ONE SHILLING.
ELEMENTARY
CARPENTRY
AN D
JOINERY
O tONDON ' -WARD LOCK & C° ©„
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Manuscript, Archives,
and Rare Book Library
EMORY UNIVERSITY
Tne iudii ui—Lnu-
The Pocket Measure
Household Puzzles
Tip Lewis and His Lamp
Sidney Martin's Christmas ...
Little Fishers and their Nets.
The Randolphs
One Commonplace Day
Chrissy's Endeavour
A Sevenfold Trouble
BY OTHER AUTHORS.
John Halifax, Gentleman By Mrs. Craik
Danesbury House By Mrs. Henry Wood
Ministering Children By M. L. Charlesworth
Ben=Hur v By Lew Wallace
The Fair God ... ... ... ... By Lew Wallace
Naomi By Mrs. Webb
Ward, Lock & Co., Limited,
London, New Xor/c, and Melbourne.
THE SHILLING "PANSY" SERIES—continued.
44 Beulah By A. J. Evans Wilson
45 Infelice..... By A. J. Evans Wilson
46 John Ward, Preacher By Margaret Deland
47 St. Elmo By A.J. Evans Wilson
48 At the Mercy of Tiberius ... By A. J. Evans Wilson
49 Vashti By A. J. Evans Wilson
50 Macaria ... ... ... ... By A. J. Evans Wilson
51 Inez By A. J. Evans Wilson
53 Melbourne House... ... ... By Elizabeth Wetherell
54 Daisy By Elizabeth Wetherell
54A Daisy in the Field ... ... By Elizabeth Wetherell
-55 Little Women Louisa M. Alcott
56 Qood Wives Louisa M. Alcott
57 Aunt Jane's Hero Mrs. E. Prentiss
58 Flower of the Family Mrs. E. Prentiss
60 The Old Helmet E. Wetherell
61 What Katy Did ... By Susan Coolidge
62 What Katy Did at School By Susan Coolidge
62A What Katy Did Next By Susan Coolidge
63 The Lamplighter By Miss Camming
64 The Wide, Wide World By E-. Wetherell
65 Queechy By E. Wetherell
67 Stepping Heavenward By E. Prentiss
68 The Prince of the House of David Ingraham
69 Anna Lee By T. S. Arthur
70 The Throne of David By Rev. J. H. Ingraham
71 The Pillar of Fire By Rev. J. H. Ingraham
72 Mabel Vaughan By Miss Cumming
73 The Basket of Flowers By G. T. Bedell
74 That Lass o' Lowrie's By Mrs. F. H. Burnett
By CHAS. M. SHELDON.
91 In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do?
92 The Crucifixion of Phillip Strong
93 His Brother's Keeper
94 Richard Bruce; or, The Life that Now is .
95 The Twentieth Door
96 Malcom Kirk: Overcoming the World
97 Robert Hardy's Seven Days
zJSx Ward, Lock & Co., Limited. x$s»
London, Netc York, and Melbourne.
ELEMENTARY
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
A DESCRIPTION OP THE
TIMBER, TOOLS, AND SIMPLE PROCESSES
USED IN
BUILDING AND WOOD-WORKING.
FOR THE HELP AND GUIDANCE OF
ALL AMATEUR ARTISANS AND MECHANICS,
AT HOME AND ABROAD.
WITH TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS, ETC.
LONDON:
WARD, LOCK & CO., LIMITED,
WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
NEW YORK AND MELBOURNE,
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY — KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS
USEFUL TO ALL MEN 9
II. THE VARIOUS WOODS USED IN CARPENTRY, ETC. — SPECIFIC
GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBER 22
III. FELLING AND SEASONING OF TIMBER. DESIGNATIONS AND
MARKS OF TIMBER. TIMBER AS SUPPLIED BY TIMBER MER¬
CHANTS. ITS PRICES 50
IV. THE TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY : THEIR CLASSIFI¬
CATION ACCORDING TO THEIR USES 75
V. SHARPENING TOOLS : THE WAYS AND MEANS EMPLOYED . 137
VI. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS, AND HOW TO USE THEM 148
VII. VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN JOINING TIMBER . . 170
VIII. THE CARPENTER'S BENCH AND ITS VARIOUS FITTINGS. THE
SAWING STOOL AND TRESTLES 191
Elementary Carpentry and Joinery.
TIMBER, TOOLS, AND SIMPLE PROCESSES
USED IN
BUILDING AND WOOD-WORKING.
SSSjjataoftfv IjanU finOrtl) to Oo, 60 (t tot'tl) t^g m(gt)t.
EccZesiastes, ix., is.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY—KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS USEFUL
TO ALL MEN.
Requirements of the times—Competition more keen—Those most affected—Notice¬
able signs of the struggle—Adulteration and other trade frauds—Advance in
prices : how caused—The artisan his own tax-master—Strikes raise prices—In¬
comes of clergy, etc., inelastic—Self-help possible and desirable—A case in
point—Broken window : how to mend it—Cost of materials—What the workman
will do—Professional charges—Labour must be paid for—Building operations :
why expensive — Artisans' wages — Cost of job per time—Scale of wages—
Decorator's wages—Prices charged by builders—Every man has time for neces¬
sary work—Knowledge and practice, how to obtain them—Knowledge must be
paid for — Technical education — Workshops attached to schools—Practical
knowledge, to whom useful—Choice of handicraft trade—Carpentry most desir¬
able—Wireworking—Bricklaying and masonry—Setting stone or step—Excava¬
ting—Carpentry and joinery—Carpentry, why attractive to amateurs—Amateur's
working dress—Working man : meaning and application of term—Artisan,
artificer, and artist—Social distinctions nothing—The carpenter and his work —
The joiner and his work—Derivation of these terms—Carpentry, how divisible.
I. The changes that have gradually come over all things during the
years that have passed since the Great Exhibition of 1851 have ren¬
dered men far more inclined to regard and consider the Requirements
signs of the times than they were wont to do during the of
first half of the present nineteenth century, and any one 4116 timea"
who will do this earnestly and searchingly cannot but come to the
conclusion that the field of a man's knowledge must be far wider, his
education far more general, his self-reliance far stronger, and his power
to help himself far greater than was either thought to be necessary or
found to be useful some fifty years ago or even less.
2. Although there are many causes which have helped indirectly to
io Household Carpentry and Joinery.
produce this result, the reason for it is mainly to be found in the fact
competition that though the world does not grow larger its inhabitants
more keen. are increasing more rapidly year by year, and that, in
proportion to the increase in number, competition in the fight for life
becomes more keen, and the struggle to make both ends meet more
difficult and laborious.
3. The ranks of society on which the burden of competition has
fallen most heavily, and which have been most seriously affected by
Those most the heat of the hand-to-hand battle for existence in which
affected, they have found themselves involved, are those which
combine to form its great middle class, and include the bulk of the
clergy, officers in the army and navy, professional men of all denomi¬
nations, wholesale merchants, and retail tradesmen who buy and sell to
get gain, and clerks of every description.
4. The outward noticeable signs of the struggle are shown most
clearly in the appearance of retail shops of most kinds in the present
Noticeable day. Some fifty years ago every trade confined itself to
signs of the the sale of its own peculiar wares, and the heterogeneous
struggle, contents of the general shop in the village, or that of the
small tradesman in a country town, who sold drapery, perhaps, on one
side of his useful premises, and groceries on the other, was often
a matter of somewhat derisive comment. But now this is the rule
and by no means the exception in " establishments " of far higher pre¬
tensions and greater extent. The grocer trenches on the province of
the wine-merchant and the publican, and sells wines and spirits ; and
the licensed victuallers and innkeepers in just retaliation sell tea to any
who will buy it of them. The draper will set out his window with articles
that properly belong to the fancy goods warehouse and the toyshop.
The oilman and provision-dealer sometimes dabbles in carpets, hearth¬
rugs, and ironmongery, and so the confusion in trades becomes more
confounded from year to year, until at last intending buyers will find
a difficulty in determining to what shop they had better go in order to
get the wares they want.
5. These are some of the results of competition as shown in retail
shops. Undue competition, too, has led to adulteration and other
Adulteration frauds in trade, so that the tolerably general practice that
and other has prevailed of charging excessive prices for really good
trade frauds. an(j genuine articles, and selling at moderate prices things
which are not what they seem or pretend to be, has driven the upper
strata of the middle classes to find relief in co-operation and co-opera¬
tive societies, very much to the detriment of the fair-dealing tradesman,
which is to be sincerely regretted, although the fault lies not in the
co-operators, but to those who have driven them to such protective
measures in defence of purse and pocket.
6. But there are other ways in which middle-class people, whose
Advance in income is obtained by other ways than that of buying
prices—bow and selling, have suffered of late years, as, for example,
caused. advanced prices of many things which have not been
met by corresponding advances in their incomes. And how have
The Artisan his own Tax-Master.
ii
these advances in prices been caused ? Mainly by the action of ?!?e
lower classes, who by repeated strikes to obtain increased wages, have
contributed greatly to force up the prices of food, clothing, and house
rent, and thereby impoverish the middle classes without gaining any
solid benefit for themselves. House rent has been increased notably of
late years by the strikes in all branches of the building trade, for when
labour and materials rise in price the cost of building a house must both
increase pari passuj and the builder or owner must of necessity demand
and obtain a higher rent in order to get sufficient remuneration for the
money he has sunk in bricks and mortar. And as house rent increases,
so do rates and taxes increase, and the weight of the burden falls on
the back ot the middle classes, who are the chief contributors to the
revenues of the country—national and local.
7. I say this advisedly. It has been pretty clearly shown of late years
that the artisan is his own tax-master, and may regulate his contribu¬
tions to the national income by swallowing more or less beer and
spirits, and by^ smoking more or less tobacco, as inclination may lead
him. In 1870 about £89,000,000 was expended in spirits alone in the
United Kingdom, of which £58,000,000, or nearly two- The artisan
thirds, came out of the pockets of the lower classes. Now his own
as men are obliged neither to drink nor to smoke, the ta^-master.
taxation paid in this respect is altogether voluntary ; and the artisan
may, if he choose, reduce his fiscal burdens to a minimum, as he pays
no income tax, although frequently earning more than the clerk who
does ; while the duty still remaining on tea, etc., is inconsiderable.
Nor are his payments in the shape of local rates and taxes by any
means burdensome, for they are indirect; that is to say, included in
the rent that he pays—weekly in most cases—to his landlord, and
therefore not felt in any oppressive degree. The middle-class man, on
the contrary, if he be a householder, is compelled nolens volens to pay
poor rates, watch, or police rates, and other local taxes, and house
duty and income tax to the national taxes ; and as all taxation of this
nature is direct, and paid in lump sums, the burden is all the more
hard to meet and all the more oppressive. Surely, as far as contribu¬
tion to national and local rates and taxes is concerned, the artisan is
far better off than the middle-class householder, as the former has the
power of paying as much or as little as he pleases within certain limits,
while the latter has not.
8. All strikes, as it has been remarked, have a tendency to thrust
up prices, and when prices once go up it is very hard to say when they
will come down again, for the high prices are frequently strikes
maintained when there is no reasonable excuse to justify raise
their maintenance. Strikes tend,moreover, in some cases prioes*
to send trade out of the country, and by causing an increase in the
poor-rate they too frequently increase the burden of the actual ratepayer,
who at the best of times is heavily taxed.
9. The incomes of the clergy, professional men, clerks, incomes of
and others who do not derive the money on which they oiergy, etc.,
live from actual trading, are, generally speaking, either inelastic.
12 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
fixed or very inelastic. Occasionally a professional man may make his
fortune, but with most men in the grades of life that have been men¬
tioned the annual income fluctuates but slightly, and if it tends to
increase, as in the case of clerks in banks and in the civil service, the
annual increment is but very small, and a maximum is at length
reached, beyond which the income he enjoys is not likely to advance.
xo. Now the question that we have to consider, and that most
earnestly, is, How can men in such a case best help themselves ? And
Self-help t° this the only answer worth having that can possibly be
possible and given is, By learning to use their hands as well as their
desirable. heaci / By determining, in fact, to do at home many things
which they have hitherto been accustomed to hand over to an artisan,
and for which—to use a phrase far more expressive than elegant—
they have had to pay through the nose. In short, let all who have the
will to help themselves (and if the will to do is good the doing is well-
nigh sure to be attended with success) determine to become—
Every Man his own Mechanic.
Yes, reader, mend your broken chairs and crippled furniture; put
fresh panes of glass into your broken windows; do your own repairs
as far as it is practicable, indoors and out of doors; look after your
own locks and fastenings; make your own garden plant and appli¬
ances ; put up your own sheds, greenhouses, and garden buildings,
and I will answer for it that if you check what you save on each job,
you shall find yourself in pocket at the end of the year merely through
resorting to self-help.
11. Let us take a simple case of common occurrence, as for example,
a broken window, and see, by comparing the cost of repairs when
A case executed by a glazier on the one hand, and done by the
in point, householder himself on the other, how much may be saved
by means of a little practical knowledge and self-help.
12. We will first look into the cost of the work when the house¬
holder is his own mechanic. The man who lays himself out to do
Broken win- °dd jobs of this kind will of course have at hand the tools
dow—how necessary for carrying out the work, namely, a hammer,
to mend It. a suitable knife for hacking out or cutting away the
hardened putty and fragments of glass still remaining in the window
frame, and a putty knife. The first thing to be done is to clear the
rebate in the sash-frame for the reception of the new pane of glass.
The next step is to measure accurately the length and breadth of the
aperture, including the rebate, and procure a piece of glass of the
required size from any painter and glazier or oilman who cuts glass for
those who may require it. A little putty must also be procured. Now
supposing, for the sake of argument, that the glass measures 18 in.
Cost of by 12 in., or, in other words, contains one and a half super-
materials. ficial feet, the cost of the glass will be 4^d., as the price
of common Belgian glass for ordinary glazing purposes is 3d. per foot
super. The cost of the putty may be reckoned at }4d., putty generally
Labour Must be Paid For. 13
speaking being 2d. per pound, though it may be frequently purchased
at the oilman's for i yid. per pound. The expense, then, of putting
things as they were before to the householder who can use his hands
is no more than 5d.
13. But suppose, on the other hand, that a painter and glazier
is desired to send a workman to mend the broken window. In the
first place he may not have a man on the premises to send, and the
householder must wait and his family suffer inconvenience, or patch
up the hole with brown paper or a piece of pasteboard as best they
can, until the job can be attended to. The mode of procedure will
then be something as follows :—The workman will first come up and
look at the window, and take the measurement for the what the
new pane. He will then return to the shop, cut the neces- workman
sary piece of glass, and come back to the house with the wiu do"
glass, some putty, and the tools that he requires, and put in the pane.
Possibly the glazier's shop is a mile away from the house at which the
repairs are to be done, and what with going and returning twice over
the ground and putting in the pane, at least two hours will be taken
up ; for, it must be said, the workman as a rule never hurries himself,
and his master has but little power to compel him to do so; All he
can do if he finds that a journeyman is persistently long over his jobs
is to discharge him, a remedy that may be as bad, if not worse, than
the disease, as he may get another in his place who may be even more
dilatory. Let us now look into the cost. For the materials used, the
master will charge, for ordinary window glass, about 9d., or nearly
double the prime cost to the householder if he does the work himself;
and as a glazier is paid at the present time 9d. per hour professional
for his time, is. 6d. must be added to the cost of the glass charges,
and putty, and, as the master always charges for his men's time at
a somewhat higher rate than that at which they are paid, the house¬
holder will find when his bill is sent in that the job is charged at 2s. 6d.,
and he has got to pay just six times as much as he would have done if
he had bought the materials and done the work himself.
14. It must be understood that we are by no means finding
fault with the charges made by the master, nor with the amount paid
per hour to the workman, for " the labourer is worthy of Labour
his hire." Labour must be paid for, and should at all must be
times be remunerative to him who performs it; and the paid for*
master is entitled to interest on money paid out for materials and
labour. The only thing to which objection can be taken in the case
under consideration is that pretty nearly twice as much time was
expended in doing the job as was necessary. If the workman had
taken some glass and all his tools with him on his first visit to the
house, just half the time taken up in walking backwards and forwards
from shop to house and from house to shop might have been saved—for,
as we have said, in this part of his work the British workman never
hurries himself, for it is manifestly not to his interest to do so—and the
householder need not have been charged more than is. 6d., or at the
Utmost is. 9d., for the labour expended and the materials used.
i4 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
15. It is to be hoped that the above example has made it suf¬
ficiently clear that it is the cost of LABOUR which makes all build-
Building ope- ms operations and repairs, be they what they may, so
rations—why expensive to those who have to pay for them ; and that, if
expensive. a man ^as sufficient energy and determination to do such
work himself as far as it is practicable, he will not only save a con¬
siderable sum in this respect, but also in the cost of materials, which,
as it has been broadly shown, can be purchased at a far cheaper rate
than that at which they are supplied by the master.
16. It will be well to pause awhile here and look at the wages which
are paid in the present day to artisans and mechanics in the building
trades. The prices given are those which are paid in the metropolis
Artisans' and its vicinity, where they are invariably the highest. In
wages. the country, prices rule somewhat lower, and they will
even differ slightly in different parts of the country. It is safe, how¬
ever, in calculating the cost of a job according to the number of hours
that may probably be employed in it, to take London prices as given
below for the basis of calculation. Again, when the cost of a job per
Cost of job time is under consideration, it will be as well to increase
per time, the estimate arrived at by half as much again, or even
to multiply it by 2, as in course of carrying it out it will be found that
many contingencies will happen to prolong the time employed in it
that it were almost impossible to anticipate.
17. The following is a full list of workmen employed in the building
Scale of trades, and the rates of wages charged by builders per
wages. hour at the present time, compiled from the best autho¬
rities. The prime cost of wages per hour, that is to say, the wages paid
by builders, ranges from 6d. for labourers to 8^d. for painters, 9d. for
masons, bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers, and slaters, and iod. for
plumbers.
s. d.
Slate Mason 1 o
Labourer o 84
Plasterer o roj
Modeller i 2
Labourer o 7
Carpenter & Joiper o io4
Labourer o 7J
Smith o 11
Labourer o 7 J
Zinc Worker o io|
Labourer o 7
Bell-hanger o io§
Labourer o 7
18. It must be understood that the decorator, on account of his
artistic skill, is paid at a higher rate than the ordinary house-painter,
Decorator's while such work as graining in imitation of various kinds
wages. of wood, painting in imitation of marble, and writing
letters of all kinds, also commands higher rates of payment, writing
being paid for at per letter, according to size and manner of execution,
and graining and marbling generally by the job.
19. The prices charged by builders and contractors for work of all
Excavator o 8
Bricklayer o 10j
Labourer o 7
Fire-bricklayer 1 o
Labourer o 7
Scaffolder o 8
Mason o 10J
Carvar 1 1
Labourer o 7J
Pavior o 10
Labourer o 7
Slater and Tiler ... o 10J
Labourer o 7
S. d.
wlre-workek ... o 9j
Labourer o 6
Plumber o n
Labourer o 7J
Gas-fitter o 10$
Labourer o 7J
Painter o 10$
Grainer 1 3
Decorator 1 6
Gilder o 10
Glazier o roj
Labourer o 7
Paper-hanger ... o gi
How to Obtain Knowledge and Practice. 15
kinds are framed according to the prices of the materials used and
the labour employed, and will naturally vary in different prices charged
parts ol the country. Those who desire a more intimate by builders,
acquaintance with the minutiae of such matters than can be gained
from or given in the following pages, are referred to such works as
Laxton's and Bevis's "Price Books for Architects, Builders, Prlce boofea<
Engineers," etc., and Spon's " Architects', Builders', and
Contractors' Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda," in which every
detail is given in a most complete and exhaustive manner.
20. It may be argued that a man who aspires to be his own
mechanic cannot possibly gain a sufficient knowledge of all or any of
the various building trades to enable him to do the neces- Every man
sary work of construction or repairs in a workmanlike has time for
manner, and that even if he could do so he would never necessary
be able to find time enough to do all that may be wanted wor
in house and garden from year's end to year's end. Now, as far as
time is concerned, it may be pointed out at once that the most hard-
worked man has his Saturday half-holiday and the Bank-holidays, to
say nothing of the summer evenings when there is light enough for
handicraft work even after 9 o'clock ; and if these be not enough, he
must—as people are often told to do who object that they can find no
time for this, that, and the other—make time. The genial Irish lyric
poet, Tom Moore, has told us that
" The best of all ways to lengthen our days
Is to steal a few hours from night ;"
and if the man who wants to make time would make it in this manner,
stealing the hours from the right end of the night—that is to say, even
at the risk of being put down as Hibernior Hibernicis, from the early
morning—he would find the practice beneficial to health as well as
pocket, and by steady continuance therein would not only lengthen
his days but his years too. To burn the midnight oil in pursuit of
book-knowledge seems to be a mistake; it is so, without any doubt
whatever, in following up any handicraft or handiwork. For these, the
time and sunlight of the early summer morning are eminently the
most suitable.
21. But how, it may be further urged, is a man to obtain, first the
knowledge, and next the practice necessary to do any handicraft-work
even in a decent and respectable manner. An artisan has Knowleag0
in most cases to spend a long apprenticeship before he and practice,
can command full wages. This is true, but it is equally bowtt® obtain
true that many an apprentice, when he has once learnt to em"
handle his tools, does a day's work as fully deserving of a man's wages
as the work that is turned out by an old hand. The chief thing to be
done is to learn the uses of the different tools used in the trade, be it
what it may, and how to handle them and keep them fit for use. Next
to this, it is useful to watch any artisan when he is doing work on the
premises, to see what he does and ascertain his reasons for doing it.
It if '""iderful how much useful trade-knowledge may be acquired in
2
id Household Carpentry and Joinery.
this way. Lastly, the theory and general modus_ operandi may be
learnt from books, such as this ; not that theoretical knowledge will
make a man a good workman, but that it will assist him when he
endeavours by practice to turn to account the lessons he has learnt
from observation, and the practical teaching necessary to enable him
to use his tools with effect.
22. It is good policy, then, for every man who seeks to do a little as
a handicraftsman, to lay out a guinea or two in obtaining the services
Knowledge any moderately skilled artisan, who, for such a sum,
must be would willingly show the aspirant how to use his tools,
paid for. an(j how to keep them in working order. Thus, for
example, if a man desired to follow up carpentry, it will be beneficial
to him in the highest degree to enlist the services of a joiner who will
show him how to use his saw and his plane, and how to keep his saw
fit for use by sharpening it with a file, and his plane and other cutting
tools in proper condition by means of the grindstone and oilstone.
If, again, he wished to be able to build a brick wall, he should get a
bricklayer to show him how to prepare his foundations with spade and
level, and how to put in the footings of his wall, and to raise it, course
after course, so that its faces within and without, may be truly perpen¬
dicular, inclining neither to the one side or the other. Having once
learnt how to do a thing, a fairly intelligent man will not require so
very much practice to enable him to do such work as inclination or
necessity may suggest, in a tolerably workmanlike manner.
23. Practical instruction in handicraft trades, or, in other words,
technical education, is far too much neglected in English schools;
Technical indeed, there is great room to doubt if it be even
education, attempted, much less carried out, in any in the manner
in which it ought to be. Among the Jews, we know from St. Paul's
own sketch of his life-history in the New Testament, it was the rule
that every boy, whether gentle or simple, should learn some handicraft
trade. The great Apostle of the Gentiles had accordingly learned tent-
making in his youth, and his practical knowledge stood him in good
stead in after life, when in his missionary work he frequently gained
his daily bread by the labour of his hands, refusing to be burdensome
to any of those, to win whom for Christ he had gladly, like his and
our great Master and Example, become poor. In Germany the pupils
in large well-to-do middle-class schools have an opportunity, if, indeed,
it is not compulsory on each, of devoting part of his time out of school
hours to the acquirement of some handicraft trade ; and the Prince
Consort, following the praiseworthy fashion of his country, made this an
especial feature in the education of the Heir to the British Throne and
the junior members of the Royal Family. At present, far more time than
Workshops is either necessary or healthful is spent in the school-
attached room, which should be used as a lecture-room and a
to schools. piace for imparting instruction to the pupils, rather than
as a place in which a certain number of hours are spent daily, partly
in getting portions of certain text-books by rote, and partly in hearing
the tasks thus committed, parrot-like, to memory, to be forgotten again
Choice of Handicraft Trade. 17
some short time after. It is a pity that to every school of importance
a range of workshops are not attached, in which every boy in the
school may gain an elementary knowledge of one or more handicrafts.
The practical hand-work would give more zest for the theoretical head-
work of the school-room. To those who emigrate—and practioai
who can tell nowadays where he may pass his prime of knowledge,
life or end his days ?—the value of a knowledge of car- to whom
pentry, smith's work, painting, gardening, thus practically use "
gained at school, would be inestimable; while to those whose lot it
is to remain in the mother country, it would be equally desirable, as
affording them the means of helping themselves by doing such handi¬
craft work as they might be able to compass in house and garden, as
they find daily wants and expenses continually increasing, while the
income, out of which they must be provided as far as it is possible,
remains entirely or very nearly at a fixed point.
24. If it be asked what branch of handicraft trade, or, to bring mat¬
ters within a narrower compass, what branch of the building trade is
most suitable and most useful for amateurs generally, and choice of
householders especially, it must be answered that a know- handicraft
ledge of carpentry and joinery will be found by far the trade-
most desirable. Next to this, it is necessary to know something about
painting and glazing, which comes fairly within the pro- carpentry
vince of the amateur. Collaterally with these useful arts most
paperhanging may be mentioned. It is unlikely that a desirabl0'
man will do much smith's work, but even in this it is possible for an
amateur to do something, and a slight acquaintance with the arts of
of brazing, soldering, and working in metals will enable a man to make
propagating cases that shall do him good service, and apparatus for
heating a small greenhouse, if he have one, at little expense, even it
he still leaves it to the peripatetic knife-grinder and tinman to stop up
holes in leaking coffee-pots and saucepans, and to renew the damaged
bottoms of colanders and gravy-strainers. Wire-working, Wire-
again, is a useful, and by no means unattractive pursuit, working,
inasmuch as, with some slight knowledge of the methods employed, it
is possible to make a birdcage or a fire-guard, or to construct a strong
but fine wire trellis-work for climbers, or to make defences against the
ravages of birds for peas and other growing seeds.
25. Bricklaying and masonry are trades that possibly an amateur
will not meddle much with ; but some slight acquaintance with the
principles of each, and the materials employed, is desir- Bricklaying
able, even if it be for no other or better purpose than that and
of giving an eye to any workman who may be employed masonry-
in this way on the premises, in order to see that he is doing his work
in a workmanlike manner, that he is using proper materials, and that
he is not wasting his time—a thing which no workman who has any self-
respect will do. It is, however, quite as well to be able to know oneself
how to set a stone or step that has become loose by one Betting stone
cause or another, in cement, and how to prepare the or
cement for the work ; and know in what proportions sand and cement
18 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
should be mingled for the purpose of making a suitable composition
for fixing the step once again, so that it may remain immovable in its
proper position. Lastly, a knowledge of excavating in all
Excava ing. -ts branches is attended with advantage. In the term
" excavating " a far greater variety of work is comprised than appears
upon the face of it at first sight. It means far more than digging or
hollowing out a pit, as for a well or a trench, or for the foundation of
a wall. It embraces these, it is true, but it also implies a knowledge
of the manufacture—if we may use the word—of concrete, and the
purposes to which it is put, of making garden walks and paths and of
levelling, so far as it may be applied to the construction of drains
for carrying off the surplus water from the soil of the garden, or
even from a stable or pigsty, and the laying of drain-pipes for this
purpose. It also gathers within its wide embrace a knowledge of
'die method of making tar paving and burning clay into ballast-
processes which will often be found extremely useful in the garden.
26. Carpentry and joinery, twin branches of a single art as they may
be called, embrace together a far wider field than any of the subjects
Carpentry tbat have just been mentioned; and an explanation of all
and joinery, that can be done in them, and the different tools and
saachines that may be used in their various processes, demands as much
space as a description of all the other arts pertaining to the building
arts put together. We must therefore confine ourselves at the present
time to a consideration of carpentry and joinery only, reserving for
another occasion an inquiry into the processes involved m excavating,
bricklaying, masonry, painting, glazing, paperhanging, and other
branches of the building trade—taking occasion, in the third and con¬
cluding part of this work, to dwell on the practice of these allied arts
as exemplified in the construction of many things that the householder
finds useful every day, either within doors or out of doors.
27. Of all the constructive and manipulative arts that are grouped
together under the wide and comprehensive name of the Building
Trade, carpentry in all its varied branches—we are now using the
word carpentry in its general and not in its restricted sense, which
Carpentry, explained presently—is the one that presents the
why ' most attractions to amateurs. The reason is that it is a
aanuSeVe t0 c^ean tra<^e» and the one that is found to be most generally
ama eurs. usefuj> when a servant has to sweep up a room after a
carpenter has been at work in it, either fixing something or doing some
necessary repairs, she seldom makes a trouble of her task, but in nine
case out of ten speaks of the debris and shavings that are littered
about on the floor as " clean dirt "—that is to say, stuff which imparts
no soil or stain to boards or carpets, and requires nothing but the ac¬
tion of the sweeping-broom or carpet-brush to remove it. An amateur
carpenter, in fact, may go to his little workshop, either within or without
the house, as the case may be, and after working as long as he will in
his ordinary everyday clothes, require nothing more than a wash and
brush up to render himself presentable in the parlour or drawing-
room.
Artisan, Artificer, and Artist. ig
28. Far otherwise is it with other branches of the building trade, as,
for example, smith's work, soldering, and brazing, which involves the
use of heat in one form or another, and contact with the soot and diri*
engendered by combustion and the materials that are used in the forge
and furnace. The clothes of the amateur, unless a special Amateur's
dress is kept for the workshop, should be protected at working
least by a loose " slop," or jacket of canvas, and a canvas "^ess-
apron ; it need scarcely be said that a leather apron covering the chest
and leg« will afford far more protection from sparks, soot, and grease
than one of a textile material. When engaged in painting or glazing,
the amateur should wear a canvas jacket and apron ; and for excavat¬
ing, and all work which involves digging, as well as for bricklaying,
masonry, mixing and handling concrete, and all dirty work of this kind,
it is desirable to wear a canvas slop, trousers of stout fustian, and stout
lace-up boots, which will be all the more serviceable if the soles are
studded with broad flat-headed nails.
29. It may be useful to pause a moment and inquire into the mean¬
ing and general application of the terms " working man," " workman,"
" artisan," and " mechanic." It is the custom to apply the Working
expression " working man " to workmen exclusively—that ma°,:
is to say, to men who work with their hands at handi- application
craft trades. When used in this restricted sense, and °f term-
as the rightful designation of the artisan or labouring classes, the word
is altogether misapplied. The man who works with head and brain is
as much a working man as the man who works with his hands; and
when properly employed, this term includes all workers, whether they
be head-workers or hand-workers. The premier, the man of letters,
the merchant, the clerk, and the trader are as much working men as
the artisan or labourer. To the last-named classes the term "working
man" will never be applied in these pages, for the reason that they have
no exclusive right to it. Men and women who are engaged in handi¬
craft trades and manual labour are workmen and workwomen. Long
ago the term " artisan" was applied to any one who professed and
practised some liberal art: the word, in fact, was synonymous with
artist. In the present day, the word " artisan" means one who is
trained to manual dexterity in some mechanic art, mystery, or trade
—a handicraftsman. It has been justly remarked that " a portrait
painter is an artist; a sign painter is an artisan. The occupation of
the former requires a fine taste and delicate manipulation ; that of the
latter demands only an ordinary degree of contrivance and Artisan,
imitative power. The word artificer neither suggests the artificer, ana
idea of vulgarity which attaches to the term artisan, nor artlBt"
the ideas of refinement or peculiar skill which belong to the term
artist." A " mechanic," again, is " one who works with machines or
implements, a workman or labourer other than agricultural: more
specifically, one who practises any mechanic art—one skilled or em¬
ployed in shaping and uniting materials, as wood, metal, etc., into any
kind of structure, machine, or other object requiring the use of tools
or instruments." Those who do work of any kind, whether with head
20 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
or hands, are entitled to be called and regarded as working men, but
the special names which pertain to those who work at handicrafts are
workman, artisan, and mechanic. The appropriation of the terms
" working classes " and " working men " to these exclusively has given
colour to an idea that is unfortunately very prevalent among mechanics,
operatives, and labourers, that they are the only people in the world
who actually do work, and that bread-and-butter drops into the mouths
of all who happen to be above them in social rank without any trouble.
Social Nevertheless, social distinctions are nothing. God re-
distinctions spects no man's person, and regards no man's social
no hmg. status ; every man ©r woman has real work to do in this
world in that state of life to which he or she has been called by God
as a state of probation and trial ; and we must all look rather to how
we are doing the work that has been entrusted to us, than to what the
work may be, and how it may be regarded in the estimation of the
world.
30. When carpentry and joinery are spoken of together, it is possible
that the two words may not convey a distinctive meaning to every one
The oar- w^° hears or reads them, and it may be serviceable to point
penter and out here in what the difference really consists. A carpenter,
his work, speaking generally, is an artificer who works in timber, a
framer and builder of houses and ships, as far as wood may be employed
in their construction. "The carpenter," says Tomlinson, "frames
and puts together roofs, partitions, floors, and other essential parts of
the building. The joiner only commences when the carpenter leaves
The Joiner °ff, by supplying and fitting stairs, cupboards, furniture
and hie and other parts necessary, but not essential to, the build-
work. ing." The chief tools of the carpenter, properly so called,
are the saw, the axe or hatchet, the adze, the hammer, and the chisel;
the joiner, in addition to these, requires planes of various kinds to impart
a smooth surface and relief, by mouldings of various kinds, to his work.
Carpentry, then, means the art of cutting, framing, and putting together
timber in the construction of buildings, or an assemblage of pieces of
timber connected by being framed together, as the pieces of a roof,
partition, floor, etc. Joinery, on the other hand, is the art or work of
a joiner; and a joiner is a mechanic who does the woodwork in the
covering and finishing of buildings, or whose occupation it is to
construct things such as tables, chairs, boxes, etc., by joining pieces
of wood together. The artisan who makes furniture of a more
elaborate description is usually called a cabinet-maker, the term
" cabinet" being applied to a piece of furniture consisting of a case or
box furnished with doors and drawers.
31. The words carpentry, carpenter, joinery, and joiner have come to
Derivation us from the Latin through the French. Thus, the English
of these term carpenter is derived directly from the French char-
terms. pentier, a slight alteration of the old French carpentier,
which is closely akin to the Latin carpentarius, a wheelwright, or maker
of waggons, from carpentum, a car, or waggon. The Italian term for
a wheelwright or any worker in timber is carpentiere. The English
Carpentry, how Divisible. %\
term "joiner" comes from the French joindre, to join; which, in its turn,
is derived from the Latin jungere, to join or yoke together, as horses
are yoked to a car. The word "cabinet" is a diminutive of "cabin," which
finds its origin in the Welsh caban, or French cabane, a booth, or hut,
akin to the French gaban, arid English gabardine, a cloak, or outer gar¬
ment ; all the words implying shelter or covering of some kind. Thus, the
term " cabinet" implied a close place where anything of value might be
deposited for safe keeping ; and as the construction of such chests and
boxes implied a considerable degree of skill in the artificer, the appella¬
tion cabinet-maker was in time extended to all who were employed in
making household furniture of the better kind.
32. It will be convenient for the purposes of this work to consider
carpentry and joinery as separating naturally into two divisions, which
may be described as (1) Simple Carpentry and Joinery, carpentry,
(2) Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery : the first com- bow divisible,
prising all operations necessary for preparing pieces of wood and
framing and joining them together, which may be performed by the
ordinary tools of the carpenter ; the second, decorative work, and all
such working in wood as may require the aid of special machinery of
some kind or other to produce it. We shall leave the consideration of
all branches of ornamental carpentry to another section of " Every
Man his own Mechanic," confining ourselves in this section to a review
of the materials and tools used in simple carpentry, and the various
processes by which separate pieces of timber may be securely put
together.
92 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
CHAPTER II.
the various woods used in carpentry, etc.—specific gravity
and strength of timber.
Things that the amateur must know—Working drawings—Classification of woods
—Deal most frequently used—Alder Wood—Ash : its uses—Hungarian Ash—
Beech : its uses—Beech: its varieties, etc.—Boxwood—Spanish box—Chestnut
— "Tunbridge ware"—Deal, or Pinewood—Larch—Ebony: its varieties and uses
—Black Ebony—Elm : its uses—Holly Wood—White Holly—To clean Holly
Wood—Lime, or Linden Tree—Uses of Lime Wood—Mahogany—Oak—
Pollard Oak—Medullary rays in Oak—Poplar Wood—Rosewood and its uses—
Sycamore—Walnut Wood—Black Walnut—White Walnut, or Butternut—
Willow and its uses—Collection at various woods useful and desirable—Woods
used in the arts, etc.—Acacia, or f jcust Tree—Almond Wood—Aloes Wood,
etc.—Amboyna Wood—Kiabooci Wood—Apple Wood—Beam Tree—Bird's-
eye Maple—Botany Bay Wood—Cam Wood— Camphor Wood—Canary Wood
—Cedar : its varieties—Cedar Wood—Cherry Wood—Cocabola Wood—Cocus
Wood—Coral Wood—Coromandel Wood—Dogwood—Elder—Fusci—Green-
heart —Gum wood—Hawthorn — Hickory—Hornbeam—Ironwood—Kingwood—
Laburnum—Lancewood—Lignum Vitae—Logwood—Nettle Tree, or Lote—
Olive Wood—Partridge Wood—Pear Wood—Plum Wood—Pomegranate
Wood—Red Satinwood—Rosetta Wood—Sandalwood—Satinwood — Service
Tree—Teak Wood—Violet Wood—Tulip Wood—Whitewood—Yew, and its
uses—Knowledge of all woods used in carpentry desirable—Best timbers for
various uses—Weight of wood per cubic foot—Table of weights of woods—Cubic
feet of various woods to ton—Weights given approximately only—Specific gravity
—To determine specific gravity—To determine weight of a cubic foot—Buoyancy
of woods—Strength and breaking strain—Theory of carpentry—Strength of wood
—Strength increased in proportion to width and depth—Why joists are deep—
Power of resistance : how modified—Instantaneous breaking weight—Breaking
weight : how found—Breaking weight in centre of beam—Formula for breaking
weight—Tables of breaking weight for foot length—Deduction of breaking
weight for other lengths—Rule in calculating strength of timber—Intimate
acquaintance with theory of carpentry not necessary for amateurs.
33. Before entering on a description of the different tools and
processes employed in carpentry, it will be well to consider the various
Things that kinds of wood that are used, and the purposes for which
the amateur each is specially adapted. Experience will show that
must know. WOod which is admirably fitted for one kind of work is by
no means suitable for another. The prices, too, of different sorts of
wood differ as much as their qualities, and it is desirable that the
amateur artisan should become acquainted with these to some extent,
that he may know what he is about when he is making purchases of
his timber merchant. A knowledge of the prices of the different kinds
of wood used in building and furniture making will also be useful to
him in other ways. For example, if he intends to put up even so un¬
ambitious a structure as a weather-boarded shed, he can, after making
his plans and working drawings, calculate to a nicety the quantity of
Classification of Woods.
23
wood that will be wanted, and its cost at the timber yard ; and if he
finds that the job will run into more money than he expected, he
can modify his plans and the mode of structure to suit his pocket.
34. Instruction will be given in a future chapter with regard to the
preparation of working drawings, but we cannot refrain here from
urging strongly on the amateur artisan the necessity of working
preparing careful plans and working drawings to scale of drawings,
any piece of work that he is about to take in hand, whether large or
small, before he attempts to put it in hand. It is an old but true
saying, that " Well begun is half done," and the worker in wood or
stone or any other building material will be led to appreciate its truth
and wisdom when he finds how helpful the making of correct and
careful plans and drawings will be to him in the actual performance of
the work in question. The whole mode of procedure—what he has to
do and how he must do it—will be clearly fixed in his mind before he
even touches the material which he is about to work up into the
desired form or object, and he will always find the execution of the
work to be quicker or slower, according to the extent to which he has
previously worked out his plans in his mind, and committed them to
paper.
35. It will be convenient to treat of all kinds of wood used in orna¬
mental as well as in ordinary carpentry in this section of " Every Man
His own Mechanic," and to divide the various descrip- classification
tions of wood into two classes or groups, including in the of woods,
first group all kinds which the amateur mechanic must of necessity
employ in his work, and many others that are used every day by cabinet¬
makers and turners, but which the amateur, like the house carpenter
and joiner, may very seldom, if ever, be called on to handle, unless he
proceeds to the higher and more ornamental branches of the art. In
the second group will be given other kinds of wood not commonly
used in this country, unless in furniture making, etc.; but which are
especially valuable for this purpose, or otherwise possess a commercial
value in connection with one or other of the industrial arts.
36. Of all the different kinds of wood that are comprised in the first
group, deal, or pine, is that with which the amateur will be most fre¬
quently employed, and of which it is most necessary that he should
know the prices and sizes at and in which it can be Deal most
procured at the timber yard. These will be fully entered frequently
into presently. At present it is only sought to convey UBe "
some idea of the nature of each kind of wood, and the purposes for
which it is or may be used.
Various Kinds of Woods most generally used in Ordinary
and Ornamental Carpentry.
37. The Alder Tree is found in all parts of Europe, Asia, and
North America, and ranges in height from twenty to forty feet. It is
a hardy deciduous tree, and is found chiefly near the
banks of rivers, and in moist situations. The wood is a* wood,
fine and close-grained, and of a reddish-yellow colour; the knots are
24 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
frequently lined in a beautiful manner. It works very smoothly, and
is much used by turners and pattern-makers. For pattern-making,
curves of too small a radius to be made of ash, and bent to shape, are
cut out of Alder.
38. The Ash is a hardy deciduous tree, found generally in northern
latitudes. In colour the wood is greenish white when
Ash: its uses. youngj fcut the grain of timber cut from old trees is often
dark and beautifully marked. When in this condition it is frequently
used by the cabinet-maker. Its
toughness, elasticity, and close¬
ness of grain render the wood
useful for making the frames of
carriages, agricultural imple¬
ments, felloes of wheels, etc.
Hammer-handles and billiard-
cues are frequently made of Ash,
as well as the handles of croquet-
mallets, and it is much used by
coopers. It admits of being bent
almost double without snapping,
and on that account it is well
adapted to be used for curved
work, if the sweep be not too
small.
39. There is a variety known as
Hungarian HUNGARIAN ASH,
Ash. which is valuable
and suitable as a groundwork for
marquetry. The value of the wood varies in accordance with its mark¬
ings, some specimens being so beautifully veined and streaked as to
be worth double the price at which ordinary pieces can be procured.
The grain is not very close, but disposed in various lines, soft in some
spots and hard in others. It is a difficult wood to cut, and is better
adapted for backgrounds than for sawing as fret-work. The most
convenient way of using it is veneered on other woods, similarly to
bird's-eye maple.
40. The Beech is a hardy deciduous tree, also found in northern
latitudes. It abounds in Buckinghamshire—a county which was so
Beech: its called from the Beech trees which covered, and, indeed,
uses. still cover, the sides of its hills. The colour varies ; it is
mostly light or whitish brown in tint, but is found in all shades of
brown, deepening at times to black. This difference in colour is as¬
cribed by Tredgold to the influence of the soil. The wood is fine and
straight-grained, somewhat brittle, and easily worked. The grain re¬
sembles that of mahogany, and it is often stained to represent it. It is
used in the manufacture of furniture, tables, beds, and chairs being
made of it; indeed, the manufacture of beechen frames for cane-
seated chairs forms one of the principal industries of Buckinghamshire.
It may be stained to imitate ebony and rosewood as well as mahogany.
FIG. I.—ASH TREE.
Fia 2.—beech tree.
The framework of machinery, planes,
chucks; the handles of tools, and
wooden cogwheels are generally made
of Beech.
41. The Birch is a forest tree of
graceful appearance, found in cold and
temperate regions, and on elevated
situations, such as the sides of moun¬
tains in warmer countries Birch: its
The wood is white, firm, varieties, etc.
and tough, and is used especially in
northern countries for making wheels,
casks, tubs, and turnery. In North
America the wood of the Black Birch
is considered valuable for cabinet-
making and household furniture, and
in the United Kingdom it is often used
for bedsteads, small tables, etc.
42. The variety of Box that is best
known in this country is the short
shrubby plant frequently used as
border-edging. Box trees which range
Fig. 3.—birch tree.
26 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
in height from eight to thirty feet are rarely met with in Britain. It
_ flourishes in Turkey, whence the finest boxwood is pro-
oxwoo . cure(j jt }s exceedingly useful on account of its solidity
and hardness, and the close¬
ness of the grain. It is much
used for lathe chucks, and in
common turnery; the amateur
artisan, indeed, will chiefly re¬
quire this wood for boxes,
draughtsmen, chessmen, and
other fancy articles that he
may wish to make. It may be
stained black to imitate ebony,
and will take a high polish.
The closeness of the grain also
makes it particularly suitable
for the purposes of the en¬
graver on wood and the mathe¬
matical instrument - maker.
Spanish Box is similar in
Spanish box. colour and close- —box tree
ness of texture to FlG* BOX TREE>
Turkish Box, and works well. It is used by turners, and by musical
instrument makers for making flutes, clarionets, flageolets, etc.
43. The wood known as Chestnut is derived from two widely
Chestnut, different
kinds of
trees—the HorseChest-
nut and the Spanish or
Sweet Chestnut, of
which the former be¬
longs to the natural
order of Sapindacea,
or Soapworts, and the
latter to that of the
Corylacece, or Marsh-
worts, to which the
beech also belongs.
The similarity of name
must not lead the reader
to imagine that these
trees are in any way
allied. The white brittle
wood of the Horse
Chestnut is used by
turners in making the FlG- 5--horse chestnut tree.
"Tunbridge fancy goods usually known as "Tunbridge ware." The
ware." WOod of the Sweet, or Eating Chestnut, which is sometimes
planted in Devonshire, is hard and durable, and beautifully grained
Chestnut, Tunbridge Ware, and Deal. 27
and variegated. Furniture is sometimes made of it, and it is used
with effect for decorative purposes in building.
44. The general name of Deal,
or plnewood, is given to the
timber that is yielded by a great
variety of cone-bearing trees, al¬
though the deal or pinewood cut
from different trees varies con¬
siderably in quality Deal or Pine-
and general utility. wood.
Deal may be broadly distinguished
as Red or Yellow Deal—for the
names are indifferently used—and
White Deal. In one kind, the
ground colour of the wood is
yellow, diversified with markings
of pale red ; in the other kind, the
wood is of a whitish colour, whence
its name. White Deal is obtained
from the Spruce Fir, and Red or
Yellow Deal from the Scotch Fir
and Pitch Pine. The difference
in the two kinds of wood is this •
the grain of the Yellow Deal is
Fig. 6.—pine tree.
generally very straight and free from knots, and is very durable, though
it is soft and easily worked. This renders it peculiarly appropriate for
all building purposes, whether in the construction of houses or ships.
The great height and straightness of the pine renders it well suited for
the masts of ships ; and when
stained and varnished the timber
presents a handsome appear¬
ance for joiners' work in houses.
White Deal is harder and not so
straight-grained as Yellow Deal,
and it is generally full of knots.
The variety known as Silver Fir
is used for flooring, and also
in the manufacture of house¬
hold furniture. The Larch fur¬
nishes a durable
wood for outdoor b"
purposes, especially on farms
and homesteads. Varieties of
Deal are generally distinguished
by the names of the countries
from which they are imported.
The best kinds come from
Sweden and Norway, Russia,
Fig. 7.
and America.
-larch tree.
In purchasing timber the amateur must be careful to
28 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
specify the kind of Deal that he requires, whether White or Yeliow.
To be acquainted with the difference in the appearance of the two
kinds will prove of advantage to him in making the selection.
45. Ebony is a fine, heavy, and compact-grained wood, which can
be worked without difficulty. It is much used by turners and mathe-
Ebony: its matical instrument-makers, for mosiac and cabinet work,
varieties and and in the manufacture of musical intruments ; for ex-
uses' ample, the black notes in the keyboard of a piano are of
Ebony. Ebony is distinguished as Green and Black. Green Ebony
comes from the West Indies, and is so called from the colour of the
heartwood, which is brownish green. It is frequently used in marquetry.
Black Ebony is brought from Africa, the East Indies, and the
Mauritius. African Ebony is a serviceable wood, and stands well, but
the colour is indifferent, and the wood porous. The Ebony from the
Mauritius is very hard, of fine close grain, and of a deep black colour,
and being the best of the three is the most expensive. For ordinary
work the East Indian Ebony is good enough, though it is inferior to
that of the Mauritius in hardness and depth of colour.
46. The Black Ebony of the Mauritius and the East Indies affords
^e best
Black Ebony. andmost
direct contrast to
white holly in mar¬
quetry. Sawing Ebony
is a somewhat dirty
business, as the dust
soils and blackens
everything on which
it falls, and especially
that on which it is
rubbed. This material
cuts clear and fine as
horn, and therefore
for marquetry its use
is highly essential. It
will not warp readily,
but is apt to split
under changes of tem¬
perature ; its want of
elasticity renders it
inclined rather to
break than bend ; but
its fine close grain
admits of a magnifi¬
cent polish, or even
oiling. As it is seldom
more than six inches _
wide, only small arti- • 8-~elm tree.
cles can be made of it in one piece, though, to compensate for that, U
Black Ebony—Elm : Its Uses.
29
is the best wood of all for trinkets, small crosses, chains, bracelets,
etc. It can be made smooth with a tool known as the cabinet scraper,
but the quickest and least laborious mode of shaving it down is by
submitting it to the action of a planing machine.
47. Elm is the wood of a lofty and handsome forest tree, well-
known in Great Britain, which thrives best and attains its greatest
height and growth in moist situations. Indeed, it is said that when
the Elm flourishes in any particular spot, it is a sure indication that
the locality is too damp to be desirable as a situation EUn. lts useB_
for a dwelling-house. Elm-wood will stand the wet for
almost any length of time without decaying : it is therefore useful for
all purposes in which immersion under water or exposure to moisture
is necessary. It is very tough, cross-grained, and difficult to work, and
it takes much labour and force to split it, which renders it suitable for
the naves of wheels, etc. It is reddish-brown in colour, the heartwooc
being considerably darker in tint than the sapwood. Elm planks are
used for the cheaper kinds of coffins, and in the western counties the
trunks of small Elms, when bored, are used as pipes for conveying
water from a spring or running stream into such places as back
kitchens.
48. The wood of the Holly cannot be obtained of any great size in
the United Kingdom, as those who are acquainted with the Holly Tree
can readily understand. It is beautifully white, hard,
close-grained, and durable. For these reasons it is very HoUy Wood-
useful for turning, carving in wood, and inlaying. The Holly attains
considerable height and growth in America, and broad planks or sheets
of wood, suitable for fret-cutting and marquetry, can be sawn from
American holly trees. It should be said that the Holly of America
is a different species to that of Europe, the former being the Ilex opaca
of botanists, and the latter the Ilex aquifolium. The wood obtained
from the American holly is known as White Holly, being
pure white—more so than the generality of ivory—and 6 0 y"
quite tough. The whiteness is due to a particular mode of seasoning,
and subsequent exposure gives it a mellow creamy tint. The grain is
very fine and close, and does not readily absorb foreign matter. It
may be protected by a coating of bleached shellac, but the general
effect of this material is injured, if not entirely spoilt, by any prepara¬
tion that tends to impart to it a shiny appearance. The wood is apt
to split and warp unless seasoned with care and kept in a dry place.
It is hard and difficult to work, and smoothness of surface is best
obtained by planing it with a planing machine. When White Holly
gets very dingy it may be easily cleaned with a bit of to clean
chamois leather dipped into clean dry Paris white; and Holly Wood,
as the wood is of very close grain, its whiteness may also be restored
by rubbing it very carefully with very fine sand-paper.
49. The Lime, or Linden tree, is generally planted for ornamental
purposes, and is often placed in rows on either side of a 0p
broad street or roadway, or pruned and trained in such Linden Tree,
a way as to form a dense screen between a dwelling-house and the
30 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
roadway, the trees being set tolerably close together and the principal
branches interlaced or brought into close proximity. The wood,
Ihough of a close grain,
is soft and easily worked.
Uses of Lime It is very free
Wood. from knots,
and is used in turning and
carving in wood, for mak¬
ing musical instruments,
and for various ornamental
purposes. One of the most
famous thoroughfares in
Berlin, Unter den Linden,
takes its name from these
trees. The wood of the
American Lime or Linden
Tree is generally known
as Bass Wood.
50. The wood called
Mahogany, which is now
so much used in making
every description of house¬
hold furniture, and in the
joinery of the
Mahogany. beUe/ ^
of houses, shop fronts,
etc., although known in
England, was not con- _
sidered valuable for the ' 9'
purposes to which it is now applied until after the year 1720. There are
several sorts of this ornamental and useful wood, which is brought
mostly from the West Indies and Central America. Another kind is
brought from Gambia, in Western Africa. West Indian Mahogany is
generally distinguished as Spanish and Honduras. Spanish Maho¬
gany is brought from Cuba and St. Domingo, and other West Indian
islands. It is darker in colour and of a closer grain than Honduras
Mahogany, which is cut on the mainland of Central America. Spanish
Mahogany is imported in logs about ten feet long and from twenty-
four to twenty-six inches square. Honduras Mahogany is generally
sawn into planks of considerable thickness, and the trees are so large
that these planks have been known to measure six or seven feet in
width. It takes a capital polish. The better sorts are used by the
joiner, the cabinet-maker, and the ornamental turner. The inferior
kinds are in demand with the pattern-maker, for particular patterns,
in consequence of its not being affected by damp or heat. It holds
glue the best of all woods.
Oak; 51* Oak. The best Oak timber in the world is grown in
Pollard Oak. Great Britain, from whose forests, until iron came so much
into use for ship building, all the Oak was derived for the splendid
Lime, Mahogany, Oak. 31
fleets which secured for this country the sovereignty of the seas. Al¬
though the grain is somewhat open—too open, indeed, for the purposes
of the turner—the wood is extremely hard and durable, but difficult to
work, and apt to take the edge pretty quickly off the workman's tools.
The wood is dark in colour and susceptible of a high polish. It is
much used in house¬
building, for houses of
the better class, for
floors, staircases, doors,
the panelling of rooms,
etc., and for tables,
chairs, sideboards, and
other pieces of house¬
hold furniture. Pollard
Oak, which presents a
beautiful variegated sur¬
face, is valuable for
decorative furniture.
The spokes of wheels
are usually made of
Oak; and much, if not
all of the carved work in
cathedrals and churches
and many ancient dwel¬
ling-houses are wrought
in this material, which
is in consequence most
valuable to the carver in
wood. The broad lustrous stripes that give such marked variety
to the srrface of an oaken panel is owing to the exposure of a greater
or less space of the medullary rays which Medullary
radiate something after the manner of the in 0ak'
spokes of a wheel from the girth or centre of the heart-
wood to the bark, as shown in fig. n, which represents
the section of an oak tree. The red lines in deal are
due to the lines of demarcation between the concentric
circles, which are supposed to denote each a year's
growth of the trunk. These concentric circles are
shown in fig. 12. They will readily be recognised on
looking at the end of a deal plank. When planks used
for flooring are cut close to the centre of the tree, the
layer of wood in the middle of the plank, which is very
thin, is apt to wear up and split off, often causing
injury to the hands of servants and charwomen, to
whom the duty of scrubbing the floors may fall, through
the splinters that are left projecting from the ragged
surface of the board. Sometimes such a layer may
be stripped up for the distance of some feet, like a ribbon.
52. Poplar. These thrive best in a deep moist, loamy soil, but
3
Fig. 10.—oak tree.
Fig. 11. sec¬
tion of oak.
Fig. 12. sec¬
tion of fir.
32 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
though they do well in damp situations, or near running water, proxi>
mity to stagnant water
does not suit them.
Poplar Wood. The wood
is white,
soft, and brittle, and
chiefly used in the
manufacture of chil¬
dren's toys. The soft¬
ness of the wood causes
glass grinders and lapi¬
daries to use horizontal
sections as polishing
wheels. The wood of
the poplar is not liable
to shrink, warp, or
swell. The fret-sawyer
will find it useful for
backgrounds, linings,
and veneered work.
53. The best Rose¬
wood is brought from
Rio Janeiro, in Brazil;
inferior qualities are
imported from the East
Indies and the Canary
Islands. It derives its
name from its colour,
Rosewood and in which lighter and darker tints of rose-red are com-
its uses. mingled. It is hard and difficult to work, but when
brought to a good surface and well polished, it looks extremely well.
It is used by the cabinet-maker for ornamental furniture, and by the
turner. It is also useful for inlaying and veneering. The knots that
occur in it tend to diversify the surface, and can be turned to good
account by a skilful workman. The wood contains much resinous gum,
and on this account it is difficult to saw when used for fret-work. This
hindrance, however, may be overcome by slightly oiling the saw blade
now and then in order to lessen the friction. There is an African
variety beautifully marked, and bearing a strong resemblance to black
walnut, which is free from the resinous gum that is so abundant in
ordinary Rosewood.
54. The Sycamore is indigenous to the British Isles, and bears
Sycamore some resemblance to the plane tree in its manner of
growth and broad leaves. The wood is very soft, and
easily worked, and is useful for inlaying and any other purpose in
which whiteness is a desideratum.
55. The wood of the Walnut is extremely useful and valuable,
and is used in the arts for many purposes, of which not the least im¬
portant is that of the manufacture of ornamental furnityrp. In oldpn
FIG. 13.—POPLAR TREE.
Black and White Walnut and Willow. 33
times it was as much used for this purpose as in the present day, but
after the introduction of mahogany and rosewood, walnut
went out of fashion, and for some time was only used for nu 00
making gun-stocks, etc. During the last thirty or forty years, how¬
ever, it has again come into favour, and is now greatly in demand
for dining and drawing-room suites, tables, chairs, couches, and every
description of ornamental household furniture; for which it is well
adapted by the fineness of the grain, its capability of taking a high
polish, and the extreme beauty of the wood, which is of a greyish
brown, richly diversified with streaks and veins of black running in all
directions. Its only drawback is in its want of density, which renders
it liable to injury from blows and rough usage. It is as useful to the
turner as to the cabinet-maker, and works well in the lathe. It is de¬
sirable to get walnut wood, from old well-grown trees, for the older the
tree the more beautiful and diversified are the markings of the wood.
56. For fret-sawing, and all kinds of cabinet work, the wood known
as Black Walnut is the most suitable. Unless well seasoned by
kiln-drying, or some similar process, it is apt to warp and Black
split. It will take a beautiful polish, and is susceptible of Walnut,
more variations in that respect than any other, and still look well.
Plain oiling seems to harden the fibre, and a dead polish will often
show better in the work than though it shone like a mirror. This
wood ought never to be var¬
nished, for it gives a common
look to the article, and never
fails to bring out the grain.
57. The White Walnut,
known in the United States as
the butternut, is a pretty wood,
but Soft. It CUtS White
clean, and is Watnut.or
adapted for many Butternut-
kinds of work, which, however,
must not be delicate in design.
It has the same grain as Black
Walnut, stains well, and shows
oiling to advantage.
58. Willow. The Willow
Tree flourishes on the banks of
rivers and in moist situations.
Fig. 14.-wn.L0w tres. the wood is white; or yellowish
white, and tough. In this
country it is chiefly known as the wood of which cricket- Willow, and
bats are made. When split into strips, it makes strong its uses-
and serviceable hoops for small casks and tubs of every description.
59. Such are the various kinds of wood that are most commonl)
used in building and the constructive arts, and although the amateui
artisan may have occasion to use but a very limited number of them,
it is as well that he should know their qualities and uses. Indeed, if it
34 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
be possible, it is desirable for the amateur to make a collection of as
CoUection of many k>nds of
various woods wood as he pos-
useful and sibly can, ex-
desirable. hibiting their
appearance, when sawn only,
when worked to smoothness
by means of the plane, and
when stained and varnished,
or polished. It would give
him a valuable insight into
the texture and capabilities
of different kinds of wood,
and would help him to ex¬
perience, if he should ever
take to inlaying, or the manu¬
facture of parquetry, mar¬
quetry, etc.
60. In addition to the
woods already enumerated,
there are several other kinds
Woods used in that are used in
the arts, etc. the arts, and
even in the manufacture of
ornamental furniture. A
brief catalogue of these, and
the purposes to which they ^ig" IS- l0cust tree.
are turned, may be desirable, if not so useful as the list already given,
and for this reason it is inserted here.
Various kinds of Woods occasionally used in the Arts
and in Ornamental Carpentry.
61. The wood of the Acacia, or Locust Tree, is a dark-coloured
Af.aMn. 0r wood, bearing some resemblance to mahogany. It is
Locust Tree, brought from India, the West Indies, and the tropical
regions of Africa.
62. Almond Wood is a very hard, dense wood, something like
lignum vitae. It grows in the north of Africa, and parts of Asia and
Almond Europe bordering on the Mediterranean. It is used for
Wood, ^e teeth and bearings of wooded cog-wheels.
63. Aloes Wood, Calembeg, or Green Sandalwood, is a
Aloes Wood, wood of a greenish colour, resembling Sandalwood in
etc. texture, and growing in tropical countries. It exhales a
slight perfume, especially when cut or bruised.
64. Amboyna Wood is a beautiful and valuable wood of diversified
Amboyna appearance, brought from the Eastern Archipelago, and
Wood. deriving its name from Amboyna, one of the Moluccas
or Spice Islands. It is used in inlaying, and maybe made serviceable
Woods for Ornamental Carpentry. 35
for veneering. It is sometimes called Kaibooca wood. It has the
appearance of being the excrescence or burr of some Kaibooca
large tree, being only obtainable in slabs from three Wood,
inches square, to twenty by twelve inches. It is tolerably hard, and
full of small curls and knots. The colour varies from orange to
chestnut brown, and sometimes reddish brown.
65. The wood of the Apple is close and hard in texture, and of a
rich reddish-brown tint. It is useful in turning, and cuts
well for wooden screws. Large letters for printers' posters pp 6 00 '
may be cut from this wood, and rulers for ordinary use are frequently
made of it.
66. The Beam Tree is a tree akin to the apple and pear, whose
wood is useful for naves and axletrees of wheels, small cog- Beam Tree
wheels, and similar parts of machinery. It grows in the
United Kingdom, and is usually called the White Beam Tree.
67. Bird's-eye Maple is a fine variety of Maple, brought chiefly
from Prince Edward's Island in North America. It is yellowish in
colour, diversified with red streaks and dark spots, with a Bird's-eye
lighter ring round them, from which it takes its name. Maple.
It is chiefly used for making picture-frames, and is susceptible of a
high polish. When used for picture-frames it is of course veneered
on some other wood, and this tends to keep it from warping and split¬
ting, which it is otherwise very apt to do. Being a close-grained, gritty
wood, it is difficult to work with a handsaw, and requires careful skill,
even with a treadle-machine, when cutting fret-work from it, as the
small knots drag on the saw, causing it to run unevenly.
68. Botany-Bay Wood, which is also called Beef Wood and African
Black Wood, is a dense, hard, heavy wood, intensely Botany Bay
black in colour. It is chiefly useful for ornamental turn- Wood,
ing, its extreme hardness rendering it capable of being ornamented
with any pattern, however fine and intricate. It is brought chiefly
from Botany Bay, whence its name, and from the Mauritius.
69. Cam Wood is an excellent wood for ornamental turning. It is
brought from Southern Africa. Like Botany Bay Wood, it
is extremely hard, and of a close, fine texture. Its colour, ^ 00 "
when cut and exposed to the air, deepens to a rich reddish brown.
70. Camphor Wood. This wood is the product of the Camphor
Tree, and is chiefly valuable for preserving furs, etc., from camphor
the attacks of moth, when made into boxes. It is used Wood.
by turners, but is soft in substance and coarse in grain, which makes
it difficult to work. It is somewhat yellow in colour and streaked with
darker tints.
71. Canary Wood. A straight-grained wood of a close texture,
and, as the name implies, of a yellow colour. It is imported canary-wood,
from South America, and is used by turners and cabinet¬
makers.
