MARINE PILING ~ INVESTIGATIONS NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL - THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY Lay? Walter H. Fulweiler Memorial Library Fund Meek INE STFTRUCITURES THEIR DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION MARINE STRUCTURES THEIR DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION REPORT of the COMMITTEE ON MARINE PILING INVESTIGATIONS of the DIVISION OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH of the NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL By WILLIAM G. ATWOOD and A. A. JOHNSON with the collaboration of William F. Clapp, of Robert C. Miller, of the University of California, and of H. W. Walker, H. S. McQuaid and Marjorie S. Allen, of the Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. A. Published by the NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Washington, D. C. ‘ Copyrighted, 1924 a by WILLIAM G, ATWOOD and ' A. A. JOHNSON Printed in U. S. A. = $ r¢ a ay ; Prefatory Note HIS report presents the results of work done by the Commit- tee on Marine Piling Investigations of the Division of Engi- neering and Industrial Research of the National Research Coun- cil. In its work the Committee was assisted by the Divisions of Biology and Agriculture and of Chemistry and Chemical Tech- nology of the Council. The Committee wishes to acknowledge also the generous contributions of funds and services by a large number of other agencies and individuals. Without these con- tributions it would have been impossible to have carried on the investigations which are reported in the following pages. While these investigations were planned by the Committee, the credit for their administration is due to Colonel William G. At- wood, Director of Investigations for the Committee. Full credit is also due to Colonel Atwood and to Mr. A. A. Johnson, Assistant to the Director, for the writing of this report, with the exception of those sections for which other authors are indicated. The Committee presents this report with the distinct realiza- tion that much remains to be done in future study on the several phases of the problem of the protection of structures in sea- water. It is believed, however, that the work of the Committee has oveen brought to a stage where such a compilation as this of results already obtained is warranted and it is hoped that the data here brought together may be found to be of value to the engineering profession. Rea BEUYS; Chairman, Committee on Marine Piling Investigations National Research Council 3807 em AX, TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I EN TRODUCTION “ier es bee ek oy eS r CHAPTER II PLO LOG S eTT aT arate corer cre oracles cia Sthia ea We een a 6 OUleCtLOMe OLE DECLINE SE ric hin wetter see 6 Sree alee Lest omens 2 ey teach tits seis sore chee oils he tua d ve 10 VY i CPon A Tis |S OS es, bre) oye shale deo aw ard sa allede toate 18 eee Perotti.) “ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER. .......s.0+200000% 21 (SE ACED ai Pes, SOR a oe aaa + iio hes al CLD LSC AMR Rees Pete eee ede See aw hada eboral b WERE 26 MOND LAN aAULOde OL aU Settee sate ates 5 eer oe ee ee Do CHAPTER IV PEN IREAT Om ISORINGUIN. BROCK «4 cic utat wide slsldmce trons 71 CHAPTER V TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED...... ye CHAPTER VI PROTECTION) AGAINST BDORERS dec. ss cc cde sees un oe 87 EEE gs (pet Re a ee Bt nd Se aa 87 SEER CPRLY DM lO eres se dia oie tee ieee Sk endo se SA ea 88 Artin sand PCATTITN Saris sos .. cite Pere. Me 88 TIE SOR UILIS Sec cla Pee teers oe ea dee 90 1 SUIS els Nata 0 1 ag gis ae eR AN OR TN Tan 92 Piee edit TOSOr VALVES Bolas Sie ay eleh ante eens 106 Peat reK Vil SUBSTITUTES FOR TIMBER ©... . 6.06.60 0e5 00000088 151 (COUN CEOLO ML Tee ran. See te te, Seasacdhe s Sate eate 151 MGT EOLEUCCUTES Sart Ve PR or oe Cie cua wee 158 COnrCclusiOns +. Se es as Oe eae 162 CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.......... 163 CHAPTER IX PROGRESS REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL WARFARE . Test of the Chlorine Method of Protection, Appendix IT 22..,. 12 5. eae 197 Preservation of New Wooden Structures, Appendix JIT 0... sc sc eels «oe ee 202 CHAPTER X HARBOR. REPORTS. . ... oid:« 4,6: eyeeie See 221, Maine Coast. ..<...ssssu0sss0 eee 221 Portsmouth, N. H., to Provincetown, Mass.....231 Boston Harbor. «.. . <« 0 «5 e550 238 Buzzards and Narragansett. Bays... 248 Long Island Sound .-.... 2. csc5 eee 258 New York Harbor ......... lA | OWNS Pls ie RABY 2 ———LANOMD | +" ce a sa sa, we PPQYSRIV ID» euyyvge O4IMIOS xXx Fw oppeiwury nba, wibngr robe, snz Ai Oru. Oy nate a | ee : 27 Woy, = Mw eSe) omy an w wef ly mYav.c | blade ong PU Pe : j 8 Vv ly 75 nh A poeon) ms BIILIVONDINDW * | 2.5 | apy preousds Aon , VIS IGNOH LY V9. pd gregory =" 2, ' ‘ Yo ee “ ; ‘\ % N a 7, ? — = . | L nog s bangunn AW yy” ee. Amupigel To We of erenn , ji e +h Sues IPED § rang T OM, Fe PIII yin i x prieednysy ) ce ee I 1) Fp ur Me Tdduoaed 4 Ww a Denticulate ridges of the anterior portion. x 125, Denticulate ridges of the anterior-median portion. x 12 Pallets. x 12. ‘6 Exterior of right valve. x 17. —_ Exterior of left valve. x 17. Interior of left valve. x 17. Interior of right valve. x 17. (By permission of Academy of Science of St. Louis.) PLATE XIV Martesia striata from Pearl Harbor, dorsal view. x oe Same, lateral view. Same, ventral view. Split section of a test block eubmeeead 5 arene at Martesia striata in place in burrows. The burrows careous lining are those of Teredo. x 9/10. Portion of the surface of a block submerged 9 months at destruction by Martesia striata. x 9/10. a oe (By permission of Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool.) 4“ MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 3 Fic. 4 CHELURA INSULAE AND LIMNORIA ANDREWSI (Page 57) FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 53 MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE II } Fic. 7 Fic. 8 TYPICAL WORKINGS OF LIMNORIA AND CHELURA (Page 58) XPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 53 19} FOR MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER : PLATE III Fig. 9 Fic. 10 Fics 12 Fig. 13 Fic. 14 Fic. 15 Fic. 16 Pic. 17 Fic. 18 TEREDO PARKSI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE EE PAGE 53 (Page 59) MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 21 Fic. 28 TEREDO FURCILLATUS AND TEREDO SAMOAENSIS FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 (Page 60) MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATH V Fic. 33 Fic 34 Fig, 35 Fic. 36° Fic. 37 TEREDO AFFINIS AND TEREDO TRULLIFORMIS FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 (Page 61) PLATE VI MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 38 FIG: 39 Fic. 40 TEREDO BARTSCHI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 (Page 62) S—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE VII MARINE STRUCTURE Fic. 43 Fic. 44 TEREDO BARTSCHI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGP 54 (Page 63) PLATE VIII MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 48 Fic. 49 Fic. 50 Fic. 51 Fia. 52 Fig. 53 GSTs TEREDO PORTORICENSIS FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 (Page 64) MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATH IX Fic. 60 TEREDO BATILLIFORMIS FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 PLATE X MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 61 Fic. 62 Fic. 63 Fic. 64 Fic. 65 Fic. 66 TEREDO SOMERSI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 (Page 66) MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE XI Fic. 69 Fic. 70 TEREDO BATILLIFORMIS AND TEREDO SOMERSI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 (Page 67) PUATH Sil MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 71 Fic. 72 Fie. 73 Fic. 74 Fic. 75 Fic. 76 Fic. 77 Fic. 78 TEREDO JOHNSONI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 (Page 68) MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER PLATE XIII Fic. 79 Fic. 80 Fic. 81 Fic. 82 Fic. 83 Fig. 85 TEREDO FULLERI FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 56 (Page 69) PLATE XIV MARINE STRUCTURES—ANIMALS BORING IN TIMBER Fic. 86 Fic. 87: Fic. 88 Fig. 89 Fic. 90 MARTESIA STRIATA FOR EXPLANATION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 56 (Page 70) x CHAPTER IV ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK Crustacea Some species of Sphaeroma are found in mud and soft rock, but so far as is indicated by records reaching the Committee they have not damaged masonry structures. Mollusca There are several genera and a large number of species of rock boring mollusks found in all-parts of the world. There has been much discussion as to whether these animals did their boring by mechanical or chemical means, or a combination of the two. It was at first thought to be impossible for so fragile a structure as the shell of one of these animals to penetrate hard rock, and that consequently the action must be chemical. The method of boring used by the family Pholadidae was described by a Dutch merchant, Leendert Bomme, in 1778, (W. Vrolik, Comptes Rendus, 1853, 36:797) as purely mechanical without the aid of any acid. This was further demonstrated about 1840 by finding these ani- mals boring in mica schist which could not have been dissolved by acid. Some species of rock borers working in limestone, such as the sponges and polycheate worms, in addition to some species of mollusks, do un- doubtedly use chemical means of boring. While rock borers are very widely distributed, no reports have reached the Committee of the destruction of stone masonry harbor structures by rock borers, but the breakwater at Plymouth, England, is reported to have been damaged by them. There is a possibility of the destruction of masonry when the stone is soft and the borers active. (Fig. 17.) Only two authentic reports have reached the Committee of attack on con- crete structures, but in both cases serious damage occurred. The La Boca dock in the Panama Canal Zone was built by the French Company in 1898 on cylinder piers 5 meters in diameter, incased in a metal cofferdam which was left in place. There is no record of the materials or method of construction, but there are several concrete structures on shore in the vicinity which were built at the same time and supposedly with the same materials. These structures are in excellent condition. The metal cofferdam corroded and through the holes thus formed the borers attacked the concrete. In 1922 the damage was so great that the dock was con- demned. It is very probable that the chemical disintegration of the concrete was much accelerated by the work of the borers, and, conversely, that the destructive work of the borers was assisted:by the softening of the concrete by chemical action. The animal responsible for most of this damage was the Lithophaga aristata Dillwyn, but Mr. Zetek, specialist in tropical entomology, on the staff of the Canal organization, reports a number of other rock borers in the Canal Zone in part as follows: “The Pholadidae are not the only rock-boring mollusks we have. They are the principal and most destructive ones. ace 72 ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK “We have Carditamera affinis Brod. (family Carditidae), which also bores into rock along the shore, and also members of the genus Saxicava (family Saxicavidae) are found in rocks. I am not positive of the species of Saxicava that we have here, but I feel reasonably certain both pur- purascens Sby. and solida Sby. are present in our fauna. “In the Pholas-type of boring mollusk, the work is done by means of a filing or rasping action of the shell, which has a row of hard spines or ridges near the front edge. They usually avoid very hard rocks. There is no solution-process involved; it is all mechanical rasping, and those that are in the harder kinds of rocks have their ‘drilling’ parts quite dull when old, whereas those in the softer rocks, maintain them quite slender and sharp. . “In the preceding paragraph I omitted the genus Petricola, of which we have represented in our fauna the species denticulata Sby. and robusta Sby. They are rock-borers. There is very little data available on the actual destructiveness of many of these species. The Petricolas belong to the family of Petricolidae. “In Lithophaga (syn. Lithodomus) there is no structure present with which the mollusk could scrape or bore. Instead, there is a special gland, present only in those species that bore into rocks, which secretes a sub- stance which has a solvent action on the rock material, at any rate, that is the presumption and it appears to be true. The solution turns litmus pink. “Such species, which secrete-.a rock-solvent, are, of necessity, protected by a thick covering (periostracum), as otherwise the solvent would also attack the shell-covering of the animal. The Pholas type has no such a covering. In Saxicava there is a periostracum but it is much eroded and could not protect the shell if there was any rock-solvent secreted. “It is remarkable that a mollusk, when very young, should purposely take refuge in a small crevice or cavity, and make this its voluntary prison for life, that it should enlarge its cell as growth made demands for more space, aie yet, to be unable even, in many cases, to turn about in its snugly fitting ome. . “As to the sponges and worms that burrow into rocks, I have very little data on our local species that have these habits. We have a sponge, a Cliona, which usually attacks oyster shells. Sollas quotes Topsent (Arch. Zool. Exp. (8) viii p. 36, to the effect that as borers into oyster shells, the Clionidae may be reckoned as being of practical importance, and in some cases they even devastate the rocks, penetrating to a depth of some feet and causing them to crumble away.” The other case of damage to concrete occurred at Los Angeles, Cal., and is described in the 3rd Annual Progress Report of the San Francisco Com- mittee, 1923, as follows: “In the work of widening the channel in Los Angeles Harbor, about November 138, 1922, it became necessary to remove some old wooden piling which had been jacketed some years previously with concrete. In looking over these piles, Mr. Hughes observed that some of the jackets had been attacked by borers, and investigated further. Of 18 jackets examined at this location, known as the old Fish Cannery Wharf, across the channel from the foot of 5th Street, San Pedro (see map of Los Angeles Harbor), 16 were found to be more or less attacked; about 5 were considered to be badly attacked (6 borers or more per square foot of exposed surface) ; the others contained fewer, and some only an occasional borer. The two jackets which did not contain borers stood in shallower water than the others. “The exact date at which these piles were driven could not be determined, but it was probably several years prior to 1909, at which time it became necessary to jacket them with concrete to protect them from Limnoria or other wood borers. The jackets had accordingly been in place 14 years. The length of time during which they were actually exposed to attack by the rock borers, however, is probably considerably less than this, as the form lumber was left in place outside the jackets, and would deter the pholad borers from entering the concrete until the encasing wood was destroyed by wood borers. 73 PHOLADS AGUAMOS 1IDAOG DUaDYIOLISDH UNV ANDIGUO YiDINISLG (Sn1aING) pbnydoywyT — susuog Xd AILVNOdNTT “VT ‘ASQOHLHDI'T SLATODIYN LSM GNNOUW dVU-dIyY Wout ANOLY JO SNAWIOGAS—)T “SIA 74 ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK “One of these piles was available for examination a month later by the junior author (Dr. R. C. Miller) of this report. The jacket was above seven feet long, having extended from mud line up to about mean low water. It consisted of cement mortar with no coarse aggregate (see screen test below), averaging 2% inches in thickness, and sufficiently hard that some difficulty was experienced in breaking it up with a 15-pound iron bar to secure samples. “The outside form lumber was still partly in place. It had originally consisted of 1-inch redwood, as seen at one place where it had been protected by a cleat. Elsewhere it had been badly attacked by Limnoria and Teredo diegensis, so that only a thin shell of it remained adhering to the concrete. This thin layer of wood, however, still covered all of the jacket except about one foot at the top, and one corner, where the form had sprung apart, leaving a gap through which the rock borers could enter. In this area nearly 40 of the borers occurred, averaging 7 or 8 to the square foot. “The mollusks were in general a little larger than a man’s thumb. The largest one found occupied a burrow measuring 1% inches in diameter at its widest portion. Two borers in this jacket had penetrated the concrete until they came in contact with the wood within, but none had actually bored into the wood. One indeed had turned and continued boring in the concrete parallel to the surface of the wood, to avoid entering the latter. “Mr. Hughes reported that, of the jackets examined by him, one other was attacked more heavily than this in proportion to the surface exposed; but it consisted of a very poor concrete, badly disintegrated. “The discovery of the borers in concrete at this locality led to examination of other concrete jacketed piles in the harbor. “Mr. Ludlow stated that, of 12 pile jackets examined by him at the old Blinn Lumber Company Wharf, opposite Berth 229 in Los Angeles Harbor, 3 were rather badly attacked by borers. Mr. Sadler reported that he had broken open 12 concrete jackets at the First Street Ferry landing, of which 3 were found to be attacked, one quite badly, the others containing from 3 to 6 borers each. Of 75 such jackets examined by Mr. Sadler at the Kerckhoff-Cuzner Wharf, about 50 per cent were found to contain borers, and about 20 per cent were quite badly attacked. “Dr. Miller had the privilege of going over this ground again with Messrs. _Hughes, Ludlow and Sadler on December 16. A number of other jackets were broken open, and a considerable quantity of specimens secured. “The species occasioning most of the damage was found to be Pholadidea penita Conrad, known commonly as the “rock clam.” (Fig. 18.) It occurred from two feet above mean low water to one foot below, which was the lowest level at which we were able to work. It doubtless similarly occurs on down to the mud, even in deep water, as it has been dredged in San Francisco Bay at a depth of fifty fathoms. “This borer, unlike Teredo, has the body entirely enclosed within the two valves of the shell, which are ovate, tapering somewhat posteriorly and ending in leathery flaps. During the period of active boring life, the foot protrudes through a rather large anterior gape between the valves; but after cessation of boring, and perhaps in the interim between periods of boring activity, this gape is closed over by a calcareous plate, giving the borer the appearance seen in the photographs. It will be noted that the anterior portion of the shell is ribbed and somewhat denticulated, either for rasping purposes, or to grip the sides of the burrow. “This species is edible, and is used for food in localities where it occurs in sufficient abundance to make worth while the labor of removing it from its rocky domicile, which is usually done by means of iron bars. “Another boring species found in concrete pile jackets examined by us here was Platyodon cancellata Conrad, a near relative of the soft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria). This borer normally inhabits stiff mud and clay. It was found in the pile jackets only sparsely, and only in decidedly poor concrete. “A third species occurring in the concrete jackets was the so-called ‘nestler,’ Petricola carditoides Conrad, which is believed not to bore on its own account, but to inhabit natural cavities or holes bored by other organisms. PHOLADS 15 “As regards extent of the damage occasioned by borers in concrete, a review of the data assembled by Mr. Hughes, Mr. Ludlow, Mr. Sadler and Dr. Miller, indicates that, of concrete jacketed piles at four different loca- tions in Los Angeles Harbor, in fact at every point in the inner harbor where such piles exist, about 50 per cent have been more or less attacked, of which rather more than one-fifth have been very considerably bored. Of those not attacked, a number stood so well inshore as to be but little exposed to the action of the borers. If all such piles were eliminated from the count, the percentage of jackets damaged would be considerably higher. “These jackets were in general of cement mortar poured around the piles by setting forms after the piles were driven. Some of the jackets had given service in sea water over a period of fourteen years. The hardness of the mortar was such that a sample of the best mortar in which the borers were found could be readily cut with the thumb nail. “Mr. A. A. M. Russell, Testing Engineer, made a crushing test of the best sample submitted, finding the crushing strength of a specimen 24%” x 3%" x4%” high to be 1726 pounds per square inch. This sample when crushed showed an encased sand pocket from which the aggregate could be readily picked with the fingers. Mr. Russell reports the grading of the aggregate, as follows: SCREEN PERCENTAGES NN Ee ee aa ca piss 04, eka ante eavicinmeis ska) del ® eT er ee oi dae eek che ce klslee ce DLS SN ee to re a hace tees haves eee LOOT ee einai e sia vesecs cae LOOT PM I a acalss seve ce csvwseces S04 Fic. 18—-PHOLADS IN CONCRETE C’ASINGS AT LOS ANGELES, CAL. 76 ANIMALS BORING IN ROCK “Approximately 93 per cent of the total aggregate passed the 50 mesh screen. “It has commonly occurred in jacketing piles in place, that the concrete has been ‘drowned’ either by the presence of too much water in the mix or by depositing the material in the water, causing segregation and laitance and rendering such structures especially susceptible to borer action. Whether or not concrete of greater hardness, containing approximately 90 per cent of assorted aggregate in excess of the 50 mesh screen as contrasted with mortar having only 7% above 50 mesh, remains for further investiga- tion. An inspection of concrete jacketed piles at Pier 34 and at Fisher- man’s Wharf at San Francisco failed to disclose borers. The type of piles selected was similar in construction to the Los Angeles type in that they were jacketed in the water, but the aggregate consisted of rock and sand and produced a fairly sound concrete. It is possible that these piles have not been exposed to attack on account of the mud shores of San Francisco Bay. However, the piles at Fisherman’s Wharf are located at the inner end of the Golden Gate within one-half mile of Fort Mason, at which location rock borers have been reported in shale rocks.” These two instances show the possibility of serious damage to concrete structures by both types of boring mollusks, but the known wide distribu- tion of these animals and the fact that only these two instances of damaged structures have been reported would seem to indicate that the danger, while existing, does not appear to be very great. Careful inspections should be made of concrete structures where these rock borers are known to exist, and further biological study should be made of them. CHAPTER V TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED Statements frequently appear that certain tropical and other woods are immune from attack by marine borers. All available information on this subject has been studied to see whether any of these claims could be con- sidered as proven to a sufficient degree to justify the importation of timber. In 1913, Mr. A. K. Armstrong at the Forest Products Laboratory, Depart- ment of Agriculture, prepared a tabulation of all service records and records of tests which could be obtained as to the resistance of unprotected timber to the attack of marine borers. This report, the reports of the Institution of Civil Engineers “Deterioration of Structures in Sea-Water,” of 1920, 1921 and 1922, as well as records obtained from other reliable sources, furnish the basis for the information following. The Forest Products Laboratory report contains 771 items of which 312 refer to timbers of the temperate zone generally recognized as not being resistant to borer attack, while the remainder are principally tropical or sub-tropical timbers. There is great difficulty in the study of tropical timbers on account of the different local names given to these timbers, and therefore it has been necessary to eliminate from consideration some of those of which the botanical name is unknown. Since either the structures required early re- placement or the tests showed failures, it is considered necessary for pres- ent purposes to include in this report only the timbers which show some resistance and can be made available in this market, or those which have been more or less widely recommended for resistance to borer attack and which do not have records which confirm the claims made for them. Cottonwood On account of its rapid decay and lack of strength, cottonwood has not generally been considered a structural timber, but its record at least justi- fies tests to determine whether it will resist the attack of marine borers. In 1904 the Alaska Central Railway constructed a wharf at Seward, on Resurrection Bay, Alaska. It was supposed that there were no marine borers in the Bay and the wharf was built of unprotected native spruce timber. After about 18 months’ service this wharf failed under a load of not exceeding 500 tons, and it was found that the piles were thoroughly honeycombed by shipworms. On account of the necessity for prompt re- placement, and in the hope that the timber would better resist attack, many of the shorter spruce piles (45 feet to 70 feet) were replaced with cotton- wood. No sign of attack could be found in these piles two years later when the wharf was burned. A similar failure, in Uyak Bay, Alaska, resulted in a new wharf being built entirely on cottonwood piles, which are reported to be in good condition after 10 years’ service, while in another arm of Uyak Bay a cannery wharf on cottonwood piles was in good condition after 28 years’ service. A test made by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway at Seattle did not give good results. A cottonwood test pile was heavily attacked in a fel 78 TIMBER FOR WHICH IMMUNITY IS CLAIMED few months, and a similar result was obtained in a test made by the South- ern Pacific Railway at Oakland, Cal. Other tests are being made. The Northern Pacific Railway report a barked test piece to have been heavily attacked and an unbarked piece to have contained only one Bankia which entered through a knot. Palmettos, Mangroves and Palms These timbers are open to the same objections as cottonwood, but the records quoted below justify considering them, where readily available, for use in light structures. If cut off at low water decay is prevented, and much longer life than can be obtained from the pines is to be expected: COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME einen SERVICE REPORT RECORD Palmetto Sabal palmetto Daytona, Fla. 30 years service Palmetto Sabal palmetto Nassau, Bahamas 8 years good condition Palmetto Sabal palmetto Egmont, Fla. 10 years light ship- bts worm attack Palmetto Sabal palmetto Mississippi City 1b eae light at- ac Palmetto Sabal palmetto Pensacola, Fla. Attack by Martesia Palmetto Sabal palmetto Galveston, Tex. Light attack—50 years life expected Palm Species unknown Tampico, Mexico 20 years Palm Species unknown Haiti 35 years Palm Species unknown Santo Domingo 6-7 years Palm Species unknown Guatemala Long service Mangrove Species unknown Galveston, Tex. Not attacked Mangrove—Black Rhizophora racemosa Guayaquil, Ec. Long service Mangrove—Red fhizophoranatalen- Jamaica 10-12 years sis Mangrove Rhizophora mangle Haiti 20 years A palmetto pole used for carrying test blocks at Castle Pinckney in the harbor of Charleston, 8. C., contained a few Teredo navalis and Martesia after about 7 months’ immersion. The Teredo were small and did not seem to thrive, but the indications are that Martesia will attack this timber as well as any other. A considerable number of teredine borers were found in test blocks of cocoanut palm immersed for a few months at St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. Eucalyptus Statements are frequently made that various species of the Eucalyptus family resist attack. Some species are more durable in borer infested waters than are the pines and oaks ordinarily used for harbor works, but, as will be seen by referring to the tabulated record, page 79, none of those reported are immune from attack. Eucalyptus propinqua and Eucalyptus punctata are both known in some localities as “gray gum.” EUCALYPTUS SERVICE RECORD OF EUCALYPTUS Source of Location of Common Name Botanical Name Timber Structure ATG GEST Eucalyptus rostrata........ Australia... Burrard Inlet, B. ©... .. 4. PUREE shad acaiie tre Eucalyptus marginata.....Australia..Port Moody, B. C........ larrahion sc. 6.5 10 eee aah Te Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Sunderland, England...... PEL 5 ae Ae aA Om ee Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Plymouth, England....... ANEN gers) 0B ae Spee Se dene ae a Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .English Channel.......... array ee ew heck eo Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Table Bay, So. Africa..... 2S Se A ae Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. . Mossel Bay, So. Africa... . PARTON PA ook vce ss Eucalyptuc marginata..... Australia. .Port Elizabeth, So. Africa. 19 Report of Service 10-12 years F 16 years...G 5 years....D 20 years...G 30 years. ..G 3-4 years...F 12 years....F 5-8 years...F 2-20 years. .F 10-20 years.F 5-6 years... F 5 years.....F 2 years.....F 2% years...F 2% years...F 10 years....F 234 years..A 10 years....F 6-8 years...F 6-8 years...F 234 years...A 10 years. ..G 5-8 years...F 7 years....D 2 years.....A 4 years.....F 10 years... .F 3 years....G 10-15 years. F 10 years....F 5-8 years...F D Years... . A 8 years.....F 5-8 years...F 5 years.....F 214-15years.F 7 years....G 7 years.... G 3-4 years...F 5 years.....F 7 years.....A 8 years.....F 14 years....F wt years..... D 7 years....1D ATT AIPH MENT. 2h oo 8 Sa Seis Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .East London, So. Africa... Jerr pee ket aie a i cceve oe Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia... Durban, So. Africa....... ATW S06 teak Sys an ee |e Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia se Aden pArabiaw..0.c).4 os: IAECAM A ameee tate sac oes Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia..Bombay, India........... SALTO = Rees ea ng oe Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia..Columbo, Ceylon......... STEW g 9 Nee ok ast hee ae ne Eucalyptus marginata..... Australia. .Chinawangto, China...... Forest Red Gum or Grey Gumrrergeee eae ee Eucalyptus tereticornis..... California..Los Angeles, Cal......... Forest Red Gum or Grey ERUEED en ait ai aes RR Eucalyptus tereticornis..... Californis..San Diego, Cal’........... IME AMATNA GUNS oe. oen2 Seve sls Eucalyptus viminalia...... California..San Francisco, Cal........ OE rata Cries g es e 9 Bette > Sy Mine Sak ° on eo) a “a 2) ut © we ‘ vu °o ( pel rv) t ma) ce a! we fd t ~ = f uy, { [S) ~ 4 wd wo ( { Qos i ¢: Ss \ ' | =~ t Cc i t @ — { (io) TENG. Ae We ws ’ t Se Gi Mit ou a wien ea a" %, Wop tues 3 t . © Jah ig atl, its gern A a Whe Pin ts AG ; aie ea " “F u wt eo ont Mila FEST AL SR AID Ls Netgear ce we tae 2 4 etiam * AOU Ie RUN ad eae “a Za wat ies aN ks \ NE Le tre tein dine testa WG A Bk ee NI o 1 =e, F = ! { Ss { --~-39yiWwoy 0} WuUas vonsod Lridwes - -4 ' if z= 1 ~) | ' | Concrete protection, y is w bs! [oo] » c ov E cr) 1S] : = y yin = bay AON a 4 mM A mm 3/4 Nt lt We oe pain ee aN iy Pe ‘2 ry Mt Ut oe 1s) yal! "2 em Me i FF yt an 2 Ow mae ON aN iy)” mt fea es f Wa my nie we eee > a uth eae ey yrs ma IMS Bt 4g t ae ee oe 31 I MI iy HU, wht My i ‘ut- ha v5 » a yu 4 Nip Yt op iy We AS gh Ey We ye ay, on wo 4, ON ry 72 We Ss ww i/! Won \ enka We a HE v] rR wee \ wu? \\ , lo Ww . ws o Cl Pare Ct De aa ae sea ee + Phe se ---Perfectly sound SAND lad! Ike ’ [eo SKETCH SHOWING RESULT OF BUILDING CASINGS TOO SHORT. (REPRODUCED FROM 1ST REPORT, INST. OF CIVIL ENGINEERS) 25— Fic. 107 108 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS 1924, the untreated specimens were found to be completely destroyed, and the treated specimens were all attacked by shipworms. It is probable that in another year the treated specimens will be destroyed. Specimens treated with paraffine alone appeared to resist attack to about the same degree as those treated with paraffine and the copper and arsenious salts. Tests of similar specimens by the San Francisco Committee gave similar results, except that the arsenious salts seemed to resist better than the others. The process of double injection, that is, locking the soluble compound in the timber with one that is insoluble, by precipitation or otherwise, is a promising field for experiment. One of the dangers is that this method will be so expensive as to be uneconomical. Several of these processes are: FIRST INJECTION—SOLU- SECOND INJECTION— PROCESS TION OF: SOLUTION OF: Jacques Soap Tar acids Richards Common salt Alum Muller Phosphate of soda Chloride of barium Hattzfeld Tannin Acetate of iron Krug Soda Creosote Wellhouse Chloride of zine and glue Tannin 2. Wood Products Various wood products have been tried and generally found wanting. Records of 24 tests, none of which were successful, are available, cover- ing the following substances said to be wood products: Wood creosote Spiritine Ferneline Pinoline Wood distillate Resin oil Resin 3. Creo-Resinate Process Two tests of wood preserved by this process were reported by the Forest Products Laboratory; one in Virginia showed “badly attacked by shipworm in 7 years,” and the other in Texas ‘“‘riddled in less than 2 years.” 4. Powellizing The Powellizing process, which is patented, consists of first immersing the timber in a thin syrup of raw sugar or other saccharine matter, which is heated to the boiling point and maintained at that temperature for several hours. Other ingredients, some of them toxic, are sometimes added to the syrup. After the boiling process has been completed, the liquor is allowed to cool to 100° Fahr. or less, and then drawn off. The timber is then sub- jected to a process of artificial drying, which is effected by gradually raising the temperature in the drying chamber to about 170° Fahr., the humidity being reduced from 85 per cent or 90 per cent to 35 per cent. The report of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1920, indicated that while this process extended the life of the timber in borer infested waters, it did not give immunity from attack. 5. Creosote Impregnation Impregnation of timber with creosote is one of the best methods in general use for the protection of timber against decay, and it has been also recog- INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 109 nized as a generally efficient protection against marine borers for a number of years. The value of creosote seems to be less in warm waters than in colder ones, and some creosotes seem more efficient than others. It is not known whether the effectiveness of creosote depends on its toxicity, or whether it acts as an inhibitant preventing the larvae of the molluscan and the young of the crustacean borers from landing on the wood. The cause of the failure of some creosoted timber is undoubtedly the leach- ing of the creosote from the wood by sea water, or the absence of the neces- sary protective constituent. Much study has been given to these subjects, and many experiments have been made or are under way, in an endeavor to find the reasons for success or failure. Naturally the first investigations dealt with examinations of creosotes ex- tracted from old piles, both from such as were still perfectly sound, and from those partly or wholly destroyed by various marine borers. For the sake of ready reference a number of these older investigations follow herewith, to- gether with brief conclusions developed by the various investigations. When the Long Wharf of the Southern Pacific Railway at Oakland, Cal., was removed in 1918-1919, after the piles had been in service from 18 to 29 years, several pile sections were analyzed with the following results, which are taken from the proceedings of the American Wood Preservers Associa- tion, 1920, pages 157-158. Sections cut from that portion of each pile in air, in water, and in mud, were analyzed by Mr. Mattos of the Southern Pacific Company. ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 27 REMOVED FROM Dock A AFTER 29 YEARS OF SERVICE AIR WATER MUD eM OM CCTION ee ok eae ae cles cates TBP in. 7.25 in. 6.5 in. Radius of untreated portion of section.... 6.5. in. 6.25 in. DL Oeil Percentage of oil in treated ring.......... 40.68 54.75 47.49 Pounds of oil per cubic foot of treated wood 13.02> lbs. 17.52 lbs. 15.19 lbs. Pounds of oil per cubic foot based on the area of the entire cross section......... 2.24 ibs. 4.45 lbs. 4.31 lbs. Specific gravity of extracted oil at 38° C... 1.059 1.044 1.0486 Specific gravity of fraction 235° C. to 315° ON a er 1.0365 1.0488 1.0422 Specific gravity of fraction 315° C. to 355° SSO 1.0934 1.0920 1.0798 rc 0.6% 0.2% 0.7% FRACTIONS RANGE AIR WATER MUD Ne fg k a cx seis ssa veces 0.16% 0.68% 0.15% Ee es ie KPA ae eh ewes 0.53% 1.84% 1.25% I NE cs ols ce elsic ess ceeees 2.57% 2.48% 1.95% eT ew nc es co hele go os wel 30.06 % 49.00% 37.60% Tee Gs ca se ce cea 25.70% 19.40% 23.25% ee 9.60% 7.75% 7.05 % ry ne San as encom case races 13.49% 10.75% 12.70% ae lll Oo 17.98% 8.10% 16.05 % 100.00 % 100.00 % 100.00% Notre—Residue soft in each case. 110 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS ANALYSES OF CREOSOTE OIL EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 3 REMOVED FROM Dock A AFTER 29 YEARS OF SERVICE AIR PRECWIS7OLSROCTION fc ccc re St hn lack ae Oe ee ee 6.25 in Radius of untreated portion of section.... 4.30 in Percentage of creosote in treated ring.... 48.59 Pounds of creosote per cu. ft. of treated wood 15.55 lbs. Pounds of creosote per cubic foot based on area of entire cross-section ............ 8.19 Specific gravity of extracted creosote at 1: ta GORE RAM er ies te Aa he 8. NN 1.0898 Specific gravity of fraction 235° C. to BERT CORSE 38° Oey Roe ea ee eee 1.0477 Specific gravity of fraction 315° C. to obo te Grat-88° Orie. ace eee. 1.113 PLAY SACIOS ~ «ai. aduelous ee BERR. ee 3.1% FRACTIONS RANGE AIR 0% G..to<200° eG re ee ee ee oe 0.00% Z008).C..to. 210° [o) OOT wy j@z) lor) OOT OOT OOT [e10L O HH Br, © Mm OO NN OO OO Oo A 2D eS oS tt N % o0GE aAOqV anpIseay al ~ A w~ YH HM 7 190 FS AN CO SO ae eee ne) re % o0GE 04 o0LG ‘OT ‘Or Oo oo + Oo HF MN 2) NH SS CO Oe oe or) % o0LZ 074 oS¥G % of FG 074 080 I1O GALOVULXE AO NOILVITILSIA 9°F ie 9081, gg (9) a0Bly, auoN auoN auON oG0G “) G0Z 78 epeur UOT}BAIESGO ON—JO1I9 YSNOIY], “UoTIVIOdBAD YF SUILUNSSE UOTJOGS 19}BM WO} PoPBUTISHL (0) FG oe hea | VG VG GE ¥G ‘uyuQ ‘uyuy ‘uyuyQ ‘uyuy ‘uyuy sq] [el194eUl es1Byo AN AN © OD et ort ot (OG C0. Gd) tio aad en) an ‘sqT atid ajoymM queul -7891} "480 N ol odo) paul OT’ ‘sq’ pe -40BI}X ‘4 TN) ed T1O yuNOWYy ONIMg sdIug AVG NOLSAATVH Woud SALOSOWUD AO SASATVNYV ot eee nae aIIq punos Cé6sl 8 “ON ‘999 pnyy Sets ae 8[IIq punog G68T LON *9099 pny ‘‘alIg wepeg punog GEgT "009 10JBM eee ee eee Td punog S68T 9 “ON “oag PHI @uatse) as eels ald punog S68T Q ‘ON 999 I0IV AA G ‘ON ‘099 1098 “etoumly Aq “134¥ C68T FON “09g pry ‘erouwry Aq “439V G68T fF ON °099 109BM alg *Y919V AIPA S6ST FON '099 ITV BS ee eee eee eq punog € “ON “099 PII Puseanaleneaalie IIIq punosg C6st € ON (999 JOB M ew ayia. aril teria ze Td punog C68I @ ‘ON °009 Ily GON ‘999 pny otg “Y0u9V ATPed LST Z ON °99g JTY SOY ae a Iq punog C/gT T ‘ON 99g pry ecw oe wetter: Id punog GL8T T (ON ‘999 1038 cee ee eee ot punog CL8I I ‘ON ‘099 ITy SISA[VUY JO} pes) ajdureg jo uorydrioseq (9) wa N OM ‘ON “ON sis.{ -[BUuy eee INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 119 Another report on piles of long service is presented by Mr. Ernest Bateman in Forest Service Circular 199, 1912. The two piles examined were treated by the Bethell Process, but nothing was known as to the source of the creo- sote or the amount injected. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS Pile No. 1—This pile, said to have been in service 30 years, was -per- fectly preserved, showing no indications of decay nor of attack by Teredo. The portion above water was badly checked. It was received in three sec- tions: Section 1, taken from above the water line; section 2, taken from sae the mud line; section 3, taken from the lower end of the pile in the mud. Pile No. 2.—This pile, which had been creosoted and placed in the Biloxi Bay trestle in 1879, and removed in July, 1910, had been attacked by Teredo, especially near the water line. Only a portion of the whole pile, approximately 6 feet long, extending 3 feet above and 38 feet below the water line, was received. This will be considered as three sections: Sec- tion 1, above the water line; section 2, at the water line; section 3, below the water line. EXAMINATION FOR THE QUANTITY OF CREOSOTE PRESENT Samples from the several portions of the piles were taken by borings dis- tributed over the entire cross section. A weighed portion of the average samples from each section thus obtained was treated with chloroform; and the loss in weight after treatment and drying was determined. The loss includes all the creosote, all the rosin, and all the moisture. The extracted material was then treated with a sodium carbonate solution, and the dissolved rosin was recovered by precipitating it with acid. Moisture determinations were made on separate portions of the original sample. Then the amount of rosin and moisture was subtracted from the total of creosote, rosin and water. The result was calculated in pounds of creosote per cubic foot of wood. Measurements of the relative proportions of the treated and untreated area of each cross section were then made. From these measurements and the previous calculations, estimates were made of the quantity of creosote in the treated portion only. The results obtained are given in Table 1. TABLE 1. QUANTITY OF CREOSOTE IN TWo PILES AMOUNT OF CREOSOTE FOUND PER CUBIC FOOT PILE | SECTION NO. NO. Entire Treated Cross Section. Portion Only. Pounds Pounds 1 1 2.6 4.5 1 2 102%, 15.3 1 3 12.0 pat 2 1 10.4 17.0 Ps 2 5.8 16.5 2: 3 125 17.9 In the case of pile No. 2 the amount of creosote in the entire cross section at the water line (sec. 2) is only about half of that in either of the other two sections; but when calculated for the treated portion only it is nearly the same. This difference is due to the loss of a great portion of the creo- soted wood in this section, making the proportion of untreated to treated wood much higher than in the other two cases. The proportion of the treated area in the three sections of this pile as received at the laboratory was: Section 1, 61 per cent treated; section 2, 35 per cent treated; section 3, 64 per cent treated. 120 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS ANALYSIS OF EXTRACTED OILS To determine the quality of the creosote, the oil was extracted from a large volume of chips by chloroform. ‘The resulting extract was then freed from rosin by the use of sodium carbonate, and from chloroform by dis- tillation. The residual creosote was then analyzed according to the method described in Forest Service Circulars 112 and 191. The results of these analyses are given in Tables 2 and 38. TABLE 2—-RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION AND INDEX OF REFRACTION DETERMINATIONS OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 1 Percentage weight of distillate Average Temperature = index of refraction Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 of 2 and 3 205 te 2: OSs Rubee ee nae 215 2.0 2 2.02" Sat aaa 225 15.5 26 a Ty 2s cee 235 is 8.2 { 12.0 8.5 1.5922 245 { ook Bro 1.5920 255 \ 13.7 { aah 2.0 1.5921 265 2.6 1.9 1.5939 275 6.6 2.4 2.5 1.5981 285 5.0 3.2 3.3 1.6041 295 6.2 4.1 3.5 1.6123 305 6.0 4.8 4.3 1.6203 320 10.5 8.6 7.9 1.6310 Residue 41.6 38.4 32; 5 Gee eee TABLE 3—-RESULTS OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION AND INDEX OF REFRACTION DETERMINATIONS OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 2 Percentage weight of distillate Average Temperature index of refraction Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 of 2 and 3 ad OF 235 4.0 6.0 1.5795 245 1.8 4.6 o4 1.5825 255 126 a2 1.5842 265 2.1 \ 275 Oat f Soe 8.9 1.5872 285 3.0 Ae 9.2 1.5945 295 2.4 22 Sit 1.5997 305 1H 26 oe 2 0 ae eee Residue i 81.2 85.8 64:4 a ae Se None of the sections contained an appreciable amount of light oils. The creosote from section 3 of pile No. 1, in which presumably less change in the character of the oil had occurred, contained 2.5 per cent of oils distilling below 205°. The same creosote contained over 40 per cent of naphthalene INJECTED PRESERVATIVES IEA | oils (distilling between 205° and 255° C.). The other two sections of the same pile also contained considerable quantities of naphthalene. The distillation of the creosote from pile No. 2 gave a very small per- centage of distillate (below 305° C.) and a large amount of residue. The oil from section 3 (below the water line) of this pile, which yielded the largest amount of distillate, contained only 12.6 per cent of oils volatile below 255° C., and little or no naphthalene. Sulphonation tests carried out on the fraction from 285° to 305° C. and 305° to 320° C. of the creosote from pile No. 1 failed to give any sulphona- tion residue. This oil resembles an imported creosote oil and is probably a pure coal-tar product. The index of refraction values of the fractions above 295° C. are a little low, but this could easily be due to the presence of a small amount of rosin which had escaped separation before the oil was analyzed. The color, odor and character of the fraction were like those of coal-tar creosote. Sulphonation tests on the portions 285° to 305° C. of the creosote from pile No. 2 yielded a sulphonation residue of 2.6 per cent. The index of refraction values, as well as the color and odor, of this oil resemble those of water-gas-tar creosote. Later information on the testing of creosotes shows that this material could not be definitely identified as water gas tar creosote, and it may have been a pure coal tar creosote. CHANGE IN COMPOSITION OF THE CREOSOTE BY EXPOSURE Inspection of Table 2 indicates that whatever loss of creosote occurred in the several sections through leaching and volatilization while the piles were in use must have occurred in the lighter fractions. If we assume that no change has occurred in the creosote extracted from section 3 of pile No. 1 (the portion buried in the mud) and that no change has occurred in the higher boiling fractions of the oil from the other two sections of this pile, the loss of oil in sections 1 and 2 may be computed as follows: The fractions above 275° C. and residue for section 3 amount to 51.3 per cent of the total; the same portion of the creosote extracted from sec- tion 2 amounts to 59.1 per cent. If the oil from section 3 is unchanged, as assumed above, the original volume of the oil in section 2 can readily be obtained by the proportion 59.1:x = 51.8:100, or x = 115 per cent. That is, the creosote extracted from section 2 is the residual of an oil that was originally 15 per cent greater in volume. By a similar computation it is found that the creosote extracted from section 1 is the residual of a creo- sote originally 35 per cent greater in volume. The change in composition of the creosote from sections 1 and 2 is shown more fully in Table 4, in which the fractional distillation is computed on the basis of percentage of what is assumed to be the original oil. TABLE 4—FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CREOSOTE EXTRACTED FROM PILE No. 1 IN PERCENTAGE OF ASSUMED ORIGINAL OIL Percentage weight of distillate Temperature : ; : Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 ° C. 225 1.5 15.8 30.8 245 6.1 13.1 11.0 275 15.0 6.2 6.4 320 20.5 18.0 19.0 Residue 30.8 Boe 82:3 Table 4 shows that the loss of creosote in that portion of the pile in the -water as compared with the loss from the portion buried in the: mud was confined to the fraction distilling below 225° C. and that the loss from the portion in the air occurred only in the fractions below 245° C. The small excess of distillate between 225° and 245° C. in the creosote from section 2 over that for the same fraction from section 3 may be accounted for by the effect which the absence of some of the lower boiling constituents at 122 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS the lower stages of the distillation produce upon the fractionation of the large excess in the distillate between 245° and 275° C. of the oil from sec- tion 3. Allowing for the losses as computed above, sections 1 and 2 of this pile originally had 16.1 and 17.6 pounds, respectively, of creosote per cubic foot of the treated portions. Section 2 thus agrees very well with section 3 (see Table 1). But the figure for section 1 is so much at variance with the figures for sections 2 and 8 that this section probably lost creosote in such a manner as to leave the composition of the residual oil unchanged, as by “bleeding.” The original volume of oil must therefore have been more than 35 per cent greater than the present. Similar changes occurred in pile No. 2, except that in this case section 2, which is the portion at the water line, ‘changed most. This may be due to its position, where it was subject to the influences both of sun and water; and also to the fact that, being riddled by Teredo, more opportunity was afforded for leaching of the creosote. SUMMARY Practically no light oils (oils distilling below 205° C.) were found in the piles after their long period of service. If originally present, they were lost by volatilization and leaching. The creosote in the pile which was perfectly preserved contained orig- inally at least 40 per cent of naphthalene fractions, a large portion of which remained in the wood. The creosote in the pile, ‘which was less perfectly preserved, contained little or no naphthalene. The pitchy matter, which on distillation formed the residue above 320° C. (pile No. 2), is seemingly of an inert character and little objectionable to Teredo. A heavy treatment with creosote consisting largely of this material did not entirely save the pile from attack. Loss of oil from that portion of the pile in the water, in the case of the creosote in pile No. 1, which is a pure coal-tar creosote, apparently occurred only in the fraction distilling below 225° C Similar analyses have been made of sections of piles sent to the office of the Committee from various harbors. These analyses were made in the laboratory of the Barrett Company through the courtesy of Mr. Sumner R. Church, manager of the Research Department of that company. The meth- ods used by the Barrett Company and by Mr. Mattos in the Southern Pacific laboratory, were similar and are described as follows: The specimens were reduced to shavings, placed in a refluxing apparatus of the Soxhlet type, and extracted with benzol. The creosote extracted from each specimen was freed from benzol by distillation and tested for specific gravity, tar acids, naphthalene, and indices of refraction on fractions, float test on residue and unsulphonated residue. The nature of fractions was also noted. The specimens were weighed and measured before extraction, but the measurement included the holes in the pieces (made by shipworms) which made the calculation of “pounds creosote per cubic foot” an approxi- mation only. Specimen No. 1—From Warehouse No. 1 of Norfolk and Western Railway at Lamberts Point, Va. Pile driven in 1890 and said to have been treated under specifications requiring 22 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. Pile was pine, and section was cut from portion in water. Live shipworms were extracted in November, 1922. Specimen No. 2—From Warehouse No. 2 of Norfolk and Western Railway at Lamberts Point, Va. Creosoted under same specifications as Specimen No. 1 and driven in 1892. Section cut from pine pile between low water and mud line. Pile had been attacked by shipworms, and pallets and shells were found in it in November, 1922. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 123 Specimen No. 3—From Coal Pier No. 2 fender system Norfolk & Western Railway, Lamberts Point, Va. Pile and treatment same as No. 1 and No. 2. Section cut 114 feet above mean low water. No borers found. Specimen No. 4—From Pensacola Naval Station, Pensacola, Fla. Pine pile driven in 1902. (Fig. 26.) Specifications required absorption of 20 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. One hundred and ninety-eight piles in structure. In 1906 five piles were so badly damaged as to require renewal, and entire structure is now unsafe. Destruction was caused mainly by Bankia and Limnoria. CREOSOTE ANALYSES OF SPECIMENS NOs. 1 To 4 Spec. No.1 Spec. No.2 Spec. No.3 Spec. No. 4 Volume extracted ............ 66.9 cu.in. 938.0cu.in. 49.5cu.in. 74.8 cu. in. Weight extracted (dry)...... 363.4 gr. 6638.2 gr. 414.3 gr. 561.5 gr. Weight creosote extracted.... 23.6 gr. 24.9 gr. 55.5 gr. 106.7 gr. Per cent creosote extracted by WL as Oe 6.5 3.8 13.1 18.8 Pounds creosote per cubic foot. 1.4 0.9 4.2 5.5 PE TOCOTU WALLET. oc ces es cece 4.4 4.5 5.2 5.4 Specific gravity 38/15.5° C.... 1.051 1.040 1.041 1.081 450) OIC Es Si Trace be None None Per cent naphthalene ........ 8.2 4 8.3 None Spec. grav., 235° C. to 315° C.. 1.013 1.010 1.023 1.015 38/15.5° C. Spec. grav., 315° C. to 355° C.. 1.088 1.059 1.086 1.025 oo/1b.0- GC. Index of refraction of frac. 210 to. 255 GC. @.60° C.. 1.542 1.579 bs vai 1.546 Index of refraction of frac. 2a5° GC. to 315° C. @ 60° C.. 1.592 1.594 1.590 1.581 * Not determined. Insufficient oil. UNSULPHONATED RESIDUE FRACTION Pere tne al Ge. ee te ee aoe 2.4% Pe eeO a0 Gace ces eee ae 1.2% DISTILLATION TESTS Spec. No.1 Spec. No. 2 Spec. No. 3 Spec. No. 4 epee tO, Gs... se sass: 0.00 0.00 0.00 Trace 1 Oe Ee Oye aaa Trace liquid Trace 0.00 0.00 OME ae 3.0 solid 0.8 liquid Trace 0.4 liquid OE Oa 8.9 solid 4.7 solid 6.4 solid 1.9 liquid (0 GW er 25.8 solid 18.2 solid 36.2 semi-solid 10.0 liquid [0 Sg 46.9 liquid 36.1 liquid 56.6 liquid 25.5 liquid GSN CS an 73.0 solid 69.6 solid 80.4 solid 72.1 liquid Float test—residue @ 70° Vi SS ane oo = S@C.. 28 Sec. 23 sec. Too hard Specimen No. 5—From Structure No. 1, Naval Wharf at St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. Pine pile section cut at point 9 feet below mean water level. (Fig. 27). Piles were treated with 16 pounds of creosote, driven in 1918, and removed in 1922, being practically destroyed by shipworms. AGAINST BORERS PROTECTION 124 AYMNOYIP YONUL Noy [adog[ outs VY} YB Yo usyouq oq ud Jopulrewers 94} Jo AjUOfeUI esuRT YW ‘UOT}OB ABM AQ [OAR] Jo]VM ATOTBUITXOIdde Jnoqe je Yo usyorq useq savy May B o}IND }VYy} UOT}{pUoD YoNS Ul EIB YIOM 9Y} UL USATIpP SotId ey} JO [1e,, JU Sa7BIS ‘ZZET ‘Tequie}dag Jo Juodey “OM} JO [eAOWOI 984} SuTVYSse.eu ‘pexoeze ATpeq o1oMm VAY SIv9A 9a1Y} jo pue ey] IW ‘ZO6T Ul UeATIP e10M 9}OSOAID “WZ ‘Nd Jed “ql 0Z UUM po}vet) Said ssey} Jo JYSle-AjourU puBw peipuny eUuO ‘SUBUO_T ANIUVIA JO MYUOM DNIMOHS CuvVA AAVN VIOOVSNE WOU ATId JO NOILIAS—9¢ ‘SIH INJECTED PRESERVATIVES Fic. 27—SECTION FROM CREOSOTED PINE PILE—16 LB. TREATMENT—U. S. NAVAL STATION, St. THOMAS, V. I. Driven 1918—Removed 1923. Section immediately below low water 125 126 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS Specimen No. 6—Pile from same lot as No. 5, delivered at St. Thomas but not driven. Has been exposed to weather since 1918. Specimen No. 7—From pile from Pier No. 1, San Juan, Porto Rico, driven in June, 1917, and removed September 21, 1922. Pine pile treated at Gulf- port, Miss., under specifications requiring 16 pounds absorption per cubic foot. Section cut at the mud line. This section was cut up in order to secure biological specimens; it was heavily attacked by shipworms, Martesia and Limnoria. Specimen No. 8—From Lighthouse Pier at San Juan, Porto Rico. No record of treatment available. (Fig. 28). It had 8 years’ service and was destroyed by Limnoria. It was cut up for other species and none were found. CREOSOTE ANALYSES OF SPECIMENS NOS. 5 TO 8 Spec. No.5 Spec. No.6 Spec. No.7 Spec. No.8 Pounds creosote per cubic foot. 3.8 17.4 7.6 8.0 Percent: waters. os: 6 ae 8.4 11.6 3.6 3.3 Specific gravity 38.5/15 5° C.. 1.107 1.108 1.078 1.061 Tar acids—per cent.......... 20D 6.0 Not deter- Trace mined Per cent naphthalene ........ 6.8 None None None Spec: Srav., 200 OC. to 310 Oo. 1.015 1.011 38/15.b° C. Spec. grav., 315° C. to 355° C.. 1.068 88/15.5° C. Index of refraction of frac. 0° Go fo At) 2G. .te CU 1.485 1.500 Index of refraction of frac. 170° Coto 2Z00— Crn@ 60 Gs 1.490 1.500 Index of refraction of frac. 200° G. to 2107 *G.-@: 60" -C:. 1.545 1.563 1.488 1.505 Index of refraction of frac. 910° GC, to. 236 4G. Grou Ge, 1.568 1.562 1.490 L521 Index of refraction of frac. 235° Coto 210stG 2 30 U.. 1.584 1.575 1.510 1.568 Index of refraction of frac. 270° C.*to Sib noo -G.. 1.601 1.592 1.587 1.582 Index of refraction of frac. 315° Gy to.8bb GeO miwio0s. Gy ca 1.626 1.593 1.600 Unsulphonated residue ...... None 0.8% 4.0% 5.6% DISTILLATION TESTS Spec. No. 5 Spec. No. 6 Spec. No. 7 Spec. No.8 0° Coto 110 2Ce eae 0.1% 2.3% liquid 0.7% liquid 170° G.-to. 200° > Cree 0.2% 4.6% liquid 1.6% liquid 200° G. to 210°" Cee 0.38% 5.2% liquid 2.3% liquid 210° Cyto 285% Cae orscind 1.6% liquid 7.5% liquid 5.2 % liquid 2Sb2 °C. to 270°C... ae 12.4% liquid 12.8% liquid 17.6% liquid soli 270° Coto. 615° =C.. 2 ae mate 33.2% liquid 31.5% liquid 36.1% liquid soli 315° C. to 355° C.....61.8% greasy 59.2% partly 51.4% semi- 63.1% waxy solid solid solid Float test — residue at 70°: Coe eee eee 137 sec. 48 see. AO see. 96 sec. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 127 Specimen No. 9—Section of pine pile from foundation of 150-ton revolv- ing crane at the plant of the Newport News Shipbuilding Company. (Fig. 29). These piles were treated by the Norfolk Creosoting Company in 1897 with a 16-pound treatment. The creosote was purchased under the follow- ing specification: ‘All oil shall be the heavy or dead oil of coal tar, containing not more than 142% of water, and not more than 5% of tar, and not more than 5% of carbolic acid. “It must not flash below 185° F. nor burn below 200° F. and it must be fluid at 118° F. “It must begin to distill at 320° F. and must yield between that tem- perature and 410° F., of all substances, less than 20% by volume. “Between 410° F. and 470° F. the yield of naphthalene must be not less than 40% nor more than 60% by volume. “At two degrees above its liquefying point it must have a specific gravity of maximum 1.05 and minimum 1.015.” See Fig. 28—SECTION OF CREOSOTED PILE FROM LIGHTHOUSE WHARF, SAN JUAN, Porto Rico, TAKEN FROM LOW WATER LINE, Built, 1898—Renewed, 1906 On account of the importance of this foundation it has been inspected frequently and carefully. Shipworm attack first appeared about 1920, or after 23 years’ service, and the pile analyzed was removed in 1922, after 25 years’ service. 128 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS The report of the extracted creosote follows: TESTS ON CREOSOTE RECOVERED FROM MARINE PILING Pounds..of. creosote per.ciijitus?.. ..o055 ae 6.9 Specific gravity .38/15.5° Gs 1329.59 a ee 105 RETORT DISTILLATION Sep. Totals Percentage Percentage Nature 170° C. 0.0 0.0 200 0.0 0.0 (410% FF.) -210 0.0 0.0 235 7.0% 7.0% Solid (470° F.) 248.5 11.1 18.1 Solid (18.7% by vol. See Spec.) 270 19.6 37.7 Solid—liquid 315 17.3 55.0 Liquid 355 23.5 78.5 Solid Residue 20.3 98.8 Loss iP Tests on Fractions Sp. Gr. 38/15.5° Index of Refrac- Unsulfonated C. tion of Frac. 60° C. Residue 210-235° C. spears 1.581 Bree 235-815° C. 1.021 1.592 3.3% 315-355° C. 1.052 ete 2.4% Float Test on Residue 70° C.—65 seconds Tar acids, by contraction 9.8% by liberation 7.9% % Naphthalene 9.6 (82% of Distillate to 250° C.) The naphthalene content of the extracted creosote indicates that in all probability the specifications were complied with, and it is of interest to note that, while a large portion of the low boiling components of the orig- inal creosote are no longer present, a considerable amount of naphthalene remains after the 25 years of service. The Turtle River Docks of the Southern Railway at Brunswick, Ga., were built in sections at different times, and the Committee has been so fortunate as to secure specimens from piles driven in 1909 and 1913, and with them to obtain an unusually good record of their treatment, and an analysis of four specimens cut from the 1909 piles as made by the Forest Service in September, 1909. : In September, 1923, two specimens each of the 1909 and 1913 piles were sent the Committee by the Southern Railway, and these specimens were analyzed by the Barrett Company under the direction of Mr. S. R. Church, whose report follows: OBJECT: To extract and test creosotes from four sections of marine piling from Brunswick, Ga. ABSTRACT: Specimens No. 1 and No. 2 contained 3.0 and 3.3 pounds of creosote per cubic foot, while specimens No. 3 and No. 4 con- tained 3.7 and 2.8 pounds per cubic foot respectively. The tests on.the extracted creosotes, in general, compare favorably with the original oils, considering their time of exposure, particu- larly in the case of piles No. 1 and No. 2. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 129 The extracts from No. 1 and No. 2 are typical coal tar distillates containing considerable naphthalene. The extract from No. 3 inner layer yielded 38% of naphthalene. The creosote from No. 4 yielded but 8.2% of naphthalene. In general the outer layers of the specimens yield creosotes heavier in gravity and distillation and containing less naph- thalene and tar acids than the inner layers. Four specimens of marine piling were received from the Committee on Marine Piling Investigations of the National Research Council for examina- tion. The identification of the sections is as follows: All four specimens of the piling were cut from the Turtle River Docks of the Southern Railway at Brunswick, Ga. Two sections (marked No. 3 and No. 4) were driven in the summer of 1909 while the other two-sections (marked No. 1 and No. 2) were from a group of very carefully selected piles with open grain and considerable sap wood. These were driven in 1913 and were reported to have been handled and driven with extreme care to prevent damage and that all skin had been removed from them. These two were also partly seasoned in a stack of piling for two months. Piles No. 3 and No. 4 were treated in May and June, 1909, at the Southern Creo- soting Company’s plant at Brunswick, Ga., and the other two were treated at the same plant in November, 1913. The tests on the creosotes used and the treatment given the piles are given in the data. The tags on the specimens received were marked as follows: Specimen No. 1—Cut out at half way between high and low water mark. Specimen No. 2—Cut out half way between low water and mud line. Specimen No. 3—Cut out at mean low water line. (*See note.) Specimen No. 4—Cut out at mean low water line. (*See note.) The specimens were carefully examined and calipered after which they were photographed. The water determinations on the total specimens were run, using the Dean & Stark apparatus, and are based on radial borings which represent an average sample of the pile. The pounds per cubic foot are based on careful measurements and extractions but these would neces- sarily be approximations since the measurements would include any holes in the pieces. These determinations were also made on “outer” and “inner” layers of the creosoted portions of the piles, the outer half of the creosote ring being called the “outer layer’ while the inner half of the creosote ring is termed the “inner layer.” These layers were reduced to shavings and extracted separately with benzol in a refluxing apparatus of the Soxhlet type after which the benzol was carefully distilled from the ex- tracted oils. The following tests were run on the oils: Specific gravity, retort distillation noting nature of fractions, indices of refraction of frac- tions, specific gravity of fractions, float test on residue, per cent tar acids, per cent tar bases, per cent naphthalene and unsulphonated residue. Inasmuch as specimen No. 4 was a comparatively small sample and the inner and outer layers were both attacked by Teredo to the same extent the total combined creosote was tested in this case. CONDITION OF WOOD AND PRESERVATION OF PILING Specimen No. 1—Attacked slightly by Limnoria on one side and slightly roughened in few spots possibly by contact with boats. The pile otherwise was in an excellent state of preservation. The specimen had evidently developed slight cracks since it was cut. There were no borer holes. (Fig. 30.) Specimen No. 2—This pile had not been attacked either by Limnoria or Teredo. With the exception of slight cracks which had developed since the specimen was cut, it was entirely smooth and in an excellent state of preser- vation. (Fig. 31.) Specimen No. 3—This pile had been badly attacked by Limnoria and also *NoTeE: Specimens No. 3 and No. 4 were marked alike as above but Mr. T. G. Townsend states that, from the measurements, it looks as if No. 4 should be from between high and low water and No. 3 from between low water and bottom, 130 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS contained a few borer holes. Its surface was considerably indented from the results of the attack by Limnoria. (Fig. 81.) Specimen No. 4—A large portion of this pile had been eaten away by Teredo. Both the heart wood and the creosote layer were seriously attacked and the specimen was very reticular in structure. It was in a poor state of preservation. (Fig. 30.) MEASUREMENTS OF SPECIMENS The following measurements were taken by Mr. T. G. Townsend: Specimen No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 Average diameter, (inches)% © ..04% ..4sean OL ‘SOU 3S9AL, PBOLT ofGE of LE oO0LG of&G o01G Ua wy (aad eiableing ae ine ry 300% 04 % UOTPRTYSIC, 41090 GMs ie tof a, eer Cat pie tat hee @: & 1948 M % Cetra ey A "ID ‘dg SO papvijey UO 878 J, of Uaioe, aj) (el Jat te fel 62 Shela IayeM % oe eae Oe NY Jeg TO ‘SqT slahio'T ae) YeLk eo ee ese "oo" "198M % Senge 8" | ‘Ny Jeg TO “sq'T wauidad FY 1070, Mf a VoL, VdB1 auON 9u0N ooBIT, 80 ee oO'se _.e.8 nent T10'T 120'T qJO9 Jos OOJ, 088 ETT (dwi0s9p *9,.828 a 0°06 quan va e pos ®)6 09) ceo 'T prog iS es 009 T pmbry TFS O19 LT | pryos-tureg = 68¢'T pljos-tureg 9°1¢ 1691 pyos eA Oo€ GST PI[OSs-TUIIG 8°9 26ST prog S o's 129 °I _ PIOS-Tueg O71 ae Bee = Here AP oer eases nh mG ee = Cy09 009 mA % ‘you 91n}B N % you | omen jo xopuy JO xopuy o ert SY eee & es ior eS ey (ee en 0 0'F | = CGO 'T 0a Ze0 al a r'9 79 0's $F | 2 6'¢ “fg QT See [Oo I9uuy 194NO IouUUyT [BULsIIO uo 4891, ry ON $ ON uewtvedg SNAWIOddS AO SISATVNY 134 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS Fic. 30—PILE SECTIONS FROM TURTLE RIVER DOCKS, SOUTHERN Ry., BRUNSWICK, GA. A. B.—Pile driven in 1909. C. D.—Pile driven in 1918. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 135 Fic. 31—PiILrE SECTIONS FROM TURTLE RIVER Docks, SOUTHERN RY., BRUNSWICK, GA. A. B:—Pile driven in 1913 Cc. D.—Pile driven in 1909 136 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS OBSERVATIONS Piles No. 1 and No. 2 contained 3.0 and 3.8 pounds per cubic foot of creo- sote while No. 3 and No. 4 contained 8.7 and 2.8 pounds per cubic foot respectively and the outer layers contained slightly less creosote in each case excepting No. 4 which contained the same amount in both layers. No. 4 pile, however, was so badly eaten away that both layers were evidently exposed to the same conditions. This reticular structure would also account for the low water content of this specimen. The oils obtained from piles No. 1 and No. 2 are typical coal tar distil- lates having low float tests on residue. The extracted oils are somewhat heavier in gravity and distillation than the original oil since they have probably lost some of their lighter portions during their long exposure but the distillation tests, particularly on the inner layers, compare favorably with the distillation on the original oil. The oil fractions obtained were largely solid in nature, even the 315° C. fraction containing considerable solids. The oils from No. 1 and No. 2 piles are particularly characterized by their naphthalene content, especially the inner layers, which contained slightly over 17 per cent. The outer layers contained between 6 and 7 per cent. The original oil evidently contained considerable naphthalene. The tar acid contents were 0.5 per cent and 1.4 per cent on the outer layers and 1.2 per cent and 3.1 per cent on the inner layers. It appeared during the determination of the tar acids that these results were possibly affected by a small quantity of wood distillate obtained with the oils during their extraction. The oils from these 1913 specimens contained neither tar bases nor unsulphonated residue. The oils obtained from piles No. 8 and No. 4 are also heavier in gravity and distillation than the original oil with the exception of the inner layer of pile No. 3, which yields a higher percentage of distillate at 285° C. and 355° C. and is lower in gravity. This may be due to the presence of wood distillate which possibly accounts for the comparatively high float tests on residue obtained on pile No. 3 oils and also the low gravity of distillates. The oils from pile No. 4 decomposed at 328° C. and gave a low gravity of distillate, which is also due, no doubt, to resinous material extracted with the oil. Pile No. 8 is particularly characterized by its very high naphtha- lene content, especially in the oil from the inner layer, which contained 38 per cent as compared to 17.5 per cent in the outer layer. Pile No. 4 oil contained but 8.2 per cent of naphthalene and a trace of acids as com- pared to 2.3 per cent acids in the outer and 0.8 per cent in the inner layers of No. 8. The tar acid determinations are probably affected to some extent by eS presence of extracted material extracted from the wood itself. The oils from the outer layers in general are heavier in gravity and dis- tillation than the inner layers and contain less naphthalene and acids with the exceptions as stated above. The comparatively large differences ob- tained between the oils from the inner and outer layers of specimen No. 3 are probably due to the fact that this pile was mainly attacked by Limnoria, which made the outer layer somewhat reticular in structure while the inner layer, though attacked slightly by borers, was comparatively but little affected. The analysis of extracted creosote does not give exact results because of the impossibility of entirely separating the extracted creosote from the resinous wood products extracted at the same time, but a study of the re- sults gives some idea of the rapidity of leaching at the several locations. These results must be considered with the facts of organic variation in mind, since the selection of one pile from a series treated may result in the analysis of a pile from either extreme. For purposes of comparison the amount of creosote supposed to be injected and the amount recovered are ~ listed below, using the results of analysis of the pile sections cut below the — mud line as the amount of oil originally injected, where this information is available. INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 137 Original Impreg- Amount nation Extracted Length of Lbs. per Lbs. per Specimen No. Service (Givig Tait. cu. ft. Remarks NOs san, Mrancisco, Cal....:.. 29 years 14.17 9.97 Pile good—Bethell process INO. 2° San Hrancisco, Cal...... 22 years 10.00 3.18 Pile good—Isaacs & Cur- tis process. No, a san Mrancisco, Cal...... 20 years 10.00 3.78 Pile good—Isaacs & Cur- tis process. No. 4 San Francisco, Cal...... 18 years 10.00 4.51 Pile good—Isaaes & Cur- tis process. Norzt san Mrancisco, Cal...... 29 years 15.19 7.52 Pile good—Bethell process Noro sanerrancisco;: Cali csii. i.e eccss 8.59 8.22 Pile good Peer eanerrancisco, Calesi.c. ss. -06 4.75 4.85 Pile attacked Mosier rancisGO;sCal........ -......- 6.87 6.30 Pile good No. 1 Galveston, Texas (1875) 29 years 9.25 6.12 Pile good No. 2 Galveston, Texas (1875) 29 years 10.05 6.49 Pile heavily attacked No. 8 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years 10.60 9.14 Pile good No. 4 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years 9.28 6.38 Pile attacked No. 6 Galveston, Texas (1895) 18 years IS Ee 8.83 Pile good Ita GE eats Ge Ga 30 years 12 Ong Pile good—Bethell process Pi Omen StlOR, ISS. bc). cee wo se 31 years 5 5.8 Heavy attack — Bethell process No, “1 Lamberts Point, Va..... 32 years iis 1.4 Light shipworm attack “Non 2eluamberts Point, Va...... 30 years 22 0.9 Light shipworm attack Nomes Juamberts Point, Vas... «: 30 years 22 4.2 Pile good—Section 1% ft. above L. W. INO= 4) Pensacola, Fla......... 20 years 20 Deh Attacked in four years. Totally destroyed 20. NGI ste eROmas, Ve 1... . 3c. 4 years 16 3.8 Piles destroyed Pigsmeeis tL NOMtAS OV. Lees oc. 4 years 16 17.4 Piles stored in air MOE ua JGaAMe rs Rew. ci. ass 5 years 16 7.6 Piles destroyed MGS AS257a hhGh a eae ee a ae 8 years a 8.0 Piles destroyed by Lim- noria No. 9 Newport News, Va...... 25 years 16 6.9 Heavy shipworm attack Nos tsBrunswick; -Ga.......... 10 years Sue 3.0 Slight Limnoria attack INGn eae SCUNS WICK, (Gla. acu cc ss 10 years 18 See Unattacked ING rutiswick. G,....60... 14 years 16 ert Heavy Limnoria — light shipworm attack Geena WACK. Grass iw 6s so. 14 years 16 2.8 Heavy Limnoria and ship- worm attack Of the specimens analyzed all except No. 4 (Pensacola) and possibly No. 7 and No. 8 appear to be coal tar creosote. The lower boiling fractions seem to have been leached out by the sea water much more rapidly than the higher ones, aS was to be expected, but while the San Francisco specimens were unattacked with a minimum of 3.18 pounds of retained creosote per cubic foot, the Newport News specimen was rather heavily attacked with 6.9 pounds present. It does not appear probable that the Norfolk & Western piles from Lamberts Point could have been attacked until the creosote con- tent was much lower. Several structures were inspected by a sub-committee of the American Railway Engineering Association in 1920 and 1921, with the following results: SOUTHERN RAILWAY—COAL PIER AT CHARLESTON, 8S. C.—This structure was built in the winter of 1914-15 with a mixture of longleaf, loblolly and shortleaf pine piles, treated at two plants with 18 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. Plant No. 1 used a mixture of English creosote and creosote furnished by the Barrett Company, and Plant No. 2 used English creosote, the average analyses being as follows: 138 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS PLANT No.1 PLANT NO. 2 Specific eravity ss 5.0. 5 ve xs «0 SO er ee 1.08 1.044 Water fe aye woe er hc in et dee tc es 10 eee rae ae 0.5% 2.0% Fractions. 9:0--200° GC. 2540.2... se ee ee 1% 1% Fractions.2005—2102°O. 4 cot letis Oa melee ee 1% 4% Mractions:210°=235°: 62 Fas. Wes ele a eee ee ae eee 21% 16% Fractions 200 (—2 10°" Co or oe eee ee 21% 26% Bractions: 270°=310°.G. 2 acaean dae ore een eee 13% 19% Fractions S16°=8b0" G.. . koe vos ek ee eee ee 20% 17% PRESTAUC | insoasacyirwse core "oe aw Wee nadel oi egal Senet ae Soft Soft The treatment at Plant No. 1 was ten hours steaming at a pressure of 35 pounds, three hours vacuum at 27 inches and three to six hours creosote pressure at 175 pounds, while at Plant No. 2 the steaming period was twelve hours at 30 pounds, the vacuum three hours at 24 inches, and the impregna- tion period two and one-half to four hours at 150 pounds. After five years’ service these piles showed a light attack by Limnoria, which had become heavy and destructive three years later. The life of the structure at this time was estimated to be two or three years longer or a total of about ten years. CHARLESTON TERMINAL Co. WHARF BUILT. ABOUT 1880. These piles are reported to have been treated by placing them in a cylinder with the small end projecting. The open end of the cylinder was then sealed and creosote forced into the cylinder until it came out of the projecting end of the piles. In 1919 some of these piles had been cut off by Limnoria and spliced, but a large majority still had an effective diameter of 8 inches after about 40 years’ service. This pier was burned in 1921. The Clyde Line Piers at Charleston, S. C., were built in 1912-13, using shortleaf pine piles with a sap ring of over 3 inches. There were 22 pounds of English creosote injected, giving at least 34% inches penetration, and a very superior treatment was secured. The analysis of the creosote was as follows: Specific @ravity ..5..0 = os0.c:0 5 ce ou cia's © «api chale eee 1.056 Water ac on cise ace oc re opm ene es oon 5p ore ainda te San 1.5% Fractions’ 0°-200° Gr . sc... ons oe dae os ate 0.0% Fractions 200°-210" GC. 2... 6 pew se a a ele oe 2.0% Fractions 210°-235° C.... ... . «ss © mu mce sun © sn oleae 25% Fractions 285°—815° ©, 5. case ©» © «rere cue om Ot ogee ean 39 % Fractions $15°-855° CG, cc cs es ue ae te te Oe 20% Residue? «2 os cc cesies ccs cc eee e6 + «.mas = 0.0 5)a nie Soft The piles were steamed twelve to fourteen hours at 35 pounds pressure, a vacuum of 27 inches was maintained for three hours, and the creosote pres- sure of 175 pounds was maintained for from four to six hours. In 1919 a slight attack by Limnoria was reported, and reports from an- other source in 1922 stated that the attack was heavy and that the structure could not be expected to last more than 2 or 3 years longer. In this structure the bracing, which received a 20-pound treatment was placed below low tide and the piles were somewhat damaged by rough handling, whereby the attack by the boring organisms was undoubtedly accelerated. | INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 139 SOUTHERN RAILWAY, TURTLE RIVER DOCKS, BRUNSWICK, GA.—These docks were built in four sections. The first was built in 1909, using a 16 to 18-pound treatment of high naphthalene creosote. The piles in this section were heavily attacked at the end of five years, and after ten years more were replaced and the others were in bad condition. The second section was built in January, 1909, but the piles were treated in October and November, 1907, and were exposed to the air during these 13 or 14 months intervening between their treatment and the construction of the pier. The treatment was 16 pounds with creosote furnished by the Semet-Solvay Company with an analysis as follows: eT EC ee cy ens es Nee cee s eee eae Bees 1.06 SEI 2) C), ic ec es ost ce cess ees eceseacess 1% Mumm 10) ck cc ce et eke eee nceucsces 4% Mer ey Ge ce cc ct wa eae eee Sc ecceeeebes 24% MIA LD Ol. ee eck case cee vecececdseaceuet 37% PE NMRIRMUM ek mee cd ce an ceceececascaees 34% Attack was heavy at the end of three years, many piles were replaced by the end of five years, and all were useless in less than ten years. It is prob- able that the exposure of these piles before they were driven had something to do with their short life. The third section, containing 930 piles, was constructed in 1909 with longleaf pine piles treated only a short time before they were used. The treatment consisted of twelve hours steaming at 40 pounds, four hours vacuum of 22 inches, and about four hours creosote pressure of 120 pounds. Sixteen pounds of English creosote were injected. After three years’ service there was a light attack by borers, after five years, a medium, and after ten years, a heavy attack. A number of similar piles were treated at the same time and used at Pinners Point, Va., and in both cases the two-inch to three-inch sap ring was thoroughly treated. In 1922 the Pinners Point piles had all practically reached the end of their life. Four specimens cut from this group of piles were analyzed by the Forest Service in September, 1909, with results shown. (page 131). Another group of 683 piles with similar creosote and treatment were driven in 1911-1912, which, after three years, showed no attack, and after eight years, medium attack. In 1918 a group of 20 very carefully selected piles was treated with 18 pounds of mixed English and Barrett creosote by the following method: steam at 30 pounds for ten hours, 26-inch vacuum for three hours, and creo- sote at 160 pounds and 160 deg. Fahr. for four hours. These piles were handled and driven with extreme care to prevent damage, and in 1923 a few of them showed a slight attack by Limnoria. With very few exceptions the character of the creosotes used in the orig- inal impregnation of most of these older piles is unfortunately unknown. It is therefore possible to draw only very general conclusions from the exam- ination of extracted creosotes. The older piles were almost universally treated with what are known as high naphthalene creosotes, meaning there- by creosotes having 40 per cent or more of the 210 deg.