the back stay. 
 
 The fly-blocks travel on a Jack stay which carries the halyards 
 clear of the deck when the tye carries away, and also prevents 
 the fly-blocks from striking the top when the halyards are let 
 go. This latter tendency should impress the necessity for keep- 
 ing men clear of the tifter part of the top when about to lower 
 the topsails. 
 
 CROSSING TOP-SAIL TAKDS. 
 
 To send top-sail yards up. Lay the main on the starboard 
 side of the deck with its port yard-arm forward : the fore and 
 
204 MANUAL POE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 mizen on the port sides with their'starboard yard-arms forward.* 
 The foremost yard-arms will thus be the upper ones. Hook the 
 sail tackles to the strops on the upper quarters of the yards ; 
 round the long tie hsdyards close up, and hitch the ends of their 
 tyes taut through the tye block next the lower yard-arm. 
 
 Let the sail tackle and tyes be outside of the lower stays, and 
 in the case of the main outside of the fore brace. It is well to fit 
 a trapping on both parts of the fore brace with large hanks ; the 
 line being led through a block on the main stay, gathers the 
 brace in on such occasions. Take the boom irons off, and have 
 chocks fitted for the lower yard-arm irons to step in. Lead the 
 sail tackle falls on the main deck, and by working the long tye 
 falls on their own sides, there will not be any one under the 
 yards. Sway up and down, bearing the lower yard-arms amid- 
 ships as the upper ones rise from the deck ; and the latter wiU 
 not butt against the top. When up and down, bear the lower 
 yard-arms forward, that the men in the tops may work close to 
 the upper yard-arm : put on the brace blocks, lifts, Flemish horse, 
 jewel blocks, and boom irons ; the lower lifts should be tailed 
 with a piece of strong rope long enough to lead in board a 
 couple of fathoms through a block in the chains ; sway away. 
 When the bunts of the yards are just above the caps, if the 
 upper yard-arms are clear of the cross-trees, ease up the 
 sail tackle, pull up the lower lifts, gather down the braces, 
 tautening the fore and main. Parrel the yards. Reeve the 
 short tyes, make them fast, haul them taut, and belay. Then 
 let go the long tyes, round up their fly-blocks, carry their 
 ends to the mast head, square the fly-blocks, and secure the 
 standing parts of the long tyes by passing the bights round the 
 mast-heads, seizing them to their own parts. Then clench their 
 ends round the standing parts, ready for shifting yards, taking 
 care that when the bights are cast off, and the clenches run 
 down to the tie blocks, there will be drift enough for pulling up 
 the long tye halyards. 
 
 The weight of topsail yards is always kept off the caps by 
 keeping the lifts at a certain length. This should suggest the 
 absolute necessity for hauling the topsail halyards taut, and 
 
 • If there are daYit topping lifts the mizen-top yard will go up best with its 
 upper arm aft. 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 205 
 
 ■belaying them -when the yards are lowered ; especially before 
 sending men on the yard to reef or furL 
 
 In squaring yards, get them amidships first of all. When the 
 pipe from the boat that may be ahead persists in " Top away," 
 and the lift on the side denoted is very taut, answer the pipe 
 " top away," but check the opposite lift. A contradictory order 
 will be avoided, and a rope saved. 
 
 The upper yards should be squared first, because we may 
 then pipe down from aloft, and square the others from the 
 deck. 
 
 UPPER YARD HOPES. 
 
 The top-gallant and royal yard ropes are bent to the top- 
 gallant and royal yards, after being rove through the grummets 
 and lizards, and the yards are left suspended by them so as to 
 let them stretch and take the turns out. (See Bending Sails.) 
 
 When not across, the royal yards are usually kept in fine 
 weather in the top-mast rigging, and the top-gallant yards in the 
 lower rigging. With the latter, the lower yard-arms enter into 
 beekets on the shrouds, and the upper are stopped in the same 
 shroud; thus, one shroud bears the whole weight of a top- 
 gallant yard, which, with its sail when wet, is something con- 
 siderable. To instance the dangerous nature of this mode. 
 Sending top-gallant masts and yards down in a certain ship, 
 the top-gallant yard was lowered, the lower yard-arm (ap^ 
 parently from the lowering place) caught in the becket, and the 
 upper ai-m stopped in ; the yard rope was let go, and a smart top- 
 man employed in the fore part of the top, unreeving it It turned 
 out that the lower arm had only rested on the outer edge of the 
 hammock netting, and there it might have remained ; but a man 
 running down the rigging shook it, so that the lower arm 
 slipped off, and down. The upper arm being released, fell 
 inwards, glancing the lower one off out of the chains : the yard 
 shot overboard, whipping the yard-rope and topman out of the 
 top and killing him on the spot. 
 
 The fashion of " up and down the lower masts " is now pre- 
 valent. The lower yard-arm steps in a shoe, and the upper is 
 confined to the lower mast by a grummet with a line rove throngh 
 an eye bolt in the mast batten : this grummet is slipped off by 
 a line from aloft. 
 
206 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADfeTS. 
 
 SPANKER-BOOM AND GAFF. 
 
 The jawB of the hoom rest on a. saddle, which is secured to 
 the mizen trysail mast, with cleats and clasp hoop. The gaff 
 works on the same mast ; both gaff and boom have jaw ropes ; 
 that of the former has trucks on it. 
 
 The boom rests in a crutch on the taffrail when not in use, but 
 when required it is lifted and supported by double topplngr 
 lifts. These are differently fitted ; in some, the tackles are on 
 the end of the lifts, the lower blocks hooking on to the boom, 
 with the falls led through snatches on the side of the boom. In 
 others the lifts lead through the snatches j one tackle is led along 
 under the boom, and hooked on to the weather lift ; when that 
 becomes the lee one, it is stopped and the tackle shifted. In 
 others the end is brought down to the chains or side, and set up 
 there with a tackle. The bights are rove through iron-stropt 
 clump blocks hooked on to the boom. The lifts reeve at the 
 tressle-trees, either through a clump block or cheeks. 
 
 The Boom sheets are rove through double blocks on each 
 side of the boom and quarter ; the standing part in ships being 
 spliced into an eye bolt at the boom end, and the hauling part 
 led through a sheave or leading block at the ship's side. 
 
 The Throat halyards are rove through a double block or 
 chock at the mast-head and single hook block below, round the 
 strop of which the standing part is hitched. 
 
 The Peak halyards are rove in ships through a double 
 iron-stropt block at the mizen cap, and two such singles on the 
 gaff about one third from the end ; the standing part js rove last 
 through the foremost of these blocks, and made fast at the mast- 
 head. In boom main-sails it is brought through a mast-head block 
 and fitted with a " peek purchase." 
 
 The Van^s orpeaK downhaul are two single whips on tie 
 after end of the gaff, and brought to each quarter.* 
 
 The Throat downhauls are similar whips on the jaws of 
 the gaff, and are led amidships. 
 
 The Outhauler is led through a sheave at the boom end 
 
 • If these are put on at the outer peak halyard block strap, no harm will be- 
 fall the gaff if the vangs are foul when swaying the peak up in the dark. 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 207 
 
 through a clump, with either a lashing eye or a clip hook in it 
 and made fast at the boom end, or rove through another sheave, 
 and a tackle put on its end. 
 
 The brails, inner and outer, are led through blocks at the 
 under side of the jaws of the gaff, through cheeks or blocks on 
 the gaff to the after leech of the sail. The Throat brails are 
 led from blocks at the jaws, straight to the after leech ; and the 
 foot brails are led from blocks, seized on to a span half way 
 down the trysail mast, to the after leech. These brails are 
 each in one piece of rope, and -when the sail is bent and hauled 
 up, the position for the brail is ascertained, and its bight seized 
 on the after leech. The Throat and peak brails should bring 
 as much of the leech as the length of the head of the sail taut 
 along the gaff when hauled up. Boom mainsails hare no brails. 
 The sheet is a fixture, and the sail is -worked by the halyards, 
 downhauls, reef pendants and tack tricing lines. 
 
 The Trysail gaff is like the other, but much smaller. 
 The Signal halyards are two small single whips at the 
 outermost point of the gaff, brought to each quarter in harbour, 
 and are hitched to the boom when it is in use. 
 
 Peak halyard blocks are most readily shifted if hooked 
 inwards. 
 
 Jack stays on the after ends of spanker booms are most 
 necessary, but not usual, although perfectly unobjectionable. 
 
 RUNNING RIGGING.* 
 
 The Jib halyards are single, rove from aft through a block 
 at the fore- top-mast head. The sail, is bent to the stay with 
 hanks. The downhaul is rove from the forecastle through a 
 block at the jib-boom end, then through the hanks and hitched 
 round the bend of the halyards. The sheets are double whips 
 with pendants, which are made with an eye in the bight, that 
 is connected -with the clue by a strop and toggle. 
 
 The Flyin^r jib halyards are single, rove from aft through 
 a block at the fore-top-gallant-mast head. The sail is bent to 
 the stay with hanks j the downhaul is rove from the forecastle 
 through a block at the flying boom end ; then through the hanks, 
 and made fast round the bend of the halyards. 
 
 * See Reere and Cut, p. 199. 
 
208 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Pore-top-mast staysail halyards are single, rove from 
 aft through a hlock at the fore-top-mast head ; the sail is hent 
 to the stay -with hanks ; the downhaul is rove from the fore- 
 castle through a block at the howsprit end, through the hanks, 
 and made fast round the bend of the halyards. By reeving these 
 halyards double, they become useful for shifting the fore-topsail, 
 or the jib-boom. 
 
 For convenience in stowage, lacings passed against the lay of 
 the stays are substituted for hanks at the lower part of the luff 
 of the head sails. A good lead may be found for jib and stay- 
 sail halyards, by connecting the foremost leg of the fore-top- 
 mast cross-tree with the tressle-trees by eye bolts, in lieu of 
 those which are clenched on each side. The eye bolt, being 
 driven from underneath, is clenched or forelocked on top, and 
 the halyard blocks are stropt into the eyes. 
 
 The jib and staysail sheets, are pendants and whips, the 
 bight of the pendants being made fast to the clues with strops 
 and toggles, and the whips rove inside the fore tacks. 
 
 The nXaln-top-mast staysail runs with hanks on the 
 lower top-mast stay, and is usually fitted with brails as well as 
 downhaul. 
 
 The Top-irallant and royal staysails have stays, which 
 are triced up along with the sails. 
 
 The Main staysail is fitted with beckets or grummets, and 
 works on a stay which is rigged for the purpose of setting it. 
 
 The Fore staysail runs with beckets or grummets on a 
 stay of its own, which is unrove in settled fine weather. The 
 halyards are a double whip, and the sheets luff with the hooks 
 weU moused. Downhaul reeves through the beckets to the 
 head. 
 
 The Second jib runs also on a stay of its own which is made 
 fast to the traveller, setting up at the mast-head or on deck. It 
 is set occasionally when the jib cannot be carried, by hauling 
 the traveller out half way on the boom, and hoisting' with jib 
 halyards. The down haulblock is fast to the traveller, and 
 the jib sheets to the clue. 
 
 A tackle from a strop at the traveller to the dolphin striker, 
 set up before the stay admits of carrying on without buckling 
 the boom. 
 
 The Courses are hauled down forwards by tacks which are 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGING. " 209 
 
 of tapered rope rove doutle through clomp blocks at the clues 
 of the sails. They are hauled down aft on each side by sheets 
 which are also tapered. These clumps are connected with the 
 clue either by separate lashings, or by shackles rove through the 
 clue and eyes of the blocks, one shackle uniting one clue with 
 two blocks. "When so, the bolt should be a screw with a nut. 
 This remark wiE apply to the topsail sheets when thus fitted, 
 and the condition of these fastenings should be a subject for 
 report at evening muster or morning overhaul. 
 
 The standing parts of the fore-tacks are fast with a running 
 eye or slip to the bumpkin — of the main with slips to a skid 
 beam. The standing parts of the sheets are hooked ^nd 
 moused. 
 
 The sail is hauled up at the clues by the olue garnets. They 
 are rove from the deck on each side, through the blocks on th^ 
 inner quarter of the yard, through blocks lashed at the clues, 
 and then made fast round the quarter of the yards, outside the 
 yard blocks with timber hitches. The practice of fastening 
 the clue garnet block to the tack shackle may be. convenient in 
 shifting courses, but is too dangerous to be recommended. At 
 the foot by buntllnes, which are differently fitted. When 
 there is drift enough, they are rove with single legs and double 
 whips ; one leg and one whip on each side of each course. The 
 ends of the legs are rove through thimbles spliced into the inner 
 holes at the foot of the sails, and made fast at the outer holes, 
 Others are whips with two legs made as a span. 
 
 At the sides by leeclillnes. These ropes are led from the 
 deck through blocks hung under the after and fore part of the 
 tops on each side, through those on the outer part of the yard, 
 led down before the sails and bent to cringles in the leech. The 
 slab lines are led from the bunt of the yards through blocks on 
 the outer part of the yards, led down abaft the sails, and bent to 
 the leech line cringles. The leech and slab line blocks are so 
 placed on the yards, that when the course is hauled up, the leech 
 of the sail is hauled taut along the yard from the yard-arm. 
 
 When leech or bunt lines are double, they are usually a span, 
 having a block on the bight ; the block of the whip is connected 
 with the span block by a strop seized in between both ; but as 
 such fitments are liable to take turns, it is best to put a swivel 
 between these blocks. 
 
 P 
 
210 llANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Main Bnntlines are genCTSilly led aft, over the davit topping 
 lifts. Thus, in hauling np the main-sail, the men are not only 
 more under inspection, but turning round from the clue garnets 
 to the buntlines, they keep up such a continuous run that the 
 sail may be carried to the last moment when necessary. 
 
 The Fore Bowlines are rove from the forecastle, through 
 blocks at the fore stay on each side, and are toggled to bridles 
 in the leech of the fore-sail. The main bowline is a light run- 
 ner and tackle reaching from the fore-mast ; it is connected 
 with the bridle on the luff of the main-sail when it is set, by a 
 slip toggle. 
 
 The Beef Pendants are rove through clump blocks at the 
 lower yard-arms, through similar ones on the leech of the sail 
 at the reef band, and made fast to the boom iron. Fit these 
 blocks on the sail with clip hooks, tail the hauling ends of the 
 pendants, carry these ends through leading blocks at the caps 
 and bring them on deck ; then taper them from thence with a 
 lighter piece of rope and cut them long enough to admit of 
 lowering the sail from the yard-arm by this rope from the deck : 
 thus, in reefing and bending, the cumbersome burton will be 
 dispensed with. 
 
 The Topsails are hauled down at the clues to the lower 
 yard- arms by sbeets. These ropes are rove from the deck 
 through the quarter blocks on the lower yards, then through 
 the cheeks at the yard-arms, then through the sheet blocks on 
 the clues, and then are clenched at the yafd-arms, both parts 
 leading before the lower lifts. 
 
 They are hauled np at the clues by the Cluellnes. These 
 ropes are led from the deck through lubbers' hole ; through the 
 quarter blocks on the topsail yards ; through the clueline blocks 
 at the clues of the saUs ; and then hitched round the quarters of 
 the topsail yards. 
 
 At the foot by Buntlines. These ropes are led from the 
 deck through lubbers' hole, through blocks or cheeks at the top- 
 mast heads, passed through the thimbles of the span bef6re all, 
 and are toggled to the foot of the sails. 
 
 The object of the span is to girt the foot of the sail amidships 
 when hauled up. 
 
 At the side by reef tackles. These ropes are led from the 
 deck through lubbers' hole, through the upper sheaves of the 
 
EQtriPHENT : EIGGlJSrG. 
 
 211 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 sister blocks, then through the sheave holes in the yard-arm, 
 then through the reef tackle blocks, -which 
 are made fast to the leeches of the sails below 
 the reef bands, and then are clenched, to the 
 neck of the boom irons. 
 
 Reef tackle blocks occasion trouble at 
 times by the earrings and reef points getting 
 into them. Seize two round thimbles into 
 the bights of grummet strop. Score the top 
 of the block out in a line with the sheave ; 
 lay the middle of the grummet in this score, 
 and strop the block as usual. Reeve the 
 tackles through the thimbles, and they will 
 never be fouled. 
 
 Topsail Cluelines are sometimes fitted with whips and 
 pendants. The advantage here is, that they are never fouled 
 by reef points s but in having the puU so far from the work 
 there is a loss of purchase. 
 
 Both of these arrangements act indifferently as downhauls 
 when braced up ; for the lee ones cannot be used at all on 
 account of the nip round the lee rigging and the weather ones 
 bear all the strain. Moreover if the parrel goes, or the yard 
 be broken, the clues must remain sheeted home. 
 
 They are also fitted by taking the quarter block, and stand- 
 ing parts to the lower caps ; having downhaul tackles on the 
 yards. The advantage here is, that after having clewed up, 
 the clue-line is done with ; for nothing of it is lost in lowering 
 the yard. Also, the power is nearer its work. The hoist is 
 lighter j for the downhaul is more readily overhauled in hoist- 
 ing than are cluelines in any other form. The clues ai'e safer 
 in shifting the yard ; or, when the yard is sprung, the yard it- 
 self is more quickly shifted, there being no clue quarter blocks 
 to cast loose. It takes less rope and the downhaul is a more 
 efScient downhaul than are the cluelines. They are, however, 
 being unusual, apt to be neglected whilst about to hoist. 
 
 Top Sail and top gallant cluelines are rove in the foremost, 
 top-gaUant and Royal sheets in the after sheaves of the quarter 
 blocks : so that as the sails blow forward whilst being clued 
 up, the clueline may not ride the sheet, as would be the case 
 were the sheets rove in the foremost sheaves, 
 r 2 
 
212 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The Top-grallant Sails are spread at the foot by sheets. 
 These ropes are - led from the deck through lubbers' hole, 
 through the quarter blocks on the" topsail yards, through the 
 cheeks at the yard-arms, and made fast with a strap and toggle 
 to the clue of the sail. 
 
 They are hauled up by Cluellnes. These ropes are led ftom 
 the deck through lubbers' hole ; through the quarter blocks on 
 the top-gaUant yards, and made fast to the clue of the sails. By 
 reeving them through short spans in the foot of the sail near the 
 clue, furlers are much assisted. 
 
 Top-gallant Bnntllnes are not always fitted ; but in large 
 ships these, as well as inner reef tackles on the top sail yards, 
 are indispensably necessary. As there are no reef lines, or 
 points in the top-gallant sail which may be grasped, buntlines 
 forward work, and dispense with those great efforts aloft which 
 are always attended with unnecessary risk of life. 
 
 The Royals are spread at the foot by sheets. These ropes 
 are led from the deck through lubbers' hole, through the quarter 
 blocks on the top-galUmt yards, through sheave holes or snatches 
 on the top-gallant yard-arms, and are made fast to the clues of 
 the sails. They are hauled up by cluelines ; these ropes are 
 led from the deck as most convenient, through the quarter 
 blocks on the royal yards, and then bent to the clues of the 
 sails. 
 
 The Fore-top bowlines are led from the forecastle through 
 blocks on the bowsprit end to the leeches of the fore-topsall. 
 The fore-top-gallant bowlines are led from the forecastle 
 through blocks on the jib-boom end to the leeches of the top- 
 gaUant sail. 
 
 The Kalntop bowlines are led from the deck through 
 blocks at the fore-top to the leeches of the main-topsail. The 
 niain top-gallant bowlines are led from the deck through blocks 
 at the fore-top-mast head to the leeches of the main-top-gallant 
 sail. 
 
 STUDDING SAIL GEAR. 
 
 Studding: sail booms are usually sent up by being slung 
 with a span, and when the balance is correct, it answers ; but 
 the safest, easiest, and neatest w^ay is to send the ends of the 
 topsail buntUnes down before aU. Bend them to the heel lash- 
 
EQUIPMENT : EIGGlNGf. 2l3 
 
 ing of the top-gpallant stud booms. Mark these booms in 
 the middle with a notch or copper nail. Splice a small piece 
 of rope into the jack-stay on the topsail yard half the length of 
 the boom from the yard-arm iron. Trice up and pass the end 
 of the rope round the boom; haul it out and lower until 
 the mark is at the place where the rope is fast. Take a turn 
 with the rope over the yard, lower the buntline, and the boom 
 will pivot horizontal, and may be entered in the iron without 
 trouble. 
 
 Send the clue ropes down, maJcingthe upper blocks fast under 
 the tops at the boom-jigger holes. Cross them and bend on to 
 the inner ends of the top-mast stud booms. Bend the top- 
 mast stud halyards on the outer ends about eight or ten feet 
 from those ends. Trice up and the booms will lie along the 
 lower yards ; and if the points are outside of the outer irons, a 
 pull on the clue ropes will bring them in; whilst a pull on the 
 halyards will land them on the inner irons, upon which they 
 may be rigged out. These evolutions may be performed to- 
 gether. When the booms are in place, clamp the irons and 
 secure all the heels. 
 
 The Top Stud Booms are raised at the heels when necessary, 
 by unclamping the inner irons, and pulling up Jiggers which 
 are fitted for this purpose. 
 
 The Top-gallant Stud Booms are raised by Tricing lines. 
 The Studding-sail booms can only be kept in their exact 
 places weU, and all equally rigged out, by splicing small pieces 
 of rope — distance lines — into their heels, and hitching the 
 ends to the jackstay bolt some six feet taut out. Moreover, as 
 in quick reefing the top-gallant stud booms are not always 
 toggled, these distance lines will, in the case of an omission, 
 prevent an accident. 
 
 Kower studding sail booms pivot on goose necks at the 
 fore chains. The outer arms are supported by topping lifts, 
 which ai-e led from the deck on each side through leading blocks 
 under the fore-top abaft the fore-yard. The fore guys are led 
 from the forecastle through blocks at the bowsprit end under 
 the jib-guys, and are spliced into eyes on the boom strap. The 
 after guys are led from the after part of the gangways, and are 
 also spliced into the boom straps. 
 P 3 
 
214 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fore guys have also teen fitted double, with a block on the 
 boom, both parts being led from the bowsprit through leading 
 blocks on the whisker ends ; the object being to dispense with 
 the use of the lizard. The great spread thus obtained is con- 
 Tenient ; but a lower sfadding-sail taken aback would endanger 
 the jib-boom. When the booms are fore and aft, their after 
 ends are supported by crutches on the sides ; and the position 
 of these crutches, as well as that of the rigging on the boom, 
 is important as far as concerns the readiness of the sheet 
 anchor. The iron hoop on the boom is easily moved further in 
 or ont. 
 
 There are also fitments In the main chains, in case it be 
 thought desirable to set the lower studding sail on the main- 
 mast. 
 
 The stndding-sail gear of the fore yard is gathered up to its 
 quarters on each side by whips, called gear tricing-lines. The 
 bights are stopt snng along the yard, and the ends taut up and 
 down the fore rigging. It not only prevents delay, but saves 
 the waist hammocks from being trodden down, if the ends of 
 tacks and broom braces are tailed with small stuff, and stopt 
 along the ridge ropes as far aft as the main rigging. 
 
 Xiower studding-sail balyards are generally crossed in 
 their lead abaft the fore-mast, so as to afford more working 
 space when setting stndding-sails on one side. 
 
 The Fore lower stad-saUs are spread at the heads outside 
 when the booms are out, by the onter balyards, which are 
 led from the deck through lubbers' hole, through the upper 
 sheaves of the fiddle blocks at the fore top-mast-head, then rove 
 before the boom through blocks at the top-mast stud boom end ; 
 and then bent to the middle of the yards, to which the outer 
 half of the heads of the sails are laced ; inside by light double 
 whips called the Inner balyards, which are led from the fore 
 top rims to the inner comers of the head ; at the foot out- 
 side, by the tacks, which are led from the after part of the 
 gangways through blocks on the lower boom ends, and bent to 
 the lower outer clue. 
 
 The inner comers are spread by the sheets. 
 
 They are taken in by the tripping: lines, which are ropes 
 led from the deck on each side, abaft the fore-yard, through 
 blocks at the top rims ; then through leading blocks at the inner 
 
EQUIPMENT : RIGGING. 215 
 
 arms of the studding-sail yards, and bent to the tacks of the 
 $ails. 
 
 The Fore top-mast stud-sails are spread at the head by 
 balyards, which are rove from the deck through lubbers' hole 
 through the span blocks at the top-mast cap before the yard, 
 through the jewel block at the yard-arms, and bent to a yard to 
 which the head of the sail is laced. At the foot they are spread 
 outside by tacks ; which are led from the main rigging through 
 tack blocks on the boom ends, and bent to the outer clue. The 
 inner comers are spread by the sbeets ; one being led from the 
 deck, and the other from the top, passing under the heel of the 
 boom. 
 
 They are taken in by downbauls, which are led from the 
 deck before or abaft the boom, according to circumstances, 
 through blocks on the tacks of the sails, through cringles on 
 the leech, and bent to the outer arms of the studding-saij 
 yards, 
 
 The Fore top-mast stud booms are supported by topping 
 lifts, which lead from the fore-top through the lower sheaves 
 of the fiddle blocks to the boom ends, and also by braces which 
 lead from the main rigging. 
 
 The Main top-mast stud-sail is set in like manner, the tack 
 being led aft to the quarter. 
 
 The Top-gallant studding sails are spread at the head by the 
 halyards, which are led from the deck through lubbers' hole 
 through the span blocks on the top-gallant mast-head, passed 
 before the yard through the jewel blocks on the top-gallant yard- 
 arms, and bent to a yard to which the heads of the sails are 
 laced. 
 
 At the foot outside they are spread by the tacks, which are 
 led from the after part of the tops, under the topsail braces, 
 through blocks at the top-gallant stud boom ends, and bent to 
 the outer lower clue ; and at the inner by the sheets which are 
 led over the topsail yard to the top. 
 
 They are taken in by a line from the top, which is bent to 
 the inner arms of their yards. 
 
 The Top-mast stud booms are rigged in and out by a jigger 
 led along the lower yard. When the booms are out, they are 
 secured by a heel lashing to the quarter iron. Main top stud 
 booms have no topping lift 
 
 F i 
 
216 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Tack and lover balyard blocks on top-mast stud bqoms 
 are generally single stropped, and are thns very unyielding ; 
 the tack one especially so wMlst hauling the sail down, thereby 
 fendangering the boom. They have been found to answer ■well 
 ■when fitted ■with t-wo strops, having thimble on thimble. 
 
 Studding sail halyards are rove before all, because, as Ihe sail 
 blows forward, the rope is not nipt by the yard as it would be 
 were it rove abaft. 
 
 BLACKING DO-WN. 
 
 When the rigging is in its place, advantage is taken of a 
 warm day to rub it down with a mixture of two parts of vege- 
 table to one of mineral tar. The thinner, or rather the hotter 
 it is, the better. 
 
 If not prevented, petty officers will always send their fags 
 Sibout this work ; and as such men are not aware of the con- 
 sequences of hot weather, they use an unnecessary quantity, to 
 the ultimate injury of decks, atniings, and white clothing. 
 
 Tar is obtained by smouldering the heart- wood of the pine 
 in stacks, nearly as in making charcoal, and collecting the sap 
 in trenches. It is refined by heating it in an iron vessel to 
 drain off the water and pyroligneous acid ; and after a while 
 pouring off the purer part, leaving the earthy residue. 
 
 Pitclx is made by boiling do^wn tar, either by itself or -with 
 resin. 
 
 Turpentine is the first running from resinous trees, such as 
 pine J resin is the residue after obtaining spirits of turpentine 
 by distillation from the raw produce. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 217 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 WORMING. (Fig. 95.) 
 
 SEBTING. (Fig. 96.) 
 
 A SHOBT SPLICE. (JFig. 97.) 
 
218 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Unlay, and place the ends of -the strands as in the sketch ; 
 hold the strands A D c {fig. 97) and the end of the rope b fast 
 in the left hand, or, if the rope be large, stop them doim to it with 
 a rope yam: then take the middle end 1, pass it over the strand 
 A and under c. Perform the same operation -with the other ends, 
 by passing them over the first next to them, and through under 
 the second, on both sides, when the splice will appear thus : — 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 repeat the operation, passing the ends over the thil'd and under 
 foiurth ; whip them and trim theni off. 
 
 Fig. 99. AN EYE SPLICE. 
 
 Open the strands, put the end h through 
 the strand next to it ; pass i over the 
 same strand and throqgh the second ; 
 and the end k through, the third on the 
 other side. (Fig. 99.) 
 
 A LONG SPLICE. (Fig. 100.) 
 
 Unlay the ends for some distance and 
 
 place them as for a short splice. Unlay 
 
 one strand (as 4) for a considerable 
 
 length, and replace it with its opposite 
 
 one, 3. Then unlay 2, and replace it 
 
 with 1, The middle strands, 5 and 6 
 
 are split; an overhand knot is made 
 
 in the two opposite halves, and the 
 
 ends led over the next strand and through the second, as the 
 
 whole strands were in the short splice ; the other two halves are cut 
 
 off. The strands 3 and 4, and 2 and 1 are similarly disposed of. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 219 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 A FLEMISH EYE. {Fig. 101.) 
 
 Unlay one strand of a rope, and form an eye by placing the 
 two remaining strands along the standing part of the rope. Lay 
 up strand 1 roTmd the eyg. Taper, marl, and serve all the ends 
 down. 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
220 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 A CUT 8PMCE. 
 
 Cut a rope in two, and form an eye by splicing the ends, in 
 the same manner as in the eye splice, into each other's standing 
 part. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 A WALL KNOT. 
 
 Unlay the end of a rope, and -with the strand 1 (Jig. 103) form 
 
 a bight, holding it down 
 Fig. 103. on the side of the rope as 
 
 at 2. Pass the end of the 
 next, 3, round the strand 
 1, the end of strand 4 
 round the strand 3, and 
 through the bight which 
 was made at first by strand 
 1, haul them rather taut, 
 and the knot will appear 
 as in^. 104. 
 
 TO CBOWN THIS KNOT. 
 
 Lay one of the ends, 
 a, over the top of the 
 knot {fig. 105) s lay 6 over 
 it, and c over b, and 
 through the bight of a : 
 haul them taut, and the 
 knot with the crown will 
 appear likej?^. 106 ; which 
 is drawn open in order to 
 
 render it more clear. This is called a Single Watt and Single 
 
 Crown, 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 Fig. 104, 
 
 221 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 TO DOUBLE WALL THIS KNOT. 
 
 Bring, the end b underneath the part of the first -walling next 
 to it, and push it up through the same bight d: do the same 
 
222 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 with the other strands, pushing them up through two bights, 
 and the knot will appear like fig. 107, having a Double Wall 
 and Single Crown. 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 TO DOUBI-E CEOWN THE 
 SAME KNOT. 
 
 Lay the strands by the 
 sides of those in the single 
 crown, pushing them 
 through the same bights 
 in the single crown, and 
 down through the double 
 walling. It will then be 
 like fig. 108 ; viz., single 
 walled, single crowned, 
 double walled, and double 
 crowned. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 A STOPPER KNOT 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 Is made by single and 
 double walling, without 
 cro-wning,atliree stranded 
 rope against the lay, and 
 stopping the ends together as in Jig. 109. 
 
 223 
 
 A SHROrD KNOT. 
 
 Place the strands as for splicing (Jig. 110), then single wall 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 the ends of one rope round the standing part of the other, fig. 
 HI. Taper, marl, and serve the ends down. 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 A FRENCH SHROUD KNOT. 
 
 Place the ends as in fig. 110, draw them close. Lay the ends 1 , 
 2, 3 back on their own part, b. Single wall the ends, 4, 5, 6 
 
224 
 
 MAHUAI, FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Tonnd the Wglits of the other three, and the standing part B, and 
 it will appear as in^. 112. 
 
 Fi^. 112. 
 
 A BUOY BOPE KNOT. 
 
 Unlay the strands of a cahle laid rope, and also one of the 
 small strands out of each large one ; laying the large ones up as 
 before, and leaying the small ones out as in fig. 113 ; then 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 single and double wall the small strands round the rope, worm 
 the ends, and stop them down. Fig. 114. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
KNOTS A.ND SPLICES. 
 
 225 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 Fig. 116, 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 Ftg. 119. 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 lia. Half Hitch. 
 
 .116. Two Half Hitches. 
 
 117. Half Hitch. 
 
 ,','?• P™?!"?"?,' ""■ Figure-of eight Knot, 
 
 119. Bowhne Knot: 
 
 120. Running Bowline. 
 
226 
 
 MANUAL FOB NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Figi 121. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 121. Reef Knot 
 
 ]23> Bowline on a bight* 
 
 123. Timber Hitcli. 
 
 124. Clove Hitch. 
 
 125. Blackwall Hitch. 
 
 126. Inside Clench.* 
 
 * An outside clench is formed by seizing the end outside ; the outer is more 
 readily cast adrift. As the end jams the inner is more secure, and is used for 
 Breechings. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 227 
 
 MATTHEW walker's KKOT. 
 
 Open the strands and take the end 1 fig. 127 round the rope 
 and through its own tight ; the end 2 underneath, through 
 the bight of the first,- and through its own bight, and the end 3 
 underneath, through the bights of the strands 1 and 2, and 
 through its own bight. Haul them taut, and they form the knot 
 fig. 128. 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 . SINGLE DIAMOND KNOT. 
 
 TJnlay the end of a hawser laid rope for a considerable length, 
 and with the strands as io^fig. 129 form three bights down its 
 side. Put the end of strand 1 over strand 2 and through the 
 bight of strand 3. Then put 2 over 3 and through the bight 
 formed by 1 and the end of 3 over 1, and through the bight 
 of 2. Haul these taut, lay the rope up again, and the knot will 
 appear like ^^. 130. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 MANUAL I'OE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 A DOUBLE DIAMOND KNOT. 
 
 With the strands opened out again, follow the lead of the 
 single knot through two single bights, the ends coming out at 
 the top of the knot, and lead the last strand through two douhle 
 hights. Lay the rope up again as before, when it appears as in 
 fig. 131. 
 
 A SPRIT SAII. SHEET EHOT. 
 
 Unlay two ends of a rope as in fig, 132. 
 
 Make a bight with the strand I ; wall the six ends together 
 against the lay of the rope in the same manner as the single 
 walling was made with three, putting the second over the first, 
 
KNOTS AND SPUCES. 
 
 229 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the third over the Eecond, the foiirth over the third, the fifth 
 over the fourth, the sixth over the fifth and through the bight 
 vhich -was made hy the first ; haul them rather taut, and the 
 single walling mil appear like fig. 133 ; then haul taut. To 
 crown this, take 5 and 2 across the top of the -walling, passing 
 the other strands alternately over and undeir those two, when it 
 will appear as injSy. 134. 
 
 A titrk's head 
 
 Is worked rotmd a rope with a piece of long line. Make a 
 clove hitch as in fi^. 135, bring the bight d under the bight g, 
 and take the endup through it ; it will then appear like^. 136. 
 Make another cross with the bights, and take the end down, 
 after which foUow the lead, and it will form a knot as in fig. 
 137. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES, 
 
 231 
 
 A SELVAGEIS 
 
 Is made by laying rope yams in a bight, and marling them 
 down -with spun yarn. 
 
 TO LENGTHEN A. ROPE B¥ AN ADDITIONAL STRAND. 
 
 Cut the strand (^^r. 139) and unlay it as far as b, and there 
 cut the strand b. Unlay those two strands the same length 
 {fig. 140), and cut the strand c at d. Draw the two parts 
 of the rope asunder to the proper distance, laying the end 
 part of the longest strand, d, on one side over the shortest on 
 the other, e. Introduce the additional strand, e, lay it on at d 
 to e, and then follow up the lay with the two longest strands 
 to a. The ends are knotted and pushed through, as in the long 
 splice. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 q4 
 
232 
 
 MANUAL rOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 141, 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Fig. US. 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 141. Magnns Ritch. 
 
 142. Fisherman's Bend. 
 
 143. Rolling Hitch. 
 
 144. CatV paw. 
 14ii. Carrictt Bend. 
 146, Sheet Bend. 
 
KNOTS AND SPtlCES. 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 233 
 
 Fig- 1*8. 
 
 Fig. 149- 
 
 pig. 151. 
 
 147. Sheepshanks 
 
 148. Hawser Bend. 
 
 149. Harness Hitch. 
 
 150. ■prolong. Hitrh, 
 
 161. Midshipman's HitcBi 
 
234 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 A ORUMMET 
 
 Is made by unlaying a strand of rope, /ji. 152, placing one part 
 over the other, and with the long end/ following the lay till it 
 forms the ring,^. 153. Splice the ends in. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 A ROUND SEIZING. 
 
 Splice an eye in the end of a 
 seizing, and place it as in Jig. 
 154. Pass 6, 8, or 10 turns, 
 according to the size of the 
 rope, heaving them taut ; then 
 bring the end up as iajig. 155, 
 and pass the riding turns hand 
 taut. These are always one 
 less than the first Push the 
 end up through the seizing, and 
 heave on two cross turns, secur- 
 ing the end as in^. 156. 
 
KNOTS AND SPLICES. 
 
 235 
 
 Fig. 155, 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 A THROAT SEIZING. 
 
 Is passed with riding 
 tamE, but not crossed 
 or parcelled. A bight 
 is formed hy placing the 
 end A over the standing 
 part B in ^3. 157. The 
 seizing is then hove on. 
 The end a is brought 
 np and seized to the 
 standing part, as in fig. 
 .158. 
 
 Fig. 157, 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
236 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 ANCHOKS AND CABLES. 
 
 The Admiralty anchors are formed piecemeal : the shant arms 
 and palms are ■wrought out of iron bars, hammered together 
 into solid masses called " Blooms," and then scarphed together. 
 Stocks are in length equal to the whole length of the shank. 
 When of iron, they are 20 per cent, the weight of the anchors, 
 and reeve through a hole in the shank, a curve at one end, and 
 a shoulder and pin in the centre, preventing them from being 
 easily disengaged, but also admitting of their being laid along 
 the shank for convenience in stowage.* 
 
 Wooden stocks are of oak in two pieces, left sufficiently apart 
 in the middle to give greater binding power to the hoops, and 
 to admit of their being driven up when the wood shrinks. In 
 breadth and depth, they are at the middle ^th, and at the ends 
 ith, of their length. 
 
 Porter's anchors are made with the intention of being more 
 portable : the shank is connected with the arms at the crown by 
 a bolt. The palm is small, and made with a horn on the back, 
 which is meant to assist in opening the lower arm when it takes 
 the ground. They are troublesome to fish, and difficult to 
 sweep ; but they are readily taken to pieces, do not require 
 very large boats to carry them out, and are put together with- 
 out delay. When on the ground, the upper arm is shut close 
 down on the shank ; and if the anchor has been properly let go, 
 a ship may ride with a long scope of cable all round the com- 
 pass for a whole season of variable winds without fouling. It 
 does not " bite " readily on soft ground, and therefore, is not 
 a favourite for harbour work where it is necessary to bring 
 up short. It should be let go with little more cable than 
 wiU reach the bottom, and then " snubbed " hard to make it 
 open. 
 
 * On next page will be found sketches of different anchors (^.-159). 
 Thus, a, b. The Admiralty wooden-stocked anchor, c. The arras of Porter's 
 anchor, d. The crown end shank of Porter's anchor, f. The palm of ditto. 
 /. The arms of Rodgers' anchor, g. The iron stock of ditto. A, i. The 
 Admiralty iron-stocked anchor. 
 
ANCHORS AND CABLES, 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 237 
 
238 
 
 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Rodgers' anchors are made ■with a small pahn, and frequently 
 with an iron stock, 'vrhich ships on, over the head of the shank, 
 and under the shackle. It bites readily. It cannot, however, 
 be unstocked without unshackling the cable, and is not so easily 
 swept as the broad-palmed ones are. 
 
 Fancy has been at work among the "mud hooks," and pro- 
 duced other kinds of anchors not worth our consideration. 
 Those Supplied to the navy are of the most approved form, and 
 have undergone the requisite ordeal as to strength ; but the 
 truth is, that no one kind of anchor can have its superior merit 
 endorsed by a committee however sagacious, and a bad sailor 
 will be like the bad reaper ; for the best anchor will fail if it be 
 let go without care, or remain on the bottom without attention. 
 
 The hoops of wooden-stocked anchors should be hardened 
 up after very hot weather. Two sheet anchors were let go by 
 -a. line of battle ship during a winter gale at Vonrla, and th? 
 stocks were knocked off by striking the side in letting go. The 
 hoops were slack, and proper care had not been taken to ar- 
 range the tripping strop. 
 
 JURY ANCHORS. 
 
 A jury anchor has been formed with broken shanks and flukes 
 thus : — " The two shanks were carried close out to the palms of 
 the anchor, on opposite sides, and then lashed with top-sail 
 sheet chains. The two stocks were secured together with chains 
 of the same description. An iron bar was lashed across the 
 Fia 160 shanks, securing in the centre the 
 
 remaining piece of the shank. A 
 length of stream chain was then 
 passed round the rings, down along 
 the shanks, with a round turn round 
 each palm and shank, then back and 
 secured. By this means, when strain 
 comes on the arms, it is thrown on 
 the chain by the shanks being in- 
 clined to draw through the small 
 lashings ; while in so doing, the 
 stream chain acts as a vice, and the 
 more the shank draws, the firmer is 
 the arm grasped by the round turn 
 
 Milnes- Jury Anchor- °^ ^^ ^^^ '^^^^' ^^^^ <^« 
 
ANCHORS AND CABLES. 239 
 
 Stream cable prevents the shanks from drBTving out altogether. 
 This anchor was found quite efficient." • 
 
 A whaler that had parted, brought up, and rode out a heavy 
 gale in Table Bay, by slinging and letting go a boiler with a 
 cable made fast to the spans. 
 
 Guns are a resource, when without anchors. Haul the cable 
 from the hawse hole along the side, by a warp from aft, keeping 
 it up with slip ropes from the ports, and lash it to a certain 
 number of guns round their chase ; pass the ends of the breech- 
 ings round the cable, and secure them on top of the gun : heave 
 all over board together. In weighing them, ho'ist them with the 
 cat, as they reach the hawse hole, and take them in through the 
 bow-port. 
 
 There are also very powerful screws made use of for mooring 
 purposes which, having a broad flange nearly four feet in dia- 
 meter, present a resistance, when entered into the ground, equal 
 to that of ten square feet. This is not only much greater than 
 that of an anchor, but is less liable to be fouled by other ground 
 tackle. 
 
 The chain is connected with Fig. 161. 
 
 a revolving collar. The screw- 
 ing down is eflfected by a key, 
 which is placed piece by piece 
 as the screw is lowered; the 
 collar admitting of the turning, 
 without fouling the cable. 
 When the screw has been sunk 
 to the desired depth, the key is 
 removed. 
 
 The foundation for the light- 
 house on the Maplin Sands was Mitchel's Screw Anchor, 
 formed on pilings shod with these screws. 
 
 CHAIN CABLES. 
 
 All the Chain gear pertaining to ships, excepting the rudder 
 
 * Captain Milnes' Report on a jury anchor rigged on board H. M. S. 
 * Snake." 
 
240 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 chains, is made of wrought iron. The size is denoted by the 
 diameter of the hars of which the links are composed. 
 
 Admiralty Specification of Chain Cable. 
 
 " The iron chain cables are to he made in 12| fathom lengths, 
 with one swivel in the middle of every other length, and one 
 joining shackle to each length, and of the weight specified. 
 
 " The several sizes of chain cables being distinguished by the 
 diameter of the iron of their common links, this diameter forms 
 the unit of the scale of dimensions in the accompanying draw-^ 
 ings, by which the dimensions of the various parts of the cables 
 of all sizes, and of the articles to be connected therewith, are to 
 be proportioned. Thus, the length of a common link is to be 
 6 diameters, and its breadth 3-6 diameters of its iron : and the 
 length of an end link is to be 6-5 diameters, its breadth 4 dia- 
 meters, and the substance of its iron 1-2 diameters of the iron of 
 a common link ; and so on for all the parts of cables of all 
 sizes, and articles to be connected therewith, which are to be' 
 made as near as practicable to the dimensions shown by the 
 drawings. 
 
 " The diameter or transverse section of the iron of the links, 
 and of the various parts of the swivels, shackles, and other 
 articles to be connected with the cables, is not to be less, taking 
 the mean of the greatest and least dimension at any one section, 
 than that specified herein, or shown by the drawings. Also the 
 length of the various links, swivels, shackles, and other articles 
 is not to be more than ^ of the diameter of the iron of the 
 common links over, nor their width more than i such dia-: 
 meter over or under that specified or indicated as above-men- 
 tioned. 
 
 " The stay pins are to be of cast iron, not exceeding the 
 weights specified, and are not to be wider at their ends than 
 the diameter of the iron of the links in which they are inserted, 
 nor at their middle part than ^ of such diameter, meaning 
 longitudinally, of the links. 
 
 " Both the end links of every length of a cable, as well as 
 those of Sir Thomas Hardy's mooring swivels, splicing tails, and 
 splicing shackles, are to be made parallel-sided witibout stay- 
 pins, and with the substance of their iron A of a diameter 
 
ANCHORS AND CABLES. 241 
 
 larger than the diameter of the iron of the common links of the 
 cable to which they belong, as shown by the drawings, and so 
 as to admit the joining shackles to be inserted or taken out 
 of them in connecting or disconnecting any two lengths of the 
 same, or of different cables, of the same size, by either end; also 
 to receive the bolt of the lai-ge shackle for connecting any length 
 of cable of the same size by either end with the anchor. 
 
 " The enlarged links connected with the end links, and with 
 each end of the swivels, are to be made ^ part larger in the 
 diameter of their iron than the common links of the cable they 
 belong to, and with a stay-pin in proportion. 
 
 " The splicing talis of the different sizes, for connecting iron 
 and hempen cables together, are each to consist of one end link, 
 without a stay-pin, followed by one enlarged link, fourteen 
 common links, and then another enlarged link, all with stay- 
 pins, and all the before-mentioned links are to be of the same 
 size as those of the iron cable, to which the splicing tail is to be 
 attached ; also of a triangular link, no wider nor longer than 
 necessary, of iron 1"3 diameter of that of the common links, 
 connected at its narrow end with the last-mentioned enlarged 
 link, and at its broad end with three short-linked chains (without 
 stayjpins) called taHs, the first link of each of which, connected 
 with the triangular link, is to be of iron ^ diameter of that of 
 the common links, and the remaining links of each tail, about 
 sixty-five in number, are to diminish gradually in size to iron 
 of J of the diameter of that of the common links before men- 
 tioned. 
 
 " The steel tinned pins for retaining the joining shackle bolts, 
 and the forelocks for the large shackle-bolts, are not to follow 
 the exact proportion agreeably to the diameter of the iron of the 
 common link, laid down for other parts of cables. 
 
 " The length of the steel pins to be such, that the points do 
 not come through the shackles by the diameters of their points. 
 All the steel pins are to be filled with dovetail chambers, to 
 receive the leaden pellets at their heads. 
 
 "In order to prevent the forelock in the bolt of the large 
 shackle being accidentally displaced, a steel pin in the lead pel- 
 let is to be introduced through the bolt and the forelock. The 
 split in the forelock is to be retained. 
 
 " The iron square linked mooriijg phains are to be made in 
 
 B 
 
242 
 
 MANUAX FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 lO-fathom lengths, and the length of each link is to he 3 feet, so 
 that each chain will consist of 20 links." 
 
 " Drawings hareinbefore referred to. 
 
 " Showing the proportions of iron chain cables, mooring chains, 
 and other articles connected therewith, to he supplied for Her 
 Majesty's Navy. 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 Anclior Shackles. 
 X y. Fin and lead pellet through the bolt and forelock. 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 Cable Swivels. 
 
ANCHOKS AND CABLES. 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 243 
 
 Splicing Stiackle, on Admiral the Hud. George Elliot's Flan. 
 
 REFERENCES, 
 
 Two Views of the various parts of a Cable are here shown. 
 
 Av Large shackle for connecting any length of cable of 12^ fathoms with the 
 anchor. 
 
 B. End links, without stay pins. 
 
 C. Enlarged links, with stay pins. 
 
 D. Common links. 
 
 E. Swivel in the middle of every other length. 
 
 F. Joining shackle for connecting either end of any length with any other 
 
 length of the same size. 
 
 The written dimensions on the links, &c., signify so many diameters of the 
 iron of the common links of the cable, thus forming the scale for all sizes. 
 In the mooring chains and gear, the unit is the thickness of the iron of the 
 link. 
 
 B 2 
 
244 
 
 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 Mooring Swivel, on Sir Thomas Hardy's Plan. 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 YJ 
 
ANCHOKS AND CABLES. 245 
 
 Ships are supplied with 36 ' lengths,' or 450 fathom of large 
 chain cable, -vrhioh is divided into three or four cahles, and two 
 gangers as most requisite. They are also supplied with a stream 
 cable, chain messenger and top chains. 
 
 nsessenger cbaln is made in open oblong links, which are 
 alternately long and short. It is connected by n peculiar 
 splicing piece. 
 
 Crane cbain is made in open oval links. Having no stay, 
 its strength as compared to stayed chain is as 7 to 9 : but being 
 more flexible, it is used for rigging and maohineiy purposes. 
 
 The Clear Hawse SbacUe is made long enough to clasp 
 a cable link, and admit of a hawser being rove through its 
 bight. It is.nearly obsolete, and a Slip stopper, such as is 
 used for stoppering the cable, Jig. 167, and tricing it up in the 
 chain lockers, ig made use of for clearing hawse purposes instead. 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 The advantage of the stopper in clearing hawse is, that it is 
 easier applied and taken off ; besides, a length of chain may be 
 shackled on to it, and a wet hawser avoided. 
 
 Top cbains are geni^^y crane, and Mast-bead slings 
 of cable pattern. A first rate's slip stopper fqr the cable is 
 about 8 cwt. ; a sloop's about 1 Cwt. A first-rate's mast-head 
 and yard sling about 32 cwt. ; a sloop's about 6 cwt. 
 
 " The proof strain of chain cables is about 630 lbs. in each 
 circular inch of the iron bolts of which it is njade. Thus, a 
 cable made of one inch iron, contains on one side of the linl; 
 8x 8 = 64 circular eighths; which, being multiplied by 630 Ibsj, 
 gives 40,320 Ibs.^ or eighteen tons." * 
 
 ^ * Radimeatary Art of constructing cranes, &c 
 H 3 
 
246 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
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ANCHOBS AND CABLES. 
 
 247 
 
 Splicing Shackles, Mooring Swivels and Chains, 
 
 Weight and Value of Splicing 
 ShacUeafoi Cables of 
 
 WelKht and Value of Moor- I 
 
 Weight and Value of 
 
 Uooring 
 
 ing Swivels 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 cwts. qrii. lbs. 
 4 1 24 
 3 3 14 
 
 
 inch. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 9 3 14 
 7 2 14 
 
 J_ 
 
 a 
 
 
 11" 
 
 Test. 
 
 i 
 
 Ijr 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3«o 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 tons. 
 
 a. 
 
 1; 
 
 
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 l5" 
 1 1 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 lOH 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 1 2 22 
 
 s 1 
 
 
 2 3 n 
 2 1 21 
 
 2, 
 
 2 
 
 • 2i 
 
 2 
 
 6.') 
 50 
 
 99 
 90 
 
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 3 20 
 2 24 
 
 
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 1 1 21 
 
 2 
 
 2- 
 
 45 
 40 
 
 81 
 72 
 
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 1 
 
 2 4 
 
 m 
 
 
 3 8 
 
 - -^ 
 
 
 1- 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
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 5 
 
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 1 1 
 
 n 
 
 1 14 
 
 III 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 1, 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 .14 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 23 
 
 S s 
 
 
 
 OS& 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 
 £ «. rf. 
 
 Large shackles for caUes of one inch and 
 
 upwards - 2 1 11 per cwt. 
 
 Large shackles for cables under one inch 2 5 7 „ 
 
 Joining shackles for cables of one inch 
 
 and upwards - - 1 15 4 ,> '. 
 
 Joining shackles for cables under one 
 
 inch - - - -361,, 
 
 Swivels for cables of one inch and up- 
 wards - - -337,, 
 
 Swivels for cables under one inch - 6 5 „ 
 
 To find the weight of open linked chains. 
 The square of the diameter of the link, measured in eighths 
 of inches, will give the weight per fathom in pounds. 
 Stayed chain will be about one-twelfth more. 
 
 To find the weight that may be lifted by chain. 
 
 Divide the square of the diameter of the links, taken in 
 eighths of an inch, by eight ; the quotient will give the number 
 of tons. 
 
 The working load of chains should not exceed one-third of 
 the proof strain. 
 
 R 4 
 
248 MANUAt FOB NATAl CADETS. 
 
 Chain Cables and Anchors. 
 
 Proof 
 Strain. 
 
 Size 
 Cbain. 
 
 Value 
 per cwt. 
 
 Weight 
 per 100 
 fathoms. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 corresponding 
 
 anchors. 
 
 Proof of 
 Anchors. 
 
 tons. 
 
 inches. 
 
 e I. 
 
 i. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 tons. 
 
 91| 
 
 2| 
 
 15 4 
 
 243 
 
 100 to 88 
 
 67 to 62 
 
 811 
 
 2| 
 
 „ 
 
 
 316 
 
 87 to 75 
 
 61 to 56 
 
 72 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 
 192 
 
 74 to 63 
 
 56 to 50 
 
 631 
 
 1| 
 
 ti 
 
 
 168 
 
 62 to 52 
 
 49 to 43 
 
 551 
 
 13 
 ■■■■4 
 
 f) 
 
 
 147 
 
 51 to 42 
 
 43 to'37 
 
 471 
 
 15 
 ^8 
 
 )J 
 
 
 126 
 
 41 to 35 
 
 37 to 32 
 
 401 
 
 ^2 
 
 91 
 
 
 108 
 
 34 to 28 
 
 31 to 27 
 
 34 
 
 If 
 
 »> 
 
 
 90 
 
 27 to 22 
 
 27 to 22 
 
 28| 
 
 -il 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 21 to 16 
 
 21 to 17 
 
 22| 
 
 ^8 
 
 SJ 
 
 
 60 
 
 15 to 12 
 
 16 to 13 
 
 18 
 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 48 
 
 11 to 9 
 
 12 to 11 
 
 13| 
 
 ^ 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 8 to 6 
 
 10 to 8 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4: 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 51 to 5 
 
 7 to 6 
 
 8| 
 
 tt 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 4to 3 
 
 6 to 5 
 
 7 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 2±t0 2 
 
 4 
 
 5| 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 4| 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 11 to 1 
 
 3 
 
 3| 
 
 7 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Four pounds to the ton is about the scale by -which anchors 
 are supplied to ships. , 
 
 Dimensions of Lockers for iOO-faihom Chain Cabh.* 
 
 Size. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 2| 
 
 355 ' 
 
 If 
 
 180 
 
 1 
 
 73 
 
 2| 
 
 331 
 
 1| 
 
 156 
 
 I 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 288 
 
 If 
 
 131 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 If 
 
 245 
 
 1| 
 
 115 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 If 
 
 220 ! 
 
 1| 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 * Add fifty to each of these dimeusions to provide for hurried stowage. 
 
ANCHOI^S AND CABLES. 249 
 
 Chain caWes are meant to be worked -with the curves of all 
 the shackles forward, so as to render readily round the bitts and 
 through the passages on being veered. This is a necessary 
 condition, and must be remembered not only when handling the 
 cables, but also during surveys, when many transpositions take 
 place. " Knuckles aft," or, in other words, curves forward is 
 the rule. 
 
 GETTING nt CABLES. 
 
 Before putting the cables in the lighter, mark them with a 
 piece of iron wire at every length, commencing from the anchor 
 end. Copper or spun-yam soon decay. Put wire round the 
 stay-pin of the link next abaft the first shackle, again round 
 that of the second link next abaft the second shackle, round that 
 of the third link next abaft the third shackle, and so on. Thus 
 in heaving in the number of an incoming shackle, or at any 
 time, the quantity of cable that is out can be known. 
 
 Put the cables in the lighter with their anchor ends at the 
 bottom, ranging them side by side, and place all the slips and 
 smaU gear separate. Lay the lighter across the bows, and take 
 the cables in through the inner hawse holes, with double whips 
 led along the deck'outside the bitts. 
 
 The cable ends are secured to chain strops (necklaces) which 
 in sailing ships go round the heel of the main mast. 
 
 Chain slips, long enough to reach to the top of the lockers, are 
 shackled to the necklaces ; the slips are stopped up and down 
 the sides of the lockers, and when the ends of the cables are 
 connected to the slips, and the tongues of the slips lashed down, 
 the cables are faked away in the lockers. In this way the 
 riding cable may readily be cast adrift when requisite, or 
 connected to another when it is desirable to veer two cables 
 on end. The ends of the cables must be passed down through 
 the compressors, so as to control the cables in their descent. 
 
 In steam ships (the shaft interfering with such an arrangement 
 as we have described), the slips are secured to ring bolts in 
 the sleepers on each side, and then triced up as above. The 
 object for doing so is, that the end of one cable may be slipt 
 altogether, or connected with another without disturbing the 
 whole locker. 
 
 The gangers, and cable enough for bendiiig, are left on deck. 
 
 The stream chain has generally a separate locker. 
 
 The messenger is run round the capstan and manger rollers. 
 
250 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 the turns taken out, the after tight placed on the sprockets, and 
 the rollers being at their aftermost positions, the ends are adjusted 
 as to length, and connected with a peculiar splicing shackle. 
 
 The manger rollers are moveahle, so that they may be 
 adapted to the gradual stretch of the messenger. 
 
 The mooring swivel, figure 166, is supplied for the purpose 
 of keeping the cables clear 'of turns when the ship is moored. 
 (See Mooring.) 
 
 GETTING IN ANCHORS. 
 
 If the Anchors are in a separate vessel from the cables, put 
 the gangers along with the anchors, and place the waist anchors 
 with their stocks on end. Should the stocks have been already 
 cleated, let the upper arms be upwards. Rig both davits on 
 the same side ; one in the fore part of the fore chains for fishing 
 the bower, and the other about half the length of the shank 
 before the after bill board for the waist anchor. 
 
 The Plsb davit is rigged with a long tackle lashed to the 
 mast-head pendant, and hooked to the middle eye bolt in the 
 head of the davit as a topping lift ; a large double and double • 
 stropt block, and another single and single stropt, both having 
 eyes large enough to go over, are placed on the davit end. . The 
 eyes of the fore and the after guys are then put over, and the 
 ends set up taut with a lanyard. 
 
 The Fisb block is double, double stropt into a large hook, 
 and dragged into its place when at its work by the back rope. 
 The fish fall is rove from inboard through the single block on 
 the fore side of the davit end and full through the others, the 
 standing part being made fast to the fish block. In some 
 fitments the hauling part of the fish fall is carried to the mast- 
 head, a luff is placed from a bolt underneath on the bends to 
 the davit ends as a martingale, and when the latter tackle is 
 eased, the fall answers the purpose of a topping lift. These are 
 the usual methods of rigging the davit ; but when it is erected 
 elsewhere than under the direct support of a mast, it is differently 
 fitted. 
 
 For the TWalst ancbor. — Eig the davit head with fore and 
 aft guys, a three-fold block for the purchase, and a runner block 
 for the topping lift. If there be no good place for a step, form 
 one with cleats. Reeve the runner, place the davit, lashing the 
 heel slackly so as to allow for topping ; make the runner and 
 tackle fast on the opposite side of the deck, reeving its fall 
 
ANCHORS AND CABLES. 251 
 
 through a lead, and helaying abaft. Eeeve the purchase with a 
 piece of rope as large as the cat fall, using another three-fold 
 hlock. Make the standing part fast to the davit-head, and lead 
 the hauling one across the deck through a lead aft. Steady up 
 the guys and lash the lower purchase block on the upper side 
 of the shank about half way from the crown, the crown of course 
 being aft. If the yards are up, their tackles are useful on each 
 end of the anchor to steady it and keep it square ; if not, any 
 tackle outside the fore rigging on the upper stock will do. If 
 on weighing, the anchor is not well poised, it must be relashed. 
 When it is up high enough, the fall is belayed, the davit topped 
 by the runner, the stock and shank painters are passed and 
 bowsed to, the tumblers are raised and placed under the shank, 
 and the anchor lowered on them and secured, keeping the edge 
 of the flue well on the bill board. The upper arm is confined by 
 a slip lashing, and a tripping strop is passed round the lower one. 
 
 If the ganger is in the lighter, it will save trouble to bend it 
 before hauling ahead. 
 
 For the Bower ancbor — the cat-fall is rove from inboard, 
 through the foremost sheave in the cat-head, the foremost in the 
 cat-block, and so on full, the end being timber hitched round the 
 inner and after part of the cat-head. 
 
 The cat-block is iron bound, three-fold, with a standing 
 large hook pointing inwards, and the fall is first rove through 
 its fore side, that the other parts may not ride whilst hauling 
 them taut through, when the tackle is led forward. 
 
 The Cat is hooked to the ring of the anchor, the fish to the 
 inner flue, and a tackle put on the upper stock. Whichever 
 way the anchor lies in the lighter, unless it is raised by the 
 tackles simultaneously, the vessel will be stove. When high 
 enough, the topping-lift brings the flue on the biU board, and 
 the cat-stopper and shank painter are passed. All these stoppers 
 or painters should be passed under and over so that, when let 
 go, their ends will be thrown downwards ; else they will some- 
 times come inboard with a most dangerous jerk. 
 
 The cat and fish are unhooked, and a similar operation per- 
 formed on the other side. 
 
 The bower chains are hauled out of the inner hawse holes by- 
 hawsers led through leading blocks made fast on the stock of 
 their anchors, and shackled on to the rings. 
 
 The object of the stook<^ackle is to throw the lower end of 
 
252 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the stock off the bov, otherwise, it would turn inwards, over 
 the slack cable, and the anchor would come up foul. The 
 omission of this essential duty in stowing an anchor has inter- 
 fered with many a passing certificate. 
 
 Stream ancbors are conTeniendy stowed when placed flat 
 on the deck amidships at the bows of the boom boats ; anywhere 
 but on the sheet anchors. They are usually carried out by a 
 boom boat; and when the tackles have hoisted the boat out, 
 the main yard and fore-stay are immediately available for hoist- 
 ing out the anchor. 
 
 The outer ends of the gangers being shackled to the waist 
 anchors, the inner ones are hauled in through the outer hawse 
 holes, and are secured inboard, being thus ready for connection 
 with a third or fourth cable when requisite. 
 
 The lashing of a ganger carried away in a first rate when at 
 sea in a gale ; the bucklers and hawse plugs were dragged outj 
 and a serious amount of water shipped before the mischief was 
 remedied. 
 
 The bights of the gangers are stopped up outside, clear of the 
 ports.* 
 
 The buoys and bnoy ropes are now put on the anchors ; the 
 bower cables are hauled in taut and bitted. Thus, hook a block 
 to the eye-bolt which is over the bitt head, reeve a hook rope in 
 it, and hook on the cable a little abaft the cross piece of the 
 bitts. A. few careful observations will teach the very link that 
 should be hooked. Light forward the chain ; trice up the bight, 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 letting the after part fold over to the side on which the cable is, 
 and then throw it over the bitt head, as in fig. 168 ; the 
 
 * At sea, with the cables bent, hawse plugs, scored out to fle the cable, should 
 always be driveo into the hawse holes before securing the bucklers. 
 
STORES AND PEOVISIONS. 253 
 
 Btarboard caUe, a, being 'with the sun, and the port cable, b, 
 being against the sun. 
 
 The object of the buoy is to indicate the position of the 
 anchor when on the bottom ; and the buoy rope is supposed to 
 be equal to weighing the anchor, in the event of the ship having 
 slipped, or the cable having parted. Care is taiken that the buoy 
 rope is not longer than is necessary to let the buoy watch at the 
 highest time of tides where used. 
 
 Hemp caVIes are usually made with a shackle spliced into 
 one end, and it is well to fit the other in a similar manner. 
 (,Fig. 165.) 
 
 When supplied with splicing tails, the end is unlaid for some 
 distance ; and, after leaving length enough for the tails, laid up 
 again. It is now open enough in the strands to admit of being 
 fidded out for splicing. Put a seizing on at the place from 
 whence it is unlaid, open the strands of the tails, taper and 
 plait them down, finishing with a piece of rope. The chain 
 tails are puddened, and hitched down ; then proceed with the 
 chain and rope tails as with a common splice, expending the 
 ends along the lay of the cables, and seizing them down. 
 
 Coil hemp cables, both in the lighter and tier, right handed, 
 clenching the lower end in the heart of the tier to a chain strop 
 round a beam, and lashing down to an adjoining one.* 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 STOEES AND PEOVISIONS. 
 
 Topmasts of large ships weigh as much as three tons, and 
 should 'therefore be hoisted in with the yards and stays. 
 
 If the fore ends of spars take the fore rigging or backstays, a 
 pull on the after main brace will clear them j but as a general 
 rule, it is a sign of indifferent contrivance, and it certainly is 
 unsafe to touch braces when yards are bearing weights. 
 
 * la fitting out and'paylng off. large ships are soraetimes placed at moorings 
 ^here they take the ground at very low vater ; so that unless allowance be 
 made for this possibility, whilst lashing lighters for the night, if the ship 
 should ground, the timbers are either torn out of .the lighter, or else lashings 
 are carried away, and she gets adrift. 
 
254 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 The fore stay is occasionally taken to the after, and the main 
 stay to thejforemost ends of a long spar, and thus kept clear of 
 the rigging ; when this is done care must he taken in lowering, 
 for the spar is very apt to " sally " fore or aft. 
 
 In slinging spars alongside, wet and its consequences may he 
 avoided by running a large hoop up on the spar, stopping the 
 end of the slings, or lashing to it, and turning it round. 
 
 Booms should he secured with strops having lashings at each 
 end ; certainly on one end : long lashings passed turn hy torn 
 are very tedious, both in securing and casting loose. 
 
 In hoisting in spars that are in the water, it is sometimes not 
 easy to see that the tackles are properly hooked to the strops. 
 Accidents have happened hy hooking the stay to one bight of a 
 strop passed twice round the spar, and the yard tackle to the 
 other bight. All goes well whilst there is an equal strain on 
 each tackle, but on easing in the yard, the spar rolls suddenly 
 out of the strop. The heel of a top-mast went through the 
 deck of the * * * * in this way. 
 
 Provisions, water casks, &c. are usually hoisted in by the 
 " quarter " tackle and small stay. Jammed fingers on deck, 
 broken heads in the lighter or launch, the paintwork outside, 
 and gang boards, will all be saved by working the lower block 
 of the tackle with a light tricing whip on the yard. The stay 
 hooks to the cap with a lizard on the main-stay, so as to over- 
 look the hatchway, and it is well to fit its lower block with a 
 second strop for the quarter, which may thus be unhooked be- 
 fore lowering down the hatchway. 
 
 In putting on a whip for the quarter, it should he on the lift, 
 and bent on the pendant some distance down, having the hook 
 stopt above the bend. The heavier the lower block of the 
 quarter the better, as it will overhaul down more easily. 
 
 In hoisting in water casks that have been rafted, lift them with 
 can-hooks into the stem sheets of a boat ; then sling them, and 
 much delay will be avoided. 
 
 In starting water, it may be of consequence to remember the 
 curious fact in hydraulics, that more water issues from a vessel 
 through a short pipe, than through a simple aperture of the same 
 diameter with the pipe ; and still more will come if the pipe he 
 funnel shaped. 
 
 All lime should be slaked before being received on board. 
 
STOKES AND PROVISIONS. 255 
 
 In completing provisions and stores, Tfrlien stronghanded, the 
 more lighters that can he had the better. Every yard davit, or 
 other projection may have a ■whip, and especial working party. 
 The lighters must, however, he stowed with reference to this 
 simultaneous clearance, so that there may be no delay in wait- 
 ing for articles that should be stowed in certain order in the 
 holds. 
 
 Each cask has its contents and date of package marked on it ; 
 and the provisions are stowed in such proportions that one day's 
 allowance of every kind can be got out without breaking bulk. 
 The newest sort are placed lowest, and all casks are stowed 
 bung up. Billets of wood (" Dunnage ") are packed under the 
 " chines," so that not only is the whole stowage made secure 
 from the danger of shifting, but a sufficiency of fuel for the ovens 
 is daily forthcoming. 
 
 A press of work such as this, unavoidably affords opportuni- 
 ties for trickery ; and as in the early history of a ship there are 
 always some who are more skilful with a gimlet and piece of 
 straw, than with a marlingspike and piece of rope, spirit casks 
 should be struck down and secured in the spirit room without a 
 moment's delay. 
 
 A young officer will find that the stowage of holds offers favour- 
 able opportunities for learning the use of hale and butt slings, 
 can-hooks, levers, wedges, &c., besides being very useful in 
 carrying out the orders against naked lights. 
 
 The keys of all store rooms are kept in the first lieutenant's 
 cabin, and are supposed to be absent from thence only during 
 the actual issues of stores. In ships where the bread-room has 
 been made a mess place, and the fore store-rooms a lounging 
 place for idlers, the natural consequences have been foul air, 
 dirt, and danger. From such causes, the * * * was twice on 
 fire during one commission. 
 
 The engineers' stores are in such constant demand when under 
 steam, that their store-room must be kept open : but it must be 
 remembered that hemp or cottpn, &c. with oil and lamp black, 
 &c. (such as " wipes," for instance), generate heat, and will 
 eventually ignite spontaneously on exposure to air. 
 
 When the lamps are put in order, oil " lights up " better 
 than candles. A pint of good oil will bum eleven hours in an 
 argand lamp, and give light equal to that of three six-mould 
 candles. 
 
256 
 
 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Admiralty, 1st Jan. 1842. 
 
 List of the imerage Contents and Weights^/ the different Packages 
 and Iron Tanks usually supplied to Her lHajesty's Ships. 
 
 PEOVISIONB AND VIOTIJAUlING STOKES. 
 
 DescriptioD. 
 
 FackageB. 
 
 1 
 
 A-verage. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 A °*=^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 Net. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 BiBCuit 
 
 Bag 
 
 112 
 
 Gals. 
 
 114 
 
 2 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 Puncheon 
 
 72 
 
 804 
 
 142 
 
 662 
 
 
 
 Hogshead 
 
 54 
 
 615 
 
 119 
 
 496 
 
 
 Rum - 
 
 Barrel 
 |Hhd. 
 
 36 
 25 
 
 420 
 293 
 
 90 
 63 
 
 330 
 230 
 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 18 
 
 213 
 
 47 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 12 
 
 142 
 
 32 
 
 110 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Hogshead 
 
 54 
 
 634 
 
 106 
 
 528 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 Barrel 
 
 36 
 
 426 
 
 74 
 
 352 
 
 OS 
 
 White Wine- 
 
 ^Hhd. 
 
 25 
 
 306 
 
 63 
 
 243 
 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 18 
 
 223 
 
 47 
 
 176 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 10 
 
 Slh. 
 pieces. 
 
 130 
 
 32 
 
 98 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Salt Beef ■ 
 
 Tierce 
 Barrel 
 
 =38 
 26 
 
 41b. 
 piecps. 
 
 S02 
 355 
 
 198 
 147 
 
 304 
 208 
 
 .1 
 1 
 
 Salt Pork ■ 
 
 Tierce 
 Barrel 
 
 80 
 52 
 
 513 
 341 
 
 193 
 133 
 
 320 
 208 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barrel 
 
 336 
 
 388 
 
 52 
 
 336 
 
 S 
 
 Flour - 
 
 JHhd. 
 
 250 
 
 294 
 
 44 
 
 250 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 168 
 
 201 
 
 33 
 
 168 
 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 168 
 
 333 
 
 165 
 
 168 
 
 .O 
 
 
 •» 
 
 150 
 
 339 
 
 189 
 
 150 
 
 
 Suet - ■ 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 115 
 
 250 
 
 135 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 70 
 
 184 
 
 114 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 56 
 
 132 
 
 76 
 
 56 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Barrel 
 
 336 
 
 388 
 
 52 
 
 336 
 
 
 Raisins 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 224 
 
 266 
 
 42 
 
 224 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 168 
 
 200 
 
 32 
 
 168 
 
 
 . 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 28 
 
 112 
 
 
STORES AND PROVISIONS. 
 
 257 
 
 Description. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 1 
 
 Average. 
 
 i-!^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 iss 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 GroEi. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 Net. 
 
 |s| 
 
 
 
 Bus. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 r 
 
 Barrel 
 
 5 
 
 376 
 
 54 
 
 322 
 
 
 Peas 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 32 
 
 283 
 
 43 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 2 
 
 7- 
 
 193 
 
 32 
 
 161 
 
 
 f 
 
 Barrel 
 
 414 
 
 54 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 IHhd. 
 
 5 
 3- 
 
 307 
 
 44 
 
 263 
 
 
 Oatmeal - - 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 213 
 
 32 
 
 181 
 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 24 
 
 146 
 
 26 
 
 120 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 )> 
 
 2 
 
 lbs. 
 
 121 
 
 20 
 
 101 
 
 
 c 
 
 Barrel 
 
 392 
 
 465 
 
 73 
 
 392 
 
 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 280 
 
 339 
 
 59 
 
 280 
 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 168 
 
 216 
 
 48 
 
 168 
 
 -a 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 140 
 
 173 
 
 33 
 
 140 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 J, 
 
 112 
 
 142 
 
 30 
 
 112 
 
 C3 
 
 Chocolate ■ 
 
 JHhd. 
 Small Cask 
 
 108 
 55 
 
 135 
 71 
 
 27 
 16 
 
 108 
 55 
 
 
 Tea - 1 
 
 Chest 
 1 Chest 
 
 83 
 36 
 
 Gals. 
 
 109 
 52 
 
 26 
 16 
 
 83 
 36 
 
 i 
 
 
 Puncheon 
 
 72 
 
 664 
 
 140 
 
 724 
 
 
 
 Hogshead 
 
 54 
 
 662 
 
 119 
 
 543 
 
 ■g 
 
 
 Barrel 
 
 £6 
 
 450 
 
 88 
 
 362 
 
 '% 
 
 Vmegar - ■ 
 
 IHhd. 
 
 25 
 
 317 
 
 65 
 
 252 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 18 
 
 230 
 
 49 
 
 181 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 12 
 
 152 
 
 32 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 Hogshead 
 
 242 
 
 330 
 
 88 
 
 242 
 
 " 
 
 Tobacco -j 
 
 Barrel 
 
 160 
 
 225 
 
 65 
 
 160 
 
 o§ 
 
 IHhd. 
 
 126 
 
 180 
 
 54 
 
 126 
 
 o 
 
 [ 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 83 
 
 121 
 
 38 
 
 83 
 
 
 f 
 
 Barrel 
 
 244 
 
 289 
 
 45 
 
 244 
 
 
 ■Soap - \ 
 
 IHhd. 
 
 113 
 
 141 
 
 28 
 
 113 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 55 
 
 72 
 
 17 
 
 55 
 
 
 Lemon 
 Juice 
 
 Case 
 
 72 
 
 183 
 
 111 
 
 72 
 
 
 iCase 
 
 36 
 
 93 
 
 57 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 Small Cask 
 
 36 
 
 200 
 
 65 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 168 
 
 78 
 
 90 
 
 
 Tongues < 
 
 
 18 
 
 146 
 
 79 
 
 67 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 92 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 
258 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 EMPTY CASKS, ETC. 
 
 Description, 
 
 Packages. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 . 
 
 |.H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length 
 inches. 
 
 Capa- 
 city in 
 Gals. 
 
 Weight 
 lbs. 
 
 Is"^ 
 
 
 Leager 
 
 59 
 
 164 
 
 270 
 
 
 
 Butt 
 
 63 
 
 110 
 
 1?6 
 
 
 
 Puncheon 
 
 41 
 
 72 
 
 144 
 
 
 
 Hogshead 
 
 37 
 
 54 
 
 108 
 
 
 Tight Water . 
 
 Barrel 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 80 
 
 "3 
 
 Casks. 
 
 1 Hogshead 
 
 2S 
 
 25 
 
 62 
 
 S 
 
 
 Kilderkin 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 
 53 
 
 03 
 
 
 Small Cask. 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 P 
 
 
 „ 
 
 ... 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 
 . 
 
 Barricoe 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 Kit 
 
 ... 
 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 Mess Utensils ■ 
 
 Keg 
 Can 
 
 ... 
 
 If 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 
 Barricoe 
 
 
 H 
 
 16 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 To hold 56 lbs. 
 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 .s 
 
 Bread Casks J 
 
 „ 30 
 
 .'." 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 g 
 
 I 
 
 » 20 
 
 ... 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 s 
 
 Lemon Jaice -j 
 
 Cases, whole 
 „ half 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 42 
 24 
 
 s 
 
 Biscuit Bags i 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 
STOKES AND PROVISIONS. 
 
 259 
 
 SLOP CLOTHING. 
 
 DeBcription. 
 
 •-{ 
 
 Blue Cloth Jackets, 
 No. 1. A. - 
 
 Do. No. 1. B. 
 Do. No. 2. - 
 
 Blue Cloth Trowsers, ' 
 
 No. 1. - - : 
 
 Packages. 
 
 Do. No. 2. 
 
 -! 
 
 } 
 
 Blue Cloth in the 
 
 piece for Jackets, 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Do. in the piece for If 
 
 Trowsers, No. 1. \ 
 
 Do. in the piece for f 
 
 Jackets, No. 2. - \ 
 
 Do. in the piece for f 
 
 Trowsers, No. 2. \ 
 
 Duck in the piece - •! 
 Hannel in the piece i 
 
 White knitted f 
 
 Worsted Jackets \ 
 
 White wove "f 
 
 Worsted Jackets J 
 
 Blue wove f 
 
 Worsted Jackets ,\ 
 
 Stockings - 
 
 Mits - 
 
 Worsted Caps 
 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 Small 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 50 
 25 
 50 
 2S 
 50 
 25 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 Yards. 
 
 69 
 
 34i 
 
 67 
 
 33i 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 31 
 296 
 148 
 230 
 115 
 
 No. 
 50 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 25 
 
 Fairs. 
 150 
 100 
 75 
 100 
 
 No. 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 Average. 
 
 Gross. Tare. Net, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 163 
 81 
 
 119 
 59 
 
 139 
 71 
 
 108 
 53 
 
 108 
 53 
 
 149 
 75 
 
 1| 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 112 
 
 a 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 116 
 
 3 
 
 58 
 
 2 
 
 189 
 
 3 
 
 93 
 
 2 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 2 
 
 69 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 1| 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 ^ 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 ie = 
 
 lbs. 
 
 160 
 79 
 
 116 
 67 
 
 136 
 69 
 
 106 
 106 
 
 146 
 73 
 
 109 
 
 54 
 166 
 
 82 
 113 
 
 56 
 186 
 
 91 
 
 72 
 
 35 
 
 66 
 33 
 
 55 
 
 52 
 
 251 
 
 45| 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 51 
 29 
 
 6 2 
 
 3 3 
 
 6 2 
 
 511 3 3 
 
 6 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 5 5 
 2 9 
 8 1 
 
 4 2 
 
 5 6 
 2 10 
 
 4 10 
 2 6 
 
 5 3 
 2 9 
 
 5 4 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 7 
 
 4 
 
 2 4 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 
 2 9 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 7 
 2 
 
 B 2 
 
260 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 SLOP CLOTHING. (Continued.') 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Description. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 
 sSs 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 Net. 
 
