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Ranibbooks of
cology and Antiquities —
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
HANDBOOKS OF
ARCH AZOLOGY AND ANTIQUITIES
Edited by Professor PERCY GARDNER, Litt.D., of the University
of Oxford, and Professor FRANCIS W. KELSEY, of the University of
Michigan. With Illustrations. Ex. crown 8vo.
Greek Sculpture. By ERNEST A. GARDNER, M.A. New edition
with Appendix. Part I, Part II. Complete in one volume.
Appendix separately.
Greek and Roman Coins. By G. F. HILL, of the Coins Depart-
ment of the British Museum.
The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Repunitt: By W.
WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History. By A ane
GREENIDGE, M.A. With Map.
The Destruction of Ancient Rome. A Sketch of the History of the
Monuments. By Professor RODOLFO LANCIANI,
Roman Public Life. By A. H. J. GREENIDGE, M.A,
Monuments of the Early Church. By W. LowRIE, M.A.
Grammar of Greek Art. By Professor PERCY GARDNER,
Life in Ancient Athens. The Social and Public Life of a Classical
Athenian from Day to Day. By Professor T. G. TUCKER, Litt.D.
The Monuments of Christian Rome, from Constantine to the
Renaissance. By ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Ph.D., Sometime
Professor of Ancient History at Princeton University.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
BY
“ALLAN MARQUAND, Pu.D., L. oe D.
PROFESSOR OF ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY
IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
ec Neto Work
‘THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
3 1909
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PREFACE
In publishing this treatise on Greek Architecture I
wish to acknowledge my obligations to many writers.
These are all recorded in the List of Abbreviations at the
end of the volume and in the references given in the
text. But a more special acknowledgment is due to
the scholars whose work has appeared in the publications
of the German Government on Olympia, Pergamon, Priene,
and Magnesia, and in that of the French Government on
Delphi, which have furnished much material for both
text and illustrations. The general treatises of most
assistance have been those of Boetticher, Durm, and
Choisy, while the more specialized works of Penrose,
Haussoullier, Lechat, Krell, Koldewey, Puchstein, Wie-
gand, and Doerpfeld, as well as many articles published
in periodicals, have greatly facilitated my task. I am
also indebted to Professor Harold N. Fowler for a care-
ful revision of the manuscript, to Dr. Oliver S. Tonks
for much valuable assistance in reading the proofs and
preparing the indexes, to Clarence Ward for making the
illustrations for Chapters I, II, and IV, and to William B.
Dinsmoor for those of Chapters V and VI.
ALLAN MARQUAND.
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,
January 15, 1909.
Vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
Wood, clay, concrete and stucco, stone and marble, metal.
Foundations and pavements. Walls, doorways and win-
dows. Columns and entablatures, ceilings and roofs.
CHAPTER II
ARCHITECTURAL FoRMS
Foundations. Walls. Antae. Doorsand windows. Pil-
Jars, columns and piers. Entablatures. Ceilings and
roofs.
CHAPTER III
PROPORTION .
Major ratios. Minor ratios.~ Modified ratios. Symmet-
rical ratios or proportion.
CHAPTER IV
DECORATION
Greek methods of decoration. Types of ornament. Deco-
ration of foundations, pavements and walls. Doors, win-
dows, pilasters. Columns. Entablatures. Ceilings and
roofs.
ix
PAGE
5o
126
146
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Vo. 9e ee
COMPOSITION AND STYLE . ; : Z F i
Foundations and pavements. Walls. Antae and pilas-
ters. Doors and windows. Piers and columns. Entabla-
tures. Ceilings and roof. Style: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
Mixed, and Miscellaneous. ; *
CHAPTER VI
MonvuMENTS . ; ‘ } ; ? (mpeg Nr anf 285
Towns and their defences. Water supply. Religious
monuments: altars and temples. Governmental buildings: __
the bouleuterion and prytaneion. Commercial buildings:
the agora and stoa. Buildings for physical culture: the
palaistra, baths, stadion, and hippodrome. Buildings for
intellectual and social purposes: schools, libraries, clubs,
theatres, music halls. Buildings for domestic use: the ,
palace and private house. Naval architecture: ships and
harbors. Sepulchral architecture. eat
List or ABBREVIATIONS . : Y € ; ar
List oF ILLUSTRATIONS i “ 4 at. Sig - 7
Inppx or GREEK Worps . . . - a aac ;
GENERAL INDEX . ~ : A ‘ " : 3 3
a
wes é
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
va
a
«
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
CHAPTER I
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
THE Greeks in their architecture made use of wood,
clay, stucco, stone, and sparingly of metal, glass and other
substances. It is useless to discuss which of these mate-
rials is to be ranked as the earliest or most fundamental.
As far back as we can trace their history, the Greeks
employed all of these materials, and they never altogether
dispensed with them. But while we may not hope to
trace the evolution of Greek architectural forms from
the exclusive employment of any one material, it is neces-
sary that we should consider what materials the Greeks
had at their disposal and how they made use of them,
before we study their architectural forms, decoration and
the character of their monuments.
1. Woop. —In regard to a material so perishable as
wood, little can be expected from actual remains. Yet
several dowels from the columns of the Parthenon are
preserved in the Acropolis Museum at Athens; various
objects made of walnut, oak, box, chestnut, fir and pine
have survived in charred condition from the _ build-
ings of Pompeii; and piles from Roman buildings and
B 1 ‘
47) GREEK ARCHITECTURE
bridges still exist which have derived extraordinary
strength from their position under water.t More may be
learned from ancient representations of wooden struc-
tures, especially from the rock-cut tombs of Etruria? and
Asia Minor,’ and from vase-paintings. The Etruscan
tombs preserve for us several types of roofs which can-
not have differed greatly from contemporary roofs in
Greece. Asia Minor, especially Phrygia, Lycia and Paph-
lagonia, is rich in tombs which reveal methods of construc-
tion closely related to, or derived from, those of the Greeks.
From the remains of buildings in Greece proper, much
may be inferred concerning the use of wooden columns,
wooden entablatures and roofs. But more extended and
detailed information is to be sought in classic literature
and inscriptions. Vitruvius, in his De Architectura, re-
flects the technical knowledge of Greek architectural writ-
ers in what he has to say in regard to the use of wood as
building material. Theophrastos, in his History of Plants,*
describes the different kinds of trees and throws out many
hints concerning their specific uses in architecture. . Pliny,
in his Historia Naturalis, reflects the knowledge possessed
by Theophrastos and other Greek writers. Among
modern writings, H. Blimner’s Technologie und Termino-
logie der Gewerbe und Kiinste bet Griechen und Rémer
deserves especial mention for its admirable treatment of
the ancient technical methods, while A. Choisy, in his
Etudes épigraphiques sur Varchitecture grecque, has com-
mented with technical acumen on Greek inscriptions re-
lating to the Arsenal at the Peiraieus, the Wall of pes
and the Erechtheion.
1Keller, Mitt. ant. Gesellsch. zu Ziirich, XII, 308. 2 Martha, Ch. VII.
8 Perrot et Chipiez, V, 361-384. 4 rept put dv ioropia, in ten books.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 3
The Greeks used a variety of woods for architectural
purposes. They recognized that woods differed in hard-
ness, in durability, in resistance to pressure or flexure, and
that they acted in different ways when exposed to mois-
ture or dryness. ‘They knew that even the same wood
varied in value according to its age, or the season of the
year when it was cut, or the region from which it came.
They not only made broad distinctions, as between wood
suitable for houses and wood suitable for ships, but they
applied with nice discrimination the different woods for
specific purposes. Theophrastos! mentions as specially
adapted for building purposes, pine, fir, cedar, cypress,
oak and juniper. Of these, the pine and fir were
highly valued as supports, whether vertical or horizontal;
cedar and cypress were prized for roofs and floors of
houses and for ships; the oak, several varieties of which
were known, was used for thresholds, door-posts, keels of
ships and other purposes; and the juniper, on account of
its durability, was employed with equal satisfaction above
or below ground. Many other woods were employed
by the Greek architects. Thus from the acacia were
made roofing beams of great length; rafters made from
the date-palm were supposed all over the Greek world
to warp in a direction directly opposed to the pressure
laid upon them. ‘The alder was found to be serviceable
for foundation piles, water-pipes, ships and bridges; the
wild fig, for curved objects, such as the ribs of boats.
Ash, chestnut, black or white poplar, elm and walnut
were also used for architectural purposes, as also, in lesser
degree, olive, box and ebony.
Various implements were employed for wood construc-
1 Theophrastos, V, 7, 4.
4 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
tion. The primitive architect who constructed a log cabin
required but few tools. A knife or axe sufficed for his
purpose. But more complicated constructions demanded
a greater variety of implements. The Greek carpenter’s
outfit did not differ greatly from that of to-day. He had
his knives and chisels, his axe, which might be single or
double, and his curved adze (Fig. 1). He had his single
and double ham-
mer, his pick
hammer and _ his
hammer for ex-
tracting nails.
His saw existed
in several varie-—
ties, and was
differently made
according to its
use by one or
more persons. He
had various gim-
lets and augers,
and the time-
Fic. 1. Curved adze. honored drill, to
be used with a bow. He used a plane and the file, com-.
passes of various kinds, a linear measure, a levelling
implement, a square and angle measure. He marked
his straight lines with a stretched string, smeared with
red or white chalk, and he gauged his perpendiculars by
means of a plumb-line, to which was attached a leaden
weight cast in attractive form. Such implements may
not have been adapted for rapid workmanship, but they
answered every ordinary demand.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 5
The methods of construction were not always the same.
With the implements mentioned above, wood for building
purposes was either pared of its bark, so as to form rounded
logs,! or hewn into squared blocks or beams, or split or
sawed into planks. ‘These elements were combined in
various ways so as to form fixed structures. In the case
of very heavy logs or beams, gravity sometimes sufficed to
hold them in place. But ordinarily some device was re-
quired to bind the separate parts together. We may dis-
tinguish five different methods: (1) splicing, (2) nailing,
(3) clamping, (4) notching, (5) gluing. Splicing, by
means of withes or cords, had perhaps a limited applica-
tion. But it was undoubtedly employed for combining
slender materials into stronger units. The torus mould-
ing of the Egyptian cornice was almost invariably painted
with a winding band; the annuli of the Doric capital seem
to represent the cord or ring which held together reeds
which formed the original columns; and to this day in
Greece and Italy scaffoldings are usually constructed of
rounded timbers held together by cords.
Nailing was accomplished either with wooden pegs, or
nails of metal, which might be of iron, bronze or even
silver. ‘These pegs and nails were of various forms and
sizes, and were applied sometimes directly and sometimes
through a reglet, which separated as well as united the
members to which it was applied.
Clamping, by means of wooden or metal clamps (dduaTa,
BrATpa), was a method of bonding applied to wooden as
wellas stone construction. Dove-tailed clamps, resembling
a double axe and called, therefore, veXexivor, were often
employed.
1 Bliimner, IT, 300.
6 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Notching, as a means of bonding, is peculiarly adapted
to wooden construction, and must age been employed
from earliest times. ‘The primitive sanctuary of Poseidon
Hippios,! near Mantineia, built by Agamedes and Tro-
phonios, was made of oak logs, “fashioned and fitted
together,” doubtless by notching. Notched timber con-
struction was imitated in many of the marble tombs of
Lycia. It was naturally common in the construction of
roofs, where the rafters were scarfed and abutted against
notches in the wall plates. Beams uniting to form a right
angle were either mitred together or fastened by a tenon
(wepirouis) and mortise (yeA@uor).
Gluing, as a means of bonding wood, was known to
Greek carpenters in Homeric times, and experience soon
taught them which woods were, and which were not,
adapted to receive this treatment. When great adhesive
strength was required, a glue made from the hides and
hoofs of cattle (ravpcxodXa) was used. ;
The principles of framing once understood, the applies
tions were many. Houses, temples, and other buildings,
especially in early times, were often constructed entirely
of wood.. Even when built of brick or stone, wood was
still required for portions of the buildings. In the build-
ing of houses, the foundations, walls, floors, roofs, columns,
entablatures, doors, windows and decorative mouldings
might be of wood. Ships called for even more complicated
carpentry. :
The foundations of wooden houses on dry soil were
usually of stone ; on damp soil they consisted of piles. For
this purpose the elder, elm and oak are recommended by
Vitruvius.?
1 Paus; VIII, 10, 2. 2 Vitruvius, II, 9, 10-11.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 7
Floors (ckatw opodai ) consisted of a system of girders
(Soxoi, duepetouata), which supported the joists (o¢nkicxor,
émi8rnTot), on which were laid the boards (cavides, rivaxes ).
The girders were usually set into niches in the walls, but
sometimes rested on
independent sup-
ports(Vig. 2). The
boards weresecurely
put together and
fastened, probably
by grooving, and were then covered with clay or tiles.
Walls, when made of wood, were constructed with corner
posts (oTa@yo/) and intervening studs (écpiwtipes) without
braces, mortised into the lower sills, and held together at
the top by a wall plate. An exterior covering of boards
may sometimes have been given, but it was an early and
general practice to fill up the spaces between the uprights
with rubble, after the fashion of the European half-timbered
house. ‘This seems to be the construction indicated in
Lycian tombs. An interesting survival of this type of
construction may be found in Roman and Byzantine walls
LE
Y ffs sass LY —— .
WU, /
Fig. 2.—Floor of Arsenal at —
of Algeria! and Tunis, where the wooden uprights are
replaced by stone (Fig. 3).
Doors were usually made of wood. Their sills (v7ro-
Tovata, ovooi), jambs (ora@puor ), lintels (iweptévaca, vrrép-
@vpa) and hinge posts (atpdéduyyes), when of wood, were
made of carefully selected materials. The doors of the
Temple of Artemis at Ephesos were made of materials
which had “lain treasured up” for four generations, accord-
ing to Theophrastos,? and lasted for four hundred years,
according to the tradition preserved by Pliny.? Door
1 Gsell. II, 30. 2 Theophrastos, V, 4, 2. Pliny, XVI, 79, 1.
8 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
frames of wood were used not only in the ancient buildings
at ‘Troy and Tiryns, but also were employed even in such
: perfect marble struc-
tures as the Parthenon
and the Propylaea.
Columns and _ their
U7). entablatiees were often
of wood. From the
ruined palaces at Troy
_ bases which once bore
the wooden columnsstill
survive. At Olympia,
SETS TEE ey a8 late as the time of
Fic, 3. — Wall of a building at Bir Sgaoun, Pausanias, there re-
Algeria. mained one of the old
oak columns of the Heraion and others from the house
of Oinomaos. The columns of the Temple of Hera
at Metapontum and the stairway in the Temple of
Artemis at Ephesos were made of grape wood.! It is not
strange that the wooden entablatures, which must have
crowned many a Greek as well as Etruscan and Asiatic
colonnade, have now disappeared, although their forms —
and Tiryns, the stone —
have been preserved in stone and marble. In the
Arsenal at Peiraieus the wooden epistyle (éavaTvAov Evrt-
voy) consisted of a series of single blocks, extending from
pier to pier and fastened together probably by clamps.
Frequently, however, the epistyles were made of two or
three beams set side by side, trabes compactiles, as directed
by Vitruvius,? with air spaces between them for their
preservation; or of epistyles superposed once or twice,
1 Pliny, XIV, 2. 2 Vitruvius, IV, 7, 4.
a at ee
oe ee
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 9
each upper series projecting slightly beyond the series
immediately below it. This method of construction was
peculiar to countries where massive wood was scarce. It
Fic. 4.— Restoration of Proto-Doric Entablature.
was especially current in Persia and Ionian Greece.
Above the epistyle the fixed forms of the Doric and
Ionic entablature preserved many reminiscences of wooden:
construction. The mutules and reglets in stone and mar-
ble buildings cannot be satisfactorily explained except as
survivals of wooden members which once served a useful
purpose. In wooden buildings we may believe that they
were employed as bonding members. Thus, the mutules
united and kept from warping the boards of the roof, and
the reglets performed a similar service for the boards
10 . GREEK ARCHITECTURE
above the epistyle (Fig. 4). Triglyphs and dentils are
also most satisfactorily explained as representing the ends
of horizontal ceiling beams. Sufficient proof of this is
furnished by the tombs of Lycia (Fig. 5). The fact that
in the later Greek buildings triglyphs and dentils did not
correspond in position or number to the actual ceiling
beams, is of little significance. ©
\eeCU EME
Sree PH ages
Fia. 5. — Sarcophagus from Gjolbaschi-Trysa.
The construction of roofs varied in character. Compli-
cated, interpenetrating roofs were always avoided and
the simpler forms of roofs adopted. The pyramidal roof
of the log huts of the inhabitants of Colchis,t made by a
1 Vitruvius, II, 1, 4.
fo. ee. aa yy ‘is oe
—— ="
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 11
gradual contraction of the crossing timbers of the walls,
required little aid from carpentry. Slght notches near the
angles were sufficient to hold the logs together. The hori-
zontal and pent roof differed but little in construction from
ordinary floors, but the gable or saddle roof demanded new
methods of construction. ‘This consisted of a ridge-beam
(xopudaiov) and the rafters (odnxioxa). These were
bonded together by means of purlins (iwavtes), which
carried the battens or sheathing (xadAvppata). Such a
roof as this sufficed for covering small spaces, when the
ridge-pole might extend from gable to gable. But it
could not be applied to long spaces, like the central nave
of a temple or basilica. Even if ridge-pieces of sufficient
length could be found or put together they must needs
be of extraordinary thickness to carry the great weight of
a long roof. Supports were accordingly given to the
ridge-beam at definite intervals. These consisted some-
times of a single row of columns or piers, more frequently
of a double row of columns. The double colonnade
carried cross-beams (wecouvat), and upon each of these
rested a block or king-post (v7ré@nua), the sole function
of which seems to have been to support the ridge-beam
(Fig. 6).
The-cross-beams in Philon’s Arsenal at the Peiraieus,
of the fourth century, were quite as heavy as those we find
represented in Phrygian and Etruscan tombs, and the
raking rafters seem to have been of corresponding heavi-
ness. ‘The cross-beams resisted the weight of the roof by
their massiveness and indisposition to flexure. Between
this method of roofing and the system of employing a
series of trussed frames with their ties and braces there
is little difference in outward appearance, except that the
\
Bae se GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Greek frames were more massive; but there is a wide dif-
ference in principle. Trussed frames were possibly known
to the Greeks,! but they can hardly have come into general
use except with the steeper sloping roofs of the Romans.
Horizontal ceilings were common in Greek buildings,
but were sometimes omitted, as in some of the Sicilian
temples and possibly in a portion of the Erechtheion.?
Wooden ceilings (EvAwpodar) exhibited a series of power-
EE yy et
Fic. 6. — Roof construction of Arsenal at Peiraieus.
ful beams, upon which smaller cross-beams were laid so
as to form square coffered openings. Upon these were
built smaller coffers, closed by square panels. At the
Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, the ceiling beams were of
cedar® and the cofferings of cypress. Coffered wooden
ceilings may be presumed for the interiors of most Greek
temples. |
2. CLAY, CONCRETE AND Strucco.—The ancient
Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians and Phoeni-
cians made use of sun-dried brick for building purposes.
It is only in recent years that historians of archi-
tecture have realized the extensive use made of this
1 Choisy, Etudes, 155. Pliny, Vie
2 Tbid. 147. 4 Vitruvius, II, 9, 18.
~~ pe «=
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 138
material by the Greeks. In the Mycenaean period it was
almost universally employed for the walls of palaces and
private houses. The excavations at Argos! and at
Olympia? show that the walls of the Temple of Hera in
both places were of sun-dried brick. Later structures,
such as the walls of Athens and of Mantineia, the palaces
of Croesus at Sardes, of Mausolos at Halikarnassos, of the
Attalids at Tralles? and the Palaestra at Olympia, were
of the same material. Sun-dried brick was preferred in
the late period to stone for fortification walls, on account
of its capacity for resisting the blows of the battering-
ram,* but it offered a feeble resistance to water, as was
proved by the fall of Mantineia. In their selection and
preparation of clay the Greeks took great care. Vitruvius®
lays down principles as to which clays should be selected
and which avoided in making bricks. ...
re
a
xB
.
7
bx
i ;
E
q
-
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 19
not confined to Etruscan and Roman buildings. Friezes,
cornices, antefixes and acroteria of this material are found
in Greek buildings in southern Italy and Sicily, at Olym-
pia, Delos and Athens.!
Concrete was used for pavements, floors and roofs, and
the finer stucco for covering walls, columns, ceilings and
for ornamental mouldings. Pavements (otp@pata, édd¢n)
of fine cement laid upon a coarse concrete have been
found in various Mycenaean palaces, a noteworthy ex-
ample being that in the courtyard and in the large megaron
at Tiryns.” One of the earliest of the water conduits at
Olympia, dating from the seventh century B.c., and lead-
ing to the Altar of the Nymphs, was made of a hard cement
composed of lime and small pebbles. The pavements of
the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and of many other temples
were similarly constructed. Vitruvius? lays down the
rules for pavements of this kind. ‘They consisted of a
fundamental rudus, of coarse stones and lime, a central
nucleus of broken potsherds and lime, upon which was
laid the exactum pavimentum. With slight variations, the
same methods had been employed by the Greeks during
the whole course of their history. When pavements of
concrete were laid upon the wooden floors of a building,
precautions were taken to spread first upon the wooden
planks a layer of straw, so that the lime might not injure
the wooden frame. When such floors were exposed to
the open, and had to withstand dampness and heat and
frost, special expedients were necessary to prevent the
cracking of the cement through the expansion or contrac-
1 Borrmann, Architektonische Terracotten, in Olympia, I, 187-203 ; Die
Keramik in der Baukunst, 28-51; Frazer, Paus., I, 59.
2 Schliemann, Tiryns, 203, 214, 224. 8 Vitruvius, VII, 1.
20) GREEK ARCHITECTURE
tion of its wooden support. In such cases, Vitruvius
recommends a second sheathing of planks at right angles
to the first; a statwmen, or foundation, composed of stones
as large as a man’s fist, and clay; a nucleus not less than a
foot thick; and, if necessary, a double tile covering, which
should have a slight incline. An interesting variety of
concrete pavement is that described by Vitruvius! as used
by the Greeks for winter dining rooms. It was composed
of ashes mixed with lime and sand. It was not cold to
the feet, and water spilled upon it readily evaporated.
Stucco (kovia, coviaua, opus albarium), made of marble
dust or gypsum, when applied to wet plaster made a sur-
face more durable than that of marble itself. It was used
as a covering to protect sun-dried brick and the coarse
stones, sometimes applied to baked brick and even to
marble. The walls of the ancient palaces at Tiryns,
Mycenae and Knossos were plastered and covered with a
fine stucco, fragments of which still retain their polychro-
matic decoration. ‘The poros columns and entablatures of
archaic buildings in Greece, Italy and southern Italy re-
ceived, as did the sandstone columns of Egypt, a covering
of fine stucco. Stucco was sometimes applied, as in the
Treasury of the Megarians at Olympia,? to the surfaces of
blocks of stone so that they might be more closely fitted
together. Stucco ornaments, though in reality a cheap
substitute for carved wood or stone, came in the classic
period to be considered as signs of extravagance. After
the days of Alkibiades, however, this luxury and that of
having wall paintings on stuccoed walls was widely spread.
Vitruvius, in giving directions for constructing cornices
and vaults of stucco, is concerned that they should be
1 Vitruvius, VII, 4, 5. 2 Olympia, I, 53. 8 Vitruvius, VII. 3.
ae ee ee ee ee
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 21
made without much overhang and as light as possible.
The walls were also a source of anxiety. Various pre-
cautions were taken to secure dry walls, and on these, after
the first coarse plastering, no less than three coats of fine
sand mortar and three of stucco were recommended.
3. STONE AND MARBLE. Greece was well provided
with stone and marble, admirably adapted for building
purposes. It was inevitable, with the advance of civiliza-
tion, that a more substantial material should be substi-
tuted for wood and clay. The substitution of stone for
wood is admirably illustrated by the Heraion at Olympia.
This temple, dating from the eighth or ninth century, B.c.,
was built, hke Mycenaean palaces, with walls of sun-dried
brick, and columns and entablature of wood. The old
oaken columns were here gradually replaced by stone
columns whose capitals show a succession of archaic, de-
veloped and decadent forms, until in the day of Pausanias
only one of the oaken columns remained. In the Greek
towns of southern Italy, wooden entablatures upon stone
columns were in use for centuries ; but inevitably Greek
logic demanded entablatures and walls, as well as columns,
of stone. Not merely the demand for more enduring
temples and civic buildings, but also for more substantial
roads and bridges, aqueducts and tombs, led to a rapid
development of the art of the stone-cutter and mason.
The most common building stone was called poros
(m@pos or AMos mapivos). Both ancient and modern
writers use the term with great laxity.! In this connec-
tion, H. S. Washington, the geologist, says :? ‘“ There is
great lack of definiteness in the use of the word poros,
which is made to include almost all soft, light colored
1 Frazer, Paus., III, 502-503. 2 A.J.A. 1891, 395, note 1.
a GREEK ARCHITECTURE
stones, not palpably marble or hard limestone. In the
majority of cases, it is a sort of travertine, again a shell
conglomerate, and occasionally a sandstone or some de-
composed rock containing serpentine or other hydrated
mineral.” When such breadth of significance is allowed,
it is not surprising that so-called poros should vary greatly
in character. At Syracuse, the columns of the temple
have weathered very badly, while those at Corinth, gina
and Assos still retain much of their original form. Poros —
figured prominently in the chief buildings of Greece and ~
her colonies from the eighth to the middle of the fifth
century, and in some cases even later. It was ren-
dered practically weather-proof by a covering of fine, hard
stucco.
White marble (A/@os AevKcs) was used sparingly in
the sixth century and abundantly in and after the
fifth century. Being more compact and durable than
poros, it seems to have been first employed for decorative
sculpture on such portions of buildings as were especially
exposed to the weather. Thus, at the Old Temple
of Athena on the Acropolis at Athens, some of the
metopes, the cornice, the gable sculptures and presumably
the tiles, were of marble, the remainder of the building
being constructed of Peiraieus stone and local lime-—
stone.!
The island quarries seem to have been opened first.
Byzes of Naxos in the sixth century, B.Cc., has the
credit of having first made roofing tiles of marble.?
Parian marble was imported at Athens for architectural
purposes at least a century before her own local marbles
were discovered. Anaphe, Tenos and Andros also fur-
1 Wiegand, 59-60. 2 Paus., V, 10, 3.
|
.
P
a
»
J
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION ahs)
nished white marble. From Thasos came the marble used
in the buildings at Samothrace. At various points in the
Peloponnesos, white marble was found. Special mention
may be made of the quarries at Doliana near Tegea. In
the immediate vicinity of Athens, Mt. Hymettos furnished
a coarse blue-streaked marble and Mt. Pentelikon the fine
grained white marble, the surface of which in time
acquires a golden sheen, due, it is said, to the fine grains
of iron which this marble contains. Of Pentelic marble
were built the principal Athenian buildings of the age of
Pericles and succeeding centuries; it was imported by
Augustus and Domitian into Rome. From Laurion
came the marble used in the temple at Sounion. Boeotia
had a marble which became white with exposure, used at
Orchomenos and at Lebadeia, and Laconia had several
quarries of white marble. In western Asia Minor, there
were also deposits of white marble at Ephesos, Herakleia
and Mylasa, and in Italy at the well-known quarries of
Carrara.
Dark, more or less uniformly colored, marbles were
found at Eleusis, in Arcadia, Laconia, Lesbos, Melos and
Chios and at Alabanda and Miletos.
Variegated, polychromatic marbles, though used more
abundantly by the Romans, were employed by the Greeks
as early as the fourth century in the palace of Mausolos
at Halikarnassos and more freely in the Hellenistic period,
especially at Alexandria. Attica and Laconia had poly-
chromatic marbles, but the better-known varieties were
the green -cipollino from Karystos, in Euboea (Aé@os
Evfoixds); the variegated marble from Chios (A/@os Xéos)
of which the people of that island built their city walls;
the purple and white pavonizetto from Phrygia (A@os
94 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
@Ppvyios); and the yellow giallo antico, from Numidia
(AWos ArBu«ds). Besides these, Rhodes, Skyros, Lydia,
Caria, Keltis (France), and Italy possessed polychromatic
marbles.1
The Greek quarry, whether subterranean or not, differed
little from the quarries of Egypt. When subterranean
and large, various devices, such as piers and curved ceil-
ings, were employed to prevent the superincumbent mass
from falling in. Directions for quarrying were given by ~
Heron of Alexandria.? Like the Egyptians, the Greeks
made deep cuttings and inserted wedges. The wedges
were probably of wood; their simultaneous expansion,
when wet, making the rift in the rock. In the quarries at
Selinous and Syracuse may be seen evidence of the cross
cuttings for quadrated blocks and the broader, circular
cutting for the drums of columns.
There were many implements used by the stone-cutter
in common with the carpenter, but he had also implements
peculiarly his own. His hammer and his chisels had to be
adapted for heavier work. He had his pick or pointer,
his smooth-edged chisel, and his toothed chisels, some
adapted for rough work and others for finer work ; also a
graving tool. For deep cutting he required a drill, and
for the final polish he used the file and Egyptian sand or
Naxian corundum. In fine jointing it was necessary
that the surfaces of the joints should be as nearly as possi-
ble absolutely plane surfaces. A washing with nitre and
water (€xvitpwots) made the surfaces absolutely clean.
1 For a study of marbles the reader may be referred to: Lepsius,
Griechische Marmorstudien, Abh. k. p. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1890;
Blimner, III, 26-57; Middleton, Remains of Ancient Rome, I, 14-22.
2MynxavKal icoywyal.
4... Te aT
. Fr
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 25
The transportation of stone blocks from the quarry to
the building was not always aneasy matter. Wagons and
sledges sufficed for smaller blocks, but special devices are
said to have been invented by Chersiphron for rolling
columns and by Metagenes for revolving epistyles to the
Temple of Artemis at Ephesos. Similar devices are
thought by Koldewey to have been used at Selinous.
Columns, or drums of columns, were dragged like a modern
roller, being held to a frame by means of small cylinders,
which served as axles. In transporting epistyles the
framework was provided with wheels.! To elevate the
largest blocks to their places, inclined planes were
employed by Metagenes at Ephesos ; but ordinarily, cranes
and derricks sufficed. The derricks consisted of one or
more beams set on end and provided with ropes, pulleys
and a windlass.
¢
air
r .
3
A
‘4
>
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 49
_
_
Selinous.
Apollo at Corinth. It was usually, in respect to depth, di-
vided into two or more slabs and not infrequently built up
in courses. ‘The epistyle of the , 3
Temple of Concordia - Akra- i7/ Y/ V
gas was composed of two such | |
slabs, that of the Parthenon of
three (Fig. 25). Such epistyles Lo L ij
in large buildings were more
practical than heavy monoliths. VU V1 U3
In Paestum, Selinous (Fig. 26) Fic. 25.—Epistyle from Par-
and elsewhere epistyles were Be
constructed of two or more courses. In very large build-
ings, such as the Temple of Zeus at Akragas, single-coursed
epistyles were impossible.
Even in smaller buildings it
was more economical to adopt
two-coursed epistyles and thus
reduce the size of the upper
blocks which were of finer
quality. In marble buildings
Doric epistyles were usually
single coursed, their crowning
mouldings being carved on the
epistyle blocks. Ionic epistyles,
not only by their overhanging
fasciae preserved the form of
epistyles built up in successive
courses, but also had their crowning mouldings carved
from separate blocks.
The frieze rested upon the epistyle. It was almost in-
variably decorated, sometimes with figured decoration.
Constructively, the frieze was a complex member, built
E
50 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
up in a variety of ways. It was, in the archaic period,
often composed of at least two courses, which might be
equal or unequal in height. In the Old Temple of ©
Athena at Athens! the triglyphs were built up in courses ;
at ‘Temple F’, Selinous, metopes, as well as triglyphs, were
thus constructed. When covered with stucco the hori- —
zontal joints would be concealed, but in marble buildings,
which were not so covered, these joints would be visible.
Hence in the classic period friezes were usually on the
exterior monolithic in respect to height, though sometimes
built up in courses on the back.
In its horizontal aspect the Ionic frieze was as
continuous as was practicable. It was regarded as a
girdle (dvafwua) encircling a building, undivided, except
by such joints as were inevitable, and which were as far
as possible concealed from view. The Doric frieze
was, however, divided into triglyphs (tpéyAuvdov) and
metopes (yerd7rat), and these appear in the earliest
temples to have been composed of separate blocks,
artificially bonded. In the so-called Temple of Demeter
at Paestum triglyphs and metopes were so loosely juxta-
posed that the triglyphs have now disappeared altogether.
A step in the direction of greater unity of construction —
is seen in the Temple of Concordia, Akragas, where each
triglyph was formed from the same block as the adjoining
metope. At Pergamon two triglyphs and a metope or
two metopes and a triglyph were sometimes united in a
single block. In smaller buildings it was practicable to
carry this fusion further still. However, the normal
method of constructing a triglyphal frieze, especially when
the metopes were decorated with relief sculpture, is ex- .
1 Wiegand, 8.
it Pe -s : Die ra
“ Pid ee | bie en]
NS ge en eae PRS, eee | Re ES eS ee ee
SS FP FO es ene ae ee ae
— a
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 51
hibited in the Parthenon (Fig. 27). Here the metopes
are relatively thin slabs which are mortised into rectangu-
lar grooves cut into the sides of the triglyph blocks. In
the Choragic Monument of Nikias at Athens,’ marble
metopes were similarly mortised into poros triglyphs.
Viewed in respect to depth or thickness, the frieze is
— A _—_ = — —
Fig. 27. — Triglyphal frieze of Parthenon.
composed of an external decorated face or kosmophoros,
and an antithema or back (av7/@nua), usually undeco-
rated except by a cap moulding. The antithema usually
consisted of two courses, especially when capped by a
sculptured moulding. It was in the earlier buildings set
into immediate juxtaposition to the kosmophoros, with or
without interlocking joints; but as this involved a waste
of material and weighted the colonnade unnecessarily, the
kosmophoros and antithema in marble buildings were
usually separated a short distance from each other.
The construction of the cornice (yetcov) exhibited also
1 Doerpfeld, in Ath. Mitt., X (1885), 222.
52 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
its own peculiarities. -It frequently consisted of two or
more courses of masonry. In Doric buildings the lower
cornice block was of considerable depth. This permitted
the cornice to project well
beyond the face of the build-
ing, and bound together the
—g Kosman as andantithema
_ of the frieze. The upper
_. portion of the cornice was
ey 7 usually built up in two or
more courses, the upper
_block carrying the cap
Fic. 28. cE of Temple D, moulding (Fig. 28).
sense In Ionic buildings, such
as the Temple of Athena at Priene,! dentils (yetotmrodes ),
geison and sima were all composed of separate blocks.
In smaller buildings a fusion was usually made of these
separate members. Thus, in the Temple of Asklepios
at Priene,? geison and sima, and in the Propylon at
Priene,® dentils and geison, are carved from a single block.
In the altar of the Temple of Athena,‘ dentils, geison and
sima are all carved from one block.
The blocks composing the cornice were, in early times,
irregular as to length. Thus, the joints of an archaic
Doric cornice might fall in the middle of a mutule, or
‘of the space between two mutules. The classic build-
ers more carefully regulated the lengths of the~cornice
blocks. Thus, they usually arranged that the cornice
block of the Doric order should carry one mutule and
one via.® Owing to the unequal divisions of the tri-
1 Priene, Fig. 72. 2 Ibid., Fig. 113, 117. 8 Ibid., Fig. 105.
4 Tbid., Fig. 98. 5 Middleton, J.H.S., Suppl. 3 (1900), 9, Pl. 5.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 583
elyphal frieze, the cornice blocks were only approximately
uniform in length.
The soffits of the Doric cornice in the form of mutules
with trunnels were in early examples carved from the
same block as the cornice. Later the trunnels usually,
and the mutules occasionally, were carved separately and
fastened securely in place.
Whereas wooden ceilings continued to be used for
closed structures, stone and marble ceilings were often
employed to cover the peristyle and other porches ex-
posed to the air. The construction of such ceilings fol-
lowed the precedents of wooden construction, exhibiting
the large beams and cofferings closed by panels. The
beams were notched so as to hold the coffered blocks
secure. Sometimes, as at the Theseion and the Parthe-
non (Fig. 29), large slabs carried many Suess. Again,
as at Priene, large and
deep cofferings were
built up like a series
of superposed boxes.
The roof (otéyn,
éemwpopia), except on
small buildings like
the Tower of the
Winds, was never
constructed _ entirely
of stone or marble.
The substitution of wooden beams and rafters and pur-
lins remained, while marble was substituted for terra-cotta
for the roofing tiles, gable cornices, acroteria and simae.
The substitution of marble for terra-cotta tiles intro-
duced no new problems. The stone and marble gable
V4
drtpeeti
bh BS ee
r---4
re---4
oI roi |
Cosa
taSaa)
Sen Ch oe aE
LY
oe
< ae gt eae ee! ee ee Te
* . = 5 be ~ oe
4
:.
*
a
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS ta
of both column and wall. Its structure has already re-
ceived attention. The form shows columnar influence in
having diminution and entasis. The body of the anta
usually diminishes in width from base to summit so as to
form a trapezoid with curved sides or entasis (€vtacis).
In the archaic period, these characters were sometimes
very strong, as in the case of the Enneastylos at Paestum,
Fic. 56.— Anta capital from Fic. 57. —- Anta capital from
Temple G, Selinous. the Propylaia, Athens.
but in the classic period they were less strongly marked,
and on the narrow side of the anta disappeared alto--
gether.
The capitals of antae had characteristic forms, more or
less similar to the crowning mouldings of walls. They
may be considered as consisting of a neck (dé7rotpaynuor),
a kymation (kuwatiov) and an abacus (aBa&). The neck
would appear to be the least important member and, al-
though its absence would hardly be felt, it was almost inva-
riably present. Even in the archaic period the anta was
crowned with a capital suggestive of a wall cornice. One
of the earliest forms may be seen in the Enneastylos at
Paestum (Fig. 55), which recalls the well-known form of
T4 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the Egyptian cornice. Similar forms are found at Tegea!
and upon Athenian. stelae.2 From this early type was
evolved the characteristic Doric anta capital with its broad
neck, its beak moulding and its abacus. Temple G at
Selinous (Fig. 56) affords a typical example. Doric
buildings of the fifth century, especially those under Attic
influence, show semi-Ionic forms, examples of which may
be seen in the Parthenon, the Athenian Propylaia (Fig.
57) and the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion (Fig. 58).
Fic. 58.— Anta capital from Fic. 59. — Anta capital from
Temple of Poseidon, the Temple of Nike, Athens. —
Sounion.
The Ionic anta capital differed from the Doric in the
richness of its superposed mouldings. Here the roundel,
the cyma reversa and the ovolo play the principal
roles. The anta capitals of Asia Minor sometimes show
different forms for front and sides. Thus, at Priene,?
the face of the anta shows a superposed series of roundel,
cyma reversa, platband and ovolo, whereas the side
exhibits only a small roundel and a high but shallow
1 Ath. Mitt., VIII (1883), Taf. 14. _ 2 JShb., III (1888), 272-278.
8 Priene, Figs. 64, 66.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 87,
cavetto. The Temple of Athena Nike (Fig. 59) illustrates
the theory of the mouldings of anta capitals. The affinity
Fic. 60.— Anta capital from Fic. 61. — Anta capital from
aa the Erechtheion. the Theatre at Epidauros.
* of the anta with the walls is shown by the similarity of
their mouldings, while their addition of an ovolo moulding
links the anta also with the column. In the Erechtheion
(Fig. 60), the unity of columns, antae and walls is carried a
step farther and the ovolo moulding appears also in the
ae crowning mouldings of the walls. In the portals of the
theatre at Epidauros (Fig. 61), the
a: necking is treated as the dominant
factor of the capital. It was given
the form of a cyma recta, above which
the ovolo moulding appears as a part
of the abacus.
In these examples, the independ-
os ence of the anta capital was preserved.
RA They show no influence of the char-
; acteristic spirals of the column capital.
This step appears to have been taken eae Re Spe
from the Temple o
for the first time in, or shortly before, Apollo, Miletos.
76 GREEK .ARCHITECTURE
the Hellenistic period, in the pilaster capitals of the Temple
of Apollo near Miletos (Fig. 62). In the Temple of Zeus
at Aizanoi, the anta capitals are still more closely related
to capitals of columns, as they exhibit the ovolo as well as
lateral volutes. .
4. Doors AND Winpbows. — The forms of doorways!
(Ovpopata) were determined by material as well as by
aesthetic demands. Crude and irregular openings occur
in early and in unimportant walls. But regularity in wall
construction necessitated regularity in the openings, In
plan, these openings generally have their sides parallel and
at right angles to the adjoining walls, but occasionally the
openings are set at an angle, as at Oiniadai in Akarnania,?
The tower windows of the defences of Herakleia near
Miletos? show considerable variety in plan. Some are
set at right angles to the wall, others pierce the wall at
an angle. Some are splayed simply, others doubly
splayed.
In elevation, the form varies in accordance with the
pose of the jambs and the method of crowning the open-
ing. From very early days, door jambs (ora@yoi) were
posed, sometimes vertically, sometimes at an inclination
toward each other. Thus the jambs of the small northern
doorway at Mycenae (Fig. 63) seem to have been set
vertically.* This was doubtless a very general method
for ordinary doors and windows. But inclined jambs also
occur, especially in monumental constructions, throughout
1 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Janua.
2 Heuzey, Mont Olympe, 450, Pl. 16.
3 De Rochas, 75.
4 The slight inclination of 0.05 m. noted by Blouet, IIT, Pl. 65, may be
disregarded.
-
Baa - -.:
=
"4
Ey.
x
-
*
®
3
See VR Ste Ne hoe Ae Se ee
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS TT
all periods. Occasionally the jambs were continued until
they met and enclosed an opening of triangular form.
An opening of this character is found in the north wall at
Mycenae.! A later example of such a triangular doorway
is found at Elaios in Aetolia (Fig. 64). But ordinarily,
the inclined jambs were truncated by a lintel (i7épOupa),
leaving the opening of trapezoidal form. This relieved
the lintel without narrowing the lower or more useful
Fic. 63. Fia. 64. Fic.65. —- Fa. 66. Fic. 67.
Fig. 63.— Gateway at Mycenae. Fig. 64.—- Gateway of Elaios. Fig. 65.—
Doorway of tomb at Orchomenos. Fig. 66.—Gateway at Oiniadai.
Fig. 67.— Gateway at Oiniadai.
portion of the opening. Doorways of trapezoidal form
are a marked feature of Mycenaean architecture, as may
be seen in the Lion Gate at Mycenae and in the tomb at
Orchomenos (Fig. 65); they are found in temples and
tombs of the archaic and classic period, and are rec-
ognized by Vitruvius? as a characteristic feature of
Ionic as well as of Doric architecture. The Hellenistic
Greeks appear to have seen in this form a device
for giving greater apparent height to doorways. When
doorways were more than thirty feet in height, Vi-
truvius directed that the opening be not trapezoidal but
rectangular. Occasionally the inclined jambs were not
1Schliemann, Myken., Fig. 20. 2 Vitruvius, IV, 6.
78° GREEK ARCHITECTURE
continuous but broken, as in one of the gateways at
Oiniadai (Fig. 66). A very unusual form occurs in two
of the gateways at Oiniadai (Fig. 67), where the jambs
are inclined toward each other, not in straight lines, but
in gentle curves.
Many in number are the forms resulting from varia-
tions in the method of crowning the opening. ‘The usual
By. (
se
i |
li iL
FiG. 68. Fic. 69. Fic. 70. BiG, 71; F1a. 72.
Fig. 68.— Gateway at Messene. Fig. 69.— Gateway at Assos. Fig. 70.—
Gateway at Phigaleia. Fig. 71.— Gateway at Oiniadai. Fig. 72. —
Gateway at Assos.
method consisted in the adoption of a lintel which closed
the opening with a rectilinear and horizontal line. But
the crown of the opening might be triangular, as at Mes-
sene (Fig. 68) or trapezoidal, as at Assos (Hig. 69), or a
jogged rectangle, as at Phigaleia (Fig. 70), or a round
arch, as at Oiniadai (Fig. 71), or a pointed arch, as at
Assos (Fig. 72).
The forms of windows! (@upides) may be said to repeat
in general the forms of doorways. In fortresses they
were often narrow loopholes, as in the towers at Samo-
thrace and at Andros. In private. houses, as may be
1 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Fenestra.
;
:
:
i *
,
oY
a
oS
rt
1
ve
4
z
‘
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 49
judged from vase-paintings, they were nearly square, or
long, rectangles divided by a central support. In temples
the trapezoidal form was sometimes used, as in the west
windows of the Erechtheion.! A very unusual, but an-
cient,? form may be seen in the openings to the roof of
the Temple of Concordia at Akragas (Fig. 73).
5. PILLARS, COLUMNS AND PIERS.— We are accus-
tomed to think of Greek architects as concerned with a
single type of support, the column;
but not infrequently they employed
also tetragonal piers, composite pil-
lars and supports of anthropomor-
phic form. Each type presented spe-
cial problems, which we may indicate
while considering in detail the forms
of their bases, shafts and capitals.
The bases of piers do not differ y,4. 73.— Window from
essentially from those of columns. Temple of Concordia,
Thus the tetragonal shafts of the “*"8**
Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos? are like the columns
of the Doric type in having no independent. bases.
The same is true of the octagonal piers in the Abaton
at Epidauros.4 On the other hand, in the Temple of
Athena Nike at Athens® and in the theatre at Epidauros,®
the piers which divide the doorways have base mouldings
1 The west windows are of Roman origin, but.the windows of the east
wall were also trapezoidal. Stevens, A.J.A., X (1906), 47-71.
2 Russell Sturgis (I, 157) is probably wrong in assigning these windows
to the Middle Ages.
8 Stuart and Reveit, II, Ch. 4, Pl. 3.
4Cavvadias, Pl. 7, Fig..4; Lechat, 135,
5 Gardner, 373.
6 Cavvadias, Pl. 38 ; Lechat, 205.
80 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
corresponding to those of the adjacent Ionic columns or
engaged columns, and differ from them only in plan.
The general forms of column bases (@acews) are redu-
cible to those of tetragonal, polygonal and circular plan.
The tetragonal plinth (7A iOos tetpdywvos), though in har-
mony with the forms of the pier, was less appropriate as a
base for columns. ‘That it may have been used for this
purpose, however, especially for porches in antis, is sug-
gested by the temple and fountain figured on the Fran-
cois vase.t In such cases similarity of form in the bases
of shafts and antae contributed somewhat to the general
harmony. In the case of prostyle and peripteral porches,
however, the tetragonal base was not only aesthetically
less justifiable, but it blocked the passageways with its
sharp angles, and its edges were easily fractured. The
filling up of the intercolumnar spaces with similar plinths
obviated this inconvenience. The tetragonal plinth,
therefore, as a column base, did not survive except as a
factor in some composite bases.