72. There are many kinds of wood included under the name ol
Cedar, all of which are obtained from cone-bearing trees, or trees
of the Fir kind, and are widely different in qualities and character-
36 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
istics. The wood of the Cedar of Lebanon is reddish, and full of a
Oedar: Its fragrant resin ; it is soft and light, and apt to crack in
varieties, drying. The wood of the Deodar, or Himalayan Cedar,
is resinous, fragrant, compact, and durable, and susceptible of a high
polish. When polished it has an appearance resembling that of brown
Fig. 16.—cedar tree.
agate. The cedar whose wood is most commonly used are species of the
Juniper which belong to the Pine tribe. Red Cedar and White Juniper,
indigenous trees of North America, hardly differ except in colour; but
the wood of the former is undoubtedly more handsomely marked and
diversified, and being scarcer than the latter, commands a higher
price. Both woods take a beautiful polish ; but they are pitchy, and
therefore difficult to cut, requiring at all times careful handling lest
they split and break. Spanish Cedar, a cedar of'the south of Europe,
also called Bertnuda Cedar, is soft, fragrant, and easily worked, though
brittle, and is used in making the better class of cedar pencils.
73. The wood called Cedarwood must not be confounded with
the true Cedars described above. It is obtained from a tree growing
Cedarwood *n West Indies and Central America, to which the
name of Barbadoes Cedar is given. The true Cedars be¬
long to the natural order Coniferce j but this is a tree of the natural
order Cedrelacece, which also includes the trees that yield mahogany,
satin wood, and the yellow wood of New South Wales. Havannab
Coral Wood, Dog Wood, Elder, etc. 37
cigar-boxes are most commonly made of it. It is coarse in grain,
very porous, and therefore not suitable for fret-work sawing, though it
is useful for lining boxes, and a variety of small cabinet work. Like
mahogany, it is not liable to warp. It can readily be stained; but
from the coarseness of the grain does not take either oil or polish well.
By some writers this wood is called Spanish Cedar, which name, as
shown above, truly belongs to the wood of the Bermuda Cedar. In
America it is generally so called.
74. The heartwood of the Cherry Tree is hard and fine in
texture, and of a pure reddish-brown colour. It is sus-
ceptible of a high polish, and is useful for turning and erry 00
all kinds of fancy work.
75. Cocabola is a hard and resinous wood resembling the Bra¬
zilian variety of tulip wood. In colour it is reddish, diversified by
slight striping. The red sawdust that falls from it when cooaboia
under the saw will stain like dye. When exposed for a Wood,
long time to the light, the colour is apt to fade. It is liable to warp,
but takes a good polish. It is chiefly useful for inlaying.
76. cocus is a hard wood, yielded by a tree that grows in the
West Indies. It turns black when cut and exposed to
the action of the air, and for this reason is used by oous 00
turners and the manufacturers of musical instruments. It is also
called Coca Wood.
77. Coral Wood is a hard and close-grained wood, found in tropical
countries, which is yellow when it is first cut, but soon
changes to a rich coral red, whence it takes its name. ora "
It takes a high polish, and is used in turning and fancy cabinet work.
78. Coromandel Wood, sometimes called Calamander Wood,
is brought from Southern India and Ceylon. It is very coromandel
hard in texture and of a rich hazel-brown colour, wood,
streaked with black. It is used by cabinet-makers.
79. Dog Wood is the wood of the Wild Cornel, a low shrubby
tree often found in hedgerows in England. It is used by p w00d
watchmakers for cleaning out pivot-holes in watches, and 00
by opticians, having the peculiarity of being very free from silex. It
is the wood used by butchers for making wooden skewers.
80. The wood of the Elder is extremely close in grain and tough,
and is used for pegs by shoemakers, and by turners for elder,
ordinary kinds of turnery.
81. The wood called Fustic is chiefly used by dyers for dyeing
purposes ; is suitable for turning and inlaying. It is of a Fu3tio.
greenish-yellow colour.
82. Greenheart is a coarse and heavy wood, which is used in
shipbuilding, and sometimes by turners, although it does not woik
well. The tree from which it is obtained is of the genus
Laurus. It comes from the West Indies and Brazil. reo 6 '
In Jamaica it is also called Cogwood. It is of a brownish-green
colour when cut, whence its name, but it darkens on exposure to the
air, and becomes like lignum vitae and cocoawood or cocus.
5.8
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
83. GUMWOOD, as the wood of the Eucalyptus or blue gum tree of
Gumwood. Australia is called, is a hard, heavy wood of bluish colour.
It is used in turning and shipbuilding.
84. The wood of the Hawthorn or white thorn is of a yellowish -
white colour and close, fine grain, for which reason it is much valued
for turning. It takes a good polish, and being extremely
Hawthorn. har(^ it ;s sujtable for very delicate work, and tracery.
Old wood is sometimes tinged with red and marked with dark veins.
85. Hickory is a tough and elastic wood, much used in the United
States for shafts for carriages, spokes of wheels, wooden
Hickory. screwSj and all purposes where strength, lightness, and
durability is desirable, and indeed requisite, in the timber that is used.
86. Hornbeam is an American wood of great strength and tough¬
ness, and 3lso of a hard, close grain, and white in colour. Mill¬
wrights find it serviceable for the teeth of cogwheels, etc.,
Hornbeam. an(j t^e iarge pins used in skittle playing are frequently
made of it. The English Hornbeam, often planted to form hedges, is a
different species. The American variety is sometimes called Ironwood.
87. Ironwood is a term applied to various kinds of hard wood
growing in different countries. The Ironwood of South
ironwood. America and the East and West Indies is hard and
straight-grained, and frequently used for making ramrods. It is
reddish-brown in colour.
88. Kingwood is a hard and durable wood, brought from Brazil.
It is used in turning, inlaying, and small cabinet work,
ngwooa. jt js beautifully streaked in tints of violet, for which
reason it is sometimes called Violet Wood.
89. Laburnum is a hard, solid, heavy wood, useful for ornamental
Laburnum turning an<^ marquetry. The heartwoodis of a rich brown
colour, diversified by large white medullary rays, which
show out conspicuously, like the medullary rays of wainscoat oak, when
the wood is cut longitudinally.
90. Lancewood is the wood of a West Indian tree remarkable for
toughness, lightness, and elasticity. Bows, shafts for
Lancewoo . carrjageSj billiard-cues, etc., are made of it. It is cut in
poles varying from three to six inches in diameter. When steamed,
it can be bent into any shape that may be desired.
91. Lignum VnvE is the wood of a tree growing in Central America,
from which the medicinal resin called guaiacum is obtained. It is a
kind of Box Tree. The wood is heavy, hard, and close-
iiignum v se. grajne(^ Works easily, and takes a good polish. The cen¬
tral part of the heartwood is brown, next to which are layers of a black
tint surrounded by sapwood of a yellowish white. This peculiarity of
Colouring renders it useful for ornamental turnery. Round rulers are
made of it.
92. Logwood is the heavy red heartwood of a South American
tree. It is better known for its use in dyeing. It works
ogwoo . and when polished looks like mahogany darkened
by age. It is sometimes called Campeachy Wood.
Olive Wood, Satinwood, etc.
39
93. Nettle Tree, or Lote, is a tree bearing a fruit resembling the
cherry, and growing in Southern Europe. The wood is Nettie Tree
used by musical instrument-makers. It is close-grained or Lote-
and takes a good polish.
94. Olive Wood is of a close, fine grain, beautifully variegated with
curls and knots, and suitable for fret-work, carved work, 0Ji Wood
marquetry, and all kinds of ornamental cabinet-work. It
is easily cut, and of an oily nature. Its variegated appearance renders
it a desirable wood for veneering.
95. Partridge Wood is a beautifully variegated wood, much es¬
teemed for ornamental cabinet work, obtained from Brazil. Partridge
It is heavy, and of a close, fine grain, very hard but easily Wood,
worked. It is much used for walking-sticks, and for the handles of
umbrellas and parasols.
96. The wood of the Pear, being of a close, fine grain, tolerably soft,
and very free from knots, is useful for carving, turning, and a variety
of ornamental purposes. It is used for engraving the large letters used
by printers in setting up posters, and for making patterns
for printing paper for walls and calico. It takes staining ear 0 '
readily and is susceptible of a high polish. Pianos, and what is com¬
monly termed ebonised furniture, in black and gold, are made for the
most part of the wood of the Pear Tree.
97. The wood of the Plum is dark in colour, and, like pear wood,
somewhat soft. The grain is not very close. It is useful w00d
in turning, and works easily. It takes a fine polish. 11111 00
98. The wood yielded by the Pomegranate Tree is of a brownish-
green tint with veins of a darker hue. It is of a close grain, pomegranate
works well, and takes a good polish. It is used chiefly by Wood,
musical instrument-makers.
99. Red Satinwood is a hard wood which works well and takes
a good polish. It is useful for marquetry, being of a Red Satin-
beautiful reddish-purple colour with veins and markings wood.
of a darker tint.
100. Rosetta Wood is an East Indian wood of a bright reddish-
orange colour, marked with veins and streaks of a darker Rosetta Wood
tint. It is in request for ornamental cabinet work, but is
by no means plentiful.
101. Sandalwood is a highly scented wood, something like cedar,
obtained from an East Indian tree resembling the privet. . . . .
The odoriferous properties of the wood, which is of a red- wo°
dish-yellow colour and works easily, taking a fine polish, renders it use¬
ful for making ornamental boxes in which gloves, handkerchiefs,
jewellery, and furs are kept.
102. Satinwood, which takes its name from its soft and lustrous
appearance, is of a yellowish tint. It works well and takes a high
polish, and, on account of its colour and natural gloss, forms an ap¬
propriate groundwork for marquetry and inlaying, and a
useful material for veneering and fret-sawing. It is diffi- w "
cult to attach it to another wood by glueing, owing to the natural oil
40 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
that it contains. It does not warp or split to any extent, and, by
reason of its colour, forms a handsome and agreeable contrast to
ebony, tulip wood, rosewood,
and other woods of a dark
colour. It is brought from the
East Indies.
103. The Service Tree,
which is akin to the mountain
ash, is, with others of its
« ^ ™ species, allied to
Service Tree. ^ ap^le The
wood is hard and of a close
grain, and is used to a great
extent in making and hand¬
ling joiners' tools.
104. Teak Wood is the
wood of an East Indian tree,
extremely hard
and durable, and
next to English oak, the best
kind of wood for shipbuilding.
Ironclad ships are usually
Teak Wood.
Fig. 17.—service tree.
built with an inner skin or coating of Teak, and the targets of iron
against which heavy pieces of ordnance are fired at Shoeburyness, etc.,
are generally backed with Teak.
105. Violet Wood is the wood of the Andira violacea, a tree that
, grows in Guiana. It is useful for turning. (See also
Violet Wood. |_INGW00Di) _
106. Tulip Wood is the wood of a tree that grows in Brazil, resem¬
bling rosewood in its resinous qualities, but reddish in colour, striped
with darker shades, after the manner of the petals of a
up 00 £Uijp flower> whence its name. It is a useful wood for
marquetry, but the tints of the wood are apt to fade, losing their
natural brightness under exposure to the light.
107. Whitewood, the wood of the North American tulip tree—
a tree allied to the magnolia, and bearing flowers resembling the tulip,
whence its name—is distinguished by this name, although
ewoo . -s yenow rather than white. Being straight in grain,
free from knots, and easily worked, it is used in the United States for
ordinary cabinet work and for fret-sawing.
108. The Yew is an evergreen tree of the genus Taxus, allied to the
Yew, and pines. The wood is hard, tough, elastic, and durable. In
its uses, olden times it was much used in England for making
bows. Fine specimens are often to be met with in country church¬
yards.
109. We have now given what may be considered a fuller list of
woods used in carpentry than may be absolutely necessary, inasmuch
as the amateur artisan may perhaps never handle or even set eyes on
a fourth part of them. But though he may never use them, or even see
Best Timbers for Various Uses.
them, it seems desirable that any one who aspires to be a worker in
wood should have a general knowledge of the nature, Knowledge of
properties, and special uses of the various kinds of woods all woods used
used in the constructive arts ; and with this view, the list ^ carpentry
that has been placed before the reader has been compiled. 68 able"
Even now it is by no means exhaustive, but it contains a description
of every kind of wood that is likely to come under the amateur
mechanic's notice.
no. The following is a list of the best timbers for various uses. It
is taken from Spon's " Architects', Builders', and Carpenters' Pocket
Book"—a most useful work for the practical man, and to Best timber
which we are indebted for these and many other particulars . for
bearing on the science and theory of carpentry that are various uses-
given in this chapter. The list will serve as a general summary of
what has just been given.
(a) For General Construction.—Oak, Chestnut, Teak, Cedar, Fir,
Elm, Walnut, Larch, Pine, Beech, Mahogany, Poplar.
(b) For Scaffolding, Ladders, etc.—Acacia, Spruce Fir.
(c) Timbers durable in wet places. — Oak, Alder, Teak, Acacia,
Elm, White Cedar, Larch, Iron bark, Beech, Plane, North American
Plane.
(d) Timbers durable in dry places.—Oak, Chestnut, Olive, Maho¬
gany, Larch, Willow, Deal, Cedar, Pine of all kinds, Maple, Ash, Plane,
Poplar, Teak, Cedar, Sycamore, Acacia.
(e) For Patterns.—Deal, Alder, Pine, Mahogany.
\f) Hardest English Woods.—Box, Oak, Elm, Walnut, Beech.
These woods, with one or two exceptions, have been fully described
in the account given above of the various kinds of timber used in
building, furniture making, and ornamental carpentry, and construc¬
tive arts generally.
in. As the amateur artisan will have obtained a tolerably good idea
of the character and qualities of different kinds of timber from what
has already been said about them, it is perhaps desirable that he
should now make himself acquainted with the weight per cubic foot
in pounds, the average number of cubic feet that go to height 0f
weigh one ton, and the specific gravity of the best known wocd per
and most useful varieties of timber. The following table, out,io f004,
indeed, will afford the best possible index of comparison of their
densities, and a glance at it will, speaking generally, go far to show
at once what wood is soft and light, and what is hard and heavy.
Wood possessing the characteristics of softness and lightness is usually
easily worked and suitable for ordinary purposes, while such sorts as
are hard and heavy are closer and finer in the grain, and therefore
better adapted for turning and ornamental purposes.
112. In the following table the weights per cubic foot in pounds are
those given by Tredgold, Rondelet, and others, when the Tableof
name of the wood is printed in ordinary type, but when the weights
name of any wood is given in italics, the weight per cubic of wood,
foot has been derived from other sources. The average number of cubic
42 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
feet of each material that go to make up a ton in weight is calculated
from the weight per cubic foot, 2,240 lbs. avoirdupois being one ton,
as every reader knows. The specific gravities have been taken, when
possible, from recognised authorities, but in some cases they are derived
from calculation. Those that have been calculated to complete the
table are distinguished thus (*).
Table Showing the Average Weight per Cubic Foot in Pounds, the
Average Number of Cubic Feet per Ton, and the Specific Gravity
of the best known and most used kinds of timber.
Weightl No. of
Weight
No. of
Specific
per cu¬
cubic
Specific
per cu¬
cubic
Name of Wood.
Gravity.
bic foot
feet per
Name of Wood.
Gravity.
bic foot
feet pet
in lbs.
ton.
in lbs.
ton.
Apple
*
•786
49
45*7
Fir Common
■772
31
72 "2
Ash
•760
52
43'0
,, Memel
Hazel *
"6oi
37
6o's
Beech
•696
53
42*2
"641
4°
48
56'0
Birch
•711
42
53'3
Hornbeam *
•770
46-6
Box
♦
•914
57
39'3
Larch *
'505
33
67-9
Cedar of Lebanon
*
•561
35
64*0
Lignum Vitce
1 '122
70
32"o
,, Spanish ...
Cherry
*
•481
3°
74-6
Mahogany Spanish*
i°'59
66
33'9
*
'673
42
53'3
Maple *
'754
47
47-6
Chestnut
*
"593
37
6o's
Oak, American ...*
'720
45
50 8
Cork
*
'240
15
i49'3
„ English ...
Pine, Yellow
"829
53
42 "2
Ebony
*
I'OIO
63
35'5
•508
26
86-r
Elder .
*
'673
42
53'3
„ Red
■576
40
56*0
Elm
'579
42
53'3
„ Pitch
■740
45
So'8
Poplar
*
'38S
24
93'3
Walnut *
'659
41
54'6
Sycamore
*
'609
38
58'9
Willow *
•481
3°
74-6
Teak
•729
47
47'6
Yew *
"802
47
47'6
113. It maybe noted here in reference to the above table that in
Cubic feet of Laxton's " Price Book for Architects, Builders, etc.," it is
various woods, stated that the following quantities of the materials named,
will, upon the average, weigh one ton.
66 feet cubic of deals
64 „ „ fir timber
57 „ „ elm do.
51 ,, ,, beech
29 feet cubic of ebony
59 it 11 lime
45 i» 11 asb
39 11 1. oak
34 feet cubic of mahogany
53 » » walnut
48 ,, „ maple
60 ,, ,, pine
114. It will be noticed on comparison of the results exhibited in each
table, that while in some cases, and notably that of mahogany, the
Weights given difference is inappreciable, in others, as in beech, there
approximately is a great discrepancy. This is accounted for by the
only- fact that considerable variation is to be found in the
specific gravity and weight per cubic foot of different specimens of the
same kind of timber. The reader must therefore bear in mind that
the statements advanced in the above tables are not established facts
which admit of no alteration, but are merely approximate values,
which are only useful in general calculations, but which cannot be con¬
sidered as absolutely accurate in individual cases.
115. Specific gravity may be defined as the ratio of the weight of a
Bpeciflo body to the weight of an equal volume or bulk of some
gravity, other body taken as the standard or unit. The standard
is usually distilled water for solids and liquids, and air for gases. Thus,
Specific Gravity. 4j
when the specific gravity of gold is said to be 19-225, it is meant
that when equal volumes or bulks of gold and water are taken, the
gold is 19*225 times heavier than the water—that is to say, a cubic inch
or a cubic foot of gold weighs respectively 19*225 times as much as a
cubic inch or a cubic foot of water, or the water contained in a hollow
vessel measuring an inch or a foot, as the case may be, in every
direction. The specific gravity of gold is therefore intelligibly
expressed in figures by 19*225, In other words, the weight of a piece
of gold is equal to the weight of water 19*225 times its size or bulk.
116. To show how many of the specific gravities given in the above
table have been arrived at, it is as well to explain that the weight of a
cubic foot of water is 62 lbs. 224 grains, or 62*32 lbs. To determine
avoirdupois. When the specific gravity of a body or specific
any material is known, its weight per cubic foot in pounds gwity-
avoirdupois may be readily determined ; and conversely, when its
weight per cubic foot in lbs. avoirdupois is known, its specific gravity
may be easily deduced. Thus, to express the specific gravity of any solid
or liquid : Divide the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of
the body, whatever it may be, by 62*32, the weight in pounds avoirdupois
of a cubic foot of distilled water, and the quotient obtained will be the
specific gravity of the body.
117. Conversely, to determine the weight of a cubic weight of
foot of any solid or liquid in pounds avoirdupois: Multi- a oubio foot-
ply the specific gravity of the body by 62.32, the weight in pounds
avoirdupois of a cubic foot of distilled water, and the result obtained
will be the weight of a cubic foot of the body in pounds avoirdupois.
118. The buoyancy of woods that will float in water is according to
their respective specific gravities. There are a few kinds of wood so
dense and heavy that they will not float in water, or will Buoyancy
sink so low in it as to be nearly submerged. Ebony and of woods.
Spanish mahogany are very dense, heavy woods, and as they are
heavier than water, bulk for bulk, they will not float in it. Oak, beech,
and ash will sink deep in water, while fir, larch, and cedar displace
but a small quantity, and therefore do not penetrate far below the
surface. The lightest material obtained from the vegetable kingdom
is cork, the bark of a species of oak which abounds in Spain. The
weight of a cubic foot of cork is 15 pounds, and its specific gravity
no more than *240, or somewhat less than Xlb. avoirdupois; or, in
other words, equal bulks of cork and water being taken, the cork is
somewhat less than one-fourth the weight of the water. This is why
cork is so extremely buoyant in the water and is useful as a material
for making lifebuoys, belts, etc., and floats for fishermen's nets.
119. It will now be necessary to explain what is meant by the
strength and breaking strain or breaking weight of timber, and the
amount of pressure or strain which can be safely laid strength and
upon it according to its form, thickness, position, etc. breaking
This belongs to the theory, and not to the practice of strain,
carpentry ; and although a thorough knowledge of the principles that
are involved, and which are based on and belong to the branch of
44 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
mathematical science known as mechanics, is most necessaiy to the
civil engineer, the architect, and the builder, it is by no means so
important to the amateur carpenter. Whatever, therefore, is said on
this point will be said as briefly as possible, so that it may not
become wearisome to the reader.
120. The principles involved in the theory of carpentry are
chiefly brought under consideration in the construction of roofs. It is
Theory of by no means likely that the amateur will ever put up a
carpentry, building requiring a roof of any great size or space, for
his efforts in this direction will not probably extend beyond the simple
lean-to roof of a shed built up against a wall, or even unattached to
any other kind of building, or the span roof of a greenhouse, or any
other structure of an ordinary kind. This will be sufficient to explain
why the theory of carpentry need not be entered into in this work
further than may be necessary to elucidate the reason why a particular
mode of procedure should be adopted in carrying out any work in
practice.
121. First, with regard to the strength of wood. It is by the trans¬
verse strength that is inherent in it that a simple beam or piece of
Strength of wood, be it what it may as regards its form, can resist
wood. the action of the weight that is brought to bear upon it.
Suppose a beam of timber to be broken by extreme pressure exerted
on its centre, the ends being sustained by supports of some kind. On
examining the broken part of the beam, it is manifest that the fracture
is produced by the extension of the lower fibres and the compression
of the upper ones; the former being strained till they are dragged apart,
and the latter weakened till resistance is no longer possible by being
squeezed together till the fibres are crushed. A rough idea of the
effect which it has been attempted to describe may be gained from
the accompanying diagram,
in which the effect of the
weight in upturning the
fibres, by dragging them
asunder below and crushing
them together above, is
shown in an exaggerated
manner. In fig. 18 is shown
a beam or piece of wood of
uniform thickness, supported
at the extremities. In the
centre, in a downward direc¬
tion, shown by the vertical line
C d, a weight, w, is attached
sufficiently great to overcome
the elasticity and cohesive attraction of the fibres of the beam. The
effect is shown in fig. 19, in which, by the downward pressure of
w, the fibres that were previously united at D, and just above it, have
been broken and pulled apart, while those at C have been pressed to¬
gether to the extent shown by the small triangles Qxz, Cyz, which in
D
h
w
k
beam supported at ends.
Fig. 19.—effect of weight on beam.
Strength of Wood.
45
each portion of the beam have been forced back into the particles
next to them, until the corners, as shown by the triangles just named,
have disappeared. It must be remembered, that in the illustration
the effect is exaggerated, as it has been already said; but a careful
Study of the diagram will have shown the amateur the necessity of
conbining a little of the theory of carpentry with his practice, so that
in framing timbers together he may guard even against deflection, to
say nothing of fracture, which would altogether spoil the appearance
of his work and detract greatly from its stability.
122. It has been ascertained by actual experiments that the strength
of a beam or girder of timber, and hence of any piece of timber,
whether large or small, increases directly as the width strength in-
and as the square of the depth. Thus, if a piece of p^^rtlon'to
wood measuring three inches in breadth and three inches widtt^and
in depth—that is to say, three inches square in section— depth,
will bear a certain weight, a beam six inches broad and three inches
deep will bear twice the weight; but a beam three inches broad and six
inches deep will bear four times the weight. The strength is also
inversely as the length. That is to say, if two beams of equal breadth
and depth be taken, but one of them be twice as long as the other, the
longer beam will only bear half the breaking weight that the shorter
one will sustain, or, in other words, will be only half as strong.
123. It will now be clear why, in laying joists to sustain a floor, the
timbers are so placed as to have considerable depth why joists
from top to bottom, while the breadth is comparatively a10 de0P-
very narrow.
124. It must be pointed out that the power of resistance in any
beam is considerably modified by the manner in which the load is
applied to it: thus, if, instead of being collected at the power of re-
centre, the weight were divided into equal portions and sistance, how
distributed at equal distances along the beam, it would modlfled'
be capable of carrying twice as much. And if the ends of the beam
were fixed, as in opposite walls, it would be able in this position to
sustain nearly twice as much as it would if the ends had not been
fixed. A continued strain tends to weaken the power of resistance in
a beam, and the power will be lessened still more when the weight is
variable, or a rolling weight instead of a dead weight. The nature of
the wood must also be taken into account : thus, some in which the
fibre is long and the grain straight will bend to a very great degree,
while others in which the grain is short and close, will scarcely bend
at all, but break suddenly. In framing timber, then, as the carpenter
is called upon to do, all these points must be taken into considera¬
tion.
125. The instantaneous breaking weight of any kind of wood is the
weight under which it will give way and break when loaded with this
weight in the centre. It has been said that the load with inetantaneoug
which a beam may be weighted with safety, should never breaking
exceed more than one-third of the breaking weight; but it "w0lsiit.
is better and safer never to let the load exceed one-fourth of the
46 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
breaking weight. Indeed, it is argued that timber is permanently
injured if more than this is applied to it. Tredgold, one of the best
authorities on carpentry, says that a load cannot be looked on as safe
if it exceeds one-fifth part of the breaking weight.
126. It is by no means a difficult thing to find the breaking weight
Breaking of every piece of timber, and, this being known, the
weight: how load that it will sustain without injury, which, as it has
found. jugt been shown, is estimated by different authorities at
from one-fifth to one-third of the breaking weight. The following is a
general rule for finding the breaking weight in the middle for girders
of wood supported at both ends. Rule.—Multiply the breadth in
inches by the square of the depth in inches, and divide by the length of
bearing in feet. The result obtained, when multiplied by a certain
constant or invariable quantity, for the kind of timber under con¬
sideration, gives the breaking weight in the centre in hundredweights.
This constant or invariable quantity which has been practically
determined by a series of experiments, is stated by Barlow to be
For English Ash 6 I For Dantzic Oak 4J | For Red Pine 4
,, English Oak 5 | „ Pitch Pine 5 | „ Riga Fir 3
127. Now, to test this rule, or, in other words, to afford an example
Breaking of it: To find the breaking weight in the centre of a
weight in beam of red pine four inches broad, ten inches and ten
centre of beam.feet bearing
4 (The breadth in inches) x io2 (square of depth in inches) 4 x 100
= = 4a
10 (Length of bearing in teet) 10
Then 40 (result obtained) x 4 (constant for red pine) = 160 (breaking weight in cwts.).
For a permanently distributed load—that is to say, a load divided into
several parts and placed at equal distances along the beam—the break¬
ing weight of such a beam of red pine as we have been considering
will be double the breaking weight in the middle, or 320 hundred¬
weights. But, according to Tredgold, the safe load should not exceed
one-fifth the breaking weight, and as the breaking weight permanently
distributed is 320 cwts., the safe load permanently distributed is
320-1-5, or 64 cwts.
128. Now from this a formula can be deduced, from which the
strength or breaking weight of any of the woods whose constants are
given above can be determined when the breadth and depth of the
Formula for beam in inches, and its length in feet are known. This
^weightf formula may be expressed as w = x d^ X c jn wbjcb
w represents breaking weight, b breadth in inches, d depth in inches,
I the length in feet, and c the constant. For constants for other kinds
of timber the reader must refer to theoretical works on carpentry, and
the papers of the Royal Engineers, in which full tables of constants are
given.
129. In some books, tables are given from which, by an easy ope-
Deductions of Breaking Weights. 47
ration, the strength of a piece of timber may be ascertained. The
following is part of a long and elaborate table given in
Laxton's " Price Book " : " The weights in this table are breaking
one-eighth of the breaking weight of red pine uniformly weight for
loaded, or one-fourth of the same when suspended in foot lengt:tl"
the middle. Rule.—To ascertain the strength of a piece of timber,
divide the second column by the length of the timber, and the weight
in cwts. will be obtained." The first column, it will be noticed, gives
the depth and thickness in inches, the second column the safe load or
weight of a piece of timber of the depth and thickness specified, one foot
in length. Now, as it has been said, the strength of a piece of timber
is inversely as its length, or that, when a piece of timber of a certain
length, breadth, and depth will break under a certain weight, a piece
of the same breadth and depth, but of twice the length, will break in
the centre under half that weight, a piece three times as long under
one-third the weight, and so on,—it is clear that to obtain the safe load
or weight we have only to divide the weight given in the second
column by the length of the beam. It will be noticed that the safe
load in this table is taken at one-fourth the breaking weight when
suspended in the middle, while Tredgold places it at one-fifth. The
difference between the two is just one-twentieth ; so, in order to reduce
any result in the tables to Tredgold's estimate, the reader has only to
divide the result by twenty, and subtract the quotient from it, or, in
other words, to reduce the result by one-twentieth.
i Thick¬
ness in
>. inches.
I foot
long,
cwt.
Depth
in
inches.
Thick- 1
ness in
inches.
1 foot
long,
cwt.
Depth
in
inches.
Thick¬
ness in
inches.
1 foot
long,
cwt.
Depth
in
inches.
Thick¬
ness in
inches.
1 foot
long,
cwt.
by 1
2*25
2 by
xi
6*oo
3 by
2
18 *00
4 by
2
32*00
»
2*8l
2 11
I§
7*00
3 11
2f
20*25
4 11
2i
36*00
» ii
3*37
2 11
2
8*oo
3 ..
23
22*50
4 ••
2I
40*00
>i iJ
3'93
2 „
2|
9*00
3 •>
23
24*75
4 11
3.
48 '00
» 2
4" 5o
2 ,,
2 J
10*00
3 »
3,
27*00
4 »•
3l
56*00
» 3
6*75
2 ii
3
12*00
3 ii
3i
3I'5°
4 11
4.
64*00
.• 4
9'00
2 1,
4
16'00
3 11
4
36*00
4 11
4i
72*00
.1 5
11 '25
2 »
5
20'00
3 ••
5
45 00
4 .1
5
8o*oo
.. 6
i3"5°
3 >1
6
24*00
3 11
6
54 00
4 ii
6
96*00
ii 7
iS'75
2 >1
7
28*00
3 11
7
63*00
4 11
7
II2'00
„ 8
i8'oo
2 „
8
32*00
3 ii
8
72*00
4 1.
8
128*00
» 9
20*25
2 >t
9
36*00
3 ii
9
81'00
4 .1
9
144*00
» 10
22*50
2 ij
10
40*00
3 11
10
90*00
4 11
10
160*00
.. "
24*75
2 t>
11
44*°o
3 »
11
99*00
4 ..
11
176*00
11 I2
27*00
2 ,,
12
48*00
3 •>
12
108'00
4 11
12
192*00
130. In these tables the strength, or safe load of timber of the length
of 1 foot, is given up to a depth of 14 inches, and a thickness of 15
inches, with a result of 2,940 cwts., but from the portion Deduction at
given above it is easy to deduce the quantities in cwts. for breaking
other dimensions exceeding those that have been given, re- otber^engfcha.
membering always the fundamental rule that if the breadth
of a beam be doubled it will bear twice the weight, and that if the
depth be doubled it will bear four times the weight; or, to speak
48 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
more generally, that the increase in strength is directly as the breadth,
or as the square of the depth. Now, suppose we had only the second
series in this table for pieces of wood of various thicknesses or
breadth from i}4 to 12 inches, but of a uniform depth of 2 inches : we
know from this that the safe load of a piece 2 in. X 2in. X 1 foot is
8 cwt. We wish, however, to know the safe load of a piece 4 in. X 4 in.
X 1 foot. It is clear that as the piece of wood is twice the width
and twice the strength—its length will be 8 X 2 X 22, or 8 X 2 X 4 =
64 cwt., as given in the table. Again, if we wish to know the strength of
a piece of timber 8 in. X 8 in. X 1 foot, it is clearly 64 X 2 (the breadth
being doubled) X 22 (the depth being doubled and the proportionate
increase squared) = 64X2X4=512 cwt. Again, even at the risk
of being tedious, the safe load of a piece of wood (that is to say, red
pine, for that is the kind of wood under consideration in all these
examples), 3 in. X 3 in. X 1 foot is, from the table, 27 cwt., then the
safe load of a piece of wood 9 in. X 9 in. X 1 foot, will be 27 X 3 X 3Z,
or 27 X 3 X 9 = 729 cwts., the increase in breadth or thickness being
taken directly, and the increase in depth being squared as before.
Indeed, having the rule that has been given, and knowing that the
unit of the strength of red pine is that the safe load of a piece of
timber 1 in. (depth) x 1 in. (breadth) X 1 foot (length) = 1 cwt., we may,
by calculation, deduce from this unit of measurement of the strength
of red pine, as we may call it, the strength of similar timber of any
dimensions. For, suppose, as before, the breadth and depth to be
increased to 9 inches, then the safe load = 1X9 (direct increase in
breadth) X 93 (the square of the measure in depth) = 1X9X81= 729
cwt., as shown above.
131. " In calculating the strength of timber," says Laxton, " only so
Rule in caiou- much of the wood should be measured as is continued
lating strength through the entire stick. For instance, a tie beam,
°f t ber. measurjng 8 by 10 inches, having an inch and a half rod
passing through it, should be considered as measuring but six and a
half inches thick; and if the ends of struts or anything of the kind
be cut down into and across the top of the beam two inches, it
would then measure but eight inches deep." For example, in fig.
20, let A represent a beam that is eight
inches broad and ten inches deep,
then if the tie-beam, B, being one and a
half inches thick, is passed through a
hole of the same diameter, bored to
allow its passage, the strength of the
beam is weakened to an extent equiva-
Fig. 20. tie beam with rod & strut, lent to the reduction of its thickness one
and a half inches throughout its length; and if the strut C were cut
into and across the beam to the depth of two inches, the strength of the
beam would be weakened to an extent equivalent to the reduction of its
depth two inches throughout its length. In short, if a beam of the
dimensions given were treated in this way by the insertion of a tie-
rod, and strut to the extent described, its actual strength when thus
How Timber is weakened by Borinq Holes. 49
cut and pierced would be no more than that of a beam six and a half
inches broad and eight inches deep. The amateur artisan will now
see how the strength of timber is weakened by boring holes through it
and cutting mortices and notches into it. It is, however, only when
the timber thus cut has to sustain any great load or downward pres¬
sure, as in the construction of roofs and floors, that this need be
taken materially into consideration.
132. The remarks that have been advanced on the theory of carpen¬
try, and the method of calculating the strength of timber intimate
will be sufficient, generally speaking, for the purposes of acquaintance
the amateur mechanic, should he be disposed to enter on ^rpentr^not
its study in an elementary manner. It will be necessary necessary for
to allude to this part of the subject when speaking of the amateurs,
construction of roofs, but it will be endeavoured to touch on it but
briefly, and in a manner calculated to redeem it from becoming in
any way obtrusive or wearisome.
50
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
CHAPTER III.
felling and seasoning of timber. designations and marks
of timber. timber as supplied by timber merchants.
its prices.
Qualities, etc., of timber—Notes on strength and density of timber-—Seasoning of
timber—How to guard against shrinkage—Full-grown timber strongest—Season
fdr felling timber—Artificial modes of seasoning timber—Well-seasoned wood
more durable—Selection of timber—Wet rot and dry rot—Names of timbers of
various sizes—Planks—Deals—Battens—Difference in these timbers—Boards—
Feather-edged boards—Scantling—Additional sizes of timber—Quartering—
Petersburg Standard, etc —Facts useful to amateurs—Square of boards or timber
—Whence building timber is brought—Selection of timber—Marks on timber—
Place from whence timber comes shown by the marks—Properties and value of
timber from different places—"Red" and "Yellow" Deal—Prices of timber—
Prime cost price of timber per load—To find value of timber per cubic foot from
price per load—Prices of wood sold by foot super.—Timber merchant's prices—
Match-boarding—Prices of Oak, etc.—Prices as charged by builders—Oak in
Scantlings, etc.—Timber merchant's prices : why different from builder's prices
—Prices as charged by timber merchant—Prices of deals, boards, match-lining,
etc.—Venetian laths and trellis-work— Blind-laths, dimensions and prices—Trellis-
work, dimensions and prices—Wood-fencing—Egg-boxes for fencing—Prices of
posts in Oak, etc., and rails—Arris-rails—Arris-gutters—Park-paling—Oak rails,
pales, capping, and gravel-boards—Scaffold poles—Slating laths—Small pales—
Authorities for prices—Prices of Scantlings per foot cube—Cost of boards, etc.,
per foot super.—Foot cube and equivalents—Value of timber per foot cube, how
to determine—Knowledge of prices.necessary for amateur—Planing-up timber—
Help from jobbing carpenter—Scantling, application of term—Cost of Scantlings
at 3s. per foot cube—Cost of Scantlings at 3s. 6d. per foot cube—Prices of woods
used in ornamental carpentry—Prices of woods for fret-cutting—Prices, why
moderate—Plain fret-work, thicknesses suitable for—Hardwood and blackwood
—Veneers—Pear-wood, apple-wood, etc.—Timber merchants in various parts—
Timber Trades' Journal—Swedish joinery, doors, sashes, etc.—Mouldings : their
uses and prices—Directions respecting use of mouldings—Articles in wrought
timber—Architraves—Skirtings—Jamb-linings—Door frames—Floor-boards and
Match-boards—Sashes and frames—Outside front-doors—Bolection mouldings,
meaning of term—Inside-doOrs—Sash-doors—Fencing and trellis-work.
133. The present chapter must be regarded as a continuation of or
sequel to that which has immediately preceded it. It will be sought
Qualities, etc. in it to make some remarks on the quality of the wood
of timber., found in different parts of the tree, the felling and season¬
ing of timber ; the names by which different sizes of timber are distin¬
guished, and the distinctive marks of timber from abroad; and the
different kinds of timber that are procurable from the tanber merchant,
whether sawn only, or sawn and planed, and their prices. Something
also will be said with regard to manufactured articles that can be pro¬
cured from the timber merchant, such as doors, window sashes and
rails, trellis-work, posts and rails, mouldings, etc.
Season for Felling Timber.
5*
134. In accordance, then, with the course that has just been marked
out, a few notes on the strength and density of timber Notes on
may not be out of place here. These may be stated as Bt?en2tih aild
. J density of
follows .— ^ timber.
(1) The longer the time that a tree is growing, provided always that
it has not passed maturity and begun to decay, the heavier and denser
its wood becomes.
(2) Generally speaking, the heavier the wood the stronger it is.
(3) The strongest timber is always found in the lower part of a tree.
(4) The straighter the grain of the timber the stronger the wood.
(5) The bark is the weakest part of the tree, the sap-wood within the
bark and the heart-wood is not so strong as that which lays between
the sap-wood and the heart, or in other words the strongest timber
lies between the heart and the sap-wood.
135. All timber should be well seasoned before it is used by the
carpenter, for whatever purpose it may be intended; that is to say,
after it has been felled and sawn a sufficient time should seasoning of
be allowed for it to dry, and thus become entirely free timber,
from sap and other moisture. To get dry whole timber is a thing
impossible, unless you can keep it in store long enough for yourself.
To obtain it from a timber-merchant is out of the question, as in the
rapid course of business he cannot keep any part of his stock long
enough to admit of thorough seasoning.
136. As it is so difficult to get well-seasoned timber, the only thing
to be done when designing a building, is to arrange the How t0
timber in such a manner that any shrinkage shall in no against
way affect the stability of the structure. When the term shrinkage,
"best timber" is used, as by an architect in his specifications, it is
always taken to imply timber that is exceptionally straight in the grain
and free from knots and defects. The strongest timber obtainable for
building purposes is that which is sawn out of baulks, which are the
squared trunks of very large trees—we are now speaking of pines and
trees of the fir tribe that have reached maturity—and run-grown
whose wood is consequently the most dense, and has timber
therefore attained the greatest strength. Planks, deals, Btrongest.
and battens (terms used in the timber trade to designate pieces of
timber of various widths, and which will be explained presently) are
cut out of smaller and younger trees, and will not bear so great a load
as full-grown timber.
137. Timber should not be felled until it is of mature age. The best
seasons for felling are in the height of summer when the sap is up and
ripening in the leaves, or in the depth of winter when Beasonfor
the sap has withdrawn to the roots. In either case the felling
trunk of the tree is less full of sap than at other times. timber.
When felled and stripped of its bark, the tree should be squared 01
sawn into logs, and placed in running water, or where it is fully ex«
posed to the influence of sun and air. When removed from the water
wood should not be allowed to dry too rapidly. In seasoning, timber
will lose from one-fourth to one-half its weight when felled, owing to
52 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
the evaporation of moisture that it contains. The more porous or less
dense the wood, the more sap or moisture it contains, and thus it is
that a heavy wood loses less than a light wood in weight when season¬
ing, or why oak loses less in drying than fir. ^
138. There are artificial means of seasoning timber, consisting chiefly
. . in exposing it to the action of steam or boiling water, but
modes of wood thus heated, although it is not so liable to shrink as
seasoning timber dried by exposure to the weather, has not the elas-
timber. tjcity and toughness of the latter. Sawn timber of what¬
ever size it may be—that is to say, whether in the form of planks, deals,
battens, or boards—during the process of seasoning is generally stacked
in such a manner as to admit of the free passage of air throughout
the pile. In the pile the timber is of course in a horizontal position.
The pieces will dry better when placed upright, or when stacked or
ranged against a long cross-bar supported on uprights, one at either
end.
139. The better seasoned the wood, the better and more durable
will be the articles that are made from it. It is true that seasoned
WeU-seasonedwoo(l is harder and not so easy to work as unseasoned
wood more wood, which contains a considerable amount of moisture
durable. ,vhiJe the former is tough and dry. It does not follow
that the wetter wood is the easier it is to work, as any one may prove
for himself by trying to put the saw through a piece that is thoroughly
soaked with water. Good wood, or the "best timber," as already
explained, is that which is straightest in the grain and freest from
Selection of knots. In selecting timber for joinery, care should be
timber, taken to avoid any piece that has a knot at the edge, as
the knot will be loosened in working and often fall out, causing much
disfigurement.
140. Timber is liable to destruction from two causes, called respec¬
tively wet rot and dry rot. The former is the result of a chemical
Wet rot and decomposition which takes place in timber when it is so
dry rot. enclosed that no air can get to it; the latter is due to
the formation and growth of certain fungi. " Experiments," says
Laxton, " have proved that impregnating the woody fibres of timber
with mineral solutions will impede the decomposition by wet rot,
and prevent the growth of those fungi which cause the dry rot, and at
the same time render the timber less inflammable. One method of
preserving timber, which has been successfully employed, is to dry it
and apply a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, or of nitric acid and
water, and then paint it with white lead and oil. When the timber
has to be fixed near the ground, or in any damp situation, it may be
coated with a thin solution of coal tar and fish oil mixed with very
finely powdered clinkers from the forge. It is imperative that all
timber be properly seasoned before using any preservative application
whatever."
Names of ,4I- the timber trade and in building, the terms
timbers of planks, deals, battens, boards, scantling and quartering,
various sizes. are used in speaking of pieces of timber of various sizes;
Scantling, Quartering, etc. 53
it is necessary that the amateur artisan should get a clear idea of what
is meant by these expressions, and the term Petersburg Standard.
142. Planks are pieces of wood 11 inches in width and 2\ or 3
inches thick, generally sold in lengths of 8, 10, 12, 14,16, plants.
18, 20, and 21 feet.
143. Deals are pieces of wood 9 inches in width and z\ or 3 inches
thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks. Deals.
144. Battens are pieces of wood 7 inches in width and 2\ or 3
inches thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks Battens,
or deals.
145. The difference then in timbers of these designations Differenoea
lies in their widths a fact that can be easily noted and in these
rememberedj the batten is 7 inches wide, the deal 9 inches timbers.
wide, and the plank 11 inches wide.
146. Boards are pieces of wood that are of less thickness than
planks, deals, or battens. Floor boards are, or ought to BoardB
be, an inch in thickness. Boards are generally distinguished
by their thickness as " half - inch board,"
" three - quarter board," " seven - eights
board," etc. Feather - edged boards are
boards cut in the manner shown in fig. 21, ^ig> 3i,—feather-edged
4 BOARDS
which is in section, so that one side of the
plank is thick and the other thin. Boards of this description are used
in weather boarding, the thin side being uppermost Feather-
when the boards are nailed to the framing in a horizontal edged boards,
position. Weather boarding is commenced from the bottom and
carried upward, so that the thick edge of each board overlaps the
thin edge of the board that is immediately below it.
147. Scantling is defined as a piece of timber cut or sawn to a
small size as for rails, etc., but the term is also generally applied to the
dimensions of a piece of timber with regard to its breadth
and depth. Thus a scantling may be of any dimensions g"
as regards depth and thickness, and not of regulation sizes as planks,
deals, and battens.
148. Laxton says : " Although battens, deals, and planks, formerly
comprised almost the entire varieties of goods imported into this
country, yet of late years immense additions to these sizes have
been introduced, until at the present time almost any scantling re¬
quired is to be found in the docks, including also, occa- Additional
sionally, Dantzic plank and scantling. The advantage sizea of timber,
thus afforded in the saving upon sawing, cartage, and waste is very
considerable."
149. Quartering is a term applied to pieces of timber almost
square in section, cut from deals or planks, which in fact are quartered
or divided into four. Thus, without making allowance for
the saw cut, a plank of 11 inches wide and z\ inches Quarterln8'
thick, can be sawn into quartering measuring 2$ in. X 2\ in. ; and a
deal of 9 inches in width and 2$ inches thick can be sawn into
quartering measuring 2^ in. X 2^ in. Quartering is the stuff that the
54
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
amateur artisan will most frequently use in framing sheds and garden
structures, as it is strong enough for all general purposes in putting up
buildings, etc., of this description.
150. The Petersburg Standard consists of 120 pieces of timber,
12 feet long, 11 inches wide, and inches thick, equal in solid contents
Petersburg to 165 cubic feet. The number of running feet of various
Standard, eto. scantling required to make a Petersburg Standard may
be gathered from the annexed table :—
Inches.
4
4
3
3
495
660
720
. 880
• 1,131ft
Inches.
Feet.
24 x 11 ....
2? x g ....
24 x 7 ....
24 x 64 ...
2 X II ...
Feet. Inches.
Feet.
9 1.320
6 2.697
11 1,440
9 1,760
7 2,262
11 2,160
9 2,640
7 3.394
9 3,52o
7 4,525
There is another standard in use among timber merchants known
as the London Standard, which consists of 120 pieces of timber 12
feet long, 9 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, equal to 270 cubic feet.
151. The facts stated in the following table may prove useful to
Facts useful the amateur in calculating quantities of timber required
to amateurs, for any purpose.
One hundred of deals = 120
One load of timber=so cub.ft.
Do. 600 feet of inch boards.
Do. 17 deals 21 ft. x 3 in. x gin.
Do. 18 ,, 20 „ „
Do. 23 „ 16 „ „
Do. 26 „ 14 ,, ,,
Do. 30 „ 12 „ „
Do. 14 planks 21 ft. x 3m. X n
Do. 15 „ 20 „ „
Do. 18 „ 16 „ „
Do. 21 ,, 14 1, r;
Do. 25 „ 12 „ „
One load t>i timber is
200 ft. of fir 6 in. x 6 in.
Do. 400 „ „ 12 „ 1 4
Do. 300 „ „ 12 „ 2
Do. 250 „ „ 12 „ 2J
Do. 200 „ „ 12 „ 3
Do. 175 „ „ 12 „ 3i
Do. 150 „ „ 12 „ 4
Do. 100 „ „ 12 „ 6
One square is 100 feet super.
One square of rough flooring
contains:—
I2f boards of 12 feet.
Or 12J boards of 12 feet with
edges shot.
One square of flooring con¬
tains :—
13J boards of 12 feet wrought
and laid folding.
Or 14 boards of 12 feet
ploughed and tongued.
Or 16J battens of 12 feet for
wrought folding floors.
Or 7 yellow battens of 12
feet for straight joint floor.
152. Further, 180 feet run of 7 inch boards or 190 feet run of inch
boards is reckoned a square; but this is somewhat over the actual
Square of quantity. As a square of boards or timber is 100 feet
boards or super., to find the number of feet run of boards of any
timber. width, all that is necessary is to divide 1,200 by the width
of the boarding in inches which will give the result desired : thus, if
the boards be 6 inches in width, 1,200 -f- 6 = 200 is the number of
feet run required to make a square.
153. The timber used in building is for the most part pine or fir
Whence brought from the northern countries of Europe or North
building timber America. The wood best adapted for carpenter's work,
is brought. t^at is, for the timbers required in the framework of a
building, comes from the Prussian ports of Dantzic and Memel, the
port of Riga in Russia, and from Sweden. The best timber for joiners'
work for the interior of buildings comes from the Norwegian ports of
Christiania and Drammen ; excellent timber for the purposes of the
joiner is also sent from Gothenburg, Gefle, Soderham, and other
Swedish ports, and from Onega in Russia.
Marks on Timber.
55
154. The following advice is given in Laxton's "Builders' Price
Book " for the guidance of purchasers of timber : " In selecting timber
the most convenient sizes are 12 inches square. Choose selection of
the highest in colour, where the strong red grain appears timber.
to rise to the surface ; avoid spongy hearts, porous grain, and dead
knots." It has been said that timber cut from baulks is the best and
strongest for building purposes, but the quality used should be the
u second" or " best middling." The " first " or " crown " quality is
selected for its straightness of grain and freedom from knots only.
Unfortunately, it is often very sappy and shaky at the heart, on which
account a great part of the baulk will often cut up badly.
155. Timber coming from different ports is distinguished by the
special mark or brand that it bears. Generally speaking, timbers from
Swedish ports are marked on the ends with red letters or Marks on
brands ; those from Norwegian ports being marked with timber.
blue letters. Canadian timber is marked on the ends with black and
white letters, while the marks which designate its quality are in red on
the edges of the timber near the ends. Russian timber is hammer
branded or dry stamped on the ends, that is to say, they are marked
with letters about an inch long, dented into the timber by means of a
punch and hammer. Sometimes timber is scored with large Arabic
numerals, but these figures are merely private marks set on the wood
by the exporter to note the yard from which it has been sent.
156. The indications given above, by which the country from which
timber has been sent may be recognised, will be sufficent for the
general purposes of the amateur artisan; and they are plaoe whenoe
mentioned rather for the purpose of showing what such timber comes
coloured or indented letters on timber may mean, than with Bh0^"^ythe
the idea that he may benefit much in any way from the
information given. To describe all the marks and letterings by which
various qualities of timber from various ports are distinguished would
be tedious, and to the amateur practically useless. Timber from
Swedish and Norwegian ports is mostly of four qualties, distinguished
by different brand marks. Russian timber, and timber from Memel
and Dantzic, is also distinguished as " crown," " first quality," " second
quality," and " third quality." The following are the " scribe marks "
indicating the quality of Memel and Dantzic timber :—
MEMEL. DANTZIC.
I II III f't t'S
First. Second. Third. First. Second.
The various letterings used would occupy at least two or three pages
of this book, even when closely arranged, and to become able to
recognise and remember them must be a work of time and patient study.
1C7. With regard to the properties and value of timber from
Afferent ports, that from Rip;a, although it is small, being generally
Third.
56 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
under 13 inches square, is the best in quality, and may always be de*
Properties pended on. It is the dearest timber that is sold ; but, like
BjoAvaiue of many other articles that are comparatively high in price,
different11 it is the cheapest in the end. Memel timber is convenient
piao«s. in size, being generally about 13/^ or x4 inches square.
Dantzic timber is both tolerably large and very strong, being about 18
or 19 inches square. When the slab deals or outsides have been cut
away, the log that remains of this timber is generally from 14 to 15
inches square. Swedish timber is very tough and cheap, bu;, as the
trees from which it is cut taper greatly, it is apt to run to waste, on
account of its irregularity in size. Red pine is especially noteworthy
for strength and durability, and may be used anywhere.
158. The red pine deals that the timber merchant speaks of as
" red " deals are called " yellow " deals by the builder, and this may
( , occasion some little confusion to the amateur. They are
" yellow "deal, rightly called yellow on account of their general colour,
but it is equally correct to call them red, on account of
the bright red tint of the graining with which they are marked.
Yellow deals are dear, but they are strong and durable. For the
carpenter's purposes they are excellent. " For framing," says Laxton,
" the best deals to be depended on are the Norway, particularly the
Christiania battens, and for panelling the Christiania white. The best
for floors are the Drammen and Christiania white ; for ground floors,
Stockholm and Gefle yellow; for warehouses and staircases, Arch¬
angel and Onega planks ; and for best floors, Petersburg, Onega, and
Christiania battens. Swedish deals are not to be depended on for
framing; if framed square at night they will be crooked in the morning."
The white fir from Christiania, usually known in the English market
as white deal, is useful for furniture, as it unites firmly with glue,
takes stain well, and is susceptible of a high polish.
159. It is now necessary to pass on to the prices of timber, of which
different kinds are sold in different ways. Thus any kind of pine or
Prices of ^m^er may ke bought wholesale by the Petersburg
timber. standard ; but this kind of timber is also sold by the load,
as is oak, elm, ash, birch, and teak. Rosewood, again, is
sold by the ton, but mahogany, cedar, walnut, maple, and satinwood,
by the foot super. Wainscot is sold per 18 feet cube, oak staves, per
mille of pipe, and lathwood per cubic fathom. It is impossible to
give the prices of all kinds of timber as mentioned and described in
Chapter II., and it will therefore be sought to name the prices of those
which the amateur is most likely to use or require. For the price of
any kind of wood not mentioned application should be made, in the
case of any English wood, to a local timber merchant, carpenter, or
wheelwright; and for any foreign or rare wood, to London dealers,
whose addresses will be found in the Timber Traded Journal, pub¬
lished by Messrs. J. and W. Rider, Bartholomew Close, London, E.C.
It must be borne in mind that, like all other things that are bought
and sold, the prices of timber are variable and fluctuate considerably
at times. The prices given in our lists must therefore be considered
Prime Cost Prices of Timber per Load. 57
approximate only, and as subject to slight increase or decrease, as the
case may be, according to the fluctuations of the market. Those who
may be led to take an interest in this branch of British commerce will
find all the information they can desire or require on the subject in
the weekly organ of the timber trades mentioned above.
160. We will begin with the prime cost price of various kinds of
timber per load, as given in Spon's " Architects', Builders', Prime cost
and Contractors' Pocket Book," which has been already price of timber
quoted as a valuable authority in these pages. per load"
Timbers.
Riga Fir
Dantzic and Memel Cro
„ Best Middling .
„ Good ditto and :
„ Ditto undersized
„ Ditto small, sh
and irregular .
Stettin
Swedish
„ _ Small
Swedish and Norway
Baulks
Memel Crown Oak
„ Brack
Dantzic and Stettin Crown
Oak
From.
To
Timbers.
From.
To.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ £. d.
3 10 0
4 5°
Dantzic & Stettin Brack
400
S 10 0
and unsquared
O
O
VI
600
3 5°
4 10 0
American large yellow
300
3 15 0
Pine
5 0 0
5 10 0
2 10 0
300
„ Waney board...
4 0 0
500
„ Small
3 *S 0
400
260
2 10 0
„ Oak
6 10 0
700
2 15 0
3 10 0
Pitch Pine
3 5 0
3 10 0
2 10 0
2 15 0
Rock Elm
4 5o
500
23°
2 15 0
Ash
4So
500
Quebec large Birch
400
4 10 0
1 16 0
250
New Brunswick and
S 10 0
800
Prince Edward's Isle
S S 0
Birch
300
3 10 0
Ditto small averages ...
2 10 0
2 15 0
S 10 0
800
Indian Teak
11 0 0
13 0 0
161. When the prime cost of timber per load is known, the rule for
general use for finding its value per foot cube is as To find vaiua
follows I— of timber per
oubio foot from
RULE.—Add to the price at the yard £1 per load for prloe per load-
sawing and carting, and multiply 6% by the number of pounds. This
will give the per foot cube, including 20 per cent, for profit and waste.
Thus, if the prime cost of American large yellow pine at the yard
be £$ per load, add £1 for sawing and carting, which makes £6.
Then multiply 6}4d. by 6 which gives 3s. 3d. as the value per foot cube,
allowing for profit and waste. If the prime cost have any odd shillings
take the proportion of 6j4d. for the same, thus if the cost of the pine
be £5 ios., as 10s. is the half of £1 add one half of 6j£d., i.e., 3Xd.,
to the result already obtained, which makes the cost per foot cube
3s. 6Xd.
162. Let us now consider the prices of mahogany and other kinds
of wood sold per foot super., mentioning by the way that prices of
the cost of Bahia rosewood per ton is from £12 to £20, wood sold by
and of Rio rosewood from ,£14 to £25 per ton. Wainscot 1001 sup '
per 18 feet cube—Riga crown, English, and Dutch—costs from £5 15s.
to £6 ios., and Memel crown from £4 15s. to £5 ios. Any laths that
the amateur artisan may require he will buy from the timber merchant
ready rent in bundles, so it is unnecessary to say anything about the
wholesale price of lath wood j and as it is equally unlikely that he will
58 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
take to making casks and tubs, the price of oak staves may also be
left unnoticed.
Timber.
From.
To.
Timber.
From.
To.
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
Australian
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
Mahogany perfoot super.
0
0
0
0
4,
Honduras, cargo average
0
0
41
0
0
6i
Pencil
0
0
1
0
0
4}
Mexican „
0
0
41
0
0
53
Walnut perfoot super.
si
Tobasco „
0
0
5
0
0
6
Italian
0
0
4f
0
0
Cuba „
0
0
6
0
0
9
Black Sea
0
0
5
0
0
7
St. Domingo ,,
Do. Curls
0
0
6
0
0
9
Canadian
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0
10
0
1
6
Maple per foot super.
Cedar per foot super.
Bird's Eye
0
0
4
0
0
7
Cuba
0
0
5i
0
0
6
Satinwood perfoot super.
Honduras and Mexican ...
0
0
St
0
0
6
Bahama
0
0
7
0
I
0
163. It may be desirable for the amateur srtisan to know the whole¬
sale prices of timber, but it is absolutely necessary for him to become
Timber acquainted with the timber merchant's prices for compara-
merohant's tively small quantities—which he will purchase at per
prices. fQOt run—of the best dry yellow and white goods for
joinery and good general work. It is also requisite to know the prices
per 120 of battens, deals, and planks for carcassing and rough pur¬
poses, of dry pine, spruce, oak in scantlings and in thicknesses, floor-
and match-boarding, and a few miscellaneous articles often required,
such as poles, laths of different kinds, palings, trellis work, etc.
164. Prices of Best Dry Yellow and White Timber, at per Foot run,
for Good Work.
Size and Description.
Good Quality.
Common
Quality.
d.
d.
d.
d. d.
3
X
11
Yellow Plank, per foot super.
7
7 J
8
si
4 to 6
3
X
b
„ Deals „
5
5i
3 » 4$
■4
X
7
„ Battens „
3
3}
4
2 „ 2$
3
X
11
White Plank ,,
6
7
4 » 5i
3
X
9
,, Deals „
6i
42
5
3 » 4
ai
X
7
„ Battens „
2§
3
3l
2 »
By multiplying any of the above prices by 12 the prices of planks,
deals, and battens per piece of 12 feet in length can be immediately
ascertained.
165. Prices of Battens, Planks, and Deals for Ordinary Purposes per 12a
Size and Description.
Size and Description.
7 Yellow Battens per
£
s.
£
s.
£
s.
£
s.
»
X
2
X
10 Yellow Plank per 120
120 as 12 feet
10
10
z3
10
as 12 feet
16
10
20
10
si
X
a tt >i •••
9
10
12
0
4
X
9
Yellow Deals as 3 in....
21
0
24
0
X
7 a »> ** ,M
12
10
14
10
3
X
9
»j » >i
18
0
22
10
X
6J White Battens
9
0
12
0
2
X
9
it tt tt
T4
10
18
0
aj
X
7 » »> •••
12
10
15
0
3
X
8
ft it tt
18
0
21
0
2
X
11 Yellow Plank ,, ...
10
10
14
0
2
X
8
it t) a •••
z3
10
16
10
3
X
24
0
30
0
3
X
8
White Deals &
18
0
21
0
s
X
*z tt tt a
z9
10
22
10
2
X
9
a tt »
*3
10
*5
11?
Prices of Battens, etc., Match-boarding. 59
166. Prices of Dry Pine and Spruce in Lengths of 12 Feet.
Dry Pine.
Spruce.
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Best Plank 3 by 11 x 12 feet
10 6
11 0
Spruce Planks 3x11
Best Seconds „
—
7 6
x 12 feet
6 6
5 6
4 6
Seconds „
—
6 6
„ Deals
4 6
3 9
3 3
Good Thirds ,, ... ...
—
5 6
„ Battens
3 6
3 3
3 *>
Thirds „
—
4 6
167. Prices of Flooring Boards and Yellow Match-boarding per
Square.
It will, perhaps, be almost unnecessary to remind our readers that
the square is reckoned at 10 feet each way, or as comprising 100 feet
super. The prices are calculated as including the builder's profit; they
are not the timber merchant's prices.
Description.
Price.
i£ in. Yellow Flooring
Yellow Matching...
s. chjsrd. s. d.
16 6|i8 6 21 o
15 617 6
14 6 15 6
13 614 6
17 618 6
15 o 16 6
13 6 14 6
11 612 6
14 o
13 6
12 6
15 6
13 6
... 12 6
'10 6
s. 3.
22 6
18 6
16 6
15 6
Description.
i£ in. White Matching
Price.
s. d.
17 6
14 o
13 6
12 6
15 6
13 6
12 6
10 6
IsT'd. s. d.
18 6 20 o
15 6 16 6
14 6115 6
13 6 14 6
17 6 18 6
14 6 is 6
13 <5|i4 6
11 6112 6
s. d.
17 6
168. Match-boarding is much used for lining walls, etc., and in
London warehouses and buildings for trade purposes takes the place
of plastering. One edge of the board as at A is tongued Matoh-
or rebated on both sides so as to leave a narrow slip as hoarding,
shown in the annexed diagram. The 0
other edge of the board is ploughed, ^^
the groove b being of the exact depth ""
and thickness of the tongue. Where ^ig- 22- match-boarding.
a number of boards are placed edge to edge the tongue of one fits
into the groove of the board next to it, and so on. A bead, as at C,
is run along the edge just above the tongue so as to break the joint ;
or, in other words, to render the line of demarcation between board
and board less conspicuous. The amateur artisan will find match-
boarding of the greatest use to him for lining any workshop or shed
that he may have put up.
169. The prices given in the following table are, it must be remem¬
bered, prices at which such materials are supplied by the builder, and
the rates at which the labour expended on them is charged. Prices as
They must not be regarded as the absolute and fixed charged by
prices charged by all builders, but as general average builders-
Erices for materials, or materials and labour combined, supplied by
uilders. The table itself may require a little explanation. Suppose
the amateur wants some oak boarding one inch thick. For this he
6o Household Carpentry and Joinery.
will have to pay iod. per foot in the rough, but if he wishes to have
the edges shot or planed down before the wood is sent home, he will
have to pay nd. per foot super.; and if he desires to have the board
wrought or planed on one side, 2d. per foot super, must be added, and
the board will stand him in is. id. per foot super., or in is. 1%.d. per
foot super., if in addition to this he requires the wood to be ploughed
and tongued.
170. Prices of Oak, Wainscot, and Honduras Mahogany at per Foot
Super., in Different Thicknesses.
Description.
£in.
fin.
zin.
xfin
ijin
2in.
2^in
Oak—
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d,
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Rough
—
0 10
—
1 4
1 6
1 10
Edges shot
—
—
0 iz
—
1 34
1 7
1 xz
Framed
—
—
1 3
—
1 8}
2 2
2 ZO
Wrought on one side (add.)
—
0 3
—
—
—
—
Ploughed and tongued „
—
—
0 z£
—
—
—
—
Wainscot and Honduras Mahogany—
Rough (including waste)
0 10
z 0
1
1 7
X XI
3 7
—
Wrought on one side (add*) ...
0 al
0 2J
O 2f
O 2f
0 2?
0 3*
—
„ „ both sides „
0 4I
0 4!
0 si
0 si
0 5J
0 53
—
Ploughed and tongued „
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 ij
—
Framed
—
0 5
0 5
0 si
0 6
0 7
—
171. In addition to the above prices it may be stated that oak may
be procured sawn in scantlings at about 6s. per cubic foot, and in
Oak in plates, sleepers, and bonds for about 6s. 9d. per cubic foot;
scantlings, but this, as will be seen presently, is a high average. Fir
et0, may be had sawn in scantlings at about 2s. iod. per foot
cube, and at 3s. 3d. {ox plates, lintels, bonds, etc. Planing on sawn fir
is generally charged from |^d. to id. per foot super.
