ne fete t at ee oe i i { (>) } eit A Snr 3 ; serene a ) p rn iH tt +e a ‘ Baie Ra 4 a DRUN US NN tise AE stot seats 4 ‘ ¥ Piet © ROO Ay 5 ' ; * ie ‘ a isatvarl oe ¥ erate a + +! Ber RH arate ate ORE Pan i hae f wit sah fetes } ae ie hing i it = ti - i + ‘ ¥e + f. ; 14 . ‘i ; ; i a itis -J S/S 5] 108 ‘| iy A 3 of oe WR ¥ HANDBOOK OF THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING fee TROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING ———s A HANDBOOK JOSEPH BRECK ASSISTANT DIRECTOR CURATOR OF DECORATIVE ARTS AND NeyRIC R- ROGERS ASSISTANT CURATOR NEW YORK MCMXXV PREFACE This Handbook has been written to serve a two- fold purpose: first, to provide brief but informative comment upon the objects exhibited in the galleries of the Pierpont Morgan Wing, and, secondly, to supplement this description by a series of general chapters on the development of the major and minor arts—with some consideration of political, social, and economic conditions—in the periods represented in the J. Pierpont Morgan Collection. The first half of the Handbook, Parts I-IV, on mediaeval and Renaissance art, is the work of the undersigned. When this book was begun, several years ago, I had hoped to have the codperation of Miss Myrtilla Avery in the writing of the section on mediaeval art; but after some preliminary work had been done, it was found impossible, to my regret, to continue this plan, owing to the demands upon Miss Avery’s time as Associate Professor of Art at Wellesley College. With the exception of Part VIII and of a few passages in the preceding chapters, the second half of the book, dealing principally with French art of the seventeenth: and eighteenth centuries, is the work of Mr. Rogers; it was written when Mr. Rogers, Vv PREFACE now Professor of Art at Smith College, was an Assist- ant Curator in the Department of Decorative Arts of this Museum. JosEPpH Breck. April 12, 1924 CONTENTS PREFACE ILLUSTRATIONS INTRODUCTION rier HANDBOOK OF THE pee NMoteeN WING Part I. Gallo-Roman and Germanic Anti- quities Gallery F 1 ae ; Part IJ. Early Christian, Byzantine, nels lingian, and Romanesque Art Chapter I. Introduction Chapter I]. Gallery F 2 Peer tit) Gothic Art Chapter I. Introduction Cmapters ll.) Gallery F 3 Ohaptera lili > Gallery F 4 ube ee! Chapter IV. Gallery F 5. The Sculp- tures from the Chateau of Biron Giantess —~V.. Gallery F ae Saaprer eV li Gallery F 7. Gothic and Renaissance Art . Part IV. Renaissance Art . Chapter I. Introduction Chapter JI. Gallery F 8 Part V. French Art—XVII Century Chapter I. Introduction fiaper Il. Gallery Fo vil CONTENTS Part VI. French Art—First Half of the XVIII Century Chapter Ih Chapter, sagul Chapter III. Chapter ~ IV; Chapter" V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapters ie Introduction . ae Gallery F 10. Late XVII and Early XVIII Century Staircase and Gallery F 11. The Collection of Or- molu Gallery F 12 Gallery F 13 Gallery F 14932 Louis XV Boiserie ; Gallery F 15. French Art —Mhid-X VIII Century Gallery F 16. French Art —Mid-X VIII Century Gallery F 17. French Art —XVIII Century Faience Part VII. French Art—Second Half of the XVIII and the ma XIX Cen- tury Chapter i Chapters sal Chapters Le Chapter IV. Chapter tava Chapter VI. Introduction Galleries F 18 and 19 Galleries F 20, 21, and 22. The Hotel Gatlin Boise- ries . 2 te Gallery F 23. The Hu- bert Robert Paintings from Bagatelle Gallery F 24 Gallery F 25 Part VIII. The Collection of Watches Gallery F 26 INDEX OF PRopER NAMES . GENERAL INDEX . Vill PAGE 249 201 269 274 282 286 290 204 297 301 211 Sas 336 S40 350 354 358 363 365 37 379 FIGURE I. ' ILLUSTRATIONS Iron belt buckle, plated with silver Chatelaine plaque, silvered bronze Four objects in silver-gilt from the so- called Military Tomb at Vermand . Scythian gold buckle, under Roman in- fluence . Bronze fibula. : Circular fibula, bronze cere nat eal Glass cup with applied decoration Consular diptych, ivory, 521 A.D. . Dormition of the Virgin, ivory, X—XI century... The Virgin er ined: (coeabaann ivory plaque... The Virgin nail Ghaes lod oad French, XII century . Saint John the be eelict aeenel Rhenish, about 1180 Leaf of ivory noe Brenicne XI cen- tury. Gold buckle. “ayn Ai ctbst Teens Silver bucket. The Albanian Treasure . Gold cup. The Albanian Treasure .. 17,18. Two silver dishes, Syrian, VI century Ig. Gold bracelet, probably Syrian, VI cen- tury Sen aT eer, oe 1x PAGE FIGURE 20. 21; 22. DR 24. she 26. 27% 28. 29. ILLUSTRATIONS Gold necklace, probably Syrian, VI cen- tury Ivory itera areslneasts Syrian, Ve cen- tury Ivory pyx, neon or cca VI century Ivory casket, Beene [X_X cone Ivory plaque, Byzantine, XI-XII century Ivory situla, German, about 1000 Crucifixion, ge Byzantine, X—XI cen- tury . Crucifixion, ivory, Sieh ‘XI cane Four medailiones cloisonné enamel on gold, Byzantine, XI century ; Enameled reliquary, Byzantine, VII _VII century Saint William, Limores XH centered Virgin, French, XL century, : neha plaque from a chAsse, ae XIII century Enameled plaque fron D “chat Sek: XCEL century. The Baptism of Christ, enamel plaque by Godefroid de Claire Candlestick, XII century meétalieeten Chasse, Spanish, XIII century Book-cover, German, XIII century Silver cross, Spanish, XII century Reliquary, early XIII century . Fragment of a choir stall, English a XIV century Wood-carving, Naereen aboue I 600 Tapestry, Arras, about 1435 x PAGE AI 45 FIGURE 43: 44. ILLUSTRATIONS Reliquary, Italian, XV century Virgin, wood statuette, ey about 1300 Mourner, Pench Nie XV century Saint Michael, Renn about 1475 The Annunciation, ie Roger van der Weyden Carved wood chest, Rreneh XV rte: Ivory diptych, Atelier of the Diptychs of the Passion, French, XIV century . Enameled shrine, Limoges, XIII century Champlevé enamel, Limoges, XIII cen- Get. i ee ae i ae Chasse, champlevé Saas Limoges, about 1200 Christ, late XII century Enameled cross, Limoges, XIII oon Saint james, Limoges, XIII century . Visitation, French, XIV century . Reliquary (chasse aux oiseaux), Reench XIII century . French ivory-carving, NES? As aie Dip: tychs with Rosettes, early XIV century French ivory-carving, Atelier of the Dip- tych of the Treasury of Soissons, end of XIII century French ivory-carving, heiver iE ane Din tychs with Rosettes, early XIV century French ivory-carving, Atelier of the Tab- ernacles of the Virgin, first half of the XIV century Ivory casket, French, XIV ane Ivory statuette, French, about 1300 . XI 10g 10g 10g 10g Tiel am 64. 65. 66. ILLUSTRATIONS Tapestry, Tournai, about 1440 Virgin, French, XIV century . —. Leaf of ivory diptych, probably Engew MVicen tural Leaf of ivory Ais it Saale ily Bhelishe Xx Vitcentticyanen ae Saint Christopher, rani, XV oa Reliquary, Spanish, XVI century. Saint Yrieix, reliquary head, XV nes. Painted enamel, Limoges: Monvaerni Saint Catherine, French, XV century Flagon, German, XIV—XV century Drinking-horn, German, XV century. The Entombment from the Chateau of Biron, French, about 1510-15 : The Biron Pieta, French, about 1500. Virgin from a crucifixion group, French, XV century Virgin, French, school a6 Tomieames Meant, 1480—go Statuette, German, Asai 1690 Dormition of the Virgin, Calcar schol early X Vi centuryaee Saint Barbara, school of Nikelaae et Ley den ; Church hathes Bronce XV connie’ Reredos, Spanish, XV century, style of Pere Johan de Vallfogona wire Virgin, French, XV century Py: Wood-carving, Rhenish, XV century Saint Nicholas, Flemish, about 1500 . Saint Catherine, French, about 1500 . Nativity, French, XV century. Xi PAGE 116 FIGURE 89. go. ILLUSTRATIONS Education of the Virgin, French, school of Troyes, about 1510-15. Saint-Porchaire Faience, Eronche XVI century. Nevers faience, Brenchs XVII Stine Jasper cup, enameled and jeweled, Ben- venuto Cellini (?) Charles V, attributed to licone Wesni Mirror fame German, XVI century Saint Andrew, marble, by Andrea Bregno Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints, by Raphael . Pe etalian, XVI Irae Glass Wages Venetian, about 1500 Crystal plaque, by Conan Bernardi a Castel Bolognese Crystal shrine, by Adam van Rahnen Boxwood shrine, Se aa XVI century ana, Chalice, nay: 1609 fhe Triumph of Charles V, by Hone. Deer iGasloee puict . Jewel, Petar XVI contuee Prudence, French, XVI century . . Pax made for Contbell Giovanni Borgia Silver-gilt dish, Portuguese, X VI century Cabinet, style of Sambin, French, XVI century Ewer, Medici pote ain . Double cup, Nuremberg, XVI oinarer Niello cup, Augsburg, XVI century Covered cup, Nuremberg, about 1580 . Covered cup, German, XVI century Xi be 1$g 160 167 16g 173 tre 136 IgI 192 ee: 197 £99 200 201 203 204 206 207 209 210 aga 212 213 210 FIGURE II4. Ten 116. Dla hire 1g. etey. hes 129% 127: 124. I2¢. 126, 127 128, 129. 130. i3t ig bas AS. Tse 136. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140, ILLUSTRATIONS Casket, Augsburg, XVI century Arm-chair, Louis XIV period Armoire, French, about 1700... Marble portrait bust, French, XVII. cen- tury ae View of Ciltsa: F< 9 Plateau, Rouen, about 1720-50 . Diana, German, XVI century Torchére, French, about 1700 Gilt wood sconces, French, middle nf AV IL century = uae Panel, style of Chearne cus View of alcove, French, about 1720-25 Ormolu, French, XVIII century Painting by Charles Eisen View of Gallery F 12 . View of Gallery F 13 . View of Gallery F 14 . Brazier, Louis XV style Rouen plate with arms of Louis Poterat Rouen plate, about 1750 . Moustiers ewer, early XVIII century Plateau, Rouen, about 7os5— 20s Plateau by Guillibaud (?), Rouen, abone 1710-20 . Plate by Gaillipeee Rowen Bar: 190 Plateau by Pierre ma Rouen, about 1720 . Uae: Louis XVI painted panel ; Over-door painting attributed to Mine Vallayer-Coster ae View of bedroom, Louis XVI aE ie ae from the Hétel Gaulin, Dijon . X1V PAGE 213 239 227 233 esky 245 247 253 259 263 Ovi 277 279 283 287 291 ee 302 3O9 304 305 39% 397 308 oi5) Bag eee. FIGURE I4l. 142. 143. 144. 146. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. ES]. £52) ER 3s ILLUSTRATIONS Carnet de bal, miniature by Sicardi Painted ae French, period of Louis PAL ViLce. Carnet de bal, miniature of Wee Nie toinette, by tate picardi . Box with painting by van Brenton View of library, Louis XVI woodwork from the Hétel Gaulin, Dijon . View of salon, Louis X VI woodwork from the Hétel Gaulin, Dijon Painting by ober Robertaes e Louis XVI door panel from the inulbagtes Louis XVI shop-front Table watch, Nuremberg, about 1660 Watch by David ene bees enamelicase i. . . Watch by D. Vauchez Enameled watch-case by Morliére XV PAGE 327 He, 341 342 345 347 She 355 361 366 367 368 369 iC .s - INTRODUCTION The tablet in the Fifth Avenue hall of the Museum, erected in 1920 by the Trustees in memory of the late J. Pierpont Morgan, bears the following in- scription, composed by the Hon. Joseph H. Choate: ERECTED BY THE MUSEUM IN GRATEFUL REMEM- BRANCE OF THE SERVICES OF JOHN PIERPONT MORGAN FROM 1871 TO 1913 AS TRUSTEE BENEFACTOR AND PRESIDENT. HE WAS IN ALL RESPECTS A GREAT CITIZEN. HE HELPED TO MAKE NEW YORK THE TRUE METROPO- LIS OF AMERICA. HIS INTEREST IN ART WAS LIFELONG. HIS GENEROUS DEVOTION TO IT COMMANDED WORLD- WIDE APPRECIATION. HIS MUNIFICENT GIFTS TO THE MUSEUM ARE AMONG ITS CHOICEST TREASURES. VITA PLENA LABORIS. From the first days of the Museum, Mr. Morgan contributed generously to the support of this insti- tution, of which he became a Trustee in 1888 and President in 1904. His first recorded gift of a work of art was in 1897, but in the last decade of his life, which corresponded with his most active period as a collector, Mr. Morgan’s gifts and loans were numer- ous and constant. Among the gifts may be noted such single objects XV11 INTRODUCTION as the portrait of Christopher Columbus by Sebas- tiano del Piombo, given in 1900; the large altarpiece of the Assumption of the Virgin by Benvenuto di Giovanni, given in 1910; the set of Gothic tapestries figuring the Sacraments, given in 1907; the alabaster altarpiece from Zaragoza, given in 1g0g; and the bas-reliefs from the Temple of Rameses I at Abydos, given in Igtt. Of outstanding importance was the gift in 1906 of the post-Renaissance section of the Georges Hoentschel Collection. This part of the famous collection formed by the noted French decora- tor and architect included principally French wood- work, furniture, decorative paintings, and ormolu of the late seventeenth and the eighteenth century. The gift immediately placed the Museum in an enviable position with respect to the representation in its collections of this period of the decorative arts. At the same time, Mr. Morgan lent to the Museum for an indefinite period the mediaeval and Renaissance section of the Hoentschel Collection, which com- prised notable examples of sculpture, tapestry, and other works of art of the earlier periods. The Hoent- schel Collection was received by the Museum in 1907 and, after a temporary exhibition of part of the collection, was installed with other exhibits of decora- tive arts in the newly constructed Wing F, which was opened to the public in tg10. Among Mr. Morgan’s other loans to the Museum, previous to the epochal Loan Exhibition of 1914-1916, may be noted the Garland Collection of Chinese porcelains, acquired by Mr. Morgan in 1902 and subsequently increased by numerous additions; and the beautiful Gothic sculptures from the chapel of the Chateau of Biron, lent in 1907. The record of Mr. Morgan’s donations Xvill INTRODUCTION would be incomplete without a mention of his liberal support of the Museum’s Egyptian expeditions. In 1912, Mr. Morgan sent to the Museum the collections which he had assembled in his London residence, Prince’s Gate, and in his country place, Dover House, together with collections on loan in the Victoria and Albert Museum and in the National Gallery, London, and other acquisitions which had accumulated in Paris. Over four thousand objects made the hegira across the Atlantic. Before plans had been completed, however, for their exhibition, Mr. Morgan died in Rome on March 31, 1913. It was thus his ill fate never to see brought together in one exhibition the entire collection of works of art which, with characteristic, purposeful energy and keen discrimination, he had formed within a sur- prisingly brief period of years. Fortunately, he was succeeded by a son no less eminently gifted and public-spirited. Within two months after his father’s death, the younger Mr. Morgan authorized the Museum to proceed with the exhibition of his father’s collections, pending a future decision as to their ultimate disposition. This cele- brated Loan Exhibition, which occupied the entire second floor of Wing H, was opened on February 17, 1914. The exhibition continued until May 28, 1g16. A few months previous, in February, 1916, Mr. Morgan gave to the Museum the world-famous Colonna altarpiece by Raphael, which had been ex- hibited in the Museum since 1912; the Biron sculp- tures, previously referred to; and the mediaeval and Renaissance section of the Hoentschel Collection, which, as already noted, had been lent to the Museum X1X INTRODUCTION by his father in 1907. This munificent gift was fol- lowed in December, 1917, by the gift of over three thousand objects from the collections which had formed part of the Loan Exhibition of 1914-1916. In this gift were comprised—to note some of the prin- cipal features—Assyrian, Egyptian, and classical antiquities; Germanic and Gallo-Roman remains; the magnificent collections of Byzantine, Roman- esque, and Gothic enamels and ivories; mediaeval and Renaissance metalwork, sculpture, jewels, crystals, amber, and other precious examples of the decorative arts; French pottery of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, including the Le Breton Collection; the superb Negroli casque, a masterpiece of the Renaissance armorer’s art; a large collection of snuff-boxes and other small objects in gold and enamel, exquisitely jeweled and ornamented; a watch collection of the first order; several fine paintings, including the Annunciation by Roger van der Wey- den and the set of decorative panels by Hubert Robert from Bagatelle; and various specimens of Oriental art such as a group of Arabic mosque-lamps of enameled glass, a rare Chinese bronze vessel of the Chou period, and remarkable examples of Indian carpet weaving. In making this princely gift to the Museum, Mr. Morgan carried out the desire of his father that a large and valuable proportion of the collections housed in the Museum in 1913 should come into the possession of the American people, thus enlarging their opportunities for the study and enjoyment of art. Wing F, where the Hoentschel Collection had been shown since 1910, was now devoted to the permanent xX INTRODUCTION exhibition of the Morgan Collection, and officially designated, by vote of the Trustees, the Pierpont Morgan Wing. The installation of the collection was undertaken as expeditiously as possible, and on June II, 1918, the Pierpont Morgan Wing was opened to ine public. Here, with some exceptions,! are ex- hibited the works of art presented to the Museum by Mr. Morgan and his son. Since the opening of the wing the collection has been increased by several wel- come gifts from Mr. Morgan of eighteenth-century French woodwork—notably the Jdoiseries from the Hétel Gaulin at Dijon, the installation of the collec- tion has been perfected, and the wing is now devoted exclusively? to the Morgan Collection. Works of art earlier in date than the second quarter of the eighteenth century are shown in the galleries on the first floor of the wing; the second floor is devoted to the art of the eighteenth century. The collection is arranged in chronological sequence. The visitor is advised to proceed from the entrance vestibule (Germanic and Gallo-Roman antiquities) at the south end of the main hall to the west side-galleries? (Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic art); then, returning through the main hall (Gothic and Renaissance art) enter the series of side- galleries on the east (Renaissance and French art of the Louis XIV and Regency periods) through which the visitor proceeds to the staircase leading to the 1The paintings, the Assyrian, Egyptian, and most of the classical anti- quities, including the Gréau Collection, and some miscellaneous objects, including the Oriental works of art, are exhibited elsewhere in the building. 2With the exception of a few objects which, by Mr. Morgan’s permis- sion, are here shown for their educational value in relation to other objects in the collection. 3On the visitor’s left as he enters the wing. XX1 INTRODUCTION second floor, where the circuit is continued on the east side by galleries of French art of the Regency and Louis XV periods, and, on the west, by a correspond- ing series devoted to the art of the Louis XVI period. xxii Bena GALLO-ROMAN AND GERMANIC ANTIQUITIES VN a ow Cry Let a yoes Lee Although most visitors to the Museum are probably familiar to’some extent with the dress and manners of the ancient Romans, it is more than doubtful if this bowing acquaintance, so to speak, with the past extends to the Germanic invaders who overwhelmed the Roman Empire in the fifth century of our era. _Countless works of Roman art, in which contemporaneous costume is illustrated, have come down to us: but the barbarian hordes were little versed in the monumental arts and unskilled in figure representation; it was in metalworking, in the making of weapons and other utilitarian objects, or in the delicate ornament of the goldsmith’s art, that they excelled. Fortunately, however, it was a general custom among the Germanic tribes to bury with the dead the weapons, ornaments, and utensils which they had possessed during life!; and excavations have brought to light not only a vast quantity of material deposited in graves but also valuables buried for safety, votive- offerings, and occasional lost objects. Inadequate as 1The known Germanic cemeteries are very numerous. In ancient Gaul alone (France, Switzerland, and the adjacent parts of Germany) about 2,300 cemeteries have been listed. The Germanic cemeteries, however, vary greatly in extent—from a few interments to the 4,500 graves opened in the cemetery of Keszthély in Hungary. 3 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING these remains may appear when compared with the abundant records of Roman civilization, they are yet sufficient to permit one to form a fairly definite picture of the long-haired, fair-skinned Germanic warrior at the time when the barbarian kingdoms were in the making. The infantryman, Tacitus tells us, went into battle wearing only a simple cloak. The outfit of the chieftain or leader was more extensive. We see him clad in breeches and short-sleeved tunic; his feet pro- FIG. 1. TRON BELT BUCKLE PLATED Witte Stivii t tected by laced shoes of hairy skin, to which are attached bands wound around the legs below the knees; his waist encircled by a metal-studded belt fastened by a buckle between two large plaques of iron or bronze decorated with silver (fig. 1). The belt supports his scramasax—a heavy, single-edged, straight-bladed cutlass—and a pouch which held various objects such as a comb, shears, and tweezers. At his left side hangs his sword, or spatha, suspended from the shoulder by a baldric, and carried like the scramasax in a sheath, generally of wood, covered perhaps with hide. A throwing-axe and a spear are his other weapons; and a shield of wicker or of wood, covered with leather and mounted with a metal boss and hand-grip, affords protection. The shield is 4 GALLO-ROMAN AND GERMANIC ANTIQUITIES supplemented perhaps by a helmet and by rudimen- tary chain-orscale-armor. If he wears a mantle, it is secured by a large brooch, no less richly ornamented than those (usually worn in pairs) fastening the cloak which the woman wears over her shift, or under-tunic, of linen. Around her neck is a string of large beads of amber or variegated glass. Ear pendants, arm- lets, rings, and hair-pins are among her personal ornaments. She too carries a pouch for her small possessions; and other objects, keys, for example, are attached to a metal disk (fig. 2) of openwork design, worn at the belt. A notable collection of bar- baric art is exhibited in the en- trance gallery at the south end FIG. 2. of the large hall of the Morgan CO a Wing. The majority of the ex- hibits are Germanic, but the collection also includes some Celtic (Gallic) and Gallo-Roman objects, and even some purely Roman or Byzantine.’ With the exception of a small collection of metal- work from the Caucasus and a few pieces of Scytho- Siberian style, the material here exhibited is com- posed of three collections purchased by Mr. Morgan in 1910 and Igi1. One of these, the Queckenberg Collection, is made up of the contents of not less than twenty-five graves in a Frankish cemetery at Nieder- breisig, a small village between Coblenz and Bonn. *In the absence of any records of excavation, it is impossible to state whether some of the objects included in the collection, manifestly Roman or Byzantine in origin, were found in the graves or secured from other sources. 5 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING The second collection was brought together by a Paris dealer, Stanislas Baron; the objects are said to have come mainly from Merovingian tombs in the north of France (chiefly Picardy) and in the south; but we know the definite provenance of only one group, the contents of the so-called military tomb at Vermand (fig. 3). The third collection is com- posed of objects reputed to have been found in some ten ancient cemeteries in the Marne and Aube valleys. The purely Roman and Byzantine objects in the collection are readily distinguished from the barbaric material by a marked difference in style, as well as by greater delicacy of workmanship, skilled modeling, and the use of engraved gems. The Gallo-Roman objects, principally jewelry, rep- resent one phase of the provincial Roman art which flourished in the prosperous cities of Gaul under the Pax Romana. At the time of Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, the region had long been inhabited by Celtic tribes, whose art had its own motives and forms showing a preference for linear design and simple geometric patterns, delicately rendered; a notable feature is the use of enamel,® usually in the champ- levé technique. The Roman conquest did not ex- tinguish this native art,‘ but so transformed it that it became a provincial style of the Empire, known as Gallo-Roman. ’Colored vitreous pastes (glass) fused on to the surface of metal or into compartments either hollowed out of the metal (champlevé) or built up by soldering metal strips to the plate in the form desired (cloisonné). See pages 54, 57, 92, 96 for a further account of enamel. 4In the seventh and eighth centuries, Celtic art flourished anew in the British Isles, where it had taken refuge, and achieved remarkable results in manuscript illumination, carving, and metalwork. 6 FIG. 3. FOUR OBJECTS IN SILVER-GILT FROM THE SO- CALLED MILITARY TOMB AT VERMAND. ASCRIBED TO THE SECOND HALF OF THE IV CENTURY A, B, AND C ARE PARTS OF A SPEAR. D IS A BUCKLE THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING In the fifth century, Gaul was invaded by the Van- dals on their way into Spain, and by the Visigoths who conquered southwestern Gaul and a large part of Spain. Under the leadership of Clovis, who suc- ceeded his father, Childeric, in 481, the Salian Franks, who occupied what is now Holland and Belgium (the other branch of the Franks, the Ripuarians, dwelling further inland on the banks of the Rhine), seized the portion of northern Gaul which still remained subject to Roman authority, and in $07 further extended this domain by conquering the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse. In the second half of the sixth century, the Franks absorbed the territory held by the Bur- gundians, Allemanni, and Bavarians, so that a vast domain now awaited the consolidating genius of Charlemagne. In the meantime, the Frankish con- quests had brought Roman rule in Gaul to an end, and the ravaged land was plunged into a condition of barbarism only gradually ameliorated through the progress of Christianity and through political and commercial contact with more civilized lands. Under Clovis and his successors, the Merovingian kings, art was more or less chaotic. On the one hand, the na- tive Frankish art, best exemplified in metalworking, maintained its Germanic character. But, on the other, we find Byzantine art entering in the train of the Church, embellishing the Merovingian basilicas described by Fortunatus and Gregory of Tours; nor must we disregard the influence of the articles of luxury imported from the Eastern Empire and the Orient by the “Syrian” merchants in Gaul. It was not, however, until the end of the eighth century that the Germanic style was finally submerged in the Carolingian Renaissance, when the revival of learn- 8 GALLO-ROMAN AND GERMANIC ANTIQUITIES ing at the court of Charlemagne and the imperial patronage of the art of Byzantium gave a new direc- tion to Frankish art. The Franks were only one branch of the Teutonic peoples who wandered restlessly over Europe in the period of the bar- barian invasions.» The objects found in the cemeteries of the vari- ous tribes reveal a native Germanic art, common, at least in its FIG. 4. SCYTHIAN GOLD BUCKLE general characteristics, Saag ale ON as eae forall) [fis essentially an art of ornament, akin to the Oriental in its love of geometric patterns in flat design and its negation of the realistic, plastic qualities conspicuous in Greek and Romanart. Although fantastic bird and animal forms were popular'’— due in part, perhaps, to the influence of classical art—they are always conventionally render- ed, another point of re- semblance with the art of the Orient, whence the barbarians undoubtedly FIG. §. BRONZE FIBULA *At its narrowest limits, the period extends from about 376 (when the Visigoths, settled in southern Russia, were driven by the Huns to cross _ the Danube and invade the Empire) to the time of Charlemagne. But long before the fourth century the Germanic tribes were moving down from the north to the south and to the east and west; and the Viking period of the Teutonic migrations carries us from the time of Charle- magne to a date well advanced in the eleventh century. ® Motives based on the piant (except the vine) and the human form are rare. Zo THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING borrowed many design motives and the technique of colored inlays (garnets and glass pastes). It will be recalled that the Goths, a Teutonic people, had settled in southern Russia on the shores of the Black Sea in the later part of the second century, and had occu- pied this border-land territory until late in the fourth century when one section of the tribe, the Visigoths, was forced across the frontiers of the Roman Empire by the Huns sweeping down from central Asia, while the other, the Ostrogoths, was driven into the interior and conquered by the Mongolians; thus the Goths, for a considerable period of time, were in an advan- tageous position to receive and transmit influences coming from the East. Although Oriental influence appears to have played the most important part in the formation of the Germanic style of the migration period, it must not be forgotten that in the first two or three centuries of our era there was a considerable interpenetration of Romans and Germans, which naturally had cul- tural results. The exhibits in Gallery F 1 comprise a variety of objects, such as brooches, buckles, chatelaine plaques, bag-tops, bracelets, torques (neckpieces in the form of an open ring), shears, tweezers, knives, spoons, rings, hair-pins, keys, combs, beads, and glass drinking- vessels. The weapons have been transferred to the galleries of the Department of Arms and Armor, except for a small group of typical examples. The brooches, or fibulae, constitute a numerous group. The simplest type (rare on the whole) is the ring brooch, a closed or partly open metal ring with a hinged prong greater in length than the diameter of the ring; the buckle presumably originated from 10 GALLO—ROMAN AND GERMANIC ANTIQUITIES fibulae of this type. In the plate type, the prong is hinged beneath a plate of circular, polygonal, or fantastic shape, and adjusted to a catch. A third type in its simplest form resembles our familiar safety-pin (fig. 5); but as the type developed, the bow was covered by an ornamental plate, and, with the substitution of the hinge for the spiral, the type merges with the plate fibulae. The collection includes a few early Celtic and north Italian fibulae of the safety-pin type, but most of the fibulae here are Mero- vingian. Of these, several types are represented; among the most interesting are cir- cular or polygonal brooches of gold (fig. 6) richly orna- mented with filigree of wire and clustered gold globules, and with inlays of garnets Fic.6. CIRCULAR FIBULA and glass paste. Another ey aot CAR < 2 WITH GOLD class of objects, admirably represented in the collection, consists of buckles in various shapes and sizes. Characteristically Ger- manic are the large belt buckles (fig. 1) with accom- panying plaques of iron or bronze decorated with silver in elaborate linear designs. Plating 1s the us- ual process: the design is worked out by roughening the iron or bronze; a thin metal foil of some color different from the ground is then applied and beaten until it adheres to the roughened parts. Silver and tin were much used in plating. Sometimes repoussé work occurs on the foil. The Germans were also expert in inlaying metals, but this technique 1s less common than plating. Sword blades show that the ii THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING metal-workers were skilled in damascening—the welding together of different colored metals. The drinking-cups (fig. 7) and other vessels in the wall cases are examples of the glass industry which flourished in Gaul, especially in the region of the Rhine. The shape of the “tumbler drinking-glass,” rounded on the bottom so that it could not be set down until empty, and the applied decoration are characteristic. The iridescence which adds so much to the beauty of ancient glass is due to chemical decomposition through burial in the earth. The beads of variegated glass, which were a favorite ornament of the Ger- manic women, are probably not of local manufacture but impor- tations from Palestine or Syria, or from Alexandria in Egypt. The collections just noted will give the visitor some idea of the Leben nte : native artistic attainments of the ea ert barbarian population of western Europe in the period preceding Charlemagne. Meanwhile, in the Eastern Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, a new style of art had developed from the fusion of Hellenistic and Oriental traditions. The characteristics of this Byzantine art, the influence it exerted on the art of western Europe in the time of Charlemagne, and the emergence of the Romanesque style we shall con- siderin Partebl: 3 FIG 74 - CLASssCuD I2 levis Seti 91 EARLY CHRISTIAN BYZANTINE CAROLINGIAN AND Crea baWend Bl EAA INTRODUCTION In Gallery F 2, the first on the left as the visitor enters the Morgan Wing, are exhibited ivories, enam- els, metalwork, and other works of art dating from the first through the twelfth century. These exhib- its, which comprise some of the greatest treasures in the Morgan Collection, will be discussed in the following chapter; in this, a brief outline is attempted of the development of Christian art during the first twelve centuries of our era. The Early Christian period, although of somewhat indefinite chronological limits, may be said to extend from the later part of the first century, when Chris- tian art makes its first appearance, to about the sixth century, when Constantinople under the Emperor Justinian flourished as a center of Christian art, and the Byzantine style, long in preparation, took defi- nite form. By the second century, Christianity had spread to most parts of the Empire, and persecution served only to gain new adherents to the faith. In 313 Christianity became nominally the state religion through the famous edict of Constantine, the first Christian emperor. With the triumph of the Church, Christian art entered upon a period of great develop- ment in marked contrast with the humble position 1§ THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING it had occupied during the first three centuries, when it had been little more than a funerary art, existing obscurely in the catacombs, its iconography limited to a few symbols! and biblical episodes” with mystic meaning, through which the faithful expressed their belief in the life to come and implored the protection of the Savior. The earliest Christian art is not distinguished from contemporaneous pagan art by any peculiarity of style. The Christians merely borrowed the existing forms of classical art and adapted them to their needs. The style which then prevailed throughout the Ro- man Empire was the Hellenistic, a hybrid form of late Greek art, degenerate but still reminiscent of the nobility of earlier days. It was not a uniform style, dominated by Rome; on the contrary, it was only during the short period of the Empire’s greatest centralization and political unity that the particular form of Hellenism which flourished at the capital enjoyed even a limited vogue outside of Italy. Cer- tainly, after the third century Rome could make no claim to leadership in matters of art. It is not Rome, but the art and culture—suffused with orientalism— of the great Hellenistic cities of Antioch, Ephesus, and Alexandria which contributed most to the de- velopment of Early Christian art. The triumph of the Church, which followed Con- stantine’s edict of 313, profoundly affected both the character of Christian art and the conditions under ‘The fish, for example, was a symbol of Christ, since the Greek word for fish IXOY2 is an anagram for "I (noobs) X(prards) O(e00) T(ids) Z(wrnp) (Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Savior). *Mainly illustrating the funeral liturgy. The prayers for the dead related instances of divine protection and supplicated the same protec- tion for the soul of the deceased. 16 EARLY CHRISTIAN-—ROMANESQUE ART which it was produced. The restricted, symbolic art of the catacombs now entered upon an extraor- dinary period of expansion. Splendid churches of the basilican type*® were erected throughout the land. These were plain on the exterior, but within were richly adorned with mosaics‘ or wall paintings, at first purely decorative, then pictorial and didactic in character. In the latter form, the mural decora- tions of the nave, of the triumphal arch separating the nave from the apse, and of the apse itself served the double purpose of instructing the unlettered in sacred history and dogma, and of manifesting the joy and the gratitude of the faithful in the victory of the Church. Christian sculpture, which in the period of the cata- combs was practically non-existent, now enjoyed a moderate degree of popularity, but its development was checked, among other causes, by the hostility with which the early Christians regarded anything in the nature of an idol. This objection did not ap- ply so much to sculpture in relief, which seems to have been regarded as a form of embossed paint- ing, as to sculpture in the round. Sarcophagi, with sculptured figure subjects based on pagan models but expressing Christian ideals and aspirations, were made in considerable number, and comprise the most important class of Early Christian sculpture. Chris- 3A type of church probably adopted and developed from the pagan building of the same name. Characteristic of the basilican plan is the broad nave with transepts and single or double side-aisles, covered with wooden ceilings and roof. At one end of the nave is the choir with its ambones, and the apse with altar and seats for the clergy. On the front of the church is a portico, or narthex, preceded by an atrium surrounded by a covered arcade. 4Small cubes of colored or gilded glass set in cement. i THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING tian themes also appear in wood- and ivory-carvings, miniature painting, metalwork, and other minor arts. During the fourth and fifth centuries there was a great development of Christian dogma. The heresies which aroused such passionate feeling were but ad- ditional proof of the vitality of religious life in this period, further characterized by the growth of mo- nasticism, the appearance of an extensive body of Christian literature, the rapid development of the cult of saints and martyrs, and the popularity of pilgrimages to famous shrines. These new interests are reflected in the art of the triumphant period. From a limited number of themes concerned principally with the promise of a future life, the subject matter of Christian art was now enlarged to include a complete system of the- ology, and church walls were decorated with great cycles of scenes drawn from the New and Old Testa- ments. Some of the ancient symbols lost favor; others, such as the sacred monogram and the cross, became popular. The central figure in the new icono- graphical program is Christ, who is represented not only in scriptural episodes, but also as enthroned in majesty. In the earliest representations of the Savior, He has the appearance of a beardless youth; this is the Hellenistic type, reflecting Greek idealism. But in the fourth century a new type, the mature bearded figure with which we are familiar, makes its appearance; this is the Oriental, historical type which became generally accepted in the fifth century, al- though it did not entirely supplant the Hellenistic type until long after. Byzantine art is a general term for the art of the Eastern Empire, which, after a period of incubation, 18 EARLY CHRISTIAN——-ROMANESQUE ART was perfected at Constantinople (Byzantium) in the reign of Justinian (527-565), and thereafter, during nine centuries, experienced the varying fortunes of stagnation, revival, and eclipse. When Constantine in 330 transferred the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), he assured FIG. 8. CONSULAR DIPTYCH TVORY 21 SAC SD. to this city the eventual dominance of the Graeco- Oriental world. In 395 the Roman Empire was defi- nitely divided into east and west. The Eastern Empire escaped the disasters of the fifth century which overwhelmed the west and reduced Rome to the rank of a provincial city governed by the popes. By the time of Justinian, the eastern prov- inces had been welded into a powerful state with Constantinople not only the political capital but also one of the principal centers of its intellectual and artistic life. 19 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING The period of prosperity under Justinian was followed by one of decline in the seventh century, during which most of the provinces were lost to the Mohammedans; the conflict between cross and cres- cent continued until the very end of the Empire. From 726 to 842 the Empire was convulsed by the iconoclastic controversy. ‘This originated in a re- form movement, political as well as religious in char- acter, opposing the superstitious, popular rever- ence for images. The triumph of the iconoclastic party temporarily directed art into secular channels, and caused the destruction on a vast scale of exist- ing works of religious art. But the latter had taken too firm a grip upon the people to be thus uprooted, and the controversy ended with the revival of the cult of images. With the accession of Basil I in 867 began a period of power and prosperity, which continued under the Macedonian and Comnenian dynasties until 1202 when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Cru- saders and for over half a century was under Latin rule. A restoration was accomplished by the Palae- ologi; but, impoverished and assailed on all sides, the Empire hastened to its decline, which was com- pleted by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks In 1453. Before the sixth century, Constantinople as an art center did not equal in importance such other great cities of the Empire as Alexandria, Ephesus, and Antioch; but the supremacy of the capital was defi- nitely assured in the seventh century when the Arab conquests brought final disaster to the rivals of the imperial city. In the development of Byzantine art two schools 20 EARLY CHRISTIAN——-ROMANESQUE ART of widely different tendencies are conspicuous. The more prominent was the aristocratic, theological school, which flourished under imperial and ecclesi- astical patronage, and impressed its style upon the luxurious forms of art. Based largely upon Hellen- istic tradition, the art of this official school is ideal- istic) “abstract, stately. The other school, which developed contemporaneously but occupied a more obscure position until the late days of the Empire, had its origin in Syria and Egypt. It was a school of popular, monastic art characterized by a tendency to dramatize and make picturesque the incidents of sacred history; it was more spontaneous, less intel- lectual than the aristocratic school. In Byzantine art, Hellenistic and Oriental elements mingle to produce a new style. From the classical inheritance came the traditions of a representative art, of the unity secured by the subordination of de- tail to ensemble, and of monumental dignity. The East contributed, in addition to new ornamental mo- tives and new technical methods, its love of color and of flat pattern; its indifference to realistic ex- pression and, of great importance in the history of architecture, the domical system of vaulting and the central plan, which became typical of Byzantine church architecture. The first period of Byzantine art, which ends with the beginning of the iconoclastic controversy early in the eighth century, may be called the Golden Age of Justinian. This was a flourishing period for all the arts, which still retained Hellenistic reminiscences of plasticity, grace, and dignity. Magnificent, dome- covered churches, of which the most notable is Santa Sophia at Constantinople, testify to the skill of the aa | THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Byzantine architect. Sculpture in the round was rarely practised—still less, after the first pertod— but relief sculpture was lavishly employed in archi- tectural ornament. Wooden doors, ivory boxes and tablets, and various objects in metal afforded fur- ther opportunities for sculptural decoration. In the carving of ivory (fig. 8) an extraordinary excellence was attained. The mosaics and paintings of the first period, less stereotyped than in the later periods, show Byzantine art at its height. Although art production was limited in the icono- clastic or second period, the reaction was not inimical to all forms of art. Religious subjects were replaced by secular themes, especially mythological subjects derived from classical art; and ornament attained an increased importance (fig. 23). The third period of Byzantine art, commencing about the middle of the ninth century with the set- tlement of the iconoclastic controversy and the accession of Basil, is marked by renewed artistic activity, and the tenth and eleventh centuries con- stitute the second Golden Age of Byzantine art (figs. g, 26). The proportions of the figure became more graceful; the ornament, more delicate and pure; the rendering, sure and facile. Although art was not exclusively religious, it was chiefly occupied in the service of the Church, and under the influence of ecclesiastical conservatism iconography hardened into a rigid system. Lack of initiative and a mannered style characterize the art of the twelfth century, with which the third period comes to an end. After the restoration of the Palaeologi in the thir- teenth century, there was an artistic revival animated by a new spirit, akin to that which was then trans- D2 EARLY CHRISTIAN——-ROMANESQUE ART forming the art of France and Italy. In this revival, which constitutes the fourth period, the popular monastic school played the principal part. Theologi- cal abstractions gave way to dramatic representations of the actualities of sacred story, designed not so much to teach dogma as to stir the emotions and prepare the way for its acceptance. What would have been the outcome of this art of mystic realism had it continued to de- velop, it is impossible to say, for the Byzantine Renaissance collapsed with the Turkish con- quest of 1453. Ai lifeless art of immutable _for- mulae was practised in the few monasteries which survived the conquest; but it was only in Russia FIG. 9. DORMITION OF tages byzantine art: te- lie AO men . supe LVORY. exes SOREN DLURY mained a living style, as- similating new elements, but still faithful to the an- cient tradition. Throughout its course, Byzantine art exerted a profound influence upon Italy. Of this, ample proof is afforded by the splendid churches erected during the fifth and sixth centuries at Rome and Ravenna, despite the disorders of the time. In the period of exhaustion which ensued, it was Byzantine craftsmen who did the finest work at Rome, where papal patronage gave encouragement to the arts; and it was their example which served as guide and inspira- tion to the local artificers. The art of the Eastern 23 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Empire dominated southern Italy until the thir- teenth century; and, in the north, Venice was a thoroughly Byzantine city. Under the assimilative Longobards, who invaded Italy in 570 and estab- lished there a kingdom which lasted until 771, the Byzantine style spread through northern Italy, and contributed to the revival of art in Lombardy during the Carolingian and Romanesque periods. The state of the arts in western Europe north of the Alps in the time of the barbarian kingdoms has already been briefly touched upon in the preceding chapter. In consolidating the territories held by the Franks into a vast, if loosely united, empire, Charle- magne strove to revive not only the form but also the culture of the ancient Roman Empire. The new Emperor of the Romans did his best to make his court at Aix-la-Chapelle a cultural center which should rival the imperial Rome of former days. Men of learning, such as Alcuin of England, found welcome at court; skilled craftsmen were brought from Byzan- tium to embellish the capital; and works of art im- ported from the Eastern Empire served as models for the western artificers. Deprived of its patron- age, the Germanic art of the Merovingian kings was submerged in the tide of Byzantine influence; and a new style arose, characterized by an imperfect as- similation of various elements derived from Byzan- tium and Rome, from the Orient and the British Isles. The ninth and tenth centuries, during which this style prevailed, constitute the Carolingian period. After the death of Charlemagne, the struggles be- tween the rival claimants for the disrupted Empire and the invasions of the Normans, Hungarians, and Slavs resulted in political and social anarchy. Under 24 EARLY CHRISTIAN——-ROMANESQUE ART these conditions, when the universal need for pro- tection gave rise to the feudal system, art took refuge in the monasteries. Here, in the peace and discipline of the cloister—for example, in such great monas- teries as those of St. Gall and of St. Martin of Tours— were produced the illuminated manuscripts, the carved ivories (fig. 10), and the metalwork which constitute the principal monuments of the Carolin- gian period. This monastic art is largely one of imita- tion and adaptation, so that it is often very difficult to distinguish local styles, even nationalities. Ivory-carvers drew their inspiration not only from Byzantine mod- els, but also, and to an even larger extent, from manuscript illuminations. The painters of the illumi- FIG. 10. THE VIRGIN nated Bibles, evangeliaries, ee ee . CAROLINGIAN IVORY and psalters produced in Vayane the Carolingian monaster- ies were also influenced by Byzantium, but especially by the Anglo-Saxon and Irish art of the British Isles; these various elements were fused into an unmistak- able style, extremely decorative, animated and vigor- ous. From the metalworkers came jeweled book- covers, reliquaries, altar-frontals, and even occasional images in the round such as the celebrated Saint Faith at Conques. Apart from ivory-carving, how- ever, sculpture was little practised in the Carolingian period. Its highest development was reached in Ger- 25 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING many under the beneficent rule of the Othos in the tenth century, when Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhineland were great centers of artistic activity. Whether or not this was due to the hypothetical Greek craftsmen who are said to have accompanied the Byzantine princess, Theophano, upon her mar- riage to Otho II, German art attained a high level in both the Carolingian and the succeeding Romanesque period, distinguished by a crude, forceful realism and by a technical ability above the average. Meanwhile, in the Iberian peninsula, there had been developing a brilliant Moslem civilization which immensely outshone the flickering light of the Caro- lingian Renaissance. What city in northern Europe at this time could compare with tenth-century Cor- dova, famous for its university, its magnificent pal- aces, its three thousand mosques, and its three hundred public baths? Especially the baths! In 710, fresh from their conquests in the Near East and northern Africa, the Arabs had invaded Spain, defeated the Visigoths, and speedily made themselves masters of the greater part of the penin- sula, thus adding to the Mohammedan world its principal domain in the West. The Arab art of Spain, although distinctive in style, derives directly or indirectly from two principal sources, Byzantium and Persia. The most conspicuous clement espe- cially in architecture and sculpture, are ibe of Iranian origin; they include the familiar horseshoe- arch; the domical system of vaulting, which gave to the Mohammedan mosque its characteristic cupola; and the “‘coloristic”’ technique of decorative carving in which the ornament is kept in one plane contrast- ing sharply with a deeply shadowed background. 26 EARLY CHRISTIAN——-ROMANESQUE ART In the eleventh century, the small Christian king- doms in the north of Spain became sufficiently power- ful to encroach gradually on their Mohammedan neighbors, until, in the thirteenth century, the Moors had been driven into the mountainous kingdom of Granada in southern Spain, where for two centuries more their civilization continued to flourish. The Christian art of western Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries is commonly known as Roman- esque.’ In this period changing political and social conditions gave a new impetus to art. The decen- tralizing tendency of feudalism was now opposed by the growing power of the monarchy; and 1n France, a3 in England after the Norman conquest of 1066, the evolution toward national unity proceeded apace. Both France and England were destined to become strong, single kingdoms; but another fate was in store for Germany, since the struggle between pope and emperor, the rivalry and rebellions of the German vassals, the difficulty of holding Italian territory could have but one result—the eventual collapse of the Holy Roman Empire® and the dissolution of Ger- many into a confused confederation of small powers with no strong central government. In the conflict between imperial and papal ambitions, Italy had no chance of attaining unity; but these conditions fa- vored the rise of the city states, which were to con- tribute so much in the period of the Renaissance to the development of art. The new importance of the communes, not only in ®>When this term came into use early in the nineteenth century, it was thought that the art of this period showed a greater dependence on Roman forms than is now generally admitted. 6 After the death of Frederick II in 1250. 27 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Italy but elsewhere, reflects the increased industrial and commercial activities of the period. Commerce between the East and West was fostered by the Cru- sades (from the end of the eleventh to the end of the thirteenth century), and the contact with Oriental civilization developed new ideals of luxury. In the brilliant Provencal school of southern France, litera- ture once again began to flourish. Universities were founded and multiplied; and learning—of a sort—be- came more general. Although the day was drawing near when com- munal art should produce the great Gothic cathedrals of the thirteenth century, the patronage of art in the Romanesque period was still preponderantly mo- nastic. The reformed Benedictine order of Cluny, established in Burgundy in g10, was an active agent in the development and spread of Romanesque art. The eleventh century saw the rise of two other great reform orders, the Carthusian and the Cistercian, the latter particularly influential in architecture, although it austerely neglected sculpture. The im- portance of religion in the Romanesque period is clearly seen in the wealth and power of the monastic houses; 1n the magnificent churches built to enshrine famous relics; in the pilgrimages, which contributed a great deal, incidentally, to the dissemination of new styles of architecture and sculpture; and finally, in the numerous Crusades undertaken to free the Holy Land from the infidel. After the dreaded year 1000 had been safely passed, many of the older shrines were rebuilt and new churches were constructed in vast numbers. It is in church architecture that Romanesque art attained its most original form. Several regional styles developed 28 EARLY CHRISTIAN—-ROMANESQUE ART in France; Lombardy contributed notable advances to the creation of the new style, and there were im- portant developments in England (the Norman style), in Germany, and in northern Spain. But it must suffice to describe briefly the typical Romanesque church. The general basilican plan was still retained with the transepts more developed; but the great in- novation was the substitution of stone vaulting for the timber roof and flat wooden ceilings of the earlier churches. The great advantage of this vaulting was that it lessened the danger of fire. Through this change the appearance of the church was radically altered. Whatever the system of vaulting—domical, barrel, groined, or ribbed—the weight of the stone vault necessitated a narrow nave, sturdy pillars, and thick, low walls, massive enough to resist the thrust of the vault. Light was admitted through round- headed windows, small in scale so as not to weaken the walls. These small windows did well enough in the south, where dim interiors were a welcome relief from the blaze of sunlight; but in the north, larger windows which would admit more light were desira- ble. Accordingly, the earlier system of timber roof- ing was often retained, as the walls, when pierced with large window openings, were not strong enough to support the weight of the heavy Romanesque stone vaulting. The solution of the problem was shortly to be found in the development of the Gothic con- structional system. The sobriety of form which characterizes the Ro- manesque church was relieved by carvings on capi- tals, portals, and other parts of the edifice; by the stained glass which filled the deep-set windows; and by the frescoes which adorned the interior. Monu- 29 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING mental sculpture, which for centuries had been practi- cally extinct in western Europe, now revived as an adjunct toarchitecture. Our space is too limited for any discussion of the many local schools of sculpture which developed in France, or of the various schools which flourished in Italy, Germany, Spain, and else- where in this period. Attention may be called to a few characteristics of Romanesque sculpture in general (figs. I1, 31). The material for monumental sculpture was gener- ally stone, although wood and marble were also used. The ancient custom of painting and gilding sculpture continued, but this polychromy was limited to a few colors which were applied without any great effort at realistic imitation. It is difficult to realize what must have been the original appearance of Roman- esque sculpture, as in most cases little or nothing remains today of the painting and gilding which com- pleted the carver’s work. Technically, Romanesque sculpture rarely rises to any very high level. The craftsmen who were charged with the sculptural dec- oration of the great churches and monasteries of this period had to relearn the most elementary principles of their art. Preoccupied with technical difficulties, the Romanesque sculptor did not bother himself much with studying directly from nature, although he had a keen sense of the dramatic which shows powers of observation. To illustrate the didactic program devised for the sculptor by his ecclesiastical clients no great ability in the imitation of nature was essential; for purposes of instruction, conventional forms sufficed if only sufficiently realistic to be rec- ognizable. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Romanesque sculptor should have turned, in the 30 HG Ul tHE. VIRGIN AND CHILD PAINTED WOOD FRENCH, XII CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING main, to other models than nature, and have copied or adapted to his needs chance remains of classical art (which had a distinct influence upon the devel- opment of sculpture as well as of architecture in southern France), the patterns of Oriental textiles, Christian ivories, and especially the manuscript illuminations produced at Byzantium or in his own monastic schools. Ivory-carving (fig. 13) ex- hibits the same general de- velopment as sculpture in stone. Metalworkers ap- plied their skill to the elabo- rate ornamentations of re- liquaries, shrines, and other FIG. 12. SAINT JOHN articles of church usage. aad metas Oy Antique vases were set in RHENISH, ABOUT 1180 mountings of silver-gilt; book-covers (fig. 37) and shrines were studded with precious stones, cameos, and engraved gems. Bronze casting was carried to perfection. Early in the twelfth century, enamel (figs. 12, 30, 32-34, 52) became the most popular means of ornamenting metal, and the champlevé proc- ess, more suitable for work on a large scale than the intricate and costly cloisonné method of Byzantine art, came into favor. The Rhineland, the valley of the Meuse, and Limoges, in central France, were the principal centers of enameling in the Romanesque period. More will be said of these minor arts when we come to the discussion of the objects exhibited in Gallery F 2: Except in the form of manuscript illuminations 32 EARLY CHRISTIAN——ROMANESQUE ART little has survived of Romanesque paintings. The colors are few and crude, applied in flat washes, strongly outlined and summarily modeled with cross-hatchings and coarse touches of light and dark. The drawing is schematic; the attitudes are often violent to the point of ex- travagance; but there is usu- ally a decorative quality which redeems many faults. As the period advanced, stained glass for windows came into vogue. This Roman- esque glass, characterized by severe, monumental design and deep, rich color, is of the “mosaic”’ type, 1. e., composed of small pieces of pot-metal glass held together by strips of lead which follow the main i outlines of the pattern. In |{Meeeete : this early leaded glass, paint- FIG. 13. LEAF OF IVORY ing holds an entirely subser- DIPTYCH . os SPANISH, XII CENTURY vient position. : The iconography which developed in western Eu- rope during the Romanesque period differs in several respects from that which prevailed contemporane- ously in the official school of Byzantine art. It 1s less sacramental, more universal in character. It too is concerned with religious instruction, but it supple- ments the traditional themes of scriptural episodes and representations of sacred personages with sub- jects drawn from the entire range of human knowl- edge and belief, subjects which are not only in- structive in themselves but also susceptible of alle- 33 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING gorical interpretation as demonstrations of dogma and moral precepts. What may seem to us obscure was not so to the faithful in this age of scholastic subtleties, when sermons made clear to the people the meaning of the allegories, types, and symbols which met their eyes as they entered the church and surrounded them in their devotions. We find, then, in Romanesque art not only scriptural sub- jects, often with figurative meanings in addition to their historical significance, but also scenes from the lives of the saints; representations of the seven liberal arts; of the vices and virtues; of the mechanical and manual arts; of the seasons and their occupations; and, for good measure, an extraordinary fauna of fantastic beings and of half-real, half-imaginary animals derived from the bestiaries and travelers’ tales of distant lands. Even profane subjects make their appearance, and genre creeps in, more or less sanctimoniously disguised. Romanesque art, one might say, was a handbook in which was written for all to read what the world then knew and what it believed. This vast encyclopedic program is only roughly suggested in the Romanesque period; it was to be perfected in the succeeding age of Gothic art. In the second half of the twelfth century, when Romanesque art was at its height, there was de- veloped in the Ile-de-France and in Normandy a new principle of construction which speedily transformed the art of building and made possible the soaring beauty of the Gothic cathedrals. But the discussion of Gothic art must be reserved for another chapter; it is time now to pass in review the objects of earlier art which await our inspection in Gallery F 2. 34 CHAPTER II GALLERY F 2 In the first case (A) on the left, as one enters Gallery F2, 1s exhibited the Albanian treasure, a group of ob- jects in gold and silver found in the vicinity of Vrap Meateurazzo in Albania. With the exception of one cup in the Constantinople Museum and of one drinking- bowl in the Economos Collec- tion, Paris, the entire lot of forty-one pieces comprising — Petes tee wasacduired by sr 14. coup BUCKLE Mr. Morgan between 1gO2 THE ALBANIAN and 1907. The objects may Be PASE RE be divided into two groups: one, gold and silver vessels, and the other, gold ornaments for per- sonal adornment. Stylistically, all the vessels in the first group are Byzantine in character with the exception of the pair of undecorated gold drinking- bowls, which are Oriental in style, and of the silver bucket (fig. 15), which combines both Byzantine and Oriental elements. The gold ornaments, consisting of buckles (fig. 14), strap-ends, and various mount- ings, are closely related to similar objects in bronze which have been found in barbarian graves in Hun- 35 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING gary. IThe,principal design’ motives#iiesenan palmette, the circular lobed leaf, and the vine mean- FIG. 15. SILVER BUCKET THE ALBANIAN TREASURE der, are unmistakably Orien- tal in character. Theventire treasure is presumably the work of nomad craftsmen in the train of barbarian tribes migrating through the Balk- ans from central Asia. Many dificult questions are involved in the matter of dating, but in a general way the treasure may be assigned to a period from the sixth to the ninth century. One of the most in- teresting pieces is a gold cup (fig. 16) ornamented in repoussé with four symbolic figures with mural crowns representing Constanti- nople, Cyprus, Rome, and Alexandria; the cup 1s prob- ably a copy in gold of an earlier Byzantine original in silver. Pausing for a moment to note a French wood-carving of the twelfth century rep- resenting the seated Virgin holding the Christ Child on her knees (fig. 11), we pass on to the second case (B) where is exhibited a group of six silver plates of excep- FIG. 16." ‘GOLD: cur THE ALBANIAN TREASURE tional rarity and import- — ance. These plates (figs. 17, 18) form part of a 36 FIG. 17. DAVID BEFORE SAUL FIG. 18. DAVID AND GOLIATH TWO SILVER DISHES, SYRIAN OV THE Vi CENTURY FORMING PART OF THE CYPRUS TREASURE THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING treasure which was discovered in 1902 at Karavas near Kyrenia on the north coast of the island of Cyprus. Altogether, eleven silver dishes and a quantity of gold jewelry were found, of which five plates and a few pieces of jewelry were retained by the government at Cyprus and are now in the museum at Nicosia; the remainder of the treasure entered the Morgan Collection (six plates in Case B; eight pieces of jewelry in Case C). The Morgan plates, which are ornamented in low relief with scenes from the story of David, are sixth century in date and presumably of Syrian (Antioch?) workmanship. Silverware and jewelry found near Antioch or in neighboring regions indicate flourishing ateliers of metalworkers at this period in Syria; Antioch was probably the center of production. In the elaborate figure compositions of this school, a realistic tendency is conspicuous, espe- cially in the rendering of such accessories as furniture and costume. Hellenistic tradition is apparent in the picturesque character of such pieces as the plate with the scene of David strangling the lion. In other instances—for example, David before Saul (fig. 17)— the symmetrical composition reveals new influences at work. In this plate, note as illustrating the realistic trend that the figures are clothed in con- temporaneous costume. Wearing the chlamys, or mantle, ornamented with the tablion (insignia of imperial dignity) and fastened on the right shoulder with a jeweled brooch, Saul might be taken for a Byzantine emperor, giving audience in some hall of the Sacred Palace. On the backs of the plates ap- pear various stamps composed of the monograms and effigies of the name-saints of the control officers. The Syrian craftsman often used gold, and occasionally 38 GALLERY F 2 niello, to enhance the effectiveness of his relief work, which was further enriched by engraved ornament and detail. The general effect is one of splendid magnificence, but closer examination reveals the ab- sence of those refinements which distinguish the metalwork of the classical era. Byzantine jewelry 1s open to the same criticism. The goldsmith no longer strove for delicate workman- ship and exquisite niceties of form. The metal is apt to be flimsy; showy combinations of gold and colors or bold contrasts of light and dark catch the eye but fail to holdit. The ornament, 1f modeled, 1s usually embossed in low relief rather than boldly modeled. In compensation, there are beauty of pat- tern and striking effects of color. Perhaps it is some- what unfair to judge Byzantine jewelry by itself alone; it should be regarded as an essential part of the sumptuous costumes of the time—the glittering ac- cent, so to speak, which gave to Byzantine dress something of the golden splendor of mosaics. The collection of Early Christian and Byzantine jewelry shown in Case C 1s one of unusual interest owing to the rarity of these examples of the gold- smith’s art. On one side of the case are grouped the eight pieces of jewelry forming part of the treasure found at Karavas, Cyprus, to which we have already referred. The jewelry, like the silver plate, is prob- ably of Syrian origin, and dates from the fifth or sixth century; a girdle is composed of gold coins and medals ranging in date from the early fifth to the end of the sixth century. The treasure was probably buried shortly after this latter date, during the Arab inva- “sion of the island. Three necklaces are included in the group: one of large cylindrical plasma beads, 39 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING alternating with pearls; and two in the form of gold chains with pendent crosses, small vases, and other ornaments (fig. 20). Two gold bracelets (fig. 19) with a grape-vine pattern in pierced work are partic- ularly attractive in design. The provenance of the other necklaces, bracelets, and earrings exhibited with the Cyprus jewelry is unknown, with the exception of eight pieces of jew- elry, dating from the third through the sixth century, which were found near Assiut in Upper Egypt. The FIG. I9. GOLD BRACELET FOUND AT CYPRUS PROBABLY SYRIAN, VI CENTURY most striking piece in this Egyptian group—of local or possibly of Syrian origin—is a large gold pectoral of the sixth century, composed of medals and coins of various Byzantine emperors; a pendent medallion, originally forming part of the pectoral, is now in the Freer Collection in Washington. Barbarically splen- did are two gold bracelets, studded with pearls, plas- ma, and sapphires, exhibited on either side of the pec- toral. Before turning to the next case, the visitor should note against the window wall a rare example of Early Christian sculpture (see page 17) from Tarsus, Asia Minor. ‘This is a fragment of a fourth-century grave monument, and represents Jonah cast to the whale, a scene typifying the Resurrection. Beside it, in a small table case (E), 1s shown an important 40 GALLERY F 2 group of fifteen Early Christian gold-glasses of the third to the fifth century. These objects are mainly the bottoms of drinking-vessels made as wedding, birthday, and other anniversary gifts, and decorated with Christian, pagan, and domestic subjects. spe ie fr tiers ai 1 Sa $3 rot, 4 anal ty Las i & GOLD NECKLACE FOUND AT CYPRUS PROBABLY SYRIAN, VI CENTURY ElGan2O. Specimens of this kind have been found, for the most part, in the Roman catacombs and in graves at Cologne. To facilitate the identification of individual graves in the catacombs, it was custom- ary to impress objects in the freshly mortared locult, or burial niches; and among these were the bottoms of gold-glass vessels, accidentally or intentionally 4l THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING broken off. In the manufacture of these gilded glasses, a sheet of gold-leaf was first gummed to the glass; the design was then drawn and the superfluous pieces of foil removed; the gold decoration was pro- tected by fusing a second layer of glass to the first. Case D on the opposite wall contains a miscellane- ous group of material. We may note two more ex- amples of gold-glass,' a glass plate engraved with the Raising of Lazarus, a large amulet of hematite with intaglio designs worn as a charm against hemorrhage, and a ninth- or tenth-century Byzantine seal of rock crystal with a scene of the Crucifixion engraved in intaglio. Ivory-carvings, however, constitute the major part of the exhibits in this case. The pre-Gothic ivories in the Morgan Collection— if this convenient term may be used to describe not only the Christian ivories earlier in date than the thirteenth century, but also the ancient Egyptian and late classical examples—constitute a collection which in quality and representative character is one of extraordinary importance. With the exception of a reconstructed Roman couch and stool decorated with bone carvings, exhibited in the galleries of the Classical Department, the pre-Gothic ivories are shown in Cases D to I. In Case D are shown several Egyptian ivories, which include the earliest piece in the collection of ivories, a lotus-shaped cup assigned to the eighteenth dynasty (1580-1350 B.C.). A recumbent lion, an Apis bull, and a kneeling figure of a man (good Saite work) may be classed. generally as Late Dynastic, 1One is a well-known piece, formerly in the Ficaroni, Walpole, and Dilke Collections, which is thought to have been made in the eighteenth century to deceive the antiquarian Ficaroni. 42 GALLERY F 2 about seventh to fourth century B. C. In the same case 1s an archaic Greek ivory-carving representing two women, and an interesting group of ivory-carv- ings of the Roman Imperial period. Dating about the first century A. D. are three parts of the ivory decoration of a couch, a ring with Venus and Cupid, and a standing cup with Erotes at play. Somewhat later, approximately first to third century A. D., are seven plaques from caskets and three profile heads. To the third century may be assigned a cylindrical box with dancing satyrs carved in high relief. The East Christian ivories from Syria, Palestine, and Egypt (see pages 16, 20) constitute an important group. Probably Syrian of the fifth century is a ciborium (receptacle for consecrated mass wafers) Oiethe type called“ turris’ (fig. 21). This “ivory tower”’ (Case G) is decorated with figures of the twelve Apostles; the architectural form may be in- tended to recall the rotunda erected by Constantine over the Holy Sepulchre. To the sixth century, and probably to Syria, may be assigned a cylindrical box, presumably made for a jewel case, but possibly used later for a reliquary (Case G); the carving represents Bacchus punishing Damascus, King of Syria (or possibly Myrrhanus, Orontes, and other kings of India with their people), for opposing the introduction of the vine. Syrian in the character of its decora- tion, and presumably in execution, is a cylindrical box (Case I) which originally had a cover fastened by cords passed through two projecting “ears’’ on the sides; this unusual piece dates from the fifth or sixth century. Two ivory fragments in Case D, represent- ing the Ascension, were probably carved in Palestine by Coptic craftsmen in the late sixth or early seventh 43 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING century. The iconographic type is Palestinian; the execution, presumably Coptic. Such ivories, like the Monza ampullae, may have been made as sou- venirs for pilgrims to the Holy Land. Either Egyptian or Syrian, with the probabilities in favor of Egypt, are two pyxes, or boxes for mass wafers, of the sixth century, in Case G. On one the carving represents the Miracle of the Loaves (fig. 22); on the other, the Three Marys and the Visit to the Sepulchre. An unusual diptych (Case F), with carvings in low relief representing Saint Peter and Saint Paul, is presumably an East Christian work, probably from the ateliers of Egypt; it may be assigned to the seventh or possibly to the end of the sixth century. It is an example of the extremely rare ecclesiastical diptychs which were used in the church service for the recording of names of martyrs and benefactors and for other commemorative pur- poses. It has been suggested? that these panels may not have been made originally as a diptych but have formed part of the decoration of an elaborately or- namented throne, similar to the celebrated chair of Saint Maximianus at Ravenna. The earliest piece (fig. 8) in the remarkable group of Byzantine ivories is a finely decorated consular diptych (Case F), of the early sixth century, bearing the name of the Consul, Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus (521 A. D.). The chief decoration con- sists of medallions with ornamental borders. Ivories of this kind were ordered by the consuls on their accession to office, and presented as complimen- tary gifts to the emperor and other important per- sonages. ‘The series of rare examples now existing *By A. M. Friend, of Princeton. 44 EIG, 205) 1LVORY CIBORIUM PROBABLY SYRIAN V CENTURY BIG 22 LV ORY eP eX EGYPTIAN OR SYRIAN Vi CENTURY — THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING commences about the middle of the fifth century and ends with 541, when the consulate was abolished by Justinian. | Of the secular ivory caskets of the Veroli type, of which some fifty examples are known, we are fortu- nate in possessing three complete examples and sev- eral panels from similar pieces. The three caskets in Case G are ornamented with carvings of warriors, FIG. 23. IVORY CASKET BYZANTINE, [X-X CENTURY hunters, dancers, and animals; and date from the second half of the ninth or from the tenth century. During the iconoclastic controversy (page 20), relig- ious subjects came under the ban. This fostered the development of secular themes which continued in favor after the controversy ended in 842 with the victory of the cult of images. Presumably somewhat later in date than the caskets with pagan subjects are those with biblical themes. To the tenth or eleventh century may be assigned three sides of a casket with carvings illustrating scenes from the story of Joshua (Case F). The ivories are related in style to the miniatures of the Joshua rotulus, in the Vatican 46 GALLERY F 2 Library, which is generally held to be a copy of an original perhaps as old as the fifth century. Another plaque (Case F) illustrating an episode in the history of Joshua (the execution of the King of Hazor) may be as- signed to ‘the eleventh or twelfth century (fig. 24). Of the same date are two plaques (Case F) from a casket with scenes from the story of Adam and Eve; the carvings represent Adam and Eve at yg. 24. vory PLAQUE the forge and in the fields BYZANTINE harvesting grain. In CaseG en ae ee is a smaller ivory box with carvings representing Christ, the Virgin, Saint John the Baptist, and the Apostles. This beautiful ex- ample of Byzantine carving dates from about the tenth century; it once contained a reliquary of the True Cross, a celebrated example of Byzan- tine enameling shown in Case J (see page 56). Two fine plaques in Case F, probably from book-covers, exemplify the highly devel- oped Byzantine style of the tenth and eleventh centuries. One is a symbolic Crucifixion (fig. 26); the Virgin and Saint John stand on either side of the Cross, which is fixed in the bowels of Adam; above the reclining figure of Adam 1s repre- 47 FIG. 24. IVORY SITULA GERMAN, ABOUT I000 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING sented the rending of Christ’s garment. The other represents the Dormition of the Virgin (fig. g). In the same case may be noted a figure of the Virgin and Child (cut from an ivory plaque), a good ex- ample of the aristocratic art of Byzantium in the eleventh and twelfth centuries; and two Slavonic ivories of the fourteenth to the sixteenth century which are exhibited with the Byzantine ivories to show the continuance of the tradition. Of several Carolingian ivory plaques designed for book-covers, shown in Case F, the most important (fig. 10) is one depicting the Virgin enthroned, holding a distaff, a spindle, and a cross. The ivory, which dates from the ninth century, is related in style to the so-called “Ada Group” of miniatures. Two fine plaques, one representing the Virgin and Child enthroned, the other Christ between Saint Peter and Saint Paul, may be assigned to the middle of the ninth century. On the backs of the plaques are Cop- tic or Syrian carvings of the sixth or seventh century, indicating that the Carolingian artists re-used earlier ivories. Other interesting pieces are the holy-water bucket (Case G) from Cranenburg near Diisseldorf, a lower Rhenish work of about 1000 (fig. 25); and two tenth- or eleventh-century book-cover plaques (Case F), German, representing Christ enthroned, with symbols of the Evangelists. North Italian, or possibly German, about 1000, is a fine plaque (Case F) representing the entrance of Christ into Jerusalem. One of the most remarkable pieces in the collection is a portable altar (Case G) decorated with ivory plaques which represent (1) the Paschal Lamb be- tween two angels; (2) Abel’s sacrifice; (3) the offering of Melchizedek, the Priest-King; (4) Christ healing 48 GALLERY F 2 two blind men and Christ healing a demoniac. The ivory-carvings, which originally formed part of the decoration of another and earlier portable altar, are Carolingian work of the ninth century. The two long panels are of the same date and origin as the others, but imitate ivory-carvings on sixth-century East Christian book- covers of the composite type.® Ivory-carving of the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies in western Europe is represented by several fine examples. The well- known pa/iotto, of the late eleventh or early twelfth century, in the Cathedral of Salerno in southern Italy, exemplifies the de- velopment of ivory-carv- ing in Italy under Byzan- ° . A 68 l FIG. 26. CRUCIFIXION, IVORY tine innuence. Origina y BYZANTINE, Xs-Xle CEN TLURY forming part of this fa- mous altar-frontal is a small plaque (Case F) repre- senting the Sixth Day of Creation. In the same case are two plaques of the Crucifixion, which may be as- signed to the Salerno school and dated in the early ’The decoration of the altar in its original form presumably followed much the same plan as these book-covers. The ivory-carvings were dis- posed on the top of the altar around the consecrated slab. On opposite sides were the two long panels of the Paschal Lamb and the Miracles of Christ. On the other sides were small compositions, probably three to a side, representing types of the Eucharistic Sacrifice. Only two of these have survived: Abel’s offering, and Melchizedek. The two long panels were copied from similar carvings on sixth-century book-covers, but the Miracles of Christ, represented in the vertical side panels of the book- covers, were replaced by subjects more appropriate to an altar, i.e., 49 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING twelfth century. Possibly produced at Ravenna is the fragment of an ivory plaque (Case F) of the late twelfth century, representing the lamentation over the body of Christ. An octagonal box (Case H) with Apostles and sym- bols of the Evangelists is probably a German work, Rhenish, of the twelfth century. A chessman (bish- op) in Case I resembles the chessmen found on the island of Lewis (W. Hebrides, Scotland), most of which are now in the British Museum, London. Although a Scandinavian origin has been claimed, they are probably Norman, Scottish, or English; the date is mid-twelfth century. Another interesting piece for the student of games is a draughtsman or tric-trac piece, of ivory stained red, representing Samson slaying the Philistines (Case F); the piece is French, eleventh century. Also French is the ivory head of a crozier, a work of the late twelfth or early thirteenth century; and either French or Span- ish, a fragment of a crucifix, dating from about the end of the eleventhor the early twelfth century, which represents on one side Christ Enthroned and on the other the Paschal Lamb with the symbols of the Evangelists, John and Luke. Of unusual interest among the ivories in Case F is a plaque from a book-cover (fig. 27) with a Cruci- fixion scene surrounded by an elaborate border of foliated ornament, interspersed with tiny figures of men and animals and with symbols of the Evangel- types of sacrifice, for models of which the carver turned to other sources, probably to contemporaneous Carolingian manuscript illuminations. This explains the discrepan yin tyle (although not in technique) obsery- able in the ivory-carvings. Some injury to the original altar may have necessitated its reconstruction, at which time it was given the present form. 5O GALLERY F 2 ists. This ivory is from the same hand or atelier as the ivory crucifix (now in the Archaeological Mu- seum, Madrid), which was given with other precious objects in 1063 by Ferdinand the Great and his Queen, Dofia Sancha, to the Church of San Isidoro at Leon. The fineness of the execution, especially in the ornament, and the ’ coloristic technique—es- sentially Oriental—of the deep-set background, on which the relief appears to be applied as cutwork, indicate a Moslem crafts- man who brought to the service of his Christian patron the skill of hand and the genius for deco- ration which are so amaz- ingly displayed in the ivory caskets carved for the Mohammedan rulers of Spain. FIG. 27. CRUCIFIXION, IVORY SPANISH, XI CENTURY Of the rare Spanish ivories of the eleventh and twelfth centuries with Christian subjects, the Morgan Collection contains a remarkable group. An ivory plaque (Case F) of the first half of the eleventh century, which comes from the same atelier as the famous shrine of San Millan, ordered in 1033 and presented by Sancho the Great, King of Navarre, to San Mil- lan de la Cogolla, represents an incident of the finding of the True Cross. A book-cover (Case H) of silver-gilt ornamented with filigree, cabochons, and ivory figures representing the Crucifixion ap- $i THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING pears from the inscription to have been made for Queen Felicia, wife of Sancho Ramirez, King of Aragon and Navarre. The workmanship is Spanish; the date, between 1063 and 1085. Dating from the first half of the twelfth century is a fragment (Case I), presumably from a book-cover, representing Christ enthroned. In the same case are two masterly ex- amples of Spanish Romanesque carving in the twelfth © century, a figure of Christ from a crucifix, and a leaf of a diptych (fig. 13) representing in two compart- ments the Journey to Emmaus and the Noli me tangere. There remain to be mentioned several ivories of Oriental character, presumably the work of Moslem carvers. A richly carved casket with figures of men and animals (Case I) may be described as Egypto- Syrian of the eleventh or twelfth century. Of the same period and similar in style are an ivory writing- case with copper-gilt mounts (Case G) and a frag- ment of an oliphant (Case H). A complete horn (Case I), with Persian or Mesopotamian silver-gilt mounts, is a work of the late twelfth or the first half of the thirteenth century. Another oliphant (in the same case) with Christian symbols introduced in the decoration may be a European imitation of these Eastern carvings; the date is approximately twelfth century. Interesting to compare with these early oliphants is an exquisitely carved horn (Case H) of later date, an Indian work of the sixteenth or seven- teenth century. Mesopotamian, or possibly Indian, of about the eighth to tenth century is a chess-piece (Case D), said to have been found near the Euphrates. The piece represents an elephant carrying a man; of this figure only the lower part now remains. 52 CHRIST SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST THE VIRGIN SAINT GEORGE BIG. 26, FOUR MEDALLIONS, CLOISONNE ENAMEL ON GOLD BYZANTINE, XI CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Byzantine and early mediaeval enamels, one of the most remarkable sections of the Morgan Collection, occupy Cases J, K, and L. Although enameling was undoubtedly practised in some form several cen- turies before the Christian era, Byzantine craftsmen appear to have been the first to make any extensive use of this method of decorating metal. Unfortu- nately, however, surviving examples are very rare; many, no doubt, have been destroyed for the sake of the gold which was used as a foundation for the enamel. The sixty-five pieces of Byzantine enamel (including the Russo-Byzantine examples), displayed on three sides of Case J, constitute a group of extraordinary importance. With a few exceptions, these enamels were formerly in the well-known Swenigorodskoi Collection. Byzantine enamels are practically all of the cloisonné variety. Rarely was any other metal than gold employed for the metal plaques, rectangular or circular in shape, upon which thin strips of metal, following the outlines desired, were soldered in the sunken field of the design so as to form the cells containing the enamel. When the enamel, a vit- reous powder colored with metallic oxides and usually translucent, had been sufficiently fired, the surface was rubbed down until level with the cloisons, and highly polished. The delicacy of the technique and the costly metal employed restricted the use of enamel in this form to jewelry and to small plaques designed for the ornamentation of such objects as book-covers, icons, crosses, and altar- frontals composed of many enameled plaques. The majority of Byzantine enamels date from the tenth through the twelfth century; Constantinople ap- 54 GALLERY. Fk 2 pears to have been the principal center of the art. Byzantine enamels were imitated not only in wes- tern Europe, as we shall have occasion shortly to note, but also in Russia and the Caucasus. These provin- cial enamels are cruder in workmanship, and the colors, especially the blue, less beautiful than the pure Byzantine productions. In the Morgan Col- lection a number of crescent-shaped gold earrings, bordered with pearls and decorated with birds in FIG. 29. ENAMELED RELIQUARY BYZANTINE, VII-VIII CENTURY cloisonné enamel, and several gold necklaces with similar ornament (Case J) illustrate the character- istics of Russo-Byzantine enameling in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The highest quality of Byzantine enameling 1s exemplified in the nine medallions in Case J (fig. 28) with half-length figures of Christ, the Virgin, and saints, which once decorated a large icon of Saint Gabriel, now destroyed, formerly in the church of the monastery of Jumati in Georgia (Caucasia). The medallions, which date from the end of the eleventh century, are superlatively fine in execution, design, and color. The minute surfaces of the clo1- sons give the sheen of gold to the rich hues of the enamel—to the blue and green, scarlet, yellow, and 55 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING flesh color, which are set like gems in the plain gold of the background. One of the most celebrated pieces in the collection is a reliquary‘ in the form of a small silver-gilt box with sliding lid, designed to hold a fragment of the True’ Cross (fig. 29). On the“uppermsiiemc meu lid the Crucifixion is depicted in cloisonné enamel; the under side is ornamented in niello with scenes of the Annunciation, Nativ- ity, Crucifixion, and As- cension.-)iNiellomismed variety of enameling in which the design, en- graved in the metal, is filled with a black sub- stance composed of silver, lead, copper, and sulphur. The sides of the box are decorated with plaques of cloisonné enamel repre- senting various saints. According to tradition, this reliquary once belonged to Pope Innocent IV, a member of whose family 1s said to have brought it home from the Crusades. The relic was ultimately presented to the church at Lavagna, the box remain- ing as an heirloom in the Fieschi family. The reliquary was once contained in the tenth-century Byzantine ivory casket shown in Case G, to which reference has already been made. In Case J 1s also shown an important group of rare French enamels of the twelfth century. The importation of Byzantine enamels into western mii ey me laa , jal = FIG. 30. SAINT WILLIAM LIMOGES, XII CENTURY *Formerly in the Oppenheim Collection. 56 GALLERY Fo 2 Europe stimulated the local craftsmen early in the Romanesque period to imitate these products of the Eastern Empire (see page 32). Copper was substituted for the gold used by the Byzantine enamelers, and gilded to give the effect of the precious metal. The cloisonné method fell into disuse, and was superseded by the more economical method of champlevé. In the latter proc- ess, the cells to hold the enamel are sunk in the metal itself in- stead of being formed of small strips soldered to the surface of the plaque. The enamel was usually opaque, instead of trans- lmecntgetat eirst ~the back- grounds were left plain, or re- served. Later, especially during the thirteenth century, a rever- sal of this method was in favor; the enamel was applied only to the background and the main elements of the design were re- served. Both methods were sometimes used in combination. | Two French plaques of early FIG. 31. VIRGIN twelfth-century enamel recall Ural ct Byzantine influence in the use | of the cloisonné process. Typical of the finest French champlevé enamel in the twelfth century are five medallions which once formed part of the decoration of a reliquary casket in the church at Conques; the 57 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING color combination of white, light and dark green, and three shades of blue is particularly successful. A remarkable example of figure composition in the second half of the century is a large plaque represent- ing Saint William (fig. 30). More brilliant in color and superbly decorative in design are six plaques from a chasse (figs. 32, 33) which date from the late twelfth or, more probably, the early thirteenth century. In the adjoining floor case (K) are Mosan and Rhenish enamels of the twelfth century. The leader of the school which flourished in the region of the Meuse was the celebrated Walloon goldsmith, Gode- froid de Claire. Although Liége was probably the center of the Mosan school, its field of activity ex- tended beyond the limits of the diocese, for not only did the influence of Godefroid de Claire’s work reach farther south in the valley, but also in the last quarter of the twelfth century manifested itself in the work of the: Rhenish craftsmen at Cologne. Maestrich also probably played an important part in this school. By Godefroid de Claire, or of his atelier, are several - enamels in the collection. Two plaques of about 1170-75, representing the Baptism (fig. 34) and the Crucifixion, are undoubtedly the work of this master at the very height of his powers. For bril- liancy of color and beauty of design these plaques may be counted among the masterpieces of mediaeval enamel. Plaques such as these were intended for the decoration of reliquaries, crosses, book-covers, portable altars, and other objects of ecclesiastical furniture. A popular subject is illustrated by a group of five plaques, representing Christ en- throned in majesty and surrounded by the sym- bols of the four Evangelists: the angel (Matthew), 58 FIG. 32. ENAMELED PLAQUE FROM A CHASSE EARLY XIII CENTURY FIG. 33. ENAMELED PLAQUE FROM A CHASSE EARLY XIII CENTURY FIG. 34. THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST ENAMELED PLAQUE BY GODEFROID DE CLAIRE THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the lion (Mark), the ox (Luke), and the eagle (John). On the opposite side of Case K is a group of four plaques with scenes from the life of Christ, which originally ornamented the top of a SaRelst altar. The enamel is typical of the Rhenish school at Cologne in the last quarter of the twelfth century. A Rhenish plaque of about 1180, representing Saint John the Evangelist, is attributed to the celebrated enameler, Friderikus of Cologne (figat 2) Other plaques represent different phases of German enameling of this period. In Cases L and M, against the north wall of the gallery, are the larger examples of Roman- esque enamel and metalwork. In Case L attention may be called to a crucifix with enamels FIG. 35. caNnpLEsTICK of the Mosan school. Unusual aia MeTAt~ in color and style is an enameled box of Scandinavian or German origin. On the back of the case is a large triptych composed of French and German enamel plaques of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and enriched with engraved gems and cameos of various periods; the central panel of the Virgin and Child is a particu- larly fine example of Rhenish or Mosan work. Of great rarity is a richly decorated portable altar. A pricket candlestick composed of three pieces of rock crystal with elaborate copper-gilt mounts exemplifies the high esteem accorded to crystal in mediaeval 60 . . CHASSE SPANISH, XIII CENTURY FIG. 36 BOOK-COVER XIII CENTURY FIG. 37. GERMAN, THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Europe. The mounts are French work of the twelfth century; the carving on the crystal, Arabic of the tenth century (fig. 35). Between Cases L and M is a distinguished example of Romanesque wood-carving, an enthroned Virgin (originally holding the Child), probably north French in origin (fig. 31). In Case M the art of the European enameler in the late twelftheand thirteenth centuries is exemplified by several important piccemmama copper-gilt reliquary in the form of a bag, orna- mented with enamel and crystal cabochons (fig. 39); a large casket similar to the famous coffer at Conques, decorated with thirty medallions of champlevé enamel; a fin- ial and some colonnettes with enameled shafts from chasses. A piece of unusual character is a small chasse of copper and silver-gilt, Spanish work of the thirteenth century (fig. 36). Undoubtedly Spanish 1s a magnificent processional cross (fig. 38) in silver-gilt, signed by the maker, Sanccia (Sanchez) Guidisalvi; it comes from the Church of San Salvador in Fuentes, near Villaviciosa, province of Asturias, Spain. Another processional cross in this case, extremely primitive in character, is perhaps a Spanish work of the eleventh century. Between these crosses is shown a sumptu- 62 FIG. 38. SILVER CROSS SPANISH, XII CENTURY GALLERY ¥ 2 ously decorated book-cover (fig. 37), ornamented with porphyry, copper-gilt and precious stones and crystals. The cross exhibited in the little wall-case nearby is of the eleventh or twelfth century. Against the window wall is shown an interesting example of Early Christian sculpture, a fragment of a marble sarcophagus of the Sidamara type dating from the middle of the third century. Nearby is a large stone carving from the Church of St. Leonard at Zamo- ra, Spain, representing the Lion of the Tribe of Judah (Christ), Saint Leonard freeing two pris- oners, the Annunciation to the Virgin, and her Coronation. On the opposite wall, attention may be called to a marble baptismal : Pemeercineciemeniitch of Santa 2G 39- RELIQUARY Niegemcemramro, in Calabria; “7 7" according to a Greek inscription around the rim, the font was made by order of the Abbot Luke in 1137. The small tapestry of the Crucifixion is a fragment of a larger tapestry of which two other fragments are in the museum at Nuremberg. It is a rare example of French fourteenth-century weaving. If the tortured body of the Christ in the Crucifixion tapestry 1s com- pared with the representations of the same subject in the eleventh- or twelfth-century ivories exhibited in the case below, the visitor will observe that a new emotional quality, absent in the earlier examples, has entered into the rendering of the theme. The condi- tions which brought about this transformation of Christian iconography is one of the topics we shall consider in the following chapter on Gothic art. 63 POs rieliC ART ( Clean PP Dea INTRODUCTION What is Gothic art? Properly, of course, it is the art of the Goths, a barbarian people upon whose fortunes we touched in our first chapter; but obvi- ously the art of these Germanic metalworkers is infinitely removed from the glorious cathedrals, the masterpieces of painting and sculpture, the treasures of applied art which we are accustomed to call Gothic. In doing so, however, we perpetuate an error which arose in the Late Renaissance, when everything which was not in the classical taste was consigned to the limbo of barbarism and described as “Gothic.” But, like many other inappropriate terms in art history, the word has become too firmly fixed in our vocabulary—although the implication of inferiority has now disappeared—to suffer any sub- stitution. We continue, therefore, to describe as Gothic the monuments of that style which, originat- ing-in the second half of the twelfth century, pre- vailed generally throughout Europe (with the excep- tion of Italy after the fourteenth century)! until the sixteenth century when it was gradually so trans- formed, mainly through the influence of Italian Re naissance art, as to lose its identity as a separate style. 1In the fifteenth century Italy gave rise to the Renaissance style. 67 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Of outstanding importance in the political history of our period is the collapse of the Holy Empire upon the death of the Emperor Frederick II (1250). The mediaeval ideal of “universal monarchy and indivisi- ble Christendom” had proved unworkable. With the downfall of the Empire—from now on, as Voltaire remarked, neither holy, Roman, nor an empire— came the gradual rise of the modern state, the growing consciousness of nationality, the decline of feudalism, and the development, especially in France and England, of monarchical centralization. The trend of monarchical government toward abso- lutism, conspicuous in France, was checked in Eng- land by the evolution (1213-1295) of a representa- tive parliament, which imposed limitations upon the crown and united all classes in the common interest of the state. Neither Italy nor the disorganized German states of the defunct Empire attained na- tional unity until modern times. Spain was more fortunate; Aragon and Castile were united in 1469 through the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and the last vestiges of Moorish domination disappeared with the conquest of Granada in 1492. A spiritual revival, of great importance to art, was accomplished in the thirteenth century. Arid scho- lasticism in theology and the not infrequent world- liness and misconduct of the clergy had caused widespread disaffection. To crush the opposition of those who questioned the teachings of the Church, the terrible Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) was launched, and the Inquisition established; but the mendicant orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi (1181 or 1182-1226) and by Saint Dominic (1170- 1221) were far more effective means of regeneration. 68 GOTHIC ART The preaching friars of Saint Dominic combated heresies and became a power in the universities. The Franciscan brethren in their min- istry to the lowly spread the ideals of poverty, chastity, and obedience to which they were vowed. Thus the Church was brought into closer relation with the people, and faith revived as religion descended from the chill heights of theology to the sunny levels illumined by the self- sacrifice, the joyous devotion, the all-embracing sympathy of the Po- verello of Assisi. Victorious in its long contest with imperial ambitions and strengthened by the spiritual re- vival of the thirteenth century, the Church for a short time at the close of the century held a position of undisputed supremacy, both temporal and spiritual. But the new spirit of national independ- ence, which had been developing in France and England, soon led to a conflict over matters of taxation in which the authority of Rome re- ceived a shattering blow. Then followed the humiliation of the “Babylonish Captivity” from 1305 to 1377, during which period the popes resided at Avignon under the thumb ofuerance. After the re- RiGaAo} FRAGMENT OF A CHOIR STALL ENGLISH (?) XIV CENTURY turn to Rome, the Great Schism (1378-1417), the 69 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING disputes of the Church Councils, the failure to re- form ecclesiastical abuses, the revival of learning, and the identification of the higher clergy with the lit- erary and artistic activities of the humanistic move- ment—notoriously characterized in the person of many of its most distinguished leaders by immo- rality and religious indifference—left the Church ill. prepared to withstand the Protestant Revolution which in the sixteenth century split Christian Europe asunder. There was a great increase in wealth during the period we are considering. Industries and trade as- sumed considerable proportions, and the burgesses and craftsmen of the numerous towns which sprang up as feudalism waned played a part of ever-increas- ing importance in mediaeval society. It was the muscles and the piety of the communes that reared the stupendous fabrics of the twelfth- and thirteenth- century cathedrals. Within the shelter of the city walls, the artistic crafts, hitherto confined almost exclusively to monastic workshops, took on a new vigor; masters trained apprentices in the various arts, and guilds were organized to maintain standards and regulate trade. Commerce prospered as greater familiarity with the compass encouraged maritime exploration. The Crusades of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and the overland trade with the Orient aroused curiosity about foreign lands. It was in the thirteenth cen- tury that Marco Polo and his uncles made their famous journeys to China. The ocean route to India was found by the Portuguese in the fif- teenth century; and in the same century Chris- topher Columbus discovered the New World. 7O GOTHIC ART With the compass may be instanced gunpowder, paper, and the invention of printing as influential factors in shaping the course of civilization. Ex- plosive compounds were known in the thirteenth century; by the middle of the fourteenth, powder factories were in operation and cannon coming into use; but it was not until about 1500 that the increas- ing prominence of the fire- arm began to revolutionize methods of warfare, and, piece by piece, the knight discarded his panoply of armor as it increased i weight to meet the de- structiveness of the new weapon. Although paper was manufactured in Eu- rope from the late thir- teenth century onward, it did not become a readily available commodity until Pete eleeediaiey, vine.) \) 7102 41.. , WOOD-CARVING : : ANTWERP MARK (A HAND) increased production of aA paper made possible the rapid development of printing in the second half of the fifteenth century. Around the middle of the century the art of printing from movable type began to be practised in northern Europe, and soon spread to Italy. In the sixteenth century numerous presses were at work throughout Europe. Needless to say, the printed book not only offered a fresh opportunity for artistic expression, but had an inestimable effect upon the advancement of knowledge and the shap- ing of opinion. gi THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Although the properties of the lens were discovered in the thirteenth century, and Roger Bacon sur- mised, if he did not actually know, the possibility of the lens as applied to the telescope and microscope, little practical use of this discovery was made before 1600. Science was still in its infancy, hampered by veneration for the past and by the lack of a proper scientific method. Modern science may be said to date only from the seventeenth century when ex- perimental research was substituted for reliance on ancient authority. Nevertheless, some real ad- vances were made in the earlier period. The study of mathematics was materially facilitated by the substitution of Arabic numerals for the clumsy Roman system of letters. Although the practice of the healing arts was still characterized in the main by ignorance, superstition, and charlatanry, important contributions were made by Vesalius to the study of anatomy; and medicine profited from the new direction which Paracelsus gave to alchemy, the pretended art of making gold and silver, when the scope of this early form of chemistry was enlarged to include the preparation of medicines. The astrologer, turned astronomer, made a discovery of utmost value, when Copernicus in the first half of the sixteenth century refuted the long-accepted Ptolemaic doc- trines and proved that the earth was not the center of the universe but moved with other planets around the sun. Galileo’s astronomical discoveries and his contributions to the science of mathematics belong to our modern age, rather than to that which pre- ceded it. | When we remember the abysmal ignorance in which most of Europe was plunged even as late as the 72 GOTHIC ART thirteenth century, it is not surprising that some time should have had to elapse after the revival of learning in the fourteenth century before much prog- ress could be made. Although the thirteenth cen- tury saw a great increase in the number of univer- sities, anything like independence of thought was still, with rare exceptions, undreamed of by the mediaeval scholar, revolving in his narrow orbit of theology, law, and philosophy. A new day dawned in the following century when Petrarch, the Italian poet-scholar, first taught the right method of study- ing the Latin classics, which the mediaeval school- men with their habit of allegorical interpretation had misunderstood, and thus opened the treasure- house of classical literature. The task of mastering Greek was successfully undertaken by Boccaccio. A multitude of scholars followed these pioneers, and the recovery of ancient culture was pursued with a fervor which enlisted men of all classes in the cause. Ancient manuscripts were eagerly sought for, copied in manuscript, or disseminated through the printing- press. Crowds thronged to hear the itinerant pro- fessors of the antique culture, and universities became more numerous. Existing monuments of classical architecture and sculpture were regarded with a new and passionate interest; we shall have occasion later on to point out that the Renaissance style of art which originated in Italy in the fifteenth century owed some of its principal characteristics to this enthusiasm for antiquity. In the art of letters, the fascination of classical example led to much pedantic and futile imitation of Greek and Latin writers, but literature in the vernacular, al- ready distinguished by the great names of Dante, 73 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Boccaccio, and Chaucer, bided its time, awaiting its triumph in such masterpieces as Ariosto’s Or- lando Furioso, Rabelais’s immortal satire, and the plays of Shakespeare. The “comprehensive movement of the European intellect and will toward self-emancipation,” ? which had been gathering force since the thirteenth cen- tury, received a great impetus from the revival of learning. In the vision of the past, revealed by the new scholarship, there was rediscovered “the dignity of man as a rational, volitional and sentient being, born on earth with a right to use it and enjoy it.” Humanism, as this attitude toward life is called, re- awakened man’s self-esteem from the narcosis induced by mediaeval preoccupation with the how and why of salvation. That man was vile and the world a narrow prison-house the humanists denied. A new stage in the evolution of human thought had been attained; the Middle Ages were over. It was not humanism, however, but ardent Chris- tian piety which inspired the erection of the great cathedrals of the thirteenth century—the supreme monuments of Gothic art in its early period. During the second half of the twelfth century and the first years of the thirteenth century, France evolved and perfected the new style of organic Gothic architecture, a system of stone vaults, sup- ports, and buttresses, in which an equilibrium of thrusts and counterthrusts assured stability, struc- ture was frankly revealed, and structural forms made to contribute to the aesthetic impression. An exceptional opportunity for the development of ?'‘The quotations in this paragraph are from the writings of John Adding. ton Symonds. 74 ee ee THE EMBLEM AND IN THE ’ i — | LES STE TAPESTRY, SHOWING THE ROSE, FIG 42: OF CHARLES VII OF FRANCE STRIPED BACKGROUND HIS COLORS ABOUT 1435 5) ARRAS THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING “pointed architecture” was afforded by the numer- ous great cathedrals which were built in France in the later part of the twelfth century and in the hundred years following, when the prosperity of a new communal life coincided with a popular religious revival. During these years arose the majestic fanes of Chartres, Paris, Amiens, Rheims—to mention but a few of the celebrated French churches of this period. By the end of the thirteenth century, the enthusiasm began to slacken. Churches continued to be built and Gothic architecture achieved fresh triumphs in the secular field, but the age of cathedral building ended with the thirteenth century. — In the meantime, however, the Gothic style had spread from France to other European countries, where it was modified to suit local conditions of taste and climate, The three principal styles of English Gothic architecture—the lancet, the decorated, and the perpendicular (corresponding respectively to the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries)—have a distinctly national character. Germany exhibits both original and imitative qualities. Spanish Gothic presents characteristics of marked individuality. The French Gothic style was carried to Italy by the Cistercians, but never took firm root; climatic con- ditions and the still lingering tradition of classical architecture were more favorable for the genesis of a new style—the Renaissance—than for submission to the northern fashion. Common decorative forms, in which the pointed arch is conspicuous, give to these different national styles a homogeneous charac- ter, but it was only in France that the structural principles of organic Gothic architecture were con- sistently observed. 76 GOTHIC ART The Gothic style originated in the solution of problems incidental to the use of stone vaulting. The Romanesque builders, who substituted the stone vault for the timber roof of the Christian basilica, failed to grasp the possibilities of vaulted architecture. Their heavy barrel and groined vaults were imprac- tical as a means of covering wide spaces and necessi- tated the erection of low, thick walls to receive the weight and thrust of the vaulting. Although the pier buttress was known and a rudimentary flying buttress occurs 1n some late Romanesque churches, concealed in the building itself, the stability of the building de- pended in general upon the strength of the wall alone. A new method of equalizing the active forces re- sulting from the weight of the stone vault was gradu- ally worked out in the Ile-de-France and in Nor- mandy during the first half of the twelfth century, and the Gothic style which resulted from these experi- ments in construction received its first definite ex- pression in Abbot Suger’s church of St. Denis (1140). The essential feature of the new system was the use of intersecting diagonal ribs in the vaulting, which concentrated weight and thrust at definite intervals, where these forces were directed to the ground through piers and flying buttresses. With the equi- librium of opposing parts assured by this organic ossature, the wall was now reduced to the function of a mere screen and was practically eliminated by the introduction of large windows filled with stained glass. The flexibility of the vaulting system allowed a great latitude in matters of size and proportion, while still preserving a uniformity of style which was “never attained by the regional schools of Romanesque architecture. 