Another method of adapting the rectangular plinth to
closely spaced colonnades was to chamfer its angles, thus
transforming the tetragonal into an octagonal plinth.
This method may have been employed in some early
buildings of Asia Minor. A later development of this
type may be seen in the dodecagonal plinths oceurring in
two of the bases from the Temple of Apollo near Miletos.?
Bases of circular plan (o7eipat, tpoxidor) constitute
the normal form for columns. ‘Their forms may be simple
or composite. In Mycenaean buildings, we find low cylin-
drical bases of simple form. eT ee ae
Be ati ties hf
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 85
at Phigaleia, seem to have felt that an additional plinth was
required at the base. This they added, somewhat timidly.
A base of considerable beauty is that
of the Monument of Lysicrates, where
the curves of the torus mouldings are
especially noteworthy (Fig. 88).
In the Hellenistic period, the forms
of bases have less interesting profiles,
and are likely to vary from the
classic types. Thus, in the Temple
of Dionysos at Pergamon, the base
consisted of an in-
verted cyma and
torus upon a
UL
Fie. 83.—Base from
Choragic Monument of
Lysicrates, Athens.
Hig. 84. — Base from the
Temple of Dionysos,
Pergamon.
plinth (Fig. 84); in the Leonidaion at
Olympia, the lower torus was omitted
and the plinth became a_ pedestal
with base and crown mouldings (Fig.
85). The Romans made frequent
use of the Attic-
Ionic base and
placed beneath it
a plinth or pedestal.
The shaft or body (cdma, cavriov)
of a support is the portion compre-
hended between its base and capital.
Its form may be, as we have already
indicated, tetragonal or polygonal,
cylindrical, composite or anthropo-
morphic. ‘Tetragonal, free-standing
Fic. 85.— Base from the
Leonidaion, Olympia.
supports, of immemorial antiquity in Egypt, occur also
in Greece. In monuments of the classic period, as in
86 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the Temple of Athena Nike, or in the Choragic Monu-
ment of Thrasyllos at Athens, or in the Propylaia at
Priene, they show refinements of form derived from
the column. Octagonal shafts appear to have been em-
ployed at Bolymnos, at Troizen, at Epidauros and at
Delos, and show at least one columnar character, that of
diminution. Cylindrical, or more accurately, slender, |
truncated conical shafts constitute by far the largest class,
as would naturally be the case in any country where the
earliest shafts were made of wood. Various applications
of the column, however, called for a modification of the
cylindrical form, as, for example, in colonnades, where
the intercolumniations were partially filled in with balus-
trades, or in the proskenia of theatres, where the inter-
columniations were filled with pinakes. In such cases,
the shafts were either oblong in plan with rounded ends,
as in the Stoa at Pergamon,! or of a composite type, as
in the theatre at Oropos.?
Anthropomorphic shafts. (cavnddpot, capvadrides, Képat,
aTNavTEs, TEeAawoves), Of which we have an archaic type in
the Treasury of the Knidians at Delphi,? and a classic ex-
ample in the Porch of the Maidens of the Erechtheion, do
not call for special remark. In these cases, the entire fig-
ure, including the head, was treated as the shaft. Above —
the head is the crown or capital. Atlantes or Telamones,
sculptured in relief, occur in the Olympieion at Akragas.*
Three formal modifications of cylindrical shafts call for
special mention: their diminution, entasis and apophyge.
1 Pergamon, II, 62. 2 Doerpfeld und Reisch, 104,
3 See Fig. 221. The Treasury of the Siphnians at Delphi had similar
shafts. Perrot et Chipiez, VIII, 390, Pl. 8.
4 Koldewey und Puchstein, Figs. 141, 148.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 87
By the diminution of a shaft is understood its decrease
in diameter from one end to the other. It has been almost
the universal practice for architects from time immemorial
to the present day to provide columns with diameters
greater at the base than at the summit. This tapering
from base to summit is analogous to the
natural tapering of wooden shafts. It also
breaks the mechanical effect produced by
a perfect cylinder and increases the apparent
stability of a column. In the Mycenaean
period, columns were made of wood, and
have long since disappeared. At Tiryns,
however, the small diameter of the column
bases as compared with the wide architraves,
and at Mycenae the contemporary relief
representations of columns in the Lions’
Gate and on the facades of the two principal
tholoi, have led archaeologists to believe that
Mycenaean shafts diminished from summit
to base (Fig. 86). Pictorial and ‘sculptural
evidence from Crete! and Attica? sometimes |
indicate the same peculiarity. In free- me. 96.—shatt
standing columns, however, sucha diminution in relief from
: ‘ : Lions’ Gate,
is found neither as a precedent in Egyptian, jpycenae.
nor as a survival in Greek, architecture, and
has not been conclusively established even as a general
characteristic of Mycenaean architecture.? In the archaic
period, Doric shafts show a strong diminution from base to
summit (Fig. 87). The columns thus acquired apparent
1 Evans, in J.H.S., XXI (1901), 1938.
2 Perrot et Chipiez, VI, Figs. 202, 208.
8 Durm, Jhb. Oest. Arch. Inst., X (1907), 41-84,
PSS eo Nene
» Tee
88 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
stability in the same manner as did the walls. In the
classic and Hellenistic periods, other ideals prevailed and
both Doric and Ionic shafts were less conical and more
cylindrical in form (Fig. 88). According to Vitruvius,!
Fic. 87. — Shaft from Fig. 88. — Shaft from
Tavola dei Pala- the Propylaia,
dini, Metapontum. Athens.
the diminution of shafts varied inversely with their height,
high shafts requiring less diminution than low ones.
The second modification of the Greek shaft was its en-
tasis (€vracis). By this is meant that the vertical out-
lines of the shaft were pulled in at the extremities, so as
to form curved profiles. In a very few instances, as in the
Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia,? and in the Temple of
Athena Nike at Athens, the shafts appear to be devoid of
entasis,? but in general, Greek shafts had curved profiles.
1 Vitruvius, ITI, 3, 12. 2 Cockerell, 49. 3 Penrose, 107.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 89
Sometimes, as in the Enneastylos and the so-called Temple
of Demeter at Paestum, the curve was very pronounced ;
again, as in the Temple of Apollo near Miletos,! it was
confined to the upper two-thirds of the shaft. It was ex-
tremely delicate in some archaic examples like the Temple
of Apollo at Corinth, as well as in classic buildings like the
Parthenon and Erechtheion. ‘Tallshafts requireda greater
amount of entasis than short ones, and smooth shafts more
than those of rough surface. The nature of the curve has
been shown by Penrose? to be the hyperbola, applied,
however, in various ways. In the Parthenon, the vertex
of the curve falls below the stylobate ; hence the profile of
the shaft exhibits a curve corresponding to one arm of a
hyperbola. In the Propylaia, in the Erechtheion and in
classic and post-classic buildings in general, the vertex of
the curve occurs above the hase of the column; hence a
similar curvature is found above and below the vertex.
This symmetrical character in the curve of the entasis was
emphasized by Roman and Renaissance architects, and
thereby much of the charm of the curved profile was lost.
In order to secure this delicate curve in the profile of the
shaft, a full-sized mould or templet was probably necessary.
What led the Greeks to this refinement is not obvious.
Possibly it was to correct an optical effect. Heliodorus
_ Damianus of Larissa? declared that a cylindrical column
__ would appear to be concave and therefore must be made
convex. Possibly the convex form passed over into stone
architecture from a primitive reed-bundle column,’ which
would exhibit a similarly curved outline produced by
superincumbent pressure. As a geometrical form, with-
1 Haussoullier, 75. 3 De Opticis, XIV.
2 Penrose, 40. 4 A.J.A., VI (1890), 52.
90 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
out any indication of its origin, it occurs in the earliest
period, as, for example, in the shaft of the stone candela-
brum found in the Megaron at Phaestos,! also in represen-
tations of shafts on a Mycenaean cylinder.? In the archaic
period, if not earlier, it entered into Greek architecture as
a characteristic feature of the shaft.
The third modification of the shaft was its apophyge
or apothesis (azroguyy, amddvots, amoleots), and astragal
(actpayados). The apophyge, a short.
but sharply curved expansion of the shaft ©
at its extremities, served to break the
contrast between the vertical line of the
shaft and the horizontal line of its base
or capital (Fig. 89). The astragal, con- —
sisting of a fillet or roundel, emphasized
Fig. 89.—Apophyge the extremities of the shaft and aided
on shaft from the the apophyge in its transitional function.
pies i of Nike, ‘These characters seem to have originated
with the Ionian Greeks and were applied
by them not only to shafts of columns, but also to walls,
friezes and even to the abaci of capitals. They are found,
perhaps as Achaean survivals, at the extremity of the shafts
of the Enneastylos and the so-called Temple of Demeter
at Paestum. In Doric columns of the best period they —
were usually. absent, but reappear in some columns of
the Hellenistic period. In some cases, as in the three-
quarter columns in the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia,
the apophyge was very exaggerated (Fig. 90). Ordinarily
it was so delicate as not to attract attention. The curve
was ordinarily a hyperbola.
1 Mon. Ant., XIII (1908), 14.
2 JS, S&L AOI.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 91
The capital (émixpavov, xeparis, Kidxpavov, Kepaddatov),
or crowning member of the pier or column, consisted of
three parts; aneck, a principal moulding and a plinth or
abacus. . :
The neck (tpayndo0s or tpayndcov was probably the
earlier, b7rotpayndwov the later designation) was nearest
Fia. 90.— Apophyge Fie. 91.—Concave
on shafts from the necking on capital, Fic. 92.— Convex
Temple of Apollo, from Temple _ OD, necking on capital,
Phigaleia. : Selinous. from Neandreia.
the shaft, and in some cases, as at Naukratis 1! and Lokroi,?
treated as belonging to the shaft rather than to the capital.
In most cases it formed a part of the capital block. It
occurs at Mycenae as a concave moulding sharply dis-
tinguished from the principal member of the capital and
also from the cylindrical shaft. A concave necking reap-
pears in many archaic capitals at Paestum and Selous
(Fig. 91). Convex neckings, common in the repeated
roundels in capitals from Assyria, Asia Minor and Etruria,
appear also in capitals represented on Mycenaean ivories,?
and in the archaic capital from Neandreia (Fig. 92). The
kymation or echinus of the Ionic capital and the annul
1 Petrie, Naukratis, I, Pl. 3.
2 Petersen, in Rim. Mitt., V (1890), 192-193,
8 Perrot et Chipiez, VI, Figs. 202, 204.
92 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
of the Doric echinus are such neckings absorbed into
the body of the capital.
nor convex, occurs in the capitals of the
Erechtheion (Fig. 93). The neck of
the capital disappeared during the classic
period, probably because it weakened the
appearance of strength required for the
support of the entablature. In the Hel-
lenistic period it reappeared and became
in the Vitruvian orders an important part
Fire. 93.— Plat-
band necking on
A platband, neither concave
capital from the Of the capital.
Sreaineln The principal moulding of the capital
received a variety of forms, the plans of which were
rectangular, circular, composite or miscellaneous.
Rectangular blocks
served as capitals for
polygonal shafts in the
porches of Egyptian
tombs at Benihassan.
Two or three such blocks
superposed would seem
to have supphed the gen-
eral masses of the Greek
capital.’ Square, or
polygonal, shafts were
given square, or polyg-
onal, capitals.2 Rectan-
Fic. 94. — Archaic capital from Delos.
gular blocks were also used to crown columns, so as to make
the transition to the rectangular entablature less abrupt.
The essential rectangularity of the Ionic capital is most
1 Hittorff et Zanth, 334-342, Pl. 82.
2 Borrmann, Jhb., III, 269, Figs. 2, 5, 8.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 93
evident in an archaic example from Delos (Fig. 94), in
which a single rectangular block has been but slightly
modified in form. In an archaic capital from Athens!
the principal moulding, or body of the capital, retains in
great measure the rectangular form on the front and back,
but on the sides
assumes a cylin-
drical form with
slightly raised
edges (Fig. 95).
The face of the
normal Ionic cap-
ital was somewhat
complicated, as it
was fashioned
from a rectangu-
lar block applied,
not directly to the
cylindrical shaft,
but to a_ shaft
capped by a large :
ring moulding. Fia. 95. — Archaic capital from Athens.
This ring mould-
ing, which in Oriental examples decorated the shaft,
in Ionic architecture was absorbed into the capital, and is
known as the echinus of the capital. In some archaic
examples it was undercut like a beak moulding (Fig. 96),
but in the fully developed capital it had an elliptical or
quarter round profile, and was carved with the egg and dart
ornament. Its position, which in archaic times was near the
shaft, was gradually raised, until, in the Hellenistic period,
1 Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 538, 4.
94 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
it was set above the level of the centre of the spirals. Thus
the Ionic capital seems to be a fusion of two elements, an
annular moulding or echinus, and a quadrangular block.!
At Phigaleia, Epidauros, and at Palatitza,? capitals of
engaged columns show the spiral motive applied to the
three sides of the capital, and at Pompeii? free standing
columns = exhibit
the spiral motive
on four sides of
the capital. In
all cases we per-
ceive a more or
less strongly
an original rec-
tangular _block.4
This ‘rectangular-
ity of the Ionic
capital made its
application diffi-
cult in the case. of
buildings with peristyles, especially if of circular plan.
The unusual form of capital found at Neandreia® in the
Troad, and at Kolumdado® in Lesbos, are exceptional ex-
amples, in which rectangularity is to be recognized in the
plan rather than in the face of the capital.
The form of the pulvinus on the side of the Ionic
Fic. 96. — Archaic capital from Athens.
1A.J.A., IV (1888), 43. 2 Heuzey, Pl. 10. 8 Mau, Fig. 239.
4 In the capitals from the south entrance of the Palaistra at Olympia
(Fig. 228) the spirals spring from the centre of the capital block and
are developed diagonally. This form may be described as transitional
between a capital of rectangular and one of circular type.
5 Clarke, in A.J.A., II (1886), 3. 6 Koldewey, Taf. 16.
marked trace of.
r
‘
%
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 95
capital also taxed the ingenuity of the architects. In
Lycia, in Etruria and in the column of the Naxians at
Bs. Delphi, as well as in the examples cited from Delos and
« Athens, the form of the pulvinus preserved a cylindrical
ag Hig. 97.—Pulvinus of Fic. 98.— Pulvinus of cap-
a archaic capital from ital from the Temple of
Bs Athens. Athena, Priene.
Be aspect. But at Athens archaic examples are found in
a which the pulvinus was given a concave profile, in form
resembling a spool (Fig. 97). This form was further
modified by the balteus (decpos or Ev), a band, or girdle,
: Fie. 99.— Pulvinus of capital Fic. 100.— Pulvinus of cap-
ae from the Temple of Apollo, ital from the Palaistra,
2 Miletos. Olympia.
- which seemed to compress the centre of the pulvinus, as
e.: at Priene (Fig. 98), and sometimes had on either side
3 curves of double curvature, as at Miletos (Fig. 99). Oc-
a. casionally, as in the Palaistra at Olympia! (Fig. 100),
the side of the capital lost its bolster shape and resembled
1 Olympia, TI, Taf. 74.
96 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
flowers interlocked by their stems. At this stage of
development the form was certainly far removed from that
of a rectangular block.
A second solution for the principal moulding of the
capital was to construct it on a circular plan. Instead of
a rectangular block, a cylindrical drum was selected as a
—_ = ta
Fig. 101. — Echinus capital Fic. 102.— Conical capital
from the Heraion, Samos. from the Heraion,
Olympia.
starting-point, and many types of capitals arose from a
modification of its form. By rounding off its sharp edges
the slightly rounded profile of the torus capital of the
Tomb of Atreus at Mycenae was produced. An echinus
appears to have served as the principal moulding of the
capitals at the
' Heraion at
; Samos (Fig,
Fic. 103. — Echinus of capital from the
Temple of Poseidon, Paestum.
: 101), and _ be-
' came an essen-
' tial part of the
normal Ionic
capital. The
frustum of a cone furnished also an appropriate capital.
Hellenistic capitals were frequently of this form (Fig. 102).
In the normal Doric capital the cone was given a convex
profile. The echinus of the capitals of the so-called
Temple of Poseidon at Paestum appears to have been
constructed of three arcs of circles (Fig. 103); that of
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 97
the Theseion, of five arcs of circles and a straight line.!
The parabola furnished the form for the earlier capitals
at Corinth? and at Metapontum, and the hyperbola was
employed at Aegina and elsewhere. Penrose® finds in
:
Fie. 104. — Echinus of capital from Parthenon.
“ the profiles of the echinus of the Parthenon capitals a
% succession of curves of three different kinds (Fig. 104),
but such superfine prod-
ucts of curvature were
by no means universal
and led to the abandon-
ment of curved _ for
straight profiles. The
concave profile, like that T Vee ee
. Egypt, was introduced
of the calyx capitals of
=f AES hE RENN DY Se NOOR A |
also into Greek archi-
TH
tecture in the classic pe- Fic. 105.—Bell-shaped capital from
; riod, in the Corinthian Tower of the Winds, Athens.
. capital at Phigaleia* and in the Tholos at Epidauros.®
At a later period this general form was employed in the
: Olympieion, the Theatre of Dionysos, and the Tower of
bs 1 Reinhardt, 8-9. 2 Cockerell, 91. 3 Penrose, 48.
; 4 See Fig. 257. 5 See Fig. 258.
H
98 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the Winds at Athens, in the Gymnasium Gate at Olympia,
and in the Stoa of Eumenes at Pergamon.! The profile
of such capitals was usually slightly convex at the base,
thus suggesting the cyma recta (Fig. 105). A marked
Fic. -107.— Cyma recta moulding
Fig. 106.— Cyma recta moulding on on capital from the Temple of
votive column, Athens. Dionysos, Pergamon.
cyma recta appears as the principal moulding in the
capital of an archaic votive column from the Acropolis
at Athens (Fig. 106). It occurs not infrequently at a
~ late period, as, for ex-
ample, in the Temple
of Dionysos (Fig. 107)
and in the Greek gym-
nasium at Pergamon,
at Magnesia on the
Maeander, and in the
Leonidaion, Olympia.
The uppermost mem-
ber of the capital, the
abacus (aBa&, mdivOos),
‘ might, in the case of
Fre. 108.— Plan of abacus of corner col- isolated’ columns, be in
umn, Erechtheion. plan round or square or
polygonal, according to the nature of the capital, of
which it was the crown; but when used for columns
1 Pergamon, II, Taf. 24.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 99
which supported entablatures, it received a rectangular
plan. This form was modified in the case of a corner
Tonic capital. In order to cover the diagonally posed
corner volute, it took at the
angles a slightly scalloped
form (Fig. 108). When all
four volutes were diago-
nally posed, as was the case
with some Jonic and all
Corinthian capitals, the scal-
loped abacus became the
normal form (Fig. 109).
In profile, the abacus re-
ceived various forms. A
rectilinear outline prevailed
in the Doric abacus (Fig.
110), but curvilinear profiles were preferred for the Ionic.
An elliptical or hyperbolic outline, like the Doric echinus,
is found in the Erechtheion (Fig. 111), the Propylaia and
| Fig. 111. — Abacus of the Erech-
Fic. 110. — Abacus of the Parthenon. theion.
Fig. 109.— Plan of abacus of Monu-
ment of Lysicrates, Athens.
in other Ionic capitals of the classic period ; a cyma reversa
was preferred in Asia Minor at the Mausoleion at Halikar-
Fie. 112. — Abacus of the Mauso- Fig. 113. — Abacus of Monument
leion at Halikarnassos. _ of Lysicrates, Athens.
nassos (Fig. 112), in the Temple of Athena at Priene
and elsewhere. The cavetto occurs frequently, as in the
100 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
abaci of the Monument of Lysicrates (Fig. 113) and the
Olympieion at Athens (Fig. 114), and in the Leonidaion
at Olympia (Fig. 115). In some pilaster capitals from
Cyprus the abacus derives its
ae form from Ionic or Persian
epistyles and is divided into
Fig, 114. — Abacus of the Olym- g series of horizontal steps or
pieion, Athens. fasciae.
We have thus far considered the varieties of capitals
of simple form. ‘These offered abundant choice for all
ordinary purposes. Complex forms of capitals, however,
were sometimes preferred. Thus, in the Temple of Apollo
at Neandreia! is found a capital which resembles the
superposed capitals from Egypt and Persepolis. The
superposition of one form upon another produced also
the capitals which crown the heads of the Caryatids of
the Treasury of the Knidians
at Delphi.* In fact, the normal
Ionic capital itself was not a
simple, but a complex, form.
The superposition of the rec-
tangular block with its lateral
volutes upon a circular echinus Fic. 115.— Abacus of the Leon:-
was not always a happy com- et oe ae
bination. Beneath the pulvinus the echinus had to be
flattened or omitted; on the other hand, sometimes the
volutes suffered from the combination. ‘The juncture
of echinus and volutes left an awkward corner which
was covered by a half palmette. Ingenious as was this
combination of forms it was too complex to appeal strongly
to the practical minded Romans.
1 Koldewey, in Winckelmannsprogramme, No. 51, 84. 2 See Fig. 221.
ee ee ee eS ee Ee ee
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 101
The application of the Ionic type of capital to peristyles,
to which it was ill adapted, gave rise to new complex
forms. Various cases arose, each of which presented
peculiar difficulties. Temples, or other rectangular build-
- ings surrounded by a peristyle, required a modification of
the corner capitals so that the volutes might appear on ad-
joining, instead of on opposite, sides of the capital. In
Ionia and in Greece this was usually accomplished by
twisting the corner volutes into a diagonal position. In
Macedonia, Sicily and in southern Italy, the pulvinus
was often omitted and a four-faced capital formed with
all the volutes posed diagonally.
In the case of circular buildings with peristyles we
might expect that the forms of capitals would be modified
to a somewhat trapezoidal shape. ‘This, however, appears
not to have been the case with the Philippeion at Olympia.
A new problem was presented when the peristiyle extended
around an open court, as in market-places and private
houses. Here, when the Ionic order is used, juxtaposed
volutes form a reéntrant, not an external, angle. As this
presented a form not altogether agreeable, we may well un-
derstand that the circular types of capitals were preferred
for such courts, or that the awkward angle was avoided
by the use of the square pillar with a rectangular capital.
Clustered columns with corresponding capitals were rare,
although, in the case of antae, the half column and square
pier were not infrequently combined. In the Pergamon
Museum at Berlin there is an interesting triplex Doric
capital which crowned a clustered shaft. The principal
opening of the colonnade in front of the Temple of Isis at
Pompeii! was between two massive piers with lateral at-
1 Mau, Fig. 74.
102 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
tached columns. The capitals of such complex piers .had
complex capitals. In the long Stoa, or Macellum, at Delos!
there are columns of which one side is channelled and the
other plain. ‘The channelled sides have echinus capitals,
while the capitals of the plain sides consist of the mpo-
tonai of bulls. Ina private house at Delos, near the the-
atre,2 two busts of lions as well as two busts of bulls
crown shafts, the opposite sides of which are channelled
and probably had echinus capitals.
A logical evolution led to the substitution of human,
for geometric, floral.and animal forms in the capitals of
columns. ‘This stage was reached in the capitals from the
fagade of the Temple of the Didymaean Apollo near
Miletos,? where heads of Zeus and Apollo, probably also
of Hera and Artemis, assume the position usually occupied
by spirals. |
6. ENTABLATURES. — The entablature (é78orH) usu-
ally consisted of three parts, epistyle, frieze and geison
or cornice.
The epistyle (émvctvAvov) was the beam, or series of
beams, which rested upon and united a row of columns, and
which originally supported the ceiling beams. Its gen-
eral form was that of a parallelopipedon, the long surfaces
of which fall in horizontal and vertical planes. In the
more refined buildings of the classic period these surfaces —
were sometimes intentionally modified in form. ‘Thus, in
the Parthenon, the upper and lower surfaces were curved in
a vertical plane to harmonize with the upward curvature
of the stylobate. In the Temple of Poseidon at Paestum,
however, we find a different modification. Here the face
1 Blouet, III, Pl. 8; B.C.H., VII (1884), Pl. 17.
2 B.C. H., XIX (1895), 504-505, 8 Haussoullier, Pls. 7, 8, 9, 16.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 103
of the epistyle was curved outward, as was the case in
the Temple of Medinet Habu in Egypt.! In the Temple
of Herakles at Cori,? the epistyle was curved inward in
plan. In general, however, it was in form a regular
parallelopipedon.
The epistyle received other modifications of form,
chiefly as an inheritance from methods of construction in
wood. ‘These may be considered separately according to
their appearance upon the front, rear or soffit of the
epistyle. ‘The face of the epistyle, when representing
colossal wooden beams, presented an unbroken face, except
at the top, where it was crowned by one or more mould-
ings. Doric epistyles usually, and Ionic epistyles oc-
casionally, as in the exterior order of the Temple on the
Ilissos,? presented. an unbroken face. But Ionic epi-
styles were generally banded or broken into a succession
of three overlapping fasciae. Occasionally, as in the
Philippeion at Olympia, the epistyle showed only two
fasciae. At Suwéda, in Syria,* the inner face of the
epistyle of the pre-Roman temple has four fasciae.
These banded epistyles suggest the superposition of
smaller beams where the stronger unit was either difficult
to obtain or not wanted. The crowning moulding was
originally not a mere ornament but served a_ useful
purpose. In wooden buildings it was probably, as Perrot®
has suggested, a board designed to bind together the
separate members of the epistyle and frieze, and to pre-
vent disaster in case of warping of the principal beams. |
1Pennethorne, Pt. 3, Pl. 1; Goodyear, in A.J. A., X (1895), 10.
2 Goodyear, Arch. Rec., XXI (1907), 400.
® Stuart and Revett, I, Ch. 2. Pls. 1-6.
4 Butler, 331. 5 Perrot et Chipiez, VI, 712.
104 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
In the Old Temple of Athena at Athens it projected above
the upper level of theepistyle block, as if it were also
required to prevent the triglyphs from sliding forward
(Fig. 116).
The form of the moulding which crowns the epistyle
varied considerably. In rigidly Doric buildings it showed
ea
Fig. 116.— Crowning Fic. 117.—Crowning Fia. 118. — Crowning
Moulding of Epistyle, Moulding of Epistyle, Moulding of Epistyle
Old Temple of Athena, Temple C, Selinous. of Temple of Concor-
Athens. dia, Akragas.
a rectangular profile and was known as the taenia (Travia)
or fillet-shaped moulding. Of similar rectangular form
were the regulae or reglets (xavoves),
DA Skin nd wih
faeas
apparently held in place by large
wooden trunnels (youdor, 7Aov), from
their resemblance to rain drops known
Y to the Romans as guttae. sie trunnels
Kid) 119.4 Geawning oO varied in form. In Temple C at
Moulding of Epistyle, Selinous they are detached from the
PTOny sate, hens) background, incline forwards, and
taper downwards (Fig. 117). Usually, however, they are
attached to the background and in form are either cylin-
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 105
drical (Fig. 118) or taper upwards, sometimes with a
curved profile (Fig.119). The taenia moulding occasionally
appears in a modified form, asin the Temple C, Selinous,!
and the Treasury of Syracuse at Olympia,” where it has a
roundel moulding imbedded in it. Even in an archaic
Doric building, like the so-called Temple of Demeter at
Paestum,® the epistyle may be crowned with curved
mouldings. Here, on the outer face, the epistyle was
crowned with a cyma reversa between a bead moulding
and a fillet, and on the inner face with an ovolo between
bead and fillet. In late Doric buildings, such as the Tem-
ple of Dionysos at Pergamon,’ curved mouldings need not
Fig. 120.— Crowning Fie. 121.— Crowning Fia. 122. — Crowning
Moulding of Epistyle Moulding of Epistyle Moulding of Epistyle
of Temple of Nike, of Tholos at Epi- of the Temple of Ar-
Athens. dauros. temis, Magnesia.
surprise us. In this case the epistyle was crowned by a
rectangular taenia, or abacus moulding, beneath which the
regulae have the curved form of acyma reversa. In Ionic
buildings, curved mouldings, as a rule, crown the epistyle.
Here we find convex and concave mouldings, or the cyma
reversa, terminated by bead or fillet mouldings (Figs.
120-122). In Ionic epistyles of the classic period multiple
1 See Fig. 117. 3 Koldewey und Puchstein, 19.
2 Olympia, I, Taf. 34. 4Bohn, Temp. Dion. Perg., 6-7.
106 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
mouldings already appear. In later buildings, simple
mouldings were occasionally employed, as in the bead and
ovolo of the Temple of Athena at Priene; but in general
these mouldings were not only strikingly decorated, but
complex inform. In Roman and Early Christian archi-
tecture they sometimes absorbed the entire face of the
architrave and all the trace of a massive beam or even of
a banded epistyle disappeared.!
The antithema (avt/@nua), or rear of the epistyle, was
not a replica of the outer face. In Doric buildings the
massive epistyle usually retained the same height as in
the outer face, and was combined with the antithema
of the frieze so as to present the appearance of a low
wall rather than an entablature. In the case of the
Parthenon,? the antithema of the frieze was set back, thus
giving the epistyle a slight salience, but in the Temple of
Zeus at Olympia,’ the frieze was flush with the epistyle,
and the wall-like appearance emphasized.. At Sounion,
Fic. 123. — Antithema of Epistyle, Temple of Demeter, Paestum.
Rhamnous and elsewhere, the epistyle and frieze were sep-
arated from each other by mouldings, and thus the inner
face was more or less a reflection of the exterior. The
separating mouldings, for the sake of variety, and perhaps
1 Butler, 39. 2 Penrose, Pl. 16. 3 Olympia, I, Taf. 11.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 107
SSSSASSSSSSS
owing to the different conditions in regard to light, were
rectly upon the inner block of the epistyle, which did not
antithema of the epistyle y _
fasciae, instead of three. Fic. 124.—‘Antithema of Epistyle
far in the Olympieion at Athens (Fig. 124) that the com-
The under surface or soffit of the epistyle was, in the
when the epistyle was constructed of two or three juxta-
Do frequently panelled. At the
Magnesia and the Temple of
from the Temple of Artemis, Mag- 1255; where the epistyles
the attention from the joints. The main object of the panel-
given profiles different from those of the exterior (Fig.
123). In Ionic buildings the ceiling beams rested di-
reach the same height as .
the exterior block. The SO 1) 7] A
was accordingly formed so C
as to present two bands, or
The process Bf diminishing from the Olympieion, Athens. -
the height of the epistyle on its reverse face was carried so
bined frieze and epistyle of the inner face equalled in
height the epistyle alone of the exterior.
earlier and simpler varieties of Greek architecture, a
plane surface. It remained so in Greece proper even
posed blocks. In the architecture of Asia Minor, however,
Shea? the soffit of the epistyle was
| | Temple of Athena at Priene,
| the Temple of Artemis at
Fic. 125.— Antithema of Epistyle Apollo near Miletos (Fig.
nesia. :
consisted of two juxtaposed
blocks, the panelling was effected in such a way as to divert
ling, however, was to bring these broad surfaces into closer
harmony with the coffered ceilings. Consequently, in the
108 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Temple at Messa,! the panelling seems to have been in-
troduced without regard to the intervening joint, and in
the Olympieion at Athens,? was sunk in the middle
block regardless of the joints on either side. Once estab-
lished, this form of epistyle soffit survived in Orient and
Occident alike. Similar panellings were sunk in the
soffits of archivolts, in spite of their being crossed at inter-
vals by the joints of the voussoirs.
The second member of the entablature was the frieze,
known from its crowning function as @puyxos or Opuyxos,
and from its encircling character as dvafwpa or fovn.
When divided into triglyphs and metopes it was known as
tplyrxudos or tTpiyAudov; when continuously decorated with
geometric or floral designs as coopodopos ; when with fig-
ured sculpture as Cwoddpos, Cwddpos.
The divided frieze may be conceived as suggesting the
ceiling beams by means of its triglyphs or dentils; when
continuous, as in the Ionic, it was treated as a second
epistyle to elevate the ceiling structure, or as a covering
to hide it from view. In the Doric temple, the actual ceil-
ing beams were raised so as to rest, not on the epistyle, but
on the frieze. Hence, triglyphs and dentils ceased to be
structural and were mere decorative forms.
The general form of the frieze agreed with that of the
epistyle in being a regular parallelopipedon, sometimes
modified by a sight curvature in plan or elevation. It had
a visible front and back, but no soffit. It was, moreover,
connected with the epistyle by a taenia or other moulding
which served as a base for the frieze as well as a crown
for the epistyle. It had its own crowning moulding.
Its function differed from that of the epistyle in being
1 Koldewey, Taf. 21. 2Durm, 293.
a ae ieee, | pale aa i
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 109
more closely related to ceiling and roof. Hence we may
classify the forms of friezes as : —
(a) Those which symbolize the ceiling beams.
(6) Those which do not symbolize the ceiling beams.
The Doric triglyphon (tp/yAvdov) may be regarded as
of the former class. As a decoration it matters little
whether it corresponds or not with the actual position
Fic. 126.— Triangular Fie. 127. — Semicircular
' grooves, Temple of grooves, Temple of
Poseidon, Paestum. Apollo, Metapontum,
of the ceiling beams. Nor need we concern ourselves
as to whether the name originated because each free
standing triglyph was channelled on three sides,! or
because the channels were triangular in
shape,” or because each triglyph may be [|
considered as having two whole and
two half channellings.2 The latter in-
terpretation is the more convenient, as
it enables us to designate as monoglyphs,* pry, 128. — Triglyph
diglyphs,® triglyphs and _ tetraglyphs,® from the Treas-
forms which exhibit a smaller or larger ase pea oe
number of channellings. ‘The form of the
channelling was usually triangular in plan (Fig. 126), al-
though semicircular in the triglyphs of the Temple of
Apollo at Metapontum (Fig. 127). The channellings
of the archaic period were terminated with a pointed
1 Boetticher, 206. 3 Laloux, 74.
2 Krell, 10. 4Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns, Pl. 4.
5Cf. Tomb at Norchia, Durm, Bauk. Etr. Rém., Fig. 68.
6Cf. Temple E, Selinous, Koldewey und Puchstein, 209.
110 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
(Fig. 128) or round arch (Fig. 129); in the classic period
with a depressed arch (Figs. 130, 181). In the Tholos at
Epidauros and in Hellenistic triglyphs, a rectilinear termi-
nation prevailed (Fig. 182). The origin and significance
ll
Fia. 129. — Triglyph Fic. 130. — Triglyph Fic. 131. — Triglyph
from Temple C, from the Propy- from the Temple
Selinous. laia, Athens. ; of Concordia,
Akragas.
of triglyphal channelling is not self-evident. But if we
are right in assuming that triglyphs symbolize the ends
of ceiling beams, we have but to go a step farther to see
in the channelling an indication that such beams were
often composite in character, being made
up of two or three narrow beams in close
,jJuxtaposition. Their independence was
emphasized by chamfering their exposed
joints and their union by the abacus
Fic. 132.—Triglyph crown. ‘The semicircular and pointed
from the Tholos, terminations of the channellings call to
at Epidauros. : ‘ :
mind well established forms of decoration
in Egyptian cornices,! which may not have been without
influence in the formation of the early Doric types. The
influence of the scotia of the Egyptian cornice is perhaps
to be seen in the slightly curved face of the Doric
triglyphs of the Temple C, Selinous.2, The vertical bars
between the grooves are known as shanks (ynpot).
1 Perrot et Chipiez, I, Figs. 390, 393.
2 Photograph, No. 155, by G. Incorpora, Palermo.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS i
The second variety of frieze retained in its decora-
tion no reference to roof or ceiling structure. It had its
crowning mouldings, but no independent base moulding.
The crowning moulding might be a simple
taenia, but usually consisted of an echinus,
a Lesbian cyma or a scotia, separated by a
taenia and astragal. The body of the
frieze was rectilinear in profile until the
end of the classic period. Then curved yg. 133, — Frieze
and pulvinated friezes abound. In the of the Propylon,
Propylon before the Temple of Athena at ane
Priene (Fig. 133), and in the Tower of the Winds
at Athens, the face of the frieze was sharply concave at
the top. Inthe Stoa of Hadrian at Athens
(Fig. 184), and in the Baths of Diocletian
at Rome, the concavity occurs at the base
of the frieze. A convex frieze occurs at
the Temple of Zeus at Labranda (Fig. 135),
Fic. 134.—Frieze IN tombs at Myra and Mylasa and in
of Stoa of Ha- many monuments of Syria.
Pcs’ atlhe cyma recta appeared
timidly, possibly for the first time, in
the Tholos at Epidauros (Fig. 136). More
pronounced cymas are found at Palai-
opolis in Andros,! at Salonica? and else- 5. 435 — convex
where. Friezes with curved profiles be- Frieze from the
came very popular under the Byzantine Temple of Zeus,
‘ : ‘ Labranda.
empire. The antithema of the frieze
seldom duplicated the face of the frieze. It was frequently
lower and crowned by different mouldings.
The crowning member of the entablature is the cornice
benare and Revett, TV, Ch: 6; Pl. 6. 2 Ibid., III, Ch. 9, Pl. 8.
412 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
(yetoov). It is distinguished by its pronounced overhang,
and its devices for checking and controlling the rainfall
on the roof. The main body of the cornice was usually
a strongly marked platband in archaic and classic cor-
nices, though narrow and unimportant
in many cornices of a late period. Over
the side walls of the Treasury of the
Megarians at Olympia! projected a cornice
of simplest form, merely a platband with-
Wie. 186. Cone ee modification at base or summit. But
recta Frieze from Greek cornices were seldom as simple as
ia Tholos at this. They usually exhibited some re-
pidauros.
minder of the carpentry of the roof, such
as mutules, dentils, brackets or panels, and were pro-
vided with a crowning moulding (axpoyeiouor).
The cornice with mutules, which is found in almost
every structure of the Doric order, is not easy to explain.
The mutules are apparently survivals of wooden forms,
and probably represent boards which served as cover joints
beneath the sheathing of the roof.2. The narrow bands
above and below the mutules, which occur so _—
Sa,
-
Fia. 137. — Cornice with mutules from the Wes of Zeus, Olympia.
A
in the Doric cornice, thus also receive a rational explana-
tion, as does also the crowning moulding. A marked
1 Olympia, I, Taf. 38. - 28ee Fig. 4,
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS Hie
character of this type of cornice is the downward and
outward inclination of the mutules, an indication that it
was formed in a country where pitched roofs were com-
mon. Cornices in which the mutules are posed horizon-
tally do not occur prior to the Hellenistic period. /, x
decorated with R7/ VA
anthemia, which KX | Ie7,
faced in two :
directions. At Fig. 153.— Roof tiles from the Parthenon.
the lower extremities of the line of cover tiles a terminus
was formed by similar decorative tiles, known as ante-
fixes. These either reflected the semicircular and tri-
angular forms of the cover tiles, or were formed to imitate
a lotus flower or a palmette, or represented animal or
human heads.
The simae (o1pat) belong, properly, to the roof. ‘These
varied in profile, and show either rectilinear or convex
ee
Nats a
: ,
oe ee ae
ft’
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 128
or concave profiles, or the doubly curved cyma reversa
or cyma recta (Figs 156-159). With these principal
Hi i
Arn \
Fic. a ay tiles from Fic. 155. — Ridge tile
the Monument of Lysicrates, from the Temple of
Athens. Aphaia, Aegina.
mouldings were associated subordinate base or cap mould-
ings of varied profiles. Water spouts (tdpoppca) were
Yy
Fig. 156.—Sima of the Treasury of
Gela, Olympia. Fig. 157. — Sima of the Parthenon.
arranged at intervals, sometimes simple pipe stems
(Fig. 160), more frequently in the form of lion heads
YY
4
Fie. 158.—Sima of the Temple of Fic. 159.—Sima of the Temple of
Aphaia, Aegina. Athena, Priene.
(Acovroxéparor), seldom dog heads or other symbols.
Simae are found invariably on the raking cornices, and
rarely more than a short distance from the cornices of
Lo GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the long sides. They occur very seldom on the hori-
zontal cornices of the pediments.
The gable roof was terminated at each end by a trian-
gular wall, called a tympanum (tvpzavov). The tympanum
was set back so as to provide a
suitable base or pediment for
gable sculptures, and was pro-
vided with a crowning mould-
ing of its own. Above the
tympanum were the projecting
Fra. 160, — Sima with water spout, TAS10E C@TMIGEH SAGs
‘Athena Moses or xataétita) of the roof.
In the classic period these
were distinguished from the horizontal cornices by the
absence of mutules and dentils, and by the presence of a
crowning sima.
Ordinarily the form of the gable front was a rectilinear
triangle, but the refinement of curved surfaces was not
limited to krepi-
domas and entab-
latures and, once
introduced, it
necessarily modi-
fied the gable
forms =" Lhius2 1b30., 111, 3,12. 6 Aurés, 96-103.
142 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
to be the mean or average diameter of the columns. He —
quotes Virgil! and Vegetius? in upholding the impor-
tance of odd numbers and Censorinus ? for square num-
bers. He does not, however, cite any Greek or Latin
authority in favor of selecting the mean diameter as
a modulus. We may remark further that some other
modulus would have shown a preponderance of even
numbers and that many of the prominent features of this
temple, as, for example, the number of columns on the
facade, appear in even numbers. Even if it could be
proved that the Temple of Poseidon at Paestum exhibited
an intentional preference for odd numbers, it is very
unlikely that such a preference should have entered into
the plans of Greek architects in general. ite
A second method of explaining the harmony of Greek
proportions we may call the mathematical method. Vari- 3
ous attempts have been made to explain the harmony of
Greek architectural proportions by mathematical means. a
The most comprehensive of these was made by W. Schultz.
Schultz+ observes that the plans, facades and details of __
most Greek buildings involve a very general use of the
rectangle, that the Greeks distinguished ten different
kinds of proportion and that these proportions may in
various ways be applied to rectangles. He then cites
five Greek temples as examples of these proportions.
When we consider the mathematical knowledge displayed |
by Greek architects of the hyperbola, the parabola and ~
other curves, it seems easy to suppose that some at least —
A Virgil, Hel... 8, 1, 78:
2 Vegetius, Epitoma Rei Militaris, ITI, 8.
3 Censorinus, De Die Natali, XIV, 11.
4 Schultz, 15 ff.
PROPORTION 143
of these ten formulae known to Greek mathematicians
might have found their way into architectural plans.
However, the general history of Greek architecture in-
dicates that continued experimentation rather than the
introduction of mathematical formulae was what led finally
to normal or satisfactory proportions.
A third method we may call the architectural method.
It is best illustrated by Vitruvius. He thus defines pro-
portion | Proportio est ratae partis membrorum in omni
opere totiusque commodulatio. Proportion (davadoyia),
therefore, consists in the common measurements subsist-
ing between the whole and its separate parts. This
signifies not merely such a relationship between what
we have styled the major and minor ratios, but also
between every member of a building and its constituent
parts.2,— When the plan of a temple had been roughly
sketched Vitruvius proceeds to derive the modulus
(€u8arns) or common measure from the breadth of the
stylobate. If, for example, the temple were to be an
Tonic tetrastylos eustylos, this major dimension was to be
divided into eleven and one-half equal parts ; if an Ionic
hexastylos eustylos, into eighteen parts ; if an Ionic octo-
stylos eustylos, into twenty-four and a half parts. One
of these parts was taken for the lower diameter of the
columns ; two and a quarter for the intercolumniations ;
nine and a half for the column heights, and so on. If,
however, the building were to be a Doric tetrastylos
1 Vitruvius, ITI, 1, 1.
2 Aristotle, wepl dréuwv ypayuudy tmeplppacis, I, defined symmetrical
quantities as those having a common measure, and cited as an example,
‘¢ 16 is symmetrical with 24 in having 4 as a common measure.”’
8 Vitruvius, III, 3, 7.
144 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
diastylos, the frontal stylobate should be divided into 7
twenty-seven parts; if a Doric hexastylos diastylos, into _
forty-two parts. Two of these parts should constitute
the lower diameter of the columns; fourteen, the column
heights; one, the height, and two and a sixth, the — va
breadth of the capital, and so on.! It may be observed,
however, that Vitruvius was not accustomed consciously
to consider every detail of a building as a fraction or mul-
tiple of this common measure or modulus. He would not
have said that the beak moulding of the cornice was such ae
and such a fraction of the lower diameter of the column.
He compared adjacent parts of a building and stated their
ratios to each other in such a way as to give the impres-
sion that not one but many moduli were used in deter-
_ mining the proportions of a building. Thus, for example,
the heights of mouldings are stated as fractions of the
members to which they belong; the middle fascia of an a
Ionic epistyle is taken as a modulus for the geison;? the
diameter of the oculus of an Ionic capital gives the
amount of projection for the echinus,? and so on. This
method of passing from one modulus to another is no- —
where more clearly expressed by Vitruvius* than in his
description of the Ionic doorway. From the temple
height is derived the height of the doorway; from the
doorway height is derived the doorway breadth and also—
the breadth of door-jambs. From the doorway breadth
is derived the breadth of the stiles (scapt cardinales), and
breadth of the panels (tympana) ; from the breadth of the
panels is determined the height of the rails (impages), and
from the height of the rails is derived the breadth of the
1 Vitruvius, IV, 3, 3-4. 8 Ibid., III, 5, 6-7.
2 Ibid., II, 5, 11, 4 Ibid., IV, 6, 3-4.
PROPORTION 145
inner stiles (scapz). From the breadth of the door-jamb
(antipagmentum) is derived not only the height of its ter-
minal moulding (eymatium), but also the height of the
lintel (supercilium), the overdoor (hyperthyrum) and the
dimensions of the cornice brackets (ancones). From this
example we see that though each member of the door-
way is regarded as a modulus or measure of its immediate
neighbor, nevertheless all are connected with each other
and with the large dimension of the whole by a common
measure. ‘This illustrates the Vitruvian conception of
proportion and there is every reason to believe that the
standpoint of the Greek authors from whom he derived
his inspiration was not essentially different.
CHAPTER IV
DECORATION
THE preceding chapters have already dealt with many |
features of Greek architecture, which, in a broad sense, —
might be classed as decoration. But after the refinements
of construction and of architectural forms and proportions, __
there remains so much else that added charm to Greek
buildings that we find it convenient to consider this sur-
plus in a chapter by itself. :
1. GREEK METHODS oF DECORATION. —If weshould
insist that all architectural decoration should spring from
construction, Greek architectural decoration would be
condemned from the start. The greater part of it, like
Oriental ornamentation, was not structural but applied. —
We may, indeed, point to triglyphs, mutules and den- —
tils as revealing the building methods of the carpenter ;
but, on the other hand, devices to conceal poor construction —
were equally abundant. Of suchanature were the stucco __
coverings of roughly constructed walls and columns, terra-
cotta revetments of cornices, which were not substantial
enough to resist the snow and rain, and revetments of wood
which concealed the rougher members of the entablature
and roof. In the perfected marble buildings of the classic
period, however, this superficial dressing was, in great
measure, abandoned. Se
The Greeks, like the Egyptians, Assyrians and Persians, ia
146 .