172. As it will be useful for the amateur to contrast these prices
as above given with the prices at which goods of a similar kind are
supplied from the timber merchant's yard, we will proceed to give the
actual prices as taken from a timber merchant's price list. All work,
Timber however, it must be remembered, must bear its profit, and
merchant's it is utterly unreasonable to suppose that materials of a
different to similar kind and quality can be obtained from the builder
builder's at the same price at which it can be procured from the
prices. timber merchant. And the reason for the difference is
mainly this. All the work done in the timber merchant's yard, whether
sawing, planing, grooving, tonguing, moulding, or any other kind of work,
being done on a large scale is effected by means of machinery, while
the work done in the builder's yard is mostly wrought by hand. Work
done by machinery can be produced much cheaper than work done by
hand ; and even if the builder buys machine-wrought flooring and
mouldings and sawn timber to sell again without doing anything to
it, he must of necessity sell at an advanced price to get remuneration
for, or interest on, his original outlay—just as the retail grocer sells tea,
sugar, etc., for more than he pays the wholesale dealer for them to
Timber Merchant's Prices. 61
gain compensation for his trouble in acting as middle man between
the producer and importer or wholesale merchant, on the one hand,
and the consumer, on the other. This has been said in order to show
that no one who buys of the builder ought to grumble because the
builder charges more for timber, etc., than the timber merchant.
173. The amateur artisan may obtain the times' price of any special
wood he may require by making application to Mr. r. prlceg ag
T. Perry, Timber Merchant, 8, Penton Street, Penton- charged by
ville, London, N., whose stock includes a great variety timber
of foreign and English hard woods, in addition to the fir mero an s'
timber of all kinds usually found in the timber merchant's yard. The
following items are taken from his ordinary price list :
Dry pine plank, from 3s. 6d. per plank, mea¬
suring 12 ft. x 3 in. x ir in.
Dry pine plank, 12, 14, and 16 cuts, 5s. 6d.,
cutting included.
Yellow deals, 4d. per ft.
White deals, 3d. per ft.
Spruce deals, 2s. gd. per deal, measuring
12 ft. x 3 in. x 9 in.
Battens, ijd. per ft.
Pitch pine, sd. per ft.
Flooring boards, 10s. per square ; that is, per
100 square ft. super.
Match linings, 8s. per 100 ft. super.
Venetian blind laths, 7s. per 100 ft. super.
Best pine squares, ij in., 15s. per 120. A
large quantity usually in stock and ready
for use.
Mahogany, 6d. per ft. in the inch ; that is to
say, per r in. in thickness.
Birch, 3d. per ft. in the inch.
Beech, 2id. per ft. in the inch.
Ash, 3d. per ft. in the inch.
Oak stave, 3s. 6d. per length of 6 ft. X 3 in. x
6 in.
174. These prices may be taken as representing fair average charges
for such kinds of timber as the amateur will most frequently p^g of
stand in need of. Mr. Perry also supplies other cheap but deals, boards,
serviceable goods, useful for general purposes, and espe- inatah lining,
daily for framing and the construction of sheds, outhouses,
etc. The following are the prices at which some of these goods are
supplied. The quotations will be useful to amateurs generally, in
determining the average outlay absolutely necessary for any kind of
work, especially out-door work, that they may be contemplating.
Flooring boards, very good. Yellow, | in
thick, 10s. per square ; J in. thick, us. 6d
Petersburg yellow deals, 2nd quality, mea¬
suring 12 ft. x 3 in. x 9 in., at 3jd. per ft.
run or 3s. 6d. per deal.
Yellow boards, 9 in. broad and 1 in. thick,
at id. per ft. run.
Yellow boards, 6 in. broad and ij in. thick,
at 2s. 6d., as 12 ft. x 3 in. x 9 in.; that is to
say, at about 7d. per board of 12 ft.
per square; 1 in. thick, 13s. per square
White, § in. thick, per square.
Match lining or match boarding, as it is in
differently called, J in. thick, 8s. pel
square; § in. thick, 10s. 6d. per square;
and 2 in. thick, 12s. per square.
175. Mr. Perry also has specialities in Venetian blind laths and
trellis-work, which demand special notice. Venetian blinds are ex¬
pensive to buy ; but if the amateur can get the laths Venetian laths
planed ready for use, they are by no means difficult to and trems
make. There are few amateurs, again, who do not re- work>
quire trellis-work at some time or other for their gardens, and as
considerable time and labour is involved in its preparation, it is an
incalculable saving, both in time and trouble, to purchase it ready-
made, especially at so low a rate. The trellis-work is sent out closed
up, in pieces of the dimensions given in the table below. The further
it is opened out or extended the more it diminishes in height, like the
62 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
tobacco tongs of the Marquis of Worcester, described in his " Century
of Inventions ;" or the child's toy of cross bars pinned together, with
the points of the pins projecting upwards, on which figures of soldiers,
horses, etc., are placed, and made to alter their relative distances from
each other at pleasure by bringing the extremities of the frame work,
which are held in the hands, closer together or moving them further
apart.
176. The following is the scale of prices charged for blind laths.
Blind laths shorter than the lengths specified can be had any length
in inches.
Per 100 ft. super.
Up to 3 ft. o in. in length
,, 4 ft. 6 in. „ ... .
„ 6 ft. o in. ,, ... .
„ 7 ft. 6 in. „ ...
Best long lengths
177. The following are the dimensions and prices of prepared trellis
work, a good idea of which may be obtained from fig. 23. The laths
s. d.
Per 100 ft. super.
s.
d.
8 0
Best long lengths, planed and rounded
12
6
8 6
Seconds
8
6
9 °
Ditto, planed and rounded
11
6
9 6
Best selected
11
0
10 0
Ditto, hand prepared
14
6
TRELLIS WORK.
which are used in this trellis-work are iin. wide and %in. thick ; it is
therefore strong enough for all purposes for which trellis work is ordi¬
narily used, and all that the amateur has to do is to prepare the framing,
and fix it in position. It should be said that the laths are all planed,
and will take paint readily. The average price is rather over 7d. per
foot super., closed.
No.
Closed.
Open.
Price,
per
piece.
No.
Closed.
Open.
Price,
per
piece.
No.
Closed.
Open.
Price,
per
piece.
Feet.
Feet.
s. d.
Feet.
Feet.
s. d.
Feet.
Feet.
s. d.
1
2^X ij
1 x 21
2 3
6
2JX4J
12X3J
7 0
11
2^X8
12 x 6
12 0
a
,, X 2
„xi£
3 0
7
„ x 52
» x 4
8 0
12
„x8£
„ x6j
13 0
3
it X 3
„ x 2
4 4
8
„ x6
„x4i
9 0
13
.,x9
» x 7
14 0
4
»X3l
„X2J
S 2
9
„x6§
11x 5
10 0
5
» *4
» x3
6 0
10
i) x 7
.. xsi
11 2
178. It may be that the amateur artisan will require to put up some
wood fencing for himself, or desire to have it done for him ; in either
w in case ^ desirable to know the cost of materials.
00 -fencing. pencjng consists of posts and rails only, or of posts and
rails with boards or pales nailed vertically to the rails. Poets and
Timber Merchant's Prices. 63
rails may be made of ash, oak, or fir ; the pales are generally of cleft
oak, or pales of fir cut in width of 3m. Sometimes pale boards are
used. For rough and ready fencing egg-box boards may be used.
These maybe obtained at cheap rates from Messrs. Nur- Egg-boxes for
din and Peacock, Egg Importers, Oxford Street, Lon- fenoing.
don, W.C., who will furnish prices on application. The following are
the prices of posts, etc., near London; in the country prices rule
lower.
179. The rails, of which the prices are given on next page, are square
in section as will be noticed. Arris rails, however, are nearly as strong
and as useful, and they possess the advantage of being
cheaper. An arris is a section of a V form. Thus a Arrls raU8,
square rail of any dimensions will cut into a
pair of arris rails, by sawing it across dia¬
gonally, from edge to edge, throughout its
length, as shown in section in . ,
L~ * fig. 24. Again, the gutter some- ArriB gutters'
fig. 24. fig. 25. times used to catch the drips from a roof,
akris rail, arris gutter. an(j ;n }s caned an arris gutter.
It is formed by nailing one narrow slip of board along the edge
of a somewhat narrower slip as shown in the illustration. When well
tarred inside, this kind of gutter, though not ornamental, may be made
useful in emergencies, or to serve as a make-shift in out-of-the-way
places for something more costly.
180. Prices of Posts in Oak, Fir, and Ash, and Rails.
Posts.
Oak.
Fir.
Ash.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
5X4
5XS
6x4
6x5
6x6
5x4
6x4
6x5
5x4
6x4
6x5
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Length, 5 ft. 6 in. ... each
2 3
3 8
S 0
2 0
2 6
4 0
2 2
3 3
4 7
„ 6 ft. 0 in. „
2 5
4 0
3 11
5 7
6 6
2 2
2 9
4 4
2 5
3 7
5 1
, 6 ft. 6 in. „
2 7
4 3
6 1
2 4
3 0
4 7
2 8
3 11
S 8
„ 7 ft. 0 in. „
2 10
4 6
4 6
6 7
7 6
2 7
3 3
4 11
3 0
4 3
6 2
„ 7 ft. 6 in.
3 1
4 9
7 1
3 0
3 6
5 2
3 4
4 8
6 9
„ 8 ft. 0 in. „
3 6
s"'8
S 1
7 7
8 "6
3 4
3 10
5 6
3 8
5 0
7 5
, 8 ft. 6 in. „
4 3
S 6
8 2
3 9
4 2
9 9
4 0
S 4
8 2
„ 9 ft. 0 in. It
4 11
6 8
6 3
8 10
9 8
4 4
4 6
6 2
4 6
S 5
9 0
„ 9 ft. 6 in. „
5 9
7 0
9 8
5 0
5 3
6 9
S 0
5 10
9 9
,, ft. 0 in. „
6 6
8 0
11 0
5 2
6 0
7 10
S 6
6 6
10 6
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
Rails.
3X3
4x4
5x5
3x3
4x4
Sx5
3x3
4x4
5 x 5
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Length, 8 ft. o in. ... each
1 9
2 3
2 11
1 6
2 0
2 5
1 7
2 0
2 10
„ 8 ft. 6 in. „
2 0
2 6
3 2
1 9
2 3
2 8
1 10
2 3
3 3
,, 9 ft. o in. „
2 3
2 9
3 6
2 0
2 6
2 11
2 2
2 6
3 6
„ 9 ft. 6 in. „
2 8
3 2
4 2
» 4
2 9
3 3
2 6
2 10
3 11
,, to ft. o in. „
3 0
3 9
4 10
2 8
3 0
3 6
2 10
3 6
4 6
181. As it has been said, pales, cleft pales, or pale boards may be
used to complete the fencing. When park paling of cleft Park u
pales is made, it is usual to place a board technically
called a gravel board at the bottom from post to post. In fig. 26,
5
64
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
which shows a piece of park paling, A is the post, bb,bb arris rails, CC
the gravel board, d d cleft-pales nailed
to the arris rails, and E the capping.
Oak arris rails 9 feet long
pales, capping, cost 5s. 6d, and io feet
wid gravel long, 6s. 6d. fler flair, or b
°ar s. thereabouts. Cleft pales
cost, according to length, 6s. 3d. per
score if 4 feet long ; 7s. 3d., 5 feet long ;
and 9s., 6 feet long. Pale boards are
also priced according to length, each
being as follows : 3ft. 6in., 5^d. ; 4ft.
oin., 6^d.; 4ft. 6in., 8d.; 5ft. oin., 9d.;
5ft. 6in., iod. ; 6ft. oin., is. Oak cap¬
ping costs about 2s. 9d. per dozen feet, Fig. 26. park paling.
and gravel boards according to thickness, rough i£in. board costing,
when of Dantzic fir, about 6^d. per ft. super., and of oak, is. per ft. super.
182. Of miscellaneous articles, poles, such as are used for scaffolding,
and which the amateur may sometimes require, as, for instance, when
Scaffold he wishes to put up a flag staff, cost from 3d. to 3^d. per
poles. foot new, but poles of 22 feet in length may be bought
for 3s. each. Slating laths cost from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per bundle of each
12 feet long, pantile laths of the same length and the same number
in the bundle, at from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per bundle. Trellis
Slating laths. I2 in a bundle, and 12 feet long, cost 2s. 6d. per
bundle. It is better, however, to buy trellis ready made, it is sup¬
plied at the rate of 7d. per super., when closed up in heights vary¬
ing from 1 £ feet to 8 feet, with a width of 2% feet opening out to 12 feet
Small ales *n w^th- Pales which are useful for many purposes,
m pa 6 ' especially in making small enclosures and fences, fowl-
houses, etc., measuring 3 inches in width and f inch in thickness, are
sold for 13s. per hundred, or rather 120, when 4 feet high, and for 14s.
per 120 when 4 feet 6 inches high.
183. It has been said that the preceding prices have been given on
the authority of Laxton's " Price Book," and Spon's " Pocket Book of
Authorities Prices and Memoranda." The following prices of timber
for prices. jn scantlings per foot cube, and for boards and planks per
foot super., for wood good enough for the general purposes of joiners'
work, are taken from the former. It may happen that some slight
discrepancy may be found here and there in prices as stated for the
same article, but it must be remembered that all prices are, and can
only be, given approximately, and that difference in quality will often
cause apparent discrepancy in price.
184. Prices of Timber in Scantlings per foot cube.
Dantzic, Riga, Memel, or
Red Pine, per foot
cube ...
Ditto Second quality
Yellow Pine
s. d.
2 10
2 6
7j
Elm or Beech
Ash
Quebec Oak ...
English Oak, not ex-
s. d.
4 °
4 4
4 o
10X10 ...
12 X 12
Old ship oak, upwards
from
s. d.
I 9
6 o
ceeding 6in. x 6in 5 o African Teak.
Quebec do. for boards ... 3 oin Scantlings not exceed- Indian Teak ...
Swedish, Drammcn, and ' " "' '
Norwegian
ing to ft. x 8in. x 8in. 5 3; Mahogany,
.61 8x8 5 6| from
upwards
4 °
5 o
7 S
»o t
Planing up Timber, etc. 65
185. Cost op Boards and Planks per foot super., including
Sawing and Delivery.
h
Elm or
Beech.
Oak.
| African 1
| Mahogany, j
Wainscot
and
Honduras.
Cuba.
1 Spanish
i Mahogany.
Thick¬
ness.
Elm or
Beech.
Oak.
I African
Mahogany.
Wainscot
and
Honduras.
Cuba.
1 Spanish |
Mahogany. |
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
A ill.
0 2J
—
—
o 7
0 IO
z o
ii in.
o 7
O IlJ
I
i 6
« 33 o
1% u
0 35
—
—
o io
I 2
i 6
"
o 8J
1 2
i 6
2 O
3040
0 4i
0 8
o 9
\ o
i 6
2 O
2$ ..
0 o
i 7
I IO
2 9
3 95 °
U »»
0 5^
0 9i
O II
I 3
I ioJ
2 6
3 ..
I o
I IO
2 I
3 o
4660
186. The foot cubic, being 12 inches every way and containing 1728
cubic inches, is equivalent to a board 12 feet long, 12 inches broad, and
1 inch thick; or to a scantling 12 feet long, 4 inches broad, Foot onbe
and 3 inches thick. Mention of this is made to show how and equiva-
easy it is to reduce timber of any dimensions to cubic feet lents-
for the purpose of ascertaining its cost at per cubic foot. The rule for
ascertaining the value of timber per foot cubic, when the value of tim-
prime cost is known, has been already given (See Section ber per foot
161). The following is a rule, modified from that given to
by Laxton, for ascertaining the price per foot super, for e errmne-
deal, to include 20 per cent, profit, when the prime cost, per 120
delivered, is given.
Rule.—For the price per foot super. 1 inch in thickness, reckon £d.
for every £5 of the cost of the deals per 120. To the result obtained,
for any other thickness add or deduct 1 &.per foot for every | inch varia¬
tion up to and including 1 £ inches, and above 11 inches $d. for every
J inch variation.
Example.—Thus if deals be ^35 per 120, deal 1 inch thick will
be 3^d- per foot super.; and if ,£40, 4d. per foot super. And if 1 inch
deal be 4d. per foot super., $ inch will be 2d. ; % inch, 3d. ; i£ inch,
5d.; i£ inch, 6d.; 1$ inches, 6|d.; 2 inch, 7^d.; 2f inch, 8£d. ; 2\
inch, 9d.; and 3 inch, io^d.
187. To the prices already given for timber at prime cost, and from the
timber merchant, there is little to be added that can be of actual impor¬
tance to the amateur artisan. When he knows the approxi-
mate prices of timber at per load and in small quantities, the ofprices*
cost of sawing into scantlings, which is done in the timber neoessary
merchant's yard, the cost of planks, deals, and battens, and ^°raiiri
various kinds of wrought timber (prepared by machinery
for the most part, if not entirely) which is also supplied by the timbet
merchant, he knows all that is really necessary for any kind of work
that he may contemplate. If he have time to plane up planing up
his timber for himself, being possessed of sufficient skill timber,
and having had sufficient practice to do so, he will not require any
assistance in sawing and rough planing beyond that which is done in
the timber-yard. Many, however, will want help in planing up wood •
66 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
and we can say from experience that it is an easy matter, wherever
Help from a man naay be living, to find a jobbing carpenter who will
jobbing readily do work of this kind for a comparatively trifling
carpenter, remuneration—who will, in fact, take the wood that has
been cut up by the amateur mechanic in the necessary lengths and
return it to him nicely planed for further operations. Such a course
cannot fail to be serviceable alike to the skilled amateur, who is
debarred by lack of time from doing as much in this way as he other¬
wise might, and to the unskilful beginner who, whether he have time
enough for the work or not, is actually unable through want of know¬
ing how, or by not having had sufficient practice, to do that in which
he seeks the aid of the jobbing carpenter. The cost of such assistance
may be estimated at from £d. to id. per foot super., according to the
quantity of work done, but if the amateur pay even twice as much,
especially for small jobs, he will find it well worth his while. It does
not take very long, it is true, to plane up a piece of wood, but then
again it must be remembered that most amateurs have but a limited
amount of time to spend in work of this kind, and the preparation of
the timber to be used tends to postpone the time of completion—the
time which all amateurs so earnestly desire to reach, when engaged
on any job, be it what it may—very considerably, and thereby tries
the worker's patience. This will be more perceptible in large jobs
than in small ones, as a matter of course, as may be readily seen by
any amateur artisan who will take the trouble to measure any set of
book shelves of ordinary make that he may happen to have in his
possession, and reckon up how many feet super, have to be planed up—
both in the shelves themselves and in the sides or supports by which
the shelves are sustained. Those who have plenty of time at their
disposal need not recur to the aid of the jobbing carpenter as often as
those who have not, but should endeavour to carry out the work
honestly themselves from the commencement to the finish. Indeed
all amateurs should be able to plane up a board nicely, although they
may not often find time to do their own planing.
188. It will be remembered that the term scantling is applied to
timbers of all varieties of dimensions as regards depth and thickness.
Scantling: The tables in pp. 67,68, will be found useful in facilitating
application the reckoning of the cost of lengths of different scantlings,
of term, according to the price of timber, at 3s. and 3s. 6d. per foot
cube. These prices are taken because they approximate closely to
the general prices of timbers per foot cube, and they are, moreover,
the rates at which these calculations are made in Spon's and Laxton's
price books. To find the cost of any scantling of any dimensions
given in the tables, first find the price per foot run in either table,
and multiply this by the number of feet in the scantling.
For example, it appears from Table II. that the cost of a scantling,
4 inches broad and 4 inches deep, per foot run is 4fd. If then the
length of the scantling be 12 feet, its cost will be 4fd. X 12 = 4s. 9d.
In Table II. the cost is reckoned at 3s. 6d. per foot cube. ; according
to Table I. the price of a scantling of the same dimensions would be 4s.
i8y. Cost of Scantlings of Various Dimensions at 3s. per Foot Cube. (Table I.)
In.
a
al
3
3l
4
4l
5
5i
6
64
7
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d-
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
a
0 1
0 il
0 il
0 i2
0 a
0 al
0 24
0 2!
0 3
0 3I
° 3l
ai
0 il
0 il
0 2
0 24
O 2§
0 2j
0 3l
0 34
0 32
0 4I
0 44
3
0 ii
0 2
0 2I
0 2I
0 3
0 3i
0 3|
0 4!
0 44
0 5
0 sl
34
0 i2
0 2I
0 2!
0 3
0 34
0 4
0 4I
0 5
0 5l
0 52
0 61
4
0 2
0 2I
0 3
O 34
0 4
0 4I
0 S
0 5l
0 6
0 61
0 7
44
0 21
0 2J
0 3I
0 4
0 4I
0 5i
0 52
0 61
0 6f
0 7i
0 8
5
0 2!
0 3!
0 3*
0 44
0 5
0 54
0 6j
0 7
0 74
0 8|
0 8f
si
O 2$
0 34
0 4!
O 5
0 si
0 61
0 7
0 74
0 81
0 9
0 9I
6
O 3
0 32
0 4I
0 sl
0 6
0 6f
0 71
0 81
0 9
0 9!
0 ioi
64
O 3l
0 41
0 S
O 52
0 64
0 7I
0 8|
0 9
0 9I
0 ioi
0 ni
7
0 34
0 41
O si
0 61
0 7
0 8
0 8|
0 9I
0 ioi
0 iil
1 ol
74
0 32
0 41
0 si
0 61
0 74
0
00
0 9I
0 ioi
0 iil
1 ol
1 ii
8
0 4
O 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
0 10
0 11
1 0
I I
1 a
84
0 4l
0 5l
0 61
0 7I
0 81
0 94
0 iof
0 ill
I ol
I 2
1 3
9
-J 4l
O 52
0 6f
0 8
0 9
0 ioi
0 iil
1 ol
I il
1 al
x 32
94
0 42
0 6
0 71
0 84
0 9I
0 ioj
1 0
I I
I 2i
1 34
x 42
10
O s
0 61
0 74
0 8f
0 10
0 iil
1 ol
i il
I 3
* 4l
i s4
ioi
0 5l
0 61
0 8
0 9I
0 ioi
1 0
i il
I 24
I 32
I s
1 61
11
0 si
0 7
0 81
0 9!
0 11
1 ol
I il
I 3
I 44
i 6
i 72
iil
0 si
0 7I
0 81
0 10
0 ill
I I
1 24
1 32
I sl
1 61
1 81
>a
0 6
0 71
0 9
0 ioi
1 0
i 14
1 3
a 44
i 6
1 7l
x 9
O
o
Co
©
Co
a
3
©
Co
it
s
GO
g
o
o
•s
©
03
ctj
o>
«vl
74
s. d.
o 3i
o 4}
o Si
o 6J
o 7j
o 8i
o gj
o 10j
o 11j
°1
s. d.
o 4
° 5
o 6
o 7
o 8
o 9
o 10
o ii
Si
s. d
o 4i
o si
o 64
o 7i
o 8i
o 94
o iof
o iii
°2
a
3
4
5
61
7i
8i
9i
10J
nj
°4
x4
s. d.
o 45
° ss
62
o 8
o 9
o 10j
0 iii
1 ol
i 14
I 2!
I 3i
* 5
1 6
x 7i
1 81
x 9l
i ioj
94
s. d.
o 4i
o 6
o 71
o 84
o gj
o ioj
s. d.
o 5
o 61
o 74
o 8|
o 10
0 ill
1 04
1 i|
x 3
x 4l
x s4
i 6f
1 8
1 9i
i 104
1 iil
2 1
a 2I
a 34
a 42
2 6
s. d.
° Si
o 7
o 81
o 9}
0 II
1 04
I x2
x 3
1 44
1 6
1 7l
1 84
I 10
1 III
2 oj
2 2l
a 34
a S
2 61
2 72
a 9
s. d.
o 6
o 74
o 9
0 104
1 o
i 14
x 3
1 44
i 6
x 7l
x 9
1 10j
a o
2 14
2 3
2 44
2 6
a 74
a 9
2 104
3 o
190. Cost of Scantlings of Various Dimensions at 3s. 6d. per foot cube. (Table II.)
9
»4
3
34
4
44
5
54
6
64
7
74
8
84
9
94
IO
11
IS
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
a. d
a
0 *
0 14
0 i|
0 2
0 24
O 2|
0 3
0 3l
0 34
0 3I
0 4
O 44
0 4f
0 5
0 si
0 si
0 5l
0 64
0 7
9i
0 ij
O !|
O 2j
0 24
0 3
O 3i
0 3f
O 4
O 44
0 4|
0 5
0 54
0 si
0 64
0 64
0 7
0 7i
0 8
0 sh
3
0 i|
O 2j
O 24
■» 3
0 34
O 4
0 44
0 4|
0 si
0 5l
0 6
O 64
0 7
0 74
0 8
0 84
0 82
0 gi
0 ioi
34
0 2
0 24
0 3
° 34
0 4
O 44
0 5
0 54
0 6
0 6|
0 7I
0 72
0 8
0 8|
0 gi
0 92
0 ioi
0 ni
1 oi
4
0 2J
0 3
0 34
0 4
0 4|
° si
0 52
0 64
0 7
0 74
0 8
0 8|
O 92
0 10
0 104
0 II
0 n|
I of
1 a
♦4
0 24
0 34
0 4
0 44
0 si
0 6
0 64
0 7i
0 8
O 84
0 gi
0 10
0 104
0 11
0 III
I oj
I I
i 9i
X 31
5
O 3
0 3l
0 44
0 5
0 52
0 64
0 7I
0 8
0 82
O 94
0 ioi
0 11
0 n|
1 oi
I I
I 2
I
I 4
x 54
54
0 3l
0 4
0 42
0 54
0 64
0 72
0 8
0 8|
0 94
0 104
0 ni
1 0
X oi
i i|
i 94
i 3i
i 4
X 52
i 7i
6
O 34
0 44
0 si
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 82
0 94
0 104
0 ni
1 o2
1 1
I 2
X 3
x 3!
144
X 54
1 71
i 9
64
0 3l
0 42
O si
0 6|
0 74
0 84
0 gi
0 104
0 iii
1 oi
X xi
1 *1
X 3
x 4
X 5
1 6
I 7
i 9
1 10;
7
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 72
0 8
0 gi
0 ioi
0 ni
1 oi
X xi
i *4
1 3i
x 4i
1 54
i 64
I 74
x 84
1 ioi
a o4
74
0 4J
O 54
0 64
0 7!
0 82
0 10
0 11
1 0
1 1
i 2i
X 3i
1 44
x 54
i 64
x 72
i 82
I IO
a si
8
0 4i
0 sf
0 7
0 8
0 gi
0 104
0 n|
1 of
1 2
X 3
1 4l
1 s4
1 6|
1 72
x 9
1 10
I Il|
2 if
9 *
84
0 5
0 64
0 74
0 82
0 10
0 11
1 oi
I 12
i 3
1 4
1 54
I 64
x 7l
1 9
1 ioi
1 ni
2
9 3i
9 5'1
9
0 si
0 6J
0 8
0 92
0 ioi
0 n2
1 1
1 24
I 35
i 5
I 64
X 72
1 9
1 ioi
i "4
2 t
2 2j
9 5
« 7-4
94
0 si
0 7
0 8J
0 gf
0 11
1 04
1 2
1 3i
1 44
1 6
1 74
i 8|
1 10
1 ix4
2 1
2 24
9 3i
2 6J
9 9i
10
O si
0 7i
0 8|
0 i<>2
0 n|
1 1
1 24
1 4
I 54
1 7
I 84
I IO
x Hi
2 o2
2 24
9 32
9 5
2 8
2 II
ioi
0 6
0 7!
0 gi
0 ioj
1 oi
1 i2
1 3i
1 5
I 64
1 8
i 9i
I II
2 oi
2 2
9 34
9 5
2 64
9 9!
3 °|
11
0 6i
0 8
0 gi
0 Iii
1 of
I 2i
1 4
1 52
X 7i
1 9
i 104
2 O
2 i2
9 3!
9 5
9 64
2 8
2 ni
3 94
n4
0 62
0 8i
0 10
0 n2
1 14
1 3
1 4l
1 64
I 8
x 92
i n4
2 I
2 2|
9 44
2 64
a 8
9 94
3 X
3 «i
«•
O 7
0 82
0 10*
I oi
1 a
1 3!
1 54
x 74
1 9
1 io2
2 oi
2
9 4
2 52
9 74
2 gi
2 11
3 94
3 6
ON
00
o
to
Co
to
o
to
to
>3
to
to
5;
to
>3
ss.
to
"to*
O
to
to
*4
Prices of Wood for Fret-work, etc.
69
191. Let us now pass on to a review of the prices charged for
certain kinds of wood used in ornamental carpentry—that is to say,
turning, fret-sawing, and carving, and the thin sheets of Moeg of
wood used in veneering. First, in order, we will take woods used
the rare and fancy woods, especially intended for fret cut- in ornamental
ting, and supplied to the amateur artisan by Messrs. *?•
Charles Churchill and Co., 28, Wilson-street, Finsbury, London,
E.C., or by R. Melhuish, 85 and 87, Fetter Lane, Holborn, E.C.
These woods, which are the very best of the kind which can be pro¬
cured, are all planed to the thicknesses designated in the table ; and,
being well seasoned, are perfectly fit and ready for use.
192. Table of Prices of Rare and Fancy Woods for Fret-Cutting.
Name of Wood.
Thickness.
Name of Wood.
Thickness.
Jin.
ftin.
Jin.
I in.
J in.
Jin.
ft in.
I in.
§ uajj in.
Price per Foot Super.
Prices per Foot Super.
Black Walnut
Plain White Maple
White Ash
Butternut
Cherry
Oak
s. d.
0 S
0 5
0 7
0 7
0 7
0 7
s. d.
0 6
0 6
0 8
0 8
0 8
0 8
s. d
0 8
0 8
0 9
0 9
0 10
0 10
s. d.
0 9
0 9
0 10
0 10
1 0
1 0
i. d.
0 10
0 TO
1 O
1 O
I I
I I
White Holly
Red Cedar
Spanish Cedar
Rosewood
Curled Maple
Bird's Eye Maple
s. d.
0 7
0 8
0 8
1 ♦
1 0
1 0
s. d.
0 8
O 10
0 10
1 8
1 2
1 3
s. d.
0 10
1 0
1 0
2 0
1 4
1 4
s. d. s. d.
1 01 2
1 21 4
1 21 4
2 63 4
1 6:1 3
1 61 8
193. At first sight the prices of some of the woods as given above
may appear high, but it must be remembered that in fret sawing a
little wood will go a long way, and that the amateur has prioes, why
the advantage of obtaining his material ready for use, moderate,
and of a uniform gauge as regards thickness. Some of the woods
are by no means easy to work, or smooth with the plane, and this fact
alone will go far to convince the amateur that he is really getting his
material at a most reasonable rate at the prices charged ; especially
when it is further taken into account that the wood is, in every case,
sound and good and well seasoned.
194. The thinner sheets, as they may be called, of the woods
mentioned in the above table, are suitable for plain fretwork sawing
after the manner of the front of a cottage piano, in which piain ^
perforated wood work is placed before a piece of coloured work, thick-
silk, fluted or plain, and secured to a suitable framing. ness suitable
By plain fretwork is meant fretwork which is not after- or"
wards touched with the carving tools, and in which the edges of the
perforations are sharp, and at right angles to the surface. The woods
of | inch and £ inch in thickness, being more substantial, are suitable
for wood carving in combination with fretwork sawing.
70 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
195. All such articles, as ornamental rails for chairs, and other pieces
>f furniture, pillars for small tables, legs for tables of all kinds, couches,
Hardwood etc., may be turned in deal, beech, birch, mahogany, or
and any kind of wood ordinarily used in furniture making ;
Blackwood kut for turning small articles, such as boxes, chessmen,
thimble cases, etc., any hard black wood, such as ebony or Botany
Bay wood, also called blackwoodand beef-wood (see section 68)—or any
hard white wood, such as box or holly—may be used, according to the
colour required. The wood is comparatively costly; but as the
amateur will not want much of it, he will find it better to buy what he
wants of some turner, whose address he will find in the London
Directory, than to go to the wholesale dealers.
196. The amateur can obtain any veneers that he may require of
Mr. John Wright, Knife Veneer Cutter and Merchant, Arlington
Bearwood, Wharf, Arlington Street, New North Road\ London, N.,
Appiewood, who will supply any veneer in small quantities to suit the
et0" amateur's requirements. The price of veneer will of
course vary, as the price of the timber from which it is cut varies ; but
the following may be taken as approximate rates, per 100 feet super. :
Maple (Bird's eye), thin, 3s., thick, 12s. ; Rosewood, thin, 5s., thick,
14s.; Walnut, thin, 5s.; Mahogany, figured or knife cut, 14s., plain,
4s. to 6s. ; Birch, figured or knife cut, 12s., plain, 4s.
197. Pearwood, appiewood, sycamore, lime, etc., may be obtained,
generally speaking, from any timber merchant, but the buyer must be
content to pay the timber merchant's own price, as quotations for
these timbers are not given in the organs of the timber and building
trades. As pearwood and appiewood are useful for purposes in which
a close grain is required in the timber used, and the heart-wood of the
plum is heavy, comparatively speaking, and useful in turning; it is
desirable for the amateur to buy a log or two when he may happen to
have the opportunity, and stow it away in some corner of his work¬
shop. He will find in this, as well as in regard to many other things,
that " store is no sore."
198. As the addresses of various timber merchants resident in the
Timber metropolis have been given, it maybe useful to our readers,
merchants in especially such as may live in the north of England and
various parts, midland and western counties, to have the addresses
of others in these parts of the country, to whom they may apply for
any kind of wood that cannot be obtained of any local timber merchant
in their immediate neighbourhood. Mr. Robert Dawson, English
Timber Merchant, Stockton-on-Tees, has always on sale the following
timber, either in the tree or plank :—holly, lime-tree, sycamore, horn¬
beam, pear-tree, apple-tree, chestnut, walnut, yew-tree, thorn, cherry,
willow, beech, larch, ash, alder, birch, poplar, and every other descrip¬
tion of English timber. Messrs. Joseph Smith and Sons, English
and Foreign Timber Merchants, Sheffield, are buyers of, dealers in,
and converters of every description of English and foreign timber;
also of fancy woods, as mahogany, rosewood, ebony, cedar, walnut,
maple, satinwood, etc. Messrs. John Ford and Sons, Ryeford
Mouldings: Their Uses and Prices.
7i
Saw Mills, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, who are buyers and converters
of all kinds of English timber, have saw mills in Dorsetshire and
Devonshire as well as in Gloucestershire, and would give any informa¬
tion that might be required respecting any kind of timber that would
come within their operations.
199. In addition to these addresses others in various localities can be
obtained as it has been already stated, from the advertising pages of
the Timber Traded Journal. It may be thought that we Timber
have exceeded the mark rather than otherwise in pointing Trades'
out timber merchants from whom the less common kinds Journal,
of timber may be procured. Those, however, who have found the diffi¬
culty of procuring perhaps even a piece of apple or pear wood from local
timber merchants, will approve of the special information thus afforded.
200. Of late years the high rate of wages paid to mechanics, and
the excessive charges in consequence of this for English-made joinery,
have led to the introduction of doors, sashes, and other Swedish
kinds of joiner's work from Sweden. These articles, joinery, doors,
which are well worth the attention of the amateur, and Baabes.ete.
which will save him much labour, to say nothing of disappointments
arising through failing to turn out the work in sufficiently good style,
are supplied by Messrs. H. Atkinson and Co., Swedish Joinery
Warehouses, 32, Wharf Road, City Road, London, N., who also keep
an infinite variety of mouldings, useful for joinery generally speaking,
and a number of ornamental purposes which will readily suggest them¬
selves. Messrs. Atkinson and Co. also supply useful ready-made
fencing and trellis work, architraves, skirtings, jamb-linings, door
frames, single rebated and beaded, and floor and match-boarding of
several dimensions.
201. An immense variety of mouldings of different kinds are used
in the building trade, far greater, indeed, than any one might imagine.
They are used for all sorts of purposes, as, for example, within the
panels of doors, at the top of skirting boards when the boards are
not finished with either moulding or beading, round the frames of doors
and windows, as sash bars for the reception of glass, beading, and in
window frames to keep the sashes in place when being moved up
and down. In the following page (fig. 27) patterns in ^n1^^gg.
section of mouldings supplied by Messrs. Atkinson and their useaan'a
Co. are given, the numbers attached to them being p^oes.
those by which they are distinguished in their list. The prices of
those which are figured are as follows, per 100 feet.
No.
s.
d.
No.
1.
d. No. a.
d.
No.
s.
d. No. s.
d. No.
s.
d.
No.
S.
d.
No.
s.
d.
4 ••
9
0
13
-3
4
17 — 4
9
29 ..
5
4154 ••• 8
71x03 ..
2
II
128 ..
6
7
214 ..
S
8
5 ••
6
10
13 »
• 3
7
26 ... 13
7
43 ••
8
7j7i ... 13
5,108 ..
5
4
210 ..
6
7
218 ,.
. 1
9
9 ••
1
9
14 ..
• 3
11
27 ... 10
5
45
4
1 76 ... 2
11 126..
3
10
211 ..
■ 4
1
221 ..
. 2
4
ti ..
4
1
>5 ••
a
5
28 ... 7
Mi
3
io|iox... S
4I127..
9
1
213 ..
• S
8
222 ..
. 2
9
202. All the large mouldings may be used for nailing to the inner
face of window frames, and the outer and inner faces of door frames.
Nos. 17, 29, and 108 would be large and bold enough for this purpose
for amateurs: the smaller moulds, such as Nos. 14 and 15, are suit-
72 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
Frames and Sashes, Doors, etc.
73
able for edging the framing of panels of doors formed by the styles
and rails. Nos. 210, 211, 212, and 214, are rebated or 1 abetted for
the reception of glass, and may be used as sash bars or for Directions re-
the bars of window frames. Nos. 221 and 222 are bold spectinguse
headings, suitable for the capping of match-boarding, of mouldings,
carried part way up a wall from the flooring, etc., and No. 218 may
be used as a beading or as the slip placed on either side of a window
frame, to confine the sashes to their proper place.
203. Messrs. Atkinson supply many other articles in wrought timber,
that is to say, ready for immediate use, which the amateur will find to
be most useful to him, because he is saved the time and ^idea ^
labour involved in their preparation if he makes them wrought
himself. It will be as well to mention them seriatim, timber,
giving as far as possible, in each case, the limits of dimensions from
the smallest size sold to the largest, and the prices in accordance
therewith. The amateur can then easily arrive approximately at the
price of any intermediate size he may require, or he will be supplied
with it on application to the makers.
204. Architraves from 3m. broad and ^in. thick to 6£in. broad
and i^in. thick, at from 7s. 8d. to 26s. id. The prices
here given, except where otherwise stated, or for articles c aveB'
which cannot be sold thus, are stated at per 100ft. run.
205. Skirtings from 4^in. broad and fin. thick to 14m.
broad and iin. thick at from 8s. nd. to 24s. 6d. Skirtings.
206. Jamb-linings, double and single rebated, beaded
and square edges, from 4^in. broad and iin. thick, to Jamb-linlne<J
6£in. broad and ijin. thick, at from 10s. 6d. to 26s.
207. Door frames, single rebated and beaded, 5^in. by 3^in., at
38s. 6d., and 4iin. by 3m. at 26s. 5d. Door Frames.
208. Floor boards and Match boards of various Floorboards
dimensions, according to thickness. Prices of these have ^ match
been mentioned approximately in previous sections. oar 01
209. Sashes and Frames for windows can be had of any size and
description made to order at from 8d. to iod. per foot gashes and
Super. Frames.
210. Doors are of various prices according to description and
make. Outside front doors—Six panels—with bolection mould-
ing one side, 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. ioin. broad, and 2in. thick, outside front
at from 19s. 3d. to 21s. gd.; and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and doors.
2in. thick, at from 20s. 4d. to 22s. iod. If finished with large bolection,
add is. to is. 6d. to price of doors. Four panels, with bolection
moulding one side, 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. ioin. broad, and 2in. thick, at
from 17s. 7d. to 20s., and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from
18s. 6d. to 20s. I id. From 9d. to is. must be added to the price of
the doors for large bolection moulding.
211. The term bolection will perhaps require explanation. In figs.
28 and 29 A represents the frame of a door on one side of a panel,
and b the panel. If the moulding does not project beyond the face
C C of the frame, as d in fig. 28, it is simply described as a moulding;
74 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
FIG. 29. BOLECTION
MOULDING.
but if it projects beyond the face of the framing, making
Boiection Pr°jecting framing between the
mouldings, frame of the door and the curved
meaning of part of the moulding, it is de-
terms. scribed as a boiection moulding.
The origin of the word is uncertain, but it is
apparently to be traced to the root from
which comes bole, the rounded stem of a tree,
and the word bellyj and this is the more
likely when it is considered that the mould¬
ing thus designated is one that bulges out
and projects forward beyond the face of the
work.
212. Inside doors.—Four panels, square, that is to say, when the
edge of the framing projects at right angles from the face of the
panel, from 6ft. 8in. to 7ft. high, 2ft. 8in. to 3ft. broad, and
ns e oors. 2jn> at from IIS. 6d. to 12S. 7d.; from 6ft. 6in. to
6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. ioin. broad, and i|in. thick, at from
8s. 3d. to 9s. 4d. ; and from 6ft. 4m. to 6ft. 7m. high, 2ft. 4m. to 2ft.
7in. broad, and ijin. thick, at from 6s. 7d. to 7s. nd. If moulded on
one side, add from iod. to is. 3d.,and if on both sides, from is. 8d. to
2s. 6d. to the price of the doors. Four panels, bead and butt, and bead
and flush, that is to say, when one side of the panel is flush with the
framing, the vertical edges of the panel being broken by a bead, from
6ft. 8in. to 7ft. high, 2ft. Sin. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 17s.
to 19s. 6d.; from 6ft. 6in. to 6ft. 8in. high, 2ft. 4m. to 2ft. 8in. broad,
and i|in. thick, from 10s. 5d. to us. iod. If moulded, add from is.
to is. 3d. to the price of the doors.
213. Sash doors, that is to say, doors with glass in the upper
part. Without shutters, from 6ft. 9m. to 7ft. high, 2ft. 9m. to 3ft. broad,
R . and 2in. thick, at from 14s. 4d. to 16s. 3d.; from 2ft. 6in.
a oors. to ^ high, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. ioin. broad, and i£in.
thick, from 11. 6d. to 13s. 9d. With shutters, from 6ft. gin. to 7ft.
high, 2ft. 9in. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 19s. 3d. to 20s. 4d.;
from 6ft. 8in. to 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. 8in. to 2ft. ioin. broad, and i|in.
thick, from 17s. 4d. to 18s. 8d.
214. Fencing in lengths of 9ft., with one foot included if 4ft. in
height, 13s. 6d. per length, and if 3ft. 6in. high, 1 is. per length. Extra
Fencing and foot, to complete length, according to height of fence,
trellis work. Gates for this kind of fencing can be supplied at moderate
rates in accordance with any design that may be furnished. Trellis
work, which, as it has been said, is most useful to the amateur when
sold in lengths ready for fixing, can be had in heights varying from
3ft. 6in. to 9ft. at the rate of 7d. per foot super, when closed up.
Chapter on Tools.
75
CHAPTER IV.
THE TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY : THEIR CLASSIFI¬
CATION ACCORDING TO THEIR USES.
Tools used in Carpentry and Joinery—Wood-working Machinery—Costly and
almost useless to Amateur—Cheap Planing-machine desirable—Classification of
Tools—Hammers—Joiner's Hammers—Claw Hammer—American Adze-eye
Hammer—Prices of Hammers—Uses of Hammers — Mallets—Beetle and
Wedges—Adze and its uses—Axe or Hatchet—English Hatchet—American
Axe—Tools should be kept under lock and key—Rasping Tools—Saws : their
nature and operation — Circular Saws — Cross-cut Saws—Saws required by
Amateur—Hand Saw—Combination Saw—Tenon Saw—Dovetail Saw and Sash
Saw—Keyhole Saw—Bow or Frame Saw —Rasps for Wood—Files for Metal—
Various forms of Files—Paring Tools, or Edge Tools—Planes necessary to
Amateur—Jack Plane, its construction and action—Smoothing Plane —Trying
Plane—Difficulty to Amateurs in using Plane—Bailey's Patent Adjustable Bench
Planes—Stanley's Patent Adjustable Planes—Moulding Planes, etc., not re¬
quired by Amateur—Rabbet or Rebate Plane—Old Woman's Tooth—Fillisters
of various kinds—Spokeshave—Drawing-knife—American Iron Spokeshaves—
Chisels and Gouges—Chisels, how distinguished—Firmer Chisels — Mortise
Chisels—Turning Chisels—Gouges—Cold Chisels—Prices of Chisels and Gouges
—Chisels and Gouges required by Amateur—Boring Tools—Bradawls: their
varieties—Gimlets : their varieties—Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets—Augers: their
varieties—Prices of Augers—Bits, Braces, and Drills—Patent Breast Drill—Bit¬
brace, or Stock and Bit—Modern Iron Brace—Barber's Patent Bit Brace—
Augular Bit Stock—Bits for Brace—Prices of Bits—Clarke's Patent Expansive
Bit—Douglass' Cast Steel Bits—Holding or Grasping Tools—Pincers and Pliers
—Flat Pliers—Cutting Nippers—Round-nosed Pliers—Spring Pliers, for Fly
making, etc.—Utilisation of Packing Cases, etc.—Causes of damage to Tools—
Victor Nail Puller—Wrench, or Spanner—Vices necessary to Amateurs—
Ordinary Hand-vice—Bench Vice—Patent Vices—Improved Hand-vice—Tools
of Guidance and Direction—The Line and Reel—How to use the Line—
Carpenter's Rule—Square and Bevel—Hardened Try Square and Flush T
Bevel—Ames' Patent Universal Square—Marking Gauge—Mortise Gauge—
Levels : their principle—Spirit Level—Method of applying Level to Long
Lengths—Requirements for accurate Levelling—Level positively accurate for
own length only—Use of Straight-edge in levelling—Plumb Level—Plumb Bob—
Use of Plumb Level in fixing Posts, etc.—The A Level, or Bricklayer's Level—
American Spirit Levels—Stanley Levels—Adjustable Plumb and Level —
Prices of Common Levels—Mitre Box—Construction, etc., of Mitre Box or
Block—Improved American Mitre Box—Compasses and Callipers—Compasses
with Arc—Callipers — Calliper Rules and Squares — Stanley's Ivory Calliper
Rules — Miscellaneous tools used in Carpentry — The Screwdriver — Round-
bladed Screwdrivers—American Cast Steel Screwdriver—Nail Punch, or Brad
Punch—Reamer, or Rymer—Cramp, or Clamp—Joiner's Cramp—Hammer's
Adjustable Clamp—Simple Clamp, that can be maae by Amateur—Carpenter's
Pencil—Pencil often mislaid—Glue-pot—Construction of Glue-pot—Recipe for
making Glue—Brush for applying Glue—Oil-can—Forms of Oil-can—"Good-
enough" oiler—Sandpaper, or Glasspaper—Tools in combination—Boardman's
Combination Wrench—Pads, or Patent Tool-handles with —Handles for
76 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
various tools—Tack-hammer, Setter, and Puller—Articles for fastening pieces of
Wood together—Wooden Pegs and Treenails—Pegging Mortise and Penon—
Wedges in Tenon—Nails : their varieties—Brads—Joiner's Cut Brads—Floor
Brads—Cut Nails—Clasp Nails—Rose Nails—Clout "Nails—Iron Nails unfit for
nailing Zinc—Lath Nails—Iron Tacks and Tench Tacks and Nails—Prices of
Nails—Screws : their forms—Principle of the Screw—Prices of Screws—Round-
headed Screws—Brass Screws—Holes for reception of Screws—Greasing Screws
before driving—Bolts and Nuts—Female Screw—Where to get Good Nails, etc.
—Tool-boxes for Amateurs.
215. After considering the various kinds of wood that are commonly
used in Carpentry and Joinery, the prices at which these woods are
sold by the timber merchant and the builder, and the various articles
that may be had partly wrought or entirely finished from the timber
Toots used in merchant, we pass naturally enough to a review of the tools
carpentry that are used in the various operations that are performed
an joinery. the carpenter or joiner by hand. There is a large
variety of wood-working machines used in the preparation of wood for
the carpenter's or joiner's purpose; but little need be said about these,
as, with very few exceptions, they are beyond the province of the
amateur. Machinery facilitates production in large quantities, and
this the amateur artisan does not need or expect to do. At the utmost
he will do but little, comparatively speaking, and that little he should
do well and in a workman-like manner.
216. Wood-working machinery comprises circular and band saws of
considerable size, driven by great power, for cutting baulks of timber
Wood- 'nt0 planks, deals, battens, and scantlings of various
working dimensions, and for cutting planks, etc., into boards and
machinery, quartering. There are also planing-machines,for taking off
the rough surface from sawn wood ; machines for making mouldings;
dove-tailing machines ; tenoning and trenching machines; mortising
machines, and others for boring and making slots in timber. These
Costly and are all costly, and, with few exceptions, would be actually
almost useless useless to the amateur artisan. What is very much
to amateurs. reqUire(j js a compact and tolerably cheap planing-
machine, available for such purposes as come within the ordinary
cheap planing-work of an amateur ; the cheaper, as far as is compatible
machine de- with goodness, the better. It is also desirable that he
sirabie. should have such an arrangement of his ordinary bench
as may be calculated to render it available for the use of cir¬
cular saws with teeth of various sizes, from one sufficiently coarse
to cut a three-inch plank into quartering or laths, to a fine plate
furnished with teeth small enough to cut tenons and dove-tailing.
With such helps to sawing and planing in connection with his car¬
penter's bench, the amateur would find much work that he now does
with difficulty comparatively easy. Of the circular saw adaptation
mention will be further made when speaking of the bench. The
amateur's cheap planing-machine has yet to be made. Descriptions
of such have been given occasionally, and hints for the construction of
these machines ; but the instructions have proved either unintelligible
or impracticable.
Classification of Tools. 77
217. The able author of "The Amateur Carpenter,'" the late Mr.
Ellis A. Davidson, who during his life rendered by his technical
works considerable and valuable aid to the amateur and the regular
artisan, describes the tools used in carpentry in groups as follows,
namely, " Striking tools, saws, cutting tools, planes, boring classification
tools, pincers, guides, and auxiliary appliances." It of tools,
seems possible however to render the classification even more com¬
plete by the following arrangement:—
I. Striking Tools.
1. Tools that are used fot striking only, as Hammers and
Mallets.
2. Tools that are usedfor striking and cutting, as Hatchets-
Axes, Adzes, etc.
II. Rasping Tools, or Tools that act by abrasion.
1. Saws of all kinds, for cutting wood asunder.
2. Rasps and Files, for smoothing, shaping, cutting, etc., etc.
III. Paring Tools of all kinds.
1. Planes of various kinds, for smoothing, moulding, etc-
2. Spokes haves and Drawing-knives.
3. Chisels and Gouges.
IV. Boring Tools.
1. Bradawls, Gimlets, and Augers.
2. The Braces and Bit, sometimes called Stock and Bill.
V. Holding or Grasping Tools.
1. Pincers and Pliers, Nippers, Spanners, and Wrenches.
2. The Vice, including Hand-vice, Bench Vice, etc.
VI. Tools of Guidance and Direction.
j. The Carpenter's Rule and Chalk Line.
The Square, Bevel, Gauge, Mortising Gauge, Mitre Box.
3. Spirit Level, Straight Edge, Plumb and Level.
4. Compasses and Callipers.
VII. Miscellaneous Tools not subject to Classification.
1. Screwdriver, Nail-punch, Scriber, Rymer or Reamer, etc.
VIII. Tools in Combination and Useful Aids to House¬
hold Carpentry.
218. Taking the tools necessary to the amateur artisan in the order
above given, we will commence with Hammers. Of these the amateur
should possess three—namely, an ordinary joiner's ham- „
<-ri , c . 1 r r Hammers,
mer for heavy work, a lighter one of the same form for
medium work, and a light hammer with a small face, usually known
as a " ladies' hammer," for driving brads and small fine nails into small
light work. If he determines to do any veneering there is a special
kind of hammer used for this purpose which must be obtained.
78 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
219. In the accompanying illustration, fig. 30 shows the form of the
head of the ordinary joiner's hammer. For
Joiner's such work as the amateur artisan ^
hammer, will do one of these weighing from
lib. to i^lbs. and another from J^lb. to ^lb. frq joiner's
will be sufficient. The weight, however, that hammer.
may be preferable can best be determined by
the amateur himself when making his selection. B
The handle of the joiner's hammer passes
through the head, and is secured in its position
by a wedge driven into a saw-cut made in the
end of the handle. The light hammer neces- Fig. 31. ladies'
sary for fine work is shown in fig. 31. The face hammer,
(a in fig. 30) of the joiner's hammer should be from ?£in. to iin. for
the larger hammer, and from ^5 in. to %\n. for the smaller one. The
handle, which should be of ash, swells towards the lower end to afford
a firm grasp for the hand. The face (B in fig. 31) of the ladies' ham¬
mer for light work is from fisin. to J^in. in diameter. The opposite
end is slightly curved and forked so as to form a claw for raising nails.
It is fastened to the handle by shanks which proceed from either side
of the head. The veneering hammer, which is useless for any other
purpose but that of veneering, will be described when this branch of
ornamental joinery comes under consideration.
220. Many other kinds of hammers are used for various kinds of
work, but those described above will be sufficient for the amateur's
purpose. The ordinary English claw hammer or Kent
Clawhammer. 1 r, .. • , • „ j • r , <-
claw hammer, as it is sometimes called, is more useful for
gardening purposes than for carpentering. The presence of the claw
renders the amateur inclined to turn the hammer into a wrench and
lever for withdrawing nails from wood, etc., and it sometimes hap-
American pens that this weakens the hold of the handle in the
adze-eye hammer-head and spoils the hammer. The best form of
hammer. cjaw hammer js the American adze-eye hammer, sold
221. The prices of ordinary joiner's hammers range from is. to 3s.,
according to size and weight: light hammers for fine work from is. to
Hammers and Mallets : Their Uses.
is. and claw hammers from 8d. to is. gd. The American adze-eye
hammers range in price, according to weight, from is. 4d. to 2s. 4d.
each. The manner in which the handle is set in the head Prices of
renders them stronger and far better adapted for lifting hammers,
nails than the ordinary claw hammer, whose head is usually fastened
to the handle by shanks.
222. It may seem somewhat superfluous to remark that hammers
are meant for driving nails, striking punches, etc., and not for hitting
wood; but it unfortunately happens that the amateur, and Uses of
the artisan too sometimes, is given to use the hammer for hammers,
striking the handle of his chisel when mortising, or the screwdriver in
getting out obstinate nails, much to the detriment of the handle, which
is bruised and split by the blows of the hammer and thereby rendered
unfit to be held in the hand for cutting, in the case of the chisel, or for
inserting or withdrawing screws in the case of the screwdriver. Wood
must in all cases be struck by wood, when it is to be struck at all; and
when it is necessary to strike the handle of a chisel in mortising, or
the handle of a screwdriver, it should be done with the tool proper for
the purpose, which is the wooden Mallet.
223. The most convenient form for the mallet is that which is shown
in fig. 33, an illustration of the square American mallet
sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. A convenient size, the a"0'*,
head being 6in. long and the face 2^in. X 3>^in., is sold in hickory
mortised for 9d., and in lignum vitae for is. 6d. Round mallets 5m.
long and 3m. in diameter may be had in hickory for 7d., and in lignum
vitae for is.
each, the handles
being mortised into
the heads. The or¬
dinary beech mallet
used by English
joiners has a square
head, but the edges
are not bevelled as in
the illustration, and
the handle is square,
with the edges taken ^"IG- 33- square American mallet.
off all round in the middle to allow it to be conveniently grasped by the
hand. The handle is consequently somewhat larger where the third and
little finger closes over it, and less liable to slip from the grasp. A con¬
venient size of this mallet is 4>£in. long with a face 2% in. X 3^in.,
costing is. Prices of English beech mallets vary, according to size,
from 6d. to is. 9d. The amateur must remember that tools of a medium
size are always likely to be most useful to him.
224. When the roots of old trees can be purchased the amateur
will find splitting them into logs with the beetle and wedges a capital
employment for odd time in winter. He will want three Beetle and
or four iron steel-tipped wedges, which may be procured wedges,
from most ironmongers at about 4d. per pound, these articles being sold
ff
8o Household Carpentry and Joinery.
according to weight; and a beetle, or heavy mallet, with a handle of
ash, the head being vo and and encircled at either end with an iron ring
to prevent splitting. The head may be of elm or oak. The exercise is
invigorating and exhilarating, and the amateur who can indulge in
this kind of rough work will soon find pleasure in whirling the heavy
beetle over his head, bringing it down with a crash on the head of the
wedge, and hearing the creaking, groaning, and splitting of the wood
as it slowly yields to the force that is brought to bear on it in rending
it asunder.
225. The tools that are-used for cutting as well as striking, whose
blow severs or splits as well as drives forward, are the adze and axe, or
Adze, ana hatchet. The adze is not likely to be required by the
its uses, amateur ; it is used chiefly by shipwrights in ship build¬
ing, and sometimes by the carpenter. It is also used in dressing logs
of wood or trunks of trees into a rough square shape or taking off
protuberances at the butt of the trunk of a tree, so that it may lie con¬
veniently on the cross pieces over a saw-pit for cutting into planks,
etc., with a cross-cut saw. Fig. 34 shows a common form of the adze,
and from this it may be.seen that the cutting edge is at right angles to
the handle, and that it is used some-
^ y thing after the manner of a hoe, the
\ |pf^ operator standing on the wood and
\d|. qj chipping away
|l: 11 the surface,
II I bringing the
1 j edge of the
blade towards
Fig. 34. the adze. his foot at every
blow he makes.
Shipwrights often inflict severe wounds on their
feet with this tool, whose edge to be of any use
at all must be well-nigh as keen as a razor.
226. It is with the axe or hatchet that the
amateur artisan is more immediately con¬
cerned, and this is a tool that he cannot do
without, for it may be made useful in a variety
of ways. In framing timber together it can be
used as a hammer, instead of the heavy car¬
penter's hammer, which the amateur need not
Axe or place among his tools ; and for
hatchet, sharpening stakes or cutting
down timber to the size required in the rough,
or for splitting pieces of wood, it is invaluable.
It should be kept well sharpened, for a blunt
axe is useless for any purpose, as far as cut¬
ting is concerned, except splitting firewood.
227. The form of hatchet in common use fig. 35. English
among English carpenters and joiners is hatchet.
that which is shown in fig. 35, the American hatchet being represented
American Hatchet, Rasping Tools, etc. 81
in fig. 36. The blade of this hatchet is somewhat longer than that
of the English hatchet, and the projecting hammer-head at the back
is longer, which is an advantage.
With regard to prices, carpen-
American axes which have a cast head and steel blades are sold at 2s.,
i^lbs. in weight; and 2s. 4d., i^lbs. in weight, by Messrs. Churchill and
Co. The smaller size will be found most generally useful by American
amateurs. The axe usually called a tomahawk by iron- a*6-
mongers is of little use for cutting or chipping wood, although its
pecmiar wedge shaped form renders it well adapted for splitting
wood; it is sometimes called the Canada wedge axe. There are
many varieties of axes in use, but those which have been described
are most commonly used in carpentering. For felling trees the blade
of the axe is longer and narrower in proportion, and partakes more of
the form of the wedge than the ordinary hatchet.
228. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that the amateur should
never use any tool or allow it to be used for any other purpose than
that for which it is primarily intended. For example, Toolg g^ouia
a hatchet will often be taken, if it can be got at readily, be kept
for cleaving firewood or chopping boxes, and the conse- under look
quence is that the edge is utterly spoiled for carpentering, 8X1 ey"
until the tool has been sharpened and put in order. Screwdrivers,
and even chisels, are sometimes taken to prise up the nails with which
carpets have been nailed down. In short, to prevent these and similar
misappropriations of his tools, which he should be chary of lending,
if he wish to keep them in good order, the amateur should
Have a door to his workshop secured with lock and key, and be
careful always to keep the door locked and the key in his pocket.
229. We must now proceed to Rasping Tools, or tools which act by
abrasion or rubbing away the material to which they are applied.
This will be readily understood when it is considered that Rasping
the separation of a piece of wood by sawing is effected by toolSi
the disintegration or continual wearing away into small fragments,
technically called sawdust, of a layer of wood, equal in thickness to
the extreme width between the teeth of the saw from outside to out¬
side, against which the teeth of the saw are constantly acting until the
division has been effected. Rasps and files are also tools which come
under this category.
Kent axes from 2s. 6d. to 4s.
Good axe heads may be bought
by weight, at is. id. per pound;
, ashen handles from 4^d. each.
The common axes, which are sold
at prices from is. to 2s. each, are
for the most part useless, except
for cutting up fire-wood. The
ters' adzes range from 3s. 3d. to
3s. 9d., according to English
size, and the best hatchet.
FIG. 36. AMERICAN HATCHET.
82 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
230. The saws with which logs and timber of all shapes and sizes
Saws: their sawn into scantlings, boards, etc., are broad blades of
nature and steel with large coarse teeth, such as circular saws and the
operation, broad pit saws—with a handle fixed at one end, and a
movable handle wedged to the saw blade at the other end—with
which timber is cut into planks or any desired scantling by sawyers in
a sawpit. Cross-cut saws are saws with a socket at either end in
which a handle is placed, when in use, by means of which the saw
is drawn backward and forward across the trunk of a tree until it
is cut asunder.
231. Circular saws are chiefly used in sawmills, but it is possible to
fit a small light circular saw to the carpenter's bench, by means of
Circular which much work may be speedily done, though it must
saws. of necessity be light work, as the saw itself must be
worked by hand or foot, by turning a handle or by pressure on a
treadle. We shall have more to say about circular saw action in con¬
nection with the bench when touching specially on this part of our
Cross-cut subject. A small cross-cut saw the amateur may oc-
saws. casionally find useful, especially if he be in the habit of
buying timber to cut into logs for firing ; a saw of this kind 4 feet in
length costs about 15s. new, but one sufficiently good for ordinary
purposes may be occasionally picked up second-hand for half the
money. Small circular saws, ranging in diameter from 4 inches to
12 inches, may be bought at from 4s. to 13s., according to size ; larger
ones from 1 foot to 3 feet at from 13s. to 96s. A saw more than
12 inches in diameter would be useless to the amateur, as it would
require at least horse-power to drive it with any effect. Fig. 37 shows
the shape of the circular saw, and fig. 38 that of the cross-cut saw.
For heavy work, excellent saws of these descriptions are made by
Messrs. Taylor Brothers, Adelaide Works, Sheffield, who supply
a cross-cut saw 4 feet long for 12s., in German steel, and 13s. in cast
steel; and circular saws from 4 inches to 12 inches, at from 4s. 6d. to
16s. A speciality in Messrs. Taylor's saws is that they are perforated
above the notches, which serves to guide the file in sharpening, keep
the teeth uniform, avoid fracture, and prevent expansion. Regulleting
is saved by the perforations, and there is only half the labour that is
involved in sharpening a solid blade. Another excellent feature in
of all Kinds.
83
Messrs. Taylor's saws of all kinds is, that they are ground thinner
towards the back, thus saving much friction in sawing.
232. There are many kinds of saws in addition to those that have
just been mentioned ; but those which the amateur artisan will most re¬
quire are the Hand Saw, Tenon Saw, Dovetail Saw, Key- saws required
hole Saw, and Frame Saw. These are sufficient for all by amateurs.
Ordinary work. To these, in order to save wear and tear of the hand
saw, a saw called a rip, or ripping saw may be added. This saw has
large triangular teeth, and is used for sawing along the grain. It is
therefore useful for sawing planks, deals, battens, and boards, the
way of the grain ; the work being done more expeditiously with a rip
saw than a hand saw.
233. The Hand Saw is generally useful, and will, as it has been said,
serve the purpose of a rip saw or panel saw, a finer kind of saw used
by joiners. Two kinds of hand saws are represented in
the annexed illustration. Fig. 39 is the ordinary hand and Baw'
saw which has been in use for years. Fig. 40 represents what is
called a " combination saw," as, in this one tool, three combination
or four tools hitherto perfectly distinct and separate are s&w.
united. It will be noticed that the edge ab of the handle, is at right
angles to the edge a c of the blade; thus fitting the saw to act as a
square. The edge a c will also serve as a measuring rule, being graduated
in inches and parts of inches, and'measuring 24 inches in length froir
a to c, and, being perfectly straight, it may further be made useful as a
straight-edge. These saws may be had of Messrs. Churchill and Co.
for 1 os. 8d. each, or with plumb and level attachment for 12s. 8d.
Ordinary hand saws with blades 26 inches long, may be had at prices
varying from 2s. 6d. to 6s. About 4s. will always purchase a good and
serviceable hand saw.