77 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Thirteenth-century Gothic architecture is distin- guished by austerity of form, relieved by ornament concentrated in appropriate places. In the four- teenth century the style became lighter construc- tionally, and exhibited a greater refinement in detail and a tendency toward over-rich decoration. ‘These qualities were accentuated in the following century with the vogue of the flamboyant style, so called from the flame-like curves of its tracery. Toward the end of the century a change in taste became mani- fest, and in the first half of the sixteenth century the influence of the Renaissance art of Italy showed itself increasingly in the application of ornamental forms of classical derivation to traditionally Gothic structure. By the middle of the century the Gothic style was definitely superseded by that of the Renais- sance. Military, civic, and domestic architecture made no novel contribution to the constructional develop- ment of the Gothic style, although presenting many elements which are interesting from the point of view of decoration and plan. Any sketch of Gothic architecture, however brief, would be incomplete without a mention of the walled cities of Aigues- Mortes and Carcassonne; of the great castles of Coucy and Pierrefonds; of the town and guild halls which are the chief glories of Gothic architecture in the Netherlands; and of such private mansions as the house of Jacques Coeur at Bourges; but unques- tionably the finest achievement of Gothic archi- tecture is the thirteenth-century French cathedral. This word conjures up a picture before us—a vision of narrow, crowded streets and low, overhanging houses, in the midst of which rises a stupendous edi- 78 COPTIC AK fice of stone, its spires.and pinnacles ascending swiftly heavenward as if fraught with the aspirations of the thousands who gather within its walls. The principal facade faces west, and is designed to correspond with the interior division of the church into nave and aisles; here are the flanking towers, the deep-set portals with their sculptured imagery, the arcaded gallery, and the intricate tracery of the great rose window. From the high-pitched roof sweeps down along the sides and around the apse the “lithic cascade” of the flying but- tresses, breaking into the foam of countless pinnacles and crockets. Gargoyles project their monstrous bodies from eaves and but- tresses, and north and south portals give the sculptor opportunities for the more decorous employment of his chisel. Within, one has the impression of tremendous height, of innumerable piers branching into the ribs of the vault, of stained glass glowing in the dusk. Here, too, in the carving of capitals, choir-stalls, choir enclosures, rood-screens, altarpieces, the sculptor finds employment; the painter contributes his share to the embellishment of the house of God; and from the hands of skilled craftsmen come the precious qo FIG. 43. RELIQUARY ITALIAN, XV CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING vestments and the furniture of the altar. We must think of the Gothic cathedral not in terms of archi- tecture alone, but as a sum of all the arts. When monumental sculpture, after centuries of neglect, reappeared in the Romanesque period, it took the form mainly of relief carving applied to architecture. Sculpture in the round presented an even greater problem to the inexperienced craftsman. A solution, however, was not long delayed. As early as the middle of the twelfth century a new spirit of naturalism began to animate the plastic arts, and the earlier dependence on such models as miniatures and ivory-carvings was gradually replaced by independent observation. The sculptures of the Royal Portal of Chartres, in lieu of the destroyed statuary of St. Denis, mark the beginning of a transitional school which flourished in the Ile-de-France and adjacent regions in the second half of the twelfth century. With the shifting of artistic activity from the monas- teries to the prosperous towns, sculpture partook of the freshness and vigor of communal life, and produc- tion was encouraged by the vast iconographical pro- grams of sculptural decoration which were developed upon the facades of the Gothic cathedrals. Under these conditions progress was rapid, and in the course of the thirteenth century the sculptor acquired a technical competence fully adequate for the expres- sion of all that was truly significant in form and sentt- ment. The finest sculpture of the thirteenth century, that of northern and central France, is characterized by idealism and by a simplicity admirably in accord with its architectural purpose. A perfect balance was maintained between formal abstractions, neces- 80 GOolLaiGcArRT sary to a monumental style, and the new ability to imitate nature, which is evident in the correct pro- portions, the expressive countenances and gestures, the freedom of movement, and the natural rendering of the drapery, characteristic of sculpture in this period. Toward the end of the century, French sculpture be- gan to lose something of its earlier nobility; a more mun- dane spirit made its appear- ance; the forms became more graceful, the sentiment more tender, the action more dra- matic (fig. 44). These qualities degenerated in the fourteenth century into pretty affectations of style—but not until thirteenth - century sculpture, hovering for an exquisite mo- ment between heaven and earth, had produced such master- pieces as the Golden Virgin of Amiens and the Smiling Angel of Rheims. In sculpture, as in architec- ; ; FIG. 44. VIRGIN ture, the leadership rested with Song free France in the thirteenth cen- FRENCH, ABOUT I300 tury. The not extensive sculp- ture of the Low Countries in this period was wholly dependent upon France. German sculpture drew inspiration from the same source but, in stressing the realistic elements, evolved a national style. ~The close relationship between Spain and France continued as in the Romanesque period. The 81 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Gothic sculpture of England reflected French de- velopment, but rarely achieved great distinction. In Italy a tentative classical revival in the second half of the thirteenth century characterizes the work of Nicola d’Apulia, who is also called Nicola Pisano, from his residence at Pisa. But this Proto-Renais- sance was short-lived. Nicola’s son, Giovanni, who dominates fourteenth-century Italian sculpture, was a thoroughgoing Gothicist, intent upon dramatic expression and the violent realization of forms. In the fourteenth century these divergences of na- tional style, which we have just noted, merged more or less completely into one international style center- ing around France as the arbiter of fashion. As the large cathedrals had received most or all of their sculptured decoration by this time, the sculptor was now principally occupied with the production of single figures independent of architectural setting, and with the tomb sculptures which attest the growth of secular patronage. As already indicated, a man- nered but winsome elegance, producing an exag- gerated grace of posture—the “Gothic slouch’’—and an excessive complication of drapery folds are charac- teristic in general of fourteenth-century sculpture (fig. 65). But in the second half of the century, a re- generative trend toward realism, encouraged by the secular demand for portraiture, is tentatively mani- fested in the art of France and of the Low Countries. This realistic movement was developing spontane- ously in various parts of Europe; it was international rather than local in character. At the end of the fourteenth century and in the early years of the fifteenth, the realistic movement attained complete expression in the work of Claus 82 GOTHIC ART Sluter at the luxurious Burgundian court of Philippe le Hardi. The mannered grace, the dainty refine- ments of sentiment and form, which in the four- teenth century had succeeded the noble idealism of the earlier Gothic period, now gave way to the asperi- ties of realism. The Burgundian school, animated by Sluter’s extraordinary ex- ample, played an important part in spreading the realistic manner through most of France (fig. 45). It was only in the region of the Loire that there still remained something of the grace and delicate charm of the earlier style (fig. 46). In Italy naturalism was disciplined by the example of classical art; be- yond the Alps the realistic movement swept _ practically unchecked throughout Europe. But toward the later part of the fifteenth century in France, and sporadically elsewhere, there came a certain weariness "45: MOURNER FRENCH with the vulgarity and spiritual Pe, gees Soe tne poverty of unmodified realism. The sculpture of the détente, or period of relaxation, which ensued, found its best expression in the school of the Loire (fig. 75), headed by the famous Michel Colombe. The return to the earlier traditions could not, however, withstand the influence of the Italian Renaissance, which in the second half of the six- teenth century was widely disseminated. Gothic art, exhausted by more than three centuries of original 83 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING achievement, lacked the energy to resist the fascina- tion of Italianism. Painting followed much the same course of de- velopment as sculpture, although progress in nat- uralistic representation came at a somewhat later date than in the plastic art. “The*Gothierenmien: with its limited wall space, offered little opportunity for mural painting, so that in the thirteenth century, north of the Alps, pictorial expression takes the form principally of stained-glass windows and of miniature paintings in manuscripts. The stained glass of this period is composed of small pieces or “mosaics” of colored glass, with the design outlined by the leading. In beauty of color and as decoration, stained glass of this period has never been surpassed. Incidents of scriptural history and legends of the saints are nar- rated with forceful simplicity, but the mode of rep- resentation is hardly less conventional than in the preceding period. Miniature painting was also high- ly developed; gem-like colors against golden back- grounds recall the brilliant hues of stained glass; but the drawing is more supple and gracious, without, however, any great advance in naturalism. It was reserved for an Italian, Giotto of Florence, to strike the keynote of modern painting—the imi- tation of nature. A new spirit animated Italian painting at the close of the thirteenth century, when Pietro Cavallini at Rome achieved something of classic beauty and plastic form; and at Siena, Duccio, the slightly younger contemporary of Giotto, brought Byzantine painting to its supreme perfection as an art of decoration. But further progress had to come from a renewed contact with nature; and it was the life and action that characterize Giotto’s paintings, 84 GOTHIC ART his dramatic narration of themes old and new, his human sympathies which principally gave Italian art its new direction and new impetus. Giotto’s suc- cessors in the fourteenth century popularized the master’s style but made little original contribution. The school of Siena, headed by Simone Martini, was not uninfluenced by Giotto’s 1n- novations but preserved its individuality, more intent on the lyric phases of devo- tional painting and on the achievement of formal beauty than concerned with realistic endeavors. The de- velopment of Italian paint- ing in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries will be considered in the chapter on Renaissance art. Outside of Italy, painting in the fourteenth century produced much that is de- lightful, especially minta- tures and the panel-paint- yg. 46. sain MICHAEL ings of certain German FRENCH, ABOUT. 1475 masters. The significant fact to note is that toward the end of the century a strong realistic trend, corresponding to the same movement in sculpture, makes its appearance in the work of the French and Flemish painters, who re- ceived encouragement from the French king, Charles -V, and from the Dukes of Burgundy and Berri. With the disasters to the French crown in the 85 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Hundred Years’ War, the Netherlands became the principal foyer of artistic activity, and Flemish artists dominated fifteenth-century Gothic painting. In the first quarter of the century two great Flem- ish masters, Jan and Hubert Van Eyck, perfected the oil medium, and in their celebrated masterpiece of the Adoration of the Lamb demonstrated its superi- ority as well as their own astounding skill in realistic representation. Painting now takes on a more robust and solid appearance; the forms are highly modeled, and the colors, without losing any of their richness, are more subtly varied and combined. The realistic preoccupations of the Van Eycks were continued by their successors. The most gifted of these were Roger van der Weyden, whose work (fig. 47) is char- acterized by a poignant emotionalism, and the amiable Hans Memling, whose tranquil style com- bines something of Italian grace with the objectivity of northern realism. With Quentin Massys Italian influence made itself definitely felt in Flemish paint- ing, and in the course of the sixteenth century trans- formed the Gothic style of the Low Countries. The dominant trait of German painting in the late fourteenth and the first half of the fifteenth century 1s mystic tenderness. In the second half of the fif- teenth century Flemish influence became paramount, and the delicate realism of Martin Schongauer marks the beginning of a new era which culminated in the masterly works of Albrecht Durer and Hans Hol- bein the Younger. Holbein resembles the Italian naturalists in his avoidance of excess, his instinctive feeling for pure beauty of form and color. Despite Diirer’s first-hand acquaintance with Italian art, which inspired him to fresh excellences, the Nurem- 86 FIG. 47. THE ANNUNCIATION BY ROGER VAN DER WEYDEN THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING berg master remained thoroughly Germanic in the Gothic precision and plenitude of detail with which he embodied his deeply imaginative conceptions. The most distinguished painter in France during the fifteenth century was Jean Fouquet, who intro- duced Italian ornament in his panel-paintings and miniatures, and tempered Gothic realism with an exquisite sensibility. In the sixteenth century the influence of imported Italian painters was over- whelming in France; among the few artists who re- tained their individuality and national character may be mentioned Clouet. Spanish painting in the fifteenth century was strongly influenced by Italy and the Netherlands; in the following century Italian influence became even more marked. The decorative arts reflect the changes in style which we have just noted in our discussion of Gothic architecture, painting, and sculpture. Ecclesiastical patronage was constant throughout the period, and with the growth of secular patronage and the spread of new ideals of luxury, the applied arts prospered exceedingly. Furniture became more plentiful in the fifteenth century. Choir-stalls, lecterns, and other church furniture continued to be produced, but an increasing number of beautifully ornamented chests (fig. 48) and dressers also were made for the dwelling- rooms of the nobles and wealthy burghers. Carving plays the principal part in the decoration of Gothic furniture, which in general design is architectural in character. Although one accustomed to the ease of modern life might find the Gothic interior rather bare and comfortless, it offered in compensation ample opportunities for the gratification of the eye when the walls were hung with tapestries. 88 GOTHIC ART Although tapestry-weaving was practised in Eu- rope as early as the thirteenth century, there are but few existing tapestries older than the fifteenth century. The chief center of tapestry-weaving in the Burgundian-French style during the first half of the fifteenth century was Arras (fig. 42); in the third quarter of the century, Tournai (fig. 64). The ateliers of Brussels became preéminent at the FIG. 48. CARVED WOOD CHEST FRENCH, XV CENTURY close of the century, and throughout the sixteenth century the finest tapestries were woven in the Low Countries. Toward the end of the fifteenth century Renaissance elements begin to appear in tapestry design, and after a transitional period covering ap- proximately the first third of the sixteenth century, the Gothic style was superseded by the Renaissance. A search for pictorial effects now replaced the earlier conventional style so admirably suited to the purpose which tapestries served as mural decorations, and, despite great technical facility, the craft rarely at- 89 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING tained and never surpassed its triumphs of the Gothic period. The French ateliers of Touraine produced excellent work in the late fifteenth and early six- teenth centuries, and German ateliers were active throughout the Gothic period. In Italy, Flemish weavers worked at Mantua in the late fifteenth cen- tury, and at Florence in the manufactory established by the Medici in the sixteenth century. FIG. 49. IVORY DIPIVCH ATELIER OF THE DIPTYCHS OF THE PASSION FRENCH, XIV CENTURY In France during the late thirteenth and the four- teenth century, ivory-carving (figs. 49, 58-63) was a flourishing branch of the minor arts. These minia- ture carvings, in the form of devotional tablets, little shrines, and statuettes of the Virgin and Child, or of such secular objects as mirror-cases, combs, and caskets, reflect the contemporaneous development of monumental sculpture. Although these ivories are anonymous workshop productions, with Paris the probable center of the industry, they are often go GOTHIC ART among the most charming examples of Gothic art. The craft was never a popular one in Italy, but in the early years of the fifteenth century a considerable development took place in the north of Italy under the Embriachi, who decorated small caskets and mirror-frames with plaques of bone carved in the Gothic style, and usually with secular subjects. FIG. $0. ENAMELED SHRINE LIMOGES, XIII CENTURY In supplying the knight with armor; the church with reliquaries, croziers, crosses, SAA aes paxes, and other liturgical objects; and die layman with the utensils of daily usage, the Gothic craftsman de- veloped an extraordinary skill in the handling of metal and its intricate ornamentation (figs. 43,57, 68— 72573974): In the thirteenth century, Limoges was the great center of enameling (figs. 50-52, 54, 55). As already ; gI THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING noted (page 57), the cloisonné method of the Byzan- tines was superseded in the twelfth century by the champlevé technique, which remained in favor throughout the thirteenth century. The enameled plaques of copper-gilt for the decoration of chasses, book- covers, crosses, and similar objects, which were produced 1n great quantities at Limoges in the thir- teenth century, are the work of anonymous craftsmen, who were occupied, it is true, in industrial production, but who were so skilled in design and in the tasteful combination of the few colors then at the enameler’s command, that their productions well deserve their high reputation. In the fourteenth century the cham- plevé technique fell into disuse, and was replaced by a new fashion for translucent enamel applied over sunk relief carved on silver or gold plaques; this method of enameling was particularly popular in Italy. Then came the introduction of painted enamels toward the end of the fifteenth century (fig. 71). This was the favorite process in the sixteenth century, and in the production of painted enamels Limoges again held the leadership. These brief notes will give perhaps a general idea of the importance of the minor arts in the Gothic period; they will be supplemented by further comment in the chapters which describe the exhibits in the several galleries of Gothic art. In concluding this chapter, a few remarks on the development of iconography may be of interest. We have noted in the discussion of the Romanesque period that the religious art of western Europe at this time was more didactic than the Byzantine, and 1n- cluded a wider range of subject material. Develop- ing along the same lines, the art of the thirteenth 02 ‘ GOTHIC ART century elaborated the earlier encyclopedic pro- grams, and in the decorations of its great cathedrals strove to coordinate in one vast, comprehensive scheme the sum of human knowledge as interpreted by such schoolmen as Vincent de Beauvais, the author of a famous compendium, the Bibliotheca Mundi or Speculum Majus; or by Saint Thomas Aquinas, whose Summa Theologiae is an exhaustive discussion of Christian doctrine in the light of Aristotle’s philosophy. In the meantime, while the theologians were de- vising allegories, symbols, types, and figurations to be illustrated on the walls of the cathedrals, we must Hotyforget that Saint Francis was humanizing religion. The rapidity with which the new form of piety spread throughout Europe 1s proof enough, if proof were wanting, that the appeal to man’s heart is ever more potent than the appeal to his intellect. A changing attitude is evident in the new prominence given to the scenes of the Passion in the cathedral sculptures of the second half of the thirteenth century, and, toward the end of the century, in the substitution of a more pathetic type of crucified Savior for the earlier representa- tions of Christ triumphant on the cross—instead of standing erect, the body now sags from the cross, the head bends low, the eyes are closed in death, and a crown of thorns replaces the royal symbol. 93 FIG. $I. CHAMPLEVE ENAMEL LIMOGES, XIII CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING But it is in Italy that we find the earliest and clearest manifestations in art of the new piety. The Fioretti and the poems of Jacopone da Todi, the Meditations from the Life of Jesus Christ ascribed to Bonaventura, and the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine give literary expression to the popular yearning for a simpler, more emotional religion than the doctrinal involutions of the theologians—for a religion which should emphasize the humanity of Christ, of His gracious mother, and of the blessed company of saints and martyrs, and inspire love as well as reverence. The same sentiment animates the paintings of Giotto, in fact, of Italian art generally in the fourteenth century. The old themes are re- told in a novel way and new subjects added; scenes are localized, and figures animated by appropriate emotions; in every way the artist now endeavors to give an impression of historical actuality to the scrip- tural and legendary episodes which his ardent imag- ination re-creates.* Outside of Italy, a new emotionalism comes in with the fourteenth century, and in the second half of the century there is a considerable amplification of subject matter. In the fifteenth century, religious art loses more and more its idealistic character as techni- cal processes are perfected, and realism becomes the ’The resemblances between Italian art of the fourteenth century and contemporaneous Byzantine painting, as at Mistra, suggest the probabil- ity that the development we have just noted of Italian iconography was influenced by Greek example, transmitted through imported works of art or through the Greek monasteries established in southern and central Italy. It will be recalled that in the last phase of Byzantine art, the aristocratic theological school was superseded in popular favor by the no less ancient but hitherto obscure monastic school, distinguished by its emotional, realistic representation of scriptural episodes as historical actualities. 94 00 rd LCA Ro dominant trait in all the arts. The popularity of the mystery plays was a further incentive to the realistic presentation of religious themes. Episodes are chosen for their own picturesque interest or emotional significance, rather than as illustrations of some comprehensive scheme of moral and doctrinal in- struction. The purpose of art was now to stir the emotions rather than to teach. We may still see the influence of the old allegorical programs in such works of art as popular Bibles composed of woodcut illus- trations, or illustrated Books of Hours. On the whole, however, religious art had broken with theo- logical rule, and, in the vulgarization of its subjects through an ever-increasing realistic presentation, was approaching the period when, as it has been said, “there were still Christian artists but no longer any Christian art.” oy CHAPTER II GALLERY F 3 The material exhibited in this gallery consists prin- cipally of thirteenth-century Limoges enamels and of French ivory-carvings of the fourteenth century. In discussing the twelfth-century enamels exhibit- ed in Gallery F 2, it was noted (page 57) that enamel- ing in western Europe began to assume important proportions as an artistic industry during the twelfth century, when the champlevé process superseded the earlier cloisonné technique of the Byzantine crafts- men. During this period the principal centers of the industry were in the regions of the Rhine and of the Meuse, and at Limoges! in the south of France. The champlevé process consists of fusing the vitreous powder or enamel in cavities sunk in the metal ground (usually copper or bronze), after which the plaque is polished to secure a level surface, and the metal gilded—an economical way of securing something of the magnificence of the Byzantine enamels on gold. Parts of figures—heads and hands—were sometimes cast in bronze, gilded, and applied to the enameled plaque; in the thirteenth century entire figures pro- 1There were presumably other localities in France where enamels of the Limoges type were produced, and similar work was probably done in Spain. 96 FIG. $2. CHASSE, CHAMPLEVE ENAMEL FRENCH, LIMOGES, ABOUT 1200 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING duced in this way were common. In the earlier mediaeval enamels, speaking generally, the gilded metal served as the ground upon which the decora- tion was worked out in enamel; in the later enamels this practice more often is reversed, the ground is ornamented with enamel and the figure reserved, with inner markings delineated by the graver. The latter technique, requiring less effort to produce a striking effect, was especially in vogue during the thirteenth century in the busy ateliers of Limoges. The mediaeval enameler was strictly limited in his range of hues and any delicate gradations of color were out of the question. On the other hand, his colors had a durability and a splendor equaled only in mosaics. Moreover, these very limitations served to steady the craftsman in keeping to the pure design and conventionalized representation essential to an art of decoration. That the enamelers of the thir- teenth century achieved works of astonishing beauty must be evident to all who stand before the cases in this room. Our notes commence with Case A, to the right of the doorway as the visitor enters the room from Gallery F 2. Here the most conspicuous object is the end-piece of a large shrine, made in the form of a gabled house or church. This popular type of reli- quary in the Middle Ages is called a chasse. Com- plete examples of the type may be seen in two small enameled chasses shown in this case; other and finer chasses are exhibited in Case F. The end-piece of the shrine in Case A is Rhenish work of the thir- teenth century; thin sheets of gilded metal have been worked in relief, applied to a wooden panel, and decorated with enameled plaques and large cabochons 98 GALLERY F 3 of crystal (note that the crystals were used both as ornament and as a protection for relics). On this background is attached a figure in gilded bronze of the Crucified Savior, represented with open eyes and uncrossed feet. This early type, which also occurs in the two crosses shown in this case, per- sisted well into the thirteenth century before it was finally superseded by the “pathetic” type of Christ. In the floor-case opposite (B) are sev- eral examples of de- tached figures in high relief or in the round, cast in copper or bronze and_ gilded, representing the Cru- cified Christ. A par- ticularly fine example (fig. 53) 1s the figure occupying the central position in the case; to this, as to certain others in the group, must be con- ceded the rank of great sculpture. These bronzes are French or German in origin, and date from the late twelfth or thirteenth century. With these figures we may note in Case B several enameled crucifixes and terminal plaques from crosses and a large num- ber of separate plaques, generally representing the Crucifixion or Christ in Majesty surrounded by symbols of the Evangelists, which originally orna- mented chasses or book-covers. In Case C perhaps the most interesting piece is a oo FIGW£ 3) CHRIST LATE XII CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING portable reliquary in the form of a quatrefoil designed to contain, according to the inscription, some of the hair of Saint Mary Magdalen. The two angels, enameled in white, cobalt, green, and scarlet, are especially fine in color and drawing; the back 1s richly engraved with foliate scrolls on a chased ground. This reliquary is a Rhenish work of the beginning of the thirteenth century. Two pricket candlesticks and a chasse are typical of the use of enamel in the ornamentation of metalwork. The large panel on the back of the case is composed of various fragments of enamel, combined with cameos and in- taglios. A small pyx in the shape of a cylindrical box with a conical top illustrates a popu- lar form of receptacle for the consecrated host. The collec- tion includes several statuettes FIG. 54. in gilt-bronze, enriched with ENAMELED CROSS 2 enamel, representing the en- LIMOGES agree: : XIII CENTURY throned Virgin holding the Christ Child; perhaps the finest is the thirteenth-century example shown in this case. An unusual piece is the small shrine of painted and gilded wood, representing the Virgin and Child, of the type known as Vzerge ouvrante. ‘The body of the Virgin forms two doors, which when opened disclose paintings of Gospel scenes and a carved figure of the Savior holding His cross. The piece is a French work of the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century. The finest of the enameled crosses in the collection 100 GALLERY F 3 is undoubtedly that in Case D (fig. 54). The figure of the Savior, which is enameled on the copper-gilt ground instead of applied, 1s drawn with exceptional distinction, and the few colors at the craftsman’s command are skilfully combined. It 1s regrettable that two of the plaques representing the symbols of the four Evangelists, which completed the arms of the cross, are missing. Another important example of Limoges enamel (Case D) is a large plaque, probably from a chasse, representing the Cruci- fixion (fig. 51); note the use of rosettes to decorate the blue background. From a frontal, formerly in a church at Grand- mont, comes a large plaque (fig. 55) ornamented with a figure in high relief of Saint James on an enameled back- Pie iudoilame blue. patterned © 9-55. SAINT JAMES with floral scrolls. This is a pascirataas, particularly notable example of the sculptural metalwork which combines so happily with the ornamental work of the enamelers. In Case E the principal object is not an enamel, but a remarkable wood-carving (fig. 56) of the fourteenth century, representing the Visitation. These ex- quisite statuettes of the Virgin and Saint Elizabeth, so beautifully preserved 1n respect to the polychrome and gilded decoration, are of exceptional beauty. The strip of embroidery above the group is a rare ex- ample of English work of the fourteenth century. An 101 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING unusual piece is the holy-water bucket, decorated in enamel with figures of Saint Peter and other saints; it is Limoges work of the early thirteenth century. Interesting for their form as well as decoration are two incense boats, or navettes, so called because the shape rather remotely suggests a ship or boat, one of the earliest symbols of the Churchiis aap, pricket candlestick shows a somewhat different type from the two examples exhibited in’ Case -G In the floor-case (F) are several large chasses of ex- ceptional interest, from the Limoges ateliers. Exhibited on the top shelf is a well- known chasse, dating from the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century (fig. 52 eu aigiesean- sidered one of the finest of a group of about twenty known chasses, in the decoration of which a characteristic border design of half-circles occurs. Another chasse, also belonging to this group, is exhibited in the same case. Note in these early pieces that the figures are enameled on a gilt ground chased with rinceaux, and that the relief work is restricted to the heads alone. On the bottom shelf is a characteristic example of the later work of the second half of the thirteenth century, in which the figures are entirely modeled in relief and applied to an enameled background. Al- 102 FIG. $6. VISITATION FRENCH, XIV CENTURY GALLERY F 3 though striking in effect, the work is coarse compared with the earlier examples. With these chasses is exhibited the celebrated reliquary of Saint Margaret known as the chasse aux oiseaux, because little birds terminate the various pinnacles and crystal knobs of the reliquary (fig. 57). Quite remarkable as sculp- ture are the four figures of angels in copper-gilt FIG. §7. RELIQUARY (CHASSE AUX OISEAUX) FRENCH, XIII CENTURY supporting the crystal cylinder. The reliquary 1s enriched with gems and tiny coats of arms in verre eglomisé. Another object of great interest is the reliquary of Saint Thomas a Becket in the form of a small silver-gilt casket with scenes of the martyrdom and burial of the Saint represented in niello (see page 56). This reliquary was presumably made be- tween 1174 and 1176 for John of Salisbury, to hold two vials of the blood of Saint Thomas, which John preserved at the time of the martyrdom of the Saint 103 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING and later presented to the Cathedral of Chartres; the workmanship is probably Lotharingian. Occupying a case by itself (G) in the middle of the room is a large gable-roofed shrine with doors, constructed of wood (restored) decorated with plaques of champlevé enamel and figures in relief of copper- gilt (fig. 50). Inside, the Deposition from the Cross is represented on the back of the shrine, and on the sides are compositions figuring the Entombment, Resurrection, and Ascension. ‘The floor of the shrine is ornamented with eight medallions of angels. On the inside of the left door are Christ in Limbo, the Visit to the Sepulchre, Christ Appearing to Mary Magdalen; on the inside of the right door, the Jour- ney to Emmaus, the Pilgrims at Emmaus, and the Incredulity of Thomas. The subjects on the outside of the doors are the Virgin Enthroned and Christ with the Symbols of the Four Evangelists. This rare shrine or sacrament-house, perhaps used as an Easter sepulchre, was dug up in 1896 at Plumejeau in the commune of Cherves near Cognac (Charente); the wood had rotted away, necessitating restoration, but fortunately the enamel had suffered little. Only one other piece of the type is known; this is a much injured shrine in the treasury at Chartres. In Case I are exhibited various enameled plaques and figures in relief from chasses and other objects; here also are a number of pendants and a morse (used for fastening the cope across the breast). » SAP ER INTRODUCTION In the chapter on Gothic art (see pp. 68-74) there is a brief account of that stage in the evolution of European thought which was accomplished between the twelfth and the seventeenth century, when great advances were made in freeing the intellect from the shackles of mediaeval speculation, and in reasserting man’s self-esteem as he came to know more of his past and of the world in which he lived. These four eventful centuries preceding the modern age of science constitute a period in the history of civiliza- tion which is sometimes called the Renaissance. More commonly, however, this term is used to describe a style of art which was evolved in Italy in the fifteenth century and which, in the following century, prevailed generally throughout Europe. This designation, however, is by no means an ideal one. It implies that Renaissance art was a rebirth of classical art, which was far from being the case. Although the recovery of ancient culture through the efforts of the humanists (see page 73) played an important part in the formation of the new style, this enthusiasm for antiquity was counterbalanced by a no less ardent enthusiasm for nature, common to all European art at this period. That the Renais- 165 THE PIERPONT MORGANS WiInG sance style should have first taken definite form in Italy was due to the labors of the Italian humanists and to the exceptional opportunities for the study and emulation of ancient art which the still existing mon- uments on Italian soil afforded. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Italy enjoyed an extraordinary development of all the arts. No country has ever produced within the brief period of two hundred years more artists of surpassing genius. Recall the names of Donatello, Michelangelo, Leonardo, Raphael, Correggio, Giorgi- one, Giovanni Bellini, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Benvenuto Cellini, to men- tion but a few of the most celebrated masters. What a glorious roster of genius! The artistic supremacy of Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is in striking contrast to her politi- cal weakness during this period. Divided into nu- merous small, independent states, criss-crossed with intrigues and fugitive alliances, Italy was doomed to pay the price for the failure to achieve that na- tional consciousness which, beyond the Alps, was giving rise to the modern states. In the course of the fifteenth century, both England and France estab- lished strong monarchical governments; the Hundred Years’ War had settled the question between the two countries of supremacy on the Continent; and the royal power had been strengthened in England by the War of the Roses and in France by the crafty plotting of Louis XI. The marriage in 1469 of Isa- bella of Castile with Ferdinand of Aragon united the greater part of Spain, and with the fall of Granada in 1492 the recovery of the Peninsula from the Moors was completed. In the sixteenth century Spain was 166 RENAISSANCE ART for a time the strongest military power in Eu- rope, and, with wealth pouring in from her American possessions, enjoyed a period of transient greatness which ended with the revolt of the Netherlands. Although the German Empire was a loose, turbulent confederacy of numerous practically independent states, ruled by an emperor whose strength depended more upon his family possessions than upon any FIG. 92. JASPER CUP ENAMELED AND JEWELED BENVENUTO CELLINI (?) imperial authority, the Emperor Maximilian through his matrimonial moves became a dominant figure in European politics. By his own marriage Maximilian obtained the rich lands of Burgundy; but his master- stroke was the marriage which he arranged between his son Philip and the heiress of Ferdinand and Isa- bella. As a result of these alliances Maximilian’s grandson, Charles V, fell heir to the greatest empire Europe had known since the days of Charlemagne. Fortunately for Italy, her neighbors were too 167 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING occupied with growing pains during most of the fifteenth century to pay much attention to the tempt- ing prize which lay within their reach; but the in- vasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France in 1494 revealed the lack of any national feeling in Italy, and other invasions quickly followed. Italy became the battleground of European powers, and until the mid- dle of the nineteenth century was dominated by for- elgn nations, especially by Spain and Austria. The failure to achieve union was fatal to Italian liberty, but not unfavorable to artistic development. An ingrowing patriotism, 1f one may use the phrase, encouraged the embellishment of cities and the devel- opment of local schools. To gratify civic pride, and at the same time to distract attention from their machinations, the great princes found it often advantageous as well as agreeable to extend a magnifi- cent patronage to the arts. A large surplus wealth, the result of commercial and industrial prosperity, was available for artistic purposes, and of this “art fund” a liberal share went to the construction and adornment of churches. Such pontiffs as Alexan- der VI, Julius II, and Leo X were munificent patrons of the arts; but the splendor of the papal court was maintained at a terrific cost, and the means adopted for raising revenue constituted one of the immediate causes of the Protestant Revolution. This was a political, social, economic, as well as religious move- ment, long in preparation, which in the course of the sixteenth century lost to the Papacy England, Scot- land, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, northern Germany, and part of Switzerland. The Catholic Reformation, which ensued in the second half of the sixteenth century, purged the Church of various 168 RENAISSANCE ART abuses and reasserted the grounds of Catholic belief. The Catholic revival gave a new stimulus to art, and at the close of our period the baroque style makes its appearance. The extent to which classical forms were imitated in Italian architecture of the Romanesque period, especially in Tuscany, indicates a trend of taste which might have brought about at an earlier date the classical revival accomplished in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, had not the Gothic style, imported by the Cistercians at the close of the twelfth century, imposed its su- perficial characteristics, although not its logical structure, upon Italian architecture for two cen- turies or more. But in the fif- FIG, 93. teenth century, as already noted, See the Italian artist turned with ATTRIBUTED TO eager interest to the remains of LEONE LEONI classical art, and the influence of this enthusiasm for antiquity is nowhere more appar- ent than in Renaissance architecture. The criticism is frequently heard that Renaissance architecture makes use of architectural forms for their decorative value alone, irrespective of structural significance, and for this reason is inferior to the Gothic. Admittedly, Gothic architecture is organic and Renaissance is not. But Renaissance architec- ture is no less permanent than Gothic; it served the needs of those for whom it was built no less success- fully; and the third requirement of good architecture —beauty—it achieved in no uncertain measure and 169 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING with a prodigality for which the world can never be sufficiently grateful. Three periods are distinguished in the develop- ment of Italian Renaissance architecture: the Early Renaissance, from about 1420 to the close.of the fifteenth century; the High Renaissance, from about 1500 to 1540; and the Late Renaissance, from about 1540 to 1580. Florence held the leadership in the Early Renais- sance, which was a period of transition and innova- tion. The secular spirit of the age fostered the development of civic and domestic architecture, of which the monuments, notably the palaces of the nobles and rich merchants, now rivaled the churches in architectural importance. The characteristic feat- ures of the Renaissance church appeared early in the work of the Florentine architects. Although the longitudinal plan of the Gothic church was not dis- carded, the central type of late Roman and Byzan- tine architecture, in which the building is composed about a central vertical axis, was revived and elab- orated. The preferred form of vaulting was the dome, but the flat, coffered ceiling and the barrel vault were also in favor. The clustered supports of Gothic architecture were replaced by classical forms of columns, pilasters, and entablatures. The archi- tectural orders appear again on the facade and were treated there, as in the interior, with a freedom which gave considerable scope to originality. The Renais- sance architect appears as a definite personality, exercising a greater control over the general design than in the Gothic period. Two Florentines, Bru- nelleschi and Alberti, were the principal architects of the Early Renaissance. 170 RENAISSANCE ART Outside of Tuscany, the Renaissance style was accepted only gradually. In the second half of the fifteenth century, Rome experienced an artistic re- vival; in some instances the building of this period achieved a close imitation of classical architecture, but on the whole mediaeval traditions still prevailed. In northern Italy, despite the gradual adoption of superficial Renaissance characteristics, the new movement was imperfectly understood until the close of the first period; this transitional architecture is not without its charm, although frequently marred by an excessive use of ornament. With the sixteenth century the leadership passed from Florence to Rome, which now became under Wultus tl and Leo X the artistic center of Italy. In the High Renaissance the study of the antique was seriously undertaken, and a greater refinement of taste and a more harmonious union of antique and modern elements characterize the architecture of this period. Bramante was the most influential architect of the early sixteenth century. His enthusiasm for the antique was controlled by more accomplished scholarship than the earlier men had possessed, and thus disciplined he strove for a greater unity of effect than had been generally attained in the earlier period. The Renaissance style was now universally accepted throughout Italy; and important architec- tural developments occurred at Venice and in adja- cent cities, where two disciples of Bramante, San Michaeli and Sansovino, employed the classical orders in an ornate style which continued the more robust qualities of the Roman school. In the Late Renaissance, the outstanding feature is the conflict between baroque and academic tend- 171 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING encies. The latter was the outcome of the archaeo- logical spirit which had gradually replaced the naive, romantic enthusiasm of the Early Renaissance for the antique. From the academic point of view, classical architecture was no longer a matter of folklore, so to speak, but a revealed religion requir. ing unfailing obedience to its authority. Palladio of Vicenza was the great master of the academic school; but, although a classicist, he was not a pe- dant. The independent architects who rebelled against classical authority and strove to exercise their own inventive genius had a redoubtable cham- pion in Michelangelo, who revealed in architecture, as In painting and sculpture, the same unconventional genius. His free treatment of classical motives and the originality of his conceptions were a vigorous protest against the classicists who would have buried architecture, tightly wrapped in rule and precedent, in a Roman tomb. The struggle between the two tendencies resulted, by the end of the century, in the supremacy of the baroque. The Italian invasions of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I favored the development of the Renais- sance style in France, where, under the patronage of king and nobles, secular architecture soon showed the influence of the new taste; the Church, more conservative, yielded less readily. A par period, which extends from about 1495 to 1515, 1 marked by the increasing use of Renaissance orna- ment in the decoration of buildings still fundamen- tally Gothic in other respects. Gothic characteristics persisted in the architecture of the time of Francis I, but the mediaeval structure was more completely masked than in the preceding period by an exuber- 172 RENAISSANCE ART ance of Renaissance motives. By the middle of the sixteenth century, except in ecclesiastical architec- ture, little remained of the Gothic tradition; the Renaissance style was now thoroughly acclimatized. Italian influence, especially that of the Roman school, played an important Gaee ein this mature period, but the genius of such architects as Goujon, Lescot, Bul- lant, Ducerceau, and Delorme gave a dis- tinctly national charac- ter to the French inter- pretation of classicism. The influence of the Italian Renaissance ap- pears in Spanish archi- tecture toward the end of the fifteenth cen- fan) Vhe first half of eee wa ee a the sixteenth century is known as the Plateresque period, from the promi- nent part played by the goldsmith, or p/atero, in the evolution of the intricate style of rich ornamenta- tion which then prevailed. But as architects became more versed in the grammar of classical forms, an academic style developed and flourished from about 1570 to 1610. | The assimilation of the Renaissance style in Ger- many and the Netherlands was never so complete as in France, and Italian Renaissance forms were much modified by Gothic survivals. Even in its most classical aspect, German architecture has a 173 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING guttural character far removed from the limpid ut- terance of the Italian masters of the High Renais- sance. In general, two periods may be distinguished: the Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to 1§50, and the High Renaissance, from about 1550 to 1600. The Renaissance came later to isolated England than to the other European countries. The Tudor style, which flourished there from about 1485 to 1600,' was derived directly from Gothic antecedents, although there was a sporadic appearance of Re- naissance ornament through the influence of foreign sculptors working in England. By the middle of the sixteenth century the classical orders began to appear on facades; but before the mediaeval ele- ments were superseded or the new forms more than partially comprehended, the conglomerate style was overwhelmed by the baroque. Although naturalism is a conspicuous feature of Italian painting and sculpture of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it 1s not in itself a distinguishing ~ characteristic of the Renaissance style. We have already noted (see page 82), in discussing Gothic art, that in the late fourteenth and the early fifteenth century European art generally takes a realistic trend. There is, however, a fundamental difference between the character of Italian painting and sculp- ture of the fifteenth century and that of other European schools of the same period, which permits us to describe the former as Renaissance and the latter as Gothic. Beyond the Alps, the realistic tendencies of Gothic art were unchecked save by such instinctive good taste as the individual artist might 1The second half of the sixteenth century is often known as the Elizabethan period. 174 RENAISSANCE ART possess, by the conservatism of an art preponderantly ecclesiastical, and by the technical difficulties of the craft. As a result, emotional exaggeration and in- discriminate interest in objective appearances were all too common. In Italy, on the other hand, en- thusiasm for nature was controlled and directed to aesthetic purposes by the example of classical ait. By inspiring the Renaissance artist to strive for the ordered beauty of form and compos tion which dis- tinguish Greek and Roman art, realistic excesses were in large measure avoided. This disciplined realism, even more than the new vocabulary of classical mo- tives and the new themes drawn from pagan legend and mythology, gives to Renaissance art its distinc- tive character. In commencing a brief account of the development of Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture, we may note that the division into periods is the same as in architecture—the Early Renaissance, covering the greater part of the fifteenth century; the High Renaissance, extending to the middle of the six- teenth century; and the Late Renaissance, compris- ing roughly the second half of the sixteenth century. Although domestic and civic sculpture attained greater importance in the Renaissance than in the mediaeval period, the Italian sculptor still found his principal employment in the adornment of churches and in the production of devotional sculptures for the home and for wayside shrines. Some of his most notable achievements, however, were in the field of _ secular sculpture, which comprised portrait statues and busts, fountains for parks and public squares, and such ornamental work for palaces as friezes, chimneypieces, ceilings, and doorways. The New Lys THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING and Old Testaments and the lives of the saints furnished the chief subjects for ecclesiastical sculp- ture. Pagan themes were popular in other classes of sculpture, and even appear in work for the Church. The materials most employed were marble and stone, bronze, terracotta, and stucco. Wood was little used except in the few regions where it was easily obtained. Terracotta and stucco were popular sub- stitutes tor the more expensive materials. Bronze was much used, and its technique carried to a high point of perfection. In general, there was a marked development of skill in all the technical processes, and artists sought greater refinement of form and dellt- cacy of execution than in the Gothic period. If the painters of Florence share their laurels with others, the school was supreme in sculpture. Such masters as Ghiberti, Donatello, Luca della Robbia, and their successors assured to Florence her leader- ship in the Early Renaissance. It was a Florentine, Michelangelo, who dominated the age of maturity, and in the later period Gian Bologna gave new lustre to the name of the city on the Arno. The record of Italian sculpture is, therefore, largely the history of the Florentine school. Ghiberti marks the transition from Gothic to Renaissance. In his sculptures the forms of classi- cal architecture are introduced, and figures, fauna, and flora are freshly studied from the world around, while perspective effects reveal the scientific interests of the time. It was Donatello, however, who first gave complete expression to the new style, although classicism is less evident in his sculptures than a fervent interest in man and his surroundings. The example of classical art led sculptors to study the 176 . 