DECORATION 147
not satisfied with monochromatic effects in architecture,
relied upon polychromy to give added charm. In some
cases, aS in the ceiling at Orchomenos, the design was
carefully carved so as to separate the colors, as in cloi-
sonné enamels; in other cases, as in a cornice from Temple
F, at Selinous,! the background was cut away, as in champ-
levé enamels; but more frequently easier methods were
adopted. In buildings covered with stucco the design
was either scratched with a stylus and the coloring applied,
as in fresco painting, before the stucco hardened, or the
slower encaustic method? was employed in which the
coloring matter was mixed with wax and applied hot with
a brush? or spatula. Upon marble, where the colors were
likely to overrun, the encaustic method was preferred.
Some colors served to preserve the surface of the stucco
or marble, others had the opposite effect. Hence, the
contrast between smooth and weathered surfaces has some-
times preserved schemes of decoration long after the colors
themselves have vanished.* It has also been observed
that different pigments vary in the amount of protection
they give when applied to marble or stucco; thus the
amount of weathering affords a clew as to which pigments
were originally employed in a given design.®
The range of colors employed was not great. In the
archaic period, sombre colors prevailed; in the classic,
striking contrasts were sought for; in the Hellenistic
period, the color scale was enlarged by a more frequent
employment of the half tones and of gilding. Reds
were used freely in the classic period, replacing the
1See Fig. 297 ; also Hittorff et Zanth, Pl. 55. 2 Cros et Henry, 46.
3 Petrie, Hawara, 18, quoted by Murray, Hdbk., 397.
4¥Fenger, 23. 5 Olympia, II, 183.
148 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
brownish reds which prevailed earlier. Blues, ranging
from ultramarine through a medium shade to a light one,
were also abundant. Yellow and green were selected for
the ornamentation of mouldings, where also gold was some-
times employed. Blacks and whites were used sparingly.
All of these colors were chiefly derived from earths and
minerals. In their application strong contrasts rather
than delicate gradations were preferred. Such contrasts
were shown not only in the large members, such as the
blue triglyphs which project clearly from the red or ( é
white metopes, but in almost every ornamental detail.
A few colors only, usually two or three, were employed
with rhythmical sequence. The color was applied in flat
masses, and only in exceptional cases and at a late period
was an attempt made to produce the effect of relief by
means of shadows.! Color harmonies and the subor-—
dination of tones were not carried very far, but the colors
employed in the archaic period harmonized well with
the dark red tiles of the roofs; while the brighter colors
of the classic period made brillant contrasts on the white
marble buildings.
Decoration by painting was preferred for Doric, decora-
tion by sculpture for Ionic, architecture. This was
especially true in the case of mouldings, where the Doric
were shaped into the desired form and received in addition
a painted ornament, while the Ionic were seldom left
without some kind of carved decoration. Not only
mouldings, but also columns, with their bases, shafts, capi-
tals, as well as entablatures with their epistyles, friezes,
cornices and roofs with their simae, antefixes and acroteria,
were decorated with sculptured ornament. In the early
1 Olympia, I, 185, Taf. 118, 4.
DECORATION 149
period this decoration was flat and closely related to
painted ornament. Even pedimental sculpture was some-
times, as in the poros reliefs from the Acropolis at Athens,
executed in low relief. Usually, however, deep recesses
lke the triangular gable were decorated with sculptures
nearly, if not altogether, in the round; shallower recesses,
like metopes, with sculptures in half relief; platbands, with
low reef. In the classic period ornamental details show
a beauty of form and charm in composition, which was
usually lacking in the workmanship of the later period.
2. TYPES OF GREEK ORNAMENT.— The types of orna-
ment applied to the decoration of architectural forms by
the Greeks are surprisingly few. ‘They may be classed,
in general, as geometric, floral, zodmorphie and anthro-
pomorphie. |
Geometrical types reached their highest development in
the archaic period. ‘These include closed patterns, such as
rectangles, squares, lozenges, polygons, circles and disks,
ovais and ovoids; running patterns, such as zigzag, rec-
tilinear and curvilinear maeanders, scrolls and braids; dia-
pered patterns composed of squares, polygons, circles or
scrolls. Squares of blue glass occur in the alabaster frieze
from Tiryns. Red and cream-colored squares in diapered
pattern decorate a sima and acroterion from the Acropolis
at Athens.! Rectangles are used in an interesting way in
the decoration of the gable acroterion of the Heraion at
Olympia.2 They are colored in regular order, violet,
black, white, black, and, in their arrangement, form a
steplike pattern. Lozenges were painted on the terra-
cotta plaques from the cornice of the Treasury of Gela at
Olympia,? and carved in the ceiling of the Philippeion
1 Wiegand, Taf. 9. 2 See Fig. 298. 3 Olympia, I, Taf. 41.
150 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
(Fig. 163). Polygons were a frequent motive in Greek —
mosaic pavements, if we may judge from the splendid —
pavement in Nero’s palace at Olympia.’ Disks showing _
Fia. 163. — Lozenge decoration of ceiling of the Philippeion, Olympia. —
the flat side decorated the lintel of the Tholos of Atreus,
and the epistyle of the Porch of the Maidens in the oS
Erechtheion ; disks in profile occur with but slight vari-
ation in form in the bead and reel moulding (aoTtpdyanos). & ;
Vi ff UN
Fic. 164. — Bead and reel, also egg and dart, ornament.
Oval or ovoid forms are seen in the beads of these mould-
ings and in the egg and dart ornament (Fig. 164). e.
Running patterns were applied on short and vertical, as — aa
well as on long, horizontal surfaces. Elaborately carved
and ornamented zigzags, separated by a running pattern x
of spirals, decorated the shaft and capital from the Tholos
of Atreus (Fig. 165). Painted zigzags ornament an ar- cm
1 Olympia, II, Taf. 108-110, mee
DECORATION Lot
chaic sima from the Acropolis at Athens.! The recti-
linear maeander (palavdpos) occurs in many forms and
applications. It is not merely a ceil-
ing decoration (xkéopos Tis dpodikes )
as defined by Hesychios, but deco-
rates also platbands in the bases of col-
umns, abaci of capitals, and cornices.
The rectilinear maeander sometimes
appears .as a disconnected pattern,
as in cornice of the Treasury of Gela
(Fig. 166), but more frequently as
a continuous, or running, pattern.
The ‘continuous . pattern may be
simple (Figs. 167, 168), or enlivened
with ornamental squares or stars
set at rhythmical intervals, as in
cornices from Ephesos and from Fre. 165.—Zigzag orna-
Olympia.? Maeanders with squares, ment from the Tholos
of Atreus, Mycenae.
or rosettes, or stars, are usually com-
posed of two running bands (Fig. 169). More compli-
cated is the maeander of the wall cornice of the Treasury
_ Fie. 166. — Maeander from the Treasury of Gela, Olympia.
of Sikyon (Fig. 170) and that over the Panathenaic frieze
of the Parthenon, composed of three running bands, and
enclosing two rows of checkered squares.
The scroll pattern may be discontinuous, as on the
great acroterion of the Heraion at Olympia (Fig. 171),
1 See Fig. 296. 2 Olympia, II, Taf. 118.
152 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Fic. 167. — Maeander from Olympia.
geese
Fic. 168. — Maeander from archaic cornice from Athens.
Fic. 171. — Scroll pattern from the Heraion.
DECORATION 153
or continuous, such as that painted on the hearth of the
Megaron at Mycenae (Vig. 172), and on a sima from
Olympia (Fig. 173). This pattern might well be desig-
nated a curvilinear maeander. The scroll was exceed-
ingly popular in
Egyptian art of the
Middle and New
Empires; even the
little palmettes which
sometimes fill the
angles in Greek scrolls are c6mmon in Egyptian de-
signs.! Branching scrolls occur in the necking of capi-
tals from the Erech-
theion (Fig. 174).
Such complicated
scroll patterns, how-
ever, were seldom
used in architectural
: decoration before the
Fig. 174.— Scroll pattern from the Erech- late Hellenistic, and
theion, Athens. Roman, periods.
Another running pattern, which is found in all periods
of Greek art, is the guilloche or braid pattern. A discon-
tinuous, single-band variety occurs on the raking cornices
from the Old Temple of Athena at Athens (Fig. 175).
1 Prisse d’ Avennes, Pls. 27-30; Petrie, Figs. 50, 56.
154 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
The two-band type, however, was more common, even in
the archaic period. ‘The Acropolis of Athens again fur-
nishes excellent examples (Figs. 176,177). Even a three;
band braid arranged in two courses was found among the
archaic fragments from the Acropolis (Fig. 178). Triple-
coursed braids occur on the upper torus mouldings of the
eae OT mm ailtr Doo rH LO tow
Fic. 176. — Braid pattern from Athens.
column bases of the North Porch of the Erechtheion.?
Diapered patterns, composed of the preceding elements,
were used to decorate broad surfaces like pavements and
ceilings. Intersecting squares, hexagons, octagons, cir-
cles and other designs are found in the mosaic pavements
from the Roman. baths near the Kronion? and from the
Palace of Nero at Olympia,? and were probably repre-
1 See Fig. 208. 2 Olympia, II, 182. 3 Ibid., Taf. 108-110.
DECORATION Loo
sented earlier in Greek pavements. Diapered spirals are
found in the well-known carved ceiling of the Tholos at
pei cae if cil Le
Orchomenos (Fig. 179), for which Egyptian ceilings!
undoubtedly furnished the inspiration.
-Conventionalized floral types were even more character-
Fig. 179. — Ceiling from Tholos at Orchomenos.
istic of Greek ornamentation, and included various forms of
leaves, stems, flowers and fruit. The archaic and classic
1 Prisse d’Avennes, Pls. 27-80.
156 GREEK ARCHITECTURE °
types of leaf decoration were so conventionalized as to
suggest little of nature. Identification in such cases is,
therefore, idle speculation. The most common and char-
acteristic Doric leaf ornament was that which decorated
the beak mouldings of anta capitals and cornices. It con-
sisted of broad, flat leaves, the ends of which were slightly
rounded. ‘This type of ornament was imported from
Egypt to Crete in the pre-Mycenaean period.! In the
classic period, the leaves were usually colored alternately -
red and blue. Only the central spine suggests the leaf
origin (Fig. 180).
Occasionally, as
| cornice from
Olympia (Fig.
. 181), the leaves
Fia. 181. — Doric leaf pattern trom Olympia. were terminated
with a strongly rounded arch. More pointed leaves, like
those of the laurel, were also used, as in some bases from
the Temple of Apollo near Miletos and the Artemision at—
Magnesia; and long, lanceolate leaves were used in the
capitals from the Theatre of Dionysos and in the Tower of
the Winds at Athens. The so-called “ egg and dart” was
also treated as a leaf motive. Thus, in the South East
building at Olympia (Fig. 182) and elsewhere the “ eggs ”
1G. B.A., XXXVI (1907), 105.
in a_ terra-cotta —
DECORATION 157
are painted with a central spine, and the ‘“ darts” repre-
sent lanceolate leaves.
A characteristic decoration in Ionic architecture is the
. heart-shaped “leaf and dart” upon mouldings having the
form of the cyma reversa.!
Aischylos alludes to this
when he speaks of the
Lesbian cyma with its I STAVES ESI
triangular rhythms.?
Whether sculptured or Fic. 182. — Egg and dart pattern from
: : Olympia.
painted, this ornament
seldom lost its central spine (Fig. 185). Other forms of
leaves — the olive, the oak with its acorns, ivy and grape
ee. OR
Fic. 183. — Ionic leaf pattern from the Acropolis Museum, Athens.
leaves — occur occasionally. With the development of
plastic forms a leaf, popularly identified as the acanthus,
1A.J.A., X (1906), 282-288. ? Fragment 72: ... év rprydvous pudpois.
158 GREEK ARCHITECTURE:
gradually assumed a permanent place in Greek decoration.
It appeared, timidly employed, in the necks of the col-
umns and in the raking sima of the Erechtheion, and in
the decoration of the mouldings of the door of the North
Porch. Iktinos used it in the capital of a column at
Phigaleia. Polykleitos, the younger, employed it in a
bolder way in the Tholos at Epidauros, not only in the capi-
tals of columns, but also ina wall frieze and inasima. In
the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and in the Imperial
temples of Rome the acanthus
reached the climax of its
development. It became the
favorite type of decoration
for capitals of columns, and
was frequently used to deco-
rate the friezes of temples.
Anacanthus frieze of striking
character is supposed to have
once adorned the Temple of
the Sun at Rome.! More
Fic. 184. — Rosette pattern from elaborate, and yet exceedingly
Bey ae beautiful, is the acanthus
scroll work on the Ara Pacis Augustae at Rome.? Greek
artists under Trajan continued to employ this type of
decoration with great skill. Stems (caulieult) entered
into the acanthus decoration with increasing complexity,
whether employed to support the volutes of the capitals
or to serve as the basis for scroll ornament, and reached
a climax in the elaborate acroteria of the Ionic Temple
and ‘Trajan’s Temple at Pergamon.
1d’Espouy, Pl. 63 ; Middleton, IT, 184, note 1. 2 Strong, Pl. 18.
3 Pergamon, IV, Taf. 40; V, Taf. 15,
DECORATION
159
The rosette was a common type in Greek architec-
tural ornament. It seems to have been suggested by
some form in the floral
world, either: by the lotus,!
or the daisy, or some com-
posite flower with radiating
petals. It was strongly
conventionalized even in
the Mycenaean period, as
may be seen in the carved
ornamentation from Tiryns
(Fig. 184), Mycenae, Orcho-
menos, and Phaistos. In
the archaic period it was
treated with great sever-
MD
aS
Fic. 185. — Rosette pattern from Athens,
ity, aS in the terra-cotta fragments from the Acropo-
Fic. 186. — Rosette pattern from Epi-
dauros.
the rosette are the palmette and the lotus.
lis at Athens (Fig. 185).
The better artists of the
classic period produced
_ richer forms of rosettes, such
as those which decorate the
North Portal of the Erech-
theion and the metopes of
the Tholos at Epidauros
(Fig. 186). From a later
period are the terra-cotta
rosettes found in front of
the Bouleuterion at Olympia
(Fig. 187).
Closely associated with
These two
1 Goodyear, Figs. 5, 6.
160 GREEK ARCHITECTU RE
patterns were so conventionalized as to make their identi-
fication with specific flowers doubtful; but as both were
used at a very early date in Egypt it is possible that they
were suggested by the
Egyptian lotus.t Some-
times the two forms are
so much alike that it is
difficult to distinguish
them, but, in general, in
palmettes the petals, and
in lotuses the sepals, are
most strongly marked.
Archaic examples strongly
resembled Egyptian proto-
types. Classic artists made
Fig. 187. — Rosette pattern from Olym- thege patterns stately and
te graceful, — witness _ the
antefixes of the Parthenon, and the column necking, the
epikranitis, and the sima decoration of the Erechtheion.
In the Hellenistic period, the favorite type of palmette
shows S-shaped petals, as, for example, the slender, grace-
ful antefixes of the Leonidaion at Olympia (Fig. 188).
Here the petals show not only a double curve in a flat
plane, but are curved outward into a third dimension of
space.
As a running design the palmette and lotus exhibited
many forms. The patterns were sometimes juxtaposed,
but not connected, as on some simae from the Acropolis
at Athens ;? but usually they were united to each other
by curved stems or bands, as on a sima from one of the
Treasuries at Olympia (Fig. 189). The normal juncture,
1 Goodyear, 115-119. - 2 Wiegand, Taf. 9.
DECORATION 161
however, was a current spiral, as we see it in examples
of this ornament from the Erechtheion. The uniting
bands, as well as the floral patterns, varied consider-
ably in plastic |
character as
well as in linear
treatment. This
design was nat-
urally adapted
for the orna-
mentation of
crowning mem-
bers, where we
should expect to
find the _pat-
terns set up-
Meehos he / |
Greeks did not, \\ We }
however, hesi- EX BZ
tate to use it
as a pendent |
motive, as, for |
example, on the
central mould- Fic. 188. — Palmette pattern from the Leonidaion.
ing of an ar-
chaic, or early classic, anta found near the Temple of Apollo
near Miletos.!.- A popular variety was the form in which
the patterns were set base to base, lotuses opposed to
lotuses, palmettes to palmettes, or lotuses to palmettes.
The sima from Temple C, Selinous, furnishes an early ex-
ample of the alternating variety (Fig. 190). The cornice
1 Haussoullier, Pl. 18.
M
ie.
162 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
from Temple F, Selinous,! presents a more developed :
example of nearly classic design. A late example may be —
seen at the Temple of Apollo near Miletos,2 where the —
Fic. 189. — Palmette and lotus pattern from Olympia.
torus of one of the column bases is thus decorated. Or- a
dinarily it is the same type of lotus and palmette that.
recurs in the de-
sign, but at the
Temple of Apollo
near Miletos, sev-
eral different
es types were intro-
iTS duced and re-
Ph dh 5) 8 SP I ee peated at wide
Fiac. 190. — Palmette and lotus pattern from Temple intervals. In Ro- Be
C, Selinous. -
man decoration
the acanthus was sometimes used as a running pattern
resembling the palmette and lotus. ae
The introduction of flowers, as those on the smaller —
tendrils of the Erechtheion neck ornament, of acorns, &
as in the over-door of the Temple of Rome and Augustus —
1 See Fig. 297. 2 Haussoullier, Pl. 14. .
3 d’Espouy, Pl. 62. Syste
DECORATION 163
at Ancyra, of olives, as in the base of the Column of
Trajan at Rome, or of pine cones, grapes, or garlands of
fruit and flowers, seldom occurred before the Hellenistic
or Roman period.
Zoomorphie designs did not figure largely in Greek
decoration. On the archaic sculptures from the Acro-
polis at Athens we find eagle feathers and serpent scales!
represented by the same pattern. This was also employed
upon the echinus of an archaic Athenian capital. Entire
animals were sometimes employed as ornament, as the
eagles beneath the raking cornice of the old Athena
Temple® on the Acropolis, the eagles and the owls on
the frieze of the Propylaia at Pergamon,‘ or the griffins
which capped the gable ends of the Temple of Aphaia
at Aegina. But animal heads were more commonly em-
ployed in this way. Such were the bucrania, or ox
heads, which passed from Egyptian into Mycenaean. art
and became a common motive in Hellenistic and Roman
decoration, also the lon heads, used as water spouts and
as mere decoration on the simae of Greek temples of every
period.
Anthropomorphic decoration is exemplified by the
Maidens (xépar), which stood as columns in the Treasury
of the Knidians at Delphi,® and the Porch of the Maidens
at Athens; and the Telamones, or Giants, which served as
decorative supports in the Temple of Zeus at Akragas.
Human masks also were employed decoratively, as in the
archaic temple antefixes for the Greek cities of southern
Italy (Fig. 191). Inthe Hellenistic period human bodies
or masks were associated with acanthus foliage, as in the
1 Wiegand, Taf. 3-5. 2 Durm, 91. 8 Wiegand, Taf. 1-3.
4 Pergamon, II, Taf. 29. 5 See Fig. 221.
164 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
decoration of the Artemision at Magnesia and of the Temple
of Apollonear Miletos.! ‘ This type of decoration reached its
climax in the beautful reliefs from Trajan’s Forum.” Vari-
Fig. 191. — Archaic antefix in A. M. private collection.
ous products of art and industry, such as vases, candelabra,
trophies, and imaginary architecture entered into Hellen-
istic decoration, but became much more common under
the Romans. .
Mythological motives abound in Greek decoration. To
treat of these adequately would be to write the history
of Greek sculpture and painting, for pediments, metopes,
friezes, wall paintings, and pictorial reliefs exhibited
mythological compositions almost exclusively. Some-
times, as in the Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, the subjects selected were more or less closely
associated with the divinity to whom the temple was ded--
icated, but frequently they seem to be quite irrelevant.®
1 Haussoullier, Pl. 16. 2 Alinari photographs, Nos. 6342-6345.
® Tarbell and Bates, A./.A., VIII (1893), 18-27.
Pe Soe ee eRe be ee bp
DECORATION 165
As with geometrical and floral ornament, so here certain
fixed types became popular and were repeated as pure
decoration. Such subjects as the Labors of Herakles,
of Theseus, contests of Gods and Giants, Lapiths and
Centaurs, or Greeks and Amazons, were frequently used
with as little regard to significance as was the palmette or
the lotus.
3. DECORATION OF FOUNDATIONS, PAVEMENTS, AND
WALLS. — It is sometimes assumed that Greek decoration
never failed in being properly adapted to architectural
forms, but a study in detail of the application of Greek
ornament will disprove this assumption. It is important,
therefore, that we should be acquainted not merely with
the motives which make up the repertoire of the Greek
decorator, but also with the principles by which he was
guided in the decoration of each architectural detail. We
may follow the same order as in our consideration of archi-
tectural forms, treating first of foundations and walls with
their openings, then of piers and columns and their entab-
latures, then of roofs and ceilings.
The foundations of a Greek building, when more than a
mere projecting socle, consisted of a stepped krepidoma
or of a raised podium. In archaic and classic buildings a
severe type of krepidoma prevailed, which was left undec-
orated. In the wings of the Propylaia at Athens, beneath
the three-stepped krepidomas and to mark their separation
from the supporting walls below, we find a dark course of
Eleusinian stone; but in later buildings, each step was
separated from the other by deep lines of shadow, produced
by undercutting the lower edge of each step, as in the
Leonidaion at Olympia (Fig. 192). In the Philippeion
(Fig. 193) the process of individualization was carried still
1 GS 10 gee
? ~ z
166 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
farther, for not only were the edges of each step undercut,
but each block had a complete anathyrosis. This produced
the effect of breaking each
step into a series of inde-
pendent blocks, and thus
weakened its appearance
as a foundation.
Fig. 192. — Steps from the Leonidaion, In the case of podia, the
ee ia Jee base and crowning mould-
ings sometimes received the principal decoration. In the
podium of the Monument of Lysicrates each course of blocks
composing the die had
a marginal drafting at
its base which served
to decorate it by @ pe === SSS SSS
, : Be Sess Berens
series of horizontal eee
lin hadow. h ,
— of shadow The Fic. 193. — Steps from the Philippeion,
podium of the Mauso- Olympia.
leion at Halikarnassos
and that of the Great Altar at Pergamon were decorated
with sculptured friezes and with elaborate base and
cornice mouldings. |
Pavements were decorated in various ways. At Tiryns
and Mycenae pavements of concrete were ornamented
with scratched lines forming geometrical patterns; at
Phaistos (Fig. 194) and Hagia Triada large slabs of
gypsum were so arranged and separated by lines of red
stucco as to form a regular design; at Priene! pebbles
laid alternately flat and on edge were arranged in regular
patterns. In Greek temples marble pavements were laid
so as to emphasize the front, or the long sides, or to
1 Priene, 177.
‘
(ao de en eee
DECORATION
167
give all sides of the peristasis equal importance. Highly
decorative and figured mosaic pavements did not appear
before the Hellenistic or the
Roman period. ‘The earliest
of these, that in the pronaos of -
the Zeus temple at Olympia,}
with its geometric and floral
borders, suggests the pattern
of arug. Pompeian mosaics
sometimes exhibited elaborate
pictorial compositions.
An unusual kind of deco-
ration is found in the Temple
of Athena at Priene. Here
the doors to the naos swing
inward and were guided by
euryved channels sunk in the
Fig. 194. — Pavement from the palace
at Phaistos.
pavement (Figs. 195, 196). These channels are carved
Fig 195.— Door-tracks from the Temple of Athena,
Priene.
continuity of their surface, by the
on either side in-
to fasciae, which
add charm to the
/otherwise awk-
ward clefts in
the pavement.
Walls were
decorated in va-
rious ways: by
breaks in the
concealment of
structure, by the emphasis of structure, by base, central
and crowning mouldings, and by wall pictures. Wall
1 Olympia, IT, 180, Taf. 105; Blouet, I, Pls. 63-64.
168 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
surfaces, if continuously unbroken, are wearisome from
their monotony. In fortifications bastions and towers
served to break this monotony. In the wall of the Lele-
ges near Jassos in
Caria,! the con-
7/7 tinuity of the wall
Vf was broken by
Fic. 196. — Profile of door-tracks from the Temple vertical set-backs,
? of Athena, Priene. deep enough to
have been useful
in flanking an enemy. But at Troy, Mycenae, and else-
where, the vertical set-backs are so slight as to serve no
useful purpose beyond that of breaking the monotony
of the continuous walls. Similar to these, but more deco-
rative, are the pilasters set at rhythmical intervals around
the hypaethral courts of the Temple of Apollo near Mile-
tos. Horizontal set-backs similarly broke the monotony
of continuously vertical walls.
A second method of decorating walls was to conceal
their structure. In Greece, as well as elsewhere, stucco
revetments concealed poorly constructed walls and served
as a ground for superficial ornamentation. Marble revet-
ments, varied in color or pattern, decorated the facade of
the Tholos of Atreus at Mycenae, the palace of Mausolos
at Halikarnassos, and the public buildings of Alexandria.
In the pre-Mycenaean palace at Knossos, as well as in
Hellenistic and Roman private houses at Delos and
Pompeii, marble revetments were imitated in painted
stucco. In buildings of the classic period, the walls
were jointed as finely as possible so as to produce the
effect of a monolithic mass, in which the actual con-
1 Texier, III, Pl. 147.
DECORATION 169
struction from relatively small blocks was concealed from
view.
A third type of wall decoration consisted in the empha-
sis of structure. In the Museum at Candia there are a
number of small glazed plaques, from Knossos,! which
picture several types of houses. In some of these empha-
sis is given to the regular courses of masonry set in hori-
zontal courses with alternating joints; others represent
half-timbered construction. A similar emphasis of struc-
ture is exhibited in the archaic fragments from the
Acropolis, which portray the oldest Erechtheion.2 Here
walls are represented in which every block is marked by
a complete anathyrosis. In the classic period, heavy walls,
such as those of fortresses, were composed of blocks which
were carefully dressed at the borders. But for finely
constructed walls smoothly dressed blocks without mar-
ginal draftings were preferred. In some cases where
these still persist, as in the Propylaia at Athens, the walls
may be considered as unfinished. In later buildings,
however, marginal draftings were left for aesthetic
effect. In the pedestal of the Choragic Monument of
Lysicrates only the horizontal joints have marginal
draftings. At Magnesia on the Maeander, at Priene
(Fig. 197), and elsewhere the vertical joints were very
strongly emphasized and the faces of the blocks slightly
rounded. An extreme limit was reached by the Byzantines,
who did not hesitate in some cases to point their walls
with gold.
A fourth method of wall decoration consisted in the
adornment of the base, body, and crowning mouldings.
Wall bases usually presented a socle and orthostatai,
1 B.S.A., VIII (1901-1902), 14-22. 2 Wiegand, Taf. 14.
170 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
which we have considered as formal characters. But
the broad, almost unbroken surface of the orthostatai
contrasted with the detailed play of lines in the masonry
above and thus be-
came a part of the i
wall decoration. —
To the present day, :
a dado is an aes-
thetic rather than
| a practical neces-
~ sity. Beneath the
orthostatai, in
buildings of the
-Jonic order, were
usually a series of
mouldings. ‘These
mouldings in the~
Treasury of the
Phocaeans~ at.
Delphi? and in the
|) Temple of Athena
Fic. 197. — Wall from Priene. Nike at Athens,
3 repeated the deco- a
ration as well as form of the base mouldings of the
columns. In other cases, as in the Erechtheion, anta Be
and column bases were emphasized by more richly
decorated mouldings. The body of walls in archaic
and classic buildings was seldom broken by string
courses. The white marble town walls of Thasos?2 were,
however, decorated with a horizontal band of black stone,
ye ee
“co ahaa Sk
et he ee! ee ed Pee © oo eae
1 Homolle, Le Temple d’ Athéna Pronaia, 10. :
2 Perrot et Chipiez, VIII, 17.
inh A NN a ak a ak i tie a a i kd fei i le
aot ‘- is H .
:
DECORATION a al
and in the Pinakotheke of the Propylaia at Athens, the
blue Eleusinian stone of the window-sills was continued
along the side walls. At a later period architects more
frequently broke the monotony of vertical walls by string
courses, as in the fagade of the Temple of Zeus at Aizanoi.!
The crowning mouldings of walls were usually more
ae
IONE \ V/V ON
Fig. 198. - oe Bpikranitis from the Temple of Aphaia, ‘Aegina.
PW DOSTKZINS
highly decorated than those of the base. In the Treasury
of Sikyon at Olympia, which is a vaos év mapactaow, the
triglyphal frieze and cornice with mutules was continued
around the outer walls of the cella, while the interior
walls were capped by a platband surmounted with a beak
moulding. In the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina (Fig. 198)
the platband was adorned with a scroll and lotus pattern
of severe but interesting design. The epikranitis of the
exterior of the cella walls of the Parthenon (Fig. 199)
was more complicated. Above the well-known sculp-
tured frieze was a cyma reversa decorated with the Les-
bian leaf and dart; above this a broad platband ornamented
’ with a double-coursed maeander, and a beak moulding with
the usual Doric leaf pattern. In some [onic buildings,
1 Texier, I, Pl. 30.
ghar): GREEK ARCHITECTURE
like the Temple of Athena Nike and the Erechtheion, an
entire entablature with epistyle, frieze, and cornice was
continued around the building above the regular epi-
kranitis. In all these examples the real epikranitis con-
|: saa
VA VW v sw,
Fic. 199. — Epikranitis from the Parthenon.
sisted of a decorated platband, surmounted by painted or
carved mouldings. ‘The platband would seem to repre- —
sent the wall plates which bound together the studs and
corner posts of a frame building. In stone and marble
buildings, this band with its decoration served an aesthetic
purpose of a similar character. In the Hellenistic and
Roman periods, the. platband of the epikranitis was often
decorated with some form of acanthus scroll, as in the
Augusteum at Ancyra. An unusual, but not altogether
successful, type of decoration was adopted in the temple
of Mars Ultor at Rome,! where the epikranitis imitates a
coffered ceiling.
A fifth method of wall decoration was by means of
color. In the Thalamegos of Ptolemy Philopator? the
1 d’Espouy, Pl. 52. 2 Athenaios, Deipnos., V, 206.
DECORATION its
walls of the dining hall were decorated with alternate
bands of dark- and light-colored alabaster. The palace of
Mausolos at Halikarnassos was ornamented with polychro-
matic marble revetments. The stuccoed walls of private
houses, palaces, market-places, and temples afforded an
excellent field for the display of the painter’s art. The
palaces at Knossos, Tiryns, and Mycenae have preserved
interesting examples from the earliest period. The figured
wall paintings of Polygnotos, Mikon, and other artists of
the classic period are lost, but the paintings of a later period
which have survived from Pompeii and Herculaneum were
designed to imitate marble walls, puasters, and cornices,
or to produce fantastic architectural effects, or to portray
historical, mythological, or other such scenes. These paint-
ings, as a rule, harmonized well with the character of the
building they were intended to decorate.
4. DECORATION OF Doors, WINDOWS, ANTAE, AND
PILASTERS. — Doors and windows were sometimes left as
mere openings without decoration. ‘This is especially true
of the gateways and windows of well-constructed fortifi-
cations. But sills, lintels, and jambs set flush with
the walls or shghtly projecting were, from time immemo-
rial, a means not only of protecting but also of decorating
wall openings. Where severity of treatment was required,
as in the agora at Aegae,! jambs and lintels were left with-
out special decoration. But decorative forms were also
given to door and window-frames. Sometimes jambs
and lintels were recessed by a series of successive fasciae
(xdpoat), as in the tomb of Atreus at Mycenae or in the
entrance to the theatre at Aizanoi. Lintels projecting
beyond the jambs were used by the Greeks of Asia Minor,
1 Bohn-Schuchhardt, Figs. 16, 17, 24.
174 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
as well as by the Etruscans. They occur in the western —
windows of the Erechtheion (Fig. 200), where they are —
emphasized by terminal mouldings. They are prescribed =
by Vitruvius.) In —
a rock-cut tomb at
Antiphellos, the sill,
as well as the lintel,
was thus decorated. —
The doorways of the
Parthenon and those ~
-of the Propylaia at—
Athens seem to have —
been decorated with
bronze revetments.
Richly carved deco- |
ration characterized
the North Door of |
the Erechtheion
| (Fig. § 201)... Heres
the outermost fascia was framed by bead and reel mould-
ings and decorated by a series of rosettes. The second
fascia had a more noteworthy decoration in the acanthus
leaf and dart carved upon its cyma reversa moulding.
This is, perhaps, the earliest example of this type —
of decoration. Doorways recessed with a series of fasciae — % |
occur so frequently on the facades of Lycian tombs as =
to lead us to believe that wooden doorways of houses
and public buildings were similarly constructed from the Es
light timber which alone was available in that country. oe
Porches were often built in front of doorways opening
on thoroughfares, and windows were provided with hoods
1 Vitruvius, IV, 6, 2.
Fig. 200.— Western window, Erechtheion.
¥
DECORATION abies
Fic. 201. — North door of the Erechtheion.
176 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
as a protection from sun or rain; hence followed nat-
urally the columnar decoration of doorways, as in the
Tholos of Atreus, and of windows, as in the Pinakotheke
on the Acropolis at Athens;! hence also door cornices
resting on consoles or brackets (aapatis, ayx@v, ots),
as in the North Porch of the Erechtheion. When a
cornice with consoles was applied to a door-frame the
lintel of which projected beyond the jambs, as in the
Temple of Herakles at Cori,? the effect was less pleas-
ing.
A word may be said about the decoration of the doors
themselves. As already noticed, these were constructed
so as to exhibit a series of panels, which were surrounded
by mouldings, and decorated by such symbols as bolts,? lion
heads* (Acovtoxégarar), or Gorgon heads (Topyovera).®
We may well believe that, even in the archaic period, tem-
ple doorways were sheathed with figured bronze reliefs of
similar character to those known as Argive reliefs, and
that, in the classic and Hellenistic periods, decorated
bronze doors continued to be used. Doors of carved wood,
and of marquetry were also probably employed by the
Greeks, and chryselephantine doors are recorded for the
Temple of Athena at Syracuse.®
Antae, pilasters, and engaged columns received a deco-
ration related to that of the walls or columns. Their
bases, in the Doric order, were plain socles and orthosta-
tai. In the Ionic order they received decorative mould-
ings similar to those of the walls in the Vemple of Athena
Nike at Athens, and in the Treasury of the Phocaeans
1 Bohn, Taf. 9. 4 Texier, III, Pl. 174.
2 Mauch, Taf. 56. 5 Cicero, Verr. IV, 56.
8 Texier, III, Pl. 169. 6 Tbid.
DECORATION The
at Delphi. Sometimes, on the other hand, their decora-
tion contrasted with that of the walls. Thus, in the
North Porch of the Erechtheion, they are ornamented to
correspond not with the walls but with the columns, and
show a similar triple
braid,- with this inter-
-esting distinction — the
pilaster bases have
flowers in the centre
and at the corners.
The shafts of antae
and pilasters, in the
early period, were deco-
rated as walls or wall
coverings. In © later
times they often had
an independent deco-
ration. Uhus, for. ex-
ample, in the monument
of Philopappos at
Athens, they were
panelled, but as a rule
they were channelled.
Engaged columns in the Fic. 202. — Anta capital from Aegina.
Tomb of Atreus at
Mycenae were decorated with elaborate zigzags, obviously
in imitation of metal sheathing, but ordinarily they
were decorated with channellings.
The capitals of antae and pilasters in the earlier periods
were decorated to correspond with the epikranitis of the
wall. In general, this decoration consisted of a platband
1 Stuart and Revett, III, Ch. V, Pl. 3.
178 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
surmounted by a cornice moulding. In the Doric order
the platband was usually left undecorated, as in the rep-
resentative series of buildings at Olympia.! The crown-
ing moulding was painted with the Doric leaf pattern.
A typical instance is
that of the Temple of
Aphaia at Aegina (Fig.
7 F 202). In Attic build-
(eae ee ings, as, for example, in
ile NS {| the Parthenon (Fig.
JTUUIUIOIUIGIL. 208 or in the temple
CWKOWOMUMMCNHONC + at Sounion, mouldings
with carved decoration
were placed beneath the
painted beak mouldings.
The abacus in the Doric
order was usually un-
decorated, but in the
Ionic it received crown-
ing mouldings.
In the Ionic order the
Fic. 203.— Anta capital from the Par- yeck of the capital was
3 pet given some form of
sculptured ornament: rosettes in the Propylon of the
Stoa at Pergamon;? palmettes and lotus flowers in
the Temple of Athena Nike and the Erechtheion ;® scroll
work in the theatre at Miletos. Above the neck a series
of mouldings was also carved. Even the crowning
moulding of the abacus was provided with sculptured
ornament.
1 Olympia, II, 184. | 2 See Fig. 205.
3 Stuart and Revett, II, Ch. I, Pl. 18.
DECORATION 179
In the Hellenistic period, capitals of antae and pilasters
were frequently assimilated in decoration to the capitals
of columns. In
the Temple of
Apollo near
Miletos (Fig.
204) the pilaster
capitals had un-
developed vo-
lutes. The
channelled vo-
lutes and con-
necting bands
were decorated with olive leaf, or scale ornament, and
rosettes. The central space between the volutes was
filled with an acanthus scroll’ between two griffins, and
Fic. 204. — Pilaster capital from the Temple of Apollo,
Miletos.
Fic. 205. — Anta capital from the Propylon at
Pergamon.
_.the abacus capped with an egg and dart moulding.
On the, anta capitals of the Propylon of the Stoa at
Pergamon (Fig. 205) are fully developed volutes and
echinus. In the Augusteum at Ancyra (Fig. 206),
the acanthus and winged genii dominate the decoration of
SSS eae
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
180
cyra.
1 ih ‘ \
Anta capital from
Fig. 206. —
4 ra
E. Guillaume del.
DECORATION 181
the anta capitals, connecting them not only with the cap-
itals of the columns but also with the epikranitis of the
wall.
5. DECORATION OF CoLUMNS. — Columns varied not
merely in form, but also in decoration, and their bases,
shafts, and capitals all shared in furnishing decorative
charm. The torus mouldings of column bases were
usually left plain, but in Asiatic Greece were often deco-
Fic. 207. — Column base from early and late Temple of Hera at
Samos.
rated. In the Temple of Athena at Priene! those bases
which are protected from the weather have their mould-
ings decorated with horizontal channellings, while the
bases of the peristyle are channelled only on the lower
half of their torus mouldings. The earliest architects of
the Temple of Hera at Samos (Fig. 207), and those of the
1 See Fig. 80.
182 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Temple of Nike and the Erechtheion at Athens, were less
practical in their methods, and, even for the exterior order,
channelled the upper as well as the lower half of the torus
mouldings. The horizontal channelling emphasized the
base as distinct from the vertical support. This type of
decoration must have appealed strongly to the Greeks of
Asia Minor, for it was employed there for several cen-
turies. In the column bases of the North Porch of the
Erechtheion the upper toruses were decorated with a braid
ornament, which on the two columns at the angles was
formed by concave bands, and on the remaining bases of
the porch by convex bands (Fig. 208). These may have
been rendered still more effective by the insertion of
enamel.! Hermogenes used the scale, or laurel leaf, pat-
Fie. 208.— Column base from North Porch of Erechtheion.
tern to decorate bases of the Temple of Artemis at Mag-
nesia, and the architects of the fagade of the Temple
of Apollo near Miletos* employed a series of different
|
1K, A. Gardner, Ancient Athens, 369.
2 Records of the Past, 1V (1905), 3-15.
DECORATION 1838
motives to decorate the column bases of that temple
ei, 209),
The shafts of columns were sometimes left undecorated.
In some cases, as at Segesta, this is evidently to be ac-
counted for by the unfinished state of the buildings. In
\!
Fic. 209. — Column base from the Temple of Apollo near Miletos.
other cases, as in the Arsenal at the Peiraieus,! considera-
tions of economy dispensed with decoration as unnecessary.
Channelling (faS8dwo1s) was almost the exclusive type
of decoration employed by Greek architects for column
shafts from the earliest to the latest period. In most
cases, the channelling was carried completely around the
1 Frazer, Paus., II, 16.
184 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
shaft. It was, however, sometimes confined to the front
or visible sides of shafts, as, for example, in the Treasury
of the Megarians at Olympia, and sometimes to the upper
portion of shafts, as in the Stoa of Attalos at Athens.
Private houses of the Hellenistic and Roman period at
Delos, Priene, and Pompeii bear witness to the growing
tendency to leave the lower portion of shafts unchannelled.
The Greeks of the classic period preferred channellings
which followed the vertical line of the shaft, but more
freedom was displayed both in the earlier and later
periods. A Hellenistic relief in the Naples Museum! and
a sarcophagus from Asia Minor? may be cited as examples
of spiral channellings, which became a favorite type for
the columns of Christian churches of all periods. ‘The
technical execution of channellings required considerable
skill. Vitruvius? lays down rules for the designing of —
Doric and Ionic channellings, in both cases assuming them
to be of circular section. But Greek channellings were
not always circular. In the columns of the so-called
Temple of Demeter at Paestum* they were elliptical, and
in the columns of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia®
they take the form of a three-centred arch. Greek
columns were not perfect cylinders, but exhibited the
qualities of diminution and entasis, hence the form and
width of the channelling varied from the base to the
summit of the shaft. The number of channellings soon
became fixed at twenty for Doric, and twenty-four for
Ionic columns; but there were many exceptions to this
1 Schreiber, Hell. Reliefb., Taf.54.
2 Strzygowski, Byz. Denkm., III, Figs. 1, 2.
8 Vitruvius, IV, 3, 9; III, 5, 14.
4 Koldewey and Puchstein, 19. 5 Cockerell, Pl. 13.
DECORATION 185
rule. Archaic Ionic columns, such as those of the Temple
of Artemis at Ephesos,! had as many as forty-four channel-
lings. Some late Ionic buildings, as the Leonidaion at
Olympia, have columns with only twenty channellings.
Similarly, in Doric buildings, examples might be cited of
twenty-eight and twenty-four channellings at Paestum,
eighteen at Orchomenos in Arcadia,” sixteen at Syracuse
and at Sounion, and twelve at Tegea.2 The shallow
‘ channellings of Doric columns were separated from each
other by sharp arrises, and the deeper channellings of the
Ionic order by flat arrises, or fillet mouldings. The ratio
of the width of the channelling to the separating arris#
varied from 8:1 to 5:1. The termination of the chan-
nelling at the upper and lower ends of the shaft exer-
cised the ingenuity of Greek architects. In the angle
columns of the so-called Temple of Demeter at Paestum
(Fig. 210) the channellings
terminate on the shaft against
a fillet, becoming shallower as
they ascend and having a flat
elliptical contour, and a small
leaf ornament between the
channellings. Other columns Fie. 210. — Column channellings
of the same temple have chan- ae ioc ake een Scat ba
3 aestum,
nellings which die away against
a roundel moulding. In the Parthenon (Fig. 211), as in
Doric columns of the classic period in general, the channel-
lings are carried through the neck of the capital and die
away with an almost horizontal contour against the annuli.
In later columns, as those of the Stoa at Pergamon (Fig.
1 Hogarth, 267. 3 Ath. Mitt., VIII (1883), 284.
2 Frazer, Paus., 1V, 226. 4 Marini, III, 3, note 31.
186 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
212), the channellings do not become shallower, but are car-
ried abruptly against the annuli of the capital. In Ionic
and Corinthian col-
umns the channellings
Fic. 211.— Column channellings from the
Parthenon.
terminate usually in a
semicircular contour
and die away before or
after the apophyge of
columns, such as those
of the Forum ‘Trian-
gulare at Pompeii, frequently exhibit channe nies with
abrupt terminations like those
of the Stoa at Pergamon.
The channellings themselves,
in late buildings, sometimes
received special decoration,
as, for example, small vases
at the Temple of Zeus at
Aizanol (Fig. 213), or disks
at the gymnasium at Solunto.!
|
vA
Fig. 213. — Column channellings from
the Temple of Zeus, Aizanoi.
Fig. 212.— Column channellings
from Pergamon.
Even the arrises were
decorated in the Erech-
theion (Fig. 214) by an
added moulding at the
crown. What the origin
of the Greek channelling
may have been is not
perfectly evident. The
Egyptians had channelled
columns a thousand years before we find them at Mycenae.
1 Photograph No. 238, by G. Incorpora, Palermo.
the shaft begins. Late”
‘ee ae” a: *,
A Ge ee RE Ee eae +e
é .
ii
DECORATION 187
At the tombs of Benihassan, the channelled columns with
their play of light and shade have a greater charm than the
polygonal shafts with flat faces. The Greeks also were
not blind to the aesthetic effects of channelling. To
describe it Aristotle}
used the word paBdwars,
which emphasizes their
continuous vertical
character. These verti-
cal lines counteract the
- effect of the horizontal
joints of the drums,
when they become visi-
ble. Vitruvius? reasoned .
that, by means of chan- | |
nellings, columns might
be made to appear
broader, and that the
slenderer columns of an
inner order might in this way be made apparently equal
to those of the exterior. According to modern writers,
the object of channelling is to make columns appear
slenderer, and to avoid the appearance of flatness and of
variable proportions, to which an unchannelled shaft is
subject when variously lighted.
Other modes of decorating the shafts of columns occur
exceptionally, but deserve mention. Mycenaean gems,
an archaic poros shaft * in the Acropolis Museum, and the
support of a tripod from Plataia® exhibit spiral windings,
Fic. 214.— Column channellings from the
Erechtheion.
1 Nic. Eth. 10, 4, 2. 3 Uhde, I, 185-1386.
2 Vitruvius, IV, 4, 1-4. * Belger in Arch. Anz., 1895, 15.
5 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Donarium, Fig. 2529.
188 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the broad portions of which are convex and not con-
cave, as in ordinary channellings. Convex flutings also
Hh
I
H i}
iH
}
Ih §
| iif
} |
i |
t }
I ii} 1
\ j |
ily i} |
4 Hit 1
|
i} iy
Fig. 215. — Channellings
*from the Tower of the
Winds, Athens.
|
|
!
occur on the lower portion of the en-
gaged columns in the interior of the
Tower of the Winds (Fig. 215), and
were not uncommon in Pompeii. In
the columns of the Choragic Monnu-
ment of Lysicrates (Fig. 216) the
channellings at the top of the shaft
die away, and the arrises become the —
central spines of a lanceolate leaf or-
nament. When we consider the
frequency with which reed bundle
columns occur in Egypt and that
they were in actual use over a large
part of the Orient, it seems strange that reeded columns
do not occur more frequently
in Greek architecture. Chan-
nelling was usually carried
from the base to the top of
the shaft, but, even in the
archaic period, a _ partial
channelling was attempted,
as in the colwmnae caelatae
of the Temple of Artemis
at Ephesos,! where the lowest
drums were sculptured with
figured decorations. ‘The
same method of decoration
CA GN eae
Fig. 216.—Channellings from the
Monument of Lysicrates, Athens.
was employed in the fourth-century restoration of that
temple (Fig. 217). Athenaios? tells us that the shafts in
1 Murray in J.H.S., X (1889), 8.
2 Deipnos., V, 206.
rete ee eo
DECORATION 189
the dining hall of the Thalamegos of Ptolemy Philopator
were built up with drums of white marble alternating
ee
Fic, 217. — Sculptured Drums from the Temple of Artemis,
Ephesos.
with black, which, with the similarly decorated walls in
the same hall, constitute the beginnings of a system of
decoration which later Byzantine and Italian artists de-
190 GREEK ARCHITECTURE ©
veloped into a national style. Athenaios! also makes
mention of shafts decorated with inlaid marble or precious
stones. ‘The decoration of columns and piers with mosaic,
as exemplified in Pompeii and in Byzantine churches, was
in all probability found in Greek buildings of the Hellen- —
istic period. Carved or painted tablets (otvAomivdxia)
decorated the columns of the Temple of Apollo at Kyzikos.?