 SSQ 
 
 
 Bale. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 Blue Baize in the \ 
 piece - - J 
 
 Large 
 
 80 
 No. 
 
 85| 
 
 1| 
 
 84 
 
 6 3 
 
 Blue Serge Frocks 
 
 Small 
 
 25 
 Yards. 
 
 33| 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 1 8 
 
 Blue Serge in the I 
 piece - J 
 
 Small 
 
 80 
 No. 
 
 33| 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 1 8 
 
 Blankets 
 
 Large 
 
 25 
 
 115 
 
 3 
 
 112 
 
 9 
 
 Shirts - - - 1 
 
 Large 
 
 100 
 
 102 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 4 4 
 
 Small 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 2 • 
 
 50 
 
 2 6 
 
 Handkerchiefs 
 
 Small 
 Case. 
 
 100 
 
 Si 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 ^ 
 
 Caps, for Boats' f 
 Crews - - 1 
 
 Large 
 
 100 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 7 4 
 
 SmaU 
 
 50 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 3 7 
 
 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shoes - - - 1 
 
 Barrel 
 
 100 
 
 199 
 
 73 
 
 126 
 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 60 
 
 122 
 
 63 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Bale. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flushing Jackets - 
 
 Large 
 
 25 
 Pairs. 
 
 129 
 
 3 
 
 126 
 
 9 6 
 
 Do. Trowsers 
 
 it 
 
 25 
 
 Yards. 
 
 87 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 6 9 
 
 Flushing in the piece "1 
 for Jackets - J 
 
 » 
 
 48. 
 
 143 
 
 3 
 
 140 
 
 8 7 
 
 Flushing in the piece "1 
 for Trowsers - J 
 
 
 30 
 
 102 
 
 3 
 
 99 
 
 5 10 
 
 »» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BOTS' SLOPS. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blue Cloth Jackets 
 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 50 
 25 
 
 104 
 52 
 
 2| 
 2 
 
 101| 
 50 
 
 5 6 
 3 5 
 
 Blue wove Jackets 
 
 >» 
 
 50 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 2 2 
 
 White knitted do. - 
 
 )) 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 2 11 
 
 Shirts - 
 
 » 
 
 100 
 Pairs. 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 4 1 
 
 Shoes - 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 50 
 No. 
 
 93 
 
 SO 
 
 43 
 
 
 Hair Bed - 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 7| 
 
 I S 
 
STORES AND PEOTISIONS. 
 
 261 
 
 UARIKE NECESSARIES. 
 
 DeBcription. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 S 
 
 Average. 
 
 ki 
 
 1 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 Net. 
 
 iSj 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 Barrel 
 
 100 
 
 115 
 
 67 
 
 58 
 
 
 Foraging Caps - -| 
 
 Bale. 
 Large 
 Small 
 
 50 
 12 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 Gray Cloth Trowsers f 
 in materials - \ 
 
 Half-boots - - 1 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Barrel 
 
 iHhd. 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 187 
 
 98 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 73 
 
 50 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 114 
 
 48 
 
 1 1 
 
 7 
 
 Hay in bundles : 4| lbs. per cubic foot. 
 Trusses supposed to -vreigh 56 lbs., but vary from 52 to 58 lbs. 
 Straw in bundles 3^ lbs. per cubic foot vary from 30 to 40 
 lbs. 
 
 Oats, 3-64 cubic feet per cwt 
 Barley, 2-38 do. 
 Wheat, 2-36 do. 
 
 RELIGIOUS BOOKS. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Facl^ages. 
 
 i 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 Net. 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ' lbs. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 Bibles - 
 Prayer books *■- 
 Psalters 
 Testaments 
 
 - 
 
 Set's. 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 28 
 9 
 4 
 9 
 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 
 ; 
 
 Large 
 
 318 
 
 253 
 
 60 
 
 193 
 
 7 11 
 
 Library Books - 
 
 For 
 
 Frigates 
 
 173 
 
 148 
 
 35 
 
 113 
 
 4 8 
 
 
 Small 
 
 111 
 
 126 
 
 30 
 
 96 
 
 3 10 
 
 B 3 
 
262 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 IRON TANKS. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Capacity in 
 Gallons. 
 
 Weight when empty. 
 
 ill 
 
 is-H 
 
 
 
 cwt, qrs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 fNo. 1 - - 
 
 600 
 
 10 1 
 
 14 
 
 98 3 
 
 Whole-! „ 2- 
 
 SOO 
 
 8 2 
 
 16 
 
 82 
 
 L ,, 3- 
 
 400 
 
 6 3 
 
 25 
 
 65 8 
 
 r „ 4 New - 
 
 200 
 
 4 2 
 
 25 
 
 33 2 
 
 Half J » SKider 
 
 200 
 
 4 2 
 
 25 
 
 33 2 
 
 "^^'^ „ 6 Flat - 
 
 193 
 
 5 1 
 
 20 
 
 32 4 
 
 L „ 7 Old - 
 
 200 
 
 4 1 
 
 24 
 
 32 10 
 
 Quar- f „ 8 - 
 ter t „ 9 Rider 
 
 100 
 
 2 3 
 
 20 
 
 16 6 
 
 100 
 
 2 3 
 
 20 
 
 16 6 
 
 f „ 10 Large 
 Bilge < „ 11 Old - 
 L „ 12 Small 
 
 375 
 264 
 110 
 
 6 2 
 5 2 
 3 
 
 25 
 2 
 6 
 
 61 8 
 43 9 
 18 9 
 
 Bread Tanks - 
 Tanks made to mould 
 
 ... 
 
 ■ Weight to he given 
 ■when issued. 
 
 
 Iron Tar Casks 
 
 27 
 13 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 19 
 12 
 
 
 I- 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 Water is computed at 210 gallons per ton. 
 
STORES AND PEOVISIONS. 
 
 263 
 
 Weight of Provisions ani Stores complete for a Ship of each 
 Bate. 
 
 Number of Guns - - 
 
 120 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 Number of Men 
 
 1000 
 
 sao 
 
 
 750 
 
 
 tons, cwt 
 
 qn. lb. 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 qr3.1b 
 
 tons, cwt 
 
 qrs. lb. 
 
 Provisions for four months 
 
 142 17 
 
 2 
 
 117 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 107 4 
 
 2 
 
 Tare . - . . . 
 
 35 13 
 
 1 
 
 29 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ' 26 16 
 
 24 
 
 
 4 months. 
 
 4 months. 
 
 
 4 months. 1 
 
 Water .... 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 410 
 
 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 
 
 Tare ..... 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 Anchors and Stocks - 
 
 26 8 
 
 
 
 24 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 12 
 
 2 
 
 Chain and hempen cables . 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 75 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 9 
 
 2 
 
 Wood 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Coals ..... 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 Marine and Medical Stores 
 
 6 4 
 
 1 27 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 i 
 
 2 
 
 Purser's slops and neces- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 saries .... 
 
 7 15 
 
 3 
 
 610 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 II 
 
 2 
 
 Seamen and their effects. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 including officers* stores 
 
 137 10 
 
 
 
 112 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 103 2 
 
 2 
 
 Bowsprits .... 
 
 13 5 
 
 
 
 12 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 12 
 
 
 
 Fore-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 33 15 
 
 
 
 33 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 5 
 
 3 
 
 Main-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 45 10 
 
 
 
 44 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 37 17 
 
 S 
 
 Mizen-masts, yards, &c. . 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 14 17 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 12 11 
 
 2 
 
 Spare gear - - 
 
 19 2 
 
 
 
 19 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 13 
 
 
 
 Rigging and blocks - 
 
 67 16 
 
 
 
 65 18 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 63 10 
 
 
 
 Sails, complete ... 
 
 13 11 
 
 2 
 
 12 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 13 
 
 1 
 
 Boats and their gear . 
 
 10 7 
 
 2 9 
 
 10 2 
 
 117 
 
 10 2 
 
 1 17 
 
 Boatswain's and carpenter's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stores . - - - 
 
 97 1 
 
 2 
 
 83 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 83 5 
 
 
 
 Firehearth . - - - 
 
 13 14 
 
 1 24 
 
 9 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 7 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 Armament complete, in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eluding gunners* stores - 
 
 603 15 
 
 1 
 
 498 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 411 S 
 
 3 
 
 Total . . . - 
 
 2088 7 
 
 1 4 
 
 1774 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1572 12 
 
 23 
 
 8 * 
 
264 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Weight of Provisions and Stores complete for a Ship of each Rate. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Number of Guns • 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 . 50 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 SG 
 
 Number of Men - - 
 
 650 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 250 
 
 
 tn. ct. qr 
 
 .lb 
 
 . 
 
 tn.ct. qr. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 to. ct. qr. lbs. 
 
 tn. ct. qr. lbs. 
 
 Provisions for four 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 montlis 
 
 92 18 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 71 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 .50 3 
 
 32 17 2 
 
 Tare .... 
 
 23 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 18 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 12 12 3 1 
 
 8 70 
 
 
 4 montbs. 
 
 
 4 months. 
 
 
 14 veeb. 
 
 14 weeks. 
 
 Water .... 
 
 326 
 
 
 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 86 5 
 
 Tare . . . - 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 4 
 
 17 5 
 
 Anchors and Stocks - 
 
 21 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 IS 3 3 
 
 9 16 
 
 Ciiain and hempen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cables ... 
 
 66 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 45 3 2 8 
 
 29 18 
 
 Wood . . . - 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Coals . . . - 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 00 
 
 11 00 
 
 Marine and medical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stores 
 
 4 I 
 
 2 14 
 
 3 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 9 10 
 
 1 11 2 
 
 Purser's slops and ne- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cessaries . 
 
 4 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 I I 18 
 
 2 83 
 
 Seamen and their ef- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fects, including offi. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cers' stores 
 
 89 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 68 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 22 
 
 31 12 2 
 
 Bowsprits ... 
 
 10 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 19 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 6 12 1 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 Fore-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 24 14 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 17 17 
 
 10 17 1 
 
 Main.masts, yards, &c. 
 
 33 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 29 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 22 19 1 
 
 ,14 19 3 
 
 Mizen-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 11 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 9 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 16 2 
 
 4 16 2 
 
 Spare gear . . . 
 
 14 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 9 11 
 
 6 6 3 21 
 
 Rigging and blocks 
 
 59 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 66 14 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 47 90 
 
 28 8 3 
 
 Sails, complete . 
 
 11 IS 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 11 3 
 
 2 20 
 
 9 7 10 
 
 5 19 1 
 
 Boats and their gear . 
 
 10 2 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 8 17 
 
 2 23 
 
 8 17 2 23 
 
 7 14 I 16 
 
 Boatswain's and car. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 penter's stores - 
 
 83 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 66 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 66 I 2 7 
 
 35 10 
 
 Firehearth . . - 
 
 6 19 
 
 2 10 
 
 4 16 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 3 16 3 
 
 3 17 
 
 Armament complete. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 including gunners' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stores 
 
 360 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 270 11 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 205 5 3 
 
 105 8 1 
 
 Total - 
 
 1393 7 
 
 2 13 
 
 1090 4 
 
 2 15 
 
 775 12 1 
 
 463 4 16 
 
STOKES AND PROVISIONS. 
 
 265 
 
 Weight of Provisions and Stores complete for a Ship of each Hate. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Number of tiuna 
 
 IS 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 S 
 
 Number of Men 
 
 175 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 80 
 
 
 tn. ct. qr. lbs 
 
 tn. ct. qr, lt)S. 
 
 tn. ct qr. lbs. 
 
 tn. ct. qr. lbs. 
 
 FroTisions for four 
 
 
 
 
 
 months . . . 
 
 25 1 
 
 IS 17 2 
 
 18 11 2 
 
 11 8 3 
 
 Tare - - - 
 
 6 12 2 
 
 4 14 2 
 
 4 14 2 
 
 2 19 1 
 
 
 I'i ^eeks. 
 
 12 veeks. 
 
 10 weeks. 
 
 S weeks. 
 
 Water - - - - 
 
 63 12 
 
 48 15 
 
 40 
 
 20 00 
 
 Tare - - 
 
 13 2 2 
 
 9 70 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Anchors and Stocks - 
 
 8 9 10 
 
 6 17 1 
 
 6 13 1 
 
 4 13 
 
 Chain; and hempen 
 
 
 
 
 
 cables ... 
 
 23 11 1 
 
 19 15 3 
 
 16 18 11 
 
 14 4 1 
 
 Wood - - - - 
 
 4 00 
 
 3 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 
 
 Coals - . . - 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 9 
 
 Marine and Medical 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stores 
 
 1 03 7 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 Purser's slops and ne- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cessaries - - - 
 
 2 12 
 
 1 16 
 
 1 12 3 
 
 18 3 
 
 Seamen and their ef- 
 
 
 
 
 
 fects, including offi- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 cers' stores 
 
 24 1 1 
 
 17 17 2 
 
 17 17 2 
 
 11 00 
 
 Bowsprits ... 
 
 3 43 
 
 2 18 
 
 2 5 
 
 1 11 3 
 
 Fore-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 9 14 
 
 8 4 
 
 6 13 
 
 5 10 
 
 Main-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 12 18 3 
 
 10 60 
 
 8 10 
 
 6 9 
 
 Mizen-masts, yards, &c. 
 
 4 6 10 
 
 
 
 
 Spare gear 
 
 6 2 
 
 4 6 10 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 9 
 
 Rigging and blocks 
 
 23 I 1 
 
 15 53 
 
 13 3 
 
 9 12 1 
 
 Sails, complete - 
 
 4 IS 3 
 
 4 2 
 
 3 13 1 
 
 2 19 1 
 
 Boats and their gear - 
 
 2 17 2 8 
 
 2 9 2 
 
 2 9 2 
 
 16 10 
 
 Boatswain's and car- 
 
 
 
 
 
 penter's stores - 
 
 35 10 
 
 19 2 
 
 19 2 
 
 12 7 
 
 Firehearth - 
 
 2 16 1 8 
 
 2 ' 6 21 
 
 2 6 21 
 
 1 14 
 
 Armament complete, 
 
 
 
 
 
 including gunners' 
 
 
 
 
 
 stores 
 
 80 3 2 
 
 54 13 3 
 
 40 83 
 
 16 .4 i 
 
 Total - - 3 
 
 69 2 2 24 ' 
 
 65 6 1 21 
 
 27 13 4 
 
 38 15 2 4 
 
 From Fincham's OutlineE of Ship Building. 
 
266 
 
 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Guns are composed of Iron or Gun metal. Iron guns, being 
 less expensive than others, are used where lightness is not of 
 consequence.* 
 
 Gun Metal is an alloy of 10 parts of tin to 88 of copper. 
 Bronze is an alloy of 11 parts of tin to 100 of copper ; and bell 
 metal consists of 22 parts of tin and 78 of copper. 
 
 Iron ordnance is valued at about 151. per ton, and Gun metal 
 at about 4|<i per lb. 
 
 Guns are distinguished from each other by the nature of their 
 metal and weight of their shot. 
 
 AU guns are cast soUd. 
 
 A gun is divided into five principal parts, viz. the cascable, 
 first reinforce, second reinforce, chase, and muzzle. These as 
 well as the minor divisions of both gun and carriage will be 
 better understood by the adjoining sketches. 
 
 A B. Cascable. 
 
 Ji c. First reinforce. 
 
 c D. Second reinforce. 
 
 D E. Chase. 
 
 B p. Muzzle. 
 
 1. Button. 
 
 2. Button ring. 
 
 3. Neck. 
 
 4. Neck ring. 
 
 5. Neck fillets. 
 
 6. Base ring and ogee. 
 
 7. Vent field. 
 
 8. Vent patcti and Tent. 
 
 9. Vent astragal. 
 
 10. First reinforce ring. 
 
 11. Second ditto. 
 
 12. Dispart patch. 
 
 13. Muzzle astragal. 
 
 14. Swell of muzzle. 
 
 15. Muzzle mouldings. 
 
 16. Face of the piece.-! 
 
 17. Trunnions and trunnion shouU 
 
 ders. 
 
 • For much of 'the information presented in this chapter, the author ia in- 
 debted to the " Aide Mfmoire." 
 
ORDNANCE. 
 
 267 
 
 The brackets, transoms, and trucks of ships' gun carrlagres 
 are of elm : the axle-trees are of oak. 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 ^I'-'i A^-Lrwioi — J°i T- 
 
 "^ 
 
 mi 
 
 Parts of a Gun Carriage. 
 
 A^ Side. 
 B. TransoTn. 
 c. Fore axle-tree. 
 B. Hear axle-tree. 
 E. Quarter rounds, 
 p. Steps. 
 G. Fore truck. 
 H. Rear truck. 
 K. Fore axle-tree cleat. 
 L. Rear ditta 
 M. Stool. 
 N. Bed. 
 o. Horns. 
 Q. Gap square. 
 R. Trunnion box. 
 s. Ej;e bolt and key. 
 T. Joint bolt. 
 u. Breast loop. 
 
 T. Bracket bolt, 
 w. Rear axle-tree bolts. 
 ,x. Bed bolt and bar. 
 
 Y. Transom bolt and bar. 
 
 z. Fore axle-tree stay. 
 
 1. Train loop, 
 
 2. Side loop and riveting 
 
 plate. 
 
 3. do. dOi 
 
 4. Breeching bolt and ring. 
 
 5. Fore axle-tree loop. 
 
 6. Rear axle-tree loop. 
 
 7. Linch pins. 
 
 8. Side cleat. 
 
 9. Dowel pins. 
 
 10. Stool bed bolts. 
 
 1 1, Rear loop. 
 
 Fig.. 171. 
 External appearance. 
 
268 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 Internal appearance. 
 
 Parts of a Carronade. 
 
 A D. Cascable. 
 B c. Keinforce. 
 o D. Chase. 
 
 D B. Muzzle. 
 E F, Hash rim. 
 
 Rings, Sfc. 
 
 1. Elevating screw. 
 
 2. Ditto screw box. 
 
 3. Neck. 
 
 4. Keck fillets. 
 
 6. Breeching loop. 
 
 6. Breach mouldingB. 
 
 7. Base ring and ogee. 
 
 8. Baae patch. 
 
 9. Vent patch, pan, and vent. 
 
 10. Dispart and step sights. 
 
 11. Reinforce ring and ogee. 
 
 12. Muzzle mouldings. 
 
 13. Dove tail to receive dispart. 
 
 14. Muzzle mouldings. 
 
 15. Face of the piece.; 
 
 16. Carronade loop, 
 
 17. Coin patch. 
 
 Tlie carriage and slide of 68-pouiidere and 10-inch guns 
 ■weigh ahout 33 cwt. ; the common carriages about 9 cwt. 
 
 As the elastic force of the powder is greatest at the breach, 
 thatpartofthegunismade largest; consequently the outside of the 
 gun is n6t parallel to the axis of the hore ; hut if a line be drawn 
 from the cascable along the top of the gun parallel with the axis 
 of the horCj and a projection which will touch that line be fixed 
 on the gun anywhere in the direction of the muzzle, it will he as 
 easy to direct the bore towards an object, as if the gun were the 
 same thickness everywhere. This proj ection is the Dispart, and 
 may be found by taking the diameter of the base ring, and any 
 other part of the gun where it is desired to place the dispart, 
 
ORDNANCE. 
 
 269 
 
 subtracting the less from the greater, half of which difference will 
 he the height of the dispart on that part where the less diameter 
 was taken. This may he done hy taking the circumference with 
 two pieces of thrpad, dividing each into three parts for the diameter, 
 half the difference of these diameters heing the required height. 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 'Ps 
 
 i, m A 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 
 oa 
 
 a X 
 
 
 
 O! 
 
 o 
 
 t LiJ 
 
 lo> 
 
 {Fig. 174.) 
 
 1. Groove. 
 
 2. Rear chock bolts. 
 
 3. Rear chocks. 
 
 4. Side loop. 
 
 5. Housing ears. 
 
 6. Fore chocks. 
 
 7. Horse shoe plate. 
 
 8. lighting bolts. 
 
 Slide. (.Fig. 174.) Fig. 175. Carriage. (JFig. 175.) 
 
 1. Joint bolt. 
 
 2. Joint chocks. 
 
 3. Pintail bolts. 
 
 4. Pintail plate. 
 
 5. Drop bolt. 
 
 6. Elevating screw 
 plate. 
 
 7. Side loops. 
 6. Rear loops. 
 9. Nut of bolt for 
 
 groove piece. 
 
 Howitzers have no dispart ; a patch on the muzzle making 
 that part equal in height to the hase ring. 
 
 The Angrle of Dispart is that number of degrees which 
 the axis of the bore would point above the object aimed at when 
 laid by the surface of the gun. 
 
 The Sigbts are two notches cut on the upper part of the base 
 ring and swell of the muzzle. 
 
 The Xiine of metal is an imaginary line drawn along the 
 surface of the metal between the two sights. 
 
 The Centre of metal is indicated by notches on the side of 
 the base ring and swell of the muzzle, corresponding with the 
 axis of the piece. 
 
 The Tanirent scale is marked with degrees for elevation, 
 found hy multiplying the length of the piece in inches from 
 the hase ring to the swell of the muzzle by 017455, the product 
 giving the length of each nearly. By subtracting the Dispart 
 from this product, the length of the tangent scale above the hase 
 ring for one degree of elevation wUl he obtained. 
 
 The Calibre of a gun is the diameter of its hore, 
 
270 MANUAL FOE NATAX CADETS. 
 
 The Axis of tlie piece is the centre of the here length-ways, 
 
 vrindag^e is the difference between the diameter of the bore 
 and that of the shot. 
 
 The Vents of all ordnance are two-ninths of an inch in dia- 
 meter. 
 
 The tabular length of guns is measured from the base ling to 
 the muzzle, and is exclusive of the cascable. The 10-inch and 
 8-inch guns have the gomer, or conical chamber, and a less 
 thickness of metal behind the charge than the 68-pounders and 
 heavy shot guns, as may be observed by the place of their vent, 
 which is in the base ring. 
 
 There are two descriptions of 10-inch guns, four of 8-inch 
 guns, and three of 68-pounders. One calibre for each class ; but 
 the projectiles used in the 8-iuch gun are not identical in the 
 land and sea services, and necessitate different Tables for the two 
 services. 
 
 The 10-inch hollow shot, or naval shell, weighs 82-pounds ; 
 it is made up to an average weight of 86 pounds for firing by 
 filling with sand and plugging it. Same for land and sea. 
 
 The 10-inch shell for mortars weighs 86 pounds, and contains 
 4 pounds 13 ounces of powder j burster, 2 pounds 10 ounces. 
 
 The 10-inch naval shell weighs 82 pounds, and contains 5 
 pounds Oj ounces ; burster, 5 pounds 8 ounces. The external 
 diameter is 10"'01 greater than of the land shell, reducing the 
 windage ; the thickness of metal is 0""296 less than of the land 
 shell, hence the difference of weight. Hollow shot and shell 
 for guns may be distinguished from shells for mortars by being 
 made without ears. 
 
 The 8-inch hollow shot for land servioBj weighs about 47 
 poimds, being in fact the shell plugged; but for sea service 56 
 pounds. 
 
 The 8-inch land service shell weighs empty, 46 pounds ; the 
 naval shell weighs empty, 48 pounds; both contain the same 
 bursting powder, namely : 2| pounds ; the difference is in the 
 diameter of shell and thickness of metal, which is 0"'065 greater 
 for land than for sea service. 
 
 There are four calibres of 32-pouuders ; viz., three of 6"*41 ; 
 one of 6"-375 ; five of 6"-35 ; and four of 6"-30. 
 
 There are three 24-pounders, having no diversity of calibre or 
 projectile ; but the calibre of the 24-pounder brass howitzer is 
 O'lOS less than that of the iron 24-pounder, 
 
OEDI*A.NCE. 
 
 271 
 
 There are two calibres of IS-pounders ; viz., two of 5""292 ; 
 three of 5"'17. Both classes are in use for land or general ser- 
 ■vice : these projectiles being alike for land and sea. 
 
 In the class of 12-pounders (four), and 9-pounders (four), 
 there is no diversity of calibre or projectile ; but the calibre of 
 the 12-pounder brass howitzer is 0-043 less than "that of the iron 
 or brass 12-pounder gun.* 
 
 Mortars differ from guns in being shorter, thicker, having 
 the trunnions at the breech, and being used solely for the pur- 
 pose of firing shell. They are distinguished by the diameter of 
 the bore and weight of metal, and are mounted on a solid fram- 
 ing of timber called the bed {fig. 176). Sea service mortars are 
 heavier in proportion to the diameter of their bore than those for 
 land service. The 13-inch sea mortar weighs 101 cwt, bed 83 
 cwt. ; 10-inch, 52 cwt., bed 55 cwt 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 The strength of all ordnance is tested by firing heavy ch 
 of powder and shot ; as well as by hydraulic pressure. 
 
 PROOF CHARGES OF BRASS 
 
 GUNS 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Gun - - - - pounder 
 Charge in pounds ... 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Brass mortars and howitzers are fired twice with their chambers 
 full of powder, and with a shell — the former at an elevation of 
 seventy-five degrees, the latter at twelve degrees. Iron mortars 
 are fired with a charge equal to the full chamber, and with a 
 solid shot whose diameter iS similar to that of the shell. 
 * Hand-book, Field Service. 
 
272 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Table — Proof charges of the undermentioned Iron Ordinance. 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 ID. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 Guns 
 
 10-inch 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 20 
 
 }j 
 
 8-inch 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 a 
 
 it " " 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 3* 
 
 a - - 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 16 
 
 )J 
 
 
 6 
 
 8| 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 >f 
 
 6 8 -pounder 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 112 
 
 30 
 
 it 
 
 a "■ " 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 28. 
 
 a 
 
 it ~ ~ 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 88 
 
 25 
 
 }i 
 
 66-pounder 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 28 
 
 >j 
 
 ti ~ ~ 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 25 
 
 3t 
 
 42-pounder 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 25 
 
 99 
 
 it " " 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 25 
 
 it 
 
 „. 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 67 
 
 23 
 
 
 32-pounder 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 21 8 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ti 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 21 8 
 
 ti 
 
 ti " 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 64 
 
 21 8 
 
 ^^ 
 
 •J ~ ~ 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 12 
 
 ^^ 
 
 J) " 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 48 to 50 
 
 21 8 
 
 it 
 
 It ~ 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 it 
 
 it " 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 16 
 
 )) 
 
 >t " ~ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 14 
 
 it 
 
 7? " ~ - 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 7/ - - 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 P7 ~ 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 a 
 
 71 " " ~ 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 a 
 
 jj - 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 a ~ 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 ti 
 
 24-poxinder 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 ti 
 
 tt 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 18 
 
 
 „ - 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 15 
 
 it 
 
 it " 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 tt 
 
 18-pounder 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 15 
 
 tt 
 
 ti ~ ~ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 15 
 
 ;>t 
 
 it 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 
 tt 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 it 
 
 ti - - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 ti 
 
 12-pounder 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 9) 
 
 tt ' 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
ORDNANCE, 
 1* ABLE — contwued. 
 
 27» 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Charge, 
 
 
 a 
 
 in. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 oz. 
 
 Guns, 12-pounder 
 
 7 
 
 e 
 
 29| 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 „ 9 -pounder •- 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 281 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 ti 3) " " 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 »l i» 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 „ 6-pounder - 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 jj » ~ " 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 it » " ~ 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 „ - - 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 jj ») ~ " 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 » it " ~ 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Carronades, 68-pounder 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 „ 42-pounder 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 „ 32-pounder 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 „ 24-pounder 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 „ 18-pounder 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 „ 12-pounder 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 „ 9-pounder - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 „ 6-pouiider - 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4| 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Guns, 24-pounder 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 „ 12-ponnder 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 „ 9-pounder - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 „ 6-pounder - 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Howitzers, 10 inches - 
 
 -. 
 
 - 
 
 41 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 8 inches 
 
 
 - 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 „ 5i inches - 
 
 
 - ■ 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Mortars, 13 inches 
 
 
 - 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 „ 10 inches 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 52 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 „ 13 inches 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 „ 10 inches 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 >j )) "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 16i- 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 „ 8 inches - 
 
 - 
 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 .81 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 GUNPO'WDEIl. 
 
 The component parts of Gunpowder are 77 pounds of salt- 
 petre, 10| of sulphur, and 16 of charcoal, in every 100 pounds. 
 
 Cylinder powder is made from charcoal that has heen burnt 
 in iron cylinders. Pit powder, from that, which has heen burnt 
 X 
 
274 
 
 MiLNUAL rOH NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 in common pits. 1 pound of powder measures 32 solid inches. 
 A cubic foot weighs 58 pounds. 
 
 Powder is marked thus : L. 6., or large grsuin ; F. G., fine 
 grain ; R. A., for rifle arms ; R. S., re-stoved. Red characters 
 denote the hest quality; white; an inferior one. 
 ' Whole powder barrels contain 100 pounds ; half barrels, .50 ; 
 ind quarter barrels, 25 pounds. Filled cartridges are stowed in 
 cases; the wooden cases are square, copper-lined, the mouth 
 ■faeing secured with a luted bung, as well as a lid. Those con- 
 taining distant cbargres are marked with black letters ; those 
 Containing tuU, with light blue ; and those containing re- 
 duced, with blue letters. 
 
 The cartridges are also known by their number of bands or 
 lioops ; the distant having three j the full, two j and the re- 
 duced, one hoop. 
 
 ' The metal cases are hexagonal, and are similar in contents 
 and marks to the wooden ones. There are, however, some 
 •frhich for convenience in stowage at the bottom or sides of the 
 magazine, are formed otherwise. These cases are made of a 
 Composition of copper and tin. 
 
 Ball cartrldire is packed in quarter barrels ; and blank in 
 half barrels. 
 
 The cbarses for heavy guns are usually about one-third of 
 lihe shot's weight; for light guns about one-fourth; and for 
 carronades from one-eighth to one-sixteenth. 
 
 Dimensions of Powder Packages. 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Whole. 
 
 Half. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 1 Barrel, depth 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 „ diameter - 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 Case, length 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 „ breadth 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 „ depth - . . 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 Wooden cases cost about 1/. 15». each. 
 Metal cases about Is. 2d. per lb. 
 
ORDNANCE. 275 
 
 lO-inch shell boxes are 12, 8-iucli are 10, and 6-incli are 8 
 inches square. The hulk of 100 lO-inch shell boxes is about 87, 
 of 100 8-inch, 64, and of 100 6-inch, 38 cubic feet. 
 
 The fuse holes of shell fitted to receive metal fuses are bouched 
 with gun metal, and are in such cases air of the same diameter. 
 
 Metal fuses are of three natures, viz., the 3-inch, which is 
 driven with mealed powder, and will bum seven seconds ; the 
 4-inch, which is driven with flise composition, and will burn 
 twenty seconds ; and the short range, which is also driven with 
 the composition, and will burn two seconds. 
 
 These have a metal screw cap ; the fuse itself is screwed in 
 to the left, and the cap unscrews in that direction. 
 
 Two of these fuses may be connected by cutting off the screws 
 of the caps, and riveting or soldering their tops together, taking 
 care to enter the longest one into the shell. 
 
 Fuse composition is made with 3 pounds 4 ounces of pulver- 
 ised saltpetre, 1 pound of sublimed sulphur, and 2 pounds 12 
 ounces otpit mealed powder. One inch is supposed to bum in 
 five seconds ; but when driven with mealed powder they bum 
 twice as much in the same time. 
 
 BLUE LIGHTS. 
 
 Blue lights are composed of 1 pound 12 ounces ground salt- 
 petre, 7 ounces sublimed sulphur, and 2 ounces of red orpiment. 
 One of these lights will burn half a minute. 
 
 LONG LIGHTS. 
 
 Long lights are composed of 7 pounds of ground saltpetre, 1 
 pound 12 ounces of sublimed sulphur, and 8 ounces of red orpi- 
 ment. One of these will burn for six minutes. 
 
 SLOW MATCH. 
 
 Slow match is made with slackly laid up white hemp rope, 
 which is dipped in a solution of lime water and saltpetre. One 
 yard will burn for about three hours. 
 T 2 
 
276 MANUAL FOU NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 PORT FIBES. 
 
 Common port fires are composed of 2 poimds of sutlimed brim- 
 stone, 1 pound of mealed cylinder powder, and 6 pounds of 
 pulverised saltpetre. One of these, -wliicli is 16 inches long, will 
 bum for fifteen minutes. 
 
 bickford's fuse. 
 Bipkford's fuse is a tube of powder sewn round with tarred 
 twine ; the outside being covered with pitch. It bums at the 
 rate of twelve feet in five minutes, and is not to be extinguished, 
 even by water. 
 
 SIGNAL ROCKETS. 
 
 Signal rockets are composed of 4 pounds of pulverised salt- 
 petre, 1 pound of sublimed sulphur, and Ij pound of log-wood 
 charcoal. They are of 1 pound and i pound. 
 
 CONGBBVE ROCKETS. 
 
 Congreve rockets are driven on the same principle as signal 
 rockets. Their case is of wrought iron, and may be used either 
 as shot or shell rockets. In the latter case the fuse is adapted 
 to the length of flight. 
 
 They occur as 24, 12, 6, and 3-pounders. 
 
 CARCASSES. 
 
 Carcasses are hollow shot perforated with three holes, filled 
 with a composition made of 6 '4 ounces of pulverised saltpetre, 
 2 pounds 8 ounces of sublimed sulphur, 1 pound 14 ounces of 
 pounded resin, 10 ounces of pounded antimony, 10 ounces of 
 tallow, and 10 ounces of turpentine. They are fired as are shell, 
 and are almost inextinguishable, burning about ten minutes. 
 
 Common quiU tubes are filled with a composition of mealed 
 powder mixed with spirits of wine ; the heads of detonating 
 tubes with a composition of 230 grains of chlorate of potassa, 
 the same quantity of antimony, and 73 grains of pulverised 
 
ORDNANCE. 
 
 277 
 
 GUN COTTON. 
 
 Gun cotton is made by dipping common ■well cleaned cotton 
 about thirty seconds in strong nitric acid, lien placing it in 
 water which is often renewed, in order to free the cotton from 
 the acid with which it is impregnated. Care is then taken that 
 all the knotty particles of the eotton are properly disentangled, 
 and that it is properly driedi After this the preparation is ready 
 for use, and may be exploded either by percussion, as fulminating, 
 or ignition, as gunpowder. 
 
 Cotton in its unprepared state is Lignine, a compound of 
 carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; but after the action of the nitric 
 acid, we find another element present, namely, nitrogen, a sub- 
 stance entering into the composition of nearly all our explosive 
 bodies. After various experiments, it has been found that when 
 used in great quantities, only one half of the equivalent weight 
 of powder is necessary to produce the same results ; but, although 
 well adapted for mining purposes, it is, in consequence of its 
 attendant dangers by friction, percussion, and heat, inapplicable 
 to military purposes. 
 
 FIELD-PIECE CABBIAGES. 
 
 The field carriages for naval service are similar in construction 
 to those for land service, but of smaller dimensions. 
 
 Table of their Weight, Dimensions, Sfc. 
 
 Weight of the - - . 
 
 24-poaiider. 
 
 12-pounder, light. 
 
 Howitzer carriage, body - 
 „ „ wheels 
 
 Howitzer limber, body 
 „ wheels 
 „ „ ammunition 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 7 12 
 2 3 20 
 2 4 
 2 3 20 
 4 2 16 
 
 cwt. qra. lbs. 
 4 1 7 
 1 3 26 
 1 3 16 
 1 3 26 
 3 2 19 
 
 Number of rounds carried 
 Diameter of wheels (ft., inch.) 
 Track from out to out (do.) - 
 
 20 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 
 24 
 3 6 
 3 8 
 
 I 3 
 
278 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ELEVATION aF A 9-POUNDEK BRASS FIELD CARRIAGE. 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
 A. Block, or Trail. 
 
 B. Cheeks, or BrficketB. 
 
 C. Axle-tree. 
 
 D. Ogee. 
 
 E. Trunnion holes. 
 
 F. Wheel. 
 
 G. Felly. 
 H. Spok^, 
 , 1. Nave. 
 
 J. Tire, or streak, 
 
 K. Rivets. 
 
 L. Tire, or Streak bolts. 
 
 a. Eye, or Capsquare bolts. 
 
 b. Gapsquares. 
 
 c. Axle-tree bands. 
 
 d. Bracket bolts. 
 £, Ti-ansom bolts. 
 /. Trunnion plates. 
 
ORDNANCE. 
 
 279 
 
 PLAN OF A 9-POUNDER BRASS FIELD CARRIAGE. 
 
 Fig, 178. 
 
 g. Portfire clipp^ 
 A. Locking plate. 
 i. Trail plate bolt. 
 k. Trail plate. 
 1. Trail plate eye. 
 m. Chain eye bolt. 
 n. Locking chain. 
 o. Breast, or advancing chain. 
 p. Trail handles. 
 
 q. Handspike shoe. 
 r. Handspike pin. 
 S. Handspike ring. 
 t. Axle-tree arms. 
 V. Drag was hers. 
 V. Nave hoops. 
 w. Elevating scre^. 
 X. Handles of elevating screw. 
 y. Elevating screw box. 
 
 T 4 
 
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 Izi 
 
 
 QQ 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
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 s 
 
 
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 P4 
 
 
 
 
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 09 
 
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 DD 
 
 
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 03 
 
 Iz; 
 
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 ■S 
 
 Si 
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 Tt 
 
 
 
 E 
 
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 M 
 
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 19 
 
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 pi 
 
 
 f- 
 
 
 -< 
 
 
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 m 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Naval Rifle 
 for seamen. 
 
 This Arm is 
 entirely re- 
 placed by 
 the 1853 
 pattern rifle. 
 
 
 ^■3 
 
 & 
 
 CD 
 
 00 to o o o 
 
 ■.* ^ CO CO CO 
 00 to w »« w 
 
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 CO •* •* -^ CO 
 
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 rH rH O r-l »-l 
 
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 Description of Arm. 
 
 
 J" 
 
 III 
 
 BmJ^mjd-H S-3S-5S 
 S Sao O O 
 
ORDNANCE. 28 1 
 
 Canister sbot are packed loosely in tin cases. Grape sbot 
 are tied together round an iron spike, on a ■wooden or metal 
 tompion, and are thus said to be quilted ; the number and weight 
 of these halls being determined by the size of the guns for -which 
 they are intended. 
 
 These packages are stowed in wooden cases, which weigh 
 about 25 pounds each, and average about 2 feet 4 inches in 
 length, 1 foot in depth, and 1 foot in width. 
 
 Sbrapnell sbell is similar to the' common ones, with a 
 thinner orast of iron filled with leaden balls, and a small quantity 
 of powder ; and the fuse hole has a shoulder to receive the fuses 
 made expressly for this projectile. 
 Nnmber of halls in 
 
 27 
 
 41 
 
 63 
 
 120 
 
 175 
 
 225 
 
 GETTING IK GUNS. 
 
 For taking in or hoisting out 'tween deck guns, no purchase 
 that can be rigged is so quick, safe, and convenient as the davit, 
 excepting the cat. 
 
 But the cat head is only available when it overlooks a port ; 
 the davit may be rigged anywhere, as is evident in the case of 
 the waist anchors. 
 
 Whichever of these two methods be adopted, it must be 
 observed that the longer the slings are, the less will the lower 
 purchase block nip against the upper port sill. If the cat block 
 be used, the hook should stand outwards, and whatever kind of 
 purchase be used in working guns through ports, the port should 
 be lined, and the port lid and sweep piece unshipped. 
 
 For 'tween-deck guns, a hole is cut through the plank of the 
 
 6 
 
 pounder 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 32 
 
 
282 MANUAL rOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 deck overhead in a line -with the centre of the pprt, and some- 
 thing more than the length of the gun carriage from the 
 side ; through this the eye of the strop of a clump hlock is 
 rove, -which is toggled on the deck ahoTe, and wedged nearly 
 «lose up. 
 
 The runner of a tackle is rove through a hlock on the other 
 side of the deck looking straight into the clump, led through 
 the clump and clinched into a good hook ; this is the irurnet. 
 Its duty is, when hoisting in guns, to hook on to the neck ring 
 of the gun, and when the hutton is as high as the lower port 
 sill to haul the breach inboard up to the beam of the deck over- 
 head, whilst the carriage is placed under it. 
 
 The gun is slung on its upper side by a pair of rope slings ; 
 one bight of which goes over .the neck, both parts being seized 
 together, leaving an eye large enough to be easily thus placed; 
 the other end is hauled taut along the gun, and a lashing is 
 passed round slings and gun outside the trunnions ; to this end 
 the purchase hooks. The gun is hoisted muzzle upwards ; 
 the gurnet pulled up ; the purchase let go, and if nicely lashed 
 at the right spot, the trunnions fall right into the boxes ; 
 the cap squares are turned over, the forelocks put in and 
 twisted.* 
 
 TO EIG A YARD PUBCHASE — SAT, STARBOARD SIDE. 
 
 Brace the main yard so as to overlook a convenient port ; line 
 that port ; unship the port lid and sweep piece, and then 
 measure for the gurnet hole. Top the yard, hook the port yard 
 tackle, or a rolling tackle, to a strop on the mast at the neck- 
 lace, reeving the fall there, and sending it on deck. Put a long 
 tackle on the starboard yard-arm from the cap, hooking it to a 
 strop on the yard far -enough out to plomb a lighter's hatchway. 
 In small ships put a cross lashing on the bunt of the yard 
 round the mast j haul taut all the gear, and have the heel of the 
 boom well secured. It is not singular to shake the lee one off 
 whilst hoisting in. Reeve a set of top tackle gear on the deck, 
 Tunning the top block down the pendant close to the upper top 
 
 • A ship iir a gale, not many years since, pitclied a forecastle gun ttirougli a 
 port, in consequence of the forelocks having worked out. 
 
OEDNANCE. 283 
 
 tackle block, and rack it there. If the yard is forward, send 
 the starboard main-top-sail buntline do-wn abaft the main yard, 
 and a double whip from the main lift put on in a line ■vrith the 
 strop of the preventer lift. Trice the top block up ■with the 
 whip, and the pendant with the buntline. Secure the pendant 
 over the main cap, putting some mats between them. Lash 
 the top block round the main yard alongside the strop of the 
 preventer lift, with the point of its hook outwards, and oat the 
 racking. Put a whip on the lower block &om the off side of 
 the lighter to round the purchase down with, and work its fall 
 on the deck of the ship. Lash a long tackle on the foremost 
 pendant starboard side for the upper deck gurnet. If the top 
 tackle fall is short, let down the pendant ; and if the yard is 
 small and the weight to be raised great, tail the fall and carry 
 it through a leading block at the upper top block to the mast 
 head, and thence to the deck. 
 
 Another way to rig the gun purchase is to arrange everything 
 as before described, (but omitting the top block) putting a 
 runner and tackle on the yard for an outhauler j lashing the 
 runner block at the yard arm, passing the runner over the main 
 cap, rounding the tackle close up, and securing the runner 
 round the mast head. Make the lower block of the tackle fast 
 to the top block ; haul out on the tackle until the purchase 
 plombs the hold of the lighter; when the gun is up, ease in 
 the tackle, and so on. 
 
 In hoisting guns out with -this purchase, the purchase is 
 eased in far enough to plomb the port ; and when the gun is 
 weighed, the runner tackle is hauled out far enough to admit of 
 lowering it into the vessel alongside. 
 
 In most cases where this kind of purchase is made use of, 
 there is more strain on the runner tackle than is quite safe ; 
 especially when the lighter is not an open one, and the purchase 
 has to plomb her hatchway. 
 
 Heavy main deck guns, such as a frigate's, are far more easily 
 and safely handled through the ports than the skids. In the 
 latter way, the lifting purchase seldom, if ever, plombs the car- 
 riage ; the gun binds ; jiggers and handspikes are required j and 
 with a double strain on the gear it is dragged on or off the car- 
 riage both in coming in and going out, to say nothing of the 
 additional ten feet hoist. Top tackle geax may stand this, but 
 
284 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 a launch's purchase is not equal to it. It lightens work very 
 much if the axles and insides of trucks are cleaned and greased 
 hefore taking the guns in. 
 
 If there be delay about carriages, and time presses, lower the 
 guns on the deck, putting trucks on the trunnions as they are 
 being lowered. 
 
 In throwing guns over board when on shore, buoy them with 
 the trucks and breechings. 
 
 A brig which was too small to admit of a derrick being 
 . rigged was thus, quickly and efficiently fitted in raising the guns 
 of the " Formidable." A span was formed with two parts of 
 the chain cable, clove hitched round each mast head, the after 
 ends set up at the stem, and the foremost ones over the bows 
 through the hawse holes. A top-gallant yard from the ship, 
 being lashed fore and aft at the mast heads, assisted to prevent 
 them from being drawn together. The purchase was lashed on 
 the span, and worked over the side. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 Boats are either clinker, carvel, or diagonally built. 
 
 Carvel and clinker are timbered ; in the former the plank- 
 ing is smooth (flush). In the latter, the upper strakes overlap 
 the lower. Diagonals are not timbered, but the planking is 
 double, rising in opposite directions from the keel at an angle 
 of about 45°. 
 
 Launches, barges, pinnaces, and paddle-box boats are dia- 
 gonal, and mostly made of mahogany. 
 
 Cutters, gigs, jolly boats, &c., are clinker, and of elm. 
 
 The value of launches is about 10/. less than 4 times their 
 length in feet ; the price in building about 1, and of materials 
 about |. 
 
 The value of barges and pinnaces is about 2 J times their 
 length in feet. 
 
 The value of cutters, &c., about 1/. Is. a footi 
 
BOATS. 
 
 28S 
 
 A large repair costs about ll. a. foot in a launch. Barges 
 somewhat less. 
 
 Boats are fitted -with chain slinks for hoisting, having a 
 ring near their middle part. As the tacldes of quarter hoats 
 are dangerovis when fitted with hooks, it is well to have eyes in 
 the block strops, and hooks in the slings. 
 
 The plug boles should be fitted as a small leather-hinged 
 hatch, opening downwards, and the rubbing pieces on the bilges ' 
 made deep enough to be pierced with holes, so as to admit of a 
 man's holding on by them when the boat upsets. 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 The mast steps are best made of two iron liigs, having a 
 bolt rove through them, the heel of the mast being iron plated 
 on each side, and scored out across the bottom, to the size of the 
 bolt. When the heel is brought against the bolt, which is done 
 
 by unshipping the next thwart, the 
 mast is easily stept by a very few hands 
 with the halyards led forward. (,Fig. 
 179.) 
 
 Many of the large boats are fitted 
 with pipes which step into holes in the 
 bottom, directly under the windlass ; 
 these are made use of when it is re- 
 quired to carry such a weight under the 
 boat as she could not bear at the stem. 
 QFigs. 180, 181.) 
 
 Fig^ 180. 
 
 i-ir-inr 
 
286 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
 Weights and Tonnage of Boats by Builders' Measurements. 
 
 Boat. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 feet. 
 
 
 tons. cwL lbs. 
 
 Launch 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 Pinnace Launcli - 
 
 42 
 
 14 
 
 4 2 3 
 
 37 J» 
 
 38 
 
 - 
 
 3 6 3 
 
 » if 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 3 4 
 
 » it 
 
 34 
 
 
 2 14 2 
 
 Barge - - - 
 
 35 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 „ - 
 
 32 
 
 - 
 
 1 11 
 
 Pinnace 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 1 11 
 
 ?»' " " 
 
 30 
 
 5| 
 
 1 8 
 
 jj " " ~ 
 
 28 
 
 
 15 2 
 
 Cutter - 
 
 30 
 
 - 
 
 18 
 
 j» ~ ■ " 
 
 28 
 
 - 
 
 16 
 
 )* ^~~" ■ " 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 11 2 
 
 » - - - 
 
 23 
 
 
 10 2 
 
 Gig - ^ - 
 
 32 
 
 - 
 
 8 3 
 
 >» " ■ " 
 
 28 
 
 - 
 
 6 3 
 
 Cutter - 
 
 20 
 
 . 
 
 8 2 
 
 Jolly - 
 
 18 
 
 - 
 
 7 1 
 
 » ~ " ■ 
 
 16 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 Dingy - - - 
 
 14 
 
 - ■ 
 
 4 2 
 
 J) ■ ~ ~ 
 
 12 
 
 . 
 
 3 1 
 
 Gig - - - 
 
 22 
 
 
 5 
 
BOATS. 
 
 287 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 Coppering of a 42-foot Pinnaoe Launch. 
 
 Height of coppering 3 ft. 4 in. aft, 3 ft. lin. forward. 
 Bottom, 78 16-oz. sheets ; 30 lb. nails. 
 Keel, 8 28-oz. sheets ; 8 lb. nails. 
 Weight of boat thus, 4 tons 16'1 cwt. 
 
 The iron bowsprits which are fitted 
 to boom boats, are only intended for 
 use when the gun Is mounted ; and 
 should invariably be unshipped before 
 going alongside. The least collision 
 will materially injure the stem. 
 
 Unless fitted so as to pivot in lugs 
 on the breast hook, they are most 
 difficult to ship in a sea way, and the 
 attempt is frequently attended with 
 loss. Pin the heel first, and turn the 
 point over with the jib halyards. 
 
 For general purposes, wooden bow- 
 sprits are found to be a great means of 
 
 saving repairs. With these provisions for the stem, and the 
 shoeing on the heel of the mast, the equipment for boom boats 
 is perfection. 
 
 In fitting gun slides for boats, if the hole through which the 
 bolt reeves that connects the slide with the thwart be made 
 oblong instead of circular, the gun may be lowered without 
 being dismounted. Run the gun forward (say bow gun) : a few 
 hands can support the after end of the slide ; whilst the thwarts 
 are unshipped, lower that end of the slide, and let the gun run 
 down. To raise the gun ; run it up, raise the after end of the 
 glide, and ship the thwarts. 
 
 HOISTING IN AND STOWIKG BOOM BOATS. 
 
 The large screw ships have two launches, which must be 
 Stowed abreast, and well aft, clear of the funnel. In this case 
 the booms, i. e. the spare-topmasts, hand masts, fish pieces, &c., 
 are stowed on each side, as close as may be safe to the funnel 
 casing, and the crutches secured to the deck outside of them. 
 The top-sail yards lie under the boat outside these crutches. 
 
288 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The main-stay " looking " so much up and down requires no 
 span ; its pendant is hung up through the fore part of lubbers' 
 hol^, and hooked round the heel of the top-mast to its own part, 
 or to the main-yard slings. 
 
 The fore-stay pendant hooks to a strop underneath the after 
 part of the fore-top, and is guyed aft to the main-top by a span, so 
 as to plomb the place where the bow of the boat is to be stowed. 
 The longer this pendant is, or, in other words, the longer the 
 span, the better ; and every inch is of value. 
 
 In the course of a series of experiments made under the 
 direction of Mr. Tinmouth, with the view of ascertaining the 
 Fig 183 properties of spans, the ropes were ar- 
 
 ranged with different lengths of bight, as 
 in the Jig. 183. It was found that whilst 
 rope of a certain size broke with a strain 
 of 7 tons when at an angle of 311°, the 
 same sized rope carried away with a 
 strain of 6| tons when at an angle of 
 291°. From these and similar results 
 he concludes that where -a span is so 
 „" ' placed as to have a less angle than 30°, 
 
 the strength of the two parts of rope 
 or chain of which it is composed, is less than the strength 
 which one such part would have, if placed in a direct line with 
 the strain. 
 
 This reasoning applies not only to spans such as are used in 
 hoisting in boom boats, but also to slings of all kinds, and espe- 
 cially to the important subject of mooring. As applied to the 
 latter, the properties of the span have already been scientifically 
 discussed, " and may be practically shown by stretching a small 
 line between two points, and suspending a weight in the middle ; 
 ascertaining what weight it will bear, and afterwards trying 
 what the same line will bear vertically. The latter will be the 
 ship at anchor ; the former the one moored."* 
 
 The runners and tackles are used for hoisting in heavy boats, 
 but as the runner is inconveniently long, it is usual to reeve 
 some spare rope as a launch's purchase. This is arranged in 
 much the same way. A double block is spliced into a pendant, 
 
 * Heaving down the " Melville." Captain Harris, R.N, 
 
BOATS. 289 
 
 and the fall is rove through another double block ; or else it is 
 rove through a double and single, according to choice. The 
 pendant is rove through a sinooth round thimble or a clump 
 block, which, being fitted with a strop and toggle or double tails, 
 serves the purpose of a lizard in guying the purchase out to the 
 lower yard-arm. Either mode is preferable to a hook and 
 thimble, because the hook may be fastened with a kink as in 
 fig. 184, or in fitments where the lizard is shortened with a view 
 to carrying the boat well clear of the side, it may be so nipt as 
 not to stand straight to its work, and in both instances be liable 
 to break. Riggers always prefer strops and toggles to iron work. 
 The end of the pendant is spliced into a hook and thimble, and 
 when triced up is passed over the cap and hooked to its own 
 part. Lower reef tackles when tailed are very useful for tricing 
 up runner tackles, and we have already said that top-sail bunt- 
 lines answer well for pendants. Heavy launches have four ring 
 bolts at each end ; and it is sometimes thought advisable to use 
 not only the runners and stays, but also the yard and long 
 tackles, distributing these tackles among the several ring bolts. 
 It may be allowable to remark that there is a practical difficulty 
 in keeping an equal strain on all, and that if the large tackles 
 carried away, the small ones would not support the weight. 
 When there is much scending motion the main-yard tackle is 
 hooked on forward, and the fore-yard tackle aft in the boat, or 
 else guys from forward and aft outside all are made fast to her, 
 the gims are run in, ports lowered, and fore top'-gaUant and 
 royal back stays, on the incoming side, frapped in. If rolling, 
 the boat is bound to the side as she rises by slip ropes from the 
 ports, opportunities being taken to run her clear of the walist 
 anchor. No manner of whips from lower boom ends, or stern 
 fasts from quarter davits would keep her off the anchor. More- 
 over as the after guy would be in the way, the lower boom is fore 
 and aft on these occasions, and never out when ships are " rolling 
 heavily." Merely tossing a boat out or in, during fine or pre- 
 vious to bad weather, is such a trifling operation, that it seems 
 unaccountable why boats should be left in the water for any 
 considerable period, especially at night ; but it becomes a grave 
 affair when a heavy launch is scending in a seaway from under 
 the main-yard to the fore ; and too many precautions can 
 scarcely be taken. Boom jiggers, especially fore ones, are fre- 
 u 
 
290 
 
 MANUAL rOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 queutly forgotten ■when bracing yards in ; and if kept fast are 
 very apt to wring a boom iron. 
 
 In secTiring lizards the tails should he passed twice round thp 
 yard-arm, hut not round the pendant. This last noticed mode 
 is sometimes adopted in the belief of greater strength ; but as the 
 pendant does not render so well through the tails as through the 
 thimble alone, the greatest strain is brought on the weakest part 
 of the lizard. If a whip is used for tricing up, see that the 
 end of the bend is so short that it will not get into the block. 
 In large ships spread is a matter of greater consideration than 
 topping : in small ships it is necessary to top them well, and 
 this operation should be performed before moving the braces, 
 because after braping in, the lifts become nipt by the top-mast 
 rigging. Put on preventer lifts or top burtons (see page 292), 
 place the yards, and when the trusses and lee rolling or yard 
 tackles are taut, pull all the lifts and topsail sheets taut. The 
 main yard should be placed so as to carry the boat's bow clear 
 of the waist anchor, and the fore-yard as little braced in as may 
 be compatible with that object, bearing in mind, that the more 
 it is braced in, the more does it need support from forward ; there- 
 fore back it up with a tackle or two parte of a hawser from the 
 bow-sprit cap to the yard-arm ; and when it i^ fast, check the 
 opposite fore brace. 
 
 Fiq. 184. •"^'^ hooking on in the boat, see the turns out of thp 
 tackles ; and in hooking on the stays aloft, remember 
 that launches have come Aayfu in consequence of the 
 stay having been hooked with a kink, although the 
 hooks were of faultless construction and proportion. 
 (JPig. 184.) 
 
 Put luffs on the off side anchor stock and main 
 rigging for hauling the boat over with. If there is a 
 choice, put the short leg of the fore slings forward. 
 The objection to short spans with rope applies alsp to 
 chain ; and slings may be lengthened with some stream 
 chain shackles. Four hands will be sufficient in the 
 boat, after she is baled out and prepared for hoisting. 
 Lead the falls so that the men will never be tmder 
 Foul *^® ^°^* when she is over the deck. Have leading 
 hook. men to pass lizards, connect ends of purchases, stop- 
 per, and belay ; as well as seconds to the belaying men, whose 
 
BOATS. 291 
 
 duty will be to " light (io,'' vliilst taking tte turn, and pay the 
 fall clear in Iqwering. Working on an upper deck, it answers 
 well in coming in to put the men helonging (o the ipre part 
 of the ship on the ip^in-yacd, m^ thpse belonging 1p the after 
 part on the fore-yard, as, when the yards are high enough all 
 hands wiil be on theii: own stations ready fop stays or other 
 duty. 
 
 Run the slack of thjg st^ys in ^s thjC boat rises, When there 
 is ^uph slack left to run away with, the chances are in favour 
 of a bight getting -vfell i)?tp the swallow of the lower blpcls be- 
 fore the men can be stopped ; the boat will then be c^igd in 
 by one part of the rope, and a heavy surge is inevitable. The 
 men in the boat must be warned to sit tight, and then the stays 
 let go. The higher the yards are hoisted, the greater will be 
 the strain on the fore-yard. Commence easing in the fore-yard as 
 soon as the fore-stay is bearing weight. When the keel is high 
 eupugh to clear the crutches, lip^alover with the off guys. If 
 the boat is required to go forward, slack the main-stay ; if aft, 
 the fore-stay. If there are two launches, hoist the off side one 
 in first i don't wait for a few inches as to fore and aft line ; go 
 on with the other, and complete the duty afterwards with the 
 stays. In hoisting out, take the nearest launch first, for reasons 
 mentioned above. The purchase sjfould be, triced up and un- 
 hooked the instant it lias donp its duty, without waiting for 
 stays, and the men who are stationed at the lizards should re- 
 main in the futtocks ready to inspect or disconnect their gear. 
 If braces and tajckles are satisfactorily arranged, put bracing in 
 and hoisting marks on the gear, remembering that the higher 
 the boat is hoisted, not only is there more time occupied, but 
 the fore-yard is more strained. The officer carrying on forward 
 is too frequently changed ip his station to be enabled to tell by 
 (the eye ; but £|. boats^yaiu of tlie genuine kind will pride himself 
 on grazing the ■vf^ist nettings. 
 
 When hoisting out ifi, a. tide or sea w?iy, have a boat-rope 
 passed from forward led on);side aU, and bpnt to the boat before 
 she touches the water. 
 
 Yard tackl^ pendants become very much injured in the splice 
 
 of the eye by wet, and Hie falls by chafe when kept aloft i besides 
 
 being no handief than when kept on deck with a whip on the 
 
 yard for their use. If kept on deck fit the end with a thimble 
 
 U 2 
 
292 MANTJAI, FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 and hook, and have a strop made of two parts of rope marled 
 together in the thimble with a thimble in its bight large enough 
 to take the hook. Make this strop long enough to go round the 
 yard, bend the yard whip two feet down the pendant, and stop 
 the strop up on the whip. 
 
 Top burtons are usually used for preventer Ufts, and are diffi- 
 cult to carry out to the lower yard-arms, especially when topped 
 much. A spare lift, formed of a piece of thick rope having a 
 hook and strop with a thimble at each end, has been found to 
 answer well. This is kept middled over the lower cap. When 
 required, one end is hauled out to the yard-arm by a small line, 
 the strop passed round the arm and hooked, whilst the other 
 end is set up with a lanyard in the top. If the topmeu neglect 
 making it very taut, the standing lift may be checked as the 
 tackles are hauled taut. 
 
 Snatches on the lower yard-arms are convenient for scoring 
 top-mast stud halyards in for yard- whips. Keep a hank on the 
 halyard with a line fast to it. Carry the line out to yard-arm ; 
 after cutting the stop of the halyards, haul out and score them ; 
 the end of the halyard being on deck, is all ready for bend- 
 ing. 
 
 Barges and pinnaces are hoisted in with the yard tackles and 
 stays alone ; and, bearing inmind how frequent is this operation 
 and the constant exposure of this gear, every opportunity for 
 examining the eye at the yard-arm, and the state of the falls 
 and blocks should be taken. 
 
 In very large sailing ships the barge and pinnace are stowed 
 on each bow of the launch ; but in others all three are abreast, 
 and so crowd the gangways that it is necessary to work many 
 ropes on the main-deck. They may be fitted thus : — 
 
 Put the launch in her place ; stow the booms. Support her 
 by curved crutches, the heels of which work in pairs of lugs on 
 the skid-beams, and the tops in clamps which fit on the rubbing- 
 streak ; these clamps have lugs between which the point of the 
 crutch enters, and is secured there by a pin through all parts ; 
 thus the clamp pivots, and the crutch pivots. Have three of 
 these crutches on each side of the boat, and let them be long 
 enough to bear taut against her ; fit all the thwarts of the launch 
 and barge to unship ; fit the stem gratings to ship on ledges 
 fastened fore and aft, about eight inches apart. Let this vacancy 
 
BOATS. 293 
 
 be filled by a board when the boat is in use ; the gratings are 
 fixtures. 
 
 Put the barge inside the launch ; her keel will enter between 
 the grating ledges. ' Put chocks between the outside of the barge 
 and inside of the launch in the wake of the crutches. Put the 
 pinnace inside the barge, and in like manner her keel will stand 
 all along on the barge's keelson. 
 
 In making these arrangements, take care that the thwarts are 
 not turned with the points of their finger bolts downwards ; and 
 lay the oars on each side on the bight of a piece of rope from 
 the gunnel ; so that when the inside boat is out, they may be 
 parbuckled up to the gunwale whilst the thwarts ai-e being 
 shipped. 
 
 In hoisting the launch in, the crutches are held nearly up- 
 right ; and the clamps being turned back, their inside ends 
 catch her side whilst being lowered, and drop into their place. 
 
 The crushing power and consequent security of these crutches 
 may easily be shown by starting the chocks on which the keel 
 rests : when borne by them alone, her sides would be actually 
 stove in. 
 
 These fitments were first adopted in the " Thetis," and then 
 carried out in the " Phaeton " and " Arethusa ; " and when it was 
 demonstrated that the boats preserved their shape, could be 
 manned and armed from the booms without delay, that the gang- 
 ways admitted of working three guns brought from an unengaged 
 side, that the spars were always come-at-able, that the boats 
 were less in the way in their place on the booms than in the 
 water, and that the rain awning could be spread at sea as well 
 as in harbour, besides affording at quarters a very commanding 
 position for small-arm men, — were greatly approved of. 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Boom boats stowed in ohe. 
 U 3 
 
294 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 Launch, 36 feet ; Barge, 32 feet j Pinnace, 30 feet. 
 
 Laoncli above deck 
 
 _ 
 
 ft. 
 - 6 
 
 in 
 6 
 
 Gunwale of Barge above Launch 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 Pinnace above Barge 
 
 . 
 
 - 1 
 
 2 
 
 Extreme height 
 
 - 
 
 - 8 
 
 6 
 
 Deck clear of skids on each side, 8 ft. 10 in. 
 The dotted line shows the position of the crutch when hoist- 
 ing the launch in. 
 
 CHAP. XVIL 
 Sails. 
 
 All canvass used in the navy is flaxen, made in fcloths of 40 
 yards in length, and in breadths of 2 feet and 18 inches. These 
 cloths are rolled up in sepii-ate packages, called bolts. The 
 stoutest beiiig No. 1, from -which the canvass increases iix fine- 
 ness, and diminishes in strength to No. 8. 
 
 Sails derive tteir name ftom the mast, yard, or stay, upon 
 which they are set : and excepting the jibs aid spanker are made 
 up of 2 feet wide canvass. 
 
 In all square sails, the upper part is called the head ; the lower 
 the foot,. the side the leeches, the lower corners, the clues; and 
 the upper comers, the earings. 
 
 In fore and aft sails, such as the spanker, boom main sail, 
 trysail, the upper inner comer is called the nock, the outer the 
 peek, the lower inner comer the tack, and the outer one the clue 
 or sheet. In such as jibs, the upper corner is the head, the 
 outer the tack, and the inner the sheet. 
 
 The cloths are sewn with sail twine, the seams being double : 
 those of courses, topsails, lower stay sails, trysails, and spanker 
 are ll inch wide, and stuck (treble seamed down the middle of 
 the seam) ; those of other sails are 1 inch wide. There are 
 about 140 stitches to each yard ; and one man can sew 100 yards 
 in 9i hours single seam. 
 
SAJLS. 
 
 295 
 
 The foot of square sails is roached, so as not to be girted by 
 any boat, netting, or stay, that may stand in the line of their 
 middle parts ; Topsails are somewhat hollowed on their leeches, 
 so as to avoid longyard-arms for the lower reef earings ; and in 
 all sails, those cloths which are cut in any other direction than 
 straight across with the thread (or woof), are said to be goted. 
 
 No. of 
 Canvass. 
 
 Weight of 
 Bolt in 
 PoulidS. 
 
 Price per 
 Yard. 
 
 Wtiat generally used for. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 41 
 38 
 35 
 32 
 29 
 24 
 21 
 
 s. i. 
 101 
 
 10 
 
 9| 
 
 8| 
 
 81 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 b 61 
 
 Courses ; Stay Sails. 
 
 Topsails. 
 
 Mizen topsail. 
 
 Second Jib; Spanker. 
 
 Jib, top lining; T. Gt. Sails. 
 
 Studding Sails. 
 
 Royals; T.Gt. Stud Sails. 
 
 Flying jit). 
 
 Sails are supplied ready made, only requiring fitting with 
 points, earings, bowline bridles, bebkets, robands. Their, edges 
 are tabled, and stitched to the bolt rope. The tabling of large 
 sails is strengthened at the clues and foot by a third fold of 
 canvass sewn in it. Small eyelet holes are worked through the 
 tabling ; and canvass and rope are then marled together. The 
 roping of the clue is stoutest ; tapering off to the leech rope, 
 "the foot rope is woiMied,' parcelled, and served. 
 
 In square sails the rope is always sewn on the after side ; in 
 fore and aft sails On the port side. The tabling and clue patches 
 are sewn on the after side of square, and on the port side of 
 fore and aft sails. 
 
 The sails are strengthened with additional canvass at those 
 places most exposed to strain and wear : in square ones, in the 
 wake of cringles along the leeches on the foreside, called lining ; 
 in the wake of buntUnes on foreside, called buntline cloths ; 
 across the foreside, called reef and belly bands ; and in the case 
 4 
 
296 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 of top-sails on the afterside, called the top linings. Fore and 
 aft sails are strengthened at the clues by tack pieces ; and jibs 
 sometimes with a strain band. 
 
 The eyelet holes are all bound by a grummet : those for ro- 
 bands and points are placed alternately two and one in the head, 
 and two upper reefs ; the third and fourth reefs have two in each 
 cloth. 
 
 The clues of Courses are formed with a stouter piece of rope 
 than the foot rope or leech ; its ends being tapered and spliced 
 into them about four feet from the clue. The clnes of Topsails 
 are formed by the foot rope which is carried up and tapered into 
 the leech rope. The thimbles in these clues are seized in. 
 The cringles for earings, reef tackles, bowlines, &c. are formed 
 of bolt rope strands, worked round the leech rope, through eye- 
 let holes in the tabling. 
 
 Main topsails have four bowline cringles and three bridles. 
 Fore and mizen hare three bowline cringles and two bridles on 
 each leech. The reef tackle pendants are spliced into their own 
 cringles, and after being rove through the eye of their block 
 strops are clenched into the upper bowline cringles. In conse- 
 quence of the downward lead of the fore top bowline a third 
 bridle would be useless in the fore topsail. Bowline cringles 
 have no thimbles. 
 
 Courses have two reef bands on the foreside ; each being l 
 the depth of the sail in the middle from the head ; with a belly 
 band half way between the lower reef and foot. 
 
 Topsails have four reef bands, on foreside, the lower of which 
 is at half the depth of the sail j the belly band, also on the fore- 
 side, is half way between the lower reef and the foot. All 
 top-gallant sails have three bowline cringles ; the foot rope is 
 spliced between the two lower ones, and is served, and marled a 
 short distance in leech and foot. 
 
 It seems to be impossible that, consistent with convenience 
 and safety, the spars of ships should be different in form from 
 what they are at present. Had masts a great rake, the loss of a 
 stay would be ruinous ; were they long enough to set a sufficiency 
 of fore and aft sails, the ship conld never be relieved of top 
 weight, and the sails would be unmanageably large. At aU 
 events the sail maker has to cut to given measures, and to adapt 
 his sail to any attitude in which the mast may be placed. 
 
Fore side of Topsail, 
 
298 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Were a sail to he exactly square, there would be little art in 
 cutting ; but as a ship's sails are, mostly, anything but square 
 there is much skill required in the arrangement of every cloth. 
 In cutting out, and making them up, it is a primary object to 
 adapt and cut the numerous gores -which, -when brought together, 
 ■will produce the ultimate form required, ■vrith the least possible 
 ■waste of canvass ; and this has been obtained by the long study 
 and practical experience of the master sail makers in Her Ma- 
 jesty's dockyards, as the waste canvass in cutting out a large suit 
 is trifling. This is effectedby their method of casting the number 
 of inches contained in each gore, so that when they are brought 
 together they shall be equal to the number contained in the 
 after leech cloth ; this is in reference to fore and aft sails, but 
 the same theory applies in the parts of square sails. 
 
 The bolt rope sewn on the hollow or straight leeches of square 
 sails (or marled on their foot), is put on with sufficiency of slack 
 canvass to admit of that stretch of rope which arises from the 
 action of the wind, or the constant strain or pull upon the margin 
 of such sails ; and the necessary allowance for the stretch of the 
 whole is made in the calculation of dimensions of such sails. 
 But in the leeches of fore and aft sails, as also in the round foot 
 of spankers, jibs, &c. &c., a sufficient quantity of slack rope is 
 introduced to keep the foot from curling up to leave the after 
 lefech of these sails free, and also to compensate for the amount 
 of stretch those parts of the sails above uajned are constantly 
 liable to. 
 
 Spankers are made with an allowance to stretch of 3^ inches 
 in each 3 feet of the foot, 1^ in each 3 feet of the head, and 2J 
 in each 3 feet of the length of the leech. 
 
 Sails are always bent to their yard or gaff with the roping 
 next the spar, otherwise the stitches would be cut through by 
 friction. 
 
 In the sails, in figs. 188 and 189, there are three gores in 
 each ; and puUed as they are at one comer, it will be most diffi- 
 cult to bring an equal strain on every part of each cloth, and 
 thus make them stand well. Now, where there is no necessary 
 restriction as to form (as in the case of yachts), we may throw 
 the same amount of canvass into such a shape as will, to a great 
 extent, dispense with goring, and so dispose of such as may be 
 absolutely needful as to render it harmless. 
 
299 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 The whole novelty and nearly all the efficiency of the 
 " America's " sails were owing to their goreless shape, the can- 
 vass heing cut as much as possible on the thread or woof, — that 
 is, at right angles to the warp ; and then to the adoption of the 
 system common in the South Sea hoats of lacing the sails taut to 
 the spars. 
 
 la Jig. 190, each cloth is pmled bodily dotrawards, and every 
 single thread in the web is stretched ; and when properly set. 
 
300 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 
 such sails will rattle, on being tapped on, like a canvass bed 
 bottom. The only gore is at the mast, to which being unyield- 
 ing, it may be taunted to liking with a lacing. 
 
 Such sails, however, require unusually strong gear: the 
 masts, having great rake, must be very stout ; the stays, partners. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 gaffs, peek halyards, of large proportions. The thicker the 
 canvass the better; and if of cikton, this advantage will be 
 gained without increase of weight. 
 
SAILS. 
 
 301 
 
 The cutter's sails, Jig. 191., are on the same principle, and are 
 evidently rising ones. 
 
 Si-foot Pinnace. — Fig. 192. 
 
 Sails. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Head. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Foot. 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Luff. 
 
 Yards 
 in 
 
 Leach. 
 
 Tol»l 
 Yards. 
 
 Fore 
 
 Mizen 
 
 Jib 
 
 6| 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 7| 
 8 
 
 51 
 5| 
 
 8| 
 
 n 
 
 62 
 44 
 29 
 
 S6-foot Zaunch. — Fig. 193. 
 
 Sails. 
 
 Clotlis 
 
 in 
 Head. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Foot 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Luff. 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Leach. 
 
 Total 
 Yards. 
 
 Fore 
 
 6| 
 
 8| 
 
 6 
 
 8| 
 
 69§ 
 
 Mizen - 
 
 5| 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 47 
 
 Jib 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8| 
 
 6 
 
 8i; 
 
 31 
 
 40-foot Launch. — Fig. 194. 
 
 Sails. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Head. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Foot. 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Luff. 
 
 Yards 
 in 
 
 Leach. 
 
 Total 
 Yards. 
 
 Fore - 
 Mizen - 
 Jib 
 
 7| 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 9 
 9 
 
 5| 
 
 7 
 
 10| 
 8 
 9 
 
 91 
 56 
 36 
 
302 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 i2-/pgt Launch. — Fig. 195, 
 
 Sails. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 in 
 Head. 
 
 Cloths 
 
 hi 
 Foot. 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Luff. 
 
 Yards 
 
 in 
 Leach. 
 
 Total 
 Yards. 
 
 Fore 
 
 Mizen 
 
 Jib 
 
 SI 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 8| 
 8 
 
 12* 
 81 
 9 
 
 107 
 60i 
 391 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 34-foot Pinnace. 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 36-foot Launch. 
 
SAIL9. 
 
 303 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 
 42-foot Launch. 
 
 The sketches of vessels of this and preceding pages are drawn 
 to the following scale : — 
 
 b 
 
 I I I I I 1 
 
 dtz 
 
 ± 
 
 The figs, 192, 193, 194, 195. are drawings on a scale of the 
 beautiful sails that are supplied for service, and which always 
 stand well, when properly set. 
 
304 MANUAl FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
SAILS. 303 
 
 Courses are pointed by passing the end of the point from aft, 
 through the eyelet holes ; a line is then rove through the eye 
 of the points, the ends of Trhich are secured at each side to the 
 leech, and the point hauled home. There are no after legs. 
 
 Top Sails are pointed by putting the ends of the pairs of 
 points from opposite sides of the sail, through the eyelet holes, 
 reeving the ends through each other's eyes, and hardening them 
 together with sheaves. 
 
 Boom main-sails and drivers are pointed by stitching the 
 middle parts of the points in holes " stabbed " in the seams of 
 the sails. As in reefing, there is only slack sail to be tied up, 
 heavy pointing is unnecessary. 
 
 Many sails have latterly been fitted vrith beckets in lieu of 
 points, the points being secured to the yard. These beckets are 
 differently formed. (Fig. 196.) One -way is to put both ends into 
 the same hole from the fore side, knotting them on the after. 
 Points jamb in these. Another way is to form the loop wider, 
 by making it reach from hole to hole, knotting as before. This 
 mode wrinkles the reef band, and prevents it from being hauled 
 out taut. 
 
 A third plan is to have a line fast from cringle to cringle across 
 the after part of the reef bands, and to form the beckets on the 
 fore side with another line, one end of which is made fast to the 
 cringle ; the other is rove through the first eyelet hole, passed 
 twice round the after line, out again, and so on across the fore 
 part, and made fast to the opposite cringle. On the same prin- 
 ciple, some put the bights of the foremost lines through the holes 
 with a hard kink, reeving the after line through the kink. This 
 is more quickly done, and nips harder. 
 
 A fifth plan is to weave the two lines different ways right 
 across, in and out of the holes, stitching the crossings. Either 
 of these three last answers well : a great objection to the two first 
 is that there is nothing to lay hold of abaft the sail. The great 
 advantage of beckets is that the sails sheet home without fouling, 
 as do reef points. 
 
 The points are made split far enough down to admit of being 
 toggled. They and the toggles are generally secured to the 
 jack-stay ; but if the j aok-stay carried away, and the earings held 
 on, the yard would most probably go on top in the slings. For 
 this reason, it is best to make the points long enough to go round 
 
 X 
 
306 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the yard, reeving through their own eye underneath and abaft 
 the jack-stay, seizing the toggle, either to the yard or to the neck 
 of the eye. (See fig. 197.) As the last-mentioned mode was 
 found to he sufficiently strong and capahle of being readily clapt 
 on or shifted to a new yard, it has, with some slight alteration. 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 Jack-stay and reef point. 
 
 become official. In some ships two jack-stays are fitted with a 
 Tiew of keeping the reefs more distinct. 
 
 A comparison of weights between reef points and beckets is 
 greatly in favour of the latter. Thus, in a suit of sails for a first 
 rate, the weight of points would be about 10 cwt., whereas the 
 beckets and their appurtenances, for a similar suit, would not 
 exceed ik. 
 
SAILS. 
 
 307 
 
 The Number of Yards and Size of Canvass required for certain 
 Sails for First Class Ships of different rates. 
 
 Sailk 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 fa 
 
 00 
 
 ff 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 60 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 92 
 
 No. 
 Flying Jib - - 
 
 7 
 230 
 
 7 
 230 
 
 7 
 230 
 
 7 
 210 
 
 7 
 210 
 
 7 
 18t 
 
 7 
 148 
 
 S 
 110 
 
 7 
 130 
 
 8 
 110 
 
 Jib ... - 
 
 5 
 450 
 
 5 
 450 
 
 S 
 450 
 
 a 
 382 
 
 5 
 35S 
 
 s 
 330 
 
 6 
 262 
 
 6 
 201 
 
 6 
 210 
 
 200 
 
 6 
 
 180 
 
 Fore Course 
 
 1 
 933 
 
 1 
 770 
 
 1 
 850 
 
 1 
 
 674 
 
 1 
 720 
 
 63( 
 
 1 
 463 
 
 2 
 369 
 
 a 
 376 
 
 a 
 369 
 
 2 
 324 
 
 Fore-top Sail - 
 
 „ lining - 
 
 a 
 
 928 
 66 
 
 s 
 796 
 
 S4 
 
 s 
 
 796 
 54 
 
 a 
 
 664 
 48 
 
 a 
 
 614 
 46 
 
 a 
 
 667 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 436 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 316 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 347 
 28 
 
 316 
 24 
 
 298 
 22 
 
 Fore-top-gallant Sail 
 
 289 
 
 3S4 
 
 5 
 254 
 
 5 
 212 
 
 a 
 195 
 
 6 
 177 
 
 7 
 141 
 
 7 
 102 
 
 7 
 108 
 
 7 
 102 
 
 7 
 92 
 
 Fore Royal 
 
 7 
 130 
 
 7 
 114 
 
 7 
 114 
 
 7 
 97 
 
 7 
 90 
 
 7 
 84 
 
 7 
 
 66 
 
 8 
 60 
 
 8 
 62 
 
 8 
 50 
 
 8 
 46 
 
 Main Sail ■ 
 
 1 
 1003 
 
 1 
 I0J2 
 
 1 
 1090 
 
 1 
 892 
 
 1 
 
 918 
 
 1 
 806 
 
 1 
 
 590 
 
 2 
 
 469 
 
 a 
 
 624 
 
 a 
 
 524 
 
 2 
 461 
 
 Top Sail - . . 
 „ lining - 
 
 1022 
 76 
 
 1017 
 73 
 
 a 
 
 1017 
 73 
 
 a 
 
 848 
 62 
 
 a 
 
 796 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 72» 
 52 
 
 a 
 
 667 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 406 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 436 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 406 
 30 
 
 3 
 372 
 
 28 
 
 Top-gallant Sail 
 
 6 
 324 
 
 5 
 324 
 
 324 
 
 5 
 274 
 
 254 
 
 5 
 
 230 
 
 e 
 177 
 
 7 
 127 
 
 7 
 141 
 
 7 
 127 
 
 7 
 120 
 
 Royal ... 
 