9§. SAINT ANDREW MARBLE BY ANDREA BREGNO FIG THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING nude, and Donatello was one of the first of the Renaissance masters to rediscover the beauty of the human form. His slightly younger contemporary, Luca della Robbia, is less dramatic than Donatello, but in his serene spirit and sense of beautiful form, Luca comes perhaps even closer to the ideals of ancient art. Both masters had many pupils and imitators, and the Florentine school of the second half of the fifteenth century abounded in sculptors of exceptional gifts. For the most part, these sculp- tors worked in marble or terracotta; but, inspired by Donatello’s example, Antonio Pollaiuolo and Andrea del Verrocchio excelled in bronze. Verrocchio, goldsmith, sculptor, and painter, is perhaps the most representative Florentine sculptor of the second half of the fifteenth century, as Dona- tello was of the first. The work of Verrocchio and of his contemporaries shows great technical ability, sensitiveness to beauty, and tranquillity of spirit, but on the whole the earlier spontaneity tends to give way to an elegance not untouched by precious- ness. As for sculpture outside of Florence, the influence of Donatello created an important school at Padua. Siena produced at least one great sculptor, Jacopo della Quercia, whose forceful, monumental style reminds one of Michelangelo. Rome contributed little, although it gave considerable patronage to Tuscan and Lombard sculptors. In Lombardy and Venice, the Gothic style continued in favor long after it had been supplanted elsewhere. Lombard sculp- ture 1s dramatic, restless, over-luxuriant in decora- tion. Venice yielded slowly to the tide of Renais- sance influence, but, in the work of such sculptors 178 RENAISSANCE ART as the Lombardi and Alessandro Leopardi, acknowl- edged allegiance to the new movement. The formative period of the Renaissance ended with the close of the fifteenth century. The age of perfected development which followed found its supreme expression in the art of Michelangelo, the Florentine master whose achievements in painting, architecture, and above all, in sculpture, represent the full fruition of the Renaissance. In the marble, which it was his custom to attack directly with the chisel, Michelangelo wrought out the passions and concentrated thought of a life gradually sombered by adversity. The tremendous vitality of Michel- angelo’s sculpture, its technical accomplishment and striking originality, exerted a profound influence upon his contemporaries and successors. In an age which lacked spontaneity the influence of Michelan- gelo, too great to be readily assimilated, hastened the decline of sculpture to the level of stylistic imitation. By the second half of the sixteenth century, Ital- ian sculpture had entered definitely upon a period of decadence. The central figure of the Late Re- naissance is the Fleming, Jehan Boulogne (called Giovanni Bologna), whose sculpture 1s distinguished by a mannered but vigorous classicism. Italian sculpture ended in artificiality; 1t was revitalized in the baroque period by Bernini, but never regained its former height. Although the new style spread from Italy to other European countries in the course of the fifteenth century, its triumph was accomplished only in the following century. Spain early came in contact with the Renaissance movement. Of the sixteenth- no THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING century Spanish sculptors who adopted the Italianate manner, Alonso Berruguete, an imitator of Michel- angelo, 1s the most prominent. Damian Forment may also be mentioned, as well as the Italians, Leone Leoni and his son, Pompeo, who were the court sculptors of Charles V and Philip II. The Renaissance came to France at the close of the fifteenth century, manifesting itself first of all in architecture and ornament, and under the patronage of Francis I rapidly ousted the Gothic style then in decadence. French Renaissance sculpture is char- acterized by delicacy of execution and by a charming naturalism modified by the example of classic art. The chief sculptors were Pierre Bontemps, Jean Gou- jon, and Germain Pilon. The Renaissance was not fruitful in Germany. After 1530, there was a decline in all the arts as a result of religious wars and economic depression. Sculpture became a court art and was largely in the hands of Italianate Dutchmen and Flemings, such as Adriaen de Vries and Pieter de Witte (Candido). The Gothic art of the Netherlands yielded early in the sixteenth century to the new movement, which was in full control by the middle of the century. The school did not, however, produce any sculptors of particular note. From the Netherlands, Renais- sance influence spread to England. Italian sculp- tors such as Torrigiano and Benedetto da Rovezzano worked in England, but of the foreign artists, who executed most of the important monuments of the time, the Flemings were the most influential. Italian painting of the Early Renaissance made great advances in the knowledge of anatomy, per- spective, chiaroscuro, color, and composition; and 180 RENAISSANCE ART technical skill was perfected in all the processes of painting, whether fresco, tempera, or the oil medium which came into general use toward the close of the period. Less restricted than sculpture to ecclesias. tical purposes, Renaissance painting made liberal use of classical themes and motives, reviving the mythology of ancient Rome and retelling pagan legends. As a result of the new interest in nature, landscape, although it was not yet depicted for its own sake, began to play an important part in paint- ing; and the same tendency fostered the develop- ment of historical and genre painting as well as of portraiture, which found a place not only in secular but also in religious art. The naturalistic movement of the Early Renais- sance had its first great exponent in Masaccio. Realistic studies particularly occupied the Florentine school, which held the leadership in painting, as in sculpture and architecture, during the fifteenth century. Uccello experimented in perspective, Pol- laiuolo and Castagno sought the secrets of bodily structure and movements, and researches in light and color marked the work of Domenico Veneziano. Not all the Florentines were scientists, however, and the older tradition of mediaeval art, modified to meet new conditions, was perpetuated by several men of genius, more intent on the expression of mystic faith than concerned with the world around them. The master par excellence of this group was the blithe Fra Angelico, although his paintings often reveal searching, realistic observation. The most original genius of the Florentine school, Botticelli, defies classification. The melancholy of a soul tormented by antique visions too dimly seen pervades his art, 181 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING in which paganism and Christianity struggle for supremacy. No such spiritual perturbation dis- tressed the facile Ghirlandaio, whose altarpieces and large mural compositions are pleasing decorations, gay with color, skilfully designed, and filled with genre and narrative interest. Outside of Florence, the impersonal Piero dei Franceschi pursued with lofty genius the same course as the Florentine scientists; and problems of anat- omy and foreshortening preoccupied his pupil, Luca Signorelli, whose sculpturesque design and violent energy presage the ¢erribilitad of Michelangelo. In general, however, these central Italian painters practised little of the severe intellectual virtues of Florence. They were painters of charming sensi- bility, excellent illustrators, and makers of pretty patterns. The Umbrian master, Perugino, illustrates their virtues and their faults. Although Botticelli was haunted by antique visions, he did not attempt to re-create the ancient world with archaeological exactness, nor do we find scholarship in the whimsicalities of Piero di Cosimo, or in the fantasies of Filippino Lippi. Unlike these painters, whose attitude was romantic rather than archaeo- logical, Andrea Mantegna was led by his passion for antiquity to attempt to revive not only the spirit but the appearances of ancient art. His style is sculpturesque and dignified, but owes its vitality more to observation of nature than to study of the antique. The exuberant Gothic style, which persisted in Venice long after the dawn of the Renaissance else- where in Italy, was transformed largely through the influence of Mantegna and of the realistic Antonello 182 RENAISSANCE ART da Messina. In the labors of Giovanni Bellini’s long career one may trace the development of the Vene- tian school from mediaeval sentiment and a concep- tion of form which hovered between indulgent prettiness and fantastic severity, to the mellow harmony of color, opulence of form, and lovable humanity of the High Renaissance. The promises of the Early Renaissance were ful- filled in the sixteenth century. Although Florence no longer held its position of supremacy in painting, this city gave to the High Renaissance two of its greatest masters, Leonardo da Vinci and Michel- angelo. Leonardo epitomizes the intellectual curi- osity of the Renaissance. Devoting his genius not only to painting and sculpture but also to engineering and to other scientific pursuits, Leonardo found little time for painting; but the few extant paintings as- suredly from his own hand are distinguished by psychological subtleties and consummate science in drawing and chiaroscuro. Leonardo’s Milanese and Flemish imitators, failing his profound science, lost themselves in a maze of mellifluous affectations. Michelangelo’s vigorous paintings in the Sistine Chapel contributed no less than his sculptures to the leadership of Rome in the sixteenth century, when the Eternal City as a center of art was rivaled only by Venice. Raphael (fig. 96), who vivified the Umbrian pietism of his early art by contact with the Floren- tine school, reveals in the mature paintings of his Roman period the full blossoming of his genius. The most perfect of illustrators, the “divine Raph- ael” enchanted his fellow-men then as now with the clearness of his narration of Christian story and pagan myth, and with the amenities of his agreeable 183 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING color, carefully studied composition, and gracious forms. The sensuousness of the Renaissance found its exponent in Correggio, a master of chiaroscuro and audacious perspective effects, who delighted in volup- tuous forms, gleaming in golden light. Maturing later than the other Italian schools, Venice produced in the High Renaissance a brilliant galaxy of masters. Giorgione, by his glowing coloring, reminds us of Giovanni Bellini, but he is more ro- mantic, more sensitive to the picturesque than the older painter. Of quite a different order is the genius of Titian, consummate master of his art, who delighted in the normal aspects of man and nature. Tintoretto may be called the Venetian counterpart of Michelangelo, although he lacked the intellectual preoccupation of the great Florentine. Paolo Ve- ronese was a Venetian only by adoption, but his luminous color and love of pageantry are typical of the school. Mannerism, eclecticism, and extravagant realism characterize the three main groups of painters in the period of decline comprising the later half of the sixteenth century. There were men of genius in the Late Renaissance, but their desire to emulate or sur- pass the giants of the past led to over-refinement, mannered beauty, and affectations of style. Many artists copied the superficialities of Michelangelo’s vehement art, but failed to inform their imitations with the master’s spirit; the fascinating example of Correggio and Raphael led others astray. The mannerists were followed by the Bolognese school of eclectics who sought to revive art by combining the excellencies of their great predecessors. The Car- racci and their followers aimed at Michelangelo’s line, 184 meeeneessas > ARE, es OT 8 ee ei “een FIG. g6. VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED WITH SAINTS BY RAPHAEL PAINTED IN I1$04-05 FOR THE NUNS OF THE CONVENT OF SAINT ANTHONY OF PADUA IN PERUGIA THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Titian’s color, Correggio’s chiaroscuro, and Raphael’s grace and skilful composition. These artists were learned men, highly gifted in many ways, but their self-conscious art was foredoomed to failure. Con- temporary with the eclectics, there flourished the naturalists with Caravaggio at their head. The revival of realistic observation, replacing parasitic dependence on the older masters, was in itself whole- some; these studies, however, were pursued with such extravagance and so little discrimination that the paintings of this school, facile in drawing but in- different in color,.often merit the charge of coarseness and brutality. Renaissance painting outside of Italy can be only briefly discussed. In France the influence of im- ported Italian painters in the sixteenth century was overwhelming, and few artists retained their in- dividuality and national character. Spain in the sixteenth century adopted very largely the Italian manner, but produced few masters of any importance. Decidedly the greatest artist in Spain at this period was the Venetian-trained Theotocopuli, known as E] Greco, whose highly personal art is characterized by intense emotionalism and an insistence on formal beauty even at the sacrifice of objective appearances. Two artists of unusual talent, Ribera and Zurbaran, were influenced by the Italian naturalism of the Late Renaissance. The Flemish painters of the six- teenth century readily yielded allegiance to the new style, and the art of such painters as Mabuse and Van Orley presents a delightful if somewhat hybrid union of Gothic and Renaissance forms. Dutch and German painting followed the same development, although Germany produced two great masters of 186 RENAISSANCE ART exceptional merit, Albrecht Diirer and Hans Holbein the Younger. Throughout the fifteenth century and the early part of the sixteenth, miniature painting flourished in Flanders, France, and Italy. In the northern countries, naturally enough, the style was Gothic and strongly realistic, although ornament occasion- ally shows the influence of the classical revival. The two great French masters were Fouquet and Bourdichon. The development in Italy proceeded along much the same lines as in painting. In the general dissemination of the Renaissance style, min- lature painting outside of Italy began to lose its Gothic character, but before the new style had attained its full ascendancy in the north, the popu- larity of the printed book with engraved illustrations presented an overwhelming obstacle to further devel- opment. In the early years of the fifteenth century the pictorial woodcut makes its appearance in the form of popular devotional prints. With the invasion of the printed book, shortly after the middle of the century, the wood-engraver was soon called upon to furnish ornament and illustrations. Wood-engraving, independent of books, took on a new importance in the sixteenth century; the technique became more accom- plished, and in the engravings after such masters as Direr and Holbein attained extraordinary excellence. Engraving on metal appears to have been developed at a somewhat later date than the woodcut, but by the middle of the fifteenth century it was being prac- tised both in Germany and in Italy. The second half of the century is distinguished by the work of Martin Schongauer in Germany, and of Antonio Pol- 187 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING laiuolo and Mantegna in Italy. During the sixteenth century the art reached its perfection in the work of Diirer. An Italian, Marcantonio Raimondi, opened a new field for the engraver by his repro- duction of the work of other artists. The popularity of these reproductive prints, which widely dissemi- nated the influence of the famous painters of the day, had a considerable effect upon the development of ornament. Although the Morgan Collection contains few Renaissance sculptures or paintings,? 1t 1s excep- tionally rich, on the other hand, in works of applied art in this style. This section of the collection is installed in Gallery F 8, and will be discussed in the following chapter. The development of the minor arts in Italy during the Renaissance period parallels that of the major arts. This is not unnatural, as there was then no false distinction between artist and artisan, as there is today; even the greatest masters did not find it beneath their dignity to work in the fields of applied art. In Italy, throughout the Renaissance, there was a flourishing production of small bronzes—statuettes, plaques, medals, and such utilitarian objects as ink- stands, andirons, candelabra, and mortars. Many gifted artists—among whom Antonio Briosco, called Il Riccio, holds a prominent place—devoted them- selves exclusively to these small bronzes. Copies in reduced size, more or less faithful, of classical statues were popular, and helped to spread the enthusiasm for the antique. These minor sculptures, in which the artist had only himself to please, furthermore 2The most important of the paintings is the celebrated Colonna altar- piece by Raphael, exhibited in Gallery A 11. 188 RENAISSANCE ART afforded a valuable opportunity for experiment in realistic studies. The production of small bronze sculptures in Germany, Flanders, and France was less abundant than in Italy, and, on the whole, of a lower order. On the other hand, German and Flem- ish miniature carvers in the late fifteenth and the sixteenth century attained a remarkable skill in carv- ing pearwood, boxwood, and honestone (fig. Io01). Rosary beads gave the German wood-carver the chance to display an almost miraculous skill in microscopic carving; portrait medallions were also popular. In the Renaissance, ivory-carving lost the prominent position which it held among the minor arts of the Middle Ages. Although the craft was never a popular one in Italy, a considerable development took place in the north under the Em- briachi in the early years of the fifteenth century. The sixteenth century was largely a period of neglect everywhere, followed in Germany and Flanders by a revival of ivory-carving in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Although furniture was by no means plentiful during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there was a distinct advance toward comfort and luxury in all that pertained to the house. The influence of classical ornament and architectural forms became manifest in Italian furniture designs early in the fifteenth century. In the following century these motives became more elaborate and more classical in feeling, corresponding to the change in architec- tural design; elaborate carving was now substituted for the marquetry or painted decoration which had been favored in the earlier period. The spread of the Renaissance in the sixteenth century imposed 189 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the characteristics of this style upon the furniture of other countries. But Gothic elements long persisted outside of Italy. French furniture (fig. 108) in the second half of the sixteenth century exhibits a dis- tinctly national style, combining classical motives in highly elaborate designs. Perhaps the most charac- teristic pieces are the richly carved cabinets known as dressoirs or armoires. Gothic characteristics continued in Italian eccle- siastical metalwork throughout the greater part of the fifteenth century, although from the middle years of the century ornament reminiscent of classical art became increasingly popular, and eventually, despite the conservatism of the Church, replaced the earlier motives. In secular metalwork the new style won an earlier victory. Enamels, pearls and precious stones, sculpture in relief or in the round added to the magnificence of effect in both ecclesias- tical and secular metalwork (figs. 92, 106, etc.). Re- naissance jewelry, which reached a high degree of ex- cellence in the sixteenth century, is characterized by exquisite workmanship, intricate openwork design, and the use of enamel in the setting of precious stones, pearls, cameos, and engraved gems. The most cele- brated of the Renaissance goldsmiths is undoubtedly Benvenuto Cellini, equally skilled in the arts of bra- vado, metalwork, sculpture, and autobiography. It is interesting to recall that the goldsmiths’ shops were the training schools for many of the greatest artists of the Renaissance. Ironwork, notably in Spain, continued to hold an important position among the crafts. Arms and armor represent some of the finest achievements of the metalworker in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 1g0 RENAISSANCE ART turies. The style throughout the fifteenth century is generally Gothic, although there was an occasional appearance in parade and jousting armor of classical ornament and of forms fantastically reminiscent of the antique. In the sixteenth century Renaissance ornament admitted but little rivalry. The decora- tion of armor in this period by etched, more rarely by stamped, and very rarely by embossed, designs is often of the highest quality, and received the attention of such distinguished artists as Leonardo, Cellini, Durer, and Holbein. In the second half of the fifteenth century, a new technique of painted enamel came into favor, replacing the translucent enamel ap- plied to relief carvings which had been popular, es- ace Lae pecially in Italy, during the ITALIAN, XVI CENTURY fourteenth and early fif- teenth centuries. The new process consisted of spreading the enamel over a copper base with a spa- tula or brush, without use of cloisons or depressions in the surface; both sides of the plaque were enameled to prevent cracking. Whether the technique origi- nated in Italy or France is still an open question, but its great development unquestionably took place in France in the ateliers of Limoges. Another form of enameling popular in the sixteenth century was that of encrusted enamel, in which metal objects in IgI THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the round or in high relief were coated with enamel; the process was much used by jewelers. The origin of painted enamel may perhaps be found in the ateliers of the glass painters. The technique of enamel painting on glass was known and practised in the late Gothic period, but not so extensively as in the sixteenth century, when painting played a part of ever-increasing prominence in the production of stained-glass windows, as the earlier mosaic type gradually lost favor. With this change in technique the design became more pictorial, and the craft entered on a long decline. In the making of glass ves- sels (fig. 98) Venice held a pre- eminent position, and her prod- ucts were widely exported over Europe. France, spammer Germany produced glass in the FIG. g8. GLASS GOBLET Panaigcance period, but could VENETIAN ABOUT 1500 not equal the finer Venetian wares. Painting under glass, a development of the gilt-glass technique, was prac- tised in the Renaissance, not only for small pendants but occasionally for panels of considerable size. The art of carving rock crystal (fig. 99) for beads and other objects, such as cups, ewers, and plaques, was carried to perfection by the Italians in the six- teenth century. Crystals were objects of great luxury, as the material was difficult to obtain in large, clear pieces. Amber was also highly esteemed by the Renaissance craftsmen. 192 RENAISSANCE ART The ceramic wares of the Renaissance represent a great advance over mediaeval productions. The char- acteristic Italian ware is known as majolica; it is an earthenware covered by a thin coating of opaque, stanniferous enamel. The productions of the nu- merous Italian ceramic centers may be divided into two classes: utilitarian, such as pharmacy pots; and decorative, comprising ornamental pieces known as piatti di pompa for the walls and_ sideboards. The painted decoration ot fifteenth-century Italian majolica is some- what naive in spirit, but highly effective as deco- tations 1) Lhe-character of the ornament chang- ed with the sixteenth century, when increased technical facility and the FIG. 99. CRYSTAL PLAQUE : BY GIOVANNI BERNARDI luxurious taste of the DA CASTEL BOLOGNESE High Renaissance led to the imitation of pictorial models and the subordina- tion of formal ornament. It was also in this period that the Medici factory at Florence, between 1574 and 1587, made the earliest known European por- celain (fig. 109). France produced two important ceramic wares in the sixteenth century, the Palissy and the Henrt II, also called Saint-Porchaire (fig. go). These wares have been described on page 159. The preéminence of the Italian looms, which had held first place in Europe during the Middle Ages in the production of silk fabrics, was maintained throughout the Renaissance. Extraordinary skill is 93 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING characteristic of the finest Renaissance embroider- ies; ‘“needle-painting” is an apt description. After the middle of the sixteenth century, ecclesiastical embroidery declinedin importance; on the other hand, secular patronage increased. The history of lace begins with the sixteenth century, both Flanders and Italy claiming priority. At first the leadership rested with Italy, but in the seventeenth century France closely rivaled the Venetian fabrics. In the actual production of tapestries, Italy played an in- conspicuous part in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, but the success of Raphael’s cartoons for the Acts of the Apostles, first woven in 1515-18 at Brus- sels, the great center of tapestry-weaving, helped to bring about that revolution in taste which sub- stituted, to the detriment of the art, pictorial models for the decorative design of the Gothic weavers. Greatly superior to these “woven pictures” are the magnificent Flemish tapestries in the transitional Gothic-Renaissance style, dating from the close of the fifteenth and the early sixteenth century, a period which has appropriately been called the Golden Age of tapestry-weaving. ”» 194 CHAPTER II GALLERY F 8 Upon entering Gallery F 8, we first observe the stained glass, which comes from the ancient Abbey of Flavigny in eastern France. Two of the windows are completely filled by large compositions which represent in one instance the Deluge, and in the other, Moses and the Law.' In the remaining windows are four medallions of the Evangelists, presumably from windows of clear glass leaded in diaper patterns. The two large windows bear the dates 1531 and 1532; they and the medallions were made to the order of Wary de Lucy, the twenty-first Prior of Flavigny, and are in all probability by Valentin Bousch, cele- brated for his work in the cathedral at Metz. Re- naissance glass is seen at its best in these Flavigny windows. The coloring is brilliant but not garish; a liberal use of yellow with silvery brown and gray enhances the effect of the masses of ruby, sapphire, and emerald, so that these colors glow like jewels in settings of platinum and gold. Although more pictorial in character than early Gothic glass, the designer has kept a happy balance between the imitation of nature and the conventions essential to 1A Crucifixion, of the same dimensions and from the same set, is now in a private collection in New York. 195 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING good mural decoration. Furthermore, the leading is still expressive of the design and not, as it soon be- came, merely functional—hardly more than a means of holding the panes of glass together. Exhibited in the floor-cases, A and D, with occa- sional pieces in Cases B and C, is a remarkable col- lection of carvings in rock crystal, that precious, ice- like material so highly prized in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, not only for its beauty and rarity but also because it was supposed to have certain magical properties. Here are vases, cups, candle- sticks, a large platter, an altar-cross, and other ob- jects, mainly Italian in workmanship and dating from the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Elaborate mounts of gold or silver, often enriched with enamel and gems, are characteristic of these crystals, which were deemed worthy to serve as pres- ents between princes. One of the greatest rarities in. the collection is a signed work, an oval plaque repre- senting a battle scene (Case D) by the most famous crystal carver of the sixteenth century, Giovanni Ber- nardi da Castel Bolognese (fig. gg) Assigned to the same artist is the handsome pax (Case C) with a scene of the Crucifixion engraved on a rectangular crystal plaque. In Case B is a Spanish shrine com- posed of a jeweled base supporting an octagonal piece of crystal, which encloses a Crucifixion group wrought in gold and enamel; another Spanish piece in this case is a small portable reliquary of rock crys- tal and enameled gold, representing Christ bound to the column, which is said to have come from the treasury of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compos- tella. A second signed work in the collection is a crystal shrine enriched with gold and enamel (Case 196 GALLERY F 8 A) by the Fleming, Adam van Vianen (fig. 100). The magnificent ewer (Case D), engraved with scenes from the life of Apollo, is probably the work of the Sarachi brothers, crystal carvers of Milan, who made for the Duchess of Savoy the splendid casket now in the Escurial; Giovanni Battista Croce, the goldsmith who col- laborated with the Sarachi on this occasion, may well be the author of the satyr’s head in enameled gold which forms part of the handle of the Morgan ewer. Exquisite in design as in workmanship 1s a little crystal casket in Case C, dating from the early years of the - six teenth century. Two fantastic vases in the form of winged monsters, in Case D, deserve a word in passing as characteris- tic Late Renaissance examples. In the same case are several fine pieces of amber, a favorite ma- — FIG. 100. CRYSTAL terial with the German artificer Bah aie beeuer ta . A VAN VIANEN in precious materials. One of the most important is a late sixteenth-century shell- shaped cup within which is a little figure of a sleep- ing amorino; it is supported by a stem of wrought gold representing the Tree of Good and Evil; this piece was at one time in the Farnese Collection. At the north end of the gallery are two wall-cases (E and F) containing carvings in boxwood and hone- stone. With few exceptions these rare objects, com- prising rosary beads, small shrines, caskets, mirror- ae THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING frames, statuettes, plaques, and portrait medallions, are of Flemish or German origin, and date prin- cipally from the sixteenth century. The astonish- ing skill which the northern artist lavished on these tiny sculptures is perhaps best exemplified in the beads (used as terminals to hang at the ends of rosaries) which, when opened, reveal scenes from the Life and Passion of Christ, carved with incredible, microscopic fineness. During the late fifteenth and the early sixteenth century, Flanders excelled in the production of these “prayer-nuts”’ or “pater nosters”’ of which several are in the collection. Small shrines (fig. 101) in diptych or triptych form were also adorned with miniature carvings; a notable example is the Flemish diptych, once owned by Queen Christina of Spain, representing the Nativity and the Mass of Saint Gregory. Other relief carvings in boxwood include a French sixteenth-century mirror-frame of elaborate design, probably derived from the work of the Frisian painter known in France as Jean Vredeman de Vriese; a small German casket with emblematic subjects of a masonic character; and several German panels of the sixteenth century with legendary or genre subjects, among which may be noted a long, narrow panel with a battle scene, another depicting Venus and Vulcan, and a portrait panel of Ludwig Raab of Ulm, signed A. H. B. There are also several por- trait medallions in boxwood and honestone, which illustrate the admirable skill of the German carver in this field of sculpture. We may note the boxwood medallion, dated 1538, of Barbara Reihingin, by Hans Kels von Kaufbeuren, and the medallion in honestone of Hieronymus Holtzschuler by Peter Fl6tner. The 198 GALLERY F 8 skill displayed in the composition and modeling of these miniature portraits is of high order. Boxwood was also much used in Germany for sculpture in the round. Highly polished and ranging in color from ruddy gold to deep brown, these carv- ings take the place, in a a way, of the small | bronzes so popular in Renaissance Italy. One of the most striking pieces in the Morgan Collection, which in- cludes a representative group of these boxwood sculptures in the round, is a representation of Death as a skeleton rid- ing astride a sorry nag (Case E). Death wasa favorite subject with the sixteenth-century Ger- Manmeeartist, Tecall,’ for -example, Holbein’s de- signs for the Dance of FIG. IOI. BOXWOOD SHRINE Death. In the spirit of FLEMISH, EARLY XVI these famous woodcuts Be sas is the rosary, in Case I, composed of six ivory beads —or rather, oval plaques—each of which is carved on one face to represent a man or a woman while on the opposite side 1s the grim ““Sunderer of Societies.”’ _A single terminal bead of this type, composed of a “man, a woman, and a skeleton, is shown in the same Gase! Two large honestone reliefs, exhibited on the wall ne THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING near Case G, are pieces of notable importance. By an anonymous German sculptor of the sixteenth century is the panel with scenes from the martyrdom of Saint John the Baptist. In the foreground, the executioner hands the head to Salome; in the back- ground other incidents are depicted in an ornate architectural setting of Re- naissance) character ausne complication of the design, accentuated by the gilding of details, is a fault to which the German sculptor of this pe- riod was prone. Of greater artistic interest is the large panel by Hans Dauer or Daucher, signed with the in- itials Fl, D.ands datecary 22, of the Triumph of Charles V (fig. 103). Attended by al- lied sovereigns and by the Empress with the ladies of her court, the Emperor rides across a bridge upon which a triumphal arch is erected. The relief shows the exquisite delicacy of execution for which the artist is renowned, and in the careful rendering of the de- tails of costume and accessories 1s a picturesque record of the pageantry in which the Renaissance delighted. By the same artist, although after a de- sign by Direr, is the small honestone plaque (Case F) of a nude woman seen from the back. On the opposite side of the doorway are two at- tractive Italian reliefs in marble. One, a Lombard sculpture of the late fifteenth century recalling the 200 FIG. 102. CHALICE GERMAN, 160g GALLERY F 8 style of Mantegazza, represents with an abundance of pictorial detail the Adoration of the Magi. The subject of the other is Eurydice; this graceful female figure, carved practically in the round, is perhaps by Antonio Lombardo, or possibly by Il Mosca, another sculptor of the Venetian school. Between Cases E and F stands a mutilated but impressive FIG. 103. TRIUMPH OF CHARLES V BY HANS DAUER, 1§22 terracotta from the workshop of Verrocchio, a kneel- ing figure of the Magdalen. Over-decoration is a not uncommon trait in the work of the German craftsman. This criticism cer- tainly applies to the gem-studded chalice with the arms of Wolf-Metternich, dated 1609, which 1s shown in the nearby pedestal-case (fig. 102). It is only fair to remember, however, that this chalice was designed to be seen not in a museum case but in the light of candles flickering on an altar. Then, held high in the hands of the priest, the sacred vessel, blazing with jewels and the crisp sparkle of golden tracery, would have seemed itself a living thing, glorifying the miracle it enshrined. 201 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING The fashion for jewelry in the Renaissance was different from our own in several respects. In the first place, jewelry was worn as conspicuously and often as lavishly by men as by women. Secondly, the Renaissance made comparatively little use of the diamond. When it was employed, the stone was simply cut, and not over-faceted into that modern scintillating abomination which has contributed more than any other cause to the decline of the jewel- er’s art. In Renaissance jewelry, the exquisite craft of the metalworker and enameler is never subordi- nated to the gem; the latter is frequently only a secondary feature of the design. Thirdly, since jew- elry meant something more than mere sparkle to the Renaissance artificer and his client, the scale is often larger than is considered in “good taste” to- day. This larger scale permitted the goldsmith to rival the sculptor in miniature work which often achieved plastic beauty of great distinction. Further- more, it may be observed that jewelry of this kind was admirably in keeping with the sumptuous cos- tumes affected by both sexes. Indeed, if we would do justice to Renaissance jewelry, it is essential to think of it not as museum specimens, but as the ac- cessories of splendid dress. Cases B and C contain most of the Renaissance jewels in the Morgan Collection. By jewels, it may be remarked incidentally, is meant not only jewelry in the sense of personal ornaments, such as pendants, rings, and necklaces, but other small objects of a precious character, ecclesiastical as well as secular. The pendants form a numerous group. They are mainly Italian and of the sixteenth century. A popular type in the Late Renaissance was the 202 GALLERY F 8 pendant in animal form; note, for example, in Case B the swan composed of a large baroque pearl, and the little blue monkey of enameled gold. The mer- maid was also a favorite motive; a quaint example is in Case C (fig. 104). Perhaps the strangest jewel in the collection—surely the rarest—is a large pendant of ambergris and enameled gold in the form of a negress (Case C). When worn, the heat of the wearer’s body would cause the ambergris to give forth an agreeable odor. Many of the most beautiful pendants— exquisitely wrought in gold, to which pearls and precious stones add a further magnificence—are purely formal in design. The in- tricate “lantern jewel” of Ger- man workmanship in Case B is a masterpiece of this kind. Ital- lanate in character but French in origin is the superb jewel (Case C) FIG. 104. JEWEL in the form of a rectangular eros & ° XVI CENTURY plaque of gold, encrusted with enamel and studded with gems, which represents Prudence with the mirror symbolic of reflection and the serpent typifying wisdom; the mirror is ingen. iously fashioned from a single, square-cut diamond (fig. 105). Other pendent jewels illustrated in the col- lection include portrait medallions in carved shell or in gold and enamel (note in Case C the portrait of Charles V, attributed to Leone Leoni [fig. 93]); min- lature paintings under crystal; crosses in gold and enamel; and small reliquaries in various forms. With these pendants may be mentioned the badges of the 203 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Orders of the Annunziata and of Saint Michel, and the golden chain of the Order of Grace made about 1600 for Christian II of Saxony. It is impossible in the brief space available to de- scribe every object in these crowded treasure cases. It must suffice merely to mention the wax portraits, the little caskets in crystal and verre eglomisé, the seals and rings, the rosary-beads in enameled gold, and such oddities as the statuette composed of many-colored mar- bles, and the beautifully enam- eled trictrac board (Case C) which is believed to have be- longed to Mary, Queen of Scots. Mention has already been made of the crystal pax (Case C) by Giovanni Bernardi da Castel Bolognese. Not less beautiful is the remarkable silver-gilt pax (Case B), with the relief of the Flagellation in gold upon a painted enamel background, at- tributed to Filarete, or with greater probability, to Moderno. This pax (fig. 106) was made for Cardinal Giovanni Borgia (died 1502), the Archbishop of Monreale, and came from the Cathedral of Tarazona, near Borja, the original home of the Borgias. A third pax (fig. 97) of signal importance (Case C) is of silver- gilt, richly ornamented on the back as well as the front with cameos carved with scenes from the life of Our Lord, enframing a niello plaque, somewhat earlier in date, representing the Adoration of the Magi. Less sumptuous in effect but excellent ex- amples of their kind are two paxes in Case B; one 204 FIG. I10$. PRUDENCE FRENCH) XVi CENTURY GALLERY uF 5 with a painting under glass of the Assumption of the Virgin, the other with the Pieta in painted enamel. A finer example of painting under glass is the trip- tych in Case C; the enameled silver-gilt frame is particularly well designed. With these ecclesiastical “jewels”’ must be mentioned the reliquary in Case B which belonged to Cardinal, later dab Albert of Austria. In the center is a large sapphire engraved with the Crucifixion; this is a rare Byzantine gem of the eleventh or twelfth century. Above it is a mediaeval carv- ing in amethyst, represent- ing the head of the Savior. The small gold cross, sur- mounting the reliquary, is attributed to the eleventh or twelfth century. According to tradition these three pre- cious objects came from the be OA dt iss treasury of the Cathedral of MADE FOR CARDINAL Oviedo in Spain. The set- Gavia Ak ewe te: ting is a rather tawdry Spanish work in silver-gilt of the early seventeenth century, except for the foot which was probably added to the piece in Flanders. The most famous goldsmith of the Renaissance is the incomparable, swashbuckling genius, Benvenuto Cellini. Whether or not the splendid jasper cup (fig. 92), exhibited on a pedestal between Cases C and D, may be accepted as the work of Cellini’s own hand is perhaps a question; but in any case it is un- mistakably in his style and a masterpiece of excep- tional beauty, notable for the skill with which the 205 THE PIERPONT MOKGAN WING elaborate gold mounts, enameled and set with gems and pearls, have been designed to enhance the effec- tiveness of the precious material from which the bowl is fashioned. If the visitor will now return to the center of the gallery, where a polychromed terracotta model for a fountain by Giovanni Bologna occupies a pedestal case, he will find opposite him against the west wall a French Renaissance chest above which are a marble frieze in the style of Tullio Lombardo, an embroidered altar frontal, and a large armorial tondo in glazed terracotta by Giovanni della Robbia, the nephew ot Andrea, whose gracious style, although in a work- shop production, is exemplified in the charming relief of the Virgin in Adoration, shown nearby. On either side of the tondo hang small tapestries forming a set of six with scenes from the life of Christ, which were woven in Alsace between 1592 and 1600 from cartoons after Schongauer, Durer, and his school. We come now to the exhibits, mainly of metalwork, shown in the wall-cases. Portuguese art is so scantily represented outside the land in which it was produced that its extent and artistic importance are not sufficiently appreciated by the general public. Nevertheless, the arts flourished in the little kingdom, especially in the period of na- tional expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, when from the Portuguese possessions in South America, Africa, and Asia flowed a dazzling stream of wealth. Masterpieces of goldsmiths’ work in Portugal in the opulent days of the sixteenth cen- tury are the four large dishes of silver-gilt,? exhibited in Case G. Elaborately chased in high relief with 2A fifth is exhibited in Gallery F 9. . 206 GALLERY F 8 such subjects as the story of Samson and Delilah (fig. 107) or of Judith and Holofernes, these magnifi- cent pieces are among the finest examples of Renais- sance metalwork in the collection. In the same case are several necklaces and bracelets of gold filigree, enriched with enamel, typical productions of the skilled Moorish artificers of Spain in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The prosperity of Spain in FIG. 107. SILVER-GILT DISH PORTUGUESE, XVI CENTURY the sixteenth century is reflected in the sumptuous pair of stirrups decorated with cloisonné and champ- levé enamels; but for beauty of form and exquisite decoration in the taste of the High Renaissance none of the metalwork in this case is superior to the gilt- bronze ewer shaped by some Venetian craftsman of the sixteenth century. Conspicuous in Case H are two richly ornamented German clocks in gilt-bronze of the sixteenth cen- tury. One is probably the work of an unidentified Augsburg master; the other is assigned to Andreas 207 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Muller of Tristen. Two other German Renaissance clocks will be found in Case M. Returning to Case H, two stoneware jugs with chased and parcel-gilt silver mounts are notable specimens of a type of vessel extremely popular in Elizabethan England. One has the London hall- mark of 1577; the other may be dated in the last quarter of the sixteenth century; the jugs were prob- ably imported from Germany. Three tall silver-gilt tankards are characteristic examples of the dextrous work of the German craftsman in the sixteenth cen- tury. Drinking-vessels 1n a great variety of forms constitute perhaps the principal productions of the Renaissance goldsmith of the north. A popular type is the double cup, of which a good example is shown in Case H. In this case is also a tabernacle door in copper-gilt by Pietro Paulo Romano, an Italian sculp- tor of the Late Renaissance. Ivories and small bronzes compose most of the ex- hibits in Case I. Although ivory was not so popular a material for sculpture in the sixteenth century as in the Gothic period (see page 18g), it was not allowed to fall completely into disuse. Statuettes were still carved in this beautiful substance, as we may note in the engaging little figure of Saint Mary Magdalen, a typical work of French sculpture in the early six- teenth century. Other specimens in this case show the use of ivory for portrait medallions, rosary beads, and for the sheaths and handles of knives. The bronzes are few in number but of fine quality. To the school of Donatello is assigned the earliest of these sculptures, a plaque in low relief representing the Flagellation. The Venetian sculptors of the High Renaissance were accomplished workers in 208 GALLERY FE 8 bronze. A characteristic example of this school is the circular plaque by Alessandro Leopardi, repre- senting Elijah in the fiery chariot; extremely effec- tive in producing a rich play of light and shade are the variations in surface texture and the skilful com- FIG. 108. CABINET, STYLE OF SAMBIN FRENCH, XVI CENTURY bination of low and high relief. Also Venetian of the sixteenth century are a bronze door-knocker in the form of two marine deities, and a candlestick inlaid with silver in designs inspired by the metalwork of the Near East, a fashion growing out of the com- mercial relations of Venice with the Orient. 209 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Flanked by two French cabinets of elaborate Re- Naissance design, one in the style of Sambin, the other in the style of Ducerceau, the next wall-case, J, presents a group of eight examples of the Venetian blue and white painted enamels of the late fifteenth or sixteenth century, with a characteristic enrich- ment in gold; the collection comprises ewers, covered cups, dishes, and reliquaries. Similar in decoration, although less elaborately pat- terned, are the examplesugs Venetian white glass exhibited in this case. Three remarkable examples of the rare enameled blue glass made at Venice to- ward the close of the fifteenth century and in the early ome teenth are shown in a pedestal case between Cases L and M. In beauty of form and orna- mentation, and in clearness of FIG. 109. EWER the glass, the Venetian produc- eter ee See) tions are superior to any manu- factured elsewhere in Europe at this time. Italy may also claim priority in the manufacture of por- celains. The earliest known European porcelain of which examples have survived to us was made at Florence between 1574 and 1587 under the patronage of Francesco I de’ Medici. Of this rare Medici por- celain, of which hardly more than thirty pieces are known, the two ewers decorated with arabesque designs in blue on a white ground, exhibited in Case J, are characteristic specimens (fig. 109). The cases along the window wall continue the collection of metalwork. The art of the Spanish 210 GALLERY F 8 goldsmith is exemplified by two magnificent pieces in Case K. One is a massive rose-water dish, origi- nally accompanied by a ewer, of silver-gilt decorated with a bold repoussé design of foliated scrolls, masks, and cartouches, and with small applied panels of enameled arabesques. In the raised center is an enameled shield with the arms of Castile, Leon, and France. This fine dish dates from the early years of the seventeenth century. [he other piece 1s a chal- ice of silver-gilt, ornamented with Y-shaped applied panels of enamel in delicate designs, which bears the Makers name, LVIS, and was made, probably at Cordova, in the second half of the sixteenth cen- tury. Two large Nuremberg double cups, although of the late sixteenth century, retain Gothic characteris- tics, especially noticeable in the crisply curling foliage of the stems (fig. 110). The cups fit over each Betemateticeupeand, thus joined... av neurviiier were placed as an ornament on the THE ELDER buffet or sideboard when not in ac- NUREMBERG tual usceelhe banqueting rooms =~ ~~ of the German and Netherlandish merchant princes and of the numerous trade guilds and other asso- ciations which abounded in these northern lands ‘must have presented a brave appearance when decked forth not only with the ordinary standing cups which served for the “business at hand” but also with prize cups and other ornamental vessels 211 BiGwe! Ole OBL THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING of elaborate and often fantastic design. An exam- ple of the latter type is the covered cup in the torm of a globe upheld by a Satyr or Pan, and sur- mounted by a little figure of Neptune. This curious cup, which was at one time in the famous “‘Green Vaults” at Dresden, is by Urban Schneeweiss of Dresden, a deft craftsman who worked in the sec- ond half of the sixteenth century. Shown in the same case is an as- tronomical globe made at Vienna in 1579; it is an admirable exam- ple of the elaborately ornamented astronomical instruments of the Renaissance. With just a brief mention of the delightful covered cup supported by three kneeling jesters, which was presented, probably by a certain Master An- thony, to the fishing club at In- golstadt on the Danube (fig. 113), we must pass on to Case L. Here are three remarkable ex- FIG. I1I.. NIELLO . amples’ of thesomialien( + salen CUP, AUGSBURG : okt eee nut, conch, and nautilus shell cups for which the Renaissance crafts- man of the north had a decided partiality. The two shell cups date from the second half of the sixteenth century. The earliest is a conch shell banded with silver-gilt strips studded with Roman denarii. Somewhat later is the nautilus cup, with a stem formed by a figure of Hercules and with dolphins and sea monsters applied to the foot; this cup is the work of Caspar Bendel of Breslau, who 212 PEG ae Po. COVERED FIG. D3: COVERED CUP, STYLE OF CUP, GERMAN HANS(?) JAM- XVI CENTURY NITZER, NUREMBERG ABOUT 1580 FIG. 114. CASKET AUGSBURG, XVI CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING flourished between 1578 and 1596. To the end of the sixteenth or early seventeenth century may be assigned a cocoanut-shell cup carved with biblical scenes and richly mounted in silver-gilt. Ostrich eggs were also used for these display pieces, and a fine seventeenth-century example of this type as well as other nautilus and shell cups will be found in Gallery F 9. Two of the most magnificent covered cups in the collection are shown with the shell cups in Case L. One is a tall cup, with a fanciful vase-shaped stem, richly repoussé with small figures, bosses, masks, and other decorative motives; on the cover is represented a stag hunt. This beautifully proportioned cup was wrought at Nuremberg about 1550 by the master craftsman, Jacob Frohlich. In the style of Hans (?) Jamnitzer of Nuremberg, dating about 1580, is a: second elaborately ornamented cup (fig. 112). The cylindrical body, lobed at the top, with six bosses at the junction with the stem, is decorated with scenes in low relief of classical subjects; the cover is sur- mounted by a tiny statuette of Jupiter grasping a thunderbolt. A characteristic product of the Augs- burg goldsmiths is the copper-gilt casket (fig. 114), ornamented with scenes of the Passion and figures of saints wrought in silver. Another Augsburg work of the sixteenth century is the acorn-shaped covered cup (fig. 111), decorated with arabesques in niello on silver in the manner of Peter Flétner, and supported by a stem in the form of a tree-trunk carried on the back of an old peasant woman. In Case K we noted two large double cups which are reminiscent in style of Gothic metalwork. Quite different in character is the double cup in Case M, shown with the cups separated; in this late sixteenth- 214 GALLERY F 8 century German piece the ornamentation is thor- oughly in the style of the belated northern Renais- sance, abounding with cherub heads, cupids standing on dolphins and scallop shells, terminal figures, strap- work, arabesques, and fleurs-de-lis. Similar in style is the tall standing cup with cover, made by Eber- wein Kossmann of Nuremberg about 1575. The two German clocks exhibited in this case are re- markable examples of the elaborately ornamented timepieces marking the hours, months, saints’ days, lunar months, years, and courses of heavenly bodies, which must have been among the most precious pos- sessions of the Renaissance amateur. The decora- tion on the dome of one of these clocks is after a print by Aldegrever; that of the base, after Beham. Not all the exhibits in this case are German, however, as Italian goldsmiths are responsible for the beautifully engraved paten, or salver, from the Abbey of Feren- tino, and for the six little angels of enameled gold (although for the latter a Spanish origin is not out of the question). The metalwork collection is con- tinued in the next gallery. 218 Pekan oC oH A RL eraverL +t ee eeN Dea RY, hua BP TIGRS INTRODUCTION In the following chapters, which deal with the dec- orative arts of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, a complete survey of European art in this period has not been attempted. Since the arts of western Europe, at least in their main tendencies, followed the lead of France at this time, it has seemed wiser to utilize the available space in giving a sum- mary, as complete as possible, of the development of French art during these centuries in relation to its cultural and social environment. A further reason for pursuing this course is afforded by the circumstance that with few exceptions the exhibits in the galleries to be described hereafter are of French origin. To understand the development of the arts, par- ticularly of the industrial arts, during the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries, it 1s necessary to consider to some extent the enormous political and Social changes then taking place in Europe. The events that shifted the trading centers from the Adriatic and the mouth of the Rhine to the Atlantic seaboard play as great a part in the history of furni- ture, for instance, as the inventive genius of any or all of the great craftsmen of the Louvre and of the Gobelins. It is useless, therefore, to try to under- 219 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING stand the work of the seventeenth-century craftsmen, whether made for the French court in all its splendor or for the edification of the worthy dourgeoisie, unless we know something of the part Louis XIV was play- ing in Europe or of the social circumstances which caused the man of humbler position to want the things he did. When mediaeval culture gave place to humanism and its attendant revival of interest in classical forms of artistic expression, the artists of the north turned more and more to Italy for their inspiration. By the middle of the sixteenth century, Italy had be- come the acknowledged center of the artistic world, although it had now lost its political independence. In the second half of the sixteenth century, Venice and Genoa were the only independent common- wealths left; the rest of the country, either directly or indirectly, was under the domination of Spain. That Italy maintained its primacy in the arts so long under these conditions was due partly to the con- tinuing momentum of the Renaissance movement, partly to a new source of patronage. The Counter- Reformation and the support of Spain had reéstab- lished the prestige of the Papacy. Its official recognition of the Society of Jesus in 1540 marked the beginning of a movement to develop the worldly power and importance of the Church by every pos- sible means, including a liberal support of the arts. For several decades prior to 1606, when Venice finally fell under the control of Paul V, the intellectual and artistic life of Italy was centered in Rome. But the rule of the Vatican, under the domination of a foreign power—superficial and extremely reactionary in spirit—was fundamentally inimical to progressive 220 FRENCH ART, XVII CENTURY social and artistic life, and the leadership passed inevitably into other hands. With the annihilation of the Spanish Armada in 1588 the Spanish Hapsburg mastery of western Europe came to an end. Over-expansion, the loss of naval supremacy, and the defection of the Low Countries had by this time spelt the economic ruin of Spain. The expulsion in 1610 of the Christianized Moors, who formed the backbone of her industrial population, left the Spaniards, not naturally an in- dustrial people, commercially impotent. By the end of the seventeenth century Spain had become merely the political plaything of France and Austria. In central Europe the Empire fell to pieces with the abdication of Charles V. Germany, split by the Protestant Revolution, was a prey to the weakness inherent in an agglomeration of semi-independent, badly organized principalities. The drain of religious war, the shifting of the trade centers westward, and the ruin of the great south German banking houses put an end to the economic power of the Rhine valley. For similar reasons the Hanseatic League had also fallen into a decline, while in Hapsburg Austria a period of anarchy was followed by the disasters of the Thirty Years’ War. Only after the Turks were finally driven from Hungary at the end of the century was the new Austria-Hungary able to play an important part in western Europe. In the north, however, the end of the sixteenth century saw the birth of two new maritime powers. _ The repressive policy of Spain, after much horrible warfare, resulted in 1579 in the Union of Utrecht, by which Holland, under the leadership of the princes of Orange, declared herself separated from Spain and 221 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the Catholic Low Countries. Owing to their mari- time development, the United Netherlands secured for themselves the commercial birthright that had long been the possession of the great mediaeval cities of Bruges and Ghent. As the center of Protestant- ism and of overseas commerce, the Dutch nation was already during the first half of the seventeenth century an important factor in European politics. Under the firm hand of her Tudor monarchs, Eng- land had enjoyed the benefits of almost a century of internal peace. Cut off from Rome, and saved from Spanish domination and the embroilments of conti- nental politics by wise statesmanship and a fortunate geographical position, she was laying the founda- tions for future world power. Her merchant ad- venturers of the late sixteenth century had already entered into keen competition with the Dutch for the mastery of the seas, and were turning the popular imagination toward the possibilities of wealth and power beyond the ocean. The rapid development of the arts and letters and of a national culture which had started so splendidly with the Elizabethan Re- naissance was checked, however, and overshadowed during most of the seventeenth century by the great constitutional struggle between King and Parliament. This prevented the nation from playing more than a secondary part in the affairs of western Europe until the accession of William of Orange ended the mari- time struggle with Holland and nullified the political influence of France over the English crown. Of most immediate import to western Europe, how- ever, was the social and political reorganization of France begun by Henri IV and his able minister, Sully, after the anarchy of the religious wars of the 222 PRENCH ART, XVIE CENTURY League. Religious toleration, economic reform, and the encouragement of commerce were accompanied by systematic efforts to revive the arts, not merely by indirect means, but also by royal patronage and the protection of artists and craftsmen, who were lodged at royal expense in the Louvre. The assas- sination of Henri IV in } 1610 put an end, tempo- rarily, to the prosecution of this far-sighted policy, but fourteen years later the work was again un- dertaken by Richelieu. Under the guidance of the great Cardinal and of his astute successor, Ma- zarin, not only was France secured from for- eign interference, but the French king also became the absolute and unques- tioned master of his sub- FIG. IIS. ARM-CHATR gects. On the death of LOUIS XIV PERIOD Mazarin in 1661, Louis XIV himself assumed the reins of government, and with the aid of his famous minister, Colbert, under- took to carry out the whole of the program intro- duced by his grandfather. With the political foundation already laid, he was so far successful that by the last quarter of the seventeenth century the court of Versailles was the center of European society, and the Sun King the most powerful individ- ual figure of his time. The fiscal reforms instituted by Colbert had tripled 223 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the income of the government which, in spite of the enormous disbursements of the court, remained sol- vent under his able financial administration. The decade 1680-16go marks the high-water mark of the glory of Louis XIV. Colbert died in 1683, and two years later the country was maimed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which drove large numbers of her most skilled artisans out of the country, to the great enrichment of England and Holland. The thirty years that followed, though the outward gran- deur largely remained, constituted a period of decline and transition, the characteristics of which will be noted later. France, then, was supreme among the nations. The policy of centralization secured her from danger of internal schism, and left all the awakened national en- ergy free for self-development and expression around the person of her king. According to the political philosophy of her rulers it was not fitting that the arts should be an accidental and individual affair, but their regulation and development should be a function of the state with a dual end in view: first, to provide a setting proper to the glory of the head of the state, and secondly, to aid in making that glory permanent through commercial prosperity. Although there are indications of this policy in the sixteenth century, seventeenth-century France was the first to assert this principle on so universal a scale. The political and economic developments which re- sulted in the supremacy of France in the seventeenth century necessarily modified profoundly the social and intellectual life of the people. Early in the century, the engravings of Abraham Bosse show us a comfortable dourgeoisie enjoying the fruits of com- 224 PRE CHART, XVIT CENTURY: merce in a quiet and conventional existence under the religious and civil peace of Henri IV. From this milieu came some of the most powerful figures of the century. The nobility, distracted and impoverished more than the dourgeoisie by the wars of the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, had hardly taken breath before the disturbances of the Fronde gave Mazarin his great opportunity to put an end to their active political importance. The energy thus barred from its customary occupation found outlet in a sort of fashionable intellectualism exemplified by the salon of the Marquise de Rambouillet. The literature through which the new society was to find both its champion and its satirist was domi- nated at first by the Spain of Cervantes, or more ex- actly by the literature which Cervantes satirized. But the influence of the theater soon became para- mount. Starting with the Italian comedy, a per- fected dramatic form was developed with surprising rapidity through the genius of Corneille, Moliére, . and Racine. Almost at the same time the writings of Blaise Pascal, inspired by the philosophical meth- ods of Descartes and by the ascetic religious fervor of the Janssenists, set the standard for modern French prose—a clear, terse, brilliant vehicle in contrast to the profuse and loosely connected style of the previ- ous century. The outstanding figure in the philoso- phy of the seventeenth century is René Descartes, with whom we have the real beginning of scientific reasoning; “I think, therefore I am”’ was the starting point of his search for truth which profoundly influ- enced the development of modern philosophy and science. The writings of Mme. de Sévigné, the Duc de la Rochefoucauld, and St. Evrémond foretell the 226 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING eighteenth-century development of de//es lettres; and, in the pulpit, the weighty periods of Bossuet offer a literary parallel to the pompous funerary monuments of the time. In the theater and in pageantry the age of Louis XIV found its true literary expression. As Henri Havard has pointed out, a love of allegory, pageantry, and self-dramatization is the very essence of the seventeenth-century spirit. The tendency to empha- size type to the exclusion of complex individuali- ties is evident in all of the great dramatic work of the mid-seventeenth century. This goes hand in hand with the poetic tendency to identify great personages with the gods and heroes of classical mythology. From the union of these two ideas sprang the iconog- raphy which identified Louis XIV with the sun god. Apollo, and enabled the great artists of the century to utilize the now familiar classical motives in rep- resenting the achievements of the monarch. This uniform, official art of the Grand Régne did not spring into being at a word. The elements of which it was formed are seen clearly in the work of the first half of the seventeenth century, and the tendency to a single mode of expression was already well defined by the end of the minority of Louis XIV. The native achievements of the sixteenth century offered a fertile soil for new developments; but two great currents of foreign influence, one coming from the Netherlands and the other from Italy, had first to meet, contend, and finally mingle before a new, homogeneous style could emerge. In general, French art ceased to be under more than casual foreign influence by the third quarter of the century—the assimilation of foreign elements was 226 PRENCH ART, XVIJ CENTURY complete. The situation was now reversed, and in Italy, Germany, England, Spain, and to some extent in Holland, French taste became the standard of excellence. In the architecture of the early part of the century, FIG. 116. ARMOIRE FRENCH, ABOUT 1700 Salomon de Brosse continued the indigenous tradition of simple masses, depending for decorative effect on the picturesque outline of steep roofs, on rustication, quoining, and well-spaced fenestration. This serious, Puritanical type well expressed the mood of a people just recovering from the disasters of civil war. Not 227 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING dissimilar in style are the painting of Philippe de Champagne and the monumental sculpture of Bar- thélemy Prieur. If in domestic and civil architecture the native tradition persisted with only slight modi- fications, in ecclesiastical building Italian influence soon became dominant, principally through the work of the Jesuit, Etienne Martel-Ange, an artist of con- siderable ability, under whom hundreds of structures in the Jesuit style sprang up all over France, spread- ing abroad the influence of the Italianate baroque of Vignola. The architecture of this formative period culminated in the work of Francois Mansart; the wing at Blois, built for Gaston of Orléans, brother of Louis XIII, shows the sophistication of the French domestic style under Italian influence—a type char- acterized by bold, simple masses, careful proportion, and a reticent use of the single story order. Sculp- ture also tended to succumb to the influence of the late sixteenth-century Italian school, as may be noted in the work of Pierre Biard, Jacques Sarrazin, and Michel Anguier. If Italian influence predominated in the plastic arts, painting, on the contrary, came more strongly under that of the north. Especially is this true in religious painting and portraiture. In decorative work, Simon Vouet and his pupil, Lesueur, continued the earlier Italianate influence of Fontainebleau. Throughout this period, the influence of the later Bolognese school—mainly by way of Flemish chan- nels—is evident, until finally its murky shadows were banished by the genius of Rubens. The painting of this period culminates in the work of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorraine. The various influences are now fused into a classic style purely French in character. 