84 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
234. The Tenon Saw, shown in fig. 41, is used more especially for cut¬
ting across the grain of the wood, and leaves the surface of the wood that
Tenon sa *s divided by it as smooth as is possible when the nature
non aw. oj. ^ operation is considered. The blade is of necessity
thin and fine, and in order to keep it straight when in use, it is inserted
into a back of iron or brass. It is worked by means of a handle dif¬
fering in form from that of the hand saw as may be seen by comparing
the illustrations. A tenon saw to be really useful, should be from
Fig. 41. tenon saw (disston's make).
14 inches to 18 inches in length. Saws of this length as supplied by
Messrs. Churchill, with beech handles, range in price from 4s. 8d. to
6s., and with apple handles, Disston's make, from 7s. to 9s. These
prices may appear high to the amateur, but it is always better to get
good tools and give a fair price for them ; it is far cheaper in the end,
and better work can be done with them.
235. The Dovetail Saw and the Sash Saw are nothing more than
tenon saws of small size, being identical with these in shape and make.
Dovetail saw They range from 8 to 12 inches in length. The medium
and sash saw. size, io inches long, will be found most useful: the price
of a saw of this size varies from 3s. 4d. with beech handle, to 5s. with
apple handles, Disston's make.
236. The Keyhole Saw consists of a long narrow movable blade as
shown in fig. 42. A is a pad or handle of hard wood, mounted with a
Keyhole saw. brass end or cap B. The handle is pierced throughout
' with a narrow slit sufficiently large to allow of the easy
passage of the saw. The brass cap is pierced in the same way, and
Fig. 42. keyhole saw and handle.
within it is an iron plate which is pressed against the saw blade when
in use, by screwing up the two screws at C. When not in use the
screws are relaxed, and the blade thrust back into the pad; the top
projecting about as far as the dotted line D ; and the other end, which
is sharp and pointed, projecting beyond the end of the pad as at E.
When in use care should be taken to tighten the screws as much as
possible, lest the saw should slip back and an ugly wound be inflicted
Frame s/tws and Rasps.
85
by the pointed end on the palm of the hand. Pads in beech, with saw
complete, cost from is. 3d. to is. 6d. each, in ebony or hard wood
from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. each ; pad saws cost from 4d. to 6d. each, and
the amateur should always have an extra one or two by him to replace
the one in use if he break it or bend it past straightening again, as he
may do occasionally. The keyhole saw is useful for cutting out curved
work, and rough coarse fretwork may be done with it and perforated
work generally for rough carving.
237. The Bow or Frame Saw is a narrow, slender, finely notched
blade fixed in a frame of wood as
shown in fig. 43. The ends of the
blade are fixed in two bow or frame
handles at the lower saw.
part of the frame, and it is tightly
stretched so as to render it per¬
fectly rigid by twisting a piece of
catgut or thong looped over the
upper ends. When the upper ex-
Fig. 43. bow or frame saw. tremities are thus drawn together,
the lower ends are of necessity forced
apart and the blade is tightened. A
bow saw and frame costs from 3s. to 4s.,
the blades being from 3d. to 6d. each.
In fig. 44 an American modification of
the frame saw is shown, called the arch
frame wood saw. The frame and blade,
30 inches long, is supplied complete by
Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 4s., the
frame without the blade for is. 8d. The
frame saw shown in fig. 44 is of course
much larger than that shown in fig. 43 :
.t is commonly used on the Continent
instead of the hand saw, as far as the
frame will permit. An amateur handling it for the first time would
find it difficult and awkward to use, but it is said that those who
are accustomed to it prefer it to the hand saw.
238. Rasps, generally speaking, are used in carpentry for cutting
away or smoothing wood, or for wearing away the sharp edge left in
a circular hole that has been cut out with the keyhole saw, Rasps for
so as to impart a bevel to it sloping from above to the wood,
under part. A rasp is flat on one side and slightly convex on the other,
and covered with fine projecting points beaten up by a mallet and
Fig. 44. american
frame saw.
Fig. 45. the rasp (fur wood).
punch. They are of different degrees of rowghness, and cost from aq.
to is. 6d. each according to length.
86 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
239. Files are used for cutting metal and sharpening saws. The
surface of the file is ridged with fine lines cut into the metal. Fig. 45
FUes for shows the general form of the rasp. Fig. 46 that of the
metal. triangular file, and fig. 47 the transverse sections of files
most generally used : A being the triangular file, with three faces
tapering to a point ; B the round or " rat-tailed " file, for cutting or
Various forms enlarging round holes in metal; and C the flat or warding
of files. file, useful in filing the wards of a key, etc., or cutting a
deeper head to a screw. Files are also used in finishing fret-work
and wood carving, and may be had for this purpose at 3d. each or
assorted in sizes at 2s. 6d. per dozen, assorted. Files for work¬
ing in metal cost about 3d. or 4d. each, saw-files for sharpening saws
from 3d. to 6d. each, according to the size of the teeth of the saw
on which they are intended to operate, the larger and deeper teeth
taking the more expensive files.
240. Paring tools, or tools which are used for cleaning away the
rough, ragged surface left by the teeth of the saw and rendering wood
Paring tools, smooth and even, or otherwise for cutting wood into various
or edge tools, forms and shapes, are frequently called edge tools, as-
they present a sharp, keen edge. Indeed, if they are blunt in the
least degree they are not fit for use. Watch an artisan at his work,
and you will see him frequently rub his plane-iron or chisel on the oil¬
stone in order to sharpen it. An amateur, especially a beginner, in
nine cases out of ten, either does not think of doing so, or altogether
forgets that there is any necessity for it, and this is one of the chief
reasons why amateur's work is often so badly done. We have insisted
on the need that there is for the amateur to buy none but good tools,
and to take care to keep them under lock and key : he must further sup¬
plement this by keeping them perfectly clean and free from rust, and
learning to whet the edge of each and all cutting tools of this class
when they show signs of dulness. Special mention of sharpening tools,
and the mode of, and appliances for, doing this will be made further on.
241. The tools that are comprised in the first group of paring tools
are Planes. Now of these there are an infinite variety, as formerly,
Planes before moulding was made by machinery, every different
necessary to pattern required a different plane or plane-iron. The
amateurs. pianes that are absolutely necessary to an amateur are a
jack-plane and a smoothing-plane. To these a trying-plane may be
added, as it is most useful for long joints and fine first-class work,
match planes for grooving and tongueing, a rebate-plane, and two or
three beading-planes for cutting beads of different sizes on the square
edge of a board to break joint, and the grooving-plane, familiarly
called the " old woman's tooth."
242. It will be as well first to take into consideration the 7ack-plant
k B (j
Fig. 47. section of files.
I
Fig. 46. the file (for iron).
The Smoothing-plane and the Jack-plane. 87
and the smoothing-plane, which, as it had been said, are the two planes
flg. 48. the jack-plane.
necessary to the amateur. The jack-plane shown in jaok.plane.
fig. 48 is from 15 to 18 inches long, and 2}i inches broad, its co'nstrao-
and about the same in depth. Near one end is a handle tionand
projecting upwards called a " toat," and near the other a aotlon<
hole for the reception of the plane-iron, which is held in its place
by a wedge. Planes of this description,
and smoothing-planes also, are usually
made with double irons; that is to say,
of two irons held together by a short
screw, as shown in fig. 49. In this, A
is the iron with a sharpened edge which
takes off the outer surface of the wood
in shavings, and B the iron which is at¬
tached to it by the screw c. The edge of
the iron B, which is slightly bent, is placed flg- 49- double plane-iron.
at a very short space from the edge of A : it serves to support and
strengthen the cutting blade, and turn off the shaving in an upward
direction through the hole that is cut in the wood for the reception of
the iron as shown at D.
243. The Smoothing-plane is different to the jack-plane in shape;
being about 8 inches long and
2 yi inches to 3 inches broad, in
the wi dest part where Smoothing-
the iron issues from plane,
the wood, tapering to a width of
about 2 inches in front and 1%
inches behind, so that it may be
more easily held in the hand.
This kind of plane is shown
in fig. 50. The jack-plane is
used for taking the rough sur¬
face from the sawn timber, and
when this has been removed the
Fig. 50. smoothing-plane. smoothing-plane is used to make
the surface of the wood perfectly smooth and even. These planes are
88 Household Carpentry and Joinery,
Trying-plane.
generally made in beech, and cost — the smoothing-plane from 3s. 6d.
to 5s., and the jack-plane from 4s. to 5s. The amateur artisan will
do well to have a smoothing-plane that is fitted with an iron sole or
plate extending over the bottom of the plane, but when made in this
way the plane of course will cost more.
244. Trying-planes and Jointer-planes differ from the jack-plane in
being longer and set with a finer cut. The former is generally from 22
inches to 24 inches long, and costs from 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. or
8s.; the latter is from 28 inches to 30 inches long, and costs
from 8s. to 9s. The handles of these planes
differ in shape from that of the jack-plane, as
\ -/ 1 \ may be seen from an inspection of fig. 51, in
which A represents the toat or horn which forms
the handle of the jack-plane, and B the looped
pIG handle of the trying or jointer-planes.
245. The great difficulty which is found by
toats of planes. most amateurs in working with the plane is to
adjust the iron accurately, so that the plane may cut properly and
take off shavings of uniform thickness throughout. Again, it is
necessary that the iron should project beyond the sole rather more
Difficulty to f°r working some kinds of wood and rather less for
amateurs in others, although the actual difference may be scarcely
using plane, appreciable. All this occasions much trouble to the
amateur artisan, and facility in adjusting and using the plane can
only be obtained by a little tuition from a skilled mechanic, followed
by plenty of practice, if the ordinary planes are used. Of late years,
however, some beautiful planes have been brought into use in America,
of which the amateur artisan is recommended to avail himself. The
great merit of these planes is that they are self adjusting, which obvi¬
ates most of the difficulty to the amateur of which we have been
speaking with regard to adjustment. We give six illustrations of ser¬
viceable adjustable bench planes suitable for the requirements of the
amateur, which are kept in stock and sold by Messrs. Churchill and
Co., and which are well worthy the attention even of skilled mechanics.
246. Figs. 52 and 53 are illustrations of Bailey's Patent Adjustable
Bench Planes. In these the
plane-iron is secured in its posi¬
tion by means of the iron lever,
with a cam and
thumb-latch at its
end. A
passing
down into the iron bed-piece
below serves as a fulcrum on
which the lever acts in clamp¬
ing down the plane-iron. The
lever may be put in position
or re'moved at pleasure without the use of any tool, it being properly
slotted for this purpose ; and the pressure required for the best work-
Bailey'a
Patent
Adjustable u p p e r
Bench Planes.
screw
Fig. 52. bailey's adjustable
smoothing-plane.
Patent Ajxjstable Planes. 89
ing of the plane can be obtained at any time by driving or slacking
the central screw upon which the lever operates. The thumb-screw,
located under the iron bed-piece, and just in front of the handle of
, Fig. 53. bailey's adjustable jack-plane.
the plane, works a simple device by means of which the plane-iron
can be easily set forward or withdrawn while it is still clamped down
to the bed-piece ; and without removing the hands from the plane or
the plane from the work, any desired thickness of shaving can be
obtained with perfect accuracy. For beauty and style of finish these
planes are unequalled, and the great convenience in working renders
them the cheapest planes in use. Each part, being made inter¬
changeable, can be replaced at a trifling expense. The plane is held
by the handle behind with the right hand, and steadied with the left
hand, which is placed on the knob in front. Fig. 52 shows the smooth-
ing-plane, and fig. 53 the jack-plane. The prices vary according to
length of plane and width of cutter, as follows :—
Smoothing Planes.
No. £ s. d.
1. s|in. long, iJin. cutter 096
2. 7 „ i| ,, o 11 6
3. 8 „ i| ,, o 12 6
4. 9 ,, 2 ,, o 14 o
Jack, Fore, and Jointer Planes.
No. _ £ s. d.
5. 34m. long, ain. cutter o 16 o
6. 18 ,, 2| „ IOO
7- 22 » 2? .. 140
8. 24 „ 2g ,, 180
It should be said that No. 5 in the above list is the jack-plane ; No. 6
the fore or trying plane ; and
Nos. 7 and 8 jointer planes.
The American planes, it will
be noticed, are not so long
as the English planes which
bear the same names.
247. In figs. 54 and 55 are
shown two of Stanley.s
Stanleys Patent Patent
Adjustable A^ustable
1 • « xrldiU68*
Planes, which
differ somewhat in construc¬
tion from Bailey's planes,
which have just been described, although the general principle is the
same. The peculiarity of these planes is that they have a wrought
Fig. 54. Stanley's adjustable
smoothing-plane.
go Household Carpentry and Joinery.
steel stock. Being adjusted by the use of a compound lever, they
are equally well adapted to coarse or fine work; and, in addition to
this, they commend themselves to amateur artisans for their light¬
ness of weight and the ease with which they can be worked. The
Fig. 55. stanley's adjustable jack-plane.
smoothing-plane, 9m. long, with a 2^in. cutter, costs 12s., and the
jack-plane, 14m. long, with a cutter of the same width, costs 14s.
The Stanley planes just described have steel stocks, and the Bailey
planes iron stocks; but there are also
Stanley planes with wood stocks,
which may be bought at cheaper
rates. Fig. 56 shows a woodsmooth-
ing-plane 8in. long, with a i^in.
cutter, which costs 6s. 6d. A larger
plane, 1 oin. long, with a 2 >£in. cutter
and a handle like the jack-plane in
fig* 57■> costs 8s. 6d. The jack-plane
(fig* 39)> 15in- long, with a 2}£in.
Fig. 56. Stanley's wood cutter, costs 8s. 6d.; the fore, or try -
smoothing-plane. jng plane. 2oin. long, with a
cutter, 9s. 6d. ; and the jointer plane, 26in.luug, witn a 2^§m. cutter, 1 is.
248. It has been said that the smoothing-plane and the jack-plane
are the two tools of this description that are most necessary to the
lain amateur artisan. He need not go to the expense of a trying-
planes, etc., plane, because he is not likely to be doing such joiner's
not required work as will require such a true and accurate edge to the
by amateur, when two panels are to be fitted edge to edge, as
in large panels, |pr example. He will buy all his match-boarding
Fig. 57. Stanley's wood jack-plane.
The Spokeshave and the Drawing-knife. 91
ready wrought for use, and all his grooved and tongued timber, so he
need not have any match planes unless he has a particular fancy that
way. He will not require moulding planes, but he will find it useful to
include in his stock a good rebate plane, some beads, an old woman's
tooth, and a plough plane, with a set of irons for various widths.
249. The rabbet or rebate plane
is shown in the accompanying illus¬
tration. The iron, it will be noticed,
comes out at the side Rabbet or
as well as the bottom rebate plane,
of the plane, and so the edge of a
board can be cut away by it so as
to leave an indentation all along
its length like a step, so that it
Fig. 58. rebate plane. may fit over and into another similar
indentation cut in the edge of another board. The recess in a sash
bar, into which a piece of glass is laid, is a rabbet or rebate. The
cost of ordinary rebate planes in beech, as shown in fig. 58, with
skew cutters, varying from 1 %\n. to ranges from 2s. 6d. to 3s.
The " old woman's tooth," so called from its narrow projecting cutter
is used for cutting grooves, and may be bought for is. gd. old woman's'
or 2s. Planes for cutting beads may be had for 2s. 6d. tooth,
each. They range in sizes upwards from >£in., increasing by
The most useful sizes are in., X'n-> fi$in., and j£in., but larger sizes
may be had if required. A plough plane, with screw top and eight
irons, may be had for from 18s. to 20s. Besides these there are many
planes of different forms used for different purposes, as fillisters, sash
fillisters, dado planes, compass planes, fluting planes, etc., Fillisters of
but the description of them would take up too much vari°us kinds,
space. They are, moreover, expensive, and to purchase them would
require a far greater outlay than most amateurs would either be able,
or indeed care, to make.
250. The spokeshave and the drawing-knife are the tools that are
comprised in the second division of paring tools. The drawing-knife
is useful for reducing the size of any piece of wood that it
may be inconvenient to cut down in any other way. The po 68 ave"
spokeshave, as its name implies, may be used for imparting a smooth
surface to the spokes of wheels,
but it is also useful for smooth¬
ing down any surface that is
not required to be perfectly
flat. Thus, a bevelled edge
may be given to a round hole
of any large size cut in a piece
of wood. The drawing-knife
is always worked towards the'
operator, but the spokeshave
may be used in a direction
FlG. 59. DRAWING-KNIFE.
FIG. 60. SPOKESHAVE.
either towards or from the person who is using it.
92 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
251. The drawing knife is shown in fig. 59- It is simply a long
and rather thick blade, perfectly rigid, but having a keen knife-like
Drawing- edge. On either side is a projecting spike, which is
knife. turned at right angles to the back of the blade, and in¬
serted into a wooden handle. It is an instrument that does its work
quickly and effectually when some degree of force is applied to it.
Prices range, according to size, from 2s to 3s. 6d. The spokeshave
has a thick and slightly curved blade with a keen edge, and projecting
arms on either side which are bent at right angles to the flat of the
blade, and inserted into a beech-wood handle, or rather a double-
handled piece of beech wood, as shown in fig. 60. The part that is
shown in the drawing is placed against the wood, and the shavings
pass under the blade, between it and the wood, and come out through
the hollow shown in the upper part of the illustration. The stocks, or
handles, are usually made of beech. Prices are according to length
of edge of blade, namely, 2%'m., is. 6d. ; 3m., is. 8d.; 3^in., 2s.;
and 4m., 2s. 4d. They may be purchased for less money, but in buy¬
ing tools it is always better to give a good price for them, for inferior
articles are well-nigh useless, and cause disappointment, often giving
the amateur a distaste for the work that he has taken in hand.
252. Some excellent iron spokeshaves have been introduced from
America, and may be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co. The
American iron cutters are made of the best English cast steel, tempered
spokeshave. and ground by an improved method, and are in perfect
working order when sent from the factory. Fig. 61 shows a Double Iron
shaves made in America), and raised handles. The price of this tool is
is. 3d., and for the same money a similar spokeshave may be had with
straight handles. Spokeshaves, with adjustable mouth and either
raised or straight handles, may be had for is. 7d. each. The Model
Double Iron Spokeshave with hollow face costs is. 3d. There is
another kind with two cutters 1 )4 in. wide, one hollow or curved, and
the other straight, which costs is. id.; but as neither cutter can be in
the middle of the stock, where it ought to be, the tool must be some-
FlG. 6-1. DOUBLE IRON STRAIGHT-FACE SPOKESHAVE.
Straight Face Spoke¬
shave, 16 in. long, with
a cutter of 2^ in.
(which is the length
adopted for all cutters
in carpenter's spoke-
FlG. 62. REVERSIBLE SPOKESHAVE.
what one-sided to work. Fig. 62 shows the Reversible Spokeshave,
which can be worked to and from the person using it without changing
Chisels and Gouges.
93
position. This usetul tool, wftich has raised handles and is furnished
with two straight cutters 2^in. long, costs 2s. 2d.
253. The third and last division of paring tools comprises chisels
and gouges. In reality the plane in its simplest form, a§ seen in the
jack-plane and smoothing-plane, is nothing more than a chisels and
chisel of considerable width set m a block of wood, Gouges,
which serves as a guide, and by means of which the operator is enabled
to work the tool with greater ease and accuracy. Moulding and
fluting planes, as well as beads, grooving planes, ploughs, etc., may
with e<jual propriety be looked upon as modifications of the gouge. A
chisel is a flat and thick piece of steel, of which the cutting end is
ground to a bevel, in order to obtain a keen edge, while the other is
fashioned into a tang, with a projecting shoulder, which fits close
against the wooden handle into which the tang is inserted. The
gouge differs from the chisel in being hollow instead of flat. Chisels
are distinguished as firmer chisels, paring chisels, mortis- chisels, how
ing chisels, and turning chisels. It must be said, how- distinguished,
ever, that the last-named variety differs from the other kinds of
chisels, in being ground to a bevel on both sides instead of one side
only. Gouges are distinguished as firmer gouges and Gouges, how
turning gouges. The main point of difference between distinguished,
them is that the former are sharpened on the outside on the bevel, and
the latter on the inside.
254. In the annexed illustrations are shown the various forms of
chisels used in Carpentry and Joinery, and that of the gouge. In
fig. 63 is shown the Firmer Chisel, or ordinary carpenter's Firmer
chisel, turned in such a way as to show the width of the
blade and the bevel. In fig. 64 a
representation of the same kind
of chisel is shown turned so as to
show the side or thickness of the
blade, and the angle of the bevel by
which the cutting edge is formed.
The only difference between firmer
chisels and paring chisels is that
the former are shorter and thicker
in the blade, while the latter are
longer and thinner. Firmer chisels
vary in width from J£in. to 2in.,
and paring chisels from ji'vci. to
2in. The latter are chiefly used by
pattern makers for fine and more
delicate work, while the former are
better adapted for the rougher work
of the carpenter and joiner.
255. It will be noticed that while
these chisels are contracted in width
between the broad flat blade and the
shoulder, the mortise chisel, shown in fig. 65 so as to show the side, is
chisels.
N
B
HI
tig. 67. FIG. 66. Fig. 65. fig.64. Fig. 63,
GOUGE. MORTISE CHISELS. FIRMER CHISEL.
94 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
broadest at the shoulder, and narrows gradually until the bevel in
reached. This is done in order to impart extra strength to the tool to
Mortise bear the heavy blows of the mallet in mortising. Chisels
chisels. of this description are made varying in width from Yiin.
to iin. Some mortise chisels are made with a socket, as in fig. 66, into
which a short beech handle is fitted. Chisels thus made and handled
are used for heavy work.
256. The peculiar forms of the turning chisel will be shown in the
chapter on Turning. They are of various widths, and longer than even
Turning the paring chisels, generally speaking. For turning soft
chisels, wood the edge of the turning chisel is bevelled on both
sides, as it has been said; but for turning hard wood a much shorter
chisel is used with a bevel on one side only, like that of the ordinary
chisel, but with not so great a slant. The double bevel edge has the
effect of throwing off a clean shaving from the wood when revolving
in the lathe, while the blunter single bevel edge acts more like a
scraper, and does not take off clean shavings.
257. In fig. 67 the shape of the gouge is shown, which resembles
a chisel bent into a curved form, so that the section of the blade
Goue would resemble a crescent. Gouges are made in sizes
varying from #in. for turning gouges, and ^in. for firmer
gouges, to 2in. for both kinds. Turning gouges are longer than
firmer gouges, and are used by turners for roughing down their work
in the lathe.
258. It may be mentioned that the tool called a cold chisel is a long
piece of steel, levelled on both sides at one end to a blunt
0 0 186 " edge, used by carpenters and others to knock out a hole
in a wall of stone or brick for the insertion of a wedge, the end of a
piece of timber, etc.
259. About half-a-dozen chisels and the same number of gouges
will be the utmost number that the amateur will require ; and, for both
Chisels and c^isels and gouges, the widths to be selected may be
gouges re- placed at Y%in., Yin., Yin., iin., i^in., and i^in. The
am^eur7 ordinary carpenter's or firmer chisels should be purchased
ama eur. ^ ^ few parjng chisels can be added to the stock
at any time if required. Sets of chisels assorted may be purchased at
from 5s. to 7s. 6d., and sets of gouges from 6s. 6d. to 8s. For ordinary
mortising the firmer chisel will be sufficient; but one or two socket
chisels will be found useful, and, for any very narrow work, one or
two mortise chisels or sash mortise chisels of the narrowest widths
will be necessary.
260. The following are the sizes and prices of chisels and gouges
Prices of taken from the price list of Mr. A. S. Lunt, Tool and
ohiseis and Cutlery Warehouse, 297, Hackney Road, London, E.:—
gouges. These prices may be taken as fairly representing the
amounts that ought to be charged for tools of this description. Some
slight variation may be found in the prices charged by different
makers and ironmongers, but the prices given are sufficiently close to
guide the reader in making his calculations when getting together a
set of tools.
Chisels, Gouges, Bradawls, Gimlets, Etc. 95
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s. d.
s. d.
s. d
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—
0 74
0 6
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0 84
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1 6
1 10
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1 10 1 4
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1 3
2 1
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2 6
0 6
0 94
0 8
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If with round ash handles and brass ferules, 2s. per dozen extra, or
with box octagon handles, 5s. per dozen extra.
261. The tools comprised in the first division of boring tools are
bradawls, gimlets, and augers. These tools are, for the most part,
extremely simple in construction, the bradawl being a Boringtools
piece of steel sharpened at the end and fixed for con- or 00 s'
venience of use in a wooden handle ; and the gimlet a piece of steel
so fashioned at one end that it may take hold of, and cut its way into,
timber, and having a small piece of wood attached crosswise at the
other end, which serves as a lever to turn the steel shank of the tool,
and press it into the wood. The auger is only a gimlet on a large
scale, the cross handle being turned by the operator with both hands,
which are transferred from end to end of the handle at every half-
turn of the tool. The gimlet is held and turned by the right hand
only. The mode and method of holding and working these and other
tools will be described fully in the next chapter.
262. The bradawl and the gimlet are represented in the accompany-
. . -jl. ing illustration, the shape of the former
EmJuJ when handled being shown in Bradawls:
figs. 68 and 69. The bradawltheir varieties,
varies in size or diameter of the steel shaft
from ^in. to y&'m. or ^in. Smaller sizes
are made, but these are generally called
sprig tools; the term bradawl being more
strictly applied to the longer sizes only.
Whether it be large or small, the bradawl
is a round piece of steel fitted with a
shoulder and tang at one end, which is
inserted into a handle generally of beech
Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. or ash, and of the form shown in the
bradawls. gimlets. illustration. The shoulder abuts against
the handle, as in the case of the chisel and gouge ; and, to keep the
handle from splitting when the tang is driven into it, it is furnished
7
g6 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
with a narrow brass ring or ferule. The end of the steel shaft thus
handled is ground down on either side so as to form a A shape, as
shown in fig. 68. Either side of the shaft when ground presents the
appearance shown in fig. 69. The legitimate purpose of the bradawl
is to bore holes in wood so as to ensure the passage of a nail or screw
in the right direction, and also to render its entrance into the wood
more easy ; but occasionally for driving in or withdrawing small
screws, especially those by which handles of doors are secured to the
spindle, a large bradawl may be used conveniently as a screwdriver.
263. Gimlets are of two kinds, plain and twisted. The form of the
twisted gimlet is shown in fig. 70. In this kind a deep spiral groove
Gimlets: runs upward from the screw point about half-way up the
their varieties. shank. It possesses two advantages over the plain
gimlet shown in fig. 71, and these are :—that it can be worked with
more ease, the wood that is cut away being forced up the groove as
the tool penetrates deeper and deeper into the wood; and that it
makes a cleaner hole. The screw-point in this and the plain gimlet
is to give the tool a firm holding in the wood at entrance, and to
ensure its regular progress in penetrating the timber. The plain
gimlet is a steel shank with a small screw-point and a straight groove
running more than half-way up its length. This kind of gimlet is
more apt to break or twist in hard wood than the spiral or twisted
gimlet; and when it is necessary to bore a deep hole, the friction
arising from the wood that is cut away becoming tightly packed
within the straight groove renders the tool somewhat difficult to work,
as any one may prove to his own satisfaction by boring a hole in a
piece of oak with a plain gimlet. The head of the gimlet consists of
a piece of boxwood usually turned in the form shown in the illustration.
The steel is squared at the upper end, and tapers away to a fine point.
The squared part keys, as it were, into the handle, and the thin end is
rivetted over a small disc of copper. Thus the cutting or boring part
of the tool is securely fixed to the handle, and any chance of the
handle slipping round, as it would have done, had not the steel shaft
been squared at the top, is prevented.
264. Twisted gimlets may be bought at 3s. per dozen, or at from 2d.
to 6d. each, according to size, and the plain or shell gimlets at 2s. 9d.
Cost of per dozen, or at from 2d. to 4d. or 5d. each, according to
bradawls size. Bradawl blades, without handles, cost about 8d. per
and gimlets. assorted, or is. 6d. a dozen with handles. Sepa¬
rately the blades are sold from id. to i}£d. each without handles, or
from i^d. to 3d. each with handles, according to size. Large flooring
bradawls, handled, cost from 3^d. to 4d. each. The amateur artisan
will find three or four gimlets of various sizes, and the same number of
bradawls, as many as he will require, and to these should be added a
flooring awl, which will also serve the purpose of a small screwdriver.
The cheapness of these tools, however, will enable any amateur carpenter
to furnish himself with a complete set assorted, if he wishes to do so.
265. The auger, as it has been said, is a gimlet on a large scale.
There are two kinds of augers, distinguished as shell augers and screw
Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets; Augers. 97
augers. The shell auger corresponds with the plain or shell gimlet,
and the screw auger with the twisted gimlet. These tools are useful
for boring large and deep holes, especially for the
passage of a screw-bolt and nut; but the Augers:
shell auger maybe made useful in mortis- their varieties,
ing, especially if the amateur has not a bit-brace or
stock-and-bit at his disposal. In the accompanying
illustration, fig. 73 shows the end of the shell auger,
and fig. 72 that of the screw auger. Sometimes the
auger is secured, like the gimlet, to a cross-handle
of wood ; but it is also squared at the Prices of
end so as to key into a handle, as shown augers,
in fig. 75, or formed into a loop through which a
handle may be passed, as in fig. 74. It is useful to
have four augers calculated to cut holes j£in., 2^in.,
1 in., i^in. in diameter. A kind of auger called a
hollow auger is made, but this tool is used more
especially by coach-builders and chair-makers, and
is comparatively useless to amateurs. There is
also a form of auger known as the ladder or taper
auger, which will bore a hole like a funnel—large at
the top and small at the bottom ; but this the ama¬
teur is not likely to require. The following are
the prices of augers according to the diameter of
hole they will bore:—
Fig. 72.
screw
auger.
Fig. 73.
shell
auger.
Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
CONTRIVANCES FOR
HANDLING AUGERS.
Description.
fin.
Jin.
gin.
fin.
Jin.
iin.
ijin.
ijin.
ijin-
i|in.
2 in.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Shell Augers
0 8
0 8
0 10
1 0
1 2
1 4
1 6
1 8
1 10
2 4
2 10
Bright Screw Augers with
Eyes
x 8
1 9
2 0
2 3
2 6
2 9
3 2
3 8
4 a
■> 0
S »o
Patent American Augers
with Eyes
—
2 9
3 0
4 0
4 6
s 0
S 6
6 6
—
'
266. The bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, is the principal tool in the
second division of boring tools, and, indeed, the only tool of this kind
with which the amateur artisan need concern himself. Bit-braces
There are breast-drills, fitted with a plate to hold against and drill,
the breast, steadied with a handle held in the left hand, and having a
chuck at the further extremity in which the drill is placed and caused
to revolve at a rapid rate by a large toothed-wheel working in a smaller
wheel, the former being turned by a handle held in the right hand.
These are, however, more suitable for working in iron, but they are
used for working in wood, especially by carriage builders. An ex¬
cellent drill of this description, called the Patent Breast patent
Drill, is sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 12s. Breast Drill.
The best kind of tool for use in this drill is the Morse Bit Stock Drill,
of which there are many sizes, varying in diameter from ^ to £in. by
g8 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
regular increase of i-32nd of an inch, and ranging in price from yA.
to 3s. 4d. each.
267. To return however to the bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, this was
once one of the most expensive tools that were made, and its price
Bit-braoe, or prevented many an amateur possessed of but slender
Btook-and-bit. means from purchasing one. Now it can be obtained so
cheaply that no amateur has any reasonable excuse for being without
one. The general principle of the machine may be best explained by
aid of fig. 76, in which A represents a piece of
, —f?) *ron kent int0 form of a crank. Now it is
plain that if the end B of the crank be fitted by
means of a collar into the flat disc D, so that
principle^ "brace. k may ;evolvf fre,ely ™thin it without es¬
caping from it, and a sharp cutting tool be
attached to the end of c, so as to be practically immovable and
merely an extension of the extremity C,—the operator, by holding
the disc d against his breast and turning the crank with his right
hand, applied to it at a, may, by the force given to the cutting tool
by the pressure of his body against the disc and the rotatory mo¬
tion imparted to it by turning the crank rapidly, cause the tool to
penetrate deeply and quickly into any kind of wood to which it may be
applied. This is the principle on which the bit-brace acts, and a
knowledge of this will help the operator wonderfully in the use of
the tool. The pressure is transmitted directly in the dotted line shown
in the diagram, and must be sufficient to overcome any want of steadi¬
ness that might otherwise be caused by the rotatory motion of the
crank.
268. As the old and often beautifully made and finished wooden
brace is now almost entirely superseded by the plainer but equally
Modem serviceable iron brace, there is no necessity for giving a
iron brace, representation of it in these pages. The wood-work was
merely an expensive substitute for the iron crank that is now used,
and its costliness arose chiefly from the unnecessary time and care
that was expended on its construction. One end, as shown in the
above diagram, worked freely in a knob ; the other was fitted with a
box, in which the
squared end of the
bit was thrust. A
notch was also cut
across one side of
the square end, into
kwhich a catch
Jdropped when the bit
(was pushed into the
'box, securing it from
Fig. 77. common socket iron brace. slipping out until the
catch which acted by
a spring was raised by pressing a projecting button on the outside of
the cap, thus enabling the operator to withdraw the bit. The wooden
Stock-and-Bit : Patent Bit-Brace.
99
brace ranges in price from 9s. to 25 s., or thereabouts, according to the
kind of wood of which it is made and the fittings. The bits are extra,
and are sold at about 5d. each, or about 12s. 6d. for a full set of thirty-
six. Fig. 77 in the accompanying illustration of iron braces shows the
common socket brace, with a thumbscrew for retaining the bit in the
socket. An 8in. brace of this description may be, or ought to be,
purchased for is. 4d., and a ioin. one for is. 8d., of any ironmonger
who keeps this class of goods.
269. These are excellent braces for the money, and if the amateur
cannot afford a better one, he should get one of these rather than be
without one ; but it will be readily seen that the thumbscrew action
for the retention of the tool in the socket is liable to get strained and put
out of order by the very nature of the work which is done by the brace
and bit. The brace which is recommended for the ama- Barber's
teuFs use, being alike cheap and serviceable, is "Barber's Patent Bit-
Patent Bit-Brace " (fig. 78), which is fitted with an expanding Brace,
chuck that can be opened and secured at pleasure by a simple con¬
trivance ; and from this peculiarity in its construction will hold shanks
of bits, reamers, counter-sinkers, etc., of all shapes and sizes, and hold
them true without fitting. The convenience of this will be manifest
when it is remembered that the old-fashioned brace will receive only
such shanks of bits as are made to fit the box, while the chuck of the
Patent Bit-Brace will receive and hold fast any kind of bit, be it what
Fig. 78. barber's patent bit-brace.
it may. Thus when the amateur artisan possesses a Patent Bit-Brace,
he may purchase any kind of bit, whether new or second-hand, know¬
ing that he will be able to use it; whereas in the old wooden brace
pretty much filing and fitting might be necessary to reduce the shank
to the size of the box or socket if it were too large, while if it were too
small, and so fitted loosely, the bit would be useless. The prices of
these braces are as follows, the ball that is mentioned being the piece
of wood that is fitted over the middle part of the bend of the crank
for convenience in grasping it with the hand in order to turn the
brace.
ioo Household Carpentry and Joinery.
Description.
8in.
Lignum vita Head and Rosewood Ball
Hardwood Black Head and Ball
Hardwood Head and Ball
Brace fitted with Ratchet
s. d.
6 3
3 9
3 2
9 °
s. d.
3 6
For all ordinary purposes the 9in. brace, with hardwood head and ball,
will be found to be cheap, useful, and serviceable.
270. The common brace bores a hole in a direction perpendicular
Angular t0 the breast of the operator, or in a straightforward
bit stook. direction. There is, however, what is termed an angular
bit-stock, represented in fig. 79, which can be used in any brace, at any
degree of angle for boring in a corner, which it will do as readily as a
common brace bores straight, the angular
borer turning clear around without stopping
to ratchet. It is in reality a contrivance for
effecting a change in the direction of the
pressure exerted. The pressure, as was
shown in the diagram in section 96, acts in
a straight line running from the centre of the
head and the centre axis of the bit. In the
angular bit stock the square shank shown, in
the upper part of the engraving, is thrust into
the shank, and motion imparted to the bit,
which is placed in the chuck at the other
end, by the ball or handle between the key
and the ball-joint, at which the change in
the direction of the power takes place. The
degree of angle is regulated by the metal
plate and arc on the right of the ball-joint,f
the requisite angle being maintained by
tightening the thumb-screw, which must be
again relaxed when any alteration of direc¬
tion is desired.
271. The bits used in the brace are many
Bits for in number and adapted for
brace. widely different purposes. Some
of the forms assumed by the bit are shown
in the accompanying illustration, in which it
has been sought to give the general character
of bits rather than a representation absolutely
correct in its proportions as to length and
breadth. Fig. 80 shows the most common
form of bit, often called a centre bit, probably
on account of the prolongation of its axis or
central line into a long sharp point. Bits of
this form are made of all sizes, to cut holes
from |^in. to 1 J^in. in diameter. The point is thrust into the wood in
Fig. 79.
augular bit-stock.
Clarke's Patent Expansive Bit. ioi
u
the centre of the piece that is to be taken out and the tool caused to
revolve rapidly by turning the crank of the brace ; the sharp edge A
cuts away the wood as the tool
enters, and the edge B, which ex- a a
tends from the central spike to the
outer part of the bit, scoops it out, Fig 8
so that if its continuity could be
preserved without fracture, it
would come away in the form of a
long spiral ribbon. Fig. 81 is the
form of bit used for boring a
taper hole similar to the funnel-
shaped hole made by the taper Fig
auger. Fig. 82 shows a shell bit
something like a plain gimlet,
with a broad scoop-like edge at
the end, instead of a screw for
cutting long deep holes. Fig. 83
is a bit of solid form, used as a FlG- 85
drill or counter-sinker for metal.
Figs. 84 and 85 are counter-
sinkers for wood, used when it
is desired to let in the head
of a screw flush with or below the surface of the wood. Fig. 85
is technically called a rose-bit: it consists of a conical head of steel
deeply grooved with ridges running from the edge of the broadest
part to the point, and may be used for cutting metal as well as wood,
in such operations as deepening the holes in a hinge for the reception
of the heads of the screws, and anything similar to this. It has been
said that bits cost about 5d. each, or about 12s. 6d. prices of
the set of thirty-six bits. This may be taken as the bits-
general average price ; but the smaller ones, if bought separately, may
cost somewhat less and the larger ones somewhat more. Black bits
are rather cheaper than bright bits, and as they are not so liable to
rust as the bright bits, they are perhaps preferable for the amateur.
272. The bits that have just been brought under the reader's con¬
sideration are what may be termed, for distinction's sake, simple or
single bits. There is, however, another bit, which may be Clarke's
made to do the work of a dozen simple bits, especially of Patent
the form shown in fig. 80 in the foregoing illustration. This Expansive
is Clarke's Patent Expansive Bit, an American invention, 1'
FIG. 82. FIG. 81. FIG. 80.
VARIOUS FORMS OF BITS.
Fig. 86. Clarke's patent expansive bit.
shown in fig. 86. One of these bits, by shifting the position of the trans
102 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
verse edge by which the wood is hollowed out, may be made to cut
holes of any diameter, from j^in. to i %'m., or from y%va. to 3m. They
are, as may be imagined, expensive. The bit whose expansive jsower
extends to 1 fan. costs 7s. 6d., and the larger one, which cuts holes
up to 3in., costs 10s. iod. They are useful tools when it is desired
to have much available power in a little compass, and they have a
certain advantage in enabling the operator to cut holes of diameters
between those of each pair in the series of simple bits ; but for the
amateur we are inclined to think that the simple bits will be the more
serviceable.
273. Before leaving this part of our subject, mention must be made
of another kind of American bit—Douglas's Cast Steel Bits. The
Douglas's Cast peculiar form of these bits, which resembles in some
steel Bits, degree the screw-auger and which probably found their
origin in that tool or were suggested by it, is shown in fig. 87. The
FlG. 87. douglas's cast steel bit.
jiameter and price of single bits of this kind are as follows:
Diameter in inches ...is I iE § is i ia I H I il 3 H I i| ii
Price each 1/3 1/1 1/1 1/2 1/2 1/3 1/3 1/7 1/9 1/11 2/1 2/3 2/6 2/10 3/6 3/10
They are sold in sets comprising one bit of each diameter, from
fam. to 1 in., at 23s. per set. The advantage of this kind of bit appears
to lie partly in the screw form of shank, which allows the wood to
work up and out, as in the case of the twisted gimlet, and partly in
the symmetrical form of the cutter, which operates on both sides alike;
whereas in the common form of this kind of bit the wood is cut away
by the action of a projecting edge on one side, and then scooped out
by a cutter acting transversely on the other side.
274. The next variety of tools that come under consideration in¬
cludes all those which may be denominated holding or grasping tools.
Holding or They may be classed in two divisions : first, the simple
grasping tools, tools of this description used for pulling out nails, hold¬
ing, cutting, and bending wire, etc., which comprise pincers, all kinds
of pliers, spanners, and wrenches ; and, secondly, the more complex
holding tools, such as the vice, which assumes various forms, and is
distinguished according to its construction, as the hand-vice, bench-
vice, etc. While pincers and pliers are holding tools in the sense
that they supply mechanical contrivances for clutching the head of a
nail, and withdrawing it from the wood in which it is embedded,
which operation could not be effected without the appliance of con¬
siderable force, they may be regarded as holding tools which enable
the operator to impart motion to some other body. The vice, on the
contrary, is a holding tool in the sense that by tightening its jaws
another body is held so that it cannot move, or be moved, while the
Holding or Grasping Tools. 103
operator is cutting it with a file, or otherwise fashioning it into some
desired form.
275. The ordinary forms of pincers and pliers are shown in the
annexed illustration. Fig. 88 represents the common pincers, which
are made of iron, and in various sizes, ranging from 4in. pacers and
to I2in. in length. These are sold at different prices, pliers,
according to size and quality. Common pincers may be bought at
prices ranging from 7d. to is. ; but
the best kind that are made are sold
at the rate of 3d. per inch, or from
is. to 2s. 6d. each. The amateur
artisan should provide himself with a
small and large pair of pincers of the
best kind. The most convenient
sizes are 5m. and 8in. Common pin¬
cers are apt to get indented along the
margin of the jaws, by Trhich their
grasping power is greatly impaired.
In fig. 89 a pair of flat A „
pliers, of the ordinary Pliers,
kind, is represented. The construc¬
tion of these and the pincers is so
apparent from the illustration, that
any detailed description is unneces¬
sary. When it is desired to use
either, the handles are drawn apart
which causes the jaws to extend as well, but in a less degree, because
the length of the jaws from the pivot on which the two parts of the tool
work is less than the length of the extremities of the shanks or handles
from the same pivot. In fig. 90 is shown the head of a pair cutting
of cutting nippers. In these the holding or flat part of the nippers,
jaws extends about half-way down from the extremities, where they
are cut away on either side so as form a sharp wedge-shaped blade,
with which, from its peculiar construction, wire may be cut in two
without injury to the edges of the blades. These are useful at all
times, but more especially in wire-working. Fig. 91 repre- Bound-nosed
sents the head of what are termed round-nosed pliers. pliers.
The jaws of these instead of being flattened for gripping small nails,
wire, etc., are rounded from base to tip, so as to present the appear¬
ance of small cones with the tops taken off. These are used for turn¬
ing the end of a piece of wire so as to form a loop by which it can be
attached to a larger wire, etc., if necessary. By making the noses in
the form of cones, that is, tapering from base to top, loops of various
sizes can be more conveniently formed. Good cutting nippers cost
from is. 6d. to 4s.; but they may be bought of an in- gpring pliera
ferior quality at from 8d. upwards. Pliers, both flat and for fly '
round-nosed, range from 6d. to is. 3d. per pair, inferior making, eto.
quality ; or from is. to 3s. 6d. per pair, best quality, according to
size. There is a smaller kind of pliers, useful to artificial fly makers
Fig. 89.
Fig. 91. Fig. 88.
pincers and pliers.
io4 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
or in splicing, the jaws of which extend by pressing the handles to¬
gether. When released the handles resume their original position
by means of a spring, and the jaws close, retaining in their grasp
any fine substance such as the end of a bit of silk, or wire, or the
extremity of a cock's hackle. These are of no use in carpentry
except in splicing or in coiling thin wire round a core of wood or metal,
but they are mentioned to show that pliers are made which open by
bringing the handles closer together, as well as those whose jaws are
extended by drawing the handles apart.
276. Many an amateur artisan will, for cheapness' sake, utilise
packing-cases, egg-boxes, tinned-meat and lobster cases, and other
utilisation boxes, which may be purchased at very low rates from
of pacicing- fancy goods warehousemen, drapers, grocers, and oilmen,
oases, eto. Much wood that can be made available for a variety of
purposes and bought at a merely nominal price, can be got out of
such goods as these ; but the operator in nine cases out of ten will spoil
half the boards in taking the box or case to pieces. Naturally enough
he will set to work with hammer and screwdriver, wrenching and
forcing bottom from sides, and sides from ends, and when the work is
accomplished he will find that half the boards are spoilt, or broken,
Causes or cracked part way down their length, and therefore far
damage to less useful than they were before he commenced opera-
toois. tions. And he has spoilt the handle of his screwdriver,
too, by striking it with the hammer, forgetting that wooden handles
should be struck with a mallet instead of a hammer, and that a cold
chisel would have been far more suitable than a screwdriver.
277. There is, however, a capital implement by which the box may
be taken to pieces without injury ~
to either nails or wood. This
"Victor"nail useful tool, shown
pullers. in fig. 92, is called
the "Victor" Nail Puller. The
following directions are given
for using it: " Grasp the instru¬
ment in the manner represented
in the cut, taking care to have
the left hand as low down as
convenient. Place the jaws
astride the nail in the wood, with
the foot-lever parallel with the
grain of the wood, drawing the
top of the tool towards you, till
they come close up beside the
nail; lift the rammer with the
right hand, plunging it down sud¬
denly. This operation embeds
the jaws beside the nail, then
pull horizontally, which brings Fig. 92. " victor " nail puller.
the nail out." The price of the "Victor" Nail Puller is 10s.; but the
Spanners : Excelsior Pocket Wrench.
amateur who uses up plenty of packing-cases in his work for rough
fencing, sheds, fowl-houses, etc., will soon save the cost in the boards
that are not split and damaged past using, as when hammer and
screwdriver are used, and in the nails which are not deprived of their
heads and can be used again. The nails with which these cases are
nailed together are for the most part wire nails, gene-
rally known as French nails. They are very tenacious,
and well suited for most of the work that the amateur
will do. The rapidity with which nails can be with¬
drawn by means of this nail puller is wonderful. When
once the jaws are set about the nail one blow of the
rammer sends them
into the wood
and one pull of
the instrument to-
Fig. 94. wards the operator
brings out the nail. A slight indentation in the wood, where
the head of the nail was, is the only injury that the
wood receives, and this is so trifling as to be inappre¬
ciable. The ends of the board are
not split, and can therefore be worked
up again in any way that the operator
may desire.
278. The wrench or spanner is Fig. 93.
chiefly useful for turning the nut on
or off the screw end of an iron bolt. The annexed
illustration, fig. 93, represents the common wrench
or spanner in which the handle forms wrench or
the screw for moving the jaws apart, spanner.
In this kind of spanner the upper jaw, or jaw fur¬
thest from the handle, is movable, and is propelled
upwards or drawn downwards, as may be desirea,
by turning the handle round one way or the other.
They are made in lengths ranging from 6in. to
I2in., and the best vary in price from 2s. 9d. to
4s. iod., according to size. The American screw
wrench, shown in fig. 94, differs from the ordinary
wrench in having the lower jaw movable instead
of the upper, and in having the upper jaw rigidly
connected with the wooden handle in which it is
set. The lower jaw is moved by means of a screw
turned by a small thumb wheel. The prices of these
wrenches are as follows : 6in., 3s.; 8in., 3s. 4d.;
Fig. 95. loin., 4s. ; I2in., 4s. 8d.; 15m., 8s. They can be
" excelsior " procured from Messrs. Churchill and Co., who also
pocket wrench, sell a useful little tool for the amateur called the
"Excelsior" Pocket Wrench—fig. 95—whose jaws will open to the
extent of ]/& in., and whose weight is only 40z. The prices of these
little spanners are is. 8d., bright finish, and 2s. nickel plated. Of
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
course they cannot be used for any rough kind of work, or for nuts
larger than Jim. square.
279. A vice is indispensable to the amateur, and he should provide
himself with both a hand vice which, as its name implies, can be
vices held in one hand, while the file, etc., is applied by the
necessary to other hand to the object that is held within its jaws, and
amateurs. a v;ce, which can be attached to a carpenter's
bench and removed at pleasure. The bench vice will of course hold
larger objects and pieces of material than the hand vice, and, as it is
fastened to the bench itself, and need not be held in any way, or even
steadied by the operator, both hands can be used in filing, or in
performing any other process to which the bench vice is auxiliary.
280. The ordinary form of hand vice is a couple of strong jaws
connected at one end by a pivot or rivet, on which
they work, and terminating at the other in a broad
Ordinary end, as shown in fig. 96. If the screw
hand vice. were removed, the shanks would be ex¬
tended and kept apart by the spring which is attached
to one of them, and works against the other. The
jaws are relaxed or brought together by the screw,
which works through the shanks by means of a bar,
which works loosely in the head of the screw. Hand
» t. vices cost from is. to 2s. 6d. each, ac-
Bd&Cu vloo* j• , • -T) 1 • • *i
cording to size. Bench vices are similar
to hand vices in the general principle of their con¬
struction ; but to the shank furthest removed from
the head of the screw two arms are attached at right hand* vice
angles, or nearly so, to the shank, one of which—
the upper one—terminates in a broad, flat plate, which rests on the
upper surface of the bench, while through the lower one works a thumb¬
screw, also capped by a disc, which is screwed up hard and fast
against the lower surface of the bench-board, when it is sought to
make use of the vice. A common bench vice may be bought for about
2s.; a better kind of vice, with square thread and steel jaws, cost
from 4s. to us., according to size ; while the best black staple vices
are sold, according to weight, at 7d. per lb.
281. The patent vices, of which there are various kinds, are very
expensive, and are not required by the amateur. It may, however, be
Patent mentioned that a useful saw-grinder's vice, for holding a
vices. saw when being set or sharpened, with jaws gin. long,
and jointed near the bench, so that the jaws may be thrown backwards
or forwards at pleasure, may be purchased for 6s. The amateur,
however, may for a few pence construct a simple contrivance which
improved will answer all the purpose of the saw-filer's vice. For
hand vioe. gs g^. an a improved Hand Vicey may be bought,
which is much more handy and convenient to hold than the old-
fashioned one. This vice is of metal throughout, the jaws being of
forged steel, and the handle of case-hardened malleable iron. The
jaws work on pivots passing through the oval, or nearly oval, disc
Tools of Guidance and Direction. 107
shown in the illustration, and are opened or closed by means of the
bevelled top of the handle, which works on a screw attached to the
disc. The jaws are relaxed by turning the handle downwards, and
Fio. 97- IMPROVED HAND VICM.
closed by turning it upwards. A hole is made through the handle
and screw for holding wire, as shown in fig. 97.
282. In good carpentry everything depends on accuracy of measure¬
ment of parts, and fitting the parts together at right angles, or at the
required angle or bevel. For the attainment of these Tools of
most necessary requisites tools of guidance and direction guidance and
of various kinds are used, without which it were impos- direotlon-
sible even for a skilled carpenter or joiner to do his work, and fit the
various pieces together witn the nicety that is essential in all operations
of this nature. Thus, for setting out a long, straight line in ripping
a slip of wood from a board, a line and reel is required; and for
measurement of any length into parts, or of any required length,
breadth, and thickness, the carpenters rule is needful. For cutting
off the end of a board at right angles to the edge, or for mortising, etc.,
the square is a sine qua non, and for cutting wood at any given angle
to the edge, the proper line of direction for the saw must be marked
by aid of the bevel. For cutting notches in wood, or for cutting or
planing down pieces of wood to the same thickness, the necessary
guide lines must be marked by a marking gauge, while in mortising
mortise gauge is used. For joining pieces of wood at right angles,
as in making a picture-frame, recourse must be had to the mitre boxj
and for subdividing any given space into smaller spaces, or marking
out circles and sweeps of various diameters, the compasses must be
used. In turning, to make sure of having the diameter of various
parts of the work in harmony with the pattern, these diameters must
one and all be tried and regulated by the callipers as the work goes
on. In bringing horizontal bars, shelves, etc., to a true level, the
spirit level must be used; and in fixing a post in the ground, or a
piece of quartering to the wall, the upright level with cord and plumb
bob. A straight-edge is useful for testing the nicety and accuracy
with which wood has been planed up, and for other purposes. In
bricklaying and fixing stonework of considerable length the A level is
used. It is requisite to gain some idea of these various appliances,
and the manner in which they are used. The mode of handling and
using saws, edge tools, and other tools of different descriptions, will
be considered in a subsequent chapter.
io8 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
283. First of all the line and reel. This appliance costs but a few
pence; it is not generally named in price lists. Any large-sized reel
The line and will do, provided that it be deep enough to carry some
reel. few yards of line or cord, which must be of a non-elastic
character in order to do its work effectually. To give an example of
A JB
its use, suppose that a b c d, in fig. 98, is a long rectangular piece of
board that it is desired to saw into two equal pieces. Having ascer-
How to use tained by the rule that the ends a d, b c, are really equal
the line. }n length, and that the board is of the same gauge or
measure across throughout, divide each end into two equal parts in
the points e, f. Make a knot and loop in the line, and through the
loop pass a fine bradawl, pushing it deeply into the wood precisely at
the point e. Do the same at f with another bradawl, and strain the
line tightly from one to the other, securing it to the bradawl at f
with a knot and loop. Before straining the line, it should have been
whitened with chalk, or blackened with charcoal. If the strained line
be now lifted as far off the board as possible with the finger and thumb
of the right hand, and then, released suddenly, it will strike the board
smartly along its length from bradawl to bradawl, leaving a straight
white or black mark on the surface from E to f, which will serve as a
guide for the saw in cutting it in half. In using the saw amateurs
are apt to throw too much pressure either to one side or the other,
which causes the saw-cut to go out of the straight line. In sawing planks
and boards lengthwise it is as well to repeat the operation with the
chalk or charcoal line on the other side, the bradawls being allowed
to remain in their places to ensure accuracy of register, and then to
look at the under part of the board from time to time to see that the
saw-cut is being accurately carried in the right direction.
284. The carpenter's rule is a well-known instrument consisting of
two pieces of boxwood joined at one end by a flat brass joint, and
Carpenter's tipped with brass at the other extremity. They are divided
rule. jnt0 inches, which are again subdivided into 8ths and
sometimes i2ths of inches. In the ordinary rule the two slips of
boxwood are each iff. in length, so that the rule is 2ft. long when ex¬
tended. This is the best kind of rule for an amateur to have. They
may be had at all prices from 6d. to is. 6d. ; or, if with brass slide
rules, from is. iod. each to 2s. 6d. Brass, iron, and steel rules may
be had at equally low prices. Messrs. Churchill and Co. supply a
handy iff. fourfold narrow rule for the pocket (fig. 99), graduated in
8ths and i6ths of inches, and j^in. wide. These rules, if with round
The Square and the Bevel. tog
joint middle plates, are sold at 6d. each; if with square joint middle
plates, at 7d. ; and with arch joint middle plates, as in the accompany¬
ing illustration, at 8d. 2 ft. fourfold rules, iin. wide, are sold at 8d.,
iod., and is. each, according to the character of the middle plate ;
and the broad 2ft. rules at is. 2d., is. 6d., and 2s. each. These are
I'l'l11' [*r D ■ j'j' |>i
THWI*
rrn
FIG. 99. FOURFOLD NARROW RULE.
i^in. wide, and are graduated in 8ths, ioths, and i6thsof inches, and
are furnished with draughting scales. A useful 2ft. twofold rule with
arch joint, bitted, furnished with Gunter's slide, graduated in 8ths, ioths,
and i6ths of inches, iooths of a foot, and with drafting and octagonal
scales, i}4\n. wide, may be had for 2s. 4d. The slide renders this a
useful rule to amateurs.
285. The square and the bevel are shown in the accompanying
illustrations, which will indicate
the general character of these
useful tools, which Square and
are absolutely indis- bevel,
pensable to the amateur, and which will be continally
wanted, as he will soon find by experience. The square
(fig. 100) is meant, as its name implies, for drawing
straight lines at right angles to the edge of any piece
of wood or board ; but the bevel (fig. 101), is intended
for drawing straight lines at any angle to the edge of
a piece of wood ; therefore the blade of the square
is fixed immovably in the stock or handle, while
that of the bevel is movable. The mode of using
the square and bevel is shown in the illustration
of the manner of using the line and reel in fig.
98, the square being represented on the left of the
figure, and the bevel on the right. The stock in
either case is applied to the edge of the board, so
that the blade rests flatly upon it, having the outer
or inner edge just touching the point at which the line
is to be drawn on the upper surface of the board.
Good ordinary squares in rosewood, with a blade 6
inches long, cost from is. gd/to 2s. 6d.; and bevels of
the same quality, with blade
7^ inches long, about the
same price. The length of
the blade of the square ranges Fig- ioi. the bevel.
from 3 inches to 12 inches in length, and the blades of the bevels from
FIG. 100.
THE SQUARE.
no Household Carpentry and Joinery.
7 x/z inches to 10 inches. In price, squares range from is. 4d. to 4s. 3d.,
according to size and the wood of which the stock is made ; the bevels
from is. 9d. to 5s. The Patent Hardened Try Square and Flush T
Bevel supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co. are of superior descrip-
Hardened ^on' ^he scluare has an iron stock, nicely finished; the
try square blade is of hardened cast steel with parallel edges. Every
angle is accurate, and it is a perfect tool, though somewhat
expensive, costing according to length of blades : 3 inch,
qd. ; 4jt£ inch, 8s. ; 6 inch, 9s. ; and 8 inch, lis. each. The
6s.
handle of the bevel is also made of iron, and the blade of fine steel
spring tempered, with perfectly parallel edges. The blade is held in
any position desired, by moving the lever which slightly projects at
the bottom. They cost according to length of blade : 8 inch, 5s. 6d.;
and 10 inch, 6s. 3d. each.
286. In speaking of squares, a brief mention and description of Ames's
Ames's Patent Universal Square may not be uninteresting to ama-
Fatent teurs who are desirous of knowing something about adapta¬
tions of the leading principles of ordinary tools, as well as
about these tools themselves. Fig. 102 gives an accurate
representation of this square, and explains its application as a centre
Universal
Square.
Fig. 103.
square, as which alone it is
invaluable to every mechanic.
Put the instrument over the
circle ; as, for example, the end
of a bolt or shaft with the arms
b a, e a, resting against the
circumference, in which posi¬
tion one edge of the rule, a d,
will cross the centre. Mark a
straight line in this position ;
apply the instrument again to
another part of the circum¬
ference and mark another line
crossing the first. The point
where the two lines cross each
other is the centre of the circle.
The whole is the work of a
moment. The tongue, d a,
fastened, as it is, into the tri¬
angular frame b a e, cannot
be moved or knocked from
its place—in this respect con¬
stituting a great improvement
over the carpenter's try square,
T square, and mitre in com¬
mon use. The instruments
Fig. 104. Fig. 105. Fig. 107. are made of the best mate-
ames's patent universal square, rial, neatly finished, and per-
perfer.tly true. Fig. 103 explains the application of the instrument af
The Marking Gauge and the Mortise Gauge. in
a carpenter's try square as at N, and as an outside square as at L. In
fig. 104 its use is shown as a substitute for the
mitre, while in fig. 105 it is shown as a T square
and graduated rule; and in figs. 106 and 107 as an
outside square for drawing, and a T square for
machinists. The square combines, in short, in
the most convenient form, five different instru¬
ments : namely, try square, T square, mitre,
graduated rule, and—what is entirely new—
the centre square, for finding the centre of a
circle. It may be fairly said, indeed, that no
mechanic's or amateur's list of tools can well
be complete without a universal square. The
prices are according to length of blade : 4 inch,
us. 3d. ; 6 inch, 13s. 6d. : 8 inch, 18s.; 10 inch,
25s. ; and 12 inch, 31s.
6d. It is the gradua¬
tion, doubtless, of the
steel blade or rule of
the Patent Universal
Square that renders this
useful instrument so
costly—for costly it is,
and beyond dispute out
of the reach of many
amateurs for this very
reason. The clearness,
however, of the illus¬
trations of the various
purposes to which the
square may be put,
Fig. 108. marking gauge, combined with the de¬
scription given above, will enable many to
construct a rough instrument of the kind foi
their own use which, in all probability, will
do the work that is wanted quite as well,
although, it may lack the good appearance
and nicety of finish of the genuine article.
287. The next kind of tool that demands
our attention is the gauge in its two varieties,
known as the gauge pure and simple, or mark¬
ing gauge, as it is generally called, and the
mortise gauge. Fig. 108 represents the mark¬
ing gauge. This consists of a beech wood bar
with a block or head of the same material, which
slides up and down the bar, and is retained in
any desired position by the thumbscrew. A steel point is inserted
close to the upper end, and when it is desired to mark a line on a
piece of wood parallel to the edge, the head is moved down the
flg. 109. mortise gal'gh.
it2 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
bar until the requisite distance between the steel point and the upper
surface of the head is obtained. The head is then held against the
Marking edge of the wood, with the steel point pressing on the
gauge. wood, and when the gauge is moved up and down a line
is marked on the wood by the steel point. Ordinary marking
gauges may be bought from 7d. to is. The marking gauge figured
in the illustration has the advantage of being graduated down
one side of the bar in inches. Gauges of this description are sold by
Messrs. Churchill and Co., at prices ranging from 3d. to 8d. each.
Mortise The mortise gauge, shown in fig. 109 is similar in general
gauge. principle to the marking gauge ; but it has in addition a
slide working in a groove in the bottom side of the bar, by which
means two lines parallel to each other and to the edge of the wood
can be marked at one operation, the steel point in the groove and the
head of the gauge being set at the required distances from the fixed
steel point. English made mortise gauges of the better kind range from
2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d., according to the material of which they are made,
and the degree of finish bestowed on them. The American mortise
gauges range in price from 2s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. An excellent double
gauge, unpolished beech wood, marking and mortise combined, may
be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co., for is. 4d., and one of a
superior quality for 3s. These combination gauges are commended
to the attention of amateur artisans.
288. A level, as the name implies, is an instrument for ascertaining
if one cross piece of wood from one post to another is fairly and
Levels: their actually horizontal, and inclines neither to one side or the
principle, other; or if the joists of a floor are in a perfectly hori¬
zontal position, so that when the flooring boards are nailed to them
the floor of the room may be perfectly level. It is also used for
ascertaining that stones or courses of brickwork are properly laid;
and that posts, framing, and all work which consists of uprights or
vertical pieces of any kind are fixed perpendicularly—that is to say,
at right angles to the plane of the horizon. Conversely, a true hori¬
zontal line is at right angles to a line that is truly vertical or perpen¬
dicular. To determine whether or not carpenters' and bricklayers'
work is level or upright, different kinds of levels are used, and these
must now be described.
289. Fig. 110 will explain the general principles of the spirit level,
an instrument of great utility which every amateur artisan should
Spirit possess. The engraving represents the section of an
level. ordinary spirit level taken lengthwise. The body of the
level is generally made of some hard wood, as oak, walnut, rosewood,
etc., and it need scarcely
be said that the heavier the
wood the better it is for the
purpose. In the upper part of
the wood a groove, A B, is
Fig. no. the spirit level. cut, just deep enough and
long enough to receive a round tube of glass, nearly filled with spirit,
The Level and the Method at n.?plying it. 113
and hermetically sealed at both ends to prevent the escape of the
fluid that is thus imprisoned within it. When the tube has been
properly placed in the groove cut for its reception, the upper sur¬
face should be just flush with the upper surface of the wood. A
thin brass plate with a long narrow hole in the centre is then placed
over the glass and wood asatCDEF, in which d e represents the slit
in section. To protect the bottom of the level, plates of brass are
sometimes attached to it at the ends, as shown at G and H. It has
been said that the tube is nearly filled with spirit. The remaining
space is occupied by air, and this air, which appears in the tube in the
form of a bubble, being lighter than the spirit will always rise to that
part of the tube which happens to be highest. When the tube is in a
horizontal position as there is not sufficient air to extend along its
entire length, the air takes the form of an elongated bubble, which shifts
from end to end as each is raised and lowered in turn. When the level
is in a perfectly horizontal position the bubble is precisely in the centre
of the tube as at K ; when the end H of the level is raised it will run
upwards towards E; and when G is raised it will run in a contrary
direction towards F. In practice, therefore, if, when the Method of
level is laid on a shelf or any other piece of wood that is applying
placed in a horizontal position, the bubble is found to be t®jel t? .long
in the middle of the tube, the shelf is exactly in the position eng^ s"
it ought to be, and truly level; but if it be a little too high at either end
the shifting of the bubble towards that end will show that the end in
question requires lowering a little, or that the other end must be
raised, as may be most convenient, until the bubble, by taking up its
position in the middle of the tube, indicates that the wood is now
perfectly level.