 7 
 144 
 
 7 
 144 
 
 7 
 144 
 
 7 
 124 
 
 7 
 114 
 
 7 
 106 
 
 7 
 84 
 
 7 
 60 
 
 7 
 66 
 
 7 
 60 
 
 •7 
 66 
 
 Mizen-top Sail . 
 
 „ lining 
 
 3 
 
 520 
 38 
 
 ■3 
 520 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 520 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 436 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 406 
 30 
 
 3 
 372 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 316 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 227 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 260 
 20 
 
 
 
 Top-gallant Sail 
 
 6 
 164 
 
 6 
 164 
 
 6 
 164 
 
 7 
 141 
 
 7 
 127 
 
 7 
 120 
 
 7 
 102 
 
 7 
 73 
 
 7 
 77 
 
 
 
 Royal ... 
 
 7 
 78 
 
 7 
 78 
 
 7 
 78 
 
 7 
 66 
 
 7 
 60 
 
 7 
 66 
 
 8 
 60 
 
 8 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 Spanker ... 
 
 4 
 536 
 
 4 
 680 
 
 4 
 
 620 
 
 4 
 520 
 
 4 
 570 
 
 500 
 
 380 
 
 4 
 280 
 
 4 
 310 
 
 1 
 460 
 
 1 
 430 
 
 Since the formation of this table, spankers, jibs, and flying 
 jibs, are made of 18-inch canvass. 
 
 X 2 
 
30S8 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 .ji 
 
 1 
 
 e:^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
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 ' 
 
 1 5 £ 
 1 E S 
 
 
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 1 i^l ^ 
 
 
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 l = i|i = 
 
 
 1 
 
 eq 
 
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 CI 
 
 S : .-£ : :S : 
 g : ■.£ : : g : 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
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 o 
 
 
 
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 00 
 
 c . .g 
 
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 t* 
 
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 S ••••£■■■■ ■■■a '■■■ ■■ 
 
 
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 1 m| = = : 1 : : : : = 
 
 
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 eo 
 
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 <N 
 
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 i-iffJeOTPiOtOt^COOO — WeCTJiiO(Ct^06O"C5 
 
 
 
SAILS. 
 Weight of Sails. 
 
 309 
 
 
 FIjing Jib. 
 
 Jib. 
 
 Fore Course. 
 
 Top. 
 
 Top.gallanb 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt, qrs. lbs. 
 
 ewt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 Vanguard, 
 Rodney, St. 
 Vincent, &c. 
 
 1 3 
 
 4 H 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 1 3 14 
 
 Dublin, Pre- 
 sident, Ar- 
 rogant, &c. 
 
 1 2 7 
 
 3 6 14 
 
 10 14 
 
 S 2 14 
 
 1 3 14 
 
 Fury 
 
 - 
 
 1 2 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 2 
 
 2 
 
 Bittern 
 
 - 
 
 2 7 
 
 4 2 
 
 4 14 
 
 1 14 
 
 Encounter - 
 
 3 
 
 I 1 7 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 3 7 
 
 
 Fore Rojal. 
 
 Main Course. 
 
 Mabi-top. 
 
 Main Top- 
 gallant. 
 
 Royal. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt 
 
 qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt 
 
 qre. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt 
 
 qrs. lbs. 
 
 Vanguard, 
 Rodney, St. 
 Vincent, &c. 
 
 1 7 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 3 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Dublin, Pre. 
 sident, Ar- 
 rogant, &c. 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Fury - 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 14 
 
 3 
 
 '2 14 
 
 2 14 
 
 
 
 1 11 
 
 Bittern 
 
 3 7 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 3 14 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 3 14 
 
 Encounter - 
 
 1 14 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 7 
 
 
 
 I 14 
 
 
 Mizen Top- 
 sail. 
 
 Mlzen Top- 
 gallant. 
 
 Bojal. 
 
 Spanker. 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qn. lbs. 
 
 cwt. qrs. IbB. 
 
 Vanguard, 
 Rodney, St. 
 Vincent, &c. 
 
 6 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 7 
 
 4 3 
 
 Dublin, Pre- 
 sident, Ar- 
 rogant, &c. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Fury - 
 
 •- 
 
 ^ ■- 
 
 - 
 
 2 14 
 
 Bittern 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 5 
 
 Encounter - 
 
 - 
 
 ■ - 
 
 - - 
 
 4 
 
 X 3 
 
310 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
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SAILS. 
 
 311 
 
 Unquestionably, all topsails and courses should be fitted with 
 reef lines. 
 
 It is well to fit all fore and main topsails aUke, as to length 
 of points in the different reefs, in the event of having to use 
 a fore top-sail on a main top-sail yard. 
 
 Sails are sometimes made use of for the purpose of stopping 
 leaks, by thrumming them, as in making a mat. A quick way 
 to prepare a sail for this purpose, is to pour hot pitch on it, and 
 then tread oakum over it. 
 
 The following Tables show the number of pairs and poil|itf of 
 different lengths which one man can laake in a day, and also 
 the length, number, and weight of points in the sails of each class 
 of ship. 
 
 One Man's Work per day. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pair. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pair. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 : 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 ^ i 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 6 ! 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 \st and 2nd Class Ships 
 
 
 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 No. of 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course ... 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 98 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 3rd „ - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 140 
 
 4th „ - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 154 
 
 Main Course 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 Main TopsaU, Ist reef - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 112 
 
 2nd ,, - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 130 
 
 3rd „ - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 164 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 176 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 „ 2na „ - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 3rd „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 4th „ . . 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 Total No. of points, 1678 : Weight of do., 12 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lbs. 
 
 z 4 
 
312 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 3rd and 4th Class Ships. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 tt. 
 
 in. 
 
 pointe. 
 
 Fore Course - . - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 2nd „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 96 
 
 „ 3rd „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 120 
 
 4ih „ - 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 Main Course . - - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 93 
 
 „ 2nd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 110 
 
 3rd „ 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 140 
 
 4th „ - 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 156 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 „ 2nd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 84 
 
 „ 3rd „ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 4th „ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 Total No. of points, 1448:.Weightof do., 11 cwt. qrs. 15 lbs. 
 
 1st and 2nd Class Frigates. 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 No. of 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course - - - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 76 
 
 2nd „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 „ 3rd „ 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 124 
 
 4th „ - .- 
 
 .5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 128 
 
 Main Course - - .- 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 96 
 
 2nd,, - .- 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 3rd „ - .- 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 148 
 
 4th „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 152 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 » 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6- 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 Total No. of points, 1404: Weight of do., 10 cwt. qrs. 14 lbs. 
 
SAILS. 
 
 313 
 
 3rd and ith Class Frigates. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 It. 
 
 in. 
 
 it 
 
 "■• 
 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course - - - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 74 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 78 
 
 „ 3rd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 116 
 
 „ 4th „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 120 
 
 Main Course 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 2nd „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 88 
 
 „ 3rd „ 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 132 
 
 4th „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 136 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 „ 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 4th „ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 92 
 
 Total No. of points, 1270: Weight of do., 6 cwt. 1 qr. 11 
 
 5th and 6th Class Frigates. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 it. 
 
 in. 
 
 it. 
 
 in. 
 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course - . . 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 2nd „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 68 
 
 3rd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 .4 
 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 108 
 
 Main Course - . - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 2nd,, - ' - 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 80 
 
 3rd „ - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 120 
 
 41h „ - - 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 124 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 „ 2nd „ - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 „ 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 Total No. of points, 1156 : Weight of do., 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 9 lbs. 
 
314 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ^th and &th Class Frigates. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 11. 
 
 In. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef* - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 88 
 
 4th „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 92 
 
 Main Course - - - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 2nd,, - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 68 
 
 .. 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 108 
 
 Mizen Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 • 44 
 
 2nd „ - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 „ 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 72 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 Total No. of points, 1000 : Weight of do., 3 cwt. 1 qr. 20 Ihs. 
 
 Isl and 2nd Class Brigs. 
 
 Reefs. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 No. of 
 points. 
 
 Fore Course - - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 Fore Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 52 
 
 „ 2nd „ - - 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 88 
 
 Main Course - - - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Main Topsail, 1st reef - 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 2nd „ 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 „ 3rd „ - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 92 
 
 4th „ - - 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 Total No. of points, 692 ; Weight of do., 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 8 lbs. 
 
SAILS. 313 
 
 SAIL TACKLE. 
 
 It is our business to handle spars and sails under suoh very 
 different circumstances, that it is impossible to make a law for 
 the arrangement of the sail tackle and its fall as usually -worked. 
 The sail tackle is heavy, and supposed to be strong enough 
 singly for shifting top-sail yards with, but although equal to the 
 weight of these spars, experience has shown that it is not able to 
 stand the heavy and sudden strains which are thrown on it when 
 the spar butts, as it so often does, against the tops, and conse- 
 quently the long tye is generally used in addition. This plan is 
 not only safer, but on an average, quicker. The tye is so strong 
 that the sail tackle may be rove of lighter rope, and kept in the 
 top altogether without inconvenience. Round it up long enough 
 to reach from the top-mast head to the lower cap, and coil it on 
 the top battens ; send the fall on deck, place it in a constant lead 
 and keep it coiled up in a rack. In large ships the main deck is 
 the best place for the fall, as there is not only more run, but the 
 men will be less exposed in shifting yards. Thus every one will 
 know where the sail-tackle fall is, and when in any case the 
 tackle is used aloft, the fall may be worked without delay or 
 mistake. Fit a strop on the top-mast head, on the side opposite 
 the long lie, and stop it along the legs of the stay. Keep a 
 rounding line with a weight on its end coiled down on the lower 
 cap, and a tricing whip from the top-mast head inside the 
 rigging for the sail-tackle. In shifting yards, the lower block of 
 the tackle, when triced up, will be flush with the yard. If for 
 sails, the rounding line is hooked on to the lower block, and the 
 end thrown down to the deck, before or abaft the main yard, or 
 through lubbers' hole, as the case may require. As with the 
 sail tackle thus worked nothing can be done with the rounding 
 line until the yards are down, the top-sail should be lowered as 
 soon as possible, and the weather clue line run up. 
 
 BENDING SAILS. 
 
 Fit all the square sails with gaskets ; seiz^them on theirhead 
 at equal distances ; make the lanyards a fathom long j and put 
 marks with knots, so that when hailing the yard from the deck 
 the gasket that may be alluded to can be denoted by its number 
 from the bunt. 
 
316 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 By tying sails up with temporary fastenings, there is not only 
 great waste of spun yam, but injury done ; for ignorant hands 
 always cut at the sail in cutting loose, instead of entering their 
 knife and cutting towards themselves. It will prevent many 
 vexatious mistakes, if the courses are marked at the bending 
 places of the different gear with a piece of duck sewn on the sail 
 bearing the initials of the particular rope which should be made 
 fast there ; (thus, S. I. L., Starboard Inner Leech line, and so on ;) 
 and also to plait some bunting into the robands at these places ; 
 for in sending eourses up furled, nothing will go well unless the 
 leech lines be fast to the head of the sail exactly under their own 
 blocks which are on the yard. 
 
 There can be no question about the superior neatness and 
 efficiency of making it a habit to send saUs, both up and down, 
 made up just as if furled. Indeed, when blowing strong at 
 anchor head to wind, there is no alternative. 
 
 In making them up, the main point to aim at is keeping the 
 yard-arms as light as possible, so that the sail may haul out taut 
 all along more easily. Lower the upper yards, and stop the yard 
 ropes out of the way. 
 
 Seize the setting strops to the heads of the sails at the middle 
 eyelet holes ; let them always remain there, and when using them 
 after the sail is rolled up, carry the foremost leg round the after 
 one, and seize its bight to its own parts. Top men are very apt 
 to cut this seizing too soon ; but by having the strop fast to the 
 head, their mistake may be partly remedied by a pull on the sail 
 tackle, which is always hooked to the after leg. 
 
 Haul the head of the Topsails along the deck after sides down- 
 wards ; gather all the slack canvass back from the head; lay the 
 second reef band along the head, and haul this and the head taut 
 fore and aft by the earings. Bring the leeches as far as the reef 
 tackle cringles along the head ; knot the fourth reef earing into 
 the third reef cringle, and the third into the second ; carry the 
 clues into the quarters about six feet over the head ; bring the 
 buntline toggles about a foot over the head between the clues j 
 coil all the remainder of the roping so as not to ride, leaving the 
 bowline cringles out ; face the foot and gather up ; then face the 
 
SAILS. 317 
 
 head and roll up ; pass the gaskets taut ; stop the clues up abaft 
 the head after having passed them over the fore part of the hunt ; 
 seize the strop ; hook the sail tackle ; knot the second reef earing 
 into the first reef cringle, the first into the head; and stop the 
 head earings along the top of the sail on each side. Send the 
 huntlines down on the same side of the lower stay with the sail 
 tackle. Toggle them, and then hitch their bights round the 
 quarters of the sail on their own sides about a fathom outside the 
 strop. Bend a bowline of the side to the strop of the sail tackle 
 block to guy it off the top rim. When the clues of the sail 
 have been swayed above the top rim, and the turns slewed out, 
 take turns with sail tackle falls and huntlines. Bend the reef 
 tackles to the second reef cringles ; and keep a good strain on 
 the huntlines as the sail tackle is lowered on hauling the reef 
 tackles out. K the quarters are allowed to get below the yard, 
 they are not easily raised. Carry the head earings out to the 
 yard-arms ; haul the head of the sail taut along the yard ; tie the 
 robands ; lash the clue lines ; shackle the sheets ; bend the reef 
 tackle to its proper cringle ; toggle the bowlines ; cast the hitch 
 off the huntlines and the seizing off the strop ; toss the saU up, 
 &c. 
 
 COUKSES. 
 
 Haul the heads of the Courses taut along, roping downwards 
 (». e. after sides on the deck) on top of the setting strop, and make 
 the earings fast. Gather the sail back from the head, and then lay 
 the second reef band on the head, hauling its earings also taut out. 
 Bring the leeches in taut, as far as the inner leech line cringle, 
 and lay them on the head. Lay the clues over the head, about 
 six feet on each side of the middle of the sail, £ind the buntline 
 toggles about a foot over the head between them. Place the 
 men along the head, and gather up as in furling ; throw the 
 skin over ; let the men step across, and roll up ; pass the gaskets, 
 footing them well taut : let go the earings, coU and stop them 
 up ; pass the foremost leg of the strop over the bunt of the sail, 
 round the after leg of the strop, and seize its bight to its own 
 parts. Make the stay whip fast well up on the slings, and hook 
 on to the after leg of the setting strop. Sway the sail up and 
 down, till its after part is aft, and when clear of turns, hook the 
 reef tackles to the second reef cringle over the tacks and sheets, 
 and haul the arms out to the sides, lowering the whip sufficiently 
 
318 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 to bend the bunt lines, leeoh lines, tacks, sheets, and clue garnets. 
 Hang the clues to the strop of the whip block before the bunt of 
 the sail. 
 
 Get the distance of each leech line block on the yards from 
 the slings irith a piece of line, and rack the leech lines to the 
 heads of the sails, exactly at those distances from the middle of 
 the sail, tailing care that the leech lines are clear of each other 
 and the inner one racked inside the outer. 
 
 Overhaul the clue garnets, and tacks, and sheets well. If 
 bending all together, trice booms up, sway the courses close up 
 with the stay whips, and the topsails with the sail tackles. 
 When the clues of the topsails are over the top rims, send sail- 
 fiirlers aloft, man the reef tackles and leech Unes, lay out, and 
 haul all the sails out together. 
 
 If the leech lines have been racked just under each leech line 
 block, the courses will haul taut along the yard, so that two 
 hands might bend the courses. Round up the clue garnets, 
 bring to the heads of the sails, cut the seizing of the setting 
 strop, leaving the stop on the head, pass the lanyards of the 
 gaskets round the jack stays. 
 
 When the robands of courses are made longer than usual 
 they answer quite well for reef points, and on all the yards 
 it is very convenient to have two on each quarter, long enough 
 to pass round the sail when the gear has been so ill bent as not 
 to haul it quite taut along the yard. 
 
 Sway the gaff three feet off the boom, guy the peek over a 
 little to the side on which the saU lies ; make the guy and 
 halyards fast. Secure the head earing by putting in two 
 eyebolts or " lugs " some two inches apart on the under side of 
 the jaws, score the wood out between them, put the head cringle 
 in edgeways, run a bolt or toggle through all, and seize it ; 
 lay the head of the sail along the gaff, passing it through 
 the brails, but by no means aUow it to be stretched in the 
 very least degree. The disease of ' drivers ' commences on 
 the taffrail, and not in the sail loft: the afterguards jiggers 
 occasion all the perpetual doctoring of spankers, and abuse 
 of our own sail cutters. Lace from the throat, and then make 
 the peek earing fast with up and down and outer turns. 
 
SAILS. 319 
 
 Let go guys, vangs,, brails, &c. &c. : s-way the gaff up, seizing 
 the hoops on ahove the reefs as the sail rises. Reeve a soft 
 greasy lacing below this, passing the turns before the mast, make 
 the tack fast on the boom close to the mast, and hoist the luff up 
 well taut. Put a light whip on the boom near the end, gather 
 the sheet of the sail out, top the boom, and reeve the outhauler 
 through whichever of the reef cleats on the boom the sheet when 
 barely hand taut, reaches ; if it is short of them, lash a block on 
 the boom for the purpose, and bend and take through the 
 slack of the outhauler ; then raise the peek, belay and rack all 
 the halyards, and let the sail hang thus as long as convenient. 
 As it is used, it will now give out, equally all over, the outhauler 
 being proportionally shifted out, and it wiU stand as well as any 
 canvass not cut on the thread can do. 
 
 Seize the brails on the after leech in their exact places the first 
 time the sail is hauled up, as before described. 
 
 HEAD SAILS. 
 
 Make the JilJS up as if they were furled : mark the stays 
 with a yam at the nips at the boom ends, and overhaul 
 them and the downhauls in on the forecastle. Unhook the 
 reeving lines, and reeve the stays down from head to tack, and 
 the downhauls up from tacks to heads through the cringles ; 
 make the downhauls fast to the heads, and the reeving lines to 
 the stays. Stop the luff of the sails to the stays above the marks. 
 Bend the halyards to the heads, and take a hitch with their 
 bights round the sails, near the hanks, making fast with a seiz- 
 ing. Pull up the halyards, haul out on the reeving lines and 
 down hauls, and lower the sails to their places ; toggle the sheets, 
 set up the stays, cast the hitch off the halyards, make fast the 
 tacks, and reeve the lacings. 
 
 Xiaclngs on fore and aft sails are passed from the sail round 
 the fore part of the stay or spar only not in round turns, those on 
 the stays against the lay. 
 
 Carry the stay sail out by the halyards and downhaul, seize 
 the hanks on outside, and toggle the sheets. 
 
 TOP GALLANT SAILS AND ROYALS. 
 
 Lay the yards on the deck, reeve the yard ropes through 
 the grummets and lizards, and clench them round the bunts 
 
320 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 or slings, if so fitted. See that the parrels and quarter 
 blocks are properly seized on; bring the sails (roping next 
 the yard) to the jaekstays with the robands, and to the yard- 
 arms with the earings, avoiding stretching, by " riding down 
 the head," &c., and keeping the turns of the top-gallant 
 earings clear of the royal sheet sheave holes ; fiirl the sails, 
 keeping the bunt low, leaving the bridles and clues out, and 
 pass the gaskets well taut. Stop the yard ropes down with the 
 lizard and grummet on the upper yard-arm sides ; overhaul the 
 lifts and braces, hang the bight of the lower royal braces with a 
 yam at the top-gallant mast heads. Observe that nine out of 
 ten of the mistakes made with upper yards are occasioned by 
 the impetuous rush of the working parties, which either carries 
 the yards past the riggers, or else whips them out of the lower 
 lifts before there is time to take their slack down ; therefore, 
 station an experienced man who will bring all to a stand still on 
 the rise of a finger with his back stopper : name men to rig each 
 upper and each lower yard-arm, to bear off in the top, and then 
 take down the slack of each of the lower lifts, to bear off on the 
 cross trees, and to parrel. 
 
 Sway the yards up, keeping the top-gallant below the royal. 
 When the upper yard-arms are over the top-mast and top- 
 gallant stays " stopper," make the working parties face forward, 
 and mark the yard ropes at the bitts with a piece of bunting put 
 through the strands ; knock the grummets off ; rig the yard- 
 arms ; haul the lower lifts taut -, and sway across by gathering 
 the yard ropes up hand over hand, and slipping the lizard hitch 
 (if used) when it is high enough, parrel immediately ; square by 
 the lifts, and then cut the stop of the lower royal brace ; bend 
 the sheets, and clue lines, and bow lines ; make a tackle in the 
 tops with the bights of the halyards, the upper block of which 
 toggles to the standing part. See that the top-gallant masts are 
 upright, and then get squaring marks on the lifts. 
 
 BOOM MAIN SAILS. 
 
 The Boom maln-sall is bent like the driver, but the sheet 
 is made fast to the boom, sometimes to a traveller, which is eased 
 in or hauled out at pleasure. Two at least of the reef pendants 
 are always rove ; the others are rove as required. The whips 
 
SAILS. 321 
 
 on each side of the jaws of the gaff aet as downhauls, or for the 
 purpose of tricing the tack up. 
 
 The wear and tear, and unequal stretch on the sheet of a boom 
 mainsail is much decreased by having reeving lines through the 
 reef cleats, through the reef cringles to beckets in the ends of 
 the pendants, and keeping the pendants unrove from the sail and 
 stopped up on the after end of the boom. 
 
 TRY SAILS. 
 
 Main try-sail is brought to the gaff with a lacing, and to the 
 mast with hoops, having brails led as the driver. 
 
 Try-sail gaffs are usually fixtures, or " standing." In some 
 cases the pendants by which they are hung are carried out to 
 the point of the gaff, and the head of the sail, instead of being 
 laced, is made to run in or out on the gaff by means of hoops 
 and out and in haulers. They are said to be more manageable 
 in this way. 
 
 STUDDING SAILS. 
 
 The Studding sails are laced to their yards, furled square on 
 their heads, tacks, sheets, and downhaul cringles being left out, 
 and are tied up with " centipede " gaskets. On being bent, they 
 are more tidily kept when stopped up and down the masts and 
 covered. On the booms they are " caulked " in, and in the rig- 
 ging they hold wind, strain the shrouds, and have no chance of 
 being kept dry. 
 
 A ready way with a lower studding sail, is to make the sail 
 up square on the whole of the head, and have a strop with a slip 
 toggle round it, at the place where the halyards are to be bent. 
 Trice it up and down the mast by its middle ; stand the yard 
 on the deck with its outer arm downwards, and let the part 
 with the yard be outside of that without any ; secure them in 
 that position. When you want to set it, run the part without 
 the yard (which is in fact the inner part of the head) up with 
 the inner halyards ; bend the outer halyards to the yard j cast 
 off the stops ; pull the tripping line up so as to clear the lower 
 yard arm of the nettings J and then run the halyards out slip- 
 ping the toggle when the yard is half way up. All this will be 
 done with much less time, soiling of hammocks, and bungling 
 than otherwise. 
 
 T 
 
322 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 It is usual to unbend stud sails if not much in use, bending 
 them as required. The -whole business of bending sails, has 
 been-often done, without a word of preparation, in order and 
 precision in a line-of'battle ship in fifteen minutes. 
 
 MAKING SAIL. 
 
 After bending, it is well to make all sail and move the yards 
 about to show eTcrything its place j getting braces, buntlines, 
 &c. &c., marked so as to avoid occasion for unnecessary 
 noise and delay in shortening and furling sail, squaring yards, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 In sheeting home topsails, the ^eets, if double, should be 
 stopped together, having hands at the lower yard-arms, outside 
 the lifts, to cut the stops when they have reached them ; and in 
 all cases before letting fall, the men should be warned off the 
 outer quarters of .the lower yards. The fall of the sheets is 
 very violent, and the bights frequently get under the feet of the 
 people on the lower yards. In loosing courses, it is not neces- 
 sary to trice the booms up ; and when the outer gaskets have 
 been cast off, if there are no reefs to shake out, the men should 
 come in off the yards ; the booms and quarter-gaskets will keep 
 the sails up. ' 
 
 When about to haul to a bowline, if there are reefs in, let fall 
 first, and shake the reefs out. Before hauling out, warn people 
 out of the fore part of the tops, and in all places where they are 
 likely to be holding on by the buntlines. 
 
 PniULING SAILS. 
 
 The yards are usually marked on the quarters, so that the 
 men may be kept within certain bounds before the <tciet to lay 
 out is given. If furling from a bowline, stop the bowlines, and 
 haul them through before clewing up. 
 
 If working with " beginners," do not haul the buntlines up 
 above the yards until the reefs are in : the state of the reefs can 
 thus be seen. Indeed, to get the reefs well taken in, it is best 
 when all the furlers are aloft to pipe reef topsails ; " one reef," 
 " second reef ; " causing the topsail yard men to come in each 
 time ; and then if the reefs are satisfactory, pipe " furl sails," 
 and " lay out " altogether. 
 
 Lowering booms the first ship is mostly an imposition, and 
 
ACTION OF WIND UPON SAILS. 323 
 
 in no case a proof of exceeding smartness. It is a mere matter 
 of position of bunt becket. If that is low, or in other words 
 if the bunt be great, run the buntlines right up, having a hand 
 stationed to ride each one down, pull up the bunt whip, and 
 lower the buntlines. The bulk of the sail falls into a huge 
 unship-shape looking triangle, the booms are lowered, and 
 the sails are said to be furled. But it comes on to rain 
 heavily ; the sails are filled with water, and as long as there 
 is no opportunity for drying, we have drip on deck and decay 
 aloft. 
 
 The sails are not furled in this case ; nor are they, in any 
 case, until every single man has done patching, and every man 
 is down from aloft. 
 
 To furl a sail well, every cloth must be handed ; that is 
 gathered up in handfuls; and each handful stowed. When 
 this is done, let all hands lay hold of the skin all along ; shake 
 the slack canvass into it, and then toss the sail up, bringing 
 the skin as a covering to the upper side of it. The bunt in 
 this way will be low and round. The ends of bunt gaskets are 
 passed abaft the top -masts across to opposite sides, and down 
 into the tpp where they are set up. The outsides only will 
 be wetted in the event of rain, and wiU dry without even being 
 loosed. 
 
 It is considered neat practice to cause all the inen not sta- 
 tioned for squaring yards to quit the tops at the pipe " Down 
 booms ; " and then, when the upper yards are squared, to pipe 
 the remainder down together. 
 
 The evolution is not completed whilst even one straggler is 
 above the netting. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 ACTION OF WIND UPON SAILS. 
 
 Befoeb considering the action of wind upon sails, it may be 
 well to define the meaning of certain terms which it will be 
 necessary to make use of. 
 
 The Area of any plane surface is the measure of the 
 space contained within its boundary lines, which is usually 
 
 T 2 
 
324 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 expressed in square yards, or feet, or inches, without reference 
 to shape. 
 
 Thus, supposing the sides A b (Jig. 198) and a c to be each 
 equal to one foot, the area of the whole figure would he one 
 square foot, and that of -either of the triangles a b c or b c d 
 would be half a square foot ; or if the square a b c d were 
 divided into two equal portions, and one of these were placed 
 
 underneath so as to form 
 Fig. 198. Fig. 199. ^he rectangle A E F Q 
 
 (Jig. 199), this rect- 
 angle would have the 
 same area as the original 
 square. 
 
 The Centre of Effort 
 means tJiat point in the 
 area of a sail upon which, 
 if the power of the wind 
 were concentrated in- 
 stead of being diffused 
 over the whole surface, 
 the effect upon the ship 
 would be the same. The 
 term applies not only to the power of one, but to the combined 
 power of any number ; for instance, let the small circles on the 
 Fig. 200. 
 
 D 
 
 10 e 10 
 
 _j 1 1 i_ 
 
ACTION OP WIND UPON SAILS. 
 
 325 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 202. 
 
 sails in tlie figure 200 be the centres of effort, tlieu the common 
 centre would he about the large circle, -which position would 
 depend on the relative size of the sails, and might be determined 
 by the same means which are used for ascertaining the position 
 of the centre of gravity of any surface. 
 
 The Axis of rotation is an imaginary line round which the 
 ship turns in obedience to the action of either the helm or sails. 
 The position of this line is affected both by the trim of the ship, 
 and her speed. It will be drawn aft or forward as the ship 
 sinks by the stem or the head. 
 
 The power of the sails is opposed by the action of the water 
 on those inmiersed portions of the ship which are caUed the area 
 of lateral resistance, A B 
 
 {fig. 201), and the area '^'■S'- ^°^- 
 
 of direct resistance, o 6 
 (.fig. 202.) 
 
 It is usual whilst in- 
 vestigating the effect of 
 pressure upon surfaces 
 to represent direction 
 by lines, and strength 
 by the length of those 
 lines. When a pres- 
 sure is exerted against any point on a surface, its useful effect is 
 always in a direction at right angles to that surface. If the line 
 be at right angles, then the effect and pressure coincide, and 
 the pressure exerts its full force. If the line be at an oblique 
 angle with the surface, then although the effect produced is at 
 right angles, the power is diminished in proportion to the 
 obliquity. 
 
 Let A B {fig. 203) represent the Fig. 203. 
 
 surface of a sail, and D c the wind ; 
 the useful effect wiU be represented 
 by the line d c both in direction 
 and proportionate force. 
 
 It is a law in the science of 
 
 ' forces that when any two forces act 
 
 on one point, their joint effect is 
 
 the same as if one force were acting 
 
 on that point in a direction between the other two. This in- 
 
 Y 3 
 
326 
 
 MAinjAL rOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 termediate force is called the resultant, and its relation both in 
 direction and strength to that of the others is that of a diagonal 
 in a parallelograni of Trhich the two original forces form two 
 adjacent sides. 
 
 Thus let B A and c A ^fig. 204) represent two forces acting on 
 A. Construct the parallelograni a b c 
 D, and the diagonal d a will be the re- 
 sultant of the two forces b a and c A, 
 and the pressure represented hy it will 
 he equivalent to those represented hy 
 B A and c A comhined, hoth as to di- 
 rection and strength. 
 
 The converse of this proposition is 
 evident, viz., that if a force d a presses 
 on A the pressure it exerts may he re- 
 presented, if convenient, hy the two 
 forces B A and c A, and this process is 
 called resolving the force d a into b a 
 and c A. 
 
 In the^jr. 205 we have the wind d a exerting a certain force 
 Fig. 205. °° ^^^ point a, the 
 
 effect of which will he 
 the same as if two 
 forces were pressing, 
 one across the ship, as 
 c A, in a direction op- 
 posed to her lateral 
 resistance ; the other, 
 as E A, in one opposed 
 to her direct resist- 
 ance. 
 
 If the form of the 
 ship were such that 
 \ g these resistances were 
 in the same proportion 
 to each other as the forces E A and o A to which they were op- 
 posed, then she would ohey the absolute impulse of the wind D A, 
 and sail on the direction of the line A e. But it heing such that 
 her lateral resistance greatly exceeds her direct resistance, she 
 proceeds nearly in the direction b a. 
 
ACTION OP WIND tTPON SAILS. 
 
 327 
 
 TTo-vr let A b represent the wind*, and a b the yard (Jig. 206), 
 the effective pressure is „. 
 
 • 1 X ^ ^1. 1- Fy- 206. 
 
 equivalent to the line c ' 
 
 A at right angles to the 
 surface of the sail. 
 This force may be 
 again resolved into the 
 two forces c d and D A, 
 acting respectively to 
 overcome the direct and 
 lateral resistances. 
 
 It is evident fromMl 
 this process of resolu- 
 tion of forces that the 
 direct propelling force 
 
 D A is small compared with that of c d ; still, as the lateral resist- 
 ance is very much greater in proportion to the direct, the ship 
 yields chiefly to the force d a, and proceeds on a course nearly 
 on the line e p, any deviation to leeward of which is called the 
 angle of leeway. The amount of this leeway is more or less 
 considerable, according to the form of the vessel, the amount of 
 surface exposed to the wind, — which, is, of course, greater as the 
 vessel is more crank, — the set of the sea, and the resistance of- 
 fered to the wind by masts, and in fact, everything except the sails. 
 
 Let A (fig. 207), for instance, be a section of a lower mast, a 
 b the course of the ship on ^ 
 wind, and b a its direction. 
 Resolve b a into c a and d a, 
 and it will be evident that the 
 whole effects of the wind is as 
 regards the.mast a retarding and 
 leewardly one; and however 
 insignificant it may seem in 
 the case of a ship, it will serve 
 at least to show the bad ef- 
 fects which are produced by 
 
 * It must be understood that no allusion is made here to the number of par- 
 ticles of wind which strike the sail, the diminution of which would decrease 
 the. force c a, as the sine^ of the angle B a 6. The mechanical force of a 
 single particle is shown to render the subject more simple. 
 T 4 
 
328 
 
 MANUAL FOK NAVAI, CADETS. 
 
 permitting the coxswains and crews of boats to sit atove the 
 gunwale of a boat whilst under sail. 
 
 Let^p'. 208 represent a brig " lying to " with her fore top-sail 
 to the mast. The effect of the wind on the main top-sail in 
 
 Fig. 20& 
 
 drawing the shipa-head 
 has already been shown. 
 "With regard to the fore 
 top-sail it will be ob- 
 served that the effective 
 force of the wind c o at 
 right angles to the sail 
 coincides with the fore 
 and aft line of the ship. 
 Its sole effect, therefore, 
 is to counteract the 
 forward pressure of the 
 wind on the main-top- 
 sail A D, and thus, by 
 neutralising the ship's direct motion, keep her nearly stationary. 
 The transverse pressure, however, on the main-topsail c D takes 
 full effect, and the ship consequently falls bodily to leeward. 
 
 In the foregoing investigations the sails have been considered 
 for sake of convenience to be flat on their surface. The accom- 
 panying figure will illustrate the advantage of a flat and dis- 
 advantage of a curved surface. Let the curve (ySj. 209), A b c 
 s, be considered as a horizontal section of the belly of a sail 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 whose yard is braced sharp up, and let us suppose this curve to 
 
ACTION OF WIND UPON SAILS. 829 
 
 be composed of any number of straight lines joining each other 
 at very obtuse angles. If Tre divide this curve into three parts, 
 substituting a straight line for each portion of the curve, and re- 
 peating the line d a, which represents the wind, in each division 
 of the figure, we have then a b for the weathermost, b o for the 
 middle, and c d for the leewardmost division of the sail. Now 
 applying the principle of the resolution of forces as before, we 
 find that in A b, the wind blows nearly along the surface, that 
 the effective force c a, at right angles to the sails, is compara- 
 tively small, and the direct force 6 a is also small ; but that the 
 proportion of the direct force 6 a to the transverse force e i is 
 large. In the middle division we have a larger effective and 
 direct force, but the transverse force is assuming a larger pro- 
 portion to the direct than in the division a b. Lastly, in the 
 leewardmost portion, the effective force is stiU larger than before, 
 but it is now nearly all absorbed in the transverse force, the 
 direct one being comparatively small. From this it will appear 
 that the weathermost portion of the sail exercises very little 
 power on the ship, though that little is of a favourable kind ; 
 that the centre is, on the whole, doing good, but that the lee- 
 wardmost division is doing harm. 
 
 It win also appear that if the sail were set flat, as ia a line 
 from A to D, the whole sail would exert as favourable a pressure 
 as the division b c in kind, but in greater degree, and could be 
 so set as to permit the ship to lie nearer the wind. 
 
 We come now to another division of this subject, the effect of 
 the sails in directing the ship's course, or, in other words, in 
 assisting the helm. This effect will, as in the case of the motive 
 power of the sails, be best understood by a simple mechanical 
 problem, that of the lever. 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 c 
 
 6 5 :5^ 
 
 ■w ^-> 
 
 A B is a lever supported by a fulcrum at c, its arms being of 
 equal length; w is a weight attached to one of these arms. If 
 that were the only weight attached to it, the lever would at once 
 be thrown off its level. To restore it to its level position, it 
 
330 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 would be requisite to attach another weight equal to w to the 
 other extremity — or it might be restored to its level by placing 
 a larger weight v)' nearer the fulcrum. The law by which the 
 relations of these weights are goyerned is this, that the product 
 of either weight multiplied into its distance from the fulcrum 
 must be equal to the product of the other weight multiplied into 
 its distance from the fulcrum ; or if there are more weights than 
 one on each side of the fiilcrum, the sum of the products on one 
 side must equal the sum of the products on the other. 
 
 In the case before us, suppose the arms of the lever to be each 
 12 feet in length, and the weight to to be 3 lbs. — 3 x 12=36. 
 Then any weight as w placed at tte extremity of the other arm 
 of the lever must also be 3 lbs., being at an equal distance from 
 the fulcrum ; but supposing it desirable to restore the level of the 
 lever by placing a weight nearer the fulcrum (say at 9 feet from 
 it), as at w', tben the number of pounds weight of w' must be such 
 as when multiplied into 9 feet, wUl make 36, which in the pre- 
 sent instance would be 4, as 4x9=36. The same principle 
 holds good whether the lever be moving in a vertical or hori- 
 zontal plane. If the lever a b were fixed on a vertical axis 
 passing through the point c, so that its motion should be in a 
 horizontal plane, the power requisite to alter its direction would 
 require to be proportioned as above. 
 
 To apply this to the power of the sails on a ship, we may 
 consider the ship herself as a lever turning round a vertical 
 axis, called her axis of rotation, and the areas of the sails may 
 be considered as so many weights or forces acting on her to turn 
 her round her axis, the distances from the axis being measured 
 from their centres of effort. It will be obvious that if we want 
 to turn the ship away from the wind (or " bear up "), the full 
 effect must be given to the sails that are nearest the bow ; and 
 the sails nearest the stem, or on the opposite side of the axis, 
 (which may be assumed to be nearly at the middle of the ship) 
 must as far as possible be neutralised ; and vice versa, to bring 
 the ship's head up to the wind, the head sails must be neutral- 
 ised, and the full effect given to the after sails. It will also be 
 obvious that to keep the ship on a straight course, the amount of 
 sail set on each side of the axis of rotation must be balanced by 
 a consideration of ihe distances of the several sails, or, to speak 
 more correctly, the distances of their centres of effort, from that 
 axis. 
 
MEASUKES AND WEIGHTS. 331 
 
 Upon this balancing of the sail depends that quality of a ship 
 called " carrying a good helm," by which it is meant that when 
 all sail is set on a wind, the rudder hangs nearly in a line with 
 the keel, very little action of the helm, and that only weather 
 helm, being required to keep the ship from deviating from her 
 course. The axis of rotation being a shifting line, this correct 
 balance can never be attained by mere calculation — but an 
 approximation sufficiently near for all practical purposes, has 
 been arrived at by naval architects by means of comparison 
 with ships known to have carried a good helm. 
 
 The desirable result has usually been attained by placing the 
 common centre of effort of all the sails a few feet before the 
 middle line of the ship, subject of course to some little modifica- 
 tion to meet peculiarities in the form of particular ships. 
 
 From what has been said, it is to be hoped that the reader 
 win have little difficulty in comprehending the principles which 
 govern the different manoeuvres executed on board a ship, such as 
 Tacking and Wearing. But he must bear in mind that these 
 manoeuvres are not entirely carried out by means of the sails, 
 but that the rudder plays the most important part. Now the 
 action of the rudder is dependent on the speed with which the 
 ship passes through the water, and this again upon the power of 
 the sails. The example of the Lever must therefore be followed 
 with some limitation. In Wearing, for instance, while we to a 
 certain extent neutralise the after sail, it is desirable to keep 
 such an amount of sail in full action as to keep up the speed of 
 the ship. This is done by not only keeping the head sails full 
 but the main top-sail also, or very slightly lifting, the mizen 
 top -sail and driver alone being neutralised. Again, in tacking 
 under ordinary circumstances, so much advantage is derived 
 from keeping way on the ship to the last moment before the 
 sails shake, that none of the head sails are neutralised at all. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 MEASUKES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 The earliest mark of time with which man could have been 
 acquainted, must have been the successions of light and dark- 
 
332 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ness, or the division of a certain portion of time into day and 
 night. After that, .the observation of the movements of the 
 heavenly bodies, the length and direction of shadows, the rise , 
 and fall of tides, the escape of water from vessels, and the 
 consequent subsidence of the fluid within — would all suggest 
 themselves as so many means of marking the rate at which 
 time was passing. The sun-dial of Ahaz, the clepsydra, the 
 sand-glass of the Greeks, the notched candle of the Saxons, 
 were all inventions, more or less satisfactory, for ascertaining its 
 movements ; and there is good reason for believing, that the 
 Eastern astronomers, in early ages, measured time during their 
 observations by the vibration of the pendulum. 
 
 We know that a revolution of the earth on its axis is the 
 natural measure of our time ; that the time intervening between 
 the appearance of a star, or the sun, on the meridian of a place, 
 and its reappearance is called, in the former case, a sidereal day, 
 which is twenty-four hours ; and in the latter a solar day, which 
 in consequence of the earth having advanced on its orbit, is on 
 an average nearly four minutes longer. But it may not be quite 
 understood how science has improved upon primitive modes, and 
 constructed a machine which, self-acting for several days (if 
 need be), and independent of temperature and the visibility 
 of heavenly bodies, computes time with almost undeviating 
 accuracy. 
 
 When a pendulum, however long or short, is set in motion, 
 every swing, vibration, or oscillation which it makes, until it 
 comes to a staud-stiU, is performed in exactly the same amount, 
 of time. 
 
 These times will be greater or less, as the pendulum is long 
 or short ; and it may therefore be made to perform any number 
 of vibrations in a given time. 
 
 Say that it is made to beat 86,400 times in a day, and that we 
 divide that number into certain portions, calling them minutes 
 and hours, and the vibrations themselves seconds. The next re- 
 quirements naturally will be to contrive some means for keeping 
 the pendulum in motion for that, or even a longer, period. This 
 is effected by a train of wheel-work, which is kept revolving 
 during the descent of a weight suspended by a cord wound round 
 one of its axles. 
 
 One of the teeth of that wheel which is in contact with the 
 
MEASTIRES AND WEIGHTS. 333 
 
 axis of the pendulum is disengaged in a particular direction at 
 each vibration, and thus the pendulum in return regulates the 
 velocity of the descent of the weight. 
 
 An indicator and dial on the end of the last axis of 
 the train will express this velocity j and this velocity is the time 
 as measured by the pendulum in the instance, of a common 
 clock. 
 
 It was soon found that if the weight at the end of the pendulum 
 were equally divided — one half being fixed at each end of it, and 
 the pendulum itself placed horizontally on an axis at its centre, 
 and kept in motion by the constant pressure of a spring having 
 a proportionate degree of strength — the same consequences 
 would foUow. 
 
 This arrangement, which is just the Balance Wheel produced 
 in smaller proportions and adapted to smaller scales and any 
 attitude or position, became the fundamental principle of the 
 Chronometer and pocket watch. 
 
 The compensation balance is a beautiful contrivance for 
 counteracting the effect of changes of temperature, which, by 
 causing an ordinary balance to expand and contract, occasion a 
 variation in the extent of its vibration, and consequently in the 
 rate of going of the timepiece of which it forms the essential 
 feature. This correction is effected by forming the rim of the 
 balance of two semicircular slips of metal, fixed at one end only, 
 and each consisting of a very narrow riband of steel joined to 
 an outer rim of brass. Each of these slips consisting thus of two 
 metals differently affected by heat, is capable of altering its 
 shape with every change in the temperature to which the chro- 
 nometer is exposed, in such a way as to keep the vibrations of 
 the balance always the same. 
 
 The pendulum is also employed as an instrument in the 
 measurement of space as well as time. For things which we 
 caU fathoms, yards, feet, inches, &c., have no existence, except- 
 ing that which they derive firom the pendulum. 
 
 The number of vibrations which a pendulum of a given length 
 will make in a given time will depend on the locality of the in- 
 strument. In different latitudes, there is required n. different 
 length of pendulum to perform the same number of vibrations. 
 In the latitude of London, for example, a pendulum 39 'IS inches 
 long, will vibrate seconds, whereas near the Equator, a lesser 
 
334 
 
 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 length would be required to perform the Bame duty ; and it may 
 be observed that the bulbs are usually made capable of adjust- 
 ment by means of screws. 
 
 " This difference is explained by the flattened shape of the 
 earth, and the consequent diminished force of gravity near the 
 equator. 
 
 " Now, as a pendulum in this country, vibrating seconds at 
 the level of the sea, would invariably be of a certain length, that 
 length was adopted as a basis for a system of uniform measures 
 throughout the British Islands ; and in the absence, or total loss 
 of the ordinary means, the standard measure could be declared 
 with a line and plummet." 
 
 Table of the length of pendulum that will vibrate seconds at every 
 fifth degree. 
 
 Degree. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Degree. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Degree. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 0, 
 
 39-027 
 
 35 
 
 39-084 
 
 70 
 
 39-177 
 
 5 
 
 39-029 
 
 40 
 
 39-097 
 
 75 
 
 39-185 
 
 10 
 
 39-032 
 
 45 
 
 39-111 
 
 SO 
 
 39-191 
 
 15 
 
 39-036 
 
 50 
 
 39126 
 
 85 
 
 39-195 
 
 20 
 
 39-044 
 
 55 
 
 39-142 
 
 90 
 
 39-197 
 
 25 
 
 39-057 
 
 60 
 
 39158 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 39-070 
 
 65 
 
 39-168 
 
 
 
 The system of Vrelgbts in England is arbitrary, almost every 
 county having a quantity of its own. In France the measures, 
 weights, and coinage have a definite relation to the dimensions 
 of the earth. The meridian of Paris measured from the pole to 
 the equator, is divided into ten million parts, each of which is 
 called a Metre. 
 
 This metre is 39-376 inches in length, and has been adopted 
 as the basis of a decimal system ; the multiples and divisions 
 being expressed by a certain prefix to the metre. 
 
 As boat midshipmen are frequently employed upon commis- 
 sariat service, the following tables may be found nseflil. 
 
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 335 
 
 BRITISH ■WEIGHTS AND MBASUEES. 
 
 Troy Weight. 
 
 Grains 
 24= 1 dwt. 
 480= 20 = 1 oz. 
 5760 = 240 = 12 = 1 lb. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 Drachms. 
 16= 1 oz. 
 256= 16= 1 lb. 
 7168= 448= 28= 1 quarter. 
 28672= 1792= 112= 4= 1 cwt. 
 573440 = 35840 = 2240 = 80 = 20 = 1 ton. 
 
 •1 lb. = 14 oz. 11 dwts. 15^ grains Troy. 
 1 oz. = lS dwts. 5| grains Troy." 
 N.B — 7000 Troy grains make 1 pound Avoirdupois; hence 
 175 pounds Troy are equal to 144 pounds Avoirdupois. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 Grains 
 
 20= 1 scruple. 
 60= 3= 1 drachm. 
 480= 24= 8= 1 oz. 
 5760 = 288=36 = 12 = 1 lb. 
 
 Long Measure. 
 Inches. 
 
 12= 1 foot. 
 36= S= 1 yard. 
 72= '6= 2= 1 fathom. 
 198= 16|= 5|= 2f= Ipole. 
 7920= 660= 220 = 110=40 =1 furlong. 
 63360= 5280 = 1760=880=320=8 = 1 mile. 
 A mile contains 80 chains, land measure, and a chain 100 
 links of 22 yards ; an inch contains 12 lines. 
 
336 MANUAL rOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Measure of Ike Circle. 
 
 Seconds (") 
 60 = 1 minute (') 
 360= 60= 1 degree (°) 
 32400= 5400= 90 = 1 quadrant. 
 129600 = 21600= 360 =4 = 1 circumference. 
 
 Wine Measure. 
 Pints 
 
 2= 1 quart. 
 8= 4= 1 gallon. 
 336= 168= 42= 1 tierce. 
 504= 257= 63 = 1| = 1 hogshead. 
 672= 336= 84=2 =1|=1 puncheon. 
 1008= 504 = 126= 3 = 2 =11=1 pipe. 
 2016=1008 = 252 = 6 = 4 = 3 = 2=1 tun. 
 
 Ale and Beer Measure, 
 Pints 
 
 2 = 1 quart. 
 8= 4= 1 gallon. 
 72= 36= 2= 1 firkin. 
 144= 72= 18= 2 = 1 kilderkin. 
 288 = 144= 36= 4 = 2= Ibarrel. 
 432 = 216= 56= 6 = 3= 11=1 hogshead. 
 576=288= 72= 8=4= 2 =11=1 puncheon. 
 864 = 432 = 108 = 12 = 6= 3 =2 =l|=lbutt. 
 N.B. — The pint, quart, and gallon, for wine, ale and beer, 
 and grain or com, measure the same with regard to their mag- 
 nitude ; 8 of these gallons make 1 bushel ; and 1 gallon contains 
 277-274 cubic inches, or 10 lbs. of distilled water, at 62 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Dry Measure. 
 Pints 
 
 8= 1 gallon. 
 16= 2= 1 peck. 
 64= 8= 4= 1 bushel. 
 256= 32= 16= 4= 1 coom. 
 512= 64= 32= 8= 2= 1 quarter. 
 2560=320 = 160=40=10= 5=1 wey. 
 5120=640 = 320 = 80 = 20=10 = 2=1 last. 
 
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 337 
 
 Cloth Measure. 
 Inches 
 
 21= 1 nail. 
 
 9= 4=1 quarter. 
 36 = 16=4=1 yard. 
 27 = 12 = 3 = 1 Flemish ell. 
 45 = 20 = 5 = 1 English ell. 
 54 =24 = 6 = 1 French ell. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 Inches 
 
 144= 1 foot 
 1296= 9 = 1 yard. 
 
 39204= 2721= 301= i pole. 
 1568160 = 10890 =1210= 40 = 1 rood. 
 6272640=43560 =4840 =160 = 4 = 1 acre. 
 10 square chains make 1 acre ; 640 acres make 1 square mile ; 
 30 acres 1 yard of land; and 100 acres 1 hide of land. 
 
 Solid Measure. 
 Inches 
 
 1728= 1 foot 
 46656=27 = 1 yard. 
 1 cubic foot = 2200 cylindrical inches =3300 spherical inches 
 =6600 conical inches. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 1 acre Scotch, 1-271 acres English, or - 6084 sq. yds. 
 
 1 acre Irish, 1-638 acres English, or - 7840 sq. yds. 
 
 1 harrel, imperial measure - - 9981'86 cub. in. 
 
 „ soap - 256 lbs. 
 
 1 bushel, imperial measure 2218'19 c. in. 
 
 Winchester - 2150'42 c. in. 
 
 barley 50 lbs. 
 
 coal - - 88 lbs. 
 
 flour or salt - 56 lbs. 
 
 oats .... 40 lbs. 
 
 ■wheat - - - - 60 lbs. 
 
 1 chaldron coals, Newcastle - - 53 c-wts. 
 
 1 sack ----- 112 lb. 
 
338 
 
 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 1 chain . - . . 
 
 1 clove of wool - , . 
 
 1 fodder of lead, Stockton - 
 
 „ „ Newcastle 
 
 „ „ London 
 
 1 gallon, imperial measure 
 
 „ distilled water, 60° 
 
 „ proof spirit or oil 
 
 „ former wine measure 
 
 „ former ale measure 
 
 „ Irish measure 
 1 league - - - - 
 
 1 geographical mile 
 
 „ degree 
 
 1 nautical mile (mean) 
 1 gross ... 
 
 1 great gross 
 1 hand - - 
 
 1 hundred of deals 
 
 „ nails - 
 
 „ salt 
 
 1 last of salt - - - 
 
 „ gunpowder 
 „ potash, soap, pitch, or tar 
 „ flax or feathers - 
 1 link - - . . 
 
 1 line - - . 
 
 1 load of bricks - - - 
 
 „ com - - - 
 
 „ hay or straw - 
 
 „ lime 
 
 „ planks, two-inch 
 
 „ sand 
 
 „ timber, squared 
 
 „ timber unhewed 
 1 mile 
 
 1 pack of wool - - . 
 
 1 palm 
 1 pole, woodland 
 
 „ plantation 
 
 100 links. 
 
 7 lbs. 
 22 cwt. 
 22 cwt. 
 19| cwt. 
 277-27 cub. in. 
 10 lbs. 
 9 3 lbs. 
 231 c. in. 
 283 e. in. 
 217-6 c. in. 
 3 miles. 
 1-15 Eng. ms. 
 69-12 Eng. ms. 
 6075-5 feet. 
 12 dozen. 
 12 gross. 
 4 inches. 
 120 in No. 
 120 in No. 
 
 7 lasts. 
 18 barrels. 
 24 barrels. 
 12 barrels. 
 
 17 cwt. 
 7'92 inches. 
 
 l-12thof anin. 
 500 in No. 
 
 40 bushels. 
 
 36 trusses. 
 
 32 bushels. 
 300 sq. ft. 
 
 36 bushels. 
 
 50 cub. ft. 
 
 40 cub. ft. 
 
 80 chains. 
 240 lbs. 
 3 inches. 
 
 18 feet. 
 21 feet. 
 
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 339 
 
 1 pole, ChesHre - 
 1 sack of coals - 
 
 „ wool - 
 1 seam of glass 
 1 cuMt 
 1 span 
 
 1 military space 
 1 stone of meat or fish - 
 horseman's weight 
 „ glass 
 1 thousand of n«ils 
 1 truss of new hay 
 
 „ old hay 
 
 „ straw 
 1 tun of Tegetahle oil 
 
 „ animal oil 
 1 cable's length 
 
 24 feet. 
 224 lbs. 
 364 lbs. 
 124 lbs. 
 18 inches. 
 9 inches. 
 5 feet. 
 8 lbs. 
 14 lbs. 
 5 lbs. 
 1200 
 60 lbs. 
 56 lbs. 
 36 lbs. 
 236 gallons. 
 252 gallons. 
 120 fathoms. 
 
 EELATIVE VALUE OF BRITISH AND FRENCH WEIGHTS AND 
 MEASURES. FRENCH DECIMAL OR MODERN STSTEM. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 British. 
 
 - 15'434 grains. 
 1-5434 „ 
 015434 „ 
 0-015434,, 
 
 - 154-34 „ 
 3-527 oz. avoird. 
 
 - 3-2154 oz. troy. 
 
 - 2-6795 lbs. troy. 
 2-2048 lbs. avoird. 
 
 - 26-795 lbs. troy. > 
 
 - 22-048 lbs. avoird. ' 
 - - 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 241 lbs. 
 
 - 9 tons 16 cwt. 3 qrs. 12 lbs. 
 
 Measure of Capacity. 
 
 - 61-028 cubic inches. 
 
 - 1-761 imperial pint 
 
 * The Litre=a cubic decimetre. 
 Z 2 
 
 French. 
 Gramme - 
 Decigramme 
 Centigramme - 
 Milligramme - 
 Decagramme - 
 Hectogramme 
 
 or 
 Kilogramme 
 
 or 
 Myriagramme - 
 
 or 
 Quintal - 
 Millier or bar - 
 
 Litre* 
 
340 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Decilitre - 
 
 
 - 6-1928 cubic inches. 
 
 Centilitre - 
 
 
 - 0-6103 „ „ 
 
 Millilitre - 
 
 - 
 
 - 00610 „ 
 
 Decalitre - 
 
 - 
 
 - 610-28 „ 
 
 or - 
 
 - 
 
 2-2 imperial gallons. 
 
 Hectolitre 
 
 - 
 
 3-5317 cubic feet. 
 
 or - 
 
 - 
 
 - 2-75 imperial bushels. 
 
 Kilolitre - 
 
 - 
 
 - 35-317 cubic feet. 
 
 Myrialitre 
 
 - 
 
 - 353-17 „ ,, 
 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 Metre - 
 
 - 
 
 39-371 inches. 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 - 
 
 39371 „ 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 
 - 0-39371 „ 
 
 Millimetre 
 
 - 
 
 - 0-039371 „ 
 
 Decametre 
 
 - 
 
 32-809 feet. 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 - 
 
 328-09 „ 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 - 
 
 - 1093-6 yards. 
 
 Myriametre - 
 
 - 
 
 - 6-2138 miles. 
 
 
 Measures 
 
 of Superfioes. 
 
 Are* - 
 
 - 
 
 - 119-60 square yards. 
 
 Deciare - 
 
 
 - 11-960 „ „ 
 
 Centiare 
 
 - 
 
 10-764 square feet. 
 
 Milliare - 
 
 - 
 
 155-00 square inch. 
 
 Decare 
 
 - 
 
 1196-0 square yards. 
 
 Hectare - 
 
 - 
 
 - 2-4712 acres. 
 
 
 Measures of Solidity. 
 
 Steret - 
 
 
 35-317 cubic feet 
 
 Decistere 
 
 - 
 
 - 3-5317 „ „ 
 
 Centistere 
 
 - 
 
 610-28 cubic inches. 
 
 Millistere ' - 
 
 - 
 
 - 61-028 „ „ 
 
 Decastere 
 
 - 
 
 - 13080 cubic yards. 
 
 Heotostere 
 
 - 
 
 - 130-80 „ 
 
 Note The decimetre, centimetre, and millimetre, are re- 
 
 spectively formed by dividing the metre by 10,000, and 1000 ; 
 and the decametre, hectometre, kilometre, and myriametre, by 
 
 * The Are=a square decimetre, 
 t The Stere^a cubic metre. 
 
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 341 
 
 multiplying the metre by 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 ; the other 
 measures and weights of the decimal system are formed in a like 
 manner from their respective units. 
 
 RELATIVE VALUE OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 Country or 
 
 Name 
 
 No. 
 equal to 
 
 Country or 
 
 Name 
 
 No. 
 equal to 
 
 flace. 
 
 sure. 
 
 100 Eng4 
 feiBt. ' 
 
 Flace. 
 
 sure. 
 
 100 Eng. 
 feet. 
 
 Amsterdam - 
 
 Foot 
 
 107-71 
 
 Naples - 
 
 Palmo 
 
 115-60 
 
 •Antwerp 
 
 . >■■ 
 
 106-76 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Foot 
 
 97-16 
 
 China - 
 
 ... 
 
 94-41 
 
 Riga - 
 
 ... 
 
 111-21 
 
 Copenhagen - 
 
 
 9716 
 
 Russia - 
 
 ... 
 
 87-27 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 
 106-19 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Palmo 
 
 122-69 
 
 France - 
 
 
 91-46 
 
 Sicily 
 
 
 125-91 
 
 Genoa - 
 
 Palmo 
 
 123-45 
 
 Spain - 
 
 Foot 
 
 107-91, 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Foot 
 
 106-38 
 
 Sweden 
 
 ... 
 
 102-73 
 
 Lisbon - 
 
 ... 
 
 92-73 
 
 Venice 
 
 ... 
 
 87-71 
 
 Malta 
 
 ... 
 
 107-52 
 
 
 
 
 RELATIVE VALUE OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN COMMERCIAL -WEIGaTB. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Country or 
 Place. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 equal to 
 1 cwt. 
 British. 
 
 Country or 
 Place. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 equal to 
 1 cwt. 
 British. 
 
 Alexandria - 
 
 Rottolo, 
 
 119-84 
 
 Malta - 
 
 Rottolo 
 
 64-17 
 
 
 For. 
 
 
 Naples - 
 
 Cantaro 
 
 56-99 
 
 Amsterdam - 
 
 Pound 
 
 50-79 
 
 
 gro 
 
 
 
 Flem. 
 
 
 Persia - 
 
 Batman 
 
 88-31 
 
 Algiers - 
 
 Rottolo 
 
 94-12 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Pound 
 
 110-68 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Pound 
 
 126-97 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 
 108-60 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Rottolo 
 
 117-89 
 
 Riga - 
 
 ... 
 
 121-51 
 
 China - 
 
 Catty 
 
 8400 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 ... 
 
 102-82 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 Oke 
 
 39-53 
 
 Russia - 
 
 ... 
 
 124-08 
 
 Copenhagen - 
 
 Pound 
 
 101-55 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 ... 
 
 128-00 
 
 Cyprus - 
 
 Rottolo 
 
 21-35 
 
 Sicily - 
 
 ... 
 
 160-00 
 
 Dantzic - 
 
 Pound 
 
 108-42 
 
 Smyrna - 
 
 Oke 
 
 39-53 
 
 France 
 
 Livre 
 
 ior59 
 
 Spain 
 
 Pound 
 
 110-40 
 
 
 usuel 
 
 
 Sweden - 
 
 ... 
 
 149-33 
 
 Genoa - 
 
 Pound, 
 
 145-69 
 
 Trieste - 
 
 ,,, 
 
 90-75 
 
 
 heavy 
 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Rottolo 
 
 100-00 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 Poimd 
 
 104-86 
 
 Tunis - 
 
 Rotul 
 
 100-85 
 
 Japan - 
 
 Catty 
 
 86-15 
 
 Venice 
 
 Pbund, 
 
 50-79 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 Pound 
 
 149-61 
 
 
 new 
 
 
 Madeira 
 
 ... 
 
 110-79 
 
 
 
 
 Z 3 
 
342 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 I.EAD LINES. 
 
 Band X«ads are from about 7 to 14 pounds -weight. The 
 lines are marked thus : at two fathoms black leather ; at three, 
 ditto two pieces ; at five, white ; at seven, red ; at ten, black 
 leather with a hole ; at thirteen, blue ; at fifteen, white ; at 
 seventeen, red j and two knots at twenty. 
 
 Deep Sea Kead line is marked in the same way up to 
 twenty fathoms, then one knot at twenty-five fathoms, three at 
 thirty, &c. , 
 
 The unmarked portions, one, four, six, eight, nine, eleven, 
 twelve, fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, nineteen, SiC, are called 
 " deeps ; " thus, for instance, in calling or chanting the sound- 
 ings, the leadsman cries " mark seven," or " quarter less seven," 
 or " and a quarter seven ; " and in the case of deeps, " deep six," 
 " quarter less six," " and a half six," &c. &c. 
 
 LOG LINE. 
 
 The first part of the log line is stray line, its object being to 
 permit the " log ship " to get well clear of the influence of the 
 eddy water in the ship's wake. No account of it is taken ; but 
 at the first mark, the divisions for the measurement of the ship's 
 pace commences : this mark is a piece of white bunting. 
 
 The divisions are denoted by knots which are at distances 
 from each other, bearing the same proportion to a nautical mile 
 that the time run by a sand-glass does* to an hour. If one of 
 these knots pass in the interval, the ship is sailing at the rate of 
 one mile an hour ; if two knots pass, two miles an hour ; and 
 so on. 
 
 " In this operation, a 28-8econd glass is generally used ; in 
 which case the knot should be 47 feet 3 inches, which bears the 
 same proportion to 6075'5 (the feet contained in a mean nautical 
 mile) that 28 seconds do to 3600, the seconds contained in an 
 hour. When a 14-second glass i6 used, the knots must be 
 doubled, or a log line having half -knots used. The length of 
 the knot is frequently taken as little as 44 or 45 feet, by which 
 means the sailing of the ship is overrated. This is done with a 
 view that the reckoning of the ship may be on the safe side in 
 making land. This space of 47 feet 3 inches is considered as 
 made up of tenths." * 
 
 * Inman's Navigation. 
 
OKGANISATION. 343 
 
 MEASnRING DISTANCE BY SOUND. 
 
 Sound flies at the rate of 1 142 feet in a second, or about a mile 
 in 4| seconds ; or a league in 14 seconds ; or 13 miles in a 
 minute ; but sea miles are to land miles nearly as 7 to 6, there- 
 fore sound moves over a sea nule in 5| seconds, nearly, or a sea 
 league in 16 seconds. Sound can be heard nearly twice as far 
 on the water as on the land. Thus, by observing with a watch 
 or otherwise, the time which passes between the flash of a gun 
 and the sound of the discharge, the distance from the place of 
 the discharge may be reckoned. The same with lightning. 
 
 The banks of rivers sometimes echo any sharp noise produced 
 upon the water, and this in a dark night on a broad river may 
 be useful ; for by striking the water a smart blow with the flat 
 of an oar, and observing the time between it and the echo, the 
 distance from the bank may be guessed at. 
 
 Time may be counted by the pulsations of the blood, which, 
 for a man in health, are usually 75 in a minute,* 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 ORGANISATION. 
 
 BESIBING. 
 
 As there can be no discipline established until the hammocks 
 and bags are marked and issued, and the berthing list completed, 
 the earliest attention should be given to these matters. Hammock 
 cloths take a long time in drying, and should be drawn and fitted 
 as soon as possible. The forecastle cloths stand all the better for 
 being sewn with the seam athwart ships. 
 
 In berthing, the lower deck guns must be run in and howsed 
 as at sea. Boatswain's mates are berthed at the hatchways, other 
 jPetty oficers next the sides ; thus they get a little more space, and 
 protect the mess traps. 
 
 The guard and quarter-masters are best disposed of in the 
 wings, or anywhere out of the gangways ; so that should the 
 deck be cleared early, those men who have had night watches 
 may not be disturbed. 
 
 * What to observe; 
 Z 4 
 
344 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 HAMMOCKS. 
 
 Hammocks should be fitted with three bottom and two head- 
 stops, made of good nettle stuff and whipped. They are usually- 
 marked on the head, and when hung on the gantlines must be 
 stopped on with the numbers downwards and inwards. The 
 trouble of fitting hammocks so as to lace up, is well bestowed ; 
 they are not so readily soiled or worn out as those which are 
 daily dragged to pieces with seven turns of a greasy tarry 
 lashing. Moreover, they scrub clean in half the time, and are 
 more quickly laced up. The spare suit should always be taken 
 in, ready slung and stowed away. A shift can thus be made 
 without disturbing bags, they cannot be used for deck cloths or 
 wrappers, and the men have more space in their bags for their 
 clothes. 
 
 In large ships, hammocks should be piped down by watches, 
 and in bad weather the mate of the watch should look out for a 
 clearing off so as to get them down dry. 
 
 The only way to air bedding effectually and tidily, is to stop 
 the blankets on the gantlines by the station bill for scrubbed 
 hammocks. 
 
 The best way to mark bags is with a round piece of hide 
 sewn on the bottom with a grummet round it, and having 
 the number cut on the hide. Bags should bear the owner's 
 number on the ship's books, and thus go with him wherever 
 stationed. What a cabin is to an oflcer, a resting-place for his 
 bag and diddy box is to a man. The fitments on a lower or 
 orlop deck ought to be very important that interfere with a place 
 for the permanent stowage of bags. If we take into considera- 
 tion the time spent in getting bags up and down, and in chase 
 of the owner of a stray one, who perhaps has spent the best part 
 of his meal hour in search of it, amidst the confusion of the 
 transit ; the time spent in vexatious inquiries into pilferings 
 occurring in consequence ; the discomfort to a man arising from 
 his inability to shift his wet clothes, or put on old or new ones, 
 and the positive worry that all this occasions — we will think 
 seriously before we " routine " bags twice a day up and down 
 hatchways. Bags, as affecting the comfort or discomfort of the 
 
ORGANISATION. 345 
 
 men, are matters of very large importance. Men cannot work 
 heartily in their mustering clothes. Ten minutes expended in 
 shifting to working dress for a press of -work, will be caught up 
 before an hour is over. A U that the men call elbow-grease is in 
 the jumpers. If we have our hags stowed, so that we can lay 
 hands on each particular one, we may adapt our dress to every 
 circumstance. We shall always have good clothes for muster, 
 good work out of working rig, and good heallth from timely 
 shifts on account of weather. Mustering the liberty men with 
 their bags before leaving, and then stowing their hags under 
 charge until the return of their owners, are not only checks to 
 sales, but also to theft. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 " Working dress " need not be so vague a term as to admit of 
 variety of colour and material. 
 
 The best rig is a suit of duck, made large enough for wearing 
 over all, to be put on whilst coaling or refitting, and to be 
 scrubbed and taken in as hammocks are. 
 
 Let the men appear in their night uniform, all blue, at even- 
 ing muster ; shifting at a certain period according to the season. 
 
 The dress for the day to be announced before breakfast, 
 if possible; the forenoon watch coming to muster in that 
 uniform. 
 
 On Sundays it is well to let the men, if in white, bring their 
 blue, frock to muster, as it frequently becomes cold during 
 church. 
 
 A certain quantity of clothing is necessary for each man. 
 In mustering clothes, let them parade that quantity ; if they are 
 short, take their names down for sufficient material to complete. 
 What they may have above the establishment is of no conse- 
 quence. Much time is lost at muster from noting each article 
 specially. 
 
 ■WATCH QCARTEK AND STATION BILL. 
 
 Ships are supplied with a table of complement, and a scheme 
 for the quarter bill. By the latter the system for fighting is 
 officially arranged. It is left to the option of the officer in 
 command to dispose of his strength for the purposes of working 
 ship, as he may think best. It is an approved method to take 
 the table of complement for the particular rate, and from the 
 
346 MANUAl FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 whole complement, deduct the officers, marines, idlers, stokers, 
 and second-class hoys. The remainder gives the number of 
 men disposable for the watch bill. As the artificers and signal- 
 men are included in the idlers' list, from the remainder take 
 sufficient numbers for quarter-masters and boatSTrains' mates ; 
 and then, as an approximate for equalising the strength and 
 giving every man stationed aloft about a fair proportion of can- 
 vass to handle, calculate thus : As the number of yards of can- 
 vass in the courses and topsails, &c., is to the "remainder," so 
 is the number in (say) the main-sail to the number of main-yard 
 men, and so on. 
 
 Of course, it will be remembered that some canvass is lighter 
 than others, and that from stay and studding sails, fore-top men 
 do more work aloft than the main, and therefore should be 
 equally strong. Divide the first-mentioned remainder into two 
 watches, each watch into two " halves," and each " half" into 
 two " parts ; " the odd numbers being in the first halves, the 
 even in the second halves, beginning with number " one " in 
 each watch. Thus we can keep two, four, or eight watches 
 without an additional set of stations and numbers to remember, 
 which is the case with a ship's company divided into three 
 watches. 
 
 The first parts are usually sail loosers and furlers; the 
 second, upper-yard men and second company of small arm 
 men ; the third parts, sail furlers, spare boats' crews, and third 
 company of small arm men ; the fourth parts, boats' crews and 
 spare hands for duties aloft, but generally working on deck. 
 
 The first halves of the port watch wear one stripe on the left 
 arm, and the second two. The first halves of the starboard 
 watch wear one stripe on the right arm, and the second two. 
 
 For want of space, numbers are printed instead of words in 
 the annexed form of watch bill, and represent these ; — 
 
 No. 1. Man's number on the watch bill. 
 
 2. His number on the ship's books. 
 
 3. Quarters. 
 
 4. Boat. 
 
 5. Duty aloft; such as F. Y. F., fore-yard furler; F. Y. 
 
 L. F., Fore yard loose and furl ; C. L. F., Cross, loose, 
 furl top-gallant yard. 
 In working ship with the watch, keep the second halves to 
 

 
 
 
 •O 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •a 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 
 ■O . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q4 
 
 
 « s 
 
 
 
 
 JS 
 
 
 
 
 «« 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 ■ti" 
 
 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 p4 
 
 
 
 
 1S 
 
 
 •^ . 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■fl- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Atf 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ■ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 "W 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 Pi 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cep^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !z; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "rt 
 
 S 
 
 <N 
 
 
 !5 
 
 
 
 
 i: 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Pk 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 "S . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •»• 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
348 . MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 the port duties, and the first to the starboard ;• they will thus 
 all learn, and come in for an average share of work. For 
 instance, if on the port tack, second half of top-men aloft to set 
 stud-sails, shake a reef out, &c. &c. ; second part, furl tpp-gal- 
 lant sails ; or else let them take the aloft duties day about. 
 
 It prevents confusion to denote the watch that is, or may be, 
 called on deck, by a board having the letter P on one side and 
 S on the other ; making the boatswain's mate or quarter-master 
 of the last watch answerable that it is correctly fixed in some 
 place where the watch letter may be seen. Some ships improve 
 on this, and denote the part or half for duty aloft, or for small 
 work on deck, by similar means. 
 
 All petty officers are supplied with lists of their men, and may 
 be trusted to muster them during the day ; but at night, the 
 most approved practice is for the officers of watches to be called 
 before the hour of relief, so as to be on deck in good time to 
 muster their own watch. The men fall in on one side ; one 
 midshipman musters, another (or the ship's corporal) checks the 
 " sick " replies with the binnacle list ; the men pass across, 
 answering their name and number, as they are called ; the reliefs 
 for the wheel, lead, looks out, life-buoy, relieving tackles, lee 
 sheets, and halyards, &c. &c., fall in, and are inspected at the 
 times appointed for relieving these posts. When the relieving 
 watch is mustered it is " called," and then the other one is at 
 liberty to go below. When the officer is satisfied with the ship's 
 position and condition, the other is relieved of responsibility. 
 Thus we have an entire and sober watch constantly on deck ; 
 and until a happier experience proves that squalls will not take 
 us aback, or another ship run into us because it is " eight bells," 
 we cannot afford to be less exacting. 
 
 The petty officers and carpenters, after having gone a round 
 of inspection, report the ropes clear for working, the guns 
 secure, sentries alert, life-buoy primed, the pump well right, 
 and, if under steam, the steam-lights trimmed and the ashes 
 disposed of. 
 
 The Royal Marines are added to the watch bill on a separate 
 division, and the working parties are kept in equal force by 
 taking the guard from each watch. Where there are marines 
 enough, over and above the number necessary for great guns, it 
 is an excellent arrangement to take that surplus for guard duty. 
 
ORGANISATION. 349 
 
 having a change round once a month : for it often comes hard, 
 for example, on a man who has just kept a watch in the work- 
 ing party to become " sentry go ; " and equally so for one who 
 has just come off sentry to be summoned to gun drill or general 
 quarters. The Marines generally compose the first company 
 of small arm men. 
 
 The Idler's list is divided into two classes, the " excused " and 
 " working." The former are only employed, apart from their 
 special duties, at general quarters ; the latter, when idlers or all 
 hands are called. Although it will require "sharp practice on 
 the part of the police, it is but right, when hands are on deck, 
 to consider the particular duties performed below by some of the 
 idlers, and to aUow the servants, steward's assistants, and reliefs 
 to go below in reasonable time. 
 
 When not standing by, we summon the whole, a half, or a 
 part, according to the force required ; thus we do not wet or 
 disturb more hands than are necessary. 
 
 We make it generally known that " the work must be done " 
 is a law to which everything must give way. 
 
 If a part work slackly, this of course shows we want more 
 strength, and we call a half. If the slackness continue, the 
 watch is called, and, if need be, the hands ; for it is impossible 
 in these cases to select a solitary offender for an example. What- 
 ever may be done with the party afterwards, the immediate 
 consequence is that the real offenders who have caused the turn- 
 out hear of it on going below, with a far more corrective effect 
 than would be produced at the gangway. 
 
 All evolutions should be briefly, distinctly, and sharply piped. 
 Boatswains' mates acquire, if permitted, a drowsy manner of 
 groaning over a treble bass solo : and often the chance is lost 
 before they have arrived at the end of the gamut. 
 
 The particular " part " of the ship, that is, the parties who are 
 to be employed, should be named. The term " watch below " 
 is most objectionable. Men-begin to consider such a thing aright, 
 even though in harbour with all night in and short days. The 
 indefinite quantity " after " or " fore part of the ship " is pro- 
 lific of complaints, for, when used, there will always be claim- 
 ants for neutral ground. 
 
 There should be one cook of the mess in each watch, officially 
 known daily to the master at arms ; the rank being local and 
 
350 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 temporary, and never acknowledged among the watch on 
 ' ck. 
 After every evolution ropes should he reported clear for 
 
 deck 
 
 A' 
 
 running 
 
 CONDtJCT BOOK. 
 
 For the purposes of drill, the watch and station bill may be 
 sufficient ; but an alphabetical Conduct Book carefully and ju- 
 diciously kept is almost the only source from which can be derived 
 a correct estimate of individual character. It would relieve the 
 first lieutenant from much uncertainty (and possibly from self- 
 reproach) and the chance of dealing unjustly with his men if as 
 much of a man's history, occupation, antecedents, capacity, and 
 conduct, as could be collected from his certificates, &c., together 
 with a true record of his behaviour — good and bad — while at- 
 tached to the ship, were entered under his name. Cases will arise 
 in which are involved not only the granting or withholding of 
 indulgence, but the issue of those certificates on which much of a 
 man's prospects depends ; and it cannot but be a great relief to a 
 conscientious * officer to have before him a body of reliable re- 
 cords, from which he may infer the probability of a case perplexed 
 by the conflict or insufficiency of evidence-f Bound as the first 
 lieutenant is to lay before his captain the grounds on which he 
 may arrive at a just decision, it is of great moment that he should 
 have the means of collating the general tenor of a man's life 
 with the particular offence charged against him. It is true that 
 that offence may be in direct discord with antecedents — a case 
 possible, but not likely — but stiU, when testimony is contradictory, 
 inconclusive or equivocal, he cannot go much astray if he cast 
 the entries of the conduct book into the scale and conclude 
 
 * " officers shouldreflectthat the character of aseaman on his certificate, i$ 
 his passport through tire; by it he gains promotion or employment, and by it 
 his ftiture pension is affected." - Admiralty Circular, No. 113. 
 
 f The Duke of Wellington remarks : — " It ft most difficult to commit any 
 prisoner, for the soldiers have little regard for an oath ; and the officers, who 
 are sworn to try ' according to the evidence,' have too much regard to the 
 strict letter of it. A court martial is no longer a court of honour, where a man 
 was certain of receiving punishment, ifAe deserved it, but it is a court of law, 
 whose decision is to be formed upon the evidence of those upon whose actions 
 it is constituted as a restraint." 
 
 To prevent misapprehension, it must be observed that this extract from the 
 " Despatches " is only intended to Illustrate the great importance which that 
 great disciplinarian attached to discrimination. 
 