228 FRENGCHTART, XVIl CENTURY The same mingling of influences may be noted in the minor arts as in the major. Flemish taste long persisted in furniture design; indeed, it satisfied the bourgeoisie throughout probably the major portion of the century. Among the upper classes the influ- ence of Marie de Médicis and the vast collections formed by Richelieu and Mazarin brought into popu- larity the elaborate and sumptuous cabinet-work of Italy. The importation of Italian craftsmen occurred at this time, and a more sophisticated Italian baroque decorat on began to oust or to refine the ruder Franco-Flemish types, as marquetry and low relief tended to displace turned and boldly carved forms. Following Flemish fashions, textiles, and especially tapestry, play a more important part in interior treatment at this period than at any other time. Brussels was the center of the tapestry in- dustry, and it is significant that one of the first acts of Colbert was to give official rating and aid to the weavers of the Gobelins, in the hope of diverting into French hands the income thus accruing to Flanders. The founding of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in 1648 as an official organization of artists working under royal warrant, as distinguished from the Guild of St. Luke, marks the first formal move toward the centralization of the arts under immedi- ate governmental control. The second step, and the most far-reaching in its effects, came in 1662 when Colbert formed at the Gobelins the Manufacture Royale des Meubles de la Couronne. This he placed under the direction of Charles Lebrun, who in the same year became premier peintre du rot. Lebrun, son of a sculptor and a pupil of Vouet, first became prominent through his work for the min- 229 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING ister, Fouquet, at Vaux le Vicomte, where he showed his ability not only as an artist but as an organ- izer of artists and craftsmen in the carrying out of a great decorative scheme. Before Fouquet’s dis- astrous fall, Lebrun had come under the direct patronage of the king at Fontainebleau, and was therefore retained in the royal favor. Although Le- brun’s work, judged by standards of today, 1s cold, pompous, and harsh in color, his manner was absolutely in accord with contemporary taste. His technical mastery and his grasp of the problems of composition and decoration were extraordinary. He was a firm believer in the unity of the arts, and produced designs with astounding facility for the swarm of craftsmen who worked under his direction. No person better equipped could have been found for the leadership of this great consolidation of the arts. The style of Louis XIV must be considered largely his handiwork. Before Paris itself was deserted by Louis XIV in favor of Versailles, an attempt was made to complete the Louvre in a manner worthy of the grandeur of the new king. The celebrated Italian architect and sculptor, Bernini, was called in with great pomp and ceremony to undertake this work; but his designs were not adopted and the famous colonnade of the Louvre was erected from the plans of Claude Per- rault. More than any other single architectural composition, Perrault’s facade of the Louvre with its colossal order expresses the power and majesty of the French king. Francois Blondel, a theorist as well as practitioner, represents the traditions upheld by the Academy of Architecture, founded in 1671; his chief monument is the Porte St. Denis. To the somewhat 230 PRENOH ART, XVII CENTURY commonplace work of Jules Hardouin Mansart suc- ceeded the freer handling of Robert de Cotte, who ushers in the succeeding style with the chapel of Versailles, finished in 1710. Although Mansart was in many ways the greatest figure in the architecture of the period, being-in supreme control of all royal building activities during the creation of Versailles, he was perhaps more truly eminent as an organizer and politician than as an artist. Besides the historical, decorative painting of the school of Lebrun, the second half of the century saw the rise of a splendid school of portraiture. The brilliant court of Versailles offered an unrivaled field to the brush, first of Lebrun’s competitor, Mignard, with his somewhat heavy and superficial elegance, and later of Largilli¢re and Rigaud who interpreted with a keenness of vision, learned from Rubens and Van Dyck, the grave and gorgeous figures of the end of the century. At this period, the art of engraving reached heights of technique hitherto unknown in the works of Robert Nanteuil. His portraits of the notables of the court in the days of greatest splendor are brilliantly sympathetic presentations, instinct with a life and vigor often lacking in the more preten- tious efforts of the painters. The vogue for portraiture extended to sculpture. The busts executed by Antoine Coysevox unite French naturalism with more than a hint of the flamboyant style of Bernini. Decorative sculpture of an allegorical character, designed for the em- bellishment of palaces, gardens, and funerary monu- ments, offered the sculptor of the period his chief occupation. Except on the monumental tombs where a degree of turgid theatricalism was permitted, 231 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the countless gods and goddesses executed by this school display a uniform and unexciting amiability appropriate to courtly decoration and the celebration of the monarchical cult. Francois Girardon, Coy- sevox, Tuby, Le Lorrain, and the two Coustous ex- pended most of their superb skill in the decoration of the galleries and gardens’ at Versailles and, when unemployed by the king himself, in adorning the chateaux of members of the royal family and of the nobility. Pierre Puget, the only French artist who worked outside the court circle, followed the dictates of Italy, thereby giving his work an emotional stress not characteristic of the native school. These architects, painters, and sculptors, great as they were, could never alone have produced the milieu that was Versailles. Lodged in the Louvre and creating the masterpieces of the Gobelins, naturalized Italians and Flemings worked side by side with the heirs of native tradition. Here we find the far-famed ébéniste and marqueteur, Domenico Cucci, and his countryman, Philippe Caffieri, the author of the superb doors of the grands appartements of Versailles; the weavers, Van der Meulen, Jan Jans, and Jean Lefevre, who executed the hangings for the royal palace after cartoons by Lebrun; and,. perhaps most famous of all, André Charles Boulle who, with his sons, produced the magnificent furniture of ebony, tortoise-shell, and bronze, which typifies the decora- tive taste of the century. Together with these mas- ter-craftsmen should be mentioned the designers of ornament, Daniel Marot, Jean Lepautre, and Jean Berain. Lepautre’s work exemplifies the heavy, earlier style of the reign, from which Marot developed 1Designed by the great landscape architect, Lendtre. 232 FIG. 117. MARBLE PORTRAIT BUST PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV FRENCH, XVII CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the light, exuberant foliate forms characteristic of the woodwork of the end of the century. Berain, with the Italian arabesque as his model, created a style of fanciful grotesques well seen in certain tapestry de- signs and in the ornamentation of Boulle furniture. The enormous increase of silver bullion from the mines of South America created a vogue for silver furniture, which is first met with in Spain. The taste invaded France with Anne of Austria and lasted almost through the century. Besides the workers at the Gobelins, Parisian smiths, of whom Claude Ballin is preéminent, were employed in the furnishing of Versailles with tables, guéridons, chairs, and mirror- frames of the precious metal, as well as a prodigious number of candelabra, sconces, and utensils of all kinds. The style of these elaborate creations, recall- ing the heavy, ornate baroque of Lepautre, may be seen in the Gobelins tapestry commemorating a visit of Louis XIV to the manufactory. Unfor- tunately, the silver of this period is now extremely rare. Pressed for money, the king ordered his sub- jects in 1689 and again in 1710 to take their silver ves- sels to the mint, where almost all the splendors of his own palace met the same fate of being melted down. Royal patronage was also extended to crafts not under the direct control of the crown. This was so in the case of the potteries at Rouen, which bene- fited enormously from the disasters which overtook the workers in silver. Under the direction of the Poterats, father and son, a ware of high quality was produced which took the place of the condemned metalwork. Locksmiths and ironworkers, working from the designs of Marot or of the great architects 234 FRENCH ART, XVII CENTURY of the time, also contributed their share toward the splendor of the style. The enormous amount of gril- lage and ornamental ironwork of Versailles alone gave employment to a legion of skilful craftsmen. The briefest account of French art of this period would be incomplete without some specific men- tion of the great chateau at Versailles in which it culminated. Unfortunately space permits the de- scription of only two rooms in all this vast. struc- ture, but these two epitomize the Louis XIV style. They are, first, the Galerie des Glaces, finished about 1682, with its adjoining Salons of War and Peace; and second, the king’s bed-chamber, substantially in the style of 1690-1700. In the Galerie, the ef- forts of Mansart and Lebrun produced an interior singularly successful in its expression of the pomp and elegance emanating from Colbert’s royal policy. The architectural arrangement of dado, order, and barrel-vault, simple enough in itself, is rendered regal and impressive by the use of carved and gilded mouldings and sculpture, and by the vaulted ceiling profusely decorated with paintings commemorating the military exploits of Le Roi Solei/. The magnifi- cence is heightened by a large number of mirrors, which in 1682 represented the very essence of extrav- agance and was well calculated to impress the court with the great resources of the king. In the king’s bed-chamber we see the typical architec- tural arrangement of painted and gilded woodwork, with a dado surmounted by pilasters and cornice, above which is an attic and flat ceiling rather than the usual deep cove or vault. The gold and white is relieved by the color of the paintings over the doors and cornice, and by the fabric covering the walls of 23 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING that portion reserved for the bed, which 1s separated from the rest of the room by a balustrade originally of silver. The bed was accompanied by furniture either of silver or of the Boulle type, with’ square, high-backed chairs, upholstered with rich brocade or velvet and gilded to harmonize with the walls, and by the golden vessels of the king’s service. The ensemble must have been extremely splendid, but pitched in a slightly lighter and higher key than that of the Galerie des Glaces. Outside of France and in accordance with the political situation as it has been outlined above, the arts are characterized during this century not by the rise of national schools but by the appearance of great single figures. In Italy, Lorenzo Bernini, sculptor and architect, became artistic dictator of Rome and almost of Europe. His work typifies the greatest attainments of the free classical spirit inherited from Michelangelo, but at his death, devitalized Italy was too weak to take up the standard or to develop a genius to take his place. Murillo and Velasquez in Spain, Rubens and Van Dyck in Flanders exerted enormous influence on contemporary and subsequent art, but again rather as sources of inspiration for the rising schools of France and England than as founders of national schools. Peter Paul Rubens of Antwerp, uniting the color sense of Venice with the vigorous realism of the north, inaugurated a new era in the art of painting. To him, more than to any other artist, France owes the charm of her eighteenth-century art, and to his teaching transmitted through his pupil, Van Dyck, the great English portrait painters of the following century are indebted for many of 236 PRENCH ART, XVII CENTURY their characteristics. In England, the seventeenth century 1s characterized by slow assimilation of foreign fashions. With the exception of Christopher Wren, the architect whose adaptation of French classic form to English taste is illustrated in St. Paul’s Cathedral and Hampton Court Palace, no single great figure arose, although the efforts of humbler craftsmen to reconcile early tradition with the new foreign fashions often produced work of great charm and beauty. Only in Holland did political and commercial condi tions produce an art which, because of its absorption in the interests and objects of daily life, was popular rather than monarchical in character. The great masters of this realistic school were Rembrandt and Frans Hals; but we owe to Vermeer of Delft and to the host of “little masters” those glimpses of con- temporary life which are so delightful and of such consummate artistry. Dutch commerce with the East led to the importation of objects of Oriental art. These furnished decorative motives for the blue-and-white and polychrome faience of Delft, which became popular throughout Europe. CHAPT Tiat GALLERY F 9 Gallery F g is the first of the series of rooms de- voted principally to French woodwork and furniture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (fig. 118). With few exceptions this material forms part of the Hoentschel Collection, acquired by Mr. Morgan in 1906. The exhibits in Gallery F 9 are mainly of the period of Louis XIV (1643-1715). The custom of covering the walls of a room with a carved and decorated wainscot instead of with tapestries or some other textile fabric became general in France only toward the end of the seventeenth century. In fact, the style of ornament associated with the name of Louis XIV was already well de- veloped before textile wall-hangings were replaced by wood paneling, usually of oak. We find, there- fore, that little of the woodwork in this gallery antedates the last decades of the century. Against the wall to our left, as we enter from Gallery F 8, is a fine example of a double cupboard of this period, an armoire a deux corps (fig. 116). The form of this piece exemplifies a stage of development intermediate between the sixteenth-century double . cabinet and the full-length armoire of the eighteenth century, which has descended to us as the wardrobe. 238 6 d AUATIVD JO MAIA ‘QII “Old @ £3 ae = a THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Note how clearly the essential rectangular structure is emphasized by the vertical and horizontal mould- ings, and relieved by the simple, segmental curves of the hood and of the panel divisions. The elements of the design still retain the architectural qualities of the simpler, sixteenth-century type, yet are modi- fied to form, as it were, a frame for the fine-scale surface decoration appearing on the pilasters and at the head and foot of the panels. The freedom of this decoration, its delicate scale, and the smiling, grape-crowned mask at the top of the hood show that the piece must have been made very near the end of the century. It is a question whether the armoire was originally intended to be painted. It has probably suffered from being painted in the past, though the color of the natural wood is now very fine. Above the cabinet is a characteristic over-door painting of the period in its oak frame, dating per- haps a few years later than the armoire. It should be observed how closely the ornamental motives in the painting correspond to those on the woodwork of the frame, which was itself originally painted. Flanking the cabinet below and encroaching on the west wall are three panels, said to have come from the Bibliothéque Nationale, where they probably formed part of the wainscoting of a small room. That they were originally royal property is indicated by the emblems on the center of two of the panels. The one on the right bears the arms of France, surrounded by the collars of the Orders of St. Michel and of the St. Esprit; and the other, the arms of Navarre, also enclosed by the collars of the royal orders. It will be recalled that Henri IV, the first of the Bourbons, was also King of Navarre. The bold 240 GALLERY F g mouldings and high relief of these panels suggest a marble rather than a wood treatment, and they may originally have been painted to simulate marble. The feeling of the design and the occurrence of mil- itary trophies would indicate a date not earlier than 1680, when Louis XIV was at the height of his mili- tary glory. The panel over the doorway into Gal- lery F 8 was also, it may be presumed, part of a wain- scot, the device of the crossed sceptres in the center indicating a royal provenance. The narrow panel to the left of the doorway, also dating from about 1680, is interesting, aside from the fine quality of its carved decoration, in that it came from the Chateau of Versailles. The dolphin motive with a crown su- perimposed and crossed L’s below probably alludes to the Grand Dauphin, the father of Louis XV. The gilded arm-chair with cane seat and back, a fine example of the ornate state chair of the last quarter of the century, was doubtless made for one of the royal chateaux, to judge from the royal cipher on the rail of the back (fig. 115). The arm-chair in the corner, with its cabriole legs, curved arms, and scroll- top rail, shows the characteristics of the first years of the eighteenth century; it is covered with tapestry of the period. On the wall opposite the windows are two mag- nificent oak doors, which are said to have come from the royal Chateau of Marly. While this provenance is very doubtful, they unquestionably formed part of some royal mansion, since every panel bears either the royal or personal emblem of the sovereign. The doors are almost exactly alike and from their construction were meant to be opened either in full or in part, as the occasion demanded, which suggests 241 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING that they formed part of the decoration of a state anteroom, where they could be flung wide open for a state entry, or just one section used to permit the passing of a courtier or messenger. The delicacy of carving on the panels offers a striking contrast to the bold treatment of the cartouche and amorini at the head. The general character of the work indicates a date not far from 1700. The decoration on the panels recalls the style of Berain, especially the grotesques in the lowest range, where appears again the royal emblem of the crossed sceptres, noted in a previous example. At the north end of this wall will be noticed a door of three panels, evidently belonging to the “Marly” series. The carved architrave over the entrance to the main hall probably formed a part of a porte-cochére of this period; its mask and garland of fruit and flow- ers recall somewhat the manner of Lepautre. The lead masks below were probably part of a garden fountain of the early eighteenth century. Vast for- mal gardens decorated with sculpture and architec- tural features formed part of every fine country house of this period. Fountains and water features were regarded as indispensable Louis XIV spent enormous sums in the attempt to get a proper supply of water for his palace at Versailles. The flower- wreathed medallions of Justice and Power probably formed part of an exterior doorway and in their original condition had undoubtedly been painted. Below these medallions are two interesting carved fragments, both showing characteristics of the early years of the eighteenth century. In front of the door trim are two elaborately carved stone balusters, which are said to have come from the gardens of 242 GALLERY F g Lebrun’s country house at Montmorency; the em- blem of the Sun King, used in compliment to Louis XIV, may be seen between the volutes of the capi- tals. Flanking these are two handsome tapestry- covered chairs of the end of the century. Against the north wall are two arm-chairs of about the same date, one of which has the bowed back popular in the early years of the eighteenth century. Of about this date is a beautiful mirror-frame orna- mented in the style made fashionable by the decora- tions of the wi/-de-beuf at Versailles, completed in 1701. During the first years of the eighteenth cen- tury, it became customary to have at least two mir- rors in a salon, one over the fireplace and the other di- rectly opposite it with a console or side-table below. The table shown here, very fine of its kind, is rather earlier in date than the mirror, and recalls the style of Lepautre. On either side of the mirror are two panels, which show how little ecclesiastical and domestic decoration differed at this time. These panels probably came from some private chapel dedicated to the Sacré Ceur, judging by the central motive of the pierced and flaming heart. The decoration of the background —a network of quatrefoils enclosing a central fleuron —is highly typical of the period. The lion masks above are probably much later in date, but the two wall-brackets below are fine examples of con- temporary carving and gilding. Brackets of this kind were in common use 1n the houses of the time to hold pieces of Oriental porcelain and the curios which it was then fashionable to collect. The frag- mentary panel over the door still retains some of its original gilding and painting, and shows the 243 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING method of decoration which became popular at the turn of the century, when the serious and forbidding masquerons of the seventeenth century began to smile with the spirit of the rococo. In the center of the room is a graceful wooden pedestal or guéridon of the late seventeenth century, supporting a painted terracotta urn of about the same date, probably in- tended for a garden ornament. Placed against the window wall are two chairs which retain their original coverings of cut velvet. They are excellent examples of the simply designed, heavily constructed chair of about 1680. The gilded torchéres, some twenty years later in date, were in- tended to support elaborate, many-branched candle- sticks, instead of the charming little wooden puéti now placed upon them. Above are two Rouen platters (fig. 119) in the rayonnantstyle of the early eighteenth century; they are part of the notable collection of French faience which will be described in connection with Gallery F 17. Under the windows are three cases containing metalwork of the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- ries; this is a continuation of the collection shown in Gallery F 8. The objects in Case A are mainly of German origin. Augsburg and Nuremberg contin- ued to be the principal centers of metalworking until the disasters of the Thirty Years’ War put an end to their prosperity. The majority of the pieces are of the seventeenth century, and show a tendency to coarser and bolder forms of ornament and a more restless type of design than in the previous epoch. The great covered cup in the center of the case is very similar to one shown in Case M, Gallery F 8, but lacks the refinement of line observable in the 244 GALLERY F 9 earlier piece. Historically, the most interesting objects in the case are a bocal of Venetian latticino glass mounted in silver-gilt; and a crystal cup with an elaborately wrought silver base. The portrait on the latter is that of Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire, for whom the cup may have been made; the mounts are by the Nuremberg silversmith, Wolff Christoff Ritter. The mounts of the bocal are also German; the piece is ornamented with a portrait medallion of the Duchess Maria Cathe- rine and surmounted by the horse and column of the house of Brunswick. Several drinking-vessels in the form of animals or of ships in full sail exemplify the taste of the time for quaint conceits. They are the product of that same childish delight in trick novelties which gave the gardens of Versailles its surprise water feat- ures, with which even stately Louis XIV used to delight to drench his guests. One of the finest pieces of German craftsmanship in Case A 1s a sixteenth- century bowl of agate with silver-gilt mounts; the exquisitely wrought ornament presages the best work of the eighteenth-century cise/eur of France. Case B is dominated by an elaborately ornamented ewer and basin of German origin, thoroughly typical of the seventeenth century in its design, which retains little of the fine-scale, low-relief decoration popular in the preceding century. The outer rim 245 FIG. 119. PLATEAU ROUEN, ABOUT 1720-§0 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING of the basin is ornamented with scenes from the Apocrypha and ancient history, such as the ab- duction of Helen of Troy, scenes between Alexander and Darius, and various incidents in the story of Judith and Holofernes; in the center are hunting- scenes. The decoration on the ewer depicts a Roman triumph. On the handle of the ewer a small lion bears a shield of red enamel which is inscribed MATERIAM SUPERABAT opus, the goldsmith thus boasting that his handiwork overccmes the difficul- ties of the material, apparently neglecting any con- sideration as to whether his treatment was suitable either to it or to the object itself. This interest in detail, rather than in design as a whole, is notice- able in a smaller dish of sixteenth-century Por- tuguese workmanship, ornamented with scenes in relief from classical mythology and biblical history; compare with similar dishes in Case G, Gallery F 8 (page 206). A much finer sense of design is evident in a six- teenth-century German mirror-frame (fig. 94) or- namented in low relief with figures of Arithmetic, Geometry, Perspective, and Architecture, and their attendant spirits of Taste and Diligence. A charm- ing casket with decorations in niello, although a Ger- man work of the early seventeenth century, recalls Italian metalwork of the fifteenth century in its restraint and simplicity. The two candlesticks of crystal and gilded bronze are Italian of the eighteenth century, and are closely related in both material and design to the French woodwork shown in this room. Several “animal cups” may be noted. An elaborately decorated shrine of ebony and silver, the work of the Augsburg silversmith, Matheus Wall- 246 GALLERY F 9g baum, frames miniature paintings in gouache, dated 1598, by Anton Mozart. One of the most curious pieces in the collection of metalwork is exhibited in Case C; it represents Diana, goddess of the hunt, mounted on a stag and accompanied by her hounds (fig. 120). As the head of the stag is removable and the body hollow, this lit- tle sculpture, beautifully wrought in silver-gilt, may be classed with the drinking-vessels in animal form; but it has also the character of a mechanical toy, since clockwork me- chanism in the base per- mits the object to move forward of itself. It was probably made at Augs- burg toward the end of the sixteenth century. A nautilus shell cup, ex- hibited in the same case, is mounted with metalwork of unusually fine execution representing Neptune guiding a whale, from whose mouth emerges a tiny figure of Jonah; it is a German work of the seventeenth century. As observed in the description of Case L, Gallery F 8 (page 212), not only such curios as ostrich eggs and nautilus shells were provided with elaborate mounts by the silversmiths of the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- ries but also the hard inner shell of the cocoanut, which in those days must have traveled by a long and devious road from its original home. A covered cup 247 EIGS 12028) DIANA GERMAN, XVI CENTURY THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING in Case B is composed of a cocoanut shell which has been carved in low relief with the armorial bearings of its possessor, a Hungarian noble, whose name, Andreas Balasser, and those of his two wives ap- pear above their respective arms; the mounts were probably made by a silversmith of Prague about the year 1600. Another interesting piece in this case is the curious silver-gilt sauce-boat signed by the maker, Adam van Vianen of Utrecht, and dated 1621. The subject represents Pluto bearing Proser- pine across the river Cyane. The design is particu- larly interesting as it suggests the flowing rococo contours typical of the next century. Nearby are two elaborate pieces of jewelry; one is a German morse of seventeenth-century workmanship; and the other, a decorative plaque, embellished with uncut jewels and enamels. In the same case is a figure of a woman in a voluminous skirt holding a cup above her head. It is a wager cup of sixteenth-century German origin. When the figure was inverted the skirt could be used as a drinking-vessel, the smaller cup revolving on pivots. Both containers were filled with wine, the trick being to drain the larger one without spilling the liquor from the smaller. The large covered cup at the end of the case is also German, probably from Augsburg, and of the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century; in the decoration are figures of the twelve Fathers of Israel. Nuremberg is rep- resented by a goblet of early seventeenth-century workmanship; and the skill of the Milanese enamelers in this period, by a small oval covered cup. 248 Peer NeC H AO ReL Rate es lH ASL E OES AS lao XVII op oN Inu Rex SHEAR LER I] INTRODUCTION In Part V we followed the growth of the monarchi- cal art of Louis XIV to its culmination about 1690. It will be recalled that in the second half of the seventeenth century the political and artistic in- fluence of France was dominant in western Europe. By the end of the century, her political influence— certainly her military prestige—was already on the wane, leaving, however, her social and artistic supremacy unquestioned. The eighteenth century saw this leadership augmented rather than dimin- ished, although the taste that then became estab- lished throughout the civilized world differed both fundamentally and superficially from the classicism of Lebrun. To indicate how the oratorical and ceremonial gave place to the conversational and social in art and literature is to give the only rational background for an understanding and appreciation of this much-maligned period. To do this, it 1s neces- sary, first of all, to look for a few moments at the political, social, and economic changes that were under way at the turn of the century. While England was busy with her internal troubles, Germany exhausted by war, and Austria beating off the Turks and slowly bringing order out of the chaos 251 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING left by the Thirty Years’ War, France had been able to consolidate her position and even to extend her frontiers with little effective opposition. Elated by success, Louis XIV had then undertaken to rule Europe by force of arms, rather than by the power of the new national culture. The combined roles of Apollo and Mars, however, were too great a task for even a Sun King. The haughty dictator of the peace of Nimwegen in 1679 had to accept much less favorable terms 1n 1697 at Ryswick. France lost the Rhine. England, united under the steadfast William of Orange, was taking a firm stand beside rejuve- nated Austria against the high-handed actions of the French. A brief period of peace, and war again broke out, this time to decide whether or not the crown of Spain should come directly under the control of France in the person of the young grandson of Louis XIV. This War of the Spanish Succession, although ending by chance in favor of the French claimant, saw the arms of Louis go down to defeat after de- feat before the English under Marlborough and the Austrians under Eugene of Savoy. France was un- equal to the financial strain of these continuous wars. The treasury was empty, and it seemed as if all the great constructive work of Colbert had been in vain. The war ended in 1713-1714. A year later Louis XIV died, the last twenty years of his life having been marked by almost continuous disaster, both national and personal. In these times the king, largely under the influence of his morganatic wife, Mme. de Maintenon, turned to the consolations of religion, and, on the surface at least, a reign of austerity and gloom dimmed the splendor and luxury of the court. Away from this 252 FIG. 121. TORCHERE FRENCH, ABOUT 1700 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING restraint, a new society was forming. The régime of Colbert had fostered a class of officials and magis- trates originating in the commonalty, who, after the iron hand of their creator relaxed, had taken ad- vantage of the confusion of the times to divert gov- ernment funds to their own pockets. Magnificent hétels began to arise in Paris, where, under the leadership of Orléans, those discontented with the new solemnity of Versailles could lead a less restrained existence and enjoy the wealth and gaiety provided by the new nodlesse of the robe and the tax-farming financiers. In 1715, when Philip of Orléans became regent, the austerities of Versailles were replaced by the tone of this new Parisian society. The gaiety and frivolity so long restrained became the keynote of social life. Beneath this glittering surface, however, the coun- try was in a state of economic chaos. The drain of war and the over-control of commerce had reduced the country to extreme financial straits. The regent, dissolute but by no means a fool, eagerly seized on the scheme for financial regeneration which was pro- posed in 1718 by the Scotchman, John Law. Law’s “system” was basically not unsound, and depended upon the exploitation of the French territory in North America, particularly Louisiana. Under the protection of Orléans, Law undertook the floating of a gigantic stock scheme through a royal bank founded for the purpose. The project was eagerly received and the operation of the system extended to cover practically all the territory under French control. The fever for speculation seized both high and low. A period of extreme inflation followed, and vast fortunes were made, almost overnight. 254 Peoevow ARin FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY Lackeys and noblemen speculated side by side, nar- rowing to easy distance the social chasm between the nobility and the commoner of wealth, and enor- mously increasing the importance of the moneyed so- ciey of Paris. Although colonial expansion had begun in both North America and the trading posts of India, nothing had been accomplished to warrant the wild speculation going on in Paris and in London. The far-sighted began to see this, and liquidated their holdings. The total collapse of Law’s scheme rap- idly followed in spite of all efforts of the government to avért the panic. In both England and France thousands were ruined for the few who were enriched; but, although a period of retrenchment followed, the feverish activity of the times acted as a business stimulus. In spite of continued distress among the agriculturists, the commercial aspects of the country began to show a marked improvement which contin- ued up to the Revolution. The thirst for fortune and the social importance of wealth and the wealthy were greatly emphasized by these economic events. The stateliness of the grand régime, founded primarily on the dignity of birth and family, was being replaced by an era in which ele- gance of deportment and facility of manner were the indices of a rule of luxury and wealth—an order capable of exquisite artistic and intellectual refine- ment and at the same time utter superficiality. In this world of politesse, woman naturally played a much more important part than before, as the arbiter of elegant and graceful social intercourse. She became the center of interest around which the wits of society sparkled, perhaps rather scornfully, in a5 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING a world where everything was permitted but the obvi- ous and the boresome. Following the political events already mentioned, the eighteenth century saw a decided change in the balance of national power. England, from a half hearted ally under the Stuarts, became France’s most implacable enemy, an enemy of increasing strength, who was to destroy her sea-power and cut off her colonies, already weakened by the neglect of the home government. Austria maintained her posi- tion, but as the century passed found a new rival in Brandenburg-Prussia, under the indomitable Freder- ick the Great. Spain, under Bourbon rule, remained a political liability to France. Italy, still divided into numerous principalities, continued to provide spoil for her more powerful neighbors. Holland, occupied with her commerce and in keen competi- tion with England, assumed no significant position in European politics. With the lesson of the War of the Spanish Suc- cession in mind, France had finally laid aside her aggressive policy. Orléans tended toward an alli- ance with England, and his peace-seeking policy was continued by Louis XV under the influence of his minister, Cardinal Fleury. Dynastic complications brought France into the War of the Polish Succession in 1733, and a few years later into the war with Maria Theresa of Austria; but the réle of France in each case was that of a participant, rather than of a single-handed aggressor. Although France never regained, under the ancien régime, her commanding political position of 1660-1680, she remained the social arbiter of Europe. France failed to become the master of Europe, but even her bitterest enemy 256 PpeN Ch “sho FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY followed meekly her artistic leadership. French art, French fashions, French polite letters conquered where the soldiers of France could never penetrate. In the eighteenth century her artistic influence was greater than ever before. During the first years of the eighteenth century, French literature was almost a negligible quantity. The great figures of the preceding century left no suc- cessors worthy of the title, and only one name, that of the Duc de St. Simon, retains any real significance. His memoirs cover this period of transition, and give a strangely impersonal but vivid picture of the court and its life. The Duke would have scorned the appellation of a /ittérateur yet his work shows the almost involuntary trend of the man of the world in these times toward an interest in letters. Montes- quieu was the first to strike clearly the real keynote of French eighteenth-century literature. In his Lettres persanes, using this distant country much as Swift in England was using the mythical lands of Gulliver’s Travels, he pointed out and satirized the follies and foibles of the social order; but his most important work is the Esprit des lois in which he formulated his theory of constitutional government. By and large, however, the spirit of early eighteenth-century letters was that of the salons. The essay and the memoir held the field. Literature of a critical or satirical in- tent was not really dominant until the middle of the century. These changes in the tone and point of view of society we have described met with an almost imme- diate response in the arts. Indeed, we find the first tangible expression of these impending changes in the increasing lightness and playfulness of deco- 257, THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING rative design in the last decade of the seventeenth century. The dictum of Louis XIV to Mansart in 1699 that he wished childhood subjects used every- where indicates, even amid the austerities of the last years of the Grand Monarque, the beginning of a new fashion; classical heroes were being replaced by children at play. The two main factors in this change developed almost simultaneously. One was the shifting of the sources of patronage from Versailles to Paris; the king was now only one—although still the foremost— of many wealthy patrons. The other was the intro- duction of a new method of design, which, by its extreme mobility, responded with great freedom to the dictates of fashion. It is impossible to say just when the germs of the rococo first appeared. They were undoubtedly present in the art of France, Italy, and Flanders in the late seventeenth century, and although they do not become conspicuous until the first quarter of the eighteenth century in what is called the period of the Regency, there is no rigid line of demarkation between the classical severity of seventeenth-century and the movement and free- dom of eighteenth-century forms. It must be empha- sized that the customary classification into periods is necessarily very rough, as one type blends almost 1m- perceptibly into another. An additional difficulty in definite classification lies in the diversity of manner necessarily present in an age so ruled by individual preference and fashion. There was no Lebrun to govern the taste of the eighteenth century. But in all these variations, which are at once the delight and despair of the connoisseur, there is one dominant idea. In the art of the seventeenth century the funda- 268 Pee Gi ARTS FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY mental principle was the correct massing of definite forms dependent upon architectural motives. The goal of rococo design was to satisfy the eye by an interplay of line and mass divorced from the limita- tions of architectural form. The conventional ar- chitectural motives were replaced or over-laid by vegetable and animal forms, which were at first arranged symmetrically about the central axis, and then, probably following the suggestions offered by FIG, 122, GILT WOOD SCONCES FRENCH, MIDDLE OF THE XVIII CENTURY Chinese and Japanese art, placed asymmetrically, the design being stabilized by a balance of opposing motion. This new principle offered almost unlimited possibilities, for evil as well as good, since the style in incompetent hands led to the submergence of struc- ture under intricate convolutions without real signifi- cance. The term rocaille is sometimes used incorrectly as interchangeable with rococo. It refers to the frequent use, in this free type of design, of developments of the rock motive derived from the artificial grotto work of Italian baroque architecture, and is generally confounded in both sense and design with the coguzlle cele, THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING or shell motive; this, the endive, and the bean scroll are the main decorative details of the style. The various usages of these and other motives will be taken up more fully in connection with individual examples in the following chapters. Being essentially unarchitectonic, rococo design had little real effect on architecture. Structural and utilitarian necessities prevented all but the most limited use of curved forms, and it was only in the ornament that in the majority of cases a structure of the late seventeenth century differs from its suc- cessor of the eighteenth. By and large, the building activity of the eighteenth century was confined to the creation of private mansions where elegance and comfort were the prime requisites. In monumental work such as the chapel at Versailles, Robert de Cotte carried on the tradition of Mansart and Perrault, which was continued in turn by Jacques Ange Ga- briel, whose colonnaded facades in what is now the Place de la Concorde date from the end of the reign of Louis XV. Even the work of Héré for Stanislas of Poland at Nancy differs little in essentials from the type established by J. H. Mansart at Versailles. Only in the exuberant, semi-naturalistic ornament, the curved architraves, and the less severe propor- tions can the influence of the new style be distin- guished. It is the interiors of these buildings which reveal the real change in the system of decoration. De Cotte himself ushered in the new style in the interior of the chapel at Versailles and in the Golden Gallery of the Hétel de Toulouse (about 1715-1720). Pilasters are gradually replaced by vertical mouldings springing from and terminating in delicately carved vegetation, and cornices are suppressed or converted 260 Pench AKT, FIRST: HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY into string-course and cove. Corners and angles are reduced to a minimum or avoided altogether, leaving the eye free to follow the play of curved line. In the oval salon of the Hotel de Soubise (1727-1750), one of the triumphs of Germain Boffrand, there is no division between the walls and the ceiling, which is treated as a blossoming of the slender vertical mould- ings of the wainscot. In this profusion of ornament the painter plays a less important part than before. Although royalty still commanded occasional pompous Aistoires which through force of custom were still regarded as proof of artistic merit, there was little room for such in the smaller salons and amid the fine-scale decorations of the private mansions. The splendid allegories of Louis XIV had to be reduced in scope and com- plexity, and their subjects lightened, to meet changed conditions. The ceilings, it is true, still offered scope for large canvases, but even in the early years of the century, as in the famous work of Lemoine in the Salon of Hercules at Versailles, the tones are softened and the subject treated in a less grandiose and more playful manner. In portraiture, Largilli¢re and Rigaud continued to paint wealth and nobility amid the splendors of flowing robes and rich accessories, and Nattier and Van Loo perpetuated the beauties of the court in the guise of rather insipid divinities. Later, with such artists as Drouais, Perroneau, and especially La Tour, these theatrical trappings were discarded, and the individual portrayed in the midst of a lively conversation, alert and amiable. But, as can not be too often repeated, the genius of the eighteenth century was in decoration and in 261 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING decoration of a special character, light and graceful, with no desire to teach, but only to please. Antoine Watteau, Francois Boucher, and, in sentiment at least, although later in date, Honoré Fragonard are the great figures of this period. Out of a variety of influences, Flemish and Venetian, Watteau created an etherealized version of the Regency spirit. His masterpiece, The Departure for Cythera, pictures a life hardly related to mortality. No passion or intense feeling intrudes to break the golden twilight of ease and grace and pleasure. The airy unsub- stantiality of his art lent itself perfectly to playful fantasy. The arabesques into which he weaves his fairy figures are the very essence of decorative charm. These forms, probably largely derived from Gillot and Berain, but refined and vivified by Watteau, set the decorative standard of the first half of the century, exemplified so well in the szmgeries of Chan- tilly by Christophe Huet. The amorous poetry of Watteau was succeeded by the more fleshly beauties of Francois Boucher, whose rounded contours, flow- ing line, and high, clear color controlled the fashions of the mid-century. A worker of exceptional facility, Boucher translated almost unconsciously the sensu- ous paganism of his day into delicate color and de- lightful texture. His work, never of intellectual or emotional depth, was usually of the highest decora- tive merit. The number of his pupils and imitators was legion. Supreme among them was Fragonard. A virtuoso in pigment, he continued through the reign of Louis XVI the voluptuous manner of Boucher, but infused it with a nervous vitality and a touch of poetry which at times recalls Watteau. While Boucher was satisfying Madame de Pompadour and 262 MoeNCH ART, FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY society generally with his dainty pastorals and amorous allegories, Chardin sounded a note of simple real- ism and appreciation of the essential beauties of every- day life. His work, lacking none of the technical excel- lence of the period, was pro- phetic of the coming spirit in its antithesis to the artifici- ality of court life. The first half of the eigh- teenth century is not an age of great plastic art. Monu- mental sculpture is as rare as monumental architecture. Bouchardon carried on the classic manner of the elder Coustou in his fountain in the micede.Grenelle. In. por- feature the work of J. B. Lemoyne shows clearly the tendency to individualization and naturalism that culmi- nated later in the work of Pa- jou and Houdon. About the middle of the century when the rococo was already on the wane, Pigalle and Falconet, pupils of Lemoyne, produced a series of figure subjects, mainly in miniature, which, FIG. 123. PANEL, STYLE OF CHRISTOPHE HUET in their restrained naturalism, charm of arrange- ment, and delicacy of handling, epitomize the deco- 263 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING rative spirit of the age. On the whole, the chief contributions of the sculptor seem to have been at this time in the field of ornament; the plastic mas- terpieces of the age must be sought in the vigorous, graceful, skilfully executed decorations of plaster, wood, and bronze, which embellished the best inte- riors of the period. This was also the great age of furniture, and in this field the products of the decorators, Verberckt and the elder Rousseau, were rivaled by those of the bronze workers, Cressent and the Caffieri, and the cabinet- maker, Oeben. Comfort and grace of outline were the desiderata. The accenting of the design with gilt-bronze ornament, developed by the elder Boulle, was carried to an extreme profusion and perfection by Charles Cressent and the Cafheri. The wood used in this connection was preferably plain and dark in color to provide an effective background for the metalwork; but as the style advanced, floral mar- quetry appeared with greater frequency. In the work of J. F. Oeben the amount of ormolu was decreased, and an effect obtained by great purity of line and perfect proportion. In all this rococo fur- niture, the straight line is used as little as possible; graceful curves and delicate shapes replace the mas- sive forms of the earlier fashion; and the cabinet- maker, no less than the painter and sculptor, strives to be light, playful, and gay. Although liberty of design sometimes runs to license in the works of Meissonier and Oppenord, these extremes seem never to have been taken very seriously by the French craftsmen. In Italy and Germany, however, the style was really guilty of the absurdities vituperated by its critics, and we find 264 Prion CH ARTS FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY designs by Frenchmen carried out abroad which would never have been tolerated at home. Metalwork, ceramics, and textiles naturally fol- lowed the new tendencies. Side by side with the superb work of the dronziers, the smiths produced iron grilles and stair ramps of unsurpassed quality. The work of Jean Lamour in the Place Stanislas at Nancy shows how well the flowing lines of rococo design lend themselves to the smith’s hammer. The chief reminders of this period in many of the older streets of Paris and provincial towns are the eighteenth-century window balconies which often relieve an otherwise dull facade with a charming play of line. The fine potteries of Rouen and Moustiers con- tinued to be decorated in the style of Berain during the first years of the century, but later show the in- vasion of new ideas in the use of polychrome Oriental motives and rocaille forms @ /a corne (figs. 135, 132). The development of porcelain manufacture about the middle of the century led to the establishment, among others, of the royal factory at Sévres. The delicate material lent itself admirably to rococo forms, which in general recall the work of the contemporary silversmiths. Unfortunately, most of the fine plate of this period has been destroyed, but surviving examples, notably those by Thomas Germain, show the same superb qualities evident in all the best metalwork of the period. In spite of maladministra- tion, the looms of the Gobelins continued to work under the impetus of the previous century. Fine series of tapestries were woven from the cartoons of Coypel, Audran, and Oudry, but the productions which brought the greatest fame to the manufactory 265 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING were the exquisite, rainbow-tinted tapestries after Boucher. At the same time that these gay and lux- urious hangings were being woven at the Gobelins for royalty and its favorites, the manufactory at Beauvais was making similar pieces for a more gen- eral market, and also the small tapestry panels for the upholstering of chairs and sofas which contrib- ute much to the charm of furniture in the period of Louis XV. The heavy, large-patterned brocades of the previous epoch were now transformed; the floral motives become more naturalistic, the scale diminishes, the color lightens, and the units of the design usually follow a zigzag arrangement. By the middle of the century the rococo style had reached its zenith. A change in fashion soon fol- lowed; and fifteen years before the death of Louis XV (in 1774) and the accession of Louis XVI, the style which bears the latter’s name was already tak- ing definite form. The Louis XVI style will be dis- cussed in Part VII. The history of the arts outside of France in the first half of the eighteenth century shows French influence paramount. Hardly a dissenting voice op- posed the dictates of Paris; and according to their understanding, and as rapidly as possible, artists and craftsmen everywhere adopted the manner and taste of the French masters. Russia turned to France for her art and social culture. Prussia, under Frederick the Great, frankly adopted French ideas and em- ployed her artists. Every European monarch mod- eled his court and its surroundings after that of Louis XV, and even the art of republican Holland was hardly more than a provincial edition of that of its more sophisticated neighbor. It must be 266 PRENCHOARIT, FIRST HALF OF THE XVIII CENTURY noted, however, that in spite of the universality of the Parisian mode, national tastes and temperaments were not completely submerged in French fashions. The Italian rococo, although less refined than the French, has a masculine quality in its exuberance which is both a national expression and a heritage from the Late Renaissance. The center of the gay- est society in Europe, outside of Paris, was Venice. The paintings of Guardi and Canaletto give us a vivid picture of the Queen of the Adriatic in her sun- set glory; and Tiepolo in the magic of his brush re- veals himself the greatest decorator of his time. In north and central Europe, Teutonic taste is manifest in a greater ponderousness and love of detail for its own sake than are found in the best French work. In England, although French influence was strong throughout the eighteenth century, a distinctly na- tional school arose from the mingling of native and foreign influences in the later part of the previous century. From the seventeenth-century classicism of Inigo Jones and Wren, inspired by French and Italian models, developed the British Palladian school of architecture, led by Vanbrugh and Kent, which was strong enough and native enough in char- acter to prevent the rococo as an architectural style from gaining more than a temporary foothold in England. English painting, distinguished in the eighteenth century by the names of Hogarth, Reyn- olds, and Gainsborough, attained a thoroughly na- tional character by the middle of the century. In the decorative arts, it may be observed that the English styles of the late seventeenth century were formed largely by a mixture of French and Dutch elements. With the accession of the Hanoverian 267 THT PIERPONT MORGAN WING Georges there comes in a more ponderous taste which accorded well with the, Italian baroque forms im- ported by the architect, William Kent. By the mid- dle of the century, although frowned upon by the architects, the style of Louis XV had captured the British craftsmen, and, as represented in the work of Chippendale, held sway until the advent of the brothers Adam. 268 CHAPTER II GALLERY F° IO LATE XVII AND EARLY XVIII CENTURY This gallery is devoted to French furniture and woodwork, mainly of the early eighteenth century in the so-called Regency style. To our left, as we enter, is a mirror-frame, typical of this period, which recalls very strongly the designs of Oppenord for the woodwork of the Palais Royal, although it actually came from the Hétel de Boulogne in the Place Vendome. The wood still retains most of its original gilding and painting, showing a treatment which became popular about this time. Slightly later in date, the marble mantel is in the Louis XV style of the second quarter of the century. On the mantel is an Italian portrait bust of the late seventeenth century attributed to Algardi. The panel to the left is somewhat earlier than the mantel, and illustrates a type of decoration popular at the end of the seven- teenth century; it was originally gilded and painted. The two inter-panels on the other side of the mantel are characteristic examples of the Regency style. Of the furniture shown on this wall, the caned walnut arm-chair with its tentative curves 1s in the style of the very last years of the seventeenth cen- tury. More typical of the seventeenth century 1s the beautifully ornamented fire-screen of carved wood | 269 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING framing the fine panel of contemporary needlepoint in which Chinese figures show the taste, then coming into fashion, for decorative motives adapted from the art of the Far East. The torchere in the formar an Indian girl (fig. 121) dates to about the turn of the century; it was probably painted and gilded, and may have been one of a series representing the four continents. The oak panel over the doorway into Gallery F g is an admirable example of early eighteenth-century woodwork. To the right of the doorway into the main hall are three carved panels, unfortunately in poor condition, which frame paintings of exotic birds. These panels probably formed part of the wainscoting of a small room or cabinet made during the very last years of the reign of Louis XIV. The motives of the design both in structure and detail recall the Louis XIV type, but their treatment is more akin to the Regency in feeling. A charming little console-table of carved wood and two gilded wall-brackets belong also to this period; they are perhaps a few years later in date than the panels. A fine leather arm-chair is typical of the last years of the seventeenth century. The adjacent writing-table with its cartonnier exemplifies the ormolu-mounted ebony furniture associated with the name of Boulle. The writing-table is a particu- larly fine piece, very restrained in design, and the mounts are of excellent quality. Nearby may be seen the remains of what was once a fine torchére, or candlestick stand, of elaborate Boulle marquetry, hardly any of the original tortoise-shell and brass in- lay now remaining. A few fragments of the shell show it to have been a piece of contre-Boulle—that is, a pattern of tortoise-shell on a groundwork of brass. 