290. It may happen, however, that the wood itself is level, but that
it does not appear to be so, from the indications given by the bubble
in the spirit level. The reader will naturally ask, How can this be ?
and to his query we must reply that for the level to do its Requirements
duty with accuracy, it is necessary that the surface of the for accurate
wood itself be perfectly level ; that is to say, accurately levelUn&-
and truly planed tip. Suppose, for example, that the surface of the
wood was not level but irregular, going first down and then up, as in
the line a bcd e in fig. hi. The diagram is exaggerated it is true,
as it appears here, but let the reader imagine such depressions to
i.
Mil
:
Fig. iii. usb of the straight-edge.
im
occur in a length of 6 feet, instead of a length of 3^ inches, and the
notion of exaggeration which is conveyed by the diagram will dis-
Ti| Household Carpentry and Joinery.
appear, The piece of wood, whose upper surface is represented by
the irregular line abcdef, is actually in a truly horizontal or level
position ; but if the level be laid on the part b c, the bubble will shift
towards c, and the amateur following the dictate of the level will drop
the end f until the bubble goes to the centre, and thus throw his
work out of the level instead of bringing it level as he thinks he is
doing. Again, if the level had been laid on a b, the bubble would
have gone towards a, and he would then have lowered the end a. Or
suppose that after lowering the end f he had laid the level on a b, he
would have found the level telling him to raise the end f, while a
moment before it had been directing him to lower it, and being puzzled
by the discrepancy he would begin to lose faith altogether in the
accuracy and utility of his level.
291. Now all this is simply because the spirit-level is, comparatively
speaking, short, being seldom more than 10 inches in length, and
Level posi- generally less than this, and it will only indicate the true
tiveiy accurate level with accuracy for its own length, unless the wood
lengtk only. ^as ^een planed UP so that its surface is smooth and level
from end to end; or if the wood be unplaned and rough from
the saw, if it be level from end to end. To get over any difficulty of the
Use of kind that has been set forth above, the amateur must
straight-edge provide himself with a straight-edge; or—as this term is
in levelling. generaiiy applied to a piece of wood or metal, of which
one side only is perfectly true and straight, to test the accuracy of the
surface of a joint that the carpenter is making, as in a panel, or the
surface of metal that a smith is filing—with what we may call a double
straight-edge ; that is to say, a piece of wood about five or six feet in
length, four inches wide, and inch or one inch thick, such as is
shown above the irregular surface a b c d e f in fig. 111. In
this double straight-edge, which must be made for the amateur by
a good joiner, the sides g h,kl, must be perfectly true, level, and
parallel to each other, and, that this desirable end may be completely
attained, must be shot by a trying or joiner plane. When such a
piece of wood as this is laid along such a surface as ABCDEF, and
the spirit level is placed about its centre, as at M, a level about five
or six feet in length, according as the length of the piece of wood may
be, is formed, which shows that the points a, c, f, of the surface of
the wood below it are in a horizontal line, and that the wood itself
is in a horizontal position, although its surface is by no means level.
The utility of the straight-edge, in testing the accuracy with which the
planing up of any surface has been performed, must now be obvious to
all and nothing more need be said about it.
292. The piece of wood that has just been described as a double
straight-edge may be further utilised in another way, namely as an
Plumb upright level, or, to speak more correctly, as a plumb level,
level. First of all it must be stated tint, by the force of gravity
which tends to draw everything in a direction towards the earth's
centre, if a weight be attached to one end of a string and the other b«
held in the hand or fastened round a raiil driven into a wall, the
The Plumb Level and the A Level. 115
string, when the weight at the lower end has ceased to oscillate
and is at rest, will be vertical, or perpendicular. Now,
if a hole, shaped something like a pear when cut in
half longitudinally, be made near one end of the
straight-edge as at a, and three nicks be made with a
saw at the other end as at B in fig. 112, the wood will
serve the purpose of a plumb level. It is requisite
that the middle nick be cut in a straight line running
exactly midway down the board from end to end, and
that the pear-shaped hole be symmetrically cut on either
side of this central straight line. The next thing to be
done is to take a piece of string or cord, not too thick, and
thread one end of it through a hole made for the purpose
in a leaden or brass plummet, commonly called a plumb-
bob. A leaden plum-bob will cost from
6d. to is. according to size and weight, and 11111 0 *
a brass one from 2s. upwards. The other end of the
string must be twisted into the saw cuts at B, care being
taken that it is first put through the central cut so that
the line may hang fairly down the centre of the board. The
string must also be adjusted in such a manner that the
plumb-bob may hang freely just within the central hole at
a, the top of the plumb-bob being from }iin. to X in. below
the upper end of the hole. Now suppose the amateur
artisan is fixing a post in the earth as at c, or fixing an
upright against a wall. If, when the plumb level is ap-
9>
FIG. 112.
PLUMB LEVEL,
plied to the post, as shown in the illustration, the plumb- piumb level
tn fixing
post, eto.
bob, when at rest, is in such a position that the string
covers the centre line marked down the board from top
to bottom, the post or upright is perpendicular. If, however, it inclines
too much to the right or the left the weight of the plumb-bob will
carry the string out of the central line in the direction to which the
post inclines, and it must be slightly shifted until the cord and plumb-
bob assume the proper position. In the case of a post let into the
earth, it is necessary to try
it with the level on two con¬
tiguous faces to ensure ac¬
curacy of position with re¬
gard to its being perpen¬
dicular.
293. The A level, as it is
called from its resemblance
to the letter A ^ii© a levoi,
is merely an or Brick-
adaptation of layer'aloveL
Fig. 113. the a level. the plumb level for deter¬
mining the accuracy with which level courses of bricks are laid, or
stonework of any kind, as stone paving^ etc. In the centre of th<
long straight-edge, a b in fig 113, which is generally from five feet U
n6 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
eight feet in length, a plumb level, c d, is set perpendicular or at right
angles to the straight edge A B. Strength and rigidity is given to the
whole structure by means of braces, E, F, which impart to the level the
appearance from which it derives its name. When the straight-edge
A B is placed on the top of the last course of bricks that has been added
to a brick wall in course of building, the bricklayer can judge of the
correctness of his work by the position of the plumb line, which acts
in the same manner as it does in the simple plumb level. In a similar
manner the mason can judge whether or not the stones he has placed
in position, or the pavement that he has laid, is level; or the car¬
penter of the joists that he has laid from wall to wall, or any wall
plate that he is about to fix, whether or not all is true and square and
level.
294. Some cheap and beautifully finished spirit levels are imported
American from America and sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. Of
spirit levels, these the cheapest are the Davis Iron Pocket Level.
These are of various sizes, according to which the price also varys.
The smallest, 3m. long, costs iod. ; and the others, 5m., and 8in.
are is. 3d. and 3s. 6d. respectively. In fig. 114 is represented one of
these iron pocket levels, with an attachment at the side furnished with
FIG. 114. DAVIS IRON POCKET LEVEL.
a screw with round head and milled edges, by which the level can
be attached to a square or straight-edge. The Stanley levels are all
Stanley good of their kind. A handy pocket level, six inches long,
levels. with a bulk of three inches, made of iron and surmounted
by a brass cap, is sold for gs. Other more elaborate levels, made in
wood and furnished with two spirit glasses—one to indicate the true
level, and another to show the true perpendicular—are more costly
than those which have just been described. The cheapest level of
of this kind, not adjustable, costs from 3s. 4d. to 4s., according to length,
Adjustable which ranges from 24m. to 30m. The average price
plumb and 0f the adjustable plumb and level in mahogany is 5 s.
6 ' These range from 26m. to 30m. in length, as do the
better kinds of the adjustable level, which, when furnished with side
views and brass-bound corners, cost from 6s. to 9s. each, taking the
average price which is lessened slightly or increased according to the
length of the level. In the adjustable plumb and level, the spirit glass
or bubble tube in the level is set in a metallic case, which is attached to
the brass top plate above it—at one end by a substantial hinge, and at
(be opposite end by an adjusting screw which passes down through a
The Mitre Box: Its Construction, Etc. 117
flange on the metallic case. Between this flange and the top plate
above is inserted a stiff spiral spring, and by driving or slacking the
adjusting screw, should occasion require, the spirit glass can be
instantly adjusted to a position parallel with the base of the level.
The spirit glass in the plumb is likewise set in a metallic case attached
to the brass top plate at its outer end. By the use of the adjusting
screw the plumb glass can be as readily adjusted to a right angle with
the base of the level if occasion requires, and
by the same method as adopted for the level
glass. The principle of the plumb level is shown
in fig. 115. A hole with funnel-shaped sides is
made through the level as at A. Then at B a
vertical hole is made in which a tube filled with
spirit is inserted. Part of this tube, where it
breaks the circumference of the round hole
made through the level, is shown at C. When
the spirit level is standing on a perfectly hori¬
zontal surface and the eye is directed towards any post or upright
through the hole A, if the edge of the plumb level is coincident with
the edge of the post or other object, the post is vertical or upright
English made spirit levels are sold at various prices from
8d. to 10s. They vary in length from 4in. to 14m. The
following may be taken as being fair average prices for
common levels according to length :
Fig. 115. principle of
plumb level.
Prices of
common
levels.
Walnut with brasi top plate
ditto with brass top plate and tipped bottom
4m.
/8
6in.
%
8in.
1/4
1/10
ioin.
x/8
a/3
12m. 14m.
a/- a/3
2/10 3/-
Mitre box.
295. If the amateur artisan is inclined to turn his attention to the
manufacture of picture frames, it is necessary that he
should provide himself with a mitre box. He will also
find this box useful for cutting mouldings or any piece of wood which
it is necessary to cut across at an exact angle of 45 degrees.
296. The price of a mitre box, or mitre block as it is often called,
ranges from 2s. 6d. to 5s., but any joiner will make one that will serve
the amateur's purpose quite as well as one that is purchased construction,
from the tool maker. The annexed illustration will show eto., of mitre
the principle on which the mitre box is made. In fig. 116 box or blook-
the block itself is shown in perspective. A piece of wood rectangular
in form, from i8in. to
22in. long, and measuring
about 4in. by 5in. in sec¬
tion, is rebated so as to
form a couple of steps,
as shown in the diagram.
The rebate may be taken
out tc the extent of half
the width and half the
thickness. Saw cuts, H G, K L, are then made through the upper
part, or upper step, of the block, and to the distance of %'vn. into
FIG. 116. MITRE BOX.
n8 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
the lo\,er block, and these cuts are made so as to be exactly at
an angle of 450 to the edges c D, E F, of the block ; the angles G H C
and KLD being each an angle of 450. This may be seen more clearly
in fig. 117, which represents a plan of the block, or the appearance it
would present to the eye of a beholder when looking directly down
upon it. The letters in fig. 116 are
repeated in fig. 117. Now if a piece
of wood or moulding be laid on the
lower step, AEFB, and held tightly
against the vertical part A M N B,
the extremity may be cut off by
Fig. 117. plan of mitre box. passing a saw into the guide line G H,
or L K, as may be necessary, and sawing through the moulding. The
saw cuts should be wide enough to admit a tenon saw with ease. The
extremities of each of the four pieces that form a picture frame must
be cut at opposite angles of 450 by aid of the mitre box, that they may
join at right angles at the four corners.
297. The Americans have brought into use an improved mitre box
(fig. 118), which is sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. It is somewhat
improved expensive, costing 28s. by itself, or 40s. when a 2oin.
American Disston's back-saw is supplied with it. The length of
mitre box. this mitre box—which is better calculated forpicture-frame
makers and others, who would use it much more than amateurs,
FIG. 118. IMPROVED AMERICAN MITRE BOX.
.vho would but seldom use it—is 20 inches. The frame is made of a
single casting, and is subject to no change of position ; being finished
accurately at first, it must always remain true. The slot in the back
of the frame through which the saw passes is only }4 inch wide,
thereby avoiding any liability to push short pieces of work througl:
the slot when the saw is in motion. This mitre box can be used wit)
a back or tenon saw, or a panel saw equally well. If a back saw is u ed
both links which connect the rollers or guides are left in the upper
grooves, and the back of the saw is passed through the under links
Compasses and Callipers.
iic
If a panel saw or small hand saw is used, the link which connects
the rollers on the back spindle is changed to the lower groove, and
then the blade of the saw will be stiffly supported by both sets oi
rollers and may be made to serve as well as a back saw. By slightly
raising or lowering the spindles, when necessary, the leaden rolls at
the bottom may be adjusted to stop the saw at the proper depth ; and
by the aid of a set screw the spindles on which the guides revolve may
be turned sufficiently to make the rollers bear firmly on the sides of a
saw-blade of any thickness.
298. From the mitre box we must pass on to compasses and cal¬
lipers which, as it has been already said, are used, the one for dividing out
spaces and marking out circular-work; and the other for compasses
the comparison of the gauge or diameter of parts of a and
piece of work that is being turned on the lathe with CaUl»ers-
the pattern or working drawing.
299. The compasses used by carpenters and joiners are made of
iron, the legs being strong and solid, and the points somewhat blunt.
The larger compasses are sometimes filled
with an arc, which is fastened to one leg,
as at A, and passes through a slot in the
other leg at B. A thumb-screw passes through the side
of the leg at B, and when it is desired to retain the
distance between the points of the legs for any purpose,
the thumbscrew is screwed tightly against the arc. It
is difficult, if not impossible, to alter the position of the
legs until the pressure exacted by the thumbscrew is
relaxed. The compasses, with arc, are shown in fig. 119,
while in fig. 120 a pair of callipers is represented.
These are nothing more than bow-legged compasses ;
the legs being bowed, or bent, so that the points may be more readily
applied to the diameter of any work in the lathe. Like
the compasses, they are made in different sizes. Com¬
passes range in price from 6d. to 10s., and callipers from
is. to 18s., according to make, size, and ng11i n
quality. A useful pair of rule-joint com¬
passes may be bought for 8d., and a pair of wing-com¬
passes, or compasses fitted with arc, from is. 6d. A
serviceable pair of spring-callipers may be bought for
is. 6d., and a pair of good wing-callipers for 2s.
300. Among the many useful inventions bearing on car¬
pentry, joinery, and engineering, that have been introduced
of late years by Americans, are calliper rules and squares. They are,
however, too costly for general use. A steel calliper rule, 3 inches
long, with a slide that can be drawn out 2 }4 inches, graduated to I2ths,
24ths, 48ths, 8ths, i4ths, and 28ths of an inch on one side; and i6ths,
32nds, 64ths, 2oths, 5oths, and iooths on the other ; and on the slide
to 32nds and 64ths of an inch, remarkable for accuracy and durability,
may be had of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 18s. The same firm sup¬
plies calliper squares with or without adjusting screw. These are
i2o Household Carpentry and Joinery.
graduated according to English measurement in inches and parts of
Calliper inches on one side, and in accordance with the metric
Rules and system on the other. These squares, without adjusting
Squares, screw, cost, if 2 inches long, 16s., and if 4 inches long, 21s.;
with adjusting screw, if 2 inches long, 19s., and if 4 inches, 25s. Stan-
Staniey's ley's Ivory Calliper Rules are handy pocket companions,
ivory Calliper The twofold 6 inch rule, with square joint in German silver,
Buies. Yi inch wide, and graduated in 8ths, ioths, and i6ths
of an inch is useful and in¬
expensive, costing 3s. 2d.
The calliper rule repre¬
sented in fig. 121, will show
the character of these rules,
and how they are used—
the diameter, or gauge of
any work being measured
between the inside of the
foot of the slide and the
end of the rule, and indi-
Fig. 121. graduated calufer rule. cated by the graduations
on the slide. This rule, which is made of boxwood, with arch-
joint and edge-plates in brass, is fourfold; it is 12 inches long, and
1 inch wide, and graduated in 8ths, ioths, i2ths, and i6ths of an inch.
The price is only as.
301. There are many miscellaneous tools and appliances used in
Carpentry and Joinery which are not subject to any classification as
Miscellaneous tIlose are which have been already described. Among
Tools used in these we may include the screwdriver, the nail-punch,
Carpentry, the reamer or rymer, the scriber, the cramp, the glue-
pot, and the oil-can. Sand-paper, on paper or cloth, with finely-
powdered glass or emery-powder on one side of it, must also be noticed.
There is another appliance called the bench holdfast, which is used to
hold wood firmly down on the carpenter's bench when necessary ; but
as it will be more convenient to speak of this in immediate connection
with the carpenter's bench, no further mention of it will be made here.
302. The screwdriver bears some slight resemblance to the chisel,
although it is used for a very different purpose. It is an iron blade
The screw- set *n a wooden handle, with the end ground so as to
driver. form a long bevel on either side. The edge is blunt, but
should be fine enough to
enter the nick across the
head of a screw with ease.
In the annexed illustration,
fig. 122 shows the ordinary
form of the screwdriver, and
fig. 123 the manner in which
the blade is let into the
Fig. 125. forms of screwdrivers. handle, the ferule being
nicked, or slotted about inch in depth. The heel of the blade just
The Screwdriver and Nail Punch. 121
above the tang is tightly fixed in the slot, and additional firmness is thus
imparted to the tool, and the blade is prevented from turning in the
handle, as bradawls will often turn, much to the vexation of the operator.
Screwdrivers vary in length from 3m. to I2in., and may be bought at
prices ranging according to size, from 6d. to 3s. The size of the tool used
must always be suited to the work in hand, that is to say, to the size of
the screw to be driven or withdrawn. The larger the screw the greater
the friction and resistance of the wood that must be overcome in driving
the screw in or taking it out. The amateur artisan is therefore recom¬
mended to provide himself with three screwdrivers—one small, one of
medium size, and the other large, say 3 inch, 6 inch, and 10 inch in
length of blade. These may be bought for 8d., is., and 2s., respectively,
of sufficiently good quality for all ordinary purposes. Fig 124 shows
the round-bladed screwdrivers, a form which is more generally used
by the engineer and smith. Round-bladed screwdrivers Round-bladed
are dearer than the ordinary sort, but three useful ones screwdriver,
of the sizes above named may be bought for iod., is. 3d., and 2s. 3d.,
respectively. Fig. 135 shows the American Cast Steel Amerloan
Screwdriver, an excellent tool of this description supplied cast steel
by Messrs. Churchill and Co. The blades are made from Screwdriver,
the best quality of cast steel, and are tempered with great care.
They are ground down to a correct temper, and pointed at the end by
special machinery, thus procuring perfect uniformity in size, form, and
strength, while the peculiar shape of the point gives it unequalled
firmness in the screw-head when in use. The shanks of the blades
are properly slotted to receive a patent metallic fastening, which
secures them permanently in the handles. The handles are of the
most approved pattern, the brass ferules being of the thimble form,
extra heavy and closely fitted. The prices and sizes in which this
useful kind of screwdriver is made are :—1% inches, 4d.; 2 inches,
6d. ; 3 inches, 8d.; 4 inches, iod. ; 5 inches, is.; 6 inches, is. 2d.;
7 inches, is. 4d.; 8 inches, is. 7d.; and 10 inches, 2s.
303. The nail-Punch, or brad-punch, is a short piece of steel or case-
hardened iron, blunt at one end, and tapering to a square or round point
at the other end, according as the punch itself is square or Nan-punch
round. Brad-punches are sold at 2d. each, the larger floor- or
ing punches at 3d. each. They are used to drive the head Brad-punoh.
of a brad or nail below the surface of the wood, when the hole that is
left above the head can be filled up with putty, and all traces of the nail
be hidden. When a nail is to be punched in, it should not be struck
directly with the hammer after the head is about of an inch above the
surface of the wood, lest the wood be bruised and dented with the
blow of the hammer. In nailing down flooring the floor-brad is
driven below the surface, because, when the boards begin to wear,
the head, which is harder and will not wear away at the same
rate, projects above the floor, and is inconvenient, if not absolutely
dangerous.
304. The reamer, or rymer as it is sometimes called, though the
former is the proper mode of spelling the word, is a steel tool set in a
i22 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
handle and used for the purpose of enlarging a hole in a piece of metal;
as, for example, in a hinge whose screw-holes are not quite large
enough to admit the screws. It is made in dif-
Reamer or ferent forms, but most commonly in
Rymer. the shape of a long, stiletto-like,
four-sided blade, thick at the haft, and tapering
to a fine point, which is useful for marking lines
on wood, leather, zinc, or any other material. A
good reamer may be bought at from 6d. to is.
The tool just described is often called a scriber
because its point is useful for scribing (Latin
scriboy I write) or marking lines on wood, etc.
A small rat-tail file may be used by the amateur
as a reamer.
305. The cramp, or clamp, is a contrivance
that is used for bringing boards close together
and retaining them in position until they are
• Oramp or fixed in their place by pegs or nails.
Olamp. It is also used by cabinet-makers
for bringing glued work together and keeping
the parts or pieces in close juxtaposition until
the glue has set. The principle on which the
cramp works may be seen from fig. 126. A is
a long bar, along which works a movable head
B, which may be fixed in position at any part of
the bar by screws, as shown in the engraving,
one of which works into a groove in the side
facing the beholder; another screw, which does
not appear, working in a similar groove on the
other side. The head c is also movable, but
only to the extent permitted by the screw D that
is attached to it. When the head B has been
fixed so as to allow the work to slip in easily be¬
tween it and the head c, the latter is brought
tightly against it by the action of the screw d, and
remains fast fixed between the jaws till the screw
is relaxed. The amateur artisan will find a
clamp indispensable in chair-mending and other
similar operations. The prices of the American
clamps sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., of
which the improved kind with malleable iron
head and jaws and wrought screw is shown in
the above illustration, are as follows :—
With Wooden Heads.
s. d.
aft. inside jaws 3 9
3ft. ,, 4 2
4ft- » .. 4 7
5ft- tt 5 o
With Iron Heads.
s. d.
2ft. inside jaws 8 4
3ft. 8 8
4ft. .> 0
5ft- » 1, 9 4
flg. 126. the clamp.
Clamp for Wedging up Glued Boards. 123
The iron heads, jaws, and screw, may be had without the wooden
bar for 6s. 9d., and having obtained these the amateur can make a
bar and complete the clamp for himself.
306. The joiner's cramp differs from the above in construction,
although the general principle is precisely the same. The bar is of
iron, and the heads are so constructed as to be slipped joiner's
over the bar and work freely along it; the bar is pierced Cramp.
at regular distances with holes, into which an iron peg is inserted to
fix the head that is nearest the end over which the heads are passed.
At the other end of the bar is an iron ring, through which works a
deep-threaded screw, turned by a bar through the head in the same
manner as a vice-screw. When the other head has been fixed by the
peg that is inserted behind it, the boards, or any other pieces of wood
that may have been placed between the heads can be brought tightly
together by the action of the screw, as in the cabinet-maker's clamp.
Joiners' cramps range in length from 3 feet to 6 feet, and cost from
25s. to 37s. 6d., according to size.
307. In fig. 127 is shown Hammer's Adjustable Clamp, a handy
article for amateurs for small work, made of malleable iron, and of
{[reat strength. By turning the bolt one quarter to the Hammer's
eft, it can be moved its full length out or in ; when turn- Adjustable
ing to the right it operates like any other screw. Hand- ciamp.
screws are also useful for clamping. These consist of two parallel
jaws or blocks of wood,
which are brought to¬
gether or apart, as may
be desired, by two wooden
screws, running trans¬
versely through the bars
and working in opposite
directions. These useful
articles are sold by
Messrs. Churchill and
Co., at the following
prices, according to di¬
ameter and length of Fig- I27- hammer's adjustable clamp.
screws, and length and size of jaws, which are also given :
Diam.
of
screws.
Length
screws.
Length
.
jaws.
Size
of
jaws.
Each.
Diam.
of
screws.
Length
of
screws.
Length
.
jaws.
Size
.
jaws.
Each.
In.
In.
In.
In.
s. d.
In.
In.
In.
In.
s. d.
a
10
8
ii x
0 9
1
18
16
2? X 2g
2 6
1
10
8J
1? x ii
0 10
*1
20
18
X 2!
a 10
1
xe
xo
xg x ig
1 1
ii
24
20
2l X 2?
3 6
1
16
14
2X9
x 7
i24 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
308. For bringing the glued edges of boards tightly together, a simple
Simple cramp cramP may be quickly improvised in the following manner,
that can be Suppose that A, B, c, in fig. 128, represent portions of these
made by boards, glued lengthwise along their edges : d e is a long
ama ears. pjece 0f wood, on each end of which is screwed a block
of wood, bevelled inside, as shown at f and g ; the boards when ghied
are laid in the hollow
between the project¬
ing cheeks e, f, and
j: wedge-shaped
pieces of wood H, K,
are driven in be¬
tween thecheeksand
the outer edges of
theboard. Of course
FIG. 128. SIMPLE CLAMP.
the further the wedges are driven in, the closer will the edges of the
boards be brought together and the more firmly uhited will they be.
309. Mention must be made of the carpenter's pencil, which the
amateur artisan will be constantly wanting to mark lines on wood, in
Carpenter's accordance with the guidance given him by rule, square,
pencil. and bevel. Marks should be made on wood with a pencil
in preference to a scriber, as the latter must of necessity scratch the
surface of the wood while the pencil does not. Pencils for carpenters
and joiners, etc., are square, round, and oval in form, and of these three
shapes the oval is certainly the best They are sold at id. each ; but as
Pencil often pencils, like most small tools and sometimes large ones,
mislaid, are often mislaid, or rather, hastily laid down (and so
hastily, very frequently, that the workman cannot remember where he
has placed them), it will be as well for the amateur to provide himself
with a dozen, which maybe bought for 8d. or io)4 d., according tc
quality. It is almost needless to say that the best are the cheapest.
The disappearance of a pencil or tool when mislaid, and the time and
trouble that are involved in looking for it, often suggest the idea
that these things have an unpleasant knack of hiding themselves.
310. The glue-pot is an essential in every house, whether the house¬
holder or occupier turns his attention to household carpentry or not
Glue-pot many little °dd jobs can be done by
its aid, that if nothing more than a
hammer and screw-driver be kept, a glue-pot
should be purchased to form a trio. For example,
a piece of veneer may come off a looking-glass
frame, or any piece of furniture, and may be mis¬
laid or lost before a carpenter happens to be at
work in the house, putting these and similar little
matters in order. Now, if the piece of veneer
is lost it will be made a costly business—that is
to say, costly in proportion to the actual damage
—to replace it, and if the missing piece is not re- ' I29' GLUE~POT
placed the appearance of the piece of furniture is spoiled, and ita
How to make Good Glue.
125
value considerably deteriorated. But, if a glue-pot is at hand, the
damage may be instantly repaired, and if the mending is carefully done,
as it ought to be, the piece of furniture is little the worse for the mishap.
311. The glue-pot is shown in section, or, as it were, cut in half,
in fig. 129. It is a pot within a pot, the outer and larger one being of
iron, and the smaller one of copper or iron, as the case construction
may be. The glue is broken up small, and placed in the of glue-pot.
smaller pot, which fits into the larger pot, the rim of the former resting
on the rim of the latter. Water is placed in the larger pot, sufficient
to nearly fill it when the smaller pot is put in. The pot is placed on or
close to the fire, and as soon as the water boils the glue begins to melt,
until it is reduced to a semi-fluid condition.
312. The following is a good recipe for making, or rather melting,
glue. It is taken from Spon's " Workshop Receipts :" " Break the
glue into small pieces, ana soak from twelve to twenty- Recipe for
four hours in cold water ; put the glue in the glue-pot, fill making glue,
the outer vessel with water, and apply heat. For ordinary purposes
it should run freely, and be of the consistency of thin treacle. The
hotter glue is, the more force it will exert in keeping the two parts
glued together ; in all large and long joints the glue should be applied
immediately after boiling. Glue loses much of its strength by being
often melted; that glue, therefore, which*, is newly made is much
preferable to that which has been used, when done with, add some
of the boiling water from the outer vessel to the glue, so as to make it
too thin for immediate use. Put it away till wanted again, and by
the time the water in the outer vessel is boiled the glue in the inner
is ready melted and the proper thickness for use. Powdered chalk,
brickdust, or saw-dust added to glue, will make it hold with more
than ordinary firmness."
313. In the above recipe everything is said that an amateur need
know about glue, and how it should be used. A small brush used by
painters, and usually called a sash tool, should be used Brush for
for applying the glue. It is better not to keep it in the applying glue,
glue in the pot; but when it has been used, to soak it in boiling water,
and then put it away in some safe place until it is again wanted for use.
A serviceable glue-pot may be bought at from is. to 2s. 6d.; good
glue is from 9d. to is. per pound, and a glue-brush from 2,J^d. to 3d.
314. The amateur artisan will require an oil-can as well as a glue-
pot, for he will often have occasion to use oil for one purpose of
another. It is indispensable to him when he is sharpen-
ing any edge-tool on the hone or oil-stone, and it is useful "oan"
for oiling locks, and other similar purposes. In former days a phial
bottle half filled with oil, with the quill end of a fine feather passed
through the cork, so that the feather end may always be kept in the
oil, and having a loop of string round its neck so that it may be hung
up in the artisan's shop ready for use, was the simple appliance by
means of which the carpenter oiled his whetstone for sharpening his
tools, and made locks, bolts, etc., work noiselessly and easily ; but this
has been of late years superseded by the oil-can.
126 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
315. The oil-can in its usual form very much resembles a funnel
turned upside down, but instead of being open at the broad end it is
Forma of furnished with a flexible bottom, which can be pressed
oil-oan. inwards. When pressed, the diminution of the space
inside—the bulk of air that may be within the can remaining the
same—causes a drop of oil to escaoe from the nozzle, after which the
body of the can, and through which oil is poured when it is
necessary to fill it. The price of an ordinary oil-can ranges
from 6d. to is., according to size. A better form of the oil-can
■•Good- is t0 be found in the improved "Goodenough" Oiler,
enough " oiler, sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. This can is represented
in fig. 130. It is compact, strong, and tight, and from its shape is
suitable" for carrying in the pocket. The body, or reservoir, is made
Df fine block-tin, flat like a watch, with flexible sides, which give it a
double spring. The spout is of heavy brass to insure strength : it has a
tight joint, and is tinned inside to prevent corrosion of oil. The brass
cap is packed with hard leather, which presses against the outlet ot
the spout as the cap is screwed down, and effectually prevents leakage.
Among other good points that this oil-can possesses, not the least is
that, even if laid down with the nut off, it will not leak, unless pressed
or jarred. The price of this handy and useful little oiler is 8>^d.
316. Although it does not come within the category of tools, yet as
a useful aid to carpentry and joinery, especially to the latter, and to
Band paper or cabinet-making, sand-paper must be mentioned here. It
glass-paper. is chiefly used for imparting a smooth surface to wood cut
against the grain, as in circular work, or in rubbing down the surface
of joinery and cabinet work, and giving to it smoothness and softness.
It is also used for other purposes, such as rubbing down coatings 01
paint, etc. For giving smoothness to wood, especially to rounded
work, the keen edge of a piece of broken glass will be found useful.
Sand-paper—or glass-paper as it is indifferently, but more correctly,
called, as it is made of powdered glass strewn on the surface of coarse
paper, which has been washed over with thin glue, or some other sub¬
stance to which the powdered glass will adhere—is made in three
different qualities, distinguishable by different numbers or letters
according to the makers ; but which may be described here as fine,
medium, and coarse. It is sold at }4d. per sheet, or iod. per quire of
twenty-four sheets; but glass-paper of the best quality, for cabinet
work, costs is. per quire.
bottom returns outward
with a short, sharp click.
The nozzle is of brass,
and is perforated length-
EP* large enough to admit of
W the passage of a bristle,
or very fine wire. It
screws into a brass cap,
which forms part of the
8g wise, the hole being just
FIG. 130. GOODENOUGH OIL-CAN.
Tools in Combination.
127
317. We must now turn our attention to tools in combinationt that
is to say, to tools which are so contrived as to answer more purposes
than one, like the general run of ordinary tools. The Tools in
chief of these is the combination saw, which has been Combination,
described in section 233, and which may be used as a measure, a rule,
or a straight-edge, and a square as well as a saw. Such tools as these
are more suitable for amateurs' use than for carpenters and joiners,
inasmuch as they save the purchase of the tools whose work they do
as well as their own special duty* Our counsel to the amateur, how¬
ever, is to avail himself of these tools, if he have a fancy for them,
but on no account to refrain from purchasing the single and separate
tools which are combined in the tool of many uses. Many of these
tools have been produced of late years ; but we merely intend to
speak of such of them here as may be more than usually useful to the
amateur house-carpenter. Those which most commend themselves
to notice are Boardman's Combination Wrench and the Pad or Patent
Tool Handle and Tools. To these may be added a useful little article
for indoor use, called the Tack-hammer, Setter, and Puller combined.
All these articles are supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co.
318. Boardman's Combination Wrench is represented in fig. 131,
in which part of the handle is removed to show the internal arrange¬
ments. This combination, indeed, comprises six useful
tools, neatly and compactly arranged in a convenient Combination
form for practical use. These tools are—a screw wrench Wrench,
or nut wrench (a), pipe wrench (b), hammer (c), nail claw (d), screw¬
driver (e), and bit handle or socket wrench (f). The sizes in which
this instrument is made and its prices, according to size, are as
follows :
Nickel Nickel
Length. Bright. Plated. Length. Bright. Plated.
4% inches 3s. 2d 4s. 2d. 8 inches 6s. 2d 7s. 6d.
6 4s. 2d 5s. 3d. 10 „ 8s. 4d 10s. od".
319. The pads or patent tool-handles with tools contained within,
and varying in number from 12 to 20, are very useful. In fig. 132 is
shown a strong and serviceable iron handle, and the kind of tools that
are stored within it, to be fitted, each and any as may be required,
in the opening made for their reception at the end of the handle.
9
128 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
The tools include bradawls and gimlets of various sizes, a scriber,
countersinker or drill, screwdriver, and reamer. Sometimes the rose
FIG. 132. PAD, OH PATENT TOOL HANDLE.
or round-headed countersinker is added. The price of the iron handle
Pads or patent with 12 tools is 2s. ; of one slightly larger with 20 tools,
tool-handles or of an apple-tree handle with the same number of
wi 00 s. t00is^ 2s. The price of a Turkey boxwood handle with 20
tools is 45, ; and that of a handle also of boxwood, but fitted with an
adjustable chuck, and containing 20 steel tools, 5s. These combina¬
tion tools are very handy for odd jobs about the house, and save looking
up the ordinary tools, for which they are excellent substitutes.
320. While speaking of tool-handles, it may be well to say that if
the amateur has the misfortune to break or otherwise injure his saw
Handles for or plane handle—we are supposing that he uses an
various tools, ordinary wooden plane,—saw handles in beech can be
bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 5d. and 6d. each, and in
cherry for 7d. Jack-plane handles in beech cost 2d. each, and
handles for trying or jointer planes, 3d. each. Tool handles for
bradawls, with steel screw and nut with iron wrench, into which a
new bradawl or awl of dif¬
ferent size can be intro¬
duced at pleasure, cost 4d.
each. Polished apple han¬
dles for firmer chisels are
2d. each, or 2s. per dozen ;
larger handles assorted, 2s.
6d. per dozen.
321. To return from this
digression to the last com¬
bination tool that it is in¬
tended to mention here—
the tack-hammer,setter,and
puller combined (fig. 133).
The following are the direc¬
tions for the use of the tool which costs but iod.: for setting tacks
when putting down carpets, when it is too close to the wall or skirt-
FlQ. 133. TACK HAMMER.
The Mortise and Tenon. 129
ing-board to hold the tack with the fingers, with one hand spring the
jaw open, and with the other hand place in the tack as represented
in the cut, and with one good blow, stick, or partly drive Tack-ham-
the tack. This operation requires a very little practice, mer, setter,
care being taken to take the hammer off quickly, as the and puUer"
force of the blow throws the jaw open, to release the tack, and if
taken off with the rebound it will not have time to grasp it again.
For driving, use in the same way as any hammer. To draw a tack,
place the jaws astride the tack with the foot lever just touching the
floor, with the handle of the tool straight up. Press down sufficiently
to get a good hold of the tack, and then pull horizontally. This ope¬
ration brings out the tack perfectly straight. It must be remembered
that this tool is meant for pulling out tacks only, and not for pulling
out nails.
322. The various tools that are used in cutting and fashioning wood
into different forms, or at least such of them as are really necessary to
the amateur, in the ordinary operations of Carpentry and for
Joinery have now been described ; but before quitting fastening
this part of our subject, it will be necessary to speak Pleces of wood
briefly of the articles used for fastening pieces of wood 0 6 er"
together other than glue. These articles are nails of different kinds,
screws of different sizes, and pegs of wood.
323. Let us take the pegs first. It is possible that most men know
that the planks that form the outer skin or covering of wooden ships
are fastened to the oaken ribs by bolts of copper or tree- wooden pegs
nails, which, as the name implies, are long pieces of and tree-
wood, roughly rounded and driven with an iron bound nails,
mallet into holes which have been bored through planks and into
ribs by an auger. The use of tree-nails on a smaller scale is desirable
in fastening the component pieces of all framed work, such as
doors, windows, etc., and uprights and horizontal pieces mortised
and tenoned into one another. Nails and screws must never be used
in sashes and doors, though mortise and tenon work in pegging mor.
rough framing may be secured by nails, which are tise and
generally driven in aslant. This mode of driving in nails tenon-
is termed "skew-nailing." In fig. 134, in which the end of the
upright A is mortised into the horizontal piece B, the fastening is
made by means of pegs, holes being first made at e F
C and D, through the horizontal timber B, and the /
tenon of the upright A, into which pegs are driven.
The pegs should be made of red deal. It is obvious
that if it be required to make any alteration in
consequence of the work not being perfectly square,
or if it is desired to take it to pieces at any time, the
pegs can be bored out with a gimlet or bit and brace,
and the tenon drawn out of the mortise with¬
out injury. When there is no likelihood of Fig. 134.
this, and it is desired to make the work as firm mortise & tenon.
and secure as possible, the end of the tenon is split cross-wise with a
r30 Household Carpentry and Jotnery,
ciiisel as at E and F, and two small wedges are driven in. This has
the effect of pressing the ends of the tenon so tightly against the mor-
Wedges in tise-hole in which the tenon is placed, that it is a matter
tenon. Gf the greatest difficulty to withdraw it, if it can be done
at all. The rails of doors and horizontal pieces of sash frames are
tightly fixed in the uprights in this manner. Wherever it is prac¬
ticable in carpentry and joinery, the amateur artisan is recommended
to put his work together with wooden pegs.
324. There are many kinds of nails in general use, distinguished
by various names and by variety of form. The sorts to which the
Nails: their attention of the amateur must be directed, as these will
varieties, be the nails which he will chiefly use at various times, are:
brads, cut nails, clasp nails, rose nails, clout nails, lath nails, tacks,
-and French nails. There are others, but as it is doubtful if he will ever
¥equire them, it is next to useless to mention them. It must be
remembered that we are now speaking of nails used in carpentry and
joinery. Fancy nails and studs used in ornamental work and
upholstery, such as nailing a slip of leather or leather cloth to the
edge of a book-shell, or a piece of fringe to a mantel-board, will be
mentioned in connection with work of this kind.
325. Brads are, for the most part, long thin nails, tapering slightly
from the head to the point, which is blunt, and having a slight projec¬
tion on one side of the head only. The general form is shown at A
in fig. 135, and the amateur must bear in mind that in these illus¬
trations of nails it is onlyintended to show him thedifferent
types, as it were, of these nails, and to help him to dis¬
tinguish them one from the other when he sees them before him.
Of brads there are many different kinds : there is the joiners' cut
Joiners' brad, used in joinery and ordinary cabinet making, vary-
out brads, ing in size from y2 inch to 2 inches ; and the flooring
brad, a coarse heavy brad about 2inches long, used in nailing down
flooring to the joists on which it rests. These brads are made in
various weights per thousand, and are distinguished by the number of
pounds that a thousand
weigh : thus there are
iolbs., I2lbs., I4lbs. floor
, , brads, and
Floor brads. , Ti„
so on. I he
brad used in fine cabinet
making is somewhat
lighter and slighter than
the joiners' cut brad, but
in other respects they
are similar. There is
another kind of brad
without any head, some¬
times used by glaziers
to fix panes of glass be-
Brads.
NAILS OF VARIOUS KINDS.
fore the putty is applied; and a third variety used by pattern makers,
Cut, Clasp, and Rose Nails.
etc., in which the head projects slightly beyond the body of the nail
on all sides. Being light, thin, and slightly tapering, brads do not
split the wood into which they are driven.
326. The cut nail is a coarsely made common kind of nail, with a
rough head projecting slightly on two opposite sides, as shown at b.
It may be bought in lengths varying from % inch to 6 inches in
length, and even more, at 2d. per lb., though 2 jid. or 3d. 0utnalls
is sometimes charged by the retail dealer, especially for
the smaller sizes. The writer has been asked as much as sd. per
pound for cut nails, and in consequence has left the shop without
buying, a course which his readers are recommended to follow, a£
there is no difficulty whatever in finding men who are content with a
legitimate profit, instead of coveting at least 100 per cent, more than
they are entitled to. The cut nail is useful for all kinds of ordinary
work in which the nail is to be driven straight into the wood, but it
must be remembered that they will not clench, or, in other words,
that the end or point cannot be turned by the hammer and driven
into the wood so as to prevent withdrawal.
327. It is different, however, with the clasp nail figured at C, which,
being a wrought nail and made of malleable iron, can be turned and
clenched. There are strong clasp nails and fine clasp clasp naUa.
nails ; the latter, which weigh from 2lbs. to 61bs. per
thousand, being used in joinery, while the heavier and longer kinds
are more suitable for carpentry. The nail is so called because through
the peculiar barb-like form of the head it clasps the fibre of the wood
into which it is driven as soon as it meets it, and carries it down in its
grasp leaving a somewhat large and ragged hole. This kind of nail
can be easily driven down level with the surface without the aid of a
punch by reason of the conical form of its head, but if it is desired to
bury the head the punch must be used.
328. The rose nail is a wrought nail with a round head, projecting
upwards in the centre, in the form shown at d. The body of the nail
is broad, and less in depth or thickness than in width. Ro Ub
Sometimes they are made with broad flat points, and 080 na B*
sometimes with sharp points ; these nails may be clenched. They are
made in two varieties, namely, fine rose and strong rose. The best
nails of this description appear to be those made by J. J. Cordes and
Co., of Dos Works, Newport, Monmouthshire. The flat-pointed fine
rose nails made by this firm range from 1 in. to 3^ in. in length, the strong
rose, also flat pointed, from iXin. to 4in. The best rose with sharp
points range in length from 1 %\n. to 3m., as do the best Canada and
fine clasp, both sharp-pointed varieties, made by this firm. These
nails are sometimes called " Ewbank's nails," from the late Mr.
Ewbank, formerly a member of the firm who introduced them into
Australia about 1838, where they are still much used and highly
valued.
329. The clout nail is shown at E. It has a broad flat head, and &
round shank or body terminating in a sharp point. Like most of the
nails already described, they are distinguished as fine clouts and strong
132 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
clouts. Their peculiar form renders them well adapted for nailing
t nail iron-work or sheet iron to wood, as the broad head keeps
ou na s. tjie metai jn ciose proximity to the wood, and cannot break
through it as a nail with a smaller head would. Iron nails must on no
iron nails un- account be used for nailing zinc to wood-work, as the gal-
fit for nailing vanic action set up by the contact of the two metals,
zin0' especially when wetted by rain, dew, etc., will soon destroy
the zinc all round the head of the nail.
330. At F the form of the lath nail is shown, used for nailing laths
to quartering for partitions of lath and plaster. The thin shank easily
penetrates the lath, and if the lath splits when the nail is driven
through it, the two parts are held down to the quartering by the pro¬
jecting head of the nail. It is not likely that the amateur will
a na s. ^ much; jf anything, with lath nails; but as it is possible,
though far from probable, that he may wish to try his hand at repairing
a damaged partition or ceiling, the proper nails to be used are pointed
out here.
331. At g and h are shown the difference between the ordinary iron or
tinned tack (h) and the French tack (g), which is merely a small variety
of French nail. The common tack is coarse and clumsy in
sndFrenoh make, and is never used in carpentry, except to nail some
t^oks and textile fabric such as canvas, hessian, or the material—a
naiis. gne kin(i 0f canvas—used for the sides of meat-safes, etc.,
to a framework of wood. The distinguishing qualities of the French
tack and the French nail, which is shown at K, are a round head, flat
at the top or upper surface and conical below, until the body of the nail is
reached. The body or shank is of uniform thickness throughout, except
at the extremity, where it is fashioned into a point. Just below the head
the body of the nail is ridged or grooved transversely on all sides, thus
giving the nail additional power of holding to the wood. French nails
are generally round, but there is a square variety, sometimes seen in
wooden cases and boxes from abroad. They vary in length from
f£in. to 4in., and are sold at prices ranging from 6d. per pound for the
smallest sorts to 2j£d. per pound for the largest, the price being less per
pound in proportion as the nails get larger and consequently fewer to
the pound.
332. The amateur will readily understand that it is far more profit¬
able for him to buy nails and screws in large quantities, if he uses a
Prices of great many in the course of the year. The following is a
nails. resumd of the prices of nails per pound per thousand, or
per dozen, as specified :
Fine Wire Brads... per. lb. from 6Jd. to 8d.
Joiners'FneCt. do. „ 1000
Floor Brads ,, lb.
... cwt.
Clasp Nails Fne Ct. ,, lb.
„ ,, „ cwt.
Rose Head Cut ... ,. lb.
ijd.
2d.
n/6
2d.
12/0
2d.
8d.
Rose Head Wroght. per. lb. from 4d. to rs.
Clout Fine Wroght.
Lath Nails, Best Cut
Tacks, Cut Common
French Tacks
„ Wire Nails
F ancyBrass-hd. N Is.
1000
lb.
doz.
6d.
aid.
ijd.
5d.
2 id.
2d.
rod.
5d.
8d.
6d.
6d.
333. The form of the screw is well-known. The principle on which
it is constructed is exhibited in the annexed illustration, and it will be
Screws of Various Kinds. 133
sufficient to give a drawing of one screw only, as the differences in
varieties of the screw from the original type can
be easily described. At A in fig. 136 screws: their
thescrewis shown before itiscut,when forms,
it is in the form of a conical-headed, blunt-pointed
nail, with a shaft of very nearly the same width from
top to bottom, but tapering slightly as it approaches
the extremity. At B the screw is shown after a
spiral thread has been cut in it from the extremity
to about two-thirds of its length in an upward
direction. A nick is then sawn or filed across the
top to receive the end of the screwdriver and the
screw is ready for use.
334. The principle of the screw, as it has been
said, is precisely the same in all. In the wooden
screw a deep V shaped groove is principle of
taken out instead of a broad flat groove the screw,
which leaves merely a spiral thread winding up the
shaft of the screw ; and this form is adopted for
Fig. 136. screw. smith's screw used in fastening to-
gether the plates and pieces of a stove or kitchen range. 'SSK
This form is shown in fig. 137. Screws are made in all SgSp
sizes from j4in. to 9m. long, and each size is made in
various thicknesses to suit different kinds of work and dif-
ferent purposes. Considering, then, the range in length and „
number of thicknesses in each size it is manifest that there thread3of
are several score of different sizes from which the purchaser screw
must make his selection according to circumstances. Screws vary in
prices from )4d. per dozen }iin. in length, to is. 9d. per prices of
dozen 9m. in length, or by the gross from 3/4d. to 19s. screws.
335. Round-headed screws are made for fastening the plates of bolts
and rim locks to doors. The under part of the head in these has the
form of a square shoulder which, when the screw is driven Bound-headed
home, fits flat against the bolt plate or lock, as the case screws,
may be. The head rises from the flat shoulder in a semicircular form,
and a deep nick is cut into the rounded head to receive the screw¬
driver. As there is little bearing for the screwdriver, these screws
should be turned in with a strong bradawl or very narrow screwdriver,
for when a wide one is used the nick of the screw is apt to get damaged
and broken away. Brass screws are made for fastening Brass
brass plates to metal. The screws used for fastening screws,
handles of doors to the bar, or spindle by which the catch of the lock
is turned, are headless, the nick being cut into the blunt end or top of
the screw. Sometimes, when the screw is very long and thin, it tapers
much more from head to point than in fig. 136.
336. When using screws care should be taken to bore a hole with a
bradawl, if the wood be soft enough, for the entrance of the screw,
and to guide its passage into the wood. The diameter of the bradawl
used should be somewhat less than the diameter of the screw. A
i34 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
larger bradawl may be used to enlarge the hoi© at the entrance so
Holes for as to diminish the friction of the wood against the screw,
reception of and vice versd. That a screw may be easily withdrawn,
screws. }f requisite, the amateur artisan should keep a small tin
box filled with grease or tallow by him, into which the end and
Greasing part of the shank should be plunged before the screw is
screws before inserted. Carpenters and joiners have a very bad trick of
driving, putting screws into their mouth, or between the lips, and
keeping them there while they are screwing them in one by one. This
makes the screw rusty, ana difficult to withdraw. Therefore, I.
Never, on any account whatever, put a screw that is about to be used
into the mouth. 2. Always grease the end of a screw before it is put
into the wood, etc. It may be observed that in driving a screw into
wood the screwdriver is always turned inwards towards the left, while
in drawing it out it is turned outwards towards the right.
337. Bolts and nuts are of various forms and sizes ; they are dis-
Boits and tinguished by the form of the head and neck. The principle
nuts. on which they are made is the same in all cases, being an
iron cylinder, of uniform diameter from top to bottom,
having a head either flat or rounded, rising from a flat
shoulder or surface, placed transversely to the axis of the
bolt, and touching the wood or other material against
which it is brought to bear at every point. At the end
remote from the head a V shaped or bevelled thread
is cut, the angle at which the thread is inclined being
very small. The screw end enters a nut or square block
of metal, with a hole in the centre, also threaded to re¬
ceive the screw of the bolt. This kind of screw, when
Female cut round the sides of a circular orifice, is
screw. technically called a "female screw." In
fig. 138 a very common form of bolt is represented,
with a round neck, and a rounded or semicircular head.
The same kind of head is sometimes fitted to a square
neck, and sometimes the head is square or hexag¬
onal, or in the form of a circular disc as thick at FlG> I38*
the edges as in the middle. It is almost unnecessaryB0LT AND NUT'
to add that the nut must be turned or worked up the screw with a
small wrench or spanner.
338. Excellent nails, screws, bolts, etc., of the best quality in all
sizes, and at moderate prices, as the writer can testify from experience,
Where to get can abvays be obtained from Mr. MELHUISH, ToolManu-
gooa nails, facturer and Builders' Ironmonger, 85 and 87, Fetter
eto- Lane, London, E.C. Mr. Melhuish also supplies tools
of all kinds, hinges, and every description of ironmongery for house¬
hold purposes that may be needed by the amateur, and American
locks, brackets, etc., etc., imported direct from the best American
manufacturers of this class of goods.
339. The prices of tools separately have been given under each
head ; but as many amateur artisans may desire lo buy their tools in
Tool Chests of Various Kinds. 135
bulk, in a tool-box fitted to receive them, the following list of tool-
chests, with their contents, calculated to suit the require- Tool-boxes for
ments and pockets of all, from the man of very limited amateurs,
means to him who can afford to spend as much as he may choose on
any particular hobby, will be found useful. In every case the tools
are of the best quality, and selected with cafe, and with a view to the
peculiar wants of the amateur. Any tool may be omitted or ex¬
changed for another, when a corresponding reduction will be made
in price, when necessary. The chests are made of good and well-
seasoned pine or oak, French polished, strongly dove-tailed together,
and fitted with brass lock, knobs, and handles of the best quality.
The size in each case is exclusive of lids and mouldings. Oak chests
are supplied to order by Mr. Melhuish at prices as under, the price
for a pine chest in each case being somewhat lower.
Hand-saw
Hatchet
Hammer
Mallet
No. 1. 16 inches, £i 4s. 6d.
Rule
Pincers
2 Gimlets
2 Bradawls
Chisel
Gouge
3 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awls
Punch
Turnscrew
Spokeshave
Square
Claw Wrench
Furniture, etc.
No. 2. 17 inches, £1 12s. 6d.
Hand-saw
Hatchet
Hammer
Mallet and Rule
Pincers
3 Gimlets
3 Bradawls
2 Chisels
1 Gouge
3 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awl
Punch
Turnscrew
Spokeshave
Square
Claw Wrench
Pliers
Compasses
Furniture, etc.
Hand-saw
Hatchet
Hammer
Mallet
Rule
No. 3. 18 inches, £2 2s.
Pincers
Marking Awl
Punch
2 Turnscrews
Spokeshave
Square
Claw Wrench
3 Gimlets
3 Bradawls
3 Chisels
2 Gouges
3 Files
Oil-stone
Pliers
Compasses
Lock-saw
Plane
Furniture, etc.
Hand-saw
Hatchet
Hammer
Mallet
Rule
No. 4. 19 inches, £2 12s. 6d.
Pincers
4 Gimlets
4 Bradawls
4 Chisels
a Gouges
3 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awl
Punch
2 Turnscrews
Spokeshave
Square
Claw Wrench
Pliers
Compasses
Lock-saw
Plane
Marking Gauge
Glue-pot & brush
Furniture, etc.
Hand-saw
Axe
Hammer
Mallet
Rule
Pincer s
No. 5. 20 inches, £3 $s.
S Gimlets
5 Bradawls
5 Chisels
3 Gouges
4 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awl
Punch
2 Turnscrews
Spokeshave
Square
Claw Wrench
Pliers
Compasses
Lock-saw
Plane
Marking Gauge
Glue-pot & brush
Drawing-knife
Cutting Punch
Scraper
Bevel
Furniture, etc.
2 Saws
Axe
a Hammers
Mallet
Rule
Pincers
No. 6. 21 inches, £\.
I 6 Gimlets
I 6 Bradawls
[ 6 Chisels
I 4 Gouges
I Lock-saw
| Smoothing-plane
Jack-plane
Marking Gauge
Glue-pot & brush
4 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awl
2 Punches
3 Turnscrews
2 Spokeshaves
Square
Claw Wrench
Pliers
Compasses
Drawing-knife
Cutting Punch
Scraper
Bevel
Furniture, etc-
135 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
3 Saws
Axe
z Hammers
Mallet and Rule
4 Files
Oil-stone
No. 7. 22 inches, £4 14J. 6d.
Marking Awl
2 Punches
3 Turnscrews
Hand-vice
3 Spokeshaves
Square
Claw Wrench
Pliers
Compasses
Pincers
6 Gimlets
6 Bradawls
6 Chisels
4 Gouges
Lock Saw
Smoothing-lpane
Jack do.
2 Gauges
Glue-pot & brush
Drawing-knife
Cutting Punch
Scraper
Bevel
Furniture, etc.
No. 8. 23 inches, £5 ics.
3 Saws and Axe
2 Hammers
Mallet and Rule
Pincers
6 Gimlets
6 Bradawls
6 Chisels
4 Gouges
4 Files
Oil-stone
Marking Awl
3 Punches
3 Turnscrews
Bed Key
Hand-vice
2 Spokeshaves
Square
Claw Wrench
2 Pliers
Compasses
Lock-saw
Smoothing-plane
Jack do.
3 Gauges
Glue-pot & brush
Drawing-knife
Cutting Punch
Scraper & Bevel
Chalk Line Reel
Furniture, etc.
No. 9. 24 inches, £6 12s. 6d., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8—
1 File | 2 Mortise Chisels | 1 Coach Wrench
Many of the tools in this and the following sizes are, of course, larger and of better quality
than similar tools in the smaller boxes.
No. 10. 25 inches, £%, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8—
1 Hammer
No. 11.
1 Hammer
3 Gimlets
1 2 Chisels I 2 Files I 1 Coach Wrench
| 12 Bits for Brace | 2 Mortise Chisels | Cutting Nippers
Brace
26 inches, £10, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8—
I 3 Bradawls 2 Files | 1 Brace I 2 Mortise Chisels
3 Chisels 1 Coach Wrench I 18 Bits for Brace Cutting Nippers
I Saw Set Spring Dividers | Bench-vice |
No. 12. 37 inches, £12 10s., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8—
1 Hammers
1 Mallet
6 Gimlets
6 Bradawls
6 Chisels
I 2 Gouges
5 Files
1 Turnscrew
Square
Compasses
1 Brace
24 Bits for Brace
Anvil& Becklron
Saw Set
Cutting Nippers
Nipper Pliers
Hand Shears
Spring Dividers
Coach Wrench
Chipping Chisels
Spring Oil-can
3 Socket Chisels
3 Mortise Chisels
BeHch-vice
Tumg.-saw&frm.
Sharpening Tools.
*37
CHAPTER V.
SHARPENING TOOLS : THE WAYS AND MEANS EMPLOYED.
Cutting Tools must be Sharp—Modes of Sharpening Tools—Itinerant Saw-setter—
Amateur should learn to Sharpen Tools—Form of Teeth of Saw—Saws should
be kept Greased—How to open Teeth of Saw—The Saw-set: its Action—Hart's
" Patent Saw-set"—Useful contrivance for Saw-setting—Vice for holding Saw—
Edge-tools should not be trusted to knife-grinders—Grindstones—Useful Grind¬
stones for Amateurs—Directions for grinding Edge Tools—Gouges—Planes and
Chisels—Remarks on the Bevel—Grinding Adze or Axe—The Oil-stone : how to
use it—Size desirable for Oil-stones—Turkey Stones—Washita Stones—Prices of
Oil-stones—Lubricants for Oil-stone—Position of Tool—Guides : why un¬
desirable—Position of arm, hand, etc.—Sharpening Tools by immersion in
Acids—Remarks on this process—Artificial Grindstones—To remove Rust from
Tools—To extract Rust from Steel—Preventives against Rust—To prevent Tools
from Rusting—Varnish to prevent Rust.
340. To do any kind of work in Carpentry and Joinery with blunted
tools in a creditable and workman-like manner is simply impossible,
and it is because in nine cases out of ten that the amateur cutting tools
neglects to sharpen his saws and edge tools when they must be
require it, that his work is so often done with difficulty sharp-
and presents anything but a satisfactory appearance when done. The
professional carpenter and joiner will "frequently stop in his work to
put his plane-iron and chisel on the oil-stone—for he is well aware of
the importance of having a keen edge to all cutting tools of this
description—and he will take care to keep his saws sharpened
and fit for use. It is necessary that the amateur artisan should
imitate the regular mechanic in this essential duty of keeping his
tools in a fit condition to do the work that is required of them;
and while he is learning how to manage various operations in
carpentry and joinery and how to use his tools, he must also learn how
to sharpen them when necessary.
341. Of course all cutting tools must be provided with a keen edge,
and this is obtained by grinding them to a proper bevel on the grind¬
stone and afterwards rubbing them on the oil-stone. Among Modes of
striking tools the adze and hatchet will require sharpening sharpening
on the grindstone, and, if necessary, a keener edge may tools.
be given by finishing off by rubbing the edge with a slip or small piece
of oil-stone. Among rasping tools, all kinds of saws will require
sharpening at times, and this must be effected principally by means of
the saw-file. If the cutting edge of a bradawlbe injured in any way
it may be repaired and rendered sharp and even by filing.
342. Let us first inquire into the method of sharpening a saw. It is
possible for an amateur to get this done for him by some jobbing
138 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
carpenter when his saws grow dull, or by any itinerant saw-setter,
itinerant who goes his regular round at intervals with his bench and
Saw-setter. fqeS) an(j whose chief customers are the butchers. It
is better, however, that he should learn to do the work himself than
Amateur trust t0 anot^e1' It ls ^ar better to be independent of
should learn another's aid in all operations of this kind, for when a
to sharpen man can do these things for himself the necessary work
00 s' can be done at any time, whereas when the services
of another must be invoked, the helped must await the convenience
and coming of the helper, often to his serious detriment.
343. A saw seems a very simple thing, but it is surprising how few
can sharpen and "set" a saw when it is a little out of order. If the
Form of amateur will look along the teeth of any saw used for
teeth of saw. cutting wood, that happens to be in good order, he will
see that they do not lie straight, but that each tooth is bent outwards
a little, either to the right or to the left, and that every other tooth
is bent in the same direction ; in short, the line of teeth will present
an appearance similar to the annexed figure (fig. 139), which is rather
exaggerated, for the sake of clearer
illustration. In this figure, a is the
a b point of the saw or part farthest
Fig. 139. teeth of saw. from, and b the part nearest, the
handle. If a line be drawn from point to point on each side of the
diagram, it will be seen that they enclose a space of some width,
wider, in fact, than the sheet of metal of which the saw is made. By
frequent use these points get dulled and worn away, and the space is
consequently diminished, and the operator finds it a difficult matter
to get the saw through the wood in consequence of the increased
friction between the wood and the saw-blade. To work pleasantly
the blade of the saw should be thinner towards the back than it is at
Saws should ec'ge> that is to say, in all kind of saws but tenon
be kept saws, whose back is strengthened by a bar of iron or brass
greased. to impart the necessary stiffness to the blade. The blade
should also be kept well greased that it may not contract rust, which
is detrimental to its working, as the amateur may find from experience.
344. Now in sharpening a saw, the first thing to be done is to
recover the original width between the points by bending the teeth
How to open outwards, alternate teeth being bent in contrary directions,
teeth of saw. A saw-sett« will set the teeth with a peculiar kind of
hammer, striking every other tooth with unerring aim and surprising
celerity, and then turning the saw over and repeating the operation
on the remaining teeth. Great practice is of course necessary to do
it with certainty, and the amateur is not recommended to attempt it.
If he try his hand at it he will, without doubt, knock out several
teeth, which will not at all improve the rasping or cutting power
of the saw.
345. What, then, is the amateur to do ? He must have recourse to
what is called a saw-set, an instrument of the shape shown in fig. 140,
which eonsists of a round shaft formed like a tqrnscrew at one end,
Contrivance for Saw-setting. 139
and terminating in a broad thick blade at the other, on either side
of which are cut three or more deep nicks of different The saw-set:
widths. Now if the saw be placed in a saw-vice—or between actions.
i- l 1 v two boards, so constructed that the
* ! J saw can be held lightly between
®^ them, with the teeth uppermost—the
Fig. 140. saw-set. teeth can be bent to the right or
left, as may be requisite, with the saw-set ; each tooth being held in
turn in the nick whose width will admit it most accommodatingly,
and then bent by a slight
pressure of the hand on
the shaft of the saw-set.
The difficulty here is in
regulating the depth to
which the tooth is buried
in the nick, and the pres¬
sure which is applied.
Occasionally the strain
will be too great, and pIO i4i< hart's patent saw-set.
the amateur will have to
experience the disappointment of snapping off a tooth. This may
be obviated by the use of Hart's " Patent Saw-set," sold Hart's
by Messrs. Churchill and Co., which is shown in fig. 141. " Patent^
This powerful but simple saw-set is made of the best Saw_Bet-
malleable iron, except the set-lever, which is of the best cast-steel,
properly tempered. To use it, the operator must first adjust the
brass gauge to the tooth to be set, and then adjust the top till the
gauge rests solidly on the saw-blade. It will be readily seen that
more or less set can be given to the saw by turning the set screw on top
up or down. The ordinary saw-set costs from 9d. to is. 3d.; the
patent saw-set is more expensive, the 7% inch set with single lever
costing 2s. 8d. If fitted with a compound lever, a set of the same
length cost 3s. 6d. ; and a larger 10 inch set, also with compound
lever, costs 6s. 8d.
346. The following contrivance tor the purpose of setting saws, which
was invented by a practical workman, and used by himself and others
to whom he showed it, has been found to answer its pur- useful con-
pose perfectly well. In fig. 142, A shows the front view trivanoefor
and B the side view of this useful apparatus. It has the saw-setting,
merit of being exceedingly simple—so simple, indeed, and easy of
construction that the amateur may easily make one for himself. The
part marked A is made of wood, B is a steel punch working in a slide.
This punch is cut down to half the thickness and chamfered down, as will
be seen by referring to C and D, which are enlarged views of this punch,
A cubical block of steel shown at E fits into a hole made for its recep¬
tion in the part A. The edges of the block are chamfered or bevelled
off to correspond with the chamfer of the punch, and each edge has a
different chamfer to suit different saws. The action of this appa¬
ratus is as follows :—Supposing the amateur wanted to set his hand-
140 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
-put the coarsest bevel of the steel block under the punch, lay
the saw flat upon the
block with one tooth
under the punch.