These later instances of polychromatic shafts raise the
question how far shafts of columns were colored in earlier
times. ‘The present rusty coloring of Pentelic marble
shafts is insufficient evidence to lead us to believe with
Semper? that they were originally painted a warm, rich ©
red. That the stuccoed shafts of the archaic period and
_ the marble shafts of the classic period were left white, as
Kugler believed, is probable in some instances. On the
other hand, there appears to be substantial evidence
that the earliest marble columns, and even those of the
Theseion and the Parthenon, were covered with a thin
coating of color.4. This coloring matter fused with wax
served to protect the surface of the marble and perhaps also
give to it the appearance of ivory. The shafts of the pro-
skenion of the theatre at Priene were painted red, while
those of the Palaistra at Olympia were probably yellow.®
A common decoration of the Doric shaft consisted in — a
the incised annuli at the upper end of the shaft. An
elementary example occurs in the columns of Temple D
at Selinous (Fig. 218). Here the lower end of the cap-
ital block was chamfered so as to protect the arrises of
1 Deipnos., XII, 514.
2 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Columna, 1346.
8 Semper, Vorlduf. Bemerk., 48.
4 Hittorff, 44-45. 5 Olympia, II, 184.
eneres
¢.
DECORATION 191
the channelling from injury when being set in place.
The ornamental character of this incision was recognized
at once and the number of annuli increased. In the
Fic. 219.— Annuli from
Fie. 218.—Incised annulus the Treasury of Gela,
from Temple D, Selinous. Olympia.
Treasury of Gela at Olympia (Fig. 219) the shafts have
four of these incised annuli; the temples of Poseidon at
Paestum, of Apollo at Corinth, and several of the treas-
uries of Olympia show three incised annuli. These annuli
were usually composed of two plane surfaces meeting
at an angle; or separated by a fillet
moulding. In the Temple of Apollo
at Phigaleia (Fig. 220), and of
Aphaia at Aegina, curved surfaces
are employed in the construction of
the annuli. The architects of the
Parthenon and of the Propylaia
reduced the number of annuli to one
Fic. 220.— Annuli from
Phigaleia.
and were content with plane surfaces. In the Hellen-
istic period, this feature of the Doric shaft disappears
altogether.
The shafts of square pillars in the earlier periods,
as in the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos at Athens,
were left undecorated. In the Hellenistic and Roman
periods, their decoration was usually borrowed from that
192
of the columns. Chan-
nelling, partial or com-
plete, was the normal
type, as in the Tomb
at Mylasa.! Figures
in high relief decorated
the piers of the upper
story of the so-called
Incantada at Thessa-
lonica.?
Anthropomorphiec
supports were usually
in the form of maidens
(xdpat) bearing baskets
or other burdens on
their heads(xavndopot),
and were described by
Vitruvius? as Caryat-
ides. The Treasuries
of Knidos (Fig. 221)
and of Siphnos at Del-
phi present this type in —
its earliest and most
characteristic form.
The heavy neck, rein-
forced by the hanging
locks of hair, the broad
draperies and the
1 Jon. Antig., IT, Pl. 24. >
2 Stuart and Revett, III,
Ch. IX, Pls. 6-18.
8 Vitruvius, I, 1, 5.
Fig. 221. — Kanephoros from Knidian Treas-
ury, Delphi.
DECORATION 193
rigid pose gave the female form apparent strength to
support its heavy burden. In the Porch of the Maidens
of the Erechtheion, similar devices were employed. Male
figures appear also as supports (dtXavtes, TeXNawaves), in
rigid pose, at the Olympieion at Akragas, and, crouching,
Fic. 222. — Neck of capital from Mycenae.
beneath the Neronian stage platform in the Theatre of
Dionysos at Athens.! ;
Capitals of columns were decorated upon the neck,
principal moulding, and abacus. Neck mouldings, as we
have seen, did not constitute an invariable part of the
Greek capital. They varied in form, and their decoration
was determined by no fixed canon. In the Mycenaean
capital from the Tomb of Atreus (Fig. 222) the slightly
concave neck was decorated by a series of round-headed
leaves, and in an ivory colonnette from Mycenae? the
1 Photograph by Bonfils, No. 527. 2 Perrot et Chipiez, VI, Fig. 204.
. re)
194 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
channellings were carried through the neck to the prin-
cipal moulding. The archaic columns of the Enneastylos
and the so-called Temple of Demeter at Paestum (Figs.
223, 224°) show deeply concave necks decorated with flat
arched or rectilinearly terminated leaves which sometimes
show spikes between their rounded ends and sometimes
curve over to form a bead moulding. In the Monument
Fig. 223.— Neck of capital from Fic. 224.—Neck of capital from
Paestum. Paestum.
of Lysicrates at Athens the leaves of the neck are lanceo-
late. Rosettes decorate the neck of a capital in the
Museum of Naples!; garlands of lotus buds and flowers,
at Naukratis (Fig. 225); the lotus and palmette alter-
nate at Lokroi? and in the Erechtheion. At Magnesia
on the Maeander (Fig. 226) and in the Theatre of Lao-
dikeia the high neck forms the principal moulding of
the capital and is decorated with palmettes having al-
ternately inward- and outward-curving petals. In the
theatre at Aizanoi® the necks of the capitals were deco-
rated with acanthus scrolls. Painted zigzags decorated
the neck of an archaic capital at Delos. In Roman
1 Mauch, Detailbuch, Taf. 6.
2 Petersen in Rém. Mitt., V (1890), 193.
8 Texier and Pullan, Pl. 20.
DECORATION 195
_ buildings undecorated necks were not uncommon and
became typical of the so-called Tuscan order.
The chief moulding of the capital was, as we have noted,
. either of rectangular
or circular section.
| Rectangular capitals
were formed chiefly
‘i under [onic influ-
. ence. Originally,
as in a capital rep-
, resented on a vase
from Hagia Triada
(Fig. 227), now in
the Museum at
Candia, the rec-
tangular form was
emphasized by the
decoration. But al-
: - most universally the
‘4 sharp angles of the
rectangular block
a were rounded, the
ee. Pe eee! OS gk eee
a faces were decorated
‘a with spirals, and the
sides with the pul-
¥ ° .
a VARs all of which Fia. 225. — Neck of capital from Naukratis.
> concealed the essen-
tial rectangularity of the capital block. Capitals deco-
; rated with spirals were used by the Egyptians, Assyr-
ians, Hittites, Phoenicians, and Persians, and probably also
by the Mycenaeans. This type of decoration seems to
have been derived from a floral prototype, possibly that
196 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
of the Egyptian lotus.!_ Many fanciful derivations have
been suggested.? A great variety of spiral forms are
found on Greek cap-
itals. Capitals from
Neandreia, Lesbos,
Fic. 226. — Neck of capital from Magnesia.
Delos, and Athens® exhibit the
spirals, in Oriental fashion, spring-
ing vertically from the shaft and Fic. 227.—Capital on a vase
united by horizontal bands. A» “°" es *aa
survival of this type occurs in the South entrance of
the Palaistra at
Olympia (Fig. 228).
In the capitals with
spirals spring hori-
zontally from above
the echinus. An
interesting early ex-
periment in _ this
direction is ex-
hibited in a capital
from Delos (Fig.
229). In these ex-
amples a lotus
flower, palmette, or acanthus leaf appears between the
1 Goodyear, 115-137.
2 Marini, I, 179, note 57; Hittorff et Zanth, 335, note 1; Clarke in
A.J.A., II (1886), 8-9. 8 Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pls. 52-58.
Fic. 228. — Capital from the Palaistra, Olympia.
an echinus the
:
x
‘
.
4
DECORATION 197
spirals. This flower, or leaf, pattern, which occurs in
Egyptian examples, seemed to have been an obstacle in
the development
of the Ionic cap-
ital and was con-
sequently given
up. The spirals
henceforth became
united in the
contre. Their
springing point in
a few cases, as on
the capitals from
the Temple — of
Apolloat Phigaleia —
(Fig. 230), was
raised so high as to give their channels at the start a
downward slope. But in the normal classic type, as ex-
emplified in the capitals
of the Temple of Athena
Nike and the Propylaia
at Athens (Fig. 231), the
united spirals are bounded
above by horizontal, and
below by sagging mould-
ings resembling festoons
(éycaptra). In the Mau-
soleion at Halikarnassos,
the sagging moulding has almost disappeared.! In these
examples it will be noticed that palmettes cover the angles
where the sagging moulding meets the spirals. These
Fic, 229. — Capital from Delos.
Fie. 230. — Capital from Phigaleia.
1 Bates in Harvard Studies, X (1899), 31.
198 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
palmettes decorate an awkward corner without violat-
ing the very ancient tradition, which associated angle
flowers with ‘spirals, as, for example, in the ceiling at
Orchomenos. A horizontal instead of a sagging mould-
NMUUIA((C
Fic. 231.— Capital from the Propylaia,
Athens.
ing is seen in some cap-
itals, as in those of the
Philippeion at Olympia
(Fig. 232). In most
Hellenistic capitals, as
at Magnesia on _ the
Maeander (Fig. 283)
and at Teos, this
moulding was omitted; even the effect of horizontality
is not so strong in reality as it appears in line draw-
ings, since the eggs and darts of the echinus were sepa-
ae
> 4 _
a
5j
'
ry
F
*
&
7
2
Ea
as
r
Fic. 232. ea itat hom the Philippaion® Onna
“rated by sharp cuttings, and had no visible bond of
union. A more elaborate type of spiral decoration was
devised by subdivision of the volutes. Thus, in the
DECORATION 199
Nereid Monument at Xanthos,! the channel (canalis) of
the capital is subdivided into double-ranged channels
which wind spirally until they meet at the central oculus.
In the capitals of the
North Porch of the
Erechtheion (Fig. 234)
there is a subdivision
into four channels which
die away into three and
then into two—the
channellings and dividing mouldings showing a subor-
dination which can only be appreciated by close observa-
tion of the original or of a cast. Another type of capital
resulted from the application of the double scroll, as in a
Ws ZA
SY
WW) Zp M
EE a eae ee, ee
ET See a ony ys eh
+6 Pee or _- a *
sg
DECORATION 215
Fic. 261. — Capital from the Olympieion, Athens.
sidered in a previous chapter. In Attic-Ionic capitals
the abacus was given the form of an echinus carved with
the egg and dart ornament. ‘This echiniform abacus with
Fia. 262.— Capital from the votive offering of Aischines.
216 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the carved ege and dart appears to have capped some
of the columns of the Old Temple of Artemis at
Ephesos.t. Other capitals from this temple had an abacus
Fic. 263. — Capital from the votive offering
of Evenor. Fic. 264.— Abacus from Olympia. |
with a cyma reversa profile decorated with the Lesbian
leaf and dart. ‘The latter type of abacus with its decora-
tion was used also at Priene, Halikarnassos, Magnesia on
Fic. 265. — Abacus from Athens.
the Maeander, and elsewhere, so frequently as to entitle it ~
to rank as the normal Ionic abacus. More complicated
types of abaci, consisting of a series of mouldings, were
sometimes, as in the Leonidaion at Olympia, left without
further decoration; sometimes, however, as in the Temple
1 Br. Mus. No. 2727. Photograph by A. M. —
~
‘> ee aad =
ee ee es, ee reo
aa
Sa
&
DECORATION BT.
of Zeus at Labranda and in the peribolos of the Temple of
Aphrodite at Aphrodisias (Fig. 266), all of the mouldings
were decorated. ‘Lhe acanthus scroll, as we might expect,
was finally appled to the decoration of the abacus, as in
the Temple of
Minerva in the
Roman Forum,
and in other
Roman _ build-
ings.
6. DECORATION OF THE ENTABLATURE. — The entab-
lature had its specific decoration on epistyle, frieze, and
cornice.
The face of the epistyle received, as a rule, little or no
decoration. ‘This, however, was not invariably the case.
The fragments from the fagade of the tomb of Atreus
make it probable that the wooden epistyles of Mycenaean
palaces! were covered with geometric ornamentation.
Shields were hung up on the epistyles of the temples
at Delphi, Olympia, and at Athens. Disks, which pos-
sibly were to have been carved as rosettes, decorated the
uppermost band of the epistyle of the Porch of the
Maidens at Athens. In the pre-Roman temple at Suwéda
in Syria,? the lowest band of the epistyle was decorated with
oblique squares enclosing rosettes and surrounded by small
disks. Floral motives, such as running palmette and vine
patterns, may have been used at a late period in Sicily,? if
we accept as evidence the fragments of vases with archi-
tectural decoration. The central band of the epistyle of
the Temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome* was decorated with
TI
Fic. 266. — Abacus from Aphrodisias.
1 Perrot et Chipiez, VI, Pl. 5. 8 Kekulé, II, Taf. 61.
2 Butler, 330; De Vogié, Pl. 4. 4 Taylor and Cresy, II, Pl. 86.
218 ' GREEK ARCHITECTURE
a beautiful running lotus and palmette pattern. Mytho- —
logical subjects carved in low relief were employed to
decorate the epistyle of the archaic temple at Assos. In
the Hellenistic and Roman periods the fasciae, or bands, _
in Ionic and Corinthian epi- —
styles were frequently capped _
YY aN iONS with ornamental mouldings. —
)\S In the temples of Zeus at
SUIUIU! Magnesia and at Aizanoi, and —
reine’) )K 0K) in the Temple of Aphrodite at =
Aphrodisias, each fascia was
capped with the bead and —
reel. In the theatre at Myra
(Fig. 267) the central fascia Ss
SG NA; was capped with a cyma re-
: AY / /\ versa decorated with a modified
form of the Lesbian leaf and 2
dart. Onthearch of Septimius
oe ee Severus in Rome the acanthus
CMHC HD decorated a similar moulding.
The crowning moulding of
the epistyle was decorated
Fic. 267. — Epistyle from Myra.
crowned by a red taenia with blue regulae and guttae.
A similar decoration appears to have prevailed generally
with color, or carved orna- ws
ment, or both. Thus,in tombs —
of the Doric style in the Cyrenaica,! the epistyle was
in Dorie architecture of the archaic and classic periods.2 _
On the taenia of the Parthenon epistyle (Fig. 268) was
painted a double maeander, and on the regulae, hanging =
1 Smith and Porcher, Pl. 87 ; Beechey, 443. ;
2 Cf. Fenger, 13; Borrmann, 1338-1339; Wiegand, 57; Hittorff, Pl. 6.
DECORATION | 919
palmettes and lotus flowers. Ionic epistyles were crowned
with curved mouldings usually decorated with carved
ornament. Thus the echinus moulding which crowned
the epistyle of the Temple of Athena at Priene was
carved with the egg and dart, and the cyma reversa of
the Erechtheion, and ef the Tholos at Epidauros, with
Fic. 268. — Epistyle from the Parthenon.
the Lesbian leaf and dart. Double-coursed ornament was
used in the crowning mouldings of epistyles in Hellenistic
buildings, such as the Temple of Artemis at Magnesia, or
of Apollo near Miletos. In these cases there was an
echinus moulding carved with an egg and dart and a
cavetto decorated with the lotus and palmette. In the
theatre at Myra the cavetto was ornamented with a vine
pattern. In richly decorated Roman temples, such as the
Temple of the Sun at Rome,! the acanthus scroll orna-
mented the cavetto.
Fic. 279. — Frieze from the Propylon, Pergamon.
Tonic frieze was emphasized still better by the vine pattern,
or branching scroll, as in the Propylaia of the Temple of
Athena at Pergamon (Fig. 279). This type of decora-
tion was further developed in many Roman friezes, notably
298 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
that of the Temple of the Sun at Rome. Zodmorphic
types, such as griffins, eagles, owls, bucrania, occur not in-
frequently in combination with garlands. The Propylaia
at Pergamon (Fig. 280) again furnishes an appropri-
ate illustration. But in the archaic and classic periods
Fic. 280. — Frieze from the Propylon, Pergamon.
mythological subjects were preferred. Vigorous scenes
of conflict were represented in Ionic as well as in Doric
friezes. Thus, in the Treasury of the Knidians at Delphi
the subjects are: (E) the conflict of Greeks and Trojans
over the body of Euphorbos, (W) the apotheosis of Her-
akles, (N) contests of Gods and Giants, and (S) the rape of
the daughters of Leukippos by the Dioskouroi (Fig. 281).
Such subjects as the contests of Gods and Giants (Delphi,
Pergamon), Lapiths and Centaurs (The Theseion, and
Phigaleia), Greeks and Amazons (Phigaleia, Magnesia) or
Greeks and Persians (Athena Nike), were well adapted for
the decoration of a continuous frieze, and lingered through
the classic into the Hellenistic period. Local legends,
et
5 1h:
rf
a
b
i
DECORATION 229
such as the Destruction of the Tyrrhenian Robbers
(Choragic Monument of Lysicrates) and the Story of
Telephos (Pergamon) occur sporadically. The finest ex-
ample of an Ionic frieze is the frieze surrounding the
exterior of the cella of the Parthenon. Here a single
subject — the Panathenaic Procession— was developed
upon four sides of the building in a frieze but three feet
Fig. 281. — Frieze from the Treasury of the Knidians, Delphi.
four inches in height and five hundred and twenty-two
feet eight inches long. ‘The figured procession was con-
structed so as to ornament appropriately each wall of
the cella.
Both Doric and Ionic friezes were provided with crown-
ing mouldings. In Doric buildings the triglyphs and
metopes were usually crowned with platbands, which dif-
fered in height and thus emphasized the regular divisions
of the frieze. The unity of the frieze was also some-
times marked by the introduction of an astragal or other
moulding common to both triglyphs and metopes. The
230 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon was crowned by a
broad platband set between an Ionic cyma reversa and
a Doric beak moulding (Fig. 282). In buildings of the
Ionic order the crowning moulding
of the frieze showed carved decoration.
This was either an echinus carved with
the egg and dart, as in the Mausoleion
at Halikarnassos (Fig. 283), or a cyma
reversa with Lesbian leaf decoration,
as in the Erechtheion (Vig. 284). The
antithema of the frieze, in porches and
peristyles, was usually capped by
Fic. 282.— Cap mould- simpler mouldings.
ings of frieze, Par- In treating of the decoration of the
cease cornice we may consider first the bed
moulding, then the overhanging geison. The bed mould-
ing in the Old Temple of Athena! was a platband
Fic. 283.—Cap mould- Fic. 284.— Cap mould-
ing of frieze, Halikar- ing of frieze, Erech-
nassos. theion.
painted red; in the Parthenon,? it was decorated with
a simple maeander. In Attic Ionic buildings, the cap
moulding of the frieze was often identical with the bed
moulding of the cornice. This in the Erechtheion con-
sisted of a cyma reversa carved with the Lesbian leaf.
1 Wiegand, Taf. 1. 2 Penrose, Pl. 1; Fenger, Taf. 2.
DECORATION Vor
In Asia Minor a row of dentils usually intervened
between the frieze and cornice, and its crowning mould-
ing became the bed moulding of the cornice. This
was notably the case in the Temple of Athena at Priene
(Fig. 285). The soffits.
of the dentils were left — LAVA
plain, but the _ inter- ,
dentils were sometimes HN MIMOIS
broken at the top by a
cross band, as at Priene
(Fig, 286). This led
to very elaborate decora- ,
tion of the inter-dentils Fra. 285. — Dentils from Priene.
in Roman buildings.’
The faces of the dentils were usually undecorated, but
in the Temple of Apollo near Miletos (Fig. 287)
lotuses and palmettes
of varied design deco-
rated the dentil fronts.
The cap mouldings of
the dentils varied con-
siderably. Sometimes,
as in the Smintheion,?
the most prominent
moulding was a plat-
band; at Priene and
elsewhere, an echinus
moulding carved with the egg and dart; in the Porch of
the Maidens of the Erechtheion, a cyma reversa carved
Fic. 286. — Dentils and inter-dentils, Priene.
with Lesbian leaves.
The decoration of the cornice varied, naturally, with its
1 Taylor and Cresy, IT, Pls. 81, 113. 2Ton. Antiq., IV, Pl. 29.
2 ee, = ae ory ge
G3o GREEK ARCHITECTURE
form. The soffit, being visible from below, afforded an
important field for decoration. A succession of alternat-
ing eagles and palmettes decorated it on the raking
cornice of the Old Temple of Athena at Athens.) An un-
broken soffit, bounded by roundel mouldings, appears
in the terra-cotta
sheathing of the upper
part of the corona of
the Treasury of Gela
at Olympia.2 The
roundels were painted
with alternate bands
Fig. 287.— Dentils from the ‘Temple of Apollo
near Miletos.
of red, or black, and
yellow, while the enclosed surface was decorated with a
black maeander ona yellow ground. ‘The soffit of the cor-
nice of the Treasury of the Knidians at Delphi was beauti-
fully decorated with a carved palmette and lotus pattern ;
that of the Temple of Dionysos at Pergamon® with sculp-
tured lozenges, each with a central rosette. On the other
hand the soffits of Ionic cornices were often left undeco-
rated. Cornices with interrupted soffits received marked
decoration. When showing a series of mutules, the latter
were almost universally painted blue, their trunnels red, or
white, and the intervening spaces, or viae, red.* In addi-
tion to simple color, a double anthemion decorated the
viae of the Temple of Asklepios at Epidauros (Fig.
288). When coffered, as in the so-called Temple of
Demeter at Paestum, the panels were doubtless painted so
1 Wiegand, Taf. 1.
2 See Fig. 289.
8 Bohn, Temp. Dion. Perg., 6; Collignon et Pontremoli, 55. —
4 Borrmann,, 1338-1339. oe "3
DECORATION pay
as to harmonize with the ceiling cofferings. When con-
soles also were added, they, as well as the panels, were
decorated. Almost no decoration was applied to the
consoles and panels of the interior cornice of the Tower
of the Winds at Athens, but in the Temple of Zeus
Fig, 288. — Cornice soffit from Epidauros.
at Aizanoit the scroll-shaped consoles were decorated
with carved acanthus and the deep panels with rosettes
in high relief—a species of cornice decoration which
became common in Roman architecture.
The face of the cornice in the archaic period was some-
times highly decorated. ‘This was notably the case when
terra-cotta sheathing was used. ‘Thus,in the Treasury of
Gela at Olympia (Fig. 289), the decoration consisted of a
painted braid ornament of complex type bounded by
roundel mouldings wound with painted bands. Classic
cornices usually discarded this luxuriance of decoration.
The typical Doric cornice was a broad white band having
no central ornament ; its beak moulding, however, was
painted with Doric leaves (Fig. 290), and the blue mutules
| 1Reinach-Lebas, Arch. As. Min., I, Pl. 32.
234 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
on its soffit had their sides painted red. The Ionic cor-
nice was equally simple, being adorned only with carved
cap mouldings (Fig. 291). Only in Roman times was
Fic. 289. — Cornice from the Treasury of Gela, Olympia.
the face of the cornice decorated with carved maeanders,
flutings, reeds, or other ornament.
7. DECORATION OF CEILINGS AND Roors. — The
decoration of Greek ceilings was concerned with the
beams and the cofferings. Wooden ceiling beams were
DECORATION 935
doubtless decorated with painted ornament. - This we
may infer from the ceilings of a later period in Byzantine
Fic. 290. — Cornice crown from the Fic. 291. — Cornice crown from the
Parthenon. Erechtheion.
and mediaeval churches, and from the general demands
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Fia. 292. — Ceiling cofferings from the Parthenon.
236 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
of polychromatic architecture. The usual method of deco-
rating ceiling beams was to sink, in their soffits, panels
framed with ornamental mouldings, to break up the sides
into fasciae sometimes enriched with astragals, and to
crown them with decorative mouldings.
The divisions between the cofferings were ornamented in
the Theseion by a bead and reel moulding, in the Parthe-
non (Fig. 292) and Erechtheion by a painted maeander.
This association of the maeander with ceiling decoration
is thought by Boetticher! to explain the definition of
patavdpos by Hesychios as coopos Tis dpodixos.
The recessed cofferings were ornamented in various ways.
The Theseion affords a simple example. The soffits of
the coffers each present a single star, painted probably in
gold against a blue ground, and hence called ovpaves, or
ovpavicxos. ‘The surrounding moulding was painted with
the egg and dart. The Parthenon and the Propylaia
show doubly recessed coffers with decorated mouldings
surrounding the central plate. Some of the plates of
cofferings from the Propylaia still show stars; others,
anthemia of beautiful design. These are charmingly
published by Penrose.2. The central plates of the Erech-
theion cofferings were decorated by some attached orna-
ment — probably rosettes of bronze.® Coffered ceilings
in Asia Minor were sometimes triply or quadruply re-
cessed, and framed by mouldings of varied form and
carved ornament. A noteworthy example is that of the
Temple of Athena at Priene,t where the coffers were
framed by an echinus moulding, carved with an egg and
dart, a cyma recta with the palmette and lotus, and a
1 Boetticher, 90. 8 Choisy, Htudes, 181, 152.
2 Penrose, Pl. 25. 4 Priene, Taf. 10,
be a. eae > ©.
pigs ee BW Fo ui
+ «ie "
* r)
DECORATION Za
cyma reversa with the leaf and dart. The Romans went
a step further and ornamented by permanent carving
the central plate as well as its surrounding mouldings.
Possibly the most elaborately decorated ceilings of an-
BS tiquity were those of the vats @Parapunyes of Ptolemy
| Philopator, where cedar and cypress, gold, ivory, and
: precious stones were employed in the decoration.!
ae The triangular gable invited special treatment. Be-
s neath the raking cornice the tympanum had its own
crowning moulding: concave in form, and decorated with
Doric leaf pattern, in one of the poros buildings on the
Acropolis ;? a beak moulding, decorated with Doric leaves,
at Aegina;® a cyma reversa, probably decorated with
ez Lesbian leaf pattern, in the Temple of Athena Nike;* an
echinus moulding carved with the egg and dart at Mag-
nesia on the Maeander;® a group of mouldings in the
Sacred Stoa at Priene.6 The face of the tympanum was
aS ornamented sometimes by a simple motive, such as a round
| shield, which occurs at the gable front of the Stoa at
Priene, or by mythological sculpture in low or high relief,
a as in the poros buildings on the Acropolis at Athens.’ In
these archaic examples from Athens the difficulty of
filing the narrow corners of the gable was solved by
the introduction of composite creatures like the Hydra,
Tritons, or Typhon, whose bodies terminated in the tail
of a serpent, or fish. The shallow gables of Ionic temples
were usually devoid of sculpture, but the deeper gables
of Doric buildings allowed free standing figures. The
1 Athenaios, Deipnos., V, 204d. 4 Ross-Schaubert-Hansen, Taf. 6.
2 Wiegand, 148, Taf. 12. 5 Magnesia, Fig. 59.
8 Cockerell, Pl. 6 ; Furtwangler, Taf. 33. 6 Priene, Fig. 191.
7 Lechat, Sc. Attique, Chs, II-III.
238
|
A55 $4084.24 58a yy)
a iy
Fic. 293. — Acroterion from the Heraion, Olympia.
DECORATION 239
subjects selected were usually mythological in character,
but not necessarily related to the divinity to whom the
temple was dedicated. The triangular space to be deco-
tated led to pyram- : ,
idal compositions
in which the in-
terest culminates in
the centre of the
pediment. Reclin-
ing figures occupy
the corners of the
pediments at
Aegina and Olym-
pia. The climax
of pedimental com-
position was
reached in the pedi-
ments of the Par-
thenon, where bal-
ance and symmetry
were preserved
without being
crudely obvious.
The acroteria
(axpwrnpia) at the
eens Os ibe Fig. 294. — Acroterion from the Temple of Aphaia,
guble received — Apes.
special decoration.
The earliest types were perhaps circular disks repre-
senting the ends of ridge-pole and wall-plates.t. The
most notable early example is that found in the Heraion
1 Benndorf in Jhb. Oesterr. Arch. Inst., II, 1-51.
el Bes fs Ot
240 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
at Olympia (Fig. 293), which is decorated by con-
centric bands of geometric ornament. For this type
other ornamental forms were substituted. The Temple
of Aphaia at Aegina (Fig. 294) had, at its apex, an
elaborate palmette scroll flanked by figures of maidens,
and, at the lower extremities of the gable, figures of
griffins. More complex acroteria of this type crowned
the summits of the Ionic temple and the Traianeum at
Pergamon.t The Temple of Zeus at Olympia had a
figure of Nike at the apex, and vases at the lower angles.?
Mounted Nereids crowned the lower ends of the gable
of the Temple of Asklepios at Epidauros. A bronze of
the time of Caligula® indicates that the Romans did not
hesitate to place a quadriga over the apex of a temple
gable. In later days Renaissance architects sometimes
went further still and filled the space between the central
and lateral acroteria with ornament.
Similarly the long lines of cover tiles (kadumripes)
were decorated at their extremities, on the ridge and at
the eaves, by ornamental tiles usually in the form of
anthemia (kadumripes avOeuwtol). The excavations at
Olympia‘ brought to light many such terra-cotta ante-
fixes of various periods. The marble antefixes of the
Parthenon (Fig. 295) furnish fine examples of this type.
The Etruscans and Romans often substituted heads of
divinities and masks for the simpler anthemion.
The sima, as the crown of the horizontal cornice or
of the raking gable, afforded an attractive field for deco-
ration. It was usually subdivided into a broad central
band, with a cap, and frequently also, a base mould-
1 Pergamon, IV, Taf. 40; V, 2, Taf. 16. 2 Paus. V, 10, 4.
3 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Acroterium. 4 Olympia, I, Taf. 91.
DECORATION 241
ing. In the archaic period more complicated methods
prevailed, the decoration being partitioned into a. series
of superposed bands. ‘The waterspouts of horizontal cor-
ak
Fig. 295. — Antefix from the Parthenon.
nices were seldom left unornamented. In the Treasury
of Gela at Olympia the ends of the waterspouts were
decorated as rosettes. The more common type, however,
for all periods was the lion head. Doric simae of the
‘archaic and classic periods were decorated with painted,
R
YAP GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Tonic simae with carved ornament. But the form of the
sima had comparatively little influence in determining the
character of the
decoration. The
same running
patterns were
applied almost
indifferently to
flat, concave, con-
vex, or doubly
curved surfaces.
The _ flat-faced
Fic. 296. — Si fold Temple of Athena, Athens. _.
ima OL O empie O en 1ée sima of the Old
Temple of Athena on the Acropolis (Fig. 296) was deco-
Fic. 297. — Sima and cornice from Temple F, Selinous.
rated with conventionalized lotuses and palmettes, a type of —
ornament which, in the cornice from Temple F, Selinous’
iliede: ae
ON eee Le. ee
DECORATION AS
(Fig. 297), developed into more stately and. graceful
forms. Flat-faced simae occur also in the Tholos at
Fig. 298. — Sima from Epidauros.
Epidauros (Fig. 298), and in several of the later buildings
ab edi ym pia,
where they are
decorated with
carved acanthus
gerolls.<.° The
coneave' section
of the sima from
the Treasury of
Gela! was deco-
Fia. 299. — Sima from the Propylaia, Athens.
rated with an unusual form of a conventionalized leaf
pattern, while in that of the Bouleuterion the eld Doric
leaf pattern still survived. The convex sima of the Pro-
1 See Fig. 289.
ee Say ee Fig
iy ta oa 4 an:
244 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
pylaia at Athens (Fig. 299) was decorated with an in-
cised and painted egg and dart ornament, whereas in the
Temple of Zeus at Olympia (Fig. 300), in the Parthenon,
CNOVOVOUONONONC
Ae >
OYCVOO'Y
jes G7] elgg
Fic. 300. — Sima from Olympia.
and elsewhere the lotus and palmette pattern prevailed.
The transition from the echinus curve to the cyma reversa
Fie. 301. — Sima from Olympia.
was an easy one. At Olympia several simae retain at
the base a platband ornamented with the maeander, while
the ‘principal moulding was decorated with lotuses and
DECORATION OAS
palmettes. In the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina! the lotus
and palmette pattern was confined to the upper part of the
curved surface of a fully developed cyma reversa. The
type of curve, however, which was destined to become
normal for simae was the cyma recta. We find it deco-
Fie. 302. —Sima from Priene.
rated with the Doric leaf pattern in an early sima from
one of the treasuries at Olympia (Fig. 301); with the
palmette and lotus above the door of the North Porch of
the Erechtheion ;2 and with the acanthus scroll and hon
heads in the Temple of Athena at Priene (Fig. 302) and
elsewhere.
The waterspouts of the classic and Hellenistic periods
were usually lion-headed (Acovtoxéparor), although dog-
headed spouts (xvvoxéparor) occur at the Temple of
Artemis at Epidauros. Roman architects preferred the
cyma recta form for simae, and retained the lion heads
and acanthus ornament.
1 Cockerell, Pl. 13; Furtwangler, Taf. 33, 53. 2 See Fig. 201.
CHAPTER V
COMPOSITION AND STYLE
Tuus far we have considered the various architectural
elements in respect to their technique, forms, proportions,
and decoration. In this chapter we confine our attention
to the manner in which these elements are combined, and
to the formation of various styles.
1. FOUNDATIONS AND PAVEMENTS. — It is not always
remembered that more than elementary composition was
involved in the construction of foundations and pave-
ments. This is especially the case in adjusting the
construction of the stylobate to its substructure. In the
earlier buildings, as in the Heraion at Olympia and Tem-
ples C and D at Selinous, the vertical joints of the lower
steps of the krepidoma stand in no regular relation to
those of the stylobate. When, later, dilithic stylobates
were introduced, greater regularity was required in the
jointing of the krepidoma. Hence we find in such build-
ings as the Parthenon, or the Temple of Concordia at
Akragas, a perfect harmony between the joints of the
stylobate and those of the lower steps. Below the krepi-
doma the stereobate, though sometimes partially exposed
to view, was usually invisible. Here, especially in the
early period, irregularity of construction was condoned.
In the classic period, however, the love of regularity and
harmony exhibited in the jointing system of the krepidoma
246
COMPOSITION AND STYLE Q4T
was extended also to the stereobate. Thus in the Temple
of Concordia at Akragas! we find no less than seven
courses of masonry of the stylobate, sub-stylobate, and
___ stereobate showing a perfectly regular system of alternat-
ing joints. When we take into consideration that the
Fic, 303.— Composition of stylobate and pavement blocks in the Temple of
Concordia, Akragas.
stylobate blocks were not all equal in length, but were
cut to suit the spacing of the columns, and that they were
not set in a horizontal plane, but on a convex foundation,
__we begin to realize that the jointing system of the base of
a classic temple required mathematical calculations of no
os mean orcler.
Pavements also required proper adjustment to their
_ surroundings. In peristyles the jointing system of the
4 pavement was gradually brought into regular relation
with that: of the stylobate (Fig. 303) on the one side and.
1 Koldewey und Puchstein, 172.
248 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
that of the wall on the other. The paving blocks were
usually laid according to some system. Thus in Temple
C, Selinous, most of the blocks were laid in the same
direction as the temple axis; in Temple D they were
laid regularly at right angles to the axis of the temple.
Usually the east-
ern and western
porticoes re-
ceived special at-
Temple of Zeus
at Olympia (Fig.
304) they were
paved alike, but
' the northern and
southern __ porti-
coes. In the
Parthenon they
were paved in
contrast to each
Hees other, as well as
line ‘ to the pavements
N
NN
.
A -
yl In the Temple
Kia. 304.— Front and lateral pavement of the
Temple of Zeus at Olympia. ey
Teos! similar
blocks were used on all four sides and laid in the direction
of the axis of each portico. Hence it is evident that some
skill in composition was.required in laying the paving
blocks of peristyles. Pavements had also to be adjusted
1 Jon. Antiq., IV, Pl. 22.
Sy ea ee
ant. Soe ge
=», see *
tention. In the —
differently from
of the long sides. |
of Dionysos at —
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 249
as to level. When under cover, they could be laid hori-
zontally; when exposed, they were laid so as to carry off
the rainfall by a gentle slope, as may be seen in the
North Portico of the Agora at Priene,! or in the platform
of the Temple of Athena in the same town. When the
stylobate of a temple was curved, and the front and
lateral stylobates followed the arcs of the same circle,
the pavement would correspond in level to the surface of
a great dome; but when the front and lateral curvatures
were in different arcs, as, for example, in the Parthenon,
the level of the pavement would correspond to the ex-
trados of a huge cross-vault, with surfaces sinking at the
angles so as to form a channel. It is safe to say that
Greek temple pavements never exhibited this peculiarity ;
nevertheless, the angles of a curved platform must have
presented a problem which required some kind of practi-
cal adjustment.
2. WALLS. — Walls may be combined with other walls,
or with towers, columns, piers, and
pilasters. The simplest problem,
that of combining one wall with
another, was solved in primitive
masonry by making the two walls
meet without interpenetration.
Such independence, however, was Fic. 305.—Corner blocks of
ill suited to walls constructed of eee Be ee
cut stone. When walls of regular
cut masonry meet, they usually interpenetrate. This
interpenetration was sometimes effected by the use of
quoin blocks (Aor ywuaior), cut so as to turn the corner,
a method employed by Philon in the Arsenal of the
1 Priene, 203.
250 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Peiraieus (Fig. 805). Usually, however, the corner
blocks were superposed alternately in the direction of
the two walls, either with or without notching (Fig.
306). In late Greek and in Roman buildings, such as
the Ionic Temple on the theatre terrace at Pergamon, the
juncture of two walls was some-
times emphasized by angle pi-
lasters.1
In the composition of walls with ©
towers, on account of the dispar- —
ity of form and structure, inter-
penetration was impracticable.
Philon of Byzantium? lays down
Fic. 306.— Notched corner
blocks from Pergamon. the principle in fortification that
it is bad construction to bond to-
gether towers and curtain walls. The relation of towers
to the curtain walls seems to have been a matter of ex-
periment. ‘The ancient method of projecting the towers
at right angles to the walls was frequently practised,
but not thoroughly approved. Philon suggested. that
they be set obliquely to the curtain wall; Vitruvius,?
that round or polygonal towers be substituted for those
of square form.
In the combination of walls with columns, piers, and
pilasters we have already observed, in the chapter on
technique, the tendency to replace independence of con-
struction by interpenetration. Here it remains for us to
describe the way in which walls were related to the
columns in peripteral buildings. Early in the archaic
period, as Koldewey and Puchstein* have shown, the
1 Pergamon, IV, Taf. 27-83. 8% Vitruvius, I, 5, 4.
2 De Rochas, 43. ' 4 Koldewey und Puchstein, 197, 203.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE yl,
cella walls were placed without regard to the columns of
Ee the peristyle. Later an alignment of the columns with the
a cella walls was effected for the front colonnade, and still
later for the lateral columns. In the Parthenon the outer
walls of the cella are in line with the axes of the col-
- umns adjoining the angle columns, and the faces of the
antae are in line with .
the axes of the third
lateral columns, but
the columns of the |
pronaos and the opis-
thodomos, though
regularly placed with
reference to the cella,
have no definite re-
____ lation to the perip-
% teros (Fig. 307). In
2 later buildings, such
Ss as the Temple of -
is Athena at Priene,
the cella walls and —
the columns of the |
peristyle were placed [ .
with strict reference Fic. 307.—Relation of the pronuvs and perip-
to each other. teros columns in the Parthenon.
i 8. ANTAE AND PILASTERS.—JIn earlier chapters we
have noted various modifications of the structure, form,
and decoration of antae and pilasters. It remains here to
4 add a few remarks concerning complex antae, which arose
a from their association with colonnades.
When an anta became part of the composition of a wall
with a row of columns, a complex anta was produced,
yASY4 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
which represented the termination of both wall and colon-
nade. ‘The shaft of such an anta was, in part, a flat pi-
laster and,in part, an engaged column. ‘This duplex form
well expressed its double function. Then arose the prob-
lem of forming appropriate bases and capitals for complex
antae. At the entrance to the
stadion at Olympia a complex
shaft has an unbroken base and
a single capital (Fig. 308). A
second type may be seen in the
peribolos of the temple at Kan-
govar (Fig. 309), where each
portion of the anta capital has its
own capital, and the base mould-
ings are broken about the rectan-
gular and semicircular portions
of the complex shaft in a way
which foreshadows the bases of
Gothic piers.
A second problem in the com-
position of antae consisted in the
establishment of their planes in
| elevation. Penrose! has ob-
Fig. 308. — Complex pilasters served, in the case of the Par-
from the Stadion Gate, Olym- thenon, tha’ ther amenena tala
pia. : wae |
a forward inclination. Hence,
of the three planes in the elevation of the Parthenon
antae, the front slopes outward, the .side toward the
pronaos is vertical, and the side toward the peristyle
has the same inward slope as the cella wall. The
forward inclination is explained, in part, as a struc-
1 Penrose, 106.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE Mig 3)
tural device permitting a shorter ceiling beam, and,
in part, on the aesthetic ground of producing, with
the inward slope of the outer columns, a pyramidal
effect. In any event, antae with only one side posed
vertically show how their form was modified to suit
their surroundings.
4. Doors AND WInbows. — Having described the
structure, forms, proportions, and decoration of doors
and windows, little remains to
be said concerning their com-
position in Greek buildings.
Balance in composition was con-
sidered of great importance. The
entrance to a Greek temple was
in the central axis of the build-
ing; windows, as in the Pina-
kotheke of the Propylaia,! or in
the east wall of the LErech-
theion,? were equally balanced
on either side of a central door-
way. When a series of open-
ings or niches occurred, the
principle of alternation so fre-
quently represented in Greek
ornament led to the use of
alternately round-headed and
square-headed openings, as in
the Monument of Philopappos
Fic. 309. — Complex pilasters
from Kangovar.
at Athens, and frequently in Roman architecture.
Doorways not preceded by
porches were adapted
1 Bohn, Taf. 7, 9. 2 Stevens, in A.J.A., X (1906), 47 ff.
vibe GREEK ARCHITECTURE
in size and style to the interior requirements and to
the exterior character of the building. ‘The addition of
porches introduced a new element into doorway compo-
sition. It necessitated their being related to the col-
umns in front of them. Many experiments were made
SeRQlll PEERS SeECAMl) peEcAtll Sea allipae |
ry Oars er Oe Sr lt ear Y SiS an SaaS OY
a A Nt aa ANU Hii
[TUM fT | Ce)
oo ee a a a |) a a a |}! aa a a
ee |
gS ae aS A |) a a A | RS Ma
a TEL REL
a a a | a |) Ye ee
TE Oe | RRR NM
ee
oe weed baat (A
Hoe BR ts es BR SS ee ei OS a Rh OE a
Fic. 310. — Blind arcade from the Stoa of Eumenes, Athens.
with lower doorways before Vitruvius! laid down the ;
rule that the top of the cornice of the doorway should be 3
on a level with the top of the capitals of the pronaos 2
columns. The cornice of the doorway in the North
Porch of the Erechtheion is distinctly below the level of
the capitals of the columns; the Temple of Herakles
at Cori and later buildings often follow the rule given
by Vitruvius.
5. PIERS AND CoLUMNS. — Piers supporting arches
and forming arcades are rare, but not unknown, in Greek
architecture. In the large courtyard of the pre-Hellenie
palace at Phaistos? large bases occur in alternation with
small ones, suggesting an arcade with alternating piers
1 Vitruvius, IV, 6, 1. 2 Mon. Ant., XII, Fig. 17, Tay. 2.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 2DD
and columns. A sustaining wall composed in part of
piers and connecting arches, on the south side of the
Acropolis at Athens (Fig. 310), dates from the time of
EKumenes II. In general, however, the arcade did not
develope into an important architectural feature before
the Romans undertook the transformation of Greek archi-
tecture. ;
The column and the colonnade presented many prob-
lems in architectural composition. ‘The most elementary
of these was to establish the proper relation of column
to column. In the earliest colonnades ‘considerable ir-
regularity prevailed; in the archaic period an effort
was made to equalize the intercolumniations, but there
were many exceptions to this rule. Some early temple
colonnades accentuated the short and long sides by a
difference in the intercolumniations. Sometimes the
columns of the short sides were more closely set, as
in Temple D, Selinous, and in the Enneastylos at Pae-
stum; sometimes they were more widely spaced, as in
Temple C, Selinous. In fully developed Doric temples,
like the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, greater harmony
prevailed. The spacing of the columns on the long and
the short sides was practically the same. The inter-
columniation opposite the doorway of a temple was, to
the earlier architects, a matter of indifference; in later
days it was wider than the rest and, according to Vitru-
vius,! demanded in the frieze an extra triglyph. Another
and far-reaching cause of irregularity arose, in Doric
temples, from the desire to have the colonnade harmo-
nize with the entablature, so that the position of the tri-
glyphs would form a regular cadence with the axes of
1 Vitruvius, IV, 3, 4.
‘
256 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the columns and the centres of the intercolumniations.
This could have been easily done, had the Greeks been
content, with Vitruvius, to leave metopes or halves of
metopes at the ends of the frieze. But they preferred to
have the frieze end with triglyphs. To secure this they
admitted various irregularities in the frieze. For ex-
ample, in the Temple of Zeus at Akragas! much broader
metopes are found near the extremities than elsewhere
in the frieze, and in the Parthenon? the sizes of the tri-
glyphs and the metopes were quite irregular. The spac-
ing of the colonnades was also modified in that the ter-
minal columns were brought closer together. Sometimes
this contraction? was confined to the terminal intercolum-
niations, which made a strong contrast with the rest of
the colonnade; but in fully developed Doric temples it
was extended, as in the Parthenon and in the Temple of
Concordia at Akragas, to the next to the last intercolum-
niations. ‘The many modifications required in harmoniz-
ing the Doric colonnade and its entablature led Roman
architects to reject this order as mendosum et disconveniens.*
They preferred the Ionic and Corinthian, in which there
was no such problem.
Another problem in the composition of colonnades con-
cerns the emphasis or lack of emphasis to be placed upon
the corners of a peristyle. In the case of the Temple
of Apollo at Corinth (Fig. 311) and in the Temple
of Zeus at Olympia,® we find, not merely the corner
column, but all the columns of the facade, of greater
diameter than those of the long sides. Here the most
1Durm, 125. 8 Koldewey und Puchstein, 197-200.