270 : VIEW OF ALCOVE wer 24: FRENCH, FIG 25 ABOUT 1720- THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING The carved ornament, now painted red, was un- doubtedly gilded. The chief feature in this gallery is the woodwork of an alcove (fig. 124), dating from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV, although the heavy, rather architectural cornice and much of the detail are reminiscent of the preceding style, especially in the strict symmetry of each individual part. In many ways the treatment of this alcove recalls the tran- sitional detail on the organ in the Royal Chapel at Versailles, designed by Robert de Cotte about 1710, but the curvilinear forms of the panel heads and bases would indicate a date of about 1720-1725. The decoration of the corner panels with trophies repre- senting the occupations of the four seasons is typical of eighteenth-century iconography. The handsome effect of gilded ornament upon a light, neutral back- ground is admirably illustrated by the woodwork of this alcove. The large frame on the wall opposite the opening is now filled with a mirror but was originally intended for a tapestry or some other fab- ric. The arm-chairs in the alcove are typical of the period; the one on the left is particularly interest- ing as showing the more comfortable upholstered forms which were developed as life became more luxurious. The console-table, now painted but prob- ably originally gilded, is an exceedingly fine example; the winged cartouche at the juncture of frame and leg and the banded reed moulding are characteristic of the period. On this table a Chinese blue and white K’ang-hsi vase with its stand of gilded woodwork represents the use of Oriental ornaments common in French rooms of the time. The chairs, upholstered in a modern fabric, which 272 GALLERY “FTO stand against the window wall, form part of a set of which the two arm-chairs are shown in Gallery F 13 on the second floor. Rather stiff in form, these chairs are transitional in style between Louis XIV and Louis XV. The gilded console-table is more in the style of the former, and dates about the year 1700, some years earlier than the two small caned chairs on either side. At the foot of the stairs leading to the second floor is a seventeenth-century portrait bust in white marble. Judging from the robes of office, the worthy gentleman was one of the official nobility, a président au parlement, probably a member of the Gueidan fam- ily of Aix-en-Provence. The pedestal, composed of four varieties of marble, is of the same period as the sculpture (fig. 117). ars CHAPTER hit STAIRCASE AND GALUERR YS iesia THE COLLECTION (OF OERMOUE Nine cases on the stair landings and five cases in Gallery F 11 (at the top of the stairs) contain an exceptionally representative collection of furniture mounts and ornamental motives in ormolu. The use of gilded bronze in the decoration of furniture prob- ably began in Italy in the sixteenth century, but it was not until the second half of the seventeenth century in France that the fashion became really general. The gilding was done by the mercury proc- ess. After the object to be gilded had been cast and chiseled, an amalgam of gold and mercury was applied to the surface of the bronze. The piece was then heated and the mercury driven off in vapor, leaving behind a deposit of gold closely united to the base metal. The result was sufficiently perma- nent and certainly beautiful in quality, but the mer- cury vapor freed in the process was so dangerous and, in the majority of cases, so fatal to the workmen that one wonders whether the result was worth the cost. These beautiful pieces of metalwork were liter- ally paid for by the lives of those who were instru- mental in creating them. 274 STAIRCASE AND GALLERY F II The quality of the ormolu depended primarily, of course, upon the skilled artist who made the model from which the bronze piece was cast. From the time of the first Caffieri to Boizot at the end of the eighteenth century, the best sculptors of the day did not disdain to model for this rather humble purpose. A large amount of chiseling and reworking of the surface was usually necessary before the gold was applied, and even after this the surface had to be worked and burnished before it was complete. In the finest bronze work, the services of the ciseleur- doreur, or chaser and gilder, were almost as important as those of the modeler. Especially was this true at the end of the eighteenth century when such masters as Gouthiére and Thomire in the minuteness of this exquisite work rivaled the goldsmith’s art. In Case A are several masks of the type popular at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. Similar mo- tives have been noted in discussing the woodwork of the period. The central piece is a particularly fine example, which probably came from the cresting of a Boulle armoire. The scrolls shown in the cor- ners at the back of the case may well have been made in the workshop of Boulle, as they are typical of his furniture ornament. On the bottom of the case are shown two wooden stirrups with elaborate ormolu mounts of the early eighteenth century. A single stirrup, entirely of ormolu, is of about the same date. The exhibits in the second case (B), as we ascend the stairs, are rather later in style than those we have just seen. One of the most interesting is a beauti- fully decorated lock of the Louis XIV period. On the back of the case is a set of four figures repre- senting the seasons, a favorite subject with the = THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING French decorators of the eighteenth century. The two spigots shown on the bottom of the case offer a splendid illustration of the dragon-head motive which enjoyed a great popularity in the early eighteenth century. The smiling mask in the center of the case is another piece of fine quality dating from the first quarter of the eighteenth century. The objects in Case C are mainly of the mid- eighteenth century, and show the preference which prevailed at this time for a smaller scale in ornament and for less massive forms. The human figure is represented with greater freedom, and amorini play a more prominent part in the decorative scheme. The increased refinement of scale was accompanied by greater delicacy in the chiseling. In the center of the upper shelf is a miniature head of Louis XV in the style of Jacques Caffieri. The group of Apollo and a nymph probably ornamented one of the elab- orate clocks of the period, which relied extensively upon ormolu for their decoration. The popularity of allegorical subjects is again exemplified in a set of four amorini, representing Music, Astronomy, Medi- cine, andsthes ants: In the table-case (D) along the stair rail are shown two typical Louis XV locks and several graceful mounts for table legs. The cartouche with laurel decoration, bearing the cipher M A, is of somewhat later date—probably the third quarter of the century. The central feature in Case E is a remarkably fine bust of a smiling young woman, which recalls the charming bronzes with which Cressent ornamented his magnificent tables and commodes (fig. 125). In the same case are two interesting bénitiers of early eighteenth-century workmanship. 276 STAIRCASE AND GALLERY F II Hanging on the wall between Cases F and G are two panels mounted with large pieces of early eighteenth-century ormolu. On one panel is an ornamental crown which probably served to hold up the drapery of a bed. On the second panel is a set of four large mounts for furniture with masks and ornament emblematic of the four seasons; these are splendid examples, both in modeling and chasing, of the large-scale, vigorous workmanship of the early eighteenth century. Ormolu of the Louis XVI period, distinguished by the symmetry and classic re- straint of the detail, is exhib- ited in the remaining cases, beginning with Case F. Furniture mounts now lost ee Sore the semi-structural signifi- — prencn, xvit CENTURY cance as reinforcements which, on the whole, had characterized these orna- ments throughout the earlier part of the century; in compensation, however, there is an exquisite and jewel-like fineness of workmanship. Case G contains a number of furniture appliqués, decorated with the motive of a human head sur- rounded by rays of light, a symbol of Louis XIV as the Sun King, which was revived at this period. A vase handle in the form of a rope of laurel from which hangs a child represented in half-figure is a vigorous piece of modeling and design, worthy of a master hand. The statuette of a bathing girl if THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING in the style of Falconet and the dancing figure next to it served to ornament clocks. The torso of a girl terminating in an acanthus scroll is very similar to part of the mounting of a vase now in the Louvre, attributed to Thomire. Cases H and I on the next landing continue the exhibition of Louis XVI ormolu. Particularly nota- ble in Case H are two fine terminal figures of children. Next to these are two interesting ferrule designs. The candlestick base in the center of the case and the little ewer above it both presage the coming of Empire design in their close imitation of classical forms. In Case I are shown some fine examples of acanthus-leaf ornament. Note particu- larly the beautiful boss of leafage below the clock statuette after Falconet. The collection is continued in Gallery F 11 at the head of the stairs. The shallow case (J) on the left is filled with mounts of various kinds, mostly of the period of Louis XVI. Above the case is a wood- carving representing Astronomy, which was evt- dently intended for the crown or fronton of a book- case; a companion piece with Geography for its sub- ject is exhibited above Case N. Over the wood- carving of Astronomy are two paintings on canvas of classical ruins by Hubert Robert. Charles Eisen was the painter of the two oval paintings (fig. 126) on canvas of putti supporting medallions against a blue ground, which hang above Geography. Some exquisite examples of ormolu are shown in the small case (K) to the left of the doorway opposite the stairs. Of particular interest is a double medal- lion with portraits of Louis XVI and Marie Antoi- nette. Balancing this are two unidentified portrait 278 MOIR CASE “AND GALLERY F II medallions of the same period. Below isa fine plaque representing the toilet of Venus, the end ornaments of which recall the style of Salembier. Flanking the center piece are two fragments of acanthus scroll ornament with amorini, probably made by Gouthiére himself. The opposite case (LL) continues the series, but no piece of out- standing interest re- quires comment. Some of the furni- ture mounts in Case M are exceedingly ‘emia quality, In the center of the case may be noted a plaque in low relief of a group of infants represent- ing Astronomy. A similar plaque is found on a piece of os furniture by Riesener, FIG. 126. PAINTING now in the Louvre. BY CHARLES EISEN Among the exhibits are excellent examples of the extraordinarily fine and delicate workmanship in which the craftsmen of this period excelled; in this respect two little flower sprays on a dark blue background should be particularly noted. The remainder of the collection is displayed in - Case N. In the first of the three sections into which this case is divided, the ormolu 1s of the Louis XVI period, but the octagonal plaque with the figure of a priestess and the plaque pierced with arabesque designs foreshadow the coming of the Empire style. “9 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Notable among the pieces in this section is a small panel in low relief showing children writing. The subject, no doubt, is intended to represent Literature. On either side are two very fine rinceaux, showing many of the characteristics of the workshop of Gouthiere. The two remaining sections of Case N are devoted to ormolu in the Empire style. As the furniture of this period relied largely for its effect upon the contrast between gilt-bronze mounts with rigid, sharply defined outlines and the dark mahogany upon which they were applied, the silhouette was accordingly of greater importance than the inner modeling in the ormolu. Although the expert craftsmanship of the Louis XVI period was continued by a few artists such as Thomire, the ormolu of the Napoleonic régime and later shows both in technique and design a gradual degeneration from earlier standards. Thoroughly typical of the Empire style is the appliqué represent- ing Venus in her swan-drawn chariot. Nearby is a key in the Louis XVI style, but bearing the cipher of the Emperor Napoleon. Other bronzes illustrate typical Empire motives, such as the conventionalized Greek forms of acanthus and anthemion, and the swan and griffin. The importance of the silhouette in Empire design is shown particularly well in a large appliqué depicting Fame in a chariot. To realize the loss of delicacy which took place with this changed point of view, compare the wreath ornament exhibited in this section of Case N with similar mo- tives in the Louis XVI style which may be seen, for example, in Case M. A portrait by Baca-Flor of the late J. Pierpont Morgan 1s placed above a sixteenth-century Italian 280 STAIRCASE AND GALLERY F II mantelpiece of Verona marble. Against the railing of the stair-well are two fine side-tables veneered with an elaborate marquetry of exotic woods; they were probably made in France in the late eighteenth century after English models. Standing on a pedes- tal in the Louis XVI style between the tables is a beautifully proportioned standing lamp of gilt- bronze. This admirable example of Empire ormolu is surmounted by a handle in the form of the imperial eagle surrounded by a wreath of laurel. 281 CHAPTER IV GALLERY (rate The exhibition of French furniture and woodwork of the early eighteenth century is continued in this gallery (fig. 127). On the wall to the right as we enter are shown three fragmentary panels of typical Regency design. As each panel is ornamented with a trophy of musical instruments, this woodwork was probably intended for a music room or salon. Above is an over-door panel which will give some idea of the appearance of this dozserie when, in its original con- dition, the effect of the carving was enhanced by painting and gilding. Two small carved panels, decorated with the rayed star and the cipher A M (Ave Maria), are a few years later in date, and prob- ably formed part of some piece of sacristy furniture. The gilded console-table is earlier in date than the paneling; its rather light proportions and the use of the dragon motive in the carving place it in the first years of the eighteenth century. The arm-chairs flanking the console-table are also of the early eight- eenth century. One of these chairs, covered with a tapestry in the manner of Oudry, is particularly beautiful in line; it may also be noted that traces still remain of the original polychrome decoration of the woodwork. 2512 VIEW OF GALLERY F 12 FIG. 127. THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING On the wall opposite the windows are four doors, perhaps from a library, which are separated by nar- row panels of somewhat later date carved with trophies of Music and Drama. The present as- semblage dates from the nineteenth century when the upper panels of the doors were filled with imita- tion book-backs which presumably replaced earlier bindings of the same kind. ‘These doors are master- pieces of the wood-carver’s craft in the early years of the eighteenth century. The carving is so sharp and delicate that it is hard to believe they were ever painted, and certainly no trace of paint now exists. The two bronze busts standing on pedestals are eighteenth-century copies from the antique. Above this woodwork is shown a fine over-door panel with a decorative motive inspired by La Fon- taine’s fable of the fox and the grapes. Judging from the lightness and gaiety of handling, this carving may be assigned to the first years of the reign of Louis XV. On the next wall are three fragmentary panels which appear from the ecclesiastical character of their ornament to have formed part of the interior woodwork of a church. The source of these panels — is not known, but in general character they bear a close relation to the work carried out under Robert de Cotte in the choir of Notre Dame, Paris, and were probably made about the same time, that is, the beginning of the eighteenth century. Between these panels are two wall-brackets of gilded and painted wood, dating from the first quarter of the eighteenth century, and two portrait medallions of bewigged, seventeenth-century worthies. The roundel above was probably the central motive of a late seventeenth- 284 GALLERY F 12 century wall-panel. Of the same date is the gilded console-table, which shows strong kinship with the decoration in the king’s bed-chamber at Versailles, completed in 1701. The arm-chairs upholstered in modern velours are some years later in date; they are excellent specimens of the woodwork of the period. Shown against the window wall is a panel from a screen of early eighteenth-century Savonnerie tapes- try in the style of Oudry. 285 CHAP TEAR GALUER Ya Fate A series of painted and gilded pilasters and door panels in this gallery (fig. 128) offers an example of the finest craftsmanship of the carver and gilder in the first quarter of the eighteenth century. These pieces, unfortunately in poor condition, come from the Chateau of Saint-Cloud, and were undoubtedly part of the decorations undertaken there at the command of the regent. If compared with the great doors in Gallery F g, it will be observed that a change has come about not only in scale but also in the system of paneling. The vertical lines are emphasized and there is a tendency to concentration of ornament at the two ends of the panel and around a central device. The actual motives of the ornament have changed but little, but in their handling an increased feeling for flowing line is manifest. In the clear organiz- ation of their design, these panels show an advance over the Regency woodwork in the preceding gallery. Similar in style to the Saint-Cloud doiserie are two panels on the north wall, which were also originally painted and gilded. The gilded console-table on the same wall and the two fragments of wood-carving in high relief, possibly models for ormolu, shown above, are works of the early eighteenth century. 286 ‘ VIEW OF GALLERY F 13 128, FIG. THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Between the panels is a sketch for a ceiling painting representing Saint James of Compostella leading the army of Spain against the Moors; the painted over- door above, representing Winter, is attributed to Jacques La Joue. Above the pilasters and door panels from Saint- Cloud on the west wall is a fine Regency over-door, the mate to which we have already seen downstairs. The small paintings on this wall include a flower piece in the manner of J. B. Monnoyer; a sketch for the decoration of a dome by Antoine Barthé- lemy; a sketch for a ceiling decoration representing the Triumph of Leda, in the mid-eighteenth-century manner; and a little sketch, attributed to Oudry, of a parrot and grapes. Two arm-chairs illustrate rococo decoration at its height. One (on the right) is a particularly striking example of the skilful asymmetric design in which the second quarter of the eighteenth century took so much delight. The other chair has retained its original gilding, which emphasizes the rather heavy and over-loaded ornament typical of one phase of the extreme rococo. Although most of the existing mantels of the eight- eenth century are of marble, a large number were probably of wood, and have perished in the course of time. One of these wooden mantels, made during the first quarter of the eighteenth century, is shown in this gallery; it was probably painted, possibly to imitate marble, although nothing now remains of the original color. The involved scrolls forming the central motive of the carving offer an early example of asymmetric design. The mirror-frame above, with its painted over-panel of a pastoral scene in the 288 GALLERY F 13 manner popularized by Watteau and his school, is rather later in date, as are the infant caryatids in bronze on either side of the mantel. The latter are remarkably fine in quality, and were probably part of the gilded bronze decorations of a marble mantel- piece. The paintings on this wall are studies for ceiling decorations; one by C. J. Natoire represents Wisdom Defeating Ignorance; and the other, in the manner of Le Moine, Hercules and Omphale. The frame of the latter is a beautiful example of mid- eighteenth-century work. The most important object in this gallery is a door of carved and painted wood, the principal panel of which is decorated with a hunting scene painted not improbably by Christophe Huet (fig. 123). This is an admirable example of polychrome decoration in the second quarter of the eighteenth century. Atten- tion may also be called to another door panel, of about the same time, with a painted decoration in the manner of Oudry. Shown on the window jambs are two interesting pieces of eighteenth-century wood-carving, probably made as models for metal ornament. 289 CHAPTE RAVE GALLERY F 14 A LOUIS XV BOISERE: In this gallery is shown practically the complete woodwork! of a room taken from an old house, in the quarter of the Marais at Paris, which is said to have been once the property of Madame de Pompadour, although it is rather improbable that the great favor- ite occupied it herself (fig. 129). The paneling, how- ever, dates from the time of her ascendancy, about 1740; and in its treatment recalls the work of Charles Etienne Briseux, one of the principal architectural designers and theorists of his day. The room was intended for a bed-chamber, one side being occupied by the alcove in which it was customary to place the bed. Exigencies of exhibition, however, have necessitated a change in arrangement, so that the room has now more the appearance of a salon. This transformation does not, however, con- tradict the spirit of the design, since the bedroom at this period was often treated as elaborately as a reception room and quite frequently used as such. The placing of mirrors over the mantel and on the opposite wall above a console-table, as seen here, was the usual arrangement in such rooms, the double ‘Presented to the Museum in 1920 by J. P. Morgan. 290 otl1 Ltoaogadv ‘NOOU HONAYA V AO AWUOMAGOOM +I d AUATIVD AO MAIA ‘“OTI “OLA THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING reflection thus increasing the apparent size of the apartment. In its original condition the woodwork was painted and gilded, and it is not unlikely that some sort of polychrome decoration also was used. But successive coats of paint obscured in time the fineness of the carving, and it was necessary to re- move the paint when the paneling was acquired to bring out the quality of the woodwork. Furniture and other accessories have been arranged in this room to give some idea of the appearance of a Louis XV salon. An arrangement of this sort demonstrates the essential harmony which existed between the rather flamboyant lines of the Louis XV furniture and its surroundings. They were made to be seen together and neither appears to advantage without the other. Neglect of this principle and failure to provide a proper setting have led to an almost total misunder- standing of this style outside of France. The design of the woodwork shows clearly the essential characteristics of Louis XV_paneling— the emphasis on vertical rather than on horizontal lines, the concentration of the ornament at the ends and middle of the panel, and the asymmetrical de- sign of the decorative motives (well seen in the door- heads and the over-mirror panels). The chandelier is probably of Italian workmanship, but of a type commonly used in French interiors. Particularly worthy of notice are the beautiful chairs and the exquisitely carved table exhibited in this room. On either side of the alcove entrance are two gilded sconces of carved wood (fig. 122); the elaborate rococo design recalls the style of Meissonier. Be- tween the windows is a decorative painting in the 292 GALLERY F 14 style of Pillement’s chinoiseries. Below is a gilded console-table of the early eighteenth century, on either side of which are two caned chairs of the same period. The two caned arm-chairs in the corners are excellent examples of mid-eighteenth-century types; the seats of both chairs were originally upholstered with flat removable cushions. 293 CHAPTERS Va GALLERY Ghai FRENCH ART-—MID-XVIIiACEN Va The objects in this gallery date for the most part from the mid-eighteenth century. In the center of the wall to our right, as we enter from Gallery F 14, is an elaborately carved panel, still retaining traces of color decoration, which probably came from some royal palace, to judge from the fleur-de-lis in the decoration at its base. The trophy, which orna- ments the center of the panel, 1s composed of various mathematical and scientific instruments and was prob- ably intended to represent the sciences. The panel is near in style to the work of Nicolas Pineau. Two other panels on this wall with trophies com- posed of emblems of the hunt probably formed part of the decoration of a country house or lodge in which such designs would be particularly appropriate. To the right of the central panel is a painting of a pastoral scene in the manner of Boucher, below which is a small console, gilded in two tones, which recalls the Meissonier-Pineau school of the second quarter of the century. The balancing console, now painted a reddish brown tint, but originally gilded, may be a few years earlier, as it is a little more restrained in 294 GALLERY F I$ style. Above this is a sketch for a ceiling by Fran- cois Le Moine, who painted the famous ceiling of the Salon of Hercules at Versailles. A typical rococo use of the palm-leaf motive is shown in the gilded frames above. In the center of the adjoining wall is a fine armoire dating from the middle of the century, though some of the detail, which is exceedingly delicate, seems to be a little earlier in type. The armoire appears to have been in general a provincial piece of furniture, its place in more sophisticated establishments being taken by a small room or garde-robe lined with cup- boards. This piece, however, is worthy of the most urbane and refined surroundings. On either side of it are two doors from a bookcase, delicately carved with the palm-leaf motive. Above the armoire is an alcove-head, somewhat restored, dating from the second quarter of the century. The central panel on the south wall is part of a door. As this panel was found in the town of Ver- sailles, it may well have come from some Jbozserie originally in the palace. In delicacy of design and execution it resembles the carvings at Versailles at- tributed to Jacques Verberckt. The two vigorously carved panels decorated with the attributes of Love and Music on the same wall came from a house in the same quarter of Paris as the paneled room in the preceding gallery; in style these panels, originally painted and gilded, are characteristic of the first ten years of the reign of Louis XV. The finely carved -alcove-head, shown above, is a few years later than these in style. A canvas in grisaille of children at play, shown below, is signed by Jakob De Wit and was painted about the middle of the century. Of rie) THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING about the same date are the charming little wood- carvings of cherub heads, probably fragments of a frame; others are shown in the next gallery. Two small, caned side-chairs, with delicately carved floral motives, are typical of the mid-eighteenth century, when the informality of society demanded light and mobile forms as well as graceful lines. Above the chairs are sketches for mural decorations attributed to Tiepolo and Boucher. | On the window wall are shown two panels, one of which belongs to the set mentioned on page 300. The other is an inter-panel from a Louis XV doiserie, in which painted and carved ornament are combined. The gilded dolphins were probably ee orna- ments of a staircase balustrade. CHARLER VIII GALLERY F 16 Pie won. aART——-MID—XVIII CENTURY The material in this gallery is mainly of the period of Louis XV. The central exhibit on the wall to the right as we enter is a fragment of a fine early eighteenth-century panel, the presence of the fleur- de-lis in the lower part of the panel indicating a royal provenance. The exquisitely carved detail is remi- niscent in many ways of forms popular in the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, but the organization of the design and a certain lightness of type indicate an origin not earlier than the Regency. To the right of this panel is an eighteenth-century Venetian copy of a lost painting by Tiepolo, representing a Vision of the Trinity. Below this is a gilded terra- cotta wall-bracket, which may be dated about Poon the other side of the central panel are two sketches for ceiling compositions by De Wit; the upper one is dated 1742, and the lower, 1743. Both paintings illustrate episodes in a series portraying the triumph of time over the labors of man. Below is a —limewood wall-bracket of the early eighteenth cen- tury. Crowning the whole group 1s an alcove-head, now stripped of its original painting. and gilding, 297 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING which may be assigned from the style of the shell motive to the middle of the century. On a low plat- form is a covered brazier (fig. 130) elaborately carved in wood and painted to resemble bronze. It is prob- ably a model designed for execution in metal. Judg- ing by the decoration, the piece was made some time in the second quarter of the eighteenth century. On either side of this are two heavily carved cabriole legs, which, with the two shown on the window wall, are the only surviving portions of what must have been a fine table of the first half of the century. The caned desk-chair of beechwood still retains some of its original color, and shows in its carved decoration the asymmetric motives typical of the middle of the century. The dainty dergére, with its upholstery of figured velvet and its painted woodwork, is an ex- cellent example of boudoir furniture of this period; note the breadth of the seat made necessary by the voluminous skirts then worn. Occupying the center of the wall opposite the win- dows is a huge door panel of a distinctly different character from most of the woodwork we have been considering. The severity of the enframing mould- ing contrasts strangely with the rather exaggerated and none too graceful curves of the rococo decoration. While the design has vigor and invention, it lacks refinement. The peculiarities of the style, the use of walnut rather than oak, and the nautical signifi- cance of the central trophy would seem to indicate an origin in some coastal province, probably on the Mediterranean. The over-door frame above re- calls the style of Meissonier in its elaborate rocaille design, and, like the two oval frames on either side, dates from the second quarter of the century. Of 298 GALLERY F 16 about the same time are the single and the double bookcase doors on this wall. Standing in one corner of the gallery is a simple but pleasing dergére-en-confessionnal, or wing-chair, with its original upholstery, which dates from’ the first half of the century; the frame is of walnut and was probably not painted. Adjacent is a curious and rather crudely worked console-table of wood, gilded in two tones, which shows the transition between the Louis XV rococo and the classical influences of the last years of his reign. Above the console is a study by J. R. de Troy for a painting represent- ing the Triumph of Mordecai, exhibited in the Salon of 1740, and now in the Louvre. This was one of a series of seven ee is paintings illustrating the his- LOUIS XV STYLE tory of Esther, from which a series of tapestries were woven. Between this and a fine over-door panel in the style of J. B. Monnoyer is an attractive little carved wood panel of the middle of the eighteenth century, the delightful design of which must have been enhanced by its original color decora- tion. On this wall also are two more of the bookcase doors similar to those exhibited in Gallery F 15. A gilded arm-chair, upholstered in Genoese velvet of the early eighteenth century, is in the Delafosse style,' typical of the third quarter of the century. This chair shows with somewhat more grace and suavity than the console-table the transition be- 1So called from its most prominent exponent. one THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING tween the rococo and the new classicism observable here in the axial symmetry of the design and in the use of the Greek key motive. Beneath the window is part of the framework of a duchesse or day bed. The panels on each side of the window are possibly from the Chateau of Rambo- uillet. 300 Siew LER LX GALLERY F 17 BREN CHART —XVIII CENTURY FAIENCE The Le Breton Collection of French faience,! ac- quired by Mr. Morgan in tigio, is the principal feature of Gallery F 17. This collection, one of the most notable of its kind, includes fine specimens of the Rouen, Moustiers, Marseilles, Sceaux, and Strasbourg potteries. The majority of the pieces, however, come from the Rouen kilns and may be divided into two main groups. One group is characterized by designs of symmet- rically placed lambrequins and arabesques, a style known as @ lambrequin or rayonnant, in which the lines of the pattern are painted in blue on a white ground or are reserved in white against a field of blue (fig. 134). Occasionally sienna orange or a deep, opaque red is added. The motives composing these patterns were taken largely from the work of such designers as Berain, and from ornament found in lace, embroideries, marquetry, and printed books of the seventeenth century. In faience, the style main- tained its popularity during the first half of the eighteenth century. 14 portion of the collection is shown in Gallery F 25 in the windows of the eighteenth-century shop-front, and various early pieces are exhibited in two cases in the main hall. 301 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Rouen pottery of the second group is distinguished by a wider range of color (green and yellow being added) and by the use of new decorative motives. Devices borrowed from Oriental art were followed by the scroll and shell motives of the rococo style (fig. 137). Patterns of the latter type, known from the frequent occurrence of the horn of plenty as the style a la corne (fig. 132),seem to have been especially popu- lar throughout the second quarter of the eighteenth century and even earlier. The Rouen potters, or per- haps one should say their clients, were conservative in taste, and patterns pop- ular in the early eighteenth century continued to en- joy favor well into the FIG. “120s ROUEN REALE . : 3 reign of Louis XVI. WITH ARMS OF ~ 5 LOUIS POTERAT Next in importance to Rouen as a pottery center was Moustiers; its best productions were charac- terized by delicate, open-spaced designs inspired by Berain and Toro (fig. 133). The delicate fower-spray and genre designs, typical of the Louis XVI period, are best exemplified in the productions of Sceaux, Strasbourg, and Marseilles. In general, the faiencier was not particularly sensi- tive to fluctuations of fashion, as his products were intended mainly, at least in the second half of the eighteenth century, for a dourgeoisie which concerned itself little with such matters. This was especially true after the introduction and development of porce- lain, when the aristocracy followed the example of 302 GALLERY F 17 Madame de Pompadour and Marie Antoinette in patronizing the royal factory at Sévres. Before this, however, Rouen ware was used by all classes of society. In 1688 and again in 1709, when silver plate was put under an interdict, its place was taken largely by the handiwork of the Rouen potters. The frequent occurrence of the arms of noble families on many pieces in this collection, remnants probably of complete services, shows its general use by persons of consideration. Even in 1752, when the rivalry of porcelain must have begun to tell, a contemporary writer notes that there were three large factories at Rouen, in the Saint- Sever quarter, producing enough for the entire "'* ee ae Beaune weltteeisal 730 {Ne pecoRaTion “ih LA CORNER” factories still employed some 2,000 workers, although the commercial treaty of that year with England proved a fatal blow to the French industry. The pieces in Case A and on the wall to the right as we enter are mostly of the rayonnant type of Rouen ware. A large oblong plaque, hanging on the wall to the left, is decorated with a painting of Christ appearing to the Apostles; as in this in- stance, paintings (or rather, engravings after paint- ings) were sometimes copied on French faience, following Italian precedent. On the wall to the right of the case is a fine platter in the rayonnant style, with the armorial bearings of Baron Thirel de SIH THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Bois-Normand. In the center of the middle shelf of Case A is a plate with the arms of the Marquis de Tournai, from the factory of Jacques Hustin of Bordeaux (an offshoot of Moustiers); the pinkish color of the white enamel is distinctive. On the lower shelf is a quaint example of Moustiers repre- senting two musicians and a dancer; a long inscrip- tion celebrates the virtues of wine for those oppressed with the megrims. Near this are two seventeenth- century Rouen plates with blue camaieu decorations in the early Nivernaise style of the Poterats, showing strong Dutch-Oriental influences. Above Case A is a wood- carving in high relief from an early eighteenth-century FIG. 133. MOUSTIERS EWER over-door. Another frag- PARTY ORVITeC ETE ment from an over-door, a fine bit of Louis XVI woodwork, is shown above the doorway to Gallery PeTGs In the free-standing case (B) five examples of the extremely rare Rouen porcelain offer an interesting comparison with the faience, for though the patterns employed are similar, the porcelain glaze is much more brilliant. Most of the faience of rayonnant design (fig. 131) are in this and the succeeding case, C. The two jardiniéres in Case B are striking ex-. amples of the lambrequin pattern in red and blue. The beautiful ewer (fig. 133) in the center of the top shelf is a Moustiers piece of the second (or Berain) 304 FIG. 134. PLATEAU ROUEN, ABOUT 1705-20 PIG. 136. PLATEAU BY GUILLIBAUD (?) ROUEN, ABOUT 1710-20 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING period, and may be distinguished from the similar Rouen products by the tone of blue and by the more open spacing of the ornament. Next to it is a small covered pitcher of Rouen ware, particularly interest- ing for the introduction of green and yellow in an early lambrequin design. The exhibits in Case C are all characteristic specimens of the Rouen factories, with the exception of a caster on the upper shelf which must be assigned to Moustiers. Turning now to the cases on the long wall, the first on the extreme right (D) contains both Rouen and Moustiers pieces. The group in the center of the middle shelf is typical of the latter factory under the direction of Olerys, whose experience in Spain probably accounts for his departures from the usual French forms. The color of the white enamel on the Moustiers ware shows a distinct difference when compared with the Rouen pieces. The central plate on the upper shelf (fig. 135) is a Rouen piece in which the usual motives are combined with imitations of Chinese or Japanese ornament. On the bottom of the case, in front of a beautiful platter of rayonnant design (fig. 134), is a plate with the arms of the ducal house of Richelieu; the tone of blue indicates a Moustiers origin. In the case are also several ex- amples of the rayonnant pattern carried out in poly- chrome. The next case (E) is entirely of Rouen ware, mostly of the second group characterized by Oriental and rococo motives. On the two upper shelves are several pieces decorated with freely drawn floral forms on a cobalt ground. These are Rouen imita- tions of Nevers ware in the “Persian style” (fig. 91). On the bottom of the case is an interesting ink-stand 306 GALLERY F I7 of early eighteenth-century date. The polychrome series 1s continued in the succeeding case (F), where nearly half the material shown was made probably by the potter Guillibaud, whose work is distinguished by a use of Oriental motives, particularly panels of latticework on the borders (fig. 136). The platter on the top shelf decorated with a floral spray formed part of a set offered to Frederick II of Luxemburg on his visit to Rouen, and may thus be dated 1728. The accosted arms are those of Luxemburg and Montmorency. Above the cases on this wall are shown three decorative canvases in- tended for over-doors. The central one (fig. 139), with its group of infants Se aera en camaieu, is attributed BY GUILLIBAUD to Madame Vallayer- ROUEN, ABOUT 1720 Coster. To the left of the doorway is an eighteenth-century canvas of a spaniel and ducks, probably painted for an over-door. The two remaining cases of faience stand on either side of a handsome Louis XV marble mantel, on which is a contemporary replica in miniature of an equestrian statue of Louis XIV by Francois Girardon, the original of which was destroyed during the French Revolution. The great mirror-frame? is a fine piece of eighteenth-century work with its original gilding. The pieces in Case G, to the right of the mantel, are 2The mirror is modern; the frame may originally have been intended for a painting. oo THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING all of Rouen provenance, mostly in the style @ /a corne (fig. 132), except the marbled brown and cream vase in the center. This is from the small pottery of Apt, Vaucluse, and dates probably from the third quarter of the eighteenth century. The white platter with rococo border is an undecorated Rouen piece of a type presumably made to meet the demand FIG. 137. PLATEAU BY PIERRE CHAPELLE ROUEN, ABOUT 1720 for a cheap substitute for the white faience of Lor- raine. The last case (H) contains examples of late eight- eenth-century faience which was largely influenced by the decoration of contemporaneous porcelain. The three principal centers of production represented are Marseilles, Sceaux, and Rouen. Typical of the ware produced at Rouen under the direction of Le- vasseur are a charming little cruet-stand and the plate adjacent to it on the left!” The plaresasneee rim pierced in the Dresden manner, is from the pot- cery of the Veuve Perrin at Marseilles. The sauce- tureen on the upper shelf, probably a Rouen piece, is 308 GALLERY F 17 of exceptional quality and beauty of design. The potteries of Sceaux are represented by the two end plates on the middle shelf and by the shallow basin on the floor of the case with a painting of Leda and the Swan. A plate, upon which is painted an incident from the Battle of Lodi, is a characteristic example of early nineteenth-century faience. Nearby, on the window wall, are two Louis XVI over-doors (one representing Henri IV); and a large polychrome Rouen platter (fig. 137) by Pierre Cha- pelle, about 1720. Beneath the windows are two arm-chairs in the Louis XV style, upholstered with typical mid-eighteenth-century tapestries in the ex- treme rococo manner of Meissonier, and a mantel- piece of Rouen faience of the mid-century. On either side of the latter are two newel posts. One, painted to imitate marble, is in the Louis XV rococo style; the other, in the style of Louis XVI, recalls the manner of Lalonde. Above the latter is a plate of Moustiers ware of the early eighteenth century representing an ostrich hunt, after a design by Tempesta. The balancing piece, representing Venus and Adonis, is a Rouen work painted by Claude Borne, signed and dated 1736. ooo ry] e ORG aD Hiss ean Oe S = ae ODOT e “iS : re eae 7. Tote N.C HT ART fe en ALE OF THE XVIII AND Prana XS XC EN DUR Y bel rata ALA AATARIALARANAS iS eA cB Ss GGUS NGS Mar cca! PAIRS Wary tied PCR W RAD ae TT ceveneeeeenerresss C4 fe De OAD AN! Cietalel aio INTRODUCTION Early in the second half of the eighteenth century the rococo was suddenly abandoned in fashionable circles, and a new style, which derived its principal characteristics from the forms and ornament of classical art, made its appearance. A reaction from the exuberance of the rococo was inevitable. This style had been carried to its ultimate perfection; it was squeezed dry of surprise. But the classical ori- entation of the new style and its rapid development were due in large measure to the intellectual move- ment which, after the middle of the century, gath- ered swift momentum until it swept France into the maelstrom of revolution. In the first half of the century Montesquieu gave expression in his Lettres persanes to the growing dissatisfaction with existing political and social con- ditions. He was followed after 1750 by a brilliant galaxy of writers who devoted their pens to the cause ofreform. In every form of literature /es philosophes, as these writers were called, attacked the ignorance, stupidity, and superstition which surrounded them. Diderot’s Encyclopedia was the rallying ground for these philosophizing /ittérateurs; their great leaders were Voltaire and Rousseau; their war cry, ration- ois THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING alism and humanity; their weapons, truth and knowl edge; their program, Accept nothing for granted—in- vestigate everything. In thus taking stock of the sum of human knowl- edge, the civilization of the ancient world was sub- mitted to a closer examination than ever before. Inspired by the discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii (1738-1763) of a classical art seemingly at variance with the traditional canons, the learned Winckelmann attempted to reconstruct and restate the principles of ancient art. The Recueil d’anti- quités (1752-1767) of the Comte de Caylus depicted the glories of the antique monuments encountered in his travels. During the years 1750-1765 ap- peared numerous works in both French and English which gave authentic and detailed accounts of the best existing remains of antiquity. The civilization which had produced these great monuments was also the subject of no less fervent an examination, since in the history of the past might be discovered the solution of present problems. Wearied of an artificiality which had lost its savor, society found a fresh zest in the doctrines of /es philosophes, and half sincerely, half as a delightfully novel pose, accepted the cult of rationalism and the return to nature. For its new réle a new setting was requisite. Thus the rococo came to be thrown aside into the discard of outworn fashions, and a new style developed that combined reminiscences of the antique with the ribboned hat, the rustic tools, and the glean- ings of well-ordered gardens which to the declining eighteenth century symbolized the happier existence of unsophisticated man. Mme. de Pompadour was among the first to 314 SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII——-EARLY XIX CENTURY ’ adopt the “antique.” She sent her brother—later, as Marquis de Marigny, the artistic dictator of France —to study the remains of classical art in Italy under the guidance of the architect, Soufflot, and of the engraver, Cochin, who, although in his time a designer in the rococo style, was one of the first to inveigh against it in the press. Under such powerful patron- age the new ideas gained popularity so rapidly that even by 1760 everything had to be @ Ja grecque to be in the mode. The impulse to this revival of the antique came, then, from the intellectuals and littérateurs rather than from the developing taste of the efaitsmian, as. Mad the pre- ceding style. Since the exist- ing monuments of antiquity were almost entirely architec- tural, the architects naturally assumed the leadership, and soon retrieved their former position as directors of the ; FIG. 138. public taste. The decorators LOUIS XVI PANEL now followed rather than led, PAINTING ON CANVAS and were in consequence the conservative element. Thus, while the general scheme of a decoration might be thoroughly in the classical 3*5 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING mode, its detailed treatment would often be reminis- cent of the earlier style. But as time went on, the style hardened; the precedent of classical example was observed more strictly; and the way prepared for the pedantic neo-classicism which appeared at the close of the Louis XVI period and dominated the art of the Empire. Side by side with these evidences of classicism the sentimental naturalism preached by Rousseau expressed itself in sprays of flowers and emblems of country life which afforded a certain freedom of treatment to the decorator. In these and the transformed classical arabesques the spirit of the rococo found a last refuge. Political and social influences play relatively little or no part in these changes of the mid-eighteenth century. France was at peace with her neighbors with the exception of England, whose growing power she attempted to curb by aiding the American col- onies in their War of Independence. Nevertheless, despite political rivalry, English taste and fashion exerted some influence upon French art of this period when English political and social institutions were a source of inspiration to the French reformers. Socially the patronage of art underwent no change, as no element entered the privileged circles which had not played a part in the preceding reign. The interests of the ruling class remained the same, and the new style entered as a superimposed fashion rather than as a radical change necessitated by new conditions. For similar reasons, economic forces had little to do with the new style. The huge ex- penditures of the court continued in spite of the ef- forts of Necker to introduce economy and to reor- ganize the finances of the state. The government 316 SeecUND HALE OF THE XVIII-——-EARLY XIX CENTURY ran further and further into debt, aided by a parasitic nobility which had for the most part exhausted the productivity of its own estates. The total wealth of the country, however, was constantly on the increase, the gain accruing mainly to the merchant classes, whose increasing importance and influence were finally to make possible the revolt of the Third Es- tate and the end of the monarchy. In architecture, the reign of Louis XVI (1774-1793) saw the end of one epoch and the beginning of an- other. On the one hand, the native academic tradi- tion culminated in the work of J. A. Gabriel; on the other, Souffot’s departures in Ste. Geneviéve (now the Panthéon), begun in 1754, definitely initiated the era of modern eclecticism. Gabriel has already been mentioned as the architect of the facades on the Place de la Concorde. His formula for all monu- mental work was practically that established by Perrault in the seventeenth century—that of a two- story order over a rusticated basement. This he used both at Compiégne and in the forecourt at Ver- sailles, but his masterpiece, and one of the gems of French architecture, is the Petit Trianon, given to Mme. du Barry by Louis XV. In general the changes brought about in the aca- demic style by the classical revival were the aban- donment of curved forms, excepting the circle and the ellipse; the restriction of ornament to mould- ings, panels, and occasional accents; a great increase in uninterrupted smooth wall surface with a decrease in the amount of projections and reveals; and a gen- eral refinement of scale. In ornament, the asym- metric freedom of the rococo gave place to a strict axial balance of motive by motive, and the scroll and oy THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING shell disappeared before carefully controlled floral forms and orthodox mouldings. The three classic or- ders came, of course, into greater prominence, with a marked tendency to follow the proportions found in existing remains rather than the Vitruvian formulae. In the work of the innovators, Soufflot, Boulée, and Pierre Rousseau, a much more definite attempt to produce the architecture of ancient Rome 1s ap- parent. The Panthéon, with its hexastyle portico and walls of unpierced masonry, shows this clearly, and the same tendency is exemplified in such private buildings as the Hotel de Salm. In the latter, the windows of the second floor are omitted to obtain a classic one-story effect, deliberately sacrificing utility in order to follow more closely a preconceived no- tion of the antique. Fortunately, in the majority of private dwellings common sense prevented these extremes, which are more characteristic of the suc- ceeding period. As the style developed, however, porticos with low-pitched pediments, masking colon- nades, and flat balustraded roofs appeared with in- creasing frequency. Although about 1780 the Louis XVI style had reached its apex in architecture, sculpture was still under the spell of the softened naturalism of Falco- net and Pajou, which, only faintly tinged with classi- cism, continued the tradition of the earlier period. This naturalism was accentuated by Jean Antoine Houdon, one of the greatest sculptors of modern times, who discarded the prettiness of his predeces- sors while avoiding the hardness of the neo-class- icists. Houdon’s work has such universality that it perhaps passes the limits of a style; yet, by and large, it is the logical culmination of the tendency 318 SECONDS aALr (OFS THE XVITI—-EARLY XIX CENTURY toward greater and greater individualism which ran throughout the eighteenth century. The genre of decorative figurines—so in character with the spirit of the rococo—culminated, in the work of Claude Mi- chel, called Clodion. The marvelous dexterity of this artist, whose terracottas of sporting nymphs and satyrs are among the most prized possessions of con- noisseurs, was devoted to purely decorative purposes, FIG. 139. OVER-DOOR PAINTING ATTRIBUTED TO MME. VALLAYER-COSTER and expresses as nothing else the facile and sensuous spirit of the age. This rococo spirit survives also in the work of the painters trained under the influence of Boucher. Fragonard, to the end of his days in 1806, was only superficially influenced by the classicists, while the school of miniaturists as represented by Baudouin continued to delight the amateur with their charming if licentious sketches. The Rousseauesque senti- mentalists welcomed with acclaim the first work of Greuze, who attempted with the aid of much tech- nical skill to render morality palatable by a sugaring of sensuality which spoils all but his lovely portraits sues THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING of childhood. The feeling for natural beauty