OBGANISATION. 351 
 
 accordingly. For all these uses, the conduct book is too im- 
 portant a register to be entrusted entirely to the hands of a de- 
 puty. Its value consists in its thorough honesty, discrimination 
 and impartiality, and if marked invariably with those features, 
 would be felt by the men to be an infallibility. They would 
 bow to decisions inflicted by it, not only because the written 
 record was there, but because that record had been inscribed by 
 one in whose judgment they could rely, and whose high-minded 
 fairness they could trust. The master at arms may be an upright 
 man, but he is not far removed from the men themselves. He 
 gets his leave in turn with the ship's company, he has his likings 
 and dislikings, his favourites and fancies. His sense of right 
 and wrong may be blunt and dull, or warped — unknown to 
 himself — by low considerations ; his estimate of character may 
 be based on an undue value for some qualities, and as undue a 
 depreciation of others ; his prejudices maybe more powerful than 
 his judgment, and his temper may be of that stern "nature which 
 makes no allowance for extraordinary circumstances. All this 
 may contribute to render the conduct book kept by him a very 
 imperfect, if not unfair, picture of the morale of a seaman. In 
 the hands of the first lieutenant the case is different. From 
 position, education, and habits, he is not likely to be tinged in 
 his estimate by such considerations as these ; he has seen his men 
 in all circumstances, felt their natures in moments of need, 
 marked their zeal in the hour of danger, and read them 
 thoroughly on occasions which strip the disguises off the most 
 artful. A record of conduct kept by such a man diligently and 
 conscientiously, and uncolouredby the touches of a subordinate's 
 hand, would probably be found not only one of the best aids to 
 justice, but one of the best promoters of good conduct that an 
 officer could command. 
 
 The right management of men is difficult under any circum- 
 stances, but specially so in such an artificial world as a ship. 
 The interference of the executive must be constant, it must be 
 vigorous, and to be tolerable, must be judicious. The superiority 
 of prevention to cure is proverbial ; but, as it is only the close 
 observers who will detect the early stages of disorder, so it is 
 only the skilful hand that can apply the efficient remedy, and 
 only a thoughtful student of human nature who can administer 
 it so adroitly as to make it "almost imperceptible. Lord Colling- 
 
352 MANtJAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 wood complained in his day that " some endeavoured to conceal 
 hy great severity their own unskilfulness, and want of attention, 
 and that the men were beaten into insuhordination." 
 
 The desire to rule upon principles of commingled justice and 
 kindness, is as widely separate from unhealthy " good fellow- 
 ship " as the loudest denouncers of popularity-seeking could 
 wish. TJntll it can be shown satisfactorily that an ofBcer should 
 not study to be fairly popular, and that the attempt is incompat- 
 ible with the good condition of a ship, it is not wrong to main- 
 tain that, although there may be all the appearances of high 
 discipline, and faultless system from the water lines to the trucks, 
 and from the keelson to the nettings, unless the executive be in 
 sympathy with the men, the ship will not be " all alive."* 
 
 When- possible, it is of course desirable to adopt a system for 
 carrying out each day's duty ; and some officers have at- 
 tempted to famish a scale by which even every minute is to be 
 employed in the performance of a specified operation. But they 
 have overlooked the fact that ships are to " observe the motions 
 of their superior," and the consequence of a ship being tabulated 
 by such routine boards is, that the people, being accustomed to 
 do things by method, are so discomfited by a change of weather, 
 or a sudden unexpected order, as to be utterly adrift. 
 
 The short form for routine and executive's order book, is — 
 " Hands at ... . a.m. Call me five minutes before that time." 
 A ship that has to follow motions should always be some little 
 time ahead of the Flag ship in all her necessary internal duties ; 
 and this can only be effected by the personal vigilance and 
 talent of the first lieutenant. If he depute the hardest of all 
 duties, the morning ones, to the mate of the watch and the " rou- 
 tine " board, and comes on deck some two hours after hands have 
 been called, in the belief that hammocks have been brought up, 
 people have turned out, and decks have been cleaned, according 
 to the programme, his must he a chasing ship, and consequently 
 " behind " all day. This involves constant hurry, dissatisfaction, 
 and indiscriminate censure ; and the report of a lowering sky 
 
 * " I wish popularity, but it is that popularity which follows, not that which is 
 after ; it is that popularity which sooner or later never fails to do justice to the 
 purBuit of noble ends by noble means." — Mansfield, Cornwallis Despatches. 
 
OEGAKISATION. 353 
 
 creates less' alarm on the lower deck than the cloudy looks of the 
 late lieutenant.* 
 
 In no case is the homely adage more apposite than in that of 
 a ship ; it is the eye of an early ship-keeping executive that 
 makes her /at.f Almost omnipresent, he discerns unerringly 
 between those who do the work and those who do not. His 
 activity stimulates the lazy, and encourages the active ; causes 
 for complaint do not occur ; blame is not blindly dispensed ; the 
 ship will partake of the early character of her first lieutenant ; 
 be among the smartest of the smart, and keep stroke almost 
 with the ftigle man : she will stand A 1. in the estimation 
 of the Admiral, and her crew will become too proud of them- 
 selves to allow another to eclipse them. It has been well said 
 that " the more the Admiralty feel it requisite to curtail coercive 
 measures, the more imperatiTe it becomes, on the part of officers, 
 to increase their zeal." 
 
 It is very convenient to station men for muster by Open List, 
 forming them in hundreds. Issues and musters are thus greatly 
 facilitated. 
 
 Mustering by Divisions is a tangle. Whereas, in that by 
 quarters, each officer has his own men, and can inspectj not only 
 gun gear, but personal appearance. A bugle note with the 
 drum readily denotes whether arms are to be brought or not. 
 
 Generally speaking, when once put to rights, the forenoon 
 watch on deck should be mustered (dean) after three-quarters- 
 of-an-hour's breakfast time by 7.30 a.m. at the latest; second 
 class boys at the same time. Running the boys about the 
 rigging then interferes with all their duties below, therefore they 
 should be lustantly dismissed. 
 
 Even if the lower deck be not finished, the other watch, though 
 not " clean for muster," are in uniform colours in winter ; and 
 if the eight o'clock evolution be as heavy as those of winter 
 generally are, you can send all hands to stations aloft. If it be 
 
 * " Well had the boding tremblers learnt to trace 
 
 The day's disaster in his morning face." 
 t Nelson is reported to hare frequently said " that he owed his successes to 
 the fact of being always aquarter of an hour before his time; " and Wellington 
 writes, " Every officer is personally responsible for the execution of the orders 
 which he receives from his superiors, and I am responsible for the whole. It 
 is no excuse for me, or any other officer, to state that he ordered an inferiorto 
 carry it into execution.'* — Detpatches. 
 
 A A 
 
334 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 summer, the difference of colour will be of no great consequence, 
 for, most probably, the work can be performed by the " watch, 
 on deck aloft." 
 
 In some ships, the following system was found to work well : — 
 All breakfasting was over in the officers' messes by 8.30 ; the 
 forenoon watch and officer of the guard breakfasting at 7.30 
 and relieving the deck at 8 A.M.* Great care was taken that 
 the servants were not interfered with for ship's duties, until the 
 general muster, which took place invariably at 9. At this hour, 
 the ship and crew were ready for any kind of duty. The crew 
 were mustered at quarters ; this done, the bell tolled, the men 
 came aft on their respective decks, and the chaplain read morn- 
 ing prayers, — this revival of the old custom of the service not 
 occupying more than ten minutes, — the whole of the morning 
 parade was over by 9.15j and the morning watch people had a 
 long forenoon rest. 
 
 Stewards find it more convenient for themselves to issue bread 
 about twice a week. As the barge is not large enough for such 
 a supply, a great part is stowed in a bag and is Consequently 
 ground, to powder ; this iag being moreover inconvenient and 
 unsightly in the mess places. Besides, in a new ship the raw 
 hands eat up the supply at once, to the hardship of their less 
 voracious messmates. The only objection to daily issue is the 
 additional trouble to tiie stewards. 
 
 The issue of a large ship's dinner wiU take fifteen minutes. It 
 is therefore customary in well managed ships, to commence 
 issuing about that length of time before piping to dinner ; the 
 cook of course not being permitted to clear the coppers until 
 then. 
 
 CLEANING DECKS. 
 
 The philosophy of cleaning decks consists in getting a fresh 
 surface on them, and a wipe from a cloth with either hot or cold 
 water does not effect this.. It is the " lick " system, and the 
 " promise " of benefit is never kept. Dumb scraping afterwards 
 
 * Inspecting the " relics " on the upper deck, in preference to 'tween dechs, 
 is the most certain way or having sentries clad according to weather. Who- 
 ever it may inconvenience, the men are benefited. 
 
OBGANISATION. 355 
 
 does carry off much dirt, tut it is ruinous to the planking. The 
 " P"ggy " condition of a lower deck can only he got rid of by 
 stoning and ventilation. 
 
 Wet stoning can only he done occasionally, when weather is 
 so fine that the people will rather enjoy a picnic on the upper or 
 main deck for the day.' 
 
 Dry stoning, especially if the sand is dried in the oven hefore 
 use, will clear the pores of the wood of every particle that emits 
 had odours. It may easily he overdone, and the sweeping up so 
 carelessly performed as to become a positive nuisance : but if 
 merely enough sand is used, and the deck sprinkled with any 
 vessel having a fine rose, or with wetted tea leaves, there need 
 not he any dust. 
 
 The objections to wet decks are supported by the medical 
 officers with such a weight of evidence, that they cannot he 
 gainsayed ; and if a mate of a deck does not think the health of 
 the crew a matter of iiidifference,.he may so arrange the process 
 of cleaning as to prove that dry decks are not incompatible with 
 comfort.* 
 
 If in all cases of " all-hand operations," such as refitting, 
 coaling, general exercises, &o., the decks be previously sanded, 
 every footfall " stones " the deck, and a " rinse " or sweep down 
 afterwards will leave the surface without a soil. 
 
 But no decks can be kept clean without a large proportion of 
 spitting kids. If made in nests they stow easily. The dry 
 system has been completely tested in many ships and found to 
 answer well. For when the men were led to comprehend the 
 connection between neglect of cleanly habits and 4 a.m. wet 
 stoning, and a, careful use of kids and general tidiness with 
 an extra hour and half in bed .about that time, they became as 
 scrupulous about the decks as they would have been in their 
 homes. Moreover, they came fresh to their work in the forenoon 
 — a consequence worth consideration, especially in cases where 
 
 * " His (ColliDgwood's) flag ship, with a crew of 800 men, was on one occasion 
 more than one year and a half without going into port, and never had more 
 than six on her sick list. This result was occasioned by Ms system of arrange- 
 ment, and his attention to dryness^ ventilation^ &c., but above all, by the con- 
 tented spirits of the sailors, who^oved their commander as their protector and 
 friend, well assured that at his hands, they would receive justice and kindness, 
 and that of their comforts he was more jealous than of his own."p~Collingwootfs 
 Life. 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 perhaps, during tlie previous night, they have heen employed for 
 four hours in working ship. In the ships referred to, the masts 
 and booms were scraped on Friday, all the decks were thoroughly 
 cleaned after an early breakfast, on Saturday ; and excepting the 
 dry rubbing on the lower deck, and a little drying up in the site 
 of the kids, that great operation lasted, for the whole of the en- 
 suing week. 
 
 A Head Shoot is a great source of dirt. The rubbish is 
 can-ied about the ship in the first instance, and frequently blown 
 inboard in the next, to say nothing of the unsightly nature of 
 the article in question. Large tubs are the best— one being kept 
 on each deck. The dirt, which must be somewhere, accumulates 
 there, and as these tubs are usually fitted with appropriate slings, 
 they can be hoisted out from time to time with a slip whip and 
 toggle. 
 
 The Ventilation is a subject which requires constant attention, 
 for the violent fits- of coughing and feverish symptoms ex- 
 hibited by strong men when called up at night, show what a 
 foul atmosphere on the lower deck may produce. At sea 
 much may be done by keeping the main sail set before the 
 wind. In harbour it is far better to make all sail in the morn- 
 ing, during sultry weather, than to spread awnings. Shade 
 may be given by bracing the yards about. Pipes, might be 
 carried along the lower deck beams, which being perforated, and 
 leading into fore and aft ones, and these again into upright ones, 
 will disperse foul air, and circulate fresh. Gutta percha or 
 zinc could easily be thus applied. At all events wind sails must 
 not only be hoisted, but their mouths protected from being tied 
 up. 
 
 The subject of the observation of the Lord's Day cannot be 
 considered irrelevant to that of discipline, when it is recollected 
 how strongly it is insisted on in the Articles of War, not simply 
 as a Christian duty, but as tending to good morals and right 
 conduct. " All commanders, captains, and ofjcers, in, or be- 
 longing to, any of His Majesty's ships, or vessels of war, shall 
 cause the public worship of Almighty God, according to the 
 Liturgy of the Church of England, established by law, to be 
 solemnly, orderly, and reverently performed, in their respective 
 
ORGANISATION. 357 
 
 ships, and shall take care that prayers and preaching, hy the 
 chaplains in holy orders, of the respective ships, he performed 
 diligently, and that the Lord's Day he ohserved according to 
 law." * It appears that, at one time, divine service daily was 
 the usual custom of the British navy, and was doubtless enforced 
 from a conviction of the salutary influence that the frequent con- 
 sideration of eternal things would have on the minds of those 
 who " occupy their business in great waters." f The resumption 
 of this custom in many instances has proved the wisdom of the 
 regulation. A ship's company has been found to require less 
 punishment where the power of the Great Master's word has been 
 felt. But in this, as in the more important services of the Sun- 
 day, all " care " should be taken to bring the men together unex- 
 hausted by'previous labour, and to render the services as pointed 
 and arresting as possible. A little management would obviate 
 the necessity for " holy-stoning," &c., which somehow has become 
 apart of the Sunday morning's exercise f, and thus contribute to 
 produce that calmness, quietness, and order which of themselves 
 would indicate that the " First day of the Week " was something 
 different from all the others. Probably much of the effect that 
 might result from a well managed Sunday service is diminished, 
 if not neutralised, by the toil, noise, and mental distraction which 
 precede it. It is unreasonable to expect that men will " receive 
 with profit " religious instruction, or join heartily in prayer, who 
 have been abruptly summoned to them, wearied in body and 
 ruffled in mind. Of course, in such a peculiar world as a ship 
 at sea, everything must bend to stem necessity ; but without 
 encroaching on discipline or essential duties, many things which 
 are pronounced necessary might, by consideration and manage- 
 ment, be avoided, 
 
 * Articles of War. 
 
 t " The uommanders of H. M. ships are to take care that divine service be 
 performed twice a day on board, according to the liturgy of the Church of 
 England : and a sermon preached on Sundays, unless bad weather, or 
 other extraordinary accident, prevent it.'* — Naval Instructions, a.d. 1734. 
 
 X Many a routine commences with an order to " prepare at 3.30 a.m. on 
 Sunday to stone declcs," and assigns a particular duty for nearly every ten 
 minutes from 4 a.m. until, when having gone through the fatigues of the decks. 
 Bide, copper, paint-work, guns, arms, yards, awnings shifting, stowing, the 
 wearied people are ordered up for church about the time that preparations are 
 making for dinner. 
 
 A A 3 
 
358 MAKUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 PREPAEING FOR SEA. 
 
 COMPASS. 
 
 The only natural magnet known is the loadstone. Magnetised 
 iron or steel needles wiU communicate their power of attraction 
 to other pieces of similar metal,.. The magnetic power can also 
 he imparted to iron and steel hy holding the har slanting in a 
 northerly and southerly direction : the upper end heing to the 
 
 -south and the lower to the north, resting on a block of iron ; 
 and striking the lower end smartly with a hammer. If nicely 
 balanced, it will then swing with its lower end to the north. 
 Two needles, each pointing north, will, if placed near each other, 
 repel each other. If the north pole of one he brought near the 
 south pole of another, they will attract and approach each 
 other as in positive and negatiire electricity. Iron is more 
 readily magnetised than steel; but the former parts with its 
 power quickly, whilst the latter remains permanent. The 
 powers of either natural or artificial magnets may be destroyed 
 by careless stowage,lightning or red heat. The compasses may 
 be adjusted at moorings when the swivel is on ; in a steam-ship, 
 with the steam at slack water, the dash of the water against the 
 rudder when hard over will carry the stem round. A cabin 
 compass fastened to a cross head on a long spar placed upright, 
 and read off with the spy glass, is a safe correction j and this has 
 answered where there were no means of adjustment by swinging ; 
 for nothing in the ship can attract fifty feet above the deck. 
 When sent for from below, a. midshipman should always be 
 able to tell the state of the wind, and how the ship's head is, 
 as well as the bearing of any land that is in sight ; not only 
 how it bears by compass, but also how it bears from the ship's 
 bow, if it be near her track ; for there are points in the 
 compasses of some ships which: require unusual correction. A 
 prompt answer to such questions may save a ship. Land 
 was reported in the * * * * to bear on the lee bow; and 
 the order given below was to haul up a certain number of 
 
 'points : the officer altered course by compass, and put the ship 
 on the ground. 
 
PREPARING FOR SEA. 
 
 359 
 
 The variation of the needle is caused partly ty the large 
 masses of iron which are on board a ship. Mr. Barlow disco- 
 vered that the magnetic power resides entirely on the surface of 
 a body, and is independent of it as a mere -mass; so that a 
 hollow globe of iron has as much attractive force as a solid of 
 the same diameter. Hence as the disturbing causes are ahead of 
 a. ship's compass, Mr. Barlow thought of arranging a certain 
 amount of metal behind it, which would compensate, or 
 nuUify, the effect of local attraction. The correcting plate is 
 composed of two thin circular plates of iron, 12 inches in breadth, 
 and kept from contact by a circular piece of card or board. This ■ 
 plate is attached to the' compass stand by means of a brass or 
 copper rod.* The manner of using this apparatus is as follows ; — 
 When a ship has completed her stores, the variation of her com- 
 pass is noted as her head is swung round all points of the compass 
 by a comparison (conducted with signals), with another compass 
 on the land. The ship's compass and stand are then taken on 
 shore, and placed free from all metallic attraction. The object 
 then is so to adjust the plate as to produce the same deviations in 
 the ship's compass at each movement of the compass box as were 
 occasioned by the local attraction of the ship. This done, the 
 distance from the centre of the plate to the pivot on which the 
 needle turns is carefully noted, together with the angle which 
 the plate makes with a vertical plane. 
 
 When the plate is used on 
 board, it is fixed (as iajig. . ^'^' ^^^' 
 
 311,) to one of the legs of 
 the standard compass tripod, 
 which compass must stand 
 in its former position, at the 
 same distance from the 
 centre of the needle, and at 
 the same angle with the ver- ' 
 tical as when used on shore. 
 The plate having been made 
 (when on shore) to produce 
 as much error as all the iron 
 
 on board, the error is now consequently doubled, and allowance 
 either increasing or diminishing, is applied accordingly. 
 
 *' Nautical Magazine. 
 A A 4 
 
360 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 BTEEBING GEAR. 
 
 Ships are fitted ■with either a Tiller or Yoke, acoordiBg to the 
 amount of space abaft the screw chamber. All eailing ships 
 have tillers. 
 
 The arrangement of tiller ropes is the same in either ease. A 
 single block is seized on each side of the foremost end of the 
 tUler, the ropes pass through a series of leads to the sides ; from 
 thence through the tiller blocks, and back to the side, where the 
 ends are secured ; in the case of very short tillers or yokes, the 
 parts below being trebled. (See page 102.) 
 
 In very bad weather, tackles are put on in addition, to relieve 
 the tiller ropes, and the men who work them are communicated 
 with, from the binnacle, by means of a tube. 
 
 Yokes are generally formed with two metal sheaves at each 
 end. 
 
 The wheel is fitted with " twiddling lines j " these are made fast 
 to the lower part of the stanchion, and are intended to secure the 
 wheel with when at anchor, or duringstemway. They should be 
 
 JFig. 212. 
 
PBEPAEING FOE SEA, 361 
 
 passed the moment the ship loses -way ; for fatal accidents have 
 happened by the neglect of ignorant men, -who have heen sud- 
 denly thrown violently over the wheel, when it revolved by the 
 action of the water on the rudder as the ship gathered stemway. 
 ( Fig. 212.) 
 
 PAINT ■WOKK. 
 
 The white streak on the side is on an average about three feet 
 wide ; and the length of the ship being known, you can tell at a 
 glance, very nearly the number of superficial yards on the whole 
 side. 
 
 White 28 lbs., litharge lib., linseed oil 6 pints, spirits of tur- 
 pentine 2 pints, will paint about 100 superficial yards. 
 
 Black 28 lbs., litharge 1 lb., linseed oil 10 pints, turps 2 pints, 
 will paint 160 superficial yards. 
 
 Black 46 lbs., litharge 2 lbs., boiled linseed oil 31 gallons, 
 will paint hammock and hatchway covers, seamen's, bags, 100 
 yards running measure. 
 
 White 21 lbs., yellow spruce 7 lbs., Venetian red 1 lb., linseed 
 oil 1 gallon, will give large lower masts one coat of spar colour. 
 
 1 lb. of black when thinned will cover about 6 superficial 
 yards once ; this does for spars, " touching up," &c. 
 
 All knots should be " killed " before painting, otherwise the 
 turpentine will exude. Cover them with fresh slaked lime for 
 twenty-four hours, then scrape the lime off, and lay on a coat of 
 stiff red and white lead, mixed with glue size. Pumice stone 
 when dry, and then lay on some paint. 
 
 Zinc paint is very much preferable to white lead for " 'tween- 
 decks ; " as it is not easily discoloured by foul air. Care must 
 be taken not to use with it litharge, or any article based on 
 lead, as a " dryer : " the proper kind can be purchased at any 
 colourist's along with the paint. 
 
 To coat iron work, mix red lead and linseed oil to the con- 
 sistency of paint, boil well, and when cool, add painter's driers ; 
 or, heat the gear to a dull red, and dash it with linseed oil until 
 it assumes a glaze, then let it cool, 
 
 LIFE BUOYS. 
 
 Hulks are not fitted with life buoys ; therefore 'the ships are 
 drawn and fitted at once. The words " pull " and " fire " are 
 
362 MANUAL FDR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 painted, the former in white, the latter in red, immediately 
 over each handle ; their duties and localities are thus soon gene- 
 rally known. 
 
 NIGHT SIGNALS. 
 
 H. M. ships, when under steam, are required to carry a Bright 
 light at the fore-mast head, a Green light on the starhoard side, 
 a Red light on the port side. 
 
 The coloured lights are fitted with a wooden screen on the 
 inboard side, in order to prevent both from being seen at the 
 same moment from any direction but that of right ahead ; thus, 
 in any situation in which two vessels may approach each other 
 in the dark, the coloured lights will instantly indicate to both the 
 relative courses of each ; that is each wiU know whether the 
 other is approaching directly, or crossing the bows, either to 
 Starboard or to Port. 
 
 This system of night signals has been adopted by the British 
 merchant service, as well as by most foreign maritime nations. 
 
 Trifles often aid memory, especially in a flurry, and where the 
 choice lies between but two courses : — Port (wine) is Eed. 
 
 All Her Majesty's sailing vessels, when under sail or being 
 towed, approaching or being approached by any other vessel 
 or vessels, are to show between sunset and sunrise a bright light 
 in such a position as can be best seen by such vessel or vessels, 
 and in sufficient time to avoid collision. 
 
 All sailing vessels at anchor in roadsteads or fairways, are to 
 exhibit, between sunset and sunrise, a constant bright light at 
 the mast-head ; except within harbours or other places, where 
 regulations for other lights for ships are legally established. 
 
 RULE OF THE ROAD. 
 
 The rule of the road at sea is^- 
 
 That steamers pass each other in day time on the port side of 
 each other ; that is leaving each other on the port hand. 
 
 That ships on the starboard tack keep their wind, others give 
 way. 
 
 That ships running give way to those on a wind. 
 
 That the niglit sigrnal for the starboard tack is, two lights 
 vertical on lee cat-head, and one light vertical on weather cat- 
 
PEEPAEING FOE SEA. 363 
 
 head ; and that for the port tack is, two lights vertical on weather 
 cat-head, and one light vertical on lee cat-head. 
 
 That the tOg signal for starboard tack is horns and drums, 
 and for the port tack, hells. 
 
 A steam vessel passing another in a narrow channel, 
 must always leave the vessel she is passing on the port hand. 
 Steam vessels under steam are to keep themselves clear of the 
 course of sailing vessels, and when practipahle to pass astern and 
 to leeward of them. 
 
 Xine of BatUe means that divisions, squadrons, or individual 
 ships are ranged ibr action in line, either, according to precon- 
 certed arrangement, or as convenient. 
 
 Order of SaUlnir means that the ships composing divisions 
 or squadrons are ranged in columns, this compact form heing 
 more convenient for the purpose of proceeding on parallel lines 
 to the destination of the Fleet. 
 
 When sailing in two columns, the columns are to be one mile 
 and a half, and the ships of each column to be two cables' length 
 from each other. 
 
 When: sailing in three columns, the columns are to be one 
 mile, and the ships in each column to be two cables' length from 
 each other. 
 
 With the wind large the columns sail abreast each other, but 
 when the columns sail by the wind, the leading ships of each are 
 to bear in the direction of the wind from each other, and so on 
 the remainder. 
 
 XAne of Searing means that whilst the ships are thus 
 sailing large, they are to bring each other to bear, so that if 
 ordered to haul their yind, they would be in line ahead of 
 .each other. For instance, if with the wind North, and three 
 ships steering South, the order to form starboard line of bearing 
 were made, the centre ship would bring the west one to bear 
 w.N.w., and the eastern ship would bring both to bear w.n.w. 
 and thus continuing their course would be described as sailing 
 l^ge on the starboard Line qf Bearing, and ready to haul their 
 wind on the starboard tack in line ahead- The reverse of this 
 would be the Port line of bearing. 
 
 Close order means that the ships are to be two caMi^ 
 length; open order four cablea' length, from each other.,^^'" 
 
364 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 INSPECTION. 
 
 Supposing the ship to be " complete," it is usual to see that 
 the following matters have been attended to, preparatory to 
 leaving harbour. The warrant officers will have " indented," 
 that is, they will have compared their warrants, or lists of stores, 
 with the accounts in the store-keeper's office, receiving receipts 
 for harbour use articles, and giving their signatures for sea stores. 
 
 The hulk cleaned and taken charge of by the officer of the 
 ordinary. 
 
 The port order book retumeii. 
 
 Port edges lined. Port Bars, Scuttles, Scuttle handles. Hawse, 
 Plugs, Bucklers, Pumps, Fire Engine Hoses, Capstan Bars, Jack 
 in the Box, Dead Lights, Scupper Flaps and -Plugs, Winch 
 Handles, Hose Wrenches, Port Lanyards and Tackles, Shot 
 Plugs, Orlop marked under corresponding lower-deck ports, 
 Swifters, Gratings, and Hatchway Tarpaulins, all in their 
 places ; Pump Handles, Sounding Rods ready for use ; Trim 
 observed, and aU Empty Casks, Cases, and Shakes returned. 
 
 Also Signal Books corrected ; Flags, and Signal Lanthorn 
 yard fitted ; Signal Lanthorns and Steam Lights trimmed ; 
 Signal Rockets, Blue Lights, Port Fires, Flash Pan, and Ammu- 
 nition at hand. 
 
 Also Masts upright well stayed and greased ; Pendants stopt 
 taut in ; Yards square ; Lifts marked ; -Heels of Booms square 
 and toggled; Ends equally rigged out; Gaskets black and at 
 equal distances ; Ropes coiled down clear on deck for running, 
 and flat in the tops ; New Topsail Halyards "well hauled on and 
 re-rove, else they are sure to be cable-layed when making sail ; 
 Topsail Sheets stopt together ; Lower buntlines rounded up ; 
 Hawsers reeled up, ends becketed, and each warp assigned to 
 particular parts of the ship ; Dry stoppers at all the belaying 
 places ; Spare Sails, Yards, Parrels, Brace Blocks, Awnings, 
 Wind Sails, Boat's Covers, Mast and Yard Covers, Hammock 
 Gantlines, Clothes' Lines fitted. 
 
 Stern Ladders, Lower Boom, and Quarter, and Slack ropes, 
 should be hauled in. Ends of" Gangers" are apt to be let go 
 when slipping moorings and should be hauled in afterwards. 
 
 Also Lead Lines (Hand and Deep), Spare Wheel Ropes, Re- 
 lieving Tackles, Spare Tiller, and Key head. Binnacle and Steam 
 Lamps trimmed ; Wheel ropes clear in the Gun-room and pas- 
 
PEEPAKING FOE SEA. 365 
 
 sages; Log lines, Twiddling lines, Breast ropes, Man ropes, 
 Boat ropes ready ; Life Buoy primed j Rudder pendants stopt 
 up within reach ; B.udder Chocks at hand j Anchors clear for 
 letting go ; Buoy ropes on ; Cables clear for running ; Com- 
 pressor tackles, Rigging, Bitt and Ring stoppers, Chain slip, 
 Nippers, Punches, Pellets, Spare Shackles, Messenger, Mooring 
 Swivel, Hook Ropes, Chain Hooks, Axes, in their places. 
 
 Also Boats square in the slings, fenders in, and rowlocks 
 shipped ; Slips on the Gripes ; Boat Ropes of quarter boats 
 stopped along outside all ; Falls clear for lowering, complete in 
 Sails, Masts, Yards, Oars, Boat-hooks, Flag Staff, Rudders with 
 Lanyards, Fenders, Anchors, Cables, Flags, Baler, Breakers, 
 Bungs, Handy Billies, Tool Boxes, Quarter Case (containing 
 Pistol, Flash Pan, Caps, Powder, Blue Lights, Rocket, the Staff 
 being tacked under the Gunnel), Bowsprits and Irons, Slings, 
 Windlass and Bars, Pipes for bottoms (if so fitted). Awnings 
 and Stanchions, Recall and General Signal board ; Boom Boats 
 griped ; Boat's Binnacles, Magazines and Armament complete. 
 Also Guns, square on the ports, or secure for sea ; Tompions in ; 
 Ports square; Linch pins home ; Forelocks twisted ; Breechings 
 clenched; Spans fitted; Priming Wires, Vent Bits, Locks, Aprons, 
 Trigger lines,Tube boxes. Chalk pocket. Range Boards,Tangents, 
 Disparts, Beds, Quoins, Handspikes, Dismounting gear, Fuse 
 ■wrenches. Fire buckets and Lanyards, Wads, Inclined planes. 
 Hammer, Spike and MaUet, Swabs, Converging lines. Fighting 
 lanthorns trimmed. Shot nets. Shell whips. Fire screens, Arms, 
 Spare Tackles, Trucks, Tomahawks, Sponges, Rammers, and 
 Woi-ms on each deck ; Light room lamps trimmed ; Magazine 
 keys tallied ; Water in the Magazine cistern ; Case Shot boxes 
 lashed ; Sweep pieces fitted ; Small Arms assorted and marked. 
 The Ship's Trim can be taken in harbour, even when the sur- 
 face water is broken, by means of a wooden tube, open at each 
 end and having a glass pane in one side ; the water will rise in 
 this to a stiU level, and its height may be thus observed. (Fig. 
 213.) 
 
 These things and many more must be well looked to before 
 making the first start. Happily the mere harbour order, which 
 once obtained to the extent of unreeving rope, unhooking bow- ■ 
 sprit shrouds, hiding necessary gear in the tiers, and then 
 making a display of brazen and gilded finery, which involved 
 
366 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 every sailor in a hat full of greasy brass rags, has become obso- 
 lete. Nothing that is needful is now considered nnsightly ; and 
 even in " providing stores," a man hss to use his eyes and com- 
 mon sense, rather than tax his memory. 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
 LOOStNG SAILS. 
 
 Kaul lower buntlines up before letting fall courses, and make 
 the loosers get off the foot ropes before letting faU upper sails 
 so that the sails may be hoisted and sheeted home in one motion. 
 
 Some officers prefer making and shortening all sail at once ; 
 but in this case, for a time the deck of the smartest ship is 
 crowded and confused ; and be the master or pilot ever so urgent, 
 nothing can be done until the decks are cleared up. A smaller 
 evolution, well pronounced, and sharply done is more effective 
 than a greater one, which is necessarily somewhat ragged and 
 confusing. 
 
 The harbour moorings are taken in by a lump which is placed 
 under the bows for that purpose, the ship being meanwhile se- 
 cured by slip ropes. 
 
 In making sail, it is considered best not to let fall the upper 
 sails until the topsail yards are nearly at the mast-heads. 
 
 In loosing sails, it is not necessary that the top-mast stud- 
 ding sail booms should be triced up ; and if the outer gaskets on 
 the lower yards are cast off, the men who have done so may come 
 in out of the way of the topsail sheets, as the booms will keep 
 the sail up until the bunt is let fall. 
 
 JTew sails will not sheet home, and must be exactly middled. 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 367 
 
 Foot ropes of top-gallant yards are apt in hoisting to catch 
 under the fore part of the topmast caps. 
 
 Sea gaskets, if on the yards, should he " cheesed " up, and hung 
 square and equidistant over the fore part of the sails. See the 
 colours clear, ports square and free from loungers and wet 
 clothes. In short, tidy the ship up, so that in leaving harhour, 
 from the water line to the trucks, criticism may he defied, and 
 every one concerned he as proud of her, as if the romance of sea 
 life was not ahout to he buried in the coal hunkers. 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 HANDLING BOATS. 
 
 Boats should have their particular recall, the general recall, 
 their distinguishing pendant, a " pull to starboard " pendant, a 
 " pnll to port " pendant, the " answering pendant," and a " you 
 go very weli " pendant, painted on a board fastened on their in- 
 side in some safe place. Boats may be manoeuvred with much 
 effect with these few " general signals." 
 
 A metal crutch fitted' to each boat to ship on the stern, so as 
 to steei- with an oar when the rudder is wanting, is a most use- 
 ful " stand-by." 
 
 Numerous rope ladders facilitate boat work materially : stem 
 and quarter ones are indispensable. 
 
 Having quarter and stem boats' tackles kept overhauled 
 down in the absence of the boats, prevents delay in hoisting, 
 dispenses with an unsightly pile of gear in the mizeu chains, 
 and is a great saving of men's clothes, who otherwise must soil 
 a suit in stopping up. The quarter tackles may be becketed to 
 eye bolts in the bends, keeping clear of port edges, else they 
 chafe ; and the stem tackles to the rudder bolts. 
 
 Stem boats are best fitted when they have runners as well as 
 tackles, the runners being passed after the boat is hoisted up 
 by the tackles. The tackles are then unhooked, and the boat 
 is lowered by the runners. 
 
 All standing parts of gripes of outside boats should be fitted 
 with slips, the falls Itfept "in separate racks, and one boat's 
 binnacle, at least, kfiirt on' deck ready for use. 
 
368 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 CARRYING STORES. 
 
 H. M. ships are divided into Rates, a term -w^hich refers to their 
 number of men and guns ; and again into classes, a term having 
 reference to their size. For instance, the " Queen" is a first class, 
 fijst rate. The " Royal George " was a first rate, hut of the 
 third class. There is a certain proportion of stores of each kind 
 allotted to every ship according to her class and rate, and which, 
 when drawn, come under the^charge of the Boatswain, Gunner, 
 and Carpenter. These stores are particularly specified in hooks 
 called " Warrants," one of which, containing a catalogue of the 
 stores which concern him, is supplied to each of these officers. 
 
 When about to draw stores, the warrant is taken to the issue 
 store, and the clerk, as he issues, checks the articles off. Any- 
 thing which is not " on the establishment " must be specially ap- 
 plied for in writing to the commander-in-chief; and on applying 
 in due time at the store- keeper's ofice, if the demand be approved, 
 it is added to the warrant and then supplied. 
 
 When sent to draw stores, an officer should consult the tables 
 of the capacity of boats and weights of articles, remembering that 
 harbour boats are of similar capacities with those supplied for 
 sea service. Neglecting this, an officer may draw too few or too 
 many stores. If this happen near to noon, at which time the 
 store houses close, there is no time to rectify the mistake. In 
 the former case, £in extra trip must be made ; in the latter, some 
 one belonging to the boat must remain dinnerless in charge of 
 the surplus. 
 
 Be careful with oars, their blades being easily ruined by 
 throwing them on the stones. Keep all the casks "bung up." 
 The bung hole is always to be found between the joinings of the 
 middle hoops — leave space under the after thwart for baling the 
 boat out. See that tar casks (which stow generally in the hot 
 fore hold of steam ships) are not quite full. Have tarpaulins for 
 covering bread. Sling the midship casks as they are stowed ; 
 put the rum casks in last, and never lose sight of them until they 
 are out of your charge. If in a tide way, do not forget what 
 may be done with a warp. Whilst loading make large allow- 
 ance for the roughness of water you may have to encounter. 
 The rule for loading merchant vessels is> a clear side of three 
 inches for every foot depth of hold measured from the deck to 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 369 
 
 the water ; but this is not applicahle to an open vessel j and as 
 leakage would not be apparent in the well with a cargo of sand, 
 or any other liable to saturation, it should be carried in mode- 
 rate quantities. 
 
 Remember that a laden boat carries her way longer than a 
 light one, therefore shorten sail or unrow in good time. 
 
 As they are apt to take under chains, ports, or other projec- 
 tions from the ship or wharfs, never toss oars up whilst going or 
 coming when there is any considerable motion. 
 
 When ordered on boat-duty, it is well to remember your men's 
 meal hours, either taking the provisions in the boat, or warning 
 the master-at-arms that the crew will be absent. See that the 
 gear — masts, sails, oars, fenders, boat-hooks, baler, anchor and 
 cable, painter, flags, breakers, water, rudder, awning, and 
 stanchions — is complete, and that the crew are properly dressed. 
 It has been found very convenient to keep a quarter-case in each 
 boat, containing a pistol, flash-pan, powder, caps, a rocket and 
 blue light, hatchet and a few nails, &c. 
 
 A boat ofBcer is always supposed to have his spy-glass, 
 watch, and signal-book at hand ; and it is well to make certain 
 that orders are rightly comprehended before leaving the ship. 
 
 CARKYING SAIL. 
 
 If about to sail, get the sails taut up before shoving off ; see 
 that the yards are slung, so as to set the sail smoothly. Ship 
 the rowlocks ; make all the men who are not about to spring 
 the boat off, sit down : haul up ; sheer off ; in fenders. As a 
 general rule in sailing, insist upon the crew sitting down on the 
 bottom boards of the boat. 
 
 Meeting on opposite tacks, the boat on the port tack passes to 
 leeward. Boats, &c., running give way to those on a wind. 
 Never stretch the head of your sails in bending them, put them 
 to the yards and gaffs barely hand taut. 
 
 The hauling end of lug halyards is always long enough for a 
 downhaul. Splice an eye in its bare end, and put this eye over 
 the hook of the traveller before hoisting. 
 
 Keep your weights amidships, and never belay the sheets. 
 
 Before reefing on a wind, tell the men off for the different 
 duties ; the two bowmen to gather down on the luff; two 
 
 B B 
 
370 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 •leather hands by the halyards, and downhaul j the lee hands to 
 tie the points ; one strokesman to attend the sheet, the other to 
 assist the coxswain in reefing the mizen. No person need stand 
 up. Neat two-handed boatmen never jump about on the 
 thwarts, or show more than their heads above the gunwale. 
 Do not luff up ; check the dieets ; lower enough to shift the 
 tack hooks easily ; gather the fore-sheet aft, that the men may 
 reach the foot of the sail without leaning over the lee gunwale; 
 shift the sheet ; tie away ; slack the sheet ; hoist ; resume 
 places, and haul aft. Should the mizen be reefed more quickly 
 than the foresail, do not haul its sheet aft until the boat has 
 steerage way on, else she will get in the wind, and lose time. 
 
 There is another way of doing all this. The officer steps into 
 his boat without a clear understanding of orders, or the least 
 consideration for his crew. " Shove off ; " " Hoist away." 
 Everybody stands up or sits on the gunwale, and " carries on ; " 
 the mizen is up first ; the boat comes nearly head to wind, and 
 goes chopping astern ; the officer puts the tiller the wrong way ; 
 the foresail is hoisted all aback, and the boat tilted over to 
 windward. Some one who has got an oar out on that side to 
 pull her head round, " catches a crab ; " she comes round ; the 
 sail binds against the mast, and will not come down ; there is 
 no downhaul ; and if not upset, the crew contrive to gather the 
 sail into the boat by hand. At length, her head is pointed the 
 right way ; the sails are hoisted, and the sheets are hauled aft 
 simultaneously, and are of course badly set. So much lee-way 
 has been made, that it is not possible to weather the nearest 
 ship ; and if there is not a " run-foul," the boat bears up, and 
 runs further to leeward, or else the sails are lowered, and the 
 oars are got out. 
 
 At length they get away under sail. It freshens ; the officer 
 has got a foolish notion that it is proper to " crack on," and, 
 moreover, he has a " water-proof," and can afford to be in- 
 different about wetting his men. The boat is dragging on her 
 side, the crew are sitting on the thwarts, and much more lee- 
 way is made than if the boat was more upright ; at length a 
 reef is ordered without any preparation. All hands stand up, 
 and snatch at the foot of the sail through the lee gunwale, and 
 the nominal officer resigns his command to that cherub, whose 
 particular duty it is to " look out " for the natural consequences. 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 
 
 871 
 
 In boom boats, set the jib before setting the foresail ; taking 
 care to have the runners hand taut before hoisting. The jib is 
 the forestay ; and if the foresail be set first, the mast head is 
 dragged aft, and the after-leech hangs slack. If obliged to set 
 the jib after the foresail, ease the fore-sheet off whilst hoisting 
 the jib, and let the mast-head go forward into its place. 
 
 In shoving off when the ship is not head to wind, poll well 
 clear of her before making sail. 
 
 Remember in running that you cannot cari^ all the canvass 
 on a wind that you can before it j therefore make ready for 
 rounding to. 
 
 Rimning with much sail dead before it in a gig is very dan- 
 gerous : if the wind comes a little on the sheet quarter (say 
 starboard}, it is safest to haul up to port ; and when the wind is 
 on the port quarter, haul in the sheet, lower, shift the sail 
 round, resume course, and hoist on the port side. 
 
 When you want a pull on the halyards, let go the sheet ; if in 
 the fore, check the mizen at the same time. 
 
 Dipping a lug is the neatest handed affair a boatman has to 
 do. You must tell the men off ; the bowmen to bear the forg 
 part of the sail out, the two next to gather fhe sheet of the sail 
 forward and pass it round, the after hands to unhook and hook 
 
 Fig. 2U. 
 
 the sheet, the others to sit fast, shifting the halyards and hand- 
 ing the foot along, and hoisting when ready. Do not lower 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 until the fore part of the sail has heen aback sufficiently to bring 
 the wind on the other bow, unless it is smooth and you have 
 great way on ; but the sheet may be unhooked the moment the 
 sail lifts. Keep your halyards with a mark, so as not to lower 
 the yard more than is necessary for dipping the after yard 
 arm ; you will have more back sail to carry you round, 
 and less slack sail on top of your men. Attend the mizen 
 sheet in case the boat should " come to " whilst re-hoisting 
 fore-sail. (_Fig. 214.) 
 
 If your men are all sitting to windward in a, breeze, make 
 them occupy their proper places amidships, before passing to 
 leeward of a vessel. There is not only an eddy wind under the 
 stem of a ship that is riding head to wind, but also frequently 
 an indraught of water. And it is not uncommon to see an 
 inexperienced young officer trying to pass close under the 
 stem, suddenly taken aback, and his mast-head, which at 
 one moment was looking quite clear of the boom, thrown 
 to windward and entangled by it (See page 85, and Fig. 215.) 
 
 Hailing or interchanging hails with the gun-room, on passing 
 astern, is just as improper as the above course is foolish. 
 
 When caught in a hard sudden squall, put the helm down at 
 once, let fly the fore sheet ; and as such squaUs frequently veer 
 more or less, lower the sail : for if it came aback there would 
 be difficulty in getting it down, danger and stemway from 
 keeping it up. 
 
 In moderate squalls, and where the officer is confident of 
 himself and his men, it is best to ease off the sheets sufficiently 
 to relieve the boat ; keeping such steerage way on as to ensure 
 a touch of lee helm and a pull on the mizen sheet bringing her 
 into the wind should the squall increase. When the wind fails, 
 get out oars at once. If your men have had a long pull, the 
 commanding officer will at your representation excuse them 
 from further duty, but unless already fatigued, your business is 
 •to perform the service expeditiously. A s the breeze springs up 
 be careful with the lee oars, lift the looms out of the rowlocks 
 and lay them on the gunnel as it occasionally freshens, and 
 • when the danger of " catching crabs " is likely, lay them in 
 altogether. When in consequence of the boat's inclination the 
 -weather oars barely strike the water, it is a sign that all oars 
 should be in, and, the crew seated in the boat's bottom. 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 
 Fig. 21 S. 
 
 373 
 
 S ? 3 
 
374 MANUAL POK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 The remarks about handling ship apply equally to a host*. 
 You may bring her to such nicety of trim under sail, that in 
 moderately smooth Trater she will go round without any 
 assistance. 
 
 Putting the rudder right across the stem deadens the way ; 
 42° is considered the extreme of efficiency. 
 
 When there is no way on, or when the boat is tied by the 
 stem — as in towing, when the tow-line is fast to the wrong 
 place, as the stem ring bolt, — the rudder has no eflfect 
 ■whatever. 
 
 If your boat hangs in stays, and has just lost, or is about to 
 lose her way, you may (possibly) get her head round by a jerk 
 of the tiller, but it looks very silly to be going through the 
 motions of steering when there is no way on. 
 
 During sternway, the rudder has a different effect to what 
 it has when there is headway. If when going ahead, you were 
 to unship the rudder, and could point the stem, say three points 
 on either bow, the bow would glance off in the direction 
 towards which the stem pointed. It is precisely so with the 
 rudder in stemway. If the helm is put a-starboard, the rudder 
 points out on the port quarter, the water presses on the star- 
 board side of the rudder, and the stem glances off in the 
 direction to which the rudder points. 
 
 It must be observed that in stem-way, when the rudder is 
 over to either side, much strain is brought on the braces and 
 pintles. Consequently when ships are taken aback in a squall 
 or sea way, it is usual to secure the helm amidships. 
 
 In all cases of steering, endeavour either by trimming sails or 
 disposition of weights to reduce the boat to what is called a 
 " small helm," that is, that very little effort will be required 
 to move the boat's head either way. For when the rudder is 
 dragged much across the stem, the -vfay is retarded. Weather 
 helm will be induced by allO^Dg the boat to be pressed by the 
 head, and this may be caused by ibe bowmen sitting forward, or 
 by press of sail, or both.- If the bows are clear, a pull on the 
 jib sheet might relieve the helm, but not as a matter of course ; 
 for if the jib was already flat, it might be the cause of depres- 
 sion, and a few inches checked would perhaps answer the pur- 
 pose. Then themizeflmight be the cause, and an inch of that sheet 
 might be the remedy. But it will be of no use to attempt trim- 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 375 
 
 ihing until the sails are taut up and well set ; and then the 
 officer in command can make Ms arrangements andalteratdon of 
 trim, until the hoat may be so nicely balanced that, by sending 
 the bowmen forward and letting go the tiller, she will go about 
 of herself. 
 
 If the bow is deep, and the stem light of draft, the former is 
 not so easily blown from the wind as the latter. If, on the 
 contrary, the stem be deep, and the bow light, the bow is readily 
 thrown to leewani by the conjoint action of wind and sea. In 
 the first of these cases — supposing the sail to be well balanced 
 — the boat would carry weather helm — in the last lee helm, 
 but in either, her way would be more or less diminished. The 
 drag of cross helm might be decreased by reducing sail at one 
 of the extremities, but at the expense of speed — whereas by 
 trimming weights, all sail might be carried, and speed increased. 
 
 Boats blown off the land, or otherwise adrift, haye ridden out 
 heavy seas by riding at their spars, which, after being lashed up 
 in a bundle, were thrown overboard, with the cable bent span- 
 fashion to them. 
 
 When such a measure is resorted to, the sails should be 
 loosed on attaching their yards to the spars ; they will thus con- 
 tribute greatly to breaking the sea, and if weights be fastened 
 to the clews, the boat's drift will be much retarded. Two oars, 
 at least, should be retained in the boat, in case of breaking 
 adrift. 
 
 Sails or spars towed astern whilst running in a heavy sea, 
 will very much diminish the risk of being pooped. 
 
 If it comes on to blow when you are detached, you will most 
 probably be signalled to remain where you are till it moderates. 
 If you return, either round to ahead, down masts, out oars and 
 drop down j or else, if you have confidence, shoot up under the 
 stem, and down masts before getting under the quarter boats. 
 
 Before going alongside a vessel under weigh and hove to, 
 observe if she have head or stemway, and in any case get the 
 masts down before dosing her ; otherwise, if the bowman fail 
 to catch hold, and the mast head be fouled, a capsize is nearly 
 a certainty. Wait imtil the ship has gathered headway, and 
 
 B B 4 
 
376 MAUUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 then go alongside. Whilst there, have a stern as -well as a 
 how rope, hut do not let them he made fast in your hoat. Do 
 not shoye off during sternway, else the ship in settling to lee- 
 ward and falling off will hring you under her hows, and with 
 her stem and dolphin striker cut you down. 
 
 In heing towed by a vessel, if alongside, contrive to have the 
 rope from as far forward as possible, so as to avoid riding at a 
 short stay : never malce it fast, hut toggle it with a stretcher 
 through the aftermost of the foremost sling bolts, so as to be able 
 to slip in an instant. Steady it near the stem with the bight of - 
 the lazy painter passed over it. 
 
 If being towed astern, the closer the better. And when about 
 to be cast off, either be dropped astern clear of other boats, or 
 be handy with your oars, so as to shoot out clear of other boats 
 which may be in tow. 
 
 Do not permit other boats to hang on by your boat. If other 
 ropes are not supplied, get more of your own towline, and after 
 securing its bight, as before said, pass its end aft ; and if it is 
 not long enough, bend the nearest boat's warp on to it, other- 
 wise your stem or stem will be dragged out. 
 
 When you go on duty to another ship, return to your boat 
 the moment that you have delivered your message, and wait 
 for orders. If in a tide-way, ask for leave to hapg on by the 
 boom. A careless oflBcer goes below ; his boat's crew block up 
 the gangway, commence conversing through the ports, are dis- 
 respectful to strange ofiicers, and bring a bad name on their 
 own ship. When a boat ofiBcer must be absent from his boat, 
 he should leave his coxswain in charge, with positive orders 
 concerning his duty. 
 
 In coming alongside lay the fenders out and get the bowsprit 
 in In good time, especially if it be an iron one. The general 
 rule is to keep the main yard of the ship end on ; but that must 
 depend on tideway, and whether the boat is heavily or lightly 
 laden. 
 
 The boat should be baled out, slings hooked, and otherwise 
 prepared for hoisting, before reaching the ship. 
 
 Make due allowance for the rate at which the tide is going 
 past the ship, or the rate at which she may be moving, when 
 making for her. A current frequently sets close along shore in 
 the opposite direction to the one that is going by the ship ; and 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 377 
 
 therefore, a little judgment may save a long pull. At Spithead, 
 for instance, when the ship is swung at ebb, with her head to 
 the eastward, the tide will run strong towards that direction 
 along Southsea Beach, and a boat pulling straight for the ship 
 from the harbour would be carried very much astern ; whereas 
 by dropping down with the tide, close along Southsea Beach, 
 until well ahead of the ship, very little e£fort will carry the 
 boat on board. An inquiring boat-officer will learn more of the 
 theory of local tides and currents by a chat with a waterman, 
 than can be found in books ; and by observing — when abroad 
 — the manoeuvres of native boatmen, much labour and risk will 
 be avoided. 
 
 Before leaving a ship or place in thick weather, whether you 
 have a compass or no, get a, bearing of the whereabouts you 
 intend reaching. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF BOATS IN BROKEN WATER.* 
 
 1. Acquire the habit of sitting down in a boat, and never 
 stand up to perform any work which may be done sitting. 
 
 2. Never climb the mast of a boat even in smooth water, to 
 reeve halyards or for any other purpose, but unstep and lower 
 the mast in preference. Many boats have been upset, and very 
 many lives lost from this cause. The smaller a boat the more 
 necessary this and the foregoing precaution. 
 
 As a general rule, there is far more danger when running for 
 the shore before a broken sea, than when being propelled against 
 it on going from the land ; the danger consisting in the lia- 
 bility of a boat to broach-to and upset, either by running her 
 bow under water, or by her being thrown on her beam-ends, 
 and overturned broadside on. 
 
 Viewed from to seaward, a surf has never so formidable an 
 appearance as when seen from the land ; persons in a boat out- 
 side the broken water are therefore apt to be deceived by it. 
 They should accordingly, if practicable, proceed along the laud 
 outside the surf, until abreast of a coast-guard or life-boat 
 station, or fishing village, whence they might be seen by those 
 on shore, who would then signalise to them where they might 
 safest attempt to land, or warn them to keep off ; or who might 
 
 * Instructions for the Management of Boats, published b^ the Royal 
 National Life-Boat Institution, 
 
378 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 proceed in a life-boat or fishing-boat to their aid, the gene- 
 rality of coast fishing-boats being far better able to cope with a 
 surf than a ship's boat, and the coast-boatmen being more skil- 
 fiil in managing boats in a surf than the crews of ships. If in the 
 night, double precaution is necessary — and it will in general 
 be much safer to anchor a boat outside the surf until daylight 
 than to attempt to land through it in the dark. 
 
 Where a surf breaks at only a short distance from the beach, 
 a boat may be veered and backed through it, from anoth«r boat 
 anchored outside the surf, when two or more boats are in com- 
 pany ; or she may be anchored and veered, or backed in from 
 her own anchor. 
 
 As a general rule, speed must be given to a boat rowing 
 against a heavy surf. Indeed, under some circumstances, her 
 safety will depend on the utmost possible speed being attained 
 on meeting a sea. For if the sea be really heavy, and the wind 
 blowing a hard on-shore gale, it can only be by the utmost 
 exertions of the crew that any headway can be made. The 
 great danger then is, that an approaching heavy sea may carry 
 the boat away on its front, and turn it broadside on, or up-end 
 it, either effect being inmiediately fatal. A boat's only chance 
 in such a case, is to obtain such way as shall enable her to pass, 
 end on, through the crest of the sea, and leave it as soon as 
 possible behind her. Of course if there be a rather heavy surf, 
 but no wind, or the wind off shore, and opposed to the surf, 
 as is often the case, a boat might be propelled so rapidly through 
 it that her bow would fall more suddenly and heavily after 
 topping the sea than if her way had been checked ; and it may 
 therefore only be when the sea is of such magnitude, and the 
 boat of such a character, that there may be chance of the 
 former carrying her back before it, that full speed should be 
 given to her. 
 
 It may also happen that, by dareful management under such 
 circumstances, a boat may be made to avoid the sea, so that 
 each wave may break ahead of her, which may be the only 
 chance of safety in a small boat ; but if the shore be flat, and 
 the broken water extend to a great distance from it, this wiU 
 often be impossible. 
 
 The following general rules for rowing to seaward may there- 
 fore be relied on : — 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 379 
 
 1. K BufiBoient command can be kept over a Ijoat by the 
 skill of those on board her, avoid or " dodge " the sea if possible, 
 BO as not to meet it at the moment of its breaking or eurling 
 over. 
 
 2. Against a head gale and -heavy surf, get all possible 
 <peed on a boat on the approach of every sea -which cannot be 
 ivoided. 
 
 3. If more speed can be given to a boat than is sufficient to 
 prevent her being carried back by a surf, her -way may be 
 checked on its approach, which will give her an easier passage 
 over it. 
 
 The great danger, -tfhen running before a broken sea, is that 
 of broachifig-to, ' 
 
 The cause of a boat's broaohing-to when running before a 
 broken sea or surf is, that her own motion being in the same 
 direction as that of the sea, whether it be given by the force 
 of oars or sails, or by the force of the sea itself, she opposes no 
 resistance to it, but is carried before it. Thus, if a boat be 
 running with her bow to the shore and her stem to the sea, the 
 first effect of a surf or roller on its overtaking her, is to throw 
 up the stem, and as a consequence to depress the bow ; if she 
 then has sufficient inertia (which will be proportional to weight) 
 to allow the sea to pass her, she will in succession pass through 
 the descending, the horizontal, and the ascending positions, as 
 the crest of the wave passes successively her stem, her mid- 
 ships, and her bow, in the reverse order in which the same 
 positions occur to a boat propelled to seaward against a surf. 
 This may be defined as the safe mode of running before a 
 broken sea. 
 
 But if a boat on being overtaken by a heavy surf, has not 
 sufficient inertia to allow it to pass her, the first of the three 
 j^ositions above enumerated alone occurs,^herstem is raised high 
 in the air and the wave carries the boat before it, on its front, or 
 unsafe side, sometimes with frightful velocity, the bow ^11 the 
 time deeply immersed in the hollow of the sea, where the water, 
 being stationary or comparatively so, offers a resistance, whilst 
 the crest of the sea, having the actual motion which causes it to 
 break, forces onward the stern, or rear end of the boat. A boat 
 will in this position sometimes, aided by careful oar-steerage, 
 fun. a considerable distance until the wave has broken and ex- 
 
380 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 pended itself. But it will often happen, that if the how he low 
 it will be driven under water, when the buoyancy being lost for- 
 ward, whilst the sea presses on the stem, the boat will be thrown 
 (as it is termed) end over end ; or if the bow be high, or it be 
 protected, as in some life-boats, by a bow air-chamber, so that 
 it does not become submerged, that the resistance forward acting 
 on one bow will slightly turn the boat's heajd, and the force of 
 the surf, being transferred to the opposite quarter, she will in a 
 moment be turned round broadside by the sea and be thrown by 
 it on her beam-ends, or altogether capsized. It is in this man- 
 ner that most boats are upset in a surf, especially on flat coasts, 
 and in this way many lives are annually lost amongst merchant 
 seamen when attempting to land after being compelled to desert 
 their vessels. 
 
 Hence it follows that the management of a boat, when landing 
 through a heavy surf, must as far as possible be assimilated to 
 that when proceeding to seaward against one, at least, so far as 
 to stop her progress shoreward at the moment of being over- 
 taken by a heavy sea, and thus enabling it to pass her. There 
 are difl^erent ways of effecting this object : — 
 
 1st. By turning a boat's head to the sea before entering the 
 broken water, and then backing in stem foremost, pulling a few 
 strokes ahead to meet each heavy sea and then again backing 
 astern. If a sea be really heavy and a boat small, this plan will 
 be generally the safest, as a boat can be kept more under com- 
 mand when the full force of the oars can be used against a heavy 
 surf than by backing them only. 
 
 2nd. If rowing to shore with the stem to seaward, by backing 
 all the oars on the approach of a heavy sea, and rowing ahead 
 again as soon as it has passed to the bow of the boat, thus, row- 
 ing in on the back of the wave ; or, as is practised in some life- 
 boats, placing the after-oarsmen, with their faces forward, and 
 making them row back at each sea on its approach. 
 
 3rd. If rowed in bow foremost, by towing astern a pig of 
 ballast or large stone, or a large basket, or a canvass bag termed 
 a " drogue " or drag, made for the purpose, the object of each 
 being to hold the boat's stem back and prevent her being turned 
 broadside to the sea or broaching-to. 
 
 Drogues are in common use by the boatmen on the Norfolk 
 coast i they are conical-shaped bags of about the same form ani 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 381 
 
 t)roportionate length and breadth as a candle extinguisher, about 
 two feet -wide at the mouth, and four and a half feet long. They 
 are towed with the mouth foremost by a stout rope, or a small 
 line, termed a tripping-line, being fast to the apex or pointed end. 
 When towed with the mouth foremost they fill with water, and 
 offer a considerable resistance, thereby holding back the stem ; 
 by letting go the stouter rope and retaining the smaller line, their 
 position is reversed, when they collapse, and can be readily 
 hauled into the boat. 
 
 Drogues are chiefly used in sailing-boats, when they both 
 serve to check a boat's way and to keep her end on to the sea. 
 They are however a great source of safety in rowing-boats, and 
 many rowing life-boats are now provided with them. 
 
 A boat's sail bent to » yard, and towed astern loosed, the 
 yard being attached to a line capable of being veered, hauled, 
 or let go, will act in some measure as a drogue, and will tend 
 much to break the force of the sea immediately astern of the 
 boat. 
 
 Heavy weights should be kept ont of the extreme ends of a 
 boat i but when rowing before a heavy sea the best trim is 
 deepest by the stem, which prevents the stern being readily 
 beaten off by the sea. 
 
 A boat should be steered by an oar over the stem or on one 
 quarter when running before a sea, as the rudder will then at 
 times be of no .use. 
 
 The following general rules may be depended on when 
 running before, or attempting to land through a heavy surf 
 or broken water : — 
 
 1. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing the boat 
 where the sea will break ahead of her. 
 
 2. If the sea be very heavy, or if the boat be small, and 
 especially if she have a square stem, bring her bow round to 
 seaward and back her in, rowing ahead against each heavy surf, 
 sufficiently to allow it to pass the boat. 
 
 3. If it be considered safe to proceed to the shore bow fore- 
 most, back the oars against each sea on its approach, so as to 
 stop the boat's way through the water as far as possible, and if 
 there is a drogue or any other instrument in the boat which 
 may be used as one, tow it astern to aid in keeping the boat end 
 on to the sea, which is the chief object in view. 
 
382 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 4. Bring the principal -weights in the boat towards the end 
 that is to seaward ; but not to the extreme end. 
 
 5. If a boat worked by both sails and oars be running under 
 sail for the land through a heavy sea, her crew should, under all 
 circumstances, unless the beach be quite steep, take down her 
 jnasts and sails before entering the broken water, and take her 
 to land under oars alone, as above described. If she hare sails 
 only, her sails should be much reduced, a half-lowered foresail 
 or other small head-sail being sufficient. 
 
 The running before a surf or broken sea, and the beaching or 
 landing of a boat, are two distinct operations : the management 
 of boats as above recommended has exclusive reference to 
 running before a surf where the shore is so flat that the broken 
 water extends to some distance from the beach. Thus on a very 
 steep beaxjh the first heavy fall of broken water wiU be on the 
 beach itself, whilst on some very flat shores there will be broken 
 water as far as the eye can reach, sometimes extending to even 
 four or five miles from the land. The outermost line of broken 
 water, on a flat shore, where the waves break in three and four 
 fathoms water, is the heaviest, and therefore the most dangerous, 
 and when it has been passed through in safety, the danger 
 lessens as the water shoals, until on nearing the land its force 
 is spent and its power harmless. As the character of the sea is 
 quite different on steep and flat shores, so is the customary 
 management of boats on landing different in the two situations. 
 On the flat shore, whether a boat be run or backed in, she is 
 kept straight before or end on to the sea until she is fairly 
 aground, when each surf takes her further in as it overtakes her, 
 aided by the crew, who will then generally jump out to lighten 
 her, and drag her in by her sides. As above stated, sail will in 
 this case have been previously taken in if set, and the boat will 
 have been rowed or backed in by oars alone. 
 
 On the other hand, on the steep beach it is the general prac- 
 tice, in a boat of any size, to sail right on to the beach, and, in 
 the act of landing, whether under oars or sail, to turn the boat's 
 bow half round, towards the direction in which the surf is 
 running, so that she may be thrown on her broadside up the 
 beach, where abundance of help is usually at hand to haul her 
 as quickly as possible out of the reach of the sea. In such 
 situations we believe it is nowhere the practice to back a boat 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 383 
 
 in stem foremost under oars, but to row in under full speed as 
 above described. 
 
 The circumstances under which life-boats or other boats have 
 to board vessels, whether stranded or at anchor, or under weigh, 
 are so various that it would be impossible to draw up any- 
 general rule for guidance. Nearly everything must depend on 
 the skill, judgment, and presence of mind of the coxswain or 
 officer in charge of the boat, who will often have those qualities 
 taxed to the utmost, as undoubtedly the operation of boarding a 
 vessel in a heavy sea or surf is frequently one of extreme 
 danger. 
 
 It will be scarcely necessary to state that, whenever prac- 
 ticable, a vessel, whether stranded or afloat, should be boarded 
 to leeward, as the principal danger to be guarded against must 
 be the violent collision of the boat against the vessel, or her 
 swamping or upsetting by the rebound of the sea, or by its ir- 
 regular direction in coming in contact with a solid body j and 
 as the greater violence of the sea on the windward side is much 
 more Ukely to cause such accidents, the danger must, of course, 
 also be much greater when the vessel is aground and the sea 
 breaking over her. The chief dangers to be apprehended on 
 boarding a stranded vessel on the lee side, if broadside to the 
 sea, is the falling of the masts ; or if they have been previously 
 carried away, the damage or destruction of the boat amongst 
 the floating spars and gear alongside. It may therefore, under 
 such circumstances, be often necessary to take a wrecked crew 
 into a life-boat from the bow or stern ; otherwise a rowing-boat, 
 proceeding from a lee-shore to a wreck, by keeping under the 
 vessel's lee, may use her as a breakwater, and thus go off in 
 comparatively smooth water, or at least shielded from the worst 
 of the sea. This is, accordingly, the usual practice in the 
 rowing life-boats around the United Kingdom. The larger 
 sailing life-boats, chiefly on the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts, 
 which go off to wrecks on outlying shoals are, however, usually 
 anchored to windward of stranded vessels, and then veered down 
 to 100 or 150 fathoms of cable, until near enough to throw a 
 line on board. The greatest care under these circumstances 
 has, of course, to be taken to prevent actual contact between 
 the boat and the ship ; and the crew of the latter have, some- 
 
384 MANUAL rOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 times, to jump overboard, and to be hauled to the boat by 
 ropes. 
 
 In every case of boarding a -wreck or a vessel at sea, it is 
 important that the lines by which a boat is made fast to the 
 vessel should be of sufficient length to allow of her rising or 
 falling freely with the sea, and every rope should be kept in 
 hand ready to cut or slip it in a moment if necessary. On 
 wrecked persons or other passengers being taken into a boat in 
 a seaway, they should be placed on the thwarts in equal numbers 
 on either side, and be made to sit down. All crowding or rush- 
 ing headlong into the boat being prevented as far as possible, 
 and the captain of the ship, if a wreck, should be called on to 
 remain on board her to preserve order until every other person 
 should have left the ship. 
 
 Small empty casks or breakers, tightly bunged and lashed 
 beneath the thwarts, would partially convert any boat into a 
 life-boat, by making it impossible for her to founder ; and by 
 leaving less space to be occupied by water if filled by a sea, 
 their use would much expedite the process of pumping or baling 
 out. 
 
 In taking another boat In tow, pass clear of her oars ; place 
 yourself right ahead, exactly in line, and give way the instant 
 that you have hold of her painter. Do not give another boat 
 your painter, until she is in line ahead of your boat. Take the 
 tow-line to the foremost stern-sling boat, and toggle the bight 
 with a stretcher. If you wish to turn your boat's head, bear 
 the tow line over the quarter on that side to which you desire 
 to turn, for the helm will be of little or no use. 
 
 In towing short round, do not attempt to turn before your 
 leaders are round. 
 
 The heaviest boats should always be nearest the tow. 
 
 Boats will tow with increased effect if weighted with shot. A 
 few lengths of stream chain is the quickest weight that can be 
 passed in and out, besides being less damaging to the boat. 
 
 Taking another boat in tow without delaying the duty by 
 fouling her oars, or getting athwart ships, is a very neat per- 
 formance for a young officer, and when well done betokens 
 judgment and skill. 
 
HANDLIKG BOATS. 385 
 
 Whatever theorists may say to the contrary, most practical 
 men prefer towing spars by their smallest ends. 
 
 As to Salutlnst the order " be courteous " requires that there 
 should be a mutual recognition or an interchange of salute 
 between all officers wearing uniform, inclusive of foreign, on 
 meeting or passing each other ; but, at all events, junior officers 
 should give honour to whom it is due, without waiting to be 
 recognised, or questioning about results. 
 
 In a boat under sail (if near) pass to leewaird of your supe- 
 rior, and never cross his bows. 
 
 In all cases the officer should stand up whilst making his 
 salute. If the superior be of great r^nk (such as an admiral, 
 &c.), the men also should rise and uncover. 
 
 Lowering the sail is not required. 
 
 In rowing, toss oars, and let the crew stand up, whilst an 
 admiral passes. 
 
 Toss the oars to a captain or commander, &c. 
 
 Lay on oars to a lieutenant, &c. 
 
 "When oars are tossed, the blades should stand fore and aft. 
 When " laid," the blades should be horizontal and in a line. 
 
 At the word " down " the blades should faU together flat 
 on the water ; the loom being tilted, so as not to strike the 
 gunwale. 
 
 Boats towing or laden do not salute ; the coxswain and officer 
 do so. 
 
 WATEWNG. 
 
 When watering with casks, keep slings on those which stow 
 amidships. Keep the end of the Suction hose in a washing 
 tub, or place a piece of bread-bag stuff round the rose ; for a 
 very little gravel drawn into the valves will delay the work. 
 Do not forget the engine wrenches and bungs. 
 
 When watering in bulk, wash the boat well out the first thing, 
 and when being towed oflF, do not allow boat-keepers to sit 
 smoking on the gunwale forgetting to spit overboard. 
 
 A forty-two foot launch will carry in bulk in smooth water 
 about 22 tons of water. 
 
 In rafting casks, knock the inner hoop off each end, and drive 
 
386 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 them on over a hide or sennit becket. Stop the raft line to 
 these beckets, but do not reeve it. 
 
 The casks are thus more readily detached, and less likely to 
 get adrift whilst hoisting in, and less strain is brought on the 
 after one than if the line were rove and made fast to it. 
 
 Wet warps require oarefiil seizings. Whilst hauling ships 
 about the harbour we never see the warps laid out by the dock- 
 yard riggers (however wet), slip or come adrift. Their plan is 
 worth notice. They make four parts of their spun yam seizing, 
 take a round turn with the bight of this round the standing part 
 of the hawsers, thenpass the seizing(figure of eight fashion) round 
 the hitched and standing part, then cross opposite ways 
 with two parts each way, reeve the ends through the bights and 
 drag all the turns taut. 
 
 A quick way to preserve warps or small cables from injury is 
 to reeve them through your spare gun trucks, clapping a " bear • 
 a hand " mowsing on each side. 
 
 The quick way to run a short warp out, is for one boat to run 
 away with the end, and the others to pull in fore and aft under 
 the bights as they are payed out at equal distances according to 
 the length of the warp and number of boats, giving way the 
 moment they have got hold. 
 
 In all cases, when you take in the end of a warp, coil enough 
 of it forward, so as to be able to make a bend- the instant your 
 boat reaches the place you wish to make fast to. 
 
 It is hardly possible to lay a heavy warp out without floating 
 its bight. If there is a chance of its being suddenly tautened, 
 hang it outside the boat. Instead of laying it fore and aft amid- 
 ships. 
 
 In running warps out, the whole warp is sometimes coiled in 
 the boat, and the end being made fast to some desirable place, 
 the boat makes for the ship j in other cases, a part only is ooHed 
 in the boat, and she carries the warp from the ship to the place 
 to which it is to be secured. Whichever way it be, there is 
 great judgment required in reserving a sufficiency of hawser in 
 the boat to ensure that she will reach her destination, only pay- 
 Jpg out when certain of doing so. It is from this necessity for 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 387 
 
 j udging the distance by the eye, that ■we have the term " guess 
 warp." 
 
 When confident of a good guess — wind or tide heing 
 favourable — take the warps in the boat, pull to windward and 
 run them out from the make-fast to the ship. 
 
 When yon are presented with the end of a hawser to run out, 
 and which is not becketed, put s. hitch on it and stop the end 
 down at once. 
 
 GENERAL DUTIES. 
 
 A boat will be got up on a beach more easily by placing the 
 stretchers or thwarts under the keel ; of course rollers are better. 
 If you have blocks and rope, you can get a pall by burying 
 your anchor, keeping a hand on it to prevent it from rising. 
 Sea weed is as good as soap on .the " ways." All boats should 
 have a hole in the fore foot, through which a strop for the 
 tackle could reeve. When the tackle is made fast to the boat 
 at the top of her stem, her gripe becomes buried in the ground. 
 Yon will get your boat under a low bridge, or under a weight 
 that cannot be raised high enough to clear the gunnel, by tak- 
 ing the plug out. 
 
 When weighing anything heavy over the stem, bear the rope 
 amidships, and step the awning stanchion over it. Otherwise, 
 if whilst rolling or &om other causes, the rope flies over the 
 quarter or side, the boat will fill. 
 
 When sent to land parties on a shallow beach, take the field 
 piece carriage and some ordinary deals. In most cases, by 
 hauling the former in between the boat and the beach, you may 
 lay a platform with the planks from one to the other, and rig a 
 temporary jetty in an instant. 
 
 The field carriage makes an excellent " devil cart," and, 
 buried with one wheel and axle left horizontal above the 
 ground, you may lash oar looms on the spokes, and rig a 
 capstan. 
 
 To remount the gun, upright it on its muzzle, run the car- 
 riage up to it, raise the trail, clamp the trunnions, and weigh 
 down the trail. Remember which is the upper side of the gun. 
 If you have not strength enough to upright the gun, prise the 
 breech up, place a spar across it under the neck, and lash them 
 well together ; run the wheels back until they touch the spar 
 c c 2 
 
388 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 on each side, and lash them to it while they are in contact ; 
 raise the trail upright, reeve a spar through the wheels close 
 under the trail ; then weigh down, and the hreech of the gun 
 will he raised nearly upright ; steady the wheels, raise the trail, 
 and reeve the spar again ; when, on weighing down, the gun 
 will be carried on top of its bed on the carriage. 
 
 In the entire absence of usual resources, great weights, such 
 as a gun, for instance, may be got into a boat where there is a 
 rise and fall, by filling the boat at low water with dunnage or 
 sand, banking up an inclined plane with shingle, rolling the gun 
 into the boat, clearing out the sand, and waiting for the tide to 
 float her off. 
 
 In blowing weather or heavy tides, if a small hawser be 
 carried round the ship outside all, — the bight being made fast 
 to the bowsprit cap', suspended -on both sides from each lower 
 yard-arm and spanker boom end by whips with bowline knots 
 and the ends reaching the water astern, — boats may not fear 
 to make for the ship any where without running against her ; 
 for whilst the hawser is out of the gangways triced up when 
 not in use, the quarter-master df the watch can drop it on 
 top of a boat, and avoid the frequently too late cry for a boat 
 rope. 
 
 Boats should be moored at the boom with a hawser from the 
 forecastle, led through blocks on the bowsprit end and boom, 
 with an inhaul to the gangway. Thus the spar will be re- 
 lieved of strain, the boats will be more readily manned, and the 
 danger of men falling overboard whilst trying to get into the 
 boats from the boom, avoided. 
 
 When boats are riding at the booms, the best stern fast is a 
 whip from the main-yard with a light inhaul. 
 
 Boats may be kept clear of the ship when riding astern 
 by causing them to tow a grating, or bucket, or net full of 
 shot. 
 
 The best way to transport on land, a moderate sized boat, is 
 to turn her bottom up, and shoulder her by the gunnels, 
 
 LOWERING AH1> HOISTING. 
 
 In XowerlniTi have a boat rope from well forward, outside 
 all ; ship rudder and tiller, put the plug in, and quarter ladders 
 
HANDLING BOATS. 389 
 
 oyer ; boat-keepers hold on by life-lines, keep steadying lines 
 fast until the boat is in the water, unhook the after tackle first. 
 
 A stem boat should always be lowered with runners. 
 
 In Hoisting, when there are eyes in the tackles of quarter 
 boats and hooks in the " slings," the thwarts and boat-keepers 
 are not fished out of the boat. The boat should be hauled up 
 with a rope from well forward, a careful hand steering her mean- 
 while, and the foremost tackle should be hooked first. When the 
 tackles are hooked, the keepers should hold the blocks taut up 
 by the standing part of the fall ; the steadying lines are secured 
 to eyebolts in the gunwale. When the ship is scending and 
 rolling, you should cross the life lines, and have hook ropes fast 
 to the slings from the ship through the ports well attended, so 
 as to bind the boat as she rises to the side ; the lower deck 
 ports should be either lowered or triced back. Send all your 
 crew except four at the most out of the boat ; make them go up 
 by the chain ladders, and not on the life lines. When the boat 
 is up, pass the bight of the life line through the slings over the 
 davit end twice, and hitch before attempting to belay the fall. 
 Pass the gripes round the boat clear of turns. Have squaring 
 marks put on the falls, so that she may always sit square on the 
 davits. Ship the rowlocks and rudder. If there be no scuttle 
 which opens of itself, take the plug out the moment the boat 
 leaves the water. Send the end of your cable and make it fast 
 as far forward as possible outside all, and stop it up to the chains 
 with a cut yam. See that your fenders are in, fill your water 
 breaker, and if the weather be hot, put the cover on square and 
 smooth during the day, taking it off at night. 
 
 The following has been found a useful mode of fitting quarter 
 davits. 
 
 Place eye-bolts in the bends under each davit, flush with the 
 side and about two feet above the copper. Fit a clump block 
 on each davit about two thirds of their length from the step. 
 
 Bring pendants having lizards on them from each bolt, reeve 
 them through the clumps, and set them up with lanyards. In 
 hoisting haul taut the pendants, and make the lizards fast taut 
 to the tackle blocks ; this will prevent the boat from flying 
 out, and after a few feet hoist from striking the side. If 
 when nearly up the pendants take the gunnels, they may 
 then be slackened ; but in lowering they must be tautened M 
 c c 3 
 
390 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 soon as possible. The further out these pendants are on the 
 davit the better. 
 
 In a stem boat in a tide way, or ship going ahead, do not at- 
 tempt to haul across the stem or hook the stem tackle, nntil all 
 is ready on deck, and then hold hard by the life lines, for the 
 boat will suddenly fly forward, as she leaves the water. The 
 driver out haul, or a whip from the boom end, will guy the boat 
 off the ship's rudder. 
 
 CHAP. xxni. 
 
 ANCHORING. 
 
 Ships on being discovered within signal distance of the senior 
 officer are required to show their number, and on this being 
 recognised, that officer gives the ship her pendants ; and 
 although a fresh ship may try to reply with the answering 
 pendant, he will not be satisfied until the pendants be repeated 
 by the ship herself, as an evidence of a clear understanding. In 
 this case of signalling the answering pendant is not use4. 
 There are other signals which, if replied to by the pendant, 
 would also imply inexperience. 
 
 Local signals, or temporary additions to the signal books' 
 general orders, and copies of the pendant board and squadron 
 routine, should be procured without delay after joining com- 
 pany. 
 