2 Penrose, Pl. 7. 4 Vitruvius, IV, 3, 1.
5 Olympia, II, 7.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 257
important colonnade received the emphasis. In the
Theseion and the Parthenon greater harmony prevailed
in the sizes of front and lateral columns. It was not
the entire fagade, but merely the angle columns, that
were given superior thick-
ness. In the Theseion a
very delicate emphasis is
laid on the corner column.
It is of the same diam-
eter, but has less diminu-
tion than the other columns
of the peristyle.t Vitru-
vius? maintains that cor-
ner columns should be one-
fiftieth larger in diameter
than the rest. His ar-
gument, that corner col-
umns being seen against
the sky appear to be slen-
derer than those _ seen
against the temple walls,
is not supported by mod- Fic. 311. — Relation of frontal to lateral
ern writers. The theory columns in the Temple of Apollo,
of Philander? that thicker Corinth.
corner columns produced a sense of greater stability
in peristyles seems nearer the truth. In the stoa and
the agora the corners were emphasized by larger col-
umns,? by quadrangular piers,° or by piers with en-
gaged columns (Fig. 312), which served as frames and
1 Reinhardt, 10. 8 Marini, I, 147, note 22.
2 Vitruvius, III, 3, 11. 4 Pergamon, I, Taf. 33.
5 Priene, Taf. 13.
s
958 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
connecting links of aesthetic rather than structural con-
sequence. .
A further problem arose in the case of double colon-
nades. In archaic temples when a double row of col-
umns preceded the temple cella, the inner columns were
sometimes heavier than those of the outer peristyle, as
in Temple C at Selinous.! In the classic period, however,
S
La
<3 Fic. 312. — Corner pier from Magnesia.
the inner row was composed of perceptibly slenderer
columns, as in the Parthenon.? This practice became
the rule in later days. Vitruvius? tells us exactly how
much slenderer the inner row should be, and that the
apparent slenderness should be increased by additional
channellings.
The composition of the colonnade and walls with re-
spect to elevation furnished a new problem in the case
of the peripteral temple. Were the outer face of the
cella wall vertical and the column shafts cylindrical, the
1 Koldewey und Puchstein, 99. 2 Penrose, Pl. 3.
3 Vitruvius, IV, 4, 2.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 259
colonnade would harmonize best with the cella walls if
it too were vertically set. But when the outer face of
the wall sloped inward, and the columns diminished in
diameter toward the top, a colonnade posed on a vertical
axis would form a porch wider at the top than at the
base, and thus apparently lack stability. According to
Garbett, the colonnade in front of the British Museum,
being thus posed, appears in danger of falling outward.!
To correct this fault was a practical necessity. It is
also held by some writers that when a line of tapering
columns are set on a vertical axis, they present a fan-
like appearance. Choisy? assures us that this is the
case with the Pantheon and the Palais du Corps Légis-
latif in Paris. It may also be remarked that, in the case
of convex stylobates like those of the Parthenon, if an
attempt were made to pose each column perpendicularly
to the stylobate, a fanlike divergence would actually
occur. Hence columns were harmonized with the walls
by being given a similar inward inclination, and the fan-
like divergence was corrected chiefly by means of the
counter inclination of the angle columns. In peristyles
an angle column belonged to two colonnades, each of
which demanded of it a different counter inclination.
This double demand was met by inclining the angle col-
umn in the direction of the diagonal of the temple base.
Sometimes only the corner columns supplied the counter
inclination ; in other cases the columns adjoining the
angle columns also shared in it. An inclination of the
colonnade toward the walls is found in the best Athenian
buildings, as the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Theseion,
and even in the Erechtheion ;? but in other fine Doric
1 Garbett, 155. 2 Choisy, I, 406. 3 Penrose, 36-38.
260 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
temples of the classic period, like the Temple of Apollo at
Phigaleia! and the Temple of Concordia at Akragas,? and
in some of the best Ionic temples, as the Temple of
Athena at Priene,® it does not occur. Vitruvius* re-
quired a stronger inclination than is found in Greek
temples, insisting that the axis of the colonnade be in-
clined toward the walls far enough to overcome the
diminution of the column and render the inner profile
perfectly vertical.
The art of composition included also the decoration
of columns. In the great majority of cases the same
_type of base, shaft, and capital was repeated throughout a
colonnade. But decorative composition of a more com-
plex type was found in the archaic as well as in the
Hellenistic Temple of Artemis at Ephesos,° where variety
was exhibited not only in the sculptured shafts, but also
in the bases and capitals. In the North Porch of the
Erechtheion a very delicate symmetry was produced by
the use of concave bands in the braids which decorated
the bases of the corner columns, while convex bands were
used for the others. In the Artemision at Magnesia ® hori-
zontal and vertical leaf decoration was applied alternately
on the bases of the columns of the peristyle, while the
bases of the columns of the pronaos and opisthodomos
were decorated with braid ornament. The facade of the
decastyle Temple of Apollo near Miletos’ presented a
most elaborate scheme of decorative composition. Here
the bases and capitals of the corner columns corresponded
1 Cockerell, 64. 4 Vitruvius, III, 5, 4.
2 Koldewey und Puchstein, 173. —, 5 Hogarth, 264-271.
3 Priene, 89. 6 Magnesia, 53.
7 Haussoullier, 184-177.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 261
with those of the columns of the lateral colonnades. The
remaining bases, and probably the capitals also, were ar-
ranged in pairs, each pair differing from other pairs and
in some cases individ-
ual bases differing from
their mates, the pairs
being arranged so as to
produce a rhythmical
alternation of forms as
well as a symmetrical
balance of decorative
motives.
It may be further re-
marked that when the
Ionic order was used,
the corner columns of
a peristyle presented a
problem in composition
Fig. 314. — Inner view of Ionic corner
capital.
decorative palmettes (Fig. 3
K
Y
Fia. 313. — Plan of Ionic corner capital.
in the spirals of their capitals.
At the exterior angle (Fig.
313) the spirals were usu-
ally drawn out in a direc-
tion corresponding to the
diagonal of the abacus,
and the angle was some-
times marked with an orna-
mental palmette. The.
interior angles of such
corner capitals were espe-
cially awkward, but at
Priene they were relieved by
14). Dorie and Corinthian
capitals did not involve this difficulty.
LO? GREEK ARCHITECTURE
6. ENTABLATURES. — In treating of composition in the
entablature we shall consider first the epistyle, and then
the frieze and cornice.
The epistyle blocks were fashioned so as to compose
in various ways with each other. In rectilinear or circular
colonnades the problem was purely tech-
nical, and solved by fine jointing and
proper clamps. In turning the corners
of a rectangular colonnade, the difficulty
consisted in selecting a proper joint.
Fie. 315. Plan ot ben the epistyle-consisted of a series
corner epistyle Of single blocks, a half mitre, half butt
=e oa ae joint was used, as in the Propylaia at
eS “ "Pergamon (Fig. 815). When double
blocks were employed, as in Temple E,
Selinous, only the inner blocks were mitred (Fig. 316).
In the Temple of Zeus at Olympia,! where a triple series
of blocks met at the corners, the outer blocks formed a
butt joint and the inner blocks were
mitred.
The epistyle should also compose
well with the frieze, and with the
colonnade. Its composition with the
frieze was partially formal. Both po 314 — pian of eor-
followed, of necessity, the same plan, ner epistyle blocks
and shared the same curvilinear modi- ‘om Temple E,
Selinous.
fications. But frequently epistyle and ;
frieze differed in form, and were united chiefly ‘through
their decoration. . In the Doric order the regulae occur- |
ring beneath the cap moulding of the epistyle serve
no other function than to bind together decoratively
1 Olympia, I, Taf, 138,
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 263
the epistyle and frieze. In the Ionic order epistyle
and frieze differ markedly in form, but their cap mould-
ings usually present some decorative motive in com-
ig mon. The composition of
the epistyle with the colon-
nade required more care-
ful adjustment than is
_ usually supposed. The
es early builders at Selinous
(Fig. 317), Metapontum, and
Paestum timidly posed their
-__ epistyles behind or flush
with the upper face of the
Fic. 317.— Relation of epistyle to
shaft in Temple C, Selinous.
colonnade. At Aegina (Fig.
318) and at Athens, in the
classic period, the epistyle
was advanced well beyond
the face of the columns.?
_ Fig. 318, —- Relation of epistyle to In cases where the colonnade
aie the Temple of Aphala, inclined inward so as to har-
i, monize with the walls the
epistyle was given an analogous inclination, only rather
1 Krell, 84, 101.
264 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
greater in amount (Fig. 319). The frieze followed the
epistyle. Even the tympanon of the triangular gable
shared this She Oe but to a less degree. This was
Fig. 319. —Inward incli-
nation of the entablature,
Parthenon.
the case in the Parthenon, the
Theseion, and the Propylaia.
It would be interesting to know
just what inclination, if any, was
given to the entablature of the
Erechtheion, where the inward
inclination of the columns was
exceedingly shght. In the Porch
of the Maidens the vertical faces
of the epistyle were perfectly ver-
tical,! but here the Maidens them-
selves were vertically posed.
However, in the interior of the
Propylaia the Ionic columns were
vertically |
posed, and
yet the epi-
style was
given a forward or outward incli-
nation (Fig. 320). This tilting for-
ward of the entablature in Ionic
colonnades was a rule with Vi-
truvius,? who argues that the upper
portions of epistyles, friezes, cor-
nices, gables, and acroteria, being
remoter from the eye of the spec-
tator than their lower portions,
would appear to slope inward and
Fic. 320. — Outward lean
of the epistyle, Propylaia,
Athens.
1 Twanoff, I, Taf. 18. 2 Vitruvius, III, 5, 13.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 265
hence must be tilted outward in order to produce the
effect of perpendicularity.
The details of
the epistyle do not
always follow its
general disposition.
‘aus. the ~Par-
thenon, though the
epistyle is tilted in- — Fic. 321. — Corner regulae of the Parthenon.
ward, the face of
its taenia is vertical and that of the regulae is given
an inward slope.! In the North Portico of the Agora
at Priene? the taenia, as well as the regulae and their
trunnels, was tilted inward. The significance of these
variations is not always obvious. In the composition of
. the regulae at the
corners of buildings
the practice in the
~ archaic and _ classic
periods was to juxta-
pose the two regulae,
carving six trunnels
Fic. 322. — Corner regulae of the North Stoa, on each (Fig. 321).
Priene.
Later the two reg-
ulae were united at the corners, and a corner trunnel
made its appearance (Fig. 322). The number of trun-
nels sometimes differed from the canonical number,
six. Thus the regulae of the poros epistyles from
Athens? show four and five trunnels; those of the
Temple of Dionysos at Pergamon,* seven; those of
1 Penrose, Pl. 22. 3 Wiegand, 150.
2 Priene, 194. 4 Bohn, Temp. Dion. Perg., 7.
266 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the Monument of Thrasyllos at Athens,! a continuous
row. :
The frieze, as an intermediate member, presented several
problems. Its relation to the epistyle, to the contiguous
frieze, to the cornice, to the colonnade, and to the cella
walls had to be properly adjusted.
The frieze was posed in the Doric order usually sn
its triglyphs flush with the epistyle, the metopes being set
back. In the Temple of the Nemesis at Rhamnous? the
face of the triglyphs appears to have been set slightly be-
hind the face of the epistyle, but this method of hghten-
ing the superstructure of the entablature was seldom
attempted. In the Parthenon the antithema of the frieze
was slightly set back, and a space left between the external
frieze and its antithema. In the Ionic style the frieze
was frequently set flush with the lowest fascia of the
epistyle, as in the Temple of Athena Nike.* In the
Erechtheion* the face of the frieze was set farther
back, in order to avoid too marked a salience of, the
applied relief. As we have already noted, the frieze
shared also the inclination and the curvature of the
epistyle. ‘
Friezes, whenever carried around a portico or building,
had to be adjusted to contiguous friezes. In archaic
buildings the fagade sometimes had triglyphs broader
than those of the sides.° In the classic period the
front and lateral triglyphs were of equal breadth. When
a frieze was continued around a corner the problem of
uniting the two friezes was a simple one. In the
1 Stuart and Revett, II, Ch. 4, Pl. 4. 3 d’Espouy, nig BEL
2 Mauch, Taf. 10. ¢ Tbid., PLT
5 Wiegand, 8.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 267
Doric order this was accomplished by a corner triglyph
(tpiyAugos youaia), which presented the appearance
of two triglyphs at right angles to each other, with
a half groove in common (Fig. 323). An unusual type
of corner triglyph, with two half grooves at the angle,
is found in the Palace of Hyrkanos in Syria. In
Ionic friezes the problem concerned chiefly the decora-
tive reliefs, and was
solved by means of
figures near the angles
which served like punc-
tuation marks for the
successive phases. of
the figured theme.
When the triglyphal
frieze was applied only
to the front of a build-
ing, as in the Treasury
of the Megarians at
Olympia, the adjust-
ment at the corner was
not so happily solved
(Fig. 324). |
The harmony of the
frieze with the cor-
nice required not only
a proper regard for the
length of the blocks, so as to avoid coincidence in
jointing, but also some similarity in form or decoration.
Fig. 323.— Corner triglyph from the Treas-
ury of Selinous, Olympia.
Thus, in the Doric order, the triglyphs and metopes de-
termined the position of the mutules of the cornice, a_
mutule occurring in regular cadence over each triglyph
‘
268 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
and over each metope. A panelled cornice, such as
that of the Temple of Demeter at Paestum, seems also
to have been regulated with reference to the subdivisions
of the triglyphal frieze. The forms of mouldings and
their decoration were also utilized to establish a closer
harmony between frieze and cornice. ‘Thus the trunnelled
regulae were reéchoed in the
trunnelled mutules, and the
eap mouldings of the frieze
were repeated as a whole or
in part in the crowning mould-
ings of the cornice. :
The relation of the frieze to
the colonnade made further
demands upon the architect’s
skill in composition. The
difficulties were numerous in
the use of the Doric order.
He had first to determine
the number of triglyphs to be
distributed in the frieze.
When the columns were closely
set, as in the Temple of Apollo
Fic. 324.— Corner triglyph from at Syracuse, it is possible
the Treasury of Megara, Olym- that one 4triglypn sweeeciared
ne over each column and a met-—
ope or an opening over each intercolumniation. ‘This
system may be termed monotriglyphal (yovotpiydudos).4
The usual type of Doric frieze was ditriglyphal (é:tpéyrv-
gos), and exhibited a triglyph over each column and one
1 Koldewey und Puchstein, 64; Boetticher, 206-210; confused in
Vitruvius, IV, 3, 7.
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 269
over each intercolumniation. Polytriglyphal systems were
also in use. ‘l'wo triglyphs are found above the central
intercolumniations of the Propylaia at Athens ;! three
over each intercolumniation of the lower order, and four
over those of the upper order, of the Stoa at Pergamon ;?
five between the columns of the Tomb of Theron at
Akragas; six are found between the columns of the
Doric Niche in the Stoa at Pergamon,® and seven be-
tween the pilasters of a Doric tomb fagade at Antiphel-
los. But the chief difficulty in adjusting the triglyphal
frieze to the colonnade arose from the twofold endeavor
to adhere to the system of posing triglyphs above the
axes of columns, and at the same time to terminate
the frieze with triglyphs rather than with a half met-
ope. The result was that, even in so carefully con-
structed a building as ‘the Parthenon, triglyphs, metopes,
and epistyle blocks were not uniform in size, the tri-
glyphs were rarely posed above the axes of the columns
or of the intercolumniations, and the plumb line from the
apex of the gable did not divide equally the central inter-
columniation.°®
The Romans set a higher value on rigid uniformity,
posed the terminal triglyphs above the axes of the columns,
and did not hesitate to leave a portion of a metope at the
angle.® |
Triglyphal and figured friezes were sometimes applied
for other purposes than for colonnades. At Phaistos’ we
find the base of a bench decorated with a triglyphal frieze;
1 Bohn, Taf. 4-5. 4 Texier, III, Pl. 197.
2 Pergamon, II, Taf. 21. 5 Cockerell, 69 ; Penrose, 17.
© [iid ~ 11, ‘Tat. 26, 28. 6 Durm, Bauk. Etr. Roém., 378.
7 Mon. Ant., XII, 46, 47, Tav. 7.
270 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
at Corinth,! the outer wall of a fountain; at Olympia,? a
circular altar. Friezes were also applied above doorways,
or as string courses upon walls, or as crowning ornament.
In the Temple of Zeus at Olympia,® a sculptured frieze
decorated the pronaos and also the opisthodomos; in the
Theseion,‘ the frieze of the pronaos was carried across the
pteromata to the colonnade of the peristyle ; at Sounion,°
it was carried not only across the pteromata, but com-
pletely around the interior of the front porch ; at Phigaleia,
a frieze encircled the interior of the naos ; in the Parthenon,
it decorated the exterior of the pronaos, the opisthodomos,
and the cella walls. | Be
The composition of the dentil band required a harmoni-
ous relation to frieze and cornice. ‘This was effected chiefly
__ through similarity of
decorative mouldings.
The connection of this
band with the colon-
nade was somewhat
remote. The axis of
the column, if con-
tinued upward, would
|
Fic. 325.—Corner dentils from Priene viewed genti] or an_ inter-
from below. qenue
When one dentil band met another, as in rectangular
buildings, the composition of the corner dentils sometimes
received special attention. To one who gazed upward from |
below the square space left at the angle looked awkward.
1 A.J.A., VI (1902), 306-320. * Ibid., I, 10, Taf. 10.
2 Olympia, II, Taf. 95. 4 Stuart and Revett, III, Ch. I, Pl. 4.
5 Ath. Mitt., IX (1884), 325, Taf. 16.
strike indifferently a_ y 7
COMPOSITION AND STYLE iL
This was remedied, in the Temple of Asklepios at Priene,
by the introduction of a decorative motive, such as a
_palmette (Fig. 325). To one who viewed the face of
the building, the side of the lateral dentil made a striking
contrast with the
fronts of “the vA ANIA A INN
other dentils PTO OR HOW OM OWMO ROMO RB ORMOMUO HO
(Fig. 326). This
was corrected in
later buildings,
such as the Tem-
ple of Zeus at
Labranda, by the introduction of a pendent ornament
resembling an egg or a pine cone. In the Ionic Temple
on the theatre plateau at Pergamon twin dentils were
used at the corners— but this appears to have been an
exceptional solu-
tion of the prob-
lem (Fig. 327).
Cornice com-
position consisted
in establishing
Fic. 326.— Corner dentils from Priene ; front view.
Fig. 327. —Twin dentils from the lonic Temple at harmonious and
eo teaton. suitable relations
with the frieze, the dentils, and adjoining cornice. In
the Dorie style the mutular system of the cornice was
determined by the system of the frieze. Thus in the
monotriglyphal system of the Temple of Apollo at
Syracuse the cornice was doubtless unimutular, exhib-
iting one mutule above each triglyph and none above
the metopes. In Temple C, Selinous, the cornice was
sesquimutular, as it exhibits one mutule above each
pat ihe GREEK ARCHITECTURE
triglyph, and a half mutule above each metope. The
usual Doric cornice was bimutular, and contained a mutule
above each triglyph and one above each metope. The
mutules were harmonized with the epistyle by the exhibi-
tion of trunnels similar to those of the regulae. The
number of trunnels upon a mutule depended somewhat
upon their width and the overhang of the cornice. A
normal mutule contained eighteen trunnels, arranged in
three rows, with six in each row. The half mutules of
Temple C, at Selinous, contained but nine trunnels, three
in a row. In the Old Temple of Athena at Athens! the
full mutules contained twelve trunnels, arranged in two
rows of six each; the intervening mutules were narrower
and contained only eight. The correlation of cornice and
frieze is well illustrated at the Treasury of the Megarians
at Olympia. On the facade, where there was a triglyphal
frieze, the cornice was provided with mutules; on the
sides, where there was no frieze, the cornice had no mu-
tules. Here and elsewhere the raking cornices of the
gables, being only remotely related to the frieze, had no
mutules. The face of the cornice in many cases was posed
in a vertical plane, but in buildings where the inward in-
clination of the entablature was pronounced the cornice
inclined outward like the abacus of the capital.2 The
Ionic cornice was brought into harmony with the frieze
or with the dentil band chiefly through a general similar-
ity in the treatment of the decorative mouldings. The
repetition of an echinus, cyma reversa, “or cavetto
moulding unified the composition, especially when the
method of decoration was similar. ‘The Romans did not
hesitate to repeat even the dentils in the raking cornice.
1 Wiegand, 16, Taf. 1. 2 Penrose, 37, 108,
ag
”
r.
5
:
ae
¢
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 273
The composition of the gable with the horizontal cor-
nice required, at the outset, some experimentation before
an adequate solution was reached. In the megaron of
Demeter at Gag-
gera the two
cornices met
without modi-
fication and left Beh
an awkward an- 5
gular profile
(Fig. 328). In
Temple C, Se- Fic. 328.—Corner of the gable of the megarou uf
linous, a verti- Demeter, near Selinous.
cal profile seems to have been secured at the angle by a
bend in the raking cornice (Fig. 329). The normal
solution was to cut the raking cornice so as to mitre it
to the horizontal
cornice at the
angle (Fig. 330).
Z The tympanon,
PET LE =. or: pable:- wall,
‘ELROD : ae Sas eee ne
Dodoooooe> vertical _ plane,
except in build-
ings like the Par-
thenon! which
exhibited an inward inclination in the colonnade and en-
tablature. In such cases it shared this inward inclination.
When arranged for the exhibition of gable sculptures, the
tympanon wall, in archaic buildings, was set back, as in
Temple C, Selinous.2, In the Temple of Zeus at Olympia
1 Penrose, 37, 2 Hittorff et Zanth, Pl. 24.
-
Fig. 329.— Corner of gable of Temple C, Selinous.
aN
he
974 GREEK> ARCHITECTURE
the wall, and consequently the sculptured groups, were -
thrown forward to the extreme limit (Fig. 831). Ac. |
cording to Vitruvius, the tympanon should be in line with —
the face of the epistyle and the necks of the columns. - .
7. CEmINGS AND Roor.—Except in the case of —
peristyles, ceilings presented little difficulty. When a. ee 2
ee eerrere
Fic. 330.— Corner of the gable of the Propylaia, Athens.
coffered ceiling was applied to the peristyle of a circular
building, the cofferings became trapezoidal in shape, as
in the Tholos of Epidauros,! or lozenge-shaped, as in the = 5
Philippeion at Olympia.? In the case of rectangular
buildings the chief difficulty consisted in adjusting the
ceiling beams to the colonnade. When the columns were ~
closely set, as in the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, it is
possible that the ceiling beams corresponded in position
with the triglyphs or columns, one beam for each column
and none for the intercolumniations. A two-beamsystem,
with one ceiling beam for each column and one for each
intercolumniation, is found in the North Porch of the
Erechtheion., This .is the system which we find most
frequently in developed Doric peristyles. It is illustrated
in the lateral porticoes of the Theseion (Fig. 332), where,
1 Lechat et Defrasse, 118. 2 Olympia, II, Taf. 82.
ee (
COMPOSITION AND STYLE Bt
however, the beams do not correspond with the central
axes of the columns nor with the centres of the inter-
columniations. In the front and
rear the ceiling beams were set at
equal distances apart, but show no
regard for the intercolumniations
of the peristyle or of the pronaos.
In the Parthenon this lack of
cadence is even more apparent, as
there are two porches, the ceiling
beams of which are not regularly
related to the friezes and not reg-
ularly related to each other (Fig.
333). ‘To adjust the ceiling beams
to the unequally spaced colonnade
of a Doric facade was difficult, and
constituted the vittwm lacunario-
yum in the eyes of a Roman archi-
tect.1 Even the Greeks felt this
and invented a beamless ceiling.
When the trabeated type of ceil-
ing was used in peripteral build-
ings, its application was not always
: the same. In some early temples,
such as Temple C at Selinous, it was
probably applied only infront. In ;
; the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia 2 Fre.331. —Overhang of gable.
é it was applied to both front and rear ais raters
; of the peristyle. In the Parthe-
non it was applied also*to the pronaos and opisthodomos.
a
1 Vitruvius, IV, 3, 5. 2 Cockerell, Pl. 9.
276 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
In the Theseion the trabeated ceiling was applied to the
entire peristyle, and also to the pronaos and opisthodomos ;
but, inasmuch as the front and rear of the peristyle were
considerably deeper than the pteromata and had heavier
ceiling beams, their ceilings were cut off from those of
the wings by very heavy beams. A perfectly harmonious
Fic. 332. — Plan of ceiling beams of the Theseion.
system, giving the same value to all sides of the peristyle,
was devised by Pythios for the Temple of Athena at Priene
(Fig. 3384). An unusual form of ceiling, with beams
cutting diagonally across the corners, is found in the
Sepulchral Monument at Mylasa.!
The disposition of simae required a consideration of
their application in relation to the roof and to the colon-
nade. Being designed to regulate the flow of water from
the roof, the simae were applied, on gable fronts, to the
raking cornice alone, although in some archaic buildings,
1fon. Antig., II, Pls. 24, 25, 30.
ey, alieab. ;
BN ny ~
COMPOSITION AND STYLE at
like the Treasury of Gela at Olympia,! the sima was ap-
pled also to the horizontal cornice. This horizontal sima
on gable fronts defeated the purpose for which the form
was designed, inasmuch as it retained, rather than dis-
persed, the rainfall. It was accordingly omitted in the
classic period. Simae were sometimes posed vertically,
beh; +
eee ||
Fig. 333. — Plan of ceiling beams of peristyle and.front porch of the
Parthenon.
as in the Treasury of Gela, but usually were given an
outward inclination? which, in peripteral buildings, was
more marked on the long sides than in front.
In the Parthenon the sima was continued for a short
distance only on the long sides of the building, and was
then replaced by a system of antefixes; in the Temple of
Zeus at: Olympia,® and elsewhere, it extended along the
1 Olympia, I, Taf. 41. 2 Penrose, 37.
3 Olympia, I, Taf. 11.
278 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
entire length of the pteromata. The antefixes, and the —
lion heads of simae, were set at regular intervals, and
were employed, sometimes separately, sometimes in com-
bination with each other. Thus, in the Heraion at —
Olympia,! disk-like antefixes decorated the end of each
Fic. 334. — Plan of ceiling beams of the Temple of Athena, Priene.
line of cover tiles; in the Parthenon,? an anthemion type
of antefix was set at every alternate line of cover tiles; _
in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia,’ the lion heads of the _
sima occur at similar intervals; in the Leonidaion,* both
antefixes and lion heads are found, the former at the ends
of the cover tiles, the latter between them. Antefixes
and the lion heads were regularly related to the frieze,
and therefore to the colonnade. The normal type of leon-
tokephalic sima appears to be one in which a lion head
was centrally superposed above each mutule, which
1 Olympia, II, Taf. 98. 3 Olympia, I, Taf. 11.
* Penross,Pis ily, * Tbid., I, Taf. 99.
pel il Pe Fe eT) ee ee
, a = a a rs + oe ¥ Py
are
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 279
amounts to saying that one lion head occurs above each
column and three above each intercolumniation. Other
systems seem also to have been employed, in some of
which the number and pose of the antefixes and lion
heads had no definite relation to the colonnade.!
In the composition of acroteria, their size, height, and
character had to be considered. In some countries
the acroteria were inordinately large ;? elsewhere they
were insignificantly small. Their height was accordingly
made the occasion for many experiments. In the Temple
of Aphaia at Aegina? the heights of the acroteria are
very far from the standards set later by Vitruvius,
who directed that the acroteria at the lower ends of
the gable should reach in height the apex of the
tympanum, and that the acroterion at the apex should
be one-eighth higher than those at the ends. There
must also be some conformity between the character
of the acroterion at the apex and those at the sides.
In the Heraion at Olympia terra-cotta disks sufficed for
all the acroteria. When figured sculpture was introduced
at the apex of a gable, as in the Temple of Asklepios at
Epidauros, similar figured acroteria were placed at the
lower ends.
Two further steps may be noted in the composition of
acroteria. In some cases the lateral acroteria were
adapted to the peripteral plan by being returned around
the corner. This was more common in small structures,
like sarcophagi, than in important buildings. Another
development was the multiplication of ornaments at other
points on the raking cornice. This appears to have been
1 Olympia, I, Taf. 66. 3 Furtwiangler, Taf. 33, 38.
2 Renan, Pls, 50, 61. 4 Vitruvius, IIT, 5, 12.
280 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the case in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at
Rome,! and to have been revived in the decoration
of Lombard and Venetian portals of the Renaissance
period. y
8. StyLe. — After having considered in detail the
technique, forms, proportions, and decoration of the vari-
ous architectural members, and having pointed out how
they were modified when associated with each other, little
remains to be said about style, except to point out the
fact that certain architectural features were naturally
grouped together so as to form distinct styles. ‘These
styles may be distinguished as the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian, to which may be added the Mixed, and
the Miscellaneous. Of these the Doric and Ionic stand
in strong contrast, distinguished from each other by
a number of particulars. The Corinthian style agrees
in so many details with the Ionic that we might well
refuse to give it the standing of a separate class,
were it not that the ancient writers? all agree in so
recognizing it. :
In the Doric style the column had no base; its shaft
had a strong diminution and entasis, and was adorned
with channellings of elliptical section separated by sharp
arrises; its capital was of circular plan and hyperbolic
profile and was capped by a rectangular abacus; its pro-
portions were heavy. Upon this type of column rested a
heavy entablature, consisting of a plain epistyle crowned
by a rectangular moulding, a frieze divided into triglyphs
1 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Capitolium, Figs. 1146-1151.
2 Vitruvius, III and IV ; Pliny, N.., XXXVI, 56,1; Paus., VIII, 45,
5. The Tuscan style, included by Vitruvius and Pliny, was a form of
Roman rather than of Greek architecture.
ry
1
st "
4
aq
ey
3
*
re
"3
,
MN
4
by:
a
+
van
7 i
‘
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 281
and metopes, and an overhanging cornice, with mutules
or cofferings, capped by a beak moulding. The Doric
style was abundantly represented in the Peloponnesos, in
Sicily, and in southern Italy. The Parthenon (Fig. 335)
may be taken as the most refined, though not the strong-
Fig. 335. — Dorie order of the Parthenon.
est, or most characteristic, example of its class. The
individual forms which composed the Doric order differed
according to varying conditions of time or place, but the
general combination has come down with slight change
to the architecture of modern times.
The Ionic style was associated in its early history with
Asia Minor, where various modifications of type were
produced. In general, the Ionic column was provided
282 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
with a base ; its shaft had but shght diminution and
entasis, and was adorned with channellings of semicir-
cular section separated by flat arrises; its capital was
Fic. 336. — Ionic order of the Mau-
soleion at Halikarnassos.
composed of an_ echinus
moulding, painted or carved
with the egg and dart,
above which were spirals
and lateral bolsters crowned
with a low abacus. Its pro-
portions wereslender. Above
this was laid a light entab-
lature consisting of an
epistyle subdivided into suc-
cessive fasciae; a frieze un-
broken, but often adorned
with sculpture in low relief,
and a cornice of graceful
profile normally supported
on dentils and crowned with
delicate mouldings. The
Ionic style flourished in the
great cities on the west coast
of Asia Minor, reached a most
refined stage at Athens, and
passed almost without change
into Roman and later Euro-
pean architecture. The
Mausoleion at Halikarnassos (Fig. 336) furnishes an ex-
cellent example.
The Corinthian style in most details was identical with
the Ionic, and differed from it only in the type of the
capital, in a preference for curved friezes, and for cornices
7
COMPOSITION AND STYLE 283
supported by consoles. The Corinthian capital was essen-
tially a calyx capital decorated with lanceolate, or acan-
thus leaves.t- The frieze might have a plane surface, but,
in the later period in which this style flourished, curved
friezes were frequently associated with Corinthian col-
umns.* The Corinthian cornice was often supported on
brackets, or consoles,’ and thus distinguished from the cor-
nices of the other orders. It may also be noted that the
acanthus decoration was not confined to the capitals of
columns, but was used to adorn the frieze, the cornice, and
various mouldings. The Corinthian capital occurs for
the first time in the interior of the Temple of Apollo at
Phigaleia; it was first associated with a curved frieze in
the interior order of the Tholos at Epidauros, and with a
bracketed cornice in the interior of the Tower of the
Winds at Athens. As an exterior order it first appears
in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, and in the Olym-
pieion at Athens, whence it spread to Asia Minor, and to
Rome.
Mixed styles are found in various periods, and in widely
scattered parts of the Greek world. Two or more styles
were represented in the same building in the Propylaia at
Athens, the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, the Temple of
Athena Alea at Tegea, the Tholos at Epidauros, and in
many other buildings. But a closer mingling, such as the
columns of one style bearing the entablature of a different
style, occurred more frequently than we are accustomed
to suppose. Mixed styles of architecture are pictured on
Athenian vases of the sixth and fifth centuries. These
probably reflect architectural practice, and in fact are
1 See Figs. 252-262. 8 See Fig. 140.
2 See Figs. 134-136. 4R. Vallois, in Rev. Arch., XI (1908), 883.
284 GREEK ARCHITECTURE ~
found in the Peiraieus,! as well as in Epidauros, in Crete
in the Stoa of Eumenes at Pergamon,? and in the so-calle
Tomb of Theron at Akragas.
Miscellaneous styles are represented in buildings where 8
Caryatids,° Telamones, Atlantes, and Persians® are substi- iy
tuted for columns. ‘These supports carry entablatures
borrowed from the other styles. ae:
1 Doerpfeld, in Ath. Mitt., [IX (1884), 285, Taf. 4.
2 Tbid., 286. 4 See Fig. 33.
#2 oe II, Taf. 33-34. 5 See a 221.
Pls, 45-49.
fs i Ce
moe,” ">
oh
a
CHAPTER VI
MONUMENTS
Ir remains for us to consider the various types of
Greek architectural monuments. We shall briefly review
the way in which the Greeks designed their towns, and
protected them with walls and towers; erected temples to
the gods; civic buildings for purposes of government ;
market places for commerce; gymnasia, stadia, baths, and
other structures for the physical, and libraries, museums,
theatres for the intellectual welfare of the people;
palaces and houses for their shelter on land; ships to
traverse the sea, and finally memorial and sepulchral
buildings for the dead.
1. Towns AND THEIR DEFENCES. — In the earliest
periods villages (x@mar) were preferably built in the
vicinity of a hill, which, fortified as a residence for
the chief and a refuge for the people in case of war,
was known as the acropolis (axpo7ous). Troy, Tiryns,
and Mycenae suffice to illustrate this type of settle-
ment. With the increase of population commercial
interests became more important, and seaboard cities,
like Ephesos, Miletos, Athens, and Corinth, became
typical centres. In many such cases the old town on
the hill survived and was connected by walls with the
seaport, as at Athens, Megara, Corinth. With Hippoda-
285
286 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
f
mos of Miletos, in the fifth century, began the architec-
tural planning of cities. Open squares, broad avenues
(wXaTeiar) crossing at right angles to each other, public
buildings distributed with a view to artistic effect as well
as practical convenience distinguished this class of cities.}
The Peiraieus, Alexandria, and Antioch may be cited as
typical examples. The conception of a city as a work of
art reached the limit of extravagance in the proposition
of Deinokrates to convert Mount Athos into the statue
of a man holding a spacious city in his left hand, and in
his right a cup, into which flowed all the streams of the
mountain.”
The extreme regularity of the late Greek cities Ted
naturally to the square or circle as the form to be fol-
lowed by the enclosing walls. The square was, in fact,
the type of Babylonian and Assyrian cities, and later
that of the Roman stationary camp. But the walls of
Greek cities more frequently enclosed an irregular space,
and even Vitruvius® argues in favor of winding walls in
order that the enemy may be seen from many points of
view.
The hilly character of many Greek cities led to the
construction of level spaces and terraces, which required —
retaining walls, such as that of the Altis at Olympia or —
of the Stoa of Eumenes at Athens. Streets were often
narrow and rough, sometimes paved. As early as the
time of the Second City at Troy (Fig. 337) they were
covered with irregular stone pavements (otp@pata). In
the time of Peisistratos the streets of Athens were pro- |
1 Hirschfeld, 7 upolagies Erdmann, Hippodamos von Milet ; Merckel,
379-465.
2 Vitruvius, II, praef. +S bids Is0ez.
ho a cn Deg oll
a et a ee Le
‘4
:
‘S
.
)
-
5.
i
y:
=
7
a’
Vane
: “
MONUMENTS 287
vided with gutters,! examples of which may also be seen
at Priene and at Cyrene. At a later period the streets
of Antioch were paved with carefully shaped blocks of
marble and of granite. Sidewalks in the early Greek
Fig. 337. — Paved road at Troy.
cities were rare, though one has been found at Corinth.
Later, as at Ephesos, Antioch, and Palmyra (Fig. 338),
the principal streets were lined with single or double
colonnades of great magnificence. The establishment of
sacred ways (tepai odo0/) leading to temples, even more
than the necessities of traffic, led to the improvement of
roads outside of city walls.2, To prevent the shaking of
1 Doerpfeld, Ath. Mitt., XXI (1896), 459.
2K. Curtius, Zur Geschichte des Wegebaues bei den Griechen, in Abh.
Berl. Akad., 1854.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
288
‘exXul[Rg 7B SOPpVUUO[OD YIIM 499T1IG — ‘gee ‘OI
MONUMENTS 289
the sacred treasures deep ruts were cut, even through
rock, forming a fixed track for the wheels of the chariots.
Grooves also-were sometimes cut to prevent the feet of
the beasts from slipping.! Through marshy regions
causeways were erected, and bridges were built over the
streams. At irregular intervals, shrines, tombs, and
benches were stationed. Greek bridges were narrow,
steep crossings, supported upon piers connected by arches.
A few examples only remain.?
The defence of many Greek towns was aided by the
steep, rocky declivities common in mountainous lands.
But walls and towers were used for protection from the
earliest times, and were not confined to cities in the
plains. We may distinguish three types of fortification,
according to the value set upon walls and towers. ‘The
earliest fortifications, such as those at Troy, Tiryns, and
Mycenae, show that their builders relied most upon the
walls, although bastions, angular turns, and towers
all occur at irregular intervals. These walls were built
of huge blocks of stone, and in some cases, as at Tiryns,
were so broad as to permit of galleries and rooms within
the walls. Such fortifications, being open to continuous
lines of attack, called for continuous lines of defence, and
were better adapted to small hill towns than to large cities
in the plain. The second type may be illustrated by the
fortifications of Assos, Athens, Messene (Fig. 339), and
Syracuse. In these cases, towers, representing centres of
defence concentrated at more or less regular intervals, are
of more importance than the walls. Projecting from the
line of the walls, these towers were especially designed
for flanking the enemy. ‘The third type, explained by
1 Frazer, Paus., II, 42. 2 Guhl und Koner, 186.
U
290 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
ee eo
Phiion of Byzantium,! adds moats, earthworks, mines, and
advance walls, devices designed to meet more complicated | f q
systems of warfare. a
The city wall (tetyos, wep(Boros) consisted usually of 3
towers (7vpyot) and curtain walls (wecomvpy:a), and was a
ee
5
ios
ar
™ Be Lemos
eerie ge
a>
<
a Seth Pee 0
Ee os ees J BS
—" ye oe,
¥,
Ty.
Pr Pee et
b - re
Tey th
Fic. 339. — Tower at Messene.
provided with one or more principal entrances (7v)av), and — 5
subsidiary, or postern, gates (avAides).. Various types a
of walled towns may be distinguished by the number of
the enclosing walls. Thus, Sparta gloried in having no
walls at all; Messene was proud of its single line of .
1 Translated by de Rochas, Fev. de Philol., 1879.
MONUMENTS 3 291
defence; the Isthmus of Corinth was protected by a
double wall!; Orchomenos in Arcadia seems to have had
three lines of walls?; Mideia had four lines of defence 3;
six walls had to be passed before one reached the citadel
of Epeion in Elis. The number of important gates was
another consideration in the distinction of cities. Thus
Thebes was characterized by its seven and Athens, in early
days, by its nine gates.
Towers varied in form. Square towers, the earliest
type, are represented in all periods. Polygonal towers
are found at Antioch, Samos, and elsewhere. Round
towers were preferred by Philon and by Vitruvius
because of their superior strength in direct resistance,
and because of the ease with which they diverted missiles.
They were, however, seldom used in the finest Greek
fortifications, such as those of Messene and Assos. The
interior chambers, the form of which did not always
correspond with that of the exterior, were provided with
narrow loopholes (Oupides to&kat) which were singly or
doubly splayed, and with larger openings (d/od0c) on the
side toward the town. ‘The flat roof was surrounded with
battlements (é7ay£es) which made an ornamental crown,
and also afforded opportunities for offensive and defensive
fighting. The most highly developed of Greek fortress-
towers was the Euryalos at Syracuse.® Isolated towers
(ppovpia), like those on the islands of Keos, Andros, and
Tenos,® served as watch-towers as well as forts. They
sometimes formed a series of signal stations, as at Phiga- |
leia, Argos, and elsewhere,’ from which messages could be
1 Frazer, Paus., III, 5. 2 Tbid., IV, 225. 8 Ibid., III, 231.
4 Tbid., III, 475. 6 Guhl und Koner, 175.
5 Lupus, 275-284. 7 Droysen, 258, note 1.
292 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
quickly signalled over a considerable extent of country.
Wooden towers made of separable parts which could
easily be put together (7rvpyor dopnrot), and towers on
wheels (avpyou vretpoyot) with various devices such as
the drawbridge (é7tBa0pa, capBv«n) and grappling-hooks
(xopaxes), were utilized in making an attack upon walled
towns. ‘These were developed by Demetrios Poliorketes
into immense structures, such as the ‘Taker of Cities’!
(€Xéronus), with which he attacked the Cretan Salamis
and the city of Rhodes.
Between the towers of a fortified town were the curtain
walls (uecorrupyia, wetarrupyca ), which were sometimes like
the towers in having loopholes and battlements, and were
broad enough to provide on top a peridromos or passage-
way (7repiopomos, mepiodos). Vitruvius? advised that the
towers be left open toward the interior, and that across
the opening be constructed wooden bridges which might
be removed in case of necessity. The peridromos was
usually uncovered ; but the walls of Athens* were covered |
with a roof. Where there was no peridromos on top of
the walls, Philon* advised, on the interior and near the
top, a wooden gallery supported by corbels—a disposi-
tion found at Herakleia in Latmos.® Between the walls
and the houses of the town Philon® would leave a space
(Tapaoraots ) ninety feet broad for the transport of engines
of war and of troops, and, in case of necessity, advised the
erection of inner works of defence. This had no religious
significance as had the Etruscan and Roman pomoertum.
The great gateways (wvA@ves) with their heavy gates
1 Smith, s.v. Helepolis ; Droysen, 215. 4 De re fortificat., § 8.
2 Vitruvius, I, 5, 4. 5 Choisy, Mtudes, 52, note 10.
3 Choisy, Htudes, 51. 6 De re fortificat., § 2.
MONUMENTS 293
(zrvdat) differed in many ways from one another. Usually
there was but a single passageway. The Northwest Gate
uy
DITCH
om
7
Ka)
BSG £]
Fic. 340.— Gate D at Mantineia.
at Athens had a double opening (é:7vdov) ; the gate at
Klazomenai had a triple
opening (7pi7vXov), as
had also the Hercula-
neum Gate at Pompeii.
From the earliest period
the approaches were
sometimes arranged, as
at ‘Tiryns, so that the
enemy should expose his
right or unshielded side.
This was not the invari-
able rule in Greek prac-
tice, although accepted as
a primary maxim by Vi-
truvius. It was far more
common to flank the en- E:
trance with two towers Fic. 341.—The Arcadian Gate, Messene.
and to protect the narrow
. passage by a series of gates, as at Mantineia (Fig.
340). The Arcadian Gate at Messene (Fig. 341)
offers the best example of the protection afforded by
294 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
annexing an inner court of defence to the city gate.
The earliest gates were severe in style, but at a later
period some gates, such as the Dipylon at Athens, the
principal gateway at Patras, and the Arcadian Gate at
Messene, were decorated with reliefs and figured sculp-
ture.! The portcullis? (catappaxtns), which we are apt
to associate chiefly with mediaeval fortresses, is men-
tioned by Aineias Taktikos in the fourth century B.c. ~
The Herculaneum Gate at Pompeii testifies to its use in
Italy. gu)
The moat (radpos), the mound (y@ua), and the pali-
sades (yapa&) characterized late Greek fortifications. At
Aegina the city wall was protected by a moat one hun-
dred feet wide and from ten to fifteen feet deep, cut in:
the solid rock. Philon* pre-
scribed that all fortifications
should have at least three moats.
Greek methods of attack—
whether scaling by ladders, or
effecting breaches by means of
the ram or by mines —were met
by corresponding methods of de-
fence, the description of which
Fic. 342. — Propylaia at would carry us beyond our pre-
Tiryns. ; eas
scribed limits. |
The gateways (aporvAaa, mpcOupa) of palaces, as at
Tiryns, Phaistos, and Palatitza, or of sacred enclosures,
as at Delos, Athens, Eleusis, and Olympia, or of market-
places, as at Athens, are found within the city gates, and
1 Curtius, Abh. Berl. Akad., 1854, II, 276; Krause, 147.
2 Smith, s.v. Cataracta.
8 Frazer, Paus., II, 263. 4 De re fortificat., § 10.
oon Pr a? ee ee
MONUMENTS 295
take their character not from the defensive walls but
from the buildings to which they lead. The plan of
the Propylaia at Tiryns (Fig. 842), with its two porches
set back to back, remained unchanged, except for the
greater complexity, in the magnificent Propylaia designed
by Mnesikles for the Acropolis at Athens (Fig. 843).
The Propylaia at Tiryns had a single doorway; that at
Fig. 343. — The Propylaia at Athens.
Phaistos 1 had two openings ; that of the Temple of Athena
at Priene, three; that of the Acropolis at Athens, five.
2. WATER Suppity.— Next to the erection of works
of defence, suitable provision had to be made in the build-
ing of towns for the water supply. Women, by carrying
water from a neighboring stream or spring, could meet the
wants of a small settlement in time of peace, but large
towns required securer means of supply. The hill towns in
Greece and Italy, from the earliest times to the present day,
have made use of open channels. But these could be so
easily tampered with, or destroyed, that subterranean chan-
1 B.8.A., XI (1904-1905), 188.
296 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
nels of various kinds, such as terra-cotta or lead pipes
(cipuyyes, addov), or rock-cut or constructed aqueducts
(vdpaywyeta, vrdvomolt, opvywata), were substituted for
them. ‘The water supply of the Peiraieus was in part
concealed beneath the bed of the Ilissos, and in part pro-
tected by the long walls from Athens.)
The Greeks did not always recognize the value of uni-
formity in aperture, or in strength, in their pipes, but
they did understand that water would reach the level
of its source, and carried their pipes through val-
leys and over hills in accordance with this principle.
At Patara in Lycia? an aqueduct, apparently of Greek
workmanship, traverses a valley on an elevated structure;
but, in general, Greek aqueducts were subterranean.