in land- scape received little encouragement from the new spirit. What little there is shows itself rather in the passing school, for a true observation of natural form, although somewhat theatrical in handling, is evident in Fragonard’s work. With his contemporary, Hu- bert Robert, the decorative point of view is para- mount, and the classical ruins are used in a somewhat sentimental way with the object of blending both currents of fashionable taste. While the fire of rococo art was flickering out in a haze of sentimentality, the younger generation was being initiated into the formal glories of classic sculp- ture and archaeology under the tutelage of Vien in the Academy at Rome. Since practically no exam- ples of classical painting existed, except of purely decorative character, ancient sculpture had perforce to serve as preceptor; hence, the importance given to form and modeling and the entirely secondary position to which color was relegated. These sculp- tural qualities, embodied in subjects drawn from ancient history, found their chief exponent in David, whose Oath of the Horatii took Paris by storm in 1784. Austerity and accurate delineation of form were now to dominate French painting for some years to come, although for a while portraiture re- tained much of the charm of the earlier style. The true style of Louis XVI is essentially one of transition. In both painting and sculpture, con- sidered apart from decoration, the change from the spirit of the rococo to that of the Empire is on the whole an abrupt one. In architecture the transition covered a longer period, but involved no violent break with tradition. The most truly characteristic 320 SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII—EARLY XIX CENTURY products of the style, and perhaps its most charm- ing, are those of the decorator and of the worker in the minor arts. The first break with the rococo is marked by a return to the principles of symmetrical balance and, in some degree, to the heavy forms of the seventeenth century. The designs of Charles Delafosse, published in 1768, show this most clearly. His style grecque does not entirely abandon the curve, but is charac- terized by the use of consoles with square volutes, a heavier scale in the mouldings, and a liberal employ- ment of the Greek fret. In interior treatment this preliminary state is well exemplified in some of the designs of Boucher //s; here the lines of the paneling are strictly rectangular, with a well-defined cornice, but an occasional lintel or over-door retains the earlier curved forms. The complete victory of the strictly architectural treatment came very speedily. Full orders on the interior were seldom used, but a strongly marked cornice—often with modillions; a dado treated as a pedestal; and the simple verticals and horizontals of the paneling gave a framework quite incapable of rococo waywardness. The chim- ney breast was faced with a large mirror in a simple moulded frame, the mantel being either a lintel sup- ported on consoles, or a miniature classic order. The panels were often left plain, but when decorated it was generally with an arabesque or trophy, either carved or painted. Carved ornament as before was generally gilded to contrast with the light background, but in smaller rooms of an informal character the decoration was usually painted in natural colors on the flat surface, and gilding omitted or sparingly used. All this ornament was of a rather fine scale to 321 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING correspond with that of its architectural setting. A jewel-like working of form, whether in wood, bronze, marble, or paint, is one of the most outstanding characteristics of the style and one of its chief charms. The decoration by the brothers Rousseau at Ver- sailles and Fontainebleau may be taken as typical of the best work of the time. The publications of the designers, Prieur, Lalonde, and Salembier, give a complete résumé of the ornament in fashion, but show little variety other than personal interpreta- tions of the arabesque and rinceau. The engravings of Ranson and Pillement, the latter recalling the Louis XV chinoiseries, were the source of much of the delightful floral designs found not only in painted wall decorations but also on the textiles and ceramics of the period. Just prior to the Revolution the ara- besque tends to become dry and lifeless, but previous to this, although classical in subject, the archaeolog- ical element is inconspicuous. Urns, lyres, tripods, and sphinxes mingle with grotesque masks, swags, garlands, and dancing nymphs in a delightful inter- play of line and color. To this architectural background, furniture had of course to conform. The cabriole leg became for a time the bracket scroll, or, in the case of the delicate boudoir furniture then in vogue, was reduced to a very slight curve. The straight, turned leg, how- ever, is general, both on chairs and tables, by about 1770. This leg is commonly fluted, more or less in the manner of a classic column, and supports a hori- zontal member modeled after a classic lintel or cor- nice. As in the preceding period, these chairs and console-tables were made of beech or oak, painted or gilded, while cabinets, commodes, desks, and oc- 322 NOfid ‘Nr1nVO 14LQH SJHL WOU AXYOMAOOM IAX SINOT WOOUdATT AO MAIA ‘OVI “OIA THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING casional furniture were veneered and decorated with marquetry and ormolu. Materials and methods of decoration were changed but little from the previ- ous style, the modifications being almost entirely in form and scale of treatment. J. H. Riesener, the successor of Oeben, is representative of the group of marvelous craftsmen who made the most beautiful furniture of this period. Beneman, who popularized the use of mahogany in France, Dubois, Saunier, and later, Carlin and ,Weisweiler are only a few of those whose taste and personality have come down to us embodied in masterpieces of cabinet-work. Each of these had some peculiarity in design or in use of material which made him often the center of a little school of ébéntstes. Mention is now in order of the workers in gilded bronze, notably Gouthiére, Thomire, and Forestier, on whom the cabinet-makers relied so greatly for the decoration of this sumptuous furniture. Although following probably the designs of architects and sculptors such as Bellanger and Boizot, these crafts- men gave to their work an exquisite, living quality of modeling and surface, a perfection of chiseling and gilding which often permits us to count furniture mounts, clocks, candelabra, sconces, and similar works in ormolu among the greatest achievements of eight- eenth-century art. The smiling, graceful nymphs and sparkling foliage of Gouthiére hold their place with the finest products of Cressent and Philippe Cafheri1.. The best work of Gouthiére’s pupil, Tho- mire, is very similar, but in its later phases hardens and finally succumbs to the rigidity of the Empire style. In addition to surface decoration of exotic woods 324 SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII-——EARLY XIX CENTURY either in pictorial or geometrical marquetry, relieved with mouldings and appliqués of ormolu, designers such as Carlin made use of plaques of soft-paste Sévres, decorated in polychrome, generally with sprays of flowers or a pastoral scene in the style of Boucher. This usage became very popular, al- though in somewhat doubtful taste since the contrast with the soft, warm tones of the woodwork is a diffi- cult one to manage. It seems to be a sign not only of the continued popularity of the products of the Sévres factory, but of the lowered standard of taste through an over-eager striving for novelty. As mentioned in a previous chapter, the mid- century products of the Vincennes-Sévres kilns were in the rococo taste. This style persisted more or less under the successive artistic direction of Falco- net and Boizot until about 1780. By 1760, however, a marked simplification of form begins to appear, and at the same time many of the classic details common to contemporary decoration come into use. This was probably the finest period of Sévres before the introduction of hard paste in 1768. Fifteen years later, unadulterated classicism and the popularity of the harsher hard paste had caused a conspicuous deterioration in the quality of the product. During this period the factory also produced large quantities of the fine biscuit ware in the form of decorative groups after Falconet and Clodion, which were used as substitutes for original marbles or terracottas. In 1766 Francois Thomas Germain, son of the famous silversmith of the early part of the century, announced the production of a series of vases antiques. The designers of the period, Delafosse, Cauvet, and Lalonde, all furnished patterns for vases or table 028, THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING pieces in which, as in contemporary porcelain, the flowing lines of the mid-century forms were straight- ened and simplified, although classical motives and mouldings continued to share ornamental honors with earlier scroll and floral forms. The supple line of the rococo, so suited to the material, was aban- doned slowly, however, and a free treatment of the acanthus and endive motives is not unusual well to- ward the end of the period. The abandonment of the rococo was a distinct blow to the ironworker who could not take refuge in the jewel-like perfection striven for by the workers in the finer metals. The smith’s art did not immediately decline, and work like that of Bigonnet on the gates of the Palais de Justice at Paris shows remarkable skill in the use of classic detail and motives. The forms, however, are not sympathetic, and the style is only thoroughly successful in small panels of grill- work when no monumental effect is attempted. The designs of Lalonde and Forty illustrate the adapta- tion of classic forms to ironwork, but the smiths themselves have left no published designs. In general, textile designs underwent at this time the same diminution in scale noticeable throughout contemporary decoration. The undulating line char- acteristic of the mid-century patterns was straight- ened, and the delicate flower sprays already noted in connection with the porcelains appeared on the brocades held in by vertical stripes of different weave or color, accompanied with knots and garlands of ribbon, pastoral trophies, emblems of love, and all — the current decorative motives in miniature. In the atelier of Philippe de la Salle at Lyons were pro- duced fabrics of large-scale design of great vigor 326 SECOND HALE OF THE XVIII—-EARLY XIX CENTURY and individuality which spread the fame of these looms all over Europe. The abolition of the strict guild control of the maitrise in 1784 permitted the manufacture of printed cottons, the famous foiles de jouy representing the typical classical designs of the period. In tapestry design the school of Boucher continued to hold the field until the Revolution. In 1787 the pro- duction of a series illustrating the life of Henri IV after car- toons in the classic manner by Vincent was undertaken but not finished. The end of the ancien régime came before David and his followers had a chance to find substitutes for the gay deities of Boucher. In the decorative tapestries woven at the Beauvais fac- mee leee esate sup- i 7 dane DE BAL plemented by floral designs MINIATURE BY SICARDI after Ranson; as in the case of the Gobelins, the growth of classicism showed itself in little save the severer ornament of the borders. By 1790, the architecture of Bellanger, the furni- ture of Weisweiler, and the decorations of Cauvet announce the beginning of the Empire style, although the phases of the Directoire and Consulate had yet to be developed before its culmination in the style of Percier and Fontaine. As in the earlier years of the century, the rest of Europe followed the leadership of Paris, although in England the new influences came perhaps more Toe THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING directly from Italy and Greece. In Austria and Germany, and even in Italy, the French styles were taken as a model but interpreted in a manner char- acteristic of national taste. England in particular developed a distinctly national art. In 1760 the gospel of classicism was vigorously stated by Robert Adam, who became for about a quarter of a century the dictator of English architectural] and decorative taste. With the aid of the Italians, Pergolesi and Cipriani, and the painter, Angelica Kauffmann, an enormous amount of work was turned out which changed ornamental fashion at that time more completely than in contemporary France. The designs of the Adam brothers for fur- - niture, executed by the leading cabinet-makers of the day, Chippendale among others, were less in- dividual than their purely decorative compositions, but show clearly the same influences that were de- . veloping the French style of Louis XVI. The fine scale of the new ornament fostered the use of paint and composition rather than carving in the solid. The resulting style was elegant and delicately austere, but with a tendency to be rather dry and spindling. When the Adam brothers undertook to decorate a house, every detail from the facade to the pattern of the carpets was designed under their personal direction, thus attaining a completeness of effect hitherto unknown in the decorative arts. | In this connection should be mentioned the furni- ture designs of Thomas Sheraton who, with Thomas Chippendale and George Hepplewhite, forms the great trilogy of English eighteenth-century cabinet- makers and designers. Sheraton’s designs, published in 1792, reveal the influence of the Louis XVI style, 328 SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII—EARLY XIX CENTURY yet a comparison with contemporary French work will show how distinctly national they are. Under Thomas Wedgwood, English ceramics excelled both in technique and quality of design, and his plaques of figure designs in white on blue, black, or yellow ground became famous throughout Europe. A great deal of the credit for this preéminence is due, however, to the exquisite work of the sculptor, Flax- man, who made a large number of Wedgwood’s models, and to the timely introduction of classical forms and motives. In painting, this was the great age of English art. Reynolds lived till 1792; Gainsborough died only a few years earlier, in 1788. Besides these great names, those of Romney, Raeburn, Lawrence, Hoppner, and Crome make this not only the golden age of Eng- lish portraiture, but the nursery of the great school of landscape which played so important a part in the development of French painting after the Empire. Strict classicism was never so much at home in Eng- land as in France, its chief exponent being the little- inspired Benjamin West. To return to France, we have noted that the com- plete dominance of classicism was assured before the collapse of the monarchy in 1793. What would have happened in the world of art had the Revolution been avoided it is impossible to say, but the events of 1790-1800 resulted in a definite break with tradition. All that in the least savored of the ancient régime fell into disrepute, and the field was swept clear for whatever might be taken to express the new civil liberty. During the years of chaos and warfare previous to the Consulate of Napoleon, nothing of a really con- ge9 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING structive nature was possible. The skeleton of the Louis XVI style, stripped of all its amenities, was partially rivaled by fads growing out of the military accomplishments of the young republic. From this time we have rooms treated as field tents, liberally sprinkled with emblems of classical warfare; and beds with testers upheld by crossed spears, crowned with the cap of liberty. Baldness and barrenness were regarded as the virtues of Spartan simplicity, with which the lack of variety in classical furniture and the physical hardiness of the “natural man” accorded perfectly, With the establishment of internal peace and a prosperity resulting from military victory, Napoleon attempted to revivify the arts and industries and to create a style which would redound to his imperial fame, as that nurtured by Colbert had glorified Louis XIV. During the Directoire, the painter, David, had brought to Bonaparte’s notice the young architects, Percier and Fontaine, who were past-masters of the deroyalized classicism then in vogue. When the Spartan republicanism of the nineties was trans- formed into an aggressive imperialism the new Caesar turned to ancient Rome for inspiration; to David and his architectural lieutenants is due a large part of the distinction to which the resulting style sometimes attained. Percier and Fontaine played in this a role similar to that of the Adam brothers in England. They furnished designs for everything that pertained to the decorative arts, and generally avoided by their trained taste the pitfalls which en- trapped their imitators. Although David undoubtedly aspired to be a sec- ond Lebrun and to that end attained the position of Jo” SECOND HALF OF THE XVIII—EARLY XIX CENTURY premier peintre and a patent of authority as general director of the national arts, Bonaparte himself had no small opinion of his own powers of discrimination, and let them be felt accordingly. The glorification of the military heroes of the past implied that of the present. The constant recurrence of the imperial emblems and the establishment of a pomp and luxury at court surpassing that of the old régime were also the outcome of Napoleon’s direct care. David was not allowed to work unhampered. The prime requisite that the arts of the Empire had to fulfil was that of splendor. Had the patron- age been that of a cultivated and polished generation, all might have been well, but the vast majority of the imperial entourage were “new men,” more at home in the camp than in the salon. Woman, who had played such an important part in the establishment of previous standards of taste, was definitely rele- gated to a secondary place, and her influence largely limited to the domain of fashion and dress. Due to these and other causes, the resulting magnifi- cence was of the most obvious and broad-handed sort. Strident color and heavy mass gave their own authority, like the heavy boom of an army sergeant’s voice. The delicacy of the style of Louis XVI, that haunted the tentative fashions of the Directoire, disappeared. The keynote of the new decoration is given by the brilliant and determined contrast of clearly outlined ormolu on red mahogany, and the gorgeousness of crimson velvet and gold brocades. A survey of the major arts will show that, in painting, classical themes shared popularity with those inspired by the Napoleonic wars in which the 338 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING note of dawning romanticism was obscured by the heavy periods of classic oratory. In the work of Prudhon survived some of the sentiment of earlier days, but in combination with the classic canon it resulted in a rather disagreeable, saccharine quality. Among the painters of the day only Ingres, in his early work, escaped from the banal by a close study of nature. The school is seen at its best in portrai- ture. In sculpture the principal exponent of the classical school—occupying a position similar to that of David in painting—was the Italian, Canova, whose senti- mental exercises in the antique manner were ac- corded, by his contemporaries, a fulsome meed of praise. As to France, the worship of the antique was so essentially superficial and so opposed to the true Gallic appreciation of form that few sculptors of any moment were produced at this time. An exception may be made for Chinard, whose remarkable gifts as a naturalistic sculptor in the genre of Houdon were only partially hidden behind the classical mask. Contemporary criticism of architecture seems to have been based on the axiom that the structures of antiquity could never be surpassed. Therefore, the nearer a modern building came to that ideal, the closer it was to perfection. The Arc du Carrousel (1806), the Madeleine (begun 1807), and the Chambre des Députés (1807) exemplify this theory. Although correct in detail and proportion, they are almost entirely lacking in real architectural quality, owing to their second-hand character and to the basic unsuitability of form. The quality of the new decoration has already been hinted at. In the hands of accomplished artists, such ue SBRCONDOIAgr OF THE XVIII-—-EARLY XIX CENTURY as Percier and Fontaine, it often attains a great de- gree of refinement and formal distinction. But as shown above, the style was essentially one of parade, and when a lighter touch was tried the result was often ludicrous if not shocking. A limited vocabulary of classical motives—wreaths, paterae, frigid foli- age, cornucopias, torches, urns, Winged victories and Pegasi, swans and Psyches—is employed indiscrim1- nately in bands or accents of uncompromising out- line and little significance. This indiscriminate usage was deplored by Percier, but the new rich patrons of this decoration cared little so long as the effect was gorgeous and @ /a mode. It is only fair to note, however, that the workmanship was often greatly superior to the design, particularly in the accessories of decoration; the furniture of Jacob Desmalter and the metalwork of Thomire and Odiot are worthy of their predecessors. With the collapse of the Empire in 1815, the razson étre of the imperial style ceased to exist, as did also the central authority behind it. The style lingered on, however, under the Restoration, gradually losing what vigor and merit it possessed, rivaled by equally tasteless Gothic revivals and Oriental innovations. During the Napoleonic régime the rest of Europe had little cause to celebrate a Roman triumph, yet the habit of looking to Paris for leadership in taste had become so thoroughly established that other countries followed her lead, even when the armies of Napoleon were overrunning their soil. Even England, the arch-enemy of Bonapartism, followed the trend, and some of the furniture for the royal residence at Windsor was produced by Jacob Des- malter in Paris. The Empire forms in England, how- B53 THE PIERPONT) ‘MORGAN DWING ever, were tempered for a time by the delicacy of Sheraton, and in Germany the “Biedermeier” style showed somewhat the same character. But by 1830, decorative taste in every field had declined, as in Paris, to all kinds of standardless revivals. Even had the Bonapartist dynasty succeeded in imposing itself permanently upon the French, it is doubtful whether the Empire style could have be- come the basis for a new tradition, as had that of Louis XIV. In the first place, it had come as an imposed style of predetermined limitations, with little relation to the actual life of the people. The Revolu- tion had also destroyed the old source of constant and cultivated patronage, and several generations would have been required under the most favorable circumstances before it could have been replaced. The abolition of the guilds, commenced by Louis XVI in 1784, was completed at his fall. The con- sequent lapse of the apprentice system stopped the supply of skilled craftsmen working along traditional, slowly developing lines. Thus the way was prepared for slovenly workmanship and for ill-considered design since the abject copying of classic forms led naturally to superficial imitation of other styles of the past, when the novelty of the antique palled. The standards of artistic production were further depressed by another and even more serious factor. The Industrial Revolution, beginning in England in the last years of the eighteenth century with the steam engine of Watt and the power loom of Ark- wright, initiated the era of quantity production and specialization. The artist-craftsman creating an object from the raw material was driven out of the market, for the factory product, standardized and 334 SeeoNDoiwtce OF THE XVIII--EARLY XIX. CENTURY cheaply assembled, made an irresistible appeal both to the pocket and to the untrained taste of the in- dustrial dourgeoisie. The French Revolution seems, therefore, but to have precipitated an artistic cataclysm already pre- ordained by radical, social, and economic changes of which the Revolution itself was only a symptom. The arts of the Renaissance, fostered by the order that produced them, were bound to pass with that order. The nineteenth century we can see as part of a great transition still in progress, and perhaps best expressed by the artistic conflict for which it stands. SBE} CHAPTER II GALLERIES F I8 AND Ig As Gallery F 18, the south balcony overlooking the main hall, offers little wall space, the exhibits here are limited to a few objects, among which may be noted tinted plaster busts of Voltaire and Rousseau by Houdon, and a large over-mantel mirror-frame in the Louis XVI style. With Gallery F 19 begins a series of rooms devoted principally to woodwork and furni- ture of the Louis XVI period. On the left, as one enters Gallery F 19, is the woodwork of the enframement of a_bed-alcove. Unfortunately, many coats of calcimine have ob- scured the original painting and gilding, but the quality of the carving may still be discerned. In proportions as in ornament this architectural frag- ment is a work of high order. The cornice has been restored, and two paintings substituted for lost originals in the roundels above the two small doors which gave access to the little rooms serving as varde-robe and cabinet behind the bed-alcove. In the opening are shown various decorative fragments and a sketchily painted canvas of a lady in the costume of the seventeen-eighties, seated on a couch with an embroidery frame at her side. Beneath the painting - is a fine console, the mate of which is exhibited on the 336 GALLERIES F IS AND 1g east wall. The two carved panels on either side of the alcove are decorated with trophies symbolizing the continents of Europe and Africa, and must origi- nally have formed part of a series. Occupying the central position on the wall opposite the windows is a series of five panels painted with the light and graceful arabesques particularly favored by the decorators of this period. The inspiration for these designs came from Italian Renaissance sources, revived by the rediscovery of the lightly handled grotesques of Pompeii. But the eighteenth-century artist by his introduction of naturalistic floral devices in the form of garlands, knots, and delicate vine-like tendrils, developed an extremely individual form of decoration, highly characteristic of the Louis XVI style. Painted paneling of this kind played a much greater part in the interior decoration of the Louis XVI period than in the previous régime, and tended more and more to displace carving and gilding. In the upper part of the central panel is a medallion symbolic of winter; small allegorical scenes were not infrequently combined with arabesque motives. The panels in this group formed part of the wall covering of a small room, which must have suffered from neglect and weather, as the condition of the painting indicates. More than enough remains, how- ever, to give ample evidence of the fine quality of the work. On the same wall are two fragments of wood paneling, decorated with flowers painted on a cream- colored ground: the floral motives are of the type popularized by Ranson and called after him ran- sonettes. Between these painted panels are exqul- sitely carved pilasters, originally painted and gilded. S37 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING The arabesque designs of the late Renaissance type are in the style of Salembier, who published in 1777 and 1778 a series of patterns for arabesques, friezes, and foliage motives. On the wall above are three over-door panels. That in the middle is one of a series ornamented with portrait medallions of famous architects; others of this set are shown in Gallery F 25. The panels on either side, together with a similar pair on the adjoining wall, represent the four seasons; this set is said to have come from the Chateau of Bagatelle (probably from the collections gathered there by the Marquis of Hertford, rather than from the original decorations carried out for the Comte d’Artois under the direction of the architect, Bellanger). The finely carved console has been previously mentioned. The central feature of the north wall is one of the gems of the collection—a section of paneling with painted decorations of the most exquisite quality (fig. 142). In subject these paintings belong to that fantastic class of orientalia which formed such a large part of the stock-in-trade of the eighteenth-century decorator. To the chinoiseries and singeries of the early years of Louis XV was added the decoration @ /a turque, which differed in little but details of costume. This interest in the Near East was perhaps stimulated by the curious garb of the ambassadors of the Sublime Porte to the court of Louis XV. At any rate, the French decorators were not slow to realize the voluptuous possibilities of the Grand Turk and his harem, and the bearded sons of Mohammed and their odalisques enjoyed a considerable popularity. In the Morgan panels the center of the upper design is occupied by a medallion en camaieu of a bashaw 338 FIG. 142. PAINTED PANELING WITH DECORATION “‘A LA TURQUE”’ FRENCH, PERIOD OF LOUIS XVI THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING and his wives, but the real Turkish motive is given by the amorini, sporting in turbaned fez and baggy breeches. Several other panels of this series are known (three in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris); it has been said that these panels came from a boudoir turque of Marie Antoinette at Versailles, but they are more probably from the cabinet turque of the Comte d’Artois in the same palace, now destroyed. The authorship of the panels is uncertain. They have been attributed in turn to Fragonard, Rousseau de la Rotthiére, and, with more likelihood, to J. B. . Leprince, who excelled in work of this kind. The two adjacent arabesque paintings on canvas, attributed to the decorator, Le Riche, were originally in the mansion of the Duc d’Aumont, on the Place de la Concorde, now known as the Hétel Crillon. The central medallions, again en camaieu, render homage in the favorite pseudo-classic manner to Friendship and the Arts. Both in composition and detail the panels are typical of the light and graceful style which preceded the advent of rigid classicism. Above are the two over-doors previously mentioned, and between these is a charming oval frame of the period enclosing a piece of tapestry representing a girl laying an offering of roses on the altar of love. The contemporary vogue for decorations of ribbons and flowers is exemplified by a set of painted walls, of which two are shown on this wall and the remainder between the windows. In this gallery are two cases devoted to French bibelots of the eighteenth century. The Morgan collection of these finely designed and delicately wrought objects, which is distributed in Galleries F 19, 23, 24, and 25, is very representative, easily 340 GALLERIES F I8 AND Ig enabling us to understand the degree to which they have been sought and treasured by the connoisseur. Case A is devoted to carnets de bal (dance pro- grams) of the late eighteenth century. The name carnet de bal has been given somewhat inaccurately to this form of bibelot. The gold and enamel case with its ivory tablets and pencil was probably used for a variety of pur- poses besides dance memo- randa, and from the con- stantly recurring inscription —souvenir de lamitié, or de Pamour—was evidently a useful form of keepsake and token of affection. Among the more notable examples is one with a minia- ture portrait on ivory of a boy, attributed to Fragonard; another, particularly charm- ing, is decorated with a pas- FIG. 143. toral scene in enamel CARNET DE BAL t] yi) n MINIATURE OF representing eureuse ren- OU kegel Senet: BTS contre. Others worthy of BY LOUIS SICARDI especial note are those attrib- uted to Gault de St. Germain (pearl matrix with a miniature on ivory of the Graces) and to Louis Sicardi (a portrait miniature on ivory of Marie Antoinette) (fig. 143). Another with a miniature in grisaille on ivory is in the manner of Piat-Joseph Sauvage. In Case B are arranged snuff- and comfit-boxes of the second half of the eighteenth century; these are for the most part French, but a small number are English. Small sweetmeat-boxes existed in Europe 341 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING as early as the Middle Ages; but not until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the universal use of snuff made necessary the tabatiére, did this kind of bibelot under the name of bonbonniére reach its greatest development. It was, at this period, a sign of rank and a customary formal gift from one person of rank to another. The most distinguished jewelers and goldsmiths were employed in making these exquisite objects and the finest miniaturists furnished tiny paintings of consum- mate artistry.» Ehemdec: oration consisted of a setting of gold, enamel, and jewels, into which was often introduced a miniature scene or por- FIG. 144. BOX WITH PAINTING trait in enamel or in BY VAN BLARENBERGHE water-color, protected by crystal. The more interesting examples in Case B include two in bas-relief, one with a portrait bust of the Princess Marie de Lamballe by Clodion in discuit de Sévres, the other with a Wedgwood medallion after a design by Flaxman. There are three decorated with miniature scenes of festivals, battles, and landscapes on parchment by the famous van Blarenberghes, father and son. Among the finest portraits in this case are those of Louis XVI on ivory by Louis Sicardi and of Catherine II of Russia in enamel. Also worthy of notice is one with miniatures on ivory of Napoleon, the Empress Marie Louise, and the King of Rome, the last two by Isabey. 342 Cle baWead O] sdeeed a | G@EULERIES F 20, 21, AND 22 THE HOTEL GAULIN BOISERIES In 1922 J. Pierpont Morgan presented to the Mu- seum the lavishly carved and gilded woodwork, with original mantels and mirrors, of a suite of three rooms —salon, library, and bed-chamber—from the Hotel Gaulin at Dijon (figs. 140, 145, 146). These beautiful examples of French interior decoration in the Louis XVI period (about 1770-80) are installed in Galleries F 20, 21, and 22, with practically no change from the original plan, and completed with furniture and other accessories of the period. Since most of the woodwork exhibited in the Morgan Wing is of a fragmentary character, these Jozseries, as complete ensembles illustrating the rich interior decoration of the eighteenth century just before the exquisite grace and fantasy of the Louis XVI style was frozen into rigidity by the cold formality of neo-classicism, are particularly welcome accessions. Jérome Marlet, of a family of Dijonnais wood 1One of the four windows in the library has been made into a doorway connecting with Gallery F 19. Inthe bedroom, the two windows origi- nally flanking the alcove have been transposed to the opposite wall; the doorway opening into the salon has been moved from the present window wall to the wall opposite the mantel; and a new doorway provided to give access to Gallery F 23. O43 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING sculptors, is credited with the design of the three rooms. Born August 26, 1731, he was probably in his forties when they were erected. Although of no great originality, Marlet was considered in his time the most capable sculptor of this important pro- vincial center, and a considerable proportion of the decoration undertaken in Dijon at the end of the eighteenth century was under his direction. Marlet was a member of the jury of the Ecole des Beaux Arts of Dijon from 1777 to 1789; he seems to have left the city about 1790; but later returned, becoming curator of the museum at Dijon in 1806, a post he occupied until his death on November 14, 1810. The Hotel Gaulin,? 11 bis rue Saint-Pierre, whence came the Morgan Joiseries, is only one of a number of private mansions in which Marlet exercised his craft, but his work there seems to be particularly rep- resentative of his manner. The hotel itself— originally constructed, it is said, for a certain Comte d’Auvillars—was built in the early part of the eight- eenth century. , The first room of the series, entered from Gallery F 1g, is the library (fig. 145), perhaps the richest of the three in the matter of decoration. The two book- cases, crowned with elaborately carved and gilded urns and garlands, are set out from the wall much like those of the Bibliotheque du Roi at Versailles, practically all the remaining wall surface being taken up by doors and windows. The carving on the doors and framing members is particularly delightful in design and execution although, as in the rest of the *Several decorations attributed to Marlet, that of the Hétel Gaulin among others, have been published by Leon Deshairs in his folio volume: Dijon, Architecture et Decoration aux xvi ™ et xvi ™ Siécles. 344 VIEW OF LIBRARY FIG. 145. THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING work, no great originality or distinctive quality of design is exhibited. The sculptured decorations of the four over-doors are emblematic of Architecture, Painting, Music, and the Mathematical Sciences. The beauty of the exquisitely carved ornament is greatly enhanced by the color and quality of the old gilding, which successive repaintings® of the background have failed to destroy. So delicate is this work that in many ways it equals the best contemporary ormolu—for which, at a casual glance, it might be mistaken. In contrast to this intricate detail, the simplicity of the white marble mantel comes with somewhat of a shock. It may be assumed, in explanation, that the mantel was left unfinished since it has obviously been designed to be completed with gilt-bronze mounts, which for some reason or other were omitted. The salon (fig.146), although not quite so charming in detail as the library, is quieter, more architectural in design. Here again the doors are the finest part of the decoration—indeed, excellent examples of the Louis XVI style at its best. The original plaster lunettes above the four doors are without question by the hand of Marlet himself. They represent, somewhat in the manner of Sauvage, Wine, Gaming, The World as a Plaything of Love and Folly, and The Wheel of Fortune. These subjects are hardly obvious enough to have been chosen at random and most likely indicate that the main function of the room was to shelter a quiet game of ombre, pic- quet, or whist, with its appropriate accompaniments. 3Records of these repaintings in 1845 and 1859 have been left by the workmen themselves on the upper surface of the small brackets on the lower moulding of two of the over-doors. 346 VIEW OF SALON FIG. 146. THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING We may be sure that this delightful little salon has seen more than one gay party with decorum carefully left outside! Here, as in the library, the marble mantel has not been completed with the ormolu mounts for which it was designed. Opposite it 1s the customary wall mirror, beneath which is a beautiful console-table from the Hoentschel Collection. The walls of the salon are hung with a modern reproduction of a brocade by Philippe de la Salle, the master textile- designer of Lyons in the eighteenth century. Two of the chairs in this room are notable for their ex- quisitely carved decoration. The bed-chamber (fig. 140) has suffered more than the other rooms at the hands of the renovator, who covered the original painted surface with many coats of calcimine, although fortunately the gilding has escaped. Originally the carved floral ornament was polychromed as well as gilded, but this poly- chrome decoration must have been eliminated shortly after the room was put up, to judge from the con- dition of the painting. The chief point of interest is, of course, the charming enframement for the bed niche, with its channeled and gilded colonnettes and richly deco- rated lambrequin. This alcove entrance was orig- inally flanked by two windows. The two little doors on either side of the enframement gave access presum- ably to a garde-robe or cabinet behind the bed niche. The carved and gilded bed now shown in the niche is of the period of the room, but does not come from Dijon. 4When the woodwork was removed, a drawing showing two schemes for the ormolu decoration of the mantel was found sketched on the plaster wall behind the mirror. 348 GALVERIES F :20-22 Unlike those in the other two rooms, the mantel in the bed-chamber is a complete and very fine example. Instead of relying on ormolu, the ornament is carved in the stone and gilded. The materials of the wall coverings and window curtains, as in the other rooms, are modern reproductions of eighteenth- century fabrics. Although these rooms were made at Dijon, a center naturally of lesser importance artistically than the capital, whatever slight provincial flavor they have 1s not particularly localized. All over France, at this time, the decorators were doing much the same sort of thing and using the same motives in much the same way, following the engraved designs of Lalonde, Boucher fi/s, Prieur, and Forty, which enjoyed a wide circulation. The rooms may, therefore, be taken as representative of the best of their period, for in few places was achieved the perfection attained at Ver- sailles and Fontainebleau—a perfection possible only with unlimited resources and the cooperation of a highly trained architect with the decorator. 349 CHAPTER IV GALLERY: F #28 THE HUBERT ROBERT PAINTINGS FROM BAGATELLE The most important decorative paintings in the Morgan Collection are undoubtedly the six canvases by Hubert Robert (fig. 147) exhibited in Gallery F 23. These were painted around 1784 for a, bathroom in the Chateau of Bagatelle, built by the architect, Bellanger, in a phenomenally short period at the order of the Comte d’Artois on a wager with his sister-in-law, Marie Antoinette. This little pleasure house underwent a variety of alterations in the stormy times during and following the Revolution, and these Robert paintings were removed sometime during this period. At one time in the possession of the Empress Josephine, the paintings were pre- sented by her to her physician and sold by him to the Comte de Flaux. Hubert Robert was one of the foremost decorators of his time. Having devoted himself, when at Rome, to drawing the monuments of its ancient glory, he returned to Paris well equipped to satisfy the fashion- able craving for sentimentalized classicism. When the Revolution came, Robert shared the misfortunes of his aristocratic clients, and spent ten months in 35 Fic, 147]. , PAINTING BY HUBERT ROBERT THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING prison, escaping the guillotine only through a mistake of the jailer. These six panels seem to have little connection so far as their subject is concerned, although they are about equally divided between scenes of natural grandeur and the picturesque romance of ancient buildings. Only one, The Cave, is signed and dated ‘““H. Robert, 1784””—which would also be the approx- imate date of the rest. The paintings are characteristic of the artist at his best. In the painting of architectural ruins, Robert surpasses his contemporary, Panini, both in quality of color and in delicacy of handling. The Swing and The Bathing Pool show much the same spirit that inspired the decorative work of Fragonard. The range of colors is limited; with the exception of the green of the foliage, the effect of color is secured mainly by skilful oppositions of neutralized blue and orange tones. Such paintings as these were intended to be an integral part of a wall treatment and are shown here framed in a simple paneling to which are added a delicately carved white marble panel of about the same date as the paintings, and a wooden over-mantel and mirror of a rather earlier type (both from the Hoentschel Collection). The four medallions of profile heads executed in low relief in plaster on a red marble background, each in a charming eighteenth- century wooden frame, were probably intended to— represent the elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Two small cases are devoted to bibelots. The first of these contains eighteenth-century scent-bottles of Meissen porcelain. These interesting little articles are mostly in the form of statuettes, which delight She GALLERY F 23 one with their whimsicality of expression and pos- ture. The head is ordinarily removable to permit the introduction of the scent, and the bottle was carried in a handbag, or pocket, or placed upon the dressing- table as occasion demanded. In the second case are some beautiful snuft-boxes and carnets de bal, with other objects of especial interest, notably a needle- case in vernis Martin. Sho CEA PERS GALLERY F 24 In Gallery F 24 the Hoentschel Collection of wood- work and decorative paintings is continued. The most interesting pieces here are perhaps the large mirror-frame and a door panel (fig. 148) rescued from the palace of the Tuileries, when the Pavillon de Mar- san was burned in 1871. The door with enframing trim, occupying the center of the south wall, comes from an unknown source, and is a few years ear- lier in style than the Tuileries panels. The fine quality of the delicately sculptured ornament and the perfection of the gilding on these superb examples of Louis XVI woodwork equal the best bronze- work of the time, and recall in many ways the craftsmanship of the famous cise/eur, Gouthieére. The door on the south wall is said to have formed part, originally, of the same decoration as the over- doors of the architects mentioned on page 338. To the right of the door is a small carved oak panel, intended as a sculptor’s model for an arabesque design of a type we have already seen approximated by the painter. Above this is a skilfully executed sketch for an over-door panel, and a canvas in the manner of Boucher in which the amorini so dear to 354 % > ¢ 2h ewes LOUIS XVI DOOR PANEL FROM THE TUILERIES THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING the eighteenth-century decorator enact an incident in the story of Pygmalion and Galatea. Balancing this is a decorative still-life, probably used as an over-door, painted in the manner of Mme. Vallayer- Coster. Between this and a panel carved with an emblem of summer is a charming little grisaille painting of sporting cupids. Attention is also called to the carved and gilded over-door panels, with painted medallion inserts. These came from a house in the rue Antoine, Paris; the paintings show the dress fashionable in the early years of Louis XVI and are by an unidentified artist of the period. The center of the next wall is occupied by the Tuileries mirror, below which is a side-table of about the same date but from another source. On the table 1s a large ormolu clock with an allegory rep- resenting Love and Time. The finely carved ornament on the mirror-frame is typical of the late neo-classic phase of Louis XVI design. On either side of the mirror are various decorative canvases. The painted door panel to the left, with a medallion of a cupid and dove en camaieu, belongs to the same series as two now in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris. In the corners are two plaster torchéres in the form of girls carrying cornucopias. The panel from the Tuileries (fig. 148) on the north wall is half of a double-leaf door. Its decoration 1s identical in character with the mirror-frame, and if not from the same room, it is at least from the same suite. Some of the trim, as may be seen, still bears the marks of the fire caused by the communist riots. To the right is a delightful painted arabesque at- tributed to J. B. Huet; as an example of technique this is well worth careful study. The canvas on the 356 GALLERY F 24 left (fig. 138) was either part of a folding screen or a model for a tapestry panel. On the window wall may be noted a graceful oval frame, a three-branched wall appliqué of carved and gilded wood, and a frame of six small panels, probably sculptors’ models exquisitely carved in the style of Salembier. Most of the snuff- and comfit-boxes in the large floor-case in this gallery were produced around the middle years of the eighteenth century. These boxes show in their decorative treatment the freedom of line and general lightness and flamboyancy of the Geteemorerouls. XV. Lhese characteristics are, however, in the better examples subjected to the restraining influence of a simple geometric form, generally the oval, circle, or rectangle, although in a few instances the shape as well as the decorative treatment is ungeometric. There is also evident an extraordinary gayness and freshness of color which is usually lacking in the later, Louis XVI boxes. In some, pearl matrix is used either as a ground or as inlay; miniature genre scenes (fig. 144) and flower paintings adorn others, and in several instances Chi- nese motives testify to the exotic taste of the period. A very fine éxample is decorated in vernis Martin with a pastoral scene. Especially delicate and feminine is a little snuff-box decorated with pink and gray enamel and a medallion of Maria Anna of Austria in discuit de Sévres. Shy CHAPTER VI GALLERY fagoe Another panel of the Tuileries set, mentioned in the preceding chapter, occupies the central posi- tion on the wall to the right as the visitor enters Gallery F 25. With the exception of part of the border moulding, it is in excellent preservation, and well exemplifies the exquisite workmanship found up to the very end of the Louis XVI period. The two white and gold panels shown on the same wall are of about the same date; the detail, which is reminiscent of Salembier’s designs, is delicately han- dled, but the composition as a whole is weak. The two carved wood over-doors belong to the ‘architect’ series, previously mentioned in connec- tion with Gallery 19. Typical of the decorative paint- ing attributed to Mme. Vallayer-Coster are two canvases showing an ormolu-mounted vase sur- rounded by musical attributes. Below one of these in a finely carved frame is a painting of a road scene attributed to Casanova, who furnished many car- toons of similar subjects to the Beauvais factory. The vogue for paintings skilfully imitating the ap- pearance of a bas-relief was especially cultivated by the painter, Piat-Joseph Sauvage, to whom 1s attrib. uted the little grisaille of an autumnal sacrifice shown 358 ‘4 GALLERY F 25 below. To him also is ascribed the small canvas imitating a bronze plaque. The taste of the time is delightfully expressed in these paintings of children engaged in occupations symbolic of the seasons or in classical rites. Many examples of this genre are on the adjoining wall. Two of the panels, representing the Triumph of Bacchus, are versions of an identical design, carried out in different sizes. In the center of these small canvases is a damaged fragment of a wood panel, carved in unusually high relief. The typical Louis XVI console-table below exemplifies in the use of the lion’s paw the revival at this time of many motives characteristic of the style of Louis XIV. On either side of the console are four trophy models, presumably emblematic of outdoor and indoor music and of the occupations of fishing and farming. The shop-front (fig. 149) forming the north wall was originally part of the facade of No. 3 Quai Bourbon, Paris. Its design represents the phase transitional between the styles of Louis XV and Louis XVI found in many of the engraved designs of Boucher fi/s. The form of the transom over the entrance retains the curvilinear quality of the ear- lier period and much of the detail is of the pseudo- classic type popular in the first half of the century. The faience exhibited in the windows is mostly from the manufactories of Sceaux and Marseilles and shows the imitation of Strasbourg patterns. These ceramic exhibits are part of the Le Breton Collection shown in Gallery 17. On the window wall are a few decorative panels of the period, and two globes, terrestrial and celestial, of early nineteenth-century English make. ame, THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING Battersea enamel is well represented in the large floor-case. The collection consists of various types of étuis; vanity-boxes, scent-bottles, snuff-boxes, and comfit-boxes. The name étui, which was originally given to any sort of case intended to enclose and protect any object from a large clock to a needle, was later confined almost wholly to small objects of the bibelot type. If enclosing) bupwamesaie © object, the shape of the étui usually conformed to that of the object, otherwise it could be more or less fanciful, as in the instance of vanity-boxes, néces- saires, snuff- and comfit-boxes. The vanity-box, containing various articles essential to needlework and to the toilet, was during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries much used by ladies and was worn attached to the belt. The ground colors most popular in Battersea enamels are rose, blue, green, and white, and the miniature seascapes, landscapes, genre and flower paintings that adorn them are framed for the most part in delicate gilt scrolls in relief. In the same case with these enamels are several exquisitely painted Sevres plaques and a fine example of the zavette (shuttle) which was used by ladies in making tatting. In Gallery F 25 are also two small cases of French bibelots. In the first are more carnets de bal of the late eighteenth century, several with miniature por- traits and two with seascapes in the manner of Joseph Vernet. Among the objects in the second case are two differing from any shown in the pre- ceding cases; these are nécessaires in the form of eges. The nécessaire, as the word itself suggests, was any étul containing articles for the toilet, such as scissors, needles, toothpicks, and ear-scoops. 360 XVI SHOP-FRONT LOUIS 149. FIG. — “ 6 Rr ma vx : ¥ j aha : 4 , ve ¥ on y y ‘ ,» ae 4 q . : ; >t 7 ol ‘ » - a = ‘ : A GALLERY F 26 The collection of watches! is exhibited in four cases in Gallery F 26. It is composed for the most part of two large private collections, that of Carl Marfels, one of the foremost students of horology in Europe, and that of the late F. G. Hilton Price, an enthusiastic amateur. The collection gives the stu- dent a complete illustration of the progress of horo- logical art in examples of the finest quality, many of which have the interest of historical associations. The industry of watchmaking was begun early in the sixteenth century. The portable timepiece was, of course, a normal development from the small table-clock. Peter Henlein (Hele), a locksmith of Nuremberg, invented a clock with a mainspring which permitted its use in traveling. This must have been about the year 1510, for in the Appendix of the Cosmographia Pomponii Melae, published at Nuremberg in 1511, there is a Latin passage which translated reads: “Every day now they invent more subtle things; Peter Hele executes watches made of iron with many wheels that, however they are worn, either in the stomacher or in the purse, will show and strike the hour during forty hours.” All these early watches were entirely of iron or steel 1The numbers throughout this chapter refer to the J. Pierpont Morgan Catalogue of Watches, by G. C. Williamson. 365 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING (a little later of brass). One of them, a gilt metal watch in a drum-shaped case, and having a mechanism of iron, dating from about 1550, is No. 103 (Case D) and comes from Nuremberg (fig. 150). The type of watch known as the Ezuhr or Nuremberg egg (so called from its shape) which is first mentioned in 1600, is represented by No. 102, dating from about 1620 (Case B). These primitive watches were necessarily 1in- accurate until, in 1525, an invention for equalizing the force of the pull on the main spring, known as the fuzee, and due to Jacob Zech definitely overcame this difficulty. The fuzee is still in use today. Watchmaking was intro- FIG. 150. TABLE WATCH duced into Geneva, a city NUREMBERG, ABOUT 1550 where the industry is still famous, by Charles Cusin in 1585. The watch- and clock-makers of Paris were granted a charter as early as 1544 by Francis I, and from that time on formed a close guild. Though the collection contains no works of the original members of the Paris guild, it contains a specimen by David Ramsay (fig. 151) (No 129, Case A), the first master of the English watch- and clock-makers who formed themselves into a company in 1631 under a charter granted by Charles I. The work of five of Ramsay’s contemporaries is also to be found in the collection (Nos. 132-7, 140-1, Case A), as well as several British watches predating the formation of the guild. 366 GALLERY F 26 English watchmakers are responsible for several technical improvements. Thus Daniel Quare, watch- maker to George I (Nos. 164-6, Case A), invented the repeater action in 1676, and, more important from the lay point of view, the minute hand in 1691. George Graham (1695-1750), who invented the mercurial pendulum ancities dead beat’ escapement, is represented by the dial of watch Moeoyeand john Bllicott, in- ventor of the compensation lever pendulum, by Nos. 187-8 (Case A). German, Austrian, Dutch, Flem- ish, Swiss, Italian, and Russian watches are also to be found in this collection. Though interesting for technical reasons to the student of watch- making, the collection is also of interest to the general visitor for historical reasons in a wider sense, as well as for the beauty of the work on the cases. For instance, ric. 151. waTcH the watch by Ramsay (Case A) BY DAVID RAMSAY fj wotapletonthe Limoges painted «°h°?*AieD NUNS 5 LIMOGES ENAMEL enamel decoration of the case (fig. 151), possibly by Joseph Raymond. Limoges enameled cases of this period are exeeedingly rare. The later style of enameling (fig. 153) is very well represented. No. 48 (Case B), for instance, 1s probably by the celebrated Robert Vauquer of the school of Blois. The scenes depicted are from the story of Cleopatra, and are rendered in the charac- teristic seventeenth-century manner. This piece 367 THE PIERPONT MORGAN WING may stand as typical of all such work. The Huaud dynasty of Poitiers goldsmiths is represented by no less than seven pieces, though these are of unequal merit. The watches with engraved silverwork (Nos. 102, 106, Case B) are aesthetically among the most pleasing in the collec- tion. To protect the enamel and other decorations on watches, outside cases came into use about 1640. These were made of shagreen (No. 177, Case A), tortoise shell (Nos. 188, 205) One ae eae leather pigué (No. 164, Case A), et cetera: Many exam- ples of these are to be found ae e in this collection, together iets ee with cases of gold and silver repoussé (No. 175, Case A), which appeared first about 1650. Among the watches of particular interest from as- sociation or other reasons are the following: No. 55, Case B. Made for the Regent, Philip of Orléans. No. 64, Case B. Made by D. Vauchez of Paris in 1783 (fig. 152); one of twelve in commem- oration of the ascent of the first Montgolfier balloon. (Of these twelve only the Morgan watch and one other are known to be in exis- tence today.) No. 70, Case B. Gold repeater and musical watch, presented by Napoleon to Murat after the battle of Marengo (1800). 