-235 deg. C. fraction. This was particularly true of the piles treated with what were then known as English creosotes. In all probability the San Francisco piles, the Galves- 140 PROTECTION AGAINST BORERS ton piles, and the Norfolk piles referred to above were treated with these types of creosotes. Attention is called, however, to the fact that some of the San Francisco piles were treated with creosotes having a lower naphtha- lene content (explained by the fact that in the original treatment the liquid portions of the creosotes only were used). Note also in this connection the analyses of creosote extracted from Long Wharf, Oakland, Cal., piles Nos. 1 and 37 (probably low naphthalene creosote) and piles Nos. 4 and 23 (prob- ably high naphthalene creosote). The creosote which ran from the cavity in pile No. 1, Dock A, seems to confirm the idea that the creosote with which piles Nos. 1 and 37 were treated was of low naphthalene content. Bateman (Forest Service Circular No. 199) cites two piles, one well preserved, treated with high naphthalene content creosote, and another not so well preserved, treated with a low naphthalene creosote. In recent years many piles have been treated with heavier creosotes of low naphthalene content, and there has been much discussion as to whether low or high naphthalene creosotes give the greater efficiency. Service rec- ords of piles treated with these two types of creosotes are most conflicting. The percentage of good piles in the Norfolk district treated with high naphthalene creosotes is very high. This is also so in the case of many of the Gulf coast piles. On the other hand the low naphthalene creosote piles Nos. 1 and 37 in San Francisco Bay were perfectly sound, while the high naphthalene creosote piles Nos. 4 and 23 had been attacked by Limnoria. In spite of numerous analyses and attempts to deduce conclusions there- from it is still an open question as to whether naphthalene is one of the essential constituents or not. What has been said for naphthalene applies with even more force to other constituents of creosote. Realizing the neces- sity for obtaining more definite information as to the influence of the vari- ous constituents of creosote, experiments were initiated in 1911, by the Forest Products Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, with various fractions of creosote to determine which of them contained the necessary protective elements. For the purpose of this study creosote was divided into five fractions as follows: I. Light creosotes distilling up to 205 deg. C. (401 deg. Fahr.). II. Naphthalene solids distilling between 205 deg. C. and 250 deg. C. (401 deg. Fahr. to 482 deg. Fahr.). III. Dead or golden oil distilling between 250 deg. C. and 295 deg. C. (482 deg. Fahr. to 562 deg. Fahr.). IV. Anthracene solids distilling between 295 deg. C. and 320 deg. C. (560 deg. Fahr. to 608 deg. Fahr.). V. Residue above 320 deg. C. (608 deg. Fahr.). A number of pieces of timber were treated with each of these fractions and immersed in various harbors where borers were known to be active, with the results shown in the table on pages 142, 148. It is evident that Fractions 1 and 2 are less efficient than the higher boil- ing fractions, and that the higher absorptions give better protection than the lower, but none of the fractions was more efficient than the creosote containing all of them. Other series of experiments were started in 1914 with water gas tar creosote, copperized coal tar creosote, creosote with ferric chloride, zinc chloride and crude oil and copperized crude oil. All the specimens were de- INJECTED PRESERVATIVES 141 stroyed before the 1923 inspection, except the creosote copper and ferric chloride mixtures, both of which had been attacked. In 1915 a series of test pieces were placed at Pensacola, Fla., and Gulf- port, Miss., with the following results up to the 1923 inspection: ABSORPTION LBS. TREATMENT PER CU. FT. RESULT 75% creosote, 25% naphthalene... 4.64 to 15.25 2 destroyed, 1 lost, 4 attacked, 1 sound. 50% creosote, 50% naphthalene... 6.73 to 17.02 4, destroyed, 2 lost, 2 sound. 75% creosote, 25% by-product tar 17.47 to 11.52 1 destroyed, 2 lost, 4 attacked, 1 sound. 50% creosote, 50% tar............ 7.56 to 11.62 6 lost, of which 8 showed attack on previous inspec- tions; 1 attacked, 1 sound. Another series of tests was commenced in 1916 in which the impregnat- ing fluids were creosote and crude oil with various additions. The test pieces were 2 inches x 2 inches x 18 inches, mostly sapwood which had a high rate of absorption and probably a correspondingly high rate of leaching. The impregnation was from 5.2 pounds to 37.9 pounds per cubic foot, and all but one specimen have been attacked and two were destroyed in 41 months. Specimens treated with from 15.9 pounds to 40.2 pounds water gas tar also had one unattacked test piece with one destroyed in 82 months, one heavily attacked in 56 months and then lost, and the others all attacked. Specimens treated with crude oil from 26.2 pounds to 33.0 pounds were all destroyed in 41 months. The test pieces treated with creosote and water gas tar with the addition of 1 per cent copper in the form of copper oleate showed very slight im- provement over those which did not contain the copper, but the same addi- tion to crude oil extended the life of two of the five test pieces one year. Several other series were included in the 1916 tests in which various mix- tures were used, but no conclusive results have yet been obtained except that the addition of crude oil to creosote or tar shortens the life of the timber about in the proportion of the amount of oil added to the creosote. In 1918 test series were impregnated with creosotes of varying composi- tions, but there is not enough evidence as yet on which to base a conclusion. The Forest Products Laboratory also initiated a series of tests of the different fractions of creosote on the Pacific Coast in 1911 similar to those on the Gulf. The test pieces were immersed in San Diego and San Francisco Bays, and while the tests are not conclusive they appear to confirm the re- sults of the Gulf Coast tests, i.e., that when used alone the higher boiling fractions are more effective than those with the lower boiling points. The Forest Products Laboratory tests just referred to used the individual fractions by themselves. 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CONCLUSIONS ...... «os c+ 0 ose eee oo ieee 176 VI.° BIBLIOGRAPHY ©... 80) 0. 7 OS 179 APPENDICES: I—Toxicity of Certain Compounds on Marine Wood Boring Organisms Together with Some Physio- logical Considerations—Report No. E.A.C.D. 288. 180 II—The Destruction of Marine Borers in Piling by the Action of Chlorine Generated by the Electrol- ysis of Sea Water—Report No. E.A.C.D. 286.... 197 IlI—Preservation of New Wooden Structures from Attack by Marine Borers—Report No. E.A.C.D. 299. wc Ee ee, . 202 PROGRESS REPORT ON THE MARINE PILING INVESTIGATION January 8, 1924 By H. W. Walker ABSTRACT Marine borers, mainly Limnoria lignorum, and shipworms, cause im- mense economic loss by their destruction of wooden marine structures. - While this fact has been known for centuries, it was forcibly brought to the attention of the American public by the recent invasion of San Francisco bay where property amounting to millions of dollars was destroyed by these pests and the possibility of the recurrence of such an attack at a new loca- tion constitutes an ever present menace so long as untreated timber is used, or until definite means for the prevention of such an attack can be found. The Chemical Warfare Service started preliminary work on this problem in January, 1923, and the results of this work to date are included in the following report and its appendices. A large number of compounds were examined for their specific toxicity effects and a total of eleven compounds has been found which are definitely toxic to these organisms. Several chemical warfare compounds are in- cluded in this list, in fact, the best all around specific toxic found was chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, a modification of the well known war gas “Lewisite.” Preliminary work was started on the protection of existing structures and definite plans have been suggested for the carrying out of this phase of the investigation. Several hundred test pieces, impregnated in various ways, were exposed _ to marine borer attack in the harbor at Beaufort, N. C., and valuable pre- liminary data have been secured. In every case the impregnated pieces gave better protection than unimpregnated control pieces, and in the majority of cases there was no attack at all on the treated pieces after from three to five months’ exposure. The determination of the most suitable materials for impregnation will ultimately depend on the economy of the material and the cost of impreg- nation, and additional work is essential before such materials can be definitely selected. | The conclusions drawn in this report are merely tentative as this is essentially a progress report; further investigations must be made before permanent conclusions can be drawn. 167 168 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE PROGRESS REPORT ON THE MARINE PILING INVESTIGATION January 8, 1924 I. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this investigation is the protection of wooden structures in sea water against the attack of marine boring organisms. Preliminary work on the problem was started in January, 1923. The present paper, which is essentially a progress report, describes the work of the Chemical Warfare Service on this problem since that time. Only tentative conclu- sions have been reached as the work has not been completed. The problem natuarlly divides itself into two phases: the preservation of structures already in place, and the treatment of timber for new struc- tures in order to prevent destruction. The main types of marine borers against which protection is needed are the crustacean (Limnoria) and the molluscan (Teredo and Bankia) borers. The research was conducted along three lines: 1. General: Under this head are the toxicological and physiological tests made during the summer of 1923 at Beaufort, N. C. 2. Protection of Existing Structures: Investigations were made of the effects of chlorine generated by elec- trolysis of sea water on shipworms in wood blocks, and the possibility of the use of small pieces of copper imbedded on the surface of the piles. 3. Protection of New Structures: Sections of railroad ties, 12 inches long by approximately 3 inches square, were impregnated with various toxics at Edgewood Arsenal and exposed for actual service tests at the Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort, N. C. It should be emphasized here that these tests were carried out before the specific toxicity information was available and the materials used on im- pregnation work were selected more or less at random to include a wide range of compounds of known general toxicity, so that no possible material would be overlooked. The railroad ties were furnished by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company through Col. Wm. G. Atwood, of the National Research Council, whose ad- vice and general assistance regarding the problem are gratefully acknowl- edged. The assistance of Mr. R. S. Perry, Jr., Bureau of Construction and Repair, United States Navy, and Mr. Charles H. Hatsel, Superintendent of the Bureau of Fisheries Station at Beaufort, were of the srenieee value in carrying out these tests. Funds for carrying on this investigation were appropriated by the Quartermaster Corps, U. 8. A., the Bureau of Yards and Docks, U. S. N., and the Department of Commerce. II. HISTORY A “Digest of Available Information on Marine Borers and Preliminary Recommendations Regarding Study of Methods of Prevention of Their At- oe eee 7, PROGRESS REPORT 169 tack” has been written as Report No. E. A. C. D. 247 (1) and includes a fairly comprehensive bibliography. A very extensive bibliography on marine wood boring animals has been compiled by Dr. Barrows, of the National Research Council (18). The results of the toxicity experiments at Beaufort, N. C., during the summer of 1923, are given in Report No. E. A. C. D. 288, which is appended to this report as Appendix I. The effect of chlorine generated from sea water is described in Report No. EF. A. C. D. 286, and the service tests on impregnation are described in Appendix III (E. A. C. D. No. 299). Harington, in the Third Report of the Committee of the Institute of Civil Engineers (2), describes the chemotropic effect of certain compounds on the larval stages of shipworm, and in this same report are a paper by G. Barger (3) on the investigations to protect timber against Teredo, and a general report on creosoting and impregnation of timber, by S. M. Dixon (4). The Third Annual Progress Report of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee (5) confirms the conclusion drawn in report E. A. C. D. No. 247 that timber properly impregnated with the right kind of creosote will withstand attack for long periods of time. Dr. Henry A. Gardner conducted tests with various paints at Beaufort, N. C., during 1922, which were published as Circular No. 176 (6) by the Paint Manufacturers’ Association of the United States. In these pre- liminary tests the efficacy of copper and mercury paints were quite marked and Dr. Gardner has additional tests under way using those materials which showed up best. The results of these tests have not yet been published, but it is believed that there are several surface coatings or paints which will protect as long as they remain intact. III. THEORETICAL A. Breeding Season According to Sigerfoos (7) the breeding season for Bankia gouldi at Beaufort Harbor starts about April 15 and continues until about the first of November. The test boards of the National Research Council indicate about the same period. Dr. Coker (8) indicates that the breeding period for Limnoria at the same place is from about the middle of April to December 12 and intimates that the temperature is the deciding factor, the probability being that the production and deposition of eggs by Limnoria at Beaufort ceases when the minimum temperature falls to about 14° C., and that the rise of tem- perature in spring stimulates a renewal of the breeding activity when the minimum temperature rises above 14° C. It would be quite interesting to observe the reaction of Bankia in wood blocks to artificially controlled temperatures. It is probable that in this feature there would be a wide variation with different species. However, it is fairly well established that the breeding season is comparatively short along the north Atlantic coast and is at its height during the warm summer months, while in tropical waters the season seems to be all year round, and it may be concluded that warm water stimulates the intensity of attack. In addition to Bankia gouldi and Limnoria lignorum, the main types of marine borers found at Beaufort are Teredo sigerfoosi and Teredo navalis, although these are not nearly so numerous as the other two. 170 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE B. Toxic Action of Impregnants Undoubtedly the comparatively high solubility of creosote and the fact that it “sweats” oil for a considerable period, as can be noted by the oily film of water in the immediate vicinity of creosote impregnated pieces, de- tract somewhat from its efficiency as an impregnant. In time perhaps enough creosote will come out of the wood, due to solution or mechanical leaching, so that there is not enough remaining to give a lethal concentra- - tion in the sea water at the surface of the pile. This would permit the veligers to attach, and once they get a start in the wood a much ‘higher concentration seems necessary for lethal effect than at the free swimming stage. The specific toxicity data included in this report (Appendix I) are based on the solubility of the toxics in sea water. It is apparent that those com- pounds which show a definite toxic effect on the organisms will prevent borer attack when used as impregnants so long as they are retained in the wood in such quantity that the concentration of the toxic in the sea water in the immediate. neighborhood of the impregnated pile will always be sufficient to kill the embryos. This fact is independent of the question of whether or not the shipworm actually digests, or partially digests, the wood particles. But the toxic concentration is probably confined to the immediate surface of the impregnated piece. This is indicated by the fact that unimpregnated pieces exposed at intervals next to unattacked impregnated pieces all showed decided attack which would not have been the case had the toxic dissolved sufficiently in the sea water to create a reasonably large toxic area. There is good reason to believe that the wood borings are at least partially digested by teredine borers (9), and there does not seem to be any doubt but that Limnoria actually digests the wood. This being the case, even though the toxic were leached out of the impregnated piece beyond the point where a lethal concentration would be maintained at the surface of the wood, there might be sufficient remaining in the wood to be lethal when taken internally over a period of time. There are so many factors influencing the solution of the toxic once it is in the wood, such as the capillary attraction of the wood and the possible formation of compounds with the wood, that it would be impossible to cal- culate the length of time necessary to completely dissolve it out. It is be- lieved that with a compound which is soluble in sea water only to the extent of approximately 1 part per 100,000, sufficient will remain in the wood to insure against attack during the economic life of the structure. It is stated that piles which have been in water for thirty years have been re- moved and showed no evidence of radial penetration of the sea water beyond two or three inches. This would indicate the difficulty of leaching out any material which was thoroughly imbedded in the pores. C. Theory of Impregnation The general theory of impregnation is based on the fact that the pores of the wood contain air and moisture, which must be removed in order to al- low the impregnant to penetrate. The preservative may just coat the wood fibers, or completely fill the pores, or it may form a chemical combination with the constituents of the wood, as the case may be. A portion of the : original moisture on the wood may be removed by seasoning or air drying. — The air and some residual moisture may be removed by placing the wood ; % 1 t 4 j > PROGRESS REPORT Af! in cylinders, which are under reduced pressure for a reasonable period, and then allowing the impregnating liquid to be drawn into the evacuated cylin- ders and sucked into the more or less empty pores of the wood. The appli- cation of pressure at this stage will force the liquid even deeper into the wood. In the open tank process, the air and moisture are removed by placing the wood in a medium which has a higher boiling point than water. When the temperature of the medium is raised above the boiling point of water, the heated. air from the pores expands and the moisture is partly driven off as steam. As the wood is allowed to cool in the impregnating liquid, the ex- panded air contracts, forming a partial vacuum in the pores of the wood and thereby permitting the liquid to enter the pores of the wood more freely. D. Character of Ideal Impregnant The ideal impregnating material for marine piling should be highly toxic both to Limnoria lignorum and shipworms; it should not injure the wood; it should be only very slightly soluble in sea water at ordinary temperatures, but it should be sufficiently soluble to insure a toxic concentration in the immediate vicinity of the surface of the pile, or be sufficiently soluble in the digestive fluids of the borer to produce lethal effect. In addition, it is de- sirable that it have a preservative action on the wood itself. For purposes of economy, it would be desirable to use water as a medium for introducing the toxic materials into the wood. It would be highly advantageous if the material were sufficiently soluble in hot water, and sufficiently insoluble in sea water at ordinary temperatures (up to 90° Fahr.), to precipitate the desired quantity of toxic in the wood on cooling. This would permit of impregnation by one of the standard processes. In case a material cannot be found which is soluble in hot water and rather insoluble in sea water at the ordinary temperatures, it should be soluble in some cheap medium which could be used as a vehicle in the im- pregnating process. This fact has been taken advantage of in certain U. S. Patents (10) in which petroleum and paraffine are suggested as carriers. An alternative method which might be more desirable than the use of a fairly permanent vehicle for the toxic would be the use of a volatile solvent - which could be recovered after impregnation, leaving the toxic in the wood. This would necessitate the use of a vacuum or vacuum and pressure process for impregnation, as these solvents would naturally have a considerably lower boiling point than water and, therefore, render the ordinary boiling process impracticable. Still another possibility is the use of a material which is itself soluble in water or in whatever solvent it is desired to use but which forms a more or less insoluble compound with the wood itself. It is open to question whether this compound should necessarily be toxic, although it is preferable that it should, as the formation of a compound which would be indigestible or un- palatable to the borer might be sufficient. Most of the organic dyestuffs would fall in this class. IV. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK A. Toxicological and Biological 1. Review of Data—The toxicological investigations were carried out at Beaufort, N. C., during the summer of 1923 by M.S. Allen, of the Medi- a 172 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE cal Research Division, Chemical Warfare Service, assisted by R. H. Carter. Laboratory toxicity tests of different compounds were conducted on Limnoria, shipworm embryos, exposed shipworms (Bankia removed from their burrows), and shipworms in wood blocks. | It is of especial note that the order of toxicities of the compounds tested was in general the same for all four series. The decreasing order of resistivity of the organisms was: embryos, exposed shipworm, Limnoria, - and shipworm in blocks. The complete details of the toxicity tests are included in Appendix I, but it should be mentioned here that of the 45 compounds tested, the following stood out in the order named from all the rest in all round toxic value: Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide Phenyl arsenious oxide Mercuric oxide Mercuric chloride Mercuric arsenate Cuprous cyanide Cupric orthonitrobenzoate Cuprous chloride Mercuric anilinate Mercuric benzoate Crystal violet Between these compounds and the others, there was a wide gap. The fact that the exposed Bankia gouldi were transferred to fresh sea water as soon as they were apparently killed by the toxic, and usually showed no recovery, indicates that the criteria of death were fairly accurate. Practically all the toxics had a marked fixative action on the dead organisms and deterioration was not nearly so marked as in the plain sea water. By changing the water daily, over 50 per cent of the specimens of Limnoria were kept alive for a month and, in view of the greater ease in collecting and handling this species, it may be that a very fair rating for a toxic can be obtained by de- termining its action on Limnoria alone. In addition to the data included in Appendix I, Carter ran a series of toxicity tests on Limnoria and exposed Bankia gouldi, using the ordinary salts of various metals, the salts used being the chloride, nitrate, acetate, and sulphate, respectively. The results of this investigation showed that it made very little difference what salt of the particular metal was used, but that the metals rated as follows on all round toxic value: mercury, copper and zinc, in the order named. Of the other metals, aluminum had a pronounced effect on Limnoria but was not tried on exposed Bankia. Barium was fairly toxic to Bankia but practically neutral to Limnoria, while manganese, magnesium, lead, tin, and iron had practically no toxic value in the form used. In this work the solutions were made up of one part of the metal to the required dilution of sea water. All the barium compounds were less soluble than one part of barium to 100,000 parts of sea water, as were the copper and mercurous compounds. The particularly interesting feature of this work is that it confirms Dr. Gardner’s observations on mercury and copper paints (6) and serves also as a check on the general toxic value of mercury and copper salts found by Miss Allen. PROGRESS REPORT Gis Two test boards containing removable blocks, 6 inches x 4 inches, were made up according to the specifications of the National Research Council Committee on Marine Piling Investigation, and these blocks were removed monthly and sent to Mr. Clapp, at Harvard University, for examination and classification. The analyses of these blocks are included in the report of the National Research Council for 1923. There was no attack on the block sent to Mr. Clapp December 8, 1923, which had been exposed thirty days, indicating that the breeding season had ceased some time prior to that date. Originally these blocks were fastened to a base board by means of screws, but the board became so badly dilapidated because of the marine borer attack that it had to be replaced and an iron rack is now being used. The accompanying small photographs demonstrate that the shipworm will cross a crack. (Fig. 32). The block (left) was removed from the base board (right) after three months’ exposure. The face of the block in the picture shows distinctly that the borers passed through the base board into the block. It was observed at the Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory that shipworms frequently crossed gaps of at least 1/16-inch from one piece of wood to another, which fact shows the fallacy of the old belief that the Teredo will not cross a crack. } While too much stress should not be put on the average weight of wood excavated per shipworm per day (0.05 grams) in Miss Allen’s report, it is interesting to note that this figure is five times that estimated in E. A. C. D. No. 247 (1), and indicates that it should not be hard to establish a lethal concentration within the body of the Teredo, provided the toxic does not form with the wood a much more insoluble compound than the toxic itself. The only available data on the specific toxicity of creosote are given in Dr. Shackell’s work (11) (12) on the emulsions of creosote and creosote fractions on Limnoria and exposed Bankia. Unfortunately, the concentra- tions he used were usually about 4 parts of the toxic to 10,000 parts sea water, which is about forty times the concentration used by Miss Allen. In addition, he considered the toxic time as the time required to kill fifty per cent of the organisms, while Miss Allen took 90 to 100 per cent deaths as her criterion. No definite estimate of the comparative toxicity of creosote and the specific toxics placed by Miss Allen at the head of her list can be drawn, but it is believed that her most efficient all around toxics are at least forty times as effective as creosote, from a lethal standpoint. 2. Future Work—lIt is hoped to fill in the gaps in the toxicity table in Miss Allen’s report during the summer of 1924, and also to make careful ; determinations of the toxicity of. various creosotes which will be comparable | to the other toxicity data. In addition, it is planned to determine the | efficacy of a number of additional compounds, and a sufficient number of | wood blocks of the size found most advantageous for laboratory work will | be planted in time to insure sufficient specimens for these investigations. B. Prevention of Attack on Existing Structures 1. Review of Data—In accordance with the procedure outlined by the inventors, a test was carried out at Beaufort, N. C., July 1, 1923, of a method of generating chlorine by the electrolysis of sea water, and it is sufficient to state here that there was no evidence of the extremely beneficial effects claimed by the sponsors of this process. Evidence of the toxic effect of metallic copper and compounds formed by the action of sea water on metallic copper seemed definite enough to warrant 174 CHEMICAL WARFARE’ SERVICE the trial of copper studded test pieces. Col. Atwood, of the National Re- search Council, found that when some of the test blocks which were already attacked by teredine borers were wrapped with copper wire, not only was there no further attack, but the borers already in the block were killed. In Table I in Appendix III of this report, there is a record of two pieces, Nos. 16-1 and 16-2, respectively, which were studded with copper tacks on 14-inch and %-inch centers, respectively, over the entire surface of the wood. In 16-1 the “tacks’”’ were simply short pieces of No. 16 gauge copper wire about 3g-inch long, and in 16-2, ordinary copper carpet tacks were used. Both pieces were practically immune from attack, although 16-1 did have one small Teredo hole near a knot, where it was impossible to put any copper wire pieces. It was hoped that, if the exigencies of the situation demanded, the surface of the piles already in the water could be covered with copper slugs or shot by some such means as an air pressure gun. This work would, of course, necessitate the use of a diver, and the expense would undoubtedly be too great, except in the most desperate case, as the single cost of the necessary cleaning of the barnacles, slime, and other marine growths from the pile would be prohibitive. Fic. 82—SHOWING THAT SHIPWORMS WILL CROSS A CRACK 2. Future Work—The possibility of the use of slowly soluble specific toxics in the sea water in the immediate vicinity of infested piling is, of course, apparent in considering the protection of structures already in place. So little is known of the dispersion of small quantities of difficultly soluble materials in extremely large bodies of water that it did not seem feasible to try any large scale poisoning of the water in Beaufort harbor on account of the fishing industry there, and at this writing no place seems available for a test of this kind. There is no doubt that there are a number of materials which would kill both larval and full grown shipworms and Limnoria if placed in the water in the immediate vicinity of infested structures, but they would also un- doubtedly kill nearly all forms of marine life over the same area and an additional region, depending on the local harbor conditions, such as tide, current, winds, etc. All the eleven toxics enumerated under IV-A-1 would PROGRESS REPORT 175 be efficacious for this use, and it is likely that a number of cheaper arseni- cals, such as calcium arsenate, as well as other compounds, could be used to advantage. There should be sufficient of the toxic placed in the water to create a toxic area immediately around each pile having a concentration of at least one part of toxic to 100,000 parts of sea water for a period of from five to seven days. The material could be suspended in cloth or porous tubes of small diameter (one inch or less) along the entire length of each pile, and kept in place by fastening to the pile at the top, and by having a weight at the bottom end of the tube. It is probable that this treatment could be in- stalled for about $2 per pile for the cheaper toxics. It would have to be repeated at fortnightly intervals, or certainly no longer than monthly in- tervals, during the breeding season. These data are based mainly on con- jecture, and actual tests are necessary before they can be accepted with any great assurance, and even then the local conditions mentioned before would cause wide variations. A better surface distribution might be secured by the use of a cloth tube wound around the pile in the form of a helix, having the toxic in its core, although it is doubtful whether this would be necessary. It might be that by the use of a non-toxic material of the same degree of solubility as the toxic which it is desired to use, both the speed of solution of the material and the distribution of the concentration of the material over the surrounding water could be fairly accurately determined. Possibly this might be carried out using some innocuous dye, and the concentrations in the surrounding water determined by colorimetric methods. There is a possibility that in a land locked harbor, with a number of timber structures to protect, the amount of toxic necessary to insure protection for each might eventually be such that the whole harbor would be polluted and it will be necessary to ascertain the limits of dispersion for non-toxic com- pounds of the same degree of solubility as the toxics which it is desired to use before any actual poisoning test can be made. C. Protection of New Structures 1. Discussion—The data from the service tests at Beaufort, as de- scribed in Appendix III, indicate that certain toxics, when used as impreg- nants, give definite protection against marine borers for a short period of time. How lasting this protection will be, it is impossible to state on the basis of tests made to date, but when the service test data are studied in conjunction with the specific toxicity data, there is certainly basis for the presumption that several of the materials used in the service tests will probably protect for 30 years or more. In fact, the results of the investiga- tion of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, as published in their Third Annual Progress Report (5), show that protection for a period of from 15 to 20 years can be secured by proper creosote impregnation, and this narrows the problem of protection of new structures to the point of finding a material which will give protection for.a longer period than creo- sote, or of finding a cheaper material than creosote, which will give equal protection, or of finding a material cheaper than creosote which will give protection for a longer time. There is no doubt that the addition of a specific toxic to creosote will give protection for a longer period than creosote alone. It is quite probable that with the use of some cheaper vehicle than creo- sote, several of the specific toxics found, when used in this vehicle, will give protection equal to creosote for less cost. 176 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE It is possible that when all the data are available, one or more materials will be found which will give protection for a longer period than will creo- sote, and at less cost. In the service tests, creosote was used as a vehicle for a great many of the toxics as it was hoped that by the use of sheathed pieces the relative efficiency of the specific toxics would be indicated. It was shown by Shackell (12) that a shipworm will pass from an untreated piece of wood into a creosoted block and, if after going through the sheathing into a block impregnated with creosote plus a specific toxic, the borer was killed, stopped, or repelled, there could be no question but that the toxic, and not ‘the creosote, did the work. As explained in Appendix III, it was some time before the right kind of sheathing was developed, and by that time, it was too late for shipworm attack. It is hoped that the data will be available by the end of next summer. Most of the service tests using carriers other than creosote were exposed too late to obtain any definite results; consequently, these pieces, along with others, making fifty in all, are still being exposed at Beaufort. Although there will be no new attack until next spring, the toxics will have an op- portunity to partially leach out, and the borers already in the sheathing will have a chance to penetrate to the treated block. After the breeding season commences, these pieces will be inspected from time to time for indication of attack, and will finally be withdrawn about the close of the breeding season in the fall. 2. Future Work—The large scale apparatus shown in the accompany- ing photograph (Fig. 33) is designed for the impregnation of round fence posts by the temperature-vacuum-pressure process. These posts are 8 feet long with an approximate diameter of 4 to 6 inches. It is planned to im- pregnate sets of ten posts each with the same toxic, and expose them at Beaufort before the breeding season commences, to serve as long time tests for the most promising materials. It is planned to pull one post per year at the close of the season, and make a thorough examination for evidence of attack. Among the materials which will be used for this work are diphenylchlorarsine, diphenylaminechlorarsine, crystal violet, phenylarseni- ous oxide, and others. A set of creosote impregnated posts will be run as a check. Each set of posts will be impregnated by the process best adapted for the particular toxic used. The use of different vehicles to carry the toxics will be investigated and it is planned to try other solvents than creosote in order to cut down the cost. Preliminary work will be carried out with the smaller test pieces, although fuel oil will probably be tried out as a vehicle for some of the more toxic arsenicals on a larger scale. It is probable that smaller percentages than 5 per cent of the more toxic materials will prove effective and it is planned to try as low as 1 per cent of these compounds. V. CONCLUSIONS 1. All of the impregnated pieces used gave much better protection against marine borer attack than unimpregnated pieces. 2. The most efficient all around toxics with regard to the four types of a: y PROGRESS REPORT 177 marine borers studied, are as follows, in the order named: Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide Phenyl arsenious oxide Mercuric oxide Mercuric chloride Mercuric arsenate Cuprous cyanide Cupric orthonitrobenzoate Cuprous chloride Mercuric anilinate Mercuric benzoate Crystal violet Between the efficacy of these compounds and that of the other materials tested, there is a wide gap. 3. The addition of 5 per cent of specific Farin such as diphenylchlorar- senious oxide, diphenylaminechlorarsenious oxide, phenylarsenious oxide, etc., to creosote for impregnation purposes would seem to afford definite protection for piling against marine borers. 4. While the length of exposure was not sufficient to justify too optimistic conclusions, it is believed that piling so impregnated will stand up for a longer period than straight creosote impregnated piling. 5. While quite a few compounds of undoubted toxicity have been found, the choice of the best all around toxic for impregnation work will eventually depend upon the comparative economy of material and process cost in in- troducing the same. 6. The cost of the carrier for the toxic will probably prove the determin- ing factor in the choice of the best all around toxic. Economically, the carriers used are as follows, in order of cheapness: a. Water b. Fuel oil ec. Benzol (figuring recovery) d. Ammonia e. Creosote 7. If a method can be perfected using toxic dyes in water solution which will obtain the desired depth of impregnation, and which are fast to sea water, they will probably prove the most economical of the compounds used. 8. It is believed that most of the impregnation results can be duplicated on large scale apparatus sufficiently well for practical purposes. 9. The toxicity results indicate that Limnoria can be used as a criteria for the specific toxicity of any compound on all the types of marine borers studied. 10. There is no doubt that shipworms will cross a crack between one piece of wood and another, provided the gap is not too great. 11. The specific toxicity effect of various creosotes on marine borers should be determined. 12. A test should be carried out using a material which is very slightly soluble in sea water, and which is non-toxic to marine life in order to de- termine the time required to dissolve the same when suspended in cloth tubes of about 1 inch diameter along the side of piling. 178 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE Fic. 383—“LARGE SCALE” VACUUM-PRESSURE IMPREGNATING APPARATUS ee > PROGRESS REPORT io 13. Additional work is necessary before final conclusions can be drawn and the expense of pile protection estimated. VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Walker & McQuaid—Digest of Avail- 8. Coker—Breeding Habits of Limnoria able Information on Marine Borers at Beaufort, N. C., Journal Elisha and Preliminary Recommendations Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. Regarding Study of Methods of DOS Vi NOSw and 2) AUZust,..L0 2a Prevention of Their Attack. Chemical Warfare Service Report INOuu. A.C. DD. 247. 9. Dore and Miller—The Digestion of Wood by Teredo Navalis, University of California Publications on 2. Harington—Third (Interim) Report AOOLWEY, oVOl. 2X11, «No, 67,” pages of the Committee of the Institution 383-40, February 1, 1923. i Civil Engineers for 1923, page 49 partseh—Method of Wood Protec- : tion— 3. 3 aa The ia Report of U. S. Patent No. 1,374,806. the Committee of the Institution o Ellis— aisle @ 5 Civil Engineers for 1923, page 24. Totes ie ROL cece 4. Dixon—Third (Interim) Report of the Committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1923, page 87. 11. Shackell—Comparative Toxicity of Coal Tar Creosote and Creosote Dis- tillates, and of Individual Con- 5. Third Annual Progress Report of stituents for the Marine Wood the San Francisco Marine Piling Borer, Xylotrya, Proc. of American Committee, February 20, 1923, page Wood Preservers’ Association, 1915, ite page 233. G Gardner—Circular 176 of the Paint 12. Shackell—Marine Borers from the Manufacturers’ Association of the Wood Preservers’ Standpoint, Proc. United States, Scientific Section, of American Wood Preservers’ Asso- “Marine Borer Paints,’ May, 1923. ciation, 1916, page 127. 7. Sigerfoos—Natural History, Organi- 13. Barrows—Bibliography on Marine zation, and Late Development of Wood Boring Animals, National Re- Teredinidae, or Ship Worms, Bureau search Council, Washington, D. C., of Fisheries Document No. 639, 1907. ADs LG seo 23. 180 ib GE IV VI. CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE APPENDIX I TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGH INTRODUCTION (2 02 cee cae wee a 2 5 ae oe 181 MATERIALS | oy us oe ee v cen da 5 eles te nr 182 A. Organisms ....0..0..62..5 0. .0s oe 182 B.. Toxies ws sce sec cess a bes a 8, 182 FEIXPERIMENTAL . 0.000.560 000s « ps 00 eee 183 A. Toxicity Tests on Limnoria.......2 one 183 B. Toxicity Tests on Exposed Bankia. 2. eee 183 C. Toxicity Tests on Bankia in Wood Blocks........ 185 D. Toxicity Tests on Bankia Embryos............. 187 E. Discussion: of Toxicity. Results...) eee 189 F. Reaction of the Digestive Tract of Bankia...... 192 G. Effect of the Decrease in Salinity of Sea Water on Exposed Bankia.........42 se 192. H. Effect of the Increase in the Hydrogen Ion Con- centration on Teredo and Limnoria............-. 193 I. Study of the Wood Boring Activities of Bankia. 194 CONCLUSIONS ......% ss «0s aw oo 4)c 5 Sennen 195 RECOMMENDATIONS ....5«+ «5 se Jee ieee 195 BIBLIOGRAPHY ©... 600s ed ewe ao oe eee en 196 APPENDIX I TOXICITY OF CERTAIN COMPOUNDS ON MARINE WOOD BORING ORGANISMS TOGETHER WITH SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS October, 1923 By M. S. Allen and R. H. Carter ABSTRACT The object of the investigation was to test certain compounds for their toxicity on marine wood-boring organisms and to investigate certain physiological facts concerning the Teredine borers. Substances were tested on Limnoria lignorum, Bankia me in an ex- posed state, on the swimming embryos of Bankia gouldi and on Bankia gouldi in wood blocks. The toxicity of the various compounds was approxi- mately the same for the various organisms. The embryos of Bankia gouldi were obtained by artificial fertilization of the ova, and were ewe) raised to the veliger stage. Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, phenyl arsenious oxide, mercuric oxide, mer- curic chloride, mercuric arsenate, cuprous cyanide, cupric ortho nitro ben- zoate, mercuric benzoate, and crystal violet were the most toxic out of 45 compounds tested. The digestive tract of Bankia gouldi was found to be neutral in reaction. Bankia gouldi was not able to withstand a reduction in salinity lower than 4 parts per thousand. I. INTRODUCTION The object of this investigation was to determine the toxicity of certain compounds on marine wood boring organisms, and to investigate certain physiological facts concerning the teredine borers. It was intended to use_ methods for toxicity tests which were much more rapid than the exposure. of treated wood in infested waters. In this manner, obviously useless com- pounds would be eliminated, and the number to be tested by long time ex- posures materially reduced. This work was carried on from June 18 to September 15, 1923, at the: Marine Biological Station of the United States Bureau of Fisheries boca ied | at Beaufort, N. C. The invaluable direction and assistance rendered by Dr. A. W. Bray is. gratefully acknowledged, as is also the cooperation of Mr. Chas. H. Hatsel, Superintendent of the Station, and Mr. R. H. Perry, Jr. The biological station is located on a small island about 100 yards from the mainland. The channel from Bogue Sound and the ocean bound the south and east sides; to the north and west there is open, shallower water. 181 182 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE Wooden structures on all sides of the island are heavily attacked by teredine borers and by the crustacean, Limnoria lignorum. II. MATERIALS A. Organisms. Limnoria lignorum and Bankia gouldi were the species used in all the toxicity tests. Limnoria lignorum is a small crustacean about 3 mm. long which is found in enormous numbers in wooden structures between the high and low tide marks. It makes tunnels about one millimeter in diameter running near the surface of the wood. Specimens were obtained easily from wood chipped off piles near the dock. Bankia gouldi is the shipworm found in the greatest numbers in the vicinity of the island. The eggs of Bankia are fertilized after extrusion from the female and go through their embryonic life independently of the adult—not being carried in the gills as are those of some species of Teredo. At the time of attachment to wood the young Bankia has the form of a small bivalve. The bivalve shells are used to excavate a burrow which the animal digs to accommodate its rapid growth. The body elongates so that in its adult form it has the modified shells at the anterior end for burrowing and a long tubular body terminating in two siphons, one exhalant, one in- halant, which remain at the point of entrance to the burrow. (1) When disturbed the delicate siphons are withdrawn into the opening which is blocked by an outthrust of the pallets. The burrow is lined with a cal- careous material. Bankia gouldi differs from Teredo sigerfoosi, also to be found there, in its smaller size, in the shape of the boring shell, and in hav- ing cone-shaped instead of paddle shaped pallets. For further information on organisms the reader is referred to Report No. E. A. C. D. 247. Pieces of wood of various sizes were planted in the water on the west and south sides of the island to provide specimens. A large number of hard pine blocks, 2 inches by 4 inches by 8 inches, were nailed onto strips of board and sunk in the water. Several pieces of soft pine, 1 inch by 6 inches, of the type used to sheathe treated pieces and two bales of cedar shingles were planted. The shingles were to obtain small uniform specimens that could be easily chipped out. While they were attacked to quite an extent by Bankia the specimens obtained were curiously transparent and delicate, very unlike the firm white specimens found in the pine blocks. The nacreous lining of the burrows in the shingles was thin and fragile and often not continuous. On this account these specimens were not used for toxicity work. A better material for this purpose would have been thin soft pine boards of the type of which boxes are made. A small number of large specimens of Teredo sigerfoost were obtained from planks which had been in use for some time in the terrapin beds on the north side of the island. These planks contained an occasional specimen of Bankia. One specimen of Teredo sigerfoosi was found in wood on the other side of the island. Specimens were secured by whittling them from their burrows with a jack-knife. B. Toxics All toxicity tests were run with sea water solutions of the substances. Accurate solubility data on these compounds in sea water were not available but for the most part the compounds were only slightly soluble. It was decided to use definite dilutions of 1-50,000 and 1-100,000. If a substance TOXICITYs. TESTS 183 would not give a clear solution at a concentration of 1-50,000, this dilution was not used. Some few of the compounds (mercury stearate, copper stearate, copper rosinate, mercury rosinate, hexachlorethane, toxall, and diphenylaminechlorarsine) appeared to be insoluble. The barium and cop- per salts apparently had reacted with the salts contained in the sea water, making the effective solution somewhat less in concentration. In these cases, the compound was shaken with sea water, allowed to stand, and used as saturated solutions. In all other cases, there was no visible turbidity. The toxicity of mercuric chloride was determined in the same manner as that of the compounds being investigated in order to establish a standard of comparison. Ill. EXPERIMENTAL A. Toxicity Tests on Limnoria Limnoria has the advantage of being small in size, easily obtained and of allowing a large number of tests to be run conveniently and in a com- paratively short time. | Twenty specimens of Limnoria were used for each test, five in each of four small dishes, in about 30 cc. of the toxic solution in 1-50,000 and 1-100,000 dilutions. When motion appeared to cease individuals were placed under the microscope and observed for signs of life when stimulated by a teasing needle. True death was distinguished from narcosis by removing non-reacting individuals to fresh sea water, and observing them for signs of recovery. The solutions tested fell naturally into one of two classes: Group A, causing 90-100 per cent death in less than seventy hours; Group B, not causing 100 per cent death in 120 hours. The lethal time in hours was taken for Group A; the percentage dead after 120 hours for Group B. Twenty controls in sea water were run parallel to each set of tests, a set comprising an average of five toxic substances. Of about 400 individuals so tested as controls, 95-100 per cent were alive at the end of five days. B. Toxicity Tests on Exposed Bankia By exposing suitable wood, there is no difficulty in obtaining a supply of Bankia although considerable time and patience is required to remove specimens intact from their burrows. Specimens showed a high degree of variation in their condition following removal from the wood. The tem- perature, the amount of handling necessary to secure them, the type of wood from which they were obtained, and other probable factors affected their resistance. Undamaged specimens of Bankia survived twenty-four hours in sea water. The period of survival could be lengthened consider- ably, to forty-eight and even seventy-two hours, by frequently renewing the sea water. Because of this individual variation, an effort was made in obtaining Bankia to secure individuals as uniform in size and appearance as possible, those between 2-4 cm. in length being preferred. They were used as soon as possible after being whittled from their burrows. Only specimens re- acting vigorously when their siphons were touched with a teasing needle and being perfectly intact as to mantle were used. Three individuals in 150 ce. of the solution in a finger bowl were used for each test in dilutions of the toxics of 1-50,000 and 1-100,000. Three specimens in sea water were run 184 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE TABLE I—Limnoria A. Hours To CAUSE 90-100 PER CENT DEATHS AT DILUTION AT DILUTION oF 1-100,000 OF 1—50,000 Phenylarsenious oxide eee ee. te eee ete 4% 3 Chiorvinylarsenious ode... te eae a as ee ns 4 Mercurie “chidgridecsven.. -as on te ee ts Be ee 8 _4 Mercuric*oxide rcs cer: ce ce ant ae ee oe ee ae 7% Mercuric“anilinate s. PE Soaa ee oe ele ee ee a 24 Guprous¢yanide 3 ts ea eee oe eee 66 25 Guprous chloride. 5 2k. eee te ee a eee 69 45 Mercuric:benzoate: 5. 322. Aiea tee eee eee oe 48 Gupne orthonitrobenzoate. “ha: Soe. ce. ee eee 69 53 Mercuric-arsenate (32. oi: nee See eee 69 69 Benzanilide tg: caecco% 3 Hea eas ee eee ee 69 69 B. Per CENT DEATHS AT 114-120 Hours DILUTION DILUTION OF 1-100,000 OF 1-50,000 ParanitrobenZole B60 evsstic..8 pee ene ee 100 90 Paris: Treen 22. a.-caisikis ed Hoa eee 95 *Mereuric rosinate. oc. Sccatk dead ke eee 85 at Gupric paranitrobenz0ate st aocies «camino eee 80 95 *“Cuprie: rosinate.:. . . c0siss chim eee 80 *Hexachlorethane® si. 'si. Payee ee ee ae 15 35 Antimony pentoxide ....... Trthie he ee aa 10 i Grystal violet: oo) .9 05. ASS Sa ee eee es 55 Cupric!tannate i! H.C a e e eeee we 45 Direct*blackivs i Stina’ tes OR. Ae ee Ss 40 Cupricibenzoate i. .6 55 Jase cen 3 a Aes ee i. 40 Methylene: bine sor itis fe... Pee Be eee 25 30 Direct * blue se a Re, Pe ee vi] 20 Control (in sea water) 5% *Not soluble at 1-100,000 parts sea water and run as saturated solutions. Note— 1. Toxall is a preparation made by Toch Bros., New York City, and is stated to be barium phenocresylate in creosote. 2. All barium and copper salts formed slight precipitates by reaction with sea water, giving a lower concentration than noted. TOXICITY TESTS 185 as controls with each set of four or five tests. These controls survived 24 hours or longer. The reaction of each individual was tested at hourly intervals. When no response to the stimulus of the teasing needle occurred, the individual was removed to fresh sea water. In only one case, diphenylamine chlorarsine, did revival follow the transfer, and in most cases death appeared to be practically simultaneous with the absence of response to stimuli. The test recommended by some investigators of observing the appearance of degen- eration of the siphons did not seem advisable as some of the solutions used acted as fixatives and preserved the specimen in good condition. It is difficult to account for the effect which a few solutions appeared to have in prolonging the life of specimens. In saturated solutions of mercuric stearate and mercuric rosinate, to cite the most striking cases, Bankia lived for seven days. It is possible the amount of toxic present was just suffi- cient to prevent the multiplication of bacteria and protozoa in sea water. C. Toxicity Tests on Bankia in Wood Blocks Testing the exposed Bankia had in its favor the short time of survival and the easy method of testing for death. It was thought, however, that the unnatural conditions surrounding the delicate organism upon its removal from the burrow might be so large a factor in producing death as to distort the toxicity data. | With the idea of eliminating extraneous harmful influences Bankia were tested in toxic solutions without being removed from the wood. To some extent the method followed was that used by Blum in his work on the effect of low salinity on Teredo. (2) Fortunately, there were some long, smooth- surfaced, 4 x 4-inch timbers remaining from other experiments which were well attacked without being riddled by Bankia. These were sawed into 8-inch lengths, and placed for a few days in glass aquaria of 6 liter capacity in gently running sea water. When the timbers were removed from the harbor the pallets were extruded and the siphons withdrawn. A gradually increasing number of siphons appeared after the block was placed in the aquarium. The number of siphons extruded was counted several times a day until a maximum and fairly constant count was obtained. The block was then placed in a toxic solution of 1-50,000 dilution and allowed to re- main for seven days. This strength of solution and length of exposure was adopted as a standard test after several trials with various combinations of the dilution and time elements. A 1-100,000 dilution was too weak to give pronounced results with any but a few of the most toxic solutions. Since most of the toxic substances were soluble at 1-50,000 and not much higher, this dilution was chosen. Short exposures, 6 to 24 hours, had no effect whatever, even with the most toxic solutions. Three-day exposures were satisfactory with the more toxic solutions; useless with the less toxic ones. The solutions were renewed every other day; oftener if necessary to prevent growth of ciliatos and mold. A carefully counted block was run as a control in sea water parallel to each week’s exposure. The control block was kept in standing sea water which was changed as often as the toxic solutions were changed. The end of seven days frequently showed a decrease in the number of siphons ex- truded, but the return to running sea water brought out the original number and, in most cases, a larger number of siphons. 186 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE When a block was removed from water to a toxic solution the mere with- drawal of the block from water caused retraction of the siphons. In some cases, they were extruded soon after immersion in the toxic. In the case of mercuric arsenate no siphons appeared either after the block was placed in the solution, or when after seven days it was restored to water. This case was unique. With phenyl arsenious oxide, the effect, although decided, was TABLE II. EXPOSED BANKIA NUMBER OF HOURS TO CAUSE DEATH DILUTION OF DILUTION OF COMPOUND 1—100,000 1—50,000 Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide ............ ce 2 Phenylarsemouspxide®. sta. J. eee 2 3 Mercurie: Oxides See Woe eee ee a 3% Guprous ¢vanide? cto ee aes st; 3% Mercuric chioride.% cs. 4 ot. ee on 4 Mercuric arsenate ...Ge.c eee eee se 5% Guprous chloride). Sith Gee . foresee - 6 Cupriciorthonitrobenzoater.). SN bee 2 11 Parispereen)’. Gato aetna Ae 9 a Grystal violet aai: Stee ee ee ee as 7 Cupric arsenite’ eo. eae eee 7 Cuiprie: arsenate ic: iets ste bine tans een 7 Barium ‘arsenate: 40) Sees. fea TM ; Guprics benzoate sti) Ri ae Paice ae ae AL 8 Methylene:biue Ss... aes, eee — 8 Cupric paranitrobenzoate ............. Ha 11 Mercurie ‘anilinate 240.2. ar ei eee Ae 11 BRaritm nitrate’ .o 2a Stee eae eee 16 Bariumt acetate. /AW Ree ee 16 Ferric orthonitrobenzoate .7..0.5.9.7. 16 Diphenylamine arsenious oxide ........ 21 Diphenyl arsenious oxide ............. 48 ne Gupricttannaters.2f0).. Oa RU 2aneee eee ie 438 Quininersulphater #. Sui renee uy 72 (2 dead at 12; 1 alive at 72) Benzaniidewys : naw « sacneente wae a 74 (2 dead at 22; 1 alive at 74) Pirect Din eeherekt s ci ao 2 eae eee ee = 7 (1 dead) PUNIDTIC —TOSIN ELE es. « asarabsutnc ene ae 48 (1 alive) ; Mercurie: DeNZOAtS .. <2 +12, coses cba date eeee Ae 48 (2 alive) Direct. blacksan., cio. acca ee ee eee “ee 48 (all alive) Diphenylamine chlorarsine ............ Pe 6+ POUMDTICCSTOAT ALO | 5.55.4. aputacsas anata ae 42 (all alive) .. Paranrovenzoice alia. ito heels Seas ae 96 (2. alive) eulercurics stearate «75h ss.2 sce an Gee Ae 7 days BILGPCUTIC. POSINALA Se. eZee | Sac aia ues 7 days Control (3 in sea water)—All alive at 24 hrs. *Not soluble in 1-100,000 parts sea water and run as saturated solutions. +No reaction to teasing needle, but all revived in sea water. Note.—Barium and copper salts formed slight precipitates by reaction with sea water, giving lower concentrations than noted. TOXICITY TESTS 187 delayed. When the block was changed back to water, twenty-five siphons appeared, the second day there were four, and from then on only three. In most cases, a small proportion was extended during exposure with a return of a larger percentage after removal to sea water. Withdrawing the block from water brought out a large number of pallets, jarring the block brought out still more, but placing the blocks in toxic solu- tions, while causing the withdrawal of a large number of siphons, did not cause the extrusion of a similar number of pallets. In some cases the un- blocked holes could be recognized. At no time, in any toxic solution was the number of pallets extruded equal to the number of siphons previously counted. The length to which the siphons were extended depended, of course, upon the size of the individual and to a lesser extent upon its state of activity. Three to four cm. was the greatest extension observed. The average was 1 to 14% cm. Generally the siphons, when extruded in the toxic solution, were extended a shorter distance than in sea water. The greatest extension, 2 and 3 cm., was shown in a solution of Paris green. Upon changing the blocks back to sea water after exposure, it was noticed that the siphons were extended to a greater distance than usual. A lack of suitable blocks pre- vented tests being made on all the solutions on hand. While the use of Bankia unremoved from the wood has a decided advan- tage in approximating more nearly natural conditions, there is greater dif- ficulty in securing suitable material and the time and space required are considerable. Occasionally, the maximum number of siphons does not ap- pear for several days. The cases where the number of siphons counted after exposure was greater than before is due to this tardiness in extending the siphons; although in all of these cases the siphons were counted for a week or more before the block was placed in the toxic solution. The combination of the block exposure and the exposed Bankia makes a dependable test of a toxic. D. Toxicity Tests on Bankia Embryos Attempts to fertilize the eggs of Teredo artificially were made repeatedly during the course of the summer. The first successful results were obtained with large specimens of Teredo sigerfoosi found in planks from the terrapin beds on the north side of the island. Mature eggs were secured from one large female, and fertilized with sperm from one of the few males found at that time. Segmentation of the eggs took place rapidly and normally. In four hours the trochophore stage was reached and the embryos began to swim. They were kept alive three days and had reached the free swimming veliger stage with a distinct shell formation before the volume of water necessary to keep them alive rendered them impossible to find. No inclina- tion to settle on wood was shown during this time. One female Teredo sigerfoosi was found later in the season in wood other- wise containing only Bankia gouldi; it contained mature eggs, which were fertilized artificially with sperm from a male Bankia. The eggs developed normally, and reached the free swimming stage. They did not differ, as far as could be seen, from embryos of unmixed parentage, but died after forty- eight hours. The Bankia were very difficult to raise. The eggs were fertilized easily and segmentation commenced in a large number of trials but was irregular 188 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE and abnormal. This was due undoubtedly to the immaturity of the eggs which were not extruded naturally but had to be teased out of the individual. Three attempts with Bankia were finally successful and the toxic solutions were tested on the swimming embryos. It was impossible to use the same number of embryos for each solution but by drawing up the same amount of liquid from the surface of the water in a capillary pipette for each test, a fairly constant number (averaging around fifty) was obtained. The tests were made in Syracuse watch glasses under the dissecting microscope. For — fear that the embryo would not reach the advanced veliger stage, the tests were made as soon aS swimming became general and vigorous. In all cases, the time elapsing between the first and last death in each group was short. TABLE III.—BANKIA IN Woop BLOCKS DILUTION EXPOSURE SIPHONS EXTENDED After Removal In Sea from Percentage Water Toxic Death Mercuric chloride ........ 1-100,000 38days 95 44 54 Phenyl arsenious oxide....1-100,000 38days 113 66 42 Cuprous cyanide ........ 1- 50,000 38days 91 59 36 Mercuric arsenate....... 1- 50,000 38 days 29 19 35 Mercuric oxide.......... 1- 50,000 8days 126 87 31 ‘Cupric orthonitrobenzoate. 1-100,000 8 days 75 57 24 “Aine cyanide... ois tes ae 1- 50,000 8days 117 122 oe Mercuric arsenate........ 1- 50,000 7 days 89 0 100 Methylene blue.......... 1- 50,000 7 days 23 0 100 Mercuric rosinate........ Sat. Sol. Tdays 33 0 100 Mercuric oxide.......... 1- 50,000 7 days 99 1 99 Phenyl arsenious oxide ... 1- 50,000 7 days 70 3 96 GCrystaloyiolet-3.7 1- 50,000 T7days 33 4 88 Chlor vinyl arsenious oxide 1- 50,000 17 days 34, 6 83 Mercuric anilinate....... 1- 50,000 Tdays 42 32 75 Cuprous chloride......... 1- 50,000 Tdays 34 47 Mercuric benzoate....... 1- 50,000 7 days 39 62 Guprie tannaAteces..-74.° 1- 50,000 7 days 50 50 Cupric benzoate......... 1- 50,000 7 days 43 55 Direct. plueia- bs eae he 1- 50,000 7 days 31 41 Direct. bDlackstc napeans 1- 50,000 Tdays 28 OF. Paris... STCGN 05 case ae 1-100,000 7 days 38 42 Diphenylamine chlorarsine Sat.Sol. 7 days 24 25 Cupric rosinate.......... Sat. Sol. 7 days 39 39 Cupric stearate.......... Sat. Sol. 7 days 38 36 Toxallos docs. sass Sat. Sol. 7 days 29 27 Gontrol/Blocksc:.cn2% 0 8s Sea Water 3 days 90 95 Controle blocks :.. anise Sea Water 3 days 97 107 (SOTILEO ED IOCK oan es ees Sea Water 7 days 100 110 Control: Blocksc. ic.6%.4 0% Sea Water 7 days 38 38 Control, Block... 0.16. .We: Sea Water 7 days 29 28 ‘i's TOXICITY TESTS 189 Once the initial difficulty of raising them is passed, the test on Bankia embryos is very satisfactory. They are obtainable in vast numbers, are easily handled, and in the veliger stage swimming is vigorous and the cessa- tion of movement easily observed under the microscope. Individual varia- tion in resistance to a given toxic is very slight. This is not true of adult Limnoria where the individual variation is high. E. Discussion of Toxicity Results The time involved in preparing a large number of specimens for experi- ments, and the small amount of toxic materials available in certain cases, made it impossible to conduct a sufficient number of tests to give complete data. However, certain general conclusions can be made from a study of the tables. To facilitate comparisons, a collected table is given, in which the data of the four preceding studies are summarized. Due to the many variables in the experiments, no precise order of toxicities can be given, but definite comparisons of the toxicity of a given solution to the different organisms is clearly shown. This summary of the toxicity tests is shown in Table V. TABLE IV.—BANKIA EMBRYOS NUMBER OF MINUTES TO CAUSE 100 PER CENT DEATHS Sept. 5 Sept.12 Sept. 13 ; 1-50,000:1-100,000 1-50,000 14-50,000 Phenyl arsenious oxide............. ele 5 1 1% Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide.......... 1% 3% oa 2% MPPTOUPIC PEMIOTIC’.. 0.06 sc eee ees cane 6% ye 3% WOT COTAE CSTSCN ALC, . . sows cas snes 3 ats ie Aa Sie 54 0 Ee 2 re 5 <2 3% 5 PRCA EECIOIOUS Wl. Sid's poe sa oy a 9 ad: 8 Mereuric anilinate. .......0.000200. 30 Cupric orthonitrobenzoate ......... 31 433 ae 30 MEPPEECULIC UDCNZOALC. 5.62. e enone ne noe ay 40 43 PUOTOUS SOVANINE..... 2. cs secs ceeds 46 DEO TIGRICOTOALS fo fiaces vals ws cs nie wee was Ae 50 80 vg EUS 10 VT 1 ate 165 Mee erseyilel coc. ee ae fe! 240 BM TICMAPSERAUC). iss sss sce ee saiiele es 240 re CME eve sg «= = hee uc es 8 0 270 A 240 PArTANnitFovenZolc. ACI. ... «1666.0 50% 270 Pre 240 SS eee eae ent ee 270 is PPDFOUSUCRIOVIOG. 0. pe cca os 300 vs 120 MEMITIOTSUIDNALG lee ees 300 “oar 240 SMEs, ode visa 6.3 2 a so covers a. 300 a 240 RR MEE occa os ns odie Ge 0 Sielaie ac 300 ae 240 Cupric paranitrobenzoate .......... 390 dtp 240 IE POMEnTTALG! oy) e PIS. LO ee oe 240 Control (in sea water)............- Freely swimming after 24 hours. 190 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE TABLE V.—SUMMARY OF TOXICITY TESTS Bankia Bankia Bankia Embryos Exposed Limoria in Blocks Table IV Table II Table I Table III Time to Cause 90-100 Per Cent Deaths Per Cent Minutes Hours Hours Deaths Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide (1- 50,000) 1% a 4 83 7 days Phenyl-arsenious oxide (1- 50,000) lly 3 3 96° 7 days Mercurie oxide (1- 50,000) 5 3% 7% 99 7 days Cuprous cyanide (1- 50,000) 46 3% 25 36 3 days Mercurie chloride (1- 50,000) 3% 4 4 54 3 days Mercurie arsenate (1- 50,000) 3 5% 69 100 7 days Cuprous chloride (1- 50,000) 300 6 45 + 7 days Cupric orthonitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) 31 age 53 24 °3 days Paris green (1-100,000) 270 9 120 + 7 days Crystal violet (1- 50,000) 9 7 * 88 7 days Cupric arsenite (1-100,000) 240 7 Wo” Pion atarers te tale Cupric arsenate (1-100,000) 240 7 ee Le Boe Barium arsenate (1- 50,000) ane 7% abba ES a eae nereeee Mercuric benzoate (1- 50,000) 40 t 48 “sae etsuags Cupric benzoate (1- 50,000) 50 8 * + 7 days Methylene blue (1- 50,000) 165 8 T 100 7 days Cupric paranitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) 390 14 U2O. A ice! eReseoeremetsestie Mercurie anilinate (1- 50,000) 30 11 24 75 7 days Ferric orthonitrobenzoate (1-100,000) oe 16 cake oe iniotare Ree Diphenylamine arsenious oxide (1-100,000) ae 21 pe RC ar. Case Diphenyl arsenious oxide (1-100,000) 5 Ay; 48 8 a aie crete Quinine sulphate (1- 50,000) 300 72 Pm! mee Spa yA 2 Benzanilide (1- 50,000) 270 74 69.4. S, Rrra ce tare Paranitrobenzoic acid (1- 50,000) 270 tT 120 < >y pies a coe Mercury rosinate (Sat. Sol.) wae 168 * 100 7 days Cupric tannate (1- 50,000) 240 48 = {+ 7 days Diphenylamine chlorarsine (Sat. Sol.) state 6 as +t 7 days Direct blue (1- 50,000) 300 * t ~{ 7 days Cupric rosinate (Sat. Sol.) a a . { t days Direct black (1- 50,000) 300 7 + ‘7 days Cupric stearate (Sat. Sol.) : Tt 4 + bi days Mercuric stearate. (Sat. Sol.) ae 168 vite 2 WA ca Ps cid vo. Toxall (1-100,000) cA EMail cone") hei Hexachlorethane (1-100,000) * Setplied. 5. ee Triphenyl arsine (1-100,000) le ae BON rata hc © Benzol (1-100,000) ANY 2 Ger whsreneins teeta Calcium fluoride (1-100,000) 0 CEP OER tec sets ia Orthonitrobenzoic acid (1-100,000) LA ee SER ho Antimony pentoxide (1-100,000) F ~ of yak Seren eae Poke root (1- 50,000) Pi Ry Re in ote ts Aloes (1- 50,000) sy Ache ee PP, eae Lead orthonitrobenzoate (1- 50,000) eat rece “ Pest here Ligh hs Zine cyanide (1- 50,000) ei eee wis } > (says *Survived over 120 hr. {No effect. From the foregoing tables it may be seen that the compounds used are quite consistent in their effects upon Limnoria, exposed Bankia, Bankia embryos, and Bankia in wood blocks. The use of the four tests is desirable, when possible, but results from any one of the four alone, when carefully run and controlled, can be depended upon to give a good idea of the value of a compound. The toxicity value of a single compound could be deter- mined by testing it and mercuric chloride simultaneously. TOXICITY TESTS 19h From the foregoing tables, the following compounds have a greater toxic- ity value than any others, and are arranged in order of toxicity: Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide Phenyl arsenious oxide Mercuric oxide Mercuric chloride Mercuric arsenate Cuprous cyanide Cupric orthonitrobenzoate Cuprous chloride Mercuric anilinate Mercuric benzoate Crystal violet Between these solutions and all the others there is a decided decrease in effectiveness. The value of mercury and copper compounds and of mercury over copper is indicated. Of the dyes tested, crystal violet showed up very well, especially on embryos. Methylene blue was ineffective in all other tests, but gave good results on Bankia in blocks. This result is not depend- able as the blue dye precipitated out on the wood, the solution becoming colorless. As often as this occurred, the solution was renewed, so that un- doubtedly the Bankia were exposed to a higher concentration than 1-50,000. This occurred to a lesser degree with crystal violet, direct blue, and direct black, and possibly with other compounds, not dyes, and so not visibly pre- cipitating. This question of precipitation on the wood must be taken into consideration in all compounds so tested, and is a disadvantage in the use of blocks. It is probable that the substances which were not soluble at a dilution of 1-100,000 are more valuable than the tables would indicate, as even with the minute quantity which must have been in solution when the compounds were considered saturated, there was quite a pronounced effect in some cases. Shackell has investigated the question of the toxicity of creosote and creo- sote distillates on Limnoria (7) and Bankia (Xylotrya) (6). He used higher concentrations than any in this report, 0.04 per cent being the lowest he mentions. Valuable comparisons could have been made had a series of tests on creosotes and creosote distillates been made this summer to parallel those on the toxic compounds tested. Teredo sigerfoosi can block its burrow effectively without extending its pallets to the surface of the wood. Judging from the structure of the pallets and burrow of Bankia gouldi, it seems that this animal must have the pallets extended beyond the wood in order to block its burrow. From the number of siphons extended in the toxic solution and the absence of pallets plugging other burrows, it must be concluded that a large number of the Bankia in a block are directly exposed to the action of the toxic and that this and not diffusion of the toxic through the wood is responsible for the death of the Bankia. Why a solution toxic enough to cause the death of an individual is not strong enough to cause it to retract its siphons or to plug up its burrow is not understood. The greater resistance of Bankia in the wood over exposed Bankia is due, it would seem, not so much to a lesser con- tact with the toxic solution as to the favorable conditions attending their remaining in their natural environment. 192 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE F. Reaction of the Digestive Tract of Bankia In view of the probability of digestion of the wood taking place in the intestinal tract of the Bankia, it seemed advisable to investigate the condi- tion of acidity or alkalinity in different parts of the digestive tract. In case a reaction one way or the other was found it might then be possible to im- pregnate wood with some substance which, ordinarily very stable, would be soluble or toxic when acted upon by the digestive fluids. The digestive tract of Bankia consists of a short esophagus and a tubular stomach into which opens a saccular cecum and which leads into a long looped intestine. Apparently the plankton on which the Bankia normally subsists is directed into the intestine while the wood borings are stored for a while in the cecum. It has long been a disputed question whether the Teredo digests the cellulose from the borings, but from a recent investiga- tion by Dore and Miller (3) there seems to be little doubt that this is the case, to some extent at least. Since the wood borings are stored in the czecum and whatever digestion occurs probably takes place there, this organ was selected for testing. It is easily obtained free from other tissues and can be ligated and excised with its contents intact. : The following indicators, sensitive to concentrations of the hydrogen ion ranging from 1 x 10-2 to 1 x 10-°, were used: methyl orange, congo red, litmus, neutral red, phenolphthalein. Various methods were employed, as follows: 1. Caeca from six specimens were ligated, removed, and passed through several washes of distilled water. They were then opened in 25 cc. of dis- tilled water, and this solution was tested with the range of indicators. A blank of distilled water was run at the same time. This experiment was repeated a number of times, using different sizes of caeca in different con- ditions of repletion and emptiness. 2. The caeca were ligated, excised, washed in distilled water, and opened under the different indicators under the microscope. 3. Living Bankia were immersed in dilute indicators for 24 hours, washed in distilled water, and the caeca removed and examined. 4. Blocks of wood containing Bankia were immersed for 3 days in sea water made neutral by hydrochloric acid. They were extracted from the wood and tested as in 2. | 5. To neutral sea water was added congo red in 1-5,000 and 1-1,000 dilu- tions. Blocks containing Bankia were immersed in this for from 24 hours to 3 days, after which the Bankia were removed and examined. In none of these tests was there any sign of a change in the indicators. Under the microscope the caeca showed no color change with any of the indicators used. It was impossible to differentiate the solutions of czeecum contents from the distilled water blanks. Any reaction, if present, was so slight as to have little chemical importance. G. Effect of the Decrease in Salinity of Sea Water on Exposed Bankia A series of tests was made to determine the effects of a decrease in the salinity of sea water on Bankia which had been excavated from their bur- rows. Three Bankia were used for each test, ranging in size from 1 cm. to 4 cm., and were distributed as nearly uniformly as possible. Solutions of decreasing salinity were made up by diluting ordinary sea water with soft artesian well water as follows: TOXICITY TESTS 193 DILUTION PARTS NACL. SEA WATER/FRESH WATER’ PER 1000 hii Undiluted 28 All alive in 5 hrs. 1 out of 3 dead in 22 hrs. 1 33 14 All alive in 22 hrs. 1:2 9.3 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea water, all recovered 22 hrs. 1:5 4.6 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea water, 5 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs. 3 out of 6 dead in 22 hrs. 1:6 4.0 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea water, 5 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs:.,;-5-out of 6 dead in 22 hrs. aT 3.5 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea water, all recovered in 2 hrs., 6 out of 6 dead in 22 hrs. 1:9 2.8 No reaction in 1 hr., changed to ordinary sea water, 1 out of 6 recovered in 2 hrs., all dead in 22 hrs. At a salinity of 14 parts sodium chloride per 1,000 parts water, Bankia were not affected. At 9 parts per 1,000 down to 2.8 parts per 1,000 paralysis occurred within an hour. At 9 parts per 1,000, upon removal to ordinary sea water within an hour, there was a total recovery in 22 hours. Below that, recovery might take place upon removal to normal sea water but the time of survival was shortened. At 4.6 parts per 1,000, 50 per cent survived over 22 hours. At 4.0 parts per 1,000, only 16.7 per cent (1 out of 6) sur- vived, and below that salinity none survived over 22 hours. These tests on the effect of reduced salinities on exposed Bankia were conducted on so few specimens that no definite conclusions can be made. They are interesting, however, in that they correspond very closely to the results of Blum (2) on Teredo navalis, using a different method, in which he found that any salinity less than 4 parts per 1,000 was fatal. H. Effect of the Increase in the Hydrogen Ion Concentration on Teredo | and Limnoria In order to determine the effect of an increase in the hydrogen ion con- centration on wood boring organisms the following tests were performed: The hydrogen ion concentration of ordinary sea water was found by means of indicator solutions to be approximately 10-9 (pH-9). Five Lim- noria were placed in each of 8 dishes containing about 30 cc. of sea water and allowed to stand. The water was changed every 24 hours to prevent the growth of ciliates. Death or paralysis was determined as in previous experiments. A similar run was made using sea water which had been acidified with hydrochloric acid to a hydrogen-ion concentration of pH-?. NO. OF NO. DEAD PER CENT SPECIMENS IN 72 HRS. DEAD Normal sea water— Hydrogen ion concentration: between 10-9 and 10-8 (pH-9 and pH-8)..... 