Where practicable these subterranean aqueducts were
aerated by vertical shafts (¢peatiac), which extended to
the surface of the ground. ‘The most remarkable work
of this character is the sixth-century aqueduct constructed
by Eupalinos in the island of Samos,® where the water is
carried from springs through a mountain by means of
a tunnel more than a thousand metres long. Before
being distributed, the water was usually gathered into
large cisterns or reservoirs (€vdoyeta, deEapeval, trodoyal,
AdkKxor). These were sometimes rock cut, sometimes con-
structed. A fine example of a circular cistern of the
Hellenistic period may be seen at Peligriniatza.t It is
built of fine jointed masonry, held together by a
very hard cement. At Thouria in Messenia there was
1 Ziller, Ath. Mitt., 11 (1877), 107-131.
2 Texier, III, 224 and PI. 179.
8 Fabricius, in Ath. Mitt., IX (1884), 165-192,
4Heuzey, Mont Olympe, 329, Pl. 8.
ee. ee
MONUMENTS 297
a triply subdivided cistern. Italy, Africa, and Turkey
still preserve remains of elaborate cisterns, sometimes
several stories high, consisting of a number of chambers,
through which the water passed, leaving the dregs behind.
A climax was reached in the Bin-Bir-Direk,! or cistern of
a thousand and one columns, at Constantinople, which
is attributed to the architect Philoxenos of the time of
Constantine the Great. Springs, wells, and fountains
(xpjvat) lent themselves more readily to architectural
decoration. In some early examples, as at Kos,? the well-
house was a mere subterranean enclosure, or receptacle,
with an air shaft, an apartment for the guardian, and an
exit. From the archaic and the classic period, however,
most towns were provided with fountains of running
water. ‘These street fountains might be simple niches,
as at Priene,? or more elaborate columnar structures,
like the fountain at Ephesos (Vig. 544), and that built by
Theagenes at Megara,* and the fountain of Peirene® at
Corinth, or exedrae, like that built by Herodes Atticus
at Olympia.®
3. Rextictous MONUMENTS: ALTARS AND TEMPLES.—
Greek worship frequently demanded little of the architect.
Hilltops and other high places, trees of venerable age or
mighty spread, with branches swayed by invisible causes,
caves with mystic vapors and resounding echoes, springs
with ever bubbling and refreshing water, were in them-
selves sufficient to encourage worship. ‘The sacrifices
which accompanied such worship required some form of
1Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Cisterna. 3 Priene, 78.
2 Guhl und Koner, 177. 4 Paus., I, 40, 1.
5 Richardson, in A.J.A., IV (1900), 204-259 ; VI (1902), 521-326.
6 Olympia, II, 134.
298 GREEK. ARCHITECTURE
altar. This altar! (PBwpes, éoydpa, upd, éotia) might
be a mere mound of earth or. accumulation of ashes, or
PE ee ee te) ee eae me hy fen
Fia. 344. — Fountain at Ephesos.
built of wood, brick, stone, or marble. Constructed
altars were either circular or rectangular in form, and
1 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Ara.
¢
MONUMENTS
Fig. 345. — Altar from Pergamon, restored.
300 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
decorated with emblems of offerings. They were either
independent, or connected with temples or houses. In
the latter case, the altar of burnt offering was usually
placed in front of the house or temple (Bwpos mpcdopos,
Be@pos mpovaos), and the altar for incense and bloodless
offerings stood within the building, and was sometimes
replaced by a table. In the larger altars we may distin-
guish the base (xpn7rés), the steps («A{waxes), the platform |
(peOvors), and the altar proper (@upéerAn). Some of these
altars, like those at Pergamon (Fig. 345), Parion, and
Syracuse, were large monuments, decorated by colonnades
and sculptured friezes. Sometimes several divinities —
were worshipped at a single altar. Thus at Oropos! an
altar, divided into five parts, was shared by various divini-
ties, heroes, and others.
The introduction of images of the gods led to their
being housed in shrines and temples. In the Myce-,
naean period the megaron of the palace may well have
served asa temple. Its plan distinctly foreshadows that
of the temple. The Greek temple (vaes, vews) was, in
fact, a house (oixos), though usually distinguished from
other houses by being set upon a high base, and sur-
rounded by a columnar porch (qepiotudos). ‘The various
types of temples arise, therefore, from variations in the
disposition of the house, its base, its porch, and its
roof,
Most Greek temples were essentially rectangular in
plan, but some were circular, and others, very rarely,
cruciform. The rectangular type was single, double,
triple, or even more complex. ‘The single type consisted
of one room for the statue of the god, like the Temple of
1 Paus., I, 34, 3.
—— ss se le
MONUMENTS 301
Demeter at Gaggera, near Selinous, or the cave-temple of
Apollo at Delos. This type evolved by gradual stages,
and first by the addition of a front porch (mpevaos, mpodo-
Hos), as in the Temple of Themis at Rhamnous (Fig. 346).
In the pronaos were sheltered the lustral vases, from
which the priest sprinkled his head, face, and hands be-
fore approaching the statue
of the god. Here were some-
times statues, for example,
the Graces in the pronaos of
the Heraion at Argos,! or
thrones, like those found in
the Temple of Themis at
Rhamnous,? or paintings, like
those by Polygnotos and
Onasias in the Temple of
Athena Areia at Plataia.?
The single temple _ re-
mained unchanged, except for
the addition of subsidiary
features as, for example, a =
second pronaos, a porch in yy, 346.—Plan of the Temple of
the rear, or a porch or porches Themis, Rhamnous.
extended about the building. The rear porch (é7ruc68op0s)
was not usually associated with the cult, but frequently
became a Tamletov, or storehouse for temple treasures. It
is a feature which occurs in some of the oldest buildings
at Troy,* in the Heraion at Olympia, and in most Greek
peripteral temples. It is lacking, however, in many small
religious or communal buildings, like the so-called Treasu-
1 Paus., II, 17, 3. * Pans. EX, 45.2.
2 Frazer, Paus., Il, 453. 4 Doerpfeld, Taf. 3.
302 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
ries of Olympia! and Delphi, and in some large temples
in Asia Minor, like the Temple of Apollo at Miletos. The
effect of the opisthodomos was to give the Greek temple
a bifacial character. Although this did not disturb the
axis of the building, nevertheless, a temple which looked —
in two directions inevitably lost something of the signifi-
cance of its orientation, that is, its relation to the sun or
to the stars. ‘The Greeks preferred symmetry to orienta-
tion.
The innermost sanctuary, the vaes proper, or the inap-
proachable (aéutov), was specifically the seat (éos), or
closed abode (on«és), or apartment (@ddapos) of the di-
vinity. It was frequently raised a few steps higher than
the pronaos.?, On the other hand in the Temple of Apollo
near Miletos the level of the naos was some five metres be-
low that of the peristasis or temple platform. But a de-
pressed naos, like this, was exceedingly rare. In the naos
was the cult statue, set on a pedestal and sometimes screened
by a lattice (xuy«rs), or fencing (épvua), and a veil (zrapa-
mwéracpa). In an open or hypaethral temple, like the
Temple of Apollo near Miletos, the statue was protected
by a tabernacle (valoxos, otxidvov, Terpaxiowov). Before
it was the sacred couch, or table for offerings. On every
side were votive offerings of various kinds.
Further subdivision of the single temple was also
effected by additional rooms, or by colonnades. In the
Temple of Apollo near Miletos, between the naos and
pronaos, was a room called the chresmographion (ypyo-
pwoypadioy), a waiting-room for the receipt of the oracular
deliverances. Above it was another room, apparently the
prytaneion. In Temples C, D,and F at Selinous, behind
1 Dyer, J.H.S., XXV (1905), 294-319. 2 A.J..A., VI (1890), 51.
- : >: 1 t. >, }
KM Se ieee a me Eng = i ary ae
PUM ge, SO oer
*
> MONUMENTS 303
the naos was a closed room, possibly a treasure chamber
(@ncavpos), accessible from the interior only (Fig. 347).
Colonnades also subdivided the interiors of some small and
a \
of Temple C, Selinous.
Fic. 347. — Plan of cells
most of the larger temples. They were probably intro-
duced to simplify the construction of the roof and to as-
sist in its support. In some cases, as in the Temples of
Fic. 348. — Plan of the Temple of Apollo, Neandreia.
Apollo at Neandreia (Fig. 348) and at Thermon,! and
in the Enneastylos at Paestum, a single colonnade di-
vided the temple cella into two naves. These temples
were, however, not well: planned for dedications to a
1 Hph. Arch., 1900, 175.
mee
304 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
single divinity, nor could the entrance remain single
and imposing. Hence the introduction of two col-
onnades subdividing the cella into a central nave and
lateral aisles (oToat) —a disposition which permitted still
further expanse of roof. In most cases the aisles were
restricted to the long sides of the naos, as in the Temple
of Aphaia at Aegina; in the Parthenon (lig. 349) they
Fic. 349. — Plan of the Parthenon.
turn corners at the rear so as to form an ambulatory on
three sides of the naos. In lofty buildings architects
were led naturally to the use of superposed colonnades,
with or without galleries. In the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia! there were galleries (otoal imrep@ot) by means
of which one might approach the image of Zeus. The so-
called Temple of Poseidon at Paestum, and that of Aphaia
at Aegina, appear also’to have had galleries,2 which, how-
ever, were probably inaccessible to visitors. ‘They added
to the stability of the colonnade and may have been used
for storage. In very large temples, such as Temple G
1 Paus., V, 10, 10. 2 Choisy, I, 487-489.
ii. ak mae a
MONUMENTS 305
at Selinous,! there may have been a triple series of colon-
nades with superposed galleries.
The double temple (vads du7rA0ds) was dedicated to two
divinities, and arranged in various ways. At Sikyon
Pausanias? tells us there was a double temple, of which
the outer chamber contained an image of Hypnos, and the
inner, an image of Apollo-Karneios; on the road from
Argos to Mantineia? there was a double temple dedicated
to Aphrodite and to Ares, with one entrance on the east
and another on the west; and another at Mantineia,*
divided by a partition wall in the central axis, which
separated the image of Asklepios from that of Leto and
her children. ‘The Acropolis of Athens furnished famous
examples of the double temple from Homeric times,®
when Athena established Erechtheus in her own rich
temple. It was represented in the archaic period by the
Old Temple® of Athena (Fig. 350), and later by the
Erechtheion. The present perplexing plan of the Erech-
theion? may have been designed to follow more closely
that of the Old Temple of Athena. The plan of the
Parthenon itself is that of a double temple, and may have
been designed for the old and new images of Athena, or
possibly for a double cult.’ Different potencies of the same
divinity, such as Aphrodite-Promachos and Aphrodite-
Morpho, were sometimes separately worshipped in the
1 Hittorff et Zanth, Pls. 73, 74. Against galleries, Koldewey und
Puchstein, 201.
2 Paus., IT, 10, 2. # Tbid., VIII, 9, 1.
8 Toid., II, 25, 1. 5 Tliad, I, 549 ff.
6 Frazer, Paus., II, 553-582; Fowler, A.J.A., VIII (1893), 1-17;
Cooley, A.J.A., III (1899), 345-408.
7 Doerpfeld, in Ath. Mitt., XXIX (1904), 101.
8 Furtwangler, Meisterwerke, 171.
x
306 | GREEK ARCHITECTURE
same building, as in the two-storied temple at Sparta.!
Temples with more than one story were very rare. Pau-
sanias speaks of the one at Sparta as the only one known
to him, although so important a temple as that of Apollo
near Miletos? had superposed rooms at least in one
portion of the temple. Crypts (xpumtar‘), subterranean
chapels or treasuries, though uncommon, occur occasion-
Fig. 350. — Plan of the Old Temple of Athena, Athens.
ally, as in the Tholos at Ea rate: and in the Temple of
Zeus at Aizanoi.
The triple temple (vacos tpimdods), and more complex
types, may have been represented in Greece as they were
in Italy. But the prevailing tendency was against them.
Complex groups of cult statues, as in the temple near
Lykosoura,? or side chapels (xadrddes) for separate
images, as in the Heraion at Olympia,* were preferred
to complex structures.
Round temples (@0er01, oikjuata mepipeph) were not
uncommon, though generally of small, dimensions. At
Corinth a circular building was dedicated to Palaimon ;
1 Paus., ITI, 15, 10. 2 Haussoullier, 92-94, Pl. 13.
8 Paus., VIII, 87; Frazer, Paus., V, 622; Damieljs.a7.0..
(1904), 41-57. 4 Paus., V, 17, 1-3; Olympia, II, 27, Taf. 18-28.
MONUMENTS 307
at Sparta! such a building contained images of Zeus and
Aphrodite; at Epidauros? the Tholos (Fig. 351), called
also the Altar (@vpéAn), was a beautiful structure built
by Polykleitos the younger; at Olympia the Philippeion?
was a circular building of semi-religious character; and
at Delphi the Tem-
ple of Athena Pro-
naia,* a charming ex-
ample of a circular
temple.
The larger of these
buildings, like the
Tholos at Epidauros, |
were provided with |
an internal colonnade —
which aided in the
support of the roof
usually of conical
form. In _ external
appearance, a_ Cir-
cular temple might
consist of a cella |
without a colon- Fia. 351. — Plan of the Tholos at Epidauros.
nade (dmtepos), as
was the case at Delphi; or of a circular colonnade with-
out a cella, inaptly called monopteros (jovertepos) by
Vitruvius;® or, like the Tholos at Epidauros and the
Philippeion, of a cella with a colonnade (vepéztepos).
Cruciform temples existed only in germ in ancient
1 Paus., IIT, 12, 11; Frazer, Paus., UI, 325.
2 Lechat et Defrasse, 95-128 ; Cavvadias, 13-16. 3 Olympia, II, 129-138.
4 Homolle, Temp. Ath. Pron., 4. 5 Vitruvius, IV, 8, 1.
308 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
times. But something of this character may be recog-
nized in the projecting lateral porches (apootaces) of
the Erechtheion,! and is possibly described by Vitruvius?
in the phrase, “columnis adiectis dextra ac sinistra ad
umeros pronal.”
Besides the cella, a characteristic feature of a Greek
temple was the base (xpn7is) on which it was set. The
variations of the base are, however, of little value in es-
tablishing types. In some cases the stepped base occurs
only in front of the temple, in others it is carried around
all sides. The character of the approach to the principal
entrance of a temple also varied from a gently inclined
ramp to steps of uncomfortable height. As we have seen
in a previous chapter, the number of steps in the krepi-
doma varied according to no set law. Vitruvius? directs
that the steps in front of a temple be uneven, so that the
first and last step be made with the right foot, but this
superstition, though it may have been a very ancient one,
seems to have had little influence in determining the char-
acter of the Greek temple base.
The most obvious characteristic of the Greek temple
was its porch, and the variations of this feature have been
long recognized as the basis for distinguishing various
types. These may be distributed into two general classes:
non-peripteral and peripteral porches.
Non-peripteral porches are those which do not make
the entire circuit of the temple cella. Of these there are
several varieties. The simplest is generally known as a
porch in antis (€v 7apacrdow), and is treated as an en-
closure with lateral walls terminated by antae (7apa-
1 Doerpfeld, Ath. Mitt., XXIX (1904), 101. |
2 Vitruvius, IV, 8, 4. 8 Tbid., Ill, 4, 4.
3%
MONUMENTS 309
orades). The temple itself, characterized by its porch,
was called a vaos év twapactdowv. The number of columns
between the antae varied. One column sufficed for one
of the chapels of a tepds oixos at Priene;! two columns
were common, as in the temples at Rhamnous; three
occur in the inner porches of the Enneastylos at Paes-
tum; four in the pronaos of the Temple of Apollo near
Miletos; and six at the Temple of Amphiaraos at Oropos.?
Peculiar modifications of these types are found in the
Temple of Diana Laphria at Messene* with its double
antae, and in a temple near Kourno® with its false antae.
Fia. 352. — Plan of the Temple of Artemis, Eleusis.
In many temples, as in the Temple of Artemis at
Eleusis (Fig. 852), a porch in antis was applied at both
ends of the cella. The porch was styled prostyle
(apeoturos) when, as in the so-called Temple of Em-
pedocles at Selinous (Fig. 353), the lateral walls were
1 Priene, 173.
2 Koldewey und Puchstein, 17, Fig. 15.
8 Frazer, Paus., I, 466.
# Reinach-Lebas, Arch. Pelop., I, Pls. 2-3. B Ibids, LU, Pie 9.
310 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
partially or entirely omitted, and the front consisted in a
complete colonnade. When a colonnade was apphed in
the rear as well as in front of a temple, as was the case
with the Temple of Athena Nike at Athens, the type was
called amphiprostyle (audiurpoorvaAos). A very unusual
form of a non-peripteral, or partially
peripteral, porch may be seen in
the Temple of Athena at Sounion,}
where a portico was attached to
the front and one of the sides of the
temple cella. ~ |
Peripteral porches extended
around the entire temple cella. A
temple with such a porch was
called peripteral (vads epimrtepos)
or, in view of its columns, peristyle
(mepiotvros). ~It seems hardly
| likely, as Lechat? supposes, that
Fic. 353.— Plan of the the Greek temple evolved natur-
eee ee ally from the in antis type, through
the double in antis, to the pe-
ripteral type. If this had been the case, the temple
cella and its surrounding porch would have been in
. accord with each other from the first. It is more likely
that the peripteral porch was deliberately applied to the
temple as a sign of religious distinction? — possibly sug-
gested by the Egyptian royal aedicula —and that a con- _
siderable time elapsed before it became properly adjusted
to the temple cella. The variations of the peripteral
1Staes, Hph. Arch., 1900, col. 122, Pl. 8.
2 Lechat, Le Temple Grec, 28-30.
3 Noack, Neue Jhb., I (1898), 581; Jhb., XI (1896), 283.
MONUMENTS B12
porch were not many. Ordinarily it was supported by
a single row of columns, as in the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia (Fig. 354). Sometimes, as in the Temple of
Zeus at Akragas, the porch was omitted and the cella
walls were decorated with engaged columns and entabla-
tures, so as to suggest a peripteral porch. Such temples
were styled pseudoperipteral (.pevdorepimrepos). The
Temple of Zeus at Akragas was completely pseudope-
Fia. 354. — Plan of the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.
ripteral; the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome and the
Maison Carée at Nimes were only partially so. When
the peripteral porch was constructed with a double row
of columns, the temple was called dipteral (6dértepos).
The Temple of Apollo near Miletos and the Olympi-
eion at Athens were examples of this class. When a
peripteral temple by a wide porch and a frontal colon-
nade of eight or ten columns suggested the dipteral ar-
rangement without possessing it, the building was called
pseudodipteral (yrevdodiarepos). The invention is attrib-
uted to the architect Hermogenes,! and is well illustrated
by the Temple of Artemis at Magnesia (Fig. 355). The
1 Vitruvius, III, 3, 8.
812 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
type, however, seems to date from an earlier period, as
the Greek Temple at Pompeii,! even if correctly restored
as hexastyle, was essentially pseudodipteral.
In examining the plans of temples it may be observed
that the peripteral porch was applied to buildings of very
different types. Thus, in Temple D at Selinous, it sur-
aa | aa) SN
a SS] ed
Na
Fic. 355. — Plan of the Temple of Artemis, Magnesia.
rounds a temple in antis; in the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia, one doubly in antis; in Temple C, Selinous,
a prostyle; and in the Parthenon, an amphiprostyle
temple.
Another classification of temples notes merely the
number of columns exhibited in the facade. ‘Thus the
Temple of Artemis at Eleusis, which has two columns
only, is called distyle; the Temple of Athena Nike, ex-
hibiting four columns, tetrastyle; a coin of Abdera?
1'Von Duhn und Jacobi, Taf. 2. 2 Stieglitz, I, 189; II, 48, note p.
MONUMENTS 313
shows a pentastyle temple; the Theseion at Athens was
hexastyle; the Temple at Thorikos, heptastyle; the
Parthenon, octastyle; the so-called Basilica at Paestum,
enneastyle; and the Temple of Apollo near Miletos, deca-
style. Philo’s Porch at Eleusis was dodecastyle.
A final character, by means of which Greek temples
were classified, was the roof. They were usually com-
pletely covered, but very large buildings, like the Temple
of Apollo at Miletos and the Olympieion at Athens,
and possibly some smaller ones like the Apollo Temple
_ at Phigaleia, were hypaethral! (vaiOpos, vrrat@pios ),
that is, in part, at least, roofless. In such instances
the statue of the divinity could be sheltered in a special
aedicula, as was probably the case at Miletos, or in a
special room, as at Phigaleia.
The amount of light which entered through the door
was deemed sufficient for the purposes of the Greek cult.
It is, accordingly, unnecessary, with Fergusson,” to imagine
for the Greek temple a clerestory system of lighting.
The roof, however, was sometimes lighted by windows, as
in the Temple of Concordia at Akragas.
Greek temples had various accessories. Ordinarily
they were provided with altars, chthonic temples with
pits; oracular shrines had sacred trees or caves; cura-
tive establishments had their hospices and colonnades;
and memorial temples were erected over or near some
hero’s burial-place. All temples might have their dwell-
ings for priests.
Temples were frequently set upon sacred. ground
(réevos) and surrounded by a wall, with a more or less
1 Doerpfeld, Ath. Mitt., XVI (1891), 384-844.
2 Fergusson, Pls. 3, 4.
314 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
imposing entrance and covered walks. At Athens and
Olympia groups of temples were contained within the
sacred enclosure. !
The value which the Greeks set upon the orientation
of their temples is not always obvious. The astronomical
theory of Penrose,! that the axis was originally directed
towards some star in the heavens, leads to extravagant
conclusions, and the geographical theory of Choisy,”
that temples of Aphrodite faced Kythera and those of
Apollo faced Delos, had certainly a very limited appli-
cation. That a solar tradition of some sort influenced
the orientation of Greek temples is evident from the fact
that in most cases the facade was toward the east. In
the case of double temples, set back to back, such orienta-
tion for both parts was manifestly impossible. Hellen-
istic sanctuaries appear to have been placed with less
regard to the sun than those of earlier date. Accord-
ing to Vitruvius® the courses of rivers and the directions
of public streets are of more importance than solar con-
siderations in determining the axes of temples.
4, GOVERNMENTAL BurILpines. — Although some light
has been cast on this subject by recent excavations, it is
not possible, at present, to give a satisfactory sketch of
Greek governmental buildings as a whole.
The foundation of Greek government was in the voting
assembly of the people; the superstructure was the de-
liberative council, the magistrates, the judges, and other
officers. }
The place of assembly for the voters (ékxAnoltacTnpiov)
was the market-place, the theatre, or a specially prepared
1 Penrose, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.,Vol. 190 (A), 48.
2 Choisy, I, 425. 3 Vitruvius, IV, 5.
MONUMENTS B15
area, like the Pnyx! at Athens. The only requirements
were a platform for the speakers, and standing room, or
seats, for the voters. ‘The Bouleuterion (Sovreuvtypior),
or Council House, on the other hand, required a roof.
The type may be studied from the ruins at Priene
Fic. 356. — Bouleuterion at Priene.
(Figs. 356, 357) and Miletos. At Priene the building
was almost square. On one side was a niche with a raised
stage (Aoyeiov, Bjua) and lateral passages (apodor), in
the centre an open space with an altar, and on the three
remaining sides were banked rows of benches (@4axoz,
Bd@pa), and at the top a surrounding passage (dsdfopa).
At Miletos,? although the exterior of the building was
1 Crow, A.S.A. Papers, IV, 207-260. 2 Milet, 25-80.
316 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
rectangular, the banks of seats were arranged like those of
a theatre, in concentric curves. In front of the Council
House was an open court, entered through an imposing gate-
way and surrounded by covered porches. Buildings of a
similar character have been found at Termessos ! and else-
where. At Megalopo-
lis? the Thersilion, built
for the meetings of the
Arcadian Ten Thou-
sand, was constructed
with rows of wooden
seats sloping from three
sides towards a central
area, while a stage and
lateral passages were on
the fourth side.
A long, rectangular
plan? was also em-
ployed for Bouleuteria.
In such cases the seats
sloped from two sides of the building. Of this type
was probably the Phokikon, near Daulis,* in which there
were long colonnades and, from the columns, banks of seats
rising to each wall. The Curia at Pompeii® appears to
be a variant of this type, with decorative columns at the
side walls instead of colonnades. In this case movable
seats were probably used.
Governmental buildings were frequently arranged in
‘Drea
Fig. 357. — Plan of Bouleuterion at Priene.
?
ies ee meee INT
Sa
fee)
ae
=m
Sax
ae
Sa
as
| 2 ed
a=,
=,
0
t
é
eee
ne
I iain
==
eae
1 Lanckoronski, IT, 438, 99.
2 Frazer, Paus., 1V, 338-846; Schultz, 17- 23.
8 Vinee A priya
4 Paus., X, 5, 1-2. 5 Mau, 121.
MONUMENTS 317
groups, as the so-called Bouleuterion! with its adjoining
buildings at Olympia, or three buildings at Eleusis,?
or the six governmental offices adjoining the Philippian
colonnade at Megalopolis.2 The buildings so associ-
ated with the Bouleuteria may have varied in differ-
ent cities. Not far
away, however, from
the Bouleuterion
should be the Pry-
taneion.
The Prytaneion 4
(mputaveiov) was the
official meeting-place
of the Prytaneis. It
contained the _ state
hearth in which per-
petual fire was kept
burning; it was also a
dining place reserved
for the Prytaneis,
honored citizens, and
state guests. It prob-
ably originated in the royal palace, and continued to
serve some of the purposes of a private house. If there
was a typical form of Prytaneion, it is natural that
it should resemble in some degree a private house.
Priene furnishes us the most definite example (Fig. 358).
Here the building consists of a peristyle court with rooms
Fic. 358. — Plan of Prytaneion at Priene.
1 Olympia, II, 76-78; Frazer, Paus., III, 636.
2 Frazer, Paus., I, 511. 3 Paus., VIII, 30, 6.
_ 4G. Hageman, De Graecorum prytaneis, Vratislaviae, 1881; J. G.
Frazer, Journal of Philology, XIV (1884), 146 ff.
318 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
opening into it from three sides. The Prytaneia at Mag-
nesia! and at Olympia? are of similar form. A second
type of Prytaneion was the circular building (@eXos, cxas).
Such was the Tholos at Athens,? and the Common Hearth
of the Arcadians at Mantineia.* This type was preferred
by the Romans for their temples of Vesta.
For various other officials were erected separate buildings,
such as the Thesmotheteion, the Strategion, and the Epho-
reion. Law courts® (d:cactnpia) were held sometimes in
the open, sometimes in closed buildings. There seems to
have been no typical form of building for this function of
government, although there were certain features which
characterized these halls of justice, such as the benches on
which the judges sat, the raised tribunals for the advo-
cates, and the bar or railing which separated the court
from the public. :
5. COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS: THE AGORA AND STOA.
— Greek trade was both wholesale and retail. The whole-
sale merchants sold their goods by samples. The locality
where such goods were exhibited was called the Deigma.
These merchants were often importers, and had their store-
houses at the seaports. Remains of some of these may be
seen at Delos. For the use of these traders were also
erected colonnades, such as those at the Peiraieus.®
Retail merchants and those who sold their own products
sought the agora, or market-place? (ayopa), which in most
1 Magnesia, 112, 1387, Taf. 2. 2 Olympia, II, 58-60.
$ Paus., 1; 6, 1; Frazer, Paus:, 11) 76: eg
4 Paus., VIII, 9, 5; Frazer, Paus., IV, 441.
5 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Dikastai ; Smith, Dict., s.v. Dicasterion.
6 Frazer, Paus., II, 24.
7 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Agora; eae 164 ; Curtius, A.Z., vI |
(1848), 292.
MONUMENTS 319
Greek cities was the heart of the town. The earliest type
of market-place was an open space, where each merchant
could expose his wares from a booth, or tent, and where
shade was provided by means of trees. It had no well-
defined form, andits functions were manifold. Temples
and altars were erected in it; here also was likely to be
found a group of governmental buildings. The agora was
often peopled with statues. But the religious, political,
and commercial interests in growing cities could not long
continue to occupy the same ground. Hence they were
separated, although the separation was not always com-
plete. |
In the classic and Hellenistic periods the agora became
an architectural feature in Greek cities. The open space
was more or less surrounded by porticoes, into which
opened store-rooms. The agora at Priene! had covered
walks on three sides; those at Magnesia (Fig. 359),
Knidos,? and at Aphrodisias? had them on all four sides.
The form of the agora in Hellenistic cities corresponded
with the general disposition of the streets, and was usually
square or rectangular. Agoras with curved boundaries,
however, existed in Asia Minor,* and a circular one at
Constantinople.® Those of the archaic period were less
regular in form. Pausanias® describes that of Olympia
as built in “the Older Style,” with separate colonnades,
and streets between them. In the later or Ionian type
the colonnades were united so as to form an enclosure
without streets.
1 Priene, 185, Taf. 18. 2 Newton, II, 306, Pl. 50.
8 Jon. Antiq., III, Ch. 2, Pl. 4.
4 Sterrett, A.S.A., II, 302; cf. B.C.H., VI (1882), 492; VII (1883),
368. 5 Zosimos, II, 30. 6 Paus., VI, 24, 2.
“*BISOUSBI 1B BIOS JO ULI — “6G ‘DIT
MONUMENTS 321
The stoa (oToa), or porch, although associated with
temples, political buildings, theatres, and other buildings,
was the chief architectural feature of the agora. It
Fic. 360.— Stoa of Eumenes, Pergamon. Restoration.
existed in various typical forms. The simplest was the
F single-aisled porch (sovdateyos), the pent roof of which
| sloped down from a wall to a single colonnade. Of this
type were the Eastern and the Western Stoa of the agora
Xi
322 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
at Priene.! This type was usually single-storied (povo-
ateyos), but it might be two-storied (dioTeyos), as was
the Stoa of Eumenes at Pergamon (Fig. 360). In two-
storied porticoes the upper columns, were posed directly
above the lower ones, but differed from them in style and
proportions.? :
A second type was the two-aisled stoa (atoa dicttxos),
in which the double aisle resulted from the introduction of
an interior colonnade. In some instances, as in the Philip-
pian Colonnade
at Megalopolis,?
the outer and
inner row of
- columns corre-
sponded in size,
number, and
position. In
-this type the
probably re-
tained. Inother
: cases, as in the
Fig. 361. — Plan of double Stoa, Magnesia. Stoa of Oro-
phernes at Priene and in the agora at Magnesia (Fig. 361),
the inner colonnade consisted of larger columns, which
corresponded in position with every alternate column of
the outer row. We may believe that this central colon-
nade supported the ridge-beam of a gable roof, which —
covered a single-storied porch.
A third type stoa was the three-aisled, which resulted
1 Priene, Taf. 138. 2 Vitruvius, V, 1, 3.
8 Frazer, Paus., 1V, 321.
pent roof was
bailey Se ek dele ee ee SPT sea
POS, ME ee re on, Oe GARE lhe Saale ay RO oe eee ae
ok ia celia oT 5
MONUMENTS B25
from the introduction of two inner colonnades. Of this
type was one of the porticoes seen by Pausanias! at Olym-
pia, and that built by Epigone at Mantineia.? It has been
assumed? that the Stoa Basileios at Athens was, in its
general disposition, a prototype of the basilicas of Roman
and Christian architecture, and also that basilicas must
have existed in many Greek cities in the Hellenistic
period*; but excavations have not yet established the
truth of these reasonable assumptions.
A stoa with more than three aisles was certainly rare,
although Texier® restored the peribolos at Kangovar,
and Curtius the Aristandrian Colonnade at Megalopolis,®
as having three aisles enclosed by four rows of columns.
Antioch‘, because of the double portico on each side of
its principal street, is said to have had a four-aisled stoa.
At least three basilicas at Rome were five-aisled.
In elevation two stories seem to have been the normal
limit, but at Aegae ® and at Alinda ® porticoes were erected
on top of two-storied buildings.
A new variety of stoa was produced by developing a
porch on both sides of a central wall. This was called
the double stoa (otoa éi7AH). Pausanias! discusses a
stoa of this kind at Elis known as the Corcyraean Colon-
nade.
The development of trade demanded the establishment
of special markets, such as the grain market at Athens.
It also stimulated private hospitality and led to the
1Paus., VI, 24, 2. 5 Texier, Arménie, I, 161.
2¥Frazer, Paus., IV, 211, 214. 6 Frazer, Paus., IV, 321.
8 Lange, 60-104. 7 Sittl, 375, note 5.
4 Mau, in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Basilica. 8 Bohn-Schuchhardt, Fig. 24,
9 Reinach-Lebas, Arch. As. Min., II, Pls. 4-5. 10Paus., VI, 24, 4.
824 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
erection of inns or khans (kataywy.a), hotels (wavéoxeia),
and restaurants (ca7mrn)eia).
6. BUILDINGS FOR PHysicAL CULTURE. — Athletic
games flourished in Greece from an early period. Wrest-
ling, boxing,, foot-racing, jumping, weight-throwing, ball
XIV XII xm xI x
XV o =
XVI
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e e
e e VIII
XVII ¢@ e
e @
e
.
. vu
e
XVIII $
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e
° vi
xIx ¥
@#e2e@e02008 008808828
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ee e@
Fig. 362. — Plan of Palaistra at Olympia.
play, and other games, some of which may have been
learned from Egyptians or Phoenicians, were practised
in Greece from Homeric days. Those which the Phaea-
cians instituted in honor of Odysseus! took place in
1 Od., VII.
MONUMENTS B25
the agora, but more frequently a levelled piece of
ground was set apart for athletic purposes. In primitive
times no covered structures for this purpose were thought
necessary. In the archaic and classic periods buildings
were erected which exhibited the essential features of the
later gymnasium.! The surviving stone and marble
examples belong to the Hellenistic period.
The palaistra? (avadatotpa), or wrestling house, fol-
lowed the type of the agora and consisted of a rectangular
court surrounded by colonnades with adjoining rooms.
Olympia? furnishes the best example of the type (Fig.
562). It was known as the square (Tetpdywvov) and had
more or less imposing entrances (I, I]) (ape@vpa) with
adjoining porters’ lodges (III, IV) (wvA@pia), a commons
room (XII) (逢nfetov) devoted to the use of young men,
a bath-room (X) (Aovtpwv) provided with a tank or with
a trough as at Priene (Fig. 863). There was also a
dressing-room (XIX) (azodutypiov), a room where the
athletes were anointed with oil (XIIT) (éAato@éouov), and
another (XI), the konistra (xovictpa or Komortnp.ov),
where the athletes were rubbed with dust. These two
rooms, according to Vitruvius,‘ adjoined the Ephebeion, or
commons room. Other rooms, when closed, were probably
used for storing the athletic implements and, when open
toward the court, for lounging or meeting rooms, where
athletic instruction or literary entertainment might be
given. A somewhat simpler palaistra of the second cen-
tury B.C. adjoined the stadion at Priene;® another of the
same period was at Delos.® In all these buildings it may
1 Krause, Gymnastik, I, 93. 4 Vitruvius, V, 11, 2.
2 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Gymnasium. ° Priene, 265.
8 Olympia, IT, 113. 6 B.C.H., XV (1891), 246.
326 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
be observed that the bath was subsidiary to the main pur-
pose of the building.
Bath-rooms and bathing establishments (Sadaveia) of
various kinds, public and private, existed from earliest
days in Greece. At Tiryns! a wooden lined bath-room
Fic. 363. — Water troughs in gymnasium, Priene.
contained fragments of a terra-cotta tub similar to that
found at Mycenae.2, At Knossos® there were not only
bath-rooms for portable tubs, but also gypsum-lined,
sunken tanks reached by steps. Similar bath-rooms were
found at the palace at Palaikastro + in Crete.
1 Schliemann, Tiryns, 230-232. 2 Priene, 293.
3 B.S.A., VIII (1901-1902), 52-53.
* Ibid., IX (1902-1903), 278, 291, Pl. 6.
MONUMENTS oat
A simple type of public bathing establishment adjoins
the agora at Assos.! It consists of a long corridor, upon
which open thirteen square rooms. In one at least of
these rooms water was introduced from an elevation so as
to provide a douche. In others may have been the large
vases used for
bucket douches.
Vase-paintings
provide us with
illustrations of
various kinds of
bathing.
Hot’ baths
(Oepua Rovtpa),
mentioned by
Homer ® but not
generally prac-
tised by the
Greeks of the.
classic period,* became more popular in the Hellenistic and
Roman periods. Actual remains of bath-houses in Greek
lands are rare. ‘The unfinished excavations at Oiniadai®
in Akarnania (Fig. 364) present an example of a hot-bath
establishment dating apparently from the second century
B.C. In this building is a rectangular room with a cold-
water pool, corresponding to the frigidarium of Vitruvius ;®
a large circular room, possibly the tepidarium; a smaller
circular room, the calidarium; and still smaller rooms
Fia. 364. — Plan of Bath at Oiniadai.
1 Bacon, Assos, 8, 23, 25.
2 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Balneum. * Iliad, XIV, 6:
4 Herod., IV, 75; Aristotle, Problemata, II, 29-82.
5 Sears, in A.J.A., VIII (1904), 216-226. SV iirayits, V1.7)
328 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
which may have served as anointing rooms. In the cen-
tre of the circular rooms probably stood large kettles or
caldrons of boiling water, each provided with a cover.
From these hot water may have been conveyed to the cir-
cular basins in the floor. Remains of similar circular bath-
rooms are found at Eretria,! where the basins in front of
fixed seats were evidently arranged as foot-tubs. Similar
tubs are found in the loutron of the palaistra and in a
private house at Priene.?
The Akarnanian type of bath is seen in a more developed
state at Pompeii (Fig. 365). In the Stabian Baths, the —
small baths near the Forum, and the Central Baths,? cir-
cular or domical rooms as well as rectangular rooms are
found, the circular rooms being sometimes employed for
the cold and sometimes for the hot vapor bath. Various —
improvements were introduced, such as small vaults in the
walls of the apodyterion, to serve as lockers; the intro-
duction of hot water by means of pipes; and especially
the use of furnaces, the hot air from which circulated
beneath the floors and through the hollow walls.
In Asia Minor the baths of the late Greek and Roman
periods departed so far from the Assos type as to be hardly
recognizable. ‘The so-called gymnasium (yupvdovov) at
Alexandria Troas* and the Opistholeprian Bath at
Ephesos® retained the long corridor into which the prin-
cipal rooms open, but the central court was replaced by
rooms which correspond to the Ephebeion and the other
apartments of a palaistra. To these were added enlarged
facilities for bathing. In view of its general plan, such a
1 A.J.A., V (1901), 96. 2 Priene, 270, 292. 3 Mau, 180-206.
* Koldewey, in Ath. Mitt., IX (1884), 36-48, Taf. 2, 3.
5 Falkener, 88.
MONUMENTS 329
building might be styled a winter palaistra or gymnasium,
but its disposition as a bathing establishment was suffi-
Fia. 365. — Plan of small Bath at Pompeii.
ciently emphatic to justify us in considering it a prototype
of the great Roman baths, such as those of Caracalla or of
Diocletian.
Foot-races and chariot-races required specially prepared
A
330 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
courses, known as the stadion and the hippodrome. The
stadion (oradvov), so named from the measure of length
equivalent to six hundred Greek feet, provided seats
for spectators and judges, and a course with start and
finish for the runners. When practicable, a valley was
selected, from the sloping sides of which the spectators
could view the races. Where nature did not provide
a suitable slope, an artificial mound of earth was —
erected as a theatron (@éatpov), or view place, for the spec- _
tators. Here they sat upon the ground or upon wooden »
Fic. 366. — The Stadion, Delphi.
or stone benches. It was not until the second century of
our era that Herodes Atticus (104-180 A.p.) provided the ee
stadia at’ Athens and at Delphi with marble seats. The
seats of the Isthmian Stadion were also of white marble.
These seats resembled those of the theatre, in being ar-
ranged in successive tiers reached by flights of steps at.
ee MLAS oe ae ee
ee
iT Ne OE
ae
MONUMENTS Dok.
regular intervals. At the base was a parapet and some-
times a drain. An interesting feature in the design of the
theatron was that at the extremities of the stadion the two
_banks of seats were drawn closer together than at the
middle. This appears to have been the case at Olympia!
and also at Priene.? This feature is retained in the recon-
structed marble stadion at Athens, where the two rows of
seats approach each other on a curve which suggests the
entasis of a column. The form of the stadion was in
some cases, as at Olympia and at Epidauros, a long rectan-
gle ; elsewhere, as at Athens and at Delphi (Fig. 366), the
tiers of seats were continued at one end on a semicircular
plan (ogevddvn), so as to accommodate a larger number of
spectators. At Aphrodisias and at Laodikeia the tiers of
seats were arranged on this plan at both ends. Such a thea-
tron is properly called an amphitheatron® (auqi0éatpor).
Fic. 367. — The starting line of the Stadion, Olympia.
At Priene, Messene, and at Aphrodisias, covered porticoes
were built at the summit of the theatron.
The stadion was provided with an aphesis (adeous), or
starting-place, and finish (répua). At Olympia (Fig.
367) there appears to have been an aphesis at each end
of the stadion,‘ so that the finish might be opposite the
judge’s stand, whether the runners went once over the
course or traversed it twice. At the start the runners,
arranged in line, were separated from each other by a
1 Olympia, II, 638. 3 Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Amphitheatrum,
2 Priene, 264. 4 Olympia, II, 64.
Doe GREEK ARCHITECTURE
series of low posts which carried cross-bars. At Olympia
the holes for wooden posts occur at regular intervals in
a series of marble sills. The blocks also show parallel
furrows by means of which the runners may have been
able to obtain a quick start. ‘The cross-bars as barriers
for runners are represented in a drawing from the Codex
Ursinianus in the Vatican, and in a bas-relief in the
Lateran.! At Epidauros iron posts appear to have been
used. ‘These were replaced in later days by semi-columns
of the Ionic order.2. At Priene® a device of the Olym-
pian type was replaced later by a more imposing aphesis,
in which marble piers were substituted for the wooden
posts. When the runners traversed the course twice, the
turn may have been made around a single post; or, as
the arrangements at Olympia appear to indicate, each
runner kept to his own track and made the turn about a
separate post. The finish was marked by a rope or line
drawn opposite the seats reserved for the judges.
The hippodrome* (i7éédpopuos), or track for horse and ~
chariot races, was an enlarged stadion. The theatron
was similarly disposed, although regular tiers of seats
may not have been built until the Roman period. The
course was necessarily wider than the stadion, and double
its length. Special devices were necessary to secure a
fair start. Pausanias® describes the aphesis of the hip-
podrome at Olympia as resembling the prow of a vessel,
the beak (éu8orov) of which was turned towards the
course and contained stalls (of«nwata) from which the
1 Kern, in Rim. Mitt., V (1890), 150-156, Taf. 7.
2 Cavvadias, Asklep. Temp., 96. 8 Priene, 260.
4 Krause, Gymnastik, I, 147-168; Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Hippo-
dromos. 5Paus., VI, 20, 10-15.
‘a
~
i
MONUMENTS BOO
horses issued. The ropes or barriers of the stalls fur-
thest from the
beak were lowered
first, then those
of the adjoining
stalls, and finally
those nearest the
beak (Vig. 368).
A second device
necessary for the
hippodrome was
the spina, which
consisted of a low
wall in the central
axis of the course.
This protected the
outgoing and re-
turning chariots
from clashing
with each other.
A turning-post
(viooa, KapTTNP)
was set at either
end of the spina.
ce
‘The spina of the inive
hippodrome at 4 “t Ny
Constantinople ;
still Survives. dak Sep etaw o
While no remains
of a spina have
been found in
earlier Greek hippodromes, it may be assumed that some
FiG. 368, — Plan of a Hippodrome.
334 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
effective method was provided to avoid the clashing of
chariots. The finish, as in the stadion, consisted in cross-
ing a line in front of the seats reserved for the judges.
7. BUILDINGS FOR INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL PuR-
POSES. — Intellectual and social demands led to the estab-
lishment of special buildings for schools, lbraries, clubs,
theatres, and music or concert halls.
Greek education! in the earlier periods aimed chiefly
at the production of soldiers. Hence gymnastics was a
fundamental branch of education, and with it training
in poetry, music, reading, and writing were associated.
The palaistra, or gymnasium, naturally represented the
school and developed so as to include literary and philo-
sophical exercises. At Athens the Academy, where
Plato taught, and the Lyceum, the school of Aristotle,
and the Herakleion or Kynosarges, the school of Antis-
thenes, were all’ primarily athletic establishments, quad-
rangular courts surrounded by colonnaded porticoes.
Instruction appears to have been also given in the public
agora, and in private houses, but the teaching place
(ddackanreiov) had no fixed type. At Teos, where teach-
ers of various kinds were paid from the public treasury,
the formal examinations to test the progress of students
were held in the gymnasium or in the bouleuterion.
In the Hellenistic period educational establishments be-
gan to assume more specific form. The University to the
Muses? (Movcetov), dedicated at Alexandria by Ptolemy
Philadelphos about 280 B.c., had, according to Strabo,
a portico (aepimrartos), a lecture-room (é&édpa), and a large
hall (oicos péyas). Since fourteen thousand students at
a time are said to have pursued here the study of litera-
1 Daremberg et Saglio, s.v. Educatio. - 2§trabo, XVIII, 794.
CRY pot
een ee
wre ox “nF yee ‘
a a tN So re 2
Gal
n ; -
; 7 ae Wea ee
Fe eT at a ee fen art eae)
= rue
oe
feat
. ~. é
ers ee ow Hes Sasi late
Peet aki” et mee” Geb ey 5
I
rr,
t
bis
aS
oy
( c
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;
Reaeat
MONUMENTS 335
ture, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, the building
must have been more extensive than is indicated by Strabo.
The so-called Stoa of Hadrian at Athens,! with its exedrae
and large rooms, appears to be a building of similar char-
acter.
Greek libraries (Ai Brv0PHKat or atroOjKat BiBriwv) be-
gan with private collections of books, such as those
Fic. 369. — Plan of Library at Pergamon.
made by Polykrates of Samos, Peisistratos of Athens, or
Aristotle. Such libraries required a closed room with
shelves, cabinets, or closets in which to store papyrus and
parchment rolls. The large libraries of later days, such
as those at Pergamon and Alexandria, were furnished with
reading-rooms, dwellings for the librarians, and cloistered
walks. The library at Pergamon 2 (Fig. 369), established
1 Harrison and Verrall, 197. 2 Pergamon, II, 56.
336 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
by Eumenes II, affords a typical Greek solution of the
library problem. It consisted of a series of rooms, some
of which were evidently intended as dwellings, others for
lectures, for reading, and for the storing of books.
The room for the latter purpose has been identified by
the holes in the walls in
which were fastened the
supports of the cabinets
or shelves for which the
foundation still exists
(Fig. 3870). These rooms
were preceded by a double
portico. The Roman li-
brary of C. Asinius Pollio
was established in the
atrium of the Temple of
Liberty, and the two
libraries founded by Au-
SJ
N
N
SSSSS
Ss.