Give the punch a
slight tap with a
hammer. Serve
every other tooth the
same ; turn the saw
W over, and repeat the
operation. It is ob¬
vious that the teeth
will take the same
inclination outwards,
as the bevel of the
block and punch.
For this end hold it
fMMS
FIG 142. CONTRIVANCE FOR SAW SETTING.
After setting a saw it must be sharpened.
Vice for hold- in the vice with the teeth upwards, and with a saw file,
ingsaw. give the teeth, if $ hand-saw, a shape like that shown
at F ; if a compass saw, a shape similar to G ; and if a tenon-saw, the
shape shown at H, taking care to file the teeth a little angular, as in
fig. 139, showing the set of the teeth of a saw in page 138, and not
straight across.
347. With regard to the vice in which the saw must be held while
being filed, one of convenient construction is shown in fig. 143. This
saw-filer's vice may be obtained from Messrs. Churchill and Co.
for 6s. Its jaws are 9m. long, and it is jointed near the bench,
by means of which the jaws can be thrown backward or forward at
pleasure. The amateur, who cannot afford such appliances, may
manage to hold his saw for the process of filing by means of his bench
screw, which will be described in connection with the carpenter's
bench. All that he has to do is to place a piece of ^in. board some¬
what less in width than the saw near the handle, on each side of the
saw, and then screw wood and saw tightly against the side of the
bench with the bench screw. The piece of wood on the inside will
keep the handle from touching the bench, if the saw be placed within
the bench screw so that the handle is towards the right hand of the
operator as he tightens the screw. Different saw files should be used
for different kinds of saws. A tenon-saw file costs 3d., a file for a
panel saw 3}4d., for a hand-saw 4d., and for a rip saw 6d.
348. For sharpening or rather for grinding edge tools such as plane
irons and chisels, the amateur must provide himself with a good grind-
Edge tools stone. And here the opportunity must be taken to caution
be°trTisted against trusting his tools to itinerant knife-grinders
to knife- and tinmen, who will in all probability spoil plane-iron or
grinders. chisel, and render it utterly unfit for use. The reason,
for the most part, is that they do not understand the work as regards
tools of this description, and so make a mess of it. The edge of the
plane-iron or chisel when ground and rubbed on the oil-stone should
Useful Grindstone for Amateurs. 141
be a straight line as true and even between its extreme points as it is
possible to make it. It stands to reason that if a plane-iron be in any
other condition than this as regards its edge, it will not touch the
surface of a piece of wood alike at all parts of its edge, and the result
will be that the surface will be taken off somewhat deeper in some
parts than others, if it be possible to work at all with a tool in such a
condition. The writer
has had a plane-iron re¬
turned to him by an
itinerant knife-grinder in
a state that might be de¬
scribed in heraldic lan¬
guage as wavy,and chisels
finished off with a slight
bevel on either side after
the fashion of a turn-
screw.
349. Grindstones can
be purchased in many
different sizes, and fitted
up in many Grindstones.
various ways.
It is not desirable to have
too small a grindstone for
grinding plane iron,
chisels, etc.; the best size
for the amateur is from
12 inches to 18 inches in
diameter, and from iyz
inches to 3 inches in width.
The commonest form of
fitting up is to rest each
end of the axle of the
Fig. 143. saw filer's vice. grindstone on two paral¬
lel and horizontal bars supported on legs. The axle is prevented
from jumping out of the grooves in which it is laid by iron loops or
staples, and at one end it is square so as to receive the loop of a
winch-handle, or handle shaped like the letter L, by which it is turned
by one person while another applies the iron to be ground to the
stone. It is most likely, however, that the amateur will be alone
when at work, and it will therefore be desirable for him useful
to have a grindstone so placed that it can be turned by grindstone
the foot of the operator, by means of a crank and treadle. arn*°*
It is a good plan to have one end of the axle made into ama eurB-
& crank for the treadle, and the other end squared to take an ordinary-
winch handle, as he can then avail himself of the aid of another in
turning the stone, when opportunity offers. Useful stones are made
with an iron frame and trough to hold water, and of such a size that
they may be placed on the carpenter's bench. These are fitted with a
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
telescope treadle, in some cases that they may be worked by the toot
Sometimes the grindstone is fitted with multiplying wheels, so that a
considerable speed may be attained, as in the multiplying reel used by
the fly-fisherman In fig. 144 is shown a grindstone placed on an
ordinary bench, and with a crank and treadle. A is a trough in
which water is kept during the operation, but as soon as the work is
done the water should be poured away, as a stone should never be
left to soak in water. The ends of the trough are raised so as to
furnish a rest on which to steady the tool while grinding, as shown at
B. It is better, however, to have a strong metal rest attached to the
trough or framework by which the grindstone is sustained, in such a
manner that the part on which the tool rests can be brought nearer
the stone, as at C. In some frames the trough is hinged at one end so
that it can be raised or lowered at pleasure, so that when the trough is
lowered the stone does not touch
the water. Care must be taken
that the stone is mounted in such
a manner as to run truly, other¬
wise it is absolutely useless, and
no tools can be properly ground
on it. Grindstones, with and
without frames, may be had at
all prices from 6d. to 25s.,
though in some cases the nature
of the frame on which the stone
is mounted renders the price
higher than the limit here given.
The grinding surface of the
Fig 144. grindstone and trough. stone must be kept level, other¬
wise it will be impossible to impart a straight edge to any plane-iron
or chisel.
350. The author of "The Amateur Mechanic's Workshop" gives
the following directions for grinding edge tools, which the amateur
Directions do well to follow implicitly, as it is given by a
for grinding practical workman of great experience. He says : " In
plane irons. grjncijng plane irons, chisels, and similar tools, the stone
should turn towards the operator, and the tool should be held very
firmly and quite squarely upon the stone, at a point sufficiently near
its upper part to allow the tool to be in a nearly horizontal position,
while its bevel lies flat upon it. If it is held too low, so that its handle
points downwards, the water from the stone will run down the hands
and arms, which is decidedly disagreeable, especially in winter. In
addition the tool cannot be so firmly held nor the work so readily seen.
Gouges may be ground in a similar position, or (which
o " is more easy and less likely to damage the stone) at
right angles to it, i.e., in the same direction as the axle ; they must be
rolled backwards and forwards as the operation proceeds. Keep the
edges of the stone in use by constantly traversing the tool across its
face, and never try to hurry the work by grinding to a more obtuse
Grinding Chisels, etc.: The Oil-stone. 143
bevel than that made by the manufacturer. This is, indeed, generally
rather more obtuse than it ought to be, and carpenters reduce this
angle, and then the second bevel, formed by the oil-stone, restores it
correctly. In grinding planes and chisels, especially the pianes and
first, it is as well for the amateur to make use of a square Chisels,
to test the correctness of the edge, otherwise the latter may not be
truly at right angles to the side of the tool."
351. A little explanation with regard to the bevel may be useful.
In 1, in fig. 145, is shown the manufacturer's bevel, that is to say, the
slope at which the plane-iron or chisel is bevelled when Bemarks on
ground by the manufacturer. The angle ABcis a very the beveL
obtuse angle, and the angle B A D is a very acute one. In 2, c B A
remains the same as far as the point A ; but the bevel is rendered less
obtuse by making the part from A to F slope at a different inclination
by rubbing the iron on the oil-stone. This, of course, has the effect
of making the angle AFD less acute than the angle B A D in 1. In 3
is shown the effects of bad grinding ; during the process the tool has
not been held firmly and flatly against the
grindstone, and the slope from the thickest
part of the iron to the point has assumed a
slightly rounded form. Lastly, in 4 is shown,
in an exaggerated form, the proper effect
that should be produced when the tool is
held firmly against the grindstone through¬
out the whole length of the bevel. As may be
supposed, the surface produced is slightly
concave, or somewhat hollow, corresponding
to the convexity of the grindstone at any part
of its circumference. Of course the larger the
grindstone the less will be this convexity. When the tool has been
rubbed on the oil-stone a part of the hollow from A to F is taken
away, while that from A to B remains. Practically speaking, the effect
produced is the same as that shown in 2.
352. In grinding an axe or an adze, the edge of the tool is traversed
across the face of the grindstone until the notches have been taken
out, and the edge is clean and clear from one point to Grinding adze
another. If it be desired to make the tool very keen in or axe.
edge, recourse must be had to a slip of stone with which the edge
must be rubbed until the tool is sharpened to the satisfaction of the
operator.
353. The oil-stone is constantly needed during all operations in
Carpentry and Joinery in which the plane and the chisel is called into
use. It is, indeed, wanted far more frequently than the The on-stone:
grindstone, for this is only brought into use when the howtonseit.
edge of the tool is altogether too dull to be sharpened by the
oil-stone. There are two things to be taken into consideration here,
namely, the nature of the oil-stone and the manner of using it, or
rather, of applying the iron to it. Oil-stones are generally sold in a
box, that is to say, the stone is set in a piece of wood so that its sur-
F
F
k
k A
k
e
=4
p
a
D
n
B D|
WF
w
§§
c
Fig. 145.
144 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
FIG. 146. OIL-STONE IN BOX.
face is perfectly level, and. over it a loose cover is fitted, made of the
same kind of wood, which preserves it from dust and injury when out
of use. The oil-stone, as set in wood and provided with a cover, is
shown in fig. 146.
354. The most serviceable sized oil-stone for the amateur is one
about 2in. wide and 8in. or 9m. long, and if one can be pro-
size desirable cured that is a little wider it should be taken in preference
for oil-stones, to a narrower one. A stone should be neither too hard
nor too soft, as a soft stone will soon wear, while a hard stone
grinds slowly, and through the iron not biting fairly on its surface,
■j ... ... 1... some time is taken in
rft-" ''ium'J putting a good edge to
it, that is to say, an edge
of the necessary fineness,
smoothness, and keen
ness. Sometimes, too,
a stone is met with
which has a hard spot
in it, over which the tool
slips, and as the rest of the stone wears away the hard spot forms a
rounded protuberance, rising slightly above the level of the other part.
On such a stone as this it is impossible to sharpen a tool properly.
Turkey Turkey stones are considered to be the best, and they are
stones. so undoubtedly when they are really good, and next to
these in quality are the Arkansas stones. Washita stones, another
Washita variety of American oil-stones, are also very good. And
stones. of stones of this description procured at home, the Charley
Forest (properly Charnley Forest) oil-stone is as good if not superior
to any others. Good oil-stones, whether from Turkey or the United
Prices of oil- States are generally sold by the pound, the price per
stones. pound ranging from is. 6d. to 2s. Messrs. Churchill
and Co. sell Washita stones in different sizes at 2s. per pound,
and gouge slips (for gouges cannot have an edge given to them
on the flat oil-stone) at 4s. per pound. Again, stones mounted
in oak are sold by this firm at the following prices, according to the
sizes given, namely, with stone 4in. X #in., 6d.; 6in. X 2s. 8d.;
8in. X 2Xin., 4s.; 9m. X 2Xim, 4s. 6d. By other dealers Ar¬
kansas oil-stones are sold from 6s. to 8s. 6d. each, and slips of the
same from is. 6d. ; Turkey oil-stones from 4s. each, and slips from
is. 4d. ; Washita oil-stones from is. 9d. to 3s. 6d., slips from iod. to
is. 3d. ; and Charnley Forest stones from is. to 2s. each, and slips
6d. each. These stones are without mountings, for which an addition
is made to the prices above given.
355. In using the oil-stone a few drops of olive oil should be squirted
on it from the oiler as soon as the surface has been wiped perfectly
Lubrioanta clean. Paraffin is sometimes recommended instead of
for olive oil, but the latter is quite as good as a lubricant for
the stone, and is free from the offensive smell which is given
out by paraffin. The great difficulty that the amateur will experience
oil-stone.
How TO USE THE OlL-STONE.
r45
in setting a tool on the oil-stone lies in keeping the bevel at the same
angle with the stone throughout the operation. As he moves the
tool backwards and forwards along the stone, he is apt to give it a
different inclination when close to him than when at a greater distance
from him, the angle at which the tool is inclined to the stone being
greater when in the former position and less when in the latter. The
writer from whom we have already quoted with regard to the proper
method to be adopted in grinding plane - irons, etc., says, with
reference to the manner in which the tool should be held while
rubbing it on the oil-stone :—
356. "It is evident that the tendency to be aimed at is the raising
of the handle slightly as the tool moves further from the person,
instead of allowing it to take the positions shown (that Position of
is, different angles of inclination to the stone during its t001,
passage backwards and forwards). All guides are to be discarded
both for the grinding and setting (the rest on which the tool is
sustained when held on the grindstone being excepted). Guides: why
They are as bad as corks and bladders in teaching a undesirable,
person to swim, for it becomes exceedingly difficult to do without
them ; and it is evident from the daily practice of carpenters that how¬
ever difficult the right method may be to acquire, it is by no means
impossible, and is, moreover, of absolute necessity. Square the
elbows, let hand and arms have freedom, grasp the tool above with
the right hand so as to bring the fingers underneath it, p0Siti0n of
and let the fingers of the left lie together, and straight hand, arm,
upon the upper side, their ends tolerably near the edge of et0-
the tool, the thumb being underneath. The tool will be thus held
firmly, and also under control. Holtzappfel gives a different way, the
reverse of this. He says the first finger only of the right hand should
be held above, and the thumb and rest of the fingers below, the left
hand grasping the right, with the finger above the tool and the thumb
below. It is probably in a great measure a question of habit."
357. It is said that edge tools may be sharpened by plunging them
in a bath of muriatic acid, diluted to a considerable extent with water,
and leaving them exposed to the action of the acid for a short time.
The acid will act on every part of the blade with which it comes in
contact, and will eat away a thin coating of metal, thus fining down
the point or edge of any tool, which must now be rubbed sharpening
on the oil-stone in order to impart a polish to the bevel and tools by
keenness to the edge. It must be remembered, however, 1j^Q^ison
that if the edge of the tool that is subjected to the action of
the acid be not perfectly even and uniform, no eating away of the surface
of the metal by this means will make it even : to take out notches, etc.,
by immersing a tool in a bath of muriatic acid and water is simply
impossible, for the action of the acid is alike and equal on all parts of
the surface exposed to it. It is better to learn to sharpen tools by the
aid of the grindstone and oil-stone than to trust to any chemical action
to produce the desired results.
358. The following remarks relative to the above process appeared
146 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
in " Design and Work " some time ago, and are here reproduced for
Remarks on the information of those who may wish to try it. " It has
this process, long been known that the simplest method of sharpening
a razor is to put it for half an hour in water, to which has been added
1-20th of its weight of muriatic or sulphuric acid ; then lightly wipe it
off, at d after a few hours set it on a hone. The acid here supplies the
place of a whetstone, by corroding the whole surface uniformly, so
that nothing further than a good polish is necessary. The process
never injures good blades, while badly hardened ones are frequently
improved by it, although the cause of such improvement remains un¬
explained." Again, it is said that as it is with razors so it is with
scythes and sickles, and, as a natural consequence, so it must be with
all other kinds of edge tools. With regard to scythes and reaping-
hooks, " the time lost in the harvest field in the early morning would
be spared by laying the blades for half an hour in a bath prepared as
above described. As soon as they are taken out of the bath they
should be wiped, and a soft sandstone hone passed along would leave
a good and uniform edge behind it."
359. Grindstones for razors and the finer kinds of edge tools in
which the keenest possible edge is a desideratum, may be made by
Artificial artificial means. Silicious sand of great fineness, or emery
grindstones, powder, and shell lac are taken in the proportion of three
parts of the former to one of the latter. The sand must be well
washed and the shell lac melted, after which the sand must be stirred
into the melted lac and will incorporate with it while it is warm. The
composition is placed in a circular mould with a space in the centre to
form a hole, square in shape, for the axle, and then left to harden.
360. It is to be feared that the amateur's tools will sometimes be
allowed to get rusty by being left for a short time in the rain when
working out of doors, or by the dampness of the shed or workshop
in which he carries on his operations. This is a very fruitful source
of rust in tools, and even if the shed be perfectly water-tight the
dampness in the air itself during prolonged rain and wet seasons
will frequently do much mischief. The following is a simple method
of removing rust from steel which will be found useful:—
Recipe. — To remove rust from steel. — " Cover the metal with
To remove sweet-oil well rubbed in and allow to stand for forty-eight
rust from hours, smeared with oil applied freely with a feather or
tools. piece of cotton wool, after rubbing the steel. Then rub
tvith unslacked lime reduced to as fine a powder as possible."
361. Another method is given by Spon in his "Workshop Receipts,"
a most valuable book, replete with information on a wide variety of
subjects which may be recommended to the notice of the amateur as
a candidate for a place on his bookshelves. It is as follows :—
Recipe.—To extract rust from steel.—" Immerse the article to be
To extraot cleaned for a few minutes until all dirt and rust is taken off
rust from in a strong solution of cyanide of potassium, say about half
Bteel" an ounce in a wineglassful of water ; take out and clean
it with a tooth-brush with some paste composed of cyanide 01
Removal and Prevention of Rust. 147
potassium, Castile soap, whitening, and water ; these last are mixed
in a paste about the consistence of thick cream."
362. Prevention, however, will be deemed by many far better than
the cure, as given above ; and when tools have to be left in a shed or
workshop without any means of warming it throughout preventives
the winter months, when they are seldom used, it may be against rust,
profitable to subject them to some such treatment as the following,
which is also borrowed from Spon's " Workshop Receipts" already
quoted above :—
Recipe.—To prevent tools, etc., from rusting.—"i. Boiled linseed
oil will keep polished tools from rusting, if it is allowed to dry on
them. Common sperm oil will prevent them from rusting to prevent
for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently tools from
applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. Woollen rusting,
materials are the best for wrappers for metals. 2. Iron and steel
goods of all descriptions are kept free from rust by the following :—
Dissolve %oz. of camphor in lib. of hog's lard, take off the scum and
mix as much black lead as will give the mixture an iron colour. Iron
and steel and machinery of all kinds rubbed over with this mixture
and left with it on for twenty-four hours, and then rubbed with a linen
cloth, will keep clean for months."
Recipe.—Varnish to prevent rust.—" Rosin, 120 parts ; sandarac,
180 ; gum lac, 60; essence of turpentine, 120. Take the first three
ingredients in a pounded condition, and digest them by a varnish to
regular heat till melted ; then add the turpentine very prevent rust,
gradually, stirring all the while. The mixture should be digested
until dissolution, then add rectified alcohol, 180 parts. Filter through
fine cloth or thick bibulous paper (blotting paper), and preserve in
well stopped bottles or cases."
148 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
chapter VI.
how to hold and handle tools, and how to use them.
How to learn to use Tools—Reference to order in which Tools will be taken —
Striking Tools—The Hammer : how to use it—How to strike Nails—Hole for
reception of Nail, etc.—The Mallet: how to use it—How to use the Axe or
Hatchet—The Adze and its uses—Adze a dangerous Tool—Rasping Tools—
Right mode of holding Saw—Position of first Finger and Elbow—How to steady
Wood—How to keep Wood steady—Inclination of Saw—Head of Operator :
how held—Process of Sawing—Cautions in Sawing—Mistakes made by Ama¬
teur—Marking Guide-line in Sawing—Wrong way of making line—Instruction
to be derived from remarks—Carpenter's method of marking line—Cutting down
long Board—To prevent Saw from "hanging"—Ripping down Planks—Cutting
Tenons—Things to be remembered when Sawing—How to use Rasps—Filing
Metal—Frame Saw : its uses—Cutting out a Keyhole—Paring Tools—Planing
and Sawing chief Operations in Carpentry—Jack-plane : why so called—Cutting
iron of Jack-plane—Construction of Plane-iron—How to hold the J ack-plane—
American Iron Planes — Smoothing-plane : its construction — How to hold
Smoothing-plane—Planing Boards and Scantlings—Planing in direction of grain
—No Lxed Rule—Removal of Plane-iron—Adjustment of Iron—Sole of Plane :
its ur —Difficulty in Planing : how caused—Proper positions of Brake-iron and
Cutters—Mode of looking at Adjustment—Planes for Rebating, etc.—Rebating :
what it is—Cutting Rebate—Side Fillister—Bull-nosed Rabbet-plane—" Stanley "
Iron Plane—Mode of holding Rebate-plane, etc.—Attachment to Rebate-plane
—Match-planes—Why so called—Plough for cutting Grooves—Old Woman's
Tooth—American Combination Planes— Bits supplied with Plane—These Tools
seldom required by Amateurs—Trant's Adjustable Dado, Filletster, and Plough
—Drawingknife and Spokeshave : how to handle them—Modes of using Chisels
and Gouges — Chisels : their varieties — Mortise and Tenon—Meaning of
" Tenon "—Meaning of " Mortise "—Chisel in cutting Mortise—How it should
be held—Paring Chisels, etc. : how to hold them—The Gouge : how to hold it—
Use of boring Tools, etc.—Boring with Bradawl and Gimlet—How to hold
Bradawl—The Gimlet: how to hold it—The Auger : how to hold it—Position
when using Brace and Bit—Boring holes with Brace and Bit—Use of marking
Gauge—Mortise Gauge—The Nail Punch: how to hold it.
363. Having provided himself with the necessary tools described in
a preceding chapter, or such a selection from the whole as may best
How to learn meet his requirements, the next thing to DC done is to
to use tools, learn how to use them. It is next to impossible to do
this from printed instructions ; and on the principle that a little
showing is better than a great deal of telling, the best advice that can
be given to the amateur on this head is that on which some stress has
been already laid, namely, that he should arrange with some skilled
artisan to give him a few practical lessons in the method of holding,
using, managing, and sharpening his tools, and the everyday operations
in Carpentry and Joinery, such as sawing, planing, scarfing timbers,
cutting rebates, mortises and tenons, dove-tailing, mitring, etc., etc.
The Hammer and Mallet: How to Use them. 149
364. We will take the tools seriatim in the same order Eefereno610
in which they have been described in Chapter IV., and order in
to prevent useless repetition the reader is referred for this J°?ls
order to page 77, in which he will find it duly set forth. 8 a efi-
365. In accordance with this order the first set of tools that we have
to deal with are striking tools, which comprise hammer striking
and mallet in one division, and adze and hatchet or axe t00lB-
in the other.
366. The handle of the hammer should be grasped at a short dis¬
tance above the end of the handle, that is to say, in such a way that
the end of the handle projects about an inch or more The hammer:
beyond the side of the hand, in the manner shown at A how to use it
in fig. 147. The hand and the eye act so well together in concert,
that after a little practice the amateur will find no difficulty in hitting
the nail direct on the head when- how to strike
ever he strikes it. If the nail nails,
be struck by the centre of the hammer
head, as it should be as at B, it will soon be
sent straight to its destination ; but if it be
hit by any part of the face near or on the
edge, as at C, the force of the blow will be
partly lost, and the nail will be bent side¬
ways, or otherwise moved out of posi¬
tion. The face of the hammer should be
perfectly flat; when used overmuch it is apt
Fig. 147. how to hold to get rounded, especially if it be of inferior
the hammer. quality, and then it must be got rid of, and its
place supplied with a better. A hole with the bradawl or Hole for
gimlet should be made for the reception of every nail that reception of
is hammered in and every screw that is driven into wood. naU» et0-
The nail will go in all the straighter for it. Sometimes a knot or any
hard substance within the wood will cause the nail to swerve from the
right direction and even to curl up, thrusting the point through the
wood at no very great distance from the hole at which it has entered,
" coming out," in workman's parlance, " to have a look at the fool that
is driving it." A contretemps of this kind may often be saved by pre¬
paring a way for the nail by the bradawl or gimlet.
367. The mallet is held in the same way as the hammer, but rather
higher up the handle, as the head is larger and heavier. In striking
any tool with the mallet care should be taken to deliver The mallet:
the blow so that the end of the handle of the tool is hit bow t0 066
with the centre of the face of the mallet.
368. The axe must be grasped with the right hand, at a distance of
about one-third from the end of the handle ; but the position of the
hand will be regulated in a great measure by the material how to use
with which the edge is brought into contact, or the extent the axe or
or weight of the blow that it is desired to strike. Thus, hatohet"
to deliver a heavy blow, the handle must be grasped close to its end,
but to give a li^ht blow the hand must be moved upwards along the
150 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
Fig. 148. HOW TO HOLD
THE HATCHET.
handle until it has nearly reached the head. When turned, the flat
part of the head may be used in place of a heavy hammer or mallet in
driving the timbers of any piece of framing
into place, but on no account must it be
used for driving nails. If at any time the
amateur finds it necessary to drive nails,
he should provide himself with a heavy
hammer of the kind used by carpenters for
rough heavy work. In chopping a piece
of wood with the hatchet—as, for example,
in sharpening the end of a stake to be driven
into the ground—the end to be sharpened
should be placed on a trestle—a description
of narrow stool—and held by the left hand,
which should be kept well out of range of the
hatchet. A carpenter will use the axe for
shaping a wedge out of a short piece or block
of wood, but the amateur is recommended to do this with the paring
chisel, lest by an unlucky blow he injure his hand with the sharp edge
of the hatchet. The mode to be adopted in holding axe and wood is
shown in fig. 148.
369. The adze is used for chipping away the surface of wood placed
in a horizontal position so as to produce a level surface, or one that is
The adze and nearly so. The operator stands on the wood and uses
its uses, the tool after the manner of a hoe. The projection on
the head of the adze is called its pole, and may be used, if needs be,
Adze a dan- as a hammer. The adze is one of the most dangerous of
gerous tool. all tools to use, but it is far from likely that any amateur
artisan will ever be obliged to call it into requisition.
370. Next in order to the striking tools come the rasping tools,
under which head are included every variety of saw, and rasps and
files. The purposes to which these tools have been put have been
already pointed out, and it only remains to point out
here the way in which each is to be used, so as to effect
the desired purpose.
371. It is difficult to show the position of the hand when holding the
saw in a single drawing, as both sides of
Eight mode the saw-handle cannot be
of holding seen at once; recourse must
saw. therefore be had to two, as in
the annexed illustration, in which each side
of the hand is exhibited, after the manner
of the obverse and reverse of a coin. In
taking hold of the handle of a saw all the
fingers except the first finger are passed
through the loop of the hand-saw, or round
the handle of the tenon saw; the handle
of this kind of saw being somewhat differently formed. The position
of the thumb and the second, third, and fourth fingers are shown at
Rasping
tools.
FIG. 149.
HOW TO HOLD A SAW.
Hints and Cautions in Sawing. i51
a in fig. 149, the first finger is laid along the side of the handle as at
B. The position of the first finger tends to assist the position of
operator in a wonderful degree in steadying and direct- first finger
ing the saw, and keeping it upright. The elbow of the and elbow-
right arm should be kept well into the right side so as to strengthen
the forearm, or rather to keep it as straight as possible, How to
and in a direction corresponding to that of the wood that 8teady work,
is being sawn.
372. The wood should be steadied with the left hand, or, if it be a
short piece, held firmly by it. In sawing down a plank on one or two
trestles, as the case may be, the right knee and foot should how to keep
be placed on the board, partly to keep the board steady wood steady,
and partly to keep the body of the operator steady. In ripping down
a plank or in cutting a piece of wood across the grain, the hand-saw—
and any saw of this shape, as the rip saw, half rip, and panel saw—
should be held at an angle of 450 to the horizon, or very nearly so.
This will serve as a general guide, for the inclination of inclination
the saw must be suited in a great measure to the position of Baw-
of the wood and the nature of the work to be done. For example,
in cutting a tenon, either with the hand-saw or tenon saw, the edge
of the saw must be kept parallel to the surface of the wood that is
being cut, or very nearly so. The head of the operator Heaa of
should be held directly over the saw, so that the eyes may operator:
look down on both sides of the saw. In beginning to bow held*
make an incision with the saw, the up-and-down motion should be
started very gently with very short strokes, and no force should be
applied to the saw until it has entered for about an inch into the board.
373. As the saw cut lengthens more force may be gradually applied,
but whatever force may be used it must only be applied in the down¬
ward stroke, for it is in this motion only that the saw cuts ; Process of
in the upward motion it should be merely drawn up. The sawing,
saw should be held upright, or in other words, the blade should
always be at right angles to the surface of the board through which it
is cutting, above and below, for if it incline to the right or left to the
slightest degree, it is manifest that the friction between the saw cut
and the sides of the saw will be increased, by reason of the cut being
out of the proper direction in relation to the plane of the surface of
the board. Care should be taken to avoid short jerky Cautions in
strokes, but in the upward stroke the saw should be drawn sawing,
up to within an inch or two of the point, and in the downward stroke
pressed with force against the wood that is being sawn asunder, until
the wood is within an inch or two of the bottom of the blade or very near
the saw handle. By this means the wl \le length of the blade, or very
nearly so, is brought into play. In dewing the saw upwards, on no
account draw it through and out of the wood, for in the delivery of the
downstroke, which follows immediately, before the operator is con¬
scious of what has happened, the point may be driven with force
against the wood, if not into it, and bent in one direction or another,
thus seriously jarring and injuring the saw.
152 Household Carpentry and Joinery,
374. The mistakes usually made by the amateur when sawing are
three in number : Firstly, he is apt to put all four of his fingers
Mistakes through the looped handle of the saw, instead of paying
made by the first finger along the side of the handle that is out-
amateur. wargs or furthest from him. Secondly, he forgets to keep
his eyes directly over the saw-blade, so that he may see both
sides of the blade, as he may prove to himself by shutting first one
eye and then the other, looking downwards on the blade as he does
so, or what is much the same, a long narrow line of steel formed by
the line of the back and the points of the teeth projecting slightly
beyond it on either side. It is manifestly impossible to saw straight
if the back of the saw and the saw cut already made and the line of
guidance for the saw cut, if it were possible to see it as well as the
back of the blade and the saw cut, be not so placed in relation to one
another so as to form a narrow straight line from one end to the other
of the board that is being cut. Thirdly : Instead of allowing the arm
free play and motion, and permitting it to form a connecting link
between the saw and the body—as the arms in rowing form a link
between the body and the oar, transmitting the weight of the body as
the power which acts on the boat through the oar as a lever—it is held
stiffly, and far more force applied than that which is necessary to send
it through the downward stroke. This has the consequence of bend¬
ing the saw too much to the left for the most part, and making the
work difficult through the amount of friction that is caused by the
blade and the saw cut being at an angle to the plane of the surface of
the board instead of perpendicular to it. When these points have
been corrected by the amateur artisan, he will have advanced some
steps in the way of being a fairly good workman.
375. A few hints and cautions yet remain to be given with regard
to the operation of sawing. It is better in ripping down a plank, or
Tvrariring making any saw-cut of considerable length, to mark
guide-line in the guide-line on its surface with the line and reel (see
sawing. page IQg^ means 0f which the line connecting any
point in one end with any point in the other is struck perfectly straight
and true. If the board be not longer than any straight-edge that the
. amateur may have,
* the line from point to
point may be ruled in
pencil with its aid.
Sometimes the ama¬
teur will trace a line
for a saw-cut, bv mea-
fio. .so. faoltv method of tracing dine ^ ^ ^ ^
for saw-cot. tween the edge of the
board and the point in its end, and then taking off-sets from the edge along
the whole, at distances corresponding pretty nearly to the length of the
ruler or straight-edge with which he is going to rule the lines, that together
will form the whole line from end to end, as in fig. 150. Now the ends
A B and c D of the board ABDC being equal, and being, for the sakt
g.
l
h
Carpenter's Method of Drawing a Line. 153
of argument, six inches long, if A B and c D had been bisected or
divided into two equal parts in the points e and f by aid wrong way
of the chalk line and reel, a perfectly straight line could of making
be struck from e to f, as in the dotted line e f. But sup- Un0,
Eose off-sets equal to b e or F D, that is to say, of three inches, had
een set off along the board from the edge B D, at the points GHKto
the points l m n, then when the whole line e f has been ruled in short
lengths, e l, l m, m n, and n f, a line from e to f is obtained which
is anything but straight, and to cut which undue pressure will be laid
on the saw to carry it along the various turnings and twistings, and
after a few of such essays the saw will be found to be considerably
strained and perhaps crippled. The mischief has been caused by the
edge BGHKD being anything but straight, and the in- instruction
struction to be derived from all this, and carefully laid to to be derived
heart withal, is—unless the edge of your board has been 110111 remarks,
properly planed up, and is perfectly straight—to make the line to guide
your saw-cut with the line and reel, or a straight-edge long enough for
the purpose. When the edge has been properly planed up, a line
parallel to it may be drawn by very simple means. Thus _ ,
a carpenter will often hold a rule in one hand, letting method6™
just so many inches, etc., as may be requisite project marking line,
over the board and lay upon it, and press¬
ing the point of a pencil, held in the
other, against the end of the ruler, and on
the surface of the wood draw a straight line
parallel to the edge by moving the hand that
holds the ruler along the edge of the board,
and carrying the pencil along with the
other closely pressed against the ruler and
on the board throughout the entire length
of the line that it is desired to make. The FlG" l51,
. .. i how the carpenter draws
method of doing this, as described, may a line.
be better understood by a glance at fig. 151.
376. In cutting down a long board, the board will be rendered more
rigid and the progress of the saw facilitated by inserting a wedge of
wood into the commencement of the cut. If it be found cutting down
desirable, the wedge may be moved down the saw-cut as long board,
the sawing proceeds. If the saw " hangs " at all, or, in other words,
if the friction between the wood and the sides of the saw rp0 prevent
be greater than it ought to be, owing to the blade being saw from
rusty, or the teeth worn and in want of sharpening, a "hanging"
little grease or tallow should be rubbed on the teeth and blade of the
saw.
377. For ripping down planks, that is to say, for cutting with the
grain of the wood, the rip-saw or half rip-saw is used. This saw,
however, is by no means necessary to the amateur, as the Kipping down
work of ripping down can be done as well, though per- planks,
haps not so quickly, with the hand-saw, which will cut as well across
the grain as with it. Tenons of large size can be cut with the hand-
154 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
saw or tenon-saw ; but all dove-tailing should be done with the sash
Cutting or small tenon-saw. Whatever may be the nature of the
tenons, work, or whether the cut be with the grain or across
the grain, the amateur artisan must bear in mind that: No saw
cut should be made without first marking the wood with, a chalk or
Things to be Pencil line, as a guide-line. And in addition to this, for
remembered safety's sake, as long as he is a novice in the art, when
when sawing, making a long saw-cut it is better to mark a line on both
sides of the wood, so that during the operation the board may be turned
over now and then, that it may be seen whether or not the cut is being
carried exactly in the right direction.
378. In using large rasps or files, whether for wood or iron, the work
should be held in the vice or otherwise firmly fixed so that it cannot
How to use move, unless it can be conveniently steadied with one
rasps. hand during the operation. It is desirable, however,
to use both hands when possible, the handle of the tool being grasped
by one hand, while the other is pressed, but not too heavily, on the
end of the blade, or near the end, so as to lend weight to the tool and
additional effect to its powers of abrasion. The flat side of the rasp
may be used for any kind of work, but the rounded side will be found
more handy for rasping down the edge of a round hole, so as to give
it a bevelled as well as rounded surface. Small files for
Filing metal. cutting metal may be worked backwards and forwards ;
but in using these, as well as saw-files, a forward cut continually
repeated is better.
379. Little or nothing need be said here about the use of the frame
saw or the keyhole-saw. The frame-saw in its larger variety is not an
Frame saw: easy tool to use until the operator has become pretty well
its uses, accustomed to it, and then it is said to be easier to work
than the ordinary saw. The small frame-saw is used in fret-cutting,
which will be mentioned elsewhere. The keyhole-saw, being very
narrow in the blade, is used for cutting small holes, such as keyholes,
as the name implies.
380. To cut out a keyhole, two holes are generally turned through
the wood by the aid of the brace and bit, and the piece that separates
Cutting out them is then taken out with the keyhole-saw, as shown in
a keyhole, fig. 152. The keyhole-saw is also used for cutting curved
lines, as the circumference of a circle in a piece of wood. An
|ni opening is made with a gimlet or brace and bit, through
tvhich the narrow saw blade can be passed, after which the
blade will work its way round in either direction, as may
llwr be required. The compass-saw is also used for circular
FiGi<;a wor^* This kind of saw consists of a blade about lin. or
cutting' ij£in. at the handle, and tapering away to a point, set in a
keyhole, handle resembling that of a tenon-saw.
381. The chief of the three groups of. tools \cluded under the
Pari t general head of paring tools, comprises planes of all
g 00 s" kinds. The other two groups are formed, the one by the
drawing-knife and spokeshave, the other by the chisels and gouges.
Paring Tools : Jack-plane—Why so called. 155
We will take the planes first of all, and consider, firstly, the mode in
which the long planes are used—such as the jack-plane, the trying-
plane, and the jointer-plane; secondly, the smoothing-plane, and the
smaller varieties of this class ; and, thirdly, the planes that are used
in grooving and tonguing—as match-planes, rebate-planes, pianIng
ploughs, and others of a similar kind. It will be en- Bawing j'chiat
deavoured to restrict our consideration of this large and operations
important class of tools to its narrowest limits, consis- tooarpsntry.
tent with the fact that planing is one of the two great operations in
carpentry and joinery, sawing being the other, that require the closest
attention and practice on the part of the amateur.
382. It may not be uninteresting to some to pause a moment, and
inquire why a jack-plane should be so called. It is used for rough
and coarse work, mainly for taking off the rough and Jack-plane:
ragged surface of sawn timber and leaving it in a better why B0 called-
condition for the action of the smoothing-plane, by which the inequali¬
ties left by the jack-plane are removed, and the whole surface rendered
smooth, level, and perfectly even. Wedgewood in his " Dictionary of
English Etymology," when treating of the origin of the term "jack"
as applied to various contrivances, tells us that "the Jewish Jacobus
was corrupted through Jaquemes to Jaques in France and James in
England, and Jaques being the commonest Christian name in the
former country was used as a contemptuous expression for a common
man. The introduction of the word in the same sense into England
seems to have led to the use of Jack as the familiar synonym of John,
which happened to be here the commonest name, as Jaques in
France.
' Since every Jack became a gentleman,
There's many a gentle person made a Jack.'—Richard iii.
The term was then applied to any mechanical contrivance for
replacing the personal service of an attendant, or to an implement
subjected to rough and familiar usage. A roasting-jack is a con¬
trivance for turning a spit, by means of a heavy weight, and so super¬
seding the service of the old turnspit. A jack, a screw for raising
heavy weights. A boot-jack (German, stiefel-knecht, literally, 'boot-
boy '), an implement for taking off boots. A jack-towel, a coarse towel,
hanging on a roller for the use of the household; jack-boots, heavy
boots for rough service; black-jack, a leathern jug for household
service; jack-plane, a large plane for heavy work."
383. From this digression let us turn to the manner of holding the
jack-plane and how to use it. Some jack-planes are made with a
single iron only, but it is better for the amateur to have cutting iron
one that is fitted with a double iron. A section of the of jaok-piane.
plane-iron is figured in page 87, in which the object and use of each
iron is shown ; the lower iron being the cutter by which construction
the shaving is cut from the wood, and the one on the top of plane-iron,
of it, whose bevel is turned in the opposite direction, being the break-iron
by which the shaving is turned in its upward course, so as to pass
156 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
more readily through the aperture cut in the stock of the plane, as the
wooden block is called in which the iron is set. It will be noticed
that the break-iron, or back iron, as it is often called, is held to the
cutter by means of a broad-headed screw that enters a nut on the
upper side of the break-iron, and that there is a long slot in the cutter
so that the break-iron may be moved nearer to or farther from the
edge of the cutter at pleasure. Now the chief use of the break-iron is
to adapt the cutter for use in different kinds of work, and the break-
iron must be regulated according to the nature of the work to be done
with the plane. Thus when the jack-plane is required for heavy work,
that is to say, for hacking down a rough and uneven surface, the edge
of the break-iron should be about l/% inch from the edge of the cutter,
but for finer work it should not be more than ^ inch from the latter ;
and in the smoothing-plane the distance between the edges of the two
irons should, be less than this—indeed so slight as to be perceptible,
but nothing more. The higher the break-iron, the easier the plane
will be found to work, and the lower it is the heavier the plane will
work, but the cut will be cleaner.
384. To hold the jack-plane when in use, the handle must be
grasped firmly with the right hand, the forefinger being extended
How to hold anc^ place<i against or by the side of the wooden wedge
the by which the iron is held in the stock ; the left hand
jack-plane. js placed over and on top of the stock, in front of the
iron, as shown in fig. 153, the thumb being on the side of the
plane nearest the operator. Heavy pressure of the left hand in
this position is necessary, in order to keep the fore-part of the plane
well down, so that the iron may take firm hold of the surface of the
wood. At this time, namely, during the first part of the cut, the
pressure with the right hand on the back part of the plane should be
somewhat relaxed and lessened j but when the cut is approaching
completion the mode of procedure should be reversed as far as pressure
is concerned, and pressure of the right hand should be increased, and
that of the left hand lessened. The amateur, unless he has a trying-
plane, will use his jack-plane for shooting the edges of boards. In
performing this operation the plane is held in a different manner.
The handle is grasped by the right hand as before, but the left hand is
FIG 153. HOW TO HOLD JACK- FlG. 154. HOW TO HOLD JACK-PLANE
PLANE IN "FACING UP." IN SHOOTING EDGE OF BOARD.
placed by the side of the plane nearest the operator, the thumb being
on the upper surface, the first and second fingers along the side, and
the third and fourth on the sole or under part, forming a sort of gauge
How Planes Should be Held.
*57
Fig. 155. how to
hold smoothing-plane.
or stop to regulate the passage of the plane along the wood. The
manner of holding either the jack-plane or trying-plane in shooting
the edges of boards is shown in fig. 154. The method shown in
fig. 153 is that adopted in planing the surface of a board, or, in
technical language " facing up."
385. It must be understood that although wooden planes are figured
in the illustrations the general method to be followed in holding the
American iron planes is the same, some slight modifica- American
tions being rendered necessary on account of the differ- iron planes,
ence of construction. But by following the general instructions above
given, the operator cannot fail to handle an American plane as readily
and as easily as the old-fashioned wooden one.
386. The smoothing-plane, as it has been already said, is used for
cleaning off or reducing to smoothness and a
perfect level, the surface from smoothing-
which the rough exterior has been plane: its
already taken by the jack-plane. conBtruotion"
The distance between the edges of the cutter
and the break-iron has been mentioned, but it
may be as well to repeat here that it must not
exceed ^ inch, and may be even How to bold
less with advantage. The plane has smoothing-
no handle, and must be held as plane"
shown in fig. 135, the right hand being placed over the stock of the tool,
grasping it firmly, just behind the iron and wedge, and the left hand
by the fore part of the side next the operator, the fingers being turned
over the front, and the thumb on the top, the fore part of the plane
being completely covered by the hand of the operator. The strokes
or cuts that are made with the smoothing-plane are short and quick,
and sometimes a motion that may be described as curvilinear, or like
a slight circular sweep, is given to the plane.
387. Th<S£e are other points, in addition to the method of holding
the plane, that require attention ; and these are the direction in which
boards and scantlings are to be planed, and the manner pianing
in which the plane iron is to be taken out of the stock and boards and
replaced, when necessary, for sharpening; or the regulation Boantiinga.
of its projection beyond the sole or under surface of the stock effected.
388. And, first, with regard to the wood that is to be planed. This
must be laid flat on the bench, with one end abutting on the wood
stop, that is fixed in the bench in such a manner that it pianing in
can be raised or lowered at pleasure, according to the
thickness of the wood to be planed. All planing must be
done in the direction of the grain of
the wood, in order to obtain a per-
fectly smooth surface. This may be
rendered more intelligible by the aid
of fig. 156, in which a piece of wood
is represented in section. In this the
fibre or grain of the wood lies in one
direction of
grain.
Fig. 156. grain of wood.
direction from a to b, and
158 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
in the other from A to C. Now in planing the surface B C of such
a piece of wood, the plane must be first worked over it from A to
B, and then from A to c, in the directions indicated by the arrows.
If it were attempted to plane the wood right along from C to B, or from
B to c, during the first part of the operation in either direction, the
cutting edge of the plane would strike against the projecting edge of
each successive layer of fibres; and if the wood were soft as in fir, and
the edge of the cutter were not too keen, it would bend them back,
and here and there the smooth surface would be broken by a rough
ridge. This must be obviated by planing the wood first in one direc-
No fixed tion and then in the other, to suit the grain. No fixed
rule' rule can be laid down, but the operator will very soon find
from the behaviour of the tool he is using, in which direction it ought
to be worked. In the illustration the space between E and F may be
worked either way. In planing wood rough from the saw, the plane
should be worked for the most part in the direction of the saw cut, the
rough particles being bent in one direction by the action of the teeth
and sides of the saw.
389. To remove the plane-iron and the wedge by which it is held
in place, the amateur artisan, unless he has been instructed in the
Bemoval of proper mode of performing this operation, will, in all
plane-iron, probability, try to accomplish it by knocking wedge and
iron first on one side and then on the other with a hammer. Such a
course will spoil the plane. To loosen a plane-iron in order to
remove it for sharpening, etc., hold the stock of the plane in the left
hand, which should be placed over the upper surface in front of the
wedge, and with a hammer or mallet held in the right hand, strike the
stock lightly and quickly on its heel or back. This will loosen the
iron sufficiently to admit of its removal with the thumb and finger.
In like manner, when it is desired to lighten the wedge that holds the
iron, or to make the edge of the cutter project * Mttle more beyond
the surface of the sole of the plane, all that is necessary is to strike
the stock on the front in a manner precisely similar to that adopted
for loosening the iron by striking the heel of the plane. Neither the
wedge nor the plane-iron should, as a rule, be struck on the top,
though occasionally the slightest possible tap may be given to the
wedge in order to drive it in a little further, or the iron may be tapped
Adjustment as lightly as possible in order to secure its proper adjust-
of iron, ment in bringing the edge parallel with the surface of the
sole. The sole of the plane, if the stock be without an iron plate or
Sole of plane: shoe, should be greased or oiled occasionally. This has
its use. the effect of preserving the stock and causing it to move
more easily over the surface of the wood that is being planed.
390. The following remarks on the use of the plane are made in
" The Amateur Mechanic's Workshop," and they are quoted here
Diffloulty in because if an amateur will carefully attend to them, he
planing: will be enabled to overcome most of the hindrances he
how caused. has hitherto experienced to performing the operation of
planing with ease and facility. " Much of the difficulty,''says the writer.
Removal and Adjustment of Plane Irons. 159
" which amateurs experience in using the plane arises from the latter
being badly set for work. If either corner projects beyond the
general level of the sole of the plane, this will necessarily score grooves
or channels. Hence the extreme angle should be slightly rounded oft
in sharpening the tool. The same deleterious effect will be produced
if the plane-iron is not ground truly square, and hence the caution
already given on that point. The smaller, or bieak-iron, proper
whose office is to bend up the shaving somewhat sharply positions of
so as to ensure the cutting of the other iron, and to prevent anTcutter
its splitting off the surface of the work, should be placed so
as to come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme edge of the
cutter for rough work, and within one-twentieth for finer or finishing
work. The two should then he placed in position so that the edge
project the smallest possible degree below the sole. The position can
only be determined by looking carefully along the bottom Mode of
of the plane, with the front of the same next to the eye, as looking at
in fig. 157. The edge will, if correctly formed and adJU8tment-
placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. It is then ready for use.
The same rule applies to the small as to the large planes, except that
in the jack-plane the iron projects! rather more, as it is used for
roughing down
a surface. The
trying - plane,
which is longer,
and intended
for edging
boards which
are to be joined
lengthwise, is
always very fig. 157. adjustment of plane iron.
finely set, and
the mouth is narrow. The break-iron is also set very close down to the
cutting edge. The longer the plane the more accurately level and true will
be the work done by it. As it will be useless for the amateur to attempt the
construction of any work, except of the roughest character, until he can
plane a piece of board accurately on all sides, keeping the edges square
and sharp, the greatest attention should be given to the use of this tool."
391. It has been said that the planes which the amateur artisan
most requires are the jack-plane and the smoothing- Planes for
plane. With these he can do all ordinary work, but for rebating, eto.
rebating, grooving and tonguing, ploughing grooves, and other
operations of a similar character, planes of a different construction,
such as the rebate-plane, match-plane, and plough. The principle
and general construction of these planes have already been described.
It is with the mode of using them that we are now concerned.
392. For rebating, or cutting a rebate, or rabbet, along the edge of a
board, that is to say, to take away a portion of the upper Rebating:
edge, rectangular in section, so that the lower edge pro- wliat u iB-
jects beyond the upper part of the board, like one step below another,
1
i6o Household Carpentry and Joi jery.
a rebate-plane is required. Indeed it is necessary to have two of
Cutting these planes, one having the iron set across the sole at right
rebate. angles to the length of the plane, for cutting a rebate
parallel to, or with the grain, and the other with the iron set obliquely
across the sole for cutting a rebate at the end of a board across the
grain. To work such planes as these with anything approaching
accuracy—or, in other words, to make a rebate parallel to the edge of
the board—is a difficulty that is experienced by regular artisans, as well
as amateurs, and for this reason—in operations of this kind a plane
called the side fillister, or filletster, is used. This plane
. jjas a shifting fence at the bottom, secured by two screws
which work in slots in the fence, so that the position of the fence may
be regulated in accordance with the width of the rabbet, or rebate, to
be made. A screw-stop is also placed on the side of the plane
farthest from the operator, by means of which the distance to which
the plane-iron may enter the wood and clear it away is regulated;
and in front of the grooving-iron there is an iron which projects in
front of the cutter and slightly below it. This cuts down the vertical
side of the rabbet, while the plane-iron carries away the wood
horizontally, rendering it impossible with this combination of cutters
for any wood to be left in the angle of the rebate.
393. The "bull-nosed rabbet plane,"as shown in fig. 158, is a useful
kind of plane for rebating. It is sold, with other planes, illustrations of
Bull-nosed which are given below, by Messrs. Churchill and Co.
rabbet plane. This plane is adjustable, is 4 inches long, and has a
cutter 1 % inches wide. The price is 5s. 6d. Extra cutters are
supplied with the plane
at is. each. In speak¬
ing of this useful plane
the opportunity may be
taken to call the atten¬
tion of the amateur to
some useful little planes
with which good work
can be done, although,
as far as size is con-
Fig, 158. bull-nosed rabbet plane. cerned, they are scarcely
beyond the category
of toy planes. Figs. 159 and 160 represent two different forms
FIG. 159. the stanley smoothing- FlG. 160. the stanley bull-
plane. nosed plane.
of these planes, which are known as the "Stanley" Iron Planes.
Attachment to Rabbet Plane. 161
Fig 159 is a smoothing-plane, and so is fig. 160, but this, from the
rounded shape of the front is distinguished from the other "Stanley"
as a bull-nosed plane. Both kinds are japanned, 3^ iron planes,
inches long, and have 1 inch cutters. They cost no more than is.
each, and extra cutters may be purchased at the rate of 4^ d. each.
394. The rebate plane and the side fillister is generally held with
the right hand on the top of the frame behind the iron, and the
left hand on the front. The side fillister plane is by Mode of
no means an expensive tool, as it can be bought at 2s. 6d. handling
or 3s. ; but if an amateur has a rebate plane he can easily rebate plane,
furnish it with an attachment which will render it to the 6 °"
full as useful as any side fillister that he might purchase. The addition
is thus described by Mr. Ellis A. Davidson in " The Amateur House
Carpenter," in speaking of the rebate plane. " In using this," he says,
" the chief difficulty experienced by the amateur is in making the plane
travel in a true parallel to the edge of the board ; and there are planes
made with guides to accomplish this, but these are very much more
expensive, and the following means will answer the pur- Attachment
pose quite as well." Supposing x to represent the plane to rebate
looking at the fore end, or a transverse section of the plane-
plane, " let a be a board in the edge of which it is required to cut
a rebate >£in. wide and %in. deep ; a strip of these dimensions has
literally to be planed away, and the plane must therefore be prevented
travelling horizontally farther on the surface of the board than J^in.
and vertically it must not be allowed to sink deeper than %in. These
planes are made from 2/in. to 2 in. wide. We will
assume that the one with which the work is to be
done is ij^in. wide. Plane up a strip of wood b,
fig. 161, to the width of one inch (the thickness will not
be any consideration), and screw it at right angles to
another piece, c, thus forming a letter L.. This will
form a case which will, when planed and fastened to
the side of the plane by a couple of screws, shut off
1 in. of the width of the sole, allowing it to encroach
upon the surface of the board to the extent of in.
only ; a mere strip, d, screwed on the other side at
Xin. from the sole, will prevent the plane sinking K
deeper than is required. On no account should the fig. 161.
guide be screwed to the sole of the plane, which should attachment to
always be kept perfectly smooth, the surface unin- rabbet plane
jured by screw holes. Nor is it necessary to damage the sides of the
plane by more than two small screw holes, for the same side-piece c
may be permanently used, the width of the strip b being altered accord¬
ing to circumstances; and the width of D can also be regulated, either
by planing a portion off below the screws if the rebate is to be deeper,
or moving the screws lower down in the strip if it is to be shaMower,
talcing care that the holes correspond with those in the side if the
plane, and that the strips do not cover the apertures through which
the shavings should escape."
[62 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
395. Match planes are bought in pairs, one of the two being so
made that the iron cuts a groove or trench lengthwise in the edge of a
board ; and the other so that the iron cuts away the edge
a c p anes. Qn sjqes^ after tfie manner Df a double rebate, leaving
a projecting rib or tongue, as it is commonly called, in the centre,
which fits accurately into the groove that has been cut by the other
Why so plane, when the boards are brought together edge to edge,
called. Match planes are so called because the width of the projec¬
tion left by one plane matches, or tallies exactly with, the width of
the groove cut by the other. But, as it has been already said, as the
amateur can always buy match-boarding ready to his hand, he can do
very well without match planes.
396. The plough which is used for cutting grooves in wood at any
distance from the edge that may be required, so that it be not beyond
Plough for t^ie length of the strips, or bars of wood, that are attached
cutting to the fence (by which it is guided along the edge of the
grooves. WOod so that the groove cut by the iron may be parallel
to it) and pass through the stock of the plane as well as at right angles
to it, is held, as shown in fig. 162, by putting the right hand over the
Fig. 162. how to hold the plough, the remaining fingers closed.
The plough is necessary in such work as making drawers, in which the
bottom is let into a groove made all round the inner surface of the
sides at a little distance from the lower edge. It is fitted with eight
irons varying in width from l/% inch to % inch, for making grooves of
various sizes. The depth to which the iron should go is regulated by a
top screw attached to a plane. The plough or grooving plane, called
©id woman's the old woman's tooth, will cut a groove across a board
tooth. and at any distance from the edge, a desideratum in
making pigeon holes in which the vertical partitions are slipped into
opposite and corresponding grooves formed one in the lower surface
of the horizontal board above, and the other the upper surface of the
the horizontal board below, of which one forms the top and the other
the bottom of the pigeon hole.
397. There are some useful combination planes made in America,
in which the functions performed by the different planes that we have
Amerioan been describing are united. These planes are sold by
Combination Messrs. Churchill and Co. That which is represented in
plane. fig. 163 is Miller's Combined Plough, Fillister, and Match-
ing-plane, embracing, as it does, in a most ingenious and successful
combination, the common carpenter's plough, an adjustable fillister,
top of the plane behind the
iron, the first finger along the
top by the side of the iron, and
the second, third, and fourth
fingers round the arm. The
left hand is placed by the fence
at the side, the thumb on the
top of the arm, the first finger
extending along the fence, and
Plough, Filletster, and Matching-plane. 163
and a perfect matching-plane. The entire assortment can be kept in
smaller space, or
made more portable
than the ordinary
carpenter's plough.
398. With each
plough eight bits
T6> X> T$i
-no }4,and >6in.) are
furnished, also a
tonguing tool(Xin.),
and by Bits supplied
the use With plane,
of the latter,together
with theX in.plough-
flg. 163. combined plough, fillister, and bit for grooving a
matching-plane. ^ perfect matching-
plane is made. A metallic bed-piece with iXin. cutter in it can be
attached to the stock of the tool by means of two screws passing
through the slots in the base piece of the stock. Over this bed-piece
the gauge, or fence, will move backward or forward, and when secured
to the bars by the thumbscrew will constitute an adjustable filletstei
of any width required by the owner. The upright gauge on the back
of the stock is adjusted by a thumbscrew likewise, and regulates the
depth for the use of the filletster, as for all the other tools embraced
in the combination. The price of this useful plane with all its various
fittings is 36s.
399. It may be objected that an amateur will never require and
never purchase such a tool as this, and that it is therefore but of liu'e
use to mention it here, and the objection, to a certain extent, is a good
one ; but, on the other hand, amateurs are found who attain high
excellence in the art they have adopted for their amusement, or
who have ample means to acquire possession of tools of this kind,
which may fairly be called tools de luxe; and as this
book is written for the information of amateurs of all kinds seMornre*
and classes, rich and poor, inexpert and highly skilled, it quired by
would be hardly fair to pass them by without mention. We amateurs,
make no further apology, therefore, for mentioning another of these
Combination planes—Trant's Adjustable Dado, Filletst'er, and Plough
which, with some of its fittings, is figured in the accompanying wood¬
cut. The tool here represented in fig. 164 consists of two sections :—
a main stock with two bars or arms, and a sliding section, having its
bottom or face level with that of the main stock. It can Trant's Ad-
be used as a dado of any required width by inserting Dado^liet-
the bit into the main stock and bringing the sliding sec- ster, and
tion up to the edge of the bit. The two spurs, one on Plough,
each section of the plane, will thus be brought exactly in front of the
edges of the bit. The gauge on the sliding section will regulate
the depth to which the tool will cut. By attaching the guard-plate (a)
164 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
to the sliding section, the tool may be readily converted into a plough,
a filletster, or a matching-plane, as explained in the printed instruc¬
tions which ac¬
company each
plane,butwhich
are too long to
be given here.
The tool is fur¬
ther accompa¬
nied by eight
bits (ys, X) ~r&i
h, x, x, hi
and iXin-)j a
filletster cutter
(B),andatongu-
ing tool (c).
All these bits
are secured in the main stock
on a skew. The price of this
handy and useful combination
plane, consisting of an iron
stock and fence, and including
guard-plate, plough bits, and
tonguing and grooving tools,
as enumerated above, is 32s.
400. We have now done
with the planes, and must pass
on to the drawing-knife and
spokeshave, the use of which
will be easily understood by
referring to figs. 59 and 60.
Fig. 164. trant's adjustable dado, The drawing-knife is held with
filletster, and plouch. both hands, one grasping one
handle, and the other the other, but in such a way that the bevel of
the blade is upwards and the opposite surface resting on the wood to
Drawing-knife be cut. The spokeshave is handled in the same way, the
Bhave^how ^at Part t^ie iron shown in the engraving being next
to handle to the wood. The bevel of the blade is inwards and
them, cannot be seen. The distance between the wooden handle
or stock and the blade of the spokeshave may be increased or
diminished by tapping the points of the turned ends of the blade,
which pass through the stock. The cutting edge of each of these
tools may be sharpened by rubbing them with a slip.
401. It is obvious that the modes of using chisels and gouges of the
ordinary form cannot be many. In the case of the chisel they are
Modes of restricted to paring and cutting mortises ; the gouge is
using chisels chiefly used for making grooves, scooping out hollows, as
and gouges. t-|ie 0f a m0(jel ship, or in cutting mortises, when the
tenon is rounded instead of being perfectly square.
Mortise and Tenon: How to cut a Mortise. 165
402. It has been said that the chisels used in ordinary carpentry
and joinery are of three kinds—the firmer chisel, the paring chisel,
and the mortising chisel. Of these the mortising chisel chisels: their
can only be used for cutting mortises, and the paring varieties,
chisel for cutting or paring wood, as the name implies. The firmer
chisel, on the contrary, which is shorter and stiffer than the paring
chisel and broader than the mortising chisel, can be used equally well
for either purpose, although its shortness renders it somewhat less
convenient than the longer paring chisel. The firmer chisel, then, is
the tool that will be of most service to the amateur who cannot afford
to provide himself with chisels of each description.
403. It may now be convenient to describe the mortise and tenon,
and to show what these terms mean. A mortise is a notch or cavity
cut into a piece of timber, or any other material, to re- Mortise and
ceive the end of another piece, called a tenon, which is tenon,
made to fit it. Thus, in fig. 165, the end of the upright A has two
rectangular pieces of equal size cut away, one on one side and one on
the other, as at B and c, the blocks or pieces that are cut off being
shown by dotted lines. The piece D, that is left in the middle when
the blocks are removed, is called the tenon. The object in view is to
attach the upright A to the horizontal piece of wood
E by means of the tenon, and to effect this a cavity
is cut, as shown at F, of the exact size of the tenon
in order to receive it. The tenon is then knocked
into the mortise—it should fit tightly, and there¬
fore requires force applied by a striking tool to bring
^ F 1 -a iuic icquucb luicc appucu uy a. binding iuui tu uruig
/ A 7\ /y it into its place; and the upright stands immovable,
j \XX---Xa-'---4 being prevented from leaning or from being forced
IX \/ to one side or the other by the shoulders that are
Fig. 165. formed on either side of the tenon when Meaning of
mortise and tenon. side pieces are cut away. The "tenon."
meaning of the word tenon is obvious ; it is, " that by which some¬
thing holds," and the word itself is derived from the French tcnir,
to hold, which in its turn is obtained from the Latin ieneo, I hold.
The meaning of the word mortise is not so plain. The Meaning of
French equivalent is mortaise, and as the mortise bites "mortlse"
or grips the tenon in its open mouth or jaws, so to speak, it is to be
traced to the Latin morsus, bite, or the hole or place in which the
tongue of a buckle, or point of a javelin, knife, or sword enters and
sticks fast, from mordeo, I bite. Thus Virgil uses the expression
morsus roboris, the cleft of an oak, to indicate a rift in the tree in
which a javelin, thrown by the Trojan hero ./Eneas, had lodged and
stuck fast. The width of the tenon is made to correspond to that of
the mortise, and vice versA, by the use of the mortising gauge. We
shall return presently to the construction of mortises and tenons in
the next chapter, at present we have to consider more especially the
mode of using our tools.
404. In cutting a mortise, the chisel is grasped firmly by the left
hand, and held in a nearly upright position, as in fig. 166. The wood
166 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
is in all cases cut by the chisel across the grain, and the operator must
take care to remember that the flat part of the chisel
must always be turned towards the end of the mortise,
and the bevel towards the middle. Thus in cuting a
chisel in mortise, the position of the chisel in the
cutting hand must be continually changed, the
mortise: how , , , . . , / , ? ' ,
it should he bevel being towards or turned from the
held. operator, according to circumstances.
The chisel is of course struck by a mallet held in the
right hand. In cutting a mortise there is no neces¬
sity to make any cut with the chisel in the direction
of the grain, all that need be done is to keep working
by cuts at a short distance from each other, across
the grain, beginning in the centre of the wood to be
removed, and proceeding both ways from the centre
to either end. It will be found that the wood will FIG> l66-
come clean out of the cavity without any cutting cutting amortise.
along the sides of the mortise.
405. In paring, when the end of a piece of wood is being cut per¬
pendicularly, or very nearly so, across the grain, the
Paring chisels, paring chisel or iirmer chisel, which-
etc.: how to ever the operator may have, should be
hold them. graspefi firmly in the right hand, as
shown in fig. 167, the piece of wood that is being cut
being held down firmly by the left hand, which must
of necessity be placed behind the chisel and should
be kept well back out of the way, to prevent injury
from any slipping of the tool. When paring in the
direction of the grain, as in cutting a point to a
piece of wood, or in fashioning a wooden pin or
wedge, for example, the chisel should be held in the
right hand, and the wood in the left hand, in the
position and manner shown in fig. 168.
406. The gouge may be held in the manner indi-
Thegouge: cated in figs. 167 and 168, according to
how to hold it the nature of the work that is being
done. Thus in cutting a groove across the grain in the end of a piece
of wood, it should be held as in fig. 167 ; but in cutting a groove or
channel in the direction of the grain, or in scooping out the hold of a
model or toy boat, it should be held as in fig. 168. In all cases, how¬
ever, where the gouge has to be struck with the mallet, it must
be held like the mortising chisel, as shown in fig. 166. In this way
the gouge is sometimes used to prepare an indentation or shallow
cavity for the entrance of a shell auger or shell bit, when used in the
brace.
407. There is little to be said about the rest of the tools, for the
Use of boring very nature of each will suggest the manner in which it is
tools, eto. to be used ; but a few remarks may be useful on the mode
of using the various kinds of boring tools, and in addition to these
FIG. 167.
HOLDING PARING
CHISEL.
Boring with Bradawl, Gimlet, Auger, etc. 167
something may be said about the manipulation and method of using
the marking and mortising gauges, and the nail punch.