 If ordered to anchor on a certain bearing, it is intended that 
 the ship to which the signal is made, is to bear, when anchored, 
 in that direction from the ship making the signal ; and if with 
 open hawse to a certain point, it is to be understood that the 
 anchors are to be laid out at right angles to that point. 
 
 It must not be supposed that merely letting go two anchors, 
 as in mooring, makes a ship safer. What then is the reason for 
 doing so ? 
 
 If a ship let go her single anchor (say in twelve fathoms) in 
 the very centre of a harbour which we will call about two 
 
ANCHOEING. 
 
 391 
 
 hundred fatiioms tride, and steep to all round, and then veered 
 one hundred fathoms of cable, she would occupy every part of 
 the harbour, as the wind or current happened to move her. 
 
 If it be desired to keep her stationary in the centre, shortening 
 the cable into twelve fathoms would not effect it, for the first 
 puff of wind would cause her to start her anchor. 
 
 But let us ascertain from what quarter theprevaiHng heaviest 
 tnnds blow ; weigh, haul over, and let go an anchor in that 
 direction one hundred fathoms from the centre ; then with a 
 warp haul the ship over in the very opposite direction, veering 
 the cable two hundred fathoms from the last position, and then 
 let go the second anchor. Now heave in one hundred fathoms 
 of the first cable, veering one hundred on the last, and we shall 
 have got the ship moored in a stationary position in the centre 
 of the harbour ; and many other ships (suppose one on each 
 side) may share the harbour by similar means, as shown by the 
 full lined ships ia fig. 216. 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 WORTH 
 
 Whether we moor with a whole, or merely half a cable each 
 e c 4 
 
392 MANUAL rOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 way, or lay the anchors out in any direction (so long as they are 
 in opposite ones, and one cahle is moderately taut before we let 
 go the second anchor) is of no consequence as far as concerns the 
 principle we are considering. 
 
 Now with regard to the direction. Say that the prevailing 
 gales are northerly, and one comes on from that quarter so 
 heavy that we should veer cable. If the other ships have at- 
 tended properly to this contingency, all may veer simultaneously 
 without fouling each other, and the riding cable of each ship 
 will grow straight to their weather anchors : in other words, they 
 wUl all have open berths and open hawse, as shown by the dotted 
 line ships in^^. 216. 
 
 It is clear, that with a long scope of cable, we have all the 
 additional weight of the chain in our favour, that the ship's bows 
 are less dragged downwards than at a short stay, and the pull 
 on the anchor being horizontal, the palm bites all the harder. 
 When we wish to make the best use of our power, we must get 
 as close to the resistance as possible. We do not want to 
 move the anchor ; and some officers prefer veering even as much 
 as two cable on end to letting go other anchors. The weather- 
 most ship in the sketch is at a " short stay : " she is disBlacing 
 great quantities of water, sustaining proportionate shocks, ship- 
 ping heavy seas, straining her cable, and breaking her anchor 
 out of the ground. (Fig. 217.) 
 
 Now suppose that one or both of the other ships had moored 
 without regard to the position of our anchors and the direction 
 of the prevailing gales. As long as the weather was fine, and 
 we did not want to move, it would be of no great consequence 
 as shown by the fuU-lined ships in fig. 218. 
 
 But we want to move. B, has overlaid our south anchor and 
 we cannot pick it up. A, has overlaid our north anchor, and we 
 cannot pick it up. 
 
 Or it comes on to blow hard ftom the northward, and we want 
 to veer ; but B is in our way, and we must hold on until it 
 pleases him to veer, and he, either from neglect or ignorance in 
 thus mooring his ship, sees no distress. 
 
 A has swung close to our port bow, as in the dotted line ship, 
 fig. 218, his starboard cable is sawing at our weather one ; both 
 A and B, moreover, are riding on spans, and our ship and A see 
 much distress. 
 
ANCHOEING. 
 Fig. 217. 
 
 393 
 
394 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 
ANCHORING. 393 
 
 At length we will suppose that b veers cable, and then that 
 we and A veer cable j our new positions would be as in fig. 219, 
 and if a sudden luU or shift of wind occurred, the distress would 
 be general. For we, as well as B, would have to wait for A, and 
 B for us, before enough cable could be shortened in to keep the 
 ships clear of each other. 
 
 Thus then it is that, when the admiral desires to have his ships 
 as close together as possible, he orders them to moor ; and to 
 prevent collisions whilst veering or picking up their anchors, he 
 points out the direction of the anchors. To preserve likewise an 
 imposing and well dressed line, he specifies the quantity of cable 
 that is to be veered by each, and also enforces the use of buoys, 
 that each ship may be enabled to ascertain the position of an- 
 other's anchors. 
 
 These are some, but not all, of the reasons for mooring. For 
 instance in a river too narrow for a ship to swing in at single 
 anchor without grounding, or too shoal to do so without striking 
 on the upper pee of her anchor, and perhaips settling on it as the 
 tide fell, it would be necessary to make her a fixture. But this 
 also would require consideration. By laying the anchors out in 
 a line with the stream, the anchors would be in the best posi- 
 tion for holding in the event of freshes or gales coming on, in 
 concert with the tide ; but, excepting the small distance she 
 could sheer by the action of the helm, her exposure to collision 
 from an enemy's fire-ships or rafts dropping down with the tide, 
 or from vessels navigating the river, would be great ; whereas, 
 by having the anchors athwart the stream, either cable could 
 be veered, and the ship quickly moved to one side or other. It 
 is in such a case as the latter, that Porter's anchor is so useful ; 
 for, admitting of disconnection, it can be carried into shoaler 
 water than the ship could reach, and greater scope of cable in 
 consequence given. 
 
 As to mooring in an open anchorage, it is recommended by 
 some and decided by others that the anchors should be laid 
 out open hawse to seaward, or at right angles to the prevailing 
 wind ; that iSj supposing the wind to be north, the anchors 
 should be laid out east and west. And also that they should 
 not be too far apart ; the usual rule for veering cables being to 
 three times the depth of water. 
 
 The advantage of this mode consists in the ship having it 
 
396 MANUAL POK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 in het power under sach or similar circtunstances, to veer 
 away on both cables during a gale from the prevailing quarter, 
 so as to bring the anchors about a couple of points on each 
 bow, and therefore in a favourable position for holding. 
 
 Having shown in Jig. 183 the properties of a span, it requires 
 no other diagram to prove that the nearer the anchors are 
 together the better, and that this theory is to a certain extent 
 good. 
 
 Some hold that the anchors should be laid out in the direc- 
 tion of the prevailing worst wind and its opposite, so that when 
 a gale comes on, the lee cable may be hove in as the ship is 
 dropt by veering on the weather one until she is over the lee 
 anchor, — thus keeping the slack chain clear of it — when both 
 cables may be veered on and both anchors brought right 
 ahead. 
 
 When, however, the shallow nature of some of our best 
 anchorages, and the great length and draught of our large ships 
 are considered, it will be evident that no precise rules can be 
 laid down. In Plymouth Sound, for example, we have only 
 thirty feet at low springs, so that a ship of 300 feet in length, 
 and drawing 27 feet, moored in either of these ways, would be 
 in great danger of settling on one of her anchors at low 
 water. 
 
 Indeed, when possible, it is better to ride at single anchor in 
 an open anchorage ; for not only do you thus have it in your 
 power to let go a second in the very direction of a gale, but 
 also of sheering clear of any ill-found craft that may bring up 
 in your hawse. 
 
 A taut moor is very injurious to the copper, and trying to the 
 swivel, and when it is used, there should be a liberal allowance 
 of chain. The objection to a slack moor is that if turns are 
 taken in the cables, they generally occur so low down as to be 
 dificult to clear. If we purposed mooring with the swivel with 
 four shackles each way in ten fathoms water, and we veered 
 seven on the first anchor let go, then by letting go the second 
 anchor, and heaving in to the fourth, we should have a fair 
 proportion ; for the end of the second cable would be carried 
 round to well inside the hawse hole of the first, and connected 
 at its fourth shackle to the swivel ; and thus there would be a 
 whole length of slack chain, which, together with the coming 
 
ANCHORING. 397 
 
 home of the anchors, would he sufScient allowance for an average 
 rise of water. 
 
 To moor in a tide way when the anchors are to be laid out in 
 a line with the tide, and the wind is not too strong in an opposite 
 direction to prevent the ship from dropping with the tide, it is 
 usual to let go the first anchor, so that by veering, the ship may 
 be carried with the tide to the proper place for letting go the 
 second ; but where the anchors must be laid out aslant or athwart 
 the tide, there is some difficulty involved, and considerable skill 
 required. Under steam it is thought best to unbitt what will be 
 the lee cable (calling that point to which the tide runs the lee), 
 get the line of bearing on, let go the lee anchor, steer straight 
 on (regulating the way so as to stop when there is cable enough 
 run out), then to let go the weather one, and middle the cables. 
 A Screw (for reasons which, if space permits, we shall endeavour 
 to explain in the chapter on Steam), will not always take a ship 
 straight astern. 
 
 Under saU, if the wind is nearly from the same quarter as the 
 tide, get the line of bearing on whilst to windward, run down 
 upon it (regulating sail to strength of wind and tide) ; let go the 
 weather anchor, veering away roundly, steer straight on, and 
 drop the second anchor where there is enough of the weather 
 cable run out. This is what is called a running moor. The 
 objection to this expedient is the great strain which is neces- 
 sarily brought on every article concerned in bringing the ship 
 up. 
 
 Marking the buoys with colours peculiar to the ships to which 
 they belong, is a means of removing much perplexity from the 
 mind of a new comer, when looking for a berth on joining a 
 squadron. 
 
 The state of the hawse may he known by fixing two pieces 
 of silk thread to the compass card in the direction of the 
 anchors, and fastening their ends to some place above it ; for, 
 for every turn in the cables there will be found a corresponding 
 one in the threads. 
 
 pom HAWSE. 
 
 Knowing what open hawse is, let us see what foul hawse 
 means. 
 
398 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The natural consequence of the ship pivoting is, that the 
 cables become twisted together. 
 
 If she is " taut moored," these turns -will occur close to the 
 hawse holes, and the nip will be very severe, but being within 
 reach they are readily cleared. 
 
 If she is " slack moored," they will occur under water, and 
 are very troublesome, but not so injurious to the cable. 
 
 In either case the hawse is " foul,"and until it be cleared yon 
 are in danger of parting, should it blow ; moreover, you can 
 neither shorten in cable nor veer. 
 
 As the question " How is the hawse ? " is often put, we will 
 endeavour to answer it. 
 
 Let us suppose a ship to have her small bower (the port one) 
 out north, and her best bower (the starboard one) out south ; 
 her head north, and the hawse open. She swings to a breeze 
 or current with her head to west ; there will then be a " cross," 
 small bower uppermost. (_Fig. 220.) 
 
 Fig. 220. Fig. 221. Fig. 222. Fig. 223. 
 
 Follow her head on to south, there will be the same result. 
 Follow it to east, there will be an " elbow," small bower under. 
 (Fig. 221.) 
 
 north, the same. 
 
 west, a " round turn." {Fig. 222.) 
 south, the same. 
 
 east, a " round turn and elbow." (.Fig. 223.) 
 north, the same. 
 
 west, two round turns ; and so on. 
 Had the wind followed the ship regularly round, the conse- 
 quences of foul hawse would have been inevitable ; but if the 
 
ANCHOEING. 399 
 
 ■wind had been variable tbey might have been prevented. If, for 
 instance, when the head was west with a cross, the wind had 
 come from east, and the spanker had been quickly hauled out to 
 the boom on the port quarter, the stem would have been carried 
 round by the southward to west and the cross taken out. On 
 the other hand, if the ship had been left to chance, and her stem 
 had been carried by north round to west, the cross would have 
 become an elbow. 
 
 In a tide way with the first of the current coming up astern, 
 a move of the rudder would carry the stem round in the required 
 direction, providing there was no adverse wind. 
 
 An unexpected order to sail would find a foul hawse ship 
 unprepared. The ready compliance of a clear hawse ship would 
 bring her credit, and that might be due to the personal vigilance 
 of the officer in charge of the deck at the time when the wind or 
 tide changed ; for without disturbing a single man from his meals 
 or bed, the sentries and quarter-master could haul the sail out. 
 
 Asto veering, asin^^r. 216. The ship would sheer about more 
 or less, as the wind struck either bow ; therefore it would be 
 necess.ary to heave in the slack of the lee cable to steady her. 
 Moreover, were the slack chain not hove in, its bight would be 
 dragged foul of the lee anchor. 
 
 CLEAKING HAWSE. 
 
 How to clear hawse is the next question. 
 
 This may be done in calm weather, when there is no current, 
 with the screw and steam. With the helm hard-a-starboard 
 a few dashes at full speed will send the stem to starboard, and 
 vice versa ; or it may be towed round by boats, or hauled round 
 by hawsers. 
 
 The method generally adopted is the following : — If the 
 turns are above water, put the clear hawse-shackle or the slip- 
 stopper on the lee cable, below the turns ; pass the end of a large 
 hawser through the outer hawse hole on the lee cable side ; reeve 
 it through the roller part of the shackle or the shackle of the 
 slip, then back through the same hawse hole and make it fast 
 round the after bitts ; clap the deck tackle on the other part ; 
 rowse it well taut, and make it fast also at the same place. Or 
 shackle the end of the stream chain to the slip, and a wet hawser 
 
400 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 vill 'be aToided. Observe, we are going to speak only of the lee 
 cable. 
 
 If there is a shackle in the cable before the forebitts, you need 
 not unbitt. Bend a hawser on to the cable a few links before the 
 shackle, seizing its end well ; keep it taut, " light to " the cable 
 abaft the shackle, and unshackle ; unreeve the hauling ends of 
 the fore-bowlines from the bows, and pass them down before all 
 to the cables ; hand one of them in through the lee cable hawse 
 hole, and bend it to the foremost end of the cable, putting stops 
 on from the bend to the hawse hole, which are to be cut as the 
 cable is thus carried steadily outboard; ease the hawser and haul 
 the end out with the bowline. The use of the hawser is to 
 preserve hold of the cable in case the clearing shackle should 
 carry away. 
 
 With the bowlines and any other contrivance you like, the end 
 of the lee cable is " dipt," and untwisted from the other, and then 
 hauled back through its own hawse hole, and re-shackled : the 
 deck tackle hauls it in taut; and when taut round the bitts, 
 along the deck, through the cowl, stoppered, and the compressor 
 tackle bowsed to, the slip is knocked off and the hawse is 
 clear. 
 
 When the turns are low down, it will be necessary to heave 
 in on the weather cable, and if the turns are too tant together to 
 admit of the slip being put on, the cables are lashed together as 
 low down as possible, and the same process of clearing carried 
 out. 
 
 Another way is to put the mooring swivel on, and then to slew 
 the turns out with levers and whips. 
 
 It must be observed, that as the ship is riding by the weather 
 cable, it would be dangerous to unshackle it ; and therefore the 
 lee one is disconnected for the purpose of dipping the end. 
 
 MOORING SWrvEL. 
 
 It is to avoid this fouling of hawse that the mooring swivel is 
 brought into use. 
 
 K it is intended to moor with the swivel, it is most convenient 
 before coming to, to run up what will be the weather cable ; 
 putting the swivel in it (generally at the fifth shackle), and pay- 
 ing it down again. 
 
ANCHOEING. 401 
 
 When the cables are middled after mooring, let the s-wivel be 
 above water, hang the lee cable with the slip as befoi-e, connect 
 its outer end with the spare lower leg of the swivel, and its 
 inboard end with the spare upper one, haul the lee cable taut 
 and secure it, put some rounding on the cables to preserve the 
 copper from galvanic action, take the slip off and middle the 
 cables, or bridles, as these parts are now called. 
 
 TO PUI THE SWIVEL ON AFTEE MOORING. 
 
 This is usually done at slack water, which is in fact the best 
 time for aU cable operations, as there is then less strain and 
 consequently less liability to break adrift. 
 
 Too much importance cannot be attached to the manner In 
 which cables should at all times be secured ; and as a constant 
 rule, the riding one should never be unshackled before the bitts. 
 Merely heaving in enough to admit of hanging the riding cable 
 by the slip to a deck bolt before the bitts, and shackling the 
 swivel on before all, would not only betray very defective 
 " Seamanship," but expose the ship to great risk. During the 
 unavoidable absence of the chief-executive from the lower deck 
 of a certain line-of-battle ship, this monstrous error was once 
 committed j the bolt broke, and the ship fortunately brought 
 up on her lee anchor, but In the hawse of her next astern. 
 
 Heave in the shackle of the cable by which the ship is most 
 rode, sufficiently far to admit of the cable being well secured, 
 whilst the swivel is being shackled abaft the securities. Then 
 ease it out, and deal with it as before. 
 
 Some officers prefer bringing the outer end of the other cable 
 into the riding cable hawse hole, and shackling it to the swivel 
 whilst inboard. There is no great choice. The important thing 
 to attend to is that the ends are secured. 
 
 The swivel should be put on with the cup upwards, as It may 
 be more efficiently lubricated when in that position. 
 
 As there is an odd link on one side, and an even number on 
 the other, it is well to make a rule of putting the odd one on the 
 starboard chain. Without some such law, there will be frequent 
 mistakes, and always difficulty in discerning the particular cable 
 when all are hove in board to take the swivel off. 
 
 Another way of putting the swivel on. Is to put the chain slip 
 on the lee cable, bring the end of the stream chain to it after 
 
 D D 
 
402 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 passing it through the riding cable hawse hole, and then heave 
 the hight of the lee cable inboard alongside the weather one. 
 In such case, both bridles, as well as the legs, are connected at 
 once. 
 
 The decks are less encumbered, and the ship supposed to be 
 equally safe, when one of the bridles is unshackled, and bent to 
 the ganger of the sheet anchor in preference to having a third 
 cable on deck. The stream chain in such case is usually bent 
 as a bridle in lieu of the large bridle. The swivel is hove well 
 out of the water, hanging mainly by the remaining large bridle. 
 The advantage of this way is, that the stem is less injured, and 
 turns cannot occur in the chains without being at once evident. 
 
 SECUBINO CABLES. 
 
 Let us now examine the fastenings. The principal are the 
 Clenching, Bitting, and Compressing. In addition to these are 
 the Deck and Ring stoppers, which are made fast to the large 
 shoulder rin^ bolts in the decks. No severe strain should be 
 brought on these bolts except in the direction to which the 
 shoulder points. 
 
 Deck stoppers are shackled or hooked (according to fitment) 
 to the ring bolts, the knot part hauled taut forward, twisted round 
 the cable, and lashed to it with its lanyard. 
 
 Ring stoppers are middled over the cable, and the ends, after 
 being passed through the ring bolt, dogged forward along the 
 cable. Thus, as the cable tautens, the nip of the bight is also 
 tautened. 
 
 If it blow heavily, or is likely to do so, the cables are double 
 bitted, i. e., bitted to the aftermost of the foremost bitts in addi- 
 tion. In doing this, the cable is well lashed, and opportunity 
 taken of a loll for slacking up abaft, whilst the bight of the chain 
 is thrown over the second bitt head. 
 
 The Bitt stopper is similar to the Ring stopper. It is rove 
 through a hole in the knee of the bitts, and is used chiefly for 
 the hemp cable. 
 
 In Veering cable during bad weather, great care is taken, not 
 only to do so during a lull, but also to slacken and tauten all the 
 fastenings at the same time. 
 
 Cable is veered not only on account of the long scope we have 
 
ANCHOEING. 403 
 
 spoken of, but also to " freshen the nips ; " and in doing so, it is 
 well to keep the shackles and swivels free of bitts and hawse 
 holes. 
 
 UNMOOEINO. 
 
 In unmooring, the lee anchor is picked up first, because 
 whilst heaving in on the weather-cable, the ship's movements can 
 be controlled by the helm ; whereas were the weather one picked 
 up first, the ship would drift down unmanageably towards 
 the lee one at the risk of fouling that anchor, and injuring other 
 ships, besides probably getting too near a lee shore. When the 
 tide is very strong in the opposite direction to the wind, the ship 
 will sometimes be tide rode, and lie with her broadside to the 
 wind. So many circumstances require consideration in this 
 case, that we shall leave it for personal observation to find 
 out which would be the proper anchor to begin with. One 
 restriction would be a cross, and this would probably involve the 
 lower cable first, or else a dip, or shift ; for were the upper one 
 worked, not only would the cables grind, but the anchor on 
 breaking ground would foul the lower cable. 
 
 Fore-top men always work before the bitts. 
 
 Main-top men abaft the bitts. 
 
 If the hook ropes are led round the rollers, and the people 
 properly stationed, the messenger is run up into its place with- 
 out a check. 
 
 Place the links of the messenger on the sprocket of the cap- 
 stan, see the turns taken out of the chain, and splice the ends, 
 heaving it taut if necessary with the rollers that are in the 
 manger. 
 
 Let us suppose the best bower (or starboard anchor) first, and 
 the mooring swivel on. Pass plenty of nippers before the bitts 
 round the port cable and messenger ; reeve a hook rope through 
 the bitt block, which is fast to the beam just over the bitt head ; 
 hook on to the bight of the chain that is round the bitts, and 
 pass the end round the messenger abaft the bitts ; cast all the 
 fastenings off the best bower cable ; light it to and heave in on 
 the small bower, and if fast to the proper link the hook rope 
 will nnbitt it. When the swivel is at the bitts, put the port 
 
 D D 2 
 
404 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 slip on the test tower chain and hang the best bower bridle ; 
 (both of these are now in board on the port side ;) walk back 
 the capstan until the shackles of these two parts of chain are 
 slack enough ; paul the capstan whilst the men are working 
 among these bights of ch^in ; disconnect the best bower froni 
 the mooring swivel ; connect its ends ; haul taut the starboard 
 compressor, and slip best bower, stopper small bower before all, 
 and bitt it • ; now bring to best bower as we did small bower ; 
 unbitt it, place cable and messenger on the cross piece, ship the 
 bitt pin and heave in, veering away so roundly on small bower, that 
 it shall hang up and down clear of the copper ; take the nippers 
 off when abreast the second bitts ; hold on smaU bower when 
 nearly over best bower (this will be known by the cable marks). 
 Let the nippers go further aft j bowse to the starboard com- 
 pressor, and keep enough best bower chain on deck for catting 
 and bitting. Marking the anchor part of the cable for catting 
 dispenses with much noise and delay. The best bower buoy 
 may be got hold of now. If it be a heavy heave, put the long 
 tackle on the cable, or run the end of a hawser thrice round the 
 fore capstan, and hitch it round the cable and messenger close 
 to the hawse hole ; man it with the spare cable hands (all ex- 
 cept the nipper men are standing idle), and heave both capstans. 
 If still heavy, clap a lashing block on the cable, reeve the 
 hawser through, and make its end fast to the bitts ; take racking 
 turns with dry nippers (if the cable is greasy, throw sand on it). 
 The moment the anchor starts, off with the purchase, and the 
 after capstan will do the rest. 
 
 "When the anchor is at the hawse hole, warn the men to stand 
 to their bars, for they are apt to stand easy after a heavy heave. 
 Put the slip on the cable before the bitts, and walk back the cap- 
 stan, bringing the weight of the anchor gradually on the slip ; 
 then paul the capstan (because, should the slip carry away whilst 
 the nippers are on, the messenger would drag the capstan round 
 before the men were clear of the bars t) ; then off nippers. 
 
 * In ships having a great space before the bitts, it would not be necessary 
 to unbitt small bower. Whether the swivel be taken off small bower now, or 
 when it is hove in again on shortening in that cable, would be a matter of 
 choice. All things considered, time would be gained by deferring this duty. 
 
 t This is by no means improbable, especially if the cat has been smartly 
 hooked and well hauled on by numbcrt of spare hands on the upper deck. 
 
ANCHORING. 405 
 
 FODL ANCHOE. 
 
 Now were the question put on a passing day, " What is to be 
 done under the above circumstances ? " probably the answer 
 given would be an account of how to clear the anchor. But 
 there is a whole cable out, the ship is veering about, and it is 
 necessary that the small bower should be hove in immediately ; 
 and as that is done in just the same manner as the other, we 
 shaU proceed to clear the starboard anchor while the port cable 
 is being hove in. 
 
 If the cable is foul of the stock, hook on the cat to the ring. 
 The cat-back is managed by the cat-back rope. 
 
 Cat and fish falls are apt to ride, therefore see that they are 
 scored before hauling taut. 
 
 When the cat is taut in all its parts, stand clear the cable and 
 knock the slip off^ when there is cable enough stuck out, stopper 
 and bitt it. 
 
 A few turns of the chain may be taken out by slewing the 
 anchor round with ropes to the stock. If not, hang the cable 
 near the shackle to the oat-head, ease the anchor far enough 
 down to slacken it, and then unshackle it, take the turns off the 
 stock, shackle the cable, and hoist the anchor up again, pass the 
 cat-stopper and unhook the cat. 
 
 In all chain cable operations, the invaluable pellet of lead 
 must be used with every pin. 
 
 Cat-blocks when close up would, from their great breadth, be 
 split, if kept hooked whilst fishing the anchor. 
 
 Hook the fish on the inner arm from forward aft, put a taclde 
 on the after end of the stock abaft the cat-head, haul the fish and 
 stock tackle, and, as the fluke rises with the fish, the lower end 
 of the stock wiU be thrown clear of the bows by the tackle, 
 otherwise it would foul the chain and bind.* 
 
 When the fish is up, either slack the martingale and pull up, 
 or, if no martingale, pull up the topping lift, and when the fluke 
 is on the bill board, pass the shank painter under and over f , 
 and unhook the fish ; take the tackle off and haul the chain 
 taut in. 
 
 Should the cable have so fouled the anchor as to bring it up 
 crown upwards, hook the cat to a good strop on the crown ; haul 
 
 * See page 252. f See page 251. 
 
 D D 3 
 
406 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the cat, and veer cable until the anchor plombs the cat-head with 
 the crown awash ; then hook the fish to another strop on the 
 crown, and to relieve the fish, hang the cable with a rope from 
 the cat-head to the hawse hole ; hoist the crown up with the 
 fish, hook the oat to the ring, and hoist it up, pass the stoppers, 
 unshackle, aud clear the chain. 
 
 If the davit gear is much worn, cat the crown in the first 
 place, hang it with the cat-stopper, then hook the cat to the ring 
 before all, and the fish to the arm ; case down the cat-stopper, 
 hauling on the cat and fish at the same time. 
 
 The after davit guy should be backed with a luff in either case. 
 
 We seldom get over a foul anchor, without having a man 
 overboard. Sailors will not be slung in a bow line knot, unless 
 forced ; and even when so slung cannot work efficiently, " Clear 
 haw^e breeches " are inexpressibly useful. Make them of 
 painted canvass, roomy aud wooden soled at the feet, well roped 
 and fitted with two spans long enough to clear a man's head 
 when bent to a rope. In these a man can work dry, effectively, 
 and safely, 
 
 ANCHOEING. 
 
 When it is optional, moor in northern latitudes with reference 
 to the chances being strongly in favour of gales beginning at 
 south-west, and ending at north-west. 
 ^ For the same reason, in northern latitudes, lie at single anchor 
 with the small bower (the port anchor) and if you have to let go 
 a second, you will have opeii hawse. 
 
 Shortening " all saU " together in coming to an anchor, how- 
 ever well done aloft, cannot but crowd the decks at a time wKen 
 you want silence and the power of carrying out a sudden altera- 
 tion in your plans. Except when you want to " charge " into a 
 station with great way, or catch breezes over the land with your 
 lofty canvas, the seamanlike way to come to is under topsails, 
 after the courses and upper sails have been " whipt in," and the 
 upper yards well squared by the boatswain's mates from the 
 tops. You can then feel your way with the topsails, deaden it 
 with a check of the braces, freshen it with a small addition of 
 canvas, or stop it by throwing aback. 
 
 When about to shorten sail, get the marks of the lee lower 
 lifts down ; clue up ; man all the braces and trusses, and lower 
 and square all together. 
 
ANCHOKING. 407 
 
 Coming in, -whilst blowing hard, get as much sail reefed and 
 furled as you can spare with prudence, the top-gallant masts on 
 deck, top tackle gear rove, studding sails out of the rigging, the 
 cables double bitted, sheet cables bent, nettings clear, lower 
 booms clear of waist anchors, middle deck guns out of way of 
 gangers. If running, round to without after sail towards that 
 side on which the first anchor you intend letting go'is stowed ; 
 and as a vessel drifts more slowly when broadside than end on, 
 let go the weather anchor when the wind is abeam. 
 
 Letting go and stowing the sheet is capital practice for the 
 youngsters ; therefore, when it blows strong, never hesitate or 
 " wait tiU she drags." Either down with the second or third 
 anchor, or veer more than one cable on end. 
 
 Make it a law to bend sheet cable whenever (if not sooner) 
 you let go your second anchor. In other words, always have 
 another anchor ready for letting go. 
 
 The order generally is " put the lead over the side ; " put the 
 deep sea lead over also, but put it over the bows. If you cast 
 it dear of the cables, it will be a more certain indicator of the 
 ship dragging her anchor. 
 
 If you break adrift from one anchor, it is best to let go two at 
 the same time. 
 
 If you have not double bitted before coming to, do so without 
 delay. You not only relieve the wood work, but can veer with 
 less jerking. 
 
 Always double bitt before anchoring in deep water. 
 
 If you are likely to use the sheet, get the lower boom, guns, 
 and ports out of the way, and hang the cable taut &om the fore 
 end of the chains ; for if you let it hang iu a long bight from 
 the anchor to the hawse hole, its weight wiU drag the anchor 
 forward the instant you let go, and the inner bill will (in many 
 ships) catch the after dead eye and hang the anchor. 
 
 If you ease off well and hang the cable, you may throw the 
 anchor off the tumbler, clear of everything. 
 
 Should you use a buoy, do not part with it until veering 
 obliges you. A sheet buoy is very apt to foul the bower cables. 
 When there is much sea on, the rudder chocks save the braces, 
 pintles, tiller, and wheel ropes from severe strain. (See Budder, 
 Chap. XXIV.) 
 
 K you want to back your anchor with another one, on 
 D D 4 
 
408 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 account of dragging, or the danger of doing so, put an anchor 
 shackle on the riding cable ; shackle the end of the backing 
 anchor <;able (taken outside all) to this ; look out for, or give 
 the ship a sheer, and let go. 
 
 The rolling motion may be checked, when at anchor, pro- 
 vided there be not too much wind, by making sail and bracing 
 by. This is no unimportant object, especiallyin handling boats. 
 
 No one that could help it would moor in a roadstead. At 
 single anchor a ship is ready for sea, and her remaining anchors 
 are disposable for a gale from any quarter. 
 
 SINGLE ANCHOn. 
 
 In coming to an anchor, it is desirable to ruil the cable out 
 straight, clear of the anchor, after letting go. To do this we 
 must either wait for stemway before letting go, or else let go 
 whilst there is headway on, and pay out roundly. 
 
 For the former there must be wind enough (if there is no tide) 
 to force the ship astern. In the latter there is the chance of 
 damaging the copper and snapping the chain, and thus of 
 running on board of a vessel which we had reckoned on clearing. 
 It is evidently an unnecessary risk in strong breezes, and there- 
 fore only adopted in light, when the risk is small. 
 
 The object in thus laying out the cable is, that not only will 
 the anchor be clear, but that (excepting in strong breezes or 
 tides), the ship wiU ride far from her anchor by the mere weight 
 of the chain, where it rises from the bottom. As long as this is 
 the case, the anchor will be clear ; but when she comes to be 
 carried near her anchor (which is known by the buoy), it will be 
 necessary to take measures to prevent this ; and it may be done 
 by an early attention to the state of the wind or tide. 
 
 If, for example, the ship Was riding to a moderate north 
 wind and a strong tide set in from south, she would naturally be 
 carried over her anchor, and the chain would foul it ; but if the 
 jibs had been set, she would have sailed in a semicircle round 
 her anchor, and swung to the tide to the northward of it. 
 
 The short of what is called " trending," is keeping the ship 
 away from the buoy ; and when it comes rapping on the copper 
 at night, it is a sign in most cases, that there is no one " at 
 home " on deck. 
 
 The ship should if possible be sheered past her anchor on the 
 
ANCHORING. 409 
 
 same side j and if she should have gone over, or quite round it, the 
 anchor should he sighted without delay : for a turn of the cahle 
 round the palm will hreak it out of the ground with as much 
 ease as is experienced in weighing an anchor with the huoy rope, 
 which is always made fast at the crown. 
 
 The inconveniences of hoating experienced in an outsider are 
 trifles compared to the dangers that are inseparably connected 
 with an inshore anchorage. A close lee shore in a gale, with 
 one ship drifting in the hawse, and another too close astern to 
 admit of veering, are the prices which must he paid for having 
 what is sometimes called " a snug herth," A real good berth 
 is to he weU to windward, at single anchor, and (on making up 
 for the night) to havfi the boats in and up, topsails treble reefed, 
 a reef in the mainsail, stay sails bent, top-gallant masts on deck, 
 yards pointed to the wind, cable ready for slipping, driver double 
 reefed, guns secured, rain awning sloped. Being thus ready for 
 the worst, the ship may be called " snug." 
 
 When becalmed at night in a tideway or current, in the 
 neighbourhood of foul ground or land, ease an anchor down to 
 the hawse hole with a slip rope hawser, and then lower it by 
 the cable a few fathoms below the ship's draught. The chances 
 will he in favour of its bringing the ship up before, perhaps, 
 striking the ground. 
 
 Ships draw less water at a great inclination, than when 
 upright ; therefore, when heaving or backing off from the 
 ground let the people " sally," by the toll of the bell, from side 
 to side — one bell to starboard, two hells to port — striking 
 nearly at the last of each roll. If on sand, she will displace it 
 on each side. A fresh pull on the purchase will be required 
 after every rolling. 
 
 CREEPrNG FOB ANCHORS. 
 
 Ships are sometimes unable to *eigh their anchors from stress 
 of weather or haste, in which case the Chain, having a huoy rope 
 and buoy fast to it, is " slipt." Again when the cable has parted, 
 the only trace of the anchor is the buoy. But buoys frequently 
 are washed away, and as the whereabouts of the anchor is 
 \ ^ known, it is "crept for" in the direction of the compass bearings.* 
 
 * Light loses about half Its intensity every fifteen feet under water ; but it 
 is said that a convex lens burns at twenty-five feet under the surrace of the 
 
410 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Boats having a rope with weights on the bight, which keep it 
 at the bottom, row on parallel lines at some distance apart. 
 When the rope comes in contact with the flukes of the anchor, 
 the boats cross each other's path ; a hawser is hauled round the 
 fluke by bending its end to an end of the creeping rope ; an 
 anchor shackle is put on both parts of the hawser, which run- 
 ning down to the anchor jams them together, so that they do 
 not slip off whilst weighing the anchor. Of course the best way 
 to sweep will be to row in a line with the shank, and nothing 
 is so eficient to sweep with as a piece of small chain. If there 
 be a tide running, it will save boats' crews much toil to lay two 
 small kedges out before commencing to sweep, by which the 
 boats can be warped to and fro. In creeping for a cable, two 
 fish-hooks joined at the eyes, and kept apart with their hooks in 
 the same direction by a few small battens lashed across their 
 backs, form an excellent creeper. It is dragged by the eyes, and 
 kept hooks downward by a small back rope. Boat's anchors also 
 form creepers ; but, as the back rope is the only means of disen- 
 gaging the creeper from anything it may become entangled with 
 at the bottom, it must never be omitted. 
 
 CAEBTING AN ANCHOR OUT BY BOAT. 
 
 With boats having tubes fitted to their bottoms, the anchor is 
 lowered down, and the flukes are hove up to the boat's bottom 
 
 Fig. 224. 
 
 sea, in a diving bell. Substances which reflect strongly may be seen with the 
 water telescope at the depth oftweWe fathoms. Cables are sometimes rubbed 
 bright on the bottom, and might therefore be spied with the glass. It might 
 be worth while to paint anchor stocks white on this account. 
 
ANCHORING. 
 
 411 
 
 by two parts of a stout rope, the bight of which is round an arm 
 of the anchor; the ends are led up through the pipes and 
 brought to the windlass. (.Fig- 224.) 
 
 The stock is hung horizontally from the stem. 
 
 Heavy guns are carried in much the same way. 
 
 STEEAM ANCHOE. 
 
 In carrying the stream anchor out, receive it athwart the after 
 part of the boat. 
 
 Hoist it out by the ring ; when the crown is below the gun- 
 wale, hang it with a rope from the bottom bolt round the arms, 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 
 and as it is lowered, bear the stock over the opposite gunwale, 
 and bend the cable on under the stock after you have rolled the 
 anchor aft. In this way you can steer, which you cannot when 
 you place the flukes over the stem, with the stock resting 
 athwart the boat on two fore and aft spars (_fig. 225). 
 
 Moreover, you can puU the after oars. 
 
 Of course with a short anchor you have no alternative. Place 
 the midship thwart across the stem, lay two capstan bars fore 
 and aft, and land the anchor on this platform fore and aft, with 
 the flukes over the stem. 
 
412 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 It is ■well to fit the Stream with slings, in which case it can 
 be landed in its place across the boat without a moment's delay. 
 
 When likely to weigh a stream or other heavy anchor by 
 boat, put a block on the crown and reeve a double buoy rope 
 through it before letting go. 
 
 CABBTING ANCHOB BY BOAT WHEN THE SHIP IS ASHOBB. 
 
 The quick way to lay a bower out when it is too dark and 
 too urgent to be bungling with bottom tubes and spar lashings 
 over two boats is, " out boats, rig fish davit." 
 
 If it be breezy, you will want to haul out with a small anchor, 
 so put the kedge and hawser at once in a pinnace. An officer 
 with the cutters will meanwhile have sounded and decided on 
 the direction for the bower, and shown his position by the flash 
 pans or light. The barge will help the pinnace to tow. Send 
 the end of the deep sea lead-line with them, and when they 
 have run out a hundred fathom of it in the right direction, 
 let go the kedge, and bring the end of the hawser to the 
 ship's bow. 
 
 While the davit is being rigged, two large thimbles are 
 seized into two strops, which are clapt round the outer arms of 
 the anchor, and the end of a short buoy rope rove through 
 them, which is stopt to the shank to keep it middled. A 
 long pair of slings are put round the shank before the stock, 
 and lashed to its upper end to keep the stock perpendicular. 
 Round the shank also, and with its ends stopt up and down the 
 upper end of the stock, is passed the bitt stopper, or some such 
 piece of rope ; hook the fish to the inner arm from aft forward ; 
 hook the cat to the stock slings, and ease the anchor down, 
 keeping the shank horizontal and the stock perpendicular until 
 it is about four feet under water ; bring the launch's stern 
 against the stock ; haul her side in close to the fish ; secure the 
 stock end of the anchor to the stern by the ring-stopper, pass- 
 ing the turns through all the stem ringbolts ; bring the ends of 
 the buoy rope in taut on each side through the rowlocks, and 
 secure their bights through the foremost ringbolts ; ease up 
 and unhook cat and fish ; stop a length of chain round the 
 boat outside, and then range as much more chain in the bottom 
 as is intended to be carried out, stopping it in several places. 
 
ANCHOEING. 413 
 
 and making the end well fast that it may not fetch way in 
 veering. 
 
 Fig, 226. 
 
 When about to let go the anchor, make sure by a cast of the 
 lead that yoa have cable enough outside the boat to reach the 
 bottom, and hang it well to the stern that no more may run out. 
 If there be a greater quantity of chain in the boat than can be 
 ranged in one layer, there will be damage done unless you dis- 
 connect at the first shackle and bring the length next the 
 anchor to the upper one of all the cable paid down, so that you 
 can veer from the top of the fakes, and not from underneath. 
 Let go the anchor with the boat's bow/romthe ship, cither cut- 
 ting or slipping all its fastenings together. Lash a capstan bar 
 athwart the stern ; lay the cable over it and veer away cau- 
 tiously fathom by fathom. If the end of another cable is 
 brought to you, join it ; hang the joining shackle outside your 
 boat, and throw the bight out, letting both parts hang from the 
 stem over the bar — that is to say, have no cable now remaining 
 in the boat, and when all is clear, slip the bight. 
 
 This proceeding will suggest the necessity of always talcing 
 punches, pellets, and hammers in a boat, when setting out on 
 an anchor expedition. 
 
 HEAVING OFF. 
 
 Ships sometimes get hard and fast after grounding, from 
 neglecting to lay anchors out before lightening. In some 
 cases, the water close under the stern is too deep for anchoring. 
 It is reported that the bower anchors of an English man-of- 
 war, that had grounded in the St. Lawrence, were transported 
 over the decks ; and, being let go from the quarters with a 
 
414 MAlftTAL FOR NATAI- CADETS. 
 
 purchase on each, -which was carried to the bows, the ship was 
 hove off. 
 
 CAKRTING ANCHOBS WITH BOATS. 
 
 When the boat is unequal to the weight, sling four empty 
 butts in pairs, marrying their slings, and " snaking " them, so 
 as to prevent them from being shaken off. Bung the casks well, 
 weigh the stem of the boat, and bear the butts underneath. 
 This will increase the buoyant power of the boat about two tons. 
 With a large launch prepared in this manner, the anchor may 
 be lowered, and hung with its stock horizontally across the 
 upper part of the stem as in Jig. 227, and a whole cable carried 
 out Of all methods this is certainly the quickest, and moreover 
 the boat will tow more easily than with the anchor entirely 
 under her bottom. 
 
 Fig. 227. 
 
 If the anchor were too heavy to admit of its being carried in 
 this manner, its flukes must be hove up under the bottom, and 
 the stock secured in the perpendicular, as in fig. 228. 
 
 The pinnace launches are not equal singly to carrying a 
 large anchor out, and therefore both must be used. The 
 anchor is lowered down awash with the stock horizontal and 
 the flukes perpendicular. If a bower, this is done by using a 
 hawser as a long cat stopper through the ring ; hooking the 
 fish to a strop round the inner arm on its after side, and flam- 
 ming the davit well off. The boats are hauled up stem fore- 
 most, and the breadth of the anchor's palm apart from each 
 other on each side of the shank. The stock is hung with slip 
 ropes passed from the after-sling ring bolts of the boats over a 
 spar lashed across their stems. A spar is lashed across the 
 gunnel of both boats before the palm, so that neither boat may 
 approach or separate further: this spar is chocked up at the 
 
ANCHORING. 
 
 415 
 
 gunnel, the ends of the thwarts, and amidships from the keel- 
 son, and the palm of the anchor is secured to the middle of the 
 spar with a strop and toggle or a lashing passed handy for 
 cutting. 
 
 The buoy rope must be under the spar. 
 
 The hempen bower cable may be bent at once, and its bights 
 borne by other boats as the launches haul out. 
 
 A waist anchor is more readily handled in this way than a 
 bower. 
 
 In lowering the waist anchor by the tackles into a boat, hook 
 the main tackle on the inner arm, and the fore tackle inside on 
 the lower stock, so as to lay it with the stock athwart ships. 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 
 RE -STOWING WAIST AKCHORS. 
 
 It is common to use the same arrangement of tackles for re- 
 stowing waist anchors as is made in hoisting the launch in. 
 Suppose the starboard anchor : The main yard is braced forward, 
 and the fore yard aft on the starboard side, and both secured in 
 that position. Put a strong preventer brace on the starboard 
 fore yard from the bowsprit cap, and a burton on its quarter for 
 the cable. Cat the anchor on the right slue, with the upper 
 stock aft; hook the main runner and main tackle to a strop on 
 the crown, and mowse their hooks ; hook the fore-runner to the 
 
416 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ring, and the fore-tackle to a strop made fast to the ring, and 
 lashed half-way up the upper stock ; pass a hawser over the 
 cat-head stopper- cleat, through the anchor ring, and make its 
 end fast round the cat-head. Hook the yard hurton under the 
 cat-head inside the hawser to the cable, about three fathoms 
 from the ring ; ease the anchor down by the hawser ; let it 
 hang with the ring awash and unhook the cat. (The use of the 
 hawser is to avoid the difficulty there would be in overhauling 
 the cat aft.) Haul taut all the gear, easing away the hawser, 
 and paying out cable, bearing in mind that the more the anchor 
 is slacked away under the yards, the more equally will the 
 runners operate. Keep the bight of the chain up with the 
 burton, and the upper stock with the fore-tackle. If the drift is 
 long, put another tackle from the cat-head on the cable, so as to 
 relieve the burton, and let the anchor go aft freely ; when up, 
 the main tackle — and if not, the fore-stay — will bring the fluke 
 in on the bill board. 
 
 In very long ships, the yards must necessarily be braced very 
 much in, and, consequently, the pee of the anchor will bind 
 very much against the side in going aft, bringing severe strain 
 on the yards ; and when it is remembered that their principal 
 duty is to carry sail, and that injury may be done them whilst 
 lifting weights, without their exhibiting any present symptoms 
 of distress, it seems unwise to employ them for purposes which 
 can be better effected with other means. At all events, when 
 lower yards are struck, there is no alternative, and the davit, as 
 already described, is brought into operation. 
 
 TO STOW THE WAIST ANCHOR WITH THE DAVITS. 
 
 Rig both davits, one a little before the place where the stock 
 stows, and the other at where the fluke stows. Use the cat- 
 fall and cat-block (taken from the opposite side) for the foremost 
 one, and the usual fish gear for the after one. When the 
 anchor is up to the hawse hole, hook, haul taut and belay the 
 cat-head cat and stick out cable; hook the after cat to the 
 anchor ring, and the fore yard burton to the cable as before ; 
 pay out chain ; lower the anchor well down, so as to overhaul 
 plenty of cat, and then hoist the anchor right up to the foremost 
 davit, and fish it with the other one. This is only one more 
 
ANCHORING. 417 
 
 davit to rig than usual, and can be done whilst shortening in 
 cable. In fact, the only difference of time between stowing a 
 bower and waist anchor in this way is that which elapses whilst 
 hooking the second cat ; for, although the length of haul on the 
 after cat is greater than that on the main one, we lose none in 
 handling the stock tackle. Five minutes' difference would be a 
 liberal allowance, and yet how often is the sheet anchor grudged, 
 from the imaginary difficulty about stowing it 1 
 
 STEIKING LOWER YARDS AND TOPMASTS. 
 
 The old custom whilst riding out a gale, was to strike top- 
 masts, keeping the lower yards up, seeing that not only do the 
 yards hold less wind when pointed aloft than when square be- 
 low, but that in the event of parting, sail might be made. And 
 one ship did succeed in getting off a lee shore under these very 
 circumstances. The heels of the topmasts were hung by haw- 
 sers in addition to the top tackles, and the topsails were set 
 close reefed over reefed courses. 
 
 In lifting to take the fids out, topmen will not start the rigging 
 lanyards if they can avoid it, because in sending masts and yards 
 up afterwards, they like to find the rigging aU ready taut for 
 them to run the moment the fid is in. The rigging is generally 
 much shrunk Irom wet whilst the mast is struck ; and unless the 
 lanyards are actually overhauled, the strain on top blocks and 
 cap bolts is excessive, and accidents are frequent in consequence. 
 Topsail lifts, buntlines, and reef tackles must also be lighted up ; 
 and before lowering the masts, the backstays and halyards must 
 be hung taut from the top. Indeed, to make a good run with 
 the masts in going up, all this gear should be hauled up above 
 their usual nips and stopt. Of course, when striking, if rolling 
 heavily the rigging must be very carefully eased ; the lower yard 
 should either be braced up or lowered out of the way, and sail 
 tackle put on the mast head, or the buntlines racked to haul 
 down with, so as to take advantage of a lull for unfidding and 
 lowering rapidly. 
 
 If the yards are to be struck whilst rolling, cross the yard 
 tackles to opposite sides of the deck, and check the after main 
 braces whilst lifting the slip out. When the masts and yards 
 are down, haul the stays taut with jiggers, and pull them up 
 
418 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 through their nips and hang them there. Rack the clue garnets 
 under the yards. 
 
 When the lower or flying jib booms are left out after striking 
 lower yards and topmasts, or pointing yards to the wind, It looks 
 more Uke negligence than design. 
 
 In sending up lower yards and topmasts, have jiggers on stays 
 and backstays ready for setting up. K there is a fight for an 
 inch for Adding, either something is fast, or there are not hands 
 , enough on the dumb sheave tackle, or the heel Is wooded in 
 being pulled aslant by the live one ; therefore, divide the men 
 at once, slack the live tackle a little, and then one long pull to- 
 gether will toss the mast up. Top sail lifts are generally the 
 cause of a heavy pull. The nip is short in the sister-block, 
 and unless the lift be hauled through and hung outside the 
 block, it will give trouble. It is the same with top-gallant 
 rigging j haul it up a few inches through the nips, hang it 
 there, stop it taut into the topmast rigging from the cross tree, 
 and then stop the bights taut up and down the topmast 
 rigging ; thus the rigging will not only be well overhauled, 
 but the unsightliness of loose gear at the mast head will be 
 avoided. In sending top-gallant masts up, the men must be 
 warned to cut the stops on the bights only, as they go aloft. 
 
 Tricing the after main braces up, overhauling the sheets of 
 courses, and letting the bunt of courses fall (of course refurling)' 
 before sending the lower yards up, lighten work. The bunt of 
 a large main sail will, after heavy rain, contain more than half 
 a ton of water. 
 
 See that the heels of the booms are fast, for if not, and the 
 yards tilt, they will slip overboard and wring the irons. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 HANDLING THE SHIP. 
 
 In the government of the peopled deck there is scope for ad- 
 ministrative talent of the highest order. To be prompt with the 
 right command, judicious in the selection of sufficient means 
 ^and no more), in the control of reserves, in the anticipation of 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 419 
 
 ihe next move, and contrivance that the present command have 
 some reference to the future, in the adaptation of resources to 
 various circumstances, — all this cannot be learned in any other 
 school than one " under canvass," or by any other pupil than a 
 cordial lover of his profession. 
 
 The military art may, in a great measure, be reduced to rules. 
 It is almost a certainty that an order wiU produce certain results. 
 The commander moves his pieces with nearly the precision of a 
 chess-player. He literally can say to a man " Do this, and he 
 doeth it." At the note of a bugle, columns form line, consolidate 
 in masses, or deploy into fractions ; a battle is declined, or an 
 inevitable disaster is converted by successful generalship into an 
 honourable retreat. 
 
 But the seaman is dependent on two uncompromising agents ; 
 and, however he may accommodate his circumstances to their 
 movements, over them he has no positive control. Britannia 
 may rule the waves in song, but, as the sea-sick dominie ob- 
 served, " She can not rule them straight." 
 
 Tides, seas, and winds will rise and fall, and wait for no man. 
 The seaman must take them as they come, and be ready with 
 his resources ; and even after his best exertions, his gain or loss 
 is in their power. A shift of wind threw three of thirteen ships 
 out of the brunt of the battle of the Nile. The " Culloden," 
 commanded by an officer whom Nelson had named " the Non- 
 pareil," grounded on a sunken rock. Fogs and calms obscured 
 the signals and retarded the movements of Howe. A gale scat- 
 tered the hard won trophies of Trafalgar, and prevented the 
 entire destruction of the enemy ; and it was in the full convic- 
 tion of the impossibility of adhering rigidly to fixed rules; that 
 the genius of Nelson threw himself so trustfully on the bravery 
 of his men and the undirected ability of his captains. 
 
 These observations are not made with the intention of drawing 
 an invidious comparison, but to magnify our own profession in 
 the estimation of young sea officers ; so that they may take a 
 large estimate of the qualifications for command. If the wooden 
 walls be made up of " Hearts of Oak," the " thin Red line " is 
 composed of materials as precious ; and soldiers and sailors can 
 entertain no rivalry that is not of a friendly and honourable 
 character. 
 
 It is true that steam may place his forces more at the disposal 
 E £ 2 
 
420 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 of the naval Commander-in-Chief than formerly, but bearings 
 may get hot, shells may drop into the best masked engine-room, 
 and machinery of the most perfect description may fail at the 
 hour of need ; and -without meaning to maintain the infallibility 
 of sailoring, it is not very certain that coal -vrhips -will altogether 
 outliTe tacks and sheets. 
 
 It has been observed by an officer, whose high scientific attain- 
 ments place him beyond the suspicion of disparaging theoretic 
 knowledge, that however informed, taught, and improved by 
 book-learning naval officers may be, they are aware that sea- 
 manship is the most essential part of their education ; that it can 
 only be learnt afloat and by practice j that it needs certain 
 qualities of head, eye, character, and constitution, not easily or 
 quichly acquired ; but therefore proportionately valuable. Nei- 
 ther the differential calculus nor dynamical study will enable 
 an officer to manage his ship in a gale of wind, or an action. 
 He must neither overlook nor undervalue plain duties, while 
 studying mathematics and philosophy. 
 
 COIIilNO EOPES. 
 
 The most wonderful of all orders that may be found in the 
 old standard routine watch bill orders, is that of " coil up ropes 
 at 3.30 A.M. Holystone decks at 4." How it operated, those 
 who sailing in the line, or in doubtful weather, have spent 
 many dark and anxious hours with their power of action thus 
 straitened, and who have often been alphabetically noticed at 
 daybreak for being out of station, can best say. Nor are we 
 without positive examples of the fatal consequences of such 
 practices. I have always had stools made with grating tops, 
 on which the working ropes were coiled abaft their belaying 
 places. The fore-topsail brace on top of the fore-brace, main 
 topsail buntline on top of its clueline. Top-gallant clueline on 
 top of its sheet, and so on : and thus the officer of the watch 
 could touch, a rope without hesitation ; moreover the perpetual 
 coiling up and flemishing down was altogether avoided. 
 
 CASTING. 
 
 When there is plenty of sea room, and the wind is fair, it is 
 best to cast under the head sails : and to make sail when before 
 the wind. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 42 1 
 
 In casting with the square sails set, ships invariably gather 
 stemway the moment that the anchor breaks ground. On this 
 account, and under these circumstances, it is considered a good 
 general rule (in the case of a foul wind), to cast with the head 
 towards the nearest of neighbouring dangers to make a stern 
 board while the anchor is being catted, then to fill and make 
 sail enough to insure going about in stays when requisite. 
 
 When there is not room enough to admit of going much 
 astern, set the main sail before starting the anchor, and have a 
 purchase all ready to clap on the cable the moment that the 
 anchor promises to give a heavy heave ; otherwise the ship may 
 go tripping it astern into shoaler water, and certainly will be 
 unmanageable until it is at the bows. 
 
 When close to a lee ' shore with too much wind or sea to get 
 the anchor easily, or when you cannot afford to go astern, the 
 ship must be cast with a spring, and the anchor abandoned. 
 Thus, supposing that the ship is riding at the starboard anchor 
 and that it is determined to cast to port, brace the yards up on 
 the starboard tack, have the sails ready for setting, with the 
 number of reefs in that may be necessary j hoist the top-sail 
 yards up sufficiently high for setting the topsails, and cast as 
 many gaskets off as can be spared. Pass one end of a buoy 
 rope in through the riding cable hawse hole, and make it fast 
 to that cable close before the hitts, put a buoy on the outer endj 
 and hang it outside all to the bumpkin. If riding with nearly 
 a whole cable out, prepare to disconnect its end from the slip 
 in the locker, drive the pellets out and see the cable clear for 
 running. If riding with only part of a cable out, you may be 
 able to disconnect further up, and thereby save so much chain j 
 but it would not be prudent to unshackle until the ship is sure 
 of going the right way, for a flaw of wind might bring her to, 
 after having gone off to port a certain number of points, and it 
 would then be necessary to hold on for another trial. In such 
 case unusual strain would be brqught on the cable fastenings, 
 and if they carried away or rendered and the cable were un- 
 shackled, you would be adrift ; . but were it still connected, the 
 clench would bring you up. 
 
 Pass the end of a hawser from the starboard quarter outside 
 all, and make it fast for a spring to the riding cable at the hawse 
 hole ; haul it taut, make it fast, and have an axe ready for cutting 
 E E 3 
 
422 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 it. Haul the head sheets aft on the starboard side. Be all ready 
 to loose and make sail and Teer cable. Put the helm a-starboard, 
 and •when the ship's head is sheering to port, hoist the head sails, 
 veer away cable, and put the helm amidships ; when the head 
 saUs have taken -well, and the ship is evidently swinging from her 
 quarter by the spring, disconnect the cable, warning the people to 
 stand clear of the end, and let go the buoy. Set the courses, and 
 then the topsails, if not able to set all at once ; and when the 
 wind is well on -the starboard beam (and not sooner, otherwise 
 the ship wiU fly into the wind before she has steerage way 
 enough to keep her out of it), cut the spring, trim the head sails, 
 and when you have good way on, bring her gradually to the 
 wind. 
 
 When you have room, and are pitching, it will be best to get 
 the anchor up before making sail. By so doing you will ease 
 the chain, nippers, capstan, messenger, &c. &c. 
 
 When about to get under weigh (the ship being tide rode, and 
 the wind aft), the comparative strength of wind and tide must be 
 well considered before coming to the decision to make sail and 
 weigh, or to weigh first and make sail afterwards. For it looks 
 ill to see a ship under canvass forging ahead over her anchor, 
 tearing the copper off her bottom, breaking the nippers, and sheer- 
 ing unmanageably about before breaking ground ; and it is equally 
 bad management when the anchor is hove up, and the ship is 
 drifted by the tide without steerage way. 
 
 If the wind were light, it might be necessary to make nearly 
 all sail before breaking ground ; or if moderate, merely to loose 
 them. If it were blowing strong, the ship might stem the tide 
 ■without any sail ; but in this latter case, it would be well to have 
 a head sail set, so as to prevent the possibility of breaking the 
 Sheer whilst stowing the anchor. 
 
 TACKING. 
 
 In turning to windward, if the ship be in trim, her weights 
 well disposed, her sails not only well set but judiciously ba- 
 lanced, there will be a lively strain on the weather wheel ropes, 
 yielding to the influence of a single spoke, but challenging 
 again, the ship will not " bore," or pitch, or flam as if about to 
 beat her head to pieces, or bury her bows in a head sea. Her 
 liead wiU rise and fall in easy graceful undulations ; there wiU 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 423 
 
 be a tremulous motion in the tiller, a sensible pulsation wiich 
 is said to be an infallible sign of good trim, denoting the amount 
 of life and energy in the whole thing. Like a well mouthed 
 pulling horse, if the wheel be let go at the moment when the 
 pull is strongest, she wiU dart ardently into the wind, and go 
 round of her own accord. 
 
 Let us take her then at one of these moments. Ship on the 
 stai'board tack. Haul the spanker boom amidships, pull up the 
 lee topping lift, let go weather one, ease off the head and fore 
 sheets, let go top-gallant bowlines, check lee head braces, and 
 steer her round. 
 
 The head braces are checked not merely because the wind is 
 thus thrown out of the sails on the fore mast, but also because, 
 were this not done, the port fore yard arm iron would be caught 
 by the port preventer main brace on hauling the main yard, 
 involving delay in hauling the head yards whilst the foul is 
 being cleared, and risk of life in doing it : for if the men go out 
 for this purpose on the main yard, that yard is unsteady whilst 
 the brace is necessarily slack ; and if they go out on the fore, 
 the order may be given from aft to haul the head yards before 
 the men have got in off the yard arms. 
 
 If the order to let go top-gallant bowlines were delayed, the 
 
 fore one would either carry away, or tear the leech out of its sail. 
 
 When the head sheets are let go, there will just be time enough 
 
 to pull up jib guys, stays, and halyards, sheets and halyards oif 
 
 upper sails. * 
 
 When the after sails " touch," run the main tack up as high 
 as the bowline will permit, else on hauling the after yards the 
 tack and sheet blocks will get inside the main rigging where its 
 spread is greatest, and interfere with getting the main sheet aft ; 
 raise the main sheet, shorten in the lee main tack until the after 
 leech is taut from the yard arm to the chess-tree ; see that the 
 starboard main sheet is clear outside and gather it in taut ; bear 
 starboard breast back stays aft ; trice starboard main brace up, 
 and see that the after parts of the lee one are clear of the davitSj 
 with a hand at the lee tricing line ready to let go as the yard 
 goes up on the other tack. 
 
 * New gear is alvvays"giving out. If topsail yards have much drift betweea 
 the hanging blocks, it is best to take a pull on the lee halyards before goirg 
 about. 
 
 E E 4 
 
424 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The first run with the main sheet and preventer main brace 
 requires great activity, but not much strength. These Topes 
 have many fathoms of slack to be run through before the heavy 
 pull comes. So have your men stationed in gangs ; one to run 
 or rather rush away, and the others to strike in. It is from in- 
 attention to this arrangement that we see jibs make an awkward 
 " halt " in the middle of the stay when being set, and the main 
 yard fly back square after having been " up." 
 
 The Main Braces will of course be worked forward on both 
 parts. If we have several pieces of bunting let into the belaying 
 part, there will be no delay in making it fast when the yard is 
 round, and then hauling on the other. 
 
 The weather preventer main brace, and main top bowline 
 should be hauled quite through the sheaves, hung by a stopper, 
 and faked down clear before going about ; a kink during the 
 swing of the yard would spring it. 
 
 I find it is necessary to remind the reader that the main 
 braces which lead forward are the preventer braces, and those 
 which l«ad aft are the main braces. Hauling the main yard 
 with the latter is an almost unknown practice. A theoretical 
 officer in the for sometime persisted in his fancy for work- 
 ing the main brace, and hauling the lee one taut when on a 
 wind, but after being detected in the act of rowsing the main 
 tack down with the whole of the watch, the lee main brace 
 being taut as a bar, and entirely forgotten, he was so thankfal 
 for the interference which saved the yard, as to content him- 
 self with customary manners afterwards. 
 
 After the main-top sail " lifts," it will gradually become aback 
 from the middle outwards. When the weather outer cloths 
 have taken aback, the ship's motion will then throw the sail 
 alternately forward and aft; take it as it bellies aft, and having 
 your men awake at the bowlines and braces, " main sail haul." 
 The wind will then have been about two or more points on the 
 bow, and will chase that side of the topsail aft, carrying the 
 main yard up in one swing on the other tack, where it will 
 remain if the brace has been smartly worked. 
 
 The slack of the after bowlines is run through simultaneously 
 with the braces, and a turn caught with them so as to prevent the 
 yards from flying square when the braces are lazily handled. 
 
 Forecastle men always set about shifting over the head 
 
"feANDLING SHIP. 425 
 
 sheets, and hauling up the lee fore clue garnet ai the -word 
 " helm's a lee," and unless strictly prohibited from doing so, 
 until the ship is head to wind, the jibs and after part of fore- 
 sail become back sails, stopping the ship's way, retarding her 
 approach to the wind, and sometimes causing her to miss stays. 
 Man head braces and bowlines, fore tack and sheet, get the 
 tack as far forward and the sheet as far aft as possible. See 
 that the bights of the former are not under the cathead, or those 
 of the latter under the guns or anchor. 
 
 A few hands will be sufficient for running away with the 
 slack of the head braces at first ; the far greater number should 
 stand by to clap on when the slack is nearly through. 
 
 If she is flying off fast, you may haul the head yards a little 
 before the main topsail is full ; if not, it is better to make sure 
 of the head yards being quite full when hauled. Whether it be 
 from great lateral pressure of the water before gathering good 
 way, or the bulk of the people being before the centre, ships 
 are apt to come to, after an early haul of the head yards, and 
 hang in the wind ; perhaps involving " boxing off," at all 
 events causing more loss, than if you had made a late haul with 
 them. 
 
 Should she be inclined to pay off too much, dela,y bracing 
 sharp up until she begins to come to. 
 
 When the yards are braced sharp up, and sails trimmed, the 
 lifts are pulled up first, then the weather braces, and then the 
 bowlines. Kopes are coiled down clear, slack of weather 
 lower sheets, and lee tacks and lee bowlines hauled through. 
 
 As for the helm, if touched at all, the ship should be steered 
 round, and if found necessary to put it hard down, it should be 
 righted whenever the fore topsail takes well aback. 
 
 The " touchiness " of a ship's trim is nearly incredible, and 
 often unaccountable ; one will be carrying a press of sail all day 
 to keep station, and at night be stirring her leader up under 
 half the same quantity of canvass ; one day we hear that a 
 notorious clipper " won't sail a bit," and the " dummies " cutting 
 all the work out to windward. During one commission a ship 
 is fast or slow, the next quite the contrary. 
 
 All this but goes to prove that generally there is sailing in a 
 ship, and that if she cannot be a flyer she need not be a slug. 
 So trim, trim, trim ; a " pocket " jigger and half a dozen 
 
426 MANUAL FOE NAVAL GADETS. 
 
 hands may do it all. It does not follow that, with a slack 
 weather helm, a pull on the driver sheet is the remedy ; perhaps 
 an inch of the jib sheet or fore hrace would have been better. 
 Nor, until you study the ease and try, can you decide whether 
 a check of the boom sheet, or a reef in the driver, or a pull on 
 the lee head braces or jib sheet is the best cure for a taut one. 
 When you think of these things, remember in your boat how 
 yon can correct weather helm, without reducing after sail, by a 
 pull on the jib outhaul or sheet, and vice versa ; and also what 
 a change can be made by shifting a sitter his own breadth. 
 
 When there is much sea on the bow, or when there is a swell 
 with little wind, the ship will require coaxing. Take oppor- 
 tunities when she is inclining to come to, to haul the head 
 sails down ; ease the helm down, haul over the boom, and check 
 the head bowlines and lee head braces. Look out for stem 
 way, and if the sails have taken aback, and it is not intended to 
 use the rudder for steering purposes, put it amidships and pass 
 the twiddling lines. The main yard should not be hauled, 
 nor head sails reset, nor fore tack started until the wind is 
 decidedly on what was the lee bow. The later the haul of the 
 main yard, the heavier wiU be the work ; and as allovring it 
 to bring up square for even a short time would probably cause 
 the ship to miss stays, care should be taken to ensure a good 
 haul. 
 
 In tacking, mast-head men are required for the purpose of 
 attending the breast backstays, so that the lee ones may be 
 home aft, and the weather one set up in the proper time. In 
 breezy weather, the head yards should be eased forward with a 
 turn on the weather braces. 
 
 SAILING IN LINE. 
 
 When performing any evolution in the line, if sail will 
 ensure it, do not hesitate to make a sufficiency, even if it should 
 be taken in immediately afterwards. Missing stays, or taking 
 up much time and space in wearing, throws other ships into 
 danger and disorder. 
 
 You may have been carrying enough sail to keep your station, 
 but it does not follow that you have enough to carry you round 
 when the signal for an evolution is made. If your leader is 
 dull, but doing his best and in his station, of course you must 
 
HANDLINU SHIP. 427 
 
 not encroach on him ; but you must he handy with your can- 
 vass, and sharp in freshening your way with it, just before 
 your own turn comes to go about. 
 
 In every evolution " in succession," the eye of the Chief is 
 on each performer as he goes round, and when after a bad one 
 he asks for the name of the officer of the watch, the query is 
 generally followed by an invitation to the flag-ship, — not to 
 dinner. 
 
 When about to leave the main yard square in stays, make a 
 late haul, else the brace will go. 
 
 The rule for going about in succession in close order in the 
 line is, to put the helm down when your next ahead is four 
 points on the weather bow ; in open order, five points. 
 
 In wearing, begin when he is on your lee bow. 
 
 As ships when sailing in line are not at liberty to disturb the 
 order of sailing, the naval candidate should receive what is 
 commonly called " cut and di-y " answers to " catch questions " 
 with great caution for, if he is made up merely in that vague 
 manner, he will surely miss stays ; for example, he may have 
 learned that the proper thing to do in the case of a weather 
 brace gone is to bear up, or in that of a man overboard to heave 
 to, and be taken aback when his examiners tell him of a close 
 lee shore or another ship close astern. 
 
 In Tacking with a strong breeze, there is danger to the masts 
 from the pressure of the sails when aback, as they are then 
 supported only by the stays. This is sometimes so imminent, 
 that when the sails begin to shake and- are no longer useful in 
 carrying way, the topsails are lowered, and only hoisted again 
 \rhen the ship is round on the other tack. 
 
 There is also danger of the ship missing stays from the 
 pressure of water in a sea way on the weather bow, in which 
 case the stem way is so great as to risk the rudder fastenings 
 and stem fitments. 
 
 Again, when it is blowing strong, it is not possible to set 
 enough sail to carry the ship round. 
 
 In these, or other cases, when there is enough of sea room, 
 the ship's head is got round on the other tack by " Wearing." 
 
 If they have been in "use, put preventer braces on the lee side 
 
428 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ■before going round ; brail up the driver* ; let go the after tow 
 lines ; ease off the main tack and sheet ; put the helm up and 
 spill the after yards, taking down the slack of the lifts and 
 trusses. When the -wind is on the quarter, brace in the head 
 yards and square the after ones; -when the wind is aft, shift 
 over the head sheets, and (if working -with the -watch) run the 
 head yards right up on the new tack, for if smart you will get 
 the foresail well set in good time whilst it is becalmed. Ease the 
 after yards forward as the wind is dra-wn on the quarter ; 
 gathering aft the main sheet, and hauling down the tack. Set 
 the driver, ease the helm, and put it a-weather as she comes to, 
 else the ship will fly up in the wind. 
 
 When working with the watch, it is best to haul the main sail 
 up before wearing ; and if you want to wear short, you must 
 not brace the head yards up until you have nearly got the wind 
 a-beam on the other tack. 
 
 When blowing so hard as to be under Stay sails, and perhaps 
 close reefed main topsail, wearing requires great care, as to 
 the very time when to bring the -wind and sea a-beam on either 
 tack. Unless you prefer running the risk of having a sea come 
 on board, ports stove in, boats washed away and tiller snapped, 
 you wiU pat the ship off and bring her to the wind during one of 
 those temporary smooths which occur in the heaviest seas. The 
 more way you have on, the more powerfully will the rudder act ; 
 so by all means set the foresail, hauling it up when before the 
 wind. The trusses must be attended during the evolution, and 
 rolling tackles and preventer braces put on before it is com- 
 menced. The mizen and main trysail will of course be dovni, but 
 if you put luffs on for sheets from the opposite side, and steady 
 them whilst going round, it is much better not to haul the stay 
 sails down. Unship the galley funnel if it be in the way, 
 but if you attempt to carry the main staysail sheet round before 
 it after hauling down, you will be a long while without sail 
 enough over the body of the ship, and will very probably take a 
 sea in. 
 
 The relieving tackles must be attended. As there will now 
 be much working of gear aloft, the yards should be kept off the 
 lee rigging and stays, and bunts of courses clear of lower stays. 
 
 * See taltbg in driver. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 429 
 
 By getting the people aft, the ship's head will go off more 
 readily. 
 
 In all cases, weai-ing strains gear less than tacking. 
 
 Some officers advise keeping the main-topsail -somewhat full 
 whilst first bearing up, but much depends on the position of the 
 main mast. In ships where the engine is forward, and this mast 
 is unusually far aft, such a measure would be attended witli 
 delay in paying off. 
 
 CHACKINO ON. 
 
 " Cracking on " perpetually through everything, conveys the 
 idea of " making a capital passage.'' Certainly good runs have 
 been occasionally made under a constant press of sail with 
 continuous breezes, but then experience proves their rarity. 
 
 How often after straining every spar, rope, and sail, wetting 
 and rewetting before the men's clothes have had time to dry, do 
 sbips wait for days in stark calms for winds. 
 
 It is well to reflect on the risk to the ship, and exposure of the 
 crew, caused by a wanton desire to hold on to the last, and drag 
 through a squall when the ease is not urgent. If you are reck- 
 less enough to carry on without any precaution in threatening 
 weather, or unfeeling enough to do so with your men " standing 
 by," whilst you in an armour of waterproof defy the weather, the 
 chances are always in favour of an ugly cloud bringing you 
 wind enough to oblige you to shorten sail. Rain is the general 
 accompaniment ; and as the men cannot work in tarpaulins, they 
 are drenched during the operation, and remain so whilst 
 damages are being repaired which a little common sense might 
 have avoided. 
 
 TAKEN ABACK. 
 
 " Taking aback " is scarcely an admissible term. Sudden 
 shifts of wind are not very frequent, for generally a lull or calm 
 intervenes, or the wind shifts gradually round. In either case 
 there is time to get the main sail and driver in ; steer th^ship's 
 head off, or brace the after yards round to meet the new comer. 
 
 As it is impossible to do anything until these two sails are 
 disposed of, there can scarcely be an excuse for finding them 
 set whilst there is a prospect of a serious change of wind or 
 weather. 
 
 When appearances are very threatening, and it is difficult to 
 
430 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 say from which quarter the storm will break, the wise course to 
 ptirsue is to clue everything up (if not furl), keeping a fore 
 stay sail set. And the officer of the watch must not always 
 take it for granted that somebody is looking after scuttles and 
 lower deck ports. 
 
 Hauling courses up in a calm or when ahack cuts up the 
 ratlines very much. These sails will be raised more properly 
 by using the buntlines and lecchlines only at the first. If the 
 wind is light, haul the lee clue forward with the tack, and then 
 haul up. 
 
 MAN OVEBBOAKD. 
 
 Every ship has a particular station bill for this occurrence, 
 but as it happens under so many different circumstances, it is 
 impossible to prescribe. The best preconcerted arrangements 
 are often inapplicable, and success depends mainly on the 
 presence of mind of the officer of the watch and the man at the 
 life buoy. 
 
 A cool hand will drop the life buoy sometimes within reach 
 of a man ; a " bothered " one will either not let go at all, or do 
 so before the man has got near the stem. 
 
 If on a wind, there can be no question about " going about ; " 
 leaving the main yard square on the other tack, and lowering 
 the boats when ready. If sailing off the wind, everything light 
 must be let fly, the weather clue garnets run up, after yard 
 braced up, and the ship rounded to. Or, if well manned, wear ; 
 shorten sail, and stand towards the man on the other tack.* 
 Hands with their wits about them must endeavour from aloft to 
 keep the man in sight. The boat's pendants and the " pull ,to 
 port," " pull to .starboard," and " you go well " signals must be 
 bent on instantly, so as to be ready to hoist and correct each 
 other. If at night, have blue lights and rockets ready for show- 
 ing the ship's position to the boat. If in the fleet, the ship's 
 position lights should be shown as quickly as possible. "As the 
 boats are supposed always to have the means of flashing or firing, 
 you will know their whereabouts. 
 
 Netfulls of cork shaving or old corks kept at different parts 
 of the upper deck, are most useful whilst bathing ; the men are 
 encouraged to " take the water," knowing that one of these 
 
 * In all cases of letting fly gear suddenly, never forget to warn the look-out 
 men who are on the yards. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 431 
 
 will be pitched right into his hands when he is fatigued ; and 
 in the case of a man overboard it will most probably be in the 
 power of the person who gives the alarm thus to afford imme- 
 diate relief J they can also be sent in boats when you must risk 
 a capsize. 
 
 It is recommended by some in such a contingency to square 
 the main yard and heave to at once, but such a recommendar 
 tion overlooks the possibility of ships sailing in line and being 
 disconcerted if not imperilled by the obstruction. The officer 
 of the watch who followed such advice would certainly be 
 roused out of his " quiet " theory into activity by the bowsprit 
 end of his next ship astern. 
 
 The opinion of officers of high reputation and general expe- 
 rience who have vrritten on this subject may be profitably 
 reproduced. 
 
 The most important considerations, when a man falls over- 
 board, are : First, the quickest and most effectual method of 
 arresting the ship's progress, and how to keep her as near the 
 spot where the man fell as possible. 
 
 Secondly, to preserve entire, during these evolutions, the 
 general discipline of the ship, to maintain silence, and to enforce 
 the most prompt obedience, without permitting foolhardy volun- 
 teering of any kind. 
 
 Thirdly, to see that the boat appointed to be employed on 
 these occasions is secured in such a manner that she may be 
 cast loose in a moment, and when ready for lowering down that 
 she is properly manned and fitted, so as to be efficient in all 
 respects when she. reaches the water. 
 
 Fourthly, to take care in lowering the boat neither to stave 
 or swamp her, nor to pitch the men out. 
 
 And, lastly, to have a sufficient number of the sharpest 
 sighted men in the ship stationed aloft in such a manner as to 
 give them the best chance, not only of discovering the person 
 who is overboard, but of pointing him out to the people in the 
 boat, who may not otherwise know in what direction to pull. 
 
 It is conceived, that all these objects may be accomplished 
 with very little, if any, additional trouble, in all tolerably well- 
 disciplined ships. 
 
 Various opinions prevail among officers as to the first point ; 
 but, I think, the best authorities recommend that, if possible. 
 
432 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the ship should not merely he hove aback when a man falls 
 overboard, but that she ought to be brought completely round 
 on the other tack. Of course, sail should be shortened in 
 stays, and the main yard left square. This plan implies that 
 the ship being on a vrind, or from that position to having 
 the wind not above two points abaft the beam. But, on one 
 tack or the other, this will include a large portion of the sailing 
 of every ship. 
 
 The great merit of such a method of proceeding is, that if the 
 evolution succeeds, the ship, when round, will drift right down 
 towards the man. And, although there may be some small 
 risk in lowering the boat in stays, from the ship having at one 
 period sternway, there will, in fact, be little time lost if the 
 boat be not lowered till the ship be well round, and the stern- 
 way at an end. 
 
 There is more mischief done generally by lowering the boat 
 too soon, than by waiting till the fittest moment arrives for 
 doing it coolly. And it cannot be too often repeated, that 
 almost the whole depends upon the self-possession of the officer 
 of the watch. This important quality is best taught (like every 
 thing else of the kind), by experience ; that is to say, by a , 
 thorough and familiar practical knowledge of what is right to 
 be done under all circumstances. 
 
 Jt may be permitted for every other person in the ship to feel 
 alarmed and shocked when the sounds reach his ears indicative 
 that a man is overboard ; but the officer in command of the 
 deck ought to let it be seen and felt by his tone of voice, and 
 by the judicious promptitude of his orders, that he at least, is 
 perfectly master of himself, and knows distinctly what course it 
 is best to adopt. 
 