H | 5 . NI
: 4 ; N
; S
0 y
: fl 4 8
; : : N
3 ‘ NY
‘ ; S
a x
8
\ RAY
SSIS
SIS
WSS
SASWG |. DAs
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ESS
SS8sy FAQs >
nected with porticoes.!
The club-house (Aéox7)
met the social requirement
of a place for conversation. As this want was also met in
various other ways, there seems to be no fixed type for
Fic. 370. — Book shelves at Pergamon,
Restoration.
such a building, and it is idle to speculate as to its form.? |
Fortunately, the excavations at Delphi seem to have
brought to light the most celebrated building of this
class, the Lesche erected by the Knidians? (Fig. 371)
and decorated with paintings by Polygnotos. It consisted
of a single rectangular room, in the interior of which eight
1 Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Bibliotheken. 2 Lange, 120.
3’ Homolle, in B.C. H., XX (1896), 683-639; Frazer, Paus., V, 635.
gustus were also con-—
MONUMENTS 837
pillars or columns helped to support the roof. Whether
the paintings which adorned the walls were illuminated
from an opening in the roof, from windows, or merely
from the door cannot now be determined.
Fia. 371. — Plan of the Lesche of the Knidians, Delphi.
The Greek theatre! (@éatpov) was designed for the
presentation of plays in which choral songs and dances
were prominent features. The architect was called upon
to provide a dancing ground for the chorus, an auditorium,
or place for seating the spectators, and a skene with dress-
ing-rooms for the actors.
The fundamental feature was the orchestra (opynotpa),
or dancing ground for the chorus; for this a level space was
required. ‘The floor of the orchestra was usually of rolled
or pounded earth. At Delos,? however, it was coated with
plaster, and at Athens, in the Roman period, it was covered
with a marble and mosaic pavement. When covered with
sand for gladiatorial contests, it was known as the Konistra
(4) xovictpa). In the centre of the orchestra was an altar
1¥or bibliography consult the Preface to Haigh, The Attic Theatre.
2 B.C.H., XVIII (1894), 163.
Z
338 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
around which moved the chorus. In the course of time
the altar lost its central significance. At Priene it was
relegated to the periphery of the orchestra; in later
theatres it was often omitted altogether. The form of the
orchestra was not invariably the same. At Thorikos!
Fig. 372. — Plan of Theatre at Thorikos.
*
(Fig. 372) it was a rectangle with rounded ends, but in
most Greek theatres of the classic period it was nearly
if not entirely circular. The theatre of Dionysos at
Athens,? though subjected to many changes, still retains
some of the blocks of the retaining wall of a circular
1 W. Miller, in A.S.A., IV, 1-34 ; Doerpfeld und Reisch, 110.
2 Doerpfeld und Reisch, 366, Taf. 1; Haigh, 112, Fig. 3.
DIM, ene ae art
“Ar
vee eR ee
>
MONUMENTS 339
orchestra dating apparently as early as the sixth century.
Epidauros (Fig. 373) has the distinction of exhibiting an
orchestra whose circular form is emphasized by a ring of
limestone. ‘This was decorated by a roundel moulding on
the half of the circle towards the auditorium. Sucha ring
may have proved a stumbling-block to the people entering
and leaving the theatre and was elsewhere omitted.
A special device by means of which actors could sud-
denly make their appearance, or as suddenly disappear,
was a subterranean passage (xpu777 elcodos ), connecting
the orchestra and skene, and provided with steps at either
end. These passages were probably closed with trap-
doors. Examples of such subterranean passages are
found at Eretria! and Sikyon.?
Next in importance to the orchestra was the theatron
(Géatpov), or view place, for the spectators. In fact, an
orchestra and a theatron, the chief necessities of a Greek
theatre, are all that are found in the theatre at Thorikos.
The general requirement for a theatron was a sloping
bank or hollow (xotdov), which could be further excavated,
or built up, so as to furnish spectators with a view of
the orchestra. Where necessary, it was supported by
retaining walls. The excavated theatre had little or no
exterior for architectural decoration. When, however,
a theatre was constructed in a plain, as was the case
with many late Greek and Roman theatres, the enclos-
ing walls furnished an excellent field for architectural
ornamentation.
The plan of the theatron followed that of the orchestra.
At Thorikos it was rectangular with irregularly rounded
1 Brownson, in A..J..A., VI (1891), 275-280.
2McMurtry, in A.J.A., V (1889), 278-279,
ge a ear a eee. PN aR c SMT sn Th al el ee rae. oo ee Rs Soe? Set aie i hee Jo
$ : . Nga wr i :
ay ncn nomatiinn er
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
340
MONUMENTS 341
extremities, but elsewhere followed, in part at least, a
circular plan. At Aspendos! it barely exceeded a semi-
circle; at Sagalassos? it occupied two-thirds of a circle;
at Athens® it resembled the end of a stadion, and con-
sisted of semicircular banks of seats continued in straight
lines towards the skene; at Epidauros# it followed the
line of a three-centred curve (Fig. 874). This widened
the diodos (déod0s), or passageway, at the base of the
theatron, without sacrificing a continuous curvature in
plan. At Epidauros, and elsewhere, beneath this passage-
way was a channel, which carried off the surface drainage
of the orchestra and of the theatron. At Athens the
open drain between the theatron and the orchestral circle
was less practical.
The theatron in all large, and in some small, theatres
was subdivided into the theatron proper and an epi-
theatron (év@éatpov), or upper theatron, by means of
diazomata (d:af@para), or horizontal passages. There is
but one such dividing passage at Epidauros, and in most
theatres of moderate size. Where two occur, as at Argos®
and probably at Megalopolis,6 one was usually nar-
rower than the other. At Epidauros, Megalopolis, and
in general, the epitheatron was semicircular in plan and
concentric to the theatron. At Delos, however, it
terminates in a pointed arch, and at Athens in a horse-
shoe arch. The block of seats was still further subdi-
vided by the stairways («Adwaxes), which were known
also as furrows (oAcko/). The stairways radiating from
a common centre divided the block of seats into wedge-
1QLanckoronski, I, Taf. 21. 4 Tbid., 122.
2 Ibid., 11, Taf. 26. 5 Blouet, II, Pl. 58.
3 Doerpfeld und Reisch, 42. 6 Megalopolis, 39-40, Fig. 27.
342
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
HANNGUOCODOUONUROD ANDO OG UOLOGNOEDONE (Ti)
1
ATT
1h
BET IMT \
LIT
oT)
CHUUOGUGVULOOULEQUOUONRETICOVUUIUIOCODENVELIGEHILO BABB
| Sa
a) =
briirtrini Tome TI Vonsvennuanevmserennveuaesrstean aint
ian
Me
mbn
a4 ~ =e = arth j
mT weet wene i
Corre tt
QD ° rh
° 5 10 20 30 .
Fic. 374. — Plan of the Theatre at Epidauros. —
MONUMENTS 343
shaped sections (xepxides). As these wedges widened tow-
ards the upper rows additional stairways were required.
Thus at Epidauros the stairways were continued through
Fic. 375. — Front seats in the Theatre of Dionysos, Athens.
the epitheatron, where intermediate stairways (muécae
KAiwakes) were added. Vitruvius generalizes this practice
into the rule that above every horizontal passage the num-
ber of stairways should be doubled.
.
344 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
The seats consisted of thronoi (@pdvo1, mpoddpar), or
seats of honor, and the ordinary rows of benches (édpaz,
ixpia, édodLa). ‘The former, which were marble chairs
or benches with backs, were placed, at Priene, in the
orchestra directly in front of the passage at the base
of the theatron; at Megalopolis, in the theatron but on
the level of the orchestra; and at Athens, slightly above
the orchestra
level. Occasion-
- ally, as at Epi-
; dauros, there
was, at the base
of the epithe-
atron, a second
row of seats of
honors ite
thronoi were
sometimes finely carved. Of this class that of the
priest of Dionysos Eleuthereus at Athens (Fig. 375)
is the most noteworthy. At Argos the form of the
ordinary benches was of extreme simplicity, with risers
and treads like an ordinary stairway. Usually, however,
there was a depression in the face and top of each step
to accommodate the feet of those seated in the next
higher tier. Steps of this character are found in the
theatres at Megalopolis, Athens, and Epidauros (Fig.
376). In Asia Minor, as at Miletos (Fig. 377) and
at Iassos, the benches were given more decorative form by
the use of -double-curved profiles, and near the stairways
were terminated with claw feet. Beyond the topmost
bench was a passageway, terminated, at Delos, by slabs —
of stone posed vertically and crowned by a capstone or
a - |
NANG Y
MONUMENTS 345
Fic. 377. — Benches of the Theatre at Miletos.
346 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
railing. In late Greek and Roman theatres, as at Aspen-
dos and at Orange, an arcade or a colonnade protected-.
this passageway.
Sa
eet
The entrance to, and the exit from, the theatron was
ordinarily through parodoi (dpodor), side passageways,
between the theatron and the stage. These parodoi were
usually closed by gates. Gate-posts still remain at Epi-
dauros and at Priene (Fig. 878). Occasionally, as at
Athens and at Segesta, a direct entrance to the epithea-
tron was possible from a higher level. At Syracuse there
were separate entrances for each diazoma. In Roman
theatres the parodoi became vaulted passages beneath
the theatron, and exit from the theatre was further facili-
tated by means of vomitoria, or openings into passages
which honeycombed the substructure of the theatron and
led, by means of stairways, to the exterior.
The third factor in the Greek theatre, and the last in
order of development, was the skene (oxnvy), or stage-
building, with its robing-rooms and property-rooms, and
the logeion (Aoyetov), or actors’ platform. In the earliest
theatres a tent sufficed for robing purposes, and the
actors, who mingled with the chorus in the orchestra,
seldom required a raised platform. Their costume suf-
ficiently distinguished them from the chorus. As occa-
sion demanded they could elevate themselves above the
chorus by standing on the steps of the altar platform, or
upon a temporary stand (Sma, tpamefa). In theatres
of the classic period the skene was built of wood, stone,
or marble, and in the luxurious theatres of the late Greek
and Roman periods, polychromatic marbles, bronze, silver,
and gold and ivory were employed in the decoration of
the stage fagades. Throughout the fourth century the
347
MONUMENTS
‘QUIIIG JV 91] VOT], JO Soporvg —‘gse ‘DI
348 GREEK ARCHITECTURE ‘ —
skene was located outside of the perimeter of the orches-
tra circle. In the late Greek plays the part played by
the chorus diminished and that of the actors increased.
ORCHESTRA
pee
Sw ewe © wwe eS ewe eee —
o*
oe =,
o een
a
ew eee ew wee we ye ew ew He
LOCEION —-~" ”
- \ see Cah
_ coor oS
7
~
~
Fig. 379. — Plan of the Theatre at Termessos.
This change is reflected in Graeco-Roman theatres, such
as those at Termessos (Fig. 879) and Sagalassos,! where
the logeion of the stage building encroached somewhat
upon the full circle of the orchestra. |
The geometrical rules laid down by Vitruvius? for
1 Lanckoronski, II, Taf. 10, 26.
2 Vitruvius, V,7; Choisy, I, 486 ; Doerpfeld, Ath. Mitt., XXII (1897), 458,
MONUMENTS ; 349
planning a Greek theatre are based upon theatres of the
Graeco-Roman period. In theatres of the Roman type
the stage-building, with its enlarged logeion, encroached
0"
48
a,
OY
'@,
we? *
Bb A
XE/.
a SO
ie, SO
Hi .
| MG NUWRRET
PTT
| Ea
eos
~—— ee =
Fia. 380. — Plan of a Theatre according to Vitruvius.
still more until it occupied one-half of the orchestral circle
(Fig. 380).
In plan the skene was, almost without exception, a rec-
tangle with, or without, a projection in front, or on the
sides, or in the rear. The central portion of the skene is
called in a Delian inscription ! 4 uéon xn}; hence, it may,
for convenience, be called the mesoskenion (wecooKnmov).
1 B.C. H., XVIII (1894), 163.
350 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
In length the mesoskenion was usually equal to the dia-
meter of the orchestra with the surrounding passageway.
This may be seen in the theatres at Eretria, Delos, and
Priene. In later Greek theatres, such as those at Termes
sos and Sagalassos, the skene has no lateral projection,
but has increased in length to about one and a half orches-
tral diameters. In the Roman theatre, according to
Vitruvius,! the length of the skene should be double the
diameter of the orchestra. Thus the stage-building
gradually gained in length. The mesoskenion was ordina-
rily subdivided by cross walls into three rooms, to which
access from the orchestra was given by three doors. It
was seldom more complicated.
In elevation the skene consisted originally of a single:
story. In the classic period it had two stories, the lower
of which may be called the hyposkenion (v7rocxjuor), as
the upper was called the episkenion (émtoxjuov). Thus
the term hyposkenion sometimes referred to the inner and
lower rooms of the skene.? In the late Greek, and in the
Roman, theatre the hyposkenion, or ground floor, lost value
and presented to the spectator the appearance of a mere
support to the actors’ platform. It retained usually three |
or more doorways. The episkenion, however, increased
in importance, and was decorated with columns and entab-
latures. At Termessos and at Sagalassos® a single order
1 Vitruvius, V, 6, 6.
2 The six rooms of the mesoskenion at Sikyon, as published by Doerp-
feld and Reisch (p. 117), are believed by the American excavator
(MeMurtry, in A.J.A., V (1889), 274-275, Pl. 9) to result from a crossing
of Roman with Greek walls.
3 Doerpfeld und Reisch, 300.
4 Pollux, I'V, 132: vd 76 Novetov Kelyevov.
5 Lanckoronski, II, 98, Taf. 11, 29.
ie NS 0 44 A ee ie . ‘ ae gd
a eT ek ee a ee Re Ee te ye
Ae =
< ee fae ig es
oe ee” lay ae ee
aa
MONUMENTS Beal
Fig. 381. — Skene of the Theatre at Aspendos.
Shc GREEK ARCHITECTURE
sufficed, but at Aspendos (Fig. 381) two orders occur,
and in the theatre of M. Scaurus at Rome,! three orders -
were required to decorate the scenae frons. Vitruvius?
demanded that the height of the skene should equal the
height of the roof of the portico at the summit of the
theatron. Thus the skene gradually gained also in
height.
A further development of the skene consisted in the
projection of wings on one or more sides. ‘The front wing
was named the proskenion (mpooxnuov), the lateral wings
paraskenia (7rapacknua), and the rear wing we may call
the opisthoskenion (dé7tcGocKknuov); of these the proske-
nion was the most important. In the classic period it
consisted of a narrow projection, in length equal to the
diameter of the orchestra, in breadth varying from two to
three metres, and in height from two and a half to four
metres. Originally the entire proskenion was made of
wood; later its supports were made of stone, or marble,
decorated so as to resemble a colonnade, the intercolumni-
ations of which were filled with pinakes (srivaxes), or
movable wooden panels. ‘The theatres at Priene and at
Oropos furnish the best examples of such proskenia and
show how the pinakes were held in place. Such pro-
skenia were so high and so narrow as to suggest their use
as backgrounds for plays given in the orchestra.* This,
however, was not their only purpose. The top of the
proskenion seems to have been as important as its fagade.
It was reached by doors from the mesoskenion, by open
steps or by secret passages from the orchestra, by ramps
from the parodoi, and in various ways from the para-
MPliny, Noll. XX RV I9 24, 11; 3 See Fig. 378.
2 Vitruvius, V, 6, 4. * Doerpfeld und Reisch, 341-365.
MONUMENTS 353
skenia.! It was known also as the logeion (Aoyetov),? or
speaker’s platform. In late Greek and in Roman theatres
the proskenion or logeion was deepened, so as to accommo-
date both chorus and actors, and lowered so as to allow a
better view to the occupants of the front seats. From
the mesoskenion three doors opened upon the logeion: a
central or royal door (@vpa Bacideos) for the principal
—!
Fic. 382. — Skene of the Theatre at Eretria.
actor, on either side of which were the doors of the guests
or strangers (Ovpa trav Edvov).
The lateral extensions of the mesoskenion were known
as paraskenia. At Eretria (Fig. 382), and elsewhere, on
either side of the mesoskenion were projecting wings, from
the upper story of which doors probably led to the logeion.
In the theatre at Epidauros the paraskenia did not
project beyond the front wall of the mesoskenion, but
lateral access was given to the logeion by means of ramps.
The two ramps may have served for such actors as were
supposed to be arriving from the country or from the city.
At Priene® such access was secured by continuing the
logeion partially around the sides of the mesoskenion.
1 Puchstein, 46 ff.
2Delos Inscription of 279 z.c., in B.C.H., XVIII (1894), 162 ff. ;
Vitruvius, V, 7, 2. 8 Priene, Fig. 229.
2A
354 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
These lateral extensions of the logeion we may name
paralogeia (awapadoyeia), a typical example of which is
found at Magnesia (Fig. 383). At Termessos a process —
of simplification is in evidence. Here the paraskenia are
absorbed by the mesoskenion so as to form one long cor-
ridor, and the paralogeia, barely indicated by bounding
walls, supply the outermost entrances. At Aspendos all
Fic, 383. — Skene of the Theatre at Magnesia.
reminiscences of paralogeia except the a have
disappeared.
For the rear of the skene there was no demand for the
creation of a fixed type. It was left undecorated at Oro-
pos and Priene, whereas the large theatre at Pompeii and
that at Aspendos were icone with pilasters, cornices, |
and other architectural ornament. At Magnesia we find
an opisthoskenion with three entrances; at Delos! the
logeion was continued around the building, forming
what may be called a perilogeion (wepiAoyetov). At Sik-
yon in this position was a portico, and at Megalopolis an
assembly-hall known as the Thersilion. For the conven-
ience of the populace as well as of the theatrical company
Vitruvius? advised the erection of porticoes behind the
skene.
1 Doerpfeld und Reisch, Figs. 58-59. 2 Vitruvius, V, 9, 1.
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na A Wy Hy, e Se fs NAN wv" C Gallery.
& Jy i \ iN \Y rn D Corridor with staircase.
i ‘ mut A E Portico.
: Y : : MI \ '\' \j \ aM F Large fore-court.
SY, pj ; Aah SAA helt 2 G S.W. corner of the palace.
f H Great Propyleum,
i SS 1 Portico.
i ' a L Large courtyard.
rH Heth
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ut
Fig. 384. — Plan of the Palace at Tiryns.
K The little Propyleum.
M Megaron of the Men.
N Little courtyard.
O Megaron of the Women.
P Vaulted chambers.
Q Cistern.
R Gallery in the east wall.
S Shafts sunk in 1876.
T Side ascent.
U Cellar-like rooms.
V Cistern.
W Tower on the north-west side. Wall on t
X Little staircase,
Y Entrancetothemiddlecitadel,
Z Middle Court, or rear Court,
T’ Tower on the north-east side.
A Ramp of the main ascent,
©. Gate of the citadel.
A .Altar in the Men's courtyard.
= Place where the terra-cottas
were found.
> Door to the pier R.
, the semicircular
projection.
The numbers indicate the altitude above the level of the sea.
itp -
MONUMENTS ooo
The Odeion (@édetov), or music hall, was designed for
musical contests and rehearsals of plays. This demand
called for a building like the Greek theatre, but smaller
and covered with a roof (@datpov tmwpddiov). Such was,
in fact, the type of building represented by the Odeion
of Herodes Atticus at Athens,! and other Odeia of the
Roman period.? It is natural to assume that a similar
type prevailed in the earlier periods.
8. BurLpINGs FoR Domestic Usg. — Greek houses,?
whether designed for kings or private persons, were essen-
tially Oriental in character. ‘They were provided, as in
Egypt and Assyria, with open courts and separate apart-
ments for men and women. These features, which appear
more or less distinctly throughout the entire history of
the Greek house, indicate already a developed or complex
type. .
The courtyard (avA7) in the country house preceded
the domestic apartments, and was used for stabling and
other such purposes. In the town house it was situated
within the walls of the house itself, and furnished a breath-
ing place and source of air and light and warmth for the
surrounding apartments. In the Mycenaean palace at
Tiryns (Fig. 384), and in private houses of the late Greek
period, a succession of courts are found, but in most Greek
houses of the classic period a single court sufficed. These
courts were frequently surrounded with porticoes, and may
well be classified by the variations of this character. It
was by no means necessary that a Greek courtyard should
1 Tuckermann’s plan in Baumeister, III, Figs. 1823-1824.
_ 2 Stieglitz, II, 222-240. .
8 Becker-Goll, II, 105; W. Lange, 7-48 ; Daremberg et Saglio, s.v.
Domus. ;
356 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
be surrounded by colonnaded walks. There were no
such colonnades in the fifth-century house at Dystos in
Euboia! and few in the houses excavated at Priene.?
A similar absence of columns usually. characterized the
atrium of the Roman house. The peristyle court, on the
other hand, existed in various forms from the earliest
days. ‘The pre-Hellenic palace at Phaistos in Crete?®
had colonnades upon two sides of its great court; at
Tiryns the court of the men had colonnades on three
sides, which, with the porch of the megaron on the fourth
side, made the court almost completely peristylar. Com-
plete peristyle courts (rerpaoroor) existed in private houses
in Egypt as early as the Twelfth Dynasty, as may be
seen in the remains at Kahun.* In Greek lands they
were not common until the Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman
periods, when we find them represented at Delos,® Priene,®
Thera,’ and in Italy at Pompeii. Such peristyles may be
distinguished from each other as tetrastyle, hexastyle, and
so on, according to the number of columns involved. But
another distinction preserved by Vitruvius ® is of greater
interest. He distinguishes between peristyle courts with
uniform porticoes and those known as Rhodian (arepiorvAov
“Podtaxév), in which the porch with the southern exposure
was composed of loftier columns. The former type is
represented in the houses at Delos and Pompeii, the lat-
ter at Priene. The court with uniform porticoes reflects
the love of regularity which characterized Hellenistic
1 Wiegand, Ath. Mitt., XXIV (1899), 458. 2: Priene, 290.
3 Pernier, Mon. Ant., XIV (1904), Tav. 27.
4 Petrie, Kahun, 7, Pl. 14.
6 B.O.H., VII (1884), 473; XIX (1895), 460; XXIX (1905), 40.
6 Priene, 297.
7 Hiller von Gaertringen, ITI, 140. 8 Vitruvius, VI, 7, 3.
MONUMENTS ook
architecture in general, whereas the so-called Rhodian type
was more like that of a Mycenaean palace in which the
portico of the megaron dominated the rest. A house at
Priene,! known as No. XXXIII, illustrates in a striking
manner how naturally this type of court was evolved.
Peristyle courts may also be distinguished as_ single
storied and two storied. The latter variety seems not
to have been confined to important houses, like the
palace of Hyrkanos in Syria,? but was found in small
houses like the one on the banks of the Inopos at Delos.?
The approaches to the court varied according to cir-
cumstances. Palaces were reached through imposing
propylaia.* In ordinary town houses projecting porches
(mpoOupa), such as those of the houses at Tanagra,> were
usually dispensed with as hindrances in the narrow
streets. The entrance was protected by gratings (po-
gpayuata) and by a door which led to the court. Fre-
quently there was a vestibule, and, when practicable, a
porters room. The rooms about the court, apart from
those of the principal side, appear to have served various
purposes. Some were undoubtedly store-rooms, others
may be recognized as kitchens, dining halls, or as sleeping
rooms. The principal apartment was known specifically
as the oikos, or house (oixos, dduos, Sua). It contained
the family hearth, and was situated at the north end of
the court, so as to receive the warmth of the winter sun.®
In its earliest form the oikos was a mere enclosure to
1 Priene, 297-300.
2 De Vogiié, Le Temple de Jerusalem, 39; Lange, 149, Taf. 6.
3 B.C.H., VIII (1884), 483.
4 Mackenzie, in B.S.A., XI (1904-1905), 181-228.
5 Lange, 129, note 1. 6 Xenophon, Oecon., 1X; Memorab., II, 8.
858 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
which was added a prodomos (mpédopuos), or anteroom.
The inner room developed internally through the addi-
tion of supports for its roof. The larger megaron at
Tiryns had four columnar supports for its roof. When
six or more columns were used to support the ceiling, it
was called a Corinthian house (otkos Kopév@tos) ; when
superposed colonnades were employed and the central
space lighted, as in a basilica, by clerestory windows, it —
was known as an Egyptian house (oixos Adytzrwos) ;
when a similar room was projected northward, having a
central doorway with folding doors, and low, lateral win-
dows allowing vistas into the garden, it was called
Kyzikene (oixos Ku&ixnves).1 The prodomos varied in
disposition. It was treated as a single space, or sub-
divided by a wall, or columns, into an outer porch and
inner vestibule. The porch might be without columns, or
show one column between antae, as in house No. XXXII
at. Priene,? or two columns, as was commonly the case.
Of more significance than the modification of the princi-
pal apartment is its relation to the rest of the house.
Noack has pointed out the isolation of the megaron as a
distinguishing feature of Mycenaean palaces; whereas, in
Cretan palaces, at least in those at Knossos and at Phaistos,
the megara are more closely connected with the general
series of apartments. Thus the Mycenaean palaces re-
flect warlike and aristocratic, those of Crete peaceful and
democratic, conditions. Both types seem to have found
their way into the private houses of ordinary citizens in
later days. ‘The houses. excavated at Priene resemble
those of the Mycenaean type, since the oikos, like the
‘megara, was given an imposing prostas (mpootas) or
1 Vitruvius, VI, 3, 10. 2 Priene, 325. 8 Noack, 7.
MONUMENTS 359
prodomos. The plan of house No. XXIV at Priene
(Fig. 385) will show the significance still attached to
this feature by an ordinary citizen in the second century
B.C. Houses of this type developed around this central
feature as a nucleus by the addition of rooms on one
side only, or on both sides —in
the latter case known to Vitruvius
as thalamoi (@aXayor) and amphi-
thalamoi (auqdiOdrapor). A higher
degree of complexity arose when
the apartments for the men (avdpar,
avopwvitis) were separated from
those of the women (yuvatcovitis. )
At Priene this was sometimes
accomplished by juxtaposed apart-
ments, as in house No. XXVI,!
and sometimes by an upper story
(vrep@ov), as in house No. XXXV.?
Three-storied houses (tpioteyou
oixot), such as those at Alexandria?
and one recently excavated at Pom-
peli, were uncommon. Sleeping rooms were sometimes, as
at ‘Tiryns, close to the principal apartment; elsewhere,
as at Arne?* (Fig. 886), they were relegated to the rear.
The ruins in the latter town exhibit in a striking
manner the use of corridors (Aavpat, poyes) by means of
which access could be had to widely separated por-
tions of the building and greater privacy secured. Simi-
PROSTAS
Fic. 385. — House No.
XXIV at Priene.
1 Priene, 295, Fig. 314. 2 Thid., 295, Fig. 313.
3 Theophanes, Chronographia, p. 150, ed. Classen.
4 A. de Ridder, in B.C. H., XVIII (1894), 271-3810, Pls. 10-11; Noack,
in Ath. Mitt., XIX (1894), 405-485.
360 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
lar narrow, double passages in Egyptian houses at Kahun
led to the men’s and women’s quarters. ‘The prevalence
of long corridors at Priene also is noteworthy. Passages
Fig. 386. — The Palace at Arne.
which connected two courts were known as §f §g x
mesauloi (wéoavror).}
A second type of Greek house is well illus-
trated by the houses at Delos built after
the Athenian occupation in the second cen-
tury and before its destruction in 86 B.c. In
these houses the oikos is not isolated, nor is
it provided with an independent prostas.
It is merely a large room with doorway and
windows towards the court. ‘The peristyle
court gives character to the house; hence
these houses may be designated as of the peristyle type.
In the house on the street leading to the theatre (Fig. 387)
the columns opposite the oikos were of greater diameter
than the rest, but were not located with reference to its
walls or doorway. The oikos presents its broadest face to
the court and in this respect differs from that of the houses
with a prostas. The peristyle type seems to have been
UHé«CL+p
YG
YesesGY
WIZ:
1 Vitruvius, VI, 7, 5.
—
Po
MONUMENTS SOL
represented at Athens in the fourth century by the house
of Kallas, in which Protagoras walked with his disciples
in one portico (apoor@ov), while Hippias! sat enthroned
in the opposite (é€v 7T@ Katavtexpv TpocTt@@m). Both types
of houses seem to have left their imprint on the Italic and
Roman house. At Pompeii? the
two types were frequently united
in the same building (Fig. 388).
9. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. —
In this section we consider first
the construction, forms, and decor-
ation of Greek ships, then harbors,
ship sheds, and arsenals.
The Greek ship (vats) was con-
structed for service in an inland
sea. It was, therefore, a small
open boat, which could without
difficulty be drawn up on a beach.
Being constructed, for the sake of
lightness, of such woods as pine,
spruce, larch, and cypress, its solid-
ity depended upon its construc-
tion. The shallow keel (zpezmis)
was stiffened not only by an external or false keel (yvé
Avopa) of beech or oak, but also by a second, internal keel
(devTepa tpomis). ‘The walls (rotyor) of the vessel con-
sisted of planking attached to a series of ribs (éyxo/da).
These walls were strengthened on the exterior by hori-
zontal waling pieces (fwoTfpes) and sometimes on the
interior by a second planking. Further rigidity was
Fig. 387.—House on the
street tothe theatre, Delos.
1 Plato, Protagoras, §17; Krause, 511-512; Gardner and Jevons,
38-39. 2 Mau, 239-360.
«Ceti Dar "> ' a a hw, Fa a eee crea Fe = SF eel, an ee oe ee ~~ «~s oP ae eS
“rod uro, ‘11990 A 9q} Jo osnog aut JO y1N09 9[AYSIIOg — 9g ‘DIT!
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
362
MONUMENTS 368
° secured by the fixed seats (€vya) for the oarsmen and, in
the larger vessels, by the system of longitudinal and cross
beams required for decking and other purposes. Even
| this did not suffice, and, in some representations of Greek
as well as of Egyptian vessels,! we see ropes (i7rofopata)
Fig. 389. — Warship from a Greek vase in the British Museum.
bound around the prow and stern in order to give addi-
tional strength to the general fabric.?°
The forms of Greek vessels varied according to special
requirements. ‘The trading vessel was wide, capacious,
?
- 1 Baumeister, III, Figs. 1656, 1671, 1675.
2 Vessels were also strengthened by ropes extended horizontally. Cf.
Vitruvius, X, 15,6: funes --- religati --- a puppi ad proram.
a
364 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
and slow. Its high bow and stern, with their platforms,
and its single mast with square sails are features which
it had in common with Egyptian vessels. The war
vessel, long, narrow, and swift, depending for its speed
upon oars rather than sails, owes more to Phoenician pro-
totypes.! This type was adopted at an early date by the
Greeks, and had a marked development. As the Greek
potter learned to mould his vases into animal or human
forms, so the Greek naval architect played with the forms
of vessels. Frequently, if we may judge from the repre-
sentations on vases, the ship resembled a fish? (¢yOvmpe@pos)
(Fig. 389); sometimes it was fashioned as a goose,’ or a
swan ;4 occasionally the bow presents the form of a boar’s
head® (édmp@pos), or the head of a horse.®
On either side of the bow were large eyes (of@arpo/),
possibly used as hawse-holes, and projections, known as
ears (€7rwTides ), for holding the anchor. The name of the
vessel was sometimes inscribed on the bow.’ The bow
(cTeipa) was provided with a metal-cased ram (é€uforor),
at about the water level, and sometimes with a second,
smaller one (mpoeuSodov) set somewhat higher. Above
this the bow ended in a curved ornament called the akro-
stolion (axpooro\ov). The stern terminated in a long
curved ornament carved and painted to resemble the tail,
or the neck and head of a bird or fish.8 This ornament,
known to Homer’ as the afdac7Top, is found also on Roman
and later vessels. The outer walls of Greek vessels, being
covered with tar, were almost entirely black, relieved occa-
1 Layard, Pl. 71. 4 Tbid., Figs. 591-593.
2 Baumeister, III, Fig. 1661. 5 Smith, s.v. Navis, 220.
3 Guhl und Koner, Fig. 588. 6 J.H.S., XXVIII (1908), 327.
7 Burl. Mag., X1V (1908), 71.
8 Furtwangler und Reichhold, I, Taf. 13. 9 Tiiad, AVS it
MONUMENTS 365
sionally by patches of color on the bows. But late Greek
and Roman ships were sometimes decorated, especially at
the stern, with elaborate figure paintings.!
As the war vessel was propelled chiefly by oarsmen, it
is natural that the rowing system should be made the
principal object of development. At first the length of
the vessel was increased so as to admit of a greater num-
ber of rowing benches. But a limit appears to have been
reached in the pentekontoros (qwevtnxovtopos), which had
fifty oarsmen seated on twenty-five benches. When it
was no longer practicable to increase the length of the
boat, the number of oars was increased by their arrange-
ment in superposed banks (ototyor).2 Representations of
Phoenician,®? Greek,* and Roman® vessels seem to prove
that vessels with two, three, and even four such banks of
oars were thus constructed. The terms bireme (é:7pns),
trireme (tpinpns), etc. are ordinarily taken to designate
vessels with superposed banks of oars. The Athenian
navy of the classic period consisted chiefly of triremes.
Alexander the Great ® is said to have built vessels with
ten banks of oars; Demetrios Poliorketes,’ vessels with
fifteen and sixteen banks; Ptolemy Philadelphos (285-
247 B.C.), floating palaces with twenty and thirty banks,
while the extreme limit was reached in the so-called forty-
banked vessel (teccapaxovtnpys) of Ptolemy Philopator
(222-204 B.c.).2 The practical difficulties involved in
supposing superposed banks of oars for the higher rated
1 Torr, 35-36.
2 Scholiast, on Aelian, quoted by Graser, De veterum re navali, § 4:
Kata Tods.orlyous Tos KaTa TO UWos em’ AdAAOLS.
3 Layard, Pl. 71. Se eliy. VL; 67,216,
4 Torr, Pls. 4, 5. 7 Plutarch, Demetrios, 51.
5 Baumeister, III, Figs. 1678, 1685. 8 Athen., V, 37.
366 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
vessels are so great that modern writers have suggested a
single line of oars arranged in groups of two, three, and so
on, like the Venetian galea a zenzile,! or with oars manned
by teams of two, three, four or more oarsmen, like the
Venetian galea a scaloccio.2. The marble prow which bears
the Nike of Samothrace,? now in the Louvre, and a relief
recently found at Lindos,* show projecting galleries
(mapeEepeciat), resembling encased outriggers, to protect
the oarsmen. Above this on some vessels was a bul-
warked passage (7apodos). A similar disposition is found
on mediaeval galleys. Now, if it be assumed that the
prow in the Louvre represents a high-rated vessel, such
as was used by Demetrios Poliorketes, the traditional
theory of many superposed banks of oars receives a serious
blow. |
Greek harbors (Acwéves) may be classed in general as
natural and artificial. The coast line of Greece furnished
projecting ledges and retreating bays in abundance, which
without artificial modification afforded shelter and safety
to most classes of vessels. Sometimes it was necessary to
build a breakwater or mole (yma, ynd7) to protect vessels
at anchor from the force of wind and waves. But the im-
portant cities, subject to attack from foreign vessels, were
obliged to establish closed harbors (Auweéves KAevoTol ) with
narrow entrances protected by chains, with convenient
quays (€pvpata), ship sheds (ve@cotxor), and arsenals pro-
tected by fortification walls with towers and lighthouses.
In the construction of the breakwaters the ingenuity of
1L. Fincati, Le triremi, 2d ed., Rome, 1881; Tarn, J.H.S8., XXV
(1905), 188 ; Cook and Richardson, Class. Rev., XIX (10905), 375.
2 Furttenbach, Taf. 7. 3 Baumeister, Il, Fig. 1698.
4 A.J.A., XII (1908), 91. '
4
MONUMENTS | 367
the Greeks displayed itself at an early date. By the
seventh century B.c. the Corinthians built submarine
walls in which blocks of stone were so united by a gravel
cement as to be practically monolithic.!. At a later but
pre-Roman period, the submarine walls at Mytilene? con-
sisted of concrete made of lime slacked in oil and then
mixed with sand and broken stone. No attempt was made
to establish any regular form for these closed harbors.
The Lechaion® harbor at Corinth was exceedingly ir-
regular; that at Larymna‘* was semicircular; and that at
Rhodes,® rectangular.
The lighthouse (¢apos) added much to the convenience
of sailors. The most famous was the Pharos at Alexandria,
built of white marble, in many stories, and diminishing in
successive stages towards the top, where torches or fires
were kept burning at night. Such lighthouses appear to
have been located near harbor entrances. The quays
were built, as the breakwaters, of finer upon coarser
masonry. At Larymna the walls are effectively buttressed
so as to resist the force of the waves. The ship sheds, of
which there are many remains, consisted of stone tracks
upon which the boats were hauled, probably by windlasses,
from the water into boathouses on the shore. ‘These
seldom exceeded one hundred and fifty feet in length and
fifteen in width, and consisted of a single story. Dry-
docks where transports might be cleaned and repaired
were infrequent. But it may be noticed that at Larymna
the inner harbor was closed by two flood-gates, by means
of which it could be converted into a dry-dock; at Se-
1 Georgiades, 4. 3 Georgiades, Pl. 1.
2 Koldewey, 6. 4 Ibid., Pl..5.
5 Merckel, 341.
368 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
leukeia,! the port of Antioch, the supply of water to the
inner harbor was under control by means of a tunnel.
Dockyards (vavrnya) were also necessary for ship-building,
and elaborate preparations were made for launching such
large vessels as those belonging to Ptolemy Philadelphos
and Ptolemy Philopator.2 Arsenals (o«evo0jxar), where
the oars, sails, and tackle were stored, were occasionally
buildings of some architectural interest. The Arsenal at
the Peiraieus,? built by Philon (347-330 B.c.) of Eleusis
and EKuthydomos of Miletos, was the most famous build-
ing of its class. It resembled a basilica, the side aisles of
which contained superposed stories, or stacks, for storage.
The interests of foreign commerce made still further
demands upon the architect. Storehouses, examples of
which have been found at Delos,t and _ sanctuaries
for the use of sailors were built near the harbor. Col-
onnades with shops attached were also common in seaports.
At the Peiraieus® there were five such colonnades, which
must have added considerably to the beauty of the harbor.
10. SEPULCHRAL ARCHITECTURE. — When his active
life neared its end, the Greek desired an artist to make
for him a suitable resting-place. Whether he was to be
buried, as were the heroes of old, or cremated, as was
sometimes the custom, he wished for some memorial to
mark the location of his body or his ashes. This might take
the form of a sculptured or painted stele (o77Am), and of
this class of monuments there are many beautiful remains; ®
1 Merckel, 355-358. 2 Athen., V.
8 Choisy, Mtudes, 1-42; Doerpfeld, Ath. Mitt., VIII (1883), 147-164.
4 Jardé, in B.C.H., X XIX (1905), 21-40. 5 Frazer, Paus., II, 24.
6 Conze, Die attischen Grabreliefs ; P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of
Hellas ; Eph. Arch., 1908, Pls, 1-4.
MONUMENTS 369
or of a statue, representing such subjects as a lion, a bull,
a dog, a siren, a satyr, the deceased himself or the official
chair he occupied; or of a box or sarcophagus, of which
there were many interesting varieties.!_ Although such
monuments belong to the field of sculpture, we frequently
find in them a suggestion that the departed had entered
into his eternal home. ‘The notion of the tomb as a house
was very familiar to the ancient world, especially to the
Egyptians,? Phoenicians,? Persians,* Phrygians,®> Lycians,®
and Etruscans.’ It was accepted by the Greeks, who
frequently gave an architectural character to their tombs.
Such monuments as belong properly to our survey may
be thrown into two general classes: (1) those which are
partially architectural, and (2) those which are entirely
architectural in character. ‘To the first class belong
tombs which exhibit a single architectural feature, such
as a raised foundation, a column, gable or fagade. To
the second class may be assigned tombs which represent
an entire building, such as a tower, house, or temple.
The tumulus or mound (yoya) of earth, without archi-
tectural character, served in the Troad to commemorate
Homeric heroes, and at Marathon to cover the remains
of the Athenians who fell in battle. It was given more
enduring form by a wall at the base (xpn7ris, Opiyxes), as
in the tumulus of Phokos in Aegina,’ or its surface was
covered with stucco, as in the conical tombs discovered
in Peiraieus street at Athens,? or with stone, as in the
1 Baumeister, ILI, s.v. Sarcophagus. 5 Tbid., V, 81-145.
2 Perrot et Chipiez, I, 129-322. 6 Tbid., V, 861-384.
3 Ibid., III, 187-240. 7 Martha, 176-220.
4 Tbid., V, 589-638. ° Paus:, 17, 20, 9.
*Brueckner, in Jhb., VI (1891), 198.
2B
370 GREEK ARCHITECTURE
tomb of Tantalos near Smyrna. This type of sepulchral
monument culminated in gigantic structures such as the
Mausoleia of Augustus and of Hadrian at Rome. The
pyramid was occasionally substituted for the tumulus,
as at Kenchreai? between Argos and Tegea.
Columns (x/oves), as sepulchral monuments, occur either .
alone or as pedestals bearing some sculptured memorial.
Their shafts and capitals show considerable variety in
style. Pilasters supporting a gable also frequently
occur as a framework in sculptured Athenian stelae.
Four pillars supporting a roof, forming a baldachino or
tabernacle, is said by Pausanias® to have been the normal
type of tomb at Sikyon, and his statement is confirmed by —
Sikyonian coins.® Rock-cut tombs sometimes displayed
an entire building, as in the tombs at Kyrene.
More completely architectural were the various types of
chamber and house tombs. Even the tumuli sometimes
covered a hidden room, which served as the home of the
departed. ‘These chamber tombs,’ in plan either circular,
or elliptical,’ or rectangular, reflected the type of houses
in use amongst the living. During the Mycenaean
period they often resembled Phoenician tombs, in being
preceded by a narrow passage (dpduos). Occasionally, as
in the Tholos of Atreus at Mycenae, and in one of the
tombs at Knossos, the entrance received elaborate archi-
tectural decoration, and led through a contracted passage
(atow.ov) to the sepulchral chamber. In general they
1 Perrot et Chipiez, V, 48, 49. 2 Reber, 186. 8 P. Gardner, 110.
4 Borrmann, Jhb., III (1888), 269-285. 6 Frazer, Paus., II, 46.
5 Paus.; I; 7, 2: 7 Gropengiesser, 35.
8 Halbherr, A.J.A., V (1901), 291; Pfuhl, Ath. Mitt., XXVIII (1903),
245.
MONUMENTS old
were family tombs, having sometimes a single chamber,
sometimes several connecting rooms. ‘The ceilings, as in
Phrygian and Etruscan tombs, received special attention.
In the rotundas (@0A01) we find pointed domes constructed
in converging horizontal courses, giving to the interior of
the building the shape of a beehive.! The exterior of the
Fic. 390. — Interior of Tomb at Tamossos.
sepulchral chamber was covered with earth, and even the
entrance passage at times blocked up. This prevented
the vaults from falling in and protected the tomb from
intrusion. The tombs with rectangular chambers had
horizontal, or peaked, ceilings, and, if rock cut, reflected
1 Tgountas-Manatt, 115-158.
Sipe GREEK ARCHITECTURE
the usual methods of roof construction. In the classic and
later period in Athens sumptuary laws! prevented the con-
struction of expensive tombs; hence we look elsewhere for
examples. An interesting example from the classic period
is found at Tamossos in Cyprus (Fig. 5390). In the Hellen-
istic period chamber tombs, usually rock cut and fashioned
under Greek influence, are found in Asia Minor, Africa,
Italy, and elsewhere. At Pydna in Macedonia,? a tumulus
covers a fully constructed house. A vaulted dromos leads
to this subterranean house, which consisted, like the mega-
ron at Tiryns, of a large room preceded by two vestibules.
All the rooms were covered with stone barrel vaults. The
doorway to the sepulchral chamber was surmounted by a
Doric frieze and gable (Fig. 391).
In some localities house tombs were constructed above
the soil. At Labranda® there is a free-standing tomb,
which follows the type of a Greek house in having a
courtyard, vestibule, and principal chamber, above which,
beneath the roof, is a second story. In Lycia,* where
art was moulded in great measure under Greek influence,
there are many tombs which imitate types of half-timbered
houses. Some have horizontal, others arched roofs. —
Tombs resembling temples form a final stage in this ~
development. To this class belongs the so-called Nereid
Monument of Xanthos,® which reproduces the form of an
Ionic peristyle temple set upon a high plinth. The tem-
ple form was sometimes repeated also in sarcophagi, a fine
example of which is the Sarcophagus of the Mourners
1 Becker-Goll, IIT, 145. 2 Heuzey, Mont Olympe, Pl. 2.
3 Reinach-Lebas, Arch. As. Min., I, Pl. 9. j
4 Perrot et Chipiez, V, 361-384 ; Benndorf und Niemann, Taf. 19, 26,
Bi, 43, 5 Overbeck, II, 191.
MONUMENTS Sie
Fic. 391. — Doorway of a Tomb at Pydna.
found at Sidon.! A more complicated type was produced
by superposing a pyramidal roof upon the Greek temple
ES type. Such was the Lion Tomb at Knidos? and the still
1 Hamdy Bey-Reinach, 238-271, Pls. 4-11 ; Collignon, II, Figs, 212, 213.
2 Newton, I, Pl. 63. ;
LELEF bn ES Pe LINEA ABT
Fia. 392. — Restoration of Mausoleion at Halikarnassos.
374
-
ss MONUMENTS ESS
~ more imposing Mausoleion at Halikarnassos ! (Fig. 392).
_ The latter building, famous for its sculptured decoration,
2 was finely conceived and proportioned, and properly reck-
i oned as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
a
“9
Mi
1 Newton, I, Pl. 18: Br. Mus. Cat. of Gk. Sc., I, 76-77; Dinsmoor,
cA J. ay XII Se fee 1-29, 141-171.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. PERIODICALS -
Abh. Berl. Akad. = Abhandlungen der Kéniglichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Berlin, 1815-
A.J.A. = The American Journal of Archaeology. The Journal of the
Archaeological Institute of America. Baltimore, Princeton, New York,
1885-
Ant. Denk. = Antike Denkmdler. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlich
Deutschen Archaeologischen Institut. 2 vols. published. Berlin,
1891-
Arch. Anz. = Archaeologischer Anzeiger. Beiblatt zum Jahrbuch des
Archaeologischen Instituts. Berlin, 1889- ,
Arch. Rec. = The Architectural Record. New York, 1891-
A.S.A.= Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at
Athens. 1885-
Ath. Mitt. = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts in
Athen. Athens, 1876- |
A.Z. = Archaeologische Zeitung. Berlin, 1843-1885.
B.S.A. = The Annual of the British School at Athens. London, 1895-
Buri. Mag. = The Burlington Magazine. London, 1903-
Cl. Rev. = The Classical Review. London, 1887-
Eph. Arch. = "Eqnpepis apxatoAoyixy. Athens, 1837-
G.B.A. = Gazette des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1858-
Harv. Stud. = Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Cambridge,
1890-
Jh. Oesterr. Arch. = Jahreshefte des Oesterreichischen Archaeologischen
Instituts. Wien, 1898—
Jhb. = Jahrbuch des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts.