408. In boring holes with the bradawl and gimlet, the chief thing
is to take care that the blade enters the wood at right angles to its
surface, unless it be Boring with
necessary to pierce a bradawl and
hole in it at an angle to eun^° '
the surface, as in skew nailing; but
for driving in a nail in the usual way,
that is at right angles or perpen¬
dicularly to the surface of the piece
of wood that is being nailed down,
the blade of the bradawl or gimlet
must enter the wood perpendicularly.
Practice alone will make the amateur
uu' perfect in doing this. He will often
HOLDING THE PARING CHISEL. feil at first) very much to his annoy_
ance.
409. In holding the bradawl the thick end of the handle is lodged
against the palm of the hand and the ball of the thumb, being retained
in that position by the second and third fingers ; the first How to hold
finger is extended along the blade, and the extremity of bradawl,
the thumb rests on the upper end of the handle or on the brass ferule
which is fitted over it.
410. In using the gimlet the cross-piece or crutch handle, into
which the blade is inserted, is grasped in the right hand, and held
against the palm, the blade of the tool projecting between The gimlet:
the first and second fingers, at the first joint of each,how t0 bold it.
reckoning from the knuckles upward toward the tips of the fingers. It
is driven into the wood by a series of half turns of the hand from right
to left, the handle being released and grasped again at every half turn.
411. The ends of the crutch handle of an auger are held, one in the
right hand and the other in the left, and the tool is turned from right
to left, the hands being taken off and replaced on each The auger:
end of the handle in succession at every half turn of the bowtohoidit.
tool. The hands will, of course, be held in opposite directions, the
palms facing inwards and the fingers and thumbs grasping the ends of
the handle, as when holding the chisel in mortising. As in the case of
bradawls and gimlets, great care must be taken that the blade of the
auger enters the wood perpendicularly to the surface ; and it assists the
entrance of the tool to cut out a small depression, or cavity, for the
reception of the end of the auger, especially if it be a shell auger.
412. The principles of the brace and bit have been fully explained.
It may be held in any position, and a skilled workman will do so,
and manage to bore a hole truly perpendicular to the PoSjtion
surface with the greatest facility. The amateur, however, wben using
should stand upright, or as nearly so as possible, when brace and
using the brace and bit, having the part of the wood in
which the hole is to be bored just about the height of his chest. The
r68 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
brace and bit may often be used with advantage in cutting a mortise,
and a shell auger may also be used for the same purpose. A bit or
auger of the width of the mortise should be used, and the work of
the chisel is then confined to cutting out the corners and the pro¬
jections between the holes.
413. In boring a hole with the bit and brace the round flattish knob
is generally placed against the chest, and held tightly against it by
the left hand, which grasps the
tool directly in front of the
Boring holes knob, the fingers
with brace resting on the part
ftndbit- which is upper¬
most. The handle attached to
the crank is grasped by the
right hand, as shown in fig.
169, and the crank is turned and
the bit caused to revolve from
right to left. It requires a good „
deal of practice to use this FlG" i69- B0RING WITH BRACE * BIT-
serviceable tool with ease and readiness ; but when the amateur has
once overcome the first difficulty of managing it, he will find it to be
of the greatest assistance to him in carrying out many operations in
carpentry and joinery.
414. In using the marking gauge for single lines, and the mortising
gauge for double lines, straight in both cases and parallel to the edge
Use of of the wood on the upper surface of which the marks are
mortise made,—the object is to preserve the distance to which the
gauge. points are set from the head of the gauge, and marking,
perhaps, many pieces of wood in the same manner, as, for example, in
cutting mortises and tenons. Gauges can be regulated to mark single
or double parallel lines, as the case may be, according to the nature of
the gauge, whether marking gauge or mortising gauge, at any distance
from the edge of the wood less than the length of the handle.
415. The gauge will be brought under notice again in considering
the method of cutting mortises and tenons in detail. When the points
Mortise have been accurately adjusted to the desired distance
gauge. between themselves and the
head, if a mortising gauge be used, the bar
or stock of the tool should be grasped with the
right hand, as shown in fig. 170, in such a
manner that the thumb is pressed against
that part of the head nearest the operator,
and the forefinger laid over its top and the
opposite side. The points should be just
long enough to make a slight incision or
scratch along the surface of tf e wood ; if they are too long they drag
in the wood, and prevent thr operator from doing the work quickly
and easily.
416. The nail punch is a mort bar of iron, thick at one end and
Fig. 170.
The Nail Punch : How to hold it.
169
tapering to a point at the other. It must be held, as a matter of
course, in the left hand. The thick end must be grasped by the
thumb and forefinger, as in fig. 171, and steadied in the manner
shown by the second and third fingers passed under it,
and the little finger over it. This enables The nail
the operator to hold the point of the tool p?n?h1:
firmly against the nail that is to be driven 00
below the surface of the wood, and prevents it from
slipping off. The blows of the hammer should be
delivered quickly and smartly.
A punch suitable to the size of the nail that is to be
driven below the surface of the wood should always
Fig. 171. be used, and for this reason it is desirable that the
holding nail amateur artisan should have three or four punches of
punch. different sizes. Of course a punch suitable for an inch
brad would be too light to use on the head of a floor nail, and a
punch fit for a floor nail would be too large for an inch brad, and
make a greater cavity in the wood than is desirable, and spoil the
appearance of the work. Before the wood is painted, all holes that
have been thus made must be filled up with putty.
170 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
chapter vii.
various methods employed in joining timber.
Joining pieces of Timber—Operation of Planing—Supposed case—Carpenter's
Bench—PlacingTimber on Bench—Planing must be in direction of Grain—Adjust¬
ment of Planing-iron, if required—Planing to proper thickness—Squaring planed
wood—Smoothing with Glass-paper—Cutting Mortise andTenon—Dimensionsof
proposed work—Marking out Tenon—Setting Gauge—Cutting with Tenon Saw—
Marking out Mortise—Mode of cutting Mortise—Mortise to be cut from both
sides—Trying in Tenon—Finishing and Securing—Only one way of making
Mortise—Double Tenons—Use of Auger, etc, in making Mortise—Halving and
Notching—Method of performing operation—Joint of this kind: why weak—
Grating for Bath-room, etc.—Joining Quartering and Scantlings--—Junction of
timber lengthways—Fishing: how performed—Halving: how done—Securing
Joint with Bolts and Plates—Proper length of halved Joint—Scarfing: meaning of
term—How performed—Lateral Joints—Four methods used—Rebating : how
it is done—Tonguing and Grooving—Hand tightness—Grooving and Slip-
feathering—Planing Slip-feathers and Laths—Joining edges of Boards—Dove-tail
feather—Dowelling—How performed—Gluing Joints—Difficulty in getting glued
joints to hold—Glue should be spread thinly—Joining boards at right angles—
Nailing Boards end to end—Making small Frame—Keying : how performed—
Corner-piecing—Dove-tail joining—Common Dove-tail Joint—Dimensions of Pin
and Socket—Method of Marking out—Diagram to be drawn larger for practice—
Cutting parts of joint—Compound Dove-tail—Mode of making it—Dove-tailing
for Drawer Fronts— Description of this kind of Dove-tailing—Completion of the
work—The Mitre Dove-tail—How to make the Mitre Dove-tail—Illustrations
helpful in making these joints.
417. Having provided himself with tools, and having learnt in some
measure how to handle them and how to use them, the next thing to
Joining which the amateur artisan must turn his attention to is
pieces of the consideration of the various methods employed in
timber. j0jning timbers and pieces of wood together. But before
attempting any of these operations, though they may be said to be
operations that are performed every day in Carpentry and Joinery, it is
absolutely necessary to be able to saw and plane wood in a tolerably
efficient manner—to saw truly and straightly in accordance with the
guide lines made by the operator to enable him to make the saw-cut,
be it of what kind it may, in the proper direction, and to plane up the
surface of a piece of wood and its edges in a workmanlike manner.
418. The operation of planing has been already dwelt on to some
extent, but at the risk even of being wearisome the operation may be
Operation described again. One of the first, and perhaps the most
of piamng. frequent of wood-working operations, is that of planing a
piece of rough wood down to a certain size and thickness. Indeed,
whatever joint the amateur wishes to make, he must first plane the
different pieces to the right thickness and shape. Nothing but opera*
Operation of Planing.
171
tions in carpentry, such as framing pieces of timber together, can be
done without the aid of this useful tool; in joinery nothing whatever
can be done without it.
419. For the sake of clearer and easier explanation, let us suppose
that a piece of wood is wanted which is square in shape; that is to say,
with sides of twelve inches every way, and one inch in supposed
thickness. The piece of wood which is to be worked case,
into the following dimensions must be rather larger every way, and
should be sawn off from the most convenient piece in the amateur's
possession.
420. Allusion has made once or twice to the carpenter's bench, a
sine qua non to every amateur; but this will be described in the
following chapter, and instructions given for making this, carpenter's
and the stools or trestles that are so necessary when sawing bench,
timber or mortising. The uses of the parts of the bench, of which
mention must necessarily be made in the following description of
planing, will be readily understood. Having sawn off the piece of
timber, lay it on the bench just as it is, in the rough, with placing
one side bearing against the bench-stop—a piece of wood timber on
fitted tightly to a square hole in the bench, and which can 0 "
be depressed till it is level with the surface, or raised by a few
blows from a hammer until it stands above it at a height sufficient
for the purpose required. In this case it maybe about %in. above
the surface of the bench, and rather more than %\n. below the upper
surface of the wood that is about to be planed. If it project in the
least degree above the surface of the wood to be planed, it will inflict
very serious damage on the cutter of the plane. The projection can
be adjusted to any height by tapping it with the hammer on the top
if too high, and below if not high enough.
421. Whenever possible—and it is in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred—the wood must be planed in the directio7i of the grain ; it is
not only much easier, but a much better surface is ob- P1aw,
tainable. The bulk of what has to come off must be taken must be in
off with the jack-plane. Take hold of the handle with the direction of
right hand, put the left on and over the plane, just in gram'
front of the clearance hole, lay the plane flat on the wood, and push it
forwards ; bring it back, and again send it forward by firm even strokes,
taking especial care to keep the plane always parallel to the surface of the
wood, and not let the ends drop at the commencement and termination
of the stroke. This is a very common fault with beginners, but, unless
overcome, the surface will never be flat, or, as mechanics call it,
" true." The necessity of guarding against this cannot be too strongly
impressed upon the mind of the amateur, because it is much easier to
do it properly at the commencement, than to get out of the habit
when once acquired.
422. If when the plane is passed over the wood no shaving comes
off, take the hammer and tap the planing iron very gently. Tap it in
the middle, or one corner will be driven out further than the other.
Try again. Ah ! you have tapped too hard and driven the cutter out
172 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
so far that by exerting all your strength you cannot move the plane
across the wood at all, or, if you move it at all, it only
of planing- goes an inch or two and runs in deeper than before.
iron if That is what carpenters call "too rough." To remedy
required. tap ^ pjane smartly behind ; one or two blows will
not only bring out the planing-iron, but the wedge also. Put both back
and readjust. Whenever it is required to take out the cutter, strike
the plane behind, and whenever it is required to bring the iron down,
tap the iron very gently, as it has been said, or knock the plane gently
in front. When properly adjusted, the amateur will be able, without
any violent exertions, to pass the plane smoothly over the wood, bring¬
ing off at each forward stroke clean shavings of even thickness, and
the planed surface will be smooth and level.
423. When one side of the wood is planed, take the gauge, set it at
1 inch; put the head against the planed surface, and strike a line
pianin« to al°nS each °f fhe f°ur edges of the board ; lay it again
proper on the bench, with the planed side downwards, and plane
thickness, nearly down to the line just struck. Smooth off both
sides with the smoothing-plane. It is now the right thickness.
424. To square the wood put it in the vice—a flat piece or cheek of
wood that may be moved farther from or nearer to the side of the
Squaring bench by one or two screws—and tighten the screw or
planed wood, screws, but not too tight, lest the pressure injure the
finished surface of the board above and below. Plane, or " true up,"
one side, and, with a square, mark off two lines, twelve inches apart,
and at right angles to the side already planed. If the board is very
much out of square, cut off most of the superfluous wood with the
tenon-saw and finish with the plane as before. In planing the sides
in which the end of the grain appears plane down to the line at one
corner first, then plane down the other corner, and the middle. If
this precaution is not taken the corners will " spawl" off, and through
the amateur's carelessness will present a very ragged and unseemly
Smoothing appearance. If the work is required very smooth, the
with different surfaces must be well rubbed with a sheet of
glass-paper, glass-paper or cloth, which, for convenience, is generally
wrapped round a small piece of wood. Such a piece of wood may be
two or three inches broad, four or five inches long, and an inch thick,
so that it may be easily grasped and held in the hand.
425. If the amateur artisan can get through the work above
described in a creditable manner, he will be able to do anything that
Cutting is required in the way of planing, and we may now turn
mortise and our attention to other operations. And first, as this is a
tenon. mode of connecting timbers, without which it is next to
impossible to frame them together in a proper manner, before pro¬
ceeding to other methods of joining timber, let us consider the mode
of cutting a mortise and tenon, or making a mortise and tenon joint,
the nature of which has already been explained in the last chapter.
426. In the annexed engraving, fig. 172 represents an upright with
ifie lower end cut into the form of a tenon; and fig. 173, a piece
Cutting Mortise and Tenon. 173
of wood cut in such a manner that the tenon may fit into the cavity,
which is called a mortise. Suppose that the width of each piece
of wood is 3in. and the depth
4-in. ; that is to say, in fig.
172, 3in. from A Dimensions
to B, and 4-in. of proposed
from A to C; and work,
in fig 173, 3in. from X to Y,
and 4in. from Y to Z. It is
determined in this case not
to cut the mortise right
through the wood, but to
make the tenon 3m. in length,
in which case it will not show
itself in the lower surface or
bottom of the piece of wood,
represented in fig. 173.
427. It is further deter¬
mined to make the width of
the tenon, and therefore, that
of the mortise also, iin., and
we must suppose that the
wood has been Marking out
planed up and tenon,
true on all sides. First of
all, a distance of 3m., the
depth decided on for the
mortise, is measured from the
end of the upright, say from
f, g upwards to d, e. This
distance is marked with the pencil, and by the aid of the square, the
straight lines B a, a c, C L, and L B are marked, one on each side or
surface presented by the upright. As the width of each piece of wood
is 3in., and the tenon is to be in the direction of its depth, Setting
that is to say, from A to c or from B to L, and as it is gauge,
usual to make the tenon just one-third the width, the mortising gauge
must be set so that the first point is distant exactly iin. from the
head, and the second, which is the point nearest the end, 2in. from
the head. The head of the mortise must be brought first along the
edge B O, where the points will mark out the lines eg, D F; then
against l p, where the lines k n, h m will be marked ; and lastly,
against the edge o p, where the lines GN,fm will be marked. The
upright, if it be a short one, may be held perpendicularly in the
bench-jaw or vice, when the planes hmfd, knge will be cut
through with the tenon-saw. The timber is then laid on cutting with
the bench, and the tenon-saw is passed through the planes tenon-saw.
c h D A, BERL, when the rectangular blocks on either side of the
tenon will be separated from it, and the tenon be left in a fit condition
to be inserted in the mortise when made.
FlO. 173. THE MORTISE.
174 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
428. A distance of 4in. having been measured off with the rule
along the line xx' in fig. 173, at the place where it is determined to
Marking out cut the mortise, the square is applied to the edge x x',
mortise, and the lines vv' ww' at right angles to the edge are duly
marked off. Then the head of the mortising gauge is applied to the
edge Y y' or x x'—either will do provided that the timbers are of the
same width, which they should be if they have been planed up to gauge
—and the lines R s, T u, marked on the upper surface, represented by
xx' Y* Y. The parallelogram, TRSU, the length of which is with the
grain of the wood—a mortise being in ninety-nine cases out of a
Mode of hundred cut with its length parallel to the grain—shows
cutting the place where the mortise is to be cut, and its size,
mortise, which corresponds exactly with that of the tenon. The
wood is then laid on the carpenter's bench, or, if long enough, on a
pair of stools or trestles, and the operator proceeds to cut out the
mortise with a mortising chisel or firmer chisel, of the breadth of the
mortise—namely, iin., sinking it gradually to the depth of 3m., or a
trifle more, that the shoulders of the tenon may rest on, and fit closely
to the upper surface of the wood in which the mortise has been cut;
that is to say, the surfaces chda, l k e b in fig. 172, on the surfaces
v T U W, v'r s w' respectively in fig. 173. If the wood is long enough to
be laid on trestles, the operator sits astride it, and proceeds to cut the
mortise, but whether on the bench or on trestles the mode of operation
is the same; a notch is first taken out in the middle of the mortise,
and the cutting is carried gradually to the end, first in one direction
and then in the other, till a depth of about J^in. or ^in. has been
taken out over the whole of the mortise. When the mortise is to be
Mortise to be cut right through the wood, lines should be marked with
cut from the square round three sides or faces of the wood (or all
both Sides. f0Ur, if preferred), as v'v, v v", v"a' and w'w, w w" and
W"b' and the lines T'u', R's', marked on the under part of the wood.
When half the depth of the mortise, or nearly so, has been cut from
the parallelogram trsu, the wood should be turned upside down and
the rest of the mortise taken out from the parallelogram t'r's'u'. By
this means the mortise will be carried through in such a manner
from side to side of the wood that the upright cannot fail to be per¬
pendicular to it. Had the operator gone on cutting in one direction
throughout the whole operation, he might have leant a little to one
side or the other, and the other side of the hole would not have been
true to gauge. This would have had the effect of throwing the
upright piece out of the perpendicular. Whenever an amateur,
therefore, is going to cut a mortise right through a piece of wood, he
must remember that it will be safer for him to sink the hole from
both sides.
429. When the mortise is cut try in the tenon, and if too tight to go
down to the shoulder without using considerable force, rub some red
Trying in lead about it and again try it in. The lead will show
tenon. where the joint binds. Carefully pare off those places thus
marked until the mortise is large enough to admit the tenon. When
Double Tenons : Halving and Notching. 175
and
securing.
FIG. 174. double tenon.
/ :
/
it is brought home to the shoulders, a hole is to be bored through both
mortise and tenon with a bit or gimlet, and a wooden pin Finishing
driven into it. When the mortise and tenon is but small,
the joint may be secured by gluing the end of the tenon
before it is fitted into the mortise.
430. The method of making a mortise is the same in all cases,
whatever may be its length and width, and but little more remains
to be said about this kind of joint. When the wood to be joined is
very wide, instead of having
one tenon one-third of the way of
width, it is usual to have making
two tenons, as shown in mortls~"
fig. 174, in the annexed drawing, and
consequently two mortise holes. In this
case the thickness of each Double
tenon is one-fifth the width tenons,
of the wood. If three tenons are neces¬
sary, the thickness of each should be
one-seventh of the wood. It is not
likely, however, that the amateur will
ever find it necessary to proceed beyond
a double tenon. The form of tenon
shown in fig. 175 is also very useful; it
does not weaken the wood so much as
the other methods. When a very wide
tenon is required, this shape may be
used with advantage. It will readily
be understood by referring to the illustration.
431. It has been said that assistance may be obtained in making
mortises from the auger and brace and bit. The manner is shown in
fig. 176, in which let A B c D represent a mortise iin. wide Use of auger,
and 2>£in. long. If two holes be taken out with an inch
bit as at E and F, it is clear that all that remains to be
done with the chisel is to clear away the corners at
A, B, c, D, and the intervening space between
E and F, in which case it will be necessary
to cut the sides A B, C D of the mortise, which
is never requisite when the whole of the
wood to be removed is taken out with the
chisel in the ordinary way.
432. There is a method of connecting
1/
Fig. 175. double tenon.
eto., in
making
mortise.
"V
\
3
Fig. 176. use of auger in
making mortise.
timbers by halving and notching which may be described, as it may
possibly be of use to the amateur in some cases, especially Halving and
if he be not very far advanced in the art of carpentry, notoMng.
and not sufficiently skilful to make a mortise and tenon joint. It is a
joint that materially weakens the wood, reducing its strength just one-
half.
433. Fig. 177 will suffice to show the manner in which timbers may
be halved and notched into each other. Suppose that the timbers
12
176 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
L
a and b are two pieces of quartering 2in. square, after being planed
up. The marking gauge is set to iin. and applied to the timbers,
tracing out the lines c d on a, and e f on b, and similar lines on the
Method of sides opposite to these, which are hidden from view,
performing Spaces of 2in. are then set off, where the pieces are to
operation. notched into each other, and guide lines drawn with
the square round the three sides in which is contained the piece to be
notched out, as at g h k, l m n in b. These lines serve to direct the
tenon-saw, which is passed through the lines h k, m n, till it meets the
transverse lines traced by the
gauge. A broad chisel and mal¬
let is then called into requisition
to remove the notch, the edge
of the chisel being in the guide
lines traced by the marking
gauge, and the handle struck
lightly so as to impel the chisel
gently into the wood. After
this has been done once or twice,
fig. 177. halving and notching. first qn qne gj^g an(j then on
the other, the piece will come away, leaving a hollow as shown in the
drawing. Any inequality of surface that may be caused by projection
of fibres at the bottom of the notch may be pared away with the chisel.
A notch precisely similar to that which has been made in b is made
in A; the mode of operation in each case being exactly alike. The
two pieces are then fitted one into the other, the notch in each receiving
the part that is left in the other after the notch has been made, and
the piece which was previously contained in it removed. When fitted
together'the wood presents the appearance shown at X. A couple of
holes should then be made with a large gimlet, and the two pieces be
fastened together by wooden pegs. It is better to put one peg in on
one side and the other on the side opposite to it, instead of driving in
both on one side.
434. It has been said that this is a weak kind of joint, and so it is,
on account of the great reduction that is made in the thickness of the
joint of this w0°d in both pieces. It is useful, however, in joining
kind, why cross-pieces, for the pressure of the shoulders of the
weak. notches on the surfaces on which they rest gives great
rigidity to the joint, so that it is impossible, if the pieces have been
accurately cut and let into one another, to move the arms of the cross
thus formed in any direction. It is bad when the end of one piece
of wood is halved into another piece, as in the case of an upright into
a horizontal piece, or vice versa, and it is infinitely worse when the
ends of two pieces of wood are halved for the purpose of joining the
pieces themselves at right angles. The case in which halving and
Grating for notching comes into operation with the best effect is in
bath-room, making a grating, on which to stand in a bath-room
et0, or on a stone floor. In this a number of pieces, all lying
in one direction, are halved into a number of others at right angles to
Fishing : How Performed.
177
| B Ea E3 53 ti
them, as in fig. 178, the ends on all sides being let into a frame a
little thicker and wider than the bars themselves.
The bars, when fitted into one another should be
fastened with wooden pegs, and the plane passed
over the surface to remove any inequalities that
may remain after the heads have been cut off
with the saw or chisel. Inch square bars make
a substantial and useful grating of this kind, the
notches being made at a distance varving from _
1 in. to 1Kin. apart ' FlG- ^ grating.
435. We have now considered the methods of joining such pieces
of wood as quartering and scantling, and smaller pieces that assume
the form of bars, at right angles to each other. It is now joining,
necessary to see how such pieces of wood may be joined quartering,
longitudinally^ or lengthwise, end to end, so that each Bcantungs.
piece is in direct continuation of the other, in one and
the same straight line ; and then to consider the methods that are
adopted for joining boards on pieces of wood laterally or side by
side, so as to present a uniform and level surface, and at an angle,
most commonly a right angle, as in the case of a drawer or box.
436. The modes of joining timbers longitudinally, or end to end,
are three in number, and may be described as fishing, juncti0n of
halving, and scarfing—beginning with the most simple timber
manner of effecting a joint in this direction, namely that lengthways,
of length, and proceeding onwards to the most difficult.
437. Fishing is a mode much used at sea for strengthening a mast,
yard, or spar, that has been sprung or cracked but not broken in half.
It is an operation very similar to that performed by the Fishing: how
fly-fisherman when a joint of his fishing-rod is cracked in Performed-
the manner shown in the annexed engraving, fig. 179; and he repairs
it by winding a piece of waxed
silk over the fracture, as shown in
fig. 180. An exemplification of
this fish-joint or fish-plating is to
be seen on any railway, for this
is the manner in which the ends
using rope only, as is done with
silk or fine cord in splicing the
broken joint of a fishing-rod or a
walking stick, he lays some short
pieces of timber lengthwise along
the spar, and binds the rope over
them, the longitudinal timbers
helping to support and keep in place the ends of the fracture, and
preventing increased injury from any additional strain that may be
made at any time on the upper or riven part of the spar. The timbers
flg. 179. timber "sprung.
■
fig. 180. mode of fishing.
fig. 181. junction of rails on
railway.
fig. 182. joining timbers with
plates and bolts.
178 Household Carpentry and joinery.
act in fact in a manner similar to the plates at the junction of the ends
of two rails on a railway as in fig. 181. The amateur may connect
timbers in this way by abutting the ends one against the other, and
laying iron plates one on each side of the joint, bolting the whole
together with bolts and nuts, as shown in fig. 182.
438. Halving is the simplest mode of performing the operation to
which the general term " scarfing " is applied; but instead of including
Halving: it under this com-
. —~~
c
s 3
nB
D
1
Fig. 183. HALVING.
/ li
£ ^1
( A
c i
I
Ei
how done. mon name, it is
better to apply it to that mode
of juncture in which the tim¬
bers are cut so as to overlap
each other in a direction paral¬
lel to the surface of the wood,
or, more correctly, parallel to
two of its sides, and vertical
to the other two ; retaining Fig. 184. scarfing.
the term scarfing for those joints in which the timbers are cut so as to
overlap each other, in a direction at an angle to two of its oppo-
Securing joint site sides. The annexed illustrations show clearly the
with bolts manner in which halving is performed. The joint may
and plates, made so that the plates may be at top and bottom,
as in fig. 183, or at the sides; but the overlapping of the timbers from
A to B must always be parallel to the plates, and never covered by
them, for reasons which are so clear that they need no explanation.
The illustrations are shown in section, in order to present the course
of the bolts in one and the screws in the other.
439. In halving timbers in this way, the length to which each end
should be rebated should be five or six times its depth ; that is to say,
if the depth or thickness of the wood from c to D be 3m., the length
of the rebate from A to B should be from 15 m. to i8in. When the
depth of the timbers to be halved together does not exceed 3in., plates
may be dispensed with, and screws only used as shown in fig. 184.
Proper length ^'s a good plan to cut each overlapping end at an angle,
of halved as at A B c, B c D, as the end is then held down and pre-
joint. vented from springing outwards by the projecting tongue
with which each extremity is fitted. In all cases of making a halved
joint of this kind, it is better that the line of juncture (A B in fig. 183,
and B c in fig. 184) should show at the upper and lower surface of the
timbers when joined, unless there be a bearing in the centre of the
joint, or the distance between bearings on either side be but short.
440. The term " scarf" comes to us from the German scharben, to
notch or indent, or from the Swedish skarf, a seam or joint, and skarfva,
Scarfing: t0 j°in together. The ordinary modes of scarfing are
meaning of shown in the annexed illustration, in which fig. 185 shows
term. t^e sjmpiest kind of scarf joint that can be made. This
scarf is used for joining a fishing-rod or walking-stick when either has
been broken in half instead of being merely cracked or sprung. The
ends of the pieces are carefully pared down at a long slope until they
Rebating : Hov/ it is Done.
i79
can be fitted together as in fig. 185, the end of one piece laying upon
and along the end of the other. The splice is completed How per-
by binding waxed silk or thin strong cord over and beyond formed,
the lapping ends on either side, from C to D. But to return to the
scarfing of timbers, the line
of connection from a to b
is at an angle to the sides
of the connected timbers.
In fig. 185 the line of junc¬
tion a b forms a straight line
from a to b. In figs. 186 and
187 it does not, the extremi¬
ties of the timbers being
cut in the form of a step—the
upper timber in fig. 187, or
that which appears to be
uppermost in the section
presented to the eye of the observer, being in the line a c d b, and
the lower in the line befa. In fig. 186 a groove is cut in the face
of each timber as at C D, and into this groove a taper wedge is driven
which has the effect of locking the shoulders a b into the angles cut
for their reception. In fig. 187 this wedge (which must taper slightly
in either case) bears against the surfaces C D and e F, and draws the
ends of the pieces thus connected well together, forcing, as in fig. 186,
the extremities a and b into the angles cut to receive them.
441. We must now proceed to the method of forming lateral joints,
which are used in connecting the edges of boards together. We have
hitherto been dealing chiefly with the ends of timbers, Lateral
showing how to fit end to end, or the end of a vertical Joints,
timber into a horizontal timber or vice versa. The modes that are
ordinarily adopted for this juncture of pieces of wood are four in
number, and are known respectively as rebating, tonguing and groov¬
ing, grooving and slip-feathering, and dove-tail grooving Four methods
and feathering. These methods of joining boards edge used-
to edge must be resorted to, when a surface of wood is required, larger
than can be conveniently obtained in one piece. Each method has
particular application, and no one method will be found to answer for
all objects. The purpose for which the work is required, and the
material of which it is composed, must be taken into consideration,
and the amateur must decide for himself which method may be most
advantageously used.
442. The simplest method of joining the edges of boards is by rebat¬
ing, as shown in fig. 188. The means by which this is done has already
been explained in describing planes and the various ways Rebating: how
in which they are used. In making a rebate-joint all that it is done.
it is now necessary to say is that the edges of both boards must be
planed true, and half of both pieces cut away in such a manner and to
such an extent as to overlap each other and join with nicety ; the step
01 half cut from one being filled up by the half or projecting part left
rb
Jf±
Fig. 185. Modes of Scarfing Timbers.
i8o Household Carpentry and Joinery.
in the other. An exemplification of a convenient use of the rebate-
joint in carpentry is found in the joining of floor boards, when it is
desired to put them down in such a
way that no heads of nails are visible.
The lower board A is laid first on the
joists, and fastened down to them by
Fig. 188. rebating.
^ floor-brads driven in at an angle as at
^ B, the heads being buried in the wood
by aid of the brad-punch. The board
C is then laid down so that the rebate
in it fits over the rebate in A, and the overlap is then fastened down by
wooden pegs driven into and through both laps along each joint, as
shown at D.
443. The next method of joining edges of boards, which presents
no very great difficulty if the amateur possess a tonguing and grooving
Tonguing and plane, or a pair of match planes, is shown in fig. 189. It
grooving, is called tonguing and grooving. After the edges of the
boards to be joined have been planed true, a groove one-third of their
thickness, and sometimes a little less, is cut in one piece by means of
the grooving iron, while by the aid of the tonguing iron a corresponding
tongue is cut in the other. This tongue should fit the groove some-
Hand-tight- what tightly, indeed, in the manner called by joiners " hand-
ness. tight," meaning so tight that it cannot readily be pulled
out with the hand. At the same time care must be taken that the
tongue is not so large and fits so tight
that it will burst the groove. An ex¬
emplification of this mode of joining
boards is to be found in match-board¬
ing. It is most useful when a large
surface has to be covered with boards,
and it is necessary to connect their
edges in such a manner that the edge of one may hold down and retain
in its place the edge of that which has been placed in position just
before it.
444. A third method of joining the edges of boards is that oigroov¬
ing and slip-feathering, as shown in fig. 190. As in all other modes
Grooving of joining boards laterally, the edges must be planed per-
and slip- fectly straight and true. A groove, which must never be
feathering. more than one-third the thickness of the boards to be
joined, and which is generally less, is then cut in the middle of both
edges. This must be done with a grooving-plane or plough. Amateurs
have been told that they can cut out
grooves for this kind of joint with a chisel,
but they may be sure that, although at
the cost of much time and trouble, they
may accomplish the necessary twofold
groove in two pieces of board for a few
inches, they will find it most difficult, if
Fig. 189. tonguing
and grooving.
Fig. 190. grooving
and slip-feathering.
not almost impracticable, to carry it on for any length, and the work
Dove-tail Jointing : Dowelling. i8i
when done will not answer their expectations. The planing of the
slip-feather that is to be pressed into the grooves to hold the boards
together must then be accomplished, and when it is ready it should
be coated with glue, and then inserted into the grooves ; the edges of
the board being brought into close proximity by means of a clamp, or
pair of clamps, and held tightly together till the glue is dry.
445. Whenever the amateur artisan has occasion to plane down a
long slip-feather, or anything long and slender, and consequently weak,
instead of placing the wood against the bench-stop, and pianing slip-
planing towards it—in which position the first stroke of feathers ana
the plane would snap the wood—he should nail, or other- laths.
wise fasten, the extremity of the slip that is nearest to him, to the
bench, and plane from it. Whatever may be the length, it will then
be easily accomplished. The amateur artisan should adopt this plan
in planing any piece of thin, narrow wood, as laths for trellis-work.
446. The method of jointing edges of boards, which is shown in
fig. 191, is called dove-tail grooving. The edges are first to be planed
true and straight. A groove called a dove-tail groove, jointing edges
from its fancied resemblance to the extended tail feathers of boards,
of a dove or pigeon, is cut in the edge of each piece. A dove-tail
feather is then made to fit these grooves in such a manner, that the
effect of putting the feather in its place, which, of course, Dove-tail
must be done endwise, will be to draw the two pieces feather,
closer together. Cutting the grooves and planing the feather is an
operation of great nicety, and one which in all probability will never
be performed by an amateur artisan.
It is useful in bringing together the
edges of two or more pieces of wood
intended to form such an article as
a drawing board. The straight-sided
groove and slip-feather is useful in
fitting boards together to form the top Tig. 191. dove-tail jointing.
of a table, although for this purpose the tongue and groove may be,
and is, frequently used.
447. A description of the methods used for joining the edges of
boards together laterally would not be complete without some mention
of dowelling, the term applied to the fastening together of Dowelling:
boards by means of wooden or metal pegs. 11 is the method how
used by the cooper for bringing together the edges of the Performed-
pieces of wood of which the head and bottom of the cask are formed.
The amateur will find it useful in many ways. An exemplification of
it may be found in the joining of the leaves of a dining-table, which
is regulated by small wooden pegs which project from the edge of one
leaf at right angles to the surface of the edge, and fit with great ac¬
curacy and nicety into holes made for their reception in the edge of
the leaf that is placed next to the first leaf, and so on. In joining
wood together in this way, the pieces must be laid side by side so that
the edges present one surface, being brought on a level one with the
other ; and straight lines marked across both edges with a square and
iJz Household Carpentry and Joinery.
pencil to indicate where the pegs are to come. The exact points where
the gimlet is to enter the wood in preparing the holes for the pegs, are
shown by tracing a line along the edge with a marking gauge. Holes
must then be bored along the edge of each board, as shown in section in
the accompanying illustration. In A, in fig. 192, pegs of tough wood,
which have been previously prepared for the purpose, are driven into
the holes to the depth of about iin. or i^in., projecting beyond the
edge for about the same distance. The points of the pegs are then
brought to the mouths of the holes in B, and the board A is driven or
brought by pressure towards the board B until their edges are brought
close together. The pegs should be glued before being driven into the
holes prepared for their reception in both A and B. The operation re-
—— quires some degree of nicety in
f n B n ri> making the holes in the edges of
*■ ■ ■ '' 1'—* the boards exactly opposite each
other, so that no undue strain may
be made on the pegs. Dowels and
dowel pins may be round or square,
Fig. ,92. dowelling. .as. may mos\ convenient; thus
it is usual to make round holes and
use round pins in working in wood, and square holes in masonry.
When a wooden upright is let into stone to keep it in position, a
square dowel is cut in the stone, less in everyway than the dimensions
of the wood, and the end of the wood is then cut to enter the dowel,
presenting very much the appearance of a very short tenon. It is
manifest that the upright cannot be moved out of its place unless great
force be used to it, because the projecting piece in the dowel prevents
its motion in any direction.
448. In all operations of the kinds described above, the joints should
be glued and held together till dry, but no gluing is required in putting
1 , down rebated flooring, or in lining the sides of a room,
u ng o s. etc ^ etc ^ matc]1.5oar(jing< The method of making
glue has been described (see p. 124), and a few words on the method
to be adopted in using glue may not be out of place here.
449. Some difficulty may be experienced in getting the glued joints
to hold. A thin, even coat should be laid on the parts to be joined to-
Difflcuity in get;ker with a brush, the several pieces put in their places,
getting glued and when practicable rubbed together two or three times to
joints to hold. jnsure the even distribution of the glue, and to expel the
air from the joints. The whole, as it has been frequently said, must
be held together with a clamp until thoroughly dry. In gluing together
soft wood, a piece of good chalk should be rubbed over the joints
before the glue is laid on. Care, however, must be taken that no
knobs or gritty particles be allowed to remain. Not only most ama¬
teurs, but many thoughtless workmen also, seem imbued with the
notion that the more glue is laid over the wood the stronger will be
the joint. This is a great mistake, for a thick layer of glue makes
a weak joint. Indeed, the thinner, in reason, the glue, the stronger
will be the joint, the great desideratum being the exclusion of the air.
Joining Boards at Right Angles. 183
If the air could be entirely expelled from between two surfaces, they
would adhere one to the other without any glue. In the manufacture
of a certain sort of glass, where one piece is ground 01^9 should
against another to bring them to a face, it is sometimes be spread
the case that the air is so perfectly excluded that the thinly,
two plates adhere to each other so firmly that they cannot be separated
without fracture.
450. We must now proceed to a consideration of the methods
adopted for joining boards at right angles so as to form a corner.
There are two modes of doing this, which are called key- Jolnln„
ing and dove-tailing. There is another way of connecting boards at
boards at right angles which shall be explained, first of rf8ht angles,
all, because it may be useful to the amateur; but the methods just
named are by far the best, and those most commonly used—namely,
keying in small cabinet-making and light joinery, and dove-tailing in
all operations in which strength and durability are desirable.
451. The third method to which allusion has been made, and which
may be described first, is that which is commonly adopted for nailing
together packing cases. In fig. naiiingboards
193 is shown the way in which end to ®nd.
this is done. The edge of one board is
brought against the inner surface of another,
as at A, and nails are driven through the
former into the latter to fasten the boards
Fig. 193. joining together. The joint is a weak making small
boards end to end. one> an(j a yery little force will frame.
serve to disconnect boards ; but when four boards are nailed together
in this way, as the four sides of a box or pack¬
ing-case, one corner strengthens another, and
they all afford each other mutual support; and
when the bottom is nailed on, it is difficult to
wrench the boards asunder. When wood of
some thickness is used, as in making a small
frame to be covered with a light for the recep¬
tion of plants, etc., a shallow rebate may be
cut at each end of the sides, as at B, affording
a slight shoulder against which the boards,
which form the top and bottom of the frame,
can be lodged previous to nailing the whole
together.
452. One of the most useful and most fre¬
quently required joints in joinery, keying
is that which is used to unite two
pieces of wood to each other at right angles,
generally speaking. For very light work, and
Fig. 194. keying. where strength is of secondary importance,
the method shown in fig. 194, and termed
"keying " or "keying together " is generally used. The edges, as may
be seen, are bevelled or mitred away each to half the required angle
184 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
of the whole. Thus in a joint at right angles, the line A B would make
an angle of 450 with the lines A c and A D, or the surface of the bevel
as shown by the line A B would be at an angle of 450 with the outer
surface of each of the boards thus joined. If the sides were those
of a hexagon, the angle which the bevel would make with the outer
surface would be 30°. Glue the bevelled edges together, and when
How dry make three or four saw cuts diagonally across the
performed, joint, half of the cuts or kerfs, as they are sometimes
termed, inclining upwards, as at E and F, and half downwards, as at
G and A. Cut out some thin pieces of
wood of such a thickness that they may
fit into these saw-cuts tightly, dip them
in glue, hammer them into place, and when
dry cut them off to the shape of the out¬
side of the joint. If done well this makes
a very neat joint, the saw-cuts being hardly
observable, but if the amateur cannot
manage it exactly, or if he does not wish
anything to show on the outside, he should
Corner- use the description of joint shown in fig. 195, which is
piecing, called " corner-piecing." In this the edges are bevelled
together in the same manner as in the last, but when glued together,
instead of using slips of wood inserted into saw-cuts to keep them
together, a corner-piece is made and glued on inside. This joint is
very simple and neat, but it is not very strong; it is often used for
the corners of workboxes and articles required for a like purpose.
In such case, the corner-pieces, if not carried upwards the whole
length of the joint, but cut off at a height equal to the depth of the
tray, will serve as supports for the tray ; otherwise ledges to hold the
tray must be glued to the sides within.
453. Lastly, we come to the dove-tail joint. Of this joint there are four
kinds: the common or single dove-tail, the compound dove-tail, the dove-
Dove-taii tail for drawer fronts,
jointing, and the mitre dove¬
tail. Although it will be necessary
to mention the peculiarities of all
corner-piecing.
J> B
Er~
these in turn, it is needless to do
more than describe the construc¬
tion of the single or common dove¬
tail in detail, for one and the same
principle of construction charac¬
terises the whole set, and is used
in them all.
454. V/hen appearance is of little
consequence and strength of the
utmost importance, the common
dove-tail joint should be used. In
the annexed illustration, fig. 196 shows the pin, as it is called, and fig
197 the socket of a single dove-tail. Very few workmen follow
Fig. 196. pin. Fig. 197. socket.
single dove-tail joint.
Single or Common Dove-tail Joint. 185
any arbitrary rule as to the proportions and shape of the different
parts; they go by their judgment and their eye, and if they common
Lave had any experience they are seldom wrong. To the dove-tail joint,
amateur, who cannot be expected to have had much if any practice, the
following hints will be of material assistance. If he goes according to
rule when he commences, practice will soon make him familiar with the
proportions, and render any measurement or rule unnecessary. This
does not of course do away with the necessity that exists for marking
the depth of the pin and socket with the marking-gauge. This must be
done even by the best of workmen. Hard and tough wood will admit of
an acuter angle than soft wood, or wood that is subject to split or chip.
455. Let us take the pin and socket shown in the above illustration
as an example. It is, as it has been said, the pin and socket of a
single dove-tail, but the same rule is followed in the con- Dimensions
struction of all. Having determined the depth of the of pin and
pin, which will be governed by the thickness of the board socket,
in which the socket is to be cut, into which the pin is to be fitted, set
the head of the marking-gauge to the required distance from the point;
and, holding it against the end of the wood, mark on its four sides in
succession the lines EC,CK(fig. 196), and the lines opposite to them from
E and K on the sides that are not shown in the drawing. Method of
Next divide e c into three equal parts in the points D and marking °ut-
B, D B being the central third, that is, the root or bottom of the pin.
Draw two lines, B A and D F, at an angle of 70° or 8o° to C B and E D,
respectively. Draw twc other straight lines, AH,f G, at right angles to fa.
Perform the same operation on the side of the wood that is hidden
from view; that is to say, trisect the line from K to the corner formed by
the meeting of the lines K and E, and join the points on either side of
the central third, to G and H respectively, one of these being h I, which
is shown in the diagram. The reader will find it good practice to copy
the diagram on a larger scale, completing the parts cut Diagram to be
away on each side of the pin with dotted lines. This will drawn larger
materially assist him when he is putting the directions for Praotioe-
given into practice on wood. The operator, supposing that these lines
have been marked on a piece of wood, must now lay the tenon-saw
upon the line C K, and cut across the grain till it comes to B I. Lay
the saw next upon A H, and saw in a direction very nearly correspond¬
ing to that of the grain until B I has been reached, as before, and a
junction is effected with the saw-cut first made through c K. Remove
the piece of wood thus detached, and proceed in the same manner on
the other side. If a smooth cut be made, nothing further is required
to be done to the pin ; but if roughly sawn, or the two saw-cuts do not
meet, and the piece nearly cut off is torn away, the projections that
still require to be removed must be cut away with a broad chisel
Having finished the pin, it now remains to cut the socket for its re¬
ception. First lay the pin upon the end of the piece cutting parts
intended for the socket, that is to say, on the end shown of joints,
uppermost in fig. 197, and with a sharp pencil mark on the end the
shape of the pin. The lines thus marked would be those shown as A B
i86 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
Fig.
and c D in fig. 197, the part between A and C receiving the narrow part
or throat of the pin, and that between D and B the wide end, namely,
the parts lettered D B and A F in fig. 196. Saw
down to the required depth, shown by the line
E F. This depth is equal to the thickness of the
wood from c to K in fig. 196, and straight lines all
round the wood should have been previously
marked at this depth with the square. When the
saw cuts have been made through A B and C D to
the necessary depth, the central piece must be
removed with a chisel. The piece removed, if it
could be taken away without breaking it, should
be exactly the shape of, and slightly smaller than,
dove-tail complete. ^he pjn> because the pin has to replace it, and it
is necessary that the pin should fit fairly tight into the opening cut for
its reception. When glued together, the pin and socket present an
appearance similar to that in fig. 198, in which the single dove-tail is
represented in a finished state.
456. The compound dove-tail is represented in the annexed diagrams,
Compound and the only difference between this and the single dove-
dove-tau. tail is, that the first has but one pin and this has three,
and may have more if it be necessary.
457. When the wood has been planed to the proper size, and the
sides or edges squared, a line
should be struck by means of
the marking-gauge along the pin part on
both sides from A to B, as in fig. 199. The
distance of this line from the edge should
be rather more than the thickness of the
socket part as shown in fig. 200, which,
with fig. 199, represents, the former the
elevation of end of the socket piece, and the
latter the elevation of side of pin piece.
The pins are cut out as in the single dove¬
tail, the parts at c, d, being removed by
aid of a chisel, while those at a, b, may be
cut out with a tenon-saw or chisel as may
be preferred. Lines are then marked on the
flat side of the socket part, as shown at c
in fig. 200, the thickness of the pin being Fig< aoo> Fig Igg
their distance from the edge of the board, socket piece. pin piece.
The shape and position of the sockets can compound dove-tail joint.
easily be found by laying the pins upon the edge of the socket and
marking them off with a sharp pencil. The sockets are cut out in
the same manner as in a single dove-tail. If the spaces to be removed
are at all large, a few steady blows should be given with a mallet
upon the chisel handle. The chisel should not be urged to take
out the whole of the space at one cut, but a part should be taken at
a time, and when the wood is nearly removed the chisel should be
Mode of
marking It.
=51
=3
"-TL
Compound Dove-tail Joint. 187
held rather out of the perpendicular, so as to cut in under, which
will insure a tight and neat joint
when put together. The ap¬
pearance of the pins of the com¬
pound dove-tail represented in
isometrical perspective after com¬
pletion are shown in fig. 201,
and the sockets in a similar
manner in fig. 202. When put
together the dove-tail joint ap¬
pears as shown in fig. 203. In
this joint each side shows por¬
tions of the end grain of its
neighbour. For drawers and
such-like articles this, however
well done, would look very un¬
sightly ; it is therefore seldom
used for those purposes, unless
the outsides are veneered, or
covered with a thin sheet of some
ornamental wood. Should it at
any time be used for a drawer,
the part marked C must be the
front. The reason readily ap¬
pears from an examination of the
Fig. 202.
Fig. 201. pin ptece.
Fig. 203. compound
dove-tail complete.
socket piece.
COMPOUND DOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETRICAL
PERSPECTIVE.
shape of the parts composing the dove-tail.
Supposing, for the sake of explanation, that
the joint was not glued, and that it did not
fit very tightly. If the part marked a were
used as the front, it would be possible to
pull the pins a, b, c, out of their sockets, as
there is nothing to prevent their coming
out; but if ever so much force were used
to draw c away from A, it could not be
done, because the broad parts of the pins
d, e, could not possibly be pulled out through
the narrow openings^ g.
458. There is a method of making the
dove-tail joint for drawer fronts by which
the end grain of the side is D0ve.taiiing
kept concealed from view, and for drawer
this does away with any neces- fronts,
sity for veneering in order to hide the
joint. This mode of making the joints
between sides and front is adopted for
drawers that are to be painted or stained and
varnished, and maybe used with advantage
in drawers that are to be veneered with
mahogany, rosewood, or any fancy wood.
188 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
459. The elevation of the end of the front and surface of the side in
this kind of dove-tail joint for drawer fronts is shown in figs. 204 and
Description 2°5 in the annexed
of this kind illustrations, and the
ofdove-taiiing. appearance of the
pieces when cut in readiness for
r
4
r
Fig. 205. FIG. 204.
END OF FRONT. SIDE.
ELEVATION OF HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL.
FIG. 207. END OF FRONT. FlG. 206. SIDE.
HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETRICAL
PERSPECTIVE.
joining togther is showed m figs. 206 and 207, and that of the pieces
after they have been joined in fig. 208. The
part used for the front is marked F in all the
illustrations. It will be seen by referring to
the complete joint in fig. 208 that the end
grain of the side does not come through, and
consequently is not seen. This joint is rather
more difficult to make than the one that was
last described, but the difficulty of construc¬
tion is confined entirely to the front part,
the side being cut in a manner exactly similar
to the ordinary dove-tail joint. When the
amateur artisan has occasion to make this
joint, he should (after the several parts are
trued up and sized with the plane) first cut
out the side, as in fig. 204. The thickness
of the side-piece should be rather less than
the thickness of the front. When the side
Completion of is completed it should be laid in
the work, position on the end of the front
and the shape of the pins marked with a
sharp pencil. The sockets which are shaded
in fig. 205 must then be carefully cut away
with a mallet and chisel. The different parts
of this joint should fit each other well, and,
FIG. 208. HIDDEN
DOVE-TAIL COMPLETE,
Mitre Dove-tail Joint.
indeed, so should the parts of all other joints made in wood; but,
as in this case, a great deal of strain is thrown on the joints of the
drawer in pulling it out, unless they are well fitted together the front
will soon become very shaky. The method of making this kind of
dove-tail joint is shown clearly in the illustrations, and any further
explanation will be needless, as the diagrams speak, as it were, for
themselves.
460. The last joint of this description that has to be considered is
the mitre dove-tail, which is a combination of keying and dove-tailing.
It is a very neat and moderately strong dove-tail; there The mitre
are no end grains showing, and if done well the joint itself dove-tail,
cannot be noticed. It is used, in short, when both strength and neat¬
ness are required, which, with the amateur, is frequently the case.
461. The first thing to be done in making this joint is to cut the
mitre or bevel. For the sake of making the explanation a little
clearer, let us suppose that the pieces of
wood to be united are of equal thick¬
ness, and let fig. 209 re- How to make
present a horizontal sec- the mitre
tion of the front, and fig. d°vo-taii.
210 a horizontal section of the side ; or,
what is the same thing, let the figures
in each case represent the upper edge
of the boards. Each board must be
cut so that the edges marked a in each
must meet. In each take the distance
a B equal to a c, the thickness of the
board, and with the square draw the straight line B h, and join the
diagonal a h. Along a c and a b
measure equal lines, a k, a e, and through
e draw the line edf with the square, and
through k the line k d g parallel to the
edge a b or c h. Let this be done on the
lower edge of the board as well, and with
square or marking-gauge trace a line from
f, along the inner surface, along the whole
depth of the side, from upper edge to
lower edge. Lay the tenon-saw along
this line, if it is not too long, in which
case it must be cut with the chisel, and
cut into the wood until d is reached. Then
with a sharp chisel cut away the wood
along the part ad of the diagonal a h,
removing entirely the shaded part in each
board, namely, adfc. The sockets will Fig. 211. Fig. 212.
now have to be cut in the part gdfh,inEND or front. end of side.
fig. 209, and the pins in the part similarly elevation of mitre dove-
lettered in fig. 210. The great thing in . TAIL J°INT-
making this joint is to make the bevelled part, a d e, in each precisely
section of front. section of side.
mitre dove-tail.
igo Household Carpentry and Joinery.
AW?-
similar. If the side is of less thickness than the front, the bevel a d
must be cut in the same manner, and of similar dimensions in each.
As far as the rest is concerned, the length of D G or H F, in fig. 209, must
always be exactly equal to the length of F D or H G, in fig. 210. The
elevation of the ends of the two boards to be joined are shown in figs.
211 and 212, fig. 211 representing the end of the front, and fig. 212 the
end of the side. In figs. 213 and
214, the bevels or mitres at
A, A, and the pins in one and the
sockets in the other are drawn in
isometrical perspective. It is not
possible, for obvious reasons, to
give an illustration of this joint
when fitted together and com¬
plete, nor indeed would it be
needful even if it were possible.
462. By the aid of the illustra¬
tions no amateur can fail in mak-
Illustrations inS, this if ^
helpful in understand the mode
making these of making the single
join s. dove-tail and of key¬
ing two pieces of wood together
at an angle. He will find it a
difficult piece of business no
doubt, but patience and perseve¬
rance will enable him to overcome
this and all other difficulties that
may present themselves in the va¬
rious operations that have to be
performed in Carpentry and
Joinery. Of course he will
readily understand that it is in
cabinet-making, rather than in
carpentry and joinery proper, that such a joint as the mitre dove-tail
joint is chiefly required. For all operations in which strength, rather
than nicety, is requisite, the simpler kinds of joints, which are easily
and more quickly made, will be found to be both suitable and sufficient
in every respect.
Fig. 213. front. Fig. 214. side.
mitre dove-tail in isometrical
perspective.
Ihe Carpenter's Bench.
chapter viii.
the carpenter's bench and its various fittings.
the sawing stool and trestles.
The Carpenter's Bench—Ordinary small-sized Bench—Utilisation of Space under
Bench—Bench may be Fixed or Movable—Better Fixed for Amateur—How
to Manage Fixing—Convenient Dimensions for Bench—Bench for Temporary
Service—Preliminary Operations—Construction of End or Trestle—Front of
Trestle—Connection of the Trestles—Diagonal Braces : their positions for
back—To keep Trestles from Displacement—Construction of Front—Planing-
board in front, etc.—Completion of Frame—Making and putting on top-
Fittings for Bench—Substitutes for Bench-stop—Substitute for Bench-vice-
Construction of contrivance—Another simple substitute—Merits of this kind of
Bench—Amateur will make better Bench—Ordinary Carpenter's Bench—
General principles of Construction—Convenient Dimensions—Preparation of
different parts—Joining pieces together—Double Tenon desirable—Construction
of Bench continued—Tenons of uppermost bars—Completion of Frame—
Uprights for Bench—Centre rail in front of Bench—Provision in front for screw
of Bench-vice—Well in Bench for Tools—Another mode of making Well—Front
of Bench—Bench-vice : its construction—The Bench-screw—Cost of Bench-
screws—Uses of the Bench-screw—Additional supports for Boards—Construction
of top of Bench—Covering for Well—The Bench-stop : its construction—An
additional hand—Iron hold-fast for Bench—Its construction and operation—
Improved Holdfast—Holdfasts as substitute for Bench-screw—Holdfast useful
to amateur—Improved or Patent Bench-stop—The Shooting-board—Its con¬
struction and principle—Utility of Shooting-board limited—Universal Shooting-
board—Its construction and principle—Evil of ordinary Bench-screw—Regulation
of Parallelism between Bench and Bench-vice—Croix de St. Pierre—Its con¬
struction and action—Broad cheek : why preferred—Mode of preserving
Parallelism—The Runner—Adaptation of Runner to Screw—Laws' Bench—
Its dimensions and construction—The "Composite " Bench—Its dimensions and
construction—Wheel and Treadle—Suitable for fixture against wall—Objections
to ordinary Bench-vice—Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice—Its construction
and action—Advantages of Grip-vice—Its adaptability to various requirements—
Syer's Improved Portable Cabinet Bench—Its construction and advantages—Ent-
wistle and Kenyon's Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice—Principle of construction
—Adjuncts to Carpenter's Bench—Trestle or Sawing-stool—Its dimensions and
construction—Notch in end of Trestle—Clamps : their uses—Assistance rendered
by machinery—Motive power for Amateurs—Mode of fitting and working a Cir¬
cular Saw—Multiplication of velocity—Guide slip for regulating width to be cut.
463. One of the most indispensable essentials to the performance of
operations in Carpentry and Joinery is the carpenter's bench. Nothing
can be fairly done without it—except sawing, for which The
the stool is wanted; or mortising, which may also be oarpenter's
done on a couple of stools or trestles, although small ben
mortises may be cut on the bench. Planing must be done entirely on
the bench, for, as it has been said, in planing the surface of a board
it must be laid flat on the top of the bench and butted against the
13
192 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
bench-stop ; while in planing the edges, the board must be laid along
the side of the bench, being supported on pegs (for the reception of
which holes are made along the side itself) in the middle, and at one
end nearest the operator, while it is gripped and held tightly against
the side by the bench-jaw or vice at the other end.
464. An ordinary carpenter's bench of small size, with a bench-
vice and bench-stop, may be bought or made by a carpenter, ready
ordinary ^or ^ie amateur's use, at about 25s., but a tolerably good
small-sized second-hand bench may often be picked up at the wood
bench. yar(f for IOS or An excellent bench may be had for
50s., but when fitted with various appliances and turned out in the best
manner, they will range upwards in price from this amount to ^10.
465. A bench of this description, however, is too often a bench and
nothing more. Unlike a table, below the bed of which there must be
utilisation nothing in order that the legs of the persons that are
of space sitting round it may be thrust beneath it, the space under
under bench. the carpenter's bench may be utilised, and almost every
square inch of the space between the four legs turned to good account.
So having knocked together a rough-and-ready article that may serve
the purpose until the bench can be made, it will be good practice for
the amateur to make one for himself, which he may contrive in such
a manner as may best suit his own convenience.
466. A carpenter's bench may be either fixed or movable, and with
regard to position it may be against a wall of the workshop or shed
Bench may or it may stand in the middle of it, so that there may be
be fixed or free passage all round it. In nine cases out of ten the
mova e. amateur will find it convenient to have it against the wall
of his shed, and immediately under the window that lights it, if
possible. A large bench need not be fixed, as its own weight will
keep it in position ; but a small one, such as an amateur artisan will
generally have, will be all the better for being secured to the side of
Better fixed the shed or to the ground, if possible. For the amateur,
for amateur, then, there can be little doubt that the bench should be
against a wall and fixed; but of course there are cases in which this
would be impossible, and in determining posi¬
tion, etc., every one must be guided by the
necessities of situation, light, etc., and settle
these points as may best suit his own conve¬
nience.
467. The fixing is easily managed. Four
iron brackets, having two arms at right angles
How to to each other, and pierced and
manage fixing, countersunk for screws, will be all
that is necessary. Suppose in fig. 215 that
one leg of the end of a bench is represented, ~T~
the bench being placed against a wall, perhaps ig 2r5> fixing
of boards. If a bracket be screwed to the bench with brackets.
bench and the boards, as at A, at this end, and one at the other, the
bench cannot be pulled away from the wall; and if others be placed
Formation or Trestle or End of Bench. 193
against the front legs, in the manner shown at B, the bench cannot be
raised from the ground. In the illustration, for convenience' sake, the
bracket is shown fixed to the back leg ; but this is of no importance,
as it is only the manner of using these brackets that it is sought to ex¬
plain. When the bench stands against a wall, a wooden rail must first
be fixed to the wall in a horizontal position, to which the bracket may
be screwed. As for the floor, if this be of stone, concrete, or even
earth, it is always desirable that the bench should stand on a very low
platform, and it will be better for the wall behind the bench, if it be of
brick or stone, to be match-boarded. The utility of this will appear
presently.
468. First, as to the dimensions of a bench ; these must depend very
much upon space, for the bench must be made according to the room
at command, very much in the same way that a coat must Convenient
be cut according to one's cloth. The following will be dimensions
found convenient dimensions : length, from 5ft. to 7ft.; for bench-
breadth, from ift. 6in. to 2ft. 6in. ; height, from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. The
height must be regulated by the height of him who has to use it. A
tall man will require a higher bench than a short man, for it is de¬
sirable not to stoop over the bench more than is absolutely necessary
in planing, etc. A nice size for ordinary work done by the amateur
is, length, 6ft. ; breadth, 2ft. ; height, 3ft.
469. Next let us glance at the way in which a bench for temporary
service may be put together, as it is often convenient to knock up a
rough bench of this kind for use when making any struc- Bench for
ture out of doors at too great a distance from the work- temporary
shop to allow of constant walking backwards and forwards service,
for planing and other operations that must be done at the bench.
470. First get out four pieces of quartering, about 3in.X2j£in., and
some strips of board, about 3m. wide, or a little more, and iin. thick;
a board of white deal, 11 in. wide, maybe ripped down in three lengths
Fig. 216. trestle or end of bench, Something else. And more
than this, no nails or fragments of nails will be left in the wood to
hurt teeth of saw or edge of plane-iron.
for this purpose. Three pieces
of the same kind of board 6ft.
long must also be provided,
and some 2in. and 2^ in.
screws ; about Preliminary
three dozen of operations.
each will suffice. In putting
together a temporary bench of
this description, or any kind
of work that is to be taken to
pieces again, use screws instead
of nails, as by screws less in¬
jury is done to the wood, and
it may be utilised when it has
served its first purpose for
194 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
471. Having got the wood all ready, take two pieces of quartering,
and lay them down on a flat surface parallel to each other, and two
Construction ^eet aPart> from outside edge to outside edge, that is to
Of end or say, from A to B, in fig. 216, and from CtoD; cut a piece
trestle. Qf W00(j E from the wood that you have ripped down,
taking care that the ends are square with the top and bottom, and
screw it to the quartering with some of the larger screws—not less
than four being used. Then screw on another piece, F, diagonally
from A to D, taking care that the pieces of quartering are still exactly
two feet apart along the line included between C and D. Turn over
the pieces of wood thus screwed together, and screw on the pieces G,
H, in a precisely similar yf- ^ Sf.--
way on the other side. " T~o a xpppfY u
When raised from the L-^
ground the trestle that
has thus been made will
be found to be as strong
as a castle. Complete
the work by screwing on
a piece of wood, K, on
the outside face of one
of the legs, reaching
from the ground to a
line just ten inches from
the top of the leg. This,
it must be borne in mind,
Front Of will be the
trestle. front of the
trestle. The reason why
this piece is to be screwed
on will be apparent pre¬
sently. As soon as this
is done make another
trestle similar to this
with the remaining two
pieces of quartering, and
some more of the wood
that was ripped down
at the commencement
of the work, when getting
out the wood all ready
for it.
472. It is now neces¬
sary to connect the tres- „
ties in such a way as to FlG- 2I9- plan of top of bench.
offer a solid framing for the reception of the boards that are to form
the top of the bench. The back and front will be connected in a
totally different manner, and to make this perfectly clear, the elevation
of the back is given in fig. 217, the elevation of the front in fig. 218, and
FIG. 218. ELEVATION OF FRONT OF BENCH.
X Y
| K
;0|
0
Q
'0 i
i 1
1 0 |
IHl
F. i°'i
G
j° 0 j
E jo! loj 6-
ft L
to!
0
1° 1 ii l|1
S O 1 l0! |0|
0 1
0 00
Construction of Front of Bench. 195
the plan of the top in fig. 219. The trestles have been made precisely
alike, so that when they are placed upright the diagonal brace F, in the
illustration of the trestle, will be outside in that which Connection of
stands to the left hand, and inside in that which stands to tlie tresties.
the right; and conversely the brace H will be inside in that which
stands to the left hand, and outside in that which stands to the right.
Care must be taken to preserve this arrangement with the braces
of the trestles, or otherwise some difficulty will be oc- Diagonal
casionedin fixing the diagonal braces at the back. Having braces: their
cut two slips of wood, one 5ft. 6in. long and the other 5ft. posttions for
8in. long, place the trestles so that the front of each rests ao '
on the ground, and the back is uppermost. Screw the shorter piece to
the trestles, as shown in A in fig. 217, and the longer piece as shown in
B. The object in having the upper piece iin. longer on either side
than the lower piece is, that its ends may abut against and cover the
slip marked E in diagram of trestle, on one side, and the slip marked
G on the other. Then screw on the diagonal brace C on the outside,
and the brace D, also placed diagonally, on the inside. In fig. 217, e
shows the end of diagonal brace A on one side, and F, end of diagonal
brace H on the other side, in the diagram of the trestle. Of course
these ends are not in the same but in different trestles respectively.
473. To keep the trestles from displacement during this operation,
it will be found useful to nail two slips of wood across to the face or
front of the trestles before placing the front on the ground, To keep
taking care that the trestles are kept the correct dis- trestles from
tances apart, which is 5ft. 6in., the length assumed as displacement,
convenient for the length of the slip A in fig. 217. Before turning the
frame over to put on the front, screw to the inside of the front legs
the slip shown at A in fig. 218. In this figure, B shows the grain end of
the diagonal brace F, in the diagram of the trestle. As soon as the
slip A in fig. 218 has been screwed on, the frame must be turned over
so that the front is uppermost and the back on the ground. It may be
asked why the slip A (fig. 218) is not screwed on to the outside of the
front instead of the inside. The amateur who is making
_j the bench may screw it to the outside if he likes ; but by
reason of the slips that were screwed to the face of the
front leg of each trestle (see K. in diagram of Construction
trestle), it would project beyond the face of of front,
the board in front of the bench, and be in the way. If
he must put it on the outside it should be done as in fig.