40 4 10 Acid sea water— Hydrogen ion concentration between 10-2 and 10-8 (pH-? and pH-3)..... 40 34 85 194 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE A similar series of experiments was carried out on exposed Bankia, using three for each test in about 200 cc. of water. NO. OF SPECIMENS RESULTS Normal sea water— Hydrogen ion concentration between T0-eand, [0-8 (ph -Yeands pelo). os 3 All alive after 6 hrs. Acid sea water— Hydrogen ion concentration between 10-2 and 10-8 (pH-2 and pH-3).... 3 Lhr. sluggish; 3% hrs. siphons extended but no reaction; 4 hrs. changed to ordinary sea water; no recovery. This increase in the hydrogen ion concentration of sea water was fatal. However, the water had been acidified to a point where it was approximately a N/100 solution of hydrochloric acid. This being so much more acid than pure water, imposed a severe test on the individuals. Additional experi- ments should be conducted where the hydrogen ion concentration is varied only from that of sea water to that of fresh water. I. Study of the Wood Boring Activities of Bankia In connection with toxicity test on Bankia in wood (Section C) it seemed desirable to obtain data on the nature of the wood boring activity of the organism, as well as the quantity of wood so consumed per 24 hours. Blocks of wood containing the specimens were put into standing sea water, prior to the running of the toxicity tests. It had been desired to collect and weigh the wood borings before, during, and after exposure as a measure of boring activity. This was done with a few blocks, enough to show that the amount of boring is roughly propor- tional to the number of siphons extruded. Borings were collected on weighed filter papers, at 24-hour periods, brought to as nearly constant weight as possible in desiccators, and weighed. A drying oven would have facilitated the process and made possible the col- lection of borings on all the blocks instead of the few that were done. NO. PAIRS OF SIPHONS WEIGHT OF BORINGS PER PAIR OF EXTRUDED BORINGS SIPHONS/24 HR. 116 5.68 gms. .048 gms. 94 2.91 gms. .031 gms. 57 1.78 gms. .080 gms. 57 .70 gms. .012 gms. 23 .98 gms. .042 gms. 67 5.10 gms. .076 gms. 75 3.20 gms. .042 gms. 29 2.40 gms. .088 gms. 1238 5.10 gms. .041 gms. 12 3.20 gms. .044 gms. 56 4.60 gms. .082 gms. 52 3.80 gms. .073 gms. Average .050 gms. TOXICITY TESTS 195 This would indicate that the average weight of wood excavated per Bankia per day is of the order of 0.05 grams. While too much weight should not be placed on these figures, the results are remarkably uniform considering the conditions. During exposure to toxic solutions, no boring was carried on. The only material ejected was a small amount of amorphous black substance, differ- ing from the light brown or yellow wood borings. IV. CONCLUSIONS 1. The toxicity of the various compounds is approximately the same for Limnoria, exposed Bankia, and Bankia embryos. 2. As might be expected, Bankia incased in wood in its natural burrow is more resistant than when removed and exposed to the toxic agents. 3. The materials which show marked toxicity on the exposed Bankia are also toxic to the borer incased in wood although a longer time is required to produce the lethal effect. 4. In the exposed Bankia death appeared to be coincident with the ab- sence of response to the stimulus of the teasing needle and with one excep- tion no revival occurred on transference to fresh sea water. 5. Indications are that during exposure to the action of any toxic, the wood-boring activities of Bankia are greatly decreased. 6. Methyl orange, congo red, litmus, neutral red, and phenolphthalein when used as indicators to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the diges- tive tract of Bankia showed no color changes as solutions or in contents cells of the caeca. Any reaction is probably so slight as to be indetermin- able. 7. Four and six-tenths parts sodium chloride per thousand is the lowest salinity to which Bankia may be exposed and recover. Death occurred at a salinity of 4.0 parts per thousand and below. 8. Of 45 compounds tested, the following had the best general toxic value against both the teredine and crustacean type of borer, in the order named: Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide Phenyl arsenious oxide Mercuric oxide Mercuric chloride Mercuric arsenate Cuprous cyanide Cupric orthonitrobenzoate. Cuprous chloride Mercuric anilinate Mercuric benzoate Crystal violet V. RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that toxicity tests can be completed on compounds that have been tested in less than the four ways described in this report. It is suggested further that the same tests be conducted on various coal tar and water gas creosotes and creosote fractions as well as on fuel oil and any other substances which might be used as carriers for toxics in ser- vice tests. The tests should also be conducted on other compounds such as arsenic chloride, arsenic, and arsenious oxides, antimony compounds, iodine, 196 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE picric acid and all materials included in the service test pieces exposed at Beaufort during the summer of 1923. A series of chemotropic experiments should also be made under the microscope using high dilutions of toxic solutions in capillary tubes and measuring their possible repellant action on freely swimming embryos. There are a number of substances which are not necessarily toxic but which might have a marked repellant effect. (8) Efforts should be made to contrive some method of testing compounds not soluble at 1-100,000 parts sea water. These compounds might be soluble in 1-1,000,000 parts sea water, in which case they could be tested on vigorously swimming embryos for comparatively long periods of time. Or a minute quantity of the insoluble material might be introduced into a watch crystal containing embryos swimming in sea water and any repellant effect ob- served. Although the tests made on caeca seem conclusive that the reaction of the digestive tract is a negligible factor from a toxicity standpoint, the problem might be attacked again using a very large number of caeca and other indicators. At the same time that the caeca were being removed the livers could also be collected and the attempt made to confirm Harington’s experiments on cellulose-splitting enzymes in the liver. (8) The attempt should again be made to raise the embryos to the point of attachment to wood. Aside from biological considerations this is valuable from a toxicity standpoint as well in view of the very enlightening experiments that could be made upon the settling veliger. The question of the reaction of the compounds in sea water should also be investigated. The experiments upon the effect of reduced salinities on Bankia gould were of a preliminary nature and should be amplified, using sufficient ma- terial to establish a lethal salinity, and the same tests might well be made upon Teredo sigerfoosi and Limnoria. VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Sigerfoos—Natural History, Organiza- mendations Regarding Study of tion and Late Development of the Methods of Prevention of Their Téeredinidae, = Bull, Us 7s.) bureaw Attack, Report, No. E.A.C.D. 247. Bish 92% ; MIA 6. Shackell—Comparative Toxicity of 2. Blum—On the Effect of Low Salinity Coal Tar Cresote Distillates and of on Teredo navalis, Univ. of Cal. Pub. Individual Constituents for the in Zoology, Vol. 22, 4. Marine Wood Borer, pxylotrya, 3. Dore and Miller—The Digestion of Proc. of American Woo reservers Wood by Teredo navalis, Univ. of Association, 1915. Cal. Pub. in Zoology, Vol. 22, 7. 7. Shackell—Marine MJBorers from the 4. Bartsch—Monograph on the Ameri- Wood Preservers’ Standpoint, Proc. can. Shipworms, Bull. 122, Smith- of American Wood Preservers’ As- sonian Institute. sociation, 1916. 5. Walker and MeQuaid— Digest of 8. Harington—Third (Interim) Report Available Information on Marine of the Committee of the Institute Borers and Preliminary Recom- of Civil Engineers, 1923. poe - CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE 197 APPENDIX II TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE NITE det CN ary) Se ee eS clas kn wl woe ae o 8 ood 198 eee CLG See Ore oie. acc s IONS 2. SEG. Oe. 198 PTE PRUNENTAL, 6 cievic ccd coc S44 vo fncccceccuccces 199 MA st POCOCLIYG. . 5. cco cca cee eve ces etascbvecs 199 PMO UR EALUS: 20, ro: obs oonres inn a.ee. « Eb ES OE ACE 199 eemmsosperimental Details. cic. 6s. 6 tlk. @wiefiiem ws 199 Pepe ECONO TOCCGUTO 62. 6. ee ils bel cess vccewes 201 EMER IN ata ts. otha LL AA Oe PUN LES 201 APPENDIX II THE DESTRUCTION OF MARINE BORERS IN PILING BY THE ACTION OF CHLORINE GENERATED BY THE ELECTROLYSIS OF SEA WATER August 17, 19238 By H. 8S. McQuaid ABSTRACT A process for the destruction of marine borers on piling, depending on the generation of chlorine around the piling by the electrolysis of sea water, has been investigated by the Chemical Warfare Service. Teredo infested blocks of wood were immersed in a jar of sea water, and this was electrolyzed by passing D. C. current, using carbon and iron elec- trodes. The number of Teredo remaining immediately after the test and for varying number of hours thereafter was compared with the original number. These tests show that this method of chlorine production has only a slight toxic effect on mature Teredos. I. INTRODUCTION The problem of protecting wooden marine structures against attack by marine borers, divides itself into two phases: 1—The impregnation of new lumber to resist attack by these sea worms. 2—The treatment of present marine structures to prevent further action. The method discussed in this report applies only to the second phase, the protection of existing construction. It is claimed that chlorine generated by the electrolysis of sea water in close proximity to piling has a toxic effect on the Teredo borers in the piling and also an inhibiting effect on the settling of embryo borers on the wood. Occasional treatment of the wooden structures by this method during the breeding season is claimed to keep the piling free from attack. The word Teredo in this report is used in a general sense, to designate teredine borers. ‘The actual species on which these tests were run was Bankia gouldi. These experiments were conducted by the Chemical War- fare Service, U. S. Army, at the laboratories of the Bureau of Fisheries, Beaufort, N. C. Il. THEORETICAL The process is described as follows: Carbon anodes are suspended in the sea water in proximity to the piling and are distributed evenly about the infested surface. Iron cathodes are — then suspended sufficiently removed from the anodes to prevent the mixing ~ 198 CHLORINE METHOD OF PROTECTION £99 of the chlorine and caustic formed by the action. Each treatment should consist of 100 amperes direct current at approximately 20 volts per pile for one or two hours. Four treatments per season are recommended. Assuming the average pile to be one foot in diameter, and the length exposed to Teredo attack to be 30 feet, the area to be treated will be 94.3 square feet. A current of 100 amperes will give 1.06 amperes per square foot of pile surface exposed. As one ampere hour generates 1.33 grams of chlorine, there will be 1.41 grams of chlorine generated per hour per square foot of pile surface exposed. II. EXPERIMENTAL A. First Procedure 1. Apparatus—Teredo-infested blocks 4 inches square were immersed in sea water to a depth of 12 inches in a large wooden tank. Four graphite anodes, 44-inch square x 2 feet long, were suspended around the block, one for the middle of each side, %-inch from its surface and extending the length of the block. The four graphite rods were connected electrically to form the positive lead wire from the source of current. The cathode con- sisted of a 12-inch length of 1-inch iron pipe suspended in the sea water one foot away from the test block and anodes. The direct current was supplied by dry cells connected in series in suffi- cient number to deliver the proper current to the anodes. The circuit was provided with a direct current ammeter and a voltmeter in order to keep the electrical conditions constant. 2. Experimental Details—Three tests were made following the outline given above. The number of Teredo in each block was determined before the treatment with chlorine.* After the test, the blocks were put into fresh sea water and the number of siphons appearing were counted at time intervals until it was certain there was no delayed action of the chlorine. In experiment No. 3, a 1-inch hole was bored through the center of the block, a single graphite anode was inserted, and the opening at the top filled in with putty to prevent the escape of chlorine. This was done in an at- tempt to secure a more uniform distribution of chlorine over the surface of the block. _ The conditions of these experiments are given in Table I, and the results in Table II. TABLE I lea Test No.1 Test No.2 Test No.3 us a 38 40 87... MPEGTII—-“AMPCTES 2.2... 0c. cc esac esccees 2 4 4 nes baste tees nese ess 5 10 15 Current per square foot of block surface... 1.5 amps. 3.0 amps. 3.0 amps. Chlorine liberated per hour per square foot ERT a 0 al: a rr a 2.0 grams 4.0 grams 4,0 grams REELS Seco cs go oc Vide ccc cone es CaN 2 3 41% *The handling of the Teredos and the counts before and after the tests were the work of Miss Marjorie Allen, who was temporarily stationed at the Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory on the marine piling investigation. - ’ Se a 200 GHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE — TABLE JI—EXPERIMENT 1 TEREDO COUNT BEFORE TEST: 18 15 14 13 iz 11 10 6 5 4, pe Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Hour Letiisides i465 9 10 9 Lge ee — 7 Pete 10 2nd side... 94 117 90 96 97 95 90 1i4°"" 106 07 75 3rd side... 6 12 11 10 Ue ogc a Re ee Py 13 Total .. 108 188 111 115 118 ... .), nn AFTER TEST: 1 4 1 2 3 4 6 7 Hour Hours’ Day Days Days Days Days Days eke SLOG. esr tee 1 8 8 10 6 12 5 11 BUG. Sidewes oa5. 37 40 85 71 50 79 53 58 OLG ) SIUC, vce ee 13 16 9 14 14 14 10 10 Total ...... 51 64-102 95 70-105 68 79 EXPERIMENT 2 TEREDO COUNT BEFORE TEST: 13 12 11 7 6 5 1 Days Days Days Days Days Days Hour Lstiside false . = 114 126 97 57 82 78 66 and sidGic ce eee Pat nhs ee aie # Pees 10 Total 2 eee. odie 76 AFTER TEST: 1 1 2 3 4 6 7 Hour Day Days Days Days Days Days Ibe sidecivty ka: 30 65 79 69 63 39 55 Onde SIG G..2 ae 10 10 8 3 5 10 5 Total ....... 40 5 87 72 68 49 60 EXPERIMENT 3 TEREDO COUNT BEFORE TEST: 12 11 10 9 8 1 Days Days Days Days Days Hour* iM ASS Oe COR Paneer ane 12 fi a 8 16 10 Bis SiC ce. ae ne 16 19 28 38 28 Shit bg 0s Canin ereiew are 44 45 30 21 69 42 WOtal Saw ec. cnet 78 68 56 57 123 80 *After boring hole in block. AFTER TEST: 1 1 ve 4 5 Hour Day Days Days Days lst? sidé 22 eee 6 3 4 6 9 2nd side... cee eee 24 20 20 8 28 Srd .side:s ce Gewese 18 25 27 12 28 ee ws CHLORINE METHOD OF PROTECTION 201 B. Second Procedure In order to get more positive information on the action of chlorine on Teredos, a different procedure was followed. The anode and cathode com- partments of the electrolysis apparatus were separate jars of about six liters capacity and connected by a glass siphon filled with sea water. Time of electrolysis was 4% hours, at a current of 2 amperes. Test No. 4. The Teredo were excavated from their burrows, care being taken to preserve them intact, and placed in the anode compartment while electrolysis of sea water was taking place. The following results were obtained: Control—5 out of 5 alive after 18 hours. Anode—3 out of 5 alive after 18 hours. Test No. 5. Limnoria were placed in both anode and cathode compart- ments while electrolysis was taking place. Control—5 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. Anode—3 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. Cathode—5 out of 5 alive after 23 hours. Observation has shown that the Teredo pulls in his siphons and closes up his burrows with his pallets very soon after the start of the chlorine gen- eration. The burrows are kept closed throughout the test, but the siphons are extended again a short time after being placed in fresh sea water. IV. CONCLUSIONS The results of these tests show that chlorine as generated and used in this process has only a slight toxic effect on mature Teredos. 202 II. III. ye CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE APPENDIX III TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . 2.4.0.0 Ss cleus se eats een METHODS OF CONDUCTING TESTS... 2. : 29) Se eee A. Methods of Impregnation.: 772) 3 fee B. Method of Exposure... . 0. .0). .. e ee C. Sheathing .... «0.5 <<: + s- es ee D. Inspection of Test Pieces... ...2. 3.) Bi. TOxXieS 2... ck oe nee ead 8 oe eee EXPERIMENTAL DATA. .... . 2 « «sess eee A. Explanation of Table.......7. 22 32e5 eee B. Observations .........<«+s «ene g APPENDIX III PRESERVATION OF NEW WOODEN STRUCTURES FROM ATTACK BY MARINE BORERS January 8, 1924 By H. 8. McQuaid ABSTRACT In the course of an investigation on the protection of marine structures against wood-boring organisms, a number of toxic substances were used to impregnate sections of railroad ties at Edgewood Arsenal which were then exposed to the attack of marine borers in the harbor at Beaufort, N. C., during the summer of 1923. Some experimental work was conducted to determine the best method of impregnation for given substances, and four adaptations of standard meth- ods were selected. Experiments were conducted to develop suitable impreg- nating mediums for different solid toxics. Satisfactory impregnation was secured in practically all cases. The toxics used include general substances known or claimed to be toxic to other forms of life, and in addition, certain chemical warfare compounds with favorable physical characteristics. Some of the impregnations were made and the exposures started before the systematic study of the toxicity of compounds to marine organisms was completed, so that many of the substances used were selected more or less at random. Of the substances tested, all showed some protection when compared with control blocks. A study of the cost of impregnation of various toxics was made. Acknowledgments are made for the cooperation of Mr. Chas. H. Hatsel, of the Bureau of Fisheries, and Mr. R. S. Perry, Jr., Chemist in Charge of the laboratory work of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, U. 8. N., at Beaufort, N. C. I. INTRODUCTION This report describes the experimental work of the Chemical Warfare Service in connection with the service tests on wood impregnated with various toxics and exposed to the attack of marine borers. It is in the nature of a progress report dealing with the test conducted since undertak- ing the investigation. The plan adopted was to treat short blocks of wood with a variety of materials in experimental impregnation apparatus at Edgewood Arsenal. Small blocks, 234 inches square by 12 inches long, were cut from oak and white pine railroad ties, and were seasoned in the laboratory before im- pregnation. Several methods of treatment were employed depending on the impregnant used. These blocks were then exposed to attack of shipworm and Limnoria in Beaufort Harbor, Beaufort, N. C. Untreated blocks were 203 204 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE exposed for comparison. All were regularly inspected from time to time, and in four to six months were removed for thorough examination. II. METHODS OF CONDUCTING TESTS A. Methods of Impregnation In impregnating the test blocks with the various toxics, four methods of impregnation were used: Vacuum, temperature, and pressure process. Boiling or open tank process. Vacuum and pressure process. Straight vacuum process. In the vacuum temperature and pressure process, the seasoned wooden blocks are put into an iron cylinder supplied with a steam coil. A vacuum of 28 inches is drawn on the cylinder and maintained for three hours. The cylinder is then filled with impregnating liquid which has been previously heated to about 65° C. Pressure is applied to the liquid in the cylinder by means of a hand force pump until it reaches a pressure of 175-200 pounds per square inch and this pressure is maintained along with a tem- perature of 65° C. for three hours. The pressure is then released, the cylinder emptied, and the wooden blocks taken out. The accompanying photograph (Fig. 34), shows the arrangement of the equipment used in this process. The lower cylinder is the impregnation cylinder and is supplied with vacuum, pressure, and a steam coil. The upper cylinder is the storage and heating tank for the impregnating liquid. In the boiling process, a wooden block is put into an open top iron cylinder and covered over with the impregnating vehicle. Then the contents of the cylinder are heated up to about 150° C. for three hours and the wood is removed and immediately plunged into a cylinder, containing the impreg- nating liquid at room temperature, where it is allowed to remain over night. In the vacuum and pressure process, the wood is placed in a closed cylin- der and a vacuum of 28 inches of mercury applied for three hours. Then the cylinder is filled with impregnating liquid and a pressure of 40 pounds per square inch is put on the cylinder for three hours. When the straight vacuum process was used, the block was put into a vacuum cylinder, the air exhausted in the cylinder and block, and the im- pregnant run in to cover the block of wood. After standing for 30 minutes to 3 hours, the solution was run out and the piece removed. The boiling or open tank process was used wherever possible, since a minimum amount of impregnating liquid can be used and very good im- pregnations may be effected. The vacuum and pressure process was used on all water and solvent solutions, especially ammoniacal solutions, where heat- ing was detrimental and the boiling temperature was too low for the open tank method. All four of these methods are adaptations of standard large scale im- pregnating practice and it is believed that even better penetration could be secured on a large scale than was obtained on the small blocks. B. Method of Exposure Every toxic impregnation was made at least in duplicate so that one block could be sheathed with a %-inch thickness of untreated wood while the other block was directly exposed. This was for the purpose of determin- SQHivavVddy ONILVNOGYdWT GFYASsaUgd-WANOVA ,, om a i = = ~ 206 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE ing whether the various toxics acted on the mature Teredos in the same manner as on the embryo Teredos. The test pieces were exposed in the following manner. There is a test rack in the form of a small skeleton pier in the 300-foot channel which runs north and south between the eastern shore of the town of Beaufort and Pivers Island, where the Bureau of Fisheries laboratory is situated. The rack is approximately 600 feet long and 30 feet wide, consisting of three rows of piling, the piles being spaced 20 feet apart longitudinally and 15 feet laterally, and runs north and south, parallel to the shore. The water has a depth of about five feet at low tide at the inner row of piles. A cable was strung from the southern and along the inner four sections of the rack in such a position that it was practically level with the water at low tide, and the pieces were attached to the cable with galvanized iron wire by means of a screw eye in the end of each piece. The blocks were spaced about four inches apart and an untreated control block was placed at inter- vals of every ten or less test pieces. It was not known whether the fact that the blocks were allowed to swing on the cable would have any effect on the intensity of marine borer attack, but the severe attack indicated on the blank control pieces proved that this was not a factor, and incidentally showed that the toxic area created by the vicinity of impregnated pieces was not sufficiently great to have any noticeable effect on the intensity of attack on the unimpregnated controls. C. Sheathing When the first test pieces were put into the water, every alternate piece was completely encased in a closed box 14-inch thick. This method proved unsatisfactory due to swelling of the outside container away from the en- cased test piece. This produced spaces between the test pieces and the sheathing too great for a Teredo to span. The above method was modified on later pieces by having the sheathing screwed directly to the sides of the test pieces. This proved unsatisfactory due to swelling, splitting, and warping of the casing caused by a lack of allowance for expansion. Finally, all previous sheathings were removed and each test block was sheathed on two sides with a board 14-inch thick nailed to the test piece. This proved quite satisfactory and the presence of exposed toxic surfaces close by had no effect on the entrance of Teredos into the sheathing. D. Inspection of Test Pieces Inspections of all the test pieces in the water at those times were made on July, 9, 1923, July 21, 1928, August 15, 1923, and November 27, 1923, which probably marks the close of the Teredo breeding season. The inspec- tion consisted in examining the test samples for attack and the sheathed pieces for attack underneath the sheathing. In the final examination, all pieces which showed the slightest evidence of attack were split open and carefully inspected, note being made of the extent of damage, faulty im- pregnation, etc. III. MATERIALS USED A. Wood Samples All the samples of wood used for the test pieces were cut from white pine railroad ties supplied by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, except in one PRESERVATION OF NEW STRUCTURES 207 series (Series No. 40) in which the blocks were cut from oak ties obtained from the same source. The ties were partly seasoned. The blocks were stored in an electric oven at 55° C. for about two weeks before being used. As a result the wood was quite dry when treated with the various impregnating materials. B. Toxics 1. Aczol—This was a commercial wood preserving compound stated to consist of 8.5 per cent ammonia, 2 per cent zinc, 2 per cent copper, and 7.5 per cent carbolic acid. It is used in the ratio of 12 parts of aczol to 100 parts of water. 2. Cupric Oxide—This material was dissolved in strong ammonia to saturation and then diluted to 10 per cent ammonia with water. 3. Cupric Carbonate—(Chandler Patent, U. S. No. 1,388,513). This solution was made up by mixing a concentrated solution of copper sulphate with a solution of 8.5 per cent sodium carbonate and 1.5 per cent sodium bicarbonate, so that the resulting solution contained 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate. This solution, after standing from 2 to 24 hours, precipitated in- soluble crystals of cupric sodium carbonate. If the wood was impregnated with this material inside of 2 hours after the making up of the solution, the insoluble copper salt was precipitated in the pores of the wood. 4. Copper Stearate in Carbon Tetrachloride—Copper stearate was formed by precipitating a solution of sodium stearate with copper sulphate solution. After washing and drying, it was dissolved in carbon tetra- chloride. 5. Cupric Carbonate—This material was precipitated in the wood by impregnating with a 5 per cent solution of copper sulphate, drying and fol- lowing with an impregnation of 5 per cent sodium carbonate solution. 6. Cupric Arsenite in Ammonia Solution—Cupric arsenite was dis- solved to saturation in strong ammonia solution, then diluted to 8 per cent ammonia solution with water. 7. Cupric Ferricyanide in Ammonia Solution—It was made up in the same manner as copper arsenite. 8-9. Mercury Stearate in Paraffine—Both ingredients were heated un- til they were melted and stirred together. 10. Cupric Hydroxide in Ammonia Solution—The cupric hydroxide _was dissolved to saturation in strong ammonia water and then diluted to 8 per cent ammonia. 11. Rubber in Benzene—Ceylon crépe rubber was cut into small squares and dissolved in benzene. 12. Crystal Violet and Copper Tannate—The wood was impregnated with a solution of crystal violet and copper acetate. After drying, it was again impregnated with a 5 per cent tannic acid solution to mordant the dye. 13. Ferric Ferricyanide—This compound was formed from a mixed - solution of sodium ferricyanide and ferric chloride. 14. 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These, however, require a double impregnation. Another disadvantage is that the dyes did not penetrate deeply into the wood, al- though the water penetrated to the core of the pieces and it might be only a question of time before the piece would be severely attacked. The rubber latex pieces showed some penetration, but a large part of the latex formed a thick film over the surface of the wood and prevented fur- TABLE II. Cost OF IMPREGNATION Labor Cost of Average Impregna- of 20 Lbs. tion 6c. per per Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft.per Material MImpreg- Total Cost nation Cost ES eMC UED SOLES VivGs vive esc eee eee nee tes $0.44 $0.06 $0.50 a 0.38 0.06 0.44 4—Copper stearate—CCl ............. ccc eeecees 0.46 0.06 0.52 5—Double impregnation ae Seay Rohe sere 8 1.60 0.12 L72 10—Copper hydroxide in 8% ammonia............. 0.80 0.06 0.86 12—Crystal violet copper tannate (double imp.)..... 0.21 Oni2 0.33 Pet ET BOLUQOCUG isl. ccs ce pad eda cbc bc dieeseee 0.96 0.10 1.06 DE TIT CIEOSOLE 2. cc kt ccc ct ee een saee LUPAL 0.06 LOH 20—Copper ortho nitro benzoate in creosote........ 0.71 0.06 0.77 21—Barium phenocresylate (Toxall) in creosote.... Tee hase AR; 22—Copper and mercury soaps in pine tar oil....... 1.02 0.06 1.08 23—Copper benzoate in creosote...........-sseeeee body 0.06 1.28 24—Mercury benzoate in creosote ............2.065 151 0.06 1.57 25—D, A. oxide in creosote © ..... ec ee eee ee eee 1.66 0.06 jhy 26—Mercury resinate in creosote ...............005 0.93 0.06 0.99 29—Copper resinate in creosote ............. eens 0.52 0.06 0.58 35—Mercury stearate in creosote ............e ee eee 0.91 0.06 0.97 36—Copper hydroxide—4% NH.OH in 30% rubber eee eg Py. 2 ele pi gudic: oman wleuele’ dd bletayers 0.62* 0.06 0.68 37—Copper stearate in creosote.........ceeeeeeees 0.63 0.06 0.69 388—Mercuric anilinate in creosote.............06-: 1.06 0.06 1 Palys 40—Methylene Blue—copper tannate .............. 0.48 0.12 0.60 41—Vulcanized rubber latex—sulphur chloride...... 0.75* 0.12 0.87 *Based on 5 lb. average. ther impregnation. These pieces showed a decided increase in the tensile strength of the wood. In the test pieces using creosote as a carrier, it is quite possible that immunity is obtained from the presence of the creosote alone. The use of sheathing was intended in these cases to show an improvement over creosote alone. It is fairly well established that the shipworm, after attaining some growth, is able to bore from untreated wood into creosote treated wood, and withstand its toxic properties.* In the above cases, if the shipworm were *American Wood Preservers’ Association—19—‘“Toxicity of Various Creosote Fractions on Xylotrya.”—F. L. Shackell. 220 CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE killed in crossing over into the treated piece from the sheathing, it would definitely show the toxic effect of the dissolved compound. Due to the trouble with sheathing, no data are as yet available on this point. After the final inspection, on November 27, 1923, the following test pieces were left on the cable to undergo exposure until attack next spring: 1-1, 5-1, 6-1, 10-1, 18-1, 19-2, 20-2, 21-2, 23-1, 24-2, 25-8, 26-2, 29-2, 35-2, 37-2, 38-2, 40-2, 42-1, 42-2, 43-1, 48-2, 44-1, 44-2, 45-1, 45-2, 46-1, 46-2, 46-3, A7-1, 47-2, 48-1, 48-2, 48-3, 48-4, 49-1, 49-2, 49-3, 50-1, 50-2, 51-1, 51-2, 51-3, 52-1, 52-2, 52-3, 53-1. All these blocks are sheathed on two sides, and some of this sheathing already contains shipworms, although on the date of the inspection they had not crossed from the sheathing to the block. V. CONCLUSIONS 1. All of the impregnated pieces used gave better protection than the unimpregnated pieces. 2. The length of exposure was not sufficient to justify too optimistic conclusions, but it is indicated that there are several specific toxics which will give protection through long periods of time. 3. Additional work is necessary before final conclusions can be drawn and the correct estimate of cost of piling protection given. 4. Satisfactory impregnation was secured on the test pieces with prac- tically all the toxics used. 5. It should be possible to duplicate these results readily on large scale apparatus. 6. In the few cases where impregnation was thin or streaky, it was probably due to the fact that the outer surface of impregnated wood was heart wood, which would not be the case with piling. 7. To overcome this objection, it is planned to use eight-foot fence posts in long time service tests. 8. Test pieces impregnated with molten sulphur did not afford pro- tection. 9. Five per cent of specific toxics, such as D.M., D.A., their oxides, phenylarsenious oxide, etc., using creosote as a carrier, seemed to afford definite protection. 10. It is probable that the percentage of specific toxics in these cases can be reduced, possibly to as low as one per cent. CHAPTER X HARBOR REPORTS The information presented in the reports on individual harbors and groups of harbors has been collected from many sources and assembled so that, even at the expense of some repetition of other parts of the report, all available data concerning a given locality might be found in the section of the report devoted to that locality. The descriptions of the physical characteristics of the harbors are mainly based on “U. S. Coast Pilots” furnished by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, where these were available. Other information has been furnished by rep- resentatives of other government departments or by harbor engineers fully conversant with conditions. The history of attacks by marine borers and the service records of vari- ous structures and materials have been secured from the Navy, Army, rail- roads, harbor boards and others, who were in possession of authentic records. The records of tests and investigations are compiled from the reports of the biologists who inspected the test blocks and timber, and from other rec- ords of the committee. A draft of these reports was submitted in each case to the District En- gineer of the U. S. Engineer Departments, the Superintendent of Light- houses, and in case of harbors in which Navy Yards or Naval Stations were located, the reports were passed upon by the Public Works Officers. All reports were submitted to the Engineers of Maintenance, Chief Engineers, General Managers or Vice-presidents of the railroads cooperating with the committee and having property in the various harbors, and to the engineers for Harbor Commissioners where such organizations existed, and the sug- gestions of these engineers were adopted. It is therefore evident that these reports represent not only the results of the studies of this committee but also those of the engineers best qualified to express an opinion in each case. The maps were made from charts furnished by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and were prepared in the drafting room of the Western Electric Company, who contributed this service. In addition to the biologists, Mr. Clapp and Dr. Miller, it is desired to express the gratitude of the Committee to the engineers whose assistance and cooperation made possible the compilation of this information. MAINE COAST Description The Maine coast is a region of ledges and boulders, very much broken by numerous bays and rivers, many of which are excellent harbors. Harbors of importance, either commercially or for refuge, are: Little River, Machias Bay, Narraguagas Bay, Winter Harbor, Bar Harbor, Southwest Harbor, Bass Harbor, Castine, Belfast, Camden, Rockport, Rockland, Port Clyde, Boothbay, Bath and Portland. The prevailing winds are southwesterly during the summer and northerly 221 222 HARBOR REPORTS during the winter. At all seasons the heaviest gales are generally from northeastward or eastward. The ice formation is generally local, rapidly increasing during calms or light winds when not prevented by tidal currents. Lubec (Fig. 37), is situated on the western side of Lubec Narrows, a nar- row strait connecting it with Mulholland Point. The channel has been NAUTICAL MILES fe) YARDS 19000 2000 3000 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS LUBEC CHANNEL MAINE Fic. 37 MAINE COAST 223 dredged to a width of from 250 to 400 feet and a depth of 12 feet and has strong tidal currents, the flood attaining, during Spring tides, a velocity of 6 knots and the ebb 8 knots per hour. Cutler (Fig. 38), a village on the north side of Little River, is the head- quarters of many small fishing boats. Little River harbor has 12 to 30 feet of water, is sheltered from all winds and never obstructed by ice. N NAUTICAL MILES. 1 t ' oO ’ 2a a ck nas YARDS 1000.—« 1000 2000 3000 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS CUTLER HARBOR MAINE 1925 Fic. 38 Crabtree Ledge (Fig. 39), is on the west side of the entrance to Sullivan Harbor, a northwest extension of Frenchman Bay. Fort Point (Fig. 40), is on the west side at the entrance to Penobscot River. During extreme winters ice forms solidly across the entrance. The average range of tide is 10.3 feet. Portland Harbor (Fig. 41), is by far the most important harbor on the Maine coast. The following data are taken from ‘“‘The Port of Portland, 224 HARBOR REPORTS Maine” prepared by the Statistical Division, Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors: GENERAL DESCRIPTION.—Portland, Me., is at the westerly end of Casco Bay and is the most northerly and easterly large port on the Atlantic coast of the United States. The harbor is 3% miles from the open ocean. NAUTICAL MILES YARDS 10090 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS SULLIVAN HARBOR MAINE Fia. 39 MAINE COAST 225 The harbor, considered as a whole, is made up of three parts: (a) The main or inner harbor, known as Front Harbor, lying south and east of the peninsula, and having a water front of about 2% miles; (b) Fore River, also on the southerly side of the peninsula, extending westerly from the main harbor (from which it is separated by Portland Bridge), for about 114 miles; (c) Back Cove, which lies on the northerly side of the peninsula, nearly landlocked, approximately circular in form, is about 1 mile in diameter, having a narrow bottlenecked entrance. It has a water front of about 1% miles. The total water frontage of the harbor, inclusive of South Portland, is about 8% miles. The outer harbor of Portland, which is used as a harbor of refuge, is situated behind the islands of Casco Bay. The main ship channel to Port- land Harbor is the deep-water entrance between Cushing Island on the east and the main shore at Portland Head on the west. There are several other MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS BELFAST BAY MAINE i923 NAUTICAL MILES 1 2 YARDS 19000 2000 3P00 4900 5,000 Fig. 40 226 HARBOR REPORTS entrances between the islands used by local vessels or those towing from Portland to different points in Casco Bay and its estuaries. TIDES.—The mean range of tide is 8.9 feet, and the spring range 10.2 feet. In 1909 there was a tide of 13.3 feet and tides of 11 feet are not uncommon. The effect of strong winds, in combination with the regular tidal action, may at times cause the water to fall below the plane of reference of the chart as much as 4.5 feet. Tidal currents exist principally near the bridges, but their velocity never exceeds 2 miles per hour. At Portland Light Vessel the tidal current is weak, being on an average less than 1%, knot; during October, November and December there is a southerly set of about 14 knot. Ice seldom obstructs navigation and when it does it is only for a limited period. The channel to the wharves is kept open by steamers and tugs. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS PORTLAND HARBOR MAINE 1923 NAUTICAL MILES MAINE COAST 221 Marine Borers Past History—Damage done by Limnoria has been reported to have oc- curred to the Bear Island Lighthouse Depot Wharf, Northeast Harbor, Maine, and the Little Island Lighthouse Depot Wharf. In May, 1923, a wharf at Lubec collapsed. The cause was said to be the jamming of the ice against the building and lifting it from its foundation, but an inspection of the pile supports showed that many of them were badly eaten by Limnoria. The outer end of one of the Grand Trunk Railway wharves at Portland failed in 1922 on account of the destruction of the piles by Limnoria. (Fig. 42). The shipworm is also known to be present at Portland, but no considerable damage has been reported. Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as shown in the following table: Bottom of | Bottom of ! Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Lubec—Boat Landing.......... L-1-1.....] Lighthouse Service...} May 5, 19238 OF7 6.2 Cutler—Little River........... L-1-2.....| Lighthouse Service...} May 1, 1923 1.0 9.0 Crabtree Ledge—Light......... 1-3... 0 Lighthouse Service...| May 1, 1923 1.0 8.5 Fort Point—Wharf............. L-1-4..... Lighthouse Service...| April 28, 1923 1.0 8.0 Portland—Cross Shed No. 1..... 6-4 b= ee Grand Trunk Railway| May 30, 1923 10.0 18.0 Scarboro—Bridge No. 117, seven miles north of Pine Pt........ BM-12...| Boston & Maine R.R.| July 21, 1922 *0.0 1.0 Old Orchard—Bridge No. 42....| BM-11...] Boston & Maine R.R.} July 11, 1922 |*Board out] of water at low tide. York Harbor—Bridge No. 236 #1 .0 14.0 one-half mile east of Seabury +}/ BM-9....| Boston & Maine R.R.|} July 20, 1922 { : : Wig 440, Stee ns 13.0 =_ Kennebunkport (Fig 43)........ BM-10. ..}| Boston & Maine R.R.| July 10, 1922 0.0 5.0 *Placed in horizontal position. tChanged to vertical position December 15, 1922. L-1-1—The first Limnoria was found on the second block, removed June 16, and from this time to October a number of specimens of Limnoria varying from 100 down to 20 were found. While not in great numbers, the burrows of these animals were unusually large and deep. The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. L-1-2—A few specimens of Limnoria only were found on each block re- moved and some Bryozoa appeared on the blocks removed after August 1. The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. L-1-3—A few specimens of Limnoria were found on all blocks removed after July 1, and most blocks after this time showed traces of Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia), indicating the possibility of shipworm attack. The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. . L-1-4—Limnoria did not appear until August 1, but both Balanus and Bryozoa were present on a number of blocks. The last test block inspected was removed October 16, 1923. GT-1—Limnoria appeared on the first block and by October the attack was fairly heavy, amounting to destruction to a depth exceeding 4,-inch. The last test block inspected was removed October 31, 1923. HARBOR REPORTS 228 YaIq “MOVLLY suuuog Ad auxLouLsaq DVOUWYT SNIMOHS ‘ENIVI ‘GNWILYOd LV adIg “AY MNAUL GNVYD NI NGAIUG AIG 40 NOLLOGS—Z Fp ‘DI MAINE COAST 229 BM-12—No borers were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus and some Algae. The last test block inspected was removed July 27, 1923. BM-11—No borers and no associated organisms except some Algae were found. The last test block inspected was removed July 26, 1923. BM-9—A few scattered specimens of Limnoria appeared on most of the blocks. One specimen of Teredo (Psiloteredo) dilatata was found in the block removed May 1, 1923. Other organisms found were Mytilus, some- times in large numbers, Anomia, Saxicava, Zirphaea crispata and a few specimens of Balanus. The last test block inspected was removed July 24, 1923. BM-10—No borers and a few specimens of Mytilus and Balanus were found. The last test block inspected was removed July 27, 1923. Methods of Protection The piles at the Bear Island Depot Wharf, of the Lighthouse Service, built in 1890-1892, were brush-coated with carbolineum and are reported to have given satisfactory service. Piles treated with 16 lb. of creosote per cubic foot were used in the State Pier at Portland constructed in 1922, but before this time, few piles along the Maine coast were protected. Several piles protected by wrapping with 1%-inch copper strips were placed for test under shed No. 1 of the Grand Trunk Ry. at Portland in 1928. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—Reports have been received from the Corps of Engineers, U. 8S. A., on four structures located at Portland, the substance of which is as follows: SEAWALL AT FoRT LYON.—This wall, about 450 feet long, is built on a ledge, and at its lowest point is 14-ft. above M.L.W. This wall was built in place in 1905 of 1:3:6 concrete. The materials were crushed granite, salt water beach sand, Alpha Portland cement, and fresh water. In 1916 the wall was reported to be in excellent condition, except for a length of about 35 feet where it is exposed to severe wave action during — storms and some undercutting was evident. The balance of the wall, which is protected against wave action to some extent by outlying ledges, showed no signs of disintegration. In 1922 it was reported that about 75 feet of this wall which was repaired in 1917 showed some deterioration, but not sufficient to require immediate repair. REVETMENT AT ForT LYON.—This revetment is a slope pavement of con- crete, about 6 inches thick, over a pavement of partly disintegrated native rock. It is about 140 feet long, and covers the lower slope of a sand epaulement. Only a few feet of it are covered by water at high tide. It was constructed in 1908 of 1:214:5 concrete, poured in place, and composed of materials similar to those of the Fort Lyon seawall. In 1916 it was reported that there was no disintegration. It is now re- ported (1922) that this revetment is in first class condition, except in a few places at the lower end, where the concrete paving has been broken off. WHARF AT ForRT WILLIAMS.—The walls from shore to low water line were 230 HARBOR REPORTS built of 1:214:5 concrete, poured in place; below low water, they were built of precast blocks with same mixture, cured 30 days before being placed. The concrete was composed of Dexter cement, clean pit sand, crushed native rock, and fresh water. The wharf was built in 1908. It extends out from shore to a depth of about 13 feet at mean low water and is exposed to the OLD ORCHARD ~ Jy VF ENS ey: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS SACO BAY & KENNEBUNKPORT MAINE NAUTICAL MILES 3 YARDS 5000 Fic. 43 full force of easterly and southeasterly storms. Rocks and ice are hurled against it and are often left upon the deck. In 1910 cavities began to appear between high and low water, principally on the most exposed or easterly face, and on that part which had been built of mass concrete. This disintegration continued until 1912, when it had aes, PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 231 extended to include the blocks on the easterly side. At this time the worst section formed a belt on the easterly side at and below high water, with some of the cavities having a maximum depth of about 6 inches. By 1914 the concrete surfaces on all sides as well as on the deck showed considerable disintegration, the faces of the blocks being as bad as the mass concrete. In 1918 repairs were made by removing disintegrated concrete on the front and sides of about 3000 square feet of surface, and placing a new facing, requiring about 100 cubic yards of concrete. In 1921 practically the same work of repair had to be done. A consider- able amount of the last patching was either distintegrated or so loosened that it had to be cut out and replaced by new concrete. SEAWALL AT ForT MCKINLEY.—This wall is about 250 feet long and was built in 1914 of 1:2:4 concrete. The materials were like those of the Fort Lyon seawall, except that the concrete was cyclopean, using native rock of considerable size. In 1916 it is reported that there was no sign of disintegration but in 1922 a very slight deterioration was reported. There are also a few places where the rock on which the wall was built is decomposed, leaving openings under it. Conclusions Limnoria is present in practically all harbors on the Maine coast and the timber supports of important structures, especially those having per- manent decks or carrying buildings, should be protected. The service rec- ords of concrete structures which could be obtained do not show that these structures have been very satisfactory in these waters and long life should not be expected unless the surface is protected from mechanical and chem- ical attack. PORTSMOUTH, N. H. TO PROVINCETOWN, MASS.* Description From Portsmouth south to Cape Ann the coast line is low and generally a sandy beach, with the exception of the northern shore of Cape Ann, which is high and rocky. Between Cape Ann and Plymouth the coast is rock, boulders and sunken ledges lying near the shore with deep channels be- tween. The shores of Cape Cod Bay are generally sandy with extensive sand shoals extending well out from shore in many places. Throughout this entire section of the coast line the prevailing winds are southwesterly during the summer and northerly during the winter. In severe winters some of the harbors are usually kept open by steamers and tugs. Portsmouth Harbor (Fig. 44), lies 37 miles southwestward of Cape Elizabeth and about 25 miles northward from Cape Ann, and is formed by the mouth of the Piscataqua River. During severe winters the water tem- perature reaches 28% degrees Fahr., the maximum summer temperature ranging between 60 and 64 degrees Fahr. There is a variation of from 3 to 4 degrees due to the tide, the temperature rising in winter and falling in summer with the incoming tide. The mean tidal range is approximately 8 feet; during spring tides, 9.3 feet. Tidal currents are of high velocity, reaching at times 6 knots, due to the large tidal area of Great Bay up the river. Very little fresh water in comparison with the tidal volume reaches *See separate report for Boston, Mass. 232 HARBOR REPORTS the harbor. The salinity of the harbor water is therefore practically that of the ocean. The water is very clear containing little sewage or manufac- turing wastes and with the exception of a portion of the U. S. Navy Yard shore line, practically no oil pollution. At the latter point there is a thick coating of oil deposit on the quay walls and piles from near the high water mark to 3 or 4 feet below. Newburyport Harbor (Fig. 45), is located on the Merrimac River, NAUTICAL MILES 3 a YARDS 5,000 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS PORTSMOUTH & YORK HARBOR 1923 NEW HAMPSHIRE - MAINE Fia@. 44 about 3 miles from its mouth. There is a shifting bar at the entrance with 10 to 18 feet of water over it, and a channel depth to the harbor which will accommodate vessels of 17 feet draught at high water. Beverly Harbor (Fig. 46), lies north of Salem Neck at the west end of Salem outer harbor and is formed by the confluence of Danvers River, — Beverly Creek and North River. The channel has been dredged to a depth ~ of 18 feet and 200 to 300 feet width. 3 233 S3IIN TVOIL AWN SLLIOAUSNHIVSSVW PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 234 HARBOR REPORTS Provincetown Harbor (Fig. 48), is formed by a turn in the northern end of the hook of Cape Cod and has a diameter of about 2 miles. The depth at the entrance and in the harbor is ample for vessels of deep draught. The principal wharves are the steamboat and railroad wharf and NAUTICAL MILES 3 ! . °o 3 2 4 YARDS }) 1000 500 °o 1,000 2,000 “i MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS SALEM HARBOR MASS. 1923 x : KS SR a fish and cold storage wharf. At mean low water the depths at the outer ends of these two are 8 and 7 feet respectively. Marine Borers Past History—Limnoria is present generally throughout this territory. The wooden stocks of some old anchors taken from the bottom of the Piscataqua River about 17 years ago were found to be practically destroyed ia ei ee a PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 235 by Limnoria. The depth at this point was 40 feet. While repairing the old bridge at the Navy Yard. at Portsmouth in 1912, many of the piles which had been in place for 25 to 30 years were found to have been eaten off at the mud line and a recent inspection shows that some of those which NAUTICAL MILES MA!l? SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS LYNN HARBOR MASS. were allowed to remain are completely eaten off up to about extreme low water, whereas replacement piles which were driven about 17 years ago are still in good condition. Some damage by shipworms has also been reported. Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as shown in the following table: 236 HARBOR REPORTS Date Location Symbol Installed Installed By Portsmouth—B. & M. Bridge UNO Ea f Olcz ctiee ach Ona eee ree ete BM-8....| July 7, 1922 By & M> RR eee Portsmouth—Henderson’s Point .} YD-107...| Jan. 2, 1923 NSW ont ore cre eee Newburyport—B. & M. Bridge O00 F. 5.4. Cees Sits SEE BM-7....| July 6, 1922 B. & Mo Re Rese Beverly—B. & M. Bridge No. 32} BM-6....| July 6, 1922 B. & Mik R eee Revere—2.1 miles north of B. & M. Bridge No. 14 (Fig. 47)....| BM-5....| July 22, 1922 |B. & M.R.R......; Provincetown—R. R. Wharf....| NH-2....| June 2, 1922 N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R Bottom of | Bottom of CO COMM OOO *Board in horizontal position. }Boards changed to vertical position on the following dates: Jan. 2, Portsmouth; Jan. 11, Newburyport and Beverly. GCA PE ClO Lf BAY MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS PROVINCETOWN HARBOR MASS. STATUTE MILES \9s2e3 ~~ a) = PORTSMOUTH TO PROVINCETOWN 237 The results of the inspection of test blocks from these boards were as follows: BM-8—Limnoria first appeared July 7, 1922, and continued to appear on many of the blocks though few in number. The associated organisms were Anomia, Mytilus, Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia), the two latter indicating the possibility of shipworm attack appearing in 1923 but not in 1922. The last test block inspected was removed July 20, 1923. YD-107—No life whatever appeared until June 18, when a few Balanus and Algae were found. Later a few specimens of Saxicava and Mytilus appeared but no borers were found in the blocks. The last test block in- spected was removed September 20, 1923. Specimens of timber from several of the structures at the Navy Yard showed considerable Limnoria action and some Teredo attack. The largest specimen of Teredo navalis found on the Atlantic Coast was in one of these timbers. BM-7—Only one test block of the 25 examined showed any life and this one had two specimens of Limnoria, a few Mytilus, Saxicava and a little Algae. The last block inspected was removed July 25, 1923. BM-6—Limnoria was found on many of the blocks but seldom exceeding 30 in number. Associated organisms were Anomia, Mytilus, Pecten, Ostra- coda, Foraminifera and Bryozoa (Lepralia). The last block inspected was removed July 26, 1923. BM-5—A very few specimens of Limnoria appeared on a few blocks. Associated organisms were Balanus with a little Algae. The last block in- spected was removed July 24, 1923. NH-2—The Limnoria attack was heavy and some specimens of Sphaeroma destructor appeared. Teredo navalis numbering from two or three to 20 was found in many but not all blocks. The largest animal measured was about 5 inches in length. One specimen of Teredo dilatata about 10 inches in length was also found. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa, Foraminifera, Pecten, Algae and a few specimens of Limacina balea. - In addition to the test blocks several specimens of piles, both oak and chestnut, were examined. They were practically destroyed after a service of from 10 to 18 years. Methods of Protection Very few structures have been protected against borer attack though the practice of driving piles with the bark in place has been quite general. There are few definite records as to the life of structures in any of these harbors but it is thought that unprotected pine will last from 15 to 20 years and oak slightly more at Portsmouth and perhaps half this length of time at Provincetown. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—The only concrete structure reported by the Navy is the arched quay wall under the coaling plant of the U. S. Navy Yard at Ports- mouth, built in 1902 and 1903. It is 233 feet long and consists of 6 con- crete arches resting on 7 piers, which in turn rest on ledge rock. The facing edge of the intrados and the coping is granite. The stone fill back of 238 HARBOR REPORTS the wall arches is held by a timber crib up to about the low water line with a concrete curtain wall above this level. It is exposed to salt water and spray and to moderate wave action and abrasions. The climatic influences and atmospheric conditions are severe. — The piers (9 ft. by 23 ft. at the top) were built by depositing concrete under salt water from a bottom dump bucket in a wooden form from which the water was not excluded. The form having been placed on the ledge was first made tight around the lower edge by concrete in bags. Atlas and Phoenix brands of Portland cement, Plum Island sand, and broken trap rock from the Navy Yard were used in the proportions of 1:2:4 below, and 1:3:6 above high water, the gauging water partly fresh and partly salt, the consistency “‘mushy.” There are steel I-beams across the arches and short steel I-beams where the columns of the coaling plant rest. There were tie rods to take the thrust of the arch until the adjacent quay wall should be built. The piers were examined by a diver in 1920 and were reported to be in generally good condition. The present condition of the arches is poor to fair. There are a number of eroded areas on the intrados, the worst being about 15 inches deep and at the rear of the arches, immediately above the piers, there are three badly eroded places. The curtain wall is badly eroded, in one place clear through. The face has a number of eroded places, in some cases as much as 12 inches deep, but not of great surface area. A concrete monolith at Sandy Bay Breakwater, Cape Ann, is reported by the Army as follows: A 90-ton concrete monolith in the Sandy Bay breakwater, with its base about 4 feet above mean high water, and its top 4% feet higher, was built in place in 1910. The concrete was made in the proportion of 1:2144:5 of Atlas cement, salt water sand, crushed granite, and sea water. The exposure to wave action is severe. Pitting on the surfaces of the concrete was noticeable within a year after it was poured, and up to 1916, the year of the last report, the deterioration had been progressive. Conclusions Except at Portsmouth and Provincetown the tests do not show attacks of much importance and at Portsmouth they are not heavy. It would seem that protection for wooden piles used for important structure in either of these harbors would be an economy. It does not seem so necessary in the small harbors in which the tests’ were made except for structures where long life is important. Concrete structures on which reports are quoted, or on which the con- struction data are incomplete and are therefore not included, do not seem to have generally given satisfactory service in salt water on account of the combined attack of waves, sulphates and ice. BOSTON HARBOR Description of Harbor The following description of Boston Harbor, (Fig. 49), is taken from a report, “The Port of Boston, Mass.,” prepared by the Board of Engineers for Rivers and Harbors, War Department, in codperation with the Bureau of Research, U. S. Shipping Board: GENERAL DESCRIPTION.—Boston is situated on Massachusetts Bay, and is one of the most important ports of the United States, considered both from Fic. 49 NAUTICAL MILES ° YARDS 4000 $008 1,000 2,000 LANES, PRN ORY NS tNDS MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS BOSTON HARBOR MASS. 1923 hits SOMES] CQES ONS RRS Ss AES te eta BAY DORCHESTER 1 YD-106 BOSTON 239 the standpoint of its facilities and the extent and value of its commerce. The harbor includes all the tidewater lying within a line from Point Allerton to Point Shirley, comprising an area of about 47 square miles, exclusive of the islands. The entrance between these two points is about 434 miles wide and the distance from the Point Allerton-Point Shirley line to the Charlestown Navy Yard, via the 35-foot channel, is about 714 miles. The City of Boston includes within its limits East Boston, Charlestown, South Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester and Neponset. East Boston is on the northeastern side of the harbor, and is separated from Boston proper and Charlestown by the main ship channel, and from Chelsea by Chelsea Creek. South Boston fronts on the bay and the lower part of the main ship channel, and is separated from Boston by the Fort Point Channel. Charlestown fronts on the main ship channel at its upper end and on Mystic River and Charles River, and is separated from Boston proper by the latter stream. THE OUTER HARBoR.—Boston Harbor and approaches have a very broken rocky bottom. President Roads is a deep water anchorage area between Deer Island and Long Island at the entrance to the outer harbor, and is the common point to which all important channels of the outer harbor converge. There are three main channels of entrance from the sea to President Roads, with depths respectively of 35 feet, 30 feet and 27 feet, and widths of 1,500 feet, 1,200 feet and 1,000 feet. There are also five minor channels with depths of from 8 feet to 18 feet. THE INNER HARBOR —The main:ship channel with a depth of 35 feet and a width of 1,200 feet extends from President Roads to the upper end of the Navy Yard at Charlestown and with a somewhat less depth to the bridges across the Charles and Mystic Rivers and Chelsea Creek. Charles River, the approach to Cambridge and Watertown, has a depth of 21 feet between the bridge and dam, a distance of about % mile. Above the dam the water is practically fresh. The Mystic River, leading to Medford and Malden, has a depth of 30 feet and a channel width part 500 and part 600 feet to a point about % mile below the second bridge; above this point the depth is about 6 feet. Chelsea Creek from the lower bridge to the Chelsea Street Bridge has a depth of 25 feet and a width of 150 feet. There are a number of short channels tributary to the Mystic River and Chelsea Creek which have been dredged to depths of from 23 feet to 28 feet with varying widths. Ti1pES.—The mean range of tides is 9 feet at Boston Lighthouse and 9.6 feet at Charlestown Navy Yard, in Chelsea Creek, and in Fort Point Chan- nel. The extreme range is about 4 feet greater. TIDAL CURRENTS.—For some distance northwestward of Cape Cod the tidal currents have a slight set southward into Cape Cod Bay on the flood and eastward out of the bay on the ebb. Along the northern shore of Massachusetts Bay the flood sets in a general westerly or northwesterly direction and the ebb in a southerly or southeasterly direction. The velocity of the currents is influenced greatly by the force and direction of the wind. Off the entrance to Boston Harbor the flood sets westward and the ebb eastward, increasing slightly in velocity as the entrance is approached. The tidal current at Boston Light Vessel is small, averaging about one- fourth knot at the time of strength. Its greatest velocity observed during three months in autumn was less than 1 knot. The maximum velocity of the tidal currents in the various harbor channels varies from % to 2 knots except in the Nantasket Gut, where it reaches 5 knots. The mean annual precipitation is 43.38 in., distributed evenly throughout the year. Prevailing winds are southwesterly during the summer and northerly during the winter—the heaviest gales being always from east or north eastward. In severe winters the greatest part of the harbor is frozen over, the channels being kept open by towboats and steamers. All sewage is emptied into the ocean at ebb tide, none entering the harbor. The tem- perature of the atmosphere ranges between —14° and 104° Fahrenheit, the annual mean being 49.4°. b | 240 HARBOR REPORTS Marine Borers Past History—Shipworms have been found in waterfront structures of Boston Harbor to a limited extent. The probability of serious damage in a short period of time is thought to be remote. Limnoria is active at times and has been known to so weaken structures as to require a considerable amount of replacement work, as was the case with Pier 5, Charlestown Navy Yard, where in 1913 it was found that over 100 piles had been eaten away at the mud line. All of the piles attacked were spruce—pine and oak remaining uninjured. Committee Investigation—Standard test boards were installed as fol- lows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line |} M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) South Boston Coal Dock........ NH-1 N.Y.N.H. & H.R:R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 12-0 Drawbridge No. 2—Millers River| BM-1....] B. & M.R.R....... July 1, 1922 0.3 72.0 Wiharf- Noo 46 2. 2. Asner BMe2. 223) BidMe Re Ree July 1, 1922 Deg #5 4 Drawbridge No. 6—Charles River] BM-3....| B.& M.R.R....... July 1, 1922 Ne 713.0 Drawbridge. Nos 7%. 2. ee one BM-4:.4.. |) RB: & MeRAReeeee July 1, 1922 0.4 76.2 VATINY DASCs <> 2i0s sccsstce een Aa2d gece ah ATHIY.uk. tee ee Sept. 9, 1922 0.4 26.4 Wovells Island: ”. 3.2 eee A=28 20: ATRNY eS pan soy craeene Sept. 9, 1922 0.5 8.7 Hog Island: oo icck be eee S29. Fee] ATID ote ee Sept. 9, 1922 0.5 11.6 Cunard Pier No. 3—East Boston] BA-1..... B. & A. R. RB... ..... epOetetsy 1922 2.0 24.5 Bridge No. G. S. 743—Chelsea Creek. oes, FR Sete BA-Jawere Bi acne ae Oct. 14, 1922 2.0 28.0 IBostonrNavy. ¥ ard ooo eee YD-105:5.. Navy): eae ee Oct. 15, 1922 123 26.8 Destroyer Base—Squantum..... Y:D2106. | INSiayikece oaer eee eee Oct. 15, 1922 0.0 12,0 Kort) Pomt)OGhannel sense ASR-1....| American Sugar Re- finn a Oo see ee ee Feb: 15,1923!" ae Are eee ee *Board in horizontal position. TBoard changed from horizontal to vertical position December 15, 1922. The results of the inspection of test blocks from these boards were as follows: NH-1—The Limnoria attack on these blocks was fairly heavy, the blocks being destroyed to a depth of about 14-inch in a year. Many of the blocks had a heavy deposit of mud but specimens of Mytilus; Algae as well as Balanus; and Bryozoa were often in evidence. In spite of the presence of the two latter no signs of shipworms were found. BM-1—Two specimens of Limnoria and one small specimen of Balanus were the only organisms which appeared on the blocks during the 13 months during which the board was immersed. BM-2—A few specimens of Limnoria appeared on five or six of the blocks but no other life. BM-3—Limnoria appeared on nearly all blocks, at times several hundred on each face. The damage exceeded %4-inch in the 13 months in which the board was in service. No other organism appeared. BM-4—No borers were found and there was a considerable deposit of mud on all the blocks. The accompanying organisms found were Mytilus, pelecypods with some specimens of Balanus and Bryozoa. A-27—A few specimens of Limnoria were found on one block. Otherwise no life appeared. A-28-—A few specimens of Limnoria were found in some blocks. Ac- BOSTON 241 companying organisms were Mytilus, Algae, a few specimens of Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia). A-29—A comparatively small number of Limnoria never exceeding 100 were found on most of the blocks. The accompanying organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula) in small numbers. BA-1—Limnoria, never more than 50 individuals, were found in some blocks with occasionally Mytilus representing the accompanying organisms. BA-2—Specimens of Limnoria and a rather heavy growth of Tubularia appeared on a few blocks in the summer of 1923. YD-105—Limnoria only, in small numbers, was found until the late summer of 1923 when the blocks were damaged to a depth of 14-inch. Nudibranchs of the genus Aeolis which were found indicate that the degree of pollution is probably not sufficient to explain the absence of shipworms in numbers. A piece of 8 by 8 inch timber taken from a flume which carries the cir- culating water return from the condenser plant was examined. The flume has been in service between 20 and 30 years and the water temperature varies between 50 and 70 degrees Fahr. The specimen which was typical of the structure was damaged by Limnoria for about half its depth; the timber in the top of the flume was in excellent condition. Another specimen taken from the outer end of the shipbuilding ways be- tween Piers 6 and 7 showed a severe Limnoria attack. This specimen also contained one shipworm burrow of rather recent date, about 9 in. long. Both ends of the tube had been eaten away by Limnoria. YD-106—A very few specimens of Limnoria accompanied by Balanus and Bryozoa were found on the blocks removed late in the summer of 1923. ASR-1—No life of any kind appeared during the 6 months that this board was in service. Salinity and temperature observations made by the Boston & Albany Railroad at Cunard Pier No. 3 at East Boston and at Bridge G J 748, Chelsea, are shown in Figs. 50 and 51, respectively, and observations of salinity, temperature, oxygen content and hydrogen-ion concentration made by the American Sugar Refining Co. are shown in Fig. 52. Methods of Protection Protection of timber exposed to marine borers has never been considered necessary, although there are some creosoted piles in service. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—The following records of concrete structures are taken from a special report on structures belonging to the Navy Department at the Charlestown Navy Yard. Pier 1 is approximately 400 by 150 feet and consists of a face wall made up of concrete arches 24 feet wide and 40 feet span. The piers supporting the arches are approximately 12 feet by 38 feet and extend 30 feet below M.L.W., where they rest on a pile foundation. Reinforced concrete curtain walls were constructed on the inside of the arches extending from the extrados of the arch to the surface of the riprap filling, these curtain walls, together with the arch piers, forming a retaining wall to confine the filling material which forms the central portion of the pier. The pier was built in two sections, the outboard in 1902 and the inboard (consisting of 4 arches and piers) in 1903. The principal repairs on this pier have been made as follows: 242 HARBOR REPORTS 1907—Reinforced concrete curtain walls were reinforced by a close row of wood piling. 1911—-Five concrete arches in outboard section were repaired by re- inforced concrete girders and 24-inch I-beams and a mass concrete retaining wall was built behind a part of the original wall. 1919—F aces of piers and arches repaired by the use of Gunite (Dewey Cement Gun Company method). This contract was abrogated be- cause in the work of cutting away poor portions of the concrete the deterioration was found to extend much deeper than originally expected, requiring such large masses of new concrete to replace the old that it was deemed inadvisable to complete the work by the Cement Gun method. A granite facing was built for replace- ment of the deeply eroded section. The concrete used in the original construction was a 1:2:4 mixture, Lehigh and Alpha brands of cement being used on the outboard and Catskill on the inboard ends; the aggregate was screened gravel and a good quality of sand. Below M.L.W. the concrete was deposited within well constructed plank forms by means of a metal tremie, a dry mixture without water being used, the tremie being well charged before discharging and frequently moved. This pier is exposed at times on the end to a one or two mile per hour current, and also to slight wave action. It is exposed to abrasion from float- ing debris and considerable ice during the winter months. Much of the damage is undoubtedly due to ice and frost; some damage is also attributed to vessels lying’ alongside the pier. All concrete structures at the Navy Yard are exposed to a range of tem- perature from about 90° Fahr. in the summer to a normal minimum of 0° Fahr. in the winter, with freezing conditions almost daily during the three winter months. Pier No. 1 is at present in poor condition and extensive repairs may be necessary. QuAY WALL, WEST INBOARD SIDE PiER No. 1—This is a reinforced con- crete wall approximately 700 feet long, 45 feet high (32 feet 5 inches below M.L.W.) and 8 feet thick. The way is backed by a heavy timber crib filled with rock. The lateral crib timbers are notched and extend into the wall. The reinforcement consists of heavy galvanized triangular mesh expanded metal and is placed near the face of the wall. The wall was built in 1900 by the Fitchburg Railroad and repaired in 1915 by the Boston & Maine Railroad, lessee (the agreement between the Fitchburg Railroad Company and the United States being that any repairs to the wall should be made by the railroad company). The concrete above M.L.W. was 1: 3:6 mixture, below M. L. W. 1: 2:3 mixture, gravel being used for the aggregate. In that portion of the wall below M. L. W. concrete was deposited by the use of bottom dump buckets, the concrete flowing through the meshes or the expanded metal to form the face. The forms of heavy matched timber were bulkheaded into sections, but are reported not to have been tight, and much difficulty was reported in depositing concrete and in the maintenance of the reinforcement in proper position; a rather dry mixture was used above M.L.W. This wall at present shows considerable deterioration both above and below mean high water. There is at present along the entire water front at this station a large accumulation of fuel oil, which forms a permanent coating on all structures between the range of extreme high and low tides. HINGHAM AMMUNITION DEpPOT.—The concrete pier forming a dock at the Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot for all vessels having business with this station is “U” shape, 13 feet in height and built on a timber platform (Elev. 102.3 feet) with pile supports. The pier, built in 1910, is situated on the Weymouth Back River, a salt tidal stream discharging a consider- able quantity of fresh water. The river freezes over in the winter months, and there is heavy ice in the dock and on the surrounding walls. The amount of chemical waste, etc., that is discharged by this river is small. There is a maximum current in the river of from 4 to 5 miles per hour. Dh PE POLAR ie ee Kage 243 ‘SSVI ‘NOLSOG LSVW ‘€ ‘ON UAIG GUVNND ‘SNOILVANGSHO AUNLVUTIWNAL INV ALINITVS—0G ‘DIT waenso30 BIGNZAON wasoO1Ls;O Y3eGWwsid3as isnony Amne anne AVA Wudv HOVYH AUuYn HANS AUVONYS G2 oz sitio ¢ Gz oz st of a se oz st ol ¢ sz oz st Of ¢ sz oz st ot & sz oz sit or & sz Oz st Ol Se of st ot g¢ se oz st o1 Sf ez of gi Of & sz oz stoke & fe of st o1 @ —— - oe SSS -—— iy Furod vaeywurstanssarvexecatuasvargeresrnm pusraeer sensett aa TH ; a TE 7 r : Fae ae = tHE PE geuay GoUaE CUEEGEEAES FBCGE CUES ESSRSUGENSI SEENON SEELNENEGIS: saree a ESTUGERREEE BH FaSuaHGETSUOENE CHSUGEUSEROWSETG! qua acans SRYESt HGRA SBUESBRGUR aaeen esau r HH root sth at 7 cau t corset a 770 TURE om qc augue eu i ttt r aa r r SI reaper tet +t TeTtt ee THESE tras spaeyenerer st Seer cht Hit nH arte Ht tH THE pRaR SUEY BE EHH HY t H t BUPBRBCUSSREGEASEGSENAGGSEE GER PEC : | 1 i t t aa mm - - A : ft te fof fp ~- — i iat if 1 oi Ty T it r r aie # ; iasaBEEE aaa i tH T nga e aes { rot r I +H T t ra T t L t TT 1 tT 4 4 i _ ' t i T if a tH { i +t 18 WH t n t sepeeagiae yay apeuuee SBREREESREGECE tt "I ERURCRUD EHREAEGELOEUEEUEL Hatt {HEH Ht a a eet ah Tee : eiseaviscsstesesi Se ora (stare rH HH } HH a ennsas is cea ne | ! 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Hot a i ety HEHE Bt ct HH cottt oe : me Ht i t tt ott i - —~—+- Hi HH nae te IEE puna fenevenbadogane sees (atest seeeaneaeed atataaee Se Ht pepessstceed Ht f ~ ; = 1 T 7 t + ‘ 4 : t : t : 4 a 4 1 1 [2S a rf aH ! oth gaan noe HEH Hort mnUOESNBBEEEE! rt ara ERA FERRE Oe mmo ase r+ a 1 SauSSesuGGR Ht 1 1 FH 4 H Se ey : ipoesaeet Games Subst etees Gataes ere rusapaee: ! a umens arse : . san oH i ite : ode SHEE Uppy ee EE : : pessoa A ae : rt izrascee o igs SUUERS ERAS PURE me roouee ! t at graverent 4 ; t 1 ag] uy n Z, itt t i t cortttr tH aa a ae : ! maaan ) ; 3 HH : ant n T i T n r T r TBH r 7 7 os : a) =) aa | i : aS r " ra faa t eee i i i tet t 4 Lit r : oanEE aes t : ae } Hh H Ht po t +t i +H iT it 1 T t is [3 aSu) T jee ate 1 : = : Ht = te in a — : t Ho Tr t i cH T I T r or oESaie u Ht ~ SreraE : os , = {lo Tht fee hn 1 Tht 1 + Stieeaet rast ; r n cH I if inate Serer rein = - t is : m0 + att u + t n : > att Tope Het i 3 D t mt itt Pavan pene) Capen t r r trie n + sz oz si Ol Ss szozsios szoz si ol & sz oz si of §& szoz st ob & St oe st OF & et OF St Ob &- St Of G1 Os Gf szoz si of gf @zoz si o; @ streot~ gio f Be Cr Gs OF 8 yusen3s530 * MAGWZAON- yuzEC150 BUsEWILdSS asnonv ANNE anne AYK VMudv ROU AUYNeead AwVED YE £zo/ 1 etre 244 ‘HARBOR REPORTS Timber Work.—The timber platform and piles are in apparently good condition, no signs of any deterioration being noticeable except in the tops of some of the fender piles along the dock walls, which are decayed. : Easterly Dock Wall.—The easterly wall is in good condition, showing only at isolated points any signs of scaling on the face of the wall. Southerly Dock Wall.—This wall shows deterioration of the concrete for practically its entire length (76 feet) and for a vertical distance of 4 feet 6 inches, which is the distance between the timber platform and the 8-inch waling pieces between the fender piles. The depth of this deterioration is from 2 inches to 1 foot. Above and in close proximity to the wales are several isolated spots having a total area of 40 square feet where the concrete has scaled off from 3 inches to 6 inches in depth. On the entire face there is a scale of from 1 inch to 2 inches in thickness that is loose in many places. The back of this wall has an area of 10 square feet where the concrete has been eroded 4 inches to 6 inches. There is a crack extending completely through this wall at approximately 30 feet from the westerly end. Westerly Dock Wall.