 " If the ship be running before the wind, or be sailing large 
 and under a press of sail, the officer d|ast exercise his judgment 
 in rounding to, and take care, in his anxiety to save the man, not 
 to let the masts go over the side, which will not advance but 
 defeat his object. If the top-gaUant sheets, the topsail and top- 
 gallant halyards, be let fly, and the head yards braced quickly 
 up, the ship, when brought to the wind, will be nearly in the 
 position of reefing topsails. Under these circumstances, it will 
 hardly be possible to bring her about, for, long before she can 
 have come head to wind, her way will be so much deadened that 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 433 
 
 the rudder may have ceased to act. Still, however, I am so 
 strong an advocate for the principle of tacking, instead of merely 
 lying to, -when a man is overboard, that, even under the circum- 
 stances above described, as soon as the boat was lowered down 
 and sent off, and the extra sail gathered in, I would fill, stand 
 on till the ship had gained head way enough to render the evo- 
 lution certain, and then go about, so as to bring her head towards 
 the boat. It must be recollected that when a ship is going well 
 off the wind in the manner here supposed, it is impossible to 
 round her to so quickly as to replace her on the spot where the 
 man fell, to reach which a great sweep must be made. But there 
 seems to me no doubt, that in gvery possible case, even when 
 going right before it, the ship will always drift nearer and nearer 
 to that spot, if eventually brought to the wind on the opposite 
 tack from that on which she was luffed up."* 
 
 " If the occurrence should take place when the ship is close 
 hauled, and no doubt about tacking, the best officers are of opinion 
 that the ship shonld be tacked immediately, siuaring the main 
 yard, and lowering the quarter boat or boats in stays. I have 
 seen this tried several times by throwing pieces of wood over- 
 board from different parts of the ghip ; these pieces of wood gene- 
 rally came between the lee bow and lee quarter, after the ship 
 was well round on the other tack. If a man should fall over- 
 board when the ship is before the wind, round her to immediately 
 with the head yards aback." f 
 
 "It matters little what manoeuvre a ship goes through provided 
 she gets her boat away in safety, and avoids stem way ; . . . 
 to lower the boat with any degree of safety, the vessel's way must 
 either be stopt, or her way at aU events deadened ; the better way 
 of producing the effect admits of more than one opinion. The 
 manoeuvre which subjects a vessel to control under head and not 
 stem way is in all cases the one to adopt ; the latter motioi( 
 more especially in small vessels which are only provided with e^ 
 stem boat, cannot but tend to increase the danger and difficulty, 
 and often lead to fatal results. If the officer of the watch allow 
 the main yard to fly square before he has taken the main sail off 
 the ship, or at all events one of its clews, it wiU defy the efforts 
 
 * Captain Basil Hall's Fragments. 
 
 t Captain Liardet's Professional Recollections. 
 
434 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 not only of his watch hut of the hands themselves as they run 
 on deck to haul It up. 
 
 " The mancEuvre of tacking andheaving to are open to certain 
 objections which seem hardly to he counterbalanced by the ad- 
 vantages which it offers. The ' lee boat ' is always specified in 
 the order as the one to be lowered ; and as this order would in all 
 probability be carried literally into effect, the ofiScer of the watch 
 wouldfindhimself after having gone smartly about, dealing with 
 a boat on his weather quarter ; by going round, the absent boat is 
 at night deprived of the benefit of the ship's stem lights, which, 
 were the ship hove to on the same tack, would point out the 
 direction in which to search for the man. 
 
 " The advantages consist in this, that the ship, owing to the 
 change of tack, naturally drifts towards the man, giving the boat 
 a less distance to pull." * 
 
 "When it is borne in mind that in the line there would be no 
 alternative, — that a mistake about a lee boat could be guai-ded 
 against by using the term starboard or port, — that in the event 
 of the boats being scarce able to live, or having shipt water, lost 
 oars, or of their crews being exhausted, the ship would by tacking 
 be in the immediate position for affording succour : the subject 
 is left to the reader as one deserving the greatest consideration. 
 
 TAKING A SHIP IN TOW UNDER SAIL. 
 
 Both ships must steer in line ahead on a preconcerted compass 
 course, suficiently off the wind to ensure steady steerage, and 
 under easy sail. When the stemmost ship is close to her leader, 
 her way can be deadened by touching the sails with the braces ; 
 and if the leader has thrown a buoy overboard with a light line 
 fast to it, it can be picked up from the dolphin striker of the 
 other ship, and a hawser hauled in. If the attempt is made on 
 a wind, the buoy will generally be carried past the weather bow 
 of the ship astern. We should always pass to windward of the 
 ship that we mean to tow. 
 
 The resistance offered by the Log-ship when it is towed with 
 the pin fast, will give an idea of what may be done with some 
 
 * Captain Kynaston on Casualties at Sea. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 43-5 
 
 boards towards -warping a ship in a calm. Lash two mess- 
 tables athwart two gratings ; span each grating from its four 
 corners, and seize an eye in middle of their bights. Tow this out 
 by a boat in which a warp is carried ; pay and go. When far 
 enough, sling as many shot to one side of the float as will 
 cause it to be quite immersed edgeways, making lines fast to the 
 shot slings that they may be raised when requisite for the pur- 
 pose of laying the float out again. 
 
 SHAKING OUT REETS. 
 
 . In shaking reefs out, becketed sails do not require to be braced 
 in; but all square sails are much better set by checking lee 
 braces and letting the yards hang naturally whilst hoisting. 
 
 In shaking reefs out, throw the points asunder ; ease the reef 
 tackles down as the reefs are cleared ; and do not wait until the 
 sail is hoisted to get a puU on the sheet. When a point is found 
 jambed on hoisting, either settle the halyards' at once or girt the 
 sail well up with the buntlines. 
 
 Checking the halyards grudgingly, only delays the duty ; settle 
 them roundly at once, so that when the men get on the yard, 
 there will be no risk from jerking and lowering with a half turn. 
 The halyards wiU be fast, the reef tackles and buntlines well 
 taut, and a slack leech presents an easy earing. Lowering with 
 men on the yard is most unseamanlike and dangerous. 
 
 In heavy breezes, the quick and safe way is to pipe " Hands 
 reef Topsails." Lower, shake out, mend reefs, and hoist. 
 
 FOKE AND AFT SAILS. 
 
 The sheets of fore and aft sails should be steadied aft before 
 hoisting, and eased carefully as they are hoisted. 
 
 SETTING trPPEK SAILS. 
 
 In setting upper sails in fine weather, let the Loosers (after 
 casting off the outer gaskets) stand on the mast-heads, " let fall, 
 sheet home, and hoist " at once. In breezy weather make them 
 come down before hoisting. If on a wind, you wiU get the sails 
 better set, and without carrying away gear, by keeping the ship 
 lifting, or by checking roundly the lee braces; hauling lee 
 sheets home first. A^en taking these sails in, do so before the 
 F F 2 
 
436 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS, 
 
 furlers reach the ma«t-head ; for their additional -weight there 
 with the sail set may carry the already complaining mast over 
 the side. 
 
 Many a top-gallatat purchase carries away in hoisting because 
 the foot rope has got under the cap. 
 
 TATJT GEAB. 
 
 In all transitions from dry warm weather to cold or wet, the 
 gear " takes up " surprisingly. Halyards, sheets, &c., should be 
 slacked in due time, especially at night ; and also in calms, or 
 light winds with heavy swell, when great streun is produced by 
 Tiolent flapping of the sails. 
 
 DEADENJKG WAT. 
 
 Backing the mizen topsail is considered very objectionable, 
 and in the line is expressly forbidden. 
 
 To square the main yard on a wind, it is only necessary to let 
 go the braces, bowlines, main sheet, &c. ; and all this can be 
 done by the lee wheel and look-out men. If it be a fresh breeze, 
 ease the preventer brace, remembering the strain on stays. 
 
 On a collision in steaming, upright the screw. In that case 
 gear dragging overboard will not foul it, otherwise it will. 
 
 On a collision taking place when in soundings, it is generally 
 best for the weathermost ship to anchor. 
 
 When two ships are becalmed near each other, either send the 
 boats of both to tow the lightest, or of the one that lies in the most 
 favourable position (with reference to swell) for being moved ; 
 or else, run warps out from the quarter of one to the bow of the 
 other, or vice versa, and both may thus be sprung ahead and 
 steered clear of each other. 
 
 In passing dangerously close by another ship or other obstacle, 
 remember that when the helm is put over to prevent collision it 
 is the stem that moves, and that while the bow may be thus 
 saved from touching, the stern may be fouled; but that if the 
 hehn be quickly shifted when the bow is just clear, the stem will 
 be thrown out. Many a " touch-and-go shave " has been thus 
 effected by judgment and nerve. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 437 
 
 SETIIHft STUDDIN© SAILS. 
 
 In setting studding sails, after the lifts and burtons are up, and 
 the leeches of top-sails and top-gallant sails are steadied hy the 
 bowlines, so that the men may not be jerked off the yards by the 
 flapping, trice the top-mast and top-gallant stud-sails up high 
 enough to lie over the brace blocks, and rig all the booms out at 
 the same time ; then man all the halyards and tacks, cut and 
 slip the stops, and hoist away all together. 
 
 In setting stud-sails in a strong breeze, if you can keep the 
 ship away until they are becalmed, you will get them up and 
 well set when the gear would not stand otherwise. 
 
 You will carry the top-mast stud-sail as long as it will do good 
 by using the lower halyards as a martingale ; making a knot 
 on the bight in the top, and then rowsingthe bending end down 
 taut in the fore chains. 
 
 When the heel of the boom gets adrift, the outer point is 
 raised by knotting the bending end of the lower halyards and 
 pulling up on the hauling part ; a line which is made fast to the 
 knot before tricing up brings the end down when requisite. 
 
 Remember that with top-mast and top-gallant stud- sails, the 
 yards not only bear the weight of the sails, but also the down- 
 ward drag which increases as the wind does, forcing the belly of 
 the sails forwards, and acting like a span : therefore have the 
 lifts and bartons well up before hoisting. 
 
 In bracing forward, studding sail tacks, boom braces, and 
 topping lifts require careful attention. 
 
 In bracing in, unless the boom brace be manned, the chances 
 wiU be in favour of the boom going anywhere but in a line with 
 the yard. 
 
 In dipping the main top-mast stud-sail before the sail, the 
 wind will be just enough on the opposite quarter to glance off 
 the top-sail and blow the inner leech aft. If the course can be 
 altered, the sail may readily be handled, otherwise the short way 
 is to haul down, stop the bowline in on the main yard, and set 
 the stud-sail before all. 
 
 It is no manner of use to dip a lee fore top-mast studding 
 sail. 
 
 TAKING IN STUDDING SAILS. 
 
 In taking top-mast stud-sails in, it is well to start the tacks a 
 F r 3 
 
438 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 little, so as to settle the tack blocks to their work before hauling 
 down. In hauling down, ease away the tack before the outer 
 arm of the yard touches the l)oom end ; and if the tack jambs, 
 which is not unfrequent, rig the boom in at once. The leverage 
 is great, and boom irons are frequently broken in this way. 
 With lower stud-sails which have been carried with the yards 
 much forward, get a good pull of the tack and after guy before 
 starting anything, else the lower boom will fly forward when the 
 tack is let go, 
 
 Should the boom get under the bows, and the top-mast stud 
 boom be in, put the lower halyards with a bowline knot round 
 the lower boom, and haul them out with the lower tack j then, 
 with these and the topping lift from the foreyard, it may be got 
 up. If not, secure the. heel, disconnect the gooseneck, and whip 
 the spar up heel foremost. 
 
 Of course, if the ship can be kept away, and the foreyard 
 braced in, all will be easier. 
 
 TAKING IN SAIL. 
 
 In taking top-gaUant sails in on a wind, keep the weather 
 sheet fast until the yard is down, which wiU be done all the 
 sooner by hauling in the weather brace at the same time ; then 
 get the lee clue line and buntline up. Lay the yard and keep it 
 lifting, and rather aback with the helm until the gaskets are 
 
 If before the wind, keep both sheets fast until the yard is 
 down ; then clue up and brace by. The same practice applies 
 to royals. 
 
 The parrels of these yards are generally slack, and the yards 
 should be bound when possible against the rigging by bracing 
 in. 
 
 A royal carried too long before, and a top-gallant stud-sail 
 carried too long near the wind, are the most difficult jobs that 
 fall to a topman's lot to handle. Beyond a certain pace, these 
 sails set as above cannot do the least good. If the " trimmer " 
 is consulted whilst carrying a press of lofty saU before the wind, 
 the ship will be found to be excessively out of trim by the head. 
 Near the wind, the top-gallant stud-sail is fore and aft, bellying 
 
HANDLING SHIP, 439 
 
 to leeward, and taking the wind out of the powerful forward 
 pressing top-gallant sail. 
 
 Before the wind, stud-sails may be becalmed by a spoke of 
 the helm, but the royal has no buntline ; every bound of the 
 sail shakes the top-gallant mast like a whip stick, and the men 
 cannot " handle " it. There is no proper alternatiTe but to let 
 fly the clue lines, and let the sail blow to pieces If the men 
 have been allowed to go aloft to try and remedy the mischief, 
 they won't come down, and cannot be made to hear until they 
 have had a try. It becomes a point of honour with them not 
 to give it up ; and at last some bold fellow goes down the 
 lift, and if not jerked off, passes the gasket from the yard-arm 
 in. 
 
 Then as to the stud-sail. — It is easy for the officer to say, " In 
 royals ; haul down '' — and to walk the deck as if he had done his 
 share of the work ; but ask the men, or take your place on the 
 flying boom when the spar is pointing in the direction of the lee 
 cat-head, and the sheets are banging like a volley of flails against 
 it, as if the clerk of the weather was dying to lasso the poor 
 furlers with their bights ; or get up on the top-sail yard, when 
 the stud-sail tack or halyards are let go (and you must let go 
 one or other), and the sail flies away to leeward before the top- 
 gallant sail, blowing out like a mandarin's streamer, doing all it 
 can to walk off with the top-gallant mast, and bid you good- 
 bye. Then the lee top-gallant sheet cannot stand it any longer, 
 and cracks, and the top-gallant yard goes fore and aft, and the 
 weather top-gallant lift has a jigger on it, and wiU not yield. 
 So away goes the whole of it, and it is " nobody's " fault, because 
 " the right order " was given. 
 
 Or else the weather top-gallant brace goes, and we have the 
 same consequences. Or, all the gear holds on, and the sail, after 
 an effort, wisps itself up round the topmast stay, from whence it 
 is finally cut adrift ; and the only consolation in the matter is 
 the self-satisfied way with which the epitaph " Lost overboard 
 by accident " is written in the log, and the yards of " number 
 seven," which the topmen contrive to save for other than public 
 purposes.* 
 
 * " The difference I observe in the expense of sailing the ships is incredible. 
 
 Some men who have the foresight to discern what our first difficulty will be, 
 
 support and provide their ships by enchantment, one scarce knows how ^ while 
 
 F F 4 
 
440 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 It -would be easy to ascertain the rate of sailing in different 
 ships beyond which small sails are unaTailing, and thus to 
 establish some general regulations about them. 
 
 It would be easy to confine the carrying of the lower studding 
 sail to a certain force and direction of wind, ensuring the benefits 
 of a full fore sail, and ayoiding the trouble that occurs when the 
 lower boom and sail go under the bows ; for instance, when the 
 jib is drawing, the lower studding sail cannot be doing any good 
 service. 
 
 We must again call attention to the use that may be made of 
 the helm. When the men perceive that you understand how to 
 throw a sail into their hands, with a turn of the wheel — either 
 becalming it by bearing up, or spilling it by a careful luff — 
 they wiU work with confidence and good will. 
 
 BEEFING TOPSAILS. 
 
 If sailing with the squadron in moderate breezes, run the yards 
 in nearly square, else the men wiU lose time in getting on the 
 weather yard arm. 
 
 It is considered neat to hand upper sails whilst reefing, letting 
 fall as the topsails are hoisted ; at least, the top-gaUant sheets 
 should be hauled taut after lowering their halyards to correspond 
 with the reef. When double or treble reefing on a wind with 
 courses set, on account of weather, bear in mind that the 
 outer arms of the topsail yards are unsupported, and are unequal 
 to the strain that may injudiciously be brought to bear on them, 
 by over manning the reef tackle on deck. When the yard is 
 laid, the duty of the reef tackle is to give the earing men plenty 
 of slack leech between itself and the yard ; and if it cannot effect 
 this without much straining (and this can easily be judged of by 
 observing the tautness of the leeches behw the reef tackles on 
 each side,) raise the clues at once with the clue lines sufficiently 
 for the purpose. 
 
 Pull the hunt lines well up so as to girt the sail in for the bunt 
 points. 
 
 Nothing is gained by permitting men to get out on the yard 
 for reefing in a strong breeze until the yard is laid and the sail 
 
 others, less provident, would exhaust a dockyard and still be in want." - 
 CoUin^wood's Letters. 
 
HANDLING- SHIP. 441 
 
 ready for them. Yard arms have been wrung off in the endea- 
 vom- to make the reef tackle do all the duty of other gear, and 
 the earing men's lives saved only by a seeming chance. 
 
 In reefing with the watch keep all the people on the deck 
 until the yards are quite ready, and use the double halyards in 
 hoisting. 
 
 The men employed at the yard-arms in reefing will work all 
 the better by having the foot ropes carried out to the boom iron, 
 instead of being spliced round the yard-arm, or else having 
 the Flemish horse brought into the quarter of the yard. 
 
 In reefing at night in the line, observe if your second ahead 
 and astern have more or less sail than top-sails. If you have 
 been sparing them courses, you will be run into ; and if they 
 have been sparing them to you, you will run into your leader, 
 unless you are alert. 
 
 After every evolution, (especially at night), make the petty 
 officers report their ropes, and almost immediately after reliev- 
 ing the watch. A few fathoms of the main brace checked by 
 one hand will often just regulate the pace and keep the ship in 
 station j and, if let go at the instant, arrest danger. 
 
 When all reefs are out, it will often be necessary in bracing 
 sharp up to check the weather topsail halyards. 
 
 SETTING COURSES. 
 
 In trimming forward, get the tacks down before the lee bracks 
 are near their marks. 
 
 In setting courses on a wind, before hauling on board check 
 lee braces ; for the bunt of the sails may be nipped, and at all 
 events the tacks will come better down. 
 
 Boxing oJf. 
 
 From neglect at the helm, ships are brought " up in the wind '' 
 or caught in that position, by the wind shifting a few points 
 forward. If there is good way on, the helin, if put quickly up, 
 will " pay her off." 
 
 If she does not answer it at once, she will come round, for 
 the jibs are shaking, and the weather halves of the square sails 
 forward are aback and " levering " the head round against the 
 helm. But if you instantly brace the head yards quite round 
 
442 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 the other way, the " leverage," is all in your favour, and you 
 will keep the ship on the same tack by this process, called 
 " boxing off." 
 
 But whilst you are doing this, you will be going astern, 
 therefore remember the rudder, and also, if in the line, what is 
 close astern. 
 
 In squadron sailing, keep an eye on the wheel, especially at 
 the times of a fresh relief. 
 
 TAKING IN THE DEIVEH. 
 
 To take in a driver, much trouble and time vrill always be 
 saved by bracing the cross jack yard in well, before starting the 
 sheet. Man the lee brails best. When wearing in the line, or 
 obliged to bear up suddenly, the after leach of the driver over 
 the lee cross jack yard-arm nearly neutralises the helm. When 
 thus situated, let fly the mizen topsail sheets and throat hal- 
 yards. When wearing in the line in succession, never reset the 
 driver until well on the lee quarter of the stemmost ship. 
 
 In taking the first reef in a, driver or boom mainsail, it is 
 not necessary to start the peak halyards. Lower the throat 
 well ; get the boom amidships, and lee topping left well taut, so 
 that the men may get at the foot of the sail on the lee quarter. 
 Belay the reef tackle to the boom. If it is taken to the bitts, 
 and the reef cringle is close down, something will carry away 
 when the boom is eased over after reefing, at the first plunge of 
 the ship. Double reefed drivers in a heavy breeze require pre- 
 venter peak halyards and boom sheets. A mizen burton is the 
 best for the former, a luff for the latter. If worked by brails, 
 the outhaul should be shifted to the inner cheeks on the boom ; 
 for the foot of the sail is not calculated to bear such a strain as 
 would he brought on it by hauling out to the boom end : more- 
 over, the sail would be distorted. In reefing, the canvass is to 
 be tied (not rolled up), and the points should be knotted on 
 their bights. If it is reefed with a pendant, the tack tricing 
 line becomes a working rope of much consequence. It wiU 
 relieve the ship when necessary from the effects of weather helm ; 
 and if triced up in doubtful weather, wiU drag the jaws of the 
 gaff down the moment the throat halyards are let go. 
 
 In reefing, the pendant of the last reef is stoppered to the 
 boom, whilst the reef tackle is shifted to the next. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 443 
 
 In furling, crutch the toom and belay both sheets. 
 
 The peak downhauls are not strong enough for peak guys 
 whilst the men are leaning on the gaff; therefore, pass the 
 ends of the boom sheets over the gaff ends as well, and from 
 each side. The utility of boom jackstays will now be expe- 
 rienced. 
 
 TAKING THE JIB IN. 
 
 If the men are ready at the cap to lay out, the ship need not 
 be five minutes off her course, if kept away for the purpose of 
 becalming it. None but the very best seaman can master a jib 
 that has been carried into a strong breeze, and unless assisted 
 by the helm they are in great peril. There is an art in slack- 
 ing the jib sheet at the right time when hauling down. 
 
 If the downhaul carries away, the top-gallant bowlines have 
 the same lead ; and bowline knotted at the masthead round the 
 jib-stay wiU bring the sail down. 
 
 The jib-stay should be slacked in rough weather whenever 
 the sail is taken in ; there is always time enough to pull it up 
 whilst the sail is being loosed. 
 
 A rope rove through a hole in the bowsprit cap, and spliced 
 into the foot rope, far enough out to haul it taut in along the 
 boom, is a great help to furlers. 
 
 SENDING TOP-GALLANT MASTS AND YARDS DOWN. 
 
 Always stop the yard ropes out to leeward. Tell your men 
 off before sending them up ; so many to " off purchase," " to 
 light up," to stop out, to unbend sheets and clue lines; Put a 
 tripping-line on the weather yard-arm, and send the yard (if at 
 sea), down through lubbers' hole. 
 
 The topmen will not let go the Jacob's ladder lanyards, be 
 they ever so taut, unless you make them. They like keeping 
 them thus, so as to be ready to " shin up " and rig the royal 
 yard the instant (if not before) the fid is in — a most dangerous 
 practice. Pull up ; if rolling, attend the rigging falls and back- 
 stays, but keep a fair strain on stays, take the main fid out, then 
 the preventer ; put a heel rope on ; lower to the rigging mark ; 
 if the mast hangs, a pull on the yard rope will start it j clap two 
 half hitches on the lizard (you may have a little trouble to get 
 it through lubbers' hole, bracing forward, &c., but it is worth 
 
444 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 it). Lay the mast fore and aft the deck, and parcel the mast 
 rope for chafes in the wake of the top rim. 
 
 You will now have a good opportunity of overhauling mast 
 ropes and masthead sheaves. 
 
 Misunderstanding often occurs from the vagueness of pipes 
 ahout top-gallant masts ; therefore, make a law, that " down 
 top-gallant masts " means on deck ; " strike top-gallant masts,'' 
 that yard ropes are not unrove and masts only lowered to 
 the hounds ; " howse top-gaUant masts," that heels are nearly 
 on the topsail yards, top-gallant yard ropes of course unrove. 
 
 When upper yards are sent down at sea, ship on a wind. It 
 should be rememhered, if she goes on the other tack, how the 
 yard ropes lead, and how the yard-arms lie, in case they might 
 he suddenly wanted. 
 
 If the yards are likely to be long down, it will he worth while 
 to lessen the bunts by opening the clues out along the yard ; 
 they will thus stow much more snngly. 
 
 In sending top-gallant masts down at sea or shifting them, the 
 question of before or abaft the topsail yards must depend on 
 circumstances. If on a wind, the heel of the mast can generally 
 be cleared abaft the yard by lowering the yard half way down •, 
 but if the parrel be taut, and the mast hole not rounded away 
 previously in the fore part, there wUl be difficulty. On the 
 other hand, if the weather side of the topsail be clued up, the 
 buntHnes hauled up and yard squared, it must be thrown quite 
 aback, else the sail will belly forward and foul the heel of the 
 mast. This might be inadmissible in racing or squadron 
 sailing j' and yet in an average number of cases, perhaps, it is 
 the quickest ■«'ay. 
 
 WEATHEK BBACE CARRIES AWAY. 
 
 When this occurs, it is generally at the first burst of a squall, 
 on a wind, nearly all reefs out, and consequently, when there 
 are no preventer braces or parrels on the yard : for as wind 
 strengthens to stiff double reefed topsail increasing breezes, all 
 prudent seamen take the precaution of clapping on these addi- 
 tional supports. When a weather brace carries away, there 
 being no preventer, the yard immediately becomes a lever ; the 
 stay, or parrel, or truss, being the Fulcrum ; the lee rigging, 
 the Weight ; and the wind, the Power. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 445 
 
 The remedy will depend on the amount of Power. If it be 
 small, a new brace is rove, or the old one is repaired with a long 
 splice. 
 
 In substituting new running rigging for old, when the run of 
 the lead is not lost, the ends are spliced, or stopped together ; 
 and, as one is run off, the other enters its place j otherwise, men 
 must be sent aloft to reeve the gears. 
 
 When the power is great, the yard or parrel will be the next 
 thing to gp ; for the yard flies fore and aft, and even the mast 
 as well as the yard is in such instant danger that the remedy 
 must be quick as the order. The lee sheet must be eased off 
 roundly, lee clueline and buntline hauled up. The danger would 
 be increased by bearing up before this were done, for as the 
 wind came abeam, it would act with still greater force upon the 
 sail. Both cluelines or downhaul tackle, and lee bowline 
 should then be hauled on, and, if necessary, about two fathoms 
 of the weather clue raised, so as to throw the wind more out of 
 the sail. If these measures fail to start the yard, the sail must 
 be clued up altogether, the buntlines being well manned whilst 
 doing so ; and then the bowline and downhaul or clue lines will 
 bring the yard down ; when it may be steadied by lashings from 
 the rigging whilst the damage is being repaired. 
 
 Or, after starting enough lee sheet to save the yard, the course 
 may be hauled up, and the lower yard squared, lowering the 
 topsail as it comes aback ; setting the course again when the 
 topsail yard is lashed. Should the ship not be in the line or on 
 a lee shore, she may if preferred be kept away (after the lee clue 
 is run up) until the yard is down and secured. 
 
 If it be a lower brace, lower the topsail, letting fly the lee 
 sheet, and hauling in the weather brace if needful. Ease off the 
 sheet of the course, short of splitting the sail, let go the tack (for 
 the first important duty is to save the yard), and clue up. One 
 scend might break the brace, the next would break the yard ; 
 but there would just-be time enough between the scends for a 
 quick ready officer to start all the principal gear that would 
 relieve the spar. 
 
 If this accident occurs forward, the weather helm must be 
 attended to. A quartermaster who knew his duty would drop 
 the peak, or let fly the mizen topsail sheets without waiting for 
 orders, while the officer was occupied in saving the yard. 
 
446 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Accidents to the tack of a course, clue garnets, &c., teing 
 carried away, may, -when circumstances permit, be repaired by 
 bearing up and hauling aft the sheet of the damaged side. 
 
 ■VTEATHEB KEEP TACKLE CAKRIED AWAY. 
 
 This occurs generally whilst reefing, in consequence of undue 
 strain produced by want of skill in not placing the yard so that 
 the wind will nearly be thrown out of the sail. The men 
 should be ordered in off the yard instantly ; the weather clue 
 line, and as much as can be got of the buntlines hauled up, and 
 enough of the sheet clewed up to admit of bracing the weather 
 arm aback or nearly so ; the men may then venture out, and 
 pass a sea gasket working from the arm inwards, until the reef 
 cringle is reached, when the tackle can be rove afresh. Starting 
 gear with men on the yards is one of those fearful blunders 
 which always inspire topmen with such distrust of the ofiicer 
 who commits them, that they never work well aloft in his watch 
 on deck. (See reefing topsails.) 
 
 WEATHER TOPSAIL SHEET AND CLUELINE CARRIED AWAY. 
 
 When this happens on a wind, the clue flies forward and may 
 be steadied by the bowline, but as the yard might be sprung on 
 the weather quarter from the upward pressure of the sail, it 
 should immediately be relieved- by checking a couple of fathom 
 of the lee sheet. The lee clue, buntlines, reef tackles must then 
 be hauled up, the yard lowered and squared, the bowline being 
 eased away as the sail comes aback ; when so it will lie quiet, 
 and the bowline may be sent with a hauling line from the fore- 
 top into the main, rove before the sail through a leading block 
 on the topmast, and the leech thus hauled in along the yard, so 
 that the sail may be handed if needful, and new gear rove ; an 
 attempt to " hand the leech in" before lowering, clueing up and 
 squaring would not only be useless but dangerous. 
 
 If the course is not set, check lee sheet as above, round in 
 weather lower and topsail braces, lower and throw the sail aback, 
 easing away the bowline. 
 
 MAIN TACK AND CLUE GARNET GONE. 
 
 Check main sheet to ease the yard, for the same reasons given 
 in taking in a course. The danger of the sail being split will 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 447 
 
 depend much on the position of the main stay. In many ships 
 it would bring the tack up, so that the tack could be steaded by 
 the weather sheet, and a new rope rove; if not, the top-sail 
 would have to be clued up, and then the course, the main 
 yard squared, and the weather sheet gathered in same time, or, 
 circumstances permitting, bear up and haul weather sheet aft. 
 
 TOPSAIL BRACE AND PARREL CARRtED AWAT. 
 
 This rarely happens where the security of the parrels, tacks, 
 and sheet fastenings, and all that gear which is likely to be 
 handled whilst exercising, are made matters of special report. 
 
 In a strong breeze on a wind, when the yard is nipped so hard 
 by the lee rigging and stay that it cannot be got down by the 
 cluelines or downhaul, after clueing the sail up, send the end 
 of a hawser up abaft the top to the topmast head ; pass it round 
 both tyes, and make it fast to the after cap bolt. Haul down on 
 the hawser, easing away the halyards until the yard is on the 
 cap ; clap on the new parrel ; lash the yard by the quarters to 
 the topmast rigging, and then repair the braces. 
 
 When this accident occurs under low sail, the yard would fly 
 so far forward as to suggest considerable danger to it and the 
 mast from the force with which the yard would fly aft, if the 
 sail were thrown aback by squaring the main yard. This latter 
 mode is, howjever, recommended by some of our best seamen, 
 who having tried it successfully, are best able to judge of its 
 merits. 
 
 If the wind is aft, clue up, hoist the yard close up to the 
 hanging blocks and haul the lifts taut. This will keep it steady 
 until the hawser is passed round the tyes. 
 
 TOP-GALLANT BRACE AND PARREL CARRIED AWAT. 
 
 In this case, where sending men to the masthead is' out of the 
 question, and cluelines have failed, there is every chance of 
 losing the mast if you hold on, and of the clues getting round 
 the stay if you let go the sheets. The lower and topsail yard 
 must be braced by, and the ship, if necessary sufficiently 
 touched with the helm, to throw the top-gallant sail slightly 
 aback. 
 
448 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 BOBSTAT8 GONE. 
 
 Not having 136611 able to realise an instance we can only 
 submit -what seems to be the best remedy. 
 
 As this accident would probably occur whilst pitching heavily, 
 the greatest activity should be displayed in letting go every 
 rope that drags the head of the foremast aft and securing that 
 spar with tackles ; if clear of the land, the helm is put hard up, 
 di-iver taken in, after sails spiit, the main yard being worked 
 with the after braces, main topsail lowered, and stay slackened. 
 Chain stream cable run out of a main or middle deck port from 
 well abaft the foremast ; passed over the bowsprit outside the 
 rigging, and through the corresponding port on the opposite 
 side ; the runners passed through the adjoining ports, their 
 pendants across the stem, over the cable on the opposite side, 
 back up through the port and secured inboard. The cable might 
 be lashed meanwhile at the bowsprit so as to make the bight 
 a fi:sture ; pull up the runners, easing the cable down until both 
 parts are nipped at the lower part of the head knee or cutwater. 
 When the spar is secure, anchor shackles with a length of 
 stream chain fast to them (also crossed) may then he put on each 
 outer part of the jury bobstay, and, on these being hove down, 
 the runners may be removed before being frayed and cut through. 
 It is customary to say that the proper thing to do in the case 
 of broken bobstays, is " bear up and pass the messenger out of 
 the hawse holes, over (he bowsprit and heave down : " but a 
 glance over the bows will convince any learner that the sup- 
 port thus given would even in a three decker be trifling, whilst 
 in a frigate such as Fig. 13. it would be nothing, moreover the 
 quantity of water shipped in the larger vessel on opening her 
 hawse holes would greatly inconvenience, if not endanger her 
 safety. Bobstay collars are not unfrequently found damaged, and 
 if all were to go together the danger would be equal to that of the 
 case considered above. As these collars are constantly soaked 
 on the upper side during wet weather, it would be well to fit 
 them with chain oi; wire rope. 
 
 PREVENTEB BEACES, LIFTS, AND CLUELINES. 
 
 Preventer brace pendants, made long enough to reach from 
 the yard-arm to the top, are not only quickly attached to the 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 449 
 
 whips, but the risk sometimes incurred in sending men on the 
 yards greatly diminished. Preventer topsail braces have more 
 drift and a more downward pull than the standing ones ; and, 
 therefore, should never be so taut, or be hauled upon, until the 
 lifts are well up. 
 
 In carrying a press of sail. Burtons on the topsail yards give 
 great support, especially if they have been pulled up in concert 
 with the standing lift when the sail was being hoisted, or during 
 a good " lift." 
 
 The general rule for topsail lift jiggers, is to put them on 
 when the second reefs are talten in. And it is good to make a 
 habit of putting the spare parrels and preventer braces on when 
 the third are taken in. 
 
 When top-gallant yards are sent down on account of weather, 
 throw the top-gallant sheets out of the snatches; reeve them 
 through the bow line bridle of the topsails up before all, and 
 hitch them to the lugs of the tye blocks. They will be found to 
 act even better than leech lines of courses when taking in top- 
 sails. 
 
 When braced up yard tackles are too short, and even when 
 tailed pull downwards against the lifts. From their greater 
 length, therefore, sail tackles are generally used as preventer 
 lower; and the topmast studding sail halyards, for preventer 
 topsail braces. 
 
 REEFIKG TOPSAILS AND COURSES. 
 
 Haul up the courses, lower the topsails, and round all the 
 weather braces in to touching ; the reef burtons and reef tackles 
 will now haul out easily. Haul taut topsail halyards, lee braces, 
 lifts, trusses, and rolling tackles, and haul the topsail buntlines 
 well up out of the way of the men on the lower yards. If a 
 becketed topsail, the fourth reef earing hauls out before the yard, 
 as the others ; with pointed topsails, that earing is passed abaft 
 the yard. 
 
 As with four reefs in the topsails it is always good to keep 
 the sheets eased off some four feet, they may be hauled up thus 
 far when the reef tackle is being hauled out ; but if the yards 
 are well laid, the sails will be both quicker and more easily 
 reefed if the practice of entirely clueing up top sails for a third 
 or fourth reef is dispensed with. Of course when courses are 
 
450 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 set the topsails must be differently handled. After reefing 
 courses the leech and slab line blocks will require to be shifted 
 farther out. It is recommended to haul the sheets of courses 
 aft first, and haul the tack down, letting the yard go forward at 
 the same time ; but if there is option, it is preferable to get the 
 topsail up while lifting, the lift taut, and then draw the lower 
 tack down, easing braces, trusses, and rolling tackles to liking ; 
 bearing in mind that as the lee foremost topmast shrouds should 
 not be too much pressed by the lee quarters of the topsail yards, 
 there is no good object gained in bracing lower yards quite up. 
 Under such sail as this there is generally much motion, and the 
 chafe in the nips of the stays, as well as in the wake of sharp 
 up yards, is beyond the power of protection from any descrip- 
 tion of service or Scotchmen. 
 
 A head sail should always be set, and great care should be 
 observed whilst taking in reefs that the ship is not taken aback. 
 Moving the yards for the purpose of trimming sails, or indeed 
 for any purpose, when the men are on them, is most perilous ; 
 for the foot of the topsails will sweep the lower yards, and the 
 lower yards themselves be for a time quite adrift. 
 
 REEFING COURSES. 
 
 When there is much motion, it is considered more ship-shape 
 to defer reefing the courses until the top-sails are reefed and 
 reset. By so doing, the ship is kept more steady whilst the 
 people are aloft 
 
 Lower yards should be well placed before sending men on 
 them for the purpose of reefing or furling courses. When it 
 becomes necessary to perform either of these operations at sea, 
 there is generally considerable motion ; and an attempt to remedy 
 neglect or want of judgment in this particular, by handling the 
 braces whilst men are on the yards is always attended with great 
 danger to them — especially in the case of main-yard men, who 
 are mostly composed of inexperienced hands — for the yards on 
 becoming released from the nip of the stays, lee-rigging, and 
 trusses, will not only " sally " from side to side, but soend vio- 
 lently fore and aft. 
 
 Whilst getting a pull on the tacks of courses, petty officers 
 frequently make use of a bad habit of letting go the lower lifts, 
 thereby exposing the yards to great risk of being sprung until 
 
HANQLING SHIP. 451 
 
 again supported by these ropes. It should he remembered that 
 the object aimed at is not to pull the weather yard-arm down, 
 hut to tauten the weather leech ; and this is not effected by 
 merely getting the tack block nearer the bumpkin or chess- ti-ee. 
 If the yard is already in a horizontal line, the lift should he 
 kept fast, the bowline let go, and the luff of the sail made taut 
 by putting a tackle on tlie tack. 
 
 When it is proper to slack the lower Ufts, whilst getting 
 tacks down, the topsail lifts, top boMines, and lee main brace 
 (if taut) should also he slacked off at the same time. 
 
 As in securing a lower yard under a press of sail, a pull on 
 the_ weather brace slacks the truss, and a pull on the weather 
 truss slacks the brace, it is advisable to haul these ropes taut 
 together. 
 
 TAKING IN A COURSE. 
 
 The most proper way to take in a courseduring heayy weather 
 has beeri a matter of controversy ever since the times of the 
 Great Harry. Before that period the yards were lowered on 
 the deck when it became necessary to take in the sail. 
 
 In hauling up the weather clue garnet first, the weather 
 yard-arm, released from the downward pull of the tack, and 
 bent upwards by the bellying canvass of the course and drag of 
 the topsail sheet, is in great danger of being carried away 
 underneath in the nip of the stay : moreover, as the bulk of the 
 sail goes bodily over to leeward the instant the tack is let go, it 
 is not properly embraced by the hunt and leech lines. When 
 all tjie gear is hauled close up, there remain one or two balloons 
 on the lee side, which, throwing themselves backwards over the 
 yards and furlers as the ship comes nearer the wind, and then 
 leaping forward bursting with wind as she falls off, are not to 
 be controlled in any other, way than sending men to the yard- 
 arm by the lift, and making them work from thence inwards 
 with the sea gaskets. 
 
 When it is determined to haul up the weather gear first, the 
 sheet should be slacked off short of splitting the saU by shaking 
 heavily j and then all the lee gear hauled well taut before 
 starting the tack. In this way the lee leech and huntline will 
 grip the sail nearly at their proper places, and the difiiculty we 
 have alluded to be partially diminished. 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 MAN0AL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 In hauling the lee clue garnet up first, the canvass is gripped 
 by the leech and buntlines to leeward of their natural place in 
 the first instance ; and then, by their pulling inwards as the sail 
 is clued up, the canvass that would otherwise have been slack 
 is stripped of wind, and hauled in taut along the lee yard-arm. 
 Whatever canvass may be left slack on the weather side after 
 hauling up the weather gear, is blown into the weather side of 
 the bunt, where it is steadied and bound against the mast and 
 stay, and is easily secured.' 
 
 Doubtless, an experienced hand will take the canvass off the 
 ship cleverly in either of the ways above noticed ; but we find 
 it well to caution beginners against arbitrary directions which 
 seem to be derived from no better authority than a few rhyming 
 words from the " Shipwreck." * 
 
 We have informed the reader that a difference of opinion ex- 
 ists on this subject, and admit that as far as the Sail itself is 
 concerned either of these ways are equally safe ; but we hold 
 that whilst there is no risk to the yard in hauling up the lee 
 clue first, there is positive risk to it in starting the tack for the 
 purpose of hauling up the weather one first. Even though the 
 sheet be a little slacked off previously. 
 
 An officer whose ability and experience will be universally 
 acknowledged, writes thus: — " It blows very hard. You cast 
 your eyes to windward and see nothing but the chance of the 
 squall increasing. If you are not absolutely obliged to run the 
 risk of carrying on through all, of course you will take the fore- 
 sail in. At this doubtful moment observe the fore yard-arms, 
 more particularly the weather one ; and you will find they have 
 rather a downward tendency ; but watch while you are taking 
 in the fore sail, and you will soon see the yard-arms, particularly 
 the weather one, buckle up to that degree that it will make you 
 extremely anxious for the safety of the yard. 
 
 " Many times have I had a perfect fright when the fore tack 
 has been eased away in running up the gear, to see the weather 
 yard-arm spring up as if nothing could possibly prevent its being 
 carried away. In thinking on the subject it occurred to me how 
 frequently you can carry a foretop mast studding sail much longer 
 by making a martingale of the lower studding sail halyards : 
 upon this principle I have tiied a burton from the weather fore 
 * See Appendix. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 453 
 
 yard arm to a ring bolt on the deck, or fast to the chains, directly 
 under the fore yard, and well housed taut as a martingale 
 previous to taking in the fore sail, and found it to answer be- 
 yond my expectations. I mention the fore yard, but of course 
 it could be applied with equal good effect to the main yard." 
 
 This passage g(jps to prove the existence of " particular " 
 danger to the weather arm of the yard, on running up the weather 
 gear, that is, on starting the tacks ; and although the " which 
 clue line " question is not touched on, we may observe that the 
 more reduced the sail, the less would be that danger. If the 
 leeside of the sail were clued up, the risk would be small com- 
 pared with what it would be were the sheet nearly aft and the 
 whole sail fuUof wind on starting the tack. With regard to the 
 clue_ line question, the same oiEcer remarks : — I have continually 
 tried both weather and lee clue lines, in taking in square sails 
 when blowing hard, and for several years felt coniident there 
 was nothing like taking in a sail by the weather clue ; however, 
 I found this method liable to several objections : in the first 
 place, you are more likely to get the sail over the lee yard-arm ; 
 secondly, if your weather brace should be carried away in taking 
 in a topsail, your lee rigging would be much endangered. In 
 hauling up the lee clue line first, you have rather a heavier, but 
 a more steady strain, than when you haul the weather clue up 
 first ; with the weather clue, the sail is kept longer shaking, and 
 jerks more, in consequence of which, you try the yards, block 
 strops, and braces more." * 
 
 REDUCING A TOPSAIL. 
 
 To the catch question. How would you reduce a topsail ? the 
 customary answer is. Cut it at the belly band ; one that, if not 
 supported by better reasons than we have met with, is quite too 
 superficial. 
 
 Were an eighty gun ship's main top sail, which is 31 cloths 
 in the head, 50i in the foot, and 61 feet deep, laid out, it would 
 be found that, owing to the hollowing of the leech, a line drawn 
 from clue to head earing cringle, would be about 34 inches from 
 the leech at the belly band and fourth reef cringle j so that if a 
 piece were cut out across the sail at or between either of 
 these places, on bringing the canvass together, the leech of the 
 
 * Liardet's Professional HecoUections. 
 G Q 3 
 
454 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 lower part would extend beyond that of the upper in proportion 
 to the depth of the quantity cut out, involTing much roping 
 and tabling, -which are long operations, requiring very skilful 
 ■workmanship. Moreover, as the fourth reef in a topsail is so 
 placed, that when taken in, the yard will be far enough off the cap 
 to admit of its bracing up about 3 or 4 poinU, if the superfluous 
 hoist were taken out at the belly band with reference only to its 
 having "become stretched and having too much hoist," it might 
 be found that on taking in the fourth reef, the sheets would not 
 come home by fathoms proportionate to the blunder even when 
 the yard-was on the cap. 
 
 We would rather advise a candidate to whom such a question 
 were put, to ascertain in what particulars the sail is too large. 
 
 When a sail has merely too much hoist to admit of its going 
 taut up, it is usual to cut out a piece across under the head 
 tabling : if it also had too much spread, the middle cloth or more 
 would be taken but. 
 
 It is true that the appearance of a sail thus cut is damaged by 
 the loss of uniformity in the first reef, and that top men are 
 given an advantage whilst completing in single reefing, with 
 ships having whole topsails ; nevertheless such is the customary 
 as well as the readiest and easiest mode, and the one that even 
 in the case of a sail altogether too large, such as might be 
 supplied by a larger to a smaller ship, would (want of artificers 
 and leisure considered,) be adopted. If, for instance, a sail 
 had about six feet too much hoist and spread, ihe first reef 
 might be cut off, the three middle cloths cut out, and the sail 
 put together by any men who could, under the directions of a 
 practical seaman, handle a palm, needle, and marlinspike. 
 
 When the sail is reduced in the first reef, you must furl 
 with two reefs, for there won't be skin enough with the first only. 
 
 A course should be cut in the same way. 
 
 TAKING A TOPSAIL IN WHEN BLOWING HARD. 
 
 Excepting as to the tendency of the weather lower yard- arm 
 to fly upward, which is chiefly owing to the pull of the topsail 
 sheet, all that we have remarked upon the subject of taking in 
 a course in heavy weather, applies to taking in a topsail. 
 
 If there be no course set below, and the ship be on a wind, 
 round in the weather lower and topsail brace until the sail lifts. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 455 
 
 Let go the halyards and Uft-jiggers, clue the yard down, haul 
 taut and helay the halyards. If there are hands enough, and 
 there be three or four reefs already in the sail, all the gear may 
 be run np together; if not, haul up the lee first, then the 
 weather. If the top-gallant sheets hare been rove round the dues, 
 as before described, they will bring all the slack sail taut along 
 the yard. Belay the clue lines, and steady up the topsail sheets, 
 braces, and rolling tackle before sending the men up to fbrL* 
 
 Before the wind, there is often great difficulty in getting the 
 bunt of the topsails secured for furling, and it is not nnfrequent 
 to carry away the bnntUnes in the attempt. When this happens 
 there is every probability of the sail being split and lost, unless 
 the ship be rounded to and the sail thrown aback. When the 
 course may not be altered, steady the bowlines, overhaul the 
 top-gallant mast rope down before all, send its end up abaft the 
 sail, and make it fast to the cap, lash a snatch block to the top- 
 mast above the yard, score the mast rope in it, and haul up on 
 the deck end. 
 
 If the Course be set, the lower yard cannot be braced in, and 
 the topsail must be " spUt " by rounding in the weather topsail 
 brace, and hauling up the lee clue line at the same time. When 
 this is done, haul up the weather gear, lower and secure the 
 yard for furling, 
 
 SENDING A TOFSAXL UP IN BAD WEATHER. 
 
 It has been recommended to send a topsail np in bad 
 weather, through the weather side of lubbers' hole, because 
 the sail is thus prevented from flying to leeward. However 
 well it may go up in this way, great labour is involved in get- 
 ting it across the fore part of the top afterwards ; and there is 
 considerable risk of finding a " turn " in the sail upon hauling it 
 out, in consequence of having bent the gear in so crowded a place. 
 
 Let us suppose the main topsail. If on a wind, send the sail 
 tackle and topsail buntlines down to windward before the main 
 lift and main top, and abaft the main yard. Send the weather 
 topmast studding sail halyards down abai't the main Uft. Hook 
 the sail on clear of turns with the after side aft (the roping of 
 square sails is always on the after side) ; toggle the buntlines, 
 
 * Topsails will stand ver}' long in strong gales, if the sheets are kept well 
 eased off and stoppered, but the nips must be frequently freshened, 
 C G 4 
 
456 MAKUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 and then hitch their bights round the quarters of the sail on 
 their own sides ; bend the studding sail halyards round both 
 legs of the sail. Sway the sail up, keeping it to windward 
 steadily with the stud-sail halyards. When the setting strop 
 is as high as the yard, pass a rope's end from the top round it 
 and the topmast, so as to keep the middle seam of the sail amid- 
 ships. Bend the reef tackles over the lifts ; toggle the bow- 
 lines ; shackle the sheets and clue lines ; carry the ends of the 
 head earings to the yard-arms ; cast off the studding-sail hal- 
 yards i haul taut the reef tackles ; sway the sail well up, and 
 pull up the weather buntline, so as to light that arm of the sail 
 over the weather main lift.* Haul out the reef tackles, easing 
 the sail tackle and buntlines down, until the sail is in a line 
 with the yard. 
 
 SENDING A TOPSAIL UP EEEFED. 
 
 Becketed sails are particularly convenient for being sent up 
 reefed to any extent. Lay the head on the deck, after side 
 downwards, and place the reef bands one by one according to 
 the number of intended reefs on the head; pass the head robands 
 through the number of rows of beckets, and bitch them to their 
 own parts on their bights. If four reefs, bring the reef tackle 
 cringles to the yard-arms, and make the sail up as before de- 
 scribed, bearing in mind that the arms will be heavy; conse- 
 quently, in making up, as much slack sail as possible should be 
 gathered into the bunt. 
 
 When sails are sent up furled with the intention of being 
 immediately set, the more clue there is left out the better, as 
 sheet blocks are easier handled in the top than at the quarters of 
 the yard. Moreover, a great portion of clue may be steadied 
 out in sheeting home before cutting the setting strop adrift If 
 in haste with the sail, and it be a becketed one, haul the sail 
 along the yard as before said, pass the points from the yard 
 through the beckets, following the lead of the robands, toggle 
 them; secure the earings, and make sail at once: the head can 
 be brought to afterwards. 
 
 * It must be well remembered that in carrying courses in such a breeze as 
 would demand all this precaution, it would be the extreme of bad sailoritig to 
 let go a Ion er lift for the purpose of clearing a sail. 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 457 
 
 Pointed topsails are sometimes sent up reefed in the foot; but 
 it has been found best to tie the points round the head as if the 
 sail were on the yard, then to furl as if on the yard, keeping the 
 head clear all along. 
 
 UNBENDING SAILS. 
 
 In unbending sails, it makes a neat evolution to "furl from a 
 bo-wline." Pipe "furl and unbend;" run the reef tackles nearly 
 out, and the bunt will be quicker furled; stop the upper yard 
 ropes out. 
 
 When the topsails and courses are furled, stop them up with 
 their gaskets, and let them hang in a few small slip ropes. Cast 
 off leech lines, reef tackles, slab lines,. &c. Unshackle topsail 
 sheets and clue lines, single the head eariugs, hook the sail 
 tackles and stay whips to the setting strops. Guy the lower 
 booms a little aft if they are out, else the fore sail will fall on the 
 topping lifts ; pull the sail tackles up enough to lift the hunt of 
 the topsails off the yards, and to let the arms fall clear of the 
 stays. Sway the upper yards, and ease in all earings at the 
 same time ; station the sails for sides, point the topsails on the 
 side of the lower stay they are intended to pass, and then lower 
 booms, upper yards, and sails together. 
 
 SHIFTING TOP-GALLANT MASTS. 
 
 The most important matter in shifting top-gallant masts 
 hastily is, on receiving the heel of the down coming mast on 
 deck, to slue the turns out of the mast rope ; then to carry the 
 heel aft, keeping it from turning, and laying it on the deck with 
 the lightning conductor (or after side) upwards alongside of the 
 new mast, which should also be placed in like manner. 
 
 A leading man should be stationed on the deck sufficiently 
 far forward to see that the mast rope is clear of turns above the 
 top rim ; and to hold each part above the lizard widely separate, 
 whilst the bight and lizard are shifted to the new mast. In this 
 way the rope is certain of being clear. 
 
 Two half hitches on the lizard, and the use of the preventer 
 fid, should invariably be insisted on. 
 
458 MANUAL FOR NAVAT. CADETS. 
 
 SHIFTING TOPMASTS. 
 
 In shifting topmasts, it saves time and avoids risk to work 
 ^Tifith two parts of the hawser rove through the live sheave hole, 
 and a lizard for a mast rope. The lizard should be made with a 
 smooth round thimble, seized into a stout piece of good rope, its 
 ends being tapered as salvagee tails. These tails grip the mast 
 underneath the hound pieces when it is lowered sufficiently, and 
 they should be kept from slipping down by a lashing from them 
 to the mast head. 
 
 When the mast is lowered until the cross-trees are near the 
 lower cap, the length of surge that will be requisite for starting 
 them is determined by the time they have been on the mast head 
 as well as by the length of the mast. If its head be inside 
 the lower tressle-trees when the heel is landed on deck, there is 
 no danger to be apprehended ; only it is well to place bundles of 
 swabs or coils of working ropes, &c., underneath, so as to receive 
 the heel in the event of the hawser breaking. If the mast head 
 come short of the tressle-trees, a long surge would be a risk. 
 Generally speaking, a six feet surge is sufficient to start the 
 cross trees ; but whatever may be the length agreed on, the cap 
 shores should be in place, and their lanyards fast before giving 
 it. 
 
 The surge is given by unreeving the top tackle pendant, stop- 
 pering the hawser at the bitts or leading block (overhauling 
 enough of it for the purpose), then making it fast, and when 
 " from under " aloft, slipping the stopper. 
 
 When the fid is out of the old mast, we may commence with the 
 new one. Let us suppose it to be main, and on the starboard side. 
 Run the mast aft, brace the main yard sharp up on the starboard 
 tack, lash a runner block on the after side of the mast about three 
 parts up from the heel, reeve the main jeers irom the capstan 
 through the leads, upper jeer block, between the fork of the stays, 
 through the runner and jeer block, bring the end down between 
 the fork, half hitch it round the mast above the runner block, and 
 hitch the bare end through the fid hole — this will prevent the 
 block from slipping up. Heave the mast up, bearing the heel 
 well over to port to keep the head clear of the main yard, lower 
 the heel down the main hatchway until the head is under the 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 4o9 
 
 stays. It will now hang clear of the other mast, and he ready 
 for pointing. 
 
 Meanwhile the old mast perhaps has been surged, and 
 the lizard passed. Bear its heel into the starboard side of the 
 main hatchway, and lower it until the head is under the stays, 
 pull the head foi-ward with the main-top bowline to keep it clear 
 of the top rim. Heave up until the heel is clear of the coam- 
 ings ; carry the heel aft with a mizen burton, and lay the mast 
 on the deck. When the old mast has been rove up high enough 
 for its last lower, the jeers may be taken to the capstan, and 
 the new mast hove up and pointed when done with the old mast. 
 Reeve the hawser in the new one, heave it taut ; off jeers, heave 
 up, and when placing the rigging, reeve the preventer top tackle, 
 and then fid the mast. 
 
 In sailing ships, the heel of the down coming mast may be 
 landed in the hold, and left there until the work of the new one 
 is finished. In fidding the new mast, it must be remembered 
 how much quicker the double whip hawser is than the threefold 
 and double whip top tackle j and therefore, when the fid hole is 
 abreast the lower yard, care should be taken that the capstan is 
 worked very slowly, and the top tackle allowed a fair share of 
 strain. 
 
 Were this evolution performed at sea, and there was much 
 motion, the top-sail yard should be well secured athwart the 
 fore part of ihe top, and the yard tackles hooked on the mast- 
 head so as to steady it until pointed. 
 
 SHITTING JIBBOOm. 
 
 In sending the new spar out, it is of the first consequence to 
 keep the point well up, and single jib halyards are scarcely equal 
 to this purpose ; if they cai-ry away, the bowsprit cap will be 
 wi-ung. 
 
 In most large ships the stay-sail halyards are rove double, and 
 if that sail is not set, they answer well. The next resource is 
 the sail tackle, and the only objection to its use is that a signal 
 to bend or shift topsails or topsail yards, made whilst it was em- 
 ployed with the jibboom, would cause confusion. 
 
 The practice of leaving the flying jibboom quite out whilst 
 shifting the jibboom is a mere harbour " trick," and as it has 
 
460 MANUAL rOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 nothing to do with seamanship, we need not explain how it is 
 done. 
 
 BROKEN SFAR8. 
 
 There can be no rules given for sending broken spars down. 
 The first thing to be attended to is their being steadied and pre- 
 vented from falling on deck, or tearing sails : the next, to sling 
 and guy them clear of the gear. The cleverest thing of this 
 kind that we have heard of, was in the case of a shivered top- 
 mast, which, after being fished with small spars above the cap, 
 was got safely down by sawing off the lower ends of these spars 
 as the mast was lowered. 
 
 It is considered a useful addition to the usual arrangements 
 for general quarters in steam ships, to pass stout " frappings " 
 round the lower rigging on each side, so as to be able to gather 
 it in, in the event of the fall of a mast. Such ropes hanging 
 slack under water, would be very apt to entangle the paddle or 
 screw. 
 
 RUDDER GONE. 
 
 Rudder bands were the origin of rudder chains. In ancient 
 times vessels had frequently a rudder at each end, and in bad 
 weather, the rudders were triced up, whilst the ship " drove ; " 
 being let down again when moderate. When rudders became 
 hung as at present, the fastenings remained for the purpose of 
 retaining the rudder when bumped off on the ship's grounding, 
 and seamen made use of them for steering purposes when any 
 injury befell the rudderhead. The possibility of this latter 
 application has sometimes been overlooked ; and not only have 
 the fastenings on the rudder not been sufficiently far down, but 
 common bolts Inserted instead of a strong metal strap which 
 should clasp a large portion of the after part. A. few years 
 since in a three-decked ship during a gale, the rudder-head 
 carried away, and when tackles were put on the rudder pen- 
 dants, the ring-bolts drew, and they proved to be but rag-bolts. 
 As the gale abated, a large ring-bolt was driven into the after 
 part of the rudder ; to this the runners were brought from each 
 quarter, and the ship was steered during a strong breeze and 
 great swell into Malta Harbour. 
 
 In arranging: the gear of the temporary rudder in a screw 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 461 
 
 ship, it -vrould be necessary to take the guys through the screw 
 aperture under the after bearing, and from thence up on their 
 opposite sides. They should of course be well covei-ed at the 
 nip. When the guys lead to the quarters, they should be turk's- 
 headed, so as to keep them clear of torn copper. 
 
 To steer with a cable. — Pay through a mid-ship stern port, 
 nearly as much cable as is intended to be overboard. Lash a 
 spar across the stern, having a large block at each end ; middle 
 a hawser round the capstan, taking three or four turns ; lead 
 the ends through the blocks on each side in the ports that are a 
 little abaft the capstan, then through blocks on the spar, and 
 make them fast to the cable, expending the spare ends inboard ; 
 then veer the cable out a little more. A party of hands on the 
 capstan bars will now be able to guy the cable out on either 
 quarter as desirable. The capstan will in fact do the duty of 
 the wheel. 
 
 Some rudders weigh as much as ten tons. In shipping or 
 unshipping them, the bolts overhead should be clenched. By 
 crossing the runners, the lashing blocks will look better into the 
 rudder hole. 
 
 It was a common practice during heavy gales and seas, both 
 at anchor and at sea, to insert the rudder chocks, and thus by 
 steadying the rudder head prevent the dangerous and violent 
 motion of the tiller, tiller ropes, and wheel, which occurred 
 whenever a sea struck either side of the rudder itself. 
 
 It has also been customary when Lying-To, in very bad weather, 
 to lash the helm hard a-lee, and with the aid of proper after 
 sail, keep the ship close to the wind, bowing the sea ; being 
 thus more weatherly, and less exposed to the danger of ship- 
 ping seas than would be the case if she lay with her broadside 
 to both wind and sea. 
 
 The propriety of either of these practices is a question which 
 has! not been sufficiently discussed : but as damaged rudders are 
 defects certainly more frequent in modem than in former times, 
 the causes are well worth the consideration of all who may be 
 enabled to ascertain under what circumstances these disasters 
 may have occurred ; — for example, if at anchor or at sea, in a 
 sailing or screw ship, was screw up or down, was rudder chocked 
 amidships, or lashed hard a-lee, was there a yoke or tiller, was 
 rudder controlled by the power of a well-manned wheel and 
 
462 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 relieving tackles, or were the wheel ropes quite slackened, and 
 the motion of the tUIer carefully attended to with relieving 
 tackles alone ; was the rudder an old pattern one, having the 
 main piece straight — or new, having the main piece curved ; — 
 if at sea, and helm hard a-lee, on which tack was ship ; and if 
 at anchor, was ship riding head to wind, or more on one cable 
 than the other; if on one, which ? and in both cases on which 
 side was the rudder sprung ? 
 
 It may safely be said that the old practices referred to in this 
 article are very questionable ; the fineness of the run, the large 
 aperture in the dead, wood, the dash o( water from the screw, 
 the increased size and weight of the rudder itself, the necessary 
 alterations in its gear, all conspire to render the steering appa- 
 ratus more liable to injury than heretofore. We venture to 
 suggest that the chocks should only be used, for the purpose of 
 steadying the rudder head whilst a new tiller is being shipped ; 
 or for keeping it amidships when heaving the ship off the 
 ground. 
 
 Perhaps in lying to, the same effects as lee helm might 
 be produced by keeping the screw down : but this would pro- 
 bably depend on its form ; that is, if it were right or left-handed, 
 and which tack the ship was on. 
 
 I.AKDING THE RCDDEB. 
 
 Reeve the runners and tackles ; lash the runner blocks round 
 the beams, over the rudder head, or hook top blocks to the bolts 
 that may be there. Reeve the runners through them, and make 
 them fast through the tiller hole. If a very heavy one, double 
 them ; put a buoy and rope on the rudder from outside ; cross 
 the purchases to the opposite sides of the deck. Lash the driver 
 boom down ; put a long tackle on it from the mizen-mast head 
 for a preventer lift, and pull it and the standing topping lifts 
 taut; lead a hawser through a block at the mizen-mast head, 
 through another on the boom at the lifts, and put a running eye 
 on the end with a slip stop-rope on the eye. 
 
 Lift the rudder out of the braces, opening the helm port that 
 it may rise : fish the heel of the rudder with the hawser, and 
 when it has caught, which it readily will below the lower pintle, 
 heave the heel up, lowering the head, until both are nearly 
 
HANIttlSTG SHIP. 463 
 
 awash. Place the hoats on each side of the rudder j lash spars 
 across their'gunwale strake at the after thwart and broadest part 
 of the bow : chock the spars up from the keelson and thwarts, 
 and hang the rudder to them by slip lashings, remembering that 
 the head is considerably the heaviest part. 
 
 If it has to be sent into very shoal water, put it on a raft of 
 casks. 
 
 A propeller, gun, anchor, or other weight too heavy for one 
 boat, can thus be carried by two. 
 
 SLACK LOWEU RIGGING. 
 
 On changing suddenly from a frosty to a hot climate, the 
 rigging " gives out " sometimes to a dangerous extent.* This is 
 increased by the roUiug motion ; and casting it loose for the 
 purpose of setting up becomes a very critical operation, especially 
 when there is not wind enough to steady the ship. 
 
 When it is decided to do so, the distance from dead eye to 
 dead eye is taken with battens which are cut to measui-e, and 
 the quantity to be taken down of each shroud is determined on 
 and marked on its own batten. 
 
 Take one mast at a time ; get up a good muster of luffs, 
 salvagee strops, njppers, &c., and have a long tackle on each 
 pendant. 
 
 Get top-gallant masts on deck, and the lp\^er yards braced in 
 so as not to press on the rigging that you are employed on, and 
 have the sails furled on that mast. 
 
 Hook on to the lanyards of the two foremost pair of shrouds 
 on each side ; put the luffs on the others, all ready for their 
 turn ; station men to. nipper, rack, ring down, attend battens, 
 and secure lanyards ; put the nippers and racking on slackly ; 
 look out for a still moment, slip the bights of the lanyards and 
 run the shrouds down to the marks, heave the nippers and 
 rackings taut j do not be particular about the orthodox way of 
 securing the lanyard, hitch them instantly one pair at a time, 
 round the shrouds ; you can do that afterwards during another 
 still moment, and so on. 
 
 The stays, if necessary, would of course have been set up 
 previously. 
 
 * See.page 173. 
 
464 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 In a breeze, if you could steady the ship on a wind, you 
 would take your lee rigging down to the marks, and finish that 
 .of the other side, after getting the ship's head round on the 
 opposite tack. 
 
 SWIFTING IN BIGGING. 
 
 But occasionally the rigging Is too slack, and the motion is 
 too great to admit of its being started. In this case swifting 
 in is the remedy. 
 
 Lash a spar horizontally fore and aft outside the rigging high 
 enough up to insure the shrouds being clear of the nettings as 
 much as possible, when pulled inwards. Lash a single block 
 round each shroud where the spar crosses, and let its lashing 
 include the spar. Secure corresponding blocks on each side of 
 the deck as low down as may be ; a spar outside and lashing 
 through the ports are safest, for the side bolts can scarcely be 
 trusted for this work. Weave a hawser from each side of the 
 deck through the blocks on its own side and those on the 
 opposite rigging, and set all four ends up and secure them 
 simultaneously. 
 
 CUTTING AWAY MASTS. 
 
 Leave a few shrouds fast, and frapped in on that side towards 
 which you desire the masts to fall ; and long enough stumps for 
 the heel lashing of jury masts. 
 
 CASTING BIGGING ADRIFT. 
 
 In casting loose to turn in rigging afresh, the weather should 
 be very fine indeed, and water very smooth, when the whole is 
 adrift at once. A sudden swell setting in, or a heavy squall 
 coming on when every shroud was in hand, and topmasts 
 perhaps on end, would endanger spars and seamanlike re- 
 putation. 
 
 TO GET A LOWER YARD DOWN INSIDE THE RIGGING. 
 
 Let us suppose the mainyard port side of the deck. 
 
 Unbend the sail, send booms down, unreeve the gear, reeve 
 three parts of the jeers. Put a sail tackle on the starboard yard 
 arm from the topmast head, single the lifts, put a burton from 
 (he port yard arm to the mast at the partners, or hook the port 
 
HANDEING SHIP. 465 
 
 yard tackle to the starboard side, and have long tackles from the 
 fore and mizen masts overhauled ready for the yard-arms. 
 Unsling, top on the sail tackle, haul down the port arm, lowering 
 the jeers so as to clear the starboard top rim. When the port 
 arm is down, hook the mizen tackle to it, haul on it, lowering 
 the jeers, and attending the sail tackle. Hook the fore tackle 
 under the mainstay to the starboard yard-arm, ease up sail tackle. 
 A luff on the bunt will now guy the yard off to the side, when 
 it can be landed as couTenient. 
 
 It will be necessary with either yard to clear away a boom 
 boat on the side the yard is intended to be laid on. 
 
 In sending this yard up from the deck, a tackle from forward 
 will be necessary for the purpose of carrying the lower arm for- 
 ward as the yard rises nearly up and down. 
 
 TRIMMING SAILS. 
 
 When with the yards braced forward^ the wind shifts to aft, 
 the after yards are trimmed first, otherwise litey might take on 
 what had been the lee side, in which case the ship would be 
 " brought by the lee," and in danger of coming flat aback, 
 gathering stern way, damaging her rudder, and of being 
 pooped. 
 
 When with the wind aft, it shifts suddenly to the beam, the 
 helm if possible must be put up enough to prevent the sails 
 from being taken aback, and to preserve steerage way, whilst 
 the head yards are braced forward, and all the fore sails filled. 
 The after yards are then trimmed. If it were a squall or strong 
 breeze and good way on, it would be best to let the sails remain 
 touching, until the small sails were taken in. 
 
 Boom braces, studding sail tacks, lift jiggers &o., are apt to 
 be forgotten in the hurry of bracing forward, and none but in- 
 telligent men who understand how the weather fore brace, fore- 
 top mast stud boom brace and tack, lower tack and after guy, 
 affect each other should have the handling of those ropes. (See 
 Taken aback.) 
 
 MAKING SAIL. 
 
 As the wind frequently goes down much more rapidly than 
 the sea, the fastenings of a ship and aU her gear become greatly 
 strained, unless proper sail be made as a gale begins to break. 
 
 H H 
 
466 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Indeed some slips will not behare ■well during a gale, unless 
 well pressed with sail, and this may be done by avoiding taut 
 sheets, good arrangement of preventer gear, and frequent freshen- 
 ing of nips. 
 
 Boiling motion in calms may be much lessened by bracing up. 
 
 BAOKIN& ABD PILLING. 
 
 This is a mode of working a vessel to windward under sail 
 with a favourable tide and commanding breeze, through a pas- 
 sage, or river too narrow and intricate to admit of always 
 gathering sufficient way for tacking, or of shooting ahead in 
 stays, even if she were put about. It is usually performed 
 under topsails, with the occasional aid of jib and driver. The 
 different shoals and banks are avoided, if close astern, by filling 
 and standing off, if close ahead, by taking in the fore and aft 
 sails, throwing all aback, and making a stem board. The ves- 
 sel's head is directed towards either shore, as most requisite, by 
 taking a favourable opportunity for tacking, or letting her fall 
 round off and wearing. In some open places she is hove dead 
 to, and carried broadside on with the current. In others that 
 are particularly narrow, the sails are braced by, so that the ves- 
 sel drifts stem foremost, but with just enough resistance to the 
 tide to admit of her being sheered with the helm to either 
 side. 
 
 As neither of these operations can be attempted without a 
 thorough knowledge of the current, eddies, soundings and shoals, 
 and the degree of handiness of the vessel, they are seldom prac- 
 tised where steam can be applied for towing purposes. 
 
 BOATS MAKINQ FOB THE SHIP. 
 
 Get the lower booms, guns, and ports out of the way, and have 
 warps, as described p. 388. When necessary to veer a rope astern 
 it is better to do so by boat — a buoy drifts slowly, and fre- 
 quently is brought up by the bight of the line on the ground. 
 
 If under weigh, do not permit boats to shove off during 
 stemway. 
 
 DKGDQINQ. 
 
 Dredging is a manceuvre often resorted to when it is necessary 
 to carry a vessel with the current or tide, either without or 
 
HANDLING SHIP. ,467 
 
 against -wind, through passages or rivers too intricate or too nar- 
 row, rapid, and sinuous to be navigated under sail. 
 
 It is conducted on the principle that the helm of a vessel 
 anchored and tide rode, has an effect in altering the direction of 
 her bows similar to that which it would have, were she moving 
 through the water ; it being always borne in mind that she will 
 sheer more readily from than to her riding cable side. The art 
 consists chiefly in preserving steerage way, and this is- done by 
 heaving in so short that the vessel " shoulders her anchor " and 
 is earned by the stream in its direction, yet not so entirely with 
 it as to become unmanageable, and prevent her being sheered 
 from side to side as the nearness of danger may require. This 
 is effected by veering and heaving in cable according to those 
 inequalities of the ground which affect the holding power of 
 the anchor, and by shifting the helm. As opportunity offers, 
 the drifting is increased by raising the anchor quite off the 
 ground, and when danger is imminent it is avoided by bringing 
 up on it altogether. 
 
 CLTTB HAULING. 
 
 You might have lost your rudder, or be too near the land to 
 admit of Wearing, or there is too much sea on to tack, and you 
 want to get the ship on the other tack. If in soundings, lead 
 the end of a stout hawser from the lee (suppose the starboard) 
 side aft, outside all, and bend it to the ring of the lee anchor 
 for a spring. The quick way to get this end forward is to 
 send a hauling line rove through a lead on the cathead aft 
 for it. 
 
 Take opportunity, when she is inclining to come to, to help 
 her with the sails ; and when she is about to stop, let go the 
 lee anchor. This will bring her head to wind ; tauten and 
 hold on the spring, veer cable when you see her head going off 
 to port, and haul the after yards. When you are sure of her, 
 slip the cable, cut the spring, but do not be too quick with the 
 head yards. 
 
 HEATING DOWN. 
 
 When ships have sustained injuries in their bottom, and there 
 
 are no opportunities afforded for docking, recourse is then had to 
 
 heaving down. Tackles are brought from the mastheads either 
 
 to the shore or some other vessel, and these being hove on, turn 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 
 
 MANUAL rOE KATAL CADETS. 
 
 A Scale of Slocks, Falls, Pendants, Strapping, Shrouds, Sfc, used 
 
 
 
 Heaving Down 
 
 Purchases. 
 
 Blocks and Strapping 
 
 Falls. 
 
 Lashing for 
 Purchase 
 Blocks. 
 
 Outrigger. 
 
 II 
 P 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 e: 
 
 1 
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 S 
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 to 
 
 1 
 
 en 
 
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 ■s 
 
 in. 
 
 m 
 
 13J 
 10 
 9 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
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 3 
 
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 4 
 
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 in. 
 
 H 
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 B 
 
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 2« 
 20 
 12 
 12 
 
 o 
 
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 rn, 
 6 
 
 5 
 4 
 
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 R 
 
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 12 
 
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 E 
 
 a 
 Z 
 
 18 
 2 
 9 
 7 
 
 - o 
 J 
 
 S 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 
 
 Tom. 
 1700 
 and *- 
 upwards 
 
 From 
 1700 ) 
 to } 
 1000. ) 
 
 From 
 1000 ) 
 to [ 
 BOO. j 
 
 Under ) 
 .•iOO } 
 Tons. ) 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 4"6) 
 36) 
 
 SI 
 13 
 .11 
 
 in. 
 
 Ill 
 
 H 
 
 8} 
 
 n 
 
 13' 
 13f 
 106 
 IOC 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 Lower 
 Deck, 5. 
 
 Main. 
 Deck, 6. 
 
 7 
 B 
 4 
 
 Lower 
 Deck. 4 
 
 Main 
 Deck, 4. 
 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 
 
 the bottom up out of the water. The ahove Tahles supply us 
 with a list of the nature and quantity of materials necessary 
 in the operation, and the remarks are abridged by permission 
 from the notes of an officer who was engaged in the heaving 
 down of H.M.S. " Formidable." 
 
 The " Formidable " was moored headand stem off the careen- 
 ing wharf, and completely cleared out ; hammock nettings 
 removed ; the partners of the fore and main masts on the main 
 and upper deck taken up, and the ship prepared for heaving 
 down on the starboard side. 
 
 Bulkheads were built on the main deck ; one being at the 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 
 
 469 
 
 in Heaving Down the different dasses of H.M. Ships at Malta. 
 
 4J 
 
 4J 
 
 Mast- 
 head 
 Pen- 
 dants. 
 
 Blocks and Falls 
 
 for Betting up 
 
 Masthead 
 
 Pendants, 
 
 Strapping, &c. 
 
 a . 
 
 6S 
 
 tn. 
 
 {41 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 Urns. \ 
 
 in. 
 
 14H 
 
 Right 
 ing 
 Tackle 
 under 
 Bot- 
 tom. 
 
 Right- 
 ing 
 Tackle 
 Upper 
 
 J- 
 
 Shores for 
 
 Masts and 
 
 Lashings for 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 £3 
 
 3^ 
 
 fore ends of the skids, the other at the after, and another which 
 extended across the front of the poop. The starboard lower 
 deck ports were barred in. Scuttles closed and boarded over ; 
 main deck ports on that side, excepting the four between the 
 bulkheads, closed, boarded over, shored from inside, and all 
 were caulked in and payed. The starboard chain pump dills 
 were plugged and covered, and the pigeon holes between the 
 bulkheads closed up. 
 
 Five bilge pumps were rigged, two at the fore, two at the main, 
 and one at the after hatchway ; in the squares of which stages were 
 erected for the working parties. The lower deck was scuttled 
 H H 3 
 
470 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 abreast these hatchways to permit the passage of water from the 
 orlop. 
 
 The masts were stripped of everything excepting the lower 
 rigging, and fished on the fore and after sides, with single spars 
 reaching from the lower deck to the tressle-trees. These were 
 lashed in nine places and wedged taut. They were supported on 
 the starboard side by shores, the heels of which rested on elm 
 planks in the water ways ; the deck being shored up underneath. 
 Of these there were thiree ; the first reaching to within 6 inches 
 of the tressle-trees ; the second, one third lower ; and the last, 
 another third below the second ; their upper ends being cham- 
 fered were lashed to the masts. The bellies of the masts were 
 further supported by horizontal shores of 3-iiich oak boards 
 which projected from thence to the main shores, three of them 
 butting on the first, and one on each of the others. The heels 
 were also shored in the holds on the port side. 
 
 On the port side the masts were secured by out-riggers com- 
 posed of balks of timber, which butting against the coamings 
 and, bitts, &c., projected thrbugh the ports. Of these the main 
 had five on the lower deck 40 feet long and 2 feet in the square, 
 and four on the main deek 35 feet long and 18 inches square. 
 The fore had four on the lower and three on the main deck of 
 simUar proportions, and the outer ends were shouldered and 
 cleated about 18 inches from thence for the rigging to butt 
 
 The out-rigger martingales Were 8-inch rope, fitted with 
 thimbles in their ends ; their middle taken with a round turn 
 over the ends of the spars and seized, and set up with lan- 
 yards ; those of the main deck to chocks in the lower deck 
 ports, and those of the lower deck to shackle bolts which were 
 driven through the ship's side and forelocked. 
 
 The preventer rigging for the main mast consisted of eight 
 shrouds and one pendant of 13-inch rope. The latter were 
 fitted with a long and short leg, and an eye splice in the end 
 of each. In placing them on the mast-head the long leg, 
 which set up to the foremost lower deck out-rigger, was put 
 foremost, the short one to the foretaost main deck out-rigger. 
 Two pair of shrouds were placed over the mast-head to form a 
 bolster, then the purchase blocks, then the remainder of the 
 shrouds ; lastly, the pendant with a lashing eye. This rigging 
 
HANDLING SHIP. 471 
 
 was pulled up by double 20-incli blocks, double stropt, the 
 eye of the shroud being taken through the strop and toggled. 
 The lower blocks strops went over the end of the out-riggers, 
 the falls were 7-inoh. The fore-mast was secured just as the 
 main, excepting that it had but one fish, and that was on the 
 after side. The i^nners were carried forward on each mast to 
 support the stays. "The mizen mast was additionally supported 
 by the long tackles. 
 
 The wedges being i'emoved, the masts were steadied over 
 against the port partners, aftfer which the starboard rigging was 
 tautened. 
 
 The purchase lashings were set up by the ninner pendant, 
 from one mast-head to the other. The tripping cables were 
 brought from the opposite side of the harhoUr, under the bottom, 
 and secured through the starboard upper deck ports to the port 
 side, one being forward and the other aft. The Fore Chains 
 were broken downwards (although previously shored) by the 
 pressure of the foremost of these cables when heaving down. 
 
 The heaving down occupied twenty minutes, and the ship was 
 cased up once to set up rigging ; on which occasion, it was 
 found that the long shore of the main-mast had butted against 
 and injured the tressle-tree. 
 
 When first down, the fulness of the buttocks caused the stem 
 to rise so high as to be inconvenient for the workmen, therefore 
 eighty butts were secured under and beloT^ the fore chains 
 before heaving down the second time. This had the desired 
 effect of keeping the keel parallel, and enabling the repairs to 
 be carried on at the gripe and stem at the same time.* 
 
 A very insti'uctive lesson on this subject will be found in an 
 account of the heaving down of the " Melville," published by 
 Captain Harris. That officer remarks that the ship leaked 
 when down as much as 268 tons in ninety-six minutes, although 
 nine hand-pumps and 6.te engines were at work all that time, 
 a quantity which it took 210 minutes to pump out when 
 righted ; but that she leaked less when the main deck ports, 
 which we observe were open in the Melville and Formidable in. 
 the first instance, were closed, fle also calls attention to the 
 importance of preserving the original distance between the fore 
 
 * It is. well to nail battens fore and aft on the deck before heaving down, 
 otherwise it is most difficult to pass along. 
 
 a H 4 
 
472 
 
 MAN0AL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 and main-mast heads, when setting up the rigging afresh ; 
 otherwise in heaving down, the masts spread apart, and the 
 purchase falls do not look straight into their sheaves. In the 
 case of the Melville's pumps, the lower ones discharged into 
 tubs on the lower deck, into which the lower ends of the upper 
 pumps were placed. 
 