220, and in the following manner: the board C and the
u slip Amust first be firmly fixed in their places, and then a
fig. 220. piece D screwed on below A, and another piece B between
slip in A and c, so that all the pieces which thus combine to form
front of the front of the bench are flush with one another wherever
trestle, they meet and join. It is preferable, however, to keep
the slip A, as in fig. 218, behind, and to have the slips K, K, in one
single piece.
474. The board c, as well as the pieces intended to form the top of
196 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
the bench, was cut exactly 6ft. in length. Before putting these in their
Planing board places it may be as well to rub them over with a plane, as
in front, etc. the carpenter says ; but this need not be done especially,
as the bench is merely intended to serve a temporary purpose. The
board c is 11 in. wide, and the top of each slip marked K is just loin,
from the top of the trestle, so two notches an inch deep must be cut
in the lower edge of the board, so that it may fit over the top of each
slip, the upper edge being on a level with the upper edge of the trestles
on either side. As the length, from outside edge to outside edge of
the legs of the trestles front and back, is 5ft. 6in., and the board C is
6ft. long, a c and d c' will be just 3m., and the length of the notches a b
and d b' will be exactly the width of k, which is the width of the nar¬
rowest part of the quartering, namely, 2^in. Cut the notches so that
they may fit tightly over the tops of the slips k, k ; and when the board
is fairly placed in position, as shown in fig. 218, screw it firmly to the
trestles, taking care to bury the head of every screw well in the wood,
to do which with ease a depression for its reception maybe made with
a bit for countersinking. Every screw must be greased before being
driven into its place, as then it can be withdrawn easily whenever the
bench is taken to pieces.
475. The frame is now nearly complete, but something more yet
remains to be done before putting on the top, and that is to cut two
Completion notches—one at x V in B in fig. 217, and the other at x'y"
of frame, in c in fig. 218—about 4m. long and iin. deep, in order to
receive a bearer, crossing the frame from the slip B to the board C,
which will help to support the boards that form the top. This bearer
is shown in the plan of the top in fig. 219 by the dotted lines xx'y y'.
When this has been secured with screws the frame is ready to receive
Making and the top, which will be 2ft. 2in. from outside to outside,
putting The board K K must therefore be placed on the top, so
on top. tjiat ;ts outer edge is flush with the slip B, in fig. 217 ; and
the board l l, so that its outer edge is flush with the surface of the
board c, in fig. 218. They must then be screwed down, as indicated in
the figures, to the slip B, the board c, the cross-pieces E, G, of each
trestle, and the bearer x x' yy1, whose positions are shown by the
transverse dotted lines in fig. 219, the horizontal dotted lines showing
the edges of the slip B and the board C. The dotted lines in figs. 217 and
218 show the position of the boards k k, l l, when placed on the top
of the frame. A space of 4m. now remains between these boards;
this may be left as it is, but to save the annoyance of small tools, etc.,
tumbling through when thrown on the bench, it is better to cut a slip
to fit tightly into the opening, and close it up altogether.
476. The bench is now complete as far as it goes, and is strong
enough for any practical purpose, though not very good-looking.
Fittings for There are, however, certain adjuncts required, which
bench.. must now be described, and these are fittings which will
serve as substitutes for the bench-vice and the bench-stop. If the
amateur is content with a bench of this sort until he can find time til
intake a better one, he may as well put in a bench-stop at once, as
Substitutes for Bench-stop and Bench-vice. 197
described further on; but in the bench under consideration it is
sought to injure the wood as little as possible, and a substitutes
substitute for a bench-stop may be found in the inser- for
tion of two thick, stiff screws close together, for planing bench-stop,
the surfaces of pieces of quartering, etc., and further apart for planing
the surface of a board. Indeed, supposing the end of a rough bench
to be represented in fig. 221, A being the board nearest the operator,
a line b c, at right angles to the edge d E, may t>e drawn with the
square, and two screws inserted about xin. or i%'m. c
apart, as at F G, and a third about 3m. or 4in. from
G, as at H. These screws can be raised or lowered
at pleasure to suit the thickness of the wood that
is being planed. The screws should be thick, as
it has been said, and have a large deeply-cut
thread. The same object may be attained in
another manner, namely, by nailing or screwing pJ(J 2n SUBSTITUTE
down a slip of wood to the top of the bench, as at K; F0'R bench-stop.
but as no piece of wood that is less than, or equal
to, the slip in thickness can be planed with such a contrivance as this,
as the plane would not pass over it, it seems that the screws afford a
more serviceable arrangement.
477* A contrivance for holding a board against the front of the
bench while its edges are being planed must now be sought out, and
this may be effected in the manner
shown in fig. 222. At the distance of
from 9in. to I2in. from the end of the
board which forms the front of the
bench and along its entire length, with
this exception, a slip of wood, A, is
screwed, about i%in. thick and ij£in.
deep. This slip may be substitute for
fixed in this position, and bench-vice,
remain so until the bench is taken to
pieces ; its upper edge should be about
4in. from the lower edge of the front
b of the bench. As there is now a
space of 8in. between the upper edge
of this slip and the surface of the board C, which forms the top of the
bench in front, it is manifest that any board whether Construction
9in. or uin. wide may be planed along its uppermost °f
edge, while the lower edge rests on the slip, as shown oon nvance-
in the diagram by d. If the wood whose edges are to be planed
be very narrow, another temporary slip must be screwed on to the
bench front higher up, as a rest to receive the lower edge of the
board, so that the upper edge may be raised above the top of the
bench. A stout piece of wood, say 2>£in. thick, 6in. wide, and 8in.
long, that will not readily split, should then be cut in the shape
shown at E, in fig. 222, above, and in longitudinal section in fig.
323. Let d e, in fig. 223 be 3^in., then, through c make a vertical
Fig. 222. substitute for
bench-vice.
198 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
saw-cut to a, just half the depth of de. Set off bj\ equal to a quarter
the depth of d e, and then join a b, and cut through the wood from
b to a; the part that is severed from the block by the saw-cuts
c a and b a will come away, leaving a slant¬
ing face a b about 5 m. long or very nearly
so. The block is then screwed to the front
of the bench, as shown at E in fig. 223 ; but
~pc care should be taken to bring the line H K,
Fig. 223. section of sub- (fig. 222) through which the screws pass,
stitute for bench-vice, exactly opposite the central line down the
front of the front-leg of the trestle that stands to the left, so that
additional strength may be obtained by the entry of the screws into
the leg of the bench. Substantial screws, at least 5in. in length,
should be employed for this purpose, and the heads should be deeply
buried in the block, provision being made for this with a countersinker.
When the board has been placed in position, abutting against the sur¬
face a c of the block, two wedges, F and G, flat on the side next the
board and bevelled on the other side to correspond with the slanting
surface of the block a b, must be driven in with two or three sharp
blows. These wedges will hold the board as firmly as the ordinary
bench-vice. There are other means of making a stop, or quasi-vice,
to hold the end of the board, but they need not be described. One or
two methods will doubtless suggest themselves to every intelligent
amateur mechanic.
478. Another plan for securing the board, whose edges are to be
planed, to the front board of the bench, is to make some buttons or
Another shaPe shown in the annexed figure in
simple section, and screw them to the front board,
substitute, so as to hold down the lower edge of the
board, and the end furthest from the operator. The
space, or rebate, in the button at A may be made iin. in
depth, so as to button tightly over an inch board. If the
board be less in thickness, a slip of wood equal to the
difference between the space at a and the thickness of the
board must be inserted, so as to keep the board whose
edges are to be planed from moving. H
479. The merits of the bench that has just been described fig. 224.
Merits of this are, that it is easily made, even by an amateur button for
Mna who can do little more than make a straight holding
of bench. saw_cutj an(j that there is nothing that presents board.
any difficulty that cannot be overcome in the way of providing sub¬
stitutes for the bench-stop and bench-vice. The amateur, how*
ever, will never rest content with such a bench as this, however
well it may serve his purpose for temporary work out of doors,
or as a makeshift even in the workshop itself; and one of his first
Amateur will seri°us undertakings in carpentry, when he is able to
mate better manage his tools tolerably well—provided always that he
benoh. has not purchased a bench, either new or secondhand,
Or had one made by a carpenter—will be to make a bench for himself.
Ordinary Carpenter's Bench. i<><)
480. This bench will either be an ordinary carpenter's bench, made
very much on the lines that we have already laid down for the tem¬
porary bench, or one replete with shelves, drawers, recesses, ordinary
and various fittings of one kind or another suited for carpenter's
his peculiar requirements. Let us first consider the chief bench,
points in a plain bench, made in the usual manner, and then see what
mode of construction may be adopted for utilising the General
open space that there is between the four legs of the principles of
frame and the top of the bench and the ground on which construction,
the bench stands. Supposing the bench were 3ft. high, 2ft. wide, and
6ft. long, outside measurement every way, roughly speaking there
would be about 36 cubic feet of empty space below the table, which is
too much to be wasted in a small workshop, especially when it may
be turned to account with but little trouble, as we shall see presently.
481. For the ordinary carpenter's bench that we are about to describe,
let us take the above dimensions, namely, height 3ft., width 2ft., and
length 6ft., as these will be found convenient for the ma- convenient
jority of amateurs, and let us see how it may be provided dimensions,
with bench-stop, bench-holdfast, and ordinary bench-vice with wooden
screw. We will next consider varieties in the form of bench-vices and
bench-stops, and after describing the shooting-board, a useful adjunct
or accompaniment to the bench, used for squaring-up the edges of
pieces, proceed to what we may term, for want of a better name, the
" composite " bench.
482. The first step to be taken is to provide some quartering of
different dimensions, that is to say, about 12ft. of 3m. X2j£in. for the
uprights or legs, about 36ft. of 2^in.X2j^in. for the hori- preparation
zontal pieces of the frame, 4ft. of board 9m. wide and of different
lYin. thick, and 24ft. of board 9m. wide and i^in- Parts-
thick. If the bench is to be 3ft. in height from the ground to the top
of it, cut off 4 lengths of 2ft. nin. from the wood provided for the up¬
rights, and plane them up. Next cut 5 lengths of the smaller quar¬
tering 6ft. long, and 2 lengths 2ft. long, and plane these up also;
lastly, cut 2 pieces of the 1 Y in. board 2oin. in length, and plane up
these as well, bringing the sides to a smooth surface, and making the
edges true and square.
483. When this has been done, the necessary steps may be taken
for putting all these pieces together, which
will be done with mortise jointing pieoes
and tenon joints. Let us together,
frame together the ends first of all, and
let fig. 225 serve as an illustration of the
method to be adopted in doing this. In
this representation of either end of the
bench, let the broad side or width of the
uprights be supposed to face the reader,
as shown in A and B. The piece C has
pIG 225 already been cut 2oin. long ; cut D to the
bnd of carpenter's BENCH, same length, and then proceed to cut the
!i;
c
"?!
!Li
A
B
D
II
2oo Household Carpentry and Joinery.
ends of each into tenons iin. in length. Cut the tenons at either end of
D to one-third the thickness of the wood ; but let the ends of c be cut in
the manner indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 225, and on a larger
Double tenon scale in fig. 226. The wood is i^in. thick, therefore
desirable. a rebate must be cut in it iin. wide and ^fin. deep,
and the rebate thus made, as shown in transverse section at A, must
be cut as shown in B, in which there is a tenon all the way down, for
the width of % 'm., the remainder being cut away so as to
leave two projecting pieces of about 2%'in. long, the re¬
maining 4>^in. being equally distributed in lengths of
i^in. over the three notches at a, b, and c. This is an
adaptation of the form of tenon shown in page 175, at fig.
175. Cut mortises in A and B to receive the tenons that
have been cut at the ends of c and D, and fit the pieces
together. The tenons should fit tightly into the mortises,
but not so tightly that they cannot be withdrawn without
great force. The opposite end must be made in pre¬
cisely the same way.
Fig. 226.
form of
tenons.
484. The narrow faces of the uprights were to be 2 J4'm. wide, and it
will be useful to suppose that these are the actual dimensions after the
Construction w0°d has been planed up. The bench is to be 6ft. long,
of bench from end to end, and the length of the horizontal pieces of
continued. the framing, from shoulder to shoulder of the tenons at the
ends, must be exactly 5ft. 7m. We are supposing that the boards com¬
posing the top and front are to be 6ft. long, and that their ends are to
be flush with the ends of the bench ; but such a frame as is now being
described will allow of the use of boards 6ft. 6in. long, so that they
will overlap 3m. at the ends on either side. To return
1 to the horizontal pieces of the framing, the tenons at
the ends of these must be 2j£in. long and one-third of
the width of the stuff. The tenons at the ends of the
of>"upperEbar' uPPermost horizontal bars should be cut as in fig. 227,
' and the mortises as shown by the shaded parts in fig.
225 ; three in the front legs, and two—one at top and one at bottom-
in the uprights behind.
Tbtons of A third bar K B N
uppermost maybe added
bars. jn ^ |3acji
part as well as in the front,
and it will be as well to
do this, for it will give
additional strength and
firmness to the bench.
The reason is now clear
why the tenons of the
pieces C and D, in fig. 225,
are not made longer than
h
d !
f a
c
Fig. 228. front of carpenter's bench.
they are, for being no more than iin. in length they do not interfere
With the tenons of the horizontal pieces being carried right through
Uprights in Front of Bench.
201
the uprights, so as to show the end grain of the former. When the
whole of the framing has been put together, the front will completion
present the appearance represented in fig. 228, and the of frame,
back will look like this too, if a third rail has been put in between the
two others at top and bottom ; and, if not it will look like fig. 228, with
the middle rail A removed. When it has been ascertained that all the
tenons fit fairly tight into the mortises, and the shoulders of the tenons
fit closely to and squarely againstthe parts on which they butt, they must
be glued and put into place for the last time, and the whole frame pinned
together with wooden pegs, driven through each mortise and the tenon
is thrust into it. The frame is now complete,
[ ; : and ready for the top and front.
) c •' !c 485. In making a bench it is usual to have the
j | uprights intended for the front legs or uprights 1 %xs\.
\ jj wider than the back uprights, so that uprights for
— d • r t*ie ^ace may be cut as shown in fig. bench.
229 for the reception of the fronts. In this figure, A
shows the side, and B the front of a piece thus cut.
The piece c is taken right away, so that the board that
forms the front of the bench may be dropped into the
g A recess thus made. The top of the projection is cut in
a slanting direction from the inside to the outside of
the upright, and the board notched accordingly, to fit
F:.-. 3*9- urr.jGHTs over the angle. The simple notch shown in the trestle
in front of bench. tke temporary bench does equally as well, although it
weakens the board more and there is more chance of the end or corner
beyond the leg splitting off or being knocked off. As no provision
of this kind has been made for letting the front board into the upright,
all that is required to be done is to screw a piece of wood on to the face
of the upright of the same thickness as the board, in order that the
latter may appear flush with the face of the projecting part thus added
to the upright. The top should be cut of the shape shown in fig. 229,
and the board notched accordingly.
486. With regard to the centre rail A in fig. 228, it may be added to
the framing or dispensed with altogether, at the pleasure of the maker
of the bench. When introduced it gives additional stability 0entre rail
to the structure, if we may apply such a word to a simple in front of
framing of uprights and rails ; and although its presence is bench,
more important in the front than in the back of the bench, it is, we are
inclined to think, better to have it in the back also, for reasons which
will appear presently. It is also desirable to put a board at the back
of the bench similar to that which is fixed in front, faces being screwed
on to the legs below to bring them flush with its surface, or a rebate
being made for its reception as already described. The boards at
front and back are not to be screwed on until the interior of the bench
is completed, which we will now proceed to describe.
487. At the end of the bench to the left hand the wooden screw of
the bench-vice will enter, and work backwards and forwards, and
provision must be made for its reception. The space between tfie
: I'
c
1
• £
" D
B
A
202 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
boards in front and behind must be left open so that nothing may
Provision in hinder the progress of the screw, and no attempt must be
front for made to enclose the bench by boarding up the space within
screw of which the screw works, as this would prevent us from making
enc ce. pr0per use 0f the old-fashioned bench-stop and bench-hold¬
fast, if these be used in putting the bench together and fitting it up. The
end to the right hand, however, may be boarded at the bottom so as to
Weil in form a well for the reception of saws and large tools, which
bench for it may be convenient to stow away in such a depository,
tools. Returning, then, to fig. 228, and taking this to be a fair
example of the framing requisite in front and rear of the bench, the
central rail A being introduced in both parts of the frame, insert a
Another mode cross-piece of wood from front to back as shown at C D,
of making cutting grooves for its reception to the depth of in
wel1' the rails a and B, and letting the end showing the grain
project between the rails on either side and come flush with the outer
surface of the rails, as at e. Screw a slip of wood, or cleat, as it is
technically termed, to this cross-piece at F, and another to the end rail
at g, and then lay pieces of board as shown at h from rail to rail, the
ends being flush with the outer surface of the rails on either side. A
shallow well about 6 inches deep will thus be formed for the purpose
indicated to the right of the bench.
If the central rails have been dis¬
pensed with and it is still desired
to make a well, a convenient method
1 e. e e 1 of doing this is shown in fig. 230.
In this let A represent the inner
L_
Fig. 230. method of making well surface of the board at the back
in bench. of the bench. To this, at a dis¬
tance of two-thirds the length of the bench from the right-hand end,
screw the perpendicular slip B, and the horizontal slip C, the latter
being fixed flush with the edge of the board if it be wished to make
the well as deep as possible, or higher up if a shallow one be
desired. Let the end D abut against the slip B. Screw slips similar
to these to the inside surface of the front board, and when the framing
has been completed by fixing these boards in the proper position,
lay boards as at e, e, e, along the horizontal slips on either side,
the slips forming supports for the ends of the boards. Let the side of
the first board touch the slip B. Then, at the distance of ^"in. or iin.
from B, screw on another slip F, which forms with B a groove on
either side, into which a board 2^in. or iin. thick, according to width
of groove, may be dropped, forming one end of the well, theend rail of
the framing, as before, constituting the other end. Provision for the
well must in all cases be made before the frame is put together,
especially when a centre rail is used in the framing at front and back,
as shown in fig. 228 at A.
488. When the front board is screwed on to the framing, if it be
allowed to project a little beyond the uprights, say to the extent of
two or three inches, the appearance or elevation of the front of the
Front of Bench : Bench-screw.
203
bench will be like that shown in fig. 231 ; but the bench is yet incom¬
plete, for the bench-stop and bench-vice have to be added, and the top
has to be Front of
put on. bench.
Of the bench-vice we
can speak at once, but
as the old-fashioned
bench-stop has to pass
through the top, men¬
tion of this had better
be left until the top
comes under conside¬
ration.
489. The bench-
vice — it must be
FIG. 231. FRONT OF BENCH WHEN COMPLETE.
remembered that we are now speaking of the wooden adjunct to the
bench, and not the iron holding-tool also called a "bench- Bench-vice:
vice," because it is often attached to one end of the bench its
to hold a piece of metal for filing—consists of a broad, construction,
solid cheek, a wooden screw, and a nut or female screw attached to the
framing or front board in which the screw works. In fig. 232 the con¬
struction of the bench-screw is shown in section, with the The bench-
exception of the screw, the thread of which is drawn screw.
entire, to show its purpose the
better. The screw a b has a solid
head a, perforated, as at c, for the
reception of a wooden peg or bar
d, which works easily in the hole c,
and is furnished with a knob at
each end to prevent it from slip¬
ping out while the screw is being
turned, or when it is at rest, if
this bar happen to be vertical. The
neck of the screw passes through
FIG. 232. BENCH-SCREW.
a solid piece of wood e, about i8in. long, 9m. wide, and 2in. thick, and
the shoulder of the screw-head a abuts against this board and forces it
against the front of the bench when the screw is turned in, or against
anything that may be placed between this solid cheek and the face of
the bench holding it firmly. The thread of the screw is deeply cut,
and the screw itself, after passing through a hole f cut for it in the front
board of the bench, works in a large nut or block of wood in which a
female screw is cut, and which may be fixed between the rails of the
bench h h, as at g, or bedded against and screwed to these rails, as
shown by the space K K. If there be no rails—for sometimes even the
top rail is dispensed with, much to the detriment of the bench—the
block in which the screw works must be attached to the front board.
The position of the bench-vice is shown in fig. 231 at a, and that of the
block in which the screw works at k in fig. 228. This, it must be said,
is the most ordinary form of bench-vice or bench-screw that is used.
204 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
The screws may be purchased at from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each, accord-
Cost of i°g to size, at any shop where carpenters' tools are sold,
bench-screws. The cheek is not included in the screw. Bench-screws
of iron are more expensive, costing from 3s. 6d. each to 9s. or 10s.
Excellent iron and wood bench-screws are supplied by Messrs.
Churchill and Co. The prices of the wooden bench-screws are :—2in.
in diameter, is. 6d. ; 2Xin., is. 7d. ; 2>£in., is. 8d. The wrought iron
bench-screws, cut with double thread and fitted with wood handles
and movable collars are :—iin. in diameter, is. 6d. ; i^in., is. iod.;
i^in.,2s. 3d.; i>£in., 3s. These bench-screws are remarkably cheap,
and are strong, well made, and serviceable.
490. For cutting a tenon at the end of a rail or upright, the wood
may be placed in the bench-screw and screwed tightly against the
Uses of the bench ; but when it is necessary to plane the edges of a
bench-screw, board, it is requisite to provide some support for it along
the front of the bench. In the temporary bench this was managed by
screwing slips horizontally to the piece of wood that formed the front;
Addiiionai but in the permanent bench the same end is secured by
supports for making two or three rows of holes in the front board, as
boards, shown in fig. 231, into which pegs are inserted, on which
the lower edge of the board rests, the end furthest from the operator
being held tightly in the bench-screw.
491. Let us now proceed to the construction of the top of the bench,
which is shown in plan in fig. 233. Of this it may be first said that
Construction if there be no well in the bench, all that is to be done is
of top to screw the two '9m. boards, that were originally pro¬
of bench. vj(je(j t0 form part of the top, on to the rails and boards
at the front and back of the bench, and then to fill up the space of 6
inches that remains between these boards with another board cut to
fit; but if there is to
be a well, cut a strip
1 }4 in. wide off each
board, reducing them
to a width of 73^in.,
leaving a space of
9in. between them
when put in the posi¬
tion they are to oc-
c |: H L d cupy. The solid lines
Fig. 233. plan of top of bench in the figure represent
the edges ofthe boards
as they appear to view when the top is complete. The dotted lines from A
to B and from c to D represent the edges of the boards forming the front
and back of the bench ; and the dotted lines from A to C and from B to D
the edges of the end rails of the bench. Those from E to F represent the
upper edge of the board let into grooves formed by slips, as shown in
fig. 230, to form one end of the well, the end rail of the bench to the right
being the other. Two bearers are notched into the boards at front
and back, and fixed in position as shown by the dotted lines from G to
A E C "|< B
: >
: ; :s 1 ;
; : I J o • -
P
. T! j '
! w ! : ■
; M .
Y
N
! j
X i ;
Pz i i i Bi-
; i v ' ! ■ !
P
' i i
u : !
":.-t "i
Covering for Well: Bench-stop. 205
H and from K to L. Before the boards forming the top are put on, the
rectangular space s t u v is entirely open, forming the well. The
boards on either side may now be laid on the top of the bench and
marked, so that two slips, m and n, may be screwed to their under
surface, forming, with the bearers g h and k l (or such of these as
may project beyond the boards w, x, whose edges rest on them), a rest¬
ing place for the board y, which forms the cover for the covering
well. A rebate might have been cut in the board on each wen.
side of the well at m and n to receive the cover, which must also be
rebated, to fit into the rebates of the others, and the slips dispensed
with ; but the amateur will often find it useful to form a rebate in this
manner instead of cutting one, and this mode of doing so may as well
be adopted here. Moreover, it suits the width of the boards employed,
which are 9m. wide ; and if a rebate of >£in. had been cut on
either side it would have been necessary, in order to save waste, to
torm the rebate in the well cover by bradding on slips square,
so that it is as broad as it is long any way, to use an old saying. Next,
a board 9m. wide and 6ft. 6in. long must be taken, and cut into
three parts, corresponding to the parts marked w, y, and x in the
figure. The pieces w and x may be joined to the boards on either
side by a groove and slip-feather, or by a dove-tail groove (see p. 181) ;
the whole being glued up, but the amateur will find it easier to dowel
them together with pegs. When dry the top may be screwed on to
the bench, or nailed on—it does not matter which ; but in either case
the heads of the screws or nails, as the case may be, should be deeply
buried in the wood. When the top has been screwed on, the opening
o P Q R is left for the admission of tools into the well, and into this
opening the piece of board y will drop nicely. It will perhaps occur
to the reader that the opening to the well has been made as large as
possible first to facilitate the putting in and taking out of such a tool
as tne hand-saw, and to leave as little space as possible covered between
the ends and sides ol tne well, so that the hand may be passed with
ease to any corner of it in search of any small tool that may have
been put in or dropped in. The amateur, however, is cautioned
against keeping any small tools in such a depository as the bench
d , E we^> which is best calculated for saws, planes, squares,
■'■[Ill hammers, and any large and heavy tools of this kind.
IIH 492. The next thing to be considered is the bench¬
es stop, against which a board may be fixed during the
|||| process of planing its sides. In its simplest form it is
a rectangular block of wood, about 2 inches square and
8 inches or 9 inches long. The shaded square marked
Z in fig. 233 is a good place for it, because, as shown
in fig. 234, in which A is the bench-stop The bench-
in section, one side lies closely against the stop: its
Fig. 234. end rail B on the left of the bench, while obstruction.
bench-stop, against the other side a stop can be abutted as at C ;
and, indeed, additional stops may be placed on the other sides, so that
the depth of the socket in which the bench-stop works may be in-
206
Household Carpentry and Joinery.
creased as much as possible. A hole is cut in the top of the bench
for the bench-stop to pass through, and the top of the stop is furnished
with a piece of iron, d, cut so that its edge presents four or five points
which enter the edge of any piece of wood pressed against it as at e,
and prevents it from moving sideways. The stop is moved up and
down by knocking it at the bottom or at the top as may be requisite,
and when it is down its top should be flush with, or slightly below, the
surface of the top of the bench, a groove being cut for the reception
of the projecting teeth. With this addition the carpenter's bench,
in its most simple and ordinary form, may be considered complete.
493. There was an old Indian officer of artillery, long since gone to
his rest, who was an adept in sketching and drawing in pen and ink
An and painting in oil colours. He was also very fond of
additional smoking, and finding some little difficulty in managing
hand. his pipe or hookah, when he had his palette in one hand
and his brush in the other, was prone at times to wish for a third hand
as supplementary to the other two, which he could put on pipe duty
when the other two were otherwise engaged. Possibly many a car¬
penter in olden times has wished for a third hand to hold down a piece
of wood tight to the bench while he was cutting a mortise in it, holding
his mallet in his right hand and a chisel in his left hand; and the
wish, in process of time, was the parent of the bench-holdfast, in a
certain sense.
494. Anything more unpromising, at first sight, for the purpose for
which it is used than the bench-holdfast can scarcely be found. Its
iron holdfast shape, and the mode of
for bench, using it, is shown in fig.
235. The holdfast is a simple hook of
iron, one side of which is short and ter¬
minates in a broad flat plate, while the
other side is much longer. When it is
desired to make use of it in order to
hold a piece of wood a, shown in sec¬
tion, tightly to the top of the bench b,
the shank c is passed through a hole
D, cut in the top of the bench, and
larger than the diameter of the shank,
and the wood is placed under the flat FlG- 235- bench holdfast.
disc e, and a blow or two given to the holdfast on the top of the bend
its construe- F to it tightly. To prevent any injury to the surface of
tion and the piece of wood a from the disc of the bench hook, a
operation. pjece gf w00(i may fc,e slipped in between a and the iron,
which will prevent it from sustaining any damage. To make the hole
at D a little deeper a collar, G G, may be attached to the under part of
the bench in continuation of the hole. When it is desired to release
the wood the hook must be hit lightly with the hammer at H, which
will produce the desired effect. From the shape of the holdfast, whose
arms diverge and become wider apart the farther they are from the
bend f, it is manifest that a blow at f will cause the sides of the kmg
The Bench-stop and Bench-holdfast. 207
Fig. 236.
j?4proved holdfast.
shank or arm C to press tightly against the hole through which it
passes at the points k and l, and it remains in
this position because there is but little, if any,
force in an upward direction to lift it out of its
place. For this reason a blow at the back of the
hook is necessary to loosen it and bring it up.
495. In the improved holdfast shown in fig.
236, the principle of construction is the same, but
the tightening of the hook and its improved
loosening are effected by the action holdfast,
of a screw A, which passes through the end of
the short arm B, opposite the disc c, and acts
on the long shank at D, just above the part
where it is bent to form an arm into which the
short limb is fastened, as at E.
496. A pair of holdfasts afford a useful sub¬
stitute for a bench-screw in holding a piece of
wood to the front of the bench so that its edges may be planed. The
method adopted for using it for such a purpose as this is shown in
fig. 237, in which A is the top of Holdfasts aa
the bench, B the front, and c the substitute
wood whoseedges are to beplaned, for bench-
all shown in section. A row of screw'
holes is made a little above the lower edge of
the bench front, as at D, through two of which
the long shanks of a pair of holdfasts are
passed, as shown in the illustration. The
ordinary holdfast costs but little, being merely
a bent iron bar, and such as may be quickly
made by any smith should difficulty be expe¬
rienced in procuring one. The improved hold¬
fasts with screw are more expensive, ranging in
price from 6s. to 9s. 6d., according to size and
quality.
497. The amateur artisan will find it useful to add a simple holdfast
to his tools, and to cut a hole in his bench through which to put the
long shank; but he should trust to it merely for hold- Holdfast
ing down work on the bench, and not as a substitute useful to
for the bench-screw. And when making a bench per- amateur-
manently for his own use, it will be better for him to provide himself
with the improved bench-stop
instead of fitting his bench r-~^F
with an old-fashioned one.
498. The improved or
patent bench-stop is shown
in fig. 238. At A it is closed, „ Q
at B it is raised ready for use. flg' 238- '"proved bench-stop.
In appearance it looks something like a hinge, and indeed is made on
that principle. A hole is sunk in the top of the bench for the reception
'4
fig. 237. holdfast
as bench-screw.
so8 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
of the stop, which is let into the wood until its top is level with the sur-
Improvedor face of the bench. On raising the screw E, the part D,
patent bench- which is attached to the lower part or bed C by a hinge
Btop' joint, rises, and presents above the surface of the bench,
as shown at B, a row of teeth, F, against which the edge of the board
to be planed is pressed. Thus, with this patent bench-stop, the in¬
convenience of knocking the old-fashioned stop up and down to
the desired height is obviated, the same effect being gained by a few
turns of the screw. The price of this kind of stop ranges from is. 2d.
to 2S. 3d., according to size.
499. The shooting-board has been mentioned in a previous page,
and a description has been promised of it which it may be as well to
The shooting- give here. It is very simple, being merely two boards of
board. different widths screwed together, so as to form a rebate
in which any piece of wood whose edges are to be planed and squared
up may be rested. It is used on the bench. It will be of great assist¬
ance to the amateur to possess one of these boards, which he may get
made for him by any carpenter if he is not skilful enough to do the
work for himself.
500. The construction and principle of the shooting-board may be
best explained by the aid of a diagram in section, as in fig. 239. In
its construo- this A represents the top of the bench, and B the front, C
tion and being the shooting-board. This is composed of two pieces
principle. Gf w00(jj one a wide piece and the other a narrow piece,
the narrow piece being laid on the wide piece as E lies on F. The
boards are screwed together, and it is necessary that the edges G and
Fig. 239. section of shooting- k whose edge is to be squared up
board. is laid. To do this, the shooting-
board is laid on the bench as shown in the diagram, and abutted against
tl ;e bench-stop. A stop is also screwed across the end furthest from the
operator, to prevent the board K from moving out of its place while
its edge is being shot. The shooting-board may be held firmly down
to the bench by the aid of a pair of holdfasts. When all is ready, a
jack-plane or trying-plane L—either will do—is taken and laid on its
side on the bench, so that the cutting-iron is turned towards and
touches the edge of the board to be squared up. The plane is then
moved along the bench, which can be done easily enough, and the
operation of planing the edge is performed with the plane in this
position, the side being slid along the bench, which acts as a guide for
it. In the same manner, the edge G of the lower of the boards that
compose the shooting-board acts as a guide to the sole of the plane.
501. It will occur to the reader, without doubt, that a shooting-
board thus made can only be used for planing boards of a certain
H of both boards should be per¬
fectly straight and even, and that
the edge H should be parallel to
the edge G. The boards thus con¬
structed and put together form a
broad rebate, in which any board
Universal Shooting-board. 209
width, the width in any case corresponding to that of the rebate formed
by the two boards. It is dangerous to attempt to shift utility °*
the upper and narrower board, lest by any mischance shooting-
the edges G and H should be rendered not parallel to one
another. Here, however, is a hint for a Universal Shoot¬
ing-board, to suit all widths up to uin. Let the lower board A in
qUo fig. 240 be 13m. in width,
hrlB and let the up- Universal
AhdMbMAufTrn* per board B be ahnnting.
V ■ . —1 2in., so that the board.
Fig. 240. universal shooting- difference in their width is
board (section). just uin., the width of the
widest board usually obtainable in deal. Across the width of A, two,
three, or more grooves, C, are cut, according to the length of the board,
in each of which travels backwards and forwards the square head of a
bolt, which is kept in place by two plates or flanges of metal laid over
the opening of the groove,
at a width apart just suf¬
ficient to allow the shank
of the bolt to work up and
down with ease. The upper 241. universal shooting-board.
surface of each metal plate (plan.)
is graduated in inches and parts of inches. A nut that can be turned
with the thumb and fingers passes over the screw-end of the bolt, which
passes in its turn through the central line, longitudinally, of the narrow
board B. Now it is plain on looking at fig. 241, that the its con-
board B, by relaxing the nut or thumbscrew at the upper struotion and
end of each bolt, can be moved to any distance from the prlnoli:)l0,
edge CC up to 1 iin., and secured in that position by tightening the thumb¬
screws. The metal plates at C, C, being graduated, it must follow that
if the board B be correctly set its edges must be parallel with the edge
CC, and either side of the board A can be used with pleasure for
shooting the edges of other boards. To hold in position the board
whose edges are to be planed, a stop may be provided, attached with
screws at either end of the board, and so transferable at pleasure.
502. Before proceeding to what, for want of a better and more
appropriate name, we have called the " composite " bench, it is neces¬
sary to return for a brief time to the bench-screw. The great evil of the
ordinary bench-screw is, that it is apt to get strained, and fails to grip
fairly any thick piece of wood, as a piece of quartering, Eyu 0f
placed between the cheek and the front of the bench, ordinary
The head of the screw is in the centre and bears directly 11 'Borew*
against the centre of the cheek, and it is not difficult to see that when
a piece of wood is put in on one side and the check screwed tightly up
against it, there will be a tendency on that side of the check which
bears against the wood to project a little further than the other side,
which is pressed inward by the screw-head, but meets with no piece
of wood within it to counteract this force and keep the inner side of
the cheek parallel in all parts of its surface to the face of the bench
2io Household Carpentry and Joinery.
front. To overcome this tendency many contrivances have been sug¬
gested and brought into use, some of which are well worth our con¬
sideration, and which it may be useful to describe here.
503. The most simple means of preserving parallelism between the
faces of the bench-front and the cheek of the bench-vice is to be found,
perhaps, in the use of a second and smaller screw attached to the bench-
cheek, and passing through the bench-leg opposite to which the
Regulation cheek is placed, as shown in fig. 242. In this illustra-
of paraneiism tion, A represents the bench-top, B the bench-front, C the
benoh6and bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E
bench-vice, the bench-screw, and F the block which is attached to
the back of the bench-leg, and through which the screw works. The
smaller screw G, by which the parallelism between the bench and
* bench-vice is preserved, is fastened im¬
movably to the bench-vice at its head H,
and passes freely through a hole bored
through the bench-leg at K. The nuts L
and M work up and down the screw at the
pleasure of the operator. When it is re¬
quired to move the vice inwards or out¬
wards, it is clear that the nuts must bs
turned till one reaches the head H and the
other the end G of the screw, and that when
the cheek of the bench-vice D has been
brought inward or outwards to the extent
required, the nuts must be again turned in
the contrary direction until they are brought
against the bench-leg. This necessarily in¬
volves a great deal of trouble, and causes a
great waste of time. Moreover, a hole must
be sunk in the face of the bench-leg large enough to receive the nut M ;
for if this were not done the face of the bench-cheek could never be
brought into close proximity to the bench-leg.
504. Having now some idea of the broad principle of the method
by which parallelism between the bench-vice and bench-leg may be
The Croix de obtained and preserved as long as may be needed, let us
St. Pierre, turn to another method by which the same end may be
attained without the least trouble and loss of time. This ingenious con¬
trivance for keeping the inner surface of the cheek of the bench-vice
parallel to the outer surface of the board that forms the front of the
bench is the " Croix de St. Pierre," or, " St. Peter's Cross," as it is
called on the continent, where it is very generally adopted and used
by all carpenters and joiners.
505. In fig. 243 the Croix de St. Pierre, its manner of action, and
ita con- the mode of fixing it, is shown in a section of the bench and
struction bench-vice, which affords the most convenient method of
and action, exhibiting these points clearly and intelligibly. In this
figure, as in fig. 242, A represents the bench-top, B the bench-front,
c the bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E the
rrinllYl
B
(MM
HL_
£
1
F
D
H
L
M
c
ii
m
MSj
K
|lZ
1-1
C
-
FIG. 242. REGULATION OF
PARALLELISM BETWEEN
BENCH AND BENCH - VICE.
The Croix de St. Pierre.
211
bench-screw, and F the block at the back of the bench-leg, perforated
by a female screw, in which the bench-screw E works. It will be
noticed that in this and
the last figure, the cheek
of the bench-vice, instead
of being about the depth
of the board which forms
the bench-front or a little
deeper, as in the ordinary
carpenter's bench, is long
and comparatively narrow,
extending downwards
nearly to the ground. It
is, moreover, placed ex¬
actly opposite the leg of
the bench, so that the bars
which form the cross may
be conveniently attached
to both bench and bench-
vice, and work in a suitable
manner. The Croix de St.
Pierre is nothing more than
two flat bars of iron of equal
length connected at the ceii
tre of each by a pin, G, about
which they turn freely. For the reception of the bars, two deep grooves,
H and K, are cut in the bench-leg and cheek of the bench-vice, exactly
opposite to each other, and of the width of the two bars placed together
or just a trifle more. The ends L and M of the bars are fastened by
pins running through the bench-leg and bench-cheek respectively.
The other ends N and o are left free, and work up and down the
bottom of the grooves, which may be lined, if desired, with a piece of
iron-plate cut to fit them exactly. Now, as the bars are secured at the
upper end of each and fastened together in the centre, it is manifest that
they will act in the same manner as a pair of scissors, and that when
the ends L and m are pushed apart or drawn together the ends N
and O will be pushed apart or drawn together in like manner. When
the bench-cheek is close to and touching the bench-front and leg,
the ends N and o of the bars will touch the ends of the grooves ;
but as the screw is turned so as to bring the cheek outwards, the
ends L and M are drawn apart, and the ends N and o follow the
course of the dotted lines, exerting an outward thrust, the one on
the bench-leg and the other on the bench-cheek, and preserving
perfect, parallelism between the faces of the two. When the
screw is turned in the opposite effect is produced, but it may be
necessary to assist the return of the bench-cheek by a little gentle
pressure at the bottom, which might be applied with the foot. This
would be rendered unnecessary if the free ends of the bars were con¬
trived so as to work in a groove similar to that employed for the
FIG. 243. THE CROIX DE ST. PIERRE.
212 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
rack of a window-biind, and as shown in section at p. 'I his, however,
would tend to make the contrivance very costly. I am not aware that
the Croix de St. Pierre is made and sold in England. On the
continent it costs about 5s., but any blacksmith would make the cross
and the irons to line the grooves for less money.
506. Many amateurs will doubtless prefer the broad cheek that
extends for about i8in. along the bench-front, and for this reason—
Broad that it presents a more convenient shape for holding in a
cheek: why vertical position any piece of wood, especially quartering,
preferred. at whose ends it is desired to cut tenons. The St.
Peter's Cross, however, can be easily adapted to a cheek of this
description, and the parallelism can be perfectly preserved by the
help of two screws, which can be
a
;;
B
®F 1 i
(m)e
cj [ i i
H| |
II M|:
1 1
d
k ^
t. m \
c
- NgV
FIG. 244. DOUBLE SCREW FOR
BENCH CHEEK.
easily worked at one and the same
time by a very simple arrange¬
ment. In fig. 244 let A B c D re¬
present the outer face of the cheek,
and E, F, the heads of two iron
screws cut square, so that the
square openings in the arms G, H,
may be fitted over them. At the
other end of each arm are square
projections K, L, over which open¬
ings in another plate, m, may be
fitted, in the centre of which is a handle, n. Now it is evident that
the screws may be turned in or withdrawn at the same time by turning
the handle N to the right or to the left as may be necessary, and that
Mode of pre- by the double screw action the parallelism of the cheek
serving and bench - front will be preserved. To give greater
parallelism, steadiness to the cheek a St. Peter's Cross may be intro¬
duced between the cheek and the bench-front in the position shown
by the double-dotted line from o to p. It is not, however, a sine qua
non, as the double screw action will be perfectly effectual in keeping
the cheek parallel to the bench-front in all parts.
507. There are many other contrivances, but none will be found to
beat the double screw turned
simultaneously in the manner
described. The principle involved
in the double screw is made use
of to a certain extent
in the runner, which,
in order to render the description
of the carpenter's bench as com¬
plete as possible, may as well be
noticed here. The object of the
runner is to preserve the parallelism ]
of the cheek and bench-front. In I j
fig. 245 A shows the runner and
the way in which it is attached to Fi®- «4S- the kunnes.
The runner.
Use and Construction op the Runner. 213
the cheek rs. This runner works in a case, fonn.-d by the boards C, C,
which extend from front to back of the bench and enclose the runner
on both sides, keeping it in position. The screw D may also work in
a case, whose sides E, E, should just touch the threads of the screw as
lightly as possible. An adaptation of the runner to the Adaptation
screw, extending the whole length of the bench-leg or of runner
nearly so, is shown in figs. 246 and 247, of which the to ecrew-
former shows the end elevation of screw, cheek, runner, and bench,
and the latter
the front ele¬
vation of the
be nch-vice.
The position
of the screw in
this arrange¬
ment is a good
one, because
more space is
given between
the upper part
of the screw
and the top of
the bench for
holding short
boards. The
reader must
now be so familiar with the component parts of the bench as to render
unnecessary any reference in detail to these parts as shown in the figures.
The runner A is a piece of board let into the lower end of the cheek
and passed through a hole cut in the leg for its reception. A series
of holes are bored in the runner, and when the vice is screwed up a
pin of wood or iron is inserted in the hole that happens to be nearest
the leg, to prevent furthe&progress of the runner inwards. It may be
of use to say that all runners should work tightly, but with ease, in the
cases made, or holes cut, for their reception, and this effect is best
produced by keeping the runners greased. The runner should be
made of hard, close-grained wood.
508. A simple but useful kind of bench has been suggested in
" Design and Work" for ordinary purposes, which is possessed of much
merit, and is evidently the work of a practical man. It
is, furthermore, one step towards the construction of the Law3'bench-
composite bench, with a description of which it is proposed to conclude
our remarks on carpenters' benches. The bench now under consider¬
ation was the invention of Mr. Joseph M. Laws, of Bridgeton, who
estimates its cost at about 5s. or 6s.—a-sum which places its dimen-
it within the power of the poorest amateur to possess a sions ana
carpenter's bench. The plan of this bench, as viewed from cons ruotlon-
the top, and the end elevation are shown in fig. 248. The height of the
top from the ground is 2ft. 6in., and the breadth across the top is
FIG. 246. RUNNER—END FlG. 247. RUNNER—
ELEVATION. FRONT ELEVATION.
2t4 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
exactly the same. The length is not stated, but it may range from
5ft. to 7ft., according to the space at the amateur's command in his
w orkshop. a and A are working boards which form the top of the
Fig. 248. laws' bench, {r) plan looking up. (2) end elevation.
bench on either side, and on which all planing, mortising, etc., is done.
These boards are 9in. wide and i%'m. thick. The space b between
the working boards is fitted in with a board I2in. wide, and J^in. thick,
so that a shallow trench, as it were, in. deep is formed between the
working planks, offering a convenient place for laying down tools
which cannot possibly fall or be knocked off the bench. F and F are
two slips of wood, 1 J^in. broad and f£in. thick, attached to b, and used
for resting planes on so that the edge of the plane-iron may not come
in contact with the board b below it. h, h, are bench-stops, which
are placed at opposite ends of the working boards, thus rendering the
bench reversible, or making it possible for the owner to plane boards,
etc., on either side, as he may find most convenient. The legs of the
bench, which are 4in. wide and 2in. thick, are shown at C, C, C, C.
These legs are connected near the bottom by cross-pieces (g in end
elevation) screwed to, or let into, the outside faces,4in. wide and ji'va.,
thick, and forming a rack on which pieces of board may be laid. The
upper ends of each pair of legs are tenoned into a cross-piece, D, 4m.
wide and 2in. thick, the end of which is fitted with a piece of wood, e,
5in. thick, and cut so that its inner surface forms an angle with the
bench-front. A wedge, w, 14m. long and x%'m. thick, is used for
jamming a piece of wood against the bench-front when it is necessary t#
plane its edges, the wedge being driven into the opening at D, between
the wedge grip e, and the surface of the board to be planed. The
bench-stops h, H, are of the old-fashioned kind, and should be 9m.
long, and 1 x/2 in. square. Each side of the bench is covered in with a
board in. thick. In this board holes should be drilled for pegs to
support boards, whose edges require planing up. The bottom of the
bench may be boarded up entirely, or as far as the inner faces of the
legs, and if only thus far, boarding should be nailed against these
The " Composite" Bench.
215
inside faces parallel with the ends of the bench, so as to form cup¬
boards, on either side marked L, for the reception of tools, etc. The
door, L, of the cupboard may be hinged to M, and open outwards, thus
forming a kind of shelf in front of the cupboard when let down. This
cheap and ingenious bench is recommended to the notice of amateurs
who cannot afford to spend much in appliances of this kind.
509. We now come to what we have chosen to term the "composite".
bench—a bench in which an attempt is made to turn to account every
portion of the space that the bench covers, between the ground below
and the inner surface of the bench-top. The arrange- The "com¬
ment of this bench was also suggested by a writer in posite" bench.
"Design and Work." Its general construction will be readily under¬
stood after all that has been said on the subject, but a few remarks
by way of explanation will perhaps be desirable.
510. This bench (fig. 249) is 6ft. long, ift. 6in. wide, and 2ft. 9m.
high, and therefore occupies as little space as it is possible for a bench
to take up. Six legs are required, 3m. by 3m., which itadlmen-
are framed together with rails half the thickness at top eions and
and bottom, as shown by dotted lines across the top, at A, construotion'
B, and C. The bench is fitted in the usual way with a bench-stop at D,
and a bench-vice with screw at E, and runner at F, both of which work
through the front leg of the trestle A. The top is formed by two
boards 9m. wide, the working board being 1/4 in. thick, and the
board at back iin. thick, but nothing is gained by this difference in
thickness, so the boards may as well, both of them, be 1 fan. thick,
and joined by a groove and feather slip or dove-tail feather. The side¬
board G is 9m. wide, and iin. thick and the faces of the legs in front
should be flush with the face of this board. The back of the bench
should be boarded up, unless it be fixed, as it may be very con¬
veniently, against the wall of a workshop or shed, just under the
window. The end H between the trestle A and the end of the bench
to the left is converted into a shallow cupboard, which may be fitted
216 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
with shelves so long as the) do not interfere with the screw and runner;
but this they need not do, as the screw and runner work in the front-leg
of the trestle, and can be securely cased in by boards nailed on either
side of the trestle. The space K between the legs and trestles, a and
b, below the bench-front, is fitted with four drawers, and that between
the legs, b and c, at l, is converted into a cupboard with a door hinged
at the bottom to let down on the ground. The space between the
trestles, a and B and B and c, between the bench-front and the back,
by cutting the back board on top, and attaching it to the back of the
bench by hinges, may be converted into a well, which will be useful
for stowing away planes and other large and heavy tools. The space
Wheel and to the right between the trestle C and the right-hand end
treadle, of the bench may be fitted up with a wheel and treadle,
which might be turned to good account in working a small lathe,
placed on the bench, or in turning a grindstone or circular-saw of small
size, motion being imparted to the lathe, grindstone, or saw above, by a
strap or cord passing round the wheel M, and through holes cut for its
passage in the top boards of the bench. For the accumulation of
power, any contrivance that is worked in this way should be fitted with
a fly wheel, which, when the wheel M was put in action, could work
over, and parallel with, the right-hand end of the bench.
511. The bench that has jusi been described is best suited for one
that is fixed against a wall, which is the position which in all proba-
Suitabie lor bility will be most convenient for the amateur artisan, and
fixture against one which he would prefer to any other. There are, of
waU* course, many other ways by which the interior of a bench
may be turned to good account, but want of space forbids us to dwell
upon them here. Every amateur will doubtless think of some little
modification which will render his bench better suited for his own
peculiar wants, and when he is engaged in making a bench for himself
it will be well for him to exercise his ingenuity in this respect.
512. The chief objections to the ordinary bench-vice in its simplest
form are, that it takes up a great deal of time to adjust and screw up
Objections to anc^ unscrew the cheek, and that the pressure exerted by
ordinary the cheek on the board, or whatever else may be placed
bench-vice. within its hold, is not uniform at every point of its surface
owing to a want of perfect parallelism with the bench-front. The con¬
trivances that have been introduced at one time or other to procure
the desideratum of perfect parallelism have been described ; but after
all there is not one of these that tends to save time by its adoption and
use; but rather, on the contrary, some of them cause a still greater
loss of time in looking to their adjustment. What is most to be de¬
sired, both for working carpenters and joiners and amateurs, is a
bench-vice in which the action shall be speedy, the parallelism perfect,
standard an(^ S"P certain> and these requisites are to be found
Instantaneous combined in the " Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice," a
Grip Vice. most ingenious invention patented by Messrs. Smith,
Marks, and Co., and sold by Mr. Thomas J. Syer, Cabinet Manufac¬
turer1 the sole agent for London, at whose office and workshops, 1, Fins-
Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice. 217
bury Street, Ckiswell Street, E.C., it can be seen in use. An illustration
of this vice is given in fig. 250. The workman has simply to raise the
lever or handle A to a perpendicular position with the left itaconstruc-
hand, and draw out or close, as may be necessary, the tion and
front jaw B the necessary distance. He must then place action,
the piece of wood, or other material on which he is about to operate,
between the jaws B and c, after which he must press the front jaw B
nearly close to the wood, then press down the lever, when the wood
will be held firm in the vice. To remove the piece of wood he must
raise the lever as described above. The grip is caused in the follow¬
ing manner. On the under side of the plate, on which the word
"patent" is
marked in the
illustration,
and in the
straight line
that lies be¬
tween the let¬
ters D, E, is a
plate indented
» with a row of
Fig. 250. the "standard instantaneous y shaped de-
grip vice." pressions in¬
clined at a slight angle to its sides, being in fact, to
describe it as accurately as possible, a longitudinal
strip cut out of a female screw. At the end G of the
bar F G, which is held in position, and travels in and out between two
curved flanges projecting from the under side of the plate, is a short
cylinder which is grooved along part of its surface after the manner of
the threads of a screw, the remainder being left plain, and carrying a
stop or stud which is shown in the engraving, and which prevents the
progress of the screw beyond a certain point so as not to cause injury
to any substance placed within the powerful bite of the jaws. When
the piece of wood, or any other material, as the case may be, has been
placed within the jaws, and the front jaw pushed nearly close to it, the
downward turn of the lever or handle brings the threads of the male
screw within the threads of the female screw, and draws the front jaw
against the wood so tightly, and with so firm a grip, that it is utterly
impossible to remove the material without injuring it until the lever is
raised and the pressure relaxed. It is the drawing action of the screw
that gives value to the " Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice," by causing
the pressure of the jaws to be brought gradually, though swiftly, to
the point that is required to hold the material immovable within their
grasp.
513. The principal advantages of this bench-vice are : (1) that it
grips and relaxes its hold instantly in any distance up to Advantages
i3Kin.; (2) that the action and working of it are so com- of grip-vice,
plete that a piece of ordinary writing-paper can be secured and held
as firmly as a piece of timber; (3) that it effects a saving of about 75
218 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
per cent, of the time employed in working the ordinary bench-vice by
its easy action and certainty of its grip ; (4) if wood facings are fitted
to the faces of the iron jaws all possibility of indentation of the article
placed in it is removed ; and (5) that it can be fitted to any description
of bench, new or old. The price of the vice is 18s., or if supplied with
wood facings fitted to the jaws, 20s. As the jaws are of iron it is evi-
its ada ta- ^ent ^at t^ie v*ce serve the purpose of an iron bench-
biiityto" vice for holding pieces of metal, as well as that of an
various ordinary bench-vice for holding wood, and that the ama-
requirements. teur wk0 possesses one of these has no occasion to go to
the expense of purchasing an iron bench hand-vice. By placing
within the jaws two pieces of wood of sufficient length to hold a saw,
this vice may be further utilised as a saw-vice. Mr. Syer also supplies
a most useful article for workmen and amateurs in his " Improved
Syer's im- P°rta^e Cabinet Bench," one end of which is shown in
proved Port- fig. 25 x, from which its general character and construction
aW;| Cabinet can be seen. The bench consists of a wooden top fitted
enc ' with the " Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice," and
fastened with screw bolts to metal standards, which give extra firmness
Its construe- to the bench, a matter of great importance to the work-
advantages man' The Pr'ce °f this bench is £3 5s., but if fitted with
a screw-rising stop, 2s. extra is charged. As the top and
supports are fastened together with screw bolts, the bench can be
taken to pieces at
pleasure, and thus
is rendered more
convenient and
handy for packing
and removal.
Boards can be laid
from end to end
having their ends
supported on the
ledges shown at A
and b, to serve as
places of deposi¬
tory for tools when
out of use. The
bench is of the
ordinary height,
the top being 6ft.
long, 1 ft. ioin. wide,
and 3in. thick, and
Fig. 251. syer's improved portable cabinet bench, formed of two
boards or planks firmly bolted together by three bolts and screws.
The great thickness is owing to the necessity of bringing the top of
the jaws of the vice level with the upper surface of the bench. If,
then, it is desired to fit the vice to an old bench, care must be taken to
attach to the under surface of the top of the bench, at the part where
Trestle, or Sawing-Stool. 219
the vice is to be fitted, a piece of wood that will bring the thickness of
the top at that part up to 3in. Thus, if the top of the bench be I }4\n.
in thickness, a piece of equal thickness must be added, and so on.
514. There is another vice similar to the above in general appear¬
ance, but differing from it in internal arrangement and construction,
which affords perfect parallelism and sudden grasp com- Entwistie and
bined with rapidity of action. This is Entwistie and Tn^anfaneoua
Kenyon's "Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice" (Riley's Grip Parallel
patent), sold in London and the surrounding districts by Vioe-
Messrs. C. S. Mallet and Co., 9, London Street, Fenchurch Street,
E.C., sole wholesale agents for these parts. They are made in various
sizes for engineers with jaws from 3in. to I2in., opening from 3m. tc
8j£in. The joiner's vice, with which we have more to do at present,
and which is well adapted for cabinet-makers, carpenters, amateurs,
and those engaged in all kinds of constructive trades, is principles of
furnished with 9m. jaws to open I2in., and is sold at 16s. construction.
The front jaw is a/loose sliding jaw which may be moved inwards and
outwards at pleasure ; the inner jaw is immovable, and to the bottom
of it a steel rack is fastened. Another short steel rack, with the upper
surface indented so as to fit into the indentations of the rack fastened
to the fixed jaw, is fixed to the innermost end of the sliding jaw. The
short rack is thrown into gear with the long rack, at any part of it,
when the jaws have been adjusted to the material placed between
them, by half a revolution forward of the handle, and this short, quick
movement puts the grip on the work. The racks, it should be said,
are thrown into gear by means of a scrolled cam attached to the inner¬
most end of the shaft to which the handle is fixed. Half a revolution
backwards of the handle brings the short rack out of gear with the
long rack, and quite clear of it, leaving the loose sliding jaw at liberty
to be moved in or out at pleasure.
515. There are two things that yet require mention in this chapter,
as, if not forming part of the carpenter's bench, they have a claim to
be considered in connection with it. Of these two articles, Adjuncts to
one is the trestle, or sawing-stool, and the other a means carpenter's
of fitting up and working a small circular-saw, for cut- bencl1'
ting tenons, and making small saw-cuts generally of this description.
516. Firstly, let us take the trestle, or sawing-stool. Every amateur
\rtisan should make two of these for himself, as he will often require a
pair of them on which to set a long Trestle, or
piece of quartering, etc., when cut- sawing-stool.
ting mortises in it, or a long board that he is
engaged in ripping down with a rip-saw or
hand-saw.
517. In fig. 252, a trestle, or sawing-stool, is
represented in section or in elevation at either
end, being the mode of representation best
adapted for showing its construe- Itsdlmen.
tion. A is a piece of wood about sions and"
Fig. 252. 2ft. or 2ft. 6in. long, 4in. wide, and oonstruotion.
sawing-stool. (end.) ^in. thick; and b and c are two pieces of wood
320 Household Carpentry and Joinery.
1
l-A
°> 0
%
11
p
mII
a >4
about 2)4in. by sin., or a little stouter if it be thought necessary. A
Notch in end notch is cut in the upper end of each leg, as at D E F, so
of trestle, that when the legs are placed in the position shown in the
drawings the sides and bottom of the piece A may rest in the notch
thus formed, the sides of the notch being at right
angles with each other. The notch may be made
deeper, as at G H F, to afford a better bed or resting-
ing place for the block a, or the sides of the block
may be slightly grooved so that the part GHEDof
the leg may be let into the body of block. When four
legs of this description have been cut out, and the
block grooved, if it be thought better to do so, for the
reception of part of the notched ends as described,
they must be nailed firmly to the block, two at either
Fig. 253. sawing- end, opposite to one another. To give stability to
stool, (side.) the trestle, a piece of inch board of the shape
K L M N is nailed to the legs on the outside, and two strips lengthwise
from leg to leg, as shown at N and O. The appearance of one
of the legs at the side is shown in fig. 253, in which A is the
block that forms the top as before, C the leg, N M the end show¬
ing grain of the piece of wood K L M N, and o the slip nailed
from leg to leg on the same side. A stool or trestle thus made
is very strong, and will bear plenty of heavy blows and hard usage
without being damaged beyond the injury that such knocking about
may inflict on the surface. The end of A is often cut as at D E F
in fig. 254, the angle D E F being a right angle, or an angle a little
less than a right angle. A notch of
this kind forms a convenient rest¬
ing-place against which to rest a
piece of quartering for cutting a
tenon at the end. Fig. 254 also
shows a plan of the top of the trestle
at one end ; a being the block, and b
and C the upper ends of the legs thus
lettered in fig. 252, which are let into shallow grooves in A,
as already described. The amateur artisan will find it useful to provide
Clamps: their himself with a couple of clamps of the kind shown in fig.
uses. 255, for holding down to the stool A any piece of wood
that may require mortising, as w. In fact, a couple of small clamps
of this kind will be found useful in many an operation in household
carpentry and joinery.
518. Machinery of any kind is a powerful aid to progress in handi¬
craft work of every description, provided always that it be suitable to
Assistance t^ie nature of the work in hand. All tools are machines,
rendered by so far that they are contrivances by which certain opera-
maohinery. tions can be more effectually performed, though not in
the sense in which the word is generally used in the present day,
namely, in reference to some complex structure of many various parts.
In carpentry, man himself is the motive power of the tools that he
c
fig. 254. end
of sawing-stool.
fig. 255.
clamp.
Method of Working Small Circular-saw. 221
employs, and if he be tolerably expert he will be able to get through
all work of an ordinary character. He will most crave for the assistance
of machinery in sawing and planing ; but the attachments necessary
for circular-saws are so costly that the tool manufacturer, or rather
tool seller, never keeps them in stock ; and as for planing machines,
they are, as it has been said, out of the reach of the amateur altogether,
for they are not only very expensive but require steam power to work
them.
519. For motive power, then, the best thing the amateur can do is
to trust to his hands and arms, and back and legs, resting content
with the ordinary run of tools. It is somewhat hard, how- Motive power
ever, to be without a circular-saw, considering the amount for amateurs,
of work that may be got through with one of these in a very short
space of time ; and the thing now to be considered is how the amateur
may manage to fit up a saw that will do light work, and even rip down
a piece of board under an inch in thickness.
520. Suppose that A B in fig. 255 represents the width of a small
bench, showing its transverse section from side to side; or, what is
equally to the purpose, let us suppose it to represent the Mode of
transverse section of a board forming the top of a narrow fitting and
bench or platform in which the saw is to work. As near
to the under surface of the bench as is possible, let there be
an iron axle H K, bent at G so as to be turned by the rod N attached to a
treadle worked by the foot; and let this axle work at either end in
sockets, L and M, fastened to the underside of the plank A, or fitted
into the boards in front and at the back of the bench, if the saw be
fitted to a carpenter's bench. A small but heavy fly-wheel should be
attached to the end H of the axle. Slots must be cut in the board A B
—one at C, through which
througn .vhich the crank
G may work, during its
passage through the upper
semicircle of its revolu¬
tion. When the treadle
is set in motion with the
foot the saw will revolve,
increasing in rapidity by
the action and weight of
the fly-wheel, and requir¬
ing less and less pressure
from the foot of the opera¬
tor on the treadle. There
would be from one-fifth to
one-fourth of the diameter
of the saw above the surface of the bench; that is to say, if the saw
were 5m. in diameter there might be from iin. to iXin.of its diameter
above the surface. It would not be possible to use a saw of any size
on account of the power required to drive it, owing to the resistance
offered by the wood when it is brought against it, and the friction
the saw D E may work ;^and another at F>
FIG. 256. METHOD OP WORKING SMALL
CIRCULAB-SAW.
22a Household Carpentry and Joinery.
arising from the passage of the saw through the wood. This is the
Multiplies- simplest method of working a small circular-saw. If the
tion of " operator had some one to help him by turning a handle, it
velocity. WOuld be possible to impart far greater velocity to the
wheel than could ever be attained by the use of the treadle, by means
of a series of wheels attached to the side
of the bench at B, and acting on a
toothed-wheel keyed on to the axle at K,
the handle being fixed at some point near
the circumference of the largest and last
of the wheels comprised in the series,
reckoning from the wheel at K as the
first. Supposing that there were such an
arrangement of three wheels, as shown
in fig. 257, in which A is a wheel with ten
teeth keyed on to the end of the axle at K, B an intermediate wheel with
twenty teeth, and c a third wheel with forty teeth, in the circumference
of which a handle D is placed. Now, it is manifest as the number of
teeth in c are double those in B, that for every single revolution of C
the wheel B will go round twice ; and as B has twice as many teeth as
a, the wheel A will go round twice for every revolution of B. The
wheel a will therefore be turned round four times for every single
revolution of C, and the saw, which is keyed on to the axle, like the
wheel a, will also revolve four times. It will be seen that the speed
of the saw will depend on the relative number of teeth in the wheels.
It is only the principle that it is sought to explain here. The amateur
will now be able to work out any combination of wheels for himself.
521. On looking at fig. 256, it is clear that if a slip be screwed
lengthwise to the top of the bench, as at O, in which such a slip is shown
Guide slip for *n secti°n> and the operator hold a board against this guide
regulating slip, as shown by the dotted line at P, also in section, it
wiathto be will be ripped down lengthwise by the saw, and the width
of the slip to be cut from the board may be regulated
by moving the guide slip to a distance from the plane in which the
saw revolves, equal to the width required to be cut. Too much care
cannot be taken in making use of a circular-saw. The operator must
keep his hands well out of the way, and when the board is nearly cut
through, use another piece of board instead of his hands to keep it
going in an onward course until the saw has completed its work. For
cutting tenons, an arrangement might be made by which the axle of
the saw would be above instead of under the bench, but this would
be useless for ripping down a long piece of board; and in cutting a
tenon it must be remembered that the saw can only penetrate to a
depth somewhat less than half its diameter, if the axle be above the
bench, for as a matter of course the progress of the wood would be
stopped by its coming in contact with the axle.
c
Fig. 257. multiplication
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