—This wall shows deterioration of concrete along its entire length (100 feet) below the waling pieces from 3 inches to 1 foot in depth. Above the waling pieces are a number of spots having a total area of 70 square feet where the concrete has scaled off from 2 inches to 6 inches in depth. There are three cracks extending entirely through this wall about 30 feet apart. The back of this wall shows erosion in several places, with a total area of 30 square feet and from 2 to 10 inches in depth. Much of the wall shows signs of scaling. North End Wall.—The concrete for its entire length (14 feet 6 inches) and for an average height of 7 feet is eroded from 1 foot to 2 feet in depth. Westerly Return Wall.—(27 feet long and 6 feet high). The concrete is badly eroded over an area of 90 to 100 square feet from 6 inches to 1 foot back from the face of the wall. The easterly dock wall mentioned above was repaired with gunite in 1918 by the Dewey Cement Gun Co., and the other defective walls were repaired in the same year with the steam atomizer process by the Harold F. Brown Co. In 1928 all walls except the easterly one again needed repairs. - Two structures, the seawalls at Fort Heath and Fort Warren, are re- ported by the Army as follows: SEAWALL AT ForT HEATH.—This wall was built in 1910 and 1911 to hold the toe of the granite slope pavement which protects the foot of the bluff at this place. It was founded at the mean high water line on hardpan, into which it extended about 3 feet, was some 600 feet long, 3 feet high and 2% feet thick. It was constructed of 1: 2: 4 concrete, hand mixed, and poured continuously in sections about 8 feet long. ‘The materials were Alpha cement, pit sand, crushed trap rock, and salt water. About half of the wall was built with stones from the beach set in the face. It was exposed to the severe storms from the east and northeast, sweeping over a beach covered with stones of all sizes. In 1912 it was reported that most of the sections into which the wall was divided by vertical construction joints showed some pitting, but in the majority no real injury had resulted. In 1916 it was reported that out of the more than forty sections, seven were broken and worn down to the level of the shore, and a number of others were badly pitted at about the line of high water. In 1923 all but a few of the sections have been broken and worn down to the grade of the beach, and all those standing are badly broken and eroded on the face. SEAWALL AT FORT WARREN.—In 1918 a concrete seawall was built at Fort Warren, as well as concrete foundation backing, and paving for a granite seawall. The wall is about 140 feet long, 7 feet high, including its founda- tion, and averages 3 feet thick. Above the foundation, the wall was built in alternate sections 10 feet in length with a recess in the end of each section, the 10 feet spaces between sections being filled in afterwards. All sections were monolithic. The wall and paving were 1: 2: 4 concrete made of cement to pass speci- fications of the Bureau of Standards, salt water sand, salt water gravel and 245 BOSTON eFansosa. QF Of st oF sz oz gi Ob yagwaosa BD et3) YAaENSAON sz oz St OF “SSVIA ‘NOLSOG ‘$1 ‘ON BdaIug ‘WU ° 4uaE0190 sz oz st ot ¢ -3@WN31d39S sz oz st ob isnonv ¢ sz oz st o' ¢ TERRE V 3 ‘@ ‘SNOILVAUGSHO AYALVURANAY, GNV ALINIIVS—TS¢ ‘Dla sAqnr szoz st ol anne &¢ oz gi Ol AVA. sz ozst on a sz Oz st ob uBEWAIAON szoz st ol 8 waEGOLIO Way gz oz st og HOUvYN Gz Of ai OF Hf ttt ct tt rm { 1 t tt SHte i CUSREG Bal Ht ott ee ot wens san) eae ae Sanaa T iT: aupatgenaa tH tt raw 5 is i 1 ; Er + T tit i rit + q i itt yan SaaERy - + -- it Tr il T : t zee + T ins han { niras tH ret tH + t t x Het : + TH t ih tt +H + rf oe + + ant : “+ mt i = ora =e + i t Beaeeeeles Lie i rf othe i — att a] stent pee ; ts : aes eeetavanad guowall tne reed Eoned anaes cases - +H \ t f i rf sz oz st OF S$ °C s2o0z Si oO! 8 szoz st Ob & St of Si OF yagnAldss asnonv aqnar annr gt OZ st of & AYA gz oz si OL adv &2 OF si oF HOUYA n Auvnuara ez of stor 8 st of st of Auvnuesa AUVANYS Sz or gi os & gz of Si OF & AuvVONYe o) 246 HARBOR REPORTS salt mixing water. The wall was founded on earth about 1 foot above mean high water, and granite riprap placed in front of it. The exposure to wave action is very slight. On a recent inspection, no evidence of deterioration was seen in the con- crete wall or paving. The construction records of the Boston Army Supply Base are as follows: Construction authorized April 7, 1918. Construction contract awarded April 9, 1918. Construction work started April 10, 1918. Construction work completed June 5, 1919. Wharf.—The wharf is 5,478 feet long. General type of substructure construction. Woodpiling cut off at mean high water, bearing girder and beam con- struction of reinforced concrete with reinforced concrete floor slab. 22,857 wood piles for most part hard southern pine with no protection. Wharf Sheds.—1,638 feet by 100 feet, carried on 16,000 wood piles. Pier Sheds.—Each building 924 feet by 100 feet, carried on wood piling. The longitudinal walls adjacent to the water in the north and south sides of structure are carried partly on precast concrete sheet piles and partly on Raymond piles driven just inside sheet piling. 1,115 feet concrete sheet piling. 6,288 Raymond concrete piles. 4,196 wood piles. Specification for concrete calls for a 1: 2:4 mixture. Amount of cover over reinforcing steel is shown on plans as 2 inches from perimeter of steel both in bottom and sides of beams and on bottom of slabs, and it is presumed that this was actually followed in construction. The main storehouse rests on concrete columns. Totals.— Wood: Piles... 5 so p's)iec0)eltaen 43,053 ft. Concrete Sheet Piles .......5..4 ~ o aeisnsleneeeeeee 1,115 ft: Concrete Raymond Piles .......25 20) eee 6,288 ft. A report on the condition of these structures made in 1923 is as follows: “A careful inspection of the concrete piling and girders of this Base was made, and the following report is submitted. The concrete piles are in ex- cellent condition with the exception of .a few under the North Pier shed, which are slightly streaked with rust. The outside concrete girders next to the cap-log on the dock at the North and South Pier sheds showed rust streaks from 2 to 9 feet long in several places. In many of the girders the reinforcement rods are exposed for six feet. The outside girders of the wharf shed are in better condition than those of the pier sheds, but there are signs of rust streaks and the rods are visible in places. From an exam- ination of the girders in the vicinity of the exposed rods, it would appear that the reinforcing had a 1-inch cover. In a few places on the bottom of these girders, the rods were on the surface of the concrete, and apparently did not have a cover. The conditions herein described were found above high water, although the girders are exposed to the water from time to time in heavy weather, and when the tide is unusually high. The most of the interior girders are still covered by the wooden forms used in construction, but in the places that are exposed the girders are apparently in excellent condition, with no sign of rust streaks appearing, and all of the rods well covered.” Conclusions Practically all concrete structures reported show deterioration and most of them severe damage, and while in the light of present knowledge of con- crete construction, improvements in the quality of concrete could un- doubtedly be made, it seems very questionable whether Portland cement eae ‘SSVIN ‘NOLSOG ‘MMIG 8,00 DNINIGAY LV YELVM GHL JO NOLLVYLINGONO) NOI-N@d0udAH ONV INGINOD NADAXO ‘SUAGVUEAWEL ‘ALINTIVg—ze ‘DIA 247 uvpns NVvolIMdny waensoad, M3aSWRAON wago1s0O YusenaLd3aS isnonv ANG anne AV Wud HOUYA Auvnusssa AYUVONYS az oz siot gf se oz St of a gz oe Gt o ¢ sz oz st Ob ¢ ,S2 of st or s szoz sit ob & sz o2st Ol ¢& sz ozs! ot ¢ gz ozs! ors sz oz st Of sz oz sitiotw a sz oz st ot & 7 3 To Pa ars a T aks MRSS oN awe nea <= r - a FE rH eects tH +H i aay aun I H t i use ou 2 1 eat T r t I — 1 : tt Spee eee et 1 rm 7 1 : ay att t rm f cor r, i r ct iH ; tt t 4] r i i 1 + Ht r L \ 1 TH + T Mo Ht u f +t t 1 1 t 1 it7 1 t 1 i + f : a tt i 1 ; t rst i r : rt Ht i t +P tit i tr i 1 tt Ht t i { t t i 1 i 1 aoeaa att Bt mt sue tt ERR 98 a torre a HHT t t Het tt Ht t rt ua oH : ; ct pot ft : tft rr t T + t r ars 7 t ra i TH an : + i z } t > roa i a Tt i itt TT Wy 1 t Hit ims - T t 1 1 " rot 7m tH i t a t t it 7 Hott ns T i tht 1 + Tet Ti i imi T Z i t 5 ana ae i S | i | i i i 4 t : M 1 re 1 T - - T _— © tot is : 7 t fea} t tt a tt t 7a Oaa8 i Tt = t { ERS SE GEE |S) SE RRESERSRUSEPEA DD CERN SEREEGSEAY |1RU8 TOMES RESTS FOES SAREE SSERS O88 SERS RERRS CERSES OS Oes BEORs eSunE CeRE ttt t i 1 { { t pee et t i i 1 Tt 1 t t i ress t. as oy = tr eae _ is rot { ann ates tt oy aoe t i i a : RH - - : t ; te : = sz oz st Ob sz O02 st ob s. “gzoz si o1 st oz si OF © szor sit oF Ss St oe si OF & sz 02 st Ob & Gt OZ si ob G se oe st Ob & ce Of St ob Ss st C2 si Oo; & gz Of St Ob & uSEWIS3C UAGWIAON . usBOLI0 WAEWNILdsS asnonv aimnge anne AVA Wedy HOUVA Asyneeaa A¥VYNNVE « ve? oto ~ . » a 248 HARBOR REPORTS concrete without mechanical protection, such as granite facing, and a bind- ing medium which will better resist chemical attack can be expected to give long life. Limnoria attack, while not heavy at any point, will cause destruction in time. Results obtained from test block inspection do not indicate the prob- ability of serious damage by shipworms, though these animals are present in the harbor. BUZZARDS AND NARRAGANSETT BAYS Description The shore line of both Buzzards, (Fig. 53), and Narragansett, (Fig. 54), Bays is bold and generally rocky, with stretches of sand beach. The pre- NAUTICAL MILES ' 2 3 YARDS C5655 Ss 1000 0 2,000 4000 *6000 7000 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS BUZZARDS BAY MASS. 1923 Fig. 53 vailing winds are northwesterly in winter and southwesterly and southerly in summer, but are subject however to many variations at all seasons. In winter drift ice is usually to be found. In 1908 the temperature of the water at Woods Hole ranged from 30 degrees Fahr. in February to 70 degrees Fahr. in July and August. The water of Buzzards Bay in the 4 ‘ ; : . 249 NARRAGANSETT BAYS BUZZARDS AND GFA ec6l coor sa awe SJITW IWSILNYVN GNWISI AdOHY ALINIDIA ® HOGUVH LHOdMAN Ssaquvod LSalL 20 NOILWIO'!I ONIMOHS dvVw ‘DIA 250 HARBOR REPORTS vicinity of the Cape Cod Canal was slightly warmer, the temperature reach- ing 7114 degrees Fahr. in August. Buzzards Bay is the approach to New Bedford Harbor and to the entrance of Cape Cod Canal. The mean rise and fall of tides is 4 feet. Woods Hole is a narrow passage leading between numerous rocky shoals from Vineyard Sound to Buzzards Bay between the mainland and Nona- messet Island. The Cape Cod Canal which connects Buzzards Bay with Cape Cod Bay is, including the approach channel, 1114 miles in length, and has a least depth of 22 feet. The bottom width varies from 100 to 300 feet. The average velocity of the current at midstream is 3.6 knots. The canal has never been closed by ice but the Buzzards Bay approach has been. New Bedford Harbor is located on the northwestern side of Buzzards Bay. The approach from the bay and the entrance to the harbor are ob- structed by ledges and shoals. A channel 300 feet wide has been dredged. to a depth of 25 feet. The entrance to Narragansett Bay is between Brenton Point, the south- western point of Rhode Island on the east and Point Judith Neck on the west. The bay is approximately 16 miles in length from the entrance to its northern extremity at the mouth of the Providence River. The greatest observed velocity of the tidal current is 1:3 knots per hour and the mean rise and fall of tide is 3.5 feet at the entrance and 4.7 feet at Providence. Newport Harbor, (Fig. 54), is located on the eastern side of the Eastern Passage of Narragansett Bay about 345 miles above the entrance to the Bay, and is divided by Goat Island into an inner and outer harbor. The outer harbor is on the western side of Goat Island, between Rose Island on the north and Fort Adams on the south. The depths range from 40 to 60 feet. The inner harbor is on the eastern side of Goat Island and extends along the waterfront of the city of Newport. The northern portion has been dredged to a depth of 18 feet; the southern portion to 13 feet. Fall River, (Fig. 55), is at the head of Mt. Hope Bay at the mouth of Taunton River. The depth at the wharves ranges from 10 to 25 feet. Warren, about 214 miles above the mouth of the Warren River, has a channel of 10 feet minimum depth leading up to it. Providence River is the approach to the Port of Providence, (Fig. 55), located about 7 miles from its mouth. The approach channel has a depth of 30 feet and the harbor area is being dredged to that depth. At Providence below the bridges the wharves have depths ranging from 10 to 380 feet. Tidal currents are not strong and generally follow the direction of the channel. In severe winters the river is closed to navigation for short periods. Marine Borers Past History—Both shipworms and Limnovia are present throughout this territory. The Lighthouse service has experienced considerable trouble with attacks by borers on their dolphins and buoys in Buzzards Bay and their wharf at Woods Hole. The dolphin piles specifically reported were of creosoted white oak (no record of treatment) and were completely destroyed in two years. Creosoted cedar spar buoys are said to last only three years, and treated oak piles in the wharf at Woods Hole five years. Heavy damage by marine borers has occurred in the past to waterfront structures at Fall 251 NARRAGANSETT BAYS BUZZARDS AND mr WOAN 10LS(uad ‘SSVW @ e261 GNVTSI AGOHY SHOGHVH HAAIYN T1Tv4 #& NAYHYHWM SFINAGIAOHd LSVWG saquvod LSait dO NOILVSOT SNIMOHS dvw ooo ooo SAIN AVIIINAWN FINIGIAVOUd 252 HARBOR REPORTS River. In other parts of this territory unprotected timber is estimated to last 6 to 10 years although there are some wharves of record which have stood 20 years without renewal of piling. Committee Investigations—The test boards installed are shown in the following table: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Woods Hole—Bureau of Fisheries Bureau of Fisheries.. . Wiliart see o hee Oe ore eee PRES. cng = (Dept. of Commerce) | Oct. 2, 1922 2.5 9.2 Buzzards Bay entrance to Cape Cod Canal (Dolphin No. 164).} CC-1..... Cape Cod Canal..... June 1, 1923 1.0 15.0 New Bedford—Duffs Coal Wharf] A-31..... Arimnye ohh ae ace Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 17.5 New Bedford—Fort Rodman....| A-32..... (ATIVIVE Mae 5 Aare Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 7.2 Newport—Long Wharf......... NH-3....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 10.0 Newport Government Landing. .| YD-104...] Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 2.0 7.0 Newport—Constellation Dock...| YD-103...} Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 8.0 Newport—Gould Island Wharf. .} YD-102...] Navy............... Oct. 15, 1922 2.0 12.0 Newport—Melville Coaling Pier.}| YD-101...| Navy............... Nov. 1, 1922 0.0 ick Fall River—New England Steam- ship: Co,; Pier) jn ee eee NH-18...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R Aug. 1, 1923 2.0 18.0 Fall River—Slades Ferry Bridge.| NH-8....] N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.5 20.0 Warren—Intake Pier........... NH-7....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 *Q.1 Providence—India Pt.......... NH-9 N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 ee! 23.7 Duteh Island, Harbor, -........ - A-33. 5.2 ATM Y¥6 coe ae eee Oct. 14, 1922 0.5 9.6 *Board in horizontal position. The inspection of test blocks and specimens gave the following results: A-30—This board was immersed too late for the 1922 season of activity and consequently no shipworms were found until block 20 was removed, August 1, 1923, in which two specimens of Teredo navalis appeared. Block 22 contained 1, blocks 28, 30, and 24, removed October 1, 40 specimens of Teredo navalis. Attack by Limnoria was of medium intensity. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. CC-1—4 specimens of Teredo navalis ranging in length from 5 to 20 mm. were found in block 3, removed September 1, 1923, and 100+ with lengths from 1 to 2 inches were found in block 4, removed October 4. None appeared in the monthly (center) blocks. No Limnoria activity was in evidence. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. A-31—20 blocks from this location were examined and while the appear- ance of Balanus and Bryozoa indicated favorable conditions for shipworms none were found. Attack by Limnoria was severe. A-32—No life of any kind appeared on the first 14 blocks. A few Balanus were found on block 15, removed June 1, 1923, which increased in number to about 100 on the succeeding blocks. Activity by Limnoria was light. The last block examined (No. 20) was removed August 16, 1923. This showed a trace of Limnoria activity, of Bryozoa and about 100 specimens of Balanus. NH-3—The first shipworm was found on block 5, removed August 15, 1922, just beginning to form the burrow. Shipworms, identified as Teredo navalis, ranged in number from 3 to 50 on each of the succeeding blocks. The old type of testboard was continued in service, all of the original and 9 replacement blocks, the last one removed October 15, 1923, having been examined. Activity by Limnoria was intense. Of the associated organisms only Bryozoa was found. hag abel: coe } : 4 : : 253 NARRAGANSETT BAYS BUZZARDS AND : T YW ‘NaaaV AA ‘ANOd PNIIOODN ‘WU H FH 'N “A 'N ‘NOILVYULNGONOD NOI-NEDOUGAH GNV LINGLINOD NUDAXO ‘AYNLVUAMWNAL ‘ALINITVS—9§ ‘DIY waenas10 wAGWIAON yagoOL3O uagW3aLdas asnonv amar anne AVA Wudv HOYYN AuYnuasa AUYONYS QZ oz st of *'sz oz st of ¢ sz oe st ob ¢ ‘sz oz St Ob ¢ “gz oz st or szoz st ol S sz ozst OF & sz ozst ot ¢ sz oz st of Gz oz ait or & sz oz stot SZ oz st o f i . i Tot a HH t wh n r r : = q a i t 0 ra n titty om = ! zoe at ob @ 82.02 Gt Oo 6 gt of st of & SZ OF Gi OF G sz oz gt OF 8 sz oz st ol & e202 gi Ol G gz oz st OF Sf Stoz gi OF § gaeoz si Of f SZ Of Gi Ob @ gt OF si of @ ok $ r ¥aG@Na53G MIENAACN MBEOLSO waGWIAless asnony amar anne AVA liddY HOWVA Auvnuard a's) 254 HARBOR REPORTS YD-104—No shipworms were found. Limnoria action was of medium intensity. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa, Algae and Anomia. 20 blocks were examined between November 1, 1922, and August 16, 1923. YD-103—20 blocks were examined, the removals having been made be- tween November 1, 1922, and August 16, 1923. No shipworms were found and the activity of Limnoria was negligible. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa and Algae. YD-102—Same as YD-103 with the addition of Anomia among the asso- ciated organisms. YD-101—19 blocks were examined between the dates November 15, 1922, and August 16, 1923. No shipworms were found but Limnoria action was heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus and Algae. The examination of a section of untreated timber taken from underwater cross-bracing placed in Melville Coaling Depot, in 1915 and removed in August, 1922, showed complete destruction by Teredo navalis and heavy attack by Limnoria. NH-18—This board is of the revised type and two sets of blocks were removed September 1, and October 1, 19238, respectively. Shipworms did not appear on the monthly (center) blocks but were numerous on the others as many as 100+ being found in the second block. These were identified as Teredo navalts. NH-8—A, few specimens of Teredo navalis were found in block 5, re- moved August 15, 1922, their number increasing to 30-40 in each of the succeeding blocks 6 to 8 inclusive. Block 9 removed October 16, was well filled and block 10 removed October 31, completely filled with Teredo navalis. Complete destruction was effected in three months time. Limnoria action was severe in the first few blocks but diminished in intensity with the in- crease of shipworm attack. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. At the time of the removal of block 22, May 1, 1923, the board together with the remaining original and the replacement blocks was care- fully examined. From this examination it was found that the end of the season of activity occurred prior to September 1. A new board of revised type was installed June 27, 1923. Teredo navalis appeared on blocks 3 and 3C of the new board, removed September 1, the center block having been in the water one month. Block 4C, removed October 5, contained 100=- specimens of Teredo navalis. NH-7—The first appearance of Teredo navalis occurred on block 4, re- moved August 1, 1922. Block 6, removed September 1, was completely per- forated by the young organisms and destruction progressed even more rapidly than at NH-8. The board together with remaining original (Nos. 17-24) and replacement blocks was removed February 15, 1923, and a new board of revised type substituted. From an examination of the old test specimen, the end of the season of activity was determined to. have occurred between August 15 and September 1. The first Teredo navalis to be found on the new blocks appeared on block 4, removed September 1, 19238. Asso- ciated organisms were Ostrea, Balanus and Algae. Limnoria action was in- considerable. NH-9—Teredo navalis first appeared in block 12, removed December 1, 1923. From 1 to 4 specimens were found in each of the succeeding blocks to and including block 27. Block 27, being the third replacement block, was 255 NARRAGANSETT BAYS BUZZARDS AND Ss VIGNTI waensac3G. SZ oz si or ‘Il ‘U GONaaIAOU”d ‘LNIOg SZ oz si OF ¢ w3GW3530 ‘agIqd ‘UU H F HN oaK. “NI ‘NOLLVULNAONOD NOI-NHS0UCAH GNV LNALNOX*) NADAXO ‘AYNLVUGd NAY, ‘ALINITIVQG—)G ‘DIA WAGWAAON bY he] - [ot holoy W2GW51d58 isnonv a1n¢e anne AYH itdv , HOUVA AYYNNEsa “AUVONVE gz oz st of ¢ et oz gs! ol g ez oz gsi Of g¢ SZ of at of Sf gz oe si Of & gz oz a1 OF @. sz ozsitotw ¢ et oz si Oo a ozst of @ sz of gios @ sz of 8! o: @ Ly i EEE : : = tf + m Jt. sz oz st ol ¢ ezoz si ob @ gz oz st Ol £2 0c Gl ol g gz oz at Ob 8 €8 0% Ss! ob 8 ge of siaw & gazoz si or g gz oz gt oO. & at ot gt of f gz O2 Si OL § UIGWAZAON. wagolso MAGWALAS asnonv alone anoc AVA Vedy HoUvVN Avuvnuwasa AWVONWE <26) 256 HARBOR REPORTS placed in the water July 15, 1922. None of the remaining replacement blocks contained shipworms. There was no Limnoria action. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. A-33—Twenty blocks from this board were examined and although the associated organisms indicated that conditions were favorable for ship- worms, none were found. This may be accounted for by the late date (October 14, 1922) on which the board was submerged. The last block was removed August 15, 1923, a little too early for the 1923 brood. A very light attack of Limnoria was in evidence. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and Algae. It is now safe to say that there is generally a period of immunity from shipworms in this territory of about ten months between September 1 and July 1, though the 1923 attack occurred later than that of 1922. Chemical analyses of the water at Warren and Providence (India Point) were made daily and the temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and hydro- gen-ion concentration at these two locations are shown on Figs. 56 and 57. Salinity and temperature observations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, recorded by the Bureau of Fisheries are shown on Fig. 58. Experimental Field Tests Tests of the protective qualities of copper wire and bands are being con- ducted by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, at Warren. Blocks bound with both wire and bands with different spacing ranging from 14 inch to 2% inches were immersed on November 5, 1922. This method had in view its possible application to existing structures. The results of this experiment will be found in Chapter II, page 14. Methods of Protection The great majority of timber exposed to marine borers in this territory is unprotected which is surprising in view of the activity of both shipworms and Limnoria. Little or no service data of creosote, or other protection methods, are to be had from the territory. Some creosoted structures are in use and the experience of the Lighthouse Service with this method cited above should not be taken as representative of this district. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—The following report on structures at the Naval Station at Newport, R. I., was furnished by the Public Works Officer. “There are three concrete-timber structures at this Station, one at Rose Island, constructed in 1913, one at Melville Fuel Station, constructed in 1916, and one at the Training Station, constructed in 1919. Also a concrete pier at Gould Island constructed in 1919 and 1920. The structures at Rose Island and Melville are of the same type, reinforced concrete deck and columns, set on wood pile bents, 25 feet centers; piles are cut off at mean low water, and capped with yellow pine timber. The columns were precast, and allowed to season thirty days, summer season, before handling. The con- crete mixture was one part of Lehigh cement, two parts of sand, and four parts of stone; clean fresh water was used for mixing. The sand used was composed to a large extent of quartz; stone, crushed granite; steel, deformed bars (exact type not known), minimum cover of steel 114 inches. These struc- tures are exposed to salt spray. The present condition is good. The struc- ture at the Training Station consists of an enclosing plain concrete wall on pile and timber platform, the interior of pier filled with dirt. Wood piles are cut off at mean low water and the outside edge of platform protected OE ey 257 NARRAGANSETT BAYS BUZZARDS AND ‘SSVI ‘HIOH SGOOM ‘SNOILVAUSSEO AYALVARHINAL AGNV ALINIIVS—8¢ ‘DI WyeRnI530 BAGn3AON u3G0150 waeNnaidss asnonv: annr anne Wed HOYUvVNn Advnuaia AUYOANVES Sz oz st O1 ¢ GZ oz st of GS 5 gz oz st OF oz st o1 & sz oz si of @ St oz st o1 8 —— : aie Beiraeil ESSERE EEEY Tn Hr iii srm inne seuegueus: ie Hit Bt ott SZ oz gt Ob § gz oz gt ob § : SZ oz si OF ge OF 61 OF & SZ 0c si Ol & gt 0% si! OF Sf st of sit o. f sz oz Gt Ob @ S26) YIGWIADIG wAaGWAAON uIHOCLSO MaGWaldas asnonv “ze6éi AInr S26! annc AVA Titdy HOUVYA Auvnueza: ESGI AUYNNS 258 HARBOR REPORTS by concrete sheet piles 12 inches thick. Sheet piles precast, 1:114:3 mixture of Acme cement, quartz sand, crushed granite; plain round steel bars for reinforcing. Piles were allowed to season thirty days, summer season, and were driven with a 5,000 lb. drop hammer, no damage having been caused by driving. This structure is in good condition. The Gould Island pier con- sists of a reinforced concrete flat slab deck, 1: 2: 4 mixture, built on rein- forced concrete piles, 1: 1%: 3 mixture; cement used, Lehigh; sand largely composed of quartz; stone, crushed trap rock; steel, plain cold twisted rods. Concrete piles were cast in the month of November, non-freezing weather, and were allowed to season for about five months. They were driven with a steam hammer to rock, a penetration of about three feet. In order to obtain lateral support, the spaces between piles were filled with riprap to about mean low water. This structure is greatly exposed to wave action and salt spray. It is in good condition. “All concrete in these structures was covered during the period of curing, and kept wet; all forms used were of wood; reinforced steel was clean, and all construction joints were washed before joining new concrete. Concrete was poured in nonfreezing weather. The concrete in these structures is in good condition. In about four years after completing the Rose Island pier, rust spots began to show on the bottom of girders; at these places the rods were exposed, cleaned and re-covered with gunite. These rods were probably allowed to sag during construction. This pier is exposed to storms and wave action, and is of a design poorly adapted for this location, as lacking rigidity to resist vibration. These structures have not been installed a sufficient length of time to properly judge their suitability.” Metal Structures—The deck of main coaling pier installed at Melville in 1903 is supported by 48 inch steel plate girders, 48 feet 6 inches span, 3% inch web plate, 6 inches by 4 inches by 1% inch angles, 13 inches by % inch cover plate. The bottom of this girder is 7 feet above mean low water, and is subjected to salt spray. To prevent these girders from deteriorating, they have been cleaned, red leaded, and painted from time to time. In 1921 part of this steel work was sand blasted to gray metal, and a coat of gunite was applied, about 36 inch thick. The total cost of this work was 438.6 cents per square foot, of which 35.8 cents was for sand-blasting and chipping, and 7.8 cents for gunite. Due to vibration of the steel work caused by blows from ships striking against the sides of the piers, the gunite has in some places cracked away from the steel. Conclusions Service records and the investigations of the Committee indicate that structures in salt water in this territory may be attacked by borers and that all timber constructions of importance should be protected if they are to have a reasonably long life. The attack may easily be severe enough to cause destruction in two or three years. The record of concrete is not especially good and the practice of facing concrete structures with granite as practiced by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad undoubtedly adds greatly to the life of the structure. LONG ISLAND SOUND (POINT JUDITH TO THROGS NECK) Description Long Island Sound is a region of boulders with very little natural change taking place in the shore line and shoals such as occurs on the outside coast of Long Island, where the beach is sandy and free from boulders. In ordi- nary winters ice forms in the western end of the Sound as far as Eatons Neck; in exceptionally severe winters it may extend to Falkners Island and farther eastward. A a ee ee ee ees a EE Ne a diet on: LONG ISLAND SOUND 259 Fishers Island, (Fig. 59), about six miles long, is at the eastern entrance to the Sound. Silver Eel Pond, where the test board is located, is on the western end of the island, about five-eights mile northeastward of Race Point. The entrance is about 75 feet wide between jetties, with a depth of 16 feet diminishing to 14 feet inside. Mystic River, (Fig. 60), has been dredged to a least width of 100 feet and a depth of 15 feet up to the town bridge at Mystic. Below the railroad bridge the current is less than one-half knot per hour. The mean rise and fall of tide at the location of the test board is 2.5 feet. The Thames River, (Fig. 61), which flows into the Sound northwestward of the western end of Fishers Island, forms the harbor of New London. re) § 4 4 WILDERNESS PT. RACE PT. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS FISHERS ISLAND SOUND NAUTICAL MILES Iis23 ! 3 2 4 YARDS [ee 1000 500 fe] 1oco 2000 Fie. 59 This harbor has a dredged channel of 400 feet minimum width and 33 feet depth with a mean rise and fall of tide at New London of 2.5 feet. The depth alongside the wharves at low water ranges from 10 to 16 feet. The currents found in the Thames River are not strong, the velocity gen- erally averaging from one-half to three-quarter knots, though two knots has been recorded at the Submarine Base. At the U. S. Naval Station (Submarine Base), 2 miles above New London, there is a minimum depth of 2714 feet, and at the coal receiving piers of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. at Allyns Point, 5 miles above New London, there is a depth of not less than 260 HARBOR REPORTS 22 feet at high water. Ice seldom forms below the Naval Station except close to shore where piers retard the current, though drift ice is sometimes driven in from the Sound in severe winters and has been known to extend to a distance above the mouth of the river of 134 miles. The Fort Terry Wharf on Plum Island, (Fig. 62), has a depth of 15 feet at the outer end. Greenport Harbor on Long Island, (Fig. 62), opposite the mouth of the Connecticut River, is formed by a breakwater on the northeast. The depths at the wharves range from 7 to 19 feet. The test board is located on the Texas Company’s wharf, in 7.5 feet of water at mean low water. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ; TEST BOARDS 4 MYSTIC RIVER, CONN. NAUTICAL MILES 1923 ) © YARDS 1990 Fic. 60 Guilford Harbor, (Fig. 62), lies about midway between the mouth of the Connecticut River and New Haven Harbor. The test board.is located about — 1144 miles up West River, where the mean rise and fall of the tide is ap- proximately 3.2 feet. New Haven Harbor, (Fig. 62), has been improved by the construction of breakwaters at the entrance, and by dredging a channel with a minimum width of 400 feet and depth of 20 feet to Tomlinson Bridge. The depths at the principal wharves range from 12 to 18 feet. The average velocity of the current at strength is 1.2 knots. The mean rise and fall of tide is 6 feet. West River, between New Haven and West Haven, (Fig. 62), has been dredged to a minimum width of 100 feet and a depth of 12 feet. ¢ The test board on the Housatonic River is located on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad bridge, about 214 miles above Milford Point, (Fig. 62). The river has been dredged to a depth of 7 feet and a width of et LONG ISLAND SOUND 261 100 feet. The average velocity of the current on flood is 1.3 and on ebb 1.6 knots with a mean rise and fall of tide of 6.5 feet. The river above Stratford is closed by ice during the winter, which peeee ay extends to the entrance in severe winters. Bridgeport Harbor, (Fig. 63), has been improved i the construction of ' two converging breakwaters at the entrance and by dredging a straight channel 300 feet wide and 22 feet deep from the entrance to the anchorage basin, and 18 feet deep in the harbor and Poquonock River. The depths alongside the railroad wharf and the City Dock are 18 to 20 feet and at some of the wharves in Poquonock River there are depths of 10 to 13 feet. The average current velocity at strength is 0.7 knots with a mean rise and fall of tide of 6.5 feet. On the Saugatuck River, or Westport Harbor, the test board is located on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad bridge at Saugatuck, about 214 miles above the entrance (Fig. 63). The depths at the principal wharves are 8 to 10 feet. The mean rise and fall of tide is 7 feet. - Norwalk River has been improved by dredging a channel 150 feet wide and 10 feet deep to South Norwalk, (Fig. 63), where the test board is located at the crossing of the N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R. The mean rise and fall of tide at this point is 6.5 feet. Marine Borers Past History—The records of the Corps of Engineers U. S. A. show that Limnoria is present throughout all this territory and the life of unprotected timber is estimated to be from 10 to 15 years. The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad reports past attacks on their structures as follows: Allyns Point New London (Shaws Cove) New London Guilford New Haven New Haven New Haven New Haven New Haven Coal Dock of untreated timber. Pile trestle, 384 chest- nut and 40 oak piles— untreated. New England Steam- boat Pier. 800 chestnut and 160 oak piles—un- treated. East River Bridge. Pile trestle—untreated. Water Dock on un- treated chestnut piles. Belle Dock on untreated chestnut piles. Shop Dock on untreated chestnut piles. Canal Dock on un- treated chestnut piles. Heaton’s Wharf on un- treated chestnut piles. Light attack of Limnoria prior to 1918. Dock first built in 1870. Age of present piling, 19 years. Condition, good. Light Limnoria attack prior to 1908 Light Limnoria attack prior to 1909 Heavy Limnoria attack. Condition of piles in 1921 such that replacement of piles driven in 1905 was necessary. Slight Limnoria attack on old piles. Replacement piles driven in 1918 are undamaged. Majority of piles in place since 1885. Very slight Limnoria attack. Original piles driven in 1891 some- what affected by Limnoria. Replace- ment piles driven in 1915 undamaged. Built in 1887. Majority of original piles somewhat affected by Limnoria action. Replacement piles driven in 1920 are undamaged. ~ Built in 1885-6. Some damage by Limnoria in past. 262 HARBOR REPORTS New Haven Digger Dock on un-- Built about 1887-88. Extended in treated chestnut piles. 1907 and 1910. Original piling shows traces of Limnoria action. 1907 and 1910 piles undamaged. New Haven Middle Dock on un-_ Built about 1886-1887. Piles some- treated chestnut piles. what eaten by Limnoria and decayed. New Haven West River trestle—un- Built in 1885. Renewed in 1909 due to treated chestnut piles. poor condition on account of wood borers. 1909 piles slightly attacked. Limnoria. Committee Investigations—Test boards were installed as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Fishers Island, Fort Wright Q. M. Doék see. Sale eee 4 ATINVaNt Jee tee comet July 2, 1922 1.0 9.0 Mystic (Mystic River) Bridge No. JE aN ec st eM ER IE ot ch oe NH-5.....| N.Y.N.H. & H-R.Re.| June: 1, 1922 0.0 Chee New London (Shaws Cove) Bridge, No. o0,4 a0 ae eee NH-4,... >| N.Y.N.H. & BRL. le smest at 922 0.0 10.2 New London (Central Coal Co. IRGCKet) Ser ae nok ie aed cone 5 ATM Yous ee es Ga June 3, 1922 1.0 13.0 (|Pier A 18.0 New London (Submarine Base).. 5 Navy Soden aoe June 1, 1923 1.9 sie ae Pier K 7.5 Allyns Point (Thames River), N. YeeN: Hed Ro Re Coaling WW hart: xtes oe. cern NH-6....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.0 4.5 Plum Island, Fort Terry Wharf.. 5 ATMY:..., ogt «pene July 2, 1922 1.0 12.0 Greenport, Texas Oil Co., Dock.. 2 ATID. en 6 ee July 2, 1922 1.0 13.0 Guilford (West River) Bridge No. 1G 1 Oita seits sie, 2.5 OR eRe NH-15...| N.Y.N.H. & H.RiR oe} June 1922 0.0 9.5 New Haven (Digger Dock)...... NH-16...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 5, 1922 0.0 4.0 New Haven (Bell Dock)........ 6 AYN: (cbs cree oe July 4, 1922 0.0 Hel New Haven (West River) Bridge NODS 225 aha. ce a NH-17...|) N.Y.N.H. & H.R-R. | June 5, 1922 0.0 5.3 Devon (Housatonic River)...... NH-11...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.6 10.0 Bridgeport (Poquonock River)...}| NH-12...| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 Ona 15.0 Westport (Saugatuck River)....}| NH-14...)| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 072 7.0 South Norwalk (Norwalk River).| NH-13....| N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R..| June 1, 1922 0.5 6.5 Davids Island (Fort Slocum) Q. IVE. Wiharloee:, ... 03 eee 8 Army. 265 oe ee May 18, 1923 1.0 13.0 The result of inspection of the test blocks and specimens from these loca- tions is as follows: No. 4—This board showed a few specimens of Limnoria accompanied by Bryozoa in the first two blocks and on the third a Teredo larva was found. The board was lost and replaced November 11, 1922. Bryozoa and Algae appeared in January and the first Limnoria on March 1, and by May 15, about 60 specimens of Limnoria had appeared. The board was again lost. Specimens of cedar and spruce slats from lobster pots collected in the summer of 1923 were filled with Teredo navalis. NH-5—Limnoria appeared on the second block, numerous Teredo larve on block 5, removed August 15 and in block 8, removed October 16, there was a large number of Teredo navalis two to four inches in length. The blocks were thoroughly honeycombed and a new board was placed April 15, 1923, but Teredo navalis did not appear until the blocks removed September 16, when a few from one-sixteenth to one-eighth-inch long were found. This number had slightly increased on October 15. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula), Ostracoda and Molgula. 900! ooot SITIW AVIILAYN NEW LONDON da Y Lh % my KS " ALLYNS PT. NH-6 i, *y12 a PIER A - SPRUCE PIER E-OAK & PARAFINE PIER E-SPRUCE & « PIER G- YELLOW PINE PIER K- SPRUCE MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS THAMES RIVER-HARBOR OF NEW LONDON CONNETICUT 1923 T9 “OLA prs. NAUTICAL MILES See: wk Hot ieke. _~ aS. ee VAMP S il tact iterate nerinommnaed gr Sat, Se MR LR nae eden * oe re Oo ere Sa a a Senet en oh - ao fe TE ee on eee “oF ats". poe: A eo GUILFORD LONG 4FSLAND. SOUND EASTERN PORTION MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS LONG ISLAND SOUND ‘NAUTICAL MILES 43240 ! 2 3 4 5 6 YAROS 1000 Oo 5000 10000 LON G ISLAND re, Q we ween <7 eo NEW ROCHELLE SE LONG TSZLAWND |S QO? WESTERN PORTION MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS LONG ISLAND SOUND NAUTICAL MILES + 3 YARDS 5000 KO’ KOte te lee, ‘i yes < Bt Mat, on LONG ISLAND SOUND 263 NH-4—tThe first Teredo navalis about 4% inch long appeared in the block removed September 16, and the number increased to about 20 per block from 2% inches to 3 inches long before January 1, 1923. Larve first appeared in the gills in June, 1923, and the longest animal found up to September 16 was 5 inches. The first animals of the 1923 brood appeared on the block removed October 1. Limnoria attack was severe; the associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Red Algae and Foraminifera. A large sewer discharges near this board. ; No. 5—Limnoria appeared in the first block and Teredo navalis one- fourth to one-half inch long in the fourth, removed September 15; larger numbers about 3 inches long were found in all blocks up to No. 20, removed May 15, when a new board was placed. No specimens of Teredo appeared in this new board before October 1, but the Limnoria attack was very heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Red Algae, Mytilus and Gasteropods. No. 112—The finger piers A to K were built on unprotected piles and the Teredo attack on the piles was found to be quite variable. Therefore boards were placed on four piers to endeavor to get information as to variation in the attack. The attack in 1923 was very light, since Teredo navalis was not found until the blocks removed October 1, and then in very small numbers. The Limnoria attack was also light. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and Tubularia. Fig. 64 shows the condition of untreated pine piling after 5 years’ service. NH-6—Aside from two specimens of Limnoria on one block no borers were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Green Algae and a few Bryozoa and Mytilus. No. 3—A few specimens of Limnoria associated with Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and Green Algae were found on the original board, which was re- placed by a new board on May 19, 1928. No change occurred during the summer of 1928. No. 2—Two boards were placed and lost after short periods of immersion. Limnoria associated with Bryozoa (Bugula) were found in the few blocks received. NH-15—tThe first Teredo, 4 inch long, was found in the block removed September 11, 1922. Lengths of from two to four inches were attained before November 1 after which growth ceased. From 8 to 15 animals were found in each block. Associated organisms were Balanus and a few Bryozoa. Limnoria was much more destructive in 1923 than in 1922. NH-16—Limnoria was fairly destructive and no associated organisms other than Green Algae were found. No. 6—This board was only in service until February 16, 1923, and showed no marine organisms except slight traces of Green Algae. NH-17—A few specimens of Limnoria associated with a small number of Balanus were the only organisms found on this board. NH-11—A few Bryozoa were the only organisms found at this station. NH-12—One block out of 33 showed a few specimens of Mytilus and Bryozoa; the others showed no life. NH-14—Limnoria first appeared July 1, 1922, and Teredo navalis about September 1. All later blocks showed from 10 to 35 specimens of Teredo. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and a very few specimens of Mytilus and Petricola. 264 HARBOR REPORTS © NH-13—tThe first specimens of Teredo navalis appeared about September 1, 1922, and they reached a length of 3 to 4 inches by the close of the season with about 20 animals in each block. A new board was immersed April 15, 1923, and the first Teredo appeared between September 1 and September 15. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and a few specimens of Mytilus. A pile dolphin built with unprotected piles, driven in 1919 at White Rock, had to be removed in September, 1922, on account of damage by Teredo navalis. No. 8—This board only remained in service for six weeks and did not in that. time show any borers, although a number of specimens of Balanus were found. A rather heavy attack by Teredo navalis was found in timber removed from the wharf. Special Tests ‘In order to determine whether there was any difference in the intensity of attack or any difference in the boring shells in different kinds of timber, specimens of pine, spruce and oak were immersed at the Submarine Base, New London, on May 1, 1922. When examined one year later the shells showed no differences, but the attack on the pine and spruce was very heavy, while it was only of medium intensity on the oak. This result was the opposite of that obtained at Galveston. Methods of Protection It has not been the custom to protect timber against the attack of marine borers in this territory. Some creosote impregnation has been used in New Haven Harbor, proving effective against Limnoria action. Creosoted piles were used for the foundation of the quay wall and crane of the Submarine Base, New London, but sufficient time has not elapsed to determine the efficacy of the treatment. Substitutes for Timber -Concrete—The Bureau of Yards and Docks reports on concrete work as follows: “The only concrete in Waterfront Structures at the New London Sub- marine Base is the mass Quay Wall and the foundation for the 30-ton crane at the end of Dock ‘B.” “Quay Wall, 1: 2: 4 concrete cast in blocks 30 feet long and of depth and thickness indicated at various points. P y RouRtaED under crane, 1: 2: 4 concrete partly mass and partly rein- orced. “Concrete of Quay Wall subject to tide and wave action. “So far as can be noted all concrete is in excellent condition after four years’ service.” The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Co. reports that it has several concrete structures in this territory and that, as a whole, little trouble has been experienced with them. In addition the following state- ment is made: “At a few locations, particularly Cos Cob, Bridgeport and New Haven, six to ten inches of the face of some of the concrete structures within tide limits deteriorated quite badly within three to five years. We believe this is due to a poor lean mixture of the original concrete. These particularly bad places have been repaired by taking off the poor materials and facing up with a new rich mixture of concrete either in form work or NEW YORK HARBOR 265 by use of the cement gun. Some of this work was done five or six years ago and there has been no resulting deterioration since.” Conclusions Teredo was not found at Allyns Point (NH-6), Fort Terry (3), Green- port (2), Digger Dock (NH-16), Bell Dock (6), West River (NH-17), Devon (NH-11), and Bridgeport (NH-12), but there is good reason to think that it is present at some of these locations, such as Greenport. Limnoria in large numbers was found at the Digger Dock and in small numbers at the other locations except at Bell Dock (6), Devon Hill (NH-11), and Bridgeport (NH-12). These three latter locations, therefore, appear to be the only ones at which protection for piles is not economically desirable for the prevention of damage by borers. At some of these locations where Limnoria is present only in small num- bers it is probable that protection would be economical only for important structures when the cost of replacement would be high either on account of the character of the structure or the resulting interference with traffic. Pile protection would be an economy at all other locations. The attack of Teredo navalis seems to have been lighter and to have commenced from two weeks to a month later in 1923 than in 1922. It appears probable that the period of inactivity and consequently of immunity from attack ordinarily extends from about September 15 to July 15. NEW YORK HARBOR For purposes of this report, New York Harbor, (Fig. 65), is considered to be the waters of the Hudson, Harlem and East Rivers, the Upper and Lower Bays, the Kill van Kull, Arthur Kill, Newark Bay, Raritan and Jamaica Bays —all between Willets Point, Sandy Hook, Coney Island, and the north end of Manhattan Island. The report also includes for convenience certain data collected on the south shore of Long Island. Marine Borers Past History—The earliest evidence of the presence of marine borers in New York consists of specimens of Teredo navalis found many years ago in the wreck of a British frigate sunk in Hell Gate during the Revolutionary War. These specimens may be found in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Prior to 1870 reports indicate that marine borers were active and destructive throughout the harbor, that by 1875 their activities had con- siderably lessened and that, except for localized sporadic outbreaks, they have done little damage in the rivers since that time. In 1898 a wharf at Greenpoint failed on account of the attack of teredine borers, but other structures in the immediate vicinity were not seriously damaged. It has been thought that the long continued high degree of pollution has probably been responsible for the immunity which has appeared to exist. In 1922 the “New York Committee,” organized to cooperate with the National Committee, sent out an exhaustive questionnaire to wharf owners in the harbor as defined above, and also to owners on the New Jersey coast as far south as Atlantic City, and to those in Long Island Sound. These questionnaires were intended to collect as complete a record as possible of the history of borer attacks in the territory under investigation, and also to ascertain whether any indications had appeared of heavier attack in the last few years. HARBOR REPORTS Fic. 64—-UNTREATED PINE PILE, U. S. N. SUBMARINE Base, NEw LONDON, CONN. Driven, 1918—Removed, 1928. a ik NEW YORK HARBOR 267 Approximately 1,100 questionnaires were sent to owners in the entire district. Separate reports are being made for Long Island Sound and the New Jersey Coast south of Sandy Hook, and deducting the replies received by the New York Committee from these two areas, reports received covered 292 structures in the New York Harbor area. Two hundred twenty-nine of these reports showed no recorded attack, 22 gave a record of past attacks, and 41 reported present attacks. The 22 structures from which past attacks were reported, where no attack was thought by the owners of the structures to be going on at present, were located as follows: Pier 35 East River, Jefferson St., Manhattan..... Attack in 1916 ET PAS IVET 5s 0 osc scr cee ot cn eee Attack in 1914 Greenpoint, East River structure collapsed....... Attack in 1898 Edgemere (Rockaway Point) and Barren Island..Attack in 1894-97 Weehawken, N. J.-Erie R. R. Piers.............. Attack in 1908 Weehawken, N. J.-N. Y. C. R. R. Piers........... Attack in 1911 Weehawken, N. J.-N. Y. C. R. R. Piers........... Attack in 1922 Pier 16—Hudson River at Barclay St., Manhattan. Attack in 1909 Pier 1—Hudson River at 70th St., Manhattan....Attack in 1909 iagpoKen, N: J., Public Service Ry. Co............ Attack in 1906 MMIII ING Jo gee e es ie vk cc aes sees Attack in 1898 Perth Amboy, N. J. Port Richmond, Staten Island, Kill van Kull. Except for the attacks at Greenpoint and Edgemere no very extensive damage was reported at any of these locations. While a few specimens of Limnoria have been found, such damage as occurred has generally been caused by Teredo navalis. The reports of present attack are generally based on the inspection of timber removed from the water between the years 1919 and 1922. These reports are as follows: East River between the Battery and Fort Totten has six reports of pres- ent attack by teredine borers, all light. The Hudson River from the Battery to Tarrytown shows seven points of attack, all light and all below Edgewater. The Upper Bay between the Narrows, the Battery and Communipaw showed twelve locations where there was thought to be attacks, most of them on the Staten Island shore. The Kill van Kull, Arthur Kill, Newark Bay and tributaries, reported six- teen locations, most of them on the Kill van Kull, where the attack was of medium intensity. The Lower Bay reported one location only, which merely indicates that many owners did not reply. The south shore of Long Island reported very heavy attacks in seven locations. Committee Investigations—The New York Committee was organized in March, 1922, and the investigations were made under the general direction of that committee. The Director of the National Committee acted as the executive for the New York Committee as well as for the National Com- mittee, and employed for work exclusively in the New York district an en- gineer, a biologist and a chemist for various periods. 268 HARBOR REPORTS The New York Committee placed a number of test timbers in the harbor early in 1922, and later installed standard test boards at many of the same locations. It was difficult to keep test boards in service, as many were lost, probably by theft. In addition to the collection of specimens by the test board method, arrangements were made with a number of wharf owners and with contractors for notice of repairs which involve the pulling of piles so that an inspection of such timber could be made by the biologist em- ployed by the committee. The test boards, manufactured by the New York Central Railroad, were located as follows: SECTION 1, EAST RIVER—BATTERY TO WILLETS POINT—AND HARLEM RIVER BOARD DATE NO. LOCATION MAINTAINING AGENCY INSTALLED 1b» Kort -Lottens. e200. eee Army 14° Ft. Schuyler® og... 2 ae ae Army 13. Rikers. island: occa ee ee Army July gon 2022 $9." Willis, Avevguts eens ee N... Y¥., N. cH. & eee June 1, 1922 67 Wards [slandiy,. . 7-44 sae N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug.. 2, 1922 bo. Grand’ St Plier -.. 2. N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 271922 93." -Pier 36,° Hast Kiver®. 2c. ae NAY oC hake June 15, 1922 95. (Pier 4, HasteRiver = 70... Noy ie ee Aug. 29, 1922 Pio. Ssrd St Brookhyn 4. Am. Sugar Ref. Co. March 1, 1923 ol. Pier. C,-Navy 2) ard. 27 eee Navy July 27; 1922 SECTION II—HvupDSON RIVER OO West 156tbs St ets ee N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. :2,41822 59° West 52nd St. Pier .2..ce..- N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 2, 1922 28 Barrow ‘St. Rec. Pier ...... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 1, 1922 94 Weehawken, N. J.......... NYG. ae May 75, Aa 94L Weehawken, N. J. ......... NueYo Ge Reo. June 1, 1922 1027 — Hoboken N«.) =a eee Ds. be &W han Aug. 1, 1922 107 Eagle Works, Jersey City..Standard Oil Co. Now, “A351 022 103° Pier A; Jersey City. 3 cee Lehigh Valley R. R. Sept. 22, 1922 OG bP ier \ 22 ee oe. eee BY Ol eae Aug. I, 1922 DLP “Lhe Battery. 1. eee N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 SECTION IJJ—Uprer BAY—KILL VAN KULL—ARTHUR KILL, NEWARK BAY 41 85th St. Pier, Gowanus Bay...... Navy July 14, 1922 42 Bay Ridge Barracks, Brooklyn. .Navy July 25, 1922 43. Et.. la Fayette... 232 ee ee Navy July . 18, 1922 64 Pier 18, Clifton, o.01-oc ee eee N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 104 Tompkinsville Lighthouse, S. I...Bureau of Lighthouses Oct. 11, 1922 G3 Pier 6; Tompkinsvillesseleo. sa, N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 27, 1922 98... St. Georges, li, ae eee eee ee Bs &:O.Ro he Aug. -1,-i922 43°. Constable Hook <2. see ee Navy Oct. 6, 1822 LOG? Bayonne “22.4.0 ee eee ee Standard Oil Co. Nov. 43, 1922 LLOO Warner, Nod. < oe ee Am. Cyanamid Co. Feb. 15, 19238 100 *-Elizabethport Ns J. 2s ereene Singer Mfg. Co. July 15, 1922 ie? Bayway,” Ni od... ctr eee ee Standard Oil Co. Nov. 1, 1922 AT TARGSSVlley Sovls oe ae ithe wick N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11, 1922 21 Newark Bay Ridge . as ce Be COR. ROE Ne. July 17, 1022 NEW YORK HARBOR 269 _ SECTION IV—LOwWER Bay, JAMAICA, GREAT SouTH BAY AND RARITAN BAY Go emiidiand Beach Pier, 8. I......... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug., 1922 ReMMEEMEICOSS ISA. oo... et we ee N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11, 1922 aueeereren Amboy, N. J.............. Dace. Oi. oe Aug e422 OE ne Army July, 1922 BPORTCTVULIGI oc. ccs ec cc cet ae ce Set Wd eee Be Aug., . £01922 Ba Aciantic Highlands, N. J......... Army July, 1922 23 Ft. Hancock, Sandy Hook........ Army July 29, 1922 44 Marine Basin, Gravesend Bay....Navy JULY 15.1922 68 Atlantic Y. C. Pier, Sea Gate....N. Y. Dept. of Docks July 20, 1922 69 Steeplechase Pier, Coney Island..N. Y. Dept. of Docks duly. 20, 1922 45 Manhattan Beach, Coney Island..N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aus. 99271922 70 Barren Island, Jamaica Bay..... N. Y. Dept. of Docks Aug. 11922 vie ail Basin, Jamaica Bay........ N. Y. Dept. of Docks Auge Si ro27 i maeamaicasbay R.R. Trestle....... Ty eek, AUS eS, P1 922 fo wamaicn bay RK. R. Trestle....... feel SRA Aug. 8, 1922 EE a Navy Angee Sy 1922 Sempeevese mavvilice, 1. J......... cc uee Blue Points Co. Aug. 1,°1922 PETG? WOOGS 5. cc beens cae ewe Bay Shore Yacht Club Nov: 9207 1922 The results of the inspection of test blocks and timber from structures are as follows: SECTION I—No representatives of Teredo or Limnoria were found in test blocks in this section except that a few specimens of Limnoria were found at Rikers Island, but Balanus and Bryozoa were found at Rikers Island and Pier 4. The presence of these animals generally indicates that the water conditions are such that Teredo can live. No life of any kind was found on the blocks from Willis Avenue in the Harlem River nor those from South Third Street, Brooklyn. Live Teredo navalis was found in timber from Fort Slocum, Clason Point, Astoria, Ferry Slip 5 at South Street, and Ferry Slip 2 at Whitehall Street. The attack was fairly heavy at Fort Slocum and Clason Point, but only a few animals were found at the other locations. A comparatively light Limnoria attack was also found at the ferry slips near the battery. Piles from structures at the foot of East 110th Street, East Thirty-seventh Street, East Twenty-eighth Street and Grand Street showed evidence of having been attacked in the distant past, but none showed recent attack. It would seem to be indicated that a serious attack need not be expected in the Harlem River, since no encrusting or boring organisms have been found there; that a destructive attack can apparently occur near the en- trance to Long Island Sound, but that in the remainder of the East River, while Teredo is present and can live, it does not seem to threaten a destruc- tive attack at the present time. The number of points near the Battery at which Teredo has been found shows that this is a point where attack is a possibility, and therefore structures in this vicinity should be carefully watched. SECTION II—No organisms were found on the blocks at West 156th Street, at the Barrow Street Pier, nor at the Eagle Works of the Standard Oil Company. Balanus and Bryozoa as well as Algae were found on the blocks at the Battery, Pier 22, North River, Hoboken, Weehawken and Pier A, - Lehigh Valley at Jersey City, showing that in all probability Teredo can 270 HARBOR REPORTS live in these locations, and this is confirmed by the finding of a few live specimens of Teredo in piles from the Wilson Line Pier at Hoboken and a larger number at Pier A (Fig. 67), of the Lehigh Valley Railroad at Jersey City, as well as old borings in piles from the Christopher Street Ferry and at Edgewater. Limnoria has been found at the Battery, West Fifty-second Street and Pier 22, North River, but not in great numbers. While no damage of importance has been done in this section recently, the finding of a few specimens of Teredo at Hoboken, and a larger number at Jersey City, shows that this area is at least suspicious and that frequent in- spections should be made. In the Lehigh Valley piers, while the number of animals found was small, the fact that they were found in many of the piles examined, shows that the vicinity is one to be carefully watched. SECTION I]I—The test blocks at most stations in this section, or timber taken from structures, show both Teredo and Limnoria to be widely dis- tributed, except in the Arthur Kill and Newark Bay. The boards at the Thirty-fifth Street Pier, Gowanus Bay, Tompkinsville Lighthouse Pier, and Constable Hook, did not show Teredo, but did show Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. Limnoria made a rather light attack on the blocks at Bay Ridge Barracks, Gowanus Bay, and Pier 6, Tompkinsville, and a fairly heavy attack at Fort LaFayette. Living specimens of Teredo were found at the following locations in either test blocks or in timber from structures: Bay Ridge Barracks—Light attack. Fort LaFayette—Light attack. Tompkinsville Lighthouse Pier—Light attack. Pier 18, Clifton—Moderate attack. Pier 6, Tompkinsville—Moderate attack. Baltimore & Ohio, Pier 2, St. George—Moderate attack. New Brighton Pier—Light attack. Babcock & Wilcox Pier, Bayonne—Light attack. Pier 6, Standard Oil Company, Bayonne—Live specimens of Teredo were not found, but the borings were recent and some of the piles were practically destroyed by Limnoria and Teredo in five years, (Fig. 66). The results of the survey in this section show that structures on Staten Island and in the Kill van Kull are subject to attack, and that Teredo is present in sufficient numbers to do very considerable damage. A slight local intensification of the attack might do serious damage in a short time. On the Long Island shore fewer numbers of Teredo were found, and struc- tures on this side of the Upper Bay do not seem to be in as much danger, though they should be frequently inspected. Newark Bay and Arthur Kill do not seem to be in immediate danger of attack. Near the Narrows, Limnoria is fairly destructive. SECTION IV—AI] boards in this section showed Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae, indicating that the water conditions were probably suitable for Teredo and Teredo was found at practically all locations, either in the blocks or in timber removed from structures. At Perth Amboy and the Marine Basin, Gravesend Bay, the attack was comparatively light. It was heavier at Barren Island, Mill Basin, Sandy Hook, and on the Long Island Railroad trestle in Jamaica Bay, and very Fig. 65 STATUTE MILES 1 a ' 2 3 + 5 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS NEW YORK HARBOR NEW YORK 1923 oe ROSSVILLE > 66-(\ SEGUINE PT. = uw 4 \ 4 Zw > ie 5 in & . oO rs) re % we z a 3 : a s 2 a : : DE 8 Z = e SS) = aa ES & : ee De LF ® - mr 94 @ © = z rs) - 14 aN @ : _ } < pe. Ss € Ox s if oe [* 4 @ x i & | 2S > SW \ S 3] = L MeL wAON TTC O CE AWN ) Lr f ¢ Wr 4° O/ v 14 5) . t ao + Rens bbs gb Se, daaaa Tengah ferent oars 28 Bas x ttH a hgasdbas at a . 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YwadoO1LDO YaEnsidsas isnonv Ain¢r anne AVI, Wddv HOYUVA Auvnuesa sz o2 st o1 ¢ gzoz st Ol ¢& s2 oz st Ol GS gzoz si of s sz oz st Ol ¢& sz ozst ol © sz oz st og sz oz gt Ol & sz oz stot & ttt mists i a foaea tases eoeen Denes een rt iceageeneuGtstataa (o¥et ogres pena were an ee ; 1 rete janvoedaesed ct t Peaaeadl feasts canta vend geaeycwae svaga Fy fate0p4 ra : feauawatadae i 7 +H ay Qa i daa L t t 4 t pakadndasdass sagaenbekusaeuses gana Ht + wm 4 tH mOUeNabasane guna T aanae tt t in OnE } iY 1 i Seen aE : : tT ttt t HH TH 1 1 { roe ti i 4 t t 7 Tot : ; { : im t : t t uaa suel t rte ft am t H cup SUE ; : : Teta i t tee tert : t } EEE 1 aia beaaaant Pater iasgeuus SanEda! ret cobscuseseesnsadsa t tH t : Saar 4 : + can Tete magus! : ; meen f tt innen bas t AGRE EERE) ; porta: t prt a seataeeed tal H Haas EOSBOER : 4 + Ht : E Ht t t HH i + EH { Hit iH SaSUSapReaaang - t HEE He TEA f ! atafatet ers HH stastatat geen Hit + 4 t t rH t + } + a ett Ht t bore tee r an ; SH - ae t L t t a t 1 1 T [ 1 + i ot + | 1 t oot i t Ht OSGHUGBOGR ODL i tt htt Hott ial t i t t Tec t i t t : t t SHRAERE EEE : 1 ane! 7 i t t Ht t t t : : t t } } 4 - : t szoz si o @ sz oz st OF ¢ Szoz st O1 s szoz si Of & st oz Sit oO. g sz OZ si os & GzZoz si OL & az oz St oO & St OZ s1 o1 wey HUA Auvnuasa waBOLDO 27261 waans1e3s asnony atone anne AVA AUVANVE sz oz st o1 8 gst OF st OF @ AuVONYS Trott a 282 HARBOR REPORTS DECEMBER 5B 10 15 20 26 ‘DECEMBER NOVEMBER S&S 10 18.20 25 NOVEMEER 5S 10 15 20 28 _— OCTOBER SEPTEMBER 5S 10 15 20 25° 15 2028 a AuGuSsT AUGUST 5 10 15 20 25 JULY JULY 5 “MO 18 20 25 JUNE JUNE 5°10 15 20 25 REFINING Co., BROOKLYN, N. Y. MAY S$ 10 18 20 28 HH APRIL APRIL. $ 10 18 20 23 esugel manus Sree an est a Surstatenate rot 5S 10 13 20 25 fil sogaee HH fabs HEHEHE He ie Scpesszpctoss 4 ozs Seegsecsn0 seeces! w HELE Hie ‘ : Stay =e ; oe cH 8 s oi 4 ieee x ae » Hy rH} n is Hl fe :f < 5 . z” oe ; re 2 " EE 7 Fic, 75—SALINITY, TEMPERATURE, OXYGEN CONTENT AND HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION, SOUTH 38RD STREET PIER, AMERICAN SUGAR Setiriiinat 4 fi Eeecat ft foes eeetcceat Hi : 1923 JANUARY 3 10. 1520 25 isess oastoerts aces tnasts 283 ‘K ‘(N ‘NOLIINVH LUO ‘NOILVYULNAONOS NOI-NaCOudAH GNV LIN@LNOOD NaDAXO ‘AUNLVUsadWaL ‘ALINITVS—9) ‘DIT waqgnsaosad . YSEWRAON waeO1D0 uBeansidas isnsnyv Aine anne AYA Wddv HOYYA Auvnuss4 AYNYNNY “gz of siot s sz oz st ob ¢ sz oz st ob ¢ sz oz si Ot ¢ sz oz st ot s szoz st o1 s sz oz sgt Of g sz ozstot@ az oz sit o: S sz oz gi or & sz oz stor @ sz oz si ow @¢ ~ t Pete 4 { i t t ttt + aH ane t q HH i Hh u { TET t aoupeega jena Gop ena wt retry 1 i te H ros t Tote portse! 4 } ; a : : Es + fH EHH BH at co rent t tt Hf ro i f H t : t I ; { ht te i ean i + i tit HH i +f t t Pee Hy t ry t Sua peae Waal tt ; t HA ree ee + t 1 4 t t + r t t t i a8 T Pree tes T i a rm ia ; : thot + it TOP ot u aavEEl i i n 1 i torre { poet if 1 cr i tht + i rl u f G } a nat } HHH HEE roa0 MUMBA { - ; aa Tttrtt aaa : : ava t Ht rn Ra eee 4 t i 2 t + in 1 ert tH t : T Tt i isan 1 + r r 7 f : ; Hh rte 7UUS ERED! i tt : i ttt rage a os am { u t meen - t i i t Ht tH t t } mae tt { aur ts ramet | Ht eet Het tt ae aa | t HT fH cet +t + ttt tt tt tH : T Hy i Ht i } Pt - ; tts + t SEAGGSEGERERES | Sot ttt : idEAA GH QUGUDOERRGEDO! 7 + i t + +t 2 HEE He aiden eRanReenTaEEnE HH REET SEE @ + i tH ote I I tt | ttt i crete tt 2am 2 a H rt ; SOUGERRRENSSEGSER : ; rot 1 : me t i rtp aa] : | t danuas +t r tf ‘ a1 i i rma To a +H ia t t HE + HEE T brett fam it { cau f Toh EE BEET I nESSERAET i “ptt roo rt rt i + t t i t Ht t iT] ra Tot =< + 1 H H tH tt ine oa TH { t 4 t i i | i i Ht Ut t 7 TH t t : i 7 r 4 t ; rite i tt t Ht tt HH TH tEHt T ret tH ty : T it ia t TH TT T i an i + Ht : i { | t HH 1 Lt Ht Hartt t tH t r t T SREUR as 1 u T 11T T 1 rm t aueen eo EEE tet t | i Peet 2 : i’ i 1 rt J 1 i f tui rt n T T ii 1 1 J. ae i a +H im oot t i GUSaepRBESGGREEEWOH : + t : t ; Ht 1 t { t t t 4 T t it TT t T t 1 agi i 1 eS T t t ; 1 ttt mem i : t t eet ve PH oth t { TH ttre ; Ht i i eet 1 eet ttt T + t aEOEBE! ; tt + ra i t i + | t ame wa) t awa ae aa is T T T Ty TT 1 1 t Hi t Het tr t t | ance gad } i retest HH t ttt t : t i t HEE EE Ht t i { { T 1 = tH i t t t tt t 7 t t — Rasa tide HB att aS : SIH: t : ot fegeal deat aga Hr tt Pat } me } t H } : : : oy +H htt t t : f Ht i Tali a ae gal urn aero se ae (tna apt | | ee ra ot TO ime Foges assy =) | pom { ! t t i t - ttt : t t 7 t 3 HH I i t t tH ett 4 HTH : f nt t T peegs cen = . SEGRE T t medal sone - ar: ete ; saph Qeegepesnucenea wegas a! yas mess : t + 4 i : _Bopa ty FE tot ad So Seen 4 Hy + tH i oh papa Tt juseuegem te tras Tit exes me Da ETE Be jokes pares Quien yea enguss| + H ; Hy a= 22 4 fomEn ayer Gea Sees vos r : 1 Tay i : ceed dee raze SSE iraiy Capes ngeed eyo Set tt Oe ; : Ts : t : T t t peeen atte ie eel 1 f : Trt i i - - u : = ivenes tee = t HH Tht : feeges sorbs ea =] 7) cane ; tt + + . : ib od r nD reo n i iF ite d H m pay beet poe : 4 i : r Pes z cores eee Ps eee eer epee oe es rena becag gue mesevna E o ae 3 areas Senne mee) r Sees Cw RS SS Ty 6 SES ee Ne wea r = saan wo - za n T a rs n Sz oz st OF S§ Sz oz st o} § szoz sto s sz oz si oO S Szoz st ob gs st oz st Ol § sz oz st Ob § sz Of st ol & gzoz st o § B2Oc st or S§- BEOt SLO Ss sz of st OF @ ¥aeaW3230 MIGNIAON. waBOLD0 y3EGWsidas asnony Aine 326 ))0OANAS AVA “qady HOU Auvnuasa Auvonyer Sie tele a ly oie wet. ow eee ee eee ee nes, wT = — Se Sw ~~). —— ss “HARBOR REPORTS 284 waenasad, £2 of stor ge SZ of st O8 g waawao3za ‘KR ‘N ‘AGNWIS[I AANOD ‘NOILVYULNHONOD NOI-NaGv0NdAH UNV LNALNOD NADAXO ‘AUNLVuAdNaYL ‘ALINITVS—)) ‘DSI , MABWAAON gz oz Si of ¢ sz oz st ol gs BIaGgNAAON ugsgOLDO sz oz st ot ¢g waAGWNsz1daSs » St oz St Ob ¢ asnonv gz oz st ot S- ainar anne AVI 4 VWudv szoz si of § sz ozsi OF ¢€ ez ozsi ot gz oz'st o1 @ HSUvN sz ot gt ot f Auvnuesa sz oz stow & AuvOaNVS ez of 8! of 8 szoz Si oO g yago1s0 &2 oz st Of & uaaGWALldas gzoz st oo. g 2261 4snonv stot si ob @ St oz si OF f@ ge of st oOo. & g2 oz st Ol & amine anne AVA Vedy gz Of gt OF & HOUVA st of gt oF & AUVNUEEA gz Of Gt OF AUVANVE NEW JERSEY COAST AND DELAWARE BAY 285 crete piles recently but they are not old enough to give valuable data as to their probable life in this vicinity. Conclusions 1. Those sections of the harbor in the East, Harlem and Hudson Rivers and Newark Bay, are not apparently in any great danger of attack, though cases of sporadic attack may occur even here, especially near the Battery. 2. The structures in the Upper Bay and Kill van Kull are, with the excep- tion of those on the Long Island shore, continuously under light attack, and a serious attack is possible at any time. 3. Structures in the Lower Bay, including Jamaica Bay and Raritan Bay, are subject to attack from both shipworms and Limnoria, and any structure is likely to be very heavily attacked at any time. 4. Structures in the Lower Bay should be protected and protection should be given structures on the west side of the Upper Bay and should be seri- ously considered for those on the east shore of North River. 5. The record of concrete structures is not such as justifies the drawing of conclusions regarding them. NEW JERSEY COAST AND DELAWARE BAY Description The coast line of New Jersey and Delaware Bay (Fig. 78), is in general low and sandy, backed by woods and with many outlying sand shoals. The prevailing winds are westerly, subject, however, to many variations at all seasons. Tidal currents are weak, averaging at strength only about 0.2 knots. Manasquan Inlet, about 17 miles south of Navesink Lighthouse, has a narrow, changeable entrance with a depth across the bar in 1914 of about three feet. - Barnegat City is located on Barnegat Inlet, the entrance to the bay of the same name. In this vicinity shoals with depths less than 30 feet extend 2 miles off shore. Beach Haven is 14 miles southwest of Barnegat City, and 20 miles north of Atlantic City. Atlantic City is located on the south side of Absecon Inlet, which is being improved to a channel depth of 12 feet and width of from 300 to 600 feet. The test board is located on the Atlantic City Steamship Terminal Wharf on Clam Creek, about two-thirds of a mile from Absecon Inlet. Test boards were installed at representative points in Delaware Bay— two at the entrance, Cape May and Lewes, and five distributed throughout the length of the bay on or near the channel. This channel is maintained at a minimum depth of 30 feet as far as Philadelphia, except for two isolated shoals—one with a depth of 29.7 feet on Baker Range, and the other with a depth of 28.9 feet on Liston Range. The mean rise and fall of tide at Delaware Breakwater is 5.1 feet with 4.5 feet as far as the Quarantine Sta- tion, at which point it becomes 6 feet. It is also 6 feet at the mouth of the Christiana River. The mean velocity of tidal currents is 2 knots on flood and 2.3 knots on ebb, the maximum velocity recorded being 3.2 knots during a southeasterly and 3.6 knots during a northwesterly gale, respectively. Marine Borers Past History—Both shipworms and crustacean borers have always been troublesome along the New Jersey Coast. An Army survey boat was dam- 286 H. RBOR REPORTS aged by shipworms in 1903 vhile stationed for only six weeks in the Shrewsbury River. The Pennsylvania Railroad reports damage to its struc- tures shown in the table under “‘Methods of Protection.” In 1918 the West Jersey & Seashore Railroad protected the piles of the center pier of its Grassy Sound drawbridge near Wildwood on the Inland waterway with concrete casing. On account of the deterioration of the con- crete, the piles were attacked by marine borers and it was necessary to re- move all the old concrete in 1920 and to build new casings. An inspection made by this company in 1922 disclosed evidence of marine borer (shipworm) attack at the following locations: Pavilion” &.. oo tt t { oH 04 im as S } ‘uu + - t t z i ius jaa) 3 ttt THT t t LZ { i t TH t +t } t f t Ee as T. is +4 id we +H t iauauu easel THT : : : an - t Tams : T igi T meal : t ea T if i I T + 4. ; t HuGUUuNRHUUM HGRESKU : sat re TTY x H + i neu emmauaased I } t ZB) t i rH — aegeat Het f t = t t SSS = ° — : t t Trt ttt 1 rt eq i : t Ht t T ny T T Ty } } t i t 2) a # 1 H < Ht : ; a : t tt ; aa) t : Or ; T t : Tt t y t f $ 1 T t ; t 1 K) : | i 5 fs t SZ oz si OF ¢ Sz oz st ot s gszoz si Oo. @ Szoz gi Of szoz st or gs St oz st OF sf oz Si o1 sz OZ ss ob azoz si ot $z 02 St on sz CZ st on @& szozst Oo g - yagwao3ag uaGWAAON waBOLDO waEWNI1dsS asnony atne anor AVA edy HOUvA Auvnuead ry ys - PAs Fa HARBOR REPORTS a pe Fa eter arent en i \. SS ee It Deits on/0 e (AQ PINON i 1923 p00 oo000 + ANN A ji WY ice f Pe 7ayos. “SID D “Gy 00000 *OR00 Ro -A07 at yoons 005 S000 VaoujoO Sn Of air Seance D.C. TEST BOARDS WASHINGTON HARBOR MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ou Stay NIN iN tantateef lal gly; (le iene Se loo ooo Sooo EO ae Ae Fic. 81 NORFOLK HARBOR 293 Storms are frequent and of high intensity, the wind often reaching a velocity of ninety miles per hour. Into the Elizabeth River is dumped the entire sewage of Norfolk and Portsmouth, which, together with industrial wastes, pollute the water to a fairly high degree, including both oil and chemical pollution, the latter emanating principally from a number of fertilizer manufactories. The un- treated sewage of Newport News is discharged into Hampton Roads. a Sr ee MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF OL VY TEST BOARDS \NEWPORT NEWS ES HAMPTON ROADS A, PAE CY VIRGINIA 1923 CES SZ BLES SLOSS IZ 5 : NAUTICAL MILES The temperature of the water varies from 30 to 85 deg. Fahr.; the salinity from 5 to 23 parts per thousand. (See Figures 83, 84, 85.) Marine Borers Past History—Shipworms and crustacean borers have always been present at Norfolk—the latter to a less extent—and of late years all timber which is destined to be exposed for any length of time has been protected. The greatest intensity of attack is found at Sewall Point, where a number of foundation piles were destroyed during the construction of a pier. The Gilbert Street Pier failed completely within four years after construction. Farther up the river at the Navy Yard the attack has been found to be less HARBOR REPORTS 294 wssA3I930_ Gzoz stool g t Sz oz ci Ol & YIgWADAG ‘VA ‘LNIOG SYINNIgQ ‘AMIqd S,0D “AY NYAHLNOS ‘SNOLLVAUGSAO AYNLVYGIWaAL GNV ALINITVS—g€g ‘DIT YSGW3AON et oz SL Ol & usewaidss Sz oz S} ot g 4agO150 e202 St of ¢ sz oz st ol ¢ HAE AZAON Lsnony 2% of &: UM |S So TT ott + anne sz oz st Ol’ ¢ fre Eat if +t ait AVI sz ozst ot @ gzoz si OF @ ¥¥GOLIO WAGwsidss ~sz oz gt OF &~ SZ>70z GL OL asnonv Wudv sz oz st o1 @ st Of St Ob ainr SZ Of Si Ob anne gt OF st ot AVA 1 geot st OF & Wudy HOUYAN sz oz si. Ol Gz Of si ob ROUVA Auynuess sz oz stow @ AuvANVE Sz oz at o @ io} @z oc at OF & ee gst o2 gt of & Auvnudad 295 NORFOLK HARBOR wazenasag az oz st oF SZ of gh OF w3EWASI0 uaEWAAON gz oz St of gf ‘gz of gt ob uAEWAACN »-_ ‘VA ‘M'IOMUON ‘MRIQ 8,00 ‘AY NUGFHLINOG ‘SNOILLVANESEO AUNLVUAdWa], GNV ALINITVS—Hg ‘DIT uago15s0 gz 02 st on ge 02 gt Ob wago15c0 uaGgWIldas szoz sit Of ¢g az oz si ol @ usGWaldas isnonv gz oz si oF § z= Of Si OF asnony HSYVA sz oz gi of @ Auvnusad szoz sitio. S&S adv sz oz st o1 @ AuYnNve ez ot s1 o ff anor AVI - Sz oz si Ol & gs2 o2sitoes agar sz oz st o: et T &% OZ Sto gs HOU #2 OF Gi Ob AUWONYE a26/ ge Of si’or & AuvVnuaaa mzoz si oF a iady G2 oz Gt OF St OF si or & anne AVA St ot s1 OF 8 aqne 2 oy Ip ee a HARBOR REPORTS 296 . ‘ . . . ‘ . VA. ‘SM TOAYUON F ON UWHld TVOD §,0D ‘AY NYUGLSUM FY MWIOFHYON ‘CHOIvaGqdNay, INV ALINITVS G8 “SI waensa530. NSBWRIAON usg01D0 ¥vAaSWaldaS isnonv atnr anne av udv HOUVW Auvnuesa AUVONYES Sz oz sto sz oz si of s Sz oz st of g¢ sz oz St Ol ¢ sz oz si of § sz oz st o1 @ Gz ozsi Ol ¢ Gz ozsto ¢ sz oz si o1 S sz oz ss Of @ sz oz sto: @& Sz oz sto . eee © or t t : > Os mn : : : tt ott : men me S : + . : rte supa ren eames bane : X t i r 1 t T = t —be tt t 3 i t v t i + : ry : EES f tt t } f Hitt nT GHEY Be ott t ett f ft T 1 TY t } T r tT r 1 - u i t } - : rt t ° Oo T r i } siete gt } PH HH 4 ; maual H bard 1 i o@ t an rt wanes t Pt i HH f of ataas i t t tHt T t i és isosauaens rr 7 rupel teanataE : a apes ! aft { = 7 i i iat i | it n : T t rt t t t it =e t 7 i ttt ra tH oy 1 H 7 i ttt i 3 hth gst oz ss oF gz or st ol sg gs2o0oz2z Ss! Ol & sz oz si Ob @ Sz Oz si Ol ¢ St ot gst Ob & » $2 02 Si oO & get O02 si ob & 4202 st OF & $2 02 Sit Oo & S2 OF si oOo. & $2 02 St OF & wsaNaDz0 UIGNAAON. uzEO1D0 usenWalaas asnony ator anne Av VWNeey HOUVA auynusaa Tp £76: NORFOLK HARBOR 297 severe. However, the practice of protecting timber is general throughout all parts of the harbor. The average life of untreated timber has been variously estimated from two years at Sewall Point and the Naval Operating Base, to five years in the Eastern Branch of the Elizabeth River and sometimes as much as eight or ten years in the extreme inner harbor. Standard test boards were located as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of : Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Beusch Gk Bullkkheadior. oi a... 3: NAD= DOD eae AVVEe ae eT OED bo Lose |) 2. ..5e ol) see ae SOWA ORD ter aie che wine b atecsrs « WASTE yc IVY 6 Son teceait 43 Sete Sept. 12, 1922 0.5 20.5 NOTA EN a G5 Ws LUY sce ek sn « ONGWWistepee lg: GoaVVicday. fe ce. Sept. 1, 1922 3.0 14.3 Bulkhead, De Asie 2037 eee re NS-1..... NESoR yee oa Oct: 20, 1922 Ae 9.0 Pintiers: Point... ..)........... a eee Oe LUWee Slew Rigens cies Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 Se pelo tlie Col i aes eee -2 PEGVGN + Gia e os Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 Seo JEST SO GaN OR Gee en OS ea GeO RR vad po Sey Sept. 1, 1922 L230: 9.5 Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydockibiantys. si0c 2h. ..% INGEN S-L-LoaleN: IND. Doe lk snen - Jan. 30, 1923 Various Various Great Bridges Vac.,coo.si6a.. a: 2A ee I poin aes o homo A ee Sept. 16, 1922 10 6.8 The results of inspections of test blocks are as follows: Y D-502—Only four blocks from this board were examined, the third re- moved December 20, containing the only shipworms, which proved to be Bankia gouldi. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. VA-1—Many shipworms were found in block 2, removed October 17. The majority of these were Teredo navalis, the remainder Bankia gouldi. This proportion prevailed in the succeeding blocks in each of which the ship- worms numbered from 100 to 150. On February 15, 1923, the board, to- gether with the remaining original (Nos. 10-24) and the replacement (Nos. 25-33) blocks was removed from the water and forwarded for examination, the result of which determined the end of the season of activity as occurring between October 15 and November 1. After the latter date growth practi- cally stopped, as was evidenced in finding live and healthy specimens of only 2 mm. length on the date of examination, February 25. These specimens were found in blocks 25 and 26, placed October 1 and 15, respectively. Neither block 27, placed November 1, 1922, nor any of the succeeding blocks contained shipworms. A new board of revised type was placed, and the first shipworms (Bankia gouldi) appeared in block 4 removed July 7, 19283. Teredo navalis was found one month later. No specimens of Limnoria were found on any of the blocks. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Ostrea. NW-1—Shipworms first appeared in block 2, removed October 2, 1922. The succeeding blocks, 3 to 22 inclusive, contained ten specimens more or less, about equally divided between Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldt. Block 23, removed August 15, 1923, and succeeding blocks 24-27 inclusive, showed complete destruction by Bankia gouldi of the 1923 brood. A few specimens of Limnoria were found. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Ostrea. NS-1—These blocks, placed late in the season, showed no life of any kind until No. 5, removed February 3, 1923, was reached, on which there ap- peared a few barnacles. Block 10, removed August 4, 1923, and block 11, 298 HARBOR REPORTS removed September 4, 1923, contained 10 and 50 specimens of Bankia gouldi respectively. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. No speci- mens of Limnoria were found. S-1—A single specimen of Teredo navalis belonging to the 1922 brood was found in block 15, removed May 16, 1928. Block 19 contained one specimen and block 20 seven specimens, the largest one being 10 inches in length. Fifty to 100 specimens of Bankia gouldi appeared in blocks 21, 22 and 23. Both blocks 24 and 25, removed October 1 and 16 respectively, were well filled with Bankia gouldi. No Limnoria was found. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. S-2—One specimen of Teredo navalis was obtained from each of blocks 10, 17, 18 and 19, the lengths of their tubes being 44, 21%4, 3 and 5 inches, respectively. These blocks were removed March 1, June 16, July 2 and July 16, 1923, respectively. Block 20, removed August 1, contained 10 shipworms of large size—both Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi in about equal propor- tions. Block 21, removed two weeks later, contained about 20 specimens. Blocks 22 and 23 contained each about 50 specimens of Bankia gouldi and few if any of Teredo navalis. Blocks 24 and 25, the latter removed October 16, were filled with Bankia gouldit. No specimens of Limnoria were found. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. CO-1—Twenty-four blocks in all were examined, the last one being re- moved August 16, 1923. With the exception of the first one, all blocks con- tained each from 4 to 16 shipworms about equally divided between Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi. No specimens of Limnoria were found. Asso- ciated organisms were Ostrea, Balanus and Bryozoa. NNS-1—This test comprised 13 galvanized plates to each of which were attached a set of 48 test blocks 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches, 24 being of the sap and 24 of the heart wood of short leaf yellow pine. They were placed in the water January 30, 1928, too late for the 1922 and far in ad- vance of the 1923 season. The first shipworms appeared in the tenth series of blocks removed July 16, 1923, both Teredo navalis and Bankia gouldi at- tacking the heart and sap wood impartially. The attack of Bankia gouldi grew in intensity with the succeeding blocks, the final series (No. 16, re- moved October 1) being entirely filled with shipworms excepting those blocks which being at the top of certain plates were not continuously sub- merged. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. A-1, (Fig. 86)—Twenty-five blocks were examined, of which blocks 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21 and 22 each contained one specimen of Bankia gouldi. Associated organisms were Balanus, Mytilus, Bryozoa and numerous non-boring crustacea. From the foregoing, it will be seen that a period of immunity of about eight months between October 15 and June 15 may be expected in this terri- tory. This period will vary slightly from these dates according to the variations found in temperature. Salinity and temperature observations of the water of Norfolk Harbor were recorded by the Southern Railway Company and the Norfolk & West- ern Railway Company (Figs. 83, 84 and 85). Similar records were made by the Army at Great Bridge (Fig. 87), from which it was ascertained that there are long pericds of little or no salinity, a condition which has hitherto been considered impossible for the continued existence of Bankia gouldi, and NORFOLK HARBOR 299 which necessitates a revision of previous ideas as to immunity from this species. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—The Seaboard Air Line finds piles treated with 16 pounds per cubic foot to be in good condition after eight years’ service. The Norfolk & Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad finds 75 per cent of piles treated with 12 pounds per cubic foot to be in use after twenty years’ ser- vice. The Southern Railway has been using 16-pound treatment, but con- siders this treatment too light and that it should be increased to 20 or 22 pounds. The New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk Railroad states that pine piles creosoted with 16 to 18 pounds of oil per cubic foot last 20 to 25 years —charred cypress piling from 15 to 18 years. The Atlantic Coast Line uses 16 to 18 pounds; the Virginian Railway, 12 to 16 pounds, piles being found in good condition after 15 years’ service. The piles of the Norfolk & West- ern Railway docks, built between 1890 and 1892 at Lambert’s Point, were _ treated with approximately 22 pounds of creosote, and analysis of three pile sections cut from piles in these piers in 1922 showed an oil content of from 0.9 pound to 4.2 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. Two of them had been attacked by Bankia gouldi, while the third, which was cut from a point above low water, was not attacked. The Norfolk Southern Railroad uses 20 pounds; the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, 16 pounds. The experience of the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co. leads it to conclude that full- cell treatment is most successful, prolonging the useful life of some piles to 20 years. This company has experimented also with “Carbolineum,” ‘Reeds Wood Preserver,” copper paint and heavy red lead, the former two having no noticeable effect and the latter two good until pierced. The U. S. Light- house Service uses piling impregnated with 20 pounds of creosote oil to the cubic foot for all Teredo-infested waters of this district. Armor—Previous to the adoption of the practice of creosote impregna- tion, the Lighthouse Service covered all untreated piling for use in this dis- trict with copper, yellow metal or galvanized sheet iron. Sheet steel was used on the aprons at the entrance to Dry Dock No. 2, U. S. Navy Yard, to protect untreated timber. The metal is now said to be destroyed and the timber much affected by borers. Substitutes for Timber Iron and Steel—The following table shows the service record of metal supports: Location Structure Date Built Kind of Supports Present Condition Fort Monroe, Va.}| Main Wharf..... 1889 Cast iron screw piles andj Good. Some replacements columns of columns broken by : vessels. Fort Monroe, Va.| Mine Wharf..... 1905 and 6} Cast iron columns covering cre- osoted piles cut off near bot- ; LAO OOU SC: cAFioeen SEER Wehr er, Selo s Good. No repairs made. Lambert’s Point..| N.& W. Ry. Pier 2 1892 12-in. wrought iron piles on 4- ’ foot cast iron bases......... Good. No repairs made. Concrete—Concrete has been employed by the Bureau of Yards and Docks, Corps of Engineers, Railways, etc. The Lighthouse Service has dis- continued the use of reinforced concrete piles because of the first cost and HARBOR REPORTS 500 98 “SIA e€26i WINISUIA HAAN HLAEVZITG JO HONVHE NYAHLNOS SdGuavod LSaL AO NOLLVOOT SNIMOHS dvVw SAW IVOILNYN 301 <@26l wIEAI930. get Of Gt oF , UIENAAON az oz at ob uagO150 gz oz st os HAaSWS1d3aS ez oz st of isnonv 82 of gt OF Adar sz oz gi oO 3anncr gz of & oO. sz o2cs OF @ AVI Wav Se Oz Si on ‘VA ‘aDdIugq LVaUD ‘SNOLLVANESHO AUNLVYURAUWAL GNV ALINITVS—})g8 ‘DIT Hoon. ez ota of f Auvneesas sz of St or 8 €26) Auvnanve SZ oz SE ov t ry T ap Os a NORFOLK HARBOR 4 T rn T T T T T je 7 T ir tr i T T i r 4 T 4 4 . 1 t He aagaadt i t i t {Tt : r a 1 ry bad to t { i r ai - . 1 Seneel : os T u tft + 7 T : } rot i Hf oH ya t C t i a0 8 r —_ s sz 02 si Ob & atngr @zoz si Ob f wagoLsO sz oz st Ol @& yaenaidas g2oz si Ob & asnonv sz oz st OF S26) usawaoad sc oz st ol @ YSaEWaAON- S202 Gi Ob G2 OF Si Ob & anne AVIA a2o¢ si OF & tdy Gt O% Stor & HOYUYN St OF st Oo w& AuvyouGaa gz Of SI oO g |S261 avvonve ileauailell ; 302 HARBOR REPORTS the weakening of the piles by corrosion of the reinforcement. The struc- tures reported are shown in the table below: Date Location Structure Built Present Condition Lambert’s Point. ..| N. & W. R. R. Coal Pier 3— 3 in. steel plate No revairs required. Corrosion of cylinders filled with concrete....,........ 1901 steel plate has not yet exceeded. 1-32 in. Lambert’s Point. ..]| Steel cylinders filled with concrete......... 1913 | Good. No repairs made. Western? Branch of Blizabeth River.clteaine ast bOVe scar: cree chee ia oie ace 1898 | No repairs made. Deterioration of cylinders less than 10 per cent. Cape_Charles...... City Pier. Reinforced sheet piling bulkheads.| 1910 | Good. No repairs made. Houthpate.. 7a see Terminal Pier. Reinforced concrete piles pK sW bee ¢ liebe EA Rete, OL TON be ae” obi 1917 No repairs—apparently in good condition. U.S. Navy Yard...} Reinforced concrete walls poured between un- No deterioration due to exposure treated timber sheet piling............... 1900 to salt water noticed. U.S. Navy Yard...| Precast reinforced sheet piles made from 34] 1918-20 | No sign of deterioration noticed. in. gravel—reinforcing both plain and de- formed. Mixture 124 and 11:2. Rein- forcing cover 2 to 24% in. Exposed to salt water from mud line to M. L.W., approxi- mately 30inches! se ee eee Naval Operating Base’, /.. See Seaplane runways, solid fill type with concrete] 1919-20 | Slab surfaces badly eroded by side walls carried below mud line and sup- combined effect of salt water, ported on untreated pine piles. Runways of wave action and abrasion from reinforced concrete 6 in. slab—concrete steel wheels of seaplane carriage beams on untreated pine piles buried in sand trucks. The aggregate has ra- fill; constructed in dry inside steel coffer- veled out to a maximum depth dam. Cured 15 days. Mixture 1:2:4 washed of approximately 3 in. over con- river gravel and sand, and Portland cement; siderable area, the section be- of quaking consistency. Slab exposed to sea tween high and low water being water. Side walls of same material of particularly affected. 1:2144:5 mixture, cured 30 days before re- moval.of forme... +3 nee ee ee eee NavaljOperating BASE aie aterm ee Precast reinforced concrete sheet piles 10 in.| 1919 Condition excellent. x 16 in. Aggregate washed river gravel and Portland cement mixture 1:2:4 of quaking}. consistency. Piles kept moist 7 days after casting—then air seasoned 30 to 90 days. Some spalling during driving........ Work on Municipal Terminal was started April, 1922. The first unit which is under construction consists of a marginal wharf 1,400 feet long; a pier 1,250 feet long and 494 feet wide; a grain elevator with storage tanks; drier, and conveyor galleries; together with the necessary railroad yards, roadways, fire, water and electric services. The marginal wharf consists of reinforced concrete bearing piles and a reinforced concrete sheet pile wall under the inner face of the platform. The pier is of the solid fill type surrounded on three sides by a reinforced concrete platform supported on reinforced concrete piles and with reinforced concrete sheet piling under the inner face of the platform. The concrete piling in connection with these structures has just been completed. The depth of water provided around the pier and in front of the marginal wharf is 35 feet below M.L.W. The piles were cast on shore, and after being cast were allowed to season in air for a minimum of thirty days and were then driven with steam hammer pile drivers and hydraulic jets where necessary. The mixture used in casting the piles was 1 part Port- land cement, 114 parts of clean, sharp, washed pres and 3 parts of clean washed quartz gravel screened to pass through a *4-inch ring. Fresh water via BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 303 from the Norfolk City Water Works was used in mixing. The concrete was conveyed from the mixer to the forms by concrete buggies and was thor- oughly spaded after being dumped into the forms. The piles were kept cov- ered with cloths which were kept dampened for the first ten days after same were cast. The first concrete pile in this structure was driven July, 1922, and the driving has continued practically continuously since this date. There is no evidence to date of any defective work in connection with this piling. Untreated timber used for construction purposes in connection with this work was badly attacked by borers during the construction period. Conclusions Unprotected timber structures should be expected to last from 2 to 5 years, except in the inner harbor, where a somewhat longer life is probable. A period of immunity from attack of molluscan borers may be expected from November to June, inclusive. Piles creosoted to refusal should have an average life of 20 years. Wrought and cast iron show an excellent record, but the oldest structure recorded being only 35 years old, no estimate of average life is possible. With one exception, the unprotected concrete is of too recent construction to justify conclusions as to its serviceable life. BEAUFORT (N. C.) HARBOR AND CAPE FEAR RIVER Description Beaufort Harbor (Fig. 88), is the southern terminus of the Norfolk- Beaufort section of the inland waterway to which it is connected by a dredged channel of 12 feet minimum depth. At the entrance to the harbor, the tidal currents run with considerable velocity, especially during spring tides, and follow generally the direction of the channel. The Norfolk South- ern Railroad test board is located on its bridge crossing this channel about equidistant from the towns of Beaufort and Moorhead City. The mean rise and fall of tide at this point is 3 feet. The Chemical Warfare Service has in place two test boards located near the site of the Marine Laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries on Pivers Island. Marine Borers Past History—Shipworms were known to exist at Beaufort and at the mouth of Cape Fear River. The Army engineers estimate the life of un- protected piling as one season at the former and usually two seasons at the latter place. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as shown in the following table: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Bridge over Newport River..... NBe27 cS NEE ee a ene Nov. 1, 1922 1.0 9.0 LE RPE TS 006 oe CWS-1...| Chemical Warfare Dervice eee. ena ae JUNES, LIZ, ie wai Ie 8. aretee Exhieigc al a] faa ts by Oe 5 oe CWS-2...| Chemical Warfare aUcetiaseyonte =. Pe) ey ie: fruwire) Dervicean nos Seer June 8, 1923 304 HARBOR REPORTS Salinity and temperature observations recorded by the Bureau of Fisher- ies at Pivers Island are shown on Fig. 89. No test boards were installed in the Cape Fear River. The result of inspection of the test blocks was as follows: NS-2—The first block, removed on November 15, showed 20 specimens of Limnoria and 4 larval shipworms. Later blocks showed only a small number of shipworms (Bankia gouldi), with a length not exceeding %@ inch, until block No. 8, removed April 5, showed about 50 specimens of Bankia gould with a length of 1144 inches. The block removed one month later was filled with Bankia gouldi with a maximum length of about 4 inches. On account of the destruction of the blocks the board was removed May 16, 1923, and replaced by a new board of the 1923 model. The examination MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS BEAUFORT HARBOR NORTH CAROLINA 19235 Hic. 8& of the old board showed that the season of activity for Bankia gouldi ended prior to December 1, 1922, and that of Teredo navalis began about May 1, 1923. The new board, placed May 16, showed almost immediate attack by Bankia gouldi and Teredo navalis, and by July 7 the block was filled 95 per cent with Bankia and 5 per cent with Teredo, the longest Bankia being about 3 inches and the longest Teredo about 2 inches. Some specimens of Limnoria were also found as well as the following as- sociated organisms: Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula), Anomia, Algae and Gasteropods. CWS-1—Attack by Bankia gouldi was immediate and block 3, removed September 7, was completely filled with shipworms, principally Bankia 305 BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER waenasad ‘O 'N ‘Ladodnvag ‘SNOILVAUESHO GWUALVYAINAL GNV ALINITVS—68 ‘DIT uSEWSAON yagOLDO yusewsldas isnonv aqne = anne AVW Wudy HOYUVA AuWNueaa AUVOANVE gzoz sito ¢ sz oz st og GZ oz si or g gz oz St Ol ¢ eZ oz si o1 ezoz sit of sz oz at OL sz ozstot ¢ sz oz st or @ sz oz st of @ gzooz stor @ sz oz gt o 8 ri ah is TaD GREER mm T rea fast fiaild See n mee t t HE z rE tH TH tt t ttt t a Ba t CEC EEEECEEHT is rt tt CEte CHa Ht tf H t : t at Ht santataneqeteent crvoraasazead qeeateteated itt HH fee : eae ro tit A GNRESHEGSEGDRUGRaD t Tete i i THT iaaGGuGAUEAUEREUGUAA. ia t Tot 4 i , = 4 4 iW it it ioe ae H t Ht ay, + una IE gUESDSBoET OR jae 1 ae | T T t in T + i t + ft T me tt T HH + tt rT Ht T ia ise! re a iB + t T 1 t +H} H ; [ HECHT t ime i 16 a i 1 1 if TT 1 1 + 1 T Tt 1 t H HH Ht : i: Het seasaens A i H t i ttt t aman mam i t ; Ht i H H t FEE ott # essed Wesel t t i f Ht 1 ia Tr iT r 7 oH HEE HH EEE HH ee 1 tot iH it HH 1 rvs Ot A We r oa r 1 t To t : is Fy 1a aM aoe H 7 7 t t f AEE } egapanesene 3 Be iB SaanaREL a bHESSE NG! ¥ | Ht t r in t H i" i ooh tH t i th Ht ACH fh HH t Hetty t t t EE rH i mn et ct f a | a a dis ime TH T it } HERE CEE a tH t sat ee cet Bh eeerterees eee toe aitise iSee t ras eas iH . it THT u it iat 7 + H T jae t HT 13 t T T + ee r | b Hf t rm mn 1 Ht I q i t f H t i um a t H t Ht t t i Hl t + T r HH et r real Teas eo) t { i t t t TT cite RE imi t Tr t GH 1 : r u on i i EEE Ht FEET FEE Ht ott f f tet t aa TT t 1 +4 t 4 H H baad t | { 1 + T t T T { t | {1 t aa t TH t k 2 im T t n , rrea! bate 1 T cs I rn berbies: " T 4 i or ot FO { i 7 =H i ena cians Casas t t rig t : 1 4 = Ty ; t i r ‘ i ‘ WAT TH mes cf ; cawe ; Nanas H i Sz oz gi O§ sz oz st ol gzoz si ob Ss gs2oz gi OF ezoz si o1 fg St o8 gt OL sz of Gi OF @ gz O02 si Oo & QZ Os Gi Ol &. gz 0% st o B st of st os a az OF Gt OF A S26/NsEWw3a930 uIEGNAZAON w~AEOLSO WEGWILID ABNONV Al1nr Z26) anne EZ6l AVN liddv HOUVA AuVAuEBA QZ@6rauvanve 306 HARBOR REPORTS gouldi, though several specimens of Teredo (Psiloteredo) sigerfoosi were found. The block removed October 10 was completely riddled and a larger proportion of Teredo sigerfoost was found than in the preceding block. Associated organisms were the same as in NS-2, except for the absence of Algae and the presence of Ostrea. CWS-2—Animals found were about the same as in CWS-1, as were the accompanying organisms. Martesia was also found in test timbers maintained by the Chemical War- fare Service. Methods of Protection Creosote impregnation has been in general use and when sufficient absorp- tion is obtained has proved fairly satisfactory. Piles treated with 20 pounds of dead oil tar per cubic foot were found to be in perfect condition after 20 years’ service, and 14 pounds per cubic foot was found to be insufficient, piles so treated and driven in 1890 in the Engineers’ Wharf at Southport having been found to be badly damaged in 1901. ““Protexol”’ was used for impregnating sheathing for the wooden hull of the floating plant belonging to the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. Records show that, whereas unprotected sheathing lasts only one season, when so treated, three to five years’ service is obtained. Substitutes for Timber Cast Iron—About the year 1900, the Quartermaster Department, U. S. A., built a wharf at Fort Caswell, supported by cast iron piling, which is re- ported to be in good condition at present. Concrete—In 1912-13 the Lighthouse Service built 32 reinforced con- crete range light structures in the Cape Fear River, distributed between its mouth and Wilmington and exposed to water of ocean salinity, diminishing to fresh water at a point below Wilmington. The substructures consist each of four reinforced concrete piles, supporting a tower foundation of four re- inforced concrete beams, strengthened at their juncture by reinforced con- crete braces, and were built at the same time and with the same materials under the following specifications: “PILES.—The four reinforced concrete piles are to be 14 inches square throughout their length with corners chamfered 2 inches, except at the lower end, where the piles are to be tapered for a distance of 10 feet to an 8-inch square end. “Each pile is reinforced with four 1-inch and four %-inch round steel rods running the entire length of the pile, with the exception that the 14-inch rods are to be stopped off where the pile starts to taper. The 1-inch rods must be bound together with %4-inch round steel hoops, having a close loop around each rod and being spaced 2 feet apart throughout the length of the pile; also, 14%4-inch iron jet pipe shall be run through center of pile the entire length, as shown. “BEAMS—The four concrete beams will be reinforced with three 1-inch round steel rods, placed not less than one inch from the lower surface and with one %-inch round steel rod in the center, and not less than one inch from the top surface. The beam reinforcement will be 2 inches shorter than the width of the structure. “CONCRETE—The concrete is to be mixed in the proportion of 1:2:4, using the best grade of Portland cement, clean, sharp, coarse sand and %-inch crushed granite. Each pile must be cast in one operation and carefully tamped, and the forms must not be removed in less than 24 hours. BEAUFORT AND CAPE FEAR RIVER 307 The pile must be wet every day for 2 weeks after the forms are removed and must be 2 months old before they are driven. “ERECTION—The piles are to be jetted or driven in place with their heads exactly in the same horizontal plane and spaced as shown on draw- ings. In case the water jet is used, the water must be shut off and the last 12 inches driven by hammer properly cushioned. “The beams and braces must be cast in one operation, and the side forms must be allowed to remain in place for at least 24 hours; bottom for two weeks. At the end of that time the superstructure may be erected.” Concerning the present condition of these structures, H. L. Beck, super- intendent, 6th District, Lighthouse Service, reports under date of October 10, 1922, as follows: “The structures are inspected at least once a year. Several very careful inspections have been made, after which reports were submitted to the Bureau of Lighthouses in Washington. In 1914 no deterioration was noted. On February 4, 1916, the following report was made: ‘No deterioration of the piles and concrete foundation has been noted to date. About half of these structures are in fresh water under favorable conditions for their preservation. The characteristic method of deterioration noted in some other structures in the district, namely, the cracking of the piles and beams along the reinforcement, has not become apparent in any of the Cape Fear structures to date.’ ” “In June, 1917, the inspection reports indicated in general that the structures in the lower part of the river were more or less cracked in the piles and under surfaces of the sills, while those in the upper part of the river were in good condition. The cracks in the piles apparently did not extend below the water line and were usually on the chamfers of the piles or on the faces close to the chamfers and about over the main reinforce- ment. Several piles were scraped of marine growth to see if the cracks extended below the water level. The cracks in the under side of the sills were usually over the main reinforcement, and in some cases appeared as. ae flake off. There were practically no cracks on the upper sides cf the sills.” “T have inspected a number of the structures within the past year, but made no detailed record of their condition. In general, those in the fresh water of the upper river are still practically as good as when erected where they have not been damaged by collision or ice. As one goes down the river, the cracks are fine where the water is only slightly salt, but they become wider and more serious where the practically undiluted sea water has access to the structures near the mouth. Here the reinforcing rods are exposed and rusted away in places. Pieces of concrete have cracked off in places.” “Deterioration is slowly progressing, being confined in general to cor- rosion cracks. These concrete substructures are still amply strong to sup- port the skeleton steel superstructures.”’ “When demolished structures (two destroyed by collision and one by ice in the winter of 1917-18) were rebuilt, creosoted piles were used in preference to reinforced concrete piles. The reasons for the change to creosoted pine piles were: (a) lower first cost, (b) quicker erection, (c) better ability to withstand the shock of collision when struck by floating objects, including vessels navigating the river, and (d) sufficient durability to meet requirements.” Conclusions Marine borer attack at Beaufort is heavy, and the animals may be ex- pected to be active from May 1 to December 1. Structures erected after December 1 and before May 1 will not be seriously attacked before the latter date. The service given by the reinforced concrete piles in the structures of the Bureau of Lighthouses in the Cape Fear River .illustrates clearly the differ- ence in the effect of fresh and salt water on reinforced concrete. 308 HARBOR REPORTS All wooden structures at Beaufort and near the mouth of the Cape Fear River should be protected against borers if a life of over one year is desired. CHARLESTON HARBOR Description The entrance to Charleston Harbor (Fig. 90), is between two converging jetties which extend nearly three miles seaward across the bar through which there was, in 1921, a straight channel of 30 or more feet at low water, with a least width of 400 feet. The city of Charleston is situated at the head of the harbor and at the confluence of the Cooper and Ashley Rivers, about 714 miles from the ocean. The principal wharves are on the west bank of the Cooper River, which forms the eastern waterfront of the city. There is an available depth of 30 feet for about 9 miles up the Cooper River to the port terminal, a point three miles above the Navy Yard. In the Ashley River there is a channel of 20 feet depth and 100 feet minimum width as far as Duck Island, at which point the depth decreases to 7 feet at mean low water. The mean range of tide at Fort Sumpter is 5.2 feet, and at the Navy Yard, 5.1 feet. The maximum observed velocities of the tidal current at ebb strength are about 2.6 knots between the jetties; 3 knots be- tween Fort Sumpter and Fort Moultrie; 2 knots off the eastern front of Charleston and 4 knots at the Navy Yard. Marine Borers Past History—Both shipworms and crustacean borers are present in these waters. Practically all reports agree that unprotected timber lasts normally about two years, and is therefore employed only for temporary structures, and for fender systems and dolphins where it appears that mechanical injury is likely to anticipate destruction by borers. Committee Investigations—In order to make proper identifications of the different kinds of borers and to ascertain the rate of destruction and period of immunity if there were such, standard test boards were installed as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line} M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Hortasumpterest so one eee A-13. Army?* ieee eee Sept. 6, 1922 4.0 11.0 Standard Oil Refinery..........| SO-5. Stas aed OinliGoreanes Novwil (1922 ose oa ae ae ee ete Southern Railway Docks........ S=3 Stee. Southern Railway Co.} Oct. i 1922 0.0 16.0 WS Navy Yard=,,n.cseeeee ne YD-601 24 Navy. eee Sept. 1, 1922 Gre 26.9 The results of the examination of the test blocks are as follows: A-13—The first block, removed September 16, showed a few specimens of Limnoria and several hundred minute specimens of Bankia gouldi; the next block, removed October 2, was half filled, the longest animal being 4 inches long, and the next block, removed October 23, was completely honey- combed. Teredo navalis was also found in small numbers, the largest found up to January 15, 1923, being 5 inches long. A very few specimens of Martesia were also found. The board was replaced by a new one on Feb- ruary 16, 1923, and this board was lost and replaced in July. This last board was examined in October, 1923. It is evident that the decline in the activity of Bankia gouldi begins about September 15 and has entirely CHARLESTON HARBOR 309 stopped between November 1 and 15, but the beginning of the breeding season was not definitely determined on account of the loss of the board. Limnoria was destructive. The associated organisms were Balanus, Bry- ozoa and Algae. S0-5—The first Bankia gouldi appeared in block 7, removed February 15, 1923, and some specimens had reached a length of 14% inch by March 15. The first Teredo bartschi appeared in the block removed May 15, which contained also two specimens of Bankia gouldi with lengths of 4 inches. This number was doubled by July 15, and the block of August 15 was entirely filled. The number of Bankia gouldi found was small until the period between June 15 and July 1, and the proportion of Teredo bartschi was small. Limnoria was present in considerable numbers. The associated organ- isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula), and Algae. S-3—The first Bankia gouldi and Teredo navalis appeared on the block removed November 17. The block removed January 31, 1923, contained about 50 shipworms, the largest of which was a specimen of Bankia gouldi nearly 5 inches long. The first Teredo bartschi was found May 1, and the block removed June 1 was completely filled with Teredo bartschi, indicating that its season of activity which commenced about May 1 was over before the board was placed. Later blocks were entirely destroyed. Limnoria attack was heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. YD-601—The second block, removed October 2, contained four speci- mens of Bankia gouldi, one of them 1 inch long. This number increased to 20 on the next block, and remained about constant until December 6, when about 50 were found, the length being up to 4 inches. A few specimens of Teredo navalis also appeared. On January 6 five specimens of Teredo bartschi with a length of from 1 inch to 2 inches were found, in addition to the other species. Block 11, removed February 22, contained about 100 shipworms of the three species. The board was replaced at this time by one of the 1923 model. The first shipworms (Bankia gouldi) appeared with a maximum length of about 2 inches in the block removed July 5. This length had increased to about 5 inches by August 2, at which time Teredo navalis of the same length was found. The maximum length one month later was over 11 inches. Teredo bartschi was present in small numbers. There was a fairly heavy attack of Limnoria; associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. Salinity and temperature observations were recorded monthly by the Navy at YD-601. The results are shown on Fig. 91. Field Tests—An exhaustive test to determine the value of copper wire and strips was made by the U. 8S. District Engineer and will be found re- ported in Chapter II, page 11. A similar test of iron wire and strips was made by the Seaboard Air Line, the results of which will be reported later. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection is quite generally employed with varying results. Pine piles supporting the Charleston Lighthouse Depot, treated with 18 pounds of creosote per cubic foot in the piles and 14 pounds in the braces, driven in 1916, showed no damage until 310 HARBOR REPORTS 1920. An inspection made July 3, 1922, disclosed serious damage to the bracing by Limnoria. The Superintendent of the 6th District says: ‘The creosoted piles have not been seriously damaged so far, but a good many of them have been attacked. In some cases there are areas as large as 8 or 4 square feet that have been attacked by Limnoria, but the borings do not go into the piles more than %4 inch. In smaller areas the attack has gone deeper.” The Navy has experienced both good and bad results with creosote treat- ment, one lot of piles which were driven in 1911 having been found un- serviceable in 1914. Piles with 18 pounds’ treatment driven in the Southern Railway Company’s coal pier in 1914-1915 were found in 1922 to have been severely attacked, and piles with 22 pounds’ treatment in the Clyde Line docks driven in 1912 were being attacked in 1922, with a prospective service of only two more years. The dry dock pontoons of the Charleston Dry Dock and Machine Co. were sheathed in 1919 with a layer of ship felt covered by 1-inch creosoted lumber, 12 pounds’ treatment. All sections of the dock have been inspected during 19238, and the sheathing found to be in practically the same condition as when applied. Armor—Both copper and yellow metal have been used as sheathing, proving effective as long as intact. The Charleston Dry Dock & Machine Company drove about 600 yellow pine piles for their dock at Charleston, S. C., in the fall of 1918. These piles were studded with roofing nails 1 inch long with %-inch heads, the spacing being obtained by using 14-inch mesh chicken wire as a template. The nails were driven by negro boys at from 10 to 15 cents per hour. The cost, including the material, ran about 40 cents per linear foot, of which about 22 cents was labor. A photograph of a section of timber cut from one of the piles so treated, and pulled in September, 1922, is shown in Fig. 22, page 102. Under the microscope this specimen shows evidence of having been penetrated by 15 shipworms. On the edges four burrows are exposed. The invasion was apparently stopped by the repellent qualities of the spread- ing iron rust. Untreated piling in these waters lasts not to exceed two years. A protective coating has been successfully tried out at the U. S. Navy Yard in the construction of building ways. Immediately after the piles were placed, 20 d nails were driven in here and there about ten inches on centers, and a sheet metal casing placed about the piles allowing about two or two and one-half inch clearance around the circumference and carried down to approximately 12 inches below the mud line. This space was then filled in with 1:2:4 concrete with 5 per cent hydrated lime. The only fail- ures. were those in which the concreting was not carried deep enough into the mud. Substitutes for Timber Metal—There is a cast iron pile wharf at Sullivans Island in front of old Fort Moultrie, which was constructed in 1907 and is still in good con- dition. No special record of this wharf has been kept. One or two of the brace piles at the end of the wharf have given way, due to rusting of the flange bolts. Concrete—No data on concrete have been collected. JOS Woot eg LEN Greed ST SERBS Era SE LU ite eto OIL re 7 Ae, S TTS ; US” WN N 8 OLi-ci-v =) oooz ooo! [} oo¢ 0001 tie SauvA ay ” Ea s: i i 1 £2e6r WNITOHVD HLNOS HOdEUHVH NOLSATYVHOD s LSaih JO NOILVIO'I INIMOHS dvVW By | ‘D'S ‘NOLSHTYVHD ‘LTE UIQ GUVA AAVN ‘SNOILVAWASAO TUALVUAMWNAL GNV ALINITVS—T6 “D1 wxERIsAG. 4uagWaAON uaEOLSO waeWa1d3as isnonv Aine anne AVY . Wddv HOUVN Auvnuasd _ ANVANVE az oz sio; gz oz st o1 s geo0z gt o ¢g sz oz Gt Ob ¢g sz oz gi o1 & ez oz gi aor sg sz ozsi Ol g& sz ozstor ¢ sz oz si o1 8 sz oz gt ot @ sz oz stor Ss gt of gi of & CHARLESTON HARBOR ey 3 id] °% sz oz ai OF sz oz si ob & ezoz sit of sg st ot gt Of @ St of St Ob @ gz o2 si o; & gzoz si ob & ‘ge or sto gs eg $7 Of St OL & AED Ry 812 ; HARBOR REPORTS Conclusions The period of inactivity so far as the growth of the animals is concerned is less clearly defined than in other harbors. It appears that while some growth occurs during the winter, the period of comparative inactivity extends from about the 15th of November to about May 1. Timber piles require the best possible protection in order to avoid heavy losses—20 to 22 pounds creosote impregnation can be expected to give an average life of about 10 to 12 years. The wharf of the Charleston Dry Dock and Machine Company indicates the possibility of its method of protection giving long life, based on the results of the first five years, since the iron impregnation will increase in depth with time and therefore become more effective. It would be advisable in using this method to drive the piles early in the period of inactivity of the borers (November or December) so that the rust incrustation may be as heavy as possible before the borers become active in the spring. These piles should not be allowed to dry out and check before being driven. Sufficient time has not yet elapsed since the construction of this dock to show definitely its service life, but its present condition indicates that this process has much promise. SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK General Description From the entrance to the Savannah River (Fig. 92), about 15 miles below the City of Savannah, the river is being improved to obtain a depth of 80 feet with a general width of 500 feet to the Quarantine Station; thence 26 feet depth and 400 feet width to the Seaboard Air Line Railway Bridge; and thence a depth of 21 feet and width of 300 feet to Kings Island, a total distance of 24 miles. In 1921 there was a minimum depth of 21 feet from the sea to the City. The mean velocity of the ebb current at strength ranges from 1.1 knots at Savannah to 234 knots per hour at the entrance to the river, and that of the flood is about 4% knot at Savannah and 2 knots at the entrance. The mean rise and fall of tide at Fort Scriven is 6.9 feet and at Fort Jackson 6.6 feet. The average distance from the terminals of the various railway and steamship companies at Brunswick (Fig. 93) to the open sea is about 12 miles, with a controlling depth of 30 feet at mean high water. The tidal range at the entrance bar is 6.6 feet and within the harbor 7.0 feet. The tidal currents have an estimated velocity of one to two knots per hour. Marine Borers Past History—At the City of Savannah, the water is said to be fresh and there is no record of the presence of marine borers. Near the mouth of the Savannah River and in Brunswick harbor proper, both Limnoria lig- norum and shipworms are present. The life of unprotected timber is esti- mated from past experience to be generally not over 2 years. Committee Investigations—The Savannah River appeared to offer ideal territory for determining the boundary line beyond which marine borers would not thrive. Accordingly nine boards were installed at fairly regular intervals from the mouth of the river at Fort Scriven to the Central of Georgia Railway terminals. It was the plan of the Committee to study the physical and chemical condition of the water on either side of the point of 313 SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK WVIDUOCASN - VNITOUVYS HLAOS UaGAIH HVNNWAVS SGHVOd LSOL 40 NOILVSO1T SNIMOHS dvw SSW TWOILNYN 314 HARBOR REPORTS . farthest advance when it had been definitely determined at the end of the present season. Boards installed in both Savannah and Brunswick harbors appear in the following list: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line . W. (Feet) (Feet) Savannah River— Fort, Scriven). ..0 oss. cates ae A-15..... ATINGY ol F5 acae eee Sept. 15, 1922 1.5 7.5 Lazaretto Creek—Central of Ga. Ryo Crossing fee oon nas coe CG=2 ce Central of Ga. Ry...}| Sept. 15, 1922 2.0 10.0 Quarantine Dock. cu ene AZT Gino ATT s Graces, come Sept. 15, 1922 4.5 9.5 Long Island Crossing........... ART7e we, ATINYV Se cerca ee eee Sept. 15, 1922 1.0 #271 Lower Dolphin jsos-4ese-2 + ee A-18..... ATA Yi) eet ne eee Sept. 15, 1922 2.8 9.6 Gite HOUSE) satin 5 m) K x A-21—With the exception of a few specimens of Balanus found on block 3, and a trace of Algae on blocks 6 and 7, no life of any kind was observed on the nine blocks examined. CG-1—No life of any kind was observed on the seven blocks examined from this board. From the foregoing it would appear that conditions necessary for the existence of the Bankia gouldi have become quite unfavorable when the lower Dolphin (A-18) about 634 miles from Fort Scriven has been reached, 316 HARBOR REPORTS and prohibitive between that point and Girls House (A-19) 2% miles farther upstream. Records of salinity and temperature observations made at Brunswick by the Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad and the Southern Railway Company are shown on Figs. 94 and 95. ABA-1—The destruction at this point was rapid and severe. In addi- tion to great quantities of Bankia gouldi, a few specimens of Teredo navalis and Teredo bartschi were observed. Limnoria was noted on some of the blocks, and Balanus was usually present. On account of the complete de- struction of the test specimen it was impossible to make an examination to determine the date of the ending of the season of activity. The new blocks of revised type, however, fixed the beginning of the 1923 season as oc- curring between May 1 and June 1. ACL-1 and la—Destruction by Bankia gouldi was similar in intensity to ABA-1l. A fairly heavy attack of Limnoria was also observed. A few specimens of Teredo bartschi but none of Teredo navalis were found. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. S-4—Bankia gouldi was first found in block 8, removed February 1, and ranged in number from 5 to 12 in each of the succeeding blocks 9-14 in- clusive. Blocks 15 to 19 inclusive contained an average of 30 specimens, and blocks 20, 21 and 23 each one specimen. Block 19 also contained sev- eral specimens of Teredo bartschi. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa and Algae. Limnoria attack was severe. Methods of Protection Impregnation with creosote is in general use. The oldest structure of record so protected is the wharf at Fort Scriven, built in 1908. The pine piles in this structure were treated to refusal, and were in good condition when inspected in the summer of 1922. The records of treatment and service of the piles in the Turtle River docks of the Southern Railway Company are unusually complete. Several analyses of the creosote used have been made and these with the service records will be found in Chapter VI, page 128. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—Reinforced concrete bulkheads and piers on precast rein- forced concrete piles were built for the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic Railroad terminals at Brunswick in 1907. Unfortunately no construction records are available. The 6 inch sheet piling and the piles supporting the piers show deterioration from low water line to the top. Below low water line good condition prevails. The 18-inch sheet piling shows no signs of failing. Conclusions Intense borer attack may be expected in the Savannah River as far up stream as Long Island Crossing from which point it decreases in intensity until it disappears at a point between Lower Dolphin and Girls House. An increase in salinity on account of a protracted period of low rainfall would probably extend the range of the borers somewhat above this point. The period of inactivity of shipworms extends from about December 1 to June 1 in the Savannah River. All structures in Brunswick Harbor are subject to heavy attack. 317 SAVANNAH AND BRUNSWICK ei Ir Gal ts ‘VD ‘MOIMSNOYG ‘GQ UId $00 ‘AU 'V FP ‘A ‘V ‘SNOMLVANGSAO TUALVaGdWaAL GNV ALINITV§—F6 “OlA waenaci6 UBEW3AON wagois0 uzewald3ss isnonv ainr anne AVN wWdvy HOUYN auvnuess AUVNINGE GZ oz si or fs sz oz si o ¢ szoz st o ¢ 6z oz St Ol ¢ sz oz si o1 ezoz si o1 @ ez oz at of @ az ozsio sz oz st o1 S sz oz gi Of 9 ez oz sict & €Z oz at on g ' ; t t t r + tT : L 5 8 t ' yeane aT | t : " He iH os i i t 8 4 4 TT face 3 rot t i iu t i states + Z t t i : t i f tt +t t t 10% tt it le sz oz Gi OF B& sz oz si o' 6zoz si o' 8 sz oz st Ol 8 szoz si oF § sz of si Ob S&S Sz oz St oF gs ez 02 si or & gzoz st Oo: & gz oz st o & st oF st o. @& sz of sit OF & uzeHz530 uzaWIAON ¥za01D0 uzawaldas asnonv aqnr anor AVN auey HOUVA auvnueza auvonye ezée/ HARBOR REPORTS 318 waenas3a, stoz sto gs SZ oz st Ol ¢ wsgWw3a5a0 ‘VD ‘MOIMSNOUgG ‘SMOOG UYMAIY WILYAL 8,00 ‘AY NUFHLNOS ‘SNOILVAUESEOQ FAALVUAAWAL ANV ALINIIVS—c¢g ‘DIY YUAENIAON ez oz st ob & es Sz oz st o} uaGWIAON wago1sO sz oz gi o g MaaNaLdIs s2zor si Ob @ asnony sz of st oF rit i szoz sit o1 @ yuagGOLDO sz oz gt OF @ vagWNIldss gz oz gt OF asnonv Palate stoe at o @ we anne sz ozagt ol g St ot st OF & anne st oz Si OL @ anne AVN sz otst ot @ gz Of sito & AVA 5 aay az oz si on @ HOUVN az oz agi o: @ gazoz si ol Wud gz oe gst ob 8 HOUVA AuvNUaBs gz of si oO SB OZ Bt OL Auvnuezd AUVANVES ge oz at of 8 oL gz of 61 OF & “eee EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 319 The beginning of the period of activity occurs during the month of May, but the close of the period was not determined. It probably does not differ much from that established for the Savannah River. All timber piles below Girls House in the Savannah River and all in Brunswick should have the best protection that can be devised. HASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA General Description This report includes the Eastern Coast of Florida from Fernandina (Fig. 96) to Key West, and the St. Johns River from its mouth to Palatka MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS CUMBERLAND SOUND FLORIDA NAUTICAL MILES 2 3 YAROS Fig. 96 (Fig. 98). The general character of the coast between Fernandina and Miami is low and sandy, with frequent shoals extending from 3 to 8 miles off shore. From Miami to Key West the coast is formed by a chain of small 320 HARBOR REPORTS islands known as the Florida Keys, outside of and nearly parallel to which are the Florida reefs. Cumberland Sound is the approach to Fernandina where the Seaboard Air Line has installed a test board at their phosphate dock on the Amelia River in about 28 feet of water. Tidal currents at the entrances to the Sound are of high velocity, reaching at times 5 knots per hour. Jacksonville (Fig. 97) is located on the St. Johns River 28 miles from its mouth, and Palatka is 54 miles farther upstream. The channel is being improved to a depth of 30 feet from Jacksonville to the sea. It is about 600 4 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS ST.JOHNS RIVER FLORIDA 1923 NAUTICAL MILES ' YARDS 1000 Ere, 92 feet wide across the bar and 500 feet wide to Mayport. From Mayport to Jacksonville the channel width varies from 300 to 600 feet. The mean rise and fall of tide ranges from 5.0 feet at the entrance to the river to 1.0 foot at Jacksonville. The salinity of the water at Jacksonville varies from 2 to 14 parts per 1,000, and the temperature from 70 to 85 degrees Fahr. Above Jacksonville there is a dredged depth of 10% feet to Palatka (Fig. 98). Infrequent tests of the water at Palatka made by the Florida East Coast Railway have shown no salinity. Jupiter (Fig. 99), about 80 miles north of Miami, is important to this EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 321 investigation as being the northernmost limit of two hitherto unidentified species of Bankia. Miami (Fig. 100), located on the west shore of Biscayne Bay, 10 miles below its head and 8 miles above Cape Florida, has wharves with depths alongside ranging from 4 to 15 feet. Channel Five (Fig. 101) passes between Lower Matecumbe Key and Long Key about 70 miles east of the City of Key West and 85 miles from Miami. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARD PALATKA , ST.JOHNS RIVER FLORIDA 1923 ONE MILE PT. ae 4 - PALATKA jy yeep. FEC*3 —— id Sey ROLLESTOWN Fic. 98. Marine Borers Past History—Shipworms and crustacean borers are known to exist along the entire coast line. Limnoria has been reported as far up the St. Johns River as Jacksonville and shipworms have done great damage at that point though they do not attack every year. In 1914 a part of one of the wharves of the Atlantic Coast Line at Jacksonville failed on account of shipworm attack. © B22 HARBOR REPORTS Officers of the Corps of Engineers estimate the life of unprotected timber at the mouth of the St. Johns River and at Miami at 4 years and 6 years at - Jacksonville. Sphaeroma is present in considerable numbers at Jackson- ville and Palatka. This borer cut off and totally destroyed large piles in a structure belonging to the Florida East Coast Railway at the latter point in less than 17 years. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Fernandina—S. A. L. Phosphate DOG Se ecco a ee SAL-1....} Seaboard Air Line. ..] Sept. 14, 1922 0.8 real. Jacksonville—A. C. L. Warehouse Dock Export Terminals....... AGCL-2:...| Atlantic Coast Line....| Aug: 255192201955. ee Jacksonville—F. E. C. St. Johns REVer_ BeiGee i,t ce eee FEC-2....| Florida East Coast RAUWaly os os skis eee July 1, 1922 0.2 6.0 Palatka—F. E. C. Bridge....... FEC-3....| Florida Taat Coast Ral Wwavete oon | : ; : Hel] ATLANTIC BEACH Fia. 102 329 wagh3530. etoz sto ¢e EASTERN COAST OF FLORIDA Sz oz at OF @ wagWaszCG BYAGWAAON gz of St OF uv szoz si ol @ wze@OL50 Sz oz st ol wAENIAON AVW e2 o2 ct on uadO13D0 uaGNaLasS isnonv ane anor szoz st o ¢ sz oz St Ol ¢ sz oz si or s szoz si o $s sz ozgi OF : —— peresr ror ETH + cert tt : ett Bent t Tepeagueeaal ttt Moapeeneatauatiy nana epee eveaT ge Se eet 7 u i Wl { fa peses daze i ie raat tsapies mm he +f F P al | i 7 ig nad (Uunbc cAdilsuulwy tt t oe Fett REYES {Hot Ht a T i + 4 e it rH a A f : + aa t : t : i ; : : : } ; anes CHaH eth sz oz ct Ob & atqne gszoz si ol & asnonv sz oz st OF 6 NIEWI1das Gt oz si ob g¢ anne gt OF St OF AVA Wudv sz oz st oS gzoz sho s adv HOUVYN sz oz gt of gt Of gt oOo HOUVA Auvnuesa gz OZ st ol st Of Gi O1 auvneGsa ‘VIA ‘HTITIANOSMOVE ‘SIVNIWUG]L LYOdxXG S,0D ‘AYU ANITT LSVOD OILNVILY ‘“SNOILVAUSSAO ANALVUAdNAL INV ALINITVS—E0T ‘91 AUYANYES sz oz gi os; 8 gz of st OF & AuVOANYS. e276: He, ae 330 HARBOR REPORTS brands were used. The present condition of the jetty is practically the same throughout its entire length, so that it may be assumed that the various types of cement used gave practically the same quality of concrete. The sand used was of very poor quality, being round and extremely fine. All concrete was mixed by hand, the material for each batch being turned by shovels three times when dry and four times after the addition of water. It was cast in place in watertight forms, being carried to the desired location in wheelbarrows, and thoroughly tamped in place. The Portland concrete weighed 143.2 pounds per cubic foot when newly made, and 137 pounds when one month old. The Rosendale concrete weighed 133.3 and 131 pounds at like ages. At the present time all the concrete work on this groin is in very good condition, having in general suffered very little deterioration. Several blocks lying between low and high water show con- siderable corrosion on the upper surface. All exterior surfaces are, how- ever, extremely hard and can be broken only with great difficulty. The sides of the blocks have been remarkably well preserved, and in many instances show very clearly the impression of the forms used in the construction. When small pieces of the blocks are chipped off, the interior or non-exposed surface may be readily disintegrated by the hands. This would appear to indicate that insufficient water to provide complete chemical action was used in the original construction, and that the outer surfaces, where a greater proportion of water appeared, were of a much more substantial construction.” “Groin No. 4, Anastasia Island, was constructed in 1890 and 1891. The concrete capping was composed of rectangular blocks 4 feet wide by 2.8 feet thick. Saylor’s Brand of American Portland cement was used, the pro- portions finally adopted for the inner end of the capping being 1 part cement, 3 parts beach sand, and 5 parts coquina gravel. On the outer end of the groin the mixture was enriched to 1, 2, 4. The methods of construc- tion were the same as described above for eroin No. 1. This concrete has suffered considerable deterioration, particularly by flaking off in longitu- dinal cakes several feet in width and length, and about 6 to 7 inches in depth. The present appearance would indicate that the concrete had been placed in courses and that insufficient bond between successive layers had been secured. This condition probably resulted from the method of placing, which consisted of thoroughly tamping to a level surface after each deposit of several wheelbarrow loads of the mixture. This concrete can be readily broken up in large pieces, but the individual specimens thus secured show fairly good internal bond; and in fact cannot be disintegrated as rapidly as the concrete in groin No. 1.” “Two other groins were built on Anastasia Island in later years, but complete information as to methods and materials is not obtainable from the records. Their general condition is practically identical with that of groin No. 1.” Fort MARION—“‘Repairs to the Stairway arch, and in other parts of Fort Marion, were made in 1886 and 1887, all of the work being above high water level and not exposed to the direct action of sea water. Although records do not indicate the methods and materials used in this work, em- ployes of this district recall that the same materials were used as for groin No. 1 described above; probably European Portland and Rosendale cements with fine bank sand and coquina gravel. All of this work is in excellent condition at the present time, showing but little deterioration.” Fort TAYLOR—“‘With reference to the concrete work in the sea wall at Fort Taylor constructed with the F. O. Norton Brand of Rosendale cement about 1856, the following is quoted from the report of Geo. E. Brown, Superintendent: ‘A portion of this wall was demolished by the hurricane of 1910. The greater portion is still standing, however. Some erosion has occurred in the submerged portions of the wall, but the statement as to the apparent strength and durability of the face of the wall is still true. Concrete on top of the wall can readily be dug out with a knife; this is also true, however, of the soft limestone aggregate imbedded in the mortar ; it is true also of concrete filling between the brick facings of the walls in old Fort Taylor proper, though the latter is slightly harder than that in the sea wall. Both KEY WEST ook the concrete in the wall and fort are made up of the same proportion of cement and calcareous sand. - ‘The wall discussed is subjected to constant wave action, very heavy breakers in stormy weather. The depth of the wall varies from 8 feet to about 2 feet. The mixture was one part Rosendale cement, 7 parts broken limestone. In the breaking of this stone, sufficient pulverization of the ma- terial occurs to fill the voids of the aggregate. Displacement stone, varying in size, were also imbedded in the mixture; the largest of these displacement stones would weigh 8 to 10 pounds.’ ” ST. JOHNS RIVER—“Some concrete blocks were used as capping for the north jetty at the entrance to the St. Johns River in 1888, and several blocks were placed at the inner end of the south jetty between 1888 and 1890. No record can be found giving the materials and methods of construction used. Inasmuch as the present appearance of these blocks is very similar to that of groin No. 1, Anastasia Island, which was constructed at the same time, it is very probable that the same materials were used. W. W. Fineren, Assis- tant Engineer, reports the present condition of these blocks as follows: ‘These blocks are above low water and are not at all times submerged. There are no blocks on the jetties entirely submerged at all times. About 60 per cent of the blocks in question are submerged during the rising tide for about 20 per cent of the time, making them in water one-fifth of the time and in air four-fifths of the time; the other 40 per cent of the blocks are above high tide and are exposed to salt air only. ‘Both the blocks partly submerged and the blocks entirely in air were examined carefully and no deterioration was observed. From the appear- ance of the blocks no chemical change has taken place and the blocks seem to be as good as when they were deposited over thirty years ago.’ ” Conclusions The best creosote impregnation does not seem to be efficient for more than 10 or 12 years, hardly a sufficient length of time to justify its use on important structures with permanent decks located in salt water. Cast iron casings have good records, but piles used in cast iron casings should be protected against decay above high water. The wrought iron structures of the Lighthouse Service are in good con- dition after nearly 70 years, which indicates that the use of this material is certainly worthy of consideration. The concrete structures reported were built with cements not now on the market but generally their record is good. The beginning of the period of borer inactivity at Fernandina is not clear but it appears to have ended in May; at Jupiter Inlet the close of the period of inactivity was at about the same time, while at Channel Five it appears from the record to have been slightly later. The different species very evidently have different periods of inactivity but all of them appear to be inactive in the early spring. KEY WEST, FLORIDA Description of Harbor Key West, (Fig. 104), lies northward of the Florida Reefs and_ is ac- cessible to vessels of 2614 feet draft by several channels through the reefs and coral banks surrounding the harbor. The maximum tidal range recorded is 9.63 feet and the mean rise and fall of tide is 1.25 feet with an estimated current velocity on flood of 214 knots and 3 to 31% knots on ebb. Both the tidal range and currents are greatly affected by the wind. The pre- vailing winds are easterly except in the winter when they are northerly. During the West India hurricanes, which generally occur in September and October, wind velocities of 110 miles per hour have been recorded. 332 HARBOR REPORTS The channel at the Naval Station is 26 feet in depth and 800 feet wide. The depth at the wharves in the harbor varies from 10 to 26 feet. The water temperatures in 1921 reached a minimum of 60° Fahr. in January and February and additional readings below 70° Fahr. were ob- tained in March, April, May, November and December. The average was 76.1° Fahr. and the maximum 88° Fahr. in June and August. Temperature and salinity from November 1, 1922, to September 1, 1923, are shown on Rigs LOS, Marine Borers Past History—Shipworms are very active and were thought to attack with uniform intensity throughout the year. Both the Navy and Light- house Service report that the greatest damage is caused by Limnoria which will destroy an unprotected pile in from one to two years. They have also attacked creosoted timber. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed as shown below: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line }] M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) South end of F. E. C. Bridge....}] FEC-7....| Florida East Coast BIlWaAVanh oat omncre July 1, 1922 9.5 6.0 Quay Ww allie, cab cere eran er EY = 10) LesN Vy nas ee eee Sept. 1, 1922 10.0 ae 0.0 10.5 Qusye W allie a ee ee, oo te ee YD=70OPAs | UNavvigers et eee Sept. 1, 1922 *Board suspended in a horizontal position. The results of the inspections were as follows: FEC-1—Teredo first appeared in block 2, removed August 1, increased in number reaching 100 in block 7, removed October 15, then decreased to from 7 to 12 in blocks 8, 9, 10 and finally increased again to from 50 to 100 specimens in the remaining blocks 11 to 16 inclusive. These proved to be of two new species, Teredo clappi and Teredo sp. D. About 90 per cent of the total number were Teredo clappi. A careful examination was made of the board together with the remaining original (Nos. 17-24) and replace- ment blocks (Nos. 1A-16A.) which was removed from the water March 6, 1923. The results of this examination indicate that the shipworm attack began to be less severe on September 15 and gradually decreased until De- cember 15 when it entirely ceased. It is very interesting to note the rapid decrease in Teredo clappi and increase in Teredo sp. D. Limnoria lig- norum, the only organism other than shipworms in these blocks, also showed less activity from September 15 on, but persisted until February 15, 1923, 5 specimens appearing on this block. On the date of the removal of the old, a new board of 1923 model was substituted. The first appearance of shipworms on the new blocks occurred on the second series, removed May 1. The center block of this series which had been in the water one month contained about 50 shipworm embryos, all belonging to Teredo sp. D. Teredo clappi appeared one month later. The last blocks, which were re- moved October 8, showed the tubes of the shipworm protruding through the wood, a condition due to the severe action of Limnoria. Bryozoa was the only associated organism and was found on a few blocks only. KEY WEST poe YD-701 and 701-A—These boards were located very near to FEC-7 and the results of the test were similar to and confirmatory of those found at that point. Three other species of Teredo were found in small numbers, viz.: Teredo bipartita, Teredo thompsoni and Teredo (Psiloteredo) sp. Q, the last named being new. It will be seen from the foregoing that a period of immunity from ship- worm attack existed for about four months, from December 15 to April 15, and that although Limnoria action was considerably diminished during the same period, it did not altogether cease. AND 7O1-A MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS KEY WEST FLORIDA NAUTICAL MILES 2 4 3 YARDS 5,000 Fie. 104 Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—The U. S. Government Departments have all used creosoted piles with a treatment ranging from 12 to 24 pounds per cubic foot. Yellow pine sheet piles containing 16 to 20 pounds in Naval structures are reported to show the first damage in from 7 to 8 years and to be destroyed in about 12 years. Some small piers were built in 1920-22 with piles containing only 12 pounds of creosote but although surface in- 334 HARBOR REPORTS spection has not yet shown any damage this treatment is considered too light by the Bureau of Yards and Docks. The Corps of Engineers, U. S.A., consider that the average life of piles, containing 22 pounds of creosote per cubic foot, is about 12 years and the Lighthouse Service since 1920 have been specifying 22 pounds of grade B creosote. Armor—Terra cotta pipe armor filled with sand has been used with poor results on account of breakage, but cast iron pipe is reported to be efficient by the Lighthouse Service when it is set deep enough in the bottom so that the unprotected pile will not be exposed by scour. Some trouble was experienced on account of the decay of the piles above water level. Concrete armor has been tried with varying success by the three bureaus, but the Lighthouse Service reports that the life of the structure was short- ened by dry rot as in the case of cast iron pipe. Substitutes for Timber Wrought Iron and Steel—Pier A of the Navy Department was built in 1879 on hollow wrought iron piles with a shell thickness of 34 inch. It was removed in 1911 to meet the requirement of heavier loading and the piles were found to be unaltered below the mudline, in good condition up to mean low water, and badly pitted, though not destroyed, above mean low water. Solid 6-inch steel piles driven in 1898-1900 are also reported by the Bureau of Yards and Docks to be in good condition. Concrete—Concrete structures are reported as follows: Cement Imbedment Condition Object Mixture} Brand Aggregate of Steel Consistency 1922 Navy Dept. Quay Wall 1911-12 PeeP Hes? eaters 1:2:3 | Lehigh...| 144” gravel and silica sand from HR Bees he fae, a 144”-214”| Flow, but not run}Generally poor Die DOINGS couches 1:2:3 | Lehigh...| 1144” gravel and silica sand from Si Sead fees 14”-114”| Generally wet. ..|Generally poor Se OLAD. ene eee 1.2.4 | Lehigh...] 144” gravel and silica sand from Tas ieee ce cee %4”"-1 Generally wet. ..|/Generally poor Pier ‘‘A’’—1912 4. Precast Cylinders.| 1:114:3] Atlas....}| Silica sand and 34" gravel..... 1144” Flow, but not run] Generally fair. 5. Beams and Slabs..| 1:214:5| Atlas....| 1144” gravel..... 1%” Flow, but not run| Generally fair. Pier ‘““B’’—1912 6.8 Deck 05 sae 13224 Vulcanite| 34” gravel and silica sand..... 1144” Flow, but not run} Good. 7. Coal Shed ‘‘A’”’ Ex- TONSLOD. 2.5. f doasdtesef ccasene cagebotalf ed jasere'ene a! cc cacese ot a eemele peep eae ene ene ae Flow, but not run} Good. 8. Under water...... 1:144:3] Atlas....] Silica sand and 114” gravel... 22) 13g eae eo ee PAOLHersee eee P:2)6251 Atlases \cceae ete cee |B ns Marae eee Po oo 2 hs 9. Coal Shed ‘B” TSheet Piles....... 14:3 | Vulcanite] Gravelandsand..| 1144” Flow, but not run} Good. Lighthouse Service 10. Reinforced Con- ee crete: Piles —-1915i:! | 20a. ete. ce BR eee ee ee 2% of sec- GON | os a] a chsuete ee eae eee Cracks from 4’ below M. L.W. to 2’ above H.W. *This deck is made of arches sprung between ‘‘I’’ beams, 2’4” on center and is not a typical reinforced job. +The tops of these piles are below water. : **Ratio of reinforcement section to total section. BYst0) KEY WEST weeni530 St oz siot gs usGNIZAON at oz st on ‘VI “LSA AGM ‘AUYVH A Lodaqd ASNOHLHDI'T ‘SNOMVAYESAO GUNLVusdWaL GNV ALINIIVS—cOT ‘DIq AYA sz ozstot s SZ of si Ob usEgWwasagq gz oz st ob WIGNAAON Wedv sz oz st qu & HOUYN gst oz gt Oo @ usBOLD0 waaWsLd3s isnonv _ Atne SNn¢e 2 sz oz st on ¢ St oz Si Ob ¢g sz oz st ol § ezoz si o gs sz oz si Of Ss : t — t SErEEREEE THT 1 iH t Ht HH +H TH Ht : iT HHH f T i +t t 1 T a 1 r i f mae H f ‘ t ! t + t i H HCH tH : at Tt : t } : } f t t t T tH } : : tH : : ; t t " } ae ; MoEBeDeSE. t : : : t vessoueusasam + : t mage! aoe sage ata: Sey + tt Gzoz si o1 gs sz oz st Ol § Szoz si Ol & St oz si OF &Z OZ@SI Ob uaG0190 uagW3ieas asnonv atqnarc 3annt st OZ si Ob AYN r G&207 si OL Sedv Sz oz St on HOUVA _Auvnuesa az oz stor @ St Of gt on Auvnugsa AMvANYr St oz gi o1 8 of Le set Of St Ob & ee Wr ¢zo/ 336 HARBOR REPORTS All of these structures are said to have been built with great care and in conformity with the best practice at the time of their construction. The piles were kept moist 20 days and were seasoned 60 days before driving. Almost every pile is cracked above low water over each reinforcing rod. In 1914, 40 piles were cast, using a broken brick aggregate and 14 of them were driven. With the exception of one, which was defective, all were re- ported in good condition. They have never been decked and consequently are well ventilated, but it is not improbable that the replacement of a part of the inert aggregate by silica in its active form from the broken brick, may have something to do with their condition. Tests One pile sheathed with copper .021 inch thick and one with monel metal .021 inch thick were driven May 23, 1923, at the edge of the Key West Depot Wharf of the Lighthouse Service just inside the fender line. The sheathing materials were furnished by the manufacturers and the test is in charge of the Superintendent of Lighthouses of the District. Conclusions No unprotected timber structures which are required to stand in this harbor over one year should be constructed. A period of immunity from the attack of molluscan borers of from three to four months between December and April may be expected, but no such period will be free from Limnoria attack. Thoroughy creosoted piles may be expected to have an average life not exceeding 12 years. The record of wrought and cast iron is good and long life may be ex- pected from properly designed and built structures. Most of the concrete structures show deterioration, but their present age - is not sufficient to permit their useful life to be predicted. GULF OF MEXICO—MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST* General Description The coast line of this region is generally low and sandy. From Key West to Apalachee Bay the bottom is largely of coral formation. From Missis- sippi Sound west the bottom is sand and silt with several shoals lying well off shore, which change to some extent with severe storms. . Tampa Bay (Fig. 111) is the approach to Hillsboro and Old Tampa Bays. It is about 20 miles long and 6 to 7 miles wide. For a distance of 15 miles above the entrance it has a least depth of 22 feet along its axis, between broad shoals that extend from the shores on both sides. A dredged ~ channel 200 feet wide and 25 feet deep leads to Port Tampa. Hillsboro Bay, the northeastern arm of Tampa Bay, at the head of which is situated the city of Tampa, is 8 miles long and 4 miles wide, and has a dredged channel 200 feet wide and 24 feet deep leading through it from the deeper water of Tampa Bay to a turning basin at the mouth of the Hillsboro River. The Hillsboro River, which flows through the middle of the City of Tampa, has a dredged channel 200 feet wide and 12 feet deep from the turning basin to the first drawbridge. Old Tampa Bay, the northwestern arm of Tampa Bay, is about 12 miles long and 6 miles wide, the narrowest part being at its junction with Tampa *Mobile and Key West Harbors not included. MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 337 Bay, where the width is only 244 miles. It is generally shallow with depths of 5 to 15 feet, except at its southern end, where a deep channel runs along the eastern side about °4 mile off shore. On this stretch of the eastern shore is located Port Tampa, where there are depths of 18 to 24 feet along- side the docks. St. Petersburg is situated on the west shore of Tampa Bay. At the Municipal Pier, where the test board is located, there is a depth of 17 feet. 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Ht Tt eet HH : n FERS ose HH : oe t a a ceeea pea as t cro none t TH +H : He = : tt te Ht t { : - : : 1 } f : yt Ht Hatt : S Sz oz st oO s Szoz st ol ¢ Gz oz st oF § sz oz st of @ Sz OZ sito. S szoz si of 8 62 ot si on § st oz st o ez of Gi OF @ 8ag01D0 usenaLdss asnonv atne anor AVA wey HOUYA auvnuasa AUVONYS S266 MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO KEY WEST 353 Substitutes for Timber Concrete—There is approximately 3,300 feet of docking space at the Pensacola Naval Air Station of stone and concrete, 2,100 feet of which af- fords a depth of 30 feet at M.L.W., the remaining 1,200 feet, a depth of 10 feet at M.L.W.; and a concrete beach along the shore line for approximately 800 feet. The main pier is constructed of concrete piling and is a recent structure.. The new quay wall, connecting to the old stone and concrete quay wall, is of similar construction. The Wet Basin, constructed of stone and concrete, with a concrete bottom, affording 10 feet depth at M.L.W., was originally intended for use of the Old Spanish Drydock, which was re- moved to the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Both of these structures are in ex- cellent condition, with the exception that some sand leaks have developed in the new concrete pier and quay wall on account of small openings between the sheet piles. The concrete beach protection was constructed with a con- crete retaining wall on wooden piling and was completed in August, 1923. In the year 1916 a wood bulkhead was constructed at the south end of the station. Yellow pine piles, sheet piling and wales were used, treated with 12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. This structure has been completely destroyed by marine borers, and is at this time, November, 1923, being re- placed with a reinforced concrete retaining wall, constructed on yellow pine untreated piles. That part of the wooden bulkhead, to the west of and adjoining the above- mentioned bulkhead, 850 feet in length and removed in the year 1922, was constructed in the year 1917 of yellow pine piles, sheet piling and wales, treated with 12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot and was completely de- stroyed by marine borers. It was replaced with a reinforced concrete re- taining wall and beach, constructed on untreated yellow pine piles. Work completed August, 1923. The fender piles on the new quay wall and pier, placed in 1920, have been considerably damaged by marine borers. Piles are yellow pine, treated with 12 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. Main Pier and New Quay Wall. Precast Piles: Type, design, size, shape, date installed—Piling are interlocking re- inforced concrete, T & G, square, installed in 1919. Length exposed to salt water (between mud line and low water), 3 to 32 feet; between low and high water, 2 to 3 feet; above, 101% feet. Concrete materials—Gravel, river sand, cement, water. Std. Portland cement was utilized and fresh water used in mixing. Reinforcement—Havemeyer square bar (steel). Concrete mix—2:4:6 proportions, density determination used. Curing—Conditions, length of time, season, weather. Thirty days’ curing required, fresh water used in curing. Piles were kept wet. Handling—Piles were used from 30 to 90 days after molding. They were carefully handled, only proved piles being used. Driving—Cushion block steam hammer was used; piles were jetted also. Occasional pile rejected for hard bottom and granulated head. Condition and description of defects or deterioration—Piling in ex- cellent condition; concrete encasement prevents erosion. Fill seeping through piling at certain points due to conditions at various points making it impossible to get piles absolutely sand tight. 354 HARBOR REPORTS Decks and superstructures—Girders, arches, beams, slabs, walls: Type, design, description—Wood piling and deck, protected with sand due to Teredo activities. Concrete top. Exposure, height above water, wave action, spray—Exposed to from 1 to 3 feet wave action, variation of tide. Concrete materials—Sand, gravel, cement. Reinforcement—Steel mesh. Mix—2:4:6. Forms, placing of concrete—Wooden forms or framing used. Curing—21 days. Present condition—Excellent. Methods of protecting concrete structures—Continuous waling and fen- der piling every 10 feet. Precautions in mixing and placing—Due care was used in mixing and placing to insure proper consistency and proper placing. Density determination used. Waterproofing—None. Uniting of joints, etc.