 In cases where the vessel has been dismasted, or where it 
 would be impossible to procure sufficient length of purchase 
 falls, &c., the bottom is turned out of the water by means of 
 Spur derricks. H.M. ship " Success," for instance, was thus 
 repaired. The upper ends of the derricks were cleated on the 
 ship's side, the lower, to which the purchase blocks were lashed, 
 
 Fig. 229. 
 
 were secured from rising by turns of the chain cable, that were 
 passed under the bottom from the opposite side, being steadied 
 by guys led from forward and aft. (Fig. 229.) 
 
 The after bearings of the " Croesus," a screw ship of 2500 tons, 
 were, in the absence of a dock, recently repaired by means of a 
 caisson, which, when placed, enclosed the heel of the ship from 
 the foremost stem post aft. 
 
 It was formed sloping at the fore part from the base to the 
 top, and sufficiently open at that part to admit the heel, the 
 dimensions being 22 feet at base, 15 feet at top, 20 feet in 
 depth, and 9 feet in breadth. Displacement about 100 tons. 
 It was sunk by loading it with chain cable, which was removed 
 -when the caisson was drawn forward into position by guys, and 
 was kept free by constantly working two seven-inch pumps ; 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 473 
 
 the Stem of the ship being raised in consequence nineteen 
 inches. 
 
 Vessels draw much less water when hove down keel out, than 
 Vhen upright or heeling over. Recently, a vessel that had been 
 driven so far up on shore during a heavy gale and unusually 
 high tide as to he considered irrecoverable, was sold for the 
 mere value of her timbers; the purchaser floated a flat-bottomed 
 barge alongside of her at high water, and with this barge hove 
 the vessel keel out by her masts, and then warped both craft 
 into deep water. 
 
 Sharp-bottomed vessels having run ashore, if shored up 
 smartly, are in less danger of being injured by the irregularities 
 of the ground than fuller ones ; but either should be cleared of 
 top hamper immediately, guns bowsed, ports and scuttles closed, 
 and the ship kept upright whilst, the shores are being placed 
 under the channels. Additional shores should be wedged up as 
 the water ebbed. 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 In this, as in other scientific subjects, our object is to excite a 
 taste for inquiry and lead on to better books. It is, therefore, 
 only pretended to give an outline of the general nature of the 
 Marine Steam Engine, referring readers to those comprehen- 
 sive explanations that have been published by more qualified 
 writers.* 
 
 " The simplest view of the marine steam engine is to consider 
 it as a propelling machine, moved by vaporised water. To turn 
 water into vapour or steam there are boilers arid furnaces. 
 From the boilers steam passes to the cylinder, in which a 
 piston moves, the piston (generally) carries a rod which works 
 a crank, the crank turns a shaft, and the shaft a wheeL or 
 screw." 
 
 * Marine Steam Engine, by Proressor Maine. Ditto, by Robert Murray, Esq. 
 Ditto, by Captain Robinson, R.N. Ditto, 'by Lieutenant Gordon, R.N. 
 Useful Information for Engineers, by Fairbairn. tire's Dictionary of Arts. 
 Brandt's Manual of Chemistry. Tomlinsou's Nat. Pliilosophy. 
 
474 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Coal is usually supplied in bags containing about 224 lbs., 
 and therefore running ten to the ton. An average ton of coal 
 requires 48 cubic ffeet of stowage room ; but as coal of equal 
 eyaporative powers varies in degrees of compactness so much 
 that 100 tons of one kind will stow in a space that 80 of 
 another would fill, bulk must not be taken as a sure mode of 
 ascertaining the number of days' fuel that may be on board the 
 ship. 
 
 " Pateilt fuel is a mixture of coal and other substances. Its 
 object being to combine great evaporating power, with freedom 
 from sulphurous or other noiious qualities, with durability in 
 form and nature, compactness for stowage, non-liability to 
 spontaneous combustion, or generation of gases, and economy ; 
 a combination of qualities possessed by no one kind of coal." 
 
 When Coal is closely confined, the bunkers become charged 
 with dangerous inflammable gases ; and when exposed to mois- 
 ture, heat is generated, and what is called spontaneous com- 
 bustion produced. Ventilation and dryness are therefore to be 
 studied. 
 
 A quarter of a pound of good coal will produce 25 cubic feet 
 of steam, which is equal to one horse power. 
 
 The evaporative power Of doal is dependent on the quantity 
 of carbon it contains ; Welsh is superior to and less bulky than 
 Newcastle, and all coal is superior to wood as one to three, and 
 to peat as one to six. 
 
 At whatever pressure steam may be generated, it requires the 
 same quantity of fiiel to evaporate a given volume of water. 
 Hence it is economical to use high pressure steam. 
 
 Oxygen, as we have already shown, is the principle of burn- 
 ing, and one pound of coals requires as much as 240 cubic feet 
 of air for its combustion. Hence it is, that if there be delay in 
 clearing the stoke hole of ashes, or neglect of ventilation by 
 windsails, removing hatchway gratings, &c., the fires get low, 
 and then the steam. 
 
 The same consequences follow when the fires are only 
 replenished at great intervals, and then so profusely as to retard 
 combustion. 
 
 By good stoking is meant little at a time and frequent ; and 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 475 
 
 as this cannot be done without great toil, the ship •will often 
 move slowly, when a few spare hands lent from the watch 
 would make more difference than shaking two reefs out with 
 all hands. 
 
 The relative consumption of fuel is independent of the power of 
 the engine ; and is modified hy the construction of the furnace 
 and handling of the fires. In marine engines it has heen found 
 to vary from seven to twelve pounds per horse power per hour. 
 
 " The draft of a chimney arises from the difference between 
 the weights of the colimin of rarifled air within, and of the 
 column of air without ; the greater the perpendicular height of 
 the chimney and the hotter the air within it, the greater this 
 difference, and the greater therefore the draft. Horizontal or 
 oblique passages diminish the draft by cooling the air, before it 
 arrives at the effective portion of the flue. Sometimes as in 
 locomotives, the waste steam escapes through the chimney, 
 being thrown up into it by the blast-pipe." A pipe led from 
 the steam chest to the uptake in a marine engine is a partial 
 adoption of this mode. Should the fires burn more fiercely than 
 necessary, the draft is diminished by regulating a damper placed 
 across the inside of the funnel. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 The V^o leading properties of Steam 
 are its expansive force and its facility -^'ff- 230. 
 
 of condensation, both which are shown 
 by the use of a glass tube as in the 
 figure. 
 
 Let a represent a glass tube with a bulb 
 at its lower end. It is held in a brass ring 
 to which a wooden handle is attached, and 
 contains a piston c, which (as well as its 
 rod) is perforated, and may be opened or 
 closed by the screw at top, d\ it is kept 
 central by passing through a slice of cork 
 at e. 
 
 When used, a little water is poured into 
 the bnlb and carefully heated over a spirit 
 lamp ; the aperture in the piston rod being 
 open, the air is thus expelled, and when steam freely follows it, 
 the screw may be closed, when, on applying cold to the bulb (as 
 
 1 
 
 ffl 
 
 o 
 
476 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 for instance, putting it on the surface of a little mercury in a 
 glass), the included steam is condensed, and a yacuum formed, 
 •ffhioh causes the descent of the piston, in consequence of the 
 air pressing upon it from above. On holding again the hulb 
 over the lamp, steam is reproduced and the piston again forced 
 up : and these alternate motions may he repeatedly performed 
 by the alternate applications of heat and cold. 
 
 Such an open-mouthed vessel formed of metal, having steam 
 injection and eduction pipes at the bottom, with a moveable 
 piston inside, was the atmospheric engine of Newcomen, A 
 jet of steam having thrust the piston upwards, was condensed 
 by a jet of water, and drawn off through the eduction pipe, 
 whilst the atmosphere pressed the piston downwards into the 
 vacuum formed underneath it. 
 
 Such a vessel formed of metal, closed at each end (the rod of 
 the piston moving through a steam tight hole in the lid) with 
 apertures at top and bottom for the entrance and escape of 
 steam, which presses alternately above and below the piston is 
 the modem steam engine. The mechanical effect in both 
 engines being produced by connecting the end of the piston- 
 rod with machinery. 
 
 " Sea water contains in 1000 parts 34 of solid matter, of 
 which about 25 are common salt During the ordinary state of 
 the atmosphere, i. e., when the barometer is 30 inches, the 
 temperature of fresh water when boiling in an open vessel; is 
 212°, that of salt water 213°. At 28 inches the fluid boils at 
 208° i and in some places where the barometer usually stands 
 at 21 inches, it boils at 195°. These are points to be remem- 
 bered, because the temperature at which water boils has not only 
 a certain relation to the pressure of the steam formed, but also 
 denotes the extent to which it has become impregnated with salt. 
 
 " Vapour rising from water, heated to 165° Fahrenheit, pos- 
 sesses an elastic force capable of supporting a column of mercury 
 10'8 inches high, and its density is such that 80 cubic feet of 
 such vapour contains one pound of water, whereas 321 cubic 
 feet of steam, of the density corresponding to a temperature of 
 212°, and a pressure of 30 inches of mercury, weigh one pound. 
 From this we may calculate, when the temperature of the water 
 is given, the elasticity and specific gravity of the vapour." 
 
 The temperature of steam generated in an open vessel at an 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 477 
 
 ordinary pressure of air, nfevei- exceeds 212°. Whereas in a 
 close one, its temperature, density, and elasticity may be carried 
 to any extent consistent witli the safety or strength of the 
 vessel in which it is formed. Also the temperature at which a 
 solution of salt boils, under a given pressure, varies Consider- 
 ably with the strength of the solution. The more concentrated 
 the solution is, the higher will be its boiling temperature under 
 the same pressure. And as in boiling, the purer portions of the 
 boiler water are constantly evaporating in the form of steam, 
 whilst the grosser ones accumulate in the form of brine with 
 each new supply of sea water, it becomes absolutely necessary 
 to make frequent examinations of the water, so as to blow off 
 this sediment before it adheres to the boilers. (See Boilers.) 
 
 The instruments employed for this purpose are the Thermo- 
 meter and Hydrometer, or the Salimometer. The first of these 
 indicates the temperature of the water ; the second its density 
 or degree of saltness ; the last is a water gauge, in which the 
 duties of the two former are combined. 
 
 When steam has a pressure of 1.5lbs. per square inch, it is 
 said to be of one atmosphere, and so on. 
 
 In expressing the pressure of steam in a boiler, that part 
 which is neutralised by the atmosphere, and therefore has no 
 tendency to burst the boiler, is not taken Into account. Thus 
 when it is said to have a pressure of lOlbs. per square inch, it 
 in reality has a pressure of lOlbs + ISlbs. 
 
 The true nature of heat is not known ; it operates on solids by 
 conduction, and on fluids by connection. In the former process 
 it passes through the body without derangement of its particles ; 
 in the latter those which are nearest the heat are displaced. " If 
 heat be applied to a vessel of water, the particles near the bot- 
 tom are heated first, and expanding become specifically lighter 
 and ascend ; colder particles occupy their space, and ascend in 
 their turn, and thus a current is established." 
 
 Thus heat is conveyed throughout the whole volume of water, 
 raising its temperature until it rises in the form of Steam. 
 
 On attaining a temperature of 212°, the water does not 
 acquire any more heat, although transmission continues ; it 
 passes into the steam, and there exists under the name of htent 
 
478 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 heat, to an extent which, judged from its effect —for it is not 
 indicated hy the thermometer — is roughly estimated at 1000°. 
 It is this power of retaining a great amount of heat, that makes 
 steam so useful in raising quickly the temperature of water into 
 which it is thrown, as in the case of hatbs aijd buildings heated 
 by pipes. 
 
 It is evident the more particles that can be brought under 
 the influence of the heating power the sooner will steam be 
 raised. BoOers, therefore, are placed with their longest dimen- 
 sions horizontally. Fire places are ranged along the bottom, 
 and their flues carried sinuously through their interior, thus 
 giving what is called a greater " heating surface." * 
 
 It is, moreover, necessary in marine boilers that, as a precau- 
 tion against fire, the furnaces and flues should be contained 
 within the boiler, being thus surrounded by water. 
 
 Heated bodies radiate heat more or Jess according to the na- 
 ture of their surface ; the dark and rough radiating and absorb- 
 ing more than those which are bright and polished ; hence it is 
 that boilers, and frequently cylinders, are covered with wood or 
 felt, &c. 
 
 Marine boilers are made of wrought iron or copper plates, 
 stayed and riveted together, and sufficiently strong to resist a 
 pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch. Those of cylindrical 
 or hemispherical form are strongest. The loss of strength on 
 account of the joinings is about 35 per cent.f Those through 
 which the flame and hot air from the furnaces are conveyed to 
 the funnel by one or more passages large enough to admit a 
 workman, are called flue boilers : those having several layers 
 of small tubes for the transmission of the heat, are called tubular 
 boilers. The portion of boiler surrounding these flues or tubes 
 is called the Water Space, and that above them the Steam Chest. 
 As the water and heat in tubular boilers lie in alternate strata, 
 steam is more readily generated in these than in flue boilers. 
 
 Flue boilers occupy a third more space, and are nearly one 
 third heavier than tubular ones of an equal evaporative power. 
 
 * There are other reasons for this arrangement which are equally strong, 
 but not so evident. 
 
 t " Every description of boiler used in manufactories or on board steamers, 
 should in my opinion be constructed to a bursting pressure of 400 to 500 lbs. 
 on the square inch ; and locomotive engines, which are subjected to a much 
 severer duty, to a bursting pressure of 700 to 800 lbs." — Fairdaikn. 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 749 
 
 Flues are easily cleaned, but difficult to repair. Tabes are 
 repaired easily, and cleaned with difficulty ; so much so that 
 when they are very small, it is advisable to keep one boiler un- 
 employed as a stand by, in case of the others being choked 
 simultaneously. 
 
 Leaking or injured tubes may be plugged with wood, or closed 
 by Iron rods rove through and nutted at each end over plates. 
 
 In the construction of boilers, copper is preferred to iron : for 
 although four times as dear, it is a better conductor of heat, 
 does not corrode, is valuable even when worn out, only rends 
 instead of blowing to pieces on explosion, and is not subject to 
 the adhesion of those briny and limy deposits, which form in 
 very hard incrustations on iron. 
 
 These deposits being bad conductors of heat are very dan- 
 gerous ; for when they interrupt the passage of heat to the water 
 the bottom of the boiler becomes red hot and expands, the scales 
 crack, and are detached, water passes through the openings and 
 coming into contact with the heated metal, is suddenly con- 
 verted into steam of such excessive pressure that the iron already 
 deprived of five sixths of its strength in consequence of being at 
 red heat is burst asunder with violence. 
 
 The same effects may be produced by suddenly replenishing 
 the boiler after a neglect of proper water supply — the cold 
 water first causing this internal coating to contract and separate 
 from the bottom, and then becoming immediately vaporized. 
 
 Or, in the entire absence of such formations, by coming into 
 instant contact with the red hot metal. When the water has 
 become low, and the boilers seen or supposed to be red hot, the 
 fires should at once be drawn, and no water introduced until the 
 iron has cooled down. 
 
 When engines are of such size as to require more steam than 
 can be supplied by one boiler of ordinary size, additional 
 ones are attached, for there is a limit to size, inasmuch as the 
 liability to bursting increases with extent of surface. The 
 boilers are fitted so as either to be independent of each other, or 
 communicate their products through the Steam Pipe which is 
 common to all. The boilers are filled with water by means of 
 the hand pumps, donkey engine, or blow out cocks, to about 
 twelve inches above the flues or tubes. 
 
 Communication or Stop valves are for the purpose of 
 
480 MAJSrUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 separating the boilers from each other, or fi-om the engine when 
 requisite. They are -vrorked by hand in the engine room.* 
 
 Feed pumps are force pumps, of sufficient power to orer- 
 come the pressure in the boiler. They are worked by the 
 engine itself, and supply the boiler at each stroke with as much 
 water as has been expended in evaporation, blowing off, and 
 condensing. This water Is supplied from the Hot Well, being 
 more fresh and warm than that drawn direct from the sea ; and 
 is conveyed to the boiler through the Feed Pipes, being regu- 
 lated by cocks and valves of peculiar construction. The lower 
 pai't of the uptake is in some vessels enclosed by a water casing 
 — thus heal is economised, for the temperature of water supplied 
 to the boiler by this arrangement, is so high as to involve the 
 use of a safety valve in the casing. A neglect of this precaution 
 recently proved fatal. 
 
 Water eaxise. The necessary quantity of water to be ad- 
 mitted is determined by observing the level in the glass " Water 
 Gauge," which is on the outside of the boiler — this level cor- 
 responding with that inside. The supply is regulated very 
 carefully ; for the consequence of allowing the water to get too 
 high in the boiler is that it boils over into the steam pipe, and 
 injures the cylinder, or is discharged in the form of " priming:." 
 Priming may also be occasioned by insufficieticy of steam space 
 in the boiler. The consequences of its getting low have been 
 already pointed out. 
 
 We may notice, in passing, that in stationary Land Engines 
 the boiler supplies itself by means of an inside float, which being 
 suspended from a valve, communicates with a reservoir of water. 
 As the water in the boiler is consumed, the float descending 
 opens by its weight the valve, and admits a sufficiency. 
 
 Reverse valves are placed opening inwards to the boilers, 
 so that, when, by withdrawing the fires steam is condensed, or 
 when, from neglecting the fires, steam is not generated in pro- 
 portion to the demand of the engine, and falls below the pressure 
 of the atmosphere, vacuum and consequent collapse are avoided. 
 
 Blow-off cocks. To remedy the ill effects of deposit as 
 muci as possible, a portion of the boiler water is blown off 
 
 * In more than one instance the engineers have been driven by fire or ex- 
 plosion from the engine-room ; and there being no means on declt of shutting 
 the steam oiT from the engines, the vessel steamed ahead on her destruction. 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 481 
 
 occasionally by means of a cock at the bottom of the boiler, 
 ■which communicate by valves through the vessel's bottom with 
 the sea. 
 
 Brine pnmps are an improvement on the blowing off process. 
 They are worked by the engine, and so arranged that a quan- 
 tity of brine is discharged at each stroke, while a corresponding 
 quantity of water too inconsiderable to effect the general tem- 
 perature of the boiler water is supplied to it by the feed pumps. 
 
 Man-bole is an aperture in the upper part of the boiler, 
 through which when the water is run off, the cleaners enter. 
 
 ncud-bole is an aperture in the lower part of the boiler, for 
 the purpose of raking out deposit. 
 
 Steam gauge. Steam, like air, is elastic, and if generated 
 in a close vessel may be retained until compressed into an 
 elastic force, which needs be restricted only by the strength of 
 the boiler. This force is measured by the amount of its pressure 
 in pounds on every square inch in the surface of the piston, or 
 that of the surface which contains it; and is indicated by the 
 Steam Gauge, which is a bent iron tube, partly filled with 
 mercury, and placed vertically on the front of the boiler, into 
 which its end opens. 
 
 At a temperature of 212°, its elastic force is equal to that of 
 the atmosphere, and it will therefore support a column of 
 mercury 30 inches high: at 230^ it will support 42 inches, and 
 so on. 
 
 The mercury in this tube will of course be at the same level 
 in both its branches when the steam in the boilers and the 
 atmosphere press equally, but will rise in the longer leg as the 
 pressure of the steam increases, and will thus by its rise indicate 
 the amount of that pressure. If the elastic force of steam were 
 suddenly to increase, the mercury would overflow or be blown 
 out altogether, and thus this gauge would become an additional 
 safety valve. 
 
 Safety valve. When steam is raised from boiling water, 
 it occupies 1800 times as much space as the water from which 
 it is raised. When first generated, its force is that of one 
 atmosphere ; at 320° it is equal to five; at 356° to ten, at 416° 
 to twenty, at 590° to one hundred atmospheres. One cubic 
 inch of water converted into steam, will prbduce a mechanical 
 force sufficient to raise a ton weight a foot high. 
 I I 
 
482 MANUAL FOK NATAL CADETS. 
 
 So great a pent up force naturally suggests danger, and pro- 
 vision is made in the Safety Valve, for the escape of steam -when 
 it exceeds the pressure which the holler is calculated to resist. 
 On this occurring, the valve, which is suitably loaded, is raised 
 hy the superahundant force of the steam itself ; and when the 
 steam has become diminished to the required pressure, it 
 closes. 
 
 The waste steam flinnel carries off the surplus steam from 
 the safety valve, its upper end is usually formed into a globular 
 shape, in which much of the sediment thrown up by priming is 
 collected. 
 
 The drip pipe along side of the waste steam pipe carries 
 this sediment down through the ship's bottom. 
 
 Steam pipe conveys the steam from the boiler to the 
 cylinder. It is made of copper, and as straight and short as 
 possible ; its usual area is one square inch per horse power. 
 
 Tbrottle Valve. — The resistance to a marine engine 
 varies. For instance, when a ship plunges her wheels in the 
 water, the resistance is great, and the revolutions few. Again, 
 when a ship pitches heavily, the screw is at times more than 
 half out of the water, and the resistance small, so that we 
 require some contrivance by which a supply of steam, varying 
 in proportion to the resistance, shall be supplied to the cylinder 
 with a view of preserving it, or its gear, from the consequent 
 danger of rupture. This is effected by the Throttle Valve, 
 which is placed in the pipe that conveys steam from the 
 boiler to the cylinder. In ships this valve is adjusted by 
 hand from time to time, and during very heavy motion, re- 
 quires constant manual attendance ; but in land engines, it is 
 worked by an apparatus called the Governor, which deriving 
 motion from the engine makes the latter self-regulating in this 
 respect. When the steam is thus partially checked, it is said to 
 be wire drawn. 
 
 Vast as is the force of steam, it is the most controllable of all 
 the motive powers ; for having performed its duty of urging the 
 piston through the cylinder in whatever direction the engineer 
 determines, it is led off into a separate chamber, the condenser, 
 %nd deprived of its energy in an instant. Heat gave it being ; 
 cold resolves it into its former condition of water. Two ounces 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 483 
 
 of water will in a second condense 200 inches of steam, and re- 
 duce their expansive force to one fifth. 
 
 The Cylinder is made of cast iron, bored exactly cylindrical 
 in its inner surface, closed by steam-tight lids, and cased in felt 
 and wooden clothing. 
 
 In a double-acting condensing engine, as a ship's, when the 
 steam has acquired a certain amount of strength, it is permitted 
 to issue through the steam pipe ; and is discharged in jets alter- 
 nately above and below a moveable piston working in the 
 cylinder — escaping from thence into the Condenser by the 
 Eduction pipe on one side of the Piston, while it is active on 
 the other. 
 
 This arrangement is effected by a system of openings or pas- 
 sages, which are regulated by the engine itself, through the 
 instrumentality of a wheel fitted on the shaft, having its axis 
 on one side of its centre, and turning in a brass collar, to which 
 the levers of the valves are •connected- by rods : the rotatory 
 motion of the shaft thus conveying a fore and aft one to the 
 rods. This apparatus is called the Eccentric (^j. 231). Those 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 passages which admit are the steam, and those which emit are 
 the exhausting, passaged. 
 
 The Slide valves which close these passages act in concert ; 
 
 so that, for instance, the lower exhausting and npper steam 
 
 passages are open, whilst the npper exhausting and lower steam 
 
 ones close simultaneously. A vacuum more or less complete is 
 
 I I 2 
 
484 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 fonned on one side of the piston, while the entering steam 
 presses upon the other -with nearly an unopposed force.* 
 
 By means of a contriTance called the Expansive Cear, the 
 movement of a valve in the steam pipe is so managed that the 
 admission of steam to the cylinder is " cut off" at certain points 
 of the stroke of the piston. For water is sometimes carried 
 with the steam into the cylinder, accumulating at its bottom ; 
 and were the piston permitted to " travel " the whole length of 
 the cylinder, it would come in contact with this incompressible 
 accumulation, and produce fracture. 
 
 Moreover, by the use of this gear, the steam is economised 
 when desirable. The slides being set with reference to the 
 strength of the steam, the admitting aperture is closed at a par- 
 ticular moment when the piston is moving, and the remainder of 
 the stroke is effected by the expansion of the steam which has 
 just been admitted. 
 
 Escape Valves. — The water that may have entered the 
 cylinder by priming from the boiler or from the condenser by 
 improper regulation of the injection, is carried off by the escape 
 valves, which are fitted at the top and bottom of the cylinder. 
 
 Condenser. — On its arrival in the adjoining chamber (the 
 condenser) the steam is received with a. cold-shower bath, the 
 supply of water for this purpose being admitted through the 
 Injection valve, from a pipe which communicates with the sea, 
 by means of a Kingston's valve in the ship's bottom. This 
 supply is regulated by a Sea-cock at the bottom, and an In- 
 jection cock near the Condenser.f 
 
 The steam, being re-converted to water, is made to flow along 
 with that used in condensation, through the foot valve, towards 
 the Air Pump which carries it to the Hot Well, from whence 
 
 • The apparatus for admitting and shutting off steam from the cylinder called 
 the Throttle Valve is usually worked in the engine room. The evil conse- 
 quences of having no means on the upper deck for stopping the supply were 
 shown in the case of a merchant ship not very long since. A fire having 
 Jjroken out in the engine room, gained so rapidly, that the engineers had to 
 desert that quarter of the ship ; and when it became desirable to stop the 
 vessel tor the purpose of lowering the boats, it was found to be impossible, and 
 she steamed furiously aliead until almost the moment of sinking. 
 
 t High pressure engines are not furnished with Condensers, Air pumps, or 
 ■Waste pipes, the steam that has operated on the Piston being allowed to 
 escape Into the air. 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 485 
 
 the quantity necessary for replenishing the boilers is conyeyed 
 by the action of the hot-water pump back again to the boiler,' the 
 residue being forced overboard through the waste water pipe. 
 All these different yalves and pumps, excepting the Kingston 
 valves in the ship's side, are worked by the engine. 
 
 The Foot Valve is placed at the bottom of the condenser, 
 opening into the air pump, so that the water and air cannot 
 return to the condenser. 
 
 - The Delivery Valve is placed at the top of the air pump, 
 opening into the hot well, so that the water and air cannot re- 
 turn to the air pump. 
 
 The Slow-ttarougli Valve is placed at the bottom of the 
 slide valve casing, and is for the purpose of admitting a current 
 of steam through the engine before starting, so as to clear it of 
 water and air. 
 
 The snlflin^ Valve is placed at the foot of the air pump, 
 for the purpose of allowing the water and air to escape when 
 blowing through. 
 
 The Piston is made of iron, hollow, and rendered steam 
 tight at its contact with the cylinder by metallic rings thrust 
 outwards with springs or packing. 
 
 The piston rod works through a steam tight packing on the 
 lid of the cylinder contained in the stuffing box, and com- 
 pressed by the glands ; and as it always must of necessity, 
 when thus arranged, move in a line with the cylinder, whether 
 that vessel be horizontal or upright, some contrivance is re- 
 quired by which its linear motion may be converted into the 
 circular which is demanded by the Paddle or Screw. The 
 cylinder must either be adapted to the motion of the rod, or 
 the motion of the rod to that of the double handles called 
 cranks which turn the shaft. In the first of these cases, the 
 cylinder is made very much in the form of a great Howitzer, 
 and pivots In like manner on the trunnions. These are bored 
 through, and thus steam is admitted. The head of the rod is 
 connected immediately with the crank, and thus, this beautifiilly 
 simple and compact arrangement becomes a " Direct acting 
 oscillating engine." By placing two such engines beside each 
 other, and fixing their respective cranks at different angles on 
 the shaft, one is always actively carrying the other past the centre 
 I I 3 
 
486 
 
 MANUAL FOB NAyAL CADETS. 
 
 of the axis, or through what is called the Dead point i whilst 
 the other is in its neutral position. 
 
 In some engines, where the cylinders are fixtures, the motion 
 6f the rod is kept in the line of the cylinder hy the parallel 
 motion, and is communicated to the crank by an intermediate 
 system of side-rods, side-levers, and connecting rods, or by 
 making the piston hollow as in Trunk engines. In the case of 
 a Side Lever Engine, the rod is fitted with a cross which forms, 
 as it were, the shoulders ; from these hang the arms, the side- 
 rods, grasping the ends of the great handles, the side levers, or 
 sway beams, at the extremities of which rise the connecting 
 rods that turn the cranks. 
 
 One Engine on each side of the ship working cranks differ- 
 ently set, as before described, turn over the Dead point, and ex- 
 cepting the parallel motion, which we leave as matters for per- 
 sonal investigation, we have but to inflate the lungs of the 
 machine to produce rotatory motion. 
 
 Trunk Engines are always direct action ones, and may be 
 comprehended by conceiving the piston rod to be very much 
 larger in diameter than usual, projecting (steam tight) through 
 both ends of the cylinder, and hollow, having a connecting rod, 
 one end of which pivots in the centre of the piston or trunk, and 
 the other turning the crank. 
 
 Fig. 232 represents a Trunk cylinder engine, as seen from the 
 fore part of the engine room. 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 
 Fig. 233. is the same engin'e as 'seen from the port side. 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 
 Fig. 233. 
 
 487 
 
 D Coupling and bearing. c. Crank, 
 
 p. Steam pipe. s. Shaft. 
 
 T. Trunks. 
 
 Fig. 234. is tlie same engine as seen from the deck. 
 Fig, 234. 
 
 I I 4 
 
488 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 With a single engine, such as we have on shore, the dead 
 point is disposed of by means of a great balance wheel haying 
 a heavy rim, which is placed on the end of the main shaft. 
 This wheel, receiving motion in the first instance from the 
 engine, absorbs a certain amount of moving force, by which it 
 carries its way through this critical moment, and regulates the 
 speed of the engine by its uniform motion. " A force of fifty 
 pounds per second, imparted to a loaded wheel, will so accumu- 
 late as to enable it to overcome a resistance of nearly 500 
 pounds in ten seconds." The necessity for this balance wheel 
 in the case of but one land engine, and its inapplicability to 
 marine purposes, will serve to explain why two engines are 
 required in a ship. 
 
 Whilst the power of the machine may be measured by ex- 
 ternal symptoms, such as length of stroke, and pressure of steam 
 on the gauge, &c., there is a mode of ascertaining what is going 
 on in the very heart of the cylinder itself j for it must be borne 
 in mind that the efficiency of the entering stream will be depen- 
 dent on the completeness of the vacuum on the opposite side of 
 the piston. 
 
 Indicator. — The more dense and powerful the steam, the 
 greater quantity of water will it be composed of, for low pres- 
 sure steam is but a small quantity, and high pressure is but a 
 larger quantity of water and vapour ; therefore, the stronger 
 the steam the more active should be the condensing apparatus, 
 and if it be not doing its duty as well as the boiler, the vacuum 
 will be indifferent, and the great force of steam neutralised. 
 Now by attaching an instrument called the Indicator to the 
 main cylinder, we have a tell-tale which, regulated by the 
 internal condition, supplies us with a self- written report in the 
 form of a diagram, not only of the performances of the steam, 
 but also of the extent of vacuum. 
 
 The Indicator has been called a steam Stethoscope, and may 
 be said to tell the condition of the spirit of that imaginary 
 monster which seems to lie fettered and obedient at the bottom 
 of a great ship. This little instrument may be applied to the 
 cylinder, boiler, or other places ; a minute hole only being re- 
 quired to admit steam when it is fixed. It is a very small 
 cylinder in which is a piston bearing against a spiral spring, 
 and carrying a pencil, pressing lightly upon a paper attached 
 
STEAM ENGINK. 489 
 
 to a roller which revolves as the piston moves, having a line 
 attached to the machinery. One stroke is made as the piston 
 goes each way, and the result is a complete figure or diagram, 
 traced on the paper, which shows very nearly how the engines 
 are performing, and afterwards, when carefully measured 
 and calculated, what is the actual power exerted hy the 
 steam. This index affords not only a measure of the whole 
 power, but also shows the power exerted at each part of the 
 stroke. 
 
 • " The height at which the pressure of the atmosphere solely 
 would keep the pencil of the Indicator, is shown by a line 
 drawn across the paper by the pencil while influenced only by 
 the atmosphere. The length of the.figare is divided into equal 
 parts by any convenient scale, and the pressure of the steam 
 above the line, and below (which might be called exhaustion) 
 is measured by the scale to which the indicator is divided ; 
 one-tenth of an inch usually representing one pound pressure on 
 a square inch. Then mechanically, with compasses, a certain 
 number of eqni-distant ordinates are measured, and their mean 
 length taken, as representing the average pressure on the piston 
 during one stroke. This mean pressure multiplied by the velo- 
 city of the piston (or the number of feet travelled by it in a 
 minute), and again by the area of the piston in square inches, 
 gives a product which, divided by 33,000, gives the indicator 
 horse power, or indicated power of the engines." 
 
 This indicated power is seldom less than twice the nominal or 
 contract power of the engines. 
 
 Horse Power. — As it has elsewhere been shown that Weight 
 and Time, and Height, or Distance, are interchangeable with each 
 other, it will easily be understood that it becomes a convenient 
 mode of expressing the power of a man, or a horse, to say that 
 one man or one horse can raise a given number of pounds one 
 foot high in one minute, inasmuch as multiplying by one does 
 not change the figures. 
 
 A horse power is reckoned at 33,000 pounds raised one foot 
 high in one minute, this having been found by experiment to be 
 about the amount of work actually done by a good horse of 
 average strength. To measure the horse-power of a steam 
 engine, it is necessary to know the total number of pounds 
 pressing continuously, or rather on an average, upon the piston, 
 
490 MANUAL FOR KAVAL CADETS. 
 
 which is the amount of weight to he moved; and also the 
 velocity with which this weight is being moved, or the distance 
 through which it travels in one minute. 
 
 The former is found by multiplying the area of the piston by 
 the average pressure of the steam upon each square inch ; this 
 average having been either found by the Indicator, or assumed 
 from a knowledge of the pressure of the steam as generated in 
 the boiler and used in the engine. 
 
 The distance through which the piston travels in a minute is 
 found by multiplying the length of stroke which it makes in 
 going from one end of the cylinder to the other, and back again, 
 by the number of such strokes made in a minute. The total 
 pressure on the piston of any engine, and the velocity or total 
 distance travelled by the piston in one minute being obtained or 
 known, the power of that engine is then calculated as a common 
 rule of three sum. 
 
 Thus : As 33,000 lbs. multiplied by 1 foot high in 1 minute 
 (which represents one horse power) is to^he total pressure in 
 lbs. on the piston, multiplied by the velocity of the piston in 
 feet in 1 minute, so is 1 horse power to the horse power of the 
 engine as sought. 
 
 In speaking however of an engine generally, the length of 
 stroke is the distance travelled by the piston, from the top to the 
 bottom of the cylinder, or vice versa, and not a whole stroke, or 
 the distance from a starting point back again to that starting 
 point, which is equal to a revolution of the crank. 
 
 The duty of an engine is the amount of work done in reference 
 to the quantity of fuel consumed. The Modulus or useful effect 
 of a machine is the fraction which expresses the amount of work 
 compared with the power applied, which is expressed by unity. 
 Thus if the work performed be only |, the other third would have 
 been lost in friction, and the actual product § would be the mo- 
 dulus. 
 
 The cost of engines varies from 20?. to 60/. per horse power, 
 according to the intrinsic value of the materials used. 
 
 An engine of 450 horse power, weighs on an average alto- 
 gether, about 300 tons. Thus, for example : — 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 491 
 
 50 tons 
 
 97 
 
 „ 
 
 56 
 
 j> 
 
 50 
 
 )) 
 
 5 
 
 ft 
 
 5 
 
 )> 
 
 Weight of engines - 
 
 „ boilers - . - 
 
 „ water in ditto 
 
 „ propeller gear 
 
 „ copper pipes 
 
 „ coal boxes* - - 
 
 „ stores and spare gear - 24 „ 
 
 287 „ 
 
 THE SOKEW. 
 
 The Marine Propeller is a screw placed on an axis parallel to 
 the keel, having its thread more or less inclined to the perpendi- 
 cular. Turned in one direction it bears against the water and 
 the vessel ; the water offering the greatest resistance, the vessel 
 recedes and is moved ahead. Turned in the opposite direction 
 its tendency is to draw the water towards the ship ; but again 
 the water asserts its superiority, the ship follows the screw and 
 goes astern. When the screw is tried in the basin, the ship's 
 bows bear against, and are secured to, the wall. The ship then 
 of course becomes the fixture, and the water the body that 
 moves. The enormous power of the screw is never seen to 
 greater advantage than during this experiment. The scene 
 presented by the agitation of the water in this struggle for 
 supremacy reminds a spectator of the eddies and convulsions of 
 a maelstrom, and he is inclined at some moments to fancy that 
 either the vessel will break up under the pressure, or the strong 
 opposition of stone blocks themselves be forced to give way. 
 The propelling action of the screw, unable to project the ship, 
 flings the water astern with tremendous force, and the opposite 
 action, after straining the bow fastenings to the uttermost, ex- 
 pends its force on the water, which it draws towards the stem 
 in rapid and tumultuous currents. 
 
 The annexed figure will probably convey a better idea of the 
 propeller than can be gathered from a mere description. In this 
 piece of a screw there are two threads, and it is evident there 
 might be more or less. But as the propellers used in the navy 
 are generally two threaded, that is the class represented heie, 
 
 * Xhes? contained 220 tons of coal, ~' "' 
 
492 
 
 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 
 § .§ 
 
 f 
 
 
 tJ « k. 
 
 •§2 5 
 
 g 3 fl 
 
 Hi 
 
 t a 
 
 td V m 
 
 <o :g 3 
 
 '.o " t^ 
 
 W( -a, 60 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 493 
 
 Fig. 236 represents the propeller in its frame, on its bearings, 
 and connected with the shaft. 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 
494 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 A propeller cut out of a screw of this kind, -vi^ould appear end 
 on and sideways, as in the sections. 
 
 It must he observed that a propeller is cast in the form of a 
 section, and not cut out of a great length of screw. The length 
 is merely drawn for the sake of illustration, because a section 
 alone is not very readily comprehended. 
 
 The mode in which the propeller is suspended in its frame, 
 by which it is raised, lowered, and supported in its place by 
 bearings, and by which it is connected with, and disengaged 
 from, the driving shaft are shown in the drawings. 
 
 " The Fltoli of a screw is the distance in a straight line, from 
 one point of the outer line (periphery) to the point that com^ 
 pletes one spiral turn around the axis or shaft, or it is the 
 distance that a screw advances in a solid by one turn. 
 
 " Daring its revolution the propeller does not advance the 
 whole distance of its pitch as in the case of a screw entering a 
 solid substance ; because the water yields to some extent. This 
 deficiency of progress is called the Slip." 
 
 HANDLING THE PROPELLER. 
 
 ■yVhen the Propeller is heavy in proportion to the yards, place 
 the main yard, lash the hunt particularly well, put on the lee 
 rolling tackle, pull up the lifts, trusses, &c. Have two top tackles 
 and their pendants as in the first way described of getting in 
 guns ; use the main jeers rove in the upper and spare jeer blocks 
 for an up and down tackle ; also, have two preventer tackles to ■ 
 separate strops on the yards for lifts. They must be from the 
 cap, but the ends of the pendants should, after going over the 
 cap, come on deck and be secured there. It is not impossible to 
 wring a mast head. If you have to carry the screw aft, land it 
 gn an 8-inch gun carriage. 
 
 In dealing with the mizen mast, as in getting the screw on the 
 poop from the quarter deck, or lifting it out of the chamber, the 
 greater rake of the mast and shortness of bowsing demand con- 
 siderable support from forward, and It is a matter of opinion 
 whether the runners and tackles should do so from the main- 
 mast head or the deck. 
 
 To lift the screw into the banjo and place it on the racks in 
 the chamber, make a derrick of the spanker boom, stepping the 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 493 
 
 ja'ws on a chock on the deck, filling up the hollowed out part, 
 and supporting it from the mizen mast head. 
 
 Chain reeving lines for screw pendants do not last so well as 
 rope J if they should unreeve hy accident, the fish hooks seized 
 in the ends of the pendants will catch the frame and bring the 
 screw up. 
 
 To hoist in a propeller of unusual weight, the yard should be 
 supported by a top-mast placed with its heel on the deck under 
 the yard, and its head lashed to the yard at the place from which 
 the purchase is to hang. The lashing of the purchase should be 
 passed round both mast and yard. As the gear often gives in, 
 the ship may be listed by running the guns in or out. 
 
 DISTILLING APPABATUS. 
 
 The great space occupied by the Engine, Boilers, and CoaJ- 
 Bunkers in Steam ships, interfering so much with the stowage 
 of the usual quantity of fresh water, it has been found necessary 
 to provide for a sufficient supply, by means of Distillation, — a 
 process that may require explanation. 
 
 Whatever substance may be held in solution in water, whether 
 earthy, vegetable, or saline, it does not enter into the vapour or 
 steam which is generated by boiling ; and as Steam or Vapour 
 may be reconverted into water by exposure to cold, we have 
 only to coUect it in a condensing apparatus, from which the 
 water may be drawn off in a pure state. It is true, that the 
 water which has been mentioned as returning to the boiler from 
 the engine condenser is so freed from salt as to be perfectly 
 fresh, but having gone through so many greasy passages, it is 
 unfit for drinking purposes. A separate chamber is therefore 
 connected with the boilers into which the waste steam, or steam 
 raised for the purpose is admitted, condensed, or distilled, and 
 finally drawn off in the form of purest water. 
 
 Fig. 237 represents the condenser with one side removed, 
 showing the internal arrangement, by which the distilling appa- 
 ratus will be seen to consist of a rectangular tank with two pipes 
 leading into one side of it, one at the lower part marked " entry," 
 being for the purpose of admitting cold water, and the other at 
 the upper end, and marked " exit," for the purpose of allow- 
 ing the water admitted through the lower pipe to escape. 
 By means of these, pipes, in a manner which will be here- 
 
496 
 
 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 after shown, a continual current of cold water is kept passing 
 through the condenser ; and issuing from the top will he seen a 
 small pipe, marked " vapour exit," the use of which will he here- 
 after explained ; these form the detail of the outer compartment 
 shown in our diagram. Still referring to Jig. 237, the inner com- 
 partment is seen to consist of two small chambers, one placed 
 above the other at some distance apart, and connected by a 
 series of metal pipes or tubes ; and rising from the upper cham- 
 ber, passing through the outer compartment before mentioned, is 
 a pipe marked " steam," which connects to the steam boilers of 
 the ship J also, issuing from the lower chamber is a small pipe 
 which passes through the outer compartment at the lower end, 
 and irom which fresh water is shown to be running. 
 
 The steam from theboilers enters the steam pipe leading to the 
 upper chamber of the inner compartment (Jig. 237), where it ex- 
 pands as shown by the arrows in our figure, filling the tubes 
 before mentioned, and is there rapidly condensed (returned to 
 water) by the contact of the cold sea water, which has flowed in 
 through the entry pipe, filling the outer compartment, and sur- 
 rounding the external surfaces of the tubes and inner chambers. 
 The water thus distilled falls into the lower chamber, and runs 
 from thence through the small pipe, marked " fresh water," into 
 the tanks. 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 
 Fig. 238 represents the external appearance of condenser 
 when closed and ready for placing in a ship. 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 497 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 
498 MANUAL FOB NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 Fig. 239. By applying our former remarks to this figure ■we 
 shall see how the distilling apparatus is placed in a ship. The 
 figure representg the fore hold of H.M.S. "Royal George," 
 where two of these condensers are fitted, one heing on each side 
 of the ship. By looking at this figure, we see that the hefore- 
 named entry and exit pipes pass through holps in the ship's 
 side, and thus open a communication between the condensers 
 and the sea; therefore, the condensers being placed below the 
 water-line, the cold water has a free passage into the outer com- 
 partment, where, from being in contact with the tubes of the 
 inner vessel containing the steam, it becomes heated, and hot 
 water being lighter, bulk for bulk, than cold, it rises to the 
 surface of the sea, passing through the upper pipe mai-ked 
 " exit," and thus a continual current of cold water is passing 
 through the outer compartment of the condensers, carrying off 
 the heat which causes the steam in the inner chamber to return 
 to water. We have now to explain the use of the small pipe, 
 marked " vapour escape." The heated water emits a vapour 
 which, if an escape passage were not provided, would accumu- 
 late, and in a short time rise to a sufficient pressure to resist 
 the entrance of the cold sea water through the lower pipe. The 
 vapour escape pipe is therefore fitted to the top of the outer part 
 of the condenser, and carried above the water line inside the ship, 
 so as to allow this vapour to escape into the atmosphere. It will 
 also be observed in the diagram (Jig. 239.) that there are cocks 
 in each of the exit and entry pipes, for the purpose of shutting 
 off the communication with the sea when the condensers are not 
 at work. 
 
 Condensers of this description are made of the various sizes 
 adapted to different classes of ships ; those fitted to the " Royal 
 George " are capable of distilling 40 tons of water in 24 hours, 
 and this is obtained at the rate of the expenditure of 1 ton of 
 coals for 7 tons of water. 
 
 STEEBAGE OF SCREW SHIPS. 
 
 When a ship is moving ahead, propelled either by steam or a 
 wind right aft, the pressure of the water on the bows in a di- 
 rection opposed to the motion is increased, in a proportion 
 vaiying as the square of the velocity j whereas the pressure on 
 
STEAM ENGINE. 499 
 
 the stern and run of the vessel is diminished. The ship may, 
 therefore, when in rapid motion, he considered as a body -which 
 is free to revolve horizontally round some point near the hows. 
 It is evident that a very slight pressure exerted at the rudder 
 would be sufficient to move the stem in the direction of either 
 port or starboard, thereby altering the course of the ship. 
 This pressure is obtained by a movement of the tiller towards 
 that side on which it is intended to throw the ship's stern. The 
 plane of the rudder is thus inclined to that of the keel, and of 
 the ship's motion, and the water', Impinging obliquely on that 
 side which is opposed to its pressure, exerts the necessary power 
 in a direction perpendicular to the keel. The comparative 
 amount of force exerted for any angular position of the rudder 
 may be ascertained by resolving the force, in the same manner 
 as has been shown when treating of the effect of the wind on 
 the sails (Chap. XVIII.). 
 
 If the ship be moving astern, the opposite side of the rudder 
 must be opposed to the pressure of the water, in order to throw 
 the stem to the same side as before, a contrary motion must, 
 therefore, he given to the tiller. 
 
 It has been observed that when a steamer has stem way, the 
 rudder has but little power in directing or changing her course 
 even in a calm; and that the slightest breeze is sufficient to 
 bring her stern up in the wind even against the action of the 
 rudder. 
 
 The reason is obvious. In this case the increased pressure 
 of the water is exerted against the vessel's stern, while that 
 against the bows is reduced, and the action of the rudder is 
 directed to give motion to the stern, which has now become 
 almost fixed (as regards lateral motion), instead of being, as 
 when moving ahead, free to move laterally, owing to the pres- 
 sure against it being reduced ; a far greater amount of power is, 
 therefore, necessary, and any disturbing influences, however 
 slight, will counteract the effect of the rudder during stemway. 
 Among these are included two of importance : 1st, -the ship 
 having a " list " to either side, which, bringing one quarter in 
 the water more than the other, will tend to throw the stern 
 away from the immersed side ; 2nd, a, wind in any direction 
 except parallel with the keel ; in this case, the force of the 
 wind will more readily show its eflFect on the bow of the vessel, 
 K K 2 
 
500 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 as that extremity is less retained in its position by the the pres- 
 sure of the water when moving astern ; the stem, therefore, in- 
 Tariably comes up to the wind in stemway, which can only be 
 avoided by giving the ship a list to windward, thus inraiersing 
 the weather quarter. 
 
 A consideration of these circumstances will explain why a 
 ship will almost invariably require weather helm when sailing 
 on a wind ; which necessity increases as the breeze freshens, 
 and this notwithstanding that the centre of effort of the sails is 
 before the centre line of the ship. The two causes above men- 
 tioned, when referring to stemway, now act in combination ; 
 the lee bow is immersed, and the pressure on the two extremities 
 is made unequal ; the rudder, however, in consequence of this 
 latter circumstance, acts with greater freedom, and, a small incli- 
 nation of it is sufficient to counteract these two combined causes. 
 These are the general principles on which the steerage of a 
 ship is effected, though variously modified by the form of dif- 
 ferent vessels j for instance, it is well known that screw ships 
 when under sail alone answer their weather helm with diffi- 
 culty, and are unusually long in wearing ; this probably arises 
 from the position of the aperture for the screw, which allows 
 the water to escape through it to windward, as it passes aft 
 under great pressure along the lee side of the ship, instead of 
 impinging directly on the lee side of the rudder. 
 
 In vessels propelled by a screw the action of the rudder is 
 much increased, when the ship is moving ahead, by the addi- 
 tional force of the water thrown directly on the rudder by the 
 screw ; this force is so considerable, that the direction of the 
 ship's head can be altered before she has gathered headway, 
 an object sometimes of much importance in getting under weigh 
 in a crowded anchorage. 
 
 The rotation of the screw has another effect on the steerage ; 
 a large portion of the power of the screw ^s exerted in a fore 
 and aft line, which produces motion in the ship. There is, 
 however, a small portion of that power which is exerted in a 
 direction at right angles to the keel, tending, when the screw is 
 vertical, to move the stem laterally ; the two blades of the 
 screw exert this force in opposite directions, and if they be 
 equal in size, and act under similar circumstances in all 
 respects, each would counteract the effect of the other — but 
 
FLAGS. 501 
 
 this is not the case ; when the screw is vertical the lower hlade 
 is moving in water which offers far greater resistance to its 
 motion than that which meets the upper blade moving near the 
 surface ; consequently, the ship's stern is moved in a direction 
 opposite to that in which the lower blade revolves ; the result 
 of this action is, that a screw ship will usually, in a calm, carry 
 a small helm on the same side when moving ahead ; and when 
 moving astern, her head will invariably pay off the same way 
 (tmless counteracted by a breeze in the right direction), this 
 tendency will be to starboard or port according to the mode of 
 rotation of the screw. 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. 
 FLAGS. 
 
 THE ROYAL STANDARD. 
 
 Armorial ensigns are hereditary marks of honour made up of 
 determined figures and colours, and called Coats of Arms from 
 their having been borne on shields or clothing for the distinction 
 of persons, families, and states. 
 
 Banners and pennons, having the arms of their owners embla- 
 zoned thereon, were in early times carried as honorary marks 
 of distinction by the chiefs who had furnished a, number of 
 fighting men for the service of the state. The sovereign not 
 only bore the standard of England with the arms of the realm, 
 but those of the patron saints, St. George and St. Edmund. 
 
 The emblazonry on the royal standard of England represents 
 the arms for the time being of the nation, as impressed on the 
 coins, and borne on the great seals of office. According to 
 heraldic language, they are described thus : — " Quarterly first 
 and fourth, gules, three Lions passant gardant in pale for 
 England. Second, or, a Lion rampant gules with a double 
 tressure flory, comter flory of the last, for Scotland. Third, 
 azure, a Harp, or, stringed argent, for Ireland." 
 
 Two of the lions passant, gardant pale, or, on a red field in 
 the first and fourth quarter were the arms of Normandy, and 
 were introduced by William Ruins. The third is said to have 
 
 E K 3 
 
502 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 been added by Henry II. for the duchy of Acquitaine, which 
 he possessed in right of his wife Alianore, a.d. 1154. Certain 
 it is that the banner of Edward I. was a scarlet flag, having 
 " three lions courant of fine gold, sette on." 
 
 The second quartering is occupied by the royal banner of 
 Scotland, which was of " cloth of gold, having emblazoned on 
 it a lion rampant within a double border (a tressure), enriched 
 with fleurs-de-lys, all of them red." This was introduced on 
 the union with Scotland in 1707. 
 
 The silver stringed golden Harp on a blue field was a part of 
 the regalia of the Irish King, Brian Boiromh, a.d. 1014, which 
 was presented to Henry VIII., and is now in the College of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Edward III., on claiming the sovereignty of France in right 
 of his mother Isabel, sister and heiress of Charles the Fair, 
 quartered with the lions the fleur-de-lys powdered on a blue field. 
 The standard thus composed of the arms of France and England 
 is displayed in authentic paintings at the mast-heads of the Great 
 Harry and the Henry Grace de Dieu, ships of war built in the 
 times of the seventh and eighth Henrys.* 
 
 On the centre of this standard an escutcheon of pretence was 
 placed by William III. for Nassau, which was removed by 
 Queen Anne. The flag received some additions under George 
 I., which on the accession of Her Majesty Queen Victoria were 
 removed, and the standard, as above described, is now the royal 
 standard of Great Britain, and is only displayed during the 
 presence of a member of the Eoyal Family, or upon certain 
 state occasions. 
 
 THE BLAZON OF THE PKINCE CONSORT'* STANDARD IS 
 
 quarterly, first and fourth, the royal arms of the British em- 
 pire, differenced by a label of three points, on the centre point 
 a cross gules, f Second and third, barry of ten, or and sable, a 
 bend trefle vert, for Saxony. 
 
 THE BLAZON OF THE PRINCE OF WALES' STANDARD IS 
 
 the royal arms differenced by a label of.three'poiuts, and an 
 
 • Portrait in Greenwich Hospital, and at Windsor, 
 t Omitted on Plate. 
 
FLAGS. 503 
 
 escutcheon of pretence for Saxony, viz. barry of ten or and 
 sable, a bend trefle vert.* 
 
 UNION JACK.f 
 
 As the patron saint of England, the banner of St. George ever 
 ranked highly. In heraldic language it was " argent, a cross 
 gules," i. e. a white flag with a plain red cross. J It appears to have 
 been very early adopted as a national ensign. Coins and seals 
 of the time of Edward III. and Henry V. are impressed with 
 the figure of a ship bearing this flag at the bow and stem, and 
 the portrait of the Great Harry exhibits it at the fore and 
 mizen. 
 
 The national flag of Scotland or banner of St. Andrew, was, 
 azure, a saltire argent, i. e. a white saltire or St Andrew's cross 
 on a. blue field. On the union with Scotland in 1,707 these 
 flags were combined ; the red cross of St. George fimbriated, 
 argent, that is with a white border to the cross, being laid upon 
 the St. Andrew banner, and thus it appears in the portrait of 
 the Sovereign of the Seas §, a war ship of that period. 
 
 On the union with Ireland in 1801, the banner of St. Patrick, 
 ■which is a red saltire cross on a white field, was laid upon 
 that of St. Andrew, and upon these the fimbriated cross of St. 
 George, composing the flag now known to us as the Union 
 Jack. 
 
 In 1707, the Union at the main became, and remains to this 
 day, the distinguishing flag of the Admiral of the Fleet. It was 
 thus carried by Lord Howe on the 1st of June, and by Earl 
 St. Vincent in 1800 and 1806. Merchant vessels are prohibited 
 from wearing this flag without a white border under penalty 
 of 500?. 
 
 ADMIBALTTT FLAG. 
 
 As countries, towns, merchants, and private adventurers fur- 
 nished ships for the public service, they were permitted to 
 
 * The account usually given in regard to the three feathers called the 
 Prince of Wales's feathers, is that they were won hy Edward the Black 
 Prince at Crefsy, from the blind old king of Bohemia, on whose banner they 
 Were borne. 
 
 f It is believed that the term Jack is derived from the abbreviated name of 
 the reigning sovereign, under whose direction the flag was constructed, and 
 whose signature ran, Jacques. 
 
 i The Plantagenet colours, white and red. 
 
 j Greenwich Hospit^ 
 
 E. E 4 
 
504 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 display armorial bearings either on their flags or sails, for the 
 purpose of distinction. The plain red flag appears to have heen 
 one of the earliest symbols made use of in maritime history for 
 the double purpose of denoting the presence of the chief and 
 directing the conduct of his fleet ; for we read that it was hoisted 
 to the right or left side, as the admiral -wished the vessels to 
 engage in either direction. 
 
 This flag, according to the Harleian Miscellany, is thus em- 
 blazoned and appropriated. " The anchor argent, gorged in the 
 arm with a coronet, and a cable through the ring, and fretted in 
 a true lovers' knot with the ends pendent, or, is the badge of the 
 Lord High Admiral of England, as he is Commander-in-Chief 
 over all the King's navell forces." Thus it was carried by the 
 Earl of Southampton in the reign of Henry VIII. ; and thus it 
 remains to this period the next in rank to the royal standard, 
 and worn only by the naval Commander-in-Chief, or the Lords 
 of the Admiralty, who are commissioned for the purpose of 
 executing his office.* 
 
 FLAG OF THE CINQUE POETS. 
 
 The Cinque Ports were first incorporated in the time of Edward 
 the Confessor. They furnished a fleet which was commanded 
 by the Lord Warden, as an Admiral who had all the authority, 
 rights, and royalties belonging to an Admiral, and the ports 
 were a distinct Admiralty in themselves. 
 
 In return for certain privileges they had, upon forty days' 
 notice, to provide 57 ships, having 22 men each, viz. Hastings 6, 
 ■VVinchelsea 10, Eye 5, Romsey 5, Hythe 5, Dover 21, and 
 Sandwich 5. 
 
 This flag may be displayed at any of these ports by the Lord 
 Warden or by members of the Trinity Board. 
 
 FLAGS or OFFICERS. 
 
 Fleets being distributed into three squadrons, viz. the Van, 
 Centre, and Rear, the rank of the officer in command of each is 
 
 * The last time this flag was worn by an admiral afloat, was on the occasion 
 of Sir George Rooke commanding the combined fleet of England and Holland 
 in 1708. 
 
FLAGS. 505 
 
 distinguished by a square flag of a particular colour, worn at a. 
 particular mast head. 
 
 As regards colour, red is first in order, next ■white, then blue. 
 As to place the main is superior, next the fore, then the mizen. 
 
 A plain Red Flag is worn by admirals, vice-admirals, and rear- 
 admirals of the red, at the main, fore, and mizen respectively 
 as their proper Flag. 
 
 A White Flag with a red cross, is worn by admirals, vice- 
 admirals, and rear-admirals of the white, at the main, fore, and 
 mizen respectively as their proper Flag. 
 
 A plain Blue Flag is worn by admirals, vice-admirals, and rear- 
 admirals of the blue, at the fore, main, and mizen respectively 
 as their proper Flag. 
 
 When flag officers carry their flags in boats or one masted 
 vessels, their rank is denoted by balls, the flag of a vice-admiral 
 of the red or blue having one white ball on it, that of a vice- 
 admiral of the white having one blue ball on it. The flag of a 
 rear-admiral of the blue or red having two white balls, and that 
 of a rear-admiral of the white having two blue balls on it. 
 
 When vice and rear-admirals have their flags painted on their 
 boats, the same distinctive balls are inserted on them. 
 
 Commodores of the first class wear a red comet, and those of, 
 the second a blue one. The rank of flag officers in some of 
 the foreign navies is also denoted by the position and form of 
 their flags, as well as by the number of balls borne on them. 
 
 The different divisions and squadrons in a fleet have each 
 their own distinguishing flag, and conmiunications are main- 
 tained by combinations of signal flags and sounds, produced by 
 ringing bells, blowing horns, beating drums, and firing guns*, 
 which being fully described in the signal books of the ship 
 require no notice hercf 
 
 * The nearer a fog-gun is to the surface of the water, the further will it be 
 heard. So that a lower deck gun is the most efficient. 
 
 -f- The earliest authentic notice we have of the employment of a regular 
 signal code, along with Sghting instructions for the British fleet, is to be found 
 in the account of Queen Elizabeth's expedition against Cadiz. These were 
 engaged by James I., who, as Duke of York, was Lord High Admiral. The 
 signal code of Lord Howe was remodelled in 1782. 
 
506 
 
 PLATE OF UNION JACK. 
 
 Turn tack the Cross of St. George from the top of the page, 
 and that of St. Patrick from the bottom, and the Banner of St. 
 Andrew will be uncovered. Place on this the Cross of St. 
 George, and we have the Jack of 1707. 
 
 Turn back the St. George, place the Cross of St. Patrick on 
 the St. Andrew Banner, aud the Cross of St. George on the St. 
 Patrick, aud we have the Union Jack of 1801, and of the pre- 
 sent time. 
 
1. 
 
 standard of Kl-ic Prince of Wales. 
 
 AdniiraU-y Kla^^. 
 
 Cinrnii' Pmt.- 
 
H 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 PB 
 
 
 ■I 
 
 1 StanOiiT. 
 
 of Greeiji"-. 
 
Flci£i uf the Pnnoc.^ of Fiu.asii 
 
 KiL^,:fUiii i:t;iii.,],.r.J. 
 
 Hn,^c;i;in Eii.-il£;"|i 
 
 Ginnd Duke of Russm 
 
C(:iJi':-5'j Bainier. 
 
 apan, lirjperia] Flat". 
 
 iidni'd of S[K 
 
.Micovri^ua. 
 
 I I MooklciiVjiirg Gran.'i "Ducal Flas^, 
 
t4 
 < 
 O 
 
 < In 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 (A 
 
 111 
 (A 
 </> 
 Ul 
 
 > 
 
 !_, j ^ 
 
 H, ^ 
 
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507 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A FEW remarks on the personal outfit, expenses, &o., of a 
 
 Naral Cadet may be of service to candidates. 
 
 The following price list of articles necessary for a cadet's first 
 
 equipment may be taken as -a fair sample of such estimates. 
 
 Some of the prices are less than those charged by outfitters 
 
 generally ; and, as the compiler of this one seems to have given 
 
 general satisfaction, we may assume that the articles are good, 
 
 and the prices sufficiently remunerative. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 Registered Improved Iron-bound Sea Chest, No. 
 3637., with Improved Zinc Wash Tray and Foot 
 Bath - - - 4 10 
 
 1 Not Registered, from - - - - 2100 
 
 1 Dress Coat, Vest and Trowsers - - 5 5 
 
 1 Superfine Uniform Round Suit - - 3 10 
 
 1 Second Cloth ditto 350 
 
 1 Double-breasted Blue Waistcoat - - - 14 6 
 1 White Cashmere ditto - - - -0146 
 
 6 Indian Jean ditto, at 7s. 6<i. - - - - 2 5 
 1 Watch Coat and Trowsers - - - 3 10 
 
 1 Summer Cloth, or Cashmere Jacket and Waistcoat 2 2 
 1 Patent Waterproof Coat, Leggings, and Goloshes 2 6 6 
 1 Blue Flushing, or Pilot Reefing Jacket - 1 14 
 
 6 Pairs Russia Drill Trowsers, at 10s 6rf. - 3 3 
 
 1 2 Imperial Military Duck, at 9s. - - - - 5 8 
 6 Unbleached Scrubbing ditto, at 7s. - - - 2 2 
 
 Dowlas, or Linen Jackets - - - - - 
 6 Cotton or Merino Drawers, 3s. to 5s. - 
 6 Flannel or Merino Shirts, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 
 
 24 Cotton Socks, 8s. 6rf. to lOs. %d. ... 
 
 6 Worsted ditto. Is. 3d. to Is. 6rf. - 
 
4 
 
 6 
 
 1^) 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 508 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 36 Shirts, with Linen Fronts, Collars, and Wrists, 
 3s. 6d. to 5s. - 
 6 Baltic Flannel Shirts, 8s. 6d. to 12«. &d. 
 6 Night Shirts, at 3«. 6d. - - - - 1 1 
 
 12 Linen Collars, 7s. kd to 10s. &d. 
 12 White Camhric Pocket Handkerchiefs, 10s. 6d to 
 
 15s. - - .... 
 
 6 Coloured Cotton ditto, at 9rf. - - 
 
 6 Silk ditto, at 2«. %d. ... . o 
 
 4 Black Silk, for the Neck, at 3s. 6d. - - - 
 
 3 Pairs Sheets, at 6s. 6rf. - - - 
 6 Pillow Cases, at Is. - - 
 
 24 Towels, 8s. 6rf. to 10s. 6d. per dozen - 
 
 4 Tahle Cloths, 4 yards each, 2s. to 3s. per yard - 
 
 2 Regulation Caps, Mohair Bands and Ornaments, 
 
 20s. to 22s. - - , - - 
 
 1 Silk Oilskin Cover, for ditto - - - 2 6 
 
 1 Covered Hat, 2s. 6d. to 3s. &d. - 
 
 1 Dirk, Belt, and Gold Knot, 2l. 15s. to Zl. 3s. 
 
 1 Leather Dirk Case - - - - 
 
 1 Hair Mattress and Pillow - - - 1 
 
 1 Feather Pillow- 
 
 3 Blankets ...... j 
 
 1 Counterpane - - - - - o 
 
 1 Set of Clues and Lines, mounted - - - 
 
 2 Hair Brushes, 2s. to 3s. 6rf. - - 
 2 Comhs, axis. %d. 
 
 4 Packets of Soap, at Is. - - - - - 
 
 2 Nail Brushes at Is. 6d. - . . o 
 
 3 Tooth Brushes, at Is. - - - - - 
 1 Clothes Brush - . - . . . o 
 1 Set of Blacking Brushes - - - - -0 
 6 Cases of Blacking - - - o 
 1 Improved Quadrant or Sextant, from \l. 16*. to 
 
 il. 10s. 
 
 1 -Box of Mathematical Instruments, from 10s. 6d. to 
 
 1/. Is. . . 
 
 1 Telescope and Signals, from il. 10s. to 3?. 3s. 
 
 1 Dr. Inman's Navigation and Tahles, new edition - 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 509 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 Parallel Ruler and Gunter's Scale - - - 7 6 
 
 2 Nautical Almanacs, at 3*. - - - - - 6 
 
 3 Logs, at 2s. - - - - - - 6 
 
 3 Watch bills, at Is. 6d. - - - - - 4 6 
 
 Books, Stationery, &o. - - - i 
 
 2 Pairs of Braces, at 2s. 6d. 5 
 
 1 Set Metal Wash Fittings - - - 10 
 
 1 Portable Desk or Writing Case, from 12s. 6d. to 
 \l 12s. - - - 
 
 1 Duck Clothes Bag, with Name painted - 5 6 
 6 Pairs White Lisle Gloves, Srf. to Is. - 
 
 2 Kid ditto, 2s. to 3s. ... 
 2 Warm ditto lined, 2s. ed. to 3s. 6d. - 
 1 Carpet Bag, from 5s. 6rf. to 10s. Qd. - 
 
 1 Set of Silver Spoons and Forks (according to 
 
 number required by Mess) 
 1 Looking Glass -- ----036 
 
 1 LeatherCase, fitted with Silk, Thread, Buttons, &c. 6 6 
 
 1 Neck Shawl, Cashniere - - - - 5 6 
 
 2 Pair Boots ...... 
 
 3 Pair Shoes ...... 
 
 Engraving - - - 
 
 Spare Uniform Buttons and Rings - - 7 6 
 
 1 Brass Plate, Name engraved for Chest - - 2 6 
 
 Waterage ....... 
 
 Porterage - - - . 
 
 1 Sponge and Bag - ....056 
 
 1 Scrubbing Brush - - . . 10 
 
 Registered chests differ from those hitherto in use, in being 
 more expensively finished, and having drawers^ Drawers are 
 objectionable ; inasmuch as midshipmen's chests must be fre- 
 quently carried on the upper deck of lighters when " taking a 
 passage," and of small craft when clearing the lower deck. In a 
 lee lurch, or heavy rain, the drawers in the ground tier of the 
 registered chests are fiUedwith water; moreover, in clearing the 
 holds, the chests in the cockpit are frequently so blocked up as 
 to be inaccessible except at the lids. 
 
 In well-regulated messes, the table cloths are purchased as 
 
510 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 part of the mess equipment, and a small advance on the entrance 
 money for this purpose is well bestowed; otherwise much 
 valuable room is taken up hy the stowage of these articles in the 
 chest. When soiled, they are unfit for a place among clothing, 
 and consequently are always to be found either mouldering in 
 the " scran hag," or being used as knife cloths in the steward's 
 pantry. 
 
 The best pattern for telescopes is Ross's 1 J foot glass ; it should 
 he fitted with a strap and signal card. A new edition of " Inman's 
 Tables " has recently been published, which costs IZ. 
 
 Spoons and folks must be silver, not plated ; and are more 
 easily identified by initials than by crests. 
 
 The rising extravagant habits, which threatened to supplant 
 the old-fashioned fi-ugality and manly indifference to epicurism, 
 have been so promptly checked by the Authorities, that it is 
 needless to do more than quote their Circular on the subject. 
 
 " [Circular No. 282.] 
 
 " Admiralty, \2th December, 1856. 
 " {Expense in Messes of Her Majesty's Ships.} 
 
 " My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty have lately had 
 reason to believe that much greater expense has been incurred 
 by the Messes of Officers in some of Her Majesty's Ships than is 
 sanctioned by the Rules and Custom of the Service ; and, from 
 complaints which have been made to their Lordships, that mess 
 debts have not been liquidated at the proper time for payment 
 by the Officers contracting them, and claims have consequently 
 been made upon Officers, who were subsequently appointed, to 
 subscribe for the discharge of debts to which they had given no 
 sanction : 
 
 " My Lords have to call the attention of the Officers of the 
 Fleet to. these irregularities, in order that they may be avoided 
 in future ; and their Lordships desire that the Officers of the 
 Ward Room will adopt such measures as will enable their 
 Messes to be maintained with credit and comfort, and free from 
 extravagance, and thus set a becoming example to the junior 
 Officers. 
 
 " In regard to the Gun Room Messes ; my Lords have on 
 several occasions had brought to their notice circumstances of 
 
. APPENDIX. 511 
 
 extravagance and mismanagement, which have been caused by 
 the unnecessarily high subscriptions, and the use of expensive 
 wines and spirits, totally at variance with the custom of the 
 Service and the pecuniary means of the Officers. 
 
 " With a view of putting a stop to such irregularities, my 
 Lords direct that the subscriptions to the Gun Room Messes 
 shall never exceed the sum of eight pounds for entrance, and that 
 the monthly subscriptions, including all extras, shall not be more 
 than thirty shillings. 
 
 " Their Lordships further desire that no wine, except port and 
 sherry, or wine of the same class and price, and no spirits, 
 except the ship's allowance, be used in the Gun Room Messes, 
 
 " No wine, spirits, or beer are to be received on board any of 
 Her Majesty's Ships without the written approval of the Officer 
 in command. 
 
 " Their Lordships have also been led to believe that, in some 
 of Her Majesty's Ships, Messmen, under the designation of 
 Stewards, are still permitted to carry on the sale of provisions, 
 wine, spirits, &c., to the Messes of the Officers as well as to the 
 men, in direct contravention of the Admiralty Order of the 30th 
 May, 1851. The attention of the Officers of Her Majesty's Ships 
 is called to this subject, as nothing can tend so much to irregu- 
 larity in a Mess, as well as to injury to the discipline of a ship, 
 as to permit any person to make a traffic by the sale of provi- 
 sions, spirits, &c., instead of the messes being properly conducted 
 by their caterers. 
 
 " The Commanders-in-Chief and Senior Officers in command 
 of Stations are hereby directed to take the necessary steps for 
 carrying out these Orders. 
 
 " By Command of their Lordships, 
 
 " R. OSBOENE. 
 
 " To all Flag-Officers, Commanders-in-Chief, 
 Captains, and" Commanding Officers of 
 Her Majesty's Ships and Vessels." 
 
 In this Circular it is not intended that wine expenses should 
 be included in the " thirty shillings." The custom of the service, 
 as gathered from very numerous mess statements, admits of ten 
 shillings a month as being a sufficient sum wherewith to cover 
 a youngster's wine bill. 
 
512 MANUAL KOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 The publication of this much desired Circular elicited some 
 remarks in a leading journal, which -were so very apposite, that 
 •«re are led to reproduce them. 
 
 " We notice with satisfaction a very opportune order of the 
 Admiralty restraining the mess expenses in the' navy. In the 
 army, navy. Universities, and wherever youth forms a society of 
 Its own, youth has to he protected against itself. This battle 
 has been now fighting in the Universities for years, and with 
 
 verymoderate success The Admiralty, however, will probably 
 
 be more successful as they command the approaches, and have 
 their young men within more convenient limits. ... It is altoge- 
 ther a more manageable affair. Even the Admiralty, however, 
 will probably find that it is much easier to issue orders on this 
 subject than to get them observed. Were it simply, however, a 
 matter of good eating and drinking which the Admiralty or the 
 Universities, and all authorities that have masses of young men 
 committed to them, had to contend with, the battle would not 
 be so difficult. But it is more than this ; it is a particular idea 
 and standard of what is the fine thing to do — it is juvenile am- 
 bition and high spirit. . . . Youth has ahorrorof plebeianism, and 
 a taint in that quai'tcr is a perpetual spring of shame and remorse. 
 In no society of German barons does the mediaeval principle 
 flourish more than in our bodies of youths, whether our public 
 schools, or Universities, or army, or navy, or Indian service ; 
 collect them, — the spirit of the Herald's College is triumphant, 
 and every boy between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, 
 Votes himself an aristocrat and grandee of the first water. But 
 expense is one of the first insignia and marks of the grandee, 
 moderation is a plebeian virtue, and cheapness is decidedly low. 
 The aspiring youth thus launches out into expenses partly to 
 keep up the idea of his greatness, and flatters himself with the 
 notion that because he does what the son of a lord does, he is, 
 therefore, the same to all intents and purposes as that sprig ot' 
 aristocracy. He thus imbibes from his pecuniary excesses a 
 mystical nobility, and inhales a celestial perfume from his drawer 
 of unpaid bills. And if one extravagant youth starts up in a 
 youthful community, everybody knows how fatally he tells upon 
 the rest. Youth is proverbially imitative, proverbially without 
 moral courage. 
 
 " This is just the class, then, which should be protected against 
 
APPENDIX. 513 
 
 itself. Stop, if you can, by sensible and duly strict sumptuary 
 laws, the extravagant exemplar from showing himself in the 
 first instance, and you save frail human nature much trouble and 
 difficulty. There are multitudes of young men who have not 
 the slightest wish to spend money if they can he fcept from ex- 
 travagance without any strong effort of their own will, and 
 without having to oppose a prevailing fashion. A strict standing 
 order in sumptuary matters is a simple kindness to them, and only 
 does for them what their own will cannot do, or enables them to 
 do easily what otherwise they would have to do with much effort. 
 No youth likes to protest against his fellows, and it is not fair to 
 impose that position upon him ; and especially in the military 
 and naval services, where mess debts are protected by rule, and 
 the non-payment of them is made an offence against the service 
 and subject-matter of court-martial, ought such protection to be 
 given. If the authorities weigh the crime of extravagance, they 
 ought to add also to the safeguards against it ; and, if the inability 
 to pay the messroom bill is made a military and naval offence, the 
 rules of the two services ought to take the messroom under their 
 particular care.' And let parents aid and support the orders of 
 the Admiralty. It is very common for parents to complain 
 about their son's expenses, and charge the authorities of the 
 department with negligence for not checking them, when, in 
 fact, if they would fairly examine themselves, they would find 
 that they had a. secret pride in the youth's extravagance, and 
 only grumbled when the bills came in. There is a silly, short- 
 sighted ambition in many parents, — they like to hear of their 
 sons living with extravagant companions; it sounds like "spirit." 
 They boast of it in their neighbourhood ; when they are tolerably 
 well off, and when the first sting of payment is over, they will 
 even sometimes speak with evident pleasure and pride of the 
 amount of debt their Harry or Tom got into. This folly in 
 parents produces the silly, extravagant youth as its natural 
 fruit. But a sensible parent may fairly claim some protection 
 for his son, and we hope that in the navy at least this new 
 and sensible order of the Admiralty will give it him." — Times, 
 Dec. 1856. 
 
 Those concerned, may easily estimate ths extent of annual 
 allowance money for a young officer by taking into consideration 
 
514 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 the amount of his necessary expenses and official pay. For 
 example : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Twelve months' mess money at 30s. - 18 
 
 Twelve months' -wine hills at 10s. - - - - 6 
 
 Twelve months' servants' wages at 8«. - - - 4 16 
 
 Twelve months' washing — ahout - - - 8 
 
 Necessary expenses of a Cadet or Mid - 36 16 
 
 Annual pay of a Cadet - 
 
 - 
 
 - 16 14 7 
 
 Deduct for tuition 
 
 - 
 
 - £5 
 
 do. for hammock man 
 
 - 
 
 - 1 4 0—6 4 
 
 Cadet's pay - - - 10 10 7 
 
 Annual pay of a Mid - 31 18 9 
 
 Deduct for tuition - - - - :£5 
 
 do. for hammock man - - 14 — 6 4 
 
 Mid's pay - - 25 14 9 
 
 By this mode of reckoning, it is evident that a cadet will re- 
 quire 2Sl. 5«. 5d,, and a midshipman 11?. Is. Sd. from private 
 resources to meet his necessary expenses, and that these officers 
 should have the means of keeping up their kit, and affording re- 
 creation besides. What the extent of those means should be, has 
 never been officially determined, but a large majority of experi- 
 enced officers who have been consulted on the subject, agree in 
 thinking about 21. a month sufficient. It is, however, desirable 
 where it can be afforded, that the captain of the ship should have 
 a discretionary power to exceed this sum, when places and objects 
 of interest cannot be visited without incurring greater expense 
 than the regular allowance would admit of. The customary mode 
 of supplying the funds agreed upon has been, with the captain's 
 consent, to lodge them in advance in his agent's hands, the cap- 
 tain endorsing bills as they became due. By this arrangement 
 the captain is exposed to a certain amount of risk, but this he 
 will generally incur rather than that his youngsters should be 
 moneyless. We may confidently expect that whilst so much is 
 being done for the benefit of these junior officers, some official 
 
APPENDIX. 515 
 
 or less precarious method of supply will soon come into 
 operation. 
 
 The necessary Qualifications for the entry of Naval Cadets, 
 &c. have heen recently set forth hy their Lordships in the form 
 of a Circular, so that we have hut to place that statement within 
 reach of our readers, and to express a hope that in our endeavour 
 to show them " round the ship," we have offered them some 
 slight assistance towards the fulfilment of their duties. 
 
 ADMIRALTY CIRCUI.AR ON QUALIFICATIONS OF NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 [Circular No. 393.] 
 
 Admiralty, 23rd. October, 1859. 
 (_Naval Cadets — Midshipmen, Sfc.) 
 
 The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty have established 
 the following Kegulations for the Entry of Naval Cadets, and 
 for the Examination of Mates, Midshipmen, Naval Cadets, &c., 
 which will come into operation in April next, instead of those 
 now in force. 
 
 Cadets. 
 
 L No person will be nominated to a Cadetship in the Royal 
 Navy, who shall be under twelve, or above fourteen years of 
 age at the time of his first Examination. 
 