368 GALLERY F 26 Pome wmenscb, Case enameled by Chris- tophe Morliére, one of the most noted enamel- ers of the school of Blois, c. 1650 (fig. 153). No. 81, Case D. Watch set in a large metal clasp-knife, French, eighteenth century. Maker: | Boulay, c. 1780. No. 98, Case B. Case en- ameled by Jean Pierre Huaud with a portrait of the Great Elector. iNomigige ase, Case of a watch presented by King James I to the first Lord Brooke, EaLO20, DremiggecG@ase A. An ‘East’? watch, one of a type often given asa FIG. 14%. ENAMELED ; ; WATCH-CASE prize in the tennis BY MORLIERE tournament by King Charles II. No. 143, Case A. Presented to a duke of Bavaria, probably the famous Prince Rupert, on the occasion of his creation as a Knight of the Garter in 1663. No. 228, Case B. Watch in the shape of a book, by Diet Maye of Basle, c. 1570. No. 229, Case B. Watch in the form of a tulip, by Sermand of Geneva, recalling the tulipo- mania of the seventeenth century. No. 244, Case A. Watch carried by Sir Walter Scott. 369 said INDEX OF PROPER NAMES This index includes personal names only. For geographical and race names and for types of art (as Gothic), see General Index. of saints, see under Saints in the General Index. see General Index. A ACELLINO DI MELIADUCE SALVAGO, 158 ADAM, ROBERT, 268, 328, 330 ALBERT OF AustTRrIA, Cardinal, 205 ALBERTI, 170 ALCUIN, 24 ALDEGREVER, HEINRICH, 215 ALEXANDER VI, Pope, 168 ALEXANDER VII, Pope, arms, 148 ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO, 269 ANGELICO, FRA, 181 ANGUIER, MICHEL, 228 ANNE OF AUSTRIA, 234 ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD, 334 ARTOIS, COMTE D’, 338, 340, 350 AUDRAN, GERARD, 265 AUMONT, Duc D’, 340 AUVILLARS, COMTE D’, 344 B BacaA-FLor, CARLOS, 280-281 Bacon, ROGER, 72 BALASSER, ANDREAS, arms, 248 BALLIN, CLAUDE, 234 BARTHELEMY, ANTOINE, 288 BASIL 1, 20, 22 BAUDOUIN, PIERRE ANTOINE, 319 BAVARIA, DUKE OF, 369 BEHAM, Hans SEBALD, 215 BELLANGER, 324, 327, 338, 350 BELLINI, GIOVANNI, 166, 183, 184 BENDEL, CASPAR, 212 BENEDICT, Dom JOHN, 128 BENEMAN, G., 324 BERAIN, JEAN, 232, 234, 302; style of, 242, 262, 265, 301, 302, 304 BERNARDI, GIOVANNI, see Castel Bolognese, Giovanni Bernardi da For names For names of collectors, BERNINI, LORENZO, 179, 230, 236 BERRI, DUKE OF, 85 BERRI, JEAN, DUKE OF, 129 BERRUGUETE, ALONSO, 159, 180 BEUTMULLER, the Elder, 211 il. BIARD, PIERRE, 228 BIGONNET, 326 BLONDEL, FRANGOIS, 230 BoBILLET, ETIENNE, 129 BOccAcclo, 73 BOFFRAND, GERMAIN, 261 Bois-NORMAND, THIREL DE, 303- 304 BOIZOT, 275, 324,325 BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI, 176, 179, 206 BONTEMPS, PIERRE, 180 BorciA, GIOVANNI, Cardinal, 204 BORMAN, JAN, 155 BORNE, CLAUDE, 309 Bosse, ABRAHAM, 224 BossuET, JACQUES BENIGNE, 226 - BOTTICELLI, 181-182 BOUCHARDON, EDME, 263 BOUCHER, FRANCOIS, 262, 266, 204, 296, 319, 327; manner of, 354 BOUCHER, fils, 321, 349, 359 BouLay, 369 BouLEE, 318 BouLLe, ANDRE CHARLES, 264; influence, 270 BOURDICHON, JEHAN, 187 BouscH, VALENTIN, 195 BRAMANTE, 166, 171 BREGNO, ANDREA, 158, 177 il. Briosco, ANTONIO, 188 BRISEUX, CHARLES ETIENNE, 290 Brooke, Lorn, 369 BROSSE, SALOMON DE, 227 BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO, 166, 170 BULLANT, JEAN, 173 BuRGUNDY, DUKE oF, 85 232, ye INDEX OF PROPER NAMES © CAFFIERI, JACQUES, 275, 276 CAFFIERI, PHILIPPE, 232, 264, 324 CAMPIN, ROBERT, 115 CANALETTO, ANTONIO, 267 CANDIDO, see Witte, Pieter de CANOovA, ANTONIO, 332 Carraccl, The, 184 CARAVAGGIO, 186 CARLIN, 324, 325 CASANOVA, FRANCESCO GUISEPPE, 358 CASTAGNO, ANDREA, I81 CASTEL BOLOGNESE, GIOVANNI BERNARDI DA, 193 il., 196 CATHERINE II of Russia, 342 CAvuvET, GILLES PAUL, 325, 327 CAVALLINI, PIETRO, 84 CAYLuS, COMTE DE, 314 CELLINI, BENVENUTO, 166, 167 il., 190, 191, 205 CERVANTES, 225 CHAMPAGNE, PHILIPPE DE, 228 CHAPELLE, PIERRE, 309 CHARDIN, JEAN BAPTISTE SIMEON, 263 CHARLEMAGNE, 24 CHARLES I, King of Sabie 366 CHARLES II, King of England, 369 CHARLES V, King of France, 85, 120,.159; 107, 100 16221 CHARLES VI, King of France, 129 CHARLES VII, King of France, 130, 131 CHARLES VIII, 168; 172 CHAUCER, 74 CHINARD, JOSEPH, 332 CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS, 268, 328 CuHoaTe, JosePH H., xvii CHRISTIAN II oF SAXONY, 204 CHRISTINA, Queen of Spain, 198 CIPRIANI, 328 CLerc, MEYERE DE, 151 CLERC, NICOLAS DE, 151 CLODION, 319, 325, 342 CLOUET, FRANCOIS, 88 CocHIN, CHARLES NICOLAS, 315 COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, 223-224, 220, 252, 254, 330 Cotes, Mrs. ELIZABETH U., 160 CoLomBE, MICHEL, 83, 134 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, XVill King of France, CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, 15, 16, 19 CorRREGGIO, 166, 184 Cosimo, PIERO DI, 182 Cotte, ROBERT DE, 231, 284 Coustou, GUILLAUME, 232 Coustou, NICHOLAS, 232, 263 CoyPEL, 265 CoyseEvox, ANTOINE, 23 1-232 CRESSENT, CHARLES, 264, 276, 324 Croce, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, 197 CROME, JOHN, 329 Cucci, DOMENICO, 232 CusIN, CHARLES, 366 260, 2°72: D DALMACIO DE Mur, Don, 147 DAUER, HANS, 200 Davip, JAcQuEs Louis, 320, 327, 330, 332 DELAFOSSE, 325 DE LA ROTTHIERE, 340 DE LA SALLE, PHILIPPE, 326, 348 DELORME, PHILIBERT, 173 DeEscARTES, RENE, 225 DESHAIRS, LEON, 344 (note) DESMALTER, JACOB, 333 DE Wit, JAKOB, 295, 297 DIANE DE PoITIERsS, 160 DipEROT, DENIS, 313 DONATELLO, 166, 176, 178 Droualis, FRANCOIS HUBERT, 261 DuBarry, MME., 317 DuBols, 324 Duccio pi BUONINSEGNA, 84 DUCERCEAU, 173; Style of, 210 DUrer, ALBRECHT, 86, 187, 188, 191, 200, 206 CHARLES, 2099, 321, E EISEN, CHARLES, 278 ELLICOTT, JOHN, 367 EMBRIACHI, BALDASSARE DEGLI, Ol 1i2,2000 EMBRIACHI FAMILY, 91, 189 EuGENE, Prince of Savoy, 252 F FALCONET, ETIENNE 263-264, 278, 325 MAuRICE, oye INDEX OF PROPER FELic1A, Queen of Aragon and Navarre, 52 FERDINAND II, Emperor of Holy Roman Empire, 245 FERDINAND THE GREAT, 51 FERDINAND V, King of Aragon, 68, 115, 166, 167 FILARETE, 204 FINIGUERRA, Maso, 124 FLAUX, COMTE DE, 350 FLAXMAN, JOHN, 329, 342 FLEURY, CARDINAL, 256 FLOTNER, PETER, 198, 214 FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS L., 327,330, 333 FORESTIER, 324 FORMENT, DAMIAN, 180 Forty, 326, 349 FOUQUET, JEAN, 88, 130, 131, 187 FouguET, NICOLAS, 230 FRAGONARD, JEAN Honoré, 262, 319, 340, 341 FRANCESCHI, PIERO DEI, 182 Francis I, King of France, 172, 366 FREDERICK II, Emperor, Holy Roman Empire, 68 FREDERICK I] oF LUXEMBURG, 307 FREDERICK THE GREAT, 256, 266 FRIDERIKUS OF COLOGNE, 32 il., 60 FROHLICH, JACOB, 214 G GABRIEL, JACQUES ANGE, 260, 317 GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS, 267, 329 GALILEO, 72 GASTON OF ORLEANS, 228 GERMAIN, FRANGOIS THOMAS, 325 GERMAIN, THOMAS, 265 GHIBERTI, LORENZO, 126, 176 GHIRLANDAIO, 182 GILLOT, CLAUDE, 262 GIORGIONE, 106, 184 Giotto, 84-85, 94 GIOVANNI, BENVENUTO DI, XVIIl GIRARDON, FRANGOIS, 232, 307 GODEFROID DE CLAIRE, 58 GONTAUT, ARMAND DE, 132, 135 il., 136 GONTAUT, PONS DE, 132, 135 il., 136 Goujon, JEAN, 173, 180 GOUTHIERE, 275, 270, 324, 354 GRAHAM, GEORGE, 367 Greco, EL, 186 NAMES GRENIER, PASQUIER, 115 GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE, 319 GUARDI, FRANCESCO, 267 GUEIDAN FAMILY, 273 GUIDISALVI, SANCCIA, 62 GUILLIBAUD, JEAN, 307 H Hats, FRANS, 237 HaAvarpb, HENRI, 226 HELE (HENLEIN), PETER, 365 Henri IV, King of France, 222~ 223, 225, 240, 309, 327 HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE, 328 HERE, 260 HERTFORD, MARQUIS OF, 338 HOENTSCHEL, GEORGES, XViil HOGARTH, 267 Hosein, Hans, the Elder, 191 Hosein, Hans, the Younger, 86- 88, 187 HOLTZzscHULER, HIERONYMUS, 198 Hoppner, JOHN, 329 Houpon, JEAN ANTOINE, 263, 318- 319, 332, 336 Huaup, JEAN PIERRE, 368, 369 Huet, CHRISTOPHE, 262, 263 il., 289 Huet, JEAN BAPTISTE, 356 HustTIN, JACQUES, 304 I INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DomiI- NIQUE, 332 INNOCENT IV, Pope, 56 ISABELLA, Queen of Castile, 1066, 107 IsABEY, EUGENE Louris GABRIEL, 342 J JACOPONE DA Topt, 94 James I, King of England, 369 JAMNITZER, HANS, 213 il., 214 JANS, JAN, 232 JAYME II, Don, 110 JEAN SANS PEvR, 129 JEANNE DE BOURBON, 129 JOHN OF SALISBURY, 103 JONES, INIGO, 267 JOSEPHINE, Empress, 112, 350 Juxius II, Pope, 168, 171 JUSTINIAN THE GREAT, Emperor, 15, 19-20, 21 3f3 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES K KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA, 328 KELS VON KAUFBEUREN, Hans, 1908 KENT, WILLIAM, 267, 268 KKOSSMANN, EBERWEIN, 215 KRAFFT, ADAM, 144 a LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE, 284 LA JOUE, JACQUES, 288 LALONDE, 300, 325, 326, 349 LAMOUR, JEAN, 265 La Tour, MAuRICE QUENTIN DE, 261 LARGILLIERE, NICOLAS, 231, 261 LAURANA, FRANGESCO, 159 Law, JOHN, 254-255 LAWRENCE, THOMAS, 329 LE LorRAIN, 232 LE RICHE, 340 LEBRUN, CHARLES, 229-230, 251, 258, 330 LEFEVRE, JEAN, 232 LEMOINE, FRANGOIS, 261, 289, 295 LEMOYNE, J. B., 263 Leo X, Pope, 168, 171 LEONARDO, 166, 183, 191 LEONI, LEONE, 159, 169 il., 180, 203 LEONI, PoMPEo, 180 LEOPARDI, ALESSANDRO, 179, 209 LEPAUTRE, JEAN, 232, 234 LEPRINCE, J. B., 340 LEscoT, PIERRE, 173 LESUEUR, EUSTACHE, 228 LEVASSEUR, 308 Lippi, FILIPPINO, 182 LomBARDI, The, 179 LOMBARDO, ANTONIO, 201 LORRAINE, CLAUDE, 228 Louris XI, King of France, 166 Louis XII, King of France, 172 Louis XIV, King of France, 220, 223, 224, 5226, 0230, 9241 sade. 251, 252, 258, 261, 307 Louis XV, King of France, 256, 206, 317 Louis XVI, King of France, 266, 278, 317, 334, 342 Lucy, Wary DE, Prior of Flavigny, 195 LuKE, ABBOT, 63 M MaBusE, JAN GOSSAERT VAN, 186 MAINTENON, MME. DE, 252 MANSART, FRANGOIS, 228 MANSART, JULES HARDOUIN, 231, 258, 260 MANTEGNA, ANDREA, 182, 188 MARFELS, CARL, 365 Marta ANNA OF AUSTRIA, 357 Maria CATHERINE, Duchess, 245 MariA DI PLANO, 124 MariA THERESA OF AUSTRIA, 256 Marie ANTOINETTE, 278, 303, 340, 341, 350 MariE DE LAMBALLE, Princess, 342 Marie DE MEpicis, 229 Marie Louise, Empress, 342 MariGny, MARQUIS DE, 315 MARLBOROUGH, DUKE OF, 252 MARLET, JEROME, 343-349 Marot, DANIEL, 232, 234 MarTEL-ANGE, ETIENNE, 228 MarTINI, SIMONE, 85 Mary, QUEEN OF SCOTS, 204 Masaccio, 181 Massys, QUENTIN, 86 MAXIMILIAN, Emperor, Holy Ro- man Empire, 167 Maye, DIET, 369 Mazarin, Cardinal, 223, 225, 229 Mepicl, CosiMo DE, 126-127 Mepic!, FRANCESCO I, DE’, 210 MEbpicis, MARIE DE, 229 MEISSONIER, JUST AURELE, 264, 292, 208, 309 MeEMLING, Hans, 86 MEssINA, ANTONELLO DA, 182-183 MICHEL, CLAUDE, see Clodion MICHELANGELO, 166, 172, 176, 179, 182, 183, 184, 236 MIGNARD, PIERRE, 231 MOoDERNO, 204 Monnoy er, J. B., 288, 299 MONTESQUIEU, BARON DE LA BREDE ET DE, 257, 313 MoNTGOLFIER, JACQUES ETIENNE. 368 MOoNVAERNI, 126 MorGAn, J. PIERPONT, XVili, xix MorGan, J. PIERPONT, JR., Xix, 290, 343 Mor tiERE, CHRISTOPHE, 369 il. MOSSELMAN, PAUL DE, 129 374 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES Mota, GUILLERMO DE LA, 147 Mozart, ANTON, 247 MULLER, ANDREAS, 208 Murat, JOACHIM, Prince, 368 MuRILLO, 236 N NANTEUIL, ROBERT, 231 NAPOLEON, 330-331, 342, 368 NatTorr_, C. J., 289 NaTTIER, JEAN MARIE, 261 NiIcoLa D’APULIA, 82 NIKOLAUS OF LEYDEN, 144 il., 145 O ODIOT, 333 OEBEN, J. F., 264 OLERYS, 306 OPPENORD, 264 ORLEANS, PHILIPPE, Duc D’, 254, 256, 368 OtHo II, Emperor, Holy Roman Empire, 26 OupRy, 265, 282, 288; style of, 285, 289 ie Pajou, 263 PALISSY, BERNARD, 193 PALLADIO, ANDREA, 172 PANINI, 352 Pau V, Pope, 220 PERCIER, CHARLES, 327, 330, 333 PERGOLESI, 328 PERRAULT, CLAUDE, 230 PERRIER, GUILLAUME DE, 159 PERRIN, THE VEUVE, 308 PERRONEAU, 261 PERUGINO, 182 PETRARCH, 73 Puixip I, King of Castile, 167 PHILIP, THE Goop, Duke of Bur- gundy, 115, 131 PHILIPPE LE Harpi, 83 PIGALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE, 263-264 PILLEMENT, 203, 322 PILON, GERMAIN, 180 PINEAU, NICOLAS, 294 PISANO, GIOVANNI, 82 Pisano, NicoLo, 82 POLLAIUOLO, ANTONIO, 178, 181, 187 Pompapour, MME. DE, 262, 290, 303, 314-15 PoTERAT, Louis, arms, 302 il. PoTERATS, The, 234 Poussin, NICOLAS, 228 PRIEUR, BARTHELEMY, 228, 349 PRUDHON, PIERRE PAUL, 332 PUGET, PIERRE, 232 Q QuARE, DANIEL, 367 QUERCIA, JACOPO DELLA, 178 R RaaB, Lupwic, of Ulm, 198 RAEBURN, SIR HENRY, 329 RAIMONDI, MARCANTONIO, 188 RAMBOUILLET, MARQUISE DE, 225 Ramsay, Davip, 366, 367 il. RANSON, 322, 327, 337 RAPHAEL, Xix, 183, 184, 185 il., 104 REMBRANDT, 237 REYMOND, JOSEPH, 367 REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA, 267, 329 RIBERA, JUSEPE DE, 186 Riccio, IL, see Briosco, Antonio RicHELIEU, DUC DE, 223, 220, 306 RIEMENSCHNEIDER, TILMAN, 144 RIESENER, J. H., 279, 324 Ricaub, HYACINTHE, 231, 261 RITTER, WOLFF CHRISTOFF, 245 RossBiA, ANDREA DELLA, 206 RosBIA, GIOVANNI DELLA, 158, 206 RossBiA, LUCA DELLA, 176, 178 RoBerT, HUBERT, xXx, 278, 320, 350-352, 351 il. ROCHEFOUCAULD, DUC DE LA, 225 ROMANO, PIETRO PAULO, 208 RoME, KING OF, 342 RoMNEY, GEORGE, 329 ROSSELLINO, ANTONIO, 159, 160 RoussEAu, the brothers, 322, 340 Rousseau, the Elder, 264 ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES, 313, 336 ROUSSEAU, PIERRE, 318 ROVEZZANO, BENEDETTO DA, 180 375 INDEX OF PROPER RuBENS, PETER PAUL, 236-237 Rupert, Prince of Bavaria, 369 S St. EVREMOND, 225 ST. GERMAIN, GAULT DE, 341 ST. Simon, Duc DE, 257 SALEMBIER, 279, 322, 338 SAMBIN, 210 SANCHA, Queen, wife of Ferdi- nand |, 51 SANCHO IV, the Great, King of Navarre, 51 SANCHO RAMIREZ, King of Aragon and Navarre, 52 SAN MICHAELI, 171 SANSOVINO, ANDREA, 171 SARACHI BROTHERS, 197 SARRAZIN, JACQUES, 228 SAUNIER, CLAUDE CHARLES, 324 SAUVAGE, PIAT-JOSEPH, 341, 346, 358 SCHNEEWEISS, URBAN, 212 SCHONGAUER, MartTIN, 86, 206 ScoTT, Sir WALTER, 369 SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO, XVill SERMAND, of Geneva, 369 SEVIGNE, MME. DE, 225 SFORZA, FRANCESCO, 161 SHERATON, THOMAS, 328, 334 SICARDI, Louis, 327 il., 341 il., 342 SIGNORELLI, Luca, 182 SLUTER, CLAUS, 83 il., 136, 156 SOUFFLOT, JACQUES GERMAIN, 315, 317, 318 STANISLAS, King of Poland, 260 Stoss, VEIT, 144 SuGER, Abbot of St. Denis, 77 SULLY, MAXIMILIEN DE BETHUNE, Duc DE, 222-23 SYRLIN, JORG, the Elder, 145 SYRLIN, JORG, the Younger, 145 187, ils TACITUS, 4-5 TAMAGNINI, 158 TEDESCO, PIERO DI GIOVANNI, 150 TEMPESTA, 309 THEOPHANO, wife of Otho II of Germany, 26 THOMIRE/ 275; 278; 280; 324;.333 NAMES TIEPOLO, 267, 296, 297 TINTORETTO, 166, 184 TITIAN, 166, 184 Toro, 302 TORRIGIANO, PIETRO, 180 TOURNAI, MARQUIS DE, 304 Troy, J. R. DE, 299 TuBy, JEAN BAPTISTE, 232 U UccELLO, i81 Vv VALLAYER-COSTER, MMeE., 319 il.; style of, 356, 358 VALLFOGONA, PERE JOHAN DE, 147 VAN BLARENBERGHE, Louis Nic- OLAS, 342 VAN DER MEULEN, FRANGOIS, 232 VAN DER STRECKEN, GERARD, 160 VAN DER WEYDEN, R., xx, 86, 87 il. VAN Dyck, SIR ANTHONY, 236 Van Eyck, HuBert, 86 Van Eyck, JAN, 86, 141 (note 2) VAN LATTEM, HENRIC, 151 VAN LEEFDAEL, JAN, 160 VAN Loo, 261 VAN ORLEY, 186 VAN VIANEN, ADAM, 197 il., 248 VANBRUGH, SIR JOHN, 267 VaucHEzZ, D., 368 il. VAUQUER, ROBERT, 367 VELASQUEZ, 236 VENEZIANO, DOMENICO, 181 VERBERCKT, JACQUES, 264, 295 VERMEER OF DELFT, 237 VERNET, JOSEPH, 360 VERONESE, PAOLO, 184 VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL, 201 VIGNOLA, 228 VINCENT, 327 VINCENT DE BEAUVAIS, 93 Vinci, LEONARDO DA, 166, 183, 191 VOLTAIRE, 313, 336 VORAGINE, JACOBUS DE, 94 VOUET, SIMON, 228, 229 Vries, ADRIAEN DE, 180 VRIESE, JEAN VREDEMAN DE, 198 397; ANTOINE 178, 376 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES W WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM, I WALLBAUM, MATHEUS, 246 Ores PIETER DE, 180 WATTEAU, ANTOINE, 262, 289 WREN, CHRISTOPHER, 237, 207 WeEpGwoop, THOMAS, 329 WEISWEILER, 324, 327 7 WEsT, BENJAMIN, 329 WILLIAM OF ORANGE, 222, 252 ZECH, JACOB, 366 WILLIAMSON, G. C. 365 (note) ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO, 186 Sie w GENERAL INDEX A Abiud, Prophet, 116 ; Abydos, Bas-reliefs from, xvill Adam and Eve, ivory casket, 47; tapestry, 114, 115 il. Adoration of the Magi, marble re- lief, 200-201; niello plaque on pax, 204; tapestry, 153 Albanian Treasure, 35-36 Albigensian Crusade, 68 Alexander and Darius, on metal basin, 246 Altars, portable, enamel plaques from, 60; ivory plaques from, 48-49 Altarpieces, alabaster, style of Vallfogona, 147-149 il.; ivory, by Baldassare degli Embriachi, 119; paintings, by Benvenuto di Giovanni, xviii; by Raphael, Rix, 1650, 13156; by van. der Weyden, xx, 86, 87 il.; wood, 143, 150, 155 Amber, xx; cup, 197 Ambergris pendant, 203 Anglo-Saxon art, influence of, 25 Annunciation, The, painting by van der Weyden, xx, 86, 87 il. Antioch, 16, 20, 38 Antiquities, see Assyrian anti- quities; Classical antiquities; Gallo-Roman antiquities; Ger- manic antiquities; Merovingian antiquities Antony and Cleopatra, tapestries, 100 Antwerp School, see Sculpture Apostles, enamel plaque, 126; ivory box, 50, ciborium, 43, 45 il.; stone relief, 156; wood-carvings, 142, 143 il., 150 Apt faience, see Faience Arabesques, style of Huet, 356; attributed to Le Riche, 340 stained _ glass, ay Architectural sculpture, see Sculp- ture, Architectural; Woodwork, Architectural Architecture Early Christian and Byzantine periods, basilican churches, &, 16, 17; domed churches, 21, 22; Mohammedan char- acteristics, 26 Romanesque period, regional styles, 28, 29; church archi- tecture, 29, 30; use of sculp. ture, 29, 30 Gothic period English, styles, 76 French, cathedral develop- ment, 74, 76; architectural problems, 74, 77; carving applied, 79, 80 Netherlandish, town and guild halls, 78 Renaissance period English, 174 French, secular architecture developed, 172-173 German, 173-174 Italian, classical influence, 169; periods, 170; Floren- tine leadership, 170; Rome and Venice, 171; academic period, 172 Spanish, Italian influence, 173 Baroque period, XVII—mid- XVIII century English, foreign influences and Wren, 237; British Palla- dian school, Vanbrugh and Kent, 267 Previchpye22 7-220,6 230.221 Baroque-rococo, 260-261 Italian, Bernini, 236 Classical revival, mid-XVIII- early XIX century English, Adams style, 328 French, 315, 317-318, 320-322; Empire, 327, 330, 332-333 GENERAL INDEX Architrave, see Woodwork, Archi- tectural Arm-chairs, see Furniture, Chairs Armoire, see Furniture Arms and Armor, Barbaric, Germanic, 4, 7 il.; Renaissance period, character- istics, 190-191; Negroli casque, x Arras tapestries, see Tapestries Ascension, Ihe, enameled shrine, 104 Assuit, jewelry from, 40 Assumption of the Virgin, The, painting by Benvenuto di Giovanni, XVili Assyrian antiquities, xx, Xxi Augsburg silver, see Metalwork Austria, XVII-XVIII century, political and social changes, 2212519 -2525:250 Autumnal sacrifice, painting attrib- uted to Sauvage, 358 B Bacchus, Triumph of, on panels, 359 Bagatelle, Chateau of, paintings by Robert, from, xx, 350-352 Balusters, see Sculpture, Architec- tural Baptism, The, enameled plaque, 58, 59 il. Baron, Stanislas, collection, 6 Baroque art, 219-237, rooms, 238— 248; rococo style, 251-268, rooms, 269-300; superseded by classical style, 266, 313-322 Bathing pool, painting by Robert, 352 Battersea enamels, see Enamels Baugerais Abbey, figures from, 137 Beauvais tapestry, see Tapestries Bed, see Furniture Benedictine Order, 28 Bergéres, see Furniture, Chairs Bibelots, XVIII century, 340-342, 357; carnets de bal, 341 il., 353, 360; comfit boxes (bonbonniéres), 341, 342, 357, 360; étuis, 360; navette, 360; nécessaires, 360; needlecase, in vernis Martin, 353; scent bottles, Meissen, 352-353, 360; snuff boxes (taba- tiéres), 341-342, 353, 357, 360; vanity boxes, 360 ) Birds, exotic, paintings of, 270 Biron, Chateau de, sculpture from, 132-136 Bocal, 245 Botsertes, see Woodwork Bonbonnteéres, see Bibelots Book-cases, see Woodwork, Archi- tectural Book-covers, 25, 32, 51-52, 61 il., 63, 104; see also Enamels; Ivories; Metalwork Books, imitation, in door paneling, 283 ili 24a Bowl, agate, 245 Boxwood carvings, see Sculpture Bracelets, gold, 4o il.; with enamel, 207 Brackets, see Furniture Brazier, see Wood-carvings Bronzes, see Metalwork; Ormolu; Sculpture Brooches, see Fibulae Brussels tapestries, see Tapestries Buckets, holy water, enamel, 102; ivory, 47 il.; silver (Albanian Treasure), 35, 36 il. Buckles, 4 il., 7 il., 9 il., 35 il. Burgundian School, see Tapestries; Sculpture Byzantine art, general develop- ment of, 18-24; enameling, 54, 55, 50; ivory carving, 19 il., 22, 23, 44-49; jewelry, 5, 39-41 il., 55; metalwork, 35-38 C Cabinet-makers, 209 il., 210, 324, 328 Cabinets, see Furniture Calcar School, see Sculpture “Cana’* Vases 127 diet ee Candlesticks, 60 il., 100, 102, 246 Carnets de bal, see Bibelots Carolingian art, development of, 8, 24-26 Carpets, Indian, xx Carthusian Order, 28 Carvings, see Crystals; Sculpture; Wood-carvings; Woodwork Caryatids, gilt-bronze, 289; stone, 159 Caskets, copper-gilt, 213 il., 214; 380 GENERAL INDEX crystal, 197; ivory, 46 il., 110, 111 il.; silver and niello, 246 Cassoni, see Furniture Cathedrals, development of, 70, 74, 76-80 Catholic Reformation, 168-169 Cave, The, painting by Robert, 352 Ceiling decorations, 288, 280, 295, 297 “Cellini cup,’’ 167 il., 205 Celtic antiquities, 5, 6 Censers, 122 Ceramics, see Faience; Majolica; Porcelain Certosa Convent, 112 Chairs, see Furniture Chalicessit20. 200.11,, 201, 211 Champlevé enamel, see Enamels Chasse aux oiseaux, 103 Chasses, copper and _ silver-gilt, 61 il., 62; crystal, 103; enamel, 7 100,102 Chasuble, 150 Chateaux, see Bagatelle; Biron; Marly; Saint Cloud; Versailles Cherubs’ heads, marble, 159; wood, 296 Chessmen, 50, 52, 110 Chests, see Furniture Children, figures of, in ormolu, 277, 278, 280; at play, grisaille, by De Wit, 295; in painting by Sauvage, 359 Chinese bronze vessel, xx Chinese porcelain vase, mount, 272 Chinotsertes, 270, 357 Choir stalls, see Furniture Christ, Among the Doctors, wood relief, 143-144; Appearing to the Apostles, on faience plate, 303; Crucified, bronze-gilt fig- ure, 99 il.; Head of, from stone statue, 115; Scenes from the life of, enameled shrine, 91 il., 104, ivory altar-piece, 110, tapestries, 206; see also Adora- tion of the Magi; Baptism; Crucifixion; Descent from the Cross; Entombment; Entrance into Jerusalem; Flagellation; Iconography; Journey to Em- _ maus; Nativity; Pieta; Resur- rection; Virgin and Child ormolu Ciboria, enamel, 45 il. Cistercian Order, influence on architecture, 28, 76, 169 Classical antiquities, xx, 5, 6, 42, 105; ivory, 43, 43 Classical influence on Early Chris- tian art, 16, 18; on Byzantine art, 12, 21; on Germanic art, 10; on Romanesque art, 32, 169; on Renaissance art, 73, 169-192; on XVIII century art, 315-335 Classical ruins, paintings by Ro- bert, 278 Clermont-Ferrand, pax from, 127 (HOEKS, 207. 200; 315)1450,00rMa- ments for, in ormolu, 277-278 Cloisonné enamel, see Enamels Colonna altarpiece, by Raphael, xix, 185 il., 188 Columbus, Christopher, portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, xviii Columns, stone, see Sculpture, Architectural Comfit boxes, see Bibelots Communes, The, 27-28, 70 Compostella, see Saints, James Conques, medallions from church at, 57 Console-tables, see Furniture Constantinople, 12, 15, 19, 20 Coquille, definition, 259 Costume, Germanic, 4, 5 Costume accessories, 125 Counter Reformation, 220 Creation, The, ivory plaque, 49 Cross, The True, ivory box fer reli- quary of, 47; reliquary of, 55 il., 56 Crosses, 100-101; processional, 62, 122, 124 Croziers, enamel, 105, 123; ivory, 50, 110 Crucifixes, 99, 100 il., 101 Crucifixion, The, enamel plaques, $5). 12504 1207 -gem=2055 ivory plaques, 47, 49 il., 50, 51 il.; rosary bead, 127; tap- estry, 63; wood-carving, 150 Crusades, 20, 28 Crusades of Saint Louis, miniature on parchment, 122 Crystals, collection, xx Romanesque period, 60, 62 381 GENERAL INDEX Renaissance period, 192, 193 il., 196 Flemish, shrine by van Via- nen, 197 il. German, cup with silver base, 245 Italian, candlesticks, 246; pax, 196; plaque by Bernardi, 193 il., 196 Cups, amber, 197; crystal, 245; glass, 12 il., 245; gold (Albanian Treasure), 35—36il.; jasper, gold mounts (Cellini), 167 il., 205; shell, 247, 248; silver and silver- pill, 208/31, siene orale 214, 215, 245, 246; see also Metalwork Cyprus Treasure, 36-39 D David, on silver plates, 37 il., 38; on tapestries, 115 il. Day-bed (duchesse), see Furniture Death, wood sculpture, 199 Decorative paintings, see Paintings, Decorative Delafosse style, 299 Deluge, stained-glass window, 195 Descent from the Cross, The, enameled shrine, 104; limestone group: (Biron), 133590135; wood-carving, 155 Diana, on a stag, silver-gilt, 247 il. Dijon, Boiseries from, xxi, 343- 349 Diptychs, enamel, 125; ivory, 1gil., 33 il., 44, 48, 52, 90 il., 108, 109 il., 117-119 il. Directoire style, see French art, XVIII century Dishes, silver-gilt, 207 il.; see also Plates Dolphin motive, on panel, 241 Door panels, see Woodwork, Archi- tectural Doors, see Woodwork, Architec- tural Dormition of the Virgin, see Virgin Drinking vessels, 128, 129 il, 245, 246; see also Metalwork Dutch art, XVII-—X VIII centuries, effect of political, social, and religious changes, 22 1-222, 256; influence of France, 266 382 E Early Christian art, development of, in architecture, 17; ivory carving, 42-45; jewelry, 40-42; metalwork, 37-38; sculpture, 16-17 Earrings, 40, 55 Eastern Empire, 12, 18-19, 20, 22 Education of the Virgin, sandstone group, 156, 157 il. Egyptian antiquities, x1x, xx, 40, 42 Elijah, bronze plaque, 209 Embroideries, 101, 148; see also Upholstery Empire style, see French art, XIX century Enamels Byzantine period, cloisonné proc- ess, 32, 54, 92; medallions and jewelry (Russo-Byzan- tine), 53 il., 55; reliquary for True Cross, 55 il., 56 Romanesque period, champlevé process, 32, 57, 92, 96 French, Limoges, medallions, 57, 62; plaques, 57 Mosan, crucifix, 60; plaques, 58, 59 il. German, Rhenish, altar, 60; plaques, 32 il., 59-60 Gothic period, champlevé, 92, 96, 97 il.; cloisonné, 91, 96; encrusted, 126, 191; paint- ed, 92, 125, 126; translu- cent, 93, 122, 124,-125 French, Limoges, holy water bucket, 102; chasses, 97 il., 102; processional cross, 100; plaques, 93 il., 99, 101 il., 125 il., 126; shrines, gt il., 104 German, Rhenish, reliquary, 99-100; shrine, 98 Italian, crosses, 124; medal- lions, 125, ornaments, 125; panels, 126 Spanish, ornaments, 125 Renaissance period, cloisonné and champlevé, 207; en- crusted, 191; painted, 191- 192, 204, 205 Italian, paxes, 191 il., 204-205 Spanish, jewelry, 207; stir- rups. 207 GENERAL INDEX Baroque period (painted) English, Battersea, bibelots, 360 French, bibelots, 341, 342; watch cases, 367 Enghien, tapestry from, 139 English art Gothic period, political develop- ments allecting, © 27, 638; architectural styles devel- oped, 76 Renaissance period, Tudor style in architecture, 174; effect of Italian and _ Flemish sculptors, 180 Baroque period, XVII—mid- XVIII century, political and economic influences, 222, 251, 252, 256; French influ- ence, 237, 267, 268; rise of national schools, 267 Classical revival, second half of © XVITI-XIX century, na- tional art, 327, 328, 3209; in- fluence of Robert Adam, 328; influence of French Empire styles, 333-334; Italian in- fluence, 327 Entombment, on enameled shrine, 104; ivory diptych, 109 il.; limestone group from Biron, _ 133 il, 134; wood-carving, 150 Etuts, see Bibelots Eurydice, marble relief, 201 Evangelists, Symbols of, on enam- eled cross, 101, plaques, 58- 60, 61, 99, shrine, 104; on ivory box, 50, crucifix, 50, plaques, 48, 50 Ewer and basin, silver-gilt, 245— 246 Ewers, gilt-bronze, 207; crystal, 197; porcelain, 210 il. le Faience, French, 159, 301-309 XVI-XVII_ centuries, Lyons, 160; Nevers, 160 il.; Palissy, 159, 160, 193; Saint-Por- chaire, 159, 193 XVII-XIX centuries, Apt, 308; Bordeaux, 304; Marseilles, 301, 302, 308, 3509, Veuve Perrin influence, 308; Mous- tiers, 301, 306, 309; Berain influence, 302, 304, Olery influence, 306, Toro influ- ence, 302; Rouen, 234, 308, 309, rayonnant style, 244, 245 il., 302, 304, 306, a la corne Style, 265, 301, 302, 303 il., 308, Guillibaud influence, 307, Oriental style, 307; Sceaux, 301, 302, 308, 309, 359; Strasbourg, 301, 302 Fibulae, 9 il., 10, 11 il. Fieschi family, reliquary from, 56 Flagellation, The, 204, 205 il., 208 Flagon, 127 il., 128 Flavigny, stained glass from, 195 Font, marble, 64 Fountain, model of, by Giovanni Bologna, 206 Fountains, 242 Fox and Grapes, La Fontaine’s Fable, on panel, 284 Frames, see Furniture; Metalwork France XVII century, political and so- cial changes, 219-220, 222- 226; literature and philoso- phy, 225 XVIII century, first half, politi- cal and social changes, 251— 257; literature and _philos- ophy, 257, 313 XVIII century, second half, political and social changes, 316-317, 329-330; literature and philosophy, 313-315 XIX century, political and so- cial changes, 330, 333, 334- 335 French Art Gallo-Roman and Merovingian periods, 8-12 Carolingian and Romanesque periods, Byzantine influence under Charlemagne, 24; monastic protection, 24-25; literature, 28; architecture, 28; minor arts, 32 Gothic period, effect of social conditions, 68; cathedral de- velopment, 76-80; suprem- acy in sculpture, 80, 81, 82; realistic trend in painting, 85, in sculpture, 82-83; Fou- quet and Italian influence, 88 383 GENERAL INDEX Renaissance period, political causes affecting, 106; na- tional characteristics in ar- chitecture,” 172) 173," 100; in sculpture, 180; Italian in- fluence on painting, 186; on minor arts, 190-192 Baroque period, XVII-—mid- XVIII century XVII century Louis XIV style, 226-236; foreign influences, 226, 232; influence on Eu- rope, 219, 227, 251, 256—- 257, 266; rooms, 238- 248 XVIII century, first half Late Louis XIV style, 257- 258; contrast with XVII century, 258-259; Re- gency, early rococo style, 258-268; rooms, 269- 273, 282-289 Louis XV, late rococo style, 258-268; influence on Europe, 266-268; rooms, 290-300 Classical revival XVIII century, second half, French influence on Eu- rope, 327-328; late Louis XV style, decline of the rococo, 266, 313, 314, 320; survival of the rococo spirit in decoration, 3 16, in sculpture, 319, in painting, 319; classical revival, 313- 322; English influences, 3106 Louis XVI style, transitional period, 320-321; neo- classicism, 316, 329; rooms, 336-361 Republic and Directoire styles, 329-330, 331 XIX century, early, influence of Napoleon and the Na- poleonic wars, 330, 331; Empire style, 330-333; David, Percier, Fontaine, 330; influence on Europe, 333-334; decline and de- terioration, 334-335 Fuentes, processional cross from, 62 Furniture Gothic period, characteristics, 88, 89 il.; chest, 139, 152; canopied seat, 152 Renaissance period French, characteristics, 190; cabinets, 209 il., 210 Italian, architectural form, classical ornament, 189; cassoni, gesso, gilt, 161 Baroque period, XVII-mid- XVIII century English, Chippendale style, 268, 328 French Louis XIV style, 232, 234; influence of Flemish and Italian styles, 229; Gob- elins Manufacture Roy- ale des Meubles, 229, 232; work of the Boulles, 232, 234; ornament, 232, 234; use of silver, 234; rooms, 238-244 Regency style, 264; uphol- stering, 266; rooms, 269- 27352022209 Louis XV style, rooms, 290— 300 Classical revival, mid-XVIII- early XIX century English, Adam style, 328; Sheraton style, 328-329 French, Louis XVI style, 322-325, cabinet-makers and bronze-makers, 324, use of Sévres, 325; Em- pire style, 327 By form Armoire (Louis XIV), 238, (Louis XV), 295; bed (Louis XVI), 348; brackets (consoles) (Louis XIV), 243, (early XVIII century), 270, 284, 297, (Louis XV), 294, (Louis XVI), 336; chairs (Louis XIV). 24% 243, 244, 269, 270, 282, (Transitional), 272, 285, 293. (Regency), 272, (Louis XV), 292, 293, 296, 298, 299, 309, (Louis XVI), 348; day-bed (duchesse), 300; frames (Louis XV), 2095; frames, mirror (Louis XIV), 243, (Regency), 269, 289, (Louis XVI), 336, 384 GENERAL 352, 354, 350; frames, medal- lions, 352; frame, painting, (Louis XIV), 240, (c. 1750), 289; frame, tapestry (Re- gency), 272, (Louis XVI), 340; frames, details, (Louis XV), 200;mirrors, use, 235, 243, 290, 348, 356; pedestal (Louis XIV), 244, (Louis XVI), 281; screen, fire, (Louis XIV), 269; sconces, carved wood (Louis XV), 2092; tables, console (Louis XIV), 243, 285, (early XVIII century), 270, 272, 273, 282, 283 il., 286, 293, (Louis XV), 292, 299, (Louis XVI), 348, 359; tables, side (late XVIII century), 281, (Louis XVI), 356; tables, writing, (Louis XIV), 270; torchéres (Louis XIV), 244, 270, (Louis XVI), 356 G Gallery views, F 9, 239; F 10, al- coves2ol si 12,'283°.F 13,207; 4,201; F-20, library, 345; F 21, salon, 347; F 22, bedroom, 323 ae | Gallo-Roman antiquities, xx, XxI, 5» Gardens, formal, 242 Garland collection of Chinese por- celains, XVlii Gaulin, Hétel, botsertes from, xxi, 343-349 Gems, 6, 42, 205 German art Carolingian period, develop- ment of sculpture, 26 Romanesque period, effect of political changes on, 27 Gothic period, effect of collapse of Holy Roman Empire on, 68; development of minia- ture and panel paintings, 85; Flemish influence, 86; French influence on sculpture, 81 Renaissance period, effect of political changes, 167; Gothic survivals in architecture, 173-174; foreign sculptors, 180; paintings, mingling of Gothic and Renaissance ele- INDEX ments, 187; miniature paint- ing, 187; minor arts, 187-192 Baroque period, XVIII century, influence of political and re- ligious changes, 221, 251; character, 264, 267; French style in Prussia, 266 Classical revival, influence of French Empire styles, 334 Germanic antiquities, xx, xxi, 3-12 Cslassonbarbaric. 2. Onental, xx; Venetian, 192, 210; see also Gold glass; Verre eglomisé Glass, Stained, Romanesque, 33; Gothic, 84; windows, 116, 195 Globes, astronomical, 212; celestial and terrestrial, 359 Gobelins tapestry, see Tapestries Gold glass, 41-42 Golden ‘Eagle, story of, on bone panels from casket, 112 Gothic art, general development of, 67—74; architecture, 74— 80; enameling, 91-92, 96-105, 124-127; furniture, 88, 80, 1309, 152; ivory carving, 90-91, 105- 114, I17-120; metalwork, 91, 99, 120-123, 127-128; painting, 84-88, 174; sculpture, 80-83, 132-138, 140-146, 150-157; stained glass, 116, 130; tapestry weaving, 89-90, 114-115, 130- 131; wood-carving, 140-146 Gothic cathedral, 76, 78-80 Grandmond, enamel from, 101 Gréau collection, Classical and Egyptian antiquities, xxi H Hampton Court Palace, 237 Hellenistic art, see Classical art Henri II ware, see Faience, X VI-— XVII centuries, Saint-Porchaire Henry IV, on over-door, 309 Hercules and Omphale, by Le Moine, 289 Hoentschel, Georges, collection, post-Renaissance section (wood- work, furniture, decorative paintings, and ormolu), given, XVill; mediaeval and Renais- sance section (sculpture, tapes- tries, and woodwork), lent, XVill, given, xix, installed, 238 385 GENERAL INDEX Holland, see Dutch art Holy Roman Empire, 27, 68 Holy water buckets, see Buckets Honestone, miniature carvings, see Sculpture Hotel Gaulin, see Gaulin Humanism, 74, 165, 166, 220 Hunting scene, style of Huet, 263 il., 289 Iconoclastic controversy, 20, 21, 22, 46 Iconography Early Christian, symbols and episodes, 16; themes, types of Christ, 18 Byzantine, secular themes, 22; proportions, 22 Romanesque, 34 Gothic, cathedral influence, 80; subjects, 93; influence of mystery plays on, 153 Issoudun, statuette from hospital at, 154 ul: Italian art Early Christian period, Byzan- tine influence, 23, 34 Gothic period, little develop- ment in architecture, 76, 160; sculpture, 82; birth of mod- ern painting, 84; Giotto and his school, 85 Renaissance period, artistic su- premacy, political weakness, 166-168; Early Renaissance, leadership of Florence, in architecture, 170; in paint- ing, 180, nationalistic tend- encies, 181, 182, 183; in sculpture, “V7OP eazy. W753 High Renaissance, in archi- tecture, 171; In engraving, 187-188; in painting, 184, 185, 186; in sculpture, 178— 179 Baroque period, XVII-XVIII centuries, political and eco- nomic influences, 220, 256; rococo style, 264, 267; Vene- tian school, 267 I vories Egyptian, cup, 42; statuettes, 42 Classical, box, 43, plaques, 43 Early Christian, box, 43; cibor- ium, 43, 45 il.; diptych, 44; pyxes, 44, 45 il. Byzantine, caskets, 46 il.; dip- tych,. (19 Gees: 47 il., 49 Carolingian, portable altar, 48; holy water bucket, 47 il., 48 Romanesque, book-covers, 50, 51; chessmen, 52; crozier, 50; diptych, 33 il., 52; oliphants, 52; plaques, 50, 51 il. Gothic, development, 105-106 English, diptychs, 117, 118 ily Worm French, Paris, ‘‘ Atelier of the Diptychs of the Passion,” 90 il., 108, 117; “Atelier of the Diptychs with Ro- settes,’’ 108, 109 il.; ““Ate- lier of the Diptychs of the Treasury of Soissons,”’ 106, 107, 108, 109 il.; “Atelier of the Tabernacles of the Virgin,’ 107, 108, 109, il.; caskets, secular scenes, 110, 111 il.; statuettes, 112, Gig wil Italian, work of the Embria- chi, Q1,>) 1127 tgs aoa altarpiece, 119, plaques from caskets, 112 Renaissance, decline of the art, 189; pendant, 127; statuette, 208 90-91; i Jasper cup, Cellini (?), 167 il., 205 Jesuits, 220 Jewelry, collection, xx Barbaric, ornaments in “‘Alban- ian Treasure, 4sie 450n4 Gallo-Roman, 5, 6; Ger- manic, 9, 10; Merovingian, II Byzantine, 5; necklaces and bracelets in “Cyprus Treas- ure,’ 39-40, 41 il.; enameled earrings, 55 Gothic, Italian enameled orna- ments; 1255126, 127 386 GENERAL INDEX Renaissance, characteristics, 190, 202-2067, German, “lantern jewel,’’ 203; morse and plaque, 248 Italian, pendants, 202, 203 Jonah, stone relief, 40; on nautilus shell cup, 247 Joseph of Arimathea (?), wood statue, 146 Joshua, on ivory plaque, 46, 47 il. Journey to Emmaus, enameled shrine, 104; ivory diptych, 52 Jumati monastery, Byzantine ena- mels from, 55 Justice, symbolic figure on medal- lion, 242 K Karavas, Cyprus, treasure found at, 38, 39 fs Lamp, ormolu, 281; mosque lamps, glass, xx Last Judgment, on wrought-iron lock, 121; on pendant, 127 Lavagna, reliquary from, 56 Lazarus, Raising of, on gold-glass plate, 42 Le Breton collection of French faience, xx, 301-309 Leda, Triumph of, sketch, 288 Limoges, center of enameling in- dustry, see Enamels Lion masks, 243 Lion of the Tribe of Judah, stone relief, 63 Literature, effect on Gothic and Renaissance art, 73-74, 93-04; on baroque art, 225-226, 257; in the classical revival, 313, 314 Loan exhibition of the Morgan col- lections, XVill, XIX, XX Locks, iron, 121; ormolu, 275, 276 Loire School, see Sculpture Louis XIV, style, see French art, XVII-XVIII centuries Louis XV, style, see French art, XVIII century Louis XVI, style, see French art, XVIII century Louvre, 230, 232 decorative M Majolica, 193 Mantels, Rouen faience, 309; see also Sculpture, Architectural; Woodwork, Architectural Manuscripts, illuminated, 6, 25, 32— 33, 84 Marbles, see Sculpture Marfels, Carl, collection of watches, 365 Marly, Chateau de, doors from, 241-242 Marquetry, 220, 281 Marseilles faience, see Faience Masks, lead, 242; ormolu, 275, 276, 277; stone, 243 Mattabruna, Story of, on bone panels from casket, 112 Mazer, 128 Medallions, enamel, 53 il., 55, 57, 125, 127; boxwood and hone- stone, 198; marble, 158, 161; terracotta, 159; see also Sculp- ture Medici porcelain, see Porcelain Meissen porcelain, see Porcelain Merovingian antiquities, xx, 6, 8 Metalwork Barbaric, from the Caucasus, 5; Scytho-Siberian, 5 Early Christian and Byzantine periods, gold and silver ves- sels, ‘Albanian Treasure,’ 35-36; Syrian dishes, “Cy- prus Treasure,” 36-38 Romanesque period, methods and objects, 32; examples, book-cover, 61 il., candle- stick, 60 il., chasse, 61 il., 62. cross, 62 il., detached figures, copper and bronze, 99 Gothic period French, silver censers, 122; gold figure from pax, 126 il., 127; lock, 121; reliqua- ries, Saint Margaret, 103 il., Saint Thomas a Becket, 1OZ eoaiInt, Vlicix,claaaie statuette, Saint Christo- pher, 120 il. German, censer, 122; drinking horns, 128, 129 il.; flagon, 127 is, 120 -"mazereio Hungarian, chalice, 128 387 GENERAL INDEX Italian, monstrance, 122; pro- cessional cross, 124 Spanish, reliquary, 121 il.; statuette, 121 Renaissance period English, jugs, 208 German, caskets, 213 il., 214, 246; chalice, 200 il., 201; cups, with metal mounts, crystal,°245, shell,-212; 247, Silver and gilt, 211 il., S12 iM Ey ies Aen (Diana), 247 il., 248; ewer and basin, 246; sauce boat, 248 Italian, candlesticks, 246; cup, jasper with gold mounts (Cellini), 167 il., 205; door of tabernacle, copper-gilt, 208; ewer, gilt-bronze, 207; knocker, bronze, 209 Portuguese, dishes, 206-207 il. Spanish, chalice, 211; rose- water dish, 211 Baroque period French, use of ironwork, 234— 235, 265, 326; lead masks from fountain, 242 See also Ormolu; Sculpture Meuse, Region of, see Enamels, Mosan Miniature carvings, in boxwood and honestone, 197, 198, 199; in ivory, 199 Miniature paintings, on ivory for bibelots, 341-342, 360; in manuscripts, 80, 84, 85; on parchment, Crusades of Saint Louis, 122 Mirror-frames, see Sculpture Mirrors, use in Baroque period, 235, 243, 290; in Louis XVI period, 348 Monstrances, 121 il., 122; reliquary in shape of, 79 il., 123 Monvaerni,”’ enamels attributed to, 126 Morses, 104, 248 Moses and the Law, stained-glass window, 195 Mosque lamps, xx Mourners, statuettes, 83 il., 129- 130 Moustiers faience, see Faience Furniture; ce Mural decorations, in Early Chris- tian churches, 17; Byzantine, 22; Romanesque, 29, 84; sketches for, by Tiepolo and Boucher, 2096 N Nativity, The, niello plaque, 56: painted stone relief, 153, 155 il.; terracotta group, by Rossellino, 160, 161 Nautilus shell cups, 212, 247 Navettes, see Bibelots Nécessaires, see Bibelots Necklaces, 39-41 il., 207 Needlecase, of vernis Martin, see Bibelots Needlepoint, see Upholstery Negroli casque, xx Netherlands, see Dutch art Nevers ware, see Faience Niederbreisig, Germanic antiquities from, 5 Niello, 56, 103, 124, 204, 212 il., 214, 246 Nuremberg, see Metalwork; Sculp- ture O Offero, see Saints, Christopher Oliphants, 52 Oriental art, influence on Germanic art, 9-10; on Early Christian and Byzantine art, 18, 21, 35, Ormolu, process of manufacture, 274-275; style, Louis XIV, 275; Regency, 264; Louis XV, 276; Louis XV13977,, 270324, 356; Empire, 278, 279, 280, 281 Ornaments, see Jewelry Orviedo, reliquary from Cathedral of, 205 Ostrich hunt, on Moustiers ware, 309 Ostrich shell cup, 214 ie Paintings Romanesque period, manuscript illustrations, 32 Gothic period, manuscript illus- trations, 84 388 GENERAL INDEX Flemish, realistic tendencies, 86; example, van der Wey- den, Annunciation, xx, 86, 87 il. French, miniature paintings, 84, 122 Italian, imitation of nature, 84; growth of schools, 85 Renaissance period, 180-187 Flemish, blending of Gothic and Renaissance forms, 186 French, Italian influence, 186; miniature painters, 187 German, artists, 186 Italian, early development, 181; Florentine school, 181-182; other schools, 182-186; examples, Ra- phael, Madonna, xix, 185 il, 188; Benvenuto di Giovanni, Assumption, Xvill; Sebastiano del Piom- bo, Portrait of Columbus, XViil Spanish, influenced by Italy, 186 XVII-XIX century Dutch, XVII century, 237 English, XVIII century, na- tional character, 267, 320; portrait painters, 236, 267, 329; landscape painters, 329 Flemish, XVII century, 236 French, XVII century, foreign influences, 228, 236-237; influence of Lebrun, 229— 230, 235; portraiture, 231; influence of Rubens, 236; XVIII century, first half, 261; second half, 319-320; example, 336; early XIX century, 330-332 Italian, XVIII century, Vene- tian school, 267, example, 297 Spanish, XVII century, 236 Paintings, Decorative French, XVII century, examples, 240; 2..V1lliscentury, 261— 263; examples, 288, 280, 292, 294, 295, 296, 297, 299, 307; on panels, 337, 338, (@ la turque), 338-339 il.; on can- vas, 307, 336, 340, 354, 356- 357, 358, 359, (by Robert), 278, 350-352; painted walls, 340, 354, 350 Palaeologi, 20, 22 Palissy ware, see Faience Panels, see Woodwork, Architec- tural Paschal Lamb, enameled crozier, 105; stained glass, 116 Patronage, effects of, 88, 168, 172, 179;1220,°234, 255, 316 Pavia, panel from, 112 Paxes, crystal, 196, 204; gold figure from, 126 il., 127; silver- gilt, 191 il., 204, 205 il. Pectoral, gold, 40 Pedestals, see Furniture Pendants, 104, 127, 203, 204 Pentecost, alabaster relief, wood-carvings, 150 Philosophes, Les, influence of, 313 Phylactery reliquary, 123 Pierpont Morgan Wing, xxi Pieta, The, limestone group, Biron, Pa 45q483 boll.cas palnted = terra- cotta group, 158 Pilasters, see Woodwork, Architec- tural Plaques, barbaric, 5 il.; bronze, 208-209; crystal, 193 il., 196; enamel, 32 il., 57, 58, 59 il., 60, 101, 124, 125-126; gold and glass, 42; honestone, 200-201 Ue eiVorviasl Ovi, 236%. 025 11, Ayal, AG alli, 5051.5 1 all, 2523 jeweled, 248 Plates, faience, 244,245 il., 265, 303, 304, 307, 309; gold glass, 42; silver, “Cyprus Treasure,’ 36— 38 Pleurants, 129 Pluto and Persephone, on silver sauce boat, 248 Polychromy on sculpture, 30, 141- 148; 142 Porcelain Chinese, Garland collection lent, XVili; vase with ormolu mounts, 272 French, Rouen, 304 German, Meissen, 352 Italian, Medici, 210 Portraiture, French, XVII tury, 231-232 Pottery, see Faience; Majolica cen- 389 GENERAL INDEX Power, symbolic figure on medal- lion, 242 Price, F. H. Hilton, collection of watches, 365 Processional crosses, see Crosses Protestant Revolution, 70, 168 Putti, 244 Pygmalion and Galatea, painting, 354, 350 Pyxes, enamel, 100; ivory, 44, 45 il., 110 Q Queckenberg collection of Ger- manic antiquities, 5 R Ravenna, 23, 44, 50 Regency style, see French art, XVIII century Rienkenhagen, flagon from, 127 il., 128 Reliefs, see Ivories; Sculpture; Wood-carvings; Woodwork Reliquaries, crystal, 62, 63 il., 128; enamel, for the True Cross, 55 il., 56; phylactery, 123; quatre- foil, 100; silver-gilt, monstrance shape,"79 iL 124) 1237 of aint Margaret, 103; of Saint Thomas a Becket, 103; of Saint Yrieix, 12 3et Renaissance art, general develop- ment of, 165-169; architecture, 169-174; armor, I90—-I91; ce- ramics, 193, 210; carving of crystals, 192, 196-197; enamel- ing, 190-192; engraving, 187— 188; furniture, 189-190, 210; glass, 192, 210, 245; ivory carving, 189, 208; jewelry, 190, 202-203; metalwork, 190, 201, 205-215, 248; painting, 84-85, 174, 180-187; sculpture, 174-180, 188-189, 107-201; stained glass, 1095; tapestry weaving, 89, 139, 193-194 Renaissance church, 170 Reredos, see Altarpiece Resurrection, The, shrine, 104 Revival of Learning, 73-74 enameled Road scene, painting attributed to Casanova, 358 Rocaille, 259-260 Romanesque art, development of, 27; architecture, 28-30; enam- eling, 32, 57-00, 62, 96; ivory carving, 32-33 il., 49-52; manu- script illustrations, 32, 33; metalwork, 32, 60-62; sculp- turé, 30-3277 57 1) o2-0-. stained glass, 33 Rome, 19, 23, 36, 171, 220 Rosary beads, 189, 197-198, 204 Rouen ware, see Faience; Porcelain Rousseau, bust of, by Houdon, 336 S Sacraments, set of tapestries de- picting, xviii, 114-115 il. Sacré Coeur, on panel, 243 Saint Cloud, Chateau of, wood- work from, 286-288 Saint Denis, Church of, 77 Saint Dominic, Order of, 68, 69 Saint Francis of Assisi, Order of, 68, 69, 93 Saint Gall, Monastery, 25 Saint Martin of Tours, Monastery, 25 Saint Paul’s Cathedral, French classic form, 237 Saint Peter’s (Rome), altar from, 159 Saint-Porchaire ware, see Faience Saints Ambrose, wood-carving, 145 Andrew, marble relief, 158, 150, 17740 Anne, with Virgin and Child, statuette, 155; with Virgin, 156, 357 il. Barbara, statuette, 156; marble statuette, 130; bust, painted wood, 144 il., 145 Bonaventura, writings, 94 Bridget of Sweden, statue, 144 Catherine of Alexandria, gold statuette, 126 il., 127; lime- stone statue, 156; stone stat- uette, 154 il.; bust, painted wood, 145 Christopher with Christ Child, silver-gilt statuette, 120 il, 121 SV GENERAL INDEX Elizabeth, see Visitation Faith, image, at Conques, 25 Gabriel, enamels from icon of, 55 George, enamel plaque, 53 il.; and the dragon, stone statue, 151; wood statue, 115, 146 ‘ Gregory, statuette, 142 James, enamel plaque, 1o1 il. James the Great, stone statue, 156 James of Compostella, sketch for ceiling painting, 288 Jerome, wood carving, 145 John the Baptist, carving on ivory box, 47; enamel me- dallion, 53 il.; gold medallion, 126-127; ivory altarpiece, 119; stone statue, 154; scenes from life of, stone relief, 200 John the Evangelist, enamel plaque, 32 il., 60; ivory altar piece, 119; stone sculpture (Biron monument), 134; ter- racotta bust by Giovanni della Robbia, 158 Leonard, stone sculpture, 63 Louis, crusades of, 122 Margaret, reliquary (chasse aux O1seaux), 103 Martin of Tours, alabaster re- lief, 148, 149 il.; stone statue, 151; wood statuette, 150 Mary Magdalen, statuette, 142 il., 143, 154; Ivory statuette, 208; stone sculpture (Biron Entombment), 134; terracot- ta statuette, 201 Michael, alabaster statuette, 156; limestone statue, 83, 85 il., 130; on enameled cro- zier, 105; silver-mounted drinking horn, 128, 129 il. Nicholas, wood statuette, 152, 153 il. Paul, on ivory diptych, 44; on ivory plaque, 48; stained- glass window, 116; wood statue, 152 Peter, on ivory diptych, 44; on ivory plaque, 48; stained- glass window, 116; wood statue, 152; wood statuette, 150 Savina, statue, 137-138 oe Thecla, of Iconium, alabaster relief, 148, 1409 il. Thomas a Becket, reliquary, 103-104 Thomas Aquinas, writings, 93 William, enamel plaque, 56 il., Yrieix, reliquary head, 123 il. See also Evangelists, Symbols of Salerno, ivory plaque from, 49 Samson, ivory chessman, 50; and ReaD on silver-gilt dish, 207 il. Sarcophagi, see Sculpture Sauce-boat, silver-gilt, 248 Sceaux faience, see Faience Scent bottles, see Bibelots Sconces, see Furniture Screen, see Furniture Scytho-Siberian metalwork, 5 Sculpture Early Christian period, grave monument, Jonah, 40; relief, usually on sarcophagi, 17; fragment of sarcophagus, 63 Romanesque period, character- istics, 30-32 French, painted wood statues, Bi wile O05 7 12.02 Spanish, marble font, 63; stone relief from Zamora, 63 Gothic period, quality, 80-81; trend to realism, 82, 174 English, stone statue, Saint James, 156 Flemish, popularity of wood- carving, 140-141; schools, Antwerp, 71 il., 150, Brus- sels, 154; statuette groups, 71 il., Apostles, 150, De- scent from the Cross, 155, Saint Anne, Virgin, and Christ, 155, Saint Nicho- las, 152, 153 il. French, characteristics, 80, 81, 82; schools, Burgundian, 83 98120,083 7,1 Olle, O37. 05 il., 132-136, 137, Touraine, 153, 1577." ournal, 156, Troyes, 130, 137, 154, 156; groups, stone, Education of the Virgin, 156, 157 il., Entombment, 133 il., 134, Pieta, 135 il., 136; wood, GENERAL INDEX Visitation, 101, 102 il.; reliefs, stone, Nativity, 153, 155 il., Tomb relief, 156; wood, Church Fath- ers, 145 il., 146; statues, stone, Saint Catherine, 154, Saint George and the Dragon, 151, Saint John, 154; Dalia Martin, sch5t, Saint Michael, 85 il., 130, Saint’’*Savina,-. 137-139; Virgin and Child, 151 il.; wood, Saint George and the Dragon, 115, 116, Mourn- ing Virgin, 136 il., 137; statuettes, marble, Virgin and Child, 116 il.; stone, Mourners, 83 il., 129, 130, Saint Barbara, 130, Saint Catherine, 154 il.; wood, Virgin and Child, 116 German, influence of France on, 81; popularity of wood- carvings, 140-146; Calcar school, 142; reliefs, Christ among the Doctors, 143, Dormition of the Virgin, 142-143 il.; statuettes, Saint Barbara, 14411, 145, Saint Mary Magdalen, 142 il-143 Spanish, altarpiece, alabaster, 147, 149 il.; decorative car- vings, 130; statue, Joseph of Arimathea, 146; statu- ette, alabaster, Saint Mi- chael, 156 Renaissance period, character- istics, 174-180; materials, 176; sculptors, 176; wax portraits, 204 cherub’s head, marble, 159; medallions, 158, 159, 206; miniature bronze plaques, 199; reliefs, mar- ble, Adoration of the Magi, 200-201, Eurydice, 200— 201, Saint Andrew, 158, 177 il.; statuettes, Magda-" len, 201, Virgin, 158 Spanish, reliefs, 159 Baroque period, XVII—mid- XVIII century French, sculptors, 231-232; influence of Italian school, 228, 232; examples, 233 il., 244,273, 283 11.284; rococo style, 263-264; sculptors, 263; examples, 243, 244, 284, 289 Italian, Bernini, 236; Algardi, 269 Classical revival, XVIII tury, second half French, Naturalistic school, 318, Houdon, 318, 336, Clodion, 319, Chinard, 332; Classical school, 332 cen- Sculpture, Architectural Early Christian period, 17, 22 Romanesque period, 24, 29 Gothic period, 80, 155 Renaissance period, 280-281 Baroque period, XVII-mid- XVIII century French, balusters, 242; terior decoration, mantel, 269 Classical revival, XVIII tury, second half French, decoration, 322, 333; mantels, 346, 348, 349; in- 264; cen- Flemish, miniature shrine, panel, 352; Jéro6me Mar- carved boxwood, 198, 199 let, 343-349 il. Seals, 42, 204 French,boxwood mirror-frame, Sévres, factory, 303 198 Shell cups, 212, 214 German, boxwood, casket, Shop-front, 359, 361 il. 198, medallions, 198; hone- Shrines, boxwood, 198, 199 il.; stone, reliefs, 199-200, crystal, 196, 197 il.; enamel, 201 il. gt il., 104; ivory, 108, 109 il.; Italian, bust, Saint John, silver and ebony, 246; wood, terracotta, 158; fountain, carved, verge ouvrante, 100; terracotta, 206; groups, see also Chasses; Diptychs; Nativity, terracotta, 160, Triptychs Pieta, terracotta, 158; Singeries, 338 ae). GENERAL Situla, ivory, 47 il., 48 Snuff-boxes, xx, see also Bibelots Society of Jesus, 220 Spanish art Romanesque _ period, civilization, 26-27 Gothic period, end of Moorish domination, 68; -French in- fluence on sculpture, 81; Italian influence on painting, Moslem 88 Renaissance period, _ political conditions affecting, 166— 167; influence of Italian Re- naissance, 173, 179-180, 186; development of ironwork, 190, 192 Baroque period, XVIII cen- tury, social changes affect- ing, 221, 252, 256 Stained glass, see Glass, Stained Statues, see Sculpture Statuettes, ivory, 113 il.; see also Ivories; Sculpture Stirrups, enameled, 207; ormolu, 275 Strap-ends, gold, 35 Strasbourg faience, see Faience Suabian School, sculpture, 144-145 Sun King, emblem, on stone balus- ters, 243 Swenigorodskoi collection of By- zantine enamels, 54 ‘k Tabernacles, ivory, 107, 108, 1009; door, of copper-gilt, 208; see also Shrines Tables, see Furniture Tankards, silver-gilt, 208 Tapestries Gothic period French, Crucifixion, 63; Bur- gundian-Arras center, 80, example, roses, set, 75 il., 130-131; Touraine, cen- ter, 90, example, Adoration of the Magi, 153; Tournai, center, 89, example, sacra- ments, set, XVIll, 114, 115 Renaissance period Flemish, Enghien, Verdure, 139 example, INDEX German, Alsace, example, Life of Christ, set, 206 XVII-XVIII century Flemish, 229; Brussels, 220, example, Antony and Cleo- patra, set, 160 French, 2209, 238, 265-266, 327, example, 340; Beau- vais, 266, 327; Gobelins, 220, 205-206, 327; Savon- nerie, 285; see also Uphol- stery Tarsus, monument from, 40 Textiles, 266, 326-327, 348; see also Tapestries; Upholstery Toiles de Jouy, 327 Tomb relief, marble, 156 Tondo, by della Robbia, 206 Torchéres, see Furniture Touraine, see Sculpture; Tapestries Tournai, see Sculpture; Tapestries Translucent enamel, see Enamels Tric-trac, man, 50; board, 204 Triptychs, enamel, 60; ivory, 107; painting under glass, 205 Triumph of Bacchus, on panels, 359 Triumph of Mordecai, study by de Troy, 299 Triumph of Time over Labors of Man, paintings, 297 Trophies, 272, 282, 284, 294, 208, 337, 346, 358, 359 Troyes, School of, sculpture, 130, 138, 156 Turque, decoration a la, 338-339 U Upholstery, 272-273, 293, 2090; needlepoint, 270; tapestry, 266, 282, 300, 340; velvets, 298 Vv Vanity boxes, see Bibelots Venus, in chariot, ormolu, figure, 280; toilet of, ormolu plaque, 279; and Adonis, design on faience, 309 Vermand, antiquities from tomb, vale Vernis Martin, bibelots, 353, 357 Veroli type of caskets, 46 Verre eglomisé, 103, 128, 204 393 GENERAL INDEX Versailles, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235, 241, 242, 243, 245, 254, 349, description of rooms, 235; chapel, 260 Vestments, 150 Vierge ouvrante, 100 Virgin, in Adoration, terracotta relief, 206, terracotta statuette, 158; Assumption of, painting by Benvenuto di Giovanni, XVili; Coronation of, stained- glass window, 116, stone relief, 63; Dormition of, ivory plaque, 23 il., 48, wood-carvings, 128, 142-143; Enthroned, ivory plaque, 25 il., 48; Mourning, wood statue, 136 il., 137; Scenes from the life of, enamel plaque, 53 il., ivory diptychs, 117601 1B ek 1 OMI meee ealse Adoration of the Magi; Annun- ciation; Crucifixion; Descent from the Cross; Education of the Virgin; Entombment; Pieta; Visitation Virgin and Child, enameled plaque, 60, 61 il.;ivory plaque, 48; stone relief, 158; terracotta reliefs, 161; ivory shrine, 108; painted wood shrine, 100; stone statue, 151; wood statue, 31 il., 36, 137 il.; wood statuettes, 81 il., 114, 150; Enthroned, painting, by Raphael, xix, 185 il.; ivory plaque, 25 il., 48; reliquary, 127, wood statue, 57 il., 62; polychrome wood statue, 116; ivory statuettes, 113 il. Virgin and Saint John, and holy women, carved group, 155 Vision of the Trinity, copy from Tiepolo, 297 Visitation, carved group, IOI, 102 il. Voltaire, bust by Houdon, 336 W Wager cup, 248 Wainscoting, see Woodwork, Ar- chitectural Wall hangings, use in Louis XVI period, 348, 349 Wardrobe, see Furniture, Armotre Watches, collection, xx; decoration of cases, 369; development, 365-367; unusual forms, 369 Wax portraits, 204 Weissenburg, busts from, 145 Winter, painted over-door, by La Joue, 288 Wisdom defeating Ignorance, deco- rative painting, by Natoire, 289 Wood-carvings Gothic period, development of, in Germany and the Low countries, 140-145; types and uses, 140; polychrome, 141; examples, choir stalls, 69 il., 130, 150, vestibule, 151 Renaissance period, minute car- vings in boxwood and pear- wood, 189, 198-199 Baroque period, brazier, 208, 299 il.; cherubs’ heads, 296; dolphins, 296; medallions, 242 See also Sculpture Woodwork, Architectural Baroque period, French Louis XIV, 2267 232;4235: examples, architrave (lin- tel), 242; doors, 241; man- tel, 288; paneling and wainscoting, 238, 240, 241, 243, 260, 270, 284 (ecclesi- astical), 243, Regency, 260-261; examples, 269-273, 282-289; doors with imitation books,283 il., 284 ;door panels,286, 287 il.; over-doors, 304; paneling, 269, 270, 282, 297 (eccle- siastical), 282-284; pilas- ters, 286-287 Louis XV, examples, alcove- head, 295, 297; doors from book-cases, 295, 299; doors, 289, 295, 298; newel post, 309; over-doors, 298, 299; paneling, 272, 284, 286, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, (room), 290-291 Classical revival French, transition from ro- coco, 321; classical design- ers, 321,4 322 -epancimg) 32 £4322 Louis XVI, examples, bed 394 GENERAL INDEX alcove, 336; bed niche, 348; book-cases, 344; doors, 345, 346, 348, 354; newel post, 300; over-doors, 304, 307, 338, 340, 346, 358; over- mantels, 352; paneling (carved), 336, 337, 356, 357, 358, 359, (archi- tects’ series), 338, 358, (Hotel Gaulin), 343- 349, (Tuileries set), 354, 355 il, 356, 357, 358; paneling (painted), 337, 338, 354, 350; pilasters, 337; shop-front, 359 Writing case, ivory, 52 Writing table, see Furniture Z Zamora, stone relief from, 63 Zaragoza,alabaster altarpiece from, XVIll, 147-149 seb) OF THIS HANDBOOK ONE THOUSAND COPIES WERE PRINTED MAY, 1925 1,000 ADDITIONAL COPIES WERE PRINTED IN MARCH, 1926 : tia by s ae SORE os aca see i ¥ i} 4 Fe eat) hah Sos Ee x Wa hie saa op re a i a4 Petit 18; Dla hs tate Sw rs ® ae t¢ ete ‘7 yt Tate ea Gre 3% tt eae ee eas ar . ren 0 oe) the vee fe A shih see %i Sr Bal + met ete Aesth y. 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