Berlin, 1887- ‘
Jhb. Oesterr. Kunsth. Samml. = Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Samm-
lungen des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses. Wien, 1883-
377
378 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
J.HS. = The Journal of Hellenic Studies. London, 1880-
J.RI. Br. Architects = Journal of the Royal Institute of British Archi- —
tects. London, 1893-
Mon. Ant. = Monumenti Antichi, pubblicati per cura della Reale Acca-
demia dei Lincei. Milan, 1890-
Mon. Ined. = Monumenti inediti pubblicati dall’ Instituto di Corre-
spondenza Archeologica. 10 vols. Rome, 1829-1878.
Neue Jahrb. = Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Altertums, Ge-
schichte, und deutsche Literatur und fiir Pddagogik. Leipzig, 1898-
Rec. Past = Records of the Past. Washington, 1901-
Rev. Arch. = Revue archeologique. Paris, 1844—
Rém. Mitt. = Mitteilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen —
Instituts. Roemische Abtheilung. Rome, 1886-
Z.f. Bauw. = Zeitschrift fiir Bauwesen. Berlin, 1851-
2. BOOKS
Assos, see Bacon, also Clarke.
AurEs = A. Aurés, Etude des dimensions du grand temple de Pae-
stum. Paris, 1868.
Bacon, Assos = Investigations at Assos. Drawings and Photographs
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1882, 1883, by Joseph T. Clarke, Francis H. Bacon, Robert Koldewey.
Edited with explanatory notes by Francis H. Bacon. Pt. I. London,
Cambridge, Leipzig, 1902.
BAsILe = G. B. F. Basile, Curvatura delle linee dell’ architettura antica
con un metodo per lo studio det monumenti. 2d edit. Palermo, 1896.
BAUMEISTER = A. Baumeister, Denkmidiler des klassischen Altertums,
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BECKER-GOLL = Charikles. Bilder altgriechischer Sitte zur genaueren
Kenntniss des griechischen Privatlebens. Entworfen von Wilhelm
Adolph Becker. Neu bearbeitet von Bhar Goll.. 8 vols. Berlin,
1877-1878.
BrEcHER = F. W. Beecher and H. V. Beecher, Proceedings of the
Expedition to explore’ the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoli East-
ward ; in 1821 and 1822.. London, 1828.
BENNDORF UND NIEMANN = Otto Benndorf und George Niemann, ©
Reisen in Lykien und Karien. 2 vols. Wien, 1884-1889.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 379
Buiovet = Abel Blouet, Expedition scientifique de Morée ordonnee
par le gowvernment francais. 3 vols. Paris, 1831-18388.
BLUMNER = Hugo Bliimner, Technologie und Terminologie der Ge-
werbe und Kiinste bet Griechen und Romern. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1875-
1887.
BoErrTricHER = Karl Boetticher, Die Tektonik der Hellenen. 2 vols.
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Bonn = Richard Bohn, Die Propylaeen der Akropolis zu Athen.
Berlin und Stuttgart, 1882.
Boun-ScHUCHHARDT = Altertiimer von Aegae, unter Mitwirkung von
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BorRMANN = R. Borrmann, in Baumeister, s.v. Polychromie.
BurckHarpt = Jakob Burckhardt, Griechische Kulturgeschichte.
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Canina, Via Appia = L. Canina, Via Appia dalla Porta Capena a
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Cavvapias, Asklep. Temp. = P. Cavvadias, To iepov tod “AckAnmod
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CHOISY = peer Choisy, Histoire de Varchitecture. 2 vols. Paris,
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Cuorsy, Etudes = Auguste Choisy, Htudes Misia sur Varchi-
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CLARKE, Assos Report I (1882) = Joseph Thacher Clarke, Report on
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CLARKE, Assos Report II (1898) = Joseph Thacher Clarke, Report
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380 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CocKERELL = C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius
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CoLLIGNON = Maxime Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque.
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CoLLIGNon ET PONTREMOLI = Maxime Collignon et Emmanuel
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Conzre = Alexander Conze, Die aitischen Grabreliefs. 38 vols. Ber-
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ConzE-HAUSER-BENNDORF = Alexander Conze, Alois Hauser, Otto
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Cook, Spirals = J. H. Cook, Spirals in Nature and Art. London,
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Cros Et Henry = Henry Cros et Charles Henry, L’encaustique et
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DAREMBERG ET SAGLIO = Ch. Daremberg et Edm. Saglio, Diction-
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DerrassE ET Lecuat = Alphonse Defrasse (architecte) et Henri
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DorrPFELD = Wilhelm Doerpfeld, Troja und Ilion. Ergebnisse der
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DoERPFELD UND Reiscu = Wilhelm Doerpfeld und Emil Reisch,
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Duro = Josef Durm, Die Baukunst der Griechen. 2% Auflage.
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Durno, Bauk. Etr. Rom. = Josef Durm, Die Baukunst der Etrusker.
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ErpMAnn, Hippodamos von Milet = Erdmann, Hippodamos von Milet
*
¢
4
7
\
5
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 381
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Fasricius=Ernst Fabricius, De architectura graeca. Berlin, 1881.
FALKENER = Edward Falkener, Ephesus and the Temple of Diana.
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FENGER = L. Fenger, Dorische Polychromie. Textund Atlas. Ber-
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FERGUSSON = James Fergusson, The Parthenon. An Essay on the
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Foucart = George Foucart, Histoire de Vordre lotiforme. Paris,
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FRAZER, Paus. = J. G. Frazer, Pausanias’s Description of Greece.
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FURTTENBACH = Josephus Furttenbach, Architectura Navalis.
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FURTWANGLER UND ReicHHoLp = A. Furtwangler und K. Reich-
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GARBETT = E, L. Garbett, Principles oe Design in Architecture.
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E. GARDNER = Ernest A. Gardner, Ancient Athens. New York and
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P. GARDNER = Percy Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas. Lon-
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GARDNER AND JEVoNs = Percy Gardner and Frank Byron Jevons,
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GrorGiADEs = Athan. S. Georgiades, Les ports de la Grece dans
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GoopYEAR = William H. Goodyear, The Grammar of the Lotus.
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GROPENGIESSER = Hermann Gropengiesser, Der Graeber von Attika
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382 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GSELL = Stéfane Gsell, Les monuments del’ Algerie. 2 vols. Paris,
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GUHL UND KonerR = Guhl und Koner, Leben der Griechen und Ro-
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Haicu = A. E. Haigh, The Attic Theatre. A Daseeiption of the Stage
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Hampy Bry er Rernacu = O. Hamdy Bey et Théodore Reinach,
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HARRISON AND VERRALL = Mythology and Monuments of Ancient
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Hitrrorrr ©t Zantu = J. I. Hittorff et L. Zanth, Architecture an-
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Hocartnu = David George Hogarth, British Museum pie ee at
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Homo.ie = Théophile Homolle, Fouilles de Delphes (1892-1903).
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 383
Homo.txe, Temp. Ath. Pron. = Th. Homolle, Le temple d’Athéna
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Ion. Antiq. = Antiquities of Ionia, published by the Society of Dilet-
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IwanorF = Sergius A. Iwanoff, Architektonische Studien. Mit Er-
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KEKULE = Die Antiken Terracotten. 1. Die Terracotten von Pompeji
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KOLDEWEY UND PucHSTEIN = Robert Koldewey und Otto Puch-
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Krause, Gymn.= Johann Heinrich Krause, Die Gymnastik und
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LABROUSTE = Henri Labrouste. Les temples de Paestum. Res-
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384 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LECHAT, Sc. Attique = Henri Lechat. La sculpture attique avant
Pheidias. Paris, 1904. |
LecHAT, Temp. grec. = Henri Lechat, Le temple grec. Histoire som-
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LENORMANT ET De Witte = Ch. Lenormant et J. De Witte, Elite
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Megalopolis = Robert Weir Schultz and others, Excavations at Mega-
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 385
Mercket = Curt Merckel, Die Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum. Ber-
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MippLeton = J. Henry Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome.
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Friedrich Adler. Tafelband I. Textband Hl. Die Baudenkméiler.
Berlin, 1892-1896. _
OvERBECK = J. Overbeck, Geschichte der griechischen Plastik. 2 vols.
Leipzig, 1893-1894.
PAauLy-WissowA = Pauly’s Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen Alter-
tumswissenshaft. Neue Bearbeitung unter Mitwirkung zahlreicher
Fachgenossen herausgegeben von Georg Wissowa. Stuttgart, 1894-
Paus. = TTAYSANIOY ELLAAO®S TIEPIHTHS1S. Pausaniae
Descriptio Graeciae. Ed. Dindorf. Paris, 1882. |
PENNETHORNE = John Pennethorne, Zhe Geometry and Optics of
Ancient Architecture. Jondon, 1878.
PENROSE = Francis Cranmer Penrose, An Investigation of the Prin-
ciples of Athenian Architecture. New edit. London, 1888.
PrnrOSE, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. = F. C. Penrose, On the Orienta-
tion of Greek Temples and the Dates of their Foundation derived from
Astronomical Considerations, being a Supplement to a paper published
in the Transactions of the Royal Society in 1893. Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society for 1897. Vol. 190 A. London,
1898.
Pergamon = Altertiimer von Pergamon. Herausgegeben im Auftrage
des k6niglich preussischen Ministers der geistlichen Unterrichts- und
medicinal-Angelegenheiten. In course of publication since 1885.
PERROT ET CuHIPIEZ = Georges Perrot et Charles Chipiez, Histoire
de l'art dans Vantiquité. 8 vols. published. Paris, 1882-1903.
2c
386 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PERROT ET GUILLAUME = Georges Perrot et Edmond Guillaume,
Exploration archéologique de la Galatie et de la Bithynie, etc. 2 vols.
Paris, 1862. )
PETERSEN UND von Luscuan = Eugen Petersen und Felix von
Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, Milyas, und Kibyratis. Wien, 1889.
Petriz = W. M. Flinders Petrie, Egyptian Decorative Art. New
York and London, 1895.
Petrik, Kahun = W. M. Flinders Petrie, I/lahun, Kahun, and Gurob,
1889-1890. London, 1891.
Perriz, Naukratis = W. M. Flinders Petrie, Naukratis. Part TI,
1884-1885, with chapters by Cecil Smith, Ernest Gardner, and Barclay
V. Head. London, 1886. =
Piiny = C. Plinius Secundus, Historia naturalis. Libri 37. Ed.
Littré. 2 vols. Paris, 1883. |
PONTREMOLI ET HAUSSOULLIER = E. Pontremoli (architecte) et B.
Haussoullier, Didymes. Fouilles de 1895 et 1896. Paris, 1904.
Priene = Priene. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuch-
ungen in den Jahren 1895-1898, von Theodor Wiegand und Hans
Schrader, unter Mitwirkung von G. Kummer, W. Wilberg, H. Winne-
feld, R. Zahn. Berlin, 1904.
PRIssE D’AVENNES = Prisse d’Avennes, Histoire de l'art égyptien
d’apres les monuments. Texte par P. Marchandon dela Faye. Paris, 1879.
PUCHSTEIN = Otto Puchstein, Die griechische Biihne.. Eine archi-
tektonische Untersuchung. Berlin, 1901.
Pucustein, Jon. Cap. = Otto Puchstein, Das JIonische Capitell.
Berlin, 1887.
PucustTeEIN, Jon. Séul. = Otto Puchstein, Die Ionische Sdule. Leip-
zig, 1907.
PUCHSTEIN UND KoLpEWEyY. See Koldewey und Puchstein.
Quast = Ferdinand von Quast, Das Erechtheion zu Athen. Berlin,
1862. .
REBER = Franz von Reber, History of Ancient Art. Translated by
Joseph Thacher Clarke. New York, 1887. —
Reinacu-LeBas = Philippe Lebas, Voyage archéologique en Gréce
et en Asie Mineure. Publiées et commentées par Salomon Reinach.
Paris, 1888.
REINHARDT = Robert Reinhardt, Die Gesetzmdssigkeit der grie-
chischen Baukunst. Erster Theil: Der Theseustempel in Athen. Stutt-
gart, 1903.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 387
RENAN = Ernest Renan, Mission de Phénicie. Texte et Atlas.
~ Paris, 1864.
Dr Rocuas = A. de Rochas d’Aiglun, Principes de la fortification
antique. Paris, 1881.
Ross-ScHAUBERT-HANSEN = L. Ross, E. Schaubert, Ch. Hansen,
Der Tempel der Nike Apteros. Berlin, 1839.
SCHLIEMANN, Myken. = Heinrich Schliemann, Mee Bericht
tiber meine Forschungen und Entdeckungen in Mykenae und Tiryns.
Leipzig, 1878.
SCHLIEMANN, Tiryns = Henry Schliemann, Tiryns. The Prehistoric
Palace of the Kings of Tiryns. New York, 1885.
SCHREIBER = Th. Schreiber, Atlas of Classical Antiquities. New
York, 1895.
ScHREIBER, fell. Reliefb. = Theodor Schreiber, Die Hellenistischen
Reliefbilder. 112 Tafelu. Leipzig, 1894.
SCHUCHHARDT = C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann’s Excavations. Lon-
don, 1891. )
Scuuttz = W. Schultz, Die Harmonie in der Baukunst. Nachweisung
der Proportionalitdt in den Bauwerken des griechischen Altertums. Han-
nover, Linden, 1891.
SEMPER, Vorlduf. Bemerk. = Gottfried ‘Semper, Vorldufige Bemerk-
ungen tiber bemalte Architektur und Plastik bei den Alten. Altona, 1834.
Sitrnt = Karl Sittl, Archacologie der Kunst. [= Vol. 6 of Iwan von
Miiller, Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft.| Munich,
1895.
Smitu = A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Edited by
William Smith, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin. 2 vols. London,
1890-1891.
SMITH AND PorcHeR = R. Murdoch Smith and E. A. Porcher, His-
tory of the Recent Discoveries at Cyrene made during an Expedition to
the Cyrenaica in 1860-1861. London, 1864.
STERRETT = J. R.S. Sterrett, The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor.
Papers of American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. III.
Boston, 1888.
STreGuitz = C. L. Stieglitz, Archaeologie der Baukunst der Griechen
und Rémer. 2 vols. Weimar, 1801.
StronG = Mrs. Arthur Strong, Roman Sculpture from Augustus to
Constantine. Wondon and New York, 1907.
388 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS _
Srrzycowski, Byz. Denkm. = Josef Strzygowski, Byzantinische
Denkmdler. 3 vols. Vienna, 1891-1903.
STUART AND ReEveTT = John Stuart and Nicholas Revett, The An-
tiquities of Athens. 4 vols. London, 1762-1796.
StrurGis = Russell Sturgis, A History of Architecture. Vol. I.
Antiquity. New York, 1906.
TAYLOR AND CreEsy = G. L. Taylor and Edward Cresy, The Archi-
tectural Antiquities of Rome. 2 vols. London, 1821-1822.
TEXIER = Charles Texier, Description de Asie Mineure. 8 vols.
Paris, 1839-1849.
TEXIER, Arménie = Charles Texier, Description de l’Arménie, la
Perse et la Mésopotamie. 2 vols. Paris, 1842-1852.
TEXIER AND PULLAN = The Principal Ruins of Asia Minor. Lon-
don, 1865.
Torr = Cecil Torr, Ancient Ships. Cambridge, 1895.
TsountAs—MANATT = Chrestos Tsountas and J. Irving Manatt,
The Mycenaean Age. Boston and New York, 1897.
TuCKERMANN = Tuckermann, Das Odeum des Herodes Atticus und —
der Regilla in Athen. Bonn, 1868.
UnbeE = Constantin Uhde, Die Konstruktionen und die Kunstformen
der Architektur. Ihre Entstehung und geschichtliche Entwickelung bei
den verschiedenen Volkern. 4 vols. (8 published). _ Berlin, 1902-1904.
Virruvius = M. Vitruvius Pollio, De architectura libri decem.
Ed. by Valentine Rose. Leipzig, 1899.
De Voaut = Le Comte Melchior de Vogiié et W. H. Waddington,
La Syrie Centrale. Architecture civile et religieuse du I au VII siecle.
2 vols. Paris, 1865.
DE Voatik, Temp. Jérus. = le C'® Melchior de Vogiie, Le temple de
Jérusalem. Monographie du Haram-ech-chérif, suivie d’un essai sur
la Topographie de la Ville-Sainte par M. de Vogiié. Paris, 1864.
WALDSTEIN = Charles Waldstein, The Argive Heraeum. 2 vols.
Boston and New York, 1902-1905.
WIEGAND = Dice archaische Poros-Architektur der Akropolis zu Athen.
Herausgegeben von Theodor Wiegand unter Mitwirkung von W.
Doerpfeld, E. Gilliéron, H. Schrader, C. Watzinger und W. Wilberg.
1 vol. text, 1 vol. plates. Cassel u. Leipzig, 1904. ©
WINCKELMANNSPROGRAMME = Programme zum Winckelmannsfeste
der archaeologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Berlin, 1841-
FIG.
. Curved adze. Bliimner II, 340, from Lenormant et De Witte,
12.
18.
14,
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
= peg aa a a : : ; ; * :
Floor of Arsenal at Berens. Choisy, Htudes, Pl. 2
Wall of a building at Bir Sgaoun, Algeria. Gsell, II, Pl. 75
Restoration of Proto-Doric Entablature. Perrot et Chipiez, VI,
19°: ; : : : é A
Sarcophagus from Gjélbaschi-Trysa. Jb. Oecsterr. Kunsth.
Samml., XI, 24 : : ; ,
Roof construction of Arsenal at Pee ioas, Choisy, Ktudes,
Pl. 2 : ; F i ;
Brick wall bonded with wood ‘Schuchhardt, 52
Roofing tiles hooked together. Olympia, I, Taf. 41 . :
Tenons for lifting drums of columns. Fox collection of photo-
graphs
. Gallery of South Wall, Pirin. fccenan Institute photograph .
. Retaining wall of Temple of vant Delphi. Perrot et Chi-
piez, VII, 330 . : ; : : :
Polygonal masonry from Battikon visernatt Institute photo-
graph “ : : ‘ ; ‘
Equal coursed Patou at Rraenesie German Institute photo-
graph :
Regular, but gascual, Raia as foi ‘Agripos Montes
ment, Athens. Bohn, Taf. 21
15-18. Clamps of various shapes. Durm, 78
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Notched masonry at Eretria. Photograph by me M. :
Anathyrosis from wall of Propylaia, athens. Fox collection
of photographs :
Diatonikon masonry. Perrot et ‘Chipiez, VI, 337
Door-frame at Naxos. Photograph by A. M.
Base from Erechtheion, Athens. Choisy, I, 347
Base from Temple of Nike, Athens. Choisy, I, 347 .
Epistyle from Parthenon. Penrose, Pl. 16 : ‘ : °
389
PAGE
390
FIG.
51.
52.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Epistyle of Temple D, Selinous. Koldewey und Puchstein, 109
. Triglyphal frieze of Parthenon. Penrose, Pl. 17
. Cornice of Temple D, Selinous. Koldewer und Puchsten 109
. Parthenon coffering. Penrose, Pl. 15
. Acroterion block of the Parthenon. Penrose, PI. 7
. Base of Temple at Stratos in Akarnania. From German Insti-
tute photograph
. Podium of Temple of Despoina a Ly hoeeaee ons German
Institute photograph : ; ; ; : ; : ‘
Podium of Theron’s Tomb, Akragas. Photograph by Sommer
Base of Kyniskos statue. Olympia, I, Taf. 92.
. Base of statue of Nike, Olympia. Olympia, II, Taf. 98
. Base of Roman statue, Olympia. Olympia, IU, Taf. 94
. Acropolis wall, showing set-backs. Pergamon. Photograph
by A. M.. : , : :
. Apsidal wall of Bycaocae Chureks innit Olympia, I,
Taf. 68
. Wall of Arsenal at Pelee Ghote Etudes, Pl. 1
Wall of Treasury of Phocaeans, Delphi. From a photograph .
. Wall of circular building at the Marmoria, Delphi. From a
photograph
. Wall crown from Teniple of Ze Olympis Olympia, I.
Taf. 12
. Wall crown of Breeton, Athens. Stuart and Revett, II,
Ch, 2. PIA7
. Plan of Anta from Troy. " Doerpfeld, Troja ‘and Ricoh bi 81,
Fig. 23
. Plan of Anta earn ee gebliguaen Teena. Pl, 2
. Plan of Anta from the Heraion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 18
. Plan of Anta from the Enneastylos, Paestum. Koldewey und
Puchstein, Fig. 15 : ; ‘ ; : ;
Plan of Anta from Temple D, Salinbuse Koldewey und Puech-
stein, Taf. 13 .
. Plan of Anta from Temple of Poasiaent Passe ‘kee
und Puchstein, Taf. 4
. Plan of Anta from Temple of dene lye: Gloves I,
Taf. 9 : : : ‘ ;
Anta base from the Giada: Olympian Olympia, I, Taf. 48
Anta base from the Theseion, Athens. Stuart and Revett, III,
Chi, Pi
erik
PAGE
49
51
52
53
54
57
59 ©
60
61
62
62
65
66
67
68
68
68
68
Ae) oa oP
FIG.
53.
54.
55,
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
at
72.
73.
74,
75.
76.
(ve
78.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Anta base from the Temple of Nike, Athens. Ross-Schaubert-
Hansen, Taf. 10 ‘ ; ; 2 < :
Anta base from the Pekchikeion. Stuart and Revett, II, Ch. II,
PUSs : é : ‘ : ; 5
Anta capital from the onoesty ier Paestum. Koldewey und
Puchstein, Fig. 11 A ; ‘ ; :
Anta aacital from Temple G, Selioun Hittorff et Zanth, Pl.
79, Fig. 5 , : 5 : ‘
Anta capital from the Eraoylais., tera Bohn, Taf. 13, Fig. 3
Anta capital from Temple of Poseidon, Sounion. Jon. Antigq.,
H,-Pl. 14. : 5 i
Anta capital from he Temple of Nike, ivere Ross-Schau-
bert-Hansen, Taf. 10 : : : : ‘
Anta capital from the iesebtheion, Stuart and Revett, IT,
otk bl. 18: : : :
Anta capital from the Theatre Pe piiauee renee et De-
frasse, 211
Anta capital from the Souisls of Kaus, Miletos. cee Anti :
Ta Oech
Gateway at Mycenae. Seu cenn, mM tan: : Big: 23
Gateway at Elaios, Aetolia. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 11
Doorway of Tomb at Orchomenos. Perrot et Bien VI,
Fig. 162 .
Gateway at Oiniadai. Einar: Mont emee Pl. 15
Gateway at Oiniadai. Heuzey, Mont Olympe, Pl. 15
Gateway at Messene. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 11
Gateway at Assos. Clarke, Assos Report, I (1882), Pl. 27
Gateway at Phigaleia. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, 341, Pl. 11.
Gateway at Oiniadai. Heuzey, Mont Olympe, Pl. 15
Gateway at Assos. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 11 ;
Window from Temple of Concordia, Akragas. Serradifalco,
III, Tav. 11 ; . ;
Low Doric base from Creek Temple at Davaaic Von Duhn
und Jacobi, Taf. 5 . ; A
Base from Naukratis. Petrie, Naukratis, I, Pl. 3
Base from Kolumdado, Lesbos. Koldewey, Taf. 16.
Base from archaic Temple of Artemis, Ephesos. J.H.S., X
(1889), Pl. 3 : ‘ : :
Base from the Temple of Discekae: soe Ion. Antig., IV,
Pl Bb. =; . é ; ; - : : : ; ; :
391
PAGE
72
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
75
75
17
17
77
77
(i
78
78
78
78
78
79
81
81
82
82
82
392
FIG.
100.
101.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS —
PAGE
. Base from the. Temple of Dionysos Bresaios, Lesbos. Kolde-
wey, Pl. 28 . wv ie ocee
Base from the pronaos of the ipanrpta of Athena: Prone! tea
Antiq., IV, Pl. 11. 4 ' 4 : : , : oe ee
. Base from the Erechtheion, Athens. d’Espouy, Pl. 11 . MeN!
. Base from inner order of the Propylaia, Athens. Pennethorne,
Part TV, Pl. 41 ‘ ; 84
. Base from the Choragic Moutitlent eo Lancers Aciode
Stuart and Revett, I,'Ch. 4, Pl. 5 . : ; : . 88
Base from the Temple of Dionysos, Pergamon. Bohn, Temp. '
Dion. Perg., Taf. 1 ‘ : - : : : oa Sa
Base from the Leonidaion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf.65 . 85 ©
. Shaft in relief from Lions’ Gate, Mycenae. Perrot et Chipiez,
Vi, Pie i4 : 87
. Shaft from Tavola dei Paladini, Metapohitens De Luynes A
Debacgq, Pl. 5 : ; .- 88
. Shaft from the Propylaia, “Athens Pennies Pl. 33 j ee
Apophyge on shaft from the Temple of Nike, Athens. Ross-
Schaubert-Hansen, Taf. 7. : 90
. Apophyge on shaft from the Temple of ‘Apooe Phigalefa.
Cockerell, Pl. 14. =. ; 91
. Concave necking on capital from Temas D, Saline Hittortf
et Zanth, Pl. 32. y 4 ; Se
. Convex necking on capital fois Naanaeen "Beret et Chi-
piez, VII, 624 : ; mes ee la ee a) |
. Plat-band necking on capital fiona ve Brechthoiats Stuart
and Revett, II, Ch. II, Pl. 5. : 92
. Archaic capital from Delos. Perrot et Chipiez, Vu, Pi 58, 1 92
. Archaic capital from Athens. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 53,4 93.
96.
. Pulvinus of archaic capital from Athens. Perrot et Chipiez,
Archaic capital from Athens. Perrot et Chipiez, VII, Pl. 53,5 94
VII, Pl. 53, 5 : : : 2 OR
. Pulvinus of capital from the Terpis of Athena Prone Ion
Antiq., IV, Pl. 10. ; . une
. Pulvinus of capital from the Peienle of Apollo: M ilstoe: en
Antig., I, Ch. 3, PL 6 . : Pra)
Pulvinus of capital from the Palast, Olyipis Civinte: II,
Taf Tat ee ee a eae
Echinus capital from ths, Hastions Samos. ‘Toh Antiq., I,
Ch5)Pi3. : , ; , : : , , Me,
~~ ee a ee
ween eee aye
ee eo. Ce. ae ae ie ae
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
. Conical capital from the Heraion, Olympia... Olympia, I,
Taf. 22, 8. 3
. Echinus of capital from the Temple of PakesiGn, Psat
mures, Pl].
. Echinus of capital from Peta eChaley: I, 399
. Bell-shaped capital from Tower of the Winds, Athens. Stuart
and Revett, I, Ch. 3, Pl. 7
. Cyma recta moulding on votive column, Athens, Ant. Denk.,
I, Taf. 29 , :
. Cyma recta moulding on capital hae the eaiple of Davos
Pergamon. Bohn, Temp. Dion. Perg., Taf. 1
. Plan of abacus of corner column, Erechtheion. Durm, 251
. Plan of abacus of Monument of Lysicrates, Athens. Durm,
286
. Abacus of the Parthenon. Penrose, Pl. 16
. Abacus of the Erechtheion. d’Espouy, Pl. 14
. Abacus of the Mausoleion at Halikarnassos. Newton, Pl. 22, .
. Abacus of Monument of Lysicrates, Athens. d’Espouy, Pl. 21
. Abacus of the Olympieion, Athens. Penrose, Pl. 38
. Abacus of the Leonidaion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 64
. Crowning Moulding of Epistyle of: Old Temple of Athena,
Athens. Wiegand, 2
. Crowning Moulding of Epistyle of Temale C, Belmoue Kolde-
_ wey und Puchstein, 103
. Crowning Moulding of Epistyle of Temple of Gonsordin eek
gas. Koldewey und Puchstein, 172
. Crowning Moulding of Epistyle of Propylaia, Athens PPh.
rose, Pl. 31
. Crowning Moulding of Epiatyle of crempie of Nike, Achange
d’Espouy, Pl. 7
. Crowning Moulding of Bpistyle of Tholos at eta aaroe te
chat et Defrasse, Pl. 7
. Crowning Moulding of Epistyle of the Temple of pote
Magnesia. Magnesia, 51
3. Antithema of Epistyle of Temple of Teeter: BAM Kolde-
wey und Puchstein, Fig. 17
. Antithema of Epistyle from the Divmpieion! wihene Durm,
293
5. Antithema of mpistyle fs the Teenie of Avteitiay Magnesia.
Magnesia, 51.
393
PAGE
96
96
97
97
98
98
98
99
99 ©
394 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
ee oe oe
FIG. PAGE
126. Triangular grooves, Temple of Poseidon, Paestum. Koldewey
und Puchstein, 29 . : ‘ ; ~> 109
127. Semicircular grooves, Temple of Apolial Metapeninte Kolde-
wey und Puchstein, 39 . ; : . 109
128. Triglyph from the Treasury of Metapeniiien: tpt: Olym-
pia, I, Taf. 35,4 . : 109
129. Triglyph from Temple C, dainede. ‘Koldeway und ‘Puchistein.
100 : é : « VENRS
130. Triglyph from the Prominie Athans pow Tat. 13 : Pea q
131. Triglyph from the Temple of Concordia, Akragas. Serradi-
falco, IIE, Tay. 18... . 1.) Sas eee ee
1382. Triglyph from the Tholos at Epidants, Lechat et Defrasse,
Phi Bin ‘ : é 3 ; - ns ee
133. Frieze of the Pasion Pens: Brent 134-135 ‘ : aes i
134. Frieze of Stoa of Hadrian, Athens. Mauch, Taf. 42 : SSE
185. Convex Frieze from the Temple of Zeus, Labranda. Jon. y
Antiq., I, Ch. 4, Plo ; ; Patan He }
186. Cyma recta Frieze from the Tholos at Holdnares. “Tectat et
Defrasse, Pl. 7 A : od Ee
137. Cornice with mutules from ae Tetnpls of Zeus. Olympia.
Olympia, I, Taf. 14 : ; ; : : f as WS
138. Cornice with dentils from Priene. Priene, Figs. 68, 74 . avd 8
189. Dentil frieze from Tomb of Amyntas, Telmessos. Benndorf
and Niemann, Taf. 17 . ; P « 118
140. Cornice with consoles from interior of ee of ‘Winds, Athens.
Stuart and Revett, I, Ch. 3, Pl. 9. : ‘ . 114
141. Cornice with coffering from the Temple of Demsver, Passennt
Koldewey und Puchstein, 19 ; : : 4 P 114
142. Cornice of Erechtheion, Athens. Stuart and Revett, II, Ch. 2,
N See en ‘ ‘ 115
148. Subdivided cornice tri the Treasary of Gan Olyipls.
Olympia, I, Taf. 41. i 115
144. Coffered ceilings with, and without, heat Score ne Temple
of Apollo, Phigaleia. Cockerell, Pl.9. ° . : 116
145. Ceiling beam from Parthenon. Stuart and Revett, II, Ch. 1,
Pl.4. ; ‘ Lié
146. Ceiling beam from the Temple of Anolon Miletos, *Pinceaeke
hier; Pils... 2,13 : : ae niga WY:
147. Ceiling beam from the Temple of Tene Aizanoi. Wetien I,
Phd tas , : : ; ; : 4 ; , oe
FIG.
148,
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
ait.
172.
173.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 395
PAGE
Cofferings from the Theseion, Athens. Stuart and Revett,
Piel. bh Te ; : P - 118
Cofferings from the Temple of Athena: PHisaé: d ihadss Fig. 68 119
Cofferings from the Philippeion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 79 119
Roof tiles from the Heraion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 98. 121
Roof tiles from the Treasury of Gela, Olympia. Olympia, U1,
Taf. 99 . : j ; aces : ; eee
Roof tiles from the Bariieniot. Spiraea, Peolg j ‘ Seb 22
Roof tiles from the Monument of Lysicrates, Athens. Stuart
and Revett, I, Ch. 4, Pl. 3. : : ; ; el bee
Ridge tile from the Temple of A ohio Aegina. Cockerell,
jet att : ; : ‘ ; 11. 128
Sima of the tieasary. of Gela, Gr npik Olympia, I, Taf. 41 123
Sima of the Parthenon. Penrose, Pl. 1 . : j 3 vv ES
Sima of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. Cockerell, Pl. 13 «123
Sima of the Temple of Athena, Priene. Priene, Fig. 74. so bZo
Sima with water spout, Athens Museum. Durm, 137. 124
Central acroterion from the Heraion, Olympia. Olympia, IL,
Taf. 84 . j 4 124
Lateral acroterion from +6 Old Tennis. of Athena: ‘Aseny
Wiegand, Taf.9 . : « ,125
Lozenge decoration of bailing of the Philippeioh, Olympia.
Olympia, II, Taf. 82,8 . : : ‘ ; ~ 150
Bead and reel, also egg and dart sneak Olympia, I,
Taf. 82, 3 : : ; . 150
Zigzag ornament from the Tholos of ‘Atvtina, Myoernds Perrot
et Chipiez, VI, Fig. 283 , o EGE
Maeander from the Treasury of Salar Gai cnvpt: On ympia, I,
Taf. 41 . P ; vo RE
Maeander from Olympia. ae. 17; Taf. 118, 2 Se ame ee
Maeander from archaic cornice from Athens. Wiegand,
pat, ¥,. 2 ; ; é ; ..* 162
Maeander from the S.E. paildings Gisnpes oa Ii,
Dale elo. ; F ae 3)
Maeander from the Pesantley of siky on, Diyweia: Olympia,
iTat. 118, 3 ; : : . ¢ S163
Scroll pattern from the rier, “olympia: Olympia, I,
aki . : 152
Scroll pattern from Rescue Bose et Chipisn, VI, ‘Pl, XL, 2 1538
Scroll pattern from Olympia. Olympia, Il, Taf. 118,2 . . 158
396
FIG.
174,
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Scroll pattern from the Erechtheion, Athens. d’Espouy, Pl. 12 153
Braid pattern from Athéns. Wiegand, Taf.9,1 . ; . 154
Braid pattern from Athens. Wiegand, Taf.7,4 . ; . 154
Braid pattern from Athens. Wiegand, Taf.9,4 . 4 . 154
Braid pattern from Athens. Wiegand, Taf. 7,3 . : « 155
Ceiling of Tholos at Orchomenos. Schuchhardt, Fig. 290 . 155
Doric leaf pattern from the Bae of Themis at Rhamnous.
Fenger, Taf. 7,3 . : : ; A ; : . 156
Egg and dart pattern from Ol rae Olympia, Il, Taf. 118, 2 156
Doric leaf pattern from Olympia. Olympia, Il, Taf. 118,5 . 157
Ionic leaf pattern from the sees Museum, Athens. Fox
collection of photographs . ; Sey
Rosette pattern from Tiryns. Schliematin: Tignes BBs 4 FP SIs) Bots
Rosette pattern from Athens. Wiegand, Taf. 9,2. : . 159
Rosette pattern from Epidauros. Lechat et Defrasse, Pl.6 .- 159
Rosette pattern from Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 120, 2 . 160
Palmette pattern from the Leonidaion, Olympia. Olympia, II,
Eads k ee eee é ; ; wee tae
Palmette and lotus Baier hea Olympia, Olympia, II,
Fat 2) FAS ; : . 162
Palmette and lotus pattern bors Temple c, Senna Winck-
elmannsprogramme, 41, Taf.2 . : : : : Wabad Liye
Archaic antefix in A. M. private collection : . 164
Steps from the Leonidaion, Olympia. Olympia, I, Taf. 66 2 206
Steps from the Philippeion, Olympia. Olympia, I], Taf. 80 . 166
Pavement from palace at Phaistos. A. M. notebook : 2167
Door-tracks from the Temple of Athena, Priene.
&
a
4
GENERAL INDEX
Lion heads, 123, 176, 241, 245.
Lion Tomb, 373.
Lloyd, 131.
Locks, 45.
Lockers, 328.
Logeion, 346.
Logs, 6.
Lokroi, Temple at, 83, 91, 194, 203.
Loopholes, 291, 292.
Lotus, 161, 162, 227, 244.
Lyceum, 334.
Lycia, 2, 7, 10, 95, 174, 369.
Lykosoura, 58, 59.
Lysicrates, Monument of: see Athens.
Maeander, 151.
Magnesia. Agora,319. Temple of Ar-
temis: its columns, 98, 135, 156, 182,
194, 198, 200, 203, 213, 216, 260; en-
tablature, 107, 137, 219, 220, 237,
311. Temple of Zeus, 218. Pry-
taneion, 318. Stoa, 322. Theatre,
169, 354.
Maidens, 240.
Maison Carrée, 61.
Mantineia, 6, 305, 318, 323.
Marathon, 369.
Marble, 22-24.
Mars Ultor, 172.
Masks, 240. %
Masonry, 25-38.
Materials, wood, 1-13; clay, concrete,
and stucco, 13-21; stone and marble,
21-38; metals, 38.
Mausoleion: see Halikarnassos.
Mausolos, 168, 175.
Megalopolis. Government buildings,
317. Colonnades, 322, 323. Theatre,
316, 341, 344.
Megara, 285, 297.
Megara Hyblaea, 199.
Megarians, Treasury of: see Olympia.
Megaron, 300, 356-358.
Mesauloi, 360.
Mesoskenion, 349.
Messa, 108.
Messene, 78, 289, 290-291, 293-294,
309.
Metals, 38-39.
419
Metapontum, 8, 97, 1383, 263. Temple
of Apollo, 109, 225.
Metope, 50-51, 138, 221-224, 256, 267-
269.
Micon, 173.
Mideia, 291.
Miletos. Town of, 285. Temple of
Apollo: its plan, 302, 309, 311, 313;
columns, 81, 89, 95, 102, 133, 156,
182-183, 201, 260-261; pilasters, 76,
161, 168, 179; entablature, 107, 137,
162, 219, 231. Bouleuterion, 315.
Theatre, 178, 344.
Mines, 290.
Mitre, 6, 262.
Mnesikles, 295.
Moats, 290.
Mole, 366.
Monoglyph, 109.
Monotriglyphal, 268.
Mortar, 18, 34.
Mortise, 6.
Mosaic, 41, 167.
Mouldings, 6, 19, 157; of capitals,
93-94, 193, 197, 237; of entabla-
tures, 230, 231, 244-245, 268; of
gables, 237.
Mounds, 294.
Mourners, sarcophagus of, 372-373.
Mummius, 224.
Museum, 334.
Mutule, 9-10, 53, 232-234, 272.
Mycenae, town of, 285. Walls, 168,
289. Gates, 77, 87. Palace, 153, 166,
173. Tholoi, 87, 119-120. Tholos of
Atreus, its columns, 91, 96, 176, 177,
193, 205-206; facade, 150, 159, 168,
217, 370.
Mycenaean columns, 87, 195; gems,
82, 83, 90, 187; ivories, 91, 193-194.
Mylasa, 111, 120, 192, 276.
Myra, 111, 218-219.
Mythological, 237.
Nailing, 5.
Nails, 5.
Naos, 302.
Naples, 194.
Naukratis, 81, 91, 194.
420 GENERAL INDEX
Neandreia. Temple of Apollo, 91, 94,
100, 1384, 196, 200, 202, 303.
Neck, 193. :
Nemea. Temple of Zeus, 131, 133, 134,
136, 139.
Nereid Monument, 372.
Nereids, 240.
Nike, 240, 366; Temple of Athena
Nike: see Athens.
Nimes, 61, 311.
Notching, 6, 250.
Oak, 6.
Oak leaf, 157.
Octastyle, 313.
Odéion, 355.
Oemichen, 129.
Oikos, 357-360.
Oiniadai, 78.
Oinomaos, 8.
Olive, 157.
Olympia. Acroterion, 279. Agora, 319.
Altar, 270. Altis, 286. Antefixes, 240.
Bases of statues, 61-62. Baths, 154.
Bouleuterion, 63, 159, 244, 317. Cap-
itals from, 178, 208, 214. Cornices,
138, 156. Epistyle decoration, 217.
Exedra, 297. Gymnasium, 98. He-
raion, 8, 13, 57, 70, 121, 149, 239, 240,
246. Leonidaion, 85, 98, 100, 165,
185, 214, 216, 278. Maeanders, 151.
Nero’s palace, 150, 154. Oinomaos’
house, 8. Palaistra, 95-96, 190, 196,
200. Palmettes, 160. Philippeion,
a, 63, 101, 103, 118, 149, 165-166, 198,
212, 307. Prytaneion, 318. Pulvinus,
904. Scrolls, 151, 153. Sima, 243-
245. §. E. Binder. 156-157. Sta-
dion, 72, 252, 323, 331-332. Taenia,
105. Treasury of Gela, 115, 122, 149,
151, 191, 232, 233, 243, 277. Treasury
of ‘Megara, 68, 112, 184, 267, 272.
Treasury of Sikyon, 151, 171. Treas-
uries, 301-302; Walls, 66. Temple
of Zeus: its acroteria, 240; antae,
70, 71; columns, 256; cornice, 113,
138; epikranitis, 68; epistyle, 106,
262; frieze, 240; gables, 139, 239;
gallery, 304; krepidoma, 57; met-
opes, 224; pavements, 19, 167, 248;
porches, 311-312; ramp, 56; sima,
244, 277-278; tiles, 122; tympanon,
373-874.
Olympieion: see Akragas, Athens.
Onasias, 301.
Opisthodomos, 301-302.
Opisthoskenion, 352.
Opus Alexandrinum, 41.
Opus tesselatum, 41.
Orange, 118, 346.
Orchestra, 337-339.
Orchomenos in Arcadia, 185, 291.
Orchomenos in Boeotia, 77, 147, 155,
159.
Orientation, 314.
Ornamentation, methods of, 146-149;
types of geometric, 149-155; floral,
155-163 ; zoomorphic, 163; anthropo-
morphic, 163-165; of foundations,
pavements, and walls, 165-173; of
doors, windows, antae, and pilasters,
173-181; of columns, 181-217; of
entablatures, 217-234; of ceilings
and roof, 234-245.
Oropos. Altar, 300. Temple of Amphi-
araos, 309. Theatre, 86, 354.
Orthostatai, 67, 170.
Paestum. Basilica or Enneastylos, 70,
73, 89-91,°194, 214, 303, 309, 313.
Temple of Demeter, 50, 81, 89-91,
105, 114, 184-185, 194, 209, 232, 263,
268. Temple of Poseidon, 58, 70, 96,
102-103, 116, 124-125, 183, 1389, 141-
142, 191, 304.
Painting, 147-149.
Paionios, 62.
Palace, 63, 355-356.
Palaimon, 306.
Palaiopolis, 111.
Palaistra, 325-326, 334.
Palatitza, 94.
Palisade, 294.
Palmette and lotus, 160-161, 197-198,
224, 227, 240.
Palmyra, 287.
Panels, 45, 176-177, 232-233.
Paralogeia, 354.
as:
GENERAL INDEX
Parapet, 331.
Paraskenia, 352.
Parastades, 43, 69, 309.
Parion, 300.
Paris, 259.
Parodoi, 315, 346.
Parthenon: see Athens.
Pausanias, 8, 319, 323, 370.
Pavements, 19, 41, 166-167, 246-249.
Peiraieus. Town, 286. Water supply,
296. Colonnades, 318, 368. Mixed
styles, 284. Arsenal, 8, 55-56, 130,
183, 249.
Peisistratos, 286-287, 335.
Peligriniatza, 296.
Pennethorne, 141.
Penrose, 89, 97, 137, 201, 236, 252.
Pentastyle, 312-313.
Pentekontoros, 365.
Pergamon. Walls, 66. Altar, 166, 204,
219, 300. Temple of Athena, 58, 227.
Temple of Dionysos, 85, 98, 105, 131,
133, 134, 225, 232, 265. Ionic Temple,
158, 204, 220, 240, 271. Trajan’s
Temple, 158, 240. Gymnasium, 98,
119. Library, 335-336. Stoa, 48, 55,
86, 98, 185-186, 211, 227, 269, 284,
322. Propylon, 163, 178-179. Tomb
of Telephos, 120.
Peribolos, 323.
Peridromos, 292.
Perilogeion, 354.
Peristyle, 248, 300, 310, 356, 360.
Perrot, 127.
Perseus, 221-222.
Persia, 9.
Persian, 199.
Persians, 195.
Phaistos, 90, 159, 166, 269, 295, 356.
Pharos, 367.
Phigaleia. Gateway, 78. Temple of
Apollo: its columns, 82, 85, 88, 90,
94; 97, 131, 158, 184, 191, 197, 260;
frieze, 270; ceiling and roof, 117-118,
275, 313; mixed styles, 283. Tower
291.
Philander, 257.
Philippeion: see Olympia.
Philippian colonnade, 322.
421
Philon of Byzantium, 250, 290-292,
294.
Philon of Eleusis, 368.
Philopappos: see Athens.
| Philoxenos, 297.
Phoenicians, 195.
Phoenician ships, 365.
Phokikon, 316.
Phrygia, 2.
Phrygian tombs, 371.
Physical culture, 324-334.
Piers, 11, 79, 250, 254, 257.
Pilasters, 69-76, 177-181, 251-253.
Piles, 3, 6.
Pillars, 79, 191-192.
Pinakes, 7, 118, 352.
Pinakotheke, 171, 176.
Pine, 3.
Pipes, 296, 328.
Plane, 4.
Planks, 5.
Platband, 140, 171, 172.
Plate, 6, 7, 172.
Plateia, 187, 301.
Plinth, 67, 71, 80, 84-85, 135.
Pliny, 2, 7.
Plumb line, 4.
Podium, 58-61.
Pollio, 336.
Pollux, 116.
Polygnotos, 173, 301, 336.
Polykleitos the elder, 61.
Polykleitos the younger, 158, 307.
Polykrates, 335.
Polytriglyphal, 269.
Pompeii. Walls, 66. Gate, 294.
Forum, 186. Curia, 316. Bath, 328.
Houses, 168, 356, 359, 360. Theatre,
354. Greek Temple, 57, 80-81, 312.
Isis Temple, 101-102. Columns, 94,
184, 188, 190. Wall paintings, 173.
Poplar, 3.
Porch, 264, 301, 308-312, 358.
Poros, 21-22.
Porticoes, 248, 336, 354-357.
Poseidon, Temple of: see Paestum,
Sounion.
Poseidon Hippios, 6.
Postern, 290.
422
Posts, 5, i.
Pozzuoli, 220.
Priene. Streets of, 287. Agora, 202,
237, 249, 319, 321-322. Temple of
Athena: its platform, 166, 249; col-
umns, 74, 84, 133, 135, 181, 204, 216,
251, 260-261; entablature, 52, 106-
107, 137, 1389, 218, 220, 231, 249; ceil-
ing and roof, 53, 118, 236-237, 245,
276; propylon, 52, 86, 111, 295.