 II. Every Candidate, on obtaining a nomination, will be re- 
 quired to^ass an Examination at the Royal Naval College at 
 Portsmouth, within three months of nomination.* In the 
 special cases of nominations granted to the sons of natives of 
 Her Majesty's Colonies, a Candidate will be allowed to pass a 
 preliminary examination on board the Flag or Senior Officer's 
 Ship on the Station ; but such examination must be passed in 
 strict accordance with these regulations, and should the Can- 
 didate be found qualified, it will still be necessary that he should 
 be sent to England, to be entered on board a Training Ship, 
 where he wiU be subject to the same regulations as other Cadets. 
 
 * These Examinations will take place on the Brst Wednesdajl in the Months 
 of March, June, September, and December. 
 L L 2 
 
516 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 III. The Candidate must produce a Certificate of Birth, or 
 Declaration thereof made before a Magistrate. 
 
 IV. The Candidate must be in good health and fit for the 
 Service, that is, free from impediment of speech, defect of vision, 
 rupture, or other physical inefficiency. 
 
 Candidates will he required — 
 
 1. To write English correctly from Dictation, and in a 
 legible hand. 
 
 2. To read, translate, and parse an easy passage from Latin 
 or from some Foreign Living Language. 
 
 N.B. — The aid of a Dictionary will be allowed for these 
 Translations. 
 ' And to have a satisfactory knowledge of — 
 
 3. The leading facts of Scripture and English History. 
 
 4. Modem Geography, in so far as relates to a knowledge 
 of the principal Countries, Capitals, Mountains, and Rivers. 
 To be able to point out the position of a place on a map when 
 its Latitude and Longitude is given, 
 
 5. Arithmetic, including Proportion, and a fair knowledge 
 of Vulgar and Decimal Fractions. 
 
 6. A knowledge of the Definitions and Axioms of the First 
 Book of Euclid. 
 
 As Drawing will prove a most useful qualification for Naval 
 Officers, it is recommended that Candidates for the Service 
 should be instructed therein. 
 
 v. If the Candidate be found unqualified at his first Ex- 
 amination, he will be allowed a second trial at the next Quar- 
 terly Examination. Should he not pass this second Examina- 
 tion, he will be finally rejected, 
 
 VI. If the Candidate succeeds in passing the required Ex- 
 amination, he will be at once appointed to a Training Ship for 
 the purpose of instruction in the subjects contained in Sheet 
 No. I, as well as in the Rigging of Ships, Seamanship, the use 
 of Nautical Instruments, &c, 
 
 VII. Quarterly Examinations will be held on board the 
 Training Ship, when any Cadet may be examined in the sub- 
 jects contained in Sheet No, I, and also, in the course of 
 instruction, in the Rigging of Ships, Seamanship, &c. 
 
 VIII. If a Cadet be found, at the Quarterly Examinations, 
 not to have made sufficient progress, or if, by Indifferent con- 
 
APPENDIX. 517 
 
 duct or idle haWte on board the Training Ship, he shall sho\r 
 his unfitness for the Service, it will lae the duty of the Captain 
 to make a special Report thereof to the Admiralty, in order 
 that the Cadet may be at once removed from the Navy. 
 
 IX. When a Cadet shall have completed twelve months' in- 
 struction, exclusive of vacations, in the Harhonr Training Ship, 
 he will he examined, and should he obtain a Certificate of Pro- 
 ficiency, he will be discharged into the Sea-going Training Ship. 
 
 A 1st Class Certificate will entitle him to count 12 months' 
 Sea Time. 
 
 A 2nd Class Certificate will entitle him to count 6 months' 
 Sea Time. 
 
 A 3rd Class Certificate will not entitk him to' count any 
 Sea Time. 
 
 But should he not obtain a Certificate, he will be discharged 
 as unfit for the Service. 
 
 X. On leaving the Harbour Training Ship it is intended that 
 the Cadet shall pass three months in a Sea-going Training 
 Ship, for practical instruction in Seamanship and Navigation, 
 which period will count for sea-time, and at the end of this 
 period, if his conduct has been satisfactory, he will be appointed 
 to a Ship with the rating of Midshipman. 
 
 Mn>SHU>IIEl!^. 
 
 ■To qualify a Midshipman for a Lieutenant's Commission, he 
 must have attained the Ml a.ge of 19 years, and have completed 
 5| years actual service in Her Majesty's Navy, including the 
 time awarded him on leaving the training ship. 
 
 XI. AU Midshipmen, until they shall have passed their ex- 
 aminations for Lieutenant, are to keep a book in which the 
 Ship's reckoning is to be worked out and noted," and when they 
 are at sea this book is to be sent in every day to the Captain, 
 instead of the slip of paper containing a day's work, which is 
 now usually presented. It is also to be produced at their Ex- 
 aminations ; and during the last six months of their service as 
 Midshipmen it must contain the working of the Observations as 
 given in Sheet B. 
 
 XII. A Midshipman when he shall have served two years and 
 a half in that rank will be required to pass the following 
 Examination: — 
 
 L L 3 
 
518 MANUAL FOR NATAL CADETS. 
 
 1. In practical Navigation, showing that he understands 
 the principle of Navigating a Ship from one distant port to 
 another, by Dead Reckoning and by his own Observations ; 
 and that he can explain the principles of the same ; and that 
 he can also take and work a double Altitude and Azimuth. 
 
 2. A sufficient knowledge of a Chart to enable him to 
 place thereon the position of the Ship by Observation as well 
 as by Cross Bearings ; and to lay oflf the True and Compass 
 Courses. 
 
 3. Such knowledge of Nautical Surveying, as may enable 
 him to measure a base line and determine positions by 
 angles, and the manner of ascertaining heights and distances. 
 
 4. If he has served in a Steam- Vessel, an acquaintance 
 with the different parts and working of the Steam Engine. 
 
 5. A proficiency in French to be attained if he has had 
 an opportunity. 
 
 6. He must be a good practical observer, and his Sextant 
 must be produced in good order. 
 
 7. He must produce Log Books kept by himself from the 
 time of his entry into a Sea-going Ship, and Certificates of 
 Good Conduct. 
 
 8. He will likewise be examined as to his progress in the 
 knowledge of rigging of Masts, Bowsprits, &c., in getting 
 tops over and placing a Jower cap, in setting up rigging, and 
 especially as to the precautions required in staying lower 
 Masts ; in hoisting a quarter or stem boat up in a strong 
 
 .. breeze with a Sea on ; in making up a course and topsail for 
 bending at Sea ; in shifting topmasts, yards, and sails at sea, 
 and the effect of the sails on the Ship both in tacking and 
 wearing ; in the detail arrangements for mooring and un- 
 mooring Ships and getting under way, and the use of the Hand 
 and Deep Sea-Leads. He must likewise know the Great Gun 
 and Small Arm Exercise, the use of Tangent Sights, the charges 
 for the Guns of the Ship, and be able to exercise the men at 
 his quarters. A report of the progress he has made in each of 
 the above subjects is to be made to the Secretary of the 
 Admiralty in the Half-yearly Return. 
 
 This Examination is to be conducted by the officer in com- 
 mand, not below the rank of Commander, and the next Senior 
 Officer in the Ship, and the Examinations in Navigation, in 
 
APPENDIX. 519 
 
 the presence of a Captain or Commander, by two Naval Instruc- 
 tors when it may he practicable, or hy a Naval Instructor and a 
 Master, or where there is no Naval Instructor hy two Masters, 
 that in Gunnery hy a Gunner or other competent Officer ; and 
 the Candidate is to he made to take and work out his own Ob- 
 servations for Latitude, Longitude, Variation, &c., as the case 
 maybe. 1st or 2nd Class Certificates are to be given according 
 to the merit of the Candidate, in the Form A, page 522, or he 
 is to be rejected if found incompetent. 
 
 XIII. A Midshipman, having completed his term of service, 
 and being nineteen years of age, may be provisionally examined 
 by the .Captain or Commander of such Ship or Vessel, with the 
 aid of other competent Officers — Lieutenant, Master, or Second 
 Master, when no other Ships are present, in the Forms Nos. 
 II. III. IV. ; and if they find him to be duly qualified, they are 
 to give him a Certificate to that effect, dated on the day of such 
 examination, and the Captain may forthwith give him an acting 
 order as Mate : but he must be re-examined on the first oppor- 
 tunity that shall afterwards ofi^er by three Captains or Com- 
 manders, and if he passes successfully, he will receive from the 
 Commander-in-Chief, or Senior Officer, an acting order as 
 Mate to take rank according to the date of the first Certificate. 
 
 The Examining Officers are to be most strict in their investi- 
 gation of the qualifications of Officers, and they are to see that 
 everything required by these Regulations has been complied 
 with by the Candidate, and that he produces Certificates of 
 Good Conduct from Captains he has served under from the 
 time of his discharge from the Training Ship. 
 
 XIV. All Acting Mates and Midshipmen will be required to 
 undergo the following final Examinations : — 
 
 1. In Seamanship — on board the Training Ship at Ports- 
 mouth. 
 
 2. In Gunnery — on board the " Excellent." 
 
 3. In Navigation and the Steam Engine — at the Eoyal 
 Naval College. 
 
 Acting Mates who have already passed abroad are to present 
 themselves for Examination on board the Training Ship at 
 Portsmouth at the first Examination Day after their arrival in 
 England, or after being paid off, and having passed in Gunnery ; 
 
520 MANUAL FOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 they are then at liberty to select either 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Exami- 
 nation Day at the Royal Naval College. 
 
 XV. Any Officer rejected on his first Examination at the 
 College -will incur the forfeiture of three months' seniority in his 
 rank as Mate. He may present himself on the next Examina- 
 tion Day, but a second rejection will incur the forfeiture of 
 three months more seniority ; he may again present himself on 
 the next Examination Day, but a third rejection -will cause his 
 name to be removed from the List of the Navy. 
 
 XVI. Officers when they have passed their final Examination 
 at the Royal Naval CoUege, as provided for in these Regulations, 
 ■will be confirmed from the date of their first Certificate. 
 
 The non-appearance of an Officer for Examination at the 
 Royal Naval College at the times required by these Regulations 
 will be considered as an acknowledgment of his not being 
 qualified, and he will be dealt with in the same manner as if he 
 had been actually rejected on each day on which he may have 
 omitted to appear, unless under certified ill-health, to be duly 
 reported at the time. 
 
 XVII. Naval Instructors are to keep a School Journal or 
 Register, which is to be produced when required by the Captain 
 of the Ship or the Examining Officers, and the Captain is to 
 allow them reasonable access to the charts and chronometers, for 
 the purpose of instructing the Officers in their use. 
 
 XVIII. The Captains of H.M. Ships are to take care that a 
 convenient place is set apart and proper hours are fixed for 
 instruction by the Naval Instructor, and all Acting Mates and 
 Acting 2nd Masters, as well as all executive Officers under that 
 rank, are to attend, and care is also to be taken that they are regu- 
 larly instructed in Practical Seamanship, Rigging, and the Steam 
 Engine, and a Monthly Examination Day is to be established. 
 
 XIX. This Circular is to come into force on the 1st of 
 April, 1860, and is to apply to all Cadets who may enter the 
 Service after that Sate. 
 
 List of Instruments and Books which each Cadet will be re- 
 quired to have on entry : — 
 
 Sextant. 
 
 Case of Mathematical Instruments containing a good pro- 
 tractor. . 
 
Appendix. 521 
 
 Spy Glass. 
 
 French Grammar and a Dictionary containing Sea Terms. 
 
 A Book on Navigation. 
 
 Euclid's Elements. 
 
 Book of Geography. (Sullivan's 2s. Ed.) 
 
 Book on use of Mathematical and Nautical Instruments. 
 
 A Book on the Steam Engine. 
 
 Colenso's Arithmetic and Algebra. 
 
 Jean's Trigonometry. 
 
 Boyd's Naval Cadet's Manual. 
 
 The Ship's Library -will contain Books of Instruction. 
 
 No. t 
 
 The Examination on leaving the Training Ship will embrace 
 all the subjects of the former Examination, except Latin, and 
 in addition to them it will include. 
 In Algebra — Simple Equations. 
 The Elements of Geometry. 
 Plane Trigonometry and the solution of Practical and 
 
 useful problems. 
 Spherical Trigonometry, the mode of solving Triangles, 
 
 and its application to Simple Astronomical Problems. 
 In Navigation — A Day's Work and Meridional Altitudes, 
 Longitude by Chronometer, Construction and use of 
 Charts. 
 Nautical Instruments. To explain and use the Sextant, 
 
 Azimuth Compass, Artificial Horizon, and Theodolite. 
 The use of the Globes, with correct definitions of Latitude, 
 Longitude, Azimuth, Amplitude, and other circles of the 
 Sphere. 
 French and Drawing. 
 Explanatory Lectures will be given on the Steam Engine, 
 practical Astronomy, Nautical Instruments, Mechanics and 
 Hydrostatics, and other subjects of general interest and in- 
 struction. 
 
 Certificates must be produced, approved by the Captain, from 
 the Master of the Ship, that the Candidate has gone through 
 and is competent in the course of instruction in Rigging and 
 Seamanship, and from the Naval Instructor, as to the Candi- 
 
522 MANUAL FOE NATAL CADETS. 
 
 date's attention to the Tarious branches of his education, as 
 Well as to his general conduct whilst on board the Training 
 Ship. 
 
 Form of Certificate to be given to Officers on passing for Mid- 
 shipmen, and at the intermediate Examination, 
 
 We hereby certify that Mr. 
 has served the required period of time with the following ratings 
 in H. M. Ships, as follows : — 
 
 And we find his professional knowledge to be — 
 
 In Seamanship, 
 
 In Gunnery, 
 
 In Navigation, 
 we consider him qualified, and have granted him • class 
 
 Certificate. 
 
 Candidate's Signature. 
 Date of Birth. 
 
 Signature of Examining Officers. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Form of the Passing Certificate in Seamanship for the Hank of 
 Lieutenant or Master. 
 
 In pursuance of an Order from T^e 
 
 whose names are hereunto annexed, have called before us Mr. 
 and find by his Certificate of Baptism, 
 that He is of the proper age, as required by the Queen's Regula- 
 tions ; that he has served in the following Ships for the under- 
 mentioned periods ; — 
 
 * l!( or 2nd. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 523 
 
 Ships 
 served in. 
 
 Dale of 
 
 Ratings. 
 
 Time served. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Entry. 
 
 Discharge. 
 
 Y. 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 He produces Certificates of Good Conduct, for the period re- 
 quired by the Regulations, from the Officers under -whom he 
 has served ; especially from 
 
 We have stricUy inquired into the said Mr. 
 professional knowledge in all the details of an Officer's and 
 Seaman's duty, under the following heads, against each of which 
 we have stated our opinions of his proficiency : — 
 
 I. State of his Log Book from 
 the date of his first appointment 
 to a Sea-going Ship, and if it con- 
 tains Track Charts and sketches 
 of Headlands, &c. 
 
 II. His Acquaintance with 
 the Stowage of Ships' Holds. 
 
 III. Knowledge of Masting 
 Ships, fitting Rigging and Sails, 
 Rigging Ships, Mooring and 
 
 - Unmooring, Shifting Masts' 
 Yards, Laying out Anchors, 
 Rigging Sheers, &c., and his 
 practical knowledge of the de- 
 tails of a Seaman's duty in all 
 its branches. 
 
 IV. As Officer of a Watch, 
 the practice of Working and 
 
524 MANUAI, FOE NAVAI, CADETS. 
 
 Manoeuvring Ships under all 
 circumstances of Wind and 
 Weather, Shifting Sails, &c. 
 
 * V. Acquaintance with the 
 name and use of the parts of the 
 Engine Soiler, &c.; construction 
 and principle of the fingine; 
 practical working of the Engine 
 and Boiler. 
 
 VI. Date of Provisional Exa- 
 mination, and hy whom. 
 
 Note. — The Examining Offi- 
 cers to state whether this Officer 
 has any knowledge of the Flags 
 and Signals and the manner of 
 performing the Evolutions of a 
 Fl6et ; also of Stationing a 
 Ship's Company. 
 
 And after a careful consideration of this Officer's examina- 
 tion, we are of opinion that he is f to take 
 charge of and perfoi-m the responsible duties of Officer of a 
 Watch on board any of H. M. Ships, and is entitled to a { 
 class Certificate. 
 
 Given under our Hands at this day of 
 
 Captain, H.M.S. 
 Captain, „ 
 Captain, „ 
 
 Candidate's Signature atfull'\ 
 
 Length - - J 
 
 Place where Bom, Date o/""i 
 
 Birth, and Age on enter- l 
 
 ing the Service - -J 
 
 N.B. — In the cass of an Officer passing for a Master, the 
 Examination is to be conducted in the presence of a Captain or 
 Commander by three Masters. 
 
 * When an officer passes for Seamanship on the Home Station, his know^ 
 ledge of steam need not be inquired into, 
 f Qualified or not qualiQed. X 1st, 2nd, 3rd. 
 
APPENDIX, 
 
 525 
 
 No. III. 
 
 Form of Passing Certificate for a Lieutenant in Gunnery. 
 
 In pursuance of the Orders of the Lords Commissioners of the 
 Admiralty, dated Mr. 
 
 belonging to H.M. Ship 
 
 has been examined in the following subjects connected with 
 Naval Gunnery, against each of which is shown the Nos. he 
 obtained. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Full 
 Numbers. 
 
 Numbeis 
 obtained. 
 
 I. The established exercise of Great 
 Guns, as laid down in the Gunnery Book, 
 and the fitting of Gun Gear . 
 
 II. Use of Tangent Sights, &o., Charges, 
 Elevations, and Ranges of the different 
 Guns ...,.., 
 
 III. The Stowage and Working of Maga- 
 zines, Fitting Fuses, and the use of Shells 
 and Rockets _ . 
 
 IV. Disparting Instruction, and subjects 
 connected therewith 
 
 v. Cutlass and Rifle exercise 
 
 VI. General questions on Naval Gun- 
 nery, as contained in the Gunnery Book, 
 and Drilling Quarters .... 
 
 120 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 
 * Total . . , . 
 
 280 
 
 
 I consider him qualified, and recommend his being granted af 
 class Certificate, 
 
 Given under my hand, on board Her Majesty's Ship 
 this day of 18 
 
 Approved, 
 
 Gunnery Officer, 
 ain. 
 
 * 260 Nos. must be obtained to qualify for a Ist Class Certificatej 230 for a 
 2nd ; and 200 for a 3rd, 
 t 1st', 2nd, or 3rd, 
 
■526 
 
 MANUAL rOE NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 Form of Passing Certificate at the Royal Naval College for a 
 Lieutenant or Master. 
 
 In pursuance of the Orders of the Lords Commissioners of the 
 A dmiralty, dated we have examined Mr. 
 
 as to his knowledge of the undermentioned subjects, in which he 
 has obtained the following numbers : — 
 
 
 Full 
 
 Numbers 
 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 obtained. 
 
 I. Practical Navigation 
 
 200 
 
 
 II. Theory of Navigation 
 
 200 
 
 
 III. Use of Nautical Instruments . 
 
 100 
 
 
 IV. Outlines of Surveying, Laying down 
 
 
 
 Positions and Soundings, and use of Charts 
 
 75 
 
 
 V. Prevailing Winds, Currents, &c. 
 
 75 
 
 
 VI. Name and use of the parts of the 
 
 
 
 Steam Engine and Boiler 
 
 50 
 
 
 VII. The elements of Mechanics and 
 
 
 
 Hydrostatics 
 
 200 
 
 
 VIII. French* . . . . 
 
 100 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 He has a (good or fair) knowledge of Drawing. 
 
 Note.— 800 Numbers qualify a Candidate for a 1st Class 
 Certificate, and 600 must be obtained for a 2nd Class 
 Certificate. 
 
 After a full investigation we find that he is competent to navi- 
 
 • Although no other modern language than the French has been specified 
 as a subject of examination, yet proficiency in any other language should be 
 favourably noted in the Certificate. 
 
 Officers passing for the rank of Master, are not required to be examined in 
 French. 
 
APPENDIX. 627 
 
 gate any of H.M. Ships, and is entitled to a* 
 class Certificate. 
 
 Captain of H.M.S. " Excellent," 
 Approved, and Superintendent of the 
 
 Royal Naval College. 
 
 Admiral and Commander- 
 in-Chief. Professor of the Royal Naval 
 
 College. 
 
 B. 
 
 Number of Observations required to be taken by a Candidate 
 during the last six months of his Service, before he can be 
 Examined at the Eoyal Naval College for the rank of Lieu- 
 tenant or Master. 
 
 No. of Obs. 
 
 1. — To find the index correction 
 
 By Sea Horizon - " " " "1 
 
 By measuring the Sun's diameter oflF and on the j" 10 
 
 Arc - - ■' 
 
 2. — To find Latitude 
 
 By altitude of Sun or Stars, near the Meridian 5 
 
 By Meridian altitude of Sun ... lo 
 
 By Meridian altitude of Moon or Stars - 10 
 
 By altitude of Pole Star 10 
 
 3. — To find Longitude by Chronometer 
 
 By altitude of Sun 10 
 
 By altitude of Moon or Stars - 10 
 
 4. — To find variation of Compass 
 
 By altitude of Sun and Compass hearing - 5 
 
 By time at ship noted and Compass hearing 3 
 
 By Amplitude . - . - 5 
 
 5. — To find Latitude 
 
 By double altitude of Sun or Stars 3 
 
 6. — To find Longitude 
 
 By Lunar 5 
 
528 MANUAL FOK NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 7. — To find error and rate of Chronometer by altitudes 
 on shore with artificial horizon 
 
 By single altitude - 5 
 
 By equal altitudes - - 2 
 
 I hereby certify that Mr. 
 has observed and worked out the above number of Observations 
 during the last six months, whilst serving in H.M.'s Ship 
 
 Naval Instructor. 
 
 Approved, If no Naval Instructor, 
 
 Captain Master 
 
 By command of their Lordships, 
 C. PAGET. 
 
 To all Commanders-in-Chief, Captains, Com- 
 manders, and Commanding Officers of 
 Her Majesty's Ships and Vessels. 
 
APPENDIX. 529 
 
 TAKING IN A COUBSE. 
 
 Those who are content to learn this lesson in seamanship from 
 a century old poem, and consider Falconer's maxim conclusive, 
 should extend their study heyond his often quoted couplet : for, 
 in fact, the question in the " Shipwreck " is not put as it is to 
 us, hut whether the weather clue Is to he hauled up or the sheet 
 " let fly" first ; and this makes a great difference. It arose, 
 according to the author of the poem, from the fact that the 
 experience gathered in the course of two hard squalls had con- 
 vinced some of the officers of the ship that they had something 
 to learn in the art of handling gear ; for we read on the approach 
 of the first squall, which had given timely warning : — 
 
 " Beneath its driving force the waves engage, 
 And foaming white, the whirling surges raise. 
 Now black with pregnant ruin ic impends. 
 And cataracts with storm tempestuous blends. 
 Impelled by mighty pressure, down she lies; 
 Brail up mizen, quick the master cries; 
 Man the clue garnetts — Let the Main-sheet fiy ,- 
 In thousand shiv'ring shreds it rends on high ; 
 The Main-sail, all in streaming ruins tore, 
 Loud flutters, like the hollow thunder's roar." 
 
 Surely this conduct should not he noticed otherwise than as 
 a caution to yoimg officers. 
 
 '• The watchful seaman, with sagacious eye," 
 
 would have taken the mizen off his ship hefore the squall 
 struck her, and have stood thus prepared to hear up when 
 he hegan to feel its force. No hetter seamanship, however, 
 appears in the next manoeuvre, which occurred on a wind : — 
 
 " The ship no longer can whole Topsails bear. 
 And hopes of milder weather disappear. 
 Bowlines and halyards are cast oif again, 
 The clue-lines manned, andsheets let fiy amain y 
 Clued up each topsail, and by braces squared. 
 The mounting crew ascend and spread each yard." 
 
 We suTjmit that the lee sheet eased off, lee clue-line hauled up, 
 and' weather hrace rounded in, at one and the same time, would 
 "be hetter practice. If too short-handed, the lee clue raised suffi- 
 
530 MANUAL FOR NAVAL CADETS. 
 
 ciently to let the lee yard-arm go forward, and thus permit the 
 ■weather brace to be got well in, would be almost equally good. 
 A new mainsail haying been bent and set, we read : -^ 
 
 *' To reef tlie courses is the master's care. 
 The watchful sailors ready at command. 
 Swift as the orders giv'n the brails are mann*d. 
 But here the doubtrul officers dispute. 
 Till skill and judgment Prejudice conrute. 
 Some first the fluttering lee sheet would let go. 
 Thus might the sail again to ruins blow; 
 Th' experienced mariner, in practice tried, 
 This dang'rous method ever will avoid; 
 Who would secure, with art, the ilutt'ring sail 
 Should never first the lee-yard arm embrail ; . 
 
 To windward, ready, waiting the command, 
 At the clue garnett tack and brails they stand ; 
 The tacks eased off, involved the double clue, 
 Between the pendent blocks ascending flew ; 
 The sheet and weather brace they now stand by, 
 Buntlines and lee clue-garnett next apply ; 
 Then all prepar'd, " Let go the sheet,*' he cries. 
 Loud rattliug, jarring, thro* the blocks it flies; 
 Beneath the lee yard-arm expanding, fills. 
 Till close embraird, and squared, the belly spills: 
 The foresail then secured with equal care. 
 Again to reef the main-sail then repair. 
 While some above the yard o'erhaul the tye. 
 Below, the downhaul tackle others ply ; 
 Jeers, lifts, and brails a seaman each attends. 
 Along the mast the pond'rous yard descends ;' 
 When down sufficient, then securely brace 
 The downhaul, for a rolling tackle place. ' 
 
 The earings and reef-lines are prepared. 
 Then, climbing pliant shrouds, they man the yard: 
 At each yard-<arm a dreadless sailor strides. 
 Who safety and a landsman's ease derides : 
 The earings to the cringles first they bend, 
 The reef- band then with sinewy arms extend ; 
 Around the yard the circling ends are pass'd 
 And soon the outer turns, and inner fast : 
 The reef-lines next, from hand to hand receivad,^ 
 The folding reefs, in plaits enroU'd, they lay, 
 Extend the worming lines, and ends belay." 
 
 It must be obvious that taking in a course by the lee clue-line, 
 or easing off some sheet, if by the weather one after the manner 
 which modem experience commends, had no place in the minds 
 of Falconer's oflB.cers ; and that, although they succeeded in 
 clewing the sail up safely after their own fashion, that fashion 
 
APPENDIX. 531 
 
 affords no useful example to us ; for, as the main yard was 
 lowered and consequently nearly squared and easily reached hy 
 ropes-ends from the deck, the furlers were not exposed to the 
 dangerous beating of slack sail we have mentioned. 
 
 We have made some remarks on the treatment of rudders, 
 page 414, and although it is thus printed in Falconer, 
 
 " The Helm its post forsook, and, lashed a-lee. 
 Inclined the wayward prow to front the sea," 
 
 we are not disposed to alter our opinions on the subject. 
 
 Note. — Page 385. As the gear of a laimch is very consider- 
 able, the readiest way of clearing her out for watering in bulk 
 and preparing her again for general service, is to lash her spars, 
 oars, saUs, slides, &c. up in a bundle, and hoist them up to 
 the davits with the quarter-boat's tackles. 
 
 MU 3 
 
[ To face page 532. 
 
 Referred to at pp. 305, 306, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Acromatic telescopes, US, 121. 
 Air and water, 1. 
 
 ventilation, 3. 
 
 composition of air, 4. 
 
 its expansion and contrac- 
 tion, 12. 
 
 Air-pumps, 39. 
 Anchoring, 390, 406. 
 
 mooring, 390. 
 
 foul hawse, 397. 
 
 clearing hawse, 399. 
 
 mooring swivel, 400. 
 
 to put on the swivel after 
 
 mooring, 401. 
 
 •^■^ securing cables, 402. 
 
 unmooring, 403. 
 
 foul anchor, 405. 
 
 single anchor, 408. 
 
 creeping for anchors, 409. 
 
 — — carrying an anchor out by 
 
 boat. 
 — ^ stream anchor, 41 1. 
 
 carrying anchor by boat 
 
 when the ship is ashore, 412. 
 
 heading ofF, 41 Si 
 
 carryinganchorswithl)oats, 
 
 414. 
 
 i stowing waist anchors, 
 
 415, 416. 
 
 striking lower yards and 
 
 topmasts, 417. 
 
 Anchor shackles, 242. 
 Anchors, 236. 
 
 Admiralty anchors, 23S. 
 
 stocks, 236. 
 
 Porter's anchors,. 236. 
 
 sketches of different an- 
 chors, 237. 
 
 Rodgers", 238, 
 
 fancy anchors, 238. 
 
 hardening up hoops afler 
 
 hot weather, 238. 
 
 Anchors — continued. 
 
 • jury anchors, 238. 
 
 Milnes's jury anchor, 238. 
 
 other resources, 239. 
 
 Mitchell's screw anchor, 
 
 239. 
 
 chain cables, &c., 239. 
 
 anchor shackles, 242. 
 
 table of the number and 
 
 weight of anohor^and number 
 and size of cables and messen- 
 gers supplied, 246. 
 
 — ^ table of weight, and proof 
 of various anchors, 248. 
 
 getting in anchors, 250. 
 
 waist anchor, 250. 
 
 bower anchor, 251, 
 
 stream anchors, 251. 
 
 object of the buoy, 253. 
 
 hempi cables for getting in 
 
 anchors, 253. 
 
 Aneroid barometer, 19. 
 Angle blocks, 26, 28. 
 Apron, 46. 
 Appendix, 507. 
 Artillery. See Ordnance. 
 Atmosphere, depth of the, on the 
 surface of the earth, 4j 1 2. 
 
 density of the, 5, 1 2. 
 
 compressibility of the; 1 2. 
 
 mobility of the, winds, 14. 
 
 mode of ascertaining the 
 
 weight of the, 16. 
 
 Axis of a gun, 270. 
 
 Axle, wheel and, as a mecha- 
 nical power, 102. 
 
 Azote or nitrogen, 2, 
 
 Backing rope, 150. 
 
 Bags, 344. 
 -Ballast, 77. 
 
 — " pig " iron ballast, 90, 
 M 3 
 
534 
 
 INI>EX. 
 
 Barometer, the, 1 6. 
 
 aneroid, 19. 
 
 Admiral Filzroy's rule:, 21. 
 
 Bartons, 107. 
 
 Basins or wet doeks, 26. 
 Battens, 128. 
 Beams, 48. 
 
 strength of, 37. 
 
 Bed of bowsprit, 135. 
 Bee-blocks, 135. 
 
 Beef, salt, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 256. 
 Bending sail, 315. 
 Berthing, 343. 
 Bickford's fuse, 276. 
 Bilge-pumps, 61. 
 Bill-boards, 50. 
 Biscuit, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 256. 
 Blacking down, 216. 
 Blackwall hitch knot, 226. 
 Blocks, 157. 
 
 clump, 157. 
 
 shoulder, 157. 
 
 ■ fiddle, 157. 
 
 sister, 157. 
 —. — iron stropped, 157. 
 
 banging, tye, and quarter, 
 
 157. 
 
 cat, 158. 
 
 jeeir, 158. 
 
 language (^blocks, 158. 
 
 stropping, 1S8. 
 
 ^— - gun tackle blocks, 1 59. 
 
 table of size of rope strop- 
 ping, 159. 
 
 — — weight of wooden blocks, 
 
 160. 
 — ^ table of size and weight of 
 
 purchase blocks, &e., 160. 
 
 - hooks, 161. 
 
 thimbles, 161. 
 
 metal blocks, 161. 
 
 — — clue-garnet^ 162. 
 
 brace-blocks, 161, 195,197, 
 
 198. 
 
 lift-blocks, 129, 196, 199, 
 
 215. 
 
 — — leech-line and slab-line 
 blocks, 196. 
 
 Blocks — continued. 
 
 - peak'halyard blocks, 206. 
 
 reef tackle blocks, 210. 
 
 ^^— tack and lower halyard 
 
 blocks, 216. 
 Blue-lights, 275. 
 Boarding, rules to be observed 
 
 respecting, 875. 
 Boats, 284. 
 
 various kinds of, 284. 
 
 value of, 284. 
 
 — — chain slings, 285. 
 — ^— booms, S87. 
 
 handling boats, 367. 
 
 towing, 384. 
 
 saluting, 385. 
 
 watering, 385. 
 
 warping, 386. 
 
 general duties, 387. 
 
 lowering and hoisting, 38S. ■ 
 
 Bohstays, 164, 171. 
 
 bobstay collar, 164, 171. 
 
 setting up bohstays, 171. 
 
 Body of masts, 131. 
 
 Body post,_46. 
 Bolsters, 128. 
 Bolts, 43. 
 
 table of relative adhesion 
 
 of, 44. 
 
 Books, religious, in store, 261. 
 Boom boats, hoisting in and 
 
 stowing, 287. 
 Boom mainsails, bending, 320. 
 Boom sheets, 206 
 Boom mainsail, 207. 
 
 bending, 320. 
 
 Booms, studding-sail, 212. 
 
 lower, 213. 
 
 Bower anchor, getting in, 251- 
 Bowline knot, 225. 
 
 running bowline, 225. 
 
 bowline on a bight, 226. 
 
 Bowlines, fore, 210. 
 
 foretop, 212. 
 
 maintop, 212. 
 
 Bowsprit, the, 135. 
 
 bed, 135. 
 
 scarph, or bowsing, 135. 
 
 beeseating, or lead, 1 35. 
 
 bee-blocks, 135. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 Botrsprit — continued. 
 
 gammoning fish, 135. 
 
 saddle, 135. 
 
 bowsprit caps, 135. 
 
 rigging the bowsprit, 168. 
 
 - manropes, 168. 
 —^ stage, 168. 
 
 bobstay collars, 169. 
 
 shroud collar, 169. 
 
 forestay collars, 169. 
 
 bobstays, 169, 
 
 bowsprit shrouds, 170, 
 
 cap bobstay, 170. 
 
 plugholes, 285. 
 
 ' mast steps, 285. 
 
 weights and tonnage of 
 
 boats by builders' measure- 
 ments, 286. 
 
 coppering a 42-foot pin- 
 nace launch, 287. 
 
 bumpkins, 170. 
 
 order in which bowsprit 
 
 rigging occurs, 170. 
 Brace, topsail, and topgallants, 
 
 and parrels carried away, 
 
 447. 
 Brace-hlpcks, 161, 195, 197, 
 
 198. 
 Brails, 207. 
 
 — - throat and peak, 207. 
 Brass guns, proof charges of, 
 
 271. 
 Breast-hooks, 48. 
 Bumpkin, 170. 
 Bunt-lines, main, 209. 
 
 topgallant, 212. 
 
 Buoy, object of the, 253. 
 Buoy ropes, 253. 
 Buoy-rope knot, 224. 
 Bumettising timber, &c., 33. 
 Burthen of ships, rules for find- 
 ing the, 62. 
 
 Cable shackles, 243. 
 
 swivels, 242. 
 
 Cables, 148. 
 
 chain, 239, et seq. 
 
 splicing tails of different 
 
 sizes, 241. 
 
 Cables-^continued, 
 
 drawings of chain cables, 
 
 &c., 242. 
 
 table of the number and 
 
 size of cables supplied, 246. 
 
 prices of shackles and swi- 
 vels, 247. 
 
 getting in cables, 249. 
 
 hemp cables, 253. 
 
 securing cables, 402. 
 
 Caisson, or floating dam, 28. 
 Calibre of a gun,- 269. 6. 
 Camels, use of, 64, 6. 
 Canister shot, 281 
 Cannon. See Ordnance. 
 Capacity of a ship, 6, 7. 
 Caps, lower, 129. 
 
 top- mast, 132, 187. 
 
 bowsprit, 135. 
 
 Capstan, 53, 103. 
 
 spindle of the, 51 . 
 
 whelps, 51. 
 
 drum-head, 51. 
 
 sprocket wheel, 52. 
 
 double capstans, 53. 
 
 mechanical powers of the 
 
 capstan, .103. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas, 3. 
 Carburetted hydrogen, 3. 
 Carcasses, 276. 
 Carlings, 48. 
 Carrick bend knot, 2g2. 
 Carronades, 268. 
 Cartridges, 274. 
 
 Casks, empty, number, &c., usu- 
 ally supplied, 258. 
 Casting, 420. 
 Cat, 251. 
 Cat-block, 251. 
 Cat-head, 50. 
 Cat's-paw knot, 232. 
 Caulking, 55. 
 Centre of gravity, 78. 
 Centre of metal. See Ordnance. 
 Certificates, form of, 524. 
 Chain cables, 239. 
 
 Admiralty specification of, 
 
 240. 
 
 various chains, 240. 
 
 MM 4 
 
536 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chain — continuecl. 
 
 table of the number and 
 
 sizeof chain cables supplied, 246. 
 
 ' table of weight and value 
 
 of mooring chains, 247. 
 
 to find the weight of open 
 
 linked chains, 247. 
 
 ■ to find the weight that may 
 be lifted by chains, 247. 
 
 table of the proof strain, 
 
 size, value per cwt., and weight 
 per 100 fathoms, 248. 
 
 dimensions for lockers for 
 
 200-fathom chain cable, 248. 
 
 working chain cables, 249. 
 
 Chain necklaces, 131. 
 
 Chain pump, 59. 
 
 Chain slings, 285. 
 
 Chains, messenger, 245. 
 
 Channels, 49. 
 
 Cheeks, 196. 
 
 Chocolate, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Choke-damp, 3. 
 Clothing, 345. 
 
 list of slop clothing usu- 
 ally supplied, 259. 
 
 outfit, articles of, 507. 
 
 Clouds, various kinds of, 24. 
 
 terms for, 24, 
 
 Clue-garnet blocl^s, 162. 
 Club hauling, 467. 
 Clue-lines, topsail, 210. 
 
 topgallant sail, 21 1. 
 
 Coal, 474. 
 Coffer-dam, 30. 
 
 Coir rope, 150. 
 
 Coliesion, attraction of, 2. 
 
 Collisions, 436. 
 
 Compass, the, 358. 
 
 Compensation balance, 333. 
 
 Compression, tableof the strength 
 and power of materials to re- 
 sist, 38. 
 
 Compressors, 353. 
 
 Conduct book, 350. 
 
 Congreve rockets, 276. 
 
 Construction of ships, 26. 
 
 docks, 26. 
 
 ■ angle blocks, 26. 
 
 Construction of ships— continued, 
 
 caissons or floating dams, 
 
 26. 
 
 the slip, 28. 
 
 •^^— the cradle, 28. 
 
 the patent slip, SO. 
 
 the graving dock, 30. 
 
 the coffer dam, SO. 
 
 floating docks, 31. 
 
 timber used in ship-build- 
 ing, 32. 
 
 mechanical properties of 
 
 materials used in ship- build- 
 ing, 33. 
 
 tables of substances used, 
 
 40. 
 
 bolts, 43. 
 
 drawing and plan of a 
 
 vessel,- 44. 
 
 mould loft, 44. 
 
 steer drawing, 44. 
 
 steer plan, 44. 
 
 — — half-breadth plan, 46. 
 
 body plan, 46, 
 
 keel, 46. 
 
 stern, 46. 
 
 apron, 46. 
 
 knight heads, 46. 
 
 stern post, 46. 
 
 body post, 46. 
 
 frame of timbers, 47. 
 
 deadwood, 48. 
 
 keelson, 48. 
 
 beams, 48. 
 
 carlings, 48. 
 
 ■ hawse holes, 48. 
 
 breast hooks and crutches, 
 
 48. 
 
 riders, 48, 
 
 side keelsons, 49. 
 
 steps, 49. 
 
 false keel, 49, 
 
 gripe, 49. 
 
 limbers, 49. 
 
 planking, 49. 
 
 ■ channels, 49. 
 
 bill boards, 50. 
 
 cathead, 50, 
 
 — — head knees, 50. 
 
 gammoning piece, 50. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 Construction of ships — continued. 
 
 decks, SO. 
 
 riding bits, 50. 
 
 — — ports', sides, 51. 
 
 capstans, 51. 
 
 — ^ compressions, 53. 
 
 scuppers, 54. 
 
 hawse hucklers, 54. 
 
 hold, 54. 
 
 ■ magazines, 54. 
 
 — — engine-room, 54. 
 
 caulking, 55. 
 
 sheathing, 55. 
 
 . coppering, 55. 
 
 figures on the stem and 
 
 rudder, 55. 
 
 ' rudder, 55. 
 
 rudder chocks, 55. 
 
 figure head, 56. 
 
 pumps, 59. 
 
 fire engine, 59. 
 
 chain pumps, 59. 
 
 Massie's pump, 60. 
 
 bilge pumps, 61. 
 
 ' body post and after dead- 
 wood, 62. 
 measurement for tonnage«62. 
 
 amount of materials in a 
 
 120-gun ship, 64. 
 
 Coppering, 55. 
 
 sheathiug, 55. 
 
 copper sheets, 55. 
 
 foot pinnace launch, 287. 
 
 Cost of a i20-gun ship, 64. 
 Courses, bending, 317. 
 
 reefing and taking in, 449, 
 
 451. 
 
 hauling down, 208. 
 
 Cracking on, 429. 
 Cradle of a ship, 28. 
 Crane, the, 114. 
 
 Crane chain, 245. 
 Creeping for anchors, 409. 
 Cross-jack yard, rigging, 195. 
 Cross-trees, lower, 128, 164. 
 .^ top mast, 131. 
 
 rigging cross-trees, 184. 
 
 Crutches, 48. 
 
 Curving timber for ships, 33. 
 " Cutting out" the rigging, 163. 
 
 Dam, floating, or caisson, 28. 
 Davit, rigging the, 250. 
 Deadening way, 436. 
 Dead* eye, turning in a, 174. 
 Dead wood, 48. 
 Decks, construction of, 50. 
 
 cleaning, 354. 
 
 Density of matter, 1. 
 Diamond knot, single, 227. 
 
 double, 228. 
 
 Direction of force of a body, 92. 
 Discipline. See Organisation. 
 Dispart, 268. 
 
 angle of dispart, 269. 
 
 Displacement and shape of ships, 
 
 6. 
 Distance, measuring by sound, 
 
 343. 
 Distilling apparatus, 495. 
 Divisibility of matter, 2. 
 Docks, wet and dry, 26. 
 
 graving dock, 30. 
 
 floating docks, 31. 
 
 Taylor's floating dock, 32. 
 
 Downhauls, 215. 
 
 Drawing, or plan, of ships, 44. 
 
 sleer plan, 44. 
 
 half-breadth plan, 46. 
 
 body plan, 46. 
 
 Driver, taking in the, 442. 
 Drum head of capstan, 51. 
 
 Earth, density of the, 1. 
 Engine-room, the, 54. - 
 Engineer's stores and store-room, 
 
 255. 
 Equipment, 148. 
 
 rigging, 1 48. 
 
 prices of articles necessary 
 
 for a cadet's equipment, 507. 
 
 Extension of matter, 2. 
 Eye-bolts, 129, 199. 
 
 Fids for topmasts, 132. 
 
 topgallant, 134. 
 
 Field piece carriages, 277. 
 Figure head, 56. 
 
 Figures on stem and stern of a 
 
 ship, 55. 
 Fire-damp, 3. 
 
538 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fire-engine, 59. 
 Fish-davit, rigging, 250. 
 
 block, rigging, 250. 
 
 Fisherman's bend Icnot, 232. 
 Fishes and fishing, 146, 147. 
 Flags of vaiious kinds, 501 
 Flat seizings, 151. 
 Flemish e>'e, 219. 
 
 ■ horse, 197. 
 
 Floating a ship, 64. 
 
 " camels," 64. 
 
 " rafts," 70. 
 
 Floors, 47. 
 
 Flour, quantity and weight usu- 
 ally supplied, 256. 
 Fly-blocks, 203. 
 Flying jibboom, 192. 
 
 jib halyards, 207. 
 
 Forage stores, 261. 
 Fore guys, 213. 
 
 Fore lower stud sails, 215. 
 Fore topsail-yards, rigging, 198. 
 Fore topmast stay-sail halyards, 
 
 208. 
 Fore topmast stud-sails, 215. 
 Fore topmast stud-booms, 215. 
 Foxes, 149. 
 Frame of timbers, 47. 
 Friction, IIS. 
 Furling sails, 322. 
 Futtock rigging, 182. 
 
 GafiF, 206. 
 
 try-sail gafF, 207. 
 
 Gammoning fish of bowsprit, 1 35. 
 Gammoning piece, 50. 
 Gaskets, or reef points, 149. 
 Gear, taut, 436. 
 
 Glue, marine, 34. 
 
 Grape-shot, 281. 
 
 Graving-dock, 30. 
 
 Gravity, centre of, 78. 
 
 —— specific, 74. 
 
 " Great Eastern," steam-ship, 
 
 shape of the, 9. 
 Gripe, 49, 
 Grummet, 234. 
 Gun-carriages, 267. 
 Gun-cotton, 277. 
 Gun-metal, 266. 
 
 Guns. See Ordnance. 
 G unpowder, component parts of, 
 273. 
 
 cartridges, 274. 
 
 dimensions of powder pack- 
 ages, 274. 
 
 Guys, fore, 213. 
 
 Halyards, topsail, 203. 
 
 throat, 206. 
 
 peak, 206. 
 
 signal, 207. 
 
 jib, 207. 
 
 flying jib, 207. 
 
 fore topmast staysail, 208. 
 
 Hammocks, 344. 
 
 Handling boats. See Boats. 
 Handling the ship, 418. 
 
 coiling ropes, 420. 
 
 —^ casting, 420. 
 
 . tacking, 422. 
 
 ■ sailing in line, 426. 
 
 wearing, 427. 
 
 cracking on, 429. 
 
 taken aback, 429. 
 
 ' man overboard, 430. 
 
 taking a ship in tow under 
 
 sail, 434. 
 
 warping, 434. 
 
 shaking out reefs, 435. 
 
 fore and aft sails, 435. 
 
 setting upper sails, 435. 
 
 taut gear, 4S6. 
 
 deadening way, 436. 
 
 collision, 436. 
 
 ' setting studding sails, 437. 
 
 taking in studding sails, 
 
 437. 
 
 taking in sail, 438. 
 
 reefing topsails, 440. 
 
 setting courses, 441. 
 
 boxing off, 441. 
 
 taking in the driver, 442. 
 
 taking the jib in, 443. 
 
 sending top-gallant masts 
 
 and yards down, 443. 
 
 — — weather brace carried away, 
 444. 
 
 weather reef tackle carried 
 
 away, 446. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Handling the ship— continued. 
 
 weather topsail sheet and 
 
 clue line carried away, 446. 
 
 main tack and clue garnet 
 
 gone, 446, 
 
 topsail brace and parrel 
 
 carried away, 447. 
 
 top-gallant brace and par- 
 rel carried away, 447. 
 
 . bobstays gone, 448. 
 
 preventer braces, lifts, and 
 
 clue lines, 448. 
 
 reefing'topsEuls and courses, 
 
 449. 
 taking in a course, 451. 
 
 reducing a topsail, 453. 
 
 taking in a topsail when 
 
 blowing hard, 454. 
 
 sending up a topsail in bad 
 
 weather, 455. 
 
 sending atopsail up reefed, 
 
 ■ 456. 
 
 unbending sails, 457. 
 
 shifting top-gallant masts, 
 
 457. 
 
 shifting topmasts, 458, 
 
 shifting jibboom, 459. 
 
 —— broken spars, 460. 
 ^— rudder gone, 460. 
 
 landing the rudder, 462. 
 
 slack lower rigging, 463. 
 
 swifting in rigging, 464. 
 
 ^^— cutting away masts, 464. 
 
 casting rigging adrift, 464. 
 
 — .— to get a lower yard down 
 
 inside the rigging, 464. 
 
 trimming sails, 465, 
 
 making sail, 465. 
 
 backing and filling, 466. 
 
 boats making for the ship, 
 
 466. 
 
 dredging, 466. 
 
 club bawling, 467. 
 
 hearing down, 467. 
 
 Handspike, or lever, 96. 
 Harness hitch, 233. 
 Hawse, foul, 397. 
 
 clearing, 399. 
 
 Hawse bucklers, 54. 
 Hawse holes, 88, 
 
 Hawse — continued. 
 
 shackle, the clear, 245, 
 
 Hawser, 143. 
 
 Hawser bent knot, 233. 
 Hawser laid ropes, 148. 
 Head-earring strops, 195, 197. 
 Head-knees, 50. 
 Head-sails, bending, 31 8. 
 Heading, 127. 
 Heaving down, 467. 
 Hemp cables, 253. 
 Hitch knots, half, 225. 
 
 two half hitches, 225. 
 
 timber hitch, 226. 
 
 clove hitch, 226. 
 
 Blackwall hitch, 226. 
 
 magnus hitch, 232. 
 
 rolling hitch, 232. 
 
 hawser hitch, 233. 
 
 midshipman's hitchj 233. 
 
 Hold, the, 54. 
 
 Hooking on boats for hoisting, 
 
 389. 
 Hooks, 161. 
 Hoops, 127. 
 Horse power of steam-engines, 
 
 489. 
 Hounding, 127. 
 Howsing, 127. 
 Hurricanes, 14. 
 Hydrogen, 3. 
 Hydrostatic press, 5. 
 
 Ice, power of, to sustain weights, 
 
 6 note. 
 Impenetrability of matter, 1. 
 Inclined plane as a mechanical 
 
 power, 112. 
 Indian rubber, vulcanised, 39. 
 Inspection, 364. 
 Iron, compared with wood for 
 
 ship-building, 10. 
 
 strength of cast iron, 35. 
 
 tensile force of wrought 
 
 iron, 35. 
 
 malleable iron plates, 37., 
 
 table of the weight of one 
 
 foot of flat bar iron closely 
 hammered, 41. 
 
540 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Iron — coTitinued. 
 
 ' table of the weight of square 
 
 and round iron, one foot in 
 
 length, 43. 
 — — ordnance, proof charges of, 
 
 273. See Ordnance. 
 
 Jackstays, 162, 195, 207. 
 
 ^-^ jackstay and reef point, 306. 
 
 Jeer blocks at the mast head, 194. 
 
 Jib, taking in the, 443. 
 
 Jib halyards, 207. 
 
 Jib flying, 207. 
 
 Jib stay, 136, 187, 192. 
 
 Jib traveller, 1 90. 
 
 Jibboom, 136, 190. 
 
 rigging, 190. 
 
 . jib traveller, 190. 
 
 funnel, 190. 
 
 foot ropes, 190. 
 
 •^^ guys, 190. 
 
 martingale, 191. 
 
 spirit-sail, gafis, 191. 
 
 . ' dolphin strikers, 191. 
 
 heel chains, 191. 
 
 crup'per, 191. 
 
 jib stay, 192. 
 
 traveller, 192. 
 
 flying jibboom, 192. 
 
 whiskers, 1 92. 
 
 . shifting, 459. 
 
 Jiggers, 107. 
 
 Journal, mode of stating the force 
 of the wind and weather in the, 
 24. 
 
 Jury anchors, 238. 
 
 masts, 142. 
 
 Keel, the, 46. 
 
 false, 49. 
 
 Keelson, 48. 
 
 side keelsons, 49. 
 
 Knees, 127. 
 Knight-heads, 46. 
 Knots and splices, 217. 
 wall knot, 220. 
 
 to double wall, 221 . 
 
 . to double crown, 222. 
 
 stopper knot, 223. 
 
 shroud knot, 223. 
 
 Knots and splices — continued. 
 
 French shroud, 223. 
 
 buoy rope, 223. 
 
 various knots, 224. 
 
 Matthew Walker's knot, 
 
 227. 
 
 single diamond, 227. 
 
 double diamond, 228. 
 
 — ^ sprit- sail sheet, 228. 
 
 Turk's head, 230. 
 
 ' salvagee, 231. 
 
 grummet, 234. 
 
 round seizing, 234. 
 
 throat seizing, 235. 
 
 Kyanising timber, &c., 33. 
 
 Lamps preferable to candles, 255. 
 Lanyards, reeving the, 178. 
 Lead lines, 342. 
 
 weight of, 342. 
 
 deep sea lead line, 342. 
 
 Leech line blocks, 196. 
 
 Lemon juice, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Lenses, 118. 
 Level, water, 88. 
 Lever or handspike, the, 97. 
 Life buoys, 361. 
 Lift blocks, 129, 196, 199, 215. 
 Light, composition and effects of, 
 
 118. 
 Lightning conductors, 147. 
 Limbers, 49. 
 
 Line of metals. See Ordnance. 
 Log line, 342. 
 Long lights, 27S. 
 Lower caps, 129. 
 Lower cross-trees, 128. 
 
 placing, 164. 
 
 Lower mast, to rig, 172. 
 Lower slings, 193i 
 
 Lower studding-sail halyards, 
 
 214. 
 Lower yards, 136. 
 
 rigging, 194. 
 
 ^^— heaving up, 201. 
 
 to get a lower yard down 
 
 inside the rigging, 464. 
 
 Luffs, 107. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 Machinery, powers of, 96. 
 
 Magazines, construction of, 54. 
 
 Magnus hitch, 232. 
 
 Main top mast stay-sail, 208. 
 
 Main top mast stud-sail, 215. 
 
 Mailing sail, 322. 
 
 Man overboard, 430. 
 
 Marine glue, 34, 
 
 Marine necessaries, 261. 
 
 Marling spikes, 182. 
 
 Massie's pump, 60. 
 
 Mast-head slings, 245. 
 
 Mast steps, 285. 
 
 Masting ships, 139. 
 
 ^—^ masting or dismasting with 
 
 one's own resources, 142. 
 Masts, 122. 
 '^— single tree, 123. 
 
 made masts, 124. 
 
 . hoops, 127. 
 
 rubbing paunch, 127. 
 
 hounding, heading,, and 
 
 bowsing, . 1 27. 
 
 body, 127. 
 
 knees, 127. 
 
 tressle trees, 1'28. 
 
 battens, 128. 
 
 bolsters, 128. 
 
 tenon, 128. 
 
 lower cross trees, 1 28, 
 
 tops, 128. 
 
 — — necklace, 129. 
 
 lower caps, 129. 
 
 top masts, 131. 
 
 top gallant and royal masts, 
 
 133. 
 
 - bowsprit, 135. 
 
 average value of spars,137, 
 
 - weight and dimension of 
 spars, 137. 
 
 — — masting, 139. 
 
 Materials, amount of, in a, 120- 
 
 gun ship, 64. 
 Matter, properties of, 1. 
 Meals, 354. 
 
 Measurement for tonnage, 62. 
 — '■ common rule, 62. 
 
 Parliamentary rule, 62. 
 
 rules for measurement of 
 
 open vessels, 70. 
 
 Measurement for tonnage — con- 
 tinued. 
 Measures and weights, 331. 
 
 ■ See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Mechanical powers, 92. 
 
 gravity, 92, 
 
 direction of a force, 92, 
 
 forces in equilibrium, 
 
 92, . 
 
 velocity, 92. 
 
 principal moving powers. 
 
 93. 
 
 a unit of work, 93. 
 
 the lever or handspike, 
 
 97. 
 
 compound lever, 101. 
 
 wheel and axle, 102. 
 
 tackles, 107, 
 
 — ■■ — inclined plane, 112, 
 • wedge, 113. 
 
 screw, 113. 
 
 ^— crane, 114. 
 
 compound wheel and axle, 
 
 114. 
 
 friction, 115. 
 
 cutting away msists, 464. 
 
 Messenger chain, 245. 
 
 Messes,!- expense of. Admiralty , 
 
 Circular on, 510. 
 
 article from " The Times " 
 
 on, 510. 
 
 Metal, tenacity of, 35. 
 
 soft metal, 38. 
 
 Mllnes's jury anchor, 238. . 
 Mitchell's screw anchor, 239. . 
 Mizen top msists, 131. 
 Blooring, 390. 
 
 unmooring, 403. 
 
 Mooring chains, table of weight 
 
 and value of, 247. 
 Mooring swivel, 400. 
 Mooring swivel on Sir Thomas 
 
 Hardy's plan, 244, 
 
 - tabl^ of weight and value 
 of mooring swivels, 247, 
 
 to put on the swivel after 
 
 mooring, 401. ' 
 
 Mortars, 271. 
 
 Mould loft, 44. 
 
 Moving powers, principal, 93, 
 
542 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kails, adhesive force of, 43, 44. 
 Necklaces, 129. 
 Nettle stuff, 149. 
 Night signals, 363. 
 Nitrogen, or azote, 3. 
 
 Oatmeal, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Ocean, area of the, 4, note. 
 
 - depth of the, 4, note. 
 Oirdnance, 266. 
 
 gun metal, 266. 
 
 principal parts ofa gun, 266. 
 
 parts of a gun-carriage, 
 
 267. 
 
 - external appearance of a 
 gun-carriage, 267. 
 ^—^ internal appearance, 268. 
 
 parts ofa carronade, 268. 
 
 weight of ordnance, 268. 
 
 dispart, 268. 
 
 angle of dispart, 269. 
 
 sights, 269. 
 
 line of metal, 269. 
 
 ■ centre of metal, 269. 
 
 tangent scale, 269. 
 
 calibre of a gun, 269. 
 
 axis of a gun, 270. 
 
 windage, 270. 
 
 vents, 270. 
 
 length of guns, 270. 
 
 - weight of shot and shell, 
 270. 
 
 mortars, 271. 
 
 — — strength of ordnance, proof 
 charges, 271, 273. 
 
 gunpowder, 273. 
 
 cartridges, 274. 
 
 dimensions of powder 
 
 packages, 274. 
 
 shell, 275. 
 
 blue lights, 275. 
 
 long lights, 275. 
 
 slow match, 275. 
 
 portfires, 876. 
 
 Biekford's fuse, 276. 
 
 - signal rockets, 276. 
 
 - Congreve rockets, 276; 
 
 carcasses, 276. 
 
 tubes, 276, 
 
 OrdnAnee-^continued, 
 
 gun cotton, 277. 
 
 field-piece carriages, 277. 
 
 table of their weight, di- 
 mensions, &c., 277. 
 
 elevation of a 9-pounder 
 
 brass field-carriage, 278. 
 
 plan of a 9-pounder brass 
 
 field-carriage, 279. 
 
 weight and dimensions of 
 
 small arms in use in the 
 British service, 280. 
 
 shot, 281. 
 
 canister shot, 281. 
 
 shrapnell shell, 281. 
 
 getting in guns, 281." 
 
 to rig a yard purchase, 
 
 say, starboard side, 282. 
 
 Organisation, 343. 
 
 berthing, 343. 
 
 hammocks, 344. 
 
 bags, 344. 
 
 — ^ clotliing, 345. 
 
 watch quarter and station 
 
 bill, 345. 
 
 form of watch bill, 347. 
 
 conduct book, 350. 
 
 routine, 352. 
 
 meals, 354. 
 
 . cleaning decks, 354. 
 
 Sunday, 356. 
 
 Outfit, articles and expenses of, 
 
 507. 
 ^-^ Admiraltycircularon,511. 
 Outhauler, the, 206. 
 Overhand, or figure of eight knot, 
 
 225. 
 Oxygen, 2. 
 
 Paint work, 361. 
 
 Parcelling, 150. 
 
 Parrel, the, 197. 
 
 Paunch, rubbing, 131. 
 
 Peak halyards, 206. 
 
 — — peak halyard blocks, 207. 
 
 Peas, quantity and weight usually 
 
 supplied, 251 
 Pendants, mast-head,' 162. 
 —— single, 163. 
 
 - yard tacklf, 195. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 543 
 
 Pendants — continued, 
 preventer brace, 198. 
 
 reef, 210. 
 
 Pendulum, 333. 
 
 table of the length of pen- 
 dulum that will vibrate seconds 
 at every fifth degree, 334, 
 
 Pitch, 216. 
 
 Plane, inclined, considered as a, 
 
 mechanical power, 1 12. 
 Planking, 49. 
 Plugholes, 285. 
 Fork, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 256. 
 Porter's anchors, 236. 
 Portfires, 276. 
 Ports' sides, 51. 
 
 Powers, raeohanica1,principal, 92. 
 Preparing for sea, 358. 
 
 compass, 358. 
 
 steering gear, S60. ^ 
 
 paint-work, 361. 
 
 life-buoys, 361. 
 
 night signals, 362. 
 
 rule of the road, 362. 
 
 — - inspection, 364. 
 -—^ loosing sails, 366. 
 Provisions. See Stores and 
 
 Provisions. 
 Pumps, 59. 
 
 common pump, 59. 
 
 fire-engine, 59. 
 
 chain-pump, 59. 
 
 Massie's, 60. 
 
 bilge, 61. 
 
 pump-dale, 60. 
 
 Purchase, 107. 
 
 Qualifications of naval cadets, 
 Admiralty Circular on, 517. 
 
 Quarter blocks, 197, 198. 
 
 Quarter irons, 1 39, 
 
 Quarter tackle and small stay for 
 hoisting in provisions, water 
 casks, &c., 254. 
 
 Raft made of ship's materials, 70. 
 
 of trees, 72. 
 
 Raisins, quantity and weight 
 usually supplied, 256. 
 
 Rattling, 182. 
 
 marling spikes, 182. 
 
 sparring, 182. 
 
 Reef knot, 226. 
 Reef pendants, 210. 
 
 Reef points or gaskets, 149. 
 Reef tackle blocks, 210. 
 Reefs, shaking out, 435. 
 Reefing topsails and courses, 449. 
 Reeving the lanyards, 178. 
 
 running rigging, 199. 
 
 Riders, 48. 
 
 Riding, bits, 50. 
 Rigging, 148. 
 
 ropes, 148. 
 
 blocks, 157. 
 
 standing rigging, 162. 
 
 running rigging, 162, 
 
 " cutting out," 163. 
 
 rigging ship, 164. 
 
 lower cross-trees, 164. 
 
 ' tops, and placing tops, 164. 
 
 r- bowsprit, 168. 
 
 — — setting up bobstays, 171. 
 ^— rig a lower mast, 1*72. 
 
 upper yards, 198. 
 
 lifts and braces, 199. 
 
 heaving up lower yards, 
 
 201. 
 
 trusses, 202. 
 
 topsail halyards, 203. 
 
 crossing topsail yards, 203. 
 
 upper yard ropes, 205. 
 
 spanker boom and gaff, 206. 
 
 running rigging, 207. 
 
 studding sail gear, 212. 
 
 blacking down, 216. 
 
 slack lower rigging, 463. 
 
 swifting in rigging, 463. 
 
 casting rigging adrift, 464. 
 
 Rockets, signal, 276. 
 
 Congreve, 276. 
 
 Rodgers' anchors, 236. 
 Rolling tackle strop, 197, 199. 
 Rope, 148. 
 
 sizes of ropes, 148. 
 
 strands, 148. 
 
 hawser-laid rope, 148, 
 
 cable, 148. 
 
 shroud-laid rope, 149. 
 
544 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rope — continued. 
 ' spun yarn, 149. 
 
 sennit, 149. 
 
 nettle-stufF, 149. 
 
 foxes, 149. 
 
 reef points, or gaskets, 149. 
 
 strength of ropes, 149. 
 
 splices, ISO, 217, 
 
 worming, 1 50. 
 
 parcelling and serving, 
 
 ISO. 
 
 backing, ISO. 
 
 throat seizings, IS I. 
 
 round seizings, ISl. 
 
 flat seizings, 151. 
 
 straps, ISl. 
 
 table of size chain or wire 
 
 lope used as a substitute for 
 hempen rope, ISl. 
 
 strength of hemp, chain, 
 
 and wire rope, 1 52. 
 
 . number of threads and 
 
 weights of different sized bolt 
 ropes, 1S3. 
 
 and of different size hemp 
 
 cables, 154. 
 
 —^ number of threads and. 
 weights of hawser-laid rope, 
 of three strands, tarred, IIS 
 fathoms, 1S5. 
 
 hawser-laid, four strands, 
 
 tarred, 106 fathoms, 156. 
 
 tacks, 25-thread yarn, ta- 
 pered, 156. 
 
 signal-halyard stulT, 157. 
 
 to lengthen a rope by an 
 
 additional strand, 231. 
 
 Round seizings, 150. 
 Routine, 352. 
 Royal stay-sails, 208, 
 
 yards, rigging, 198. 
 
 spread at the foot, 211. 
 
 Ro}'a1s, bending, 319. 
 Rubbing paunch, 127. ., 
 Rudder, the, S5. 
 
 ; rudder-chocks, 56. 
 
 jury rudder, 56. 
 
 the woodlock, SS. 
 
 new pattern rudder, 57. 
 
 tegiporary rudder, 58.- 
 
 Rudder — continued. 
 
 ■ handling ship when rudder 
 
 gone, 460. 
 
 landing the rudder, 462. 
 
 Rule of the road, 362. 
 
 Rum, quantity and weight usu- 
 ally supplied, 256. 
 Running rigging, 207. 
 
 Saddle of bowsprit, 131. 
 Sails, 294. 
 
 sail cloth, 294. 
 
 sail making, 294. 
 
 — ~ parts of a'sail, 294. 
 
 — . sails forvariousvessels, 295. 
 
 points and beckets, 305. 
 
 number of yards and size 
 
 of canvass required for certain 
 sails for first class ships of 
 different rates, 307. 
 
 ^— purposes for which the 
 classes are suitable, 308. - - 
 
 weight of sails, 309. 
 
 number of yards of canvass 
 
 in a ship of each class, &c., 
 310. 
 
 one man's work per day, 
 
 311, 
 
 length, number, and 
 
 weight of points in the sails 
 of each class of ship, 311, 314. 
 
 sail tackle, 315. 
 
 bending sails, SIS. 
 
 topsails, 316. 
 
 — — courses, 317. 
 
 spanker, 318. 
 
 headsails, 319. 
 
 top gallant sails and royals, 
 
 319. 
 
 boom main sails, 320. 
 
 try sails, 321. 
 
 studding sails, 321. 
 
 making sail, 322, 46S. 
 
 furling sail, 322. 
 
 — - action of wind upon sails, 
 
 323. 
 ^— centre of effort, 324. 
 
 axis of rotation, 325. 
 
 loosing sails, 336, S36. 
 
 carrying sail, 369. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 545 
 
 Sails^^-coTttinued. ' 
 
 hoisting fore and aft sails, 
 
 435. 
 
 - setting upper sails, 436. 
 
 setting studding sails, 437. 
 
 taking in studding sails, 
 
 437. 
 
 taking in sail, 438. 
 
 —— reefing topsails, 440. 
 
 setting courses, 441 . 
 
 unbending, 457. 
 
 — — trimming, 465. 
 Sail tackle, IS6, 315. 
 Saluting, 3S5. 
 Screw, the, 491. 
 
 handling th& propeller, 
 
 494. 
 
 as a mechanical power, 45, 
 
 114. 
 
 Scuppers, 54. 
 
 bow scuppers, 54. 
 
 Sea, area of the surface of, 4, 
 
 note. 
 Sea walls, mode of building, 30. 
 Seizings, 151, 
 
 round, how to make, 234. 
 
 throat, how to make, 235. 
 
 Selvagee knot, 231. 
 
 Sennit, 146. 
 
 Serving, 150,217. 
 
 Setting up rigging, 180» 
 
 Shackles, anchor, 242. 
 
 Shape of ship, 8. 
 
 ^^— "TheDukeofWeliingtdn" 
 
 and the " Great Eastern," 9. 
 Sheathing, SS. 
 Sheepshank knot, 233. 
 Sheer drawing, 44. 
 
 plan, 44. 
 
 Sheers, small, 1 39. 
 
 - large, 140. 
 Sheet bend knot, 232. 
 Shell, 275. 
 
 weight of shell, 270. 
 
 Shot, 281. 
 
 canister, 281. 
 
 grape, 281. 
 
 —^ shrapnell, 281. 
 
 — — weight of shot & shell, 270. 
 
 Shrapnell shot, 281. 
 Shroud laid rope, 149. 
 Shroud knot, 223. 
 
 French, 223. 
 
 Shrouds, 163. 
 
 . bobstay and bowsprit 
 
 shroud collars, 1 70. 
 
 forestay collars, 170. 
 
 Side keelsons, 49. 
 Sights of guns, 269. 
 Signal halyard stuff, 157. 
 
 halyards, 207. 
 
 Signal rockets, 276. 
 Signals, night, 362. 
 Siphon, use of the, 23. 
 Slab-line blocks, 196. 
 Slings, lower, 193, 198. 
 
 topsail, 201. 
 
 r mast-head, 245. 
 
 Slip, the, 28. 
 
 the patent slip, 30. 
 
 Slop-clothing stores, 259, 260. 
 Slow match, 275. 
 
 Soap, quantity and weight usually 
 
 supplied, 257. 
 Sound, measuring distance by, 
 
 334. 
 Spanker, bending^ 318. 
 —^ boom, 206. 
 Sparring, 182. 
 Spars. See Masts. 
 Specific gravity, 74. 
 Spindle of the capstan, 51. 
 Splices, 150, 217. 
 . short splice, 217. 
 
 eye splice, 218. 
 
 ^— long splice, 21 8. 
 
 Flemish eye, 219. 
 
 cut splice, 220. 
 
 -^— to lengthen a rope by an 
 additional strand, 231. 
 
 Splicing shackle, on the Hon. G. 
 Elliott's plan, 243. 
 
 table of weight and value 
 
 of splicing shackles for cables 
 of various sizes, 247. 
 
 Sprit sail sheet knot, 228. 
 Sprocket v^heel, 53. 
 Spun yarn, 149. 
 
546 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Squalls, prognostics of, 23. 
 Stability of a ship, 77. 
 Stays, 162, 164, 181. 
 Steam, properties of, 475. 
 Steam-engines, 473. 
 
 boilers, 477. 
 
 parts of the engine, 479. 
 
 the screw, 494. 
 
 handling the propeller, 494. 
 
 distilling apparatus, 495. 
 
 ^-— steerage of screw ships, 499. 
 Steam-pipes, 39. 
 
 Steel, 38. 
 
 Steering gear, 360. 
 Stem, 36. 
 ~Steps, 49. 
 Sternpost, 36. 
 Stirrups, 195, 197. 
 Stocks of anchors, 236. 
 Stock-tackle, object of the, 251. 
 Stopper knot, 223. 
 Stopper, slip, 245. 
 Stops, 127. 
 Stores and provisions, 253. 
 
 hoisting in spare spars, 254. 
 
 ' mode of hoisting in and 
 
 stowing away provisions, water 
 casks, &c., 254, 255. 
 
 contents and weights of 
 
 various packages and tanks, 
 265' 
 
 slop clothing, 259, 260. 
 
 marine necessaries, 261. 
 
 — — forage, 261. 
 
 religious books, 261. 
 
 ■ iron tanks, 262. 
 
 — weight of provisions and 
 
 stores complete, for a ship of 
 each rate, 263. 
 
 carrying stores, 368. 
 
 Storms, rules for foretelling, 22. 
 Stowage, 77. 
 
 — — ballast, 77 
 
 ' tanks! 90. 
 
 — — provisions, water casks, 
 
 &c., 255. 
 Strands of ropes, 148. 
 Straps, warped and salviige, 151 
 Stream anchor, getting in, 252. 
 Stropping, 157, 195,197. 
 
 Studding-sails, bending, 321. 
 
 setting, 437. 
 
 taking in, 438 , 
 
 Studding-sail booms, 212. 
 
 Suet, quantity and weight usually ■ 
 
 supplied, 256. 
 Sugar, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Sunday, due observance of, 356. 
 Swivel, mooring, or Sir Thomas 
 
 Hardy's plan, 244. 
 —— prices of swivels of various 
 
 sizes, 247. 
 
 Tack-blocks, 214. 
 Tacking, SSI , 422. 
 Tackles, 107. 
 
 the fall, 107. 
 
 ■ ■ the standing part, 109. 
 
 ' sketches of tackles, 108. 
 
 . list of, 110. 
 
 Taken aback, 429. 
 
 Taking turns, 164. 
 
 Tangent scale, in ordnance, 269. 
 
 Tanks, 90. 
 
 ^— iron, in store, 262. 
 
 Tar, 216. 
 
 Taylor's floating dock, 32. 
 
 Tea, quantity and weight usually 
 
 supplied, 257. 
 Telescope, the, 118. 
 ' composition and effects of 
 
 light, 118. 
 
 the refracting telescope, 120. 
 
 — — the acromatic telescope, 121. 
 
 Tenon, 128. 
 
 Thermometer, the, 1 9. 
 
 ^— Fahrenheit, Reaumur, and 
 
 centrigrade, 19. 
 ^— comparative degrees of the 
 
 three instruments, 20. 
 
 uses on board ship, 20. 
 
 Thimbles, 161. 
 
 Throat halyards, 206. 
 Throat seizings, 150, 235. 
 Timber, used in ship-building, 32. 
 
 kyanising and burnettising 
 
 33. 
 
 timberbendingmachines,33 
 
 strength of timber, 34, 36. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 547 
 
 Timber — continued, 
 —— table containitig the eon- 
 tents of round timber, 69. 
 
 timber used for masts, 122. 
 
 Timber hitch-knot, 226. 
 Tobacco, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Tongues, number and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Top chains, 245. 
 Topgallant sails, 212. 
 Topgallant, bending, 319. 
 Topgallant stay-sails, 208. 
 Topgallant studding-sails, 215, 
 Topgallant rigging, 188, 189. 
 Topgallant masts, 129. 
 
 fids, 134. 
 
 rigging, 185. 
 
 getting up, 188. 
 
 ■ sending down, 443. 
 
 shifting, 458. 
 
 Topmtet cross-trees, 129, 131. 
 Topmast stud-booms, 212. 
 Topmast tressle-trees, 131. 
 Topmasts, 128, 129. 
 
 mizen topmasts, 131. 
 
 ■ cross-trees and tressle- 
 trees, 131. 
 
 necklace, 131. 
 
 caps, 132, 
 
 fids, 132. 
 
 striking and lidding, 132. 
 
 — — getting up, 1 83. 
 
 rigging, 185. 
 
 shifting, 458, 
 
 Topsails, 210. 
 ^-^ bending, 316. 
 
 • reefing, 440. 
 
 topsail brace carried away, 
 
 447. 
 
 • ' reeving 449.- 
 
 -^— taking in a topsail when 
 
 blowing hard, 454. 
 sending up a topsail in bad 
 
 weather, 455. 
 ■ sending a topsail up reefed, 
 
 456. 
 Topsail clue-lines, 21 1. 
 Topsail halyards, 203. 
 Topsail lifts, 198. 
 
 Topsail yards, 136, 
 
 rigging, 196. 
 
 main topsail yards, 196, 
 
 crossing topsail yards, 203. 
 
 Top tackle-gear rigging, 162. 
 Tops, in rigging ships, 164. 
 
 placing tops, 164. 
 
 Towing boats, 384. 
 
 taking a ship in tow under 
 
 sail, 434. 
 
 Tr$5sle-trees, 128. 
 
 Trim, Sl,et seq. 
 
 Tripping-lines, 214. 
 
 Truss-strops, 195. 
 
 Trusses, 202. 
 
 Trysail gaff, 207. 
 
 Trysail masts, 190. 
 
 Trysails, bending, 321. 
 
 Tubes, 276. 
 
 Turk's head knot, 230. 
 
 Turning in lower rigging, 174. 
 
 Upper yards rigging, 205. 
 
 Vangs, or peak down-haul, 206. 
 
 Velocity of a body, 92. 
 
 Ventilation, 3. 
 
 Vents of guns, 270. 
 
 Vernier, the, 17. 
 
 Vinegar, quantity and weight 
 
 usually supplied, 257. 
 Vulcanised India rubber, 39. 
 
 Waist anchor, getting in, 250. 
 
 i stowing, 415, 416. 
 
 Walker's, Matthew, knqt, 227. 
 Waiytnot, 220. 
 
 to double wall, 221. 
 
 to double crown, 222. 
 
 Warping, 386. 
 
 Watch quarter,, and station bill, 
 345. 
 
 form of watch bill, 347. 
 
 Water and air, 1. 
 
 composition of water, 4. 
 
 density of water, 5. 
 
 weight of bodies immersed 
 
 in, 75. 
 
 Water casks, mode of hoisting 
 in; 254. 
 
548 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Water — amtinued, 
 
 mode of watering, 385. 
 
 Water level, use of the, 88. 
 Wearing, 331, 427. 
 
 Weather, Admiral Fitzroy's rules 
 
 for foretelling changes in, 21. 
 ^^— mode of expressing the 
 
 state of the weather in journal, 
 
 24. 
 Weather-hraoe carried away, 444. 
 Wedge, the, as a, mechanical 
 
 power, 113. 
 Weight of bodies immersed in 
 
 water, 75. 
 Weight of a 120-gun ship, 64. 
 Weights and measures, 331 . 
 
 French, 334. 
 
 ^-^ tables of British weights 
 and measures, 335, 339. 
 
 relative value of British 
 
 and French weights and mea- 
 sures, 341. 
 
 relative value of British 
 
 and foreign measures of length, 
 341. 
 
 — ' — relativevalueof British and 
 
 tbreign commercial weights, 
 
 341. 
 — ^ weight of lead lines, 342. 
 
 of log-line, 342. 
 
 — — measuring distance by 
 
 sound, 343. 
 Well, state of the, 90. 
 "Wellington, Duke of," her 
 
 shape, 9. 
 Whelps, 51. 
 Wheel and axle, 102. ^ 
 
 compound, 114. 
 
 ropes, 148. 
 
 Whirlwinds, 14. 
 Whiskers, 193. 
 Windage, 270. 
 
 Winds, 14. 
 
 expansion and contraction 
 
 of air, 14. 
 
 hurricanes and whirlwinds, 
 
 14. 
 
 - Smeaton's table of the ve- 
 locity of the wind, 15. 
 
 the barometer, 16, 
 
 mode of ascertaining the 
 
 weight of the atmosphere, 16. 
 
 the Vernier, 17. 
 
 ^-^ the aneroid barometer, 19. 
 
 the thermometer, 19. 
 
 journal of the force of the 
 
 wind and the state of the wea- 
 ther, 24. 
 
 action of wind upon sails, 
 
 323. 
 
 — — centre of effort and axis of' 
 
 rotation, 324, 325. 
 Wine, quantity usually supplied, 
 
 256. 
 Wire-rope, 151. 
 Wood and iron in ship-building, 
 
 comparative excellence of, lO, 
 Worming rope, 150, 117. 
 
 Yard tackle pendants, 195. 
 Yards, 136. 
 
 lower and topsail, 136. 
 
 to rig lower yards, 194. 
 
 fore yards, 196. 
 
 cross jack yard, 1 Q6. 
 
 ' topsail yards, 196. 
 
 the parrels, 197. 
 
 • fore topsail, 1 97. 
 
 —- — rigging royal, 199. 
 
 heaving up lower yards, 
 
 201. 
 
 crossing topsail yards, 203. 
 
 rigging upper yards, 198. 
 
 Yarns or threads, 148. 
 
 THE DND. 
 
 LOETDQN 
 FBIKIED BY SPOTTISWOODB j 
 KEW-STltKBT SQUARE 
 
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