—None. Costs: Unit costs for typical or special concrete work: Concrete piling—$3.545 per linear foot. Costs of methods of protection used—Creosoting, $64.77 per thou- sand feet. Remarks, conclusions and recommendations: Concrete structures on the station, with the exception of the old concrete beach protected by wooden bulkhead, are in excellent condition; maintenance work has not been required to date. Conclusions The period of inactivity of teredine borers seems to extend from about December to April, inclusive, in most harbors along this coast, though the total cessation of growth of animals already in the wood does not seem to be as marked as in more northerly waters. The average life of piles creosoted to refusal seems to be about 10 to 12 years. Cast iron armor as used by the Lighthouse Service and the Louisville & Nashville R. R. seems to be the most efficient method of protection if the timber is protected against decay above the iron. The concrete structures reported are of comparatively recent construction and no conclusions regarding their probable life can be drawn. MOBILE HARBOR Description Mobile Bay (Fig. 120), lies 40 miles west of Pensacola Bay entrance and 90 miles northeast of the South Pass of the Mississippi River, and is the approach to Mobile and the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. The entrance width between Mobile Point on the east and Dauphin Island on the west is — 234 miles. The main ship channel across the bar has a depth of 30 feet and ~ a minimum width of 300 feet. A dredged channel inside the entrance, hav- ing a minimum depth of 25 feet and a minimum width of 200 feet, extends Fie. 120 i MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF = = aa TEST BOARDS ee MOBILE BAY Sui ALABAMA 1923 FORT MORGAN NAUTICAL MILES ; (3240 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 YARDS {S00 0 500 10900 331M JADITUAM ete Row en ‘ oa > t = Puch aiaeepeangine Lactncetieaaneentarioss terion tne ae MOBILE 355 the length of the bay to the city of Mobile at the mouth of the Mobile River, a distance of about 25 miles. The prevailing winds are southerly and southeasterly in spring, southerly in summer, northerly in fall, and northerly and easterly in winter; the strongest being the southerly and northerly winds of summer and winter, respectively. The range of tide varies from 3.6 feet at the entrance to the bay (Fort Morgan) to 3.4 feet in the Mobile River near the mouth of Chickasaw Creek. The currents, which vary considerably with the force and direction of the wind, have a normal velocity of 2 knots per hour in the main ship channel at the entrance, and about one-half knot per hour in the dredged channel. Marine Borers Past History—Up to the time of the present investigations, marine borers, both molluscan and crustacean, were known to be present at Fort Morgan. The former had been found in Mobile River up as far as Chicka- sabogue, but the damage to structures in the harbor proper had always been considered negligible and to require no protective measures, the piling along shore and under wharves having given no evidence of the presence of borers. The shipworms found in the river had been confined to timber lying on the bottom of the Main Ship Channel and couid not be considered as conclusive evidence of local attack. However, slight attacks on the obstructions placed at the mouth of the Spanish River during the Civil War had been noticed, thus demonstrating beyond doubt the ability of the shipworm to exist in that locality. The G. M. & N. Railroad Company considered their struc- tures (Piers No. 1 and No. 8), located at the mouth of the Mobile River, to have been immune from attack for the past twenty years. No trace of crustacean borers had been found farther up the bay than Fort Morgan. At Fort Morgan, the life of an unprotected pile is placed at not to exceed ninety days, whereas there is said to be piling in the river proper with sixty years’ service. Committee Investigations—Test boards of standard type were located as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line} M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Fort Morgan—At entrance to Bay| A-2...... iN abi hicovaay aA een ee Oe Oct. 1, 1922 2.0 as) (0) Middle Bay Light—16 miles from GUGUAT CEmeeere ria entree tere eo os TASS nee Ee I Nagsthies aeeagereusoates 6 Oct. 13, 1922 2.0 20.3 Beacon No. 4—25 miles from en- UR ole Sins oo e 6 Cea in act An4 cece s ATI Y Bette ekee Oct. 10, 1922 0.0 11.9 Mobile, G. M. & N. Pier No. 3— 27 miles from entrance....... L-8-1..... Dishthousee enim. Sept. 15, 1922 0.5 12.0 Mobile, U.S. Coal & Ore Wharf— 30 miles from entrance....... NEI Asked ae IATINY eres cess a Os Oct. 15, 1922 1.5 11.5 The results of the examination of the test blocks were as follows: A-2—Several hundred specimens of Bankia gouldi were found in block 1. Succeeding blocks were well filled with Bankia gouldi, and destruction pro- gressed rapidly. The old board and blocks were removed March 1, 1923, and a test board of the 1923 model was substituted. The end of the season of activity was found to have occurred some time between November 15 and =, ) os \ WO zona ° 8 €011-04 BOIl-GA © 10l-GA Ve 0001 = ovata wvs Soest ° S21IW IWOILNVN VINHOAITV9D HOEUVH ODGIG NvVvs SdGavod LSAL AO NOILVIOT SINIMOHS dvw Oe» wh 601-V vOU-GA ZOW-9011-GA yy 376 HARBOR REPORTS 15. The violence of the attack by both Teredo and Limnoria increased rapidly and on October 1 was fully as heavy as at YD-1101 and 1102. One specimen of Bankia setacea 4 inches long was found in block 16, removed September 17, and the Teredo in block 11, removed July 2, contained many larvae. Associated organisms were Bryozoa (Lepralia), Anomia, many Amphipoda and polycheate worms. The last block reported was removed January 16, 1924. This block was thoroughly honeycombed by Teredo and its surface was destroyed by Limnoria action. YD-1104—The first shipworm puncture was found on block 5, removed April 17, and the first specimen of Limnoria two weeks later, but the real attack did not appear until block 9, removed June 15. The attack of Limnoria and Teredo on this board was not so heavy as on the three preced- ing boards. The first specimen of Bankia setacea 31% inches long was found in block 14, removed September 4. Associated organisms were Algae, Pecten, Amphipoda and Bryozoa of a number of species. The last block reported was removed January 3, 1924. YD-1105—tThe first specimen of Limnoria appeared on block 1, removed February 20, and the first shipworm punctures on block 2, removed March 1, but no appreciable growth took place until in block 8, removed June 1. Block 9, two weeks later, showed a very heavy attack by Limnoria and Teredo diegensis, many of the Teredo specimens being 1% inches long and contain- ing larvae. The number of specimens of Teredo found in the later blocks was much smaller than on the boards previously listed, but the Limnoria attack was heavier. Associated organisms were fewer than on the preced- ing boards. The last block reported was removed January 16, 1924. YD-1106 and 1107—These two boards were placed at the depths shown above. A few specimens of Limnoria and about 30 of Teredo diegensis larvae appeared on the second block from YD-1106 and a slightly smaller number of both on the corresponding block of YD-1107. There was little variation in the attack on the two boards up to September 15, but the asso- ciated organisms were more plentiful on YD-1106. Blocks removed on November 1 showed a few specimens of Limnoria and 15 of Teredo, the longest 75 mm. in 1106, and only a few punctures in 1107, which was cov- ered with oil scum. All later blocks from YD-1107 were covered with oil, while 1106 showed Limnoria and 50 or more burrows of Teredo diegensis up to 90 mm. in length. The last block inspected was removed January 18, 1924. YD-1108—This board was placed above YD-1103. Limnoria attack was light until September 4, when the first specimen of Teredo appeared, and by the time of the removal of the block on January 16, 1924, the Limnoria at- tack had become heavy and specimens of Teredo diegensis had become quite numerous, reaching a length of 120 mm. Some of them were carrying larvae. A-109—The first shipworm de eetne appeared in block 8, removed January 15, 1923, and the first Limnoria one month later, but the real attack and the first appreciable growth of Teredo diegensis, as well as the first appearance of Bankia setacea occurred on block 12, removed June 1. The intensity of attack increased through the summer, but was not so heavy as at the other boards, except YD-1105. Very few specimens of Bankia were found. Associated organisms were Bryozoa of many species, Anomia, — SAN DIEGO BAY 377 Amphipoda and Algae. The last block reported, removed January 16, con- tained Teredo diegensis up to 5 inches in length and Bankia setacea 8 inches long. A-110—The first shipworm punctures appeared in block 2, removed Jan- uary 2, 1923, and the number had increased to 70 in block 7, removed March 16, though the longest Teredo diegensis was only 1/16 inch long. This length had increased to 144 inches one month later, while by May 15. attack was heavy and the length had about doubled. The first Bankia setacea appeared in block 16, removed July 30, and by September 15 the blocks were thoroughly honeycombed, principally by Teredo diegensis, though the Limnoria attack was also very heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa of several species, Anomia and hydroids. The last block reported, removed January 15, 1924, contained many specimens of Teredo diegensis, some of them carrying larvae. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—Creosoted piles used in structures of sufficient age to give useful information as to average life have most of them been encased in concrete and there is not sufficient information available from which to draw conclusions as to the life of unprotected creosoted piles in this port. The mooring dolphins recently constructed by the Navy were built strictly in accordance with the recommendations of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee and are not armored. Armor—Scupper nailing. The Spreckels Company and the Atchison, Topeka and Sante Fe Railroad both used this method with great success. A description of the structures in which it was used will be found in Chapter VI, page 98. Concrete Jackets—The temporary pier at the Naval Air Station was built of unprotected timber in May, 1918. The Limnoria attack was heavy during the first year and the piles were encased in concrete jackets 3 inches thick. When this pier was removed in June, 1921, to make way for a per- manent structure, the jackets and piles were all found to be in good condi- tion. The “Bunker Wharf” of the Spreckels Company was constructed in 1887 on creosoted piles and between the years 1889-1893 these piles were encased in concrete jackets made with 1 to 1 or 1 to 1% mortar, depending on the depth of water. The forms were made in halves, placed and bolted by divers. No bearing piles have been replaced in 35 years, though some of the jackets have required repair. It has been found at points where the concrete has broken away from the pile that a sandy, gritty surface remained, which seemed to give at least temporary protection. The San Diego Municipal Wharf is built on concrete cylinders molded in place over three pile clusters. These supports, built in 1914, appear to be in good condition, but the floor beams and girders at a number of points show discoloration and signs of spalling over the reinforcing rods, Substitutes for Timber Concrete—The Army Mine Wharf was constructed in 1910 on concrete bearing piles which were reported to be in good condition in 1922. The pier at the Naval Air Station was constructed in 1920 on 140 18-inch by 18-inch and 232 14-inch by 14-inch square precast piles. The 18-inch 378 HARBOR REPORTS piles were reinforced with four 1-inch and the 14-inch with four %-inch deformed square bars hooped with 34-inch diameter bars with 14 inches cover. The aggregates were hard granites from the bed of the Otay River and medium sand. The cement was Victor Brand, the water fresh from the city supply; the steel was free from rust and the mixture was 1:11:38, of a slightly quaking consistency. Part of these piles were jetted and part driven with a No. 1 Vulcan hammer. A concrete sheet pile sea wall was built at the same time and with the same methods and materials. This structure, at the age of two years, showed no deterioration. The Naval Fuel Depot is built on concrete filled steel cylinders made of 14-inch steel plate supported by pile clusters cut off at low water. The deck and superstructure are steel. The plates in the cylinders show very little corrosion and the superstructure is in good condition though it has not been repainted since its construction in 1909. There is a considerable amount of floating oil around this structure which has preserved the steel below high water and in the opinion of the Public Works Officer the thick accumulation of coal dust above the water level has acted as a protective coating preventing rust. Cast Iron—The Quarantine Station Wharf is built on cast iron columns supported on unprotected wooden piles cut off at the mud line. It was built in 1888 or 1889 and its history is reported by the U. S. Engineer Office as follows: “Captain Watkins, who has been at the station since 1900, reports that the cast iron piling is brittle and that a number of them have broken under the impact of a vessel striking the wharf. (We viewed one that had been broken short off by the stem of a small motor dory.) Another objection is that in some cases the current has scoured the sand below the bottom of the bell, leaving the stub wooden pile open to attack of borers. Several piles have been found suspended from the dock due to this. A chird objection is lack of rigidity due to difficulty of getting a snug fit ox the bell over the supporting wooden pile. (Diagonal rod interbracing originally installed to stiffen the structure was removed because of the kelp it col- lected.) Repair of broken piling has been fairly simple by inserting a pipe, putting a clamp over the break and filling with concrete. Captain Watkins is of the opinion that the piling should be filled with concrete when built, strengthening against the apparent crystallization and securing a snugger fit upon the supporting pile. “To offset the objections is the long life, as the piles show surprisingly little corrosion. Contractors are at work now putting on an entire new superstructure of timbers and decking on the long approach to the main wharf, supported by the original hollow cast iron piling.” Conclusions It appears that so far as indicated by test blocks the attack by Bankia setacea is negligible; that Limnoria attack is heavy throughout the harbor though perhaps a little heavier toward the southern end than farther north; that while larvae of Teredo diegensis are deposited throughout a greater part of the year serious attack does not occur before the month of April. The close of the season of activity has not yet been determined. The results obtained with concrete jackets on creosoted piles with the ex- ceptional character of maintenance these structures have received, have been very satisfactory. The nail armor has been very effective and its record should encourage the use of this method where labor costs are not prohibitive or with machine methods of driving the nails which may be developed. LOS ANGELES HARBOR 379 The long life of the cast iron wharf at the Quarantine Station, in spite of the evident defects in design is very significant. gee LOS ANGELES HARBOR Description : A portion of San Pedro Bay (Fig. 135), which was naturally protected from northerly and westerly winds, has been converted into a safe harbor at all times by the construction of a breakwater about 2.11 miles in length and by a large amount of dredging. The outer harbor has a general depth of 35 feet and the channels, which are from 200 to 500 feet wide, have a depth of 30 feet, except for a portion of the channel in the Inner Harbor, which has been dredged to 20 feet. Tidal currents exist in the channels of sufficient strength to facilitate the distribution of borers. Marine Borers Past History—The present harbor is comparatively new, but the struc- tures in San Pedro Bay and vicinity have shown the presence of Limnoria and the molluscan borers as far back as there are records. Both types of borers are very destructive, Limnoria being perhaps the worse of the two. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards have been maintained as shown below: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) ~ Municipal Pier, Long Beach..... A= OGin epee | ALON cen ec 4 een ute ave aes Oct. 31, 1922 at res: 6.0 Bertie Olen Awe ot ee, N= (Oe MATIN ce ot. Sates sale cocks Nov. 13, 1922 1.66 18.0 ISvrnAe ROLE. le MA eee rr INAS 3 Se pata a ee & es Cee eee Noy. 15,1922 1.8 25.0 A-106—The first shipworm punctures appeared on block 1, removed No- vember 15, and the first Limnoria on block 38, removed December 16; in block 7, removed February 16, the specimens of Teredo diegensis had reached a maximum length of % inch. Block 9, removed March 16, con- tained a few specimens of Teredo diegensis up to 1 inch in length, containing larvee, but this length and the number of animals found did not appreciably increase until about May 1, when a more rapid growth commenced. The number of specimens of Teredo found in any block never exceeded about 70 and the length was not more than about 41% inches. The Limnoria attack was very heavy. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Pecten, Crepidula and Ostrea. A-107—No life appeared on these blocks until block 3, removed January 16, 1923, when a few shipworm punctures were found. A few specimens of Limnoria appeared on later blocks but there was no increase in the num- ber or size of those of Teredo diegensis until April 2, when one of them had reached a length of 34 inch and when a more rapid growth started. Block 11, removed May 16, showed one specimen of Bankia setacea and the next block, two weeks later, contained a few of Teredo diegensis 2 inches long and one of Bankia setacea over 6 inches long. The number and size of both species increased rapidly in June and those of Teredo continued to increase until there were 50 to 75 per square inch up to 4 inches in length, 380 HARBOR REPORTS with a few specimens of Bankia up to 10 inches long. Limnoria attack was light. Associated organisms were Bryozoa (Crisia and Microporella). The last block removed, January 16, 1924, was thoroughly riddled by Teredo diegensis and contained a few specimens of Bankia setacea. A-108—The first shipworm punctures appeared in block 3, removed Jan- uary 2, and the first Limnoria, February 17. The shipworms, Teredo diegensis, reached a length of °% inch in block 8, removed March 16, and one month later a specimen 4 inches long was found, but the number did not appreciably increase until the last half of May; by September 15 the blocks were thoroughly honeycombed, some of the Teredo specimens being about 8 inches long. Limnoria attack was negligible. Associated organ- isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Crisia) and Anomia. The last block in- spected was removed January 16, 1924. Some time previous to 1909 piles supporting several structures were en- cased in concrete jackets as a protection against borers. In 1922 a number of these piles were removed in the course of the construction of the new harbor and the concrete was found to have been attacked by rock borers. There is no exact record as to the date of placing the jackets or the method of construction except that wooden forms left in place were used. The concrete was friable and contained few coarse aggregates and some speci- mens showed the characteristic pink color caused by the disintegration of the cement. The best specimen tested has a crushing strength of 1,726 pounds per square inch. This concrete was undoubtedly far from being of the best quality and it is still questionable whether these animals could destroy first class concrete, though they will undoubtedly assist the chemi- cal disintegration when that cause of failure becomes active. Roughly, about 50 per cent of the jackets examined were rather heavily attacked and few of them showed no attack. In one specimen examined there were about 8 borers per square foot and heavier attacks are reported. The principal boring species was the Pholadidea penita (Conrad). Speci- mens of Petricola carditoides (Conrad) were also found, but it is thought that this species did not bore but lived only in previously existing holes. Methods of Protection Practically all wooden harbor structures are protected by creosoting or by concrete jackets, but service records available do not cover a sufficiently long period to be of value. Substitutes for Timber Reinforced Concrete—The following statement furnished by the Harbor — Department of the City of Los Angeles shows the concrete structures in the harbor. It will be noticed that none of them are yet old enough so that deterioration could be expected. BERTHS 56-60 Length of Wharf—2,920 ft. Reinforced Concrete Piles. Materials. . Aggregate—Sand and gravel from San Gabriel and Puente Largo, Wash. ; Cement—Colton, Riverside and Golden Gate. Gaging water—Fresh. Reinforced with spiral hooping and %-in. bars running longitudi- nally—1.38 per cent to 1.7 per cent steel. LOS ANGELES HARBOR 381 i923 i o =) Ea Eee n Yes) gars on om @ r4 LOE om ao s Z.a4 fy Ow en36 ce? 2) a : ke 382 HARBOR REPORTS Mix—Originally 1:114:3 and later changed to 1:1%:3%. Cover over reinforcing—2 in. Piles painted with one coat of “TIron- ite.” Precast. Built in 1913. Condition satisfactory—could find no deterioration. Date last inspected—June, 1923. BERTHS 187-188: Length of Wharf—1,159 ft. Reinforced Concrete Piles. Materials. Aggregate—Sand from San Gabriel, Wésh. Cement—Victor. Gaging water—Fresh. 20-in. pile with 12-in. hollow core. 18-in. pile with 10-in. hollow core. Spiral reinforcement and 8 %-in. longitudinal bars—1.2 per cent to 1.4 per cent steel. Mix—About 1:2%. Cover over reinforcing, 214 in. Built in 1920, made of Gunite 4 in. thick blown around a paper core, 12 in. diam. No deterioration as yet can be noted. BERTHS 189-191: Length of wharf—1,176 ft. Reinforced concrete piles. Materials: Aggregate—Sand and gravel from San Gabriel River bed. Cement— Victor. Gaging water—Fresh. 18-in. square piles—corners. chamfered 3 in. Steel wires for hooping and ten 1-in. down to eight %-in. bars, depending on length of pile for horizontal reinforcement— 1.1 per cent to 2.5 per cent reinforcement. Mix—1:1.8:3. Cover over reinforcement, 3 in. Built and driven in 1922. BERTH 2382: Length of wharf—1,120 ft. Reinforced concrete piles. Materials: Aggregate—Sand from San Gabriel River bed. Cement—Victor. Gaging water—Fresh. 17 in. round piles, from eight %-in. diam. to six %-in. diam. longitudinal rods, depending on length of pile—0.8 per cent to 1.1 per cent reinforcement. Mix—1 :2:6. Cover over reinforcement, 21% in. Made of Gunite. Built and driven in 1922. It was found that the hollow piles used in Berths 187-188 were more expensive than solid piles and therefore this method was abandoned and the piles made solid. The cost of the gunite pile is said to have been approximately $2.75 per linear foot as compared to about $3.25 for poured piles. Aside from the wharf structures, we have a reinforced gunite landing barge, 20 ft. by 100 ft. by 6 ft. deep. Materials: Aggregate—San Gabriel River sand. j Fie. 136 N ie ~~ U (7) MALLAR et or “ AVON Of 27, (BF SACRAMENTO ) PITTSBURG Cte ay MARIN Lp Te. Ze Lp 3 o 9 \ ae a) SAN RAFAEL COD Wale ee () aN “GREEN BRA MT TAMALPAIS ss He MT OIABLO f ora ‘orn \ SAN FRANCISCO BAY ANO TRIBUTARIES Scale r] a é é 10 MILES drawn For Sen Francisco Bay Marine Piling Survey december 1920 ] QUMBARTON Sy /}f B Tea) PN! Ne NI Ms be he 8 WOU Peer dex as #2 SAN FRANCISCO BAY 383 ~ Cement—Bear brand. Gaging water—Fresh. %-in. steel twisted rope, Clinton electric welded fabric and tri- angular mesh. Four-in. walls, bottom and deck—about 2% per cent steel. Mix—About 1:2%. Cover over reinforcement, 1% in. Built in 1918. Present condition: No recent inspection made. Barge has not settled any in the water and from superficial examination, no deterioration was found. In a wharf now under construction a new method of protection is being used and the service record of this structure will be watched with interest. These piles are 16 inches square and from 30 to 52 feet long, with longi- tudinal reinforcing % to 4 inches with spiral hooping and a small circular hole cast in the center of the pile to aid in impregnation. The mixture principally used was 1:3:3, though a mixture of 1:314:31% as well as others are being tried. The concrete is mixed rather dry and carefully tamped in the forms. After the piles are seasoned they are placed in a tank 8 feet square and 60 feet long, filled with cold asphalt of 40-50 penetration. The temperature is raised to about 450° Fahr. and then allowed to fall to 212° Fahr., at which time the piles are removed. The whole operation requires 24 hours. On account of the uneven expansion of the concrete and steel, cracks are formed, which aid in the impregnation. This cracking has been said by some not to be harmful to the strength of the piles, since the asphalt firmly cements the cracks. Confirmation of this hypothesis awaits further test and observation. By this method it has been possible to thoroughly impregnate the piles and thus it is thought that the concrete will be protected from disintegration and the reinforcing metal from corrosion. Recent experiments on this type of pile are claimed to have produced full size pile samples free from cracks and fully impregnated with asphalt. Conclusions All structures in the harbor are subject to heavy attack from marine borers and piles should therefore be protected in all except very temporary structures. While Teredo diegensis seems to breed slowly through the winter a heavy attack need not be expected before May 1, and since Bankia setacea appears later this may be considered the end of the period of shipworm inactivity. Limnoria is active, but will not alone destroy a structure in one season. The concrete structures are too new to furnish information as to prob- able life, but the varied methods of construction used and the complete records available justify careful study of the service given. SAN FRANCISCO BAY The greater part of the information contained in this report on San Francisco Bay is abstracted from the three reports of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, published in 1921, 1922 and 1928. Description of San Francisco Bay and Tributaries San Francisco Bay (Fig. 136) proper extends from its junction with San 384 HARBOR REPORTS Pablo Bay between Points San Pedro and San Pablo southeastwardly about 40 miles. The entrance to the Bay from the Pacific, the Golden Gate, is about 10 miles south of; Point San Pedro. The Bay is about 12 miles wide at its widest point and has an area of about 228 square miles. The depth in the Golden Gate is about 300 feet and the average current on flood is 3.3 knots and 3.4 knots on ebb with a maximum ebb current observed of 6.5 knots. The northern extension of San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, is about 10 miles long by 8 miles wide and has an area of about 112 square miles with a channel depth of about 30 feet, and tidal current averaging slightly less than 2 knots on both ebb and flood. Carquinez Strait enters San Pablo Bay from the east and connects that body of water with Suisun Bay. It is from 44 to 34% miles wide and 6 miles long, with a depth of from 30 to 60 feet and has tidal currents averaging from over 2 knots on flood to over 3 knots on ebb, with 6 knots or more on ebb tide coincident with floods in the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. Suisun Bay is a generally shallow body of water, which is really the delta of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. The channels are narrow and winding and are used only by light draft vessels. The watershed tributary to San Francisco Bay is about 6,200 square miles, of which 5,800 is in the watersheds of the San Joaquin and Sacra- mento Rivers, whose waters enter through Suisun Bay, Carquinez Straits and San Pablo Bay. The general salinity conditions in San Francisco Bay proper do not vary sufficiently from the normal to greatly affect marine life, but in San Pablo Bay the effect of the discharge of the Sacramento and San Joaquin has a distinct influence on salinity (Fig. 137), while in Carquinez Strait the river discharge lowers the salinity to zero at times (Fig. 138). Temperatures at Tiburon have an annual average of 55.1° Fahr., with a January average of 47.5° Fahr. and a July average of 62.6° Fahr. At Goat Island the corresponding figures are 54.4° Fahr., 48.1° Fahr. and 59.5° Fahr., respectively. In the Mare Island Channel July and August, 1920, averaged about 62° Fahr., with a maximum of 64° Fahr. at the bottom and 67° Fahr. at the surface, and there was no considerable variation from these figures until October. January, 1921, showed a minimum of 39° Fahr. at the bottom and 42° Fahr. at the surface, with an average of about 45° Fahr., while June, 1921, showed its highest surface temperature to be 72° Fahr. and 66° Fahr. at the bottom, with an average of about 65° Fahr., while the variation ‘in Carquinez Straits is from a minimum of about 40° Fahr. to a maximum of 70° Fahr. Marine Borers Past History—Structures in San Francisco Bay have been subject to attack by marine borers ever since records have been kept, though tradi- tion says that the shipworm did not become a menace until the great shipping increase caused by the gold rush in 1849. There is a pile section in the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, collected in San Fran- cisco Bay in 1867, which was heavily attacked by Bankia setacea. So far as the biologists know the only borers existing in the Bay prior to 1914 were the Bankia setacea and Limnoria lignorum. The greatest destruction occurred near the Golden Gate and on parts of the San Francisco water- front, where an unprotected pile might not last over a few months, while SAN FRANCISCO BAY 385 on the Oakland waterfront eighteen months to three years’ life might be expected. In San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Straits, Suisun Bay and the Sacramento River, unprotected structures had been standing 30 or 40 years without attack until 1917, but since that time every waterfront structure of untreated timber between San Pablo Bay and Antioch on the Sacramento River has been attacked by Teredo navalis and most of the structures as far as Suisun Bay have been destroyed. The attack of the Teredo navalis has also extended to the south end of the Bay, but the damage has been less than in the north, because there are fewer structures to serve as breeding grounds. The attack on the creosoted piles of the Dumbarton bridge has been fairly destructive, but was due principally to Limnoria following abrasion of the creosoted timber. Teredo navalis is the most widely distributed species in the Bay, and consequently the most destructive, while Bankia setacea is less widely dis- tributed, but just as destructive where it exists. Teredo diegensis is of less economic importance, as it has been identified in only one locality. The two crustacean borers found in San Francisco are the Limnoria lignorum and a species of Sphaeroma. The former is found in all parts of San Francisco Bay proper and is especially destructive on the San Francisco and Oakland waterfronts, while Sphaeroma is found, not only in San Fran- cisco Bay itself, but also in its tributaries as far as Antioch on the Sacra- mento River. Sphaeroma has so far shown itself of little economic im- portance. Committee Investigations—The San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Com- mittee has placed and maintained a large number of test boards and in addition to determining salinities and temperatures has made a number of laboratory experiments to find previously unknown facts regarding the life history, habits and requirements of Teredo navalis, the most im- portant species of borer with which they had to contend. The details of this work will be found in the reports of the Committee. The purely scientific studies of the Committee have produced the follow- ing results: Evidence drawn from studies of a large number of shells and pallets shows that the range of individual and environmental variations in Teredo navalis is so great that all forms of Teredo of economic importance in San Francisco Bay, exclusive of Teredo diegensis, may properly be included in this species. , Evidence that Teredo navalis maintains its normal activity in salinities as low as 9 parts per 1,000; that below 7 parts per 1,000 the proportion of active individuals decreases until at a salinity of 3 parts per 1,000 none are active; that the average lethal salinity for this species is 5 parts per 1,000; that 90 per cent of the individuals will be killed by a salinity below 4 parts per 1,000 extending over a period of 33 days, but that if a rise in salinity occurs even for a relatively short period, the animal can renew its supply of salt water and continue to live; that with 33 days of salinity below 4 parts per 1,000, 10 per cent of the animals are still alive and may continue to spread the attack if the salinity increases to a suf- ficient amount before their death. Evidence that during its passage through the digestive tract of Teredo about 80 per cent of the cellulose and from 15 per cent to 56 per cent of the hemicellulose is removed from the wood; that the carbohydrates which disappear are probably used as food by the Teredo; that the digestion 386 HARBOR REPORTS of wood produces optimum conditions for the absorption of toxic substances contained in it and that therefore impregnation with a toxic substance hav- ing the other necessary qualities will provide efficient protection for the timber. Methods of Protection The reports of the San Francisco Committee contain tabulations of the service records of wooden piles with various methods of protection, of creosoted structures and structures built on substitutes for timber. Over 250 structures are listed. The Committee draws the following conclusions from a study of the records so far as they relate to timber construction: “1, Marine borers are very active in San Francisco Bay and con- nected waters, and in places where their attack is severe will destroy untreated piling in as short a time as six to eight months. In other places the untreated piling may last from two to four years. “2 The information secured indicates that it is reasonable to expect a life of five to eight years from paint and batten protections in sheltered waters, if the work is well done. If it is not well done, or if the covering is damaged by careless handling, or if unprotected wood is exposed by mud scour, this range of life cannot be expected. “3 The data in hand indicates that it is fair to,expect creosoted douglas fir piling in San Francisco Bay to give a life of 15 to 20 years under present conditions and practice. Certain piles are of authentic record from the Oakland Long Wharf, which were sound when removed after a service of 29 years. Poor treatment, or damage to creosoted piling by careless handling, rafting, storage or construction, will materially reduce the life which might otherwise be rendered by such piling. “A. Most of the attack on creosoted piling by marine borers, which the Committee has observed throughout this survey, appears to have begun in spots where untreated wood has been exposed by damage in handling the piles or placing the superstructure. It is urgently recommended that improvements be made in the methods of handling creosoted piles and building structures upon them, so that damage to the surface of the piles may be reduced to a minimum. Gratifying improvement has taken place during the current year. “5 Precast reinforced concrete piles and pile casings have not been in use in San Francisco Bay a sufficient length of time to determine their ultimate life. A detailed examination of structures which have been in service for more than ten years shows no evidence of deterioration below high water line, and they seem capable of a long further life. The length of life to be expected from this type of construction is largely dependent upon the quality of materials and workmanship and the skill and care with which they are employed, and any laxity in these particulars will materially shorten the length of service which may be secured. “6, Reinforced concrete cylinders cast in open caissons have been in use since 1910. Although the average life of many earlier cylinders has been considerably shortened by construction defects, these cylinders with minor repairs still give promise of a long period of service. Similar cylin- ders designed and constructed in accordance with best modern concrete practice should constitute a type of construction only excelled for longevity by solid fill or mass concrete. “7 Cast in place concrete pile jackets may be expected to give satisfactory results if properly constructed of suitable materials and if proper regard is given toward exclusion of sea water from forms. The difficulties of this type of construction, however. are of such nature that the probability of securing a maximum length of life is less than in the case of precast concrete piles or pile casings. “8. Copper sheathed piles have given very satisfactory service in locations where damage from abrasion and theft can be minimized. Such piles care- fully prepared and handled fall into the class of best surface protections, 387 SAN FRANCISCO BAY "IVD ‘AV OOSIONVUA NVS ‘SNOILVOO'TT SNOIUVA LV YALVAA AO ALINITIVS—JET “DI w3EWw3930 wasusarow w3ec120 Wiewaidaac asnonw anne auac av “Nudav Moe Auvnsezs ABVANWS . Bre PM Mie ee, COLPRU TIM a AS NET TT USP RS BN EL a, Rh) Le aN ee ee BOL SRS Vai iARRR INA PNET Nea eae sts tO Srey Ui Pitt ttt TT AT TA AT Tah AT TAC WY [fe Shima Sood gy A CES ea Ato tel Ee Se A ea AN a A i EMER itteeesecsscee ov oun Rake ae eaueere seen anneal MALY hig nu ao pert Ie | CCCs [sey SaREOD NE Re el SO wee BLL 4 G 3 a a SS WN Seo arias pp fe BEREERE HIMES ey EOE cy ALONG: ie ia a BOG VIE SLuwE “AbIUNY oane rcs =@m—N Fo NI ah 2 p2nn Reece E ate ian) +H FE ae a |_| pa || : @ |_| ei a i i || | || a E 5 be | ; ‘a A [| | | | " |_| | | ia ig CUR TSERI90BS 388 HARBOR REPORTS when used under the conditions indicated, but are easily damaged by either abrasion or theft. “9. The selection of a type of piling or pile protection for a given structure must be made upon the basis of cost and permanence of the materials under consideration, the character of the structure and the probable need for future alterations to meet the changing requirements of commerce. When a comparatively short increase over the life of untreated wooden piling is sufficient, the surface protections will often be found economical in waters not exposed to severe storm action; if a moderately long physical life approximating the average economic life of marine structures in this harbor is desired, a good creosote treatment will provide it at the lowest annual cost, so far as present knowledge goes; if conditions warrant building for the greatest permanence, with less regard for first cost, concrete construc- tion has shown a high value in this harbor. For the protection from further damage of wooden piles already in place and showing attack by borers, not yet severe enough to require condemnation, the concrete casing, precast or poured in place, is the only means of salvage so far found by the Committee.” Substitutes for Timber Wrought Iron and Steei—There are five piers reported on cast iron piles and two on wrought iron, containing 505 cast iron and 179 wrought iron piles, both cylindrical and both filled with concrete. The cast iron piles were placed between 1870 and 1903 and the wrought iron in 1886 and 1897. Sixty-five piles out of 145 have been replaced_on account of breakage in the pier on Alcatraz Island since 1870 and the bracing has been renewed five times. In the other cast iron pile piers only five replacements have been made and no wrought iron piles have requird renewal. A pier on cast iron cylinders 4 feet in diameter and 2 inches thick filled with concrete was built at the Tiburon coaling plant of the Navy in 1906-08 and is reported to be in excellent condition with no maintenance expendi- tures except painting above water level. Concrete—Two types of concrete construction are in general use. In one the deck of the pier is carried on cylinders sunk to a satisfactory foundation. They are from 5 to 7 feet in diameter and were constructed inside of steel caissons which were unwatered before pouring the concrete. The reinforcement consists of %-inch square bars spirally hooped with No. 0 wire. The concrete mixture was one part cement to six parts ag- gregate and the reinforcing had a 83-inch cover. There are 12 piers, containing 5,198 cylinders, built between 1909 and 1916, and 457 of the cylinders had required repair up to December, 1922, but none of them had failed. The other type of concrete construction makes use of reinforced con- crete piles which are generally from 16 to 20 inches square, made with a 1:5 mixture and reinforced by from four °4-inch bars to six 1-inch bars, depending on the length of the piles. No. 3 wire is used for spiral hoop- ing and there is 2-inch cover over the reinforcing. There have been 19 structures containing 8,637 piles built between 1911 and 1922 and none of the piles have as yet required replacement, but many of those over 10 years old and some of less age show rust streaks or cracks over the reinforcing above high water. For example, three structures re- ported in the second report (1922) have the following record: In one built in 1911, 30 per cent show rust streaks or cracks, in another built in 1912, 25 per cent, and in one built in 1915, 10 per cent. There is a large amount of sea wall on the San Francisco waterfront generally built of concrete blocks cast and seasoned in air. It is thought to be in good condition. Oe EL ne a _— —_ SAN FRANCISCO BAY «| t EERE EEEEEEE | O4ad Rae rae meuwiss |) DOGS ee Re BREESE EEE ee EEE see = Saal meee eae et PE SSS Secret FERRE EE EEE HS +f Sugg¢ddusaunsuue®=200°sguaaaRReEaEaae! 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AN 1GUST Fic. 138—COMPARATIVE SALINITIES, 1920-1921-1922, avr MARTINEZ, CAL. 389 390 HARBOR REPORTS At the Mare Island Navy Yard there is a concrete quay wall cast in place and built at various times since 1892. The salinity at this point is generally low and there has been little if any visible deterioration. The cement used had an average composition of TTL CA gn a)b Fore woe oom ow Sa votes ingladiae see ole ze ells peta cas 21.6% Ferric oxide) sisi oo. net en See. oe ee 3.8 Alumina. f:2.4 0. Se PP ee 10 Calcium: oxide 23.2... 266-1 eee eee ee 61.6 Magnesium oxide 2... sv sews tiac a 0s ee © oe 6 ee 1.2 Sulphur: trioxide. .i.'s ssc: = eee pete See 1.2 Loss on ignition (moist alkalies)... 2. G.9 Joe eee yd | Specimens were cut from the walls constructed at various dates, the large stones of the aggregate removed and the remainder of the specimen analyzed, with the results as shown below, which are quoted from a report by the Public Works Officer of the Yard: Present Present Present Date Wall Present per cent per cent per cent Present Concrete Placed No. per cent Calcium Magnesium Sulphur per cent Silica Oxide Oxide Trioxide Salt 1 Oey ar iat veca.< MSO N 64.4 12.6 2.4 .80 1.30 L803 Rae a cee s G 76.9 8.4 2-0 .62 ag Wi LS Of tee ae ge8 cee reels D 74.0 Dao 380 .80 -12 1S OS Serta ee ee eee B 59.9 8.9 if .88 .91 L898. ees). Gees ett L 67.8 11.6 1.9 .76 .58 LS OS ie oe en C 57.6 18.4 2.1 .70 .16 TSO TE ees eee. O 73.4 4.3 6.3 35 .58 TS 90 ie Paar BS cr. ete cane E 65.1 12.3 2.8 74 .62 1890 Tee oe Aes M 62.8 thas 2.4 .00 .00 18007 eee ee ee K 61.8 20.6 ea 1.20 1.50 L902) eee, case eee F (on 7.8 2. 1 39 54 L903. Saete eke eee H 72.9 8.8 Diets 1.20 .41 1900 ee een, eee I 67.8 13.8 1.9 1.30 .74 LOZ. eens oe ees Q 66.0 ieO 2.28 61 173 dD RS Wea hy ls Se Sa eR Eka P-1 fina: 19.9 Lis .38 1.20 LOL Oe ee. omen P-2 49.3 18.5 2628 1.60 1.80 “These results are irregular, but, when averaged by years, show a gradual leaching out of lime in approximate proportion to the age of the sample. Date placed...... 1898 1897 1898 1899 1902 1903, 1909) 31912551906 Present per cent Ot *iiniceeacaee 8.4 5.5 12.9 9.6 °7.8 “Sear ie See “This lime content is essential to the lime-silica combination, which is the strength of the cement.” A further quotation from this report is as follows: “No other methods of safeguarding concrete from salt water and abrasion have been used at this yard than the use of dense mixtures, care- fully placed and tamped, and an outer protection of timber. “Deterioration of concrete structures is very slight at the Mare Island Navy Yard owing to the narrow range of temperature, low salinity of the water, and absence of ice or frost. In present quay wall construction Dr. Abram’s methods of proportioning concrete are being followed with great care and the amount of water used reduced as far as practicable.” Committee Tests The San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee has installed a large number of test pieces at several different localities in the Bay area. These test pieces have been prepared for the purpose of experimenting with SAN FRANCISCO BAY 391 creosote either weakened by the subtraction or strengthened by the addi- tion of the fractions of creosote. Sixteen creosote combinations prepared by the Committee are under test as well as four sets of specimens prepared by the Forest Products Labora- tory. These latter are impregnated with— Barren oil. Barren oil with 5 per cent B. Naphthol. Barren oil 45 per cent., naphthalene 55 per cent. Barren oil mercury treated. Specimens are also under test of the following proprietary compounds: Aczol. Antimony trichloride in benzol. Antimony trichloride in creosote. Elaterite paints. Moran preservative. Paraffin. Paraffin and arsenious iodide. Paraffin and copper iodide. Williams & Francois oil. To the date of the last report the specimen treated with antimony trichloride and the one with Elaterite are the only ones of this series to be attacked after 10 months’ immersion. It may be said in this connection that the attack of all the borers seemed much less intense in 1922 than previously. Similar tests are being made with the following timbers: Alder Azobe Greenheart Tallow wood Toledowood (Manbarklak) | Turpentine wood. Chemical studies have been carried on upon the “Extent and Character of Losses of Creosote Exposed Under Varying Conditions.” “Effect of Degree of Penetration on the Composition of Creosote.” “Observations of Test Pieces Treated with Inorganic In- hibitants.”’ “Effect of Chlorine Concentrations on Teredo.” “Effect of Various Salts in Protecting Wood.” The results of these studies, which are now being prepared for publica- tion, will add materially to the knowledge of the protection of timber from marine borers. Conclusions Unprotected wooden structures in many portions of the San Francisco Bay area may not be expected to have a useful life exceeding one year, while in the Carquinez Straits territory life may be longer in years of heavy rainfall and consequent low salinity. Coated piles may give a life of up to six or seven years, depending on the strength of the coating. 392 HARBOR REPORTS Creosoted fir piles properly impregnated and not damaged in handling or after driving may be expected to give an average life in excess of 15 years and in the Southern Pacific Long Wharf gave a service varying from 18 to 29 years with about 30 per cent showing some attack of Limnoria and molluscan borers. Concrete armored wooden piles of some types seem to promise an average life of 15 years or more, but the age of existing structures is not great enough to permit accurate predictions to be made. Concrete cylinder and reinforced concrete pile foundations are not of sufficient age to give the basis for accurate predictions, but serious de- terioration does not seem to have generally set in on well built structures under 10 years of age. The record of cast and wrought iron supports is excellent and such struc- tures well designed may be expected to give a life of 40 years or more with comparatively little maintenance. PUGET SOUND Description Puget Sound (Fig. 139) is a landlocked body of water, which contains several of the more important harbors of the Pacific Coast. It is entered from the Ocean through the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, which is about 82 miles long from Cape Flattery to Point Wilson. The Strait is from 10 to 30 miles wide and ranges in depth from 30 to 130 fathoms. On the south © or United States side there are a number of harbors, few of which contain important marine structures. The general set of the currents is toward the north or Vancouver Island shore. Puget Sound itself has a very irregular shore line, containing a large number of harbors and inlets, some of them of considerable size. The dis- tance from Point Wilson to Seattle is, roughly, 32 miles, and from Point Wilson to Tacoma, 70 miles. Currents in Admiralty Inlet vary from 2 to 5 knots per hour, and are less in the more open waters near Seattle and Tacoma. The depth of water in the channels is great and in Elliott and Commencement Bays, the harbors of Seattle and Tacoma, respectively, there are depths of 50 to 80 fathoms. The extreme tidal range is from 17 to 19 feet. The result is that there is a considerable current close to the shore in these harbors, which aids in the distribution of marine borers, and these depths are also largely responsible for the small variation in temperature during the year. In general the water temperature, except in the shallow harbors, seldom gets below 50° Fahr. or above 55° to 58° Fahr. There are a number of fair-sized rivers entering the Sound from the Olympic Mountains on the west and the Cascades on the east, but they have little influence on the salinity except in the immediate vicinity of their mouths. Marine Borers Past History—Records do not show any periods in the past when struc- tures in the harbors of Puget Sound were not subject to attack by borers. The oldest structure of which a record has been found was a wharf built in 1877 by the Southern Pacific Company, which had its piles protected by copper sheathing, indicating that the danger was recognized at that time. There has always been a considerable amount of floating timber in all these PUGET SOUND 393 waters, which has undoubtedly assisted in maintaining a uniform and gen- eral distribution of borers. It is generally agreed that an untreated pile will have a life of from six months to two years and therefore such piles are not used except for the most temporary structures. Bankia setacea and Limnoria lignorum are the only wood borers so far known to exist, and are both exceedingly destructive. Committee Investigations—Because of the known general distribution of borers and the generally uniform conditions as to salinity and tem- perature it was not considered necessary to place more than a few test boards in the Sound. They were all installed by the Bureau of Yards and Docks of the Navy, and are located as follows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Keyport, Wash—Pacific Coast PeOrped@ Stallone ers oo ects 6 aD = 1 S05 aleNavy occ. coe or ee Jan. 16 1923 1.0 18.0 Receiving Ship Dock—Puget Sound Navy Yard..........- WD=1304b | Navy ....0e.e-e0ek: Jan. 16, 1923 iL t8) 29.0 Pier No. 8—Puget Sound Navy EIR MENS Aca tits oe tance ia WID=LSO4 a TUN away eeteea cies Jan. 16, 1923 126 34.0 Naval Ammunition Depot...... Yas OG sa NAW Vics eden atte cee Jan. 16, 1923 1.0 1320 Figs. 140 to 148, inclusive, show salinity and temperature records at the test board locations. The results of inspections of the blocks from these test boards are as follows: YD-1305—The first specimens of Limnoria appeared on block 2, removed February 20, and the first of Bankia on block 5, removed April 1. One month later the largest of Bankia had reached a length of 34 inch, and on June 1 about 3 inches. The number of specimens both of Bankia setacea and Limnoria was small and those of Bankia did not grow rapidly. The associated organisms were Balanus (very heavy growth), Bryozoa, Algae, Mytilus and some hydroids. The last test block inspected was removed January 16, 1924. YD-1304 b—The first Limnoria appeared on block 4, removed March 16, and the first shipworm punctures on the next block two weeks later. The largest Bankia setacea on May 1 had reached a length of only 1 inch, and only about 35 specimens of Limnoria were found. From this time on the growth of the Bankia was more rapid, but the freedom with which they crossed from the blocks into the supporting board and vice versa made it very difficult to determine their length. The longest burrow found entirely in the block was in block 16, removed September 19, and was about 10 inches | long. Limnoria attack was light and associated organisms were Balanus ; and hydroids. The last block reported was removed January 16, 1924. : YD-1304 a—The first specimens of Limnoria were found in block 4, re- moved March 16, and the first shipworm puncture in the next block, re- ; moved April 1. No others were found until block 9, removed June 1, which contained one Bankia setacea about 1 inch long. The next block two weeks later contained three animals, the largest about 4 inches long, while a length of over 9 inches was found one month later. The same difficulty existed in this board as in the preceding one in measuring the length of the 394 HARBOR REPORTS animals; one of the smallest in block 16, removed September 19, was nearly 5 inches long. Limnoria attack was light and associated organisms the same as on YD-13804 B. YD-1306—The first Limnoria appeared in block 2, removed February 16, and the first Bankia setacea, which was nearly 3 inches long, in block 10, removed June 15. Some of the later blocks contained no specimens of Bankia and others only one or two, but the length of one animal found in STATUTE MILES MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF 2 3 NAUTICAL MILES TEST BOARDS PUGET SOUND WASHINGTON 1923 Fic. 139 block 18, removed October 16, was over 17 inches. Limnoria attack was light. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Mytilus and hydroids. Methods of Protection Pile Coatings—Some use has been made of various preservative paints and the same results obtained as at other ports, i. e., this method of pro- tection is of only temporary value, even with the best of preservatives. Creosote Impregnation—Treatment by impregnation with creosote has been practiced for many years. The first process was by use of the open tank where the piles were boiled in creosote under atmospheric pressure. Some piles treated by this process gave good service, lasting about 20 years, but since douglas fir, which is the only timber in general use in this terri- 395 quvX AAVN GNNOOS Land ‘NOLLVIS odad4uo, LSVOD OIMIOVd LV YaLVM AO ALINITVS—OPpl ‘SIH waans535a YAGWAAON wagoi50 uaeWald3as _ isnonv ANNE anne AVA Wudv HOUvVA auvnugas AUYONYS £2 oz stor ¢ sz oz st o1 s 2 sz oz st ot ¢ szoz st Ob ¢ sz oz st of S stoz st o gf ez oz st Ol s sz ozst or ¢ sz oz st or s ez oz ct Ol .& gz oe stor st oc St os & 7 : 7 : area maa TT aan : T T L = 4 | J Ul t L t u t at ot peg sewenecannenze! trot SHE ; : t } HH rH HH t rf itt THA t aacrseTs bat te oH areesatorett eaHTouysubtayansosseasvorfageestoassed rH ie aan kd Sina aH akon ua i T t Ht i it L : t t : 7. t + t t i t t 1 { t H i + T TT T i fT T t oh mr tt rq SWE roy Erwan HH meas B L : : T n i a t Tr 1 f i t T u r i i i n t 2 a t t t t t H a i rt t ttt ma tre t : t : t + t t a8 t t HHH t t i iT ~ is tt an H tH H t aa hi t t t t tte ‘ i t i it t : H SHEE ae ; So reece t tH t rma tH Ty t t { t t t ‘ t i } f t f f Ht t t t t t t t tH t t es oo =e : ree - = tr tte : t ore eceeeee a secbenat 1h : ttt t t Ht ad 0REO w) t vou | t t TH+ t t r T ry T ; t : t { HEH t ‘ t t t t Ht i j ; t : t t t Hr He t aa im t t t t i t t { rma ; tH 1 + an! 1 t + 1 1 1 : ; t t aseen ; =) i sored t { HoH} 1 i i a { t t t i | t t t t t t tte tt t 0 ; i im t t ; t : rm Ht t meeat Het : : t t f t t t THe i t i { = { t HH + Ht t t t t Ht i HH} i ttt i tr ean +t t : = eam i HH i owagsnee demauas { t i t Ht rt mane t i { t t t t io eateee ainanauaneee H Ht : ! HH t t Ht eS SgMNR BONG C1 1 Toy t Hy t t t th oH + Tt oh HHH ; ttt t tH Hy t THtHy mat i t eu GBeST SBEEBUEE! aURASRORUGERER rEENEE tot oH uOROaD @ t : oH m : TH t { TH t : & aa ttt BOSRESBGRREU EEL u titer i i Ht tt t Het tt THT t 1 Hott t t ; t t aeugweg +t +H 1 am 70 a) t gguHEGURAGEDE eee a UEBRnGERUN RE ot ttt tH t 7HaRUREGGRHAGRd EEWEEES SRO ENRTO GORA Het t Att ISBBRAREERREUGGI f HotH t Utne oa i t mes ORE t =) t t t Ty eet : Pate t inauaat Ht t tt i t Ay TT T ius 1 T 1 1 r imi 1 i t ran if r 1 1 ima 1 i im Ls t i tty tr 1fT T il TH 1 T T 7 tH im te Het HHH 4 : _ Cott t tt HEE et ttt CoH cr t tT Hee eet cee eet = tt mnaeas cats rH i t cht r t+ t ‘ { HY Ht rH HH t i T I 1 TTF T i T if + { t HH { mu t f | : t t { ee oh : ve ant if i t 3 t f - i i T tt i r r r : Ht i t t t t Ht tHe t t Ht - Har t t t t i ; | c t POH t t t t 4 r ! r i rt Hf i =a t } + I f i : +t Uae t i rf t + - + f t t a n at ~ t + n 1 r t t + t 1 Ld im re T tT f t 1 ies OOaE! Ms ; 7 - ee it t trot t t : | : * 1 n LU T 1 + 1 + 1 + thir n i cmt - { r { + rab auEu el i i : : : 7 + rd im : L ra va 7 + ‘sz oz st Ob ¢ sz oz st of § s2 02 st ob s gezoz si Ob & gz oz si O' g& sz 0z st Ob & SZ of St OL G “Gt OF st on s g£zoOzc si Ol & &2 Of Gio & St Of gi oa ge Of Gt OF & waeWao30 uaEWIAON wuagOLDO waGnaldas asnonv atnr anne AVA Teddy : HOUVA AUvNugEad Et6y AuVONYE 396 HARBOR REPORTS tory for construction purposes, is very hard to impregnate, the average life was not satisfactory. The present method of treatment generally involves boiling under vacuum and impregnation under pressure. With this method and the use of a good quality of creosote an average life of 12 to 16 years may be expected, but on account of the variation in the resistance of this timber to treatment a certain percentage of failures can be expected in considerably less time. For example, the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Company re- port a structure built in 1917 on piles with 12 pounds of creosote per cubic foot showing attack in 1922. At the Pudget Sound Navy Yard all ‘permanent’ structures are sup- ported either on creosoted piles or are of concrete construction, the amount of creosote injected being generally about 12 pounds per cubic foot. No oil analyses are available. There follows a list of the Navy Yard piers on creosoted piles: Name of Pier Date Built Dimensions Bracing Condition Receiving Ship Pier. 1920 9072/x22’ to 32%.) Spiked=.oa. Unattacked March 5, 1923. Coal Wharf........ 1915 and 1923 | 700’x57’ to 94’.| Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 5, 1923. Untreated .| Braces riddled. Pict -ae.70 ere ee 1921 1042x480 eee Bolted ae Piles good March 6, 1923. Approach to Pier 4. 1914 2 1OfR40 16 Ot alsin eee Unattacked March 7, 1923. Riéreo ee eie~ fee 1914. 505x800" eee eer eee Rebuilt 1923. 82 piles reported all at- tacked, Bankia only in damaged piles, slight Limnoria attack in others. Bree ReGasmnky oe 1912-1914 529’x49’......| Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 7, 1923. Pier Gc eee ee 1904 B02 <5 14 Batter Piles. ee bet tape piles replaced 1920 in 350’ ength. Extension Pier 8.... 1914 100°x60 3 Batter Piles.| Unattacked March 9, 1923. All creosoted piles now being used at the Yard are treated in accordance with the specifications of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee. The usual length of piles used is between 45 and 65 feet, and the cost in 1923, untreated, averages about 16 cents per foot, while creosoted piles cost from 65 cents per linear foot for piles 45 to 65 feet long to 85 cents for those between 75 and 90 feet. Pile Armors—The “Perfection” process seems to have been first used in 1895 in a dock at Tacoma. This process is described on page 95. Metal—In 1877 the Southern Pacific Company built a wharf at Tacoma on copper sheathed piles; when this dock was removed in 1898 the piles were in excellent condition and were re-used in other structures. Forty- four of them are still in service in a bridge and reported to be in good con- dition, though the copper was removed in 1898 when the piles were taken out of salt water. ; Iron cylinders surrounding clusters of piles were used in two Northern Pacific structures in 1882, and were found in 1910 to be corroded to such an extent that borers had heavily attacked the piles. Concrete—An interesting method of protecting piles with concrete has been used in the construction of the new piers by the Port of Tacoma Com- mission. A concrete casing was built with a cement gun on the pile before driving, and the piles were handled very carefully to prevent fracture of the coating on account of flexure of the pile. This work was done in 1921 and it is, of course, too soon to make any prediction as to its durability. 397 quvA AAVN GNNog La9nd ‘uaId dIHS PYNIAIGOGY ‘SNOLLVAUGSHO AYNALVAGMNAYL GNV ALINITIV§—TPI ‘SLA Pedal epee wash3ZAON wado150 “‘MAgWaLdas asnonv atdnac INAS AVN Wedv - HOYVN auvnuasd Auvanve oz stot sz oz St of c| gz 0Z st of ¢ $z.0z St Ol ¢ sz oz si ot sSzoz st ot S sz oz st Ol sz ozstor s sz oz st or S sz oz si ol s Sz oz spor @ sz oz st o I I 7 7 T gat 7 om Et Te i Ht oak a su Ft en cea Stitt rane Ty an oo r asm T 0 TO - vt “CLES itt . ati we #1 T : T t T + ie = eaireai pearl se : Buineere bert ithe itt : ue f Tt P ; : hs { : ; itt f t f rt 7 Td : uryaeeyaenaaas (SuEREGSN EuWnY NaRST Ea PT : ween aan eauntasanea if au : babedradea ecet a f Aneel ras ga t TH tft t T t ; T t T t rt TTITITT - = H pete u r t { i i t n t trtte it ite FAH unease! + aSTSGEGEd YanRERGG! aeuBEagOEES FasL : : t HH itt foe ; Ht t CHT i tt ate t a th 7 H ott t t 7 t THT etHt money t : n + ott t { t ett t ; t it t 1 t i ma L yf ay ul + Th T { t 1 HH i t t 1 ratte cate HH man f t ao THEE : Tote { He t Tot t 7 n t i t 1 T r 1 t t t fi ! rt ataeanage mt { T f ia Lb rT i rt T t : maa 1 : Ht iad AAA RA : f f t PEPE 1H rH ia CRE Poet rt tore Se maa | i ; Tt t raat iam Horeee ett i tt aa i aEGaEGuGE TaEStGSaOEGE nat Eanaaagt HH ar Zz t t tt { t t Et iand GRGUGUGRAAI GRneSaaRi iNREy CAGUGRN t t a euuaanl ea rnuBRS t mm t i ; rote t t ; t T t tT mas - - - i = Hh ial i aga t tot t HH : t WM f T 1 mae na To i ia i ; r 7 RUBEN Tt tt co Torte * t : ; tt nema THTTHT int SORE BSUSURNSUS LeaaaaaE t tt i t Ht t t torr THE t { + t t (aus ER = i n Ht t ott tt i 1 Ter tt t t Toot TH t a} t i tae ransaa t EEE eet t r t (é9} t tt t t t 2 t ; r ; Hoes ra = + tt ae t t Te (EBSA Ed UNM SUBRE PERS A, tt ct t i0At KOBRL t (ay KE = t mneaan T ipa Sams 1 r t ay Een 1 io { + t i ; a + f ; } + t rn i 1 tt + i > ras t uenga Seas GEREN t } eR 1 a Poor 1 T tH T 1 + # oT t i 1 ig ann a 7 T i + u ast 7 ot : ; = H TT = u — = fete _ = HoH ine : t Peet tt 7 pURRERRE! oH +f = n r i 1 4. i t } t yaad WUESS GRERD CweNU Awe bad Re n + t : + + am t : a r + tite oe LE i : i r rn SZ Of Ss} Ol = sz oz st ol § gzoz st ob gz oz si OL § szoz st ol § szoz st Ob SZ Oz St Ob & st Of St Ob & gzoz si oO s “gt 0% St-o. sz oz st or § sz oz St OL & wagwasagd UIENAAON waBOLSO waeWaldsas asnony aine anne AVA Uedy- HOUVA Auvnudaa €26/ ANYONE : —— wT —— eS 398 HARBOR REPORTS A similar method of protection was used by the Pacific Northwest Trac- tion Company on one of their structures located above low tide near Belling- ham, Wash. This trestle, about 5 miles long, was built with white cedar piles in 1911. It was heavily attacked by Limnoria. In 1916 concrete cas- ings were built from a point 6 inches below to 18 inches above the mud line, but the Limnoria attack continued above this point. Next a wash of cement and sand was applied without removing the barnacles on the pile, which was effective for about two years. In 1918 the piles were scraped clean, covered with mesh reinforcement and a cement gun coating about *4 inch thick applied. The holes dug into the piles by Limnoria were filled out at the same time. These piles are reported to be in good condition at the present time. The new municipal piers at both Seattle and Tacoma are built with an earth or sand fill in the center with aprons supported on piles on the slopes to carry the outside walls of the warehouses and the railroad tracks on the face of the pier. In Seattle creosoted piles are used and in Tacoma both creosoted and gunited piles. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—There are a number of concrete structures at the Navy Yard, and while most of them are of too recent date to give service records of value, the description of the construction methods will be of value to later investigators. Pier No. 8, 403 feet by 60 feet, was constructed in 1911 on reinforced cylinders, spaced 16 feet longitudinally and transversely. The deck is formed of I-beams with an 8-inch reinforced slab floor finished with a 1- inch granulithic surface. These cylinders had 8 15/16-inch walls reinforced with 1-inch round rods and “Hy-Rib” with 2-inch cover over the reinforcing. The mixture was 1:2 cement mortar. After the cylinders were sunk to place the bottom was sealed, the water pumped out and the cylinders filled with 1—variable—4 concrete. The specifications provided that the quantity of sand should be such as would produce the greatest density. Forms were removed 48 hours after completion of the cylinders and a 30-day curing period was observed. Fresh water and cement manufactured by the Santa Cruz Portland Cement Company were used and all reinforcing was carefully cleaned. In April, 1921, some deterioration in both the cylinders and deck girders and slabs, generally in construction joints, was found and was repaired with “Gunite” above a point 2 feet above high water. An inspection of the superstructure on March 9, 1923, showed some addi- tional deterioration, but the “Gunite” repairs made in 1921 were generally in good condition. Pier 4—This pier is supported on cylinders cast in place in 1913-14, and has a timber approach. The concrete portion is 490 feet by 80 feet, and the cylinders are spaced 20 feet transversely and 30 feet longitudinally. The deck is constructed with reinforced concrete girders and stringers with an 81-inch slab floor. The cylinders, 4 feet in diameter, belled to 11 feet at the bottom, are supported by wooden piles. The wooden watertight forms were sunk to place, sealed, pumped out, the reinforcing placed and the concrete carefully deposited and spaded around the reinforcing, a 2-inch cover being main- 8 399 PUGET SOUND waansacoad. Sz oz si ow gs Yaa WSAON sz of st Ob St Of Si Ob. g€ ¥3zGWI30 2 OF si ob uaGWAAON » quvA AAVN GNNOS LaNndg ‘8 UAId ‘SNOILVAUGSAO AYNLVAAINAL GNV ALINITVS—ZPFl ‘D1 . ¥asO1LD0 Yusaensaldss : asnonv ATNEe anne AVN Wedy HOYUVA gszoz st ot ¢ szoz st ol ¢ ‘SZ.0z st of ¢ £z oz si of ez ozs} Of ¢ sz, ozsior ¢ ee oz si o1 & sz oz st ot = T ewasy Auvnuess sz oz siot & | ; mneWoe Ht + i rH r ra rs 5 a a ra gzoz si OF & st ov sit oF Sf st oz Si OF § St OF St OF & gt of St Ob G gz OF si Ob & gzoe sh Ol & Gt Of Si OF BIGOLIO MIGNILassS asnony Aine anne AVA WNudy HOUVA st of st os & Auvnuasa AUVOANWE sz oz st o: & Gt OF Gi OL S76i auvnnye 400 HARBOR REPORTS tained. The reinforcing, which was carefully cleaned, consisted of 5-inch rods 4 inches by 8 mesh and “Hy-Rib.” The concrete mixture was 1:2:4 with the upper 6 feet containing ‘“Truscon paste” as an integral water- proofing compound, in quantity equal to 2 per cent of the cement. Minor disintegration was found above water level in 1921 in both cylin- ders and deck and was repaired with “Gunite.” An inspection of the under- water portion of the structure in September, 1923, disclosed some disin- tegration, and some large crabs (Oregonia gracilis Dana) and (Cancer productus) were found in the holes. The diver reported that these crabs when found were pecking at the concrete, but it is not thought that they had anything to do with the disintegration. Pier 5—The pier under construction in 1923 is 1,200 feet by 80 feet, sup- ported on pre-cast cylinders 4 feet and 4 feet 6 inches in diameter, with wall thicknesses of 6 inches and 8 inches, respectively. It was found im- possible to seal the bottoms, so they are being filled under air pressure. The reinforcing, which was carefully cleaned, consists of square bars, No. 20 wire mesh and spiral hooping with not less than 2-inch cover. The concrete mixture is 1:2:2 and a 1:334:414 mixture for filling, using sand, gravel and Olympic cement with a consistency such that the concrete flowed freely. The curing period has been five weeks, and the cylinders were Tides Sh daily during this period. The deck is of the girder, beam and slab type, using a 1:234:4%4 mix- ture. For both deck and cylinders, Professor Abrams’ method of propor- tioning was used, the water amounting to about 4 gallons per sack of cement. Seawall—This structure under construction in 1923 is 1,200 feet long and consists of wooden bearing and brace piles enclosed by reinforced concrete sheet piling and surmounted by columns carrying the usual girder and slab deck construction. The proportioning of the mixture for the sheet piles was done in ac- cordance with the system devised by Professor Abrams, and resulted in an average of about 1:114:2 and about 31% gallons of water per sack of cement for fairly dry aggregate. The aggregate was sand and gravel with Olympic cement. . Piles were kept wet for seven days and seasoned over 30 days, after which they were driven with a 4,535-lb. drop hammer and two jets under 250 younds pressure. Reinforcing was 1-inch round rods, and the proportion of section for 18 by 18 inch piles 30 feet and under in length was 1.94 per cent, and for 18 by 20 inch piles 30 feet to 50 feet was 1.74 per cent, in all cases with over 2-inch cover. The method of proportioning, materials, etc., was the same for the col- umns and deck as for the sheet piles. Quay Wall A—This is a reinforced wall 1,190 feet long, of counterpart type, built in 1905-06 inside a cofferdam. The mixture was 1:3:6 with a 1:2 mortar facing. The lower 6 feet of the wall was placed in the dry, but the tide frequently covered the re- mainder, which was carefully cleaned and grouted before recommencing work. The wall has been repaired at various times, and in March, 1923, showed considerable deterioration. Quay Wall C—This wall, about 3835 feet long, of gravity type mass con- A401 GUvVX AAVN GNNoOg Lapng ‘LOdaq NOIWINAWWY TIVAVN ‘SNOILVAUGSIQ FAALVaddWay, INV ALINIIVS—¢E FT “OLA ~ wash3o30 UaaN3AON u3gdOLD0 YaeWsLd3as isnonv Aine anne AV Wudv HOWvNM auvnuasa auvnaNvr Sz oz stor ¢ sz ozst of sz oz st or ¢ sz oz si Ob ¢ szoz st or s sz azst of ¢ sz ozstos gs szozsi ot @ gz oza os sz oz stow sz oz st of & j F ; ianauual aaa ea HEE aaa t tH tHe Lt ttt Z " t tt pus uney quae + et 1 n T T tt iit aa it | i Resa i f t ma +f : t ts : t in t iquuaean t rer t 1 L 1 t i na tt i a t Eat a t : : : At oat T 1 tt jeae 1) rt L 14 tH 1 es + t T i T t r T mm i i tT n an a r ttt tH t t t : ‘ t i : f meee : t tt Ht i i t } n ott i TH i cht t ope t i tH tt TH t r i aaa rm t : t t | Het T i] T T T T 1 1 TH t +h t t 1H : t } t t t t t t + t + HHH t f t : t t H ft is TIT T 1 1 i" T t 1 if t Bs - : : rH + ete: t : eames nur 1 t + f 1 1 : HHH t t : t f : t 1 i oh f TE Et | ; t t t : t mp r i t r) + r 7 t I T I (a3) i i tt am H T 7a Ow ttt FE areseat = vA a " t ; t note ree EE RESEREE ot : t = i t i t ? t Ht : { t t t { meaual { t 4 t =) ate TH + : | HH Sune T t ttt 1 i t T ; tt t t Tt Het t : t ; PRRUOQGGR GOGO ROG t t r i : t tt Ht : : T " t i" +H i { tt i tH 1 i i me & i ceo et “I i thot ett i tht n tee th 7 + om al oO i Tt + t t Ht i i iT t i Teeth t f t t 7 OGnOue Gam u t : = 1 i Sy i at t rH ; jeeuaeasad far i Tans rt HH aotateeeansagense an set : f tr t { i } SHH tt tt t aban venEae Z i t HAH + t t t a merce esse ao rause esa : t T T 1 7 t oa 1 + f + | t : ! T r 7 t T 7 i aT The r H i ry 1 tT] t 7 T 1 tT £ 7 H t : t i t Ht duaaugen Haiti Trt t 1 { 4 ry i iE r i TT Ht r t : ied gaueg ses gee : : eua + HT rth aR SEU AU REKEOEUEY t Hes { : i - + 1 ia fy tis eee yo cs ret + roe t t t i t i r i Tot i i 1 i t { f as ‘ i 2 o r re + ui = ned : aa 7 : ma : TT 7 i ” t ; q t t ; i +1 te pete : + ; i + re a: : ra eevee ema ; HT ; { t t ; ; Ht yest cans th t easy eauey SaNex Reus O 7 : Toto Tht t He ; t SZ oz st Ol ¢ sz oz st ol § szoz si o gs sz oz st Ol gf gszoz si ot s szoz st ob sz oz Si ob gs sz Of si o» & Szoz si os gz OZ st oO § St OF st on S SZ OF Gt OF G waewzo3z0 uaEWAAON uzEOLD0 u3EW31d3S asnonv aqner anor AVA udy HOUYA Auvnuaaa |76/ Auyanve HARBOR REPORTS 402 _— BRITISH COLUMBIA Aus crete, was built in 1908-18. Materials used were local sand and gravel and “Golden Gate” cement with a granolithic facing. In general this wall was in good condition on March 7, 1923, except for a few temperature cracks where disintegration had commenced. Quay Wall D—This is a gravity type wall, built in 1901-02. Local aggre- gates and “Condon” cement were used in the proportion of 1:214:5. This concrete was hand mixed and deposited below water level by tremie and above with wheelbarrows. The inspection of March 8, 1923, showed this wall to be badly deteri- orated, though “Gunite” repairs had been made. Quay Wall E—This wall, of the gravity type, 180 feet long, was con- structed in 1895-96, using local aggregates and K. B. & S. English cement in the proportion of 1:2:4. It has deteriorated considerably between high and low water. Several other walls and structures are reported, but generally of the same type of construction and in about the same condition (Fig. 144). Conclusions No structure in the waters of Puget Sound should be constructed with untreated piles if it is expected to last over one year, and it may fail in less time if it be constructed in May or June. The period of immunity from Bankia attack probably covers the fall and winter months of the year, but there is no apparent period of immunity from Limnoria. Thoroughly creosoted douglas fir piles may be expected to have an aver- age life of from 12 to 16 years. The only concrete structures reported are those at the Navy Yard, and while the older structures show deterioration they were not built under specifications which would be considered good practice today. BRITISH COLUMBIA No test boards have been maintained or records systematically collected in British Columbia waters, but it is stated by the scientists of the Biologi- cal Laboratory of the Bureau of Marine and Fisheries of the Dominion, that in the vicinity of the laboratory at Departure Bay, Bankia setacea and Limnoria are very destructive and that Hxosphaeroma oregonensis is also present. | Salinity readings are shown on Fig. 145. The mouth of the Fraser River is directly across the Strait from the laboratory, and when in flood the fresh water discharged by it is in sufficient quantity to materially affect the salinity at the latter location. reecintion ALASKAN COAST The coast line of Alaska, 25,000 miles in length, contains many fine har- bors, but on account of lack of industrial development, it did not seem necessary or desirable to make a detailed study of any of them. Practically all the Pacific harbors on the south coast of Alaska and those of the Aleutian Islands have some conditions in common; their depth is great, the tidal range is considerable and the water temperatures have only small sea- sonal variations, and while there are large streams entering some of them the depths are so great that the effect of the streams on the salinity does not generally extend any great distance from their mouths. ANVISI UMANOONVA ‘AVG TAALUVAIG ‘SNOILVAUASAO AUNLVUAaNAL GNV ALINIIVS—GPT “DLA @16' waenaci1a uIGNBAON yuagOLDO wasWaiacas asnonv anne AVA Wed HOUVAN AuvnuGgad Big! Auvanve St ot stor a ez oz st ot g sz oz gt or ¢ az oz St OF g Sz oz a . 77 i Lat os sz ozst of @ gaz oz si o @ az oz gi of & gt oz sion & sz of gt oF is . ith HARBOR REPORTS _ SZ of Gi OF g aZ of -si of - g2 0c at of @ sz 03 at OF @ gz oz ss ol g 6% of gt Of az oz at of 8 at Of si oO @ gazoz at oO g gt 0% si on & z= at oF ots @i6) uzenwz530 UBANAAON. , ¥B@OLS0 MAGNILdIS asnonv atar anne AYN Vtdy HOUvVA AuvnugEa @/61 ABVONYS 404 ALASKAN COAST 405 Ketchikan (Fig. 146), 649 nautical miles from Seattle, the southernmost important port, is located in the extreme southeastern corner of the Terri- tory on Tongass Narrows. The wharves extend to deep water and the depth 200 to 300 yards off the wharves is from 8 to 20 fathoms. The tidal currents do not exceed 14% to 2 knots per hour. The maximum range of tide is about 23 feet. Petersburg (Fig. 147), 778 nautical miles from Seattle, is a small vil- lage about one mile south of the north end of Wrangel Narrows. The depth of water at the wharves is only 12 feet at low water, and the tidal current MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS KETCHIKAN HARBOR ALASKA NAUTICAL MILES Fic. 146 which flows past the end of the wharves has a velocity of somewhat over +t knots per hour, with a maximum tidal range of 20 feet. Juneau (Fig. 148) 886 nautical miles from Seattle, is an important min- ing town and the capital of the Territory. It is located on the northeast- erly side of Gastineau Channel. There are several wharves with a tidal current passing them of about 2 knots per hour. Very heavy gales occur, but the channel is so narrow that there is very little sea. Depths in the fairway are about 20 fathoms, and the maximum tidal range is over 21 feet. Sitka (Fig. 149), the former capital of the Territory, is located on Bara- noff Island, 59 miles west of Juneau. It is located on a large bay studded 407 ALASKAN COAST e26i WUASV TV TANNVHO OAWGUNILLSV9 * HOUUVH °O*d AVANAL quvod LSaL AO NOILWIOT SNIMOHS dvw SPT SI SZ1IN IWIILNYN iz ° S31IW 3iNnivis io~ Sass Ve S) DA 4 Seiwa ata Pe iriace 408 . HARBOR REPORTS with islands. There is a depth of 24 feet at the city wharf and 28 feet at the Naval Wharf on Japonski Island. The general depth of the Bay is from 5 to 9 fathoms. Tidal currents are about 2 knots at the wharves with a maximum range of about 13 feet. Seward (Fig. 150), about 1,200 miles by great circle route and 1,900 by the coastwise route from Seattle, is located about 2 miles from the head of Resurrection Bay and 16 miles from the ocean. It is the ocean terminus of the Government railway. The railroad wharf has a depth of 30 feet at its face and the Bay as a whole has depths up to 160 fathoms. The tidal range is about 20 feet and the currents at the dock are negligible. Kodiak (Fig. 150) is a small village on St. Paul Harbor, Chiniak Bay, on the northeastern end of Kodiak Island; the channel is narrow and crooked; the depth at the wharf is about 27 feet and in the channels and anchorage 8 to 30 fathoms. The tidal current at the wharves is about 2 knots and the maximum range 13 feet. Dutch Harbor (Fig. 151) and Unalaska are on Unalaska Island, the largest of the Aleutian Islands, about 1,800 nautical miles by great circle course from the straits of Fuca. This is the most important harbor in Western Alaska. It is a large nearly landlocked bay with depths of from 6 to 10 fathoms in the upper portion. The tidal range is about 2 feet and the currents negligible. The depth at the wharf at Unalaska is 25 to 36 feet. Marine Borers Past History—No record of a biological survey of this coast has been found, but reports secured by the District Engineer, U. S. E. D., the Light- house Superintendent and the Bureau of Yards and Docks, show the follow- ing information obtained from wharf owners: eee ee EEE Eee Location Kind of Borers Estimated Life of 16” Pile Ketchthan te. 24.0 occ on oe oo a ee Teredine.<.. e242 .08 Peeled—1 year. EAM Orig owe Tight bark—3 to 4 years. W SOR el Sr cnc! se haa ee ee ee Weredine seas eee 2 years. Juneau and Douglasi ld )-5 os. oes ae Teredine....8..... 2 to 6 years. Haines Mission (Ft. Seward)+............. Weredine > re-.c ae 4 years. RAC WAY Tees ey a a ee ke eal ‘Teredine* rae 7 years (Hemlock unbarked.) Cordova (Catiadc:-N. W, Re BR.) fie se oes, Tereding 23>... 2a 8 months. (Spruce barked). LATAMOFIAV Ea. oo 2 years (Unbarked hemlock). Vaides jc Sat iieenig an ete eS Oe eae heredkine= tee. . oe 10 to 14 months. meward .iufes ty Aeoha’ bok oe ee Meredipe) elas sw oe 8 months to 1 year. Anchorage Se: viv. Gos ok ee None.............| Oldest piles 7 years. Kodiak. 0Res en ee 0 rae ee Teredine, Limnoria.} 3 years. *Wrangel is a small village near the south end of Wrangel Narrows between Ketchikan and Petersburg. {Haines Mission and Skagway are located on Lynn Canal about 80 and 100 miles respectively east of Juneau. Tidal range is high and currents are strong. tCordova, the terminus of the Copper River and Northwestern Railroad, and Valdez, are on Prince Wil- liam Sound between Sitka and Seward. Tidal range is greater at Valdez and less at Cordova than at Seward. §Anchorage is on Knik Arm of Cook Inlet where the water is nearly fresh and, on account of excessively high tidal range, strong currents and shallow water, there is a great amount of suspended silt. There had been no timber structures in Resurrection Bay since the aban- donment of the Russian Shipyard early in the nineteenth century. The wharf of the Alaska Central Railroad (now the U. S. Government Rail- road), built in the winter of 1903-4 with native spruce piles, collapsed under a load not exceeding 500 tons in 1905 on account of the attack of tere- dine borers. The piles were as thoroughly honeycombed as it is possible for piles to be. ALASKAN COAST 409 Pile dolphins at Ketchikan were destroyed by Limnoria alone between 1915 and 1921. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were placed at the fol- lowing locations: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Ketchikan—Dock No. 13, Forest OS A= OZ Rees ATU Vo eemene. beret eo cee Nov. 4, 1922 10 30 Petersburg—Cannery Wharf....| A-103....| Army.............. Nov. 1, 1922 0.0 15 Juneau—Old Pacific Coast Steam- Beng YY MET re Sos cei sans Bd (Seer POAT IVEN es fee sarees elo @ Oct. 15, 1922 1.0 22 Sitka—Naval Wharf, Japonski Rela neem eee Les. Rye Use ING Vinmenes cis cr sacl steers ase April 1, 1923 1.0 19 Seward—GovernmentR.R. Wharf} A-104....] Army.............. Nov. 6, 1922 0.0 18 Kodiak—W. J. Erskine Wharf...| A-105....} Army...............| Dee. 1, 1922 0.0 18 Dutch Harbor (Unalaska)—A. C. ANE RET eA eg ok Scns ss » Vala TsO le INANTViA feces arcs a sestons Dec. 15, 1922 as(O)P MP © ceaapairaees a ye 2 * % La v Z YO-1303 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS NAUTICAL MILE SITKA HARBOR 8 ES ALASKA YARDS $00 Fig. 149 A-102—One specimen of Limnoria appeared on the first block, removed November 16, 1922. Block 7, removed February 16, 1923, showed 25 of Limnoria and one of Bankia setacea about 2 inches long; on block 9, re- moved March 16, there were 115 specimens of Limnoria and four of Bankia 410 HARBOR REPORTS setacea, the largest about 2 inches long and %% inch in diameter. These numbers had increased on block 11 one month later to 140 of Limnoria and 12 of Bankia setacea, the largest about 31% inches long. The severity of the attack of both Bankia and Limnoria increased until by October 1 the blocks were completely honeycombed. Bankia specimens 8 inches long were found, but since many of them crossed from the blocks into the board it is probable that much larger animals existed. Associated organisms were Bryozoa and tube worms. Temperatures and salinities are reported by the Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey as follows, water samples being taken from the pier on which the test board was located: Temperature—° Fahr. Salinity at 60° Fahr. Parts Per 1,000 Year Month Sore Mean Warmest Coldest Mean Greatest Least 1921....) November... 42 44 39 26.0 27.9 25.8 December.. . 43 44 41 250 2822 210 1922) Re ATVUATY: «ane 42 43 41 No hydrome|ter readings t/aken. February... 41 43 39 No hydrome|ter readings tlaken. March. 7. 22: 41 42 41 26.2 30.2 Dues Aprilt arene 42 43 41 29.4 o0n2 27.6 IM ay eee oe 44 52 43 260.27 29.4 22.9 Janene, ore 53 OL 50 24.8 27.4 21.0 July eee 54 59 50 27.4 28.8 26.0 August. ...: 56 59 54 26.2 28.4 24.1 September. . 53 54 50 23.8 27.2 14.2 October..... 48 50 44 23 hee 16.6 November. . 44 47 43 2222 26.6 14.0 December.. . 40 44 38 26.2 29.4 220 L923) 22 January: 41 43 39 28.9 30.0 27.0 February... 41 43 38 29.0 30.2 27.2 Manchmw..ae 41 42 39 27.9 30.0 20.8 April\ nee 43 47 42 26.8 30.0 19.6 May cee 47 50 43 22 DAS 19.6 Juneser ee oe 55 61 48 24.1 26.5 21.6 J lyn, 58 61 56 24.0 25.8 21.4 August..... 59 61 55 24.0 26.0 Loe2 September. . 54 O7 51 23.2 26.5 15.4 October..... 50 oS 46 24.6 26.8 22.6 November. . 45 49 43 22,1 24.9 1522 A-103—Limnoria appeared on the second block, removed December 1, ~ 1922, and several minute shipworm punctures on January 2, 19238; on Feb- ruary 1, 1923, the number of specimens of both Limnoria and Bankia setacea had not increased appreciably and the largest of the shipworms was only 3/16 inch long; on block 8, removed March 3, the number of specimens of both Limnoria and Bankia had increased and the largest Bankia was % inch long; block 12, removed May 23, showed about 200 specimens of Lim- noria and probably 50 of Bankia, the greatest length being about 2 inches. No associated organisms except tube worms were found. A-101—At Juneau the first specimens of Limnoria did not appear until block 5, removed January 1, 1923, 2% months after the immersion of the ~ board. This attack increased gradually until block 23, removed October 1, _ was so heavily attacked that the surface had crumbled. The first ship- worm punctures appeared on block 8, removed February 15, but on later blocks few, if any, were found until block 12, removed April 16, which con-— tained five specimens of Bankia setacea up to %% inch in length. No more were found until block 17, removed June 30, when they had reached a length of over 2 inches. From this time on the number and length increased rapidly until block 23, removed October 1, was completely riddled. The Br yeas y, Se Se OST “SLA vOl-v WIQASNINGd IvVNGdM UNV “I MVIGON e€e6l Mp d]) >= S3TIW TWIILNVYN WUSVTV SdCHVOd LSAL 40 NOILVIOT INIMOHS dvwW OSS.\ Ww $ E> mS p= te S) l i STS Wann EET By nt “aiponys 7 SOlev HT ane; All Se ey ’ 2 ¢ a StEKO SEN . em te « > . 1 ) Y, Y Y Ss : Vy Yi; o SO ; Yy CAS q : YY So \ ad Z Yi >. © Yj YY sl I< s) Yi Y, 7, /j < Se < J j < y f ¥ 412 HARBOR REPORTS largest animal that could be measured was about 12 inches long. The only associated organism was Balanus. YD-1303—One hundred and twenty specimens of Limnoria appeared on the first block, removed May 1, and about 250 on the third, removed June 1, this number increasing gradually through the summer. Associated organ- isms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula) hydroids, Amphipoda and Membrani- pora. Bankia setacea was not found in large numbers. The last block re- ported was removed January 1, 1924. A-104—No borers appeared for two months after the immersion of the board, when 22 specimens of Limnoria were found on block 3, removed January 18. This number increased gradually until block 11, removed on May 14, 1923, showed about 600 of Limnoria. The first shipworms (50), Bankia setacea, the longest %4 inch, appeared on block 7, removed March 15, while with block 11, removed May 14, the length had increased to 21% inches and the number to 60. Destruction by both Limnoria and Bankia proceeded rapidly until block 17, removed September 21, was completely filled. Associated organisms were Mytilus, Bryozoa and hydroids. A-105—Seven specimens of Limnoria were found on block 2, removed January 1, 1923, one month after the immersion of the board. This num- ber increased until about 400 were found on block 11, removed May 16, 1923, and this number gradually increased. The first Bankia setacea was found in block 15, removed July 16, and while no large number of animals were found they had reached a length of 12 inches by September 16 and completely filled the block removed November 16. Encrusting Bryozoa and tube worms were the associated organisms. YD-1301—No borers were found until block 6, removed March 16, 1923, three months after immersion of the board, when 16 specimens of Limnoria appeared. The number found on later blocks has increased, but no great number has been found on any block. No shipworms appeared prior to December 15. The associated organisms are Bryozoa, Membranipora, Algae, tube worms, Amphipoda, and on the June 1st block, a large number of minute specimens of Balanus. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—There are a few structures along the coast built on creosoted douglas fir piles, but they have been constructed too re- cently to furnish reliable information as to the life to be expected from this method of protection, though the opinion of some wharf owners seems to indicate about 12 years. Some native spruce piles were sent to Seattle by the Alaska Central Rail- road in 1905 for creosoting, but the treating plant reported that the timber was badly injured by the treatment and the piles were not used. It seems probable that if industrial demands are sufficient, a method for creosoting the native timber can be developed. Other Timbers than Spruce and Fir—Wharf owners in several harbors report that unbarked hemlock piles will last approximately three times as long as spruce, or as long as two to three years where the borer attack is heavy. After the collapse of the Alaska Central Railroad dock at Seward in 1905, a portion of it was redriven with cottonwood piles. This dock was burned GUANTANAMO 413 about two or three years later, at which time no attack on the cottonwood was found. The Alaska Packers’ Association built a dock on spruce piles in about 1908 in Uyah Bay on the mainland across Shielkof Strait from Kodiak Island. This dock failed two or three years later on account of shipworm attack and because of the fact that cottonwood piles (which had been in place over 20 years) were still in good condition in another arm of the Bay, the dock was rebuilt, using cottonwood piles. This dock is still in service and reported to be in good condition. Substitutes for Timber There are no records available of structures of any importance built of concrete, iron or steel in Alaskan waters. Conclusions Attack by marine borers can be expected in practically all harbors south and east of the Aleutian Islands. Unprotected spruce and fir piles can be expected to last from six months to two years; unbarked winter cut hem- lock may last two or three times as long as spruce. The record of cottonwood piles is good and where this timber can be obtained it offers considerable promise as a wharf material. It appears that Limnoria attacks throughout the year, but that its attack is heavier after April 1 than before that time. Bankia setacea breeds in January and February, but it does not appear that many larve survive or that much growth takes place until about April 15. The rate of growth generally increases from that time until about June 15, when it reaches its maximum. Some variation is found in the different harbors, but not more than might be caused by local conditions surrounding the test boards. 2) ee GUANTANAMO, CUBA Description The Naval Station at Guantanamo (Fig. 152) is leased from the Cuban Government. The lease covers an area of about 47 square miles, of which 9,485 acres is water. The climate is semi-arid, with an average temperature varying from 75° Fahr. in February to 85° Fahr. in August. The average range of tide is 1.35 feet, and the currents are inappreciable. The wharves, of which there are seven, have depths of water alongside varying from 30 feet at the Main Station Wharf to 5 feet on the northwest side of the South Toro Cay Wharf. The anchorage has an area of about 8 square miles. Marine Borers Past History—Marine borers, both molluscan and crustacean, are known to be constantly present, and unprotected timber is never employed in structures exposed to sea water, except in the case of temporary construc- tion. Committee Investigations—Test boards were established at two locations as shown in table on page 414. Blocks were forwarded for inspection at semi-monthly intervals. The results were as follows: | 414 HARBOR REPORTS YD-C-1—-Young shipworms were numerous on block 2, removed Novem- ber 30, with tube lengths up to 8 mm. The number increased to about 100, and the maximum length to 25 mm. in block 3. The specimens contained in block 4, removed December 30, were of sufficient size and numbers for identification, and the following determinations were made: Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. “GQ” Teredo (Zopoteredo) johnsont Teredo (Teredo) portoricensis to which were added from the later examinations: Teredo atwoodi Teredo (Teredo) sp. “KH” Teredo sp. “F’”’ Teredo sp. “Q” Bankia sp. “V”’ The majority of animals found in all blocks were of Teredo sp. “G.” Bankia sp. “V’’ was observed only in block 4. The entire test specimen consisting of the supporting board, original blocks Nos. 9-24, and replace- ment blocks Nos. 25-31, was removed from the water March 15, 1923. An examination showed that unlike Northern localities, the shipworm embryos, particularly those of Teredo (Lyrodus) sp. “G”’ are in the water and are en- tering the wood as late as February 1. A diminished rate of growth, how- ever, was observed in block 27, placed December 15, when compared with block 3, placed November 1 and removed December 15. A new board of 1923 model was installed May 10, 1923, from which 5 series of blocks have been examined. As in the old test specimen, Teredo sp. “G’ was always predominant, the resulting damage being severe and rapid. The maximum length of tubes noted was 130 mm. Limnoria action of medium intensity occurred on all blocks, and a few specimens of Martesia were generally present. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea, and Anomia. YD-C-2—These blocks yielded the same species found at YD-C-1, and an additional one, Teredo clappi. In all other respects they proved to be quite similar to those from YD-C-1. Records of temperature and salinity observed at the site of both test specimens during the period November 16, 1922, to February 16, 1923, are shown on Figs. 153 and 154. TEest BoaRDS, GUANTANAMO, CUBA Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining, Installed Mud Line > Lt We (Feet) (Feet) U.S. Naval Station, Guantanamo Maimmistatiomseierin a. aeece VoD-Gety nt Nay es ony eee Nov. 1, 1922 2.0 32.0 HuelOw Pient seen ects wen ee Y¥DeG-27 Ail Navi ane ee eto Nov. 1, 1922 bine 18.5 Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—At the U. S. Naval Station there are 5 water- front structures supported by creosoted piles, all more or less affected by the attack of marine borers as shown in the following table: GUANTANAMO 415 STRUCTURE BUILT AFFECTED BY MARINE BORERS Main Station Pier 1911-12; % re- built in 1919 Yes. Fuel Oil Pier 1911 Yes. Hicacal Beach Pier Rebuilt 1920 Old piles—Yes. New piles—Slightly. Ordnance Wharf. 1913 Yes. Navy Wharf, Fisherman’s Point 1905 Yes. The first two structures, which are considered representative with re- spect to creosoted structures at this station, were treated under the fol- lowing specifications: “The piles after being stripped of all bark, including as much of the inner bark as practicable, shall be subjected for five hours to the action of live steam under a pressure of not exceeding 20 pounds per square inch gauge. After the pressure treatment a vacuum of not less than 20 inches of mer- cury shall be created in the chamber containing the piles, which shall be maintained for six hours. Oil shall then be admitted to the chamber. The vacuum shall be maintained while the oil is flowing into the chamber and until the chamber is entirely filled with oil. Sufficient pressure shall then be applied to the contents of the chamber to force a penetration of oil not less than 1% inches and a total absorption of not less than 16 pounds of oil per cubic foot of wood for long leaf pine and 18 pounds for short leaf or loblolly pine.” “The oil used for the creosoting shall not flash below 185° Fahr. nor burn below 200° Fahr. The yield of naphthalene from the oil between the tem- perature of 410° and 470° Fahr. shall not be less than 42 per cent nor greater than 60 per cent by volume. Inspecting of the fender logs will be made at a point from which original shipment is made. Inspection of creosoting will be made at the creosote works.” The piles for both the Main Station and Fuel Oil piers were short leaf pine, the original number driven in the former being 534 and the latter 210. Approximately one-third of the Main Station pier piles was replaced in 1919 on account of the destructive action of marine borers. Of the original piles in the Fuel Oil pier 35 have been replaced subsequent to 1919, and many of those remaining are in need of replacement. The attack by both shipworms and crustacean borers is considered very serious, slightly more intensive on the Main Station pier than on the Fuel Oil pier. The range of destructive action is concentrated at the mud line and between low and high water. Armor—The Lighthouse Wharf is built on treated piles protected by 12 inch diameter cast iron pipe which extends from below the mud line to above high water level. The date of construction is unknown, but was presumably prior to 1911. The present condition of the piles so protected is said to be good. The fender piles are creosoted and their condition is such as to require renewals. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—On account of the heavy attack of marine borers on the “Station Pier,’ the Navy, in 1922, constructed a new concrete pier 50 feet by 360 feet. This pier is carried on reinforced concrete piles 15 inches square and from 65 to 80 feet long with four batter piles to each bent. The reinforcement consisted of four one-inch corrugated square bars HARBOR REPORTS A416 6ST ‘SIH ¢zet vano AVG OWWNVLNVO9 SGuHVOd LSAL 40 NOILVIOT ONIMOHS dvw SATIN TWOIILNVYN A417 VaOD ‘ONWVNVINVOY ‘AdIqd NOILVLIG NIV] ‘SNOILVAUESIO FUALVYGINGT INV ALINITVS—eEecT ‘SIq anne AVI Wadv HOUVA Auvnueas AuYONY’r sz ozst Ol ¢& sz ozst or ¢ sz of st of f@ gz ot gt of @& sz ot stor @ 62 of st o1 @ Hi waans930 4uAGNAAON YagOL150 «& 4u3anaidas asnonyv SZ oF st ot ¢ st oz St Of sz oz st of ¢ szoz st ot ¢ gz oz st of TATE GUANTANAMO gz oz si Ob @ ez of sit ol ¢ ezoz gt o1 @ at oz st Ol f ezoz si o1 g¢ gz 0% st Ol @ gt oF st ob @ gt OF si o; & gazort st OF & gz of si on @ Gz OF si ow @ ez of Gi oa @ Ua MIGWIDIG MEG NAZAON wagOi5s0 waansidas asnony ainer anne AVA liddy Mouvn Auynugaa APey at inna ital ——— 418 HARBOR REPORTS banded with 5/16 inch rods. The cover over the bars was only 114 inches, and over the bands only 15/16 inch, which the Bureau of Yards and Docks considers an experiment justified by the richness and density of the concrete. The aggregates were local sand and gravel carefully screened and graded. The mixture was of “quaking consistency,” in the proportion 1:1:2. The piles were cured from 35 to 72 days before driving, and were kept wet for the first 28 days of this period. The reinforced concrete deck which is designed for a load of 500 eet Sak per square foot, or a 46,000 pound wheel load on the track, was built with the same materials and method. The mixture was 1:2:4 and of “quaking consistency,” both the deck and the piles being carefully rammed and. spaded. This wharf was built by Yard forces and the piles are reported to have cost about $1.30 per foot or $1.70 per foot in place. This structure is of course too new and too carefully built to show de- terioration at the present time. Conclusions The attack of all types of borers is heavy, and though there appears to be periods when the activity of some species is lessened, there is a serious attack at all seasons of the year. Well creosoted and undamaged piles may be expected to give an average life of about 8 years unless otherwise protected. Cast iron pipe casings probably render the most efficient service for the protection of wooden piles. VIRGIN ISLANDS Description The Virgin Islands lie wholly within the limits of strong northeast trade winds which, except when disturbed by atmospheric depression, blow with the greatest regularity during the entire year. The investigations covered the islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix, testboards having been located at St. Thomas and Christiansted respectively. St. Thomas Harbor (Fig. 155), on the south coast of St. Thomas Island, is the most important harbor of the American group of the Virgin Islands. About 500 yards wide at the entrance between Rupert Rock Beacon and — Frederick Point, it spreads out on either side into a basin about *4 mile © in diameter. The average temperature and salinity of the water are 82° — Fahr. and 22 parts per thousand respectively. Although the water is ap- j parently clean, a comparatively large amount of oil and waste is present F and sewage from the city of St. Thomas (population in 1920, 7,747) is emptied, untreated, into the harbor. The maximum tide is approximately 1.3 feet, the average being slightly less than 1 foot. There are practically no currents except tidal variations of low velocity. The depth varies from ~ a few inches along the beach, and 6, 8, or 10 feet along the piers to a maxi- — mum of 35 feet in the outer harbor. Hurricane season extends from July 15 to November 1, and during this period each year there are several — storms in which the velocity of the wind reaches 75 miles per hour. The last severe hurricane occurred in 1916, the wind on that occasion exceeding a velocity of 100 miles per hour. Except under unusual conditions the wave height in the harbor, which is well protected, is negligible. A19 VdNO ‘ONVNVINVOS ‘YdIg TIO 180, ‘SNOILVAUGSAO AYALVAGAWaAT GNV ALINITVS—PET ‘DI waeRrnss3a0 wAaaN3SAON usEOLDO YuseWald3sas asnonv Ane anne AVW Wddy HOYVA AuynuEas AUYUYONWS s2oz si ob ss st oz St OF & sz oe st ol ¢ sz oz st Ol ¢ sz oz st o: Ss sz oe si ot & sz ozst Ol ¢ sz oz-sti or & sz oz st o1 gf sz oz gi oF & szoz stow gf SZ oz St o1 @ TTT oT 77 me uuat ; T 2 i i Tot, EG Torey + i +t tot rot no i t tht * ot if T Toe 7m roa Too nas rou cne cr] n a tt t HH cit ponucaaaa rd t " i eee z n nat i t tt t } T tT Bat i t r r r 1 t r ra : HH f f t t t Tht t | agauy Ht ope t a ra i ; as a rm t r r + 1 . 1 , aHRere teeetttreeees HH + tr t t t t m rH i | r : H pote n n { t i t i { T t u a rm + : t am oo o t t t t t i t - tt | n i t USE SERED OE t t : rm r t i t t m1 t { t t t + Ht t tT T HH F i t ; THT tt t t i : - ral + +H t t Tt i : | t : t { t HH T as Ht t ram r t { r n i coy t I nyt + i i Tet ft t 1H : 1 t i t tt ttt - : Ht { Tot n n Tt t ia t t = 3 aan tantatititat ac REE EH ERTS EEE arene Set, GUANTANAMO Sz oz si OF Ss sz oz sto} § szoz si o1 Sz oz S! OF szoz si o s sz oz si cl & SZ oz si o1 @ St Of si on @ azoz s' or 6 Sz OF SI OF 6% O02 Si on f ez Oz St Or uzeBW3030 UABNZAON - u3E80190 Baen3id3sS asnony aqnr BNA AYN “dey : HOUMA Auvnuead ~ AYYONWE 3 ; £26) 420 HARBOR REPORTS Christiansted Harbor (Fig. 156), the greater part of which is shoal, is on the north coast of St. Croix Island and its principal entrance is by the channel between Long Reef and Scotch Bank, which has a charted least depth of 21 feet. Along the face of the town of Christiansted, south of Protestant Cay (a small islet in the harbor, 150 yards north of the town), there is a stone quay with 12 feet of water alongside, which is a loading pier for small vessels. There is also a small wharf at the Central Sugar Factory for unloading coal barges. The range of tide is about 1 foot. Marine Borers Past History—Until the beginning of these investigations there were few records concerning marine borers in these waters although they were known to exist in great numbers. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- lows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) St. Thomas Harbor Municipal Ce ee eee eis Cas ceanineel a avduo Dame ¥D=V=l.~ | Navy ® js see eee nee Sept. 1, 1922 2.0 52> Christiansted 24 spiel Y Da Vie2 Ss oN Gyno cieaeaneeerenenete Sept. 15, 1922 0.3 Seo The results of the examination of blocks from these test boards were as follows: YD-V-1—Block 2, removed September 30, contained about 100 very young shipworms. The length of the tubes had increased to % inch in block 3, and in block 7, removed December 18, Teredo sp. D 3 inches in length was noted. The destruction, both rapid and severe, was due mainly to Teredo sp. G which formed about 95 per cent of the shipworms. Other species identified were Teredo sp. J, Teredo johnson, Teredo sp. Q and Teredo por- toricensis. A. new board of 1923 model was substituted for the old April 2. Shipworms appeared on the first blocks removed from this board and the attack became so severe that it was found impractical to continue the test due to the loss of the supporting board. Limnoria action was of medium intensity. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, Ostrea and Algae. YD-V-2—The first block to show shipworms was block 6, removed De- cember 30, in which 1 specimen of Teredo clappi, 1 inch long, was found. Block 8, removed February 8, contained 3 specimens of Teredo johnsoni, the longest tube being 1 inch in length. Two specimens, one each of Teredo atwoodi and Teredo clappi, length 200 mm. and 18 mm. respectively, were found in blocks 9, 10 and 11. Block 12 contained no shipworms but was well scarred by Limnoria. Several hundred shipworms were found in block 13, removed April 16, the majority of them being Teredo somersi with lengths not exceeding 20 mm. The same block contained a few speci- mens of Teredo clappi 40 mm. in length. Blocks 14-20 inclusive contained from 20 to 50 specimens of Teredo somersi and Teredo clappi with lengths reaching up to 75 mm. and 90 mm. respectively. Block 23, removed Septem- ber 17, was the last to be examined. This contained one specimen of Teredo somersi and one of Teredo fulleri. Embryos were found in the animals from a VIRGIN ISLANDS 421 blocks 13, 17, 18 and 23, removed April 16, June 15, J uly 2 and September 17 respectively. Field Tests—Test blocks bound with iron bands spaced at intervals of % inch, from 1% to 214 inches, were submerged at St. Thomas. A discus- sion of the results of this test will appear later. Methods of Protection With few exceptions, timber structures are confined to small and unim- portant piers. The piles of these structures are usually brush coated with MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS ST.THOMAS HARBOR WEST INDIBS NAUTICAL MILES 3 (EES Aa pitch and tar and if of native timber they are often charred to a depth of about 1% inch. When carefully done, this treatment is said to prolong the life of piles beyond the year usually reckoned for untreated timber. Piles treated with 16 pounds of creosote per cubic foot and driven in 1918 in structure No. 1, Naval Wharf, St. Thomas, were removed in 1922, being practically destroyed by shipworms. (See page 127.) Armor—In several cases in St. Thomas Harbor, including the large piles at the coal docks and the dolphins at the Municipal Piers, that portion HARBOR REPORTS 422 9eT “S14 €26i SGIGNI LSaAM X1IOHO°LS ‘HOGHVH GALSNVILSINHD SqGuvod LSaL NOIL s AO NOILVIO INIMOHS dv¥W SZ1IN IWOILNWN G3LS H1Y30IN4 at One u HAITI 423 of the pile from the mud line to two feet above the water line is encased in copper sheathing, the pile having previously been covered with felt. This method of protection has been more satisfactory than any other in use and so long as the sheathing is kept absolutely intact no deterioration results. However, it has been noted that the smallest dislodgment of the sheathing allows the Teredo to begin its destructive work under the most favorable circumstances. Under such conditions the pile lasts only a short time, the copper shell alone remaining after a few months of the activities of the borers. The oil pier of the West Indian Company, Limited, in the harbor of St. Thomas, consists of one hundred and twenty-five untreated yellow pine piles, eighty-one of which are used as dolphins and the remainder as bearing piles under the pier. The diameter of the piles varies from sixteen to twenty inches and the copper sheathing covers the whole length of the pile from the point to the butt. It is of No. 20 gage pure copper as it was found that composition sheets did not fulfill the requirements. Of the piles noted only three show any signs of deterioration after having been in place about eight years, and the sheathing of these three has been damaged by collision by vessels or flotsam. The remaining piles appear to be in practically as good condition as when they were driven and will probably last indefinitely if the copper casing is not damaged by exterior interference. The small structures in which copper sheathing has been used, appear to be in practically the same condition as the West Indian Company’s pier. Substitutes for Timber Metal—Steel and wrought iron piles and steel sheet piling have been used in a number of piers at St. Thomas. The deterioration of the iron and steel cylinders is of course somewhat less than that of wood piling, but in a number of cases the metal is badly rusted, between the high and low water lines, and in some instances, piles which have been in place for seven or eight years have been replaced or need replacement. Corrosion is present but no electrolytic action is discernible. The surface is badly rusted and pitted, the worst condition existing between the high and low water marks. Concrete—There are no concrete structures of importance in either St. Thomas or Christiansted harbors for which records are available. Conclusions Both crustacean and molluscan borers are active in Virgin Islands har- bors, and timber structures, unless protected with cast iron or copper armor, are of doubtful economy. Metal structures of proper design, material and construction deserve consideration for this territory. REPUBLIC OF HAITI Marine Borers Past History—It has not been possible to collect any records of value, though tke rapid destruction caused by marine borers is well known. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- lows (Fig. 157): 424 HARBOR REPORTS Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Portam*Princer 252 as. ote YD-P-1...| Dept. of Public Works} Dec. 1, 1922 oO 6.2 AUX Caves Rc 6 bie tee sce YD-P-2...| Dept. of Public Works} Jan. 15, 1923 2.0 55 On account of the transportation service, blocks were received somewhat irregularly and were consequently not always in the most favorable con- dition for examination. The results follow: AGT ee eek: O CoEsAsM : Ay ag —— PHARE MONTE CHRISTI — a". - 3 iN cape as) ( HAITIEN =) Pm —« ca oe Gas es SAN MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF ® TEST BOARDS REPUBLIC OF HAITL SCALE OF MILES CARRIBEAN feb fee aby YD-P-1—Many shipworm punctures were visible on block 1, removed December 15. Block 2 contained about 200 embryonic shipworms, and block 3, removed January 15, about 100 specimens of Teredo portoricensis and Teredo sp. G, the largest animal having attained a length of 30 mm. Block 4, removed February 1, was well filled with Bankia sp. V, Teredo sp. E, Teredo portoricensis and Teredo sp. G, the two last named having tubes of 30 mm. in length and containing larve. In block 5 the greatest length recorded was 8 inches; Bankia sp. X and Teredo clappi also appeared in this block. Succeeding blocks were well filled, the majority of specimens being Teredo sp. G, except in block 10. Block 10 contained Teredo sp. W. A new board of the 1923 model was substituted for the old, June 1. The DECEMBER B 10 1B 20 25 "NOVEMBER 5 10 18 20 25 OCTOBER 5 10 18 20725 7] S$ 10 18 20 28 ecugse: SEPTEMBER AUGUST B 10 * 2° as HH U Hi tH tH i te ae ag Me tH 20 ee HH bet JULY Raine i oo a 5 10 18 7 att EGRCRe EEG! ee 8! eat itd Ee a Hit eegseeeseedt oS saset JUNE HAITI CHE ssrreeE B 10 15 20 28 aaitezed eteees eceats au 7 a ae a a aa HH ae | ae 7 ie i i cee a | nile MARCH i 15 5 10 15 20 25 DECEMBER NOVEMBER © 5S 10 15 20 25 S 10 18 20 25 OCTOBER 5 10 153 20 25 SEPTEMBER 20 25 AuGUST 5 10 18 20 25 S&S 10 15 JUNE 8 10 153 20 25 10 15 20 25 MAY APRIL Fic. 158—TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS, PORT AU PRINCE, HAITI BS 10 15 20 28 H aH a ee HEE Eee HE Hu a uel ae HERSEY 426 HARBOR REPORTS new blocks were attacked with about the same degree of intensity as the old, the numerical supremacy shifting from Teredo sp. G to Teredo clappi and again to Teredo sp. G. Teredo johnsoni, Teredo somersi and Teredo fulleri were added to the list of new species. The largest specimen of Teredo found was 100 mm. in length, representing a growth of not more than 2 months; the largest of Bankia was 125 mm. in length, the age of the specimen not exceeding 4 months. Limnoria action was severe. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. Temperature records at this location will be found on Fig. 158. Y D-P-2—Shipworm embryos appeared on block 1, removed February 16. Block 2 contained about 100 specimens of Teredo sp. G, with lengths of tubes up to 5 mm. Block 3 and succeeding ones were well filled, the greatest lengths of tubes ranging from 30 mm. in block 3, to 60 mm. in block 4. A few specimens of Teredo sp. Q were noted in block 5. A new board of 1923 model was substituted June 1, the blocks of which showed attack of similar intensity to that occurring in the old test specimens. One month blocks showed a growth of 15 mm.; this was increased to 100 - mm. in the 2 months block. The last blocks examined (series No. 4) were removed October 1. Metheds of Protection No records have been obtained except those of a steamship dock at Port- au-Prince which was built in 1909-10, supported by ‘Ripley Composite Piles.” These are timber piles protected by concrete casings heavily rein- forced by heavy mesh. In 1923 the owners reported that this wharf was in good condition, but it does not appear that a careful inspection had been made. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, WEST INDIES Description (Fig. 159) San Pedro de Macoris, on the south coast of the Island of Haiti, is a land locked harbor with a depth in the channel and along the docks of about 15 feet. The only storms are cyclonic, which occur usually about once in three years during the months of August, September or October. During the storm of September 11, 1921, the wind from the north attained a maximum velocity of 75 miles per hour and the waves a height of about 4 feet. The temperature of the water, which is of full ocean salinity, aver- ages about 78° Fahr. On account of the waste from molasses distilleries the water is never clear. The tides are very small, averaging about 1.18 feet. An occasional rise in the Higuamo River produces currents of low velocity in the harbor. The tidal currents are negligible. Santo Domingo Harbor, on the south coast of the Island of Haiti and west of San Pedro de Macoris, consists of an Inner and Outer Harbor. During the rainy season, silt brought down by the Ozama River, is present; during the three winter months the water is clear, as there are no sewage, chemical or other wastes. The temperature of the water averages about 78° Fahr. The water of the Outer Harbor is of full ocean salinity; that of the Inner Harbor brackish. Normally the surface water of the Inner Harbor to a depth of 11% feet is sufficiently fresh for use in boilers; during the flood stages of the river this depth is increased from 3 to 4 feet. The normal tidal range is about 1 foot. There is a minimum depth of 15 feet in the channel and along the docks. This harbor is subjected to storms of DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 427 Similar frequency and intensity to those recorded for San Pedro de Macoris. Puerto Plata Harbor is located on the north coast of the Island of Haiti, and has depths ranging from 3 feet at the shore line to 75 feet at the en- trance. Around the wharf in the ship channel the depth is about 19 feet. The temperature of the water, which is of ocean salinity, averages about MONTE CHRISTE PUERTO Pt ATA BESi3iz: oat} duit EL SEYBO if at Te h.,S-P. DE MACORIS ( oO i } MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Hig. 159 78° Fahr. There is present a considerable amount of silt and refuse brought down by a small river and from the surface drainage of the city of Puerto Plata. The tides are fairly uniform, ranging from 3 to 4 feet, and small storms are frequent. Marine Borers Past History—Marine borers, both crustacean and molluscan, were 428 HARBOR REPORTS known to be present in all three of the harbors described: above, and their activity was thought to be continuous throughout the year. Committee Investigations—In cooperation with the Department of Pub- lic Works of the Dominican Republic, through the courtesy of its Director General, the Committee was enabled to establish standard test boards as shown below: | Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) San Pedro de Macoris.......... SD lps Dept. of Public Works — Dominican Re- public. (25 vat. yee Dec. 1, 1922 6.5 6.1 Santo Domingos gen. fe) «neers SD-250 cn as Jan. 1, 1923 gh Ore! Puerto Plata asec se occas oy DES IOS ie. s Jan. 10, 1923 1.0 8.2 Blocks from these stations were received fairly regularly but often in such a dry condition, on account of the length of time in transit, that ex- amination of them was difficult. The results to date are as follows: SD-1—About 100 shipworm embryos appeared on block 1, removed De- cember 16, none of them being completely embedded in the wood. Block 2 contained no shipworms; block 3, about 100 from 2 mm. to 3 mm. in length; block 4, 50 up to 25 mm. in length, and block 5 and succeeding ones were well filled with specimens, In block 5, removed February 15, the tubes had reached lengths up to 70 mm. The species identified were: Teredo por- toricensis, Teredo sp. G (which formed in all blocks the majority of the specimens), Teredo atwoodi, Teredo clappi, Teredo sp. F, Teredo somersi, Teredo dominicensis, and Bankia sp. V. The destruction was so rapid that it became necessary on April 1 to attach the blocks to a new board of greater thickness. The last block examined was No. 18, removed August 31. Specimens in this block had tubes of about 100 mm. in length. Em- bryos were present in blocks 1, 3, 4, and probably later blocks. Limnoria action was slight. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, and Ostrea. SD-2—Block 2, removed February. 1, contained many hundreds of ship- worm embryos, practically all of which were Teredo sp. Q. One specimen of Bankia sp. V was found. In block 3 the majority of the organisms were Bankia sp. V, and this numerical supremacy was maintained in the suc- ceeding blocks. Destruction, although severe, did not progress so rapidly as at SD-1. A new board of the 1923 model was substituted for the old one June 1. All the remaining original and replacement blocks were examined, and the end of the season of activity was determined as having occurred about April 1. With the exception of block 2, removed August 1, which contained a single specimen of Bankia of undetermined species, 20 mm. in length, all of the new blocks were free from shipworms. The last blocks examined (Series 4) were removed October 1. Associated organisms were Balanus and Bryozoa. SD-3—Shipworm embryos appeared in block 2, removed February 10, and reached a growth in length of 20 mm. in block 6, removed April 15, the specimens up to this time averaging about 25 in number. Block 7 and suc- ceeding ones were filled, and at the time of the removal of No. 13, July 31, cn a ~ DOMINICAN REPUBLIC — A429 the animals were passing from the blocks into the supporting board. The majority of specimens found in block 4 were Teredo sp. G; in block 6, Teredo atwoodi; and in block 7, Teredo dominicensis. On account of con- ditions noted above, later blocks, although received with fair regularity, have not been thoroughly examined. A few specimens of Teredo sp. Q were also found. Limnoria attack was at times severe. Associated organ- isms were Bryozoa (Lepralia and Bugula) and Ostrea. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—Of the three harbors investigated, two of them, Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata, have no timber structures exposed to the action of marine borers. At San Pedro de Macoris there is one wooden dock, 850 feet by 40 feet, supported by 4 rows of timber piles on 10 foot centers longitudinally. The piles are long leaf yellow pine. The original installation was of unknown treatment; the replacement piles were treated with 16 pounds of creosote per cubic foot. The heads of the piles and all timber joints were coppered and great care was otherwise taken in the erection of the structure. After 24 years’ service 46 of the 286 creo- soted piles were replaced, having been destroyed by shipworms and Lim- noria which gained an entrance through cracks caused by the action of ships against the docks and in some cases through defective creosoting. The fender system of the new wharf at Puerto Plata is of creosoted long leaf yellow .pine piles, with treatment of 16 pounds per cubic foot. After 4 years’ service these piles were relocated at which time many of them were found to have been damaged severely by the scraping against them of ships and to a lesser extent by marine borers. In the Bay of Monte Christy, on the north coast of the island, there is a wharf supported by piles of Yarey palm from 12 to 14 feet in length. These piles, untreated, last about 10 years and are said to be unattacked by shipworms, the destruction mainly resulting from decay and erosion at the tide level. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—The Military Governor reports on concrete structures as fol- lows: SAN PEDRO DE MACORIS GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE AND CONDITIONS. Type: Reinforced Concrete dock on precast piles. Size: 660 feet long by 30 feet wide by 4 feet 6 inches above M. L. W. Piles: 4 rows of piles 9 feet 8 inches c. to c. by 10 feet 10 inches ec. to ec. longitudinally. Heads of piles extend 9 inches into girders. 1 row 40 feet, 1 row 45 feet, 1 row 50 feet, and 1 row 55 feet long at each bent. Girders: Transverse girders 3 feet 6 inches by 14 inches, and longitudinal girders 3 feet 5 inches by 14 inches on outside rows. Deck: 12 inch slab 2-2-feet 6-inch gauge railroad tracks cast in deck, head of rail flush with top of deck. Fender System: 12 inches by 12 inches creosoted yellow pine edge piece and ‘ string piece, fender piles creosoted yellow pine on 10-foot centers, 12 inches by 12 inches spacing piece at deck level between fender piles. Moorings: Cast iron hollow bollards 50 c. to c. each side. 430 HARBOR REPORTS Lower 1 foot 6 inches of girders exposed to salt water by tidal action as bottom of girders is at approximately mean low water level. There is practically no wave or abrasive action. Climate is hot during days and warm and moist nights with usually east- erly trade winds during day. PRECAST PILES. (a) (b) (c) Type: Octagonal section, 14 inches in diameter. Piles cast in 1919, installed in 1920, except last 4 which were driven in 1921. Length exposed to salt water: 18 feet maximum, 6 feet minimum. Piles are immersed for their full length above mud line. _ Concrete materials: Large aggregate, corralline limestone, soft and porous from quarry at Km. 2 on Macoris Mato Mayor road. Crushed to %4-inch size. Sand, river sand from Soco River, very fine, contained a few small shells and a small amount of coral. Cement: Atlas Portland, standard test A. S. T. M. “ Age: Not known. Water: Brackish. None of the aggregates were exposed to salt water before mixing. (d) Reinforcement: Eight %-inch square deformed bars, with %-inch square bar spirally wound. The %-inch vertical bars extended out of the tops of the piles, a distance of 3 feet. These bars were bent after driving to conform to the reinforcement in the girders. Type: Square Havemeyer bar. Grade: Medium carbon steel, open hearth steel 33,000 pounds elastic limit. All bars were thoroughly cleaned before concreting. Thickness of concrete cover: 1%4 inches. (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) Concrete mix: 1:2:8, consistently wet enough to flow freely around reinforcement. Surface of piles appeared very dense. Curing: Piles were kept in forms a minimum of four days. Piles were cured for thirty days before using. They were kept wet for fifteen days. Water used for curing was brackish. Handling: Piles were moved after fifteen days to storage. Rolled on skids about six feet apart. When required for driving they were rolled on to three skids about 15 feet c. to c. and thence on to a low barge which supported the pile through two-thirds of its length. Piles were lifted off the barge with two lines at third points, a strain being kept on lower line until pile was nearly vertical. No hair line cracks noted. Driving: Hammer Arnot Steam No. 727. The heads of a few piles were spalled but not badly. This spalling is not a serious matter in this structure as heads of piles are cast 9 inches into girders. Present Conditions: As piles are submerged at all times, careful exam- ination could not be made without a diver. However, no serious defects could be noted by feeling with the hands below the water level. DECK AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. (a) (b) (c) (d) 14 inches x 8 feet 6 inches continuous girders over each bent and longitudinal on two outside rows. Deck 12 inches thick, continuous. Exposures: Deck is 4 feet 6 inches above M.L.W. Lower 1 foot 6 inches of girders is alternately exposed and wet as bottom of girders is approximately at mean low water level. Wave and spray action are not serious factors. Concrete materials: Same as in precast piles. Reinforcement in girders: 5% inch square deformed bars, 3 x 8 inch wire cloth on outside of bars on bottom and two sides, minimum cover ~ of 2 inches. Steel same as in piles. There are three bars in bottom of — beam and two at top. Center bar is bent over heads of piles to take diagonal shear. ‘ DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 431 Deck reinforcement: % inch square deformed bars running longi- tudinally on 9 inch centers, alternate bars bent up over transverse girders. Under bars, 3 inches x 8 inches Clinton wire cloth fastened to wire cloth from girders. Steel and cover the same. (e) Mix 1:2:4. Wet enough to flow around reinforcement. (f) Forms: Wood T. & G. lumber. Great difficulty was experienced with girder forms, and it was practically impossible to get them watertight, as bottom of form was in salt water and width of girder the same as pile. Placing was started when tide was lowest and the bottom third of girders filled first. Usually a day’s run was three transverse girders with corresponding longitudinal girders. Construction joints were left at centers of outside girders. Diagonal joint was used (about 45° to horizontal). Lower foot and half of joint exposed to salt water. No gunite was used on joints. Laitance was removed. Deck was poured without difficulty, construction joint left center between bents. (g) Curing: Lower part of girders in salt water continuously after pour- ing, amount wet depending on tides. Deck was kept wet with water and covered with canvas for about two days after placing. (h) Present Conditions: Immediately after stripping some of the girder forms it was found that the lower 6 inches contained practically no cement; the reinforcement was exposed in each case. These places were repaired by building a water-tight box around the lower part of the girder and after the defective concrete had been removed it was filled with fresh concrete rich in cement. No overloading has been noted, although several fine cracks have appeared in the deck, which are probably due to shrinkage or improper curing. SANTO DOMINGO GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND CONDITIONS. — There are three separate and distinct concrete structures in the inner harbor. None exist in the outer harbor. Structure “A,” located on west side of river, is a reinforced concrete quay 31 feet wide by 1,361 feet long and 4 feet above mean low tide, supported on precast concrete piles. Upper end about 3,000 feet above mouth of river. Constructed in i918. Four piles each bent on 10-foot centers, bents 10 feet center to center. Reinforcing of piles carried into girders. One row piles 16 feet, two rows 30 feet, and one row 35 feet long each bent. Girders: Transverse girders 12 inches x 26 inches deep. Outside longi- tudinal girder 10 inches x 26 inches deep. Two interior longitudinal girders 10 inches x 20 inches deep and two 8 inches x 16 inches deep, supporting 3 foot 6 inch gauge industrial railway track. Lower edge girders at mean high water level. Deck: Originally constructed with creosoted yellow pine deck on 8 inch x 12 inch stringers. Wood deck at upper end of wharf replaced for 230 feet of length in 1920, with 9 inch reinforced concrete slab. Fender System: 3 pieces 8 inches x 12 inches creosoted yellow pine with spacers between. Lower fender attached to piles. Structure “B,” located on west side of river, is reinforced concrete quay wall, 6 feet wide, 420 feet long and 5 feet deep, of solid concrete set on precast concrete piles with reinforced concrete ties extending shoreward. This structure joins to lower end of structure “A.” Deck: 4 feet above mean low tide. Constructed in 1913. Piles: Precast octagonal, 14 inches in diameter, extending 4 feet into bulkhead; set in two longitudinal rows 3 feet 4 inches ec. Outer row 2 feet cc., inner row 3 feet cc.; piles 40 feet long. Ties: Reinforced 1 foot 9 inches x 2 feet in cross section, extending back 54 feet from face of bulkhead to a mass of concrete 4 feet x 5 feet x 2 feet 432 HARBOR REPORTS deep, enclosing heads of three concrete piles 20 feet long. Ties spaced 21 feet cc. Filling: Space back of wall filled flush with top of wall with ashes, earth, rock, etc., retained below water line in front by large broken coral rock, placed against inside face of piles. Structure “C,’”’ located on east side of river, is a reinforced concrete quay wall of same type as “B,” but using Chenoweth piles. It is located at mouth of river and acts also as a breakwater. It is 780 feet in length, the outer end turns back shoreward at an angle of 45° till it meets the beach, a distance of 150 feet. Deck 4 feet above mean low tide. Practically no wave or abrasive action on structures “A” and “B” and for about three-quarters of the length of “C.” Outer end of “C,” however, is subjected to wave action and is constantly covered with spray. Climate hot during the day but cool and moist at night. Southeasterly trade winds prevail during day with land breezes at night. PRECAST PILES. : (a) Type: There are two types of precast concrete piles used. 1. Octagonal, 14 inches in diameter, ranging in length from 16 feet to 40 feet; driven in place between Aug. 15, 1912, and Jan. 31, 1918; used in structures “A” and “B.” 2. Chenoweth type, 14 inches in diameter; other data unknown; used in structure “CC.” (b) Exposed length varies. Maximum of about 16 feet, with average of — about 14 feet on outside piles, in structures “A” and “B.” Same for — structure “‘C,” except at outer end, where maximum exposure is about 8 feet. Exposure between mean low and mean high water of about one foot. No exposure above mean high water, due to fact that heads of piles extend into concrete girders and bulkhead, which are placed with lower edge at mean high water. (c) Materials: Aggregate, broken coral rock and river sand from Isabella River. Aggregate free from salt and not exposed to salt water before used. Sharp sand well graded from small to fairly large grains, con- tains small amount of salt. Mixing water from nearby springs, slightly brackish. Brand and quality of cement unknown. (d) Reinforcement: Octagonal piles eight %4-inch bars; other data un- known. Chenoweth piles, no existing data, this work having been done by con- tract in 1910. Probably standard for this class of piles. (e) Concrete mix: Unknown. (f) Curing: Octagonal pile, Structure “A,” maximum age 155 days, mini- — mum (two only) 88 days; average 67 days. Octagonal piles, structure “B,” maximum age 67 days, minimum (two only) 10 days; average age 26 days. Chenoweth piles, structure “C,” no data. No other data on curing. (zg) Handling: No data other than in (f), 0.5 per cent of piles broken by handling in structures “A” and “B.” (h) Driving: Structure “A,” both steam and drop hammer. Weight of hammers, steam 5600 pounds, drop 4800 pounds; average ~ number of blows per pile, steam 391, drop 22. Structure “B,” drop hammer used, weight 4800 pounds; average blows per pile 48. 1.8 per cent of piles broken during driving in both struc- tures. Structure “C,’’ Chenoweth piles, no data. (i) Present condition: Octagonal piles: Concrete appears to be in very good condition near water line and above, though it is badly spalled and broken in two or three cases, and reinforcing exposed. This at points where heads of piles are embedded in girders, structure “A,” and caused from shocks when quay has been rammed by ships, or piles settling. Piling on outer line has settled about 8 inches in two places on structure “A.” Settled at one place, structure “B,” for a distance DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 433 of about 50 feet, maximum settlement 1 foot. Settled one place, struc- ture “C,” for a distance of about 35 feet, maximum settlement 1 foot. Condition of piling at point of settlement not inspected below water line, hence condition not known. At other points along dock where there has been occasion for divers to work, they have reported piles in good condition. Wire mesh reinforcing of Chenoweth piles exposed in many places, but considering length of service (12 years) piles are in remarkably good condition. Reinforcing rusted but very little. DiSKS AND SUPERSTRUCTURES; GIRDERS, ARCHES, BEAMS, SLABS, WALLS. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) Reinforced girders of varying sizes, see above. Exposure: Mean high tide level with bottom largest girders. Practically no wave action or spray. In structure “C” outer end constantly exposed to wave action,;-average wave height at this point being about two feet. Materials: See precast piles. Reinforcement: Quay section; structure “A”; girders (three 1-inch square bars in bottom of outside longitudinal girders, one bent up over heads of piles, six % inch stirrups; four 1-inch square bars in bottom of transverse girders, two bent up over heads of piles, six %-inch stir- rups). Three 1-inch bars bottom interior girder, two bent up over piles, four %-inch stirrups. Bars supposed to be from 1% inches to 2 inches from the face of concrete. In some cases bars touched forms and are now exposed. Quay wall section, Structure “B.’—Six l-inch bars exterior face and six l-inch bars interior face longitudinal, 14-inch ties, four 11-inch longitudinal bars in back ties running to piles on shore. Other data unknown. Quay wall section, structure “C,” no data. Deck Slab: 9 inches concrete, placed in 1920; 44-inch square rods 5 inches cc., placed longitudinally and bent up over beams. Wire cloth mesh, 3 inches x 8 inches of No. 8 and No. 10 galvanized wire, also used. All reinforcing bars 2 inches from face of concrete. Wire cloth 1 inch from face of slab. Mix: In girders, unknown. Bulkhead, 1:3:5, structure “B.” Structure “C,” unknown. Deck slab, unknown. Forms: Wood; other data unknown. Curing: Unknown. Present Condition: Structure “A,” deck slab appears to be in very good condition, considering class of workmanship and materials available. A few cracks have appeared, but they are probably due largely to settlement. Construction joints are tight. No spalling or pitting of concrete due to weathering noticeable. However, the concrete has been in place only since 1920-1921, and it is yet too early to form an opinion of the effects of weathering. Only the outside longitudinal girders have been inspected for this report. In four places the girder is badly broken, the concrete having fallen away in quite large pieces, exposing the reinforcement, which is badly rusted. These failures ‘are due to shocks received when quay has been rammed by steamers. There are also many places along the lower side of the girders, where concrete has been sheared off up to the reinforcing bars, leaving the steel exposed. In all cases the steel is badly rusted. These failures are due to the bending of the lower timber fender, when ships are being warped to berth. The upper edge of fender in most cases comes about 2 inches above lower edge of girder, thereby causing concrete to shear off when fender is bent. This is merely a matter of design and may be corrected by raising or lower- ing fenders. There are a number of places where reinforcing has not been properly embedded, the result being rusting of same and spalling of concrete. This is especially true of the stirrups, nearly all of which are exposed, are now rusted away and useless. The concrete in girders appears to 434 HARBOR REPORTS be as dense as it is possible to obtain with aggregate used. Little weathering, even at the water line, is noticeable, other than that due to spalling of concrete due to improper placement of steel, Ail defects observed can be remedied in future structures by a few changes in design and more thorough inspection during construction. Structure “B.” This structure presents two failures. For about 50 feet of length, near the centers, the bulkhead has settled one foot. Con- dition of piling underneath unknown. Large cracks have appeared at center and ends of section failed. The other failure is at end of pier, where it was heavily rammed by a naval barge. Section of wall, about 20 feet long, broken off and separated from main structure by crack of about an inch. The concrete appears to be of good quality, consider- ing material used. Little spalling noticeable except where reinforce- ment, in a few cases, has been placed too close to face of structure. Top of wall apparently covered after construction with an inch layer of mortar. This has weathered badly and come off in large pieces. Structure “C.” This is the oldest structure in the harbor, having been built in 1910 by a firm of American contractors. It is also the most exposed to action by the elements and is in the poorest condition as far as general appearance is concerned. There is one failure due to © settlement of piling, but the remainder of the structure appears to be sound. As before mentioned, the outer end is subjected to almost constant wave action, waves at times being 5 feet in height, but there is no visible failure at this point, and the concrete appears to be in fairly good condition. There is a good deal of spalling of concrete, with consequent exposure of reinforcing. In every case this is due to improper placement of the reinforcing, the embedment at time of construction not having over % inch at these points. The concrete, too, - appears to be greatly inferior to that in structures “A” and “B.” Chipping and spalling of mortar placed on top of wall has occurred in same manner as in structure “B.” PUERTO PLATA The new wharf is all concrete construction resting on concrete piles. It was built in 1917-18 by the Leonard Construction Company under contract. The floor being only 6 feet above mean tide, the under parts especially are exposed to wave and mist action. PRECAST PILES. (a) Piles used were of 14-inch octagonal section. (b) Length of pile exposed to salt water is 20 feet, between low and high water is 3 to 4 feet and above high water 5 feet. (c) Conerete materials were cement, screenings and broken limestone gauged with fresh water. Cement was standard American Portland Cement. (d) Reinforcement was eight *4-inch twisted bars and %-inch rod spirally wound with a 9-inch pitch. (e) Concrete mixture was in the proportion of 1:2:3. (f) Piles were cured forty days before moving. (g) Driven by steam hammer and jet. (h) Present condition of piles between low water and top of piles shows checks and cracks due to expansion of reinforcement, outer surface of piles is stained with oxides from the steel. On many piles large chips have been broken off due to this cause. POURED IN PLACE CYLINDERS. ; (a) The old wharf rests on cylinders, poured in place. Steel cylinders %-inch thick, 4 feet in diameter. Placed about the year 1895. No data as to construction methods. (b) Exposure of 6 feet above low water. (c) Present condition shows steel cylinders practically rusted away above low water with little apparent damage to concrete filling. PORTO RICO 435 DECK AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. (a) On the new wharf the concrete piles are capped with reinforced con- crete beams which support a floor slab. (b) Floor is 6 feet above mean tide. (c) Concrete materials: Cement, sand, and broken stone, in the proportion 1:2:4. (d) Beams reinforced with five %-inch twisted bars and %-inch stirrups; floor 101% inches thick and reinforced with 5-inch twisted bars spaced 6 inches, transverse rods of %-inch twisted steel spaced 18 inches. (e) A 1:2:4 mixture was used. (f) Forms were of wood and watertight. (g) Forms were kept in place seven days. (h) Beams and floor slabs have suffered no damage other than slight cracks at junction of pile and beams. Conclusions Shipworm attack in all harbors is heavy and all piles should be protected. While the test blocks do not show a continuous attack throughout the year of any one species, there are so many species present with an apparent difference in their period of activity that the attack may be considered of uniform intensity throughout the year. The concrete structures reported are generally not old enough to show much deterioration, but they do contain lessons for the designer and the contractor. PORTO RICO General Description Porto Rico lies within the limits of strong northeast trades, which when not disturbed by atmospheric depression, blow with great regularity dur- ing the entire year, varying in direction between northeast and southeast. There are occasional heavy gales during the hurricane season, July to October. The mean monthly temperature at San Juan varies from 75° to 81.3° Fahr. in February and August respectively. The water at San Juan is of full ocean salinity and temperatures recorded by the Corps of En- gineers, U. S. A., ranged from 77° to 85° Fahr. in March and July, 1923, respectively. In general there is a narrow bank of soundings close to the island from the edge of which the bottom pitches off rapidly to great depths. San Juan harbor (Fig. 160), 30 miles west of Cape San Juan, is about 3 miles long in a southeasterly direction, by from °*4 to 1144 miles wide, the southwestern portion being occupied by extensive shoals. The northern side of the harbor is formed by San Juan Island, on the southern slope of which is situated the city of San Juan. The channel at the entrance has a depth of 35 feet and a width of about 250 yards; along the southwest front of the city the depth is 30 feet or more and the width about 150 yards and along the southeast part the width is about 350 yards and the depths vary from 22 to 32 feet. The range of tide is about 1.1 feet. Port Arecibo (Fig. 161), 33 miles west of San Juan harbor, is an open bight formed by a recession of the coast about 1% mile on the west side of Point Morrillos, and into the eastern end of which flows the Arecibo River with a depth of 3 feet over the bar. Mayaguez Bay (Fig. 162), on the west coast of the island, lies between Point Algarrobo on the north and Point Guanajibo on the south, a distance of about 334 miles and is about 2 miles in greatest length inside the shoals 436 HARBOR REPORTS which extend across the mouth of the bay. Two channels lead into the bay; the principal one entering between Inner Manchas and Manchas Grande shoals has a width of 3% mile and a depth of from 48 to 60 feet; the other leads into the bay from the northward and has a least width of 1 mile and depths of 18 feet or more. The tidal currents at the entrance have an estimated velocity of about 1 mile at strength. The Custom House landing at the city of Mayaguez has depths of 3 to 4 feet at its end. Ponce Harbor (Fig. 163), on the south coast, is the eastern portion of an open bay 3 miles wide between Point Carenero on the east and Point yy MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS SAN JUAN HARBOR PORTO RICO 1923 Fic. 160 Cuchara on the west. The harbor is about 1 mile long and % mile wide with depths of about 8 fathoms at the southern end, decreasing gradually towards the northern shore. Port Ponce is on the northeast side of the harbor and has several small lighterage piers. The municipal pier, at which there is a depth of 25 feet at mean low water, is located at Point Penoncillo. Fajardo Harbor (Fig. 164), on the east coast, is about 3 miles south of Cape San Juan. The harbor is about 1% mile in diameter. Marine Borers Past History—Both molluscan and crustacean borers are present in PORTO RICO A37 Porto Rican waters and, on account of the slight variation in temperature (75° to 90° Fahr.), were thought to be active throughout the year. The U. S. Army Engineers estimate the life of untreated timber to be from 144 to 2 years. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards installed were: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) RAM MATATL See AE Cicily. sicsne sce a eee tA =O is cas PATINIG cae Riis ee tana: Oct.21, 1922 0.0 10.0 “SEOUL STNE ES, Saas OO ae a Ole Lachthouse service... |) Dec. 20, 1922 oo... of leet AC Ay a a ae a L-9-2..... iighthouse Service...) Deen4. 19227) | .oe... W) sees 1 SNAG iat Ae a Ree L-9-3..... ightnouse services a. ec.o, L922) ea ane [STG Ct ee OR Devote. Lagshthouse seryices,..| Deco4y1922 ht sc” peas oe The inspection of the test blocks gave the following information: A-37—About 50 shipworms, too young to identify, were found in the first block from this board—removed November 15. This number increased rapidly, the second block containing 100, the third 200 more or less and the fourth and succeeding blocks being well filled with specimens. The species identified were Teredo sps. D, F, G, Teredo portoricensis, Teredo sp. Q, Teredo johnsoni and Bankia sp. V. A new board (1923 model), was in- stalled March 10, 19238, and the old test specimen was gone over in detail with the object in view of determining the end of the season of activity. _ There was found to have occurred no trace of a dormant period, during which attempts at boring by Teredo ceased—a condition differing radically from that in other Atlantic and Gulf waters where a distinct season of inactivity has been determined. It was established that the larve of Teredo sp. G, Teredo portoricensis and Teredo johnsoni were active as late as the latter part of February; those of Teredo sp. D the first of February, and those of Bankia sp. V and Teredo sp. Q as late as December 1. | A few shipworm embryos appeared on block 1 of the new board, removed April 5, the number increasing rapidly in succeeding blocks. Limnoria action on some of the blocks was severe. Specimens of Mar- tesia were at times numerous. The associated organisms were Bryozoa, Balanus, Ostrea and Algae. L-9-1—The first shipworm (Teredo sp. G) appeared on block 4, removed February 23. Block 6, removed March 23, contained about 50 specimens; blocks 7, 9 and 10 were free from life of any kind; blocks 8, 11 and 12, a few dead specimens, and block 13 and succeeding blocks were completely filled with specimens of Teredo sp. G, the longest tubes noted being 75 to 100 mm. The last block examined was removed October 8. Aside from a _ few calcareous worm tubes, no evidence of other organisms was noted. L-9-2—One specimen of Teredo sp. G was found on block 2, removed January 15, 1923. The number increased to 50 in block 3 (the longest tubes being 50 mm.), and succeeding blocks contained from one to several hundred specimens, ranging in length from 75 mm. (block 4) to 150 mm. (block 19). With the exception of occasional specimens of Bankia sp. V all _shipworms examined were Teredo sp. G. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Bugula and Lepralia), and Ostrea. From 20 to 100 - specimens of Martesia appeared on some of the blocks. 438 HARBOR REPORTS L-9-3—-Block 2 was the only one received from this board. This con- tained a few shipworm embryos, two of which were examined. These proved to be Teredo sp. G. L-9-4—Block 2, removed February 16, contained 3 specimens of Teredo sp. G, 8 mm. in length. Block 3, removed two weeks later, was well filled NAUTICAL MILE 4 Fy ' MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS PORT ARECIBO PORTO RICO Pra. 16% RAE ia LCA Nelle hE Nite ER RNR RN Sta, te. Snag) canbe tad ee with shipworms, the majority being Teredo sp. G of 50 mm. in length. Other species identified were Teredo sp. Q, Teredo portoricensis, Teredo johnsoni, Teredo clappi, Teredo sp. D and Teredo sp. F. The succeeding blocks were all well filled with shipworms, those of Teredo sp. G con- tinuing to greatly outnumber other species till block 12 was reached. I blocks 12 to 24 (removed September 17 and the last one examined) speci: PORTO RICO 439 mens of Teredo clappi were far more numerous than those of the other species. Limnoria action was severe at times. Associated organisms were Bryozoa and Balanus. In addition to the regular block inspection, a section of a creosoted pile STATUTE MILES NAUTICAL MILES MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS MAYAGUEZ BAY PORTO RICO Fig. 162 from Pier 1, San Juan, was examined in which were found specimens of Teredo atwoodi and Martesia. Chemical analyses of the water of San Juan Harbor at the Naval Station were made by the Insular Health Department, the results of which are shown in the table on page 441. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—This method of protection has been in general use but has proved unsatisfactory. Sixty out of 1123 creosoted piles (19 pounds treatment) in Pier 2 of the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., San Juan, were completely destroyed by marine borers after 5 years’ service. A similar experience was had with the creosoted sheet piling used to form the concrete dock wall at the Naval Station. Creosoted piles pro- Sp ee tera HARBOR REPORTS 4A() o31a OLHOd HOaguvVH GFINOd qaguvod LSaL 40 NOLLVIO'TI SNIMOHS dvWw €9T “S14 Same LHO0d SOSVvA SJIIN TIVOILNYN PORTO RICO 441 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS FAJARDO HARBOR ‘PORTO RICO 1923 NAUTICAL MILES ° é 4 3 3 Fy 3 ’ Fic, 164 ANALYSIS OF WATER OF SAN JUAN HARBOR Dissolved Oxygen Hydrogen-ion Temperature Fah- Date CL parts per 1000 | parts per 1,000,000 Concentration renheit (degrees) 1923 March 17. 20.85 5.79 8.4 77 ADIL Sete os Ace 20.50 5.40 8.4 81 a\j 01 gil lees OF rae deans 19.95 6.18 Se 82 Te ie al le ee 19.15 2.65 So 82 IVER Vse Ore ea ee sass 19.45 3.43 8.5 86 TWIKI? OAC ori 20.05 3.24 8.5 84 Vey de Par veteanse cites’. PA vss 5.01 8.5 85 PAO RD Mite wis sas 2% Suns Aik a Ds 9.82 8.5 84 DINED topes te hiee 4; 20.45 5.69 Sad 84 ROOT Mey toise ack s:< 21.45 4.41 8.5 82 NeW Sakis oe tus... 6 21.45 4.42 8.5 83 PIM OU ies Wadia ses pao! PAN tS, 4.61 8.5 84 NLGrOO hts st. gas se 19.95 3.53 8.5 85 SL VION Met take. jail. 5 2115 4.42 8.5 85 “URL ae LS Cert aes 20.95 4.52 8.5 85 ENV Ra D Ti Ie ice een 19.95 3.53 8.5 84 442 HARBOR REPORTS tected by felt and sheet copper at the Lighthouse Depot, San Juan, lasted 15 years, but at the end of that time were completely riddled by borers. The San Antonio Docks of the New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., San Juan, are of the marginal type, creosoted sheet piling and fill, with creo- soted fender piles. According to the Lighthouse Service, the entire creo- soted portion is infested with shipworms and rapid destruction is in prog- ress. Piles treated with 20 pounds per cubic foot of creosote and driven in a wharf at San Juan in 1902 were damaged by Limnoria to a depth of 11% inches in 18 months’ time. Two specimens of treated piles from San Juan were inspected by the committee’s biologist and later chemically analyzed by Mr. Sumner R. Church of the Barrett Company’s Laboratory with the results shown on page 124. Armor—Copper sheathed piles were used in the Lighthouse Depot Pier, as noted above. No records of the kind and thickness of the metal are available. Pier 5, San Juan, was built in 1912 on timber piles encased in concrete with iron cylinders over all. The engineer depot pier at San Juan was built in 1921 on timber piles encased in concrete with steel cylinders over all. Substitutes for Timber Metal—There is no record of structures in Porto Rican waters built on cast or wrought iron piles. Concrete—A number of concrete structures have been built, but con- struction records are lacking. Conclusions The investigations confirm the belief that marine borers, both shipworms and crustacean borers, are active throughout the entire year, and no period of immunity can therefore be expected in these waters as is the case in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico harbors. Timber impregnated with creosote does not have a satisfactory service record and, judging from the records and specimens available, is not ap- parently an economical method of protection. Armor of cast iron would seem to offer the surest means of protection, though considering the comparatively low labor costs, it is possible that “scupper” nailing would also be an economical method. The good record of wrought iron and cast iron in Florida waters justifies the consideration of these materials for important structures. Records of concrete construction are not in sufficient detail to be included in this report. CANAL ZONE Water Conditions Temperature, salinity and other characteristics of the water at Balboa Harbor, Mirafiores Lake, Gatun Lake and Limon Bay are listed in the table compiled in the office of the Governor of the Canal Zone shown on the follow- ing page. CANAL ZONE 443 TEMPERATURE, SALINITY AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WATER AT BALBOA HARBOR, MIRAFLORES LAKE, GATUN LAKE AND LIMON BAY Name of Panama Bay Miraflores Gatun Caribbean Sea Body Balboa Harbor Lake Lake Limon Bay Kind Salt Brackish Fresh Salt Degree salinity | Flood tide......1.019| Wet season — 100 to} 6 to 12 parts per mil-| Aver. 1.020 DW tIGGs... . ss 1.022} 200 per million. lion. Dry season — 300 to 400 per million. Temperature From 80 deg. F to 61} Av. 84 deg. F. From 89 deg. F. to 80] From 87 deg. F. to 77 deg.—Av. 80 deg. deg. F. Av. 84 deg.| deg. F.—Av. 82 deg. F. Coldest in March. F. Purity Clear. Slight contami-| Clear. No contamina-| Clear. Silt in solution} Clear. Slight contami- nation about docks,| tion except silt from} in Gaillard cut due] nation of oil and of oil and small} dredges working in| to dredges. wastes at docks. wastes. Lake. idea ts | Max. range....... 21’) None Up to .25’ due to N.| Max. range...... 2’ .0 Ave range o.)s. 2%. or winds. Av aTaAn@en ae cies 0’.9 Currents Tidal—From 0 to 1.0] Very slight current at| Slight current when} Very slight — More knot. times. freshets occur and| outside breakwater Gatun Spillway] as per pilot charts. operates. — Depth, ete. 1 to 60’ deep—No real] 1 to 45’ deep; rain| 1 to 95’. Rain squalls} 1 to 50’—rain squalls —occasional waves outside breakwater from northers. storms; wave action not pronounced. squalls only; no real] only; waves 3’. waves. Marine Borers Past History—Marine borers, both crustacean and molluscan, are con- stantly present in the terminal waters and certain other portions of the Canal, with no seasonal differences in activity noted up to the date of these investigations. Species as follows have been identified by Mr. James Zetek, specialist in tropical entomology, Canal Zone: Family Pholadidae Pholas chiloensis Molina Parapholas acuminata Conrad Barnea crucigera Sowerby Pholadidae tubifera Sowerby Jouannetia pectinata Conrad Martesia curta Sowerby Martesia xylophaga Valenciennes Xylotomea globosa Sowerby Family Teredinidae Bankia (Neobankia) zeteki Bartsch Teredo (Neoteredo) miraflora Bartsch Teredo (Teredora) panamensis Bartsch The Teredinidae are all wood borers; the Pholadidae burrow into rocks and the three last named attack wood. The rapid destruction by shipworms of the greenheart timber (hitherto supposed to be immune from marine 444 HARBOR REPORTS borer attack) used in*the locks, is an indication of the intensity of shipworm activity which is encountered in these waters. Mr. James Zetek reports (April 29, 1923), on an inspection of piles re- moved from the Paraiso, in part as follows: “On the deck of the Ajax were four pilings that were pulled the day previous; of these three were creosoted. No live Teredos were found ir these, but the examination was not very thorough. It was thought best to devote most time to such piles as showed Teredos. In the untreated pile was found one burrow, but the animal had died long ago and the burrow had no trace of it any more. This burrow was almost straight, the only deviation being near a knot. It was 19 inches long, and followed the grain of the wood, the anterior (head end, which has the bivalve shell) end lowermost and below the mud line. At this head end it was 1 inch in diameter. At 11 inches from this point it was % inch in diameter. At a point 3 inches from the posterior (tail end) end it was 7/16 inch in diameter, and rapidly narrowed to the minute opening in the side of the piling. The anterior end was 3% inches inward and 10 inches below the mud line. The extreme posterior part, where it turned abruptly to the surface of the piling, was 2% inches from the surface. “Two more pilings were pulled up the 26th instant from the upper end of the dock. Both were non-creosoted. One of these did not appear to have any Teredos. The other one had many of them and some burrows with no animals present. We obtained four Teredos entire. “In every case the animal worked downward (positive geotropic). The reason for this is very plain. The very early stage of the Teredo is free- swimming, and its future development depends on the ability of this stage to become attached to the wood piling and start its burrow inward. This entrance is of extreme importance to the Teredo because just back of it is the posterior end of the mollusk, with its pallets and siphons. These two siphons (inhalent and exhalent) are the means by which the animal re- ceives water, and after using it for respiration and for such microscopic food as it contains is able again to void it: Hence these openings must be between the mud line and the water line. The rest of the animal must find room elsewhere; if Teredos are extremely abundant this downward extension is not so evident. “The four Teredos measured 6 inches, 15 inches, 20 inches and 21 inches in length. This was after they were about 2 hours in preservative and it is quite probable they had become contracted a few inches. In one of these, measured in the field, this contraction actually took place and amounted to six (6) inches. The anterior end (which has the shell with which the mollusk makes its burrow) was from % to 1 inch in diameter. “The posterior 3 or 4 inches of the mollusk tapers rapidly and terminates in the spoon-shaped pallets and the two siphons. This posterior section of the animal is protected by a hard calcareous casing, sometimes 1/16 inch thick. The opening in the piling, by means of which the siphons communi- cate with the water, has the shape and size of the figure “8.” Sometimes the division is obliterated and the opening is either oval or circular. The caleareous lining does not cover the entire burrow, unless the wood is very soft and the number of Teredos large. When this lining does exist, it is always thickest at the posterior end. “As to the identity of the Teredo, I consider it to be the Neoteredo mira- flora of Bartsch. ‘The pallets are of this subgenus, but there is some varia- tion in the shell which I attribute to senility. I am sending a good specimen to Doctor Bartsch for confirmation of the determination. All of our mira- flora heretofore obtained have been much smaller in size. No young Teredos were found. All were mature, old specimens. As the piling used in the Paraiso dock came, in part, from Balboa and Cristobal, I am inclined to believe that some of this piling was already infested with ~ fairly large Teredos, and as this piling was driven into its new place with- out much delay, these Teredos were able to survive and continue to live under the new conditions in the waters about Paraiso. Very young Teredos CANAL ZONE 445 are much more sensitive to changes in the environment, and I am of the belief that if any had been present they would have died. “The fact that no young ones were present would indicate that the embryos cannot thrive in the water of such low salinity as at Paraiso. This would strengthen the hypothesis that the big Teredos found were in the timbers when these were brought to Paraiso. “It may be that the young of these big Teredos move, due to the current caused by the lockages, to the locks where they find greater salinity and attack the greenheart timber of the lock sills.” Committee Investigations—A standard test board was maintained at Coco Solo (Fig. 165), under the supervision of the Public Works Officer of the Submarine Base. The blocks from this board were regularly examined and yielded results as follows: YD-1501—Shipworm embryos appeared in quantities lying promiscuously on the surface of block 1, removed December 19. The succeeding blocks were all well filled with shipworms, the destruction being rapid. Species were identified as follows: Teredo sp. D Teredo sp. F Teredo sp. Q Teredo sp. Z Teredo sp. G Bankia zeteki Teredo portoricensis Bankia sp. T Teredo clappi Bankia sp. V Individuals of Teredo sp. G, reaching a maximum length of 100 mm., at all times far exceeded in numbers all others, and those of Teredo sp. D and Teredo sp. Q attained maximum lengths of 150 mm. each. A new board of 1923 model was substituted for the old one April 4, and original blocks 8-24 inclusive, and replacement blocks 25-31 inclusive, were subjected to a care- ful examination. The results of this examination indicate that somewhere near the first of January the height of the season of activity is passed, and that shipworm embryos deposited after that date are stragglers whose growth is slow. The new blocks continued to show rapid destruction, all blocks being well filled with the exception of block 5-C, removed September 6, after one month’s immersion, which for some undetermined reason, con- tained not a single specimen. Teredo sp. G maintained the numerical su- premacy established in the blocks of the old board. Limnoria action was severe at times, many of the blocks being well scarred. Martesia was often present in varying quantities. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa, and Ostrea. An inspection, made in November 1922, of the Old Dock at La Boca, which was constructed by the French in 1898, disclosed the presence of rock borers. (Lithophaga aristata). 'These animals were found burrowing in the concrete. The dock is supported by concrete caissons, 5 meters in diam- “eter, sheathed with steel cylinders of 5 mm. thickness and entrance was effected at points where the steel shells had rusted through or been torn off by contact with some moving object. Field Tests—Blocks bound with iron bands and wire, spaced at inter- vals of from 14 to 21% inches, were submerged at Coco Solo, May 9, 1923. The results of these tests will be reported later. Salinity and temperature observations of the water at Coco Solo are shown on Fig. 166. SOT “SIT SS SFA“ ss "SH ) as ys oO 6 8 4 2 ¢ » G 2 OF 4 s €26i IVNVO WAYWNVd ~ AN ng BUA B4nNavas A SaGuvod LSaL Yih AED SS @ 5 dO NOILVIO' INIMOHS dvw wv GS eS a WW, , : Vo } HARBOR REPORTS [LZ NO109 4 446 447 "7 ‘CD ‘O10 000D ‘SNOLLVAUASAO AUNLVUAUWAYL GNV ALINIIVS —99T “OL waenN390320a WAGNAAON. y¥agoOL3D0 Yuaensldsas aisnonyv Amnge anne AVA Wud / HOYYA Auvnuasa AYuYONWS SZ oz sitios g gz oz st Oo ¢ ezoz st of ¢ sz oz st Ob ¢& sz oz st of Sf szoz si of & sz oz st OF . gs2 ozs! ot ¢ sz oz sit o1 & se of st Ol @& sz oz sitios @ SZ oz st oo & - 7 SuuEEEt ram ma n " m By a co iiriiey pet cuneugeweaangee terry t fuauuanu tte tT 1 iat rth ia CoH i { t : i u tir i n i i t T Ht i i + t : ia it 1 T 1 r L] 1 r i f ue t i To i + t t Ht t { HH i i - { coo i mm Ht i + : ct : t T r i H i i T - i t t t f tt ; : He ; : 1 tt nant t : t u Hi i a T aa i t r ; i i a igi i : 1 1 T t { tH | i tH TH+ t t i ett t t + ty iat ; | HH i t tT t t att, u i H (anu Bt t a rt t + t t i Ht i tH i Hee ee tt +H Ht CH ot : : r i ra Trott ttt “tt ; + | t { TH Ht +t : + : t i t i | t { t co i aag 0 a HES SEB HH ; : t i } ttt tt t t Ht t 1 EEE : i u 7 t 1 Y 1 il 1 n i & it 4 r T 1 + aloe + 7, tt f im 1 1euRU CHOU i Ht mene a 1 : i 4 ttt te : i { i i - 1 man i : og = t i | =, Z | t t 1 t i ; t + + ttt i i i i t + 4 Oz bey SZ oz st OF g sz oz gt ol s gzoz st oF @ sz oz st Ol ¢ szoz si Ol g sz oz sit Ob G& gt oz st Ob & st Of sto & B20 Sk Ol & @z oz si o1 s sz Of st o1 8 St OZ st OF & uazaWaogd uaa WIAON waGOLDO wsaaNsLsas asnanv atone anor AV, an TWdy NOUN auynuesa ayn , 448 HARBOR REPORTS Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation—There are four finger piers on creosoted piles at the Submarine Base; otherwise the use of timber piles is for auxiliary purposes only. All piles are treated in accordance with Canal specifications requiring 16 pounds absorption per cubic foot and about 2 inches of penetra- tion. Such work is of too recent construction to afford conclusions as to the efficacy of this treatment. Creosoted piles (kind and quantity of treatment unknown) driven by the French in 1905 in the old dock at La Boca were found on their removal in 1918 to have been attacked by shipworms. Armor—Concrete. During the year 1912 an attempt was made to pro- tect the piling of Pier No. 3, Colon, with concrete tubes in four-foot lengths which were slipped over the piles, the annular space being filled with grout. This did not pass the experimental stage as the replacement of pile struc- tures with concrete was already under way. At Fort De Lesseps, Colon, another type of pile was used in 1916. Old 20-inch dredge pipe was placed over the piles after driving and the intervening space filled with concrete. No report of its present condition is at hand. Armor—Metal. Cypress piles (12 inches square), sheathed with cop- per, were installed by the French in Old Pier 4, Colon. On removal it was found that most of them were in excellent condition. Where the sheathing had been torn off or broken, it was found that the action of salt water had formed copper chloride which in turn had soaked into the timber. The shipworms attacked the center of these piles but those portions containing copper chloride were untouched. Substitutes for Timber Metal—Two of the old piers at Cristobal, Nos. 3 and 5, were supported on 5-inch wrought iron screw piles exposed to salt water for a length of from 15 to 25 feet. These had good substantial cores when pulled. The steel girders supporting the concrete floor of the Old French Dock at La Boca are exposed to the salt spray and are at present badly rusted and pitted. All protected steel is in good condition. At Coco Solo metal is used on water- front structures only for fittings such as manhole frames, covers, bolts, etc., black and galvanized wrought iron pipes, and cast iron pipes. The exposed metal is, in general, covered with bitumastic enamel. Numerous wrought iron pipes, both black and enamel, where not available for frequent inspec- tions have become unfit during the past 5 years. On the other hand, cast iron shows little, if any, deterioration. Concrete—Accurate and detailed descriptions of the concrete struc- tures of the Cana! Zone, the methods and materials employed in their con- struction are to be found in the publicly issued reports of the Canal Com- mission. All such structures are said to be in good condition. PACIFIC ISLANDS General Description The harbors included in this report are Honolulu, Pearl Harbor, Nawili- wili, Hawaiian Territory; Tutuila, Samoa, and Cavite, Philippine Islands. In general the Hawaiian Islands all lie within the path of the northeast trade winds which prevail throughout the year with interruptions, during © the winter months, by variable winds, or by “Konas,” the local name for PACIFIC ISLANDS 449 strong southerly or southwesterly winds, the latter lasting from a few hours to two or three days and attended by rain. The streams may be classed as mountain torrents and few are navigable for small boats. Rainfall varies greatly under the influence of winds and mountains, and in general occurs on the windward side of the islands and during the winter months. The average tides vary from 1 to 2 feet and the tidal currents are considered to be negligible. Honolulu Harbor (Fig. 167), the most important port of the islands, is entered through a coral reef, the channel being °s mile long and 400 feet NAUTICAL MILES 3 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF TEST BOARDS OAHU HAWAIIAN ISLANDS G&/ HONOLULU Ny Kane Srey {5 « Hie. 167 wide. The harbor is about 14 mile long and 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide. Both the harbor and channel have been dredged to a depth of 35 feet. The depths alongside the principal wharves are from 20 to 35 feet. Pearl Harbor, sometimes known as the Pearl Lochs, is situated on the southern coast of the Island of Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, about 7 miles southwest of Honolulu. Pearl Harbor is just within the tropics, its geo- graphical position being latitude 21° 21’ North, longitude 157° 57’ West. The harbor is almost completely landlocked, consisting of a number of “lochs” separated by low coral rock peninsulas and having one narrow and somewhat tortuous channel to sea which has been straightened and deepened by dredging. The minimum depth in the channel is 35 feet at mean low water. No ocean swells are felt in the harbor, the roughest water experi- 450 HARBOR REPORTS enced in the lochs being no more than a “harbor chop.” The water in the harbor is clear sea water, the salinity and clarity varying but little except when occasional heavy rains in the mountainous region, draining into the harbor, cause a reduction in the salt content and the presence of a noticeable amount of silt for a few days. Such rains do not occur more than once or twice a year. There is little sewage pollution except in the immediate vicinity of the Navy Yard, and there is no serious pollution from chemical wastes. The water in the vicinity of the Navy Yard is always more or less seriously polluted with oil from oil-burning vessels and submarines. The following table gives certain pertinent data on the water at Pearl Harbor: Degree of salinity: (No seasonal change. ) Maximum 25.6 parts per thousand of total solids. Minimum 20.2 parts per thousand of total solids. Average 23.0 parts per thousand of total solids. Temperature: Maximum 88° Fahr. Minimum 74° Fahr. Average 81° Fahr. Maxima occur in July, August and September, and minima in Janu- ary, February and March. Tides: Maximum range 3 feet. Average range 2 feet. Currents: Tidal—maximum 2 knots. Depth: Channel, 35 feet at mean low water. Maximum depth in deep pockets in entrance channel 138 feet. Storms: Occur only in winter months and are infrequent. Nawiliwili Bay (Fig. 168), at the southeast end of the Island of Kauai, is about %4 mile wide between Ninini Point and Carter Point, and indents the coast about % mile. The depth at the wharf at Nawiliwili village is 4 feet. Pago Pago Bay, Samoa, a direct inlet from the Pacific, is of ocean salinity. The water is generally clear but receives some sewage. The average range of tide is 3.6 feet; the average temperature 78° Fahr. The maximum velocity — of tidal currents is estimated to be about 2 miles. There are depths in the — bay ranging from 6 to 180 feet. The bay is exposed to the trade winds, but not to hurricanes as a rule, which generally come from the north and west. Waves 8 feet high were observed in 1916, but ordinarily thas are prac- — tically no waves. Cavite, Philippine Islands, the site of the United Staten Navy Yard, is about 744 miles southwest of Manila. The harbor is formed by a low pen- — insula, the northern extremity of which, Sangley Point, is reported to be extending at the rate of 35 feet per year. Marine Borers Past History—Marine borers were known to be present constantly in % f - i ADL PACIFIC ISLANDS SGNVTSI NWVIIVMVH IVOWM Sdaduvod LSaL. 40 NOILVOOT SINIMOHS dvVW C3 1VNVH 89T “SIH 452 HARBOR REPORTS all the waters included in this report, and up to the time of these investiga- tions no seasonal differences in activity had been remarked. In the Hawaiian district untreated timber was estimated to last not to exceed two years—in some instances not over six months, and is therefore not exposed to sea water except in temporary structures. Committee Investigations—Standard test boards were installed as fol- lows: Bottom of | Bottom of Department Date Board to | Board to Location Symbol Maintaining Installed Mud Line | M. L. W. (Feet) (Feet) Honolulu Harbor, Pier 4........ L-19-1....| Lighthouse Service...| Nov. 16, 1922 O25 20.5 Pearl Harbor, Coaling Plant..... Y D=1401 4s Navy) eee eae ee Sept. 1, 1922 0.3 PAB tI Pearl Harbor, Magazine Island. .| YD-1402..| Navy...............| Sept. 1, 1922 0.5 20.3 INawiltwill pic aaa oe oe eee ae L=19-3 Wer | ABI cc ccateeneee eee Feb. 1, 1923 Tee Top Tutuila, Samoa Station Wharf Paco Pacollarborme sees coo YD2S=1 |) Nawy- eee eee Nov,.16,, 1922) |5 0. 3c ee eee Cavite® Pe Ieee cae. tan see YD=1 601s) ONavy . ses seen eee April 15, 1923" Ses scenes eee A report of the results of the examinations of test blocks follows: L-19-1—Block 2, removed December 15, 1922, contained about 25 ship- worms too immature to identify. Block 4, removed one month later, con- tained about 5 specimens of Teredo parksi to the square inch, with tubes up to 2 cm. in length. Blocks 5 and 6 showed a similar attack, Teredo affinis being observed in the latter. In block 7 the attack increased to about three times the intensity observed in previous blocks. Teredo affinis was predominant in blocks 8 to 11 inclusive, somewhat diminished in num- bers and with tubes reaching a length of 90 mm. Teredo parksi reached a length of 190 mm., as observed in block 24, removed November 15, and the last reported. Limnoria action having become heavy in block 7, increased in intensity to such an extent that many of the succeeding blocks were re- ceived in a crumbling state. Associated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Schizoporella), tube worms, and Corophium. YD-1401—A few minute shipworm punctures were observed in blocks 1 and 2, removed September 15 and October 2, 1922, respectively. A fairly heavy settlement occurred on blocks 3 and 4. Blocks 5 and 6, removed No- vember 16, contained about 10 specimens of Teredo parksi per square inch of surface, the tubes in the latter reaching a length of 8 cm. A number of specimens were found passing from block 8 to the supporting board, the damage in this and succeeding blocks being severe. On May 1, 1923, a new test piece of 1923 model was substituted for the old one. A few punctures were observed in the first block, which was removed June 1. Succeeding blocks were well filled with Teredo parksi, with lengths of tubes up to 185 mm. The last series reported were removed November 38, 1923. An ex- — amination of the old test specimen, including the remaining original (Nos. — 16-24) and replacement blocks (25-39), leads to the following conclusions: The breeding season of Teredo parksi at this locality reaches its height in September and October (possibly earlier, as we have no data prior to the middle of September), progressively decreasing during the period Novem- ber-March, and approaching or reaching zero in April. Teredo parksi is predominant; Teredo affinis and Teredo diegensis occur in small numbers. OES th Bg tA aie Atal oe. eee ee os PACIFIC ISLANDS 453 Limnoria attack on the original blocks was not especially heavy, some of the blocks showing but little damage. Limnoria attack on the replacement blocks was for some reason decidedly worse than on the original blocks. The surfaces of Nos. 25-30 were badly attacked and parts had crumbled. Kkdges of No. 27 had completely crumbled. The Teredo burrows in these blocks had their ends partly exposed. Limnoria attack on blocks after No. 31 was moderate. Specimens of Martesia striata were present occasionally in the original blocks. There was a fairly heavy covering of Balanus, Bryozoa and tubeworms on all blocks originally placed. YD-1402—The shipworm attack on these blocks was similar to that on YD-1401, perhaps slightly more intense. The Limnoria attack was much heavier than at YD-1401. Blocks 16-24 were badly destroyed, the excava- tions having uncovered the Teredo burrows. The surfaces of succeeding blocks up to No. 32 were badly attacked. Associated organisms were the same as those observed on the blocks from YD-1401. The last blocks re- ported were removed November 30, 1923. The Committee received from the Public Works Officer, U. S. Naval Station, Pearl Harbor, Territory Hawaii, specimens of rock-boring mol- lusks, identified by Professor Edmonson of the University of Hawaii as Rocellaria lamellosa. These specimens were found in coral rock and were taken from the dredging for the North Quay Wall and Pier, Pearl Harbor. L-19-3—Shipworm punctures averaging about 5 to the square inch and not exceeding 2 mm. in depth, were found on block 2, removed March 1, 19238. Block 3 was similarly affected; block 4 showed an increase in attack of about 100 per cent, and block 5, removed April 16, contained about five times the number of specimens noted in block 4. Two species were ob- served, viz., Teredo parksi and Teredo affinis Deshayes. Succeeding blocks were riddled, the destruction being practically complete. The tubes reached a length of 60 mm. in block 7. The last block examined was No. 24, removed February 1, 1924. Limnoria, appearing at first in small num- bers, became abundant in block 14 and succeeding ones. Occasional speci- mens of Martesia were observed. The only associated organism reported was green Algae. YD-S-1—Shipworm punctures were observed on block 1, removed De- cember 1, 1922. The attack on succeeding blocks increased in intensity. Only 7 blocks were examined, the remaining blocks together with the sup- porting board having been lost, on account of damage by borers. A new test piece of 1923 model was immersed June 1, 1923. Blocks 1 of the new series, removed July 2, showed 30 to 40 shipworm punctures up to 20 mm. ceep. Block 2, removed July 30, contained 30 to 40 specimens per square inch of surface, with burrows up to 60 mm. in length. Block 3 was riddled near the surfaces with burrows of 130 mm. maximum length, and block 4, removed Octcker 1, was completely filled, the tubes reaching a length of 300 mm. The last blocks inspected were removed January 7, 1924. Teredo parksi was predominant, with Teredo samoaensis and Teredo furcillatus oc- curring in small numbers. Limnoria action at times was quite severe. As- sociated organisms were Balanus, Bryozoa (Schizoporella), Corophium and tube worms. YD-1601—These blocks, due to their long time in transit, were generally received in poor condition for inspection. In all, seventeen blocks (Nos. 2-18) have been reported. Damage by Martesia was found to be quite 454 HARBOR REPORTS heavy. The action of Teredo parski was also severe. No Limnoria action was noted. Methods of Protection Creosote Impregnation and Pile Coating—The use of creosoted piling in Hawaiian waters has been abandoned by the Army as being unsatisfac- tory except for temporary structures. Unfortunately there is available no record of treatment or of oil analyses. In the reconstruction in May, 1918, of a small quay wall at Pier 4, Hono- lulu, the piles were treated with three heavy coats of asphalt paint, sanded after each coat. In January, 1921, these piles were eaten away about 75 per cent in the section between high and low water, rendering the wharf unsafe. Both Limnoria and shipworm action caused the damage. The report of the Public Works Officer at Pearl Harbor follows: “Douglas fir timber piles in lengths varying from 50 feet to 90 feet have been much used in the construction of wharves at Pearl Harbor. Untreated piles are used only in such structures as will permit of the piles being en- tirely below the mud line, and therefore not exposed to borers. Metal sheathed untreated piles, creosoted piles, or concrete piles have been used in all locations where the piles are exposed to the action of borers. “Untreated timber piles are proving successful in the foundations of the coaling plant wharf, the outboard ends of the torpedo boat piers, and the original part of 1010 wharf, in all of which structures the piles are cut off below the mud line and capped with a concrete column. The coaling plant wharf was built in 1912, 1913 and 1914 by Yard labor; the torpedo boat piers in 1916 and 1917 under contract 2169; and 1010 wharf in 1916, 1917, 1918 and 1919 under contract 2178. The foundations of these structures are giving no trouble. There is no available data on the life of untreated piles at Pearl Harbor completely submerged and cut off below the mud line. Presumably they will last indefinitely. The columns of such structures should, however, be frequently inspected by a diver to prevent undetected exposure of the piles to borers due to erosion of the bottom. Some work will probably be needed at the coaling plant wharf in the near future to prevent such exposure of the piles, a recent inspection by a diver showing some of the piles very nearly exposed. Such erosion is especially likely where dredging has been done in the channel near such structures. Un- treated timber piles when used in an ordinary timber wharf with no pro- tection from borers have a life of from 6 to 12 months at Pearl Harbor. Untreated piling costs from 40 to 65 cents per foot delivered but not driven. “Copper sheathed untreated timber piles and untreated timber piles sheathed with yellow metal have been used in the construction of the hos- pital wharf, commandant’s boat landing, and boat landing at Magazine Island. The dates of construction and present age of these structures are: DATE OF WHARF CONSTRUCTION AGE Boat: Landing No.3) 2.25350 S.0. sts costes ee 191% 7 years Boat Landing Magazine Island 7... ......0 eee 1916 8 years Hospital: Wharf) 2in%c0. 2c eet nee eee 1916 8 years ‘““Sheathed piles in these structures have stood up well except when an injury to the sheathing has permitted the entry of borers which have rap- idly destroyed the pile. Sheathed piles do not stand hard driving well and their use in important structures is not recommended. “Creosoted piles were used in the construction of the wharves listed be- low: DATE OF WHARF CONSTRUCTION AGE Sub. Base Piers. b-and:. 222% se.) eet en eee 1917 isake 5, 6, 7 years Gommandant’s’ Bost Houser... a. eee eee 1918 6 years Air Station, Whart d.20c.cieee a ae eee 1922 2 years Air .Station Boat’ Landing. o..ce: .. eee 1922 2 years | PACIFIC ISLANDS 455 “The piles stand up well except where a large surface injury permits the entry of borers. The ordinary life of such piling in Pearl Harbor is not yet known, although it is known that in creosoted pile wharves an occasional pile will have to be replaced when the structure is about two years old and replacements must be made from time to time thereafter when an injury to a pile permits borers to reach the uncreosoted wood. ‘The specifications under which the above structures were built do not call for any special care in the handling of creosoted piles—the use of spike dogs in the rafting of piles is not prohibited, for instance. Care is taken, however, in the design of the structures to have no bolt holes below the water line and to have all bracing above the water line. In the case of the Air Station Wharf at Ford Island, the bracing has been placed about 6 inches too low, as it is wet at high water and the lower edges of the members have been badly attacked by Limnoria. The piles have apparently not been attacked. Creosoted pil- ing used at Pearl Harbor has been bought under specifications calling for treatment by the vacuum and pressure process and requiring the use of from 12 to 14 pounds of creosote per cubic foot of impregnated wood and a depth of penetration of the oils of % inch. Creosoted piling costs from $0.90 to $1.20 per lineal foot. . “Treatment of cuts, daps, and notches in creosoted piles and of the timber of the superstructure of wooden wharves with carbolineum applied with a brush has been used to a limited extent. There is no data available on the cost of such treatment or on its effectiveness.” Armor—Sheathing with yellow metal has been used by the Lighthouse Service on wood spars for this vicinity in times past, but its use has been abandoned because it was easily damaged and as it was found that the slightest break in the metal was sufficient to admit borers in destructive numbers. The Army finds that protection by copper or yellow metal over felt is unsatisfactory, as the metal is frequently torn or perforated. Timber piles protected with steel casing, the annular space filled with ’ concrete, were used in the old quarantine wharf at Honolulu, constructed in 1906. When removed in 1917 it was found that portions of the piles had been eaten away at or near the mud line, and it was evident that the casing had not penetrated below the bottom to a sufficient depth to prevent the washing away of the fresh concrete and the entrance of the borers. Substitutes for Timber Concrete—Of the concrete structures built by the Army in the Hawaiian district none antedate 1910. A recent report states that no apparent de- terioration of reinforced concrete structures due to salt water exposure has occurred where the steel reinforcement was not badly rusted when placed and where the reinforcement has at least one inch of concrete protection. The report of the Navy Department on concrete structures is as follows: “There are numerous reinforced concrete waterfront structures at the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard. The principal ones being the coaling plant wharf, torpedo boat piers, 1010 wharf, ammunition depot wharf, and the new oil wharf at Merry Point. Climatic and other conditions favor these structures as they are exposed to but little rain, are hardly ever splashed by salt spray, and are never subjected to the trying effects of alternate freezing and thawing. As will be mentioned later, the only serious signs of deterioration that are evident on any of these structures are spalling of reinforced concrete piles and cylinders a short distance above high water mark. The decks, girders, beams, and in general the floor and superstruc- tures are all in good condition. “Precast concrete piles have been used at Pearl Harbor in the construc- tion of the ammunition depot wharf, torpedo boat piers, the fuel oil wharf at Merry Point, and in constructing additions to 1010 wharf under contract 456 HARBOR REPORTS No. 4591. These wharf jobs are treated below in some detail in a series of subparagraphs. “The Ammunition Depot wharf was started in October, 1912, and com- pleted in September, 1914, the present age of the structure, therefore, being from 10 to 12 years. Two pile designs were used in the work. The ma- jority of the piles are of octagonal design, cross section being a regular octagon whose inscribed circle is 16 inches in diameter at the butt and 11 inches in diameter at the tip. The piles are reinforced with 12 %-inch round rods equally spaced around the circumference of a circle of such diameter that there is 2 inches of concrete covering the rods. This 2-inch cover is from the face of the pile to the outer face of the rod—not the dis- tance to the center of the rod. The rods run the entire length of the pile, which is further reinforced with spiral wrapping of number 6 wire wound on a 4-inch pitch. The mix, period of curing and method of driving used on these piles are not known. The second design was used in making two 40- foot piles with square cross section 14 inches by 14 inches at the butt and 12 inches by 12 inches at the tip. They were reinforced with eight 1-inch round bars, 4 in the corners and 4 in the center of each face of the pile, and had a spiral wrapping of number 6 wire wound on a 4-inch pitch. The mix, period of curing and method of driving of these piles are not known. Both octagonal and square piles have about 6 feet of their length exposed to air and from 2 to 30 feet exposed to water.. The octagonal piles, of which there are 48, are all in good condition, while the square piles, of which there are only two, are both in bad condition, the concrete having spalled off all faces about 18 inches above high water mark so as to expose the reinforcing steel, which is very badly rusted. These piles require imme- diate major repairs. ; “Torpedo boat piers were built under contract No. 2169 in 1916 and 1917 and are, therefore, from 7 to 8 years old. The inboard sections of these piles are supported on precast reinforced concrete piles varying in length from 34 to 87 feet. The piles are square cross section, 16 inches by 16 inches, except under the railroad tracks, where they are 18 inches by 18 inches. The piles are reinforced with eight 11%4-inch round rods, the corner rods running the full length of the pile, while rods in the center of the faces extend from the top for a length of 9 feet 3 inches. The piles have %-inch round hoops and diagonal ties spaced 2 feet 6 inches center to center, except that at the top the hoops are spaced 6 inches center to cen- ter to withstand driving stresses. The reinforcing is placed so that there is 1% inches of concrete over the outside of the main longitudinal rein- forcement. The concrete was 1:2:3% mix, the sand being a mixture of two parts crusher sand with three parts Waianae; the rock was 1-inch. The piles were driven with an ordinary steam hammer having a 5,000-pound ram falling about 3% feet. The piles were not jetted or churned. A num- ber of piles were rejected for transverse cracks developing during the driv- ing. The present condition of these piles is not satisfactory. There are in all 207 piles in the three piers and of this number 45 are more or less seriously spalled between the water line and the deck of the wharf. The piles are in good condition below the water line. The spalling is similar to that described as having taken place in the square piles of the ammuni- tion depot wharf. “Merry Point wharf and extensions to 1010 wharf. These are new struc- tures, the extensions to 1010 wharf being as yet incomplete. For complete data on the lengthy and involved question of the reinforced concrete piles used in these structures, the reader is referred to the correspondence on contract No. 4650, under which the fuel oil wharf was constructed, and contract No. 4591, under which the 1010 wharf is being lengthened. The piles are as yet too new to give any valuable data as to their durability. Extremely valuable data can be obtained from these contracts, however, on the question of casting, curing, lifting and driving concrete piles. Atten- tion is particularly invited to a Board report on contract No. 4650, dated November 22, 1923. “In the casting of all the concrete piles mentioned above, standard brands of Government tested cement were used. The aggregates were crushed lava rock and Waiana sand, while the water was from an Artesian well at PACIFIC ISLANDS A577 Moanalua. This water is potable, has a salt content of under six grains per gallon, and there is no question that it is a good water for mixing concrete. The spalling noted on the square piles of the ammunition depot wharf and the square piles of the torpedo boat wharves is believed to be due to insufficient cover over the reinforcing material and possibly due to the use of a concrete which is not as dense and impervious as it should be. Further search is being made through old files in an endeavor to get details of the mixes used on the Ammunition Depot wharf job, as the good con- dition of the octagonal piles and the poor condition of the square piles indicate that valuable information may be obtained from this structure. Possibly the Bureau’s files might yield information of value on this matter. “Sheet piling and precast cylinders. There is no reinforced concrete sheet piling of any consequence at Pearl Harbor. Precast cylinders were used, however, in the construction of the coaling plant wharf and the out- board ends of the torpedo boat wharves. “The coaling plant wharf was constructed by Yard labor in 1912, 1913, 1914 and 1915. The structure is, therefore, from 9 to 12 years old. The cylinders used in the construction of this wharf are from 31 feet to 85 feet in length, 4 feet.in external diameter and 2 feet 8 inches internal diameter at the upper section, while the lower bell ends which fit over clusters of untreated timber piles are 10 feet in external diameter and 8 feet 8 inches internal diaméter. Both the bell end and the 4 foot column sections of the cylinders are 8 inches thick and are reinforced with 1 inch square rods running vertically and % inch round rods as circumferential reinforcement. The details of the mix used in the precast cylinders are unknown. The gen- eral present condition of the cylinders is good except that the cylinders are spalling in a few places where the reinforcement evidently got out of place in the form so that there is only a fraction of an inch of concrete over it instead of the designed amount of cover. “The torpedo boat wharf precast cylinders are shown in detail on Y. & D. drawing No. 643038. The design follows the above outlined features of the cylinders on the coaling plant wharf very closely. The mix was 1:2:3%, the sand being two parts crusher sand and three parts Waianae; the rock was 1 inch crushed lava of the usual grade. These cylinders are now in excellent condition. “Precast columns and struts grouted into place were used in the construc- tion of 1010 wharf and the outboard ends of the torpedo boat piers. Details of these columns and struts are shown on contract drawings of contract No. 2169, under which the torpedo boat piers were built, and contract No. 2178, covering the construction of 1010 wharf. These precast members are all in good condition. “The cylinders mentioned above were filled with tremie concrete, which will be treated in a later section of this report. “Poured-in-place cylinders or piers were constructed inside the precast concrete cylinders described above under the heading of coaling plant wharf and torpedo boat piers. These cylinders were made by filling the precast cylinders with tremie concrete and will, therefore, be treated in a later section of this report, under the heading: of tremie concrete. “Decks and superstructures—Girders, arches, beams, slabs and walls of reinforced concrete wharves at Pearl Harbor are of usual standard design. The superstructure of the torpedo boat wharves was made with 1:21%4:4 concrete. The superstructure of 1010 wharf and of Merry Point wharf were made with the same mix. The superstructures of ell these wharves are in excellent condition, there being no evidence of spalling except in very few cases where the reinforcement has evidently been out of place so as to have practically no concrete covering protecting it. It is understood that on San Francisco Bay serious trouble has been experienced recently with spalling on the underside of waterfront structures, and the Pearl Harbor wharves have therefore been carefully examined for evidences of such spalling in order that this report might take cognizance of trouble of this kind if it existed. It is believed that the satisfactory condition of the Pearl Harbor structures is largely due to climatic conditions and the fact that seas in the harbor are rarely heavy enough to cause serious splashing 458 HARBOR REPORTS up against the undersides of wharves. No protective coating of bitumen or other similar material has been applied to the undersides of these wharves. “Tremie concrete has been used at Pearl Harbor in filling spaces between precast sections of the dry dock and in filling precast cylinders at the coal- ing plant wharf and the torpedo boat piers and in attaching precast columns to untreated wooden pile clusters in the foundations of 1010 wharf. “In the dry dock work tremie concrete was of 1:2:3% mix, each cubic foot of sand being composed of 1% cubic foot crusher sand and % cubic foot of crushed rock screenings. “The coaling plant wharf cylinders were filled with tremie concrete of the same mix used in the dry dock work. “Torpedo boat wharf precast cylinders were filled with tremie concrete of 1:2:3% mix, the sand being two parts crusher sand and three parts Waianae sand. “1010 wharf precast members were attached to wooden piles with tremie concrete of 1:2:34% mix, the sand being two parts crusher sand and three parts Waianae, “Tremie concrete structures which have recently been examined by a diver have been found in good condition except that at the coaling plant, as has been noted above, erosion of the bottom threatens to expose some of the wooden piles. This, of course, is not the fault of the tremie concrete. “Methods of protecting concrete structures have until very recently con- sisted simply of the usual precautions in mixing and placing. There is, of course, no difficulty due to freezing at Pearl Harbor, and satisfactory con- crete is insured by using tested materials, keeping the water content of the mix down to a reasonable amount, and keeping the new concrete wet during the period of curing. In the dry season in Hawaii the proper curing of concrete offers a serious problem, as the material dries out very quickly and must be almost constantly sprayed if it can not be buried in wet sand or wet sawdust. The proper curing of concrete piles is particularly difficult. Methods used successfully are described in detail in the correspondence on contract No. 4650, which has been referred to previously. There are no records of the use of water-proofing compounds at Pearl Harbor, nor has the cement gun been used for “guniting’’ joints, surfaces, ete. The practice of painting concrete piles with asphalt is being commenced at Pearl Harbor with contract No. 4591. This job is now under way and no data are avail- able as to the protection afforded by such painting.” A recent report by the Navy on concrete structures in Pago Pago harbor, Tutuila, Samoa, follows: “Two concrete water-front structures exist: The Customs Wharf and the Governor’s Landing. The former consists of precast piles with concrete walls hung between, and is 112 feet long. ‘The latter is a pier of which only the outboard end is of concrete construction; this was poured in place, and consists of piles and a beam and girder deck.” “Precast Piles, Customs Wharf. Piles are 8 inches square at the point and 20 inches square at the butt. Their average length is 30 feet, and they were installed in 1919 and 1920, in 12 to 17 feet of water (low tide) ; the tide range is 3.6 feet, and the piles show about 2 feet above high water. A local volcanic blue stone was used in the concrete, which has previously been used with success; coral sand washed in fresh water; and Atlas Port- land cement, Navy specifications, and in good condition. The water used was from the Station reservoir, and was clear and pure. Reinforcement was % and % inch square twisted bars, wire brushed before placing, and 24% inches concrete cover was provided. ‘The mix was 1:2:4, and gave a smooth appearance. The curing of the piles was done in the open; they were wet when the forms were removed, then left to the tropical climate, with frequent showers, for 30 days. They were supported along their entire length upon 2 x 12 boards resting on 6x6 sills. No cracks developed. Driving was done with a 1495-pound drop hammer using a drop of from 8 feet to 25 feet, a wooden cap protecting the head of the pile. Jetting was attempted but was not found to be successful. The appearance of these PACIFIC ISLANDS 459 piles indicates that they are in good condition and that apparently no defects have developed. There are no soft spots, nor is any erosion apparent; the reinforcement is undoubtedly in good condition.” “Poured in Place Cylinders or Piers, Governor’s Landing. Square piers, 18 inches square, placed in 1918. The concrete was hand mixed and the bottom concrete deposited in paper; following sections were deposited dry or slightly dampened, letting the salt water mix in the concrete; above the level of the water, fresh water was used in the mix. The piers rest on rock on the coral reef; their length to low water is 12 feet, to high water 3.6 feet additional, and they project about 3 feet above high water. The materials used were the same as described above under precast piles, and % inch twisted square bars were used for reinforcing. The mix was 1:2:4, and shows a good surface except where the dry mix was deposited, which is rough and porous-looking in spots. Wooden forms were used, 1x12 sur- faced and put together with tongue and groove. All pouring below water level was done continuously; construction joints were all above the water. Surfaces of joints were cleaned off before new concrete was deposited. Forms remained for ten days before being removed. The piers show good surface except as noted; the appearance between high and low water is fair. No serious defects have been noted.” “Decks and Superstructures. Deck on Governor’s Landing is of the beam and girder type. It is uncovered, about 3 feet above high water, and exposed to much spray but to little or no wave action. The concrete and reinforcing materials are the same as those used in the piers. Forms were removed after 4 days. The main part of the superstructure is in good or fair condition, except that cracks and spalling occur in all the small sections such as rails and posts (ornamental lamp posts), due undoubtedly to the fact that there is only about % or % inch of concrete between the outer surface and the reinforcing steel. The walls between piles at the Customs Wharf are hung and extend to just below low water. Concrete materials and reinforcing are the same here as in the piers and piles. The forms were 1x12 and had a bottom board, the under part of the wall being later filled in with stones. The concrete was placed dampened, and the forms removed after 4 days. The appearance is good.” “Methods of Protecting Concrete Structures. No particular precautions were taken in mixing and placing concrete aside from the procedure dis- cussed above. No waterproofing was done. Concrete superstructures were washed with a cement wash containing 3 parts cement to one part lime.” There are timber wharves on concrete piles, concrete wharves on con- crete cylinders, concrete sea walls and concrete retaining walls at Cavite and Olongapo, Philippine Islands, but unfortunately the records of mate- rials and methods employed in their construction are incomplete. In general, precast piles were well reinforced, with a covering of 114 to 2 inches thick, and vary in size from about 10 inches to 16 inches square. Cement of several standard brands and usually a good grade of crushed stone or screened and washed river gravel made up the aggregate, and the water for gaging was practically pure, either from mountain streams or artesian wells. The concrete was mixed to a fairly wet consistency in the proportion 1:1144:3, and the piles were brushed down with a cement wash after cast- ing. The piles were cured for thirty days and driven with an ordinary drop hammer of from 1500 to 2600 pounds weight. The precast concrete cylinders for the two concrete wharves at Olongapo installed in 1909, are 2 feet 6 inches in diameter at the top, with a flared base 4 feet 6 inches in diameter. The precast shells are reinforced with plain 1-inch rods vertically, and 14-inch plain rods horizontally. The mate- rials and methods were the same as for the precast piles. The proportions of the mix are unknown. The cylinders supporting the Coaling Plant Wharf at Cavite, built in 1903, were poured in place inside of heavy cast iron cylinders. The mixing 460 HARBOR REPORTS materials, conditions, etc., are not recorded, but are believed to have been uniformly good. The girders and beams of the three concrete wharves at Olongapo are structural steel encased in concrete. The decks of these wharves are con- crete, reinforced. The abutment for the two concrete wharves at the Olongapo Navy Yard is reinforced concrete of quite simple design and con- struction. The wall supporting the inner side of the Olongapo Coaling Plant Wharf is 18 feet high with a 9 foot base. Its face is battered 1 foot in 4 feet, and its back is stepped off one foot at points four and eight feet down from the top. The concrete for this wall is 1:2:4 below M. L. W. and 1:3:6 above that point. Its face above M. L. W. is composed of 1:2 cement mortar finish, placed by spading back the concrete from the front of the form as the work progressed. Concrete sea walls, of several types, exist at the Cavite and Olongapo Naval Stations, but as all of them are of simple design and construction and are erected in only two or three feet depth of water they are of but little interest. No data concerning the construction of the wall along the inner face of the wharf at the Coaling Plant, Cavite, are available. So far as a superficial examination can reveal, these structures appear to be in good condition as a whole. Metal With reference to metal structures, the Pago Pago harbor report states as follows: “Piles and Cylinders. The Station Wharf is a steel wharf with a wooden deck. The piles are 6 and 8 inches in diameter, solid steel, driven with a drop hammer in some cases, screwed in others, and in still other cases large cast steel discs, notched into the pile, rest on rock fill on the coral reef, these dises constituting the bearing surface of the pile. The work was done in 1899 and 1900. The piles are exposed to water a length of from 0 to 25 feet; further a distance of 3.6 feet for range of tide, while the wharf is about 8 feet above high water. The piles show no serious deterioration; no electrolytic action has been noticed, although such action is supposed to have taken place at times in the past when copper sheathed vessels have been alongside. There is a good deal of growth and incrustation of bar- nacles on the piles, but the rusting is only surface rusting, no spalling or other defects having been observed to date.” “Girders, Trusses, Beams, etc. The superstructure of the Station Wharf is built of lattice girders, I-beams, struts, hangers, and eye-bars, square, with turnbuckles. The pile caps are cast iron. Practically all of this material is in very poor condition, except that which was renewed in 1918. It is exposed to spray, but little or no wave action. The paint is red lead (1918) ; it has not been chipped or painted within the last four years, due to lack of funds.” “Miscellaneous Metal Structures and Parts: Buoys and chain. The con- dition below water is good; generally covered with barnacles and growth. The buoys are worn thin near the water line, and somewhat deteriorated above. They are located in the Bay and are exposed to a little wave action and much sun, wind and spray. The material is Navy standard.” “Methods of Protecting. Material conforms to Navy specifications. The buoys are painted every 6 months; the Wharf has not been painted for 4 years. No other coverings are used.” Metal piles support the front edge of the Coaling Plant Wharf, Cavite. These piles consist of cast iron sections, 1212 inches outside diameter, length per section, 12 feet %4-inch to 12 feet 61% inches, with bell joints 12 inches deep, pinned together, assembled so as to give a total net length of PACIFIC ISLANDS A61 approximately 70 feet. The lower (or point) section has an overall length of 4 feet (net 3 feet) and has no bell, a shoulder being provided to serve the Same purpose as a bell. These piles are reinforced with 60 pound R. R. rails and were filled with rich concrete, the exact proportions of which are unknown. The cast iron is 114 inches thick. They were driven in 1903, coated with some kind of bituminous compound and appear, from a super- ficial examination, to be in good condition. Field Experiments Experiments with the method of protecting piles with steel and copper roofing nails are being conducted by the Navy at Pearl Harbor. The tests are so arranged as to afford a comparison of results with different spacings of nails and untreated woods, and each group includes five test pieces which are to be removed at periods of 14, 1, 2, 5 and 10 years after date of instal- lation, September, 1923. Coating with copper paint is a process used to proteet wood spar buoys, but as they are renewed practically every 6 months, the ultimate protective quality of this paint in this district is not known. Conclusions Both molluscan and crustacean borers are very active in all these harbors, and the best possible protection is needed for timber piles. In Cavite the predominance of Martesia indicates the necessity for mechanical protection. The age of the concrete structures reported is not great enough to permit drawing conclusions as to the life of this material. The record of the steel piles at Tutuila is good and should encourage the consideration of this material. CHAPTER XI BIBLIOGRAPHY The Committee wishes to offer its acknowledgments for many titles for the sections on Biology and Wood Preservation to Dr. C. A. Kofoid of the University of California and Dr. A. L. Barrows, Asst. Secretary, National Research Council. Other titles have been incorporated from the very ex- haustive bibliographies assembled by Dr. Frederick Moll and published in “Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Landwirtschaft,” Vol. 12, pp. 505-564 (Nov.-Dec. 1914) and Vol. 13, pp. 178-207, (Apr.-May, 1915). Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Duff A. Abrams of the Portland Cement Association and Lewis Institute for a large number of titles in the section on Cement and Concrete in Sea Water and to members of the Kngineering Societies Library staff for their work of checking and re- vising the manuscript of the wood preservation, cement and concrete in sea water, metal and miscellaneous sections. MARINE BORERS—BIOLOGICAL GHNERAL Adanson, Michel 1759—Description d’une nouvelle es- péece de ver qui ronge les bois et les vaisseaux observée en Sénégal. Acad sci Paris Hist p 249-78, pls. Akademie dam. 1860-9—Verslag over den paalworm, uitgegeven door de natuurkundige afdeeling der kK. Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam. 158 p, 4 “pls, 94) tabs: Succeeding reports published in K Akad Wetenschappen, Afd Nat Verslagen en Meded v 10 (1860) p 162-4; v 12 (1861) p 1383-50: vy els. 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Biol Soc Washington Proc v 11, p 105-7,.3 figs. 1899—Key to the isopods of the Pa- cific coast of North America, with descriptions of twenty-two new species. Ann Nat Hist s 7, v 4, p 157- RieeeoU-(ie eel-oo o4 figs, also U S Nat Mus Proc v 21, p 815-69, 34 figs. 1901—Key to the isopods of the At- lantic coast of North America with descriptions of new and little known AT3 species; U S Nat Mus Proc vee: p 494-579, 34 figs. 1904—Isopod crustaceans of the North- west coast of North America. Har- riman Alaska expedition, v 10, p 213- 230, figs 96-117. -1905—A monograph of the isopods of North America. U S Nat Mus Bull 54, lili, 727 p, 740 fies. 1910—Isopods collected in the North- west Pacific by the U S Bureau of Fisheries’ steamer Albatross in 1906. UTS Nat) Mus Proctv 537, sprips)29° figs. 1913—Crustacés isopodes. In Charcot, J. B. Deuxieme expédition antarcti- que francaise (1908-10). Paris; p 1-24, figs. Rossyskaja-Kojevnikowa, M. 1895—Les organes embrvonnaires du Sphaeroma serratum, Fabr. Zool Anz Wee. Te Giles). Bh Nec, Samouelle, G. 1819—The entomologist’s useful com- pendium, etc. London. 496 p, 12 pls. Sars, G. O. 1885-—-Den Norske Nordhavs expedition, 1876-8, v 14, la & lb 280p, 21 pls, map. 1895-7—An account of the Crustacea of Norway. Christiania & Copenhaven. v 1, 1895 Amphipoda, v 2 1897 Iso- poda. Schackell, L. F. 1923—Toxicities of coal tar creosote, creosote distillates and individual constituents for the marine wood borer, Limnoria lignorum. U S Bur Fisheries Bull 39, p 221-30, figs 1-4. 1923—Studies in protoplasm poison- ing. App Xeyeiay IPensivonl ae by, haley hr p 783-805, figs 1-12. Smith, Sidney Irving. 1880—Occurrence of Chelura terebrans, a crustacean destructive to the tim- ber of submarine structures, on the coast of the United States. Smith- sonian’ Mise Colly19) art) 2. py 232-5: 2 figs. Stebbing, T. R. R. 1900—On some crustaceans from the Falkland Islands collected by Mr. Rupert Vallentin. Zool Soc London Procg prbi7-68, pls’ xxxvil-xx xix, 1904—Gregarious Crustacea from Cey- lon. sSpolia Zeylanica v 2, p 1-29; 1 fig, pls 1-6. 1906-—Marine crustaceans, XII. Iso- poda, with description of a new genus. In Gardiner, J. Stanley, ed. The fauna and geography of the Maldive and lLaccadive archipela- goes. Cambridge. v 2, pt tii, p 699- (21, pis: X1ix-liii. 1908—South African Crustacea, pt 4. South African Mus Ann vy 6, p 1-96, pls 27-40. Stevenson, David. 1862—Notice of the ravages of the Limnoria terebrans on creosoted tim- ber. Roy Soc Edinb Proc v4, p 612-6. 1875—-Notice of the ravages of the Limnoria terebrans in greenheart tim- ber. Roy Soc Edinb Proc v 8, p 182-5. Stevenson, Robert. 1825—Account of the erection of the Bell Rock lighthouse. Edinb Phil J Vel2, bp ls=35," pl ie 474 BIBLIOGRAPHY Tattersall, W. M. Troschel. " 1918—The Schizopoda, Stomatopoda 1912—Holzzerstorer unter Wasser. and non-Antarctic Isopoda of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedi- tion. Roy Soc Edinb Trans v 49, p 865-94, 1 pl. Teesdale, Clyde H. 1914—Marine wood borers: little known crustaceans of destructive habits. Sci AME SV tot) oO OR ts 9 figs. Templeton, Robert. 1836—Catalogue of Irish Crustacea, Myriopoda and Arachnoida; selected from the papers of the late John Templeton, with additions. Mag Nat Hist v 9, p 9-14. Thompson, G. M. 1881—Recent additions to the notes on New Zealand Crustacea. New Zealand Inst Trans v 138, p 204-21, pls vii-viii. Centralblatt Bauverw v 32, p 394-5, 5 figs. Valle, Antonio della. 1893—Gammarini del Golfo di Napoli. In Naples Zool Station, Fauna und flora des Golfes von Neapel, no 20, xi, 948 p. Verrill, A. C. 1873-4—Results of recent dredging ex- peditions on the coast of New Eng- land, Am J Sei & Arts S13) v5; pret =26; v 6, p 435=413 vol, pires=46- tse 405-14, 498-505, pls iv-v. White, Adam. 1847—List of the specimens of Crus- tacea in the collection of the British Museum. London. viii, 143 p. 1857—A popular history of British ate London. X11,,3858 9p. xx GOL pls. WOOD PRESERVATION Achatz, R. V. 1920—Preservative treatment of wood poles. Purdue U Pub Eng Dept v 4, no 2. Addison, G. H. 1911—-Destruction of a timber jetty by the sea worm, and its reconstruc- tion in Billian. Royal Eng J v 14, Aug. p 1038-8. Adsett, F. C. 1920—Utilizing electric treating of wood poles. ne vi-39) pad: current for Canadian Alexander, Charles Armstead, jr. 1864—-Preservation of wood. sonian Inst Ann rept, 1864. ington 1865, p 196-205. from the Leipzig Aus der usw. Smith- Wash- Translated Natur, Alleman, Gellert. 1907—Methods and economic aspects of modern timber preservation. Eng Club Phils Pro. py 219-53. 1907—Quantity and character of creo- sote in well-preserved timber. For- est ‘Service Cir no 98, 16 pp. 1914—Quantity and character of creo- sote in well preserved timbers. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 10, p 88-96, Chem Abstr v 9, p 855. Allerton, David. 1908—Treating wood that is refractory to treatment and also subject to de- cay. HKng News v 99) p 182: 1911—Depths of penetration in wood preservation. Ry & Eng Rev v 5l, p 44-5. American Railway Engineering and 1907 Maintenance of Way Association. Experience with treated ties, ab- stract of report of committee on ties. Eng News v 57, p 359-60. 1909—Report of Committee no 17, on wood preservation. Ry & Eng Rev v.49, p 258-9. 1914-23—Report of Committee no 17, on wood preservation. Am Ry Eng Assoc Procy fb, ptiie 7 Ga0s5 leave Oo: pt 1, p 825-908 Vv lt, spo lee eee v 18, p 1261-89, ve20Sp 219 -sauwe 2s p 321-64, v 22, p 443-72, v 23, p 899- 997, v 24, p 943-1041. 1924—-Report of Sub-Committee on marine piling research. Bul #265, p 901-1066. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1885 Preservation of timber; report of the committee on the preserva- tion of timber presented and ac- cepted at the annual convention, June 25, with appendices on the pre- servation of timber and the preser- vation of forests. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 14, p 247-387. American Wood Preservers’ Association. 1919 Surface tensions of wood pre- serving oils as factors in protection against marine borers. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 15, p 113-23, Eng... & Contr VW los, peo American Wood Preserving Company. 1875 Thilmany process; sulphate of baryta, especially adapted for rail- road ties, telegraph poles, wood pavement blocks, ete., Cleveland. Anderson, J. 1878—Bericht tiber die bis jetzt geleg- ten unterseeischen kabel. Dinglers polytech J v 207, p 119-25; 'Tele- graphic. J. v iwip 5-93 Andés, Louis Edgar. 1895—Das conservieren des_ holzes. Vienna, Hartleben. Andrews, Edward R. 1878—Hayford process and apparatus for preserving timber. J Frank Inst v 105, p 109-18, 180-6. 1878-J—Wood preserving by creosote, Hayford process. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 56, p 300; abstr from Hng Club Phila v 1, p 80-3. Angier, F. J. 1903—Operation of the Burlington tie treating plant. Ry Age v 36, p 283-7. WOOD PRESERVATION 1910—Eeonomy of treated crossties. Eng Rec v 61, p 246-7. 1910—Proper grouping of timbers for treating. Southern Lumberman, v 62, no 748, p 381-2. 1911—Costs of treating seasoned and unseasoned ties. Eng Rec v_ 65, p 76-7, Eng News v 67, p 241, Chem Abstr v 6, p 2160. 1911—Keeping records of treated ties. Eng News v 65, p 143. 1912—Treating seasoned vs unsea- soned ties. Am Wood Preservers ASSOGsEnLO vo, D 220-3, Ry & Hne Rev v 52; p 63. 1915—Leaching of zinc salts and effects of improper drainage. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v ll, p 75-80, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2138. 1915—Tie preservation in the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad. Ry Rev v 57, p 6380-8. 1915—Wood preservation. Wood pre- serving v 2, no 4, p 72-3. 1915—Wood preservation; its past, present and future. Lumber Wld Rev v 29, no 9, p 42-6, Nov 10. n. d.—Notes on seasoning and treat- ment of lodgepole pine ties. Manu- script rept, 8-P-12-5. Angier, F. J. and others. 1914—-Various phases in the details of timber preservation, abstracts of five papers, presented at recent con- vention of Wood Preservers at New Orleans. Eng Rec v 69, p 99-100. Annand, J. F. 1914—Preservative treatment of tim- ber for estate purposes. Quart J For v 8, p 169-86. Antiseptische behandlung des holzes. 1901 Dinglers polytech J v 316, p 548. Anwendung des impragnierverfahrens 1902 Hasselmann auf schwellen und nutzholz. Gliickauf v 38, p 104-6. Apparatus for creosoting railroad ties. 1885 Sci Am Sup v 20, p 8234-5. Armstrong, A. K. 1913—Woods used for piling. Forest products Laboratory manuscript rept, pt 1-2. 1916—Greenheart, A timber with ex- ceptional qualities. Eng Rec v 73, p 149-50, 180-1. 1917—Protecting the bottoms of wooden — ships. Am Lumberman no 2220, p 52-3. Dec 1. Arn, W. G. 1909—Durability of creosoted piles in Caribbean Sea and Gulf coast be- tween Mobile and New Orleans. Eng News v 61, p 73. Ashmead, D. C. 1920—Three or twelve years for mine timbers? Coal Age v 18, p 281-2. Ayer and Lord Tie Company’s Carbon- 1903 dale preserving plant. Ry Gaz v 35, p 664-5. Bailey, Irving W. 1913——Preservative treatment of wood. Forest Quart v 11, p 5-20. Baist. 1862—Nouvelles expériences sur la conservation des bois, au moyen du AT5 sulfate de cuivre et du goudron. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 61, p 441- 2; from Dinglers polytech J. Baker, H. P. 1907—-Treatment of fence posts to in- crease durability. Forestry Q v 5, p 399-402. Balden, J. 1907—Creosoting of timber by absorp- tion. Roy Scottish Arboricultural Soc Trans v 20, p 62. Barger, G. 1922—-Report on the investigation of the protection of timber against teredo attack. Second (Interim) rept Com Inst C E on deterioration of structures in sea water, p 33-4. Barker, J. M. 1916—Strength of burnettized timber. Eng News v 75, p 1084-5, Chem Abstr v 10, p 2290. Barker, R. 1910—Protection of piles in sea water. Eng Mag v 39, p 414-16. Barnes, T. Harvard. 1911—Notes on pile protection. Eng Soc J v 47, p 101-5. Barnum, C. T. 1910—Wood preservation from an en- gineering standpoint. W Soc Eng JI v 15, p 346-66, Chem Abstr v 5, p 381. Barre, H. W. 1919—Creosoting fence posts. South Carolina Agr Exp Sta Bul 201, 15 p. Chem Abstr wi l4, pal0s: Barshall Impregnating Co. Treatise on 1900 wood preservation with special reference to a new German process (Hasselmann patents) that is thor- ough, reliable and permanent. (New I ObK) memo ae Barth, K. C, 1917—Economic importance of wood preservation. Eng & Min J v 104, p 985-8, Chem Abstr v 12, p 302. 1917—Preservation of poles from de- cay. Telephony v 72, no i jo) DoT) Chen Abstreyv lt, p Uso5. 1917—Wood preservation; its impor- tance to the lumber industry. Lum- ber World Rev v 32, no 11, p 27-8, June 10. 1917—-Wood preservation; methods of treatment. Lumber World Rev v 33, no 4, p 19-21, Aug 265. 1917—Wood preservation; the most practical manner in which this may be done. Lumber World Rev v 38, no l,'pe23-4 July 10: 1918—-Modern development and prac- tical details in the preservative treatment of wood. Am Soc Agr iDheves, Meanie ay 1, 18) Uapairee 1918—Preservative treatment of mine timbers as a conservation measure. Coal Age v 14, p 1025-7. 1918—Wood preservation; Assoc a valuable aid in promoting lumber = sales. Lumber World Rev v 34, no 8, p 29- Sidhe Gene aby, Bass, F. H. 1906—Preservation of timber. Eng Soc Minnesota U Year Book v 14, p 31-8 476 Bateman, FE. 1911—Modification of the sulfonation test for creosote. Forest Service Cir no. 191):Chem =A DStrevet peloGs. 1911—-Visual method for determining the penetration of inorganic salts in treated wood. US Forest Service Cir no 190, Chem Abstr v 6, p 1063, Eng News v 66, p 705, Eng & Min J v¥ 92, p 1218;°Chem Abstr v. 6,°p 539= 40. 1912—Quantity and quality of creosote found in two treated piles after long service. Forest Service Cir no 1995 Chem Abstrev> 7, Dp 275. 1914—-Method for determining the amount of zine chloride in treated wood. J Ind & Eng Chem v 6, p 16- 18, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1003. 1915—Report of committeee on wood preservatives. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro voo21, p. 1s)-40, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2301. 1916—Relation between the _ specific gravity of zine chloride solutions and their concentrations. Wood Preserving v 3, p 54-6, Chem Abstr Vi l0npeao Los 1920—Inaccuracy of treating methods due to moisture in wood. Chem & Met Eng v 22, p 57-9, Chem Abstr ve 14> p 10252 1920—-Leaching of zinc chloride from treated wood. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul’-w 22) no 227) py (3-875 > Chem Abstr® vel4ep se04e 1920—Relation between viscosity and penetrance of creosote into wood. Chem & Met Eng v 22, p 359-60, Chem Abstr v 14, p 1206. 1920—Theory of the mechanism of the protection of wood. Ry Signal Eng v 13, p 259, Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 17, p 506-14, Chem Abstr VelL4ep sl 023. 1920—What light creosote oils have done in wood preservation. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 44-55, Chem Abstr v 14, p 1024. 1922—Coal tar and water gas tar creo- sotes; their properties and methods 7 aoe U S Dept Agr Bul no 036. 1922—-Theory on the mechanism of protection of wood by preservatives. a soe Preservers Asso Pro v 18, p 70-89. Bateman, Ernest and Town, G. G. 1920—Report on laboratory experi- ments to determine the loss of creo- sote by evaporation from open-tank treatments. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16). p 83-912 Baterden, J. R. 1903-4—Creosoting timber. Eng Pro v 158, p 141-2. Inst Civil Baumhauer, E. H. von. 1866—Sur le taret et les moyens de préserver le bois de ses dégats. Archives néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, I p 1-45. Bedford, M. H. and Pfanstiel, R. 1914—-New method for the determina- tion of zine in treated wood. J Ind & Chem v6; p 811, Chem Abstr v9; p 139. BIBLIOGRAPHY Belcher, R. S. 1913—Effect of initial air pressure on penetration of creosote. Eng Rec v.67, p 299-300, Chem” Abstr v7, Divo. Benham, Claude Gilbert. 1917—Open-tank treatment of timber urged for small railroads. Eng News Vv 719-°pla2: Berlin Mills Co. Selection of structural 1913 wood and its preservation from decay. Portland, Me. 25 p. Berry, James B. 1917—Prolonging life of farm timbers. ends State Col Agr ext Division Cir ; Besson, M. H. 1901—Conservation des Bois par le Procédé Rutgers. Mem Soc Ing Civil de France v 1, p 689-7138. Bethell, J. 1842—Preservation of timber. Civil Eng Pro v 2, p 68, 88-9. 1849-50—Mode of creosoting and one result of its application at Lowes- toft Harbor. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 9, p 50-3: 1851-2—Assumed creosoted timber. Prosvil ap 23.6. 1852-3—Kyan, Margary and Paynes processes for preserving timber. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 12, p 223-30. 1858-9—Comparative value of creo- soted and kyanized timber for ma- rine works. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 18, p 429-32. 1859-60—As to. creosoting timber. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 19, p 666-7. 1860—On building woods. The cause of their decay and the means of preventing it. Civil Eng & Arch J v 23, p 190-6. Betts, H. S. and Newlin, J. A. 1915—Strength tests of structural tim- bers treated by commercial wood preserving processes. US Dept Agr Bul 286, Chem Abstr v 10, p 108. Bixby, William H. 1880—Creosoting timber. Gazette v 12, p 267-8. 1887—Report on wood-creosote oil. U S Bur of Forestry Bul 1, p 99-103. 1901—Creosoted ties on English Rail- ways. Ry & Eng Rev v 41, p 830-1. 1906—Creosoted wood pavement. Am Lumberman July 21. p 26. 1907—Creosoting of home-grown tim- ber. Quart J Forestry v 1, p 49-52. 1908—Creosoted wood block pavement well established in America. Am Lumberman Aug 15, p 34. 1909—Creosoted wood as a paving ma- terial. Am Lumberman no _ 1756, D ss. Jane lo: 1909—Creosoted wood block pave- ments. Eng News v 61, p 176-7. Blake, E. M. 1920—Application of the perforating process in the preservative treat- ment of wood with especial refer- Inst inflammability of Inst Civil Eng Railroad ence to Douglas Spe Boston Soe Civil 4 - Eng J v7, pi 98-12 ' WOOD PRESERVATION 1920—Data on preservative treatments prove that increased service fully justifies cost. Am Lumberman no 2346, p 62-3, May 1. 1920—Methods of wood preservation. Timberman v 21, no 7, p 87-9. 1920—Perforating process for timber treatment. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 55-73, Eng & Contr v 53, p 457; Chem Abstr v 14, p 1747. Boas, I. H. 1920—Preservation of piling against marine borers. Australian Kor J Vv 3, no 10; p 315-6, Oct. Bond, F. M. 1912—Use of treated wood paving blocks. Eng Rec v 65, p 223-4, Chem Abstr v 6, p 1063. 1913—Experiments in the preservative treatment of red oak and hard maple cross-ties. US Forest Service Bul no 126, Eng Rec v 67, p 728-9, Chem Abstr v 7, p 2849. 1913—Some tests to determine the effect upon absorption and penetra- tion of mixing tar with creosote. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 9, p 216-87. Bond, Paul. 1917—Durability of timber in Cleve- land break-water. Prof Mem Eng Corps U S Army vV 9, p 355-7. Boucherie. 1840—Precédés de conservation de bois. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul Wooo. Dp Lo1=2. 1841—Conservation de bois. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 40, p 192-30. 1845—Conservation des traverses’ de bois des chemins de fer. Soc de V’Encouragement Bul v 44, p 549-52. Boulton, Samuel Bagster. 1883-4—-On the antiseptic treatment of timber. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 78, p 97-211, Van Nostrand’s Eng Mag July & Aug, p 29-47, 114-33, 204 15. 1885—The preservation of timber by the use of antiseptics. Van Nost- rand, N.Y. Bowers, M. A. 1914—-Creosoted piles on Pacific coast. Eng Rec v 70, p 66-7. Bowser, E. H. 1905—Preservation of timber with an- tiseptics. Min Wid v 23, p 13-4, Wood Craft v 4, no 1, p 26-30; Assoe Eng Soc J v 34, p 159-70. Bradley, Harlow. 1916—Service tests of treated and un- treated fence posts. Am Ry Eng Assoc v 18, no 187, p 39-53, Chem Abstr v 10, p 254-6. Bréant. 1845—Appareil pour pénétrer le bois de substances propres a le préserver. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 44, p 254-6. Brewer, Wm. H. 1898—Preservation of wood from de- cay. Conn Board Agr rept, p 50-61. Bright, E. W. 1914—Economical preservation of timber. v 44, p 1351-2. use of wood and Elec Ry a) ATT Britton, T. A. 1875—Treatise on the origin, progress, prevention and cure of dry rot in timber, with remarks on the means of preserving wood from destruction aa sea worms, ete. Spon, London. p. Brunet, Raymond. 1902—Conservation des bois par l’élec- tricité. Rev des Eaux et Foréts v 41, p 688-89. Buchanan. 1877—On the means of selecting the most durable timber. New Zealand Inst Trans & Pro v 10, p 190. Buehler, W. 1911—Creosote and zinc chloride as a wood preservative. Eng Min J v 92, p 57, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2937. 1911—-Timber preservation; its devel- opment and present scope. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 11, p 364-73, dis- cussion p 374-400. 1916—Creosoted wood-block paving. Wood preserving v 3, p 57-8, Chem Abstr v 10, p 2513. Burlington Tie preserving plant at 1908 Galesburg. Ry Age v 45, p 667- 70. Burnell, C. R. 1859-60—Creosoted timber and the capability of greenheart timber to resist the attacks of the _ teredo. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 19, p 665-6. Burt, H. P. 1858—On the nature and properties of timber with descriptive particu- lars of methods now in use for its preservation from decay. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 12, p 206-43, Civil Eng & Arch J v 16, p 75-6. Busbridge, Harold. 1904—-Shrinkage and warping of tim- ber. Sci Am §S v 58, p 24032-3. Bush, L. 1907—Treatment of railroad ties and the materials available for this pur- pose in New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. Eng Rec__v . 55, p 482-5 Cabot, S. 1912—-Phenomenon of the apparent disappearance of the higher boiling phenols in creosoted wood and its explanation. J Ind & Eng Chem v 4, p 266-7, Chem Abstr v 6, p 1513. Campbell, A. B. 1917—Butt treatment of wooden poles. Iowa State Col Agr & Mech Arts ee Ext Dept. Tech Service Bul no ; Card, J. B. 1908—Open tank method of preserving timber; results obtained with ties and paving blocks. Eng News v 60, p 528, Chem Abstr v 3, p 373. 1915—Steaming ties. Am Wood Pre- servers Assoc Pro v 11, p 103-10, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2139. 1917—Report of committee on termin- ology. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro 4 13, p 76-81, Chem Abstr v 11, p 396. 478 Carlin, J. P. 1915—Experience with protected tim- ber poles in tropical waters at San AY ate R. Cornell Civil Hnge vy 24, p -4, Castle, L. 1914—Preservation of wood. Roy Soc Arts J v 62, p 342-3, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1656. Caws, Frank. 1899—Haskinized wood. Roy Inst Brit Arech*=J ‘ser 37 v 6.8p 270-43 Chanute, Octave. 1891—Result of tests on wooden discs subjected to various treatments. Eng Rec v 24, p 400, from Comptes Rendus. 1894—Results of timber preservation by Wellhouse process. Eng News aie le hay. te le 1895—Preservation of wood. Cassier’s WikeWes su CS oy BHO be i. ; 1900—Preservation of railway ties in Europe. Am Soc Civil Eng Pro v 26, p 900-27, v 27, p 11-2, Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 45, p 498-549, Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 243-4. 1900—Preservation treatment of tim- ber. Information concerning the processes tried and the results at- tained. The work as carried on in Europe and the processes in vogue. We Soc tinged) v5. p 100-26: 1900—Tie treating. Ry Gaz v 32, p 211. 1907—Steaming of timber. Munic Eng Vinod, (De 2a 40: 1913—Steaming timber before treating with preservatives. Ry & Eng Rev Viewed 7 eee C345 Chanute, Octave, and Allerton, David. 1907—Steaming of timber before treat- ing with preservative. Eng News Viole Dr Lose. Chapman, C. M. 1915—Fungus bed test of wood pre- servatives. Am Soc Test Mat Pro Va Lose De, 2 Dae Gees Cherrington, F. W. 1910—Preservation of wood. Min Wld v 33, p 1182, Chem Abstr v 5, p 991. 1911—Asphaltic oils for the preserva- tion of railway ties. Eng News v 65, p 122-3, Chem Abstr v 5, p 1334. 1911—Asphalt oils as economical wood preservers. Munic Eng v 40, p 411-3, Chem Abstr v 5, p 1334, 3150. 1913—Wood preservation with asphalt material. Munic Eng v 44, p 192-3, Chem FA DStr Wate pet7.95: 1916-—Creosoted piling and poles. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 61-70. Cheyney, E. G. 1913—Preservative treatment of fence posts. Minnesota U Dept Agr Ext Division Ext Bul. no 40, Minnesota Farmers’ Library v 4, no 4 Christian, E. S. 1915—Destruction of timber by marine borers. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 11, p 296-304, Ry Age Gaz v 58, p 162-3. Church, S. R. 1911—Some recent publications on cre- osote oil. soc, "Chem sind: Wee 39: p 191-3, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2328. BIBLIOGRAPHY Clark, W. D. 1915—An economical method of wood preservation. Timberman v 16, no 6, p 30-2 Apr. Clarke, Alfred H. 1915—Zine chloride as a preservative. Wood preserving v 2, p 74, Chem Abstr v 10, p 1088. Clarke, F. W. 1873—An essay upon the preservation of wood from decay; with particular reference to the protection of wood paving. (Boston, Mass.) Wooden Pavements, Commission appointed to investigate the Matter of. rept. 27 p. City Document no 100. Boston. Clegg, S. 1852—Action of the seaworm on tim- ber. J. Frank? inst’ vy §4.-n0s3-0) from London Architect. 1867—Attacks of the teredo on timber ships. J Frank Inst v 84, p 20. Coates and others. 1900—Preservation of timber. BEng Jo vse e248 Cobley, Thomas. 1862—Procédé pour durcir le bois et le rendre incombustible. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 61, p 179, from Newton’s London Journal. Coderre, J. A. 1921—Application of wood preserva- tion to Canadian timber products. Canadian Lumberman v 41, no 6, D 92=3,. Marans: Collins, S. H. and Hall, A. A. 1914—Use of coal tar creosote and naphthalene for preserving wooden fences. Soc Chem Ind J v 338, p 466- 8, Chem Abstr’v 8, p 3108. Collstrop, A. and Biilow, Edv. 1919—Impraegnering af hafnetommer Ingenioren v 28, p 69-74. Colthurst, J. 1842—Amount of saturation of timber in process of kyanizing. Inst Civil Hing, Pro) vadnpe sks W Soc Complete wood preserving plant mount- 1919 ed oncars. Ry Age v 67, p 453- 5, Sci Am Sup v 88, p 332-3, Ene & Contr v.52) p 384. Compulsory use of fire-proofed wood in 1904 New York City building con- struction. Eng News v 52, p 71. Conclusive record for creosoted piles. 1920 Ry Maintenance Eng v 16, p 23- 5, Ry Age v 68, p 247-9. Condition of creosoted piles after 25 1909 years. Eng News v 62, p 176. Conservation de bois, procédés employés 1839 en Angleterre. Soc de lEn- couragement Bul v 38, p 139-40. Conservation de bois. Soe de l’Encour- 1840 agement’ Bul 39> peteq Conservation de bois, procédé Boucherie. 1842 Soc de V’Encouragement Bul ved 1; “paddle Conservation de bois, procédé Bréant. 1844-5 Soe de l’Encouragement Bul v 43, p 189-90, 316, 3$88-9,> Vv" 4 p 254-6. WOOD PRESERVATION Conservation des bois par la naphtaline. 1853—Soc de Jl’Encouragement Bul Ve one Dp) ol, Conservation des traverses de chemins 1907 de fer. Génie Civil v 50, p 444. Conservation des poteaux en bois par 1920 injection de fluorure de zine. Génie Civil v 58, p 465, from Elec- trotech und Maschinenbau. Procédé Bedell. Bul Conservation de _ bois. 1853 Soc de 1’Hncouragement v 52, p 82-3: Cooper, John. 1840—-Action of the worm on kyanized ce iste eivil Knes Prov 1; p =2. Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 1899—Some notes on fireproofing and preserving timber. Industries & Iron v 27, p 267-8; Engineering v 67, p 258-9. Craig, A. D. 1902-8—-Damage done by the teredo at Riley’s Hill dry dock, Richmond River, N. 1S.) W. Volo spel oe 4, Cram, Thomas Jefferson. 1871—Report upon the decay and preservation of timber. Made in response to request from the office of the Chief of Engrs, U S A of 9th of September, 1870, for a report upon the creosoting of timber. Washing- ton, D. C. (Eng Dept) 38 pp. Crawford, Carl G. 1904—Open tank treatment of timber. U S Bureau of Forestry Cir 101. 1907—Brush and tank pole treatments. Forest Service Cir 104. 1907—Line of advance in wood preser- vation. Eng News v 57, p 155-6. plant. Inst Civil Hng Pro Creo-resinate wood preserving 1900 Eng Rec v 42, p 278-80. Creosote as a timber preservative. Eng 1911 & Min J v 90, p 1295, Chem Abstr v 5, p 784. Creosote for the preservation of timber. Ho2iecolleGuard v 122, p 1001. Creosoted piles. Condition after 15 1909 years, bridge from Galveston, te to mainland. Eng News v 61, Dp -4, Creosoted piling resists marine borers. LoLoe im berman v 20, no 10, p 36-7. Creosoting timber. Ry Gaz v 22, p 895, 1890 898-9. Creosoting loblolly cross arms. aes 1911 Forest Service Cir 151, Chem Abstr v 5, p 380. Creosoting plant of the Pacific creosot- 19117 ing Company, Eagle Harbor, Washington. Eng News v 64, p 473, Chem Abstr v 5, p 380. Creosoting process of Seely; preserva- 1870 tion of timber from decay and attacks of marine worms. Euro- pean rept American Repts, 76 p. Creosoting works of Ricker and Lee at 1894 Galveston, Texas. Eng News Veal, p 296-7. A79 Creosoting works of the Western Rail- 1905 way of France. Eng News v 344, p 87-8. Cross-ties purchased and treated in 1915. 1915 US Dept Agr Bul no 549. Curtis, J. G. C. 1847—Timber ravages of the teredo and terebrans. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 6, p 54-5. Curtis, W. G. 1895—Method of creosoting used at the Oakland Works. Ry Gaz v 27, p 80, 89, Sci Am S v 39, p 16073-5; Eng News v 388, p 218-19. 1895-—Timber preserving methods and appliances; the portable wood pre- serving plant of the Southern Pa- cifle Railway for creosoting, Burnet- tizing and other treatment. Assoc Ene Soc) J ve 15, pr te25: Curtis, Walter W. 1899—Artificial preservation of rail- road ties by the use of zine chloride. Am Soc Civil Eng Pro v 25, p 201- 53, discussion p 460-78, 551-3, 698- 706, 1050-6. 1903—Timber treating plants. W Soc Eng J v 8, p 541-60. 1904—Timber treatment and timber treatin=splants,) NY Ry. Clubsero v 14, p 202-16, discussion p 216-24, Ry & Eng Rev v 44, p 375-7, 409-10. 1907—Some notes on tie preservation. Am Ry Maintenance of Way Assoc EVOPAVeS, Do 40l-b) Ry Age v= 437 p 471-2. Dagneau. 1835—Goudron vermifuge propres a la conservation des batiments de mer. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 34, p 542-3. Dane. 1921—_Om beskyttelsesmidler mod angreb af paeleorm og paelekrebs. Ingenioren v 30, p 425. Davison, R. 1842—-Remarks on the ravages of the worm, teredo navalis, in timber. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 2, p 90-1. Dean, Arthur L. 1908—Estimation of moisture in creo- soted wood. Forest Service Cire 134. Dean, Arthur L. and Downs, C. R. 1912—Antiseptic tests of wood pre- serving oils. Sth Inter Congr Appl Chem v 13, p 103-10, Chem Abstr v 8, Dislis. LOIG. wt, Dr3020: Deavux and Bouygues. 1920—Efficiency of sodium fluoride as an antiseptic for treatment of rail- road ties. Comptes Rendus v 170, p 1006-8, Chem Abstr v 14, p 2066. Decombes. 1861—Sur le port de Capbreton. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées series 4, v 2, Dt, 2a lela ols De Lafollye. 1881-—Sur la conservation des bois par le sulfate de cuivre. Soc de l’En- couragement Bul v 80, p 422-5. Determining penetration of wood pre- 1922 servatives. Forest Products Laboratory Tech notes no 163. 480 Diaz, Carlos. 1916—Durability of wood paving in the city of Tucuman. Chem Abstr v 12, p 1695, from Tucuman U Dept Investigations. Does chemical treatment of ties increase 1901 the hardness of wood and the holding power of the spike? Ry & Eng Rev v 41, p 672. Downing, M. A. 1899—Wood pavements. p 455. 1900—Creosoted wood block pave- ments in Indianapolis. St Ry Rev Vv LO Dae. Draper, J. E. G. 1916—Wood preserving plant at New- ark, N. J. Wood preserving v 3, p 76, Chem Abstr v.11, p 199. Dry rot in timbe 1907—Builder a "93, p 5438-4. Dry rot in timber, its cause and preven- 1908 tion. Sci Am § v 65, p 43-3. Dudley, P. H. 1886—Fungi inducing decay in timber. Sci Am §S v 21, p 8596-7. 1886—Woods and their destructive fungi. Pop Sci Mo v 29, p 433-44, ‘1604-17. °1919—Fungi, the cause of decomposi- tion of timber. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul v 21, no 217, p 49-63. Dumesny, P. 1901—Séchage rapide et Eng Rec v 40, ignifugation du bois. Rev Chémie Industrielle, v 12, p 211-6, 241-5. Sci Am §S v 54, p 22306- The Dundon, 1 Beth 1906—Exxperience in creosoting Doug- las fir. Eng News v 55, p.159. Dunn, O. T. 1905—Methods and cost of creosoting timber. Eng News v 53, p 443-4. Dunn, S. Wrenne, M. J. A. G Cc. and Jones, 1897—-Chemical preservation of cross- ties. Ry Rev v 37, p 551-2. Durability of treated and untreated pil- 1921 ing above mean low water. Mimeographed article. Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory in cooperation with Wisconsin U (Madison, Wis.) Dutting, C. 1898—The suitability of certain woods for mine timbering. Coll Guard v 76, p 781-2 Dutton, Ellis R. 1915—Some experiences in creosoted wood-block paving. Am Soc Munic Improvements Pro 1915, p 167-77, Chem Abstr v 10, p 1420. Effect of preservative agents on mine 1891 timber. Eng & Min J v 51, p 633. Effect. of salt impregnation on timber. hivetar as ees v 65, p 1384, Chem Abstr Vv p 9 Electrical process for preserving wood. 1902—Sci Am v 86, p 191; from Prak- tischer Maschinenkonstructeur. Electricity and the seasoning of timber. 1898 Architect (London) v 60 Dee. 9, p 19-20. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ellis, G. H. 1889—Report of experiments in wood seasoning. Forest Service Bul no 3, p 57-62. Eisner, Jules. 1904—Fungi in mining timber. & Coal Tr Rev v 68, p 678. Embree, C. J. 1922—-Greenheart as teredo resistant on Panama locks. Hng News v 89, p 619-21. Entomology and Architecture. 1921—Am Inst Arch J v 9, p 182-3. Eppinger and Russell, 1908—Expert observation concerning coal tar creosote for preserving tim- ber. Am Lumberman no 1708, p 32-3, Feb 15. Ericson, J. 1912—-Wood block pavements in Chi- cago. HEng Rec v 65, p 10; Chem Abstr v 6, p 798. Eseard, J. 1914—Procédés' d’imprégnation des bois et notamment des poteaux des lignes de transport d’énergie élec- trique. Lumiére Hlec v 26, p 806-16. Falek, R. 1919—Laboratory tests on the value of preservatives for timber and plants and a new _ solution for spraying plants. Chem Zeit v 43, Rep 313; Chem Abstr v 14, p 1423. Falkenburg, M. J. 1914—Creosoting Douglas fir. gineering v 4, p 438-42. Faucette, W. D. 1911—-Marine wood destroyers in the waters of the South Atlantic ports. Eng News v 65, p 12-3; Chem Abstr V D}-p aides. Faulkner, E. O. 1907—Crude oil for preserving ties. Ry Age v 43, p 180. Iron W En- Fernow, B. E. 1890—Consumption of forest supplies by railroads and practicable econ- omy in their use. Forest Service Bul no 4 1890—Preserving Processes. Service Bul no 4, p 359. 1898—Increasing the durability of tim- ber. (Washington) 5, p Forest Ser- vice Cire. no 20. Forest Ferrell, Jos. L. 1901—Discussion of recent ‘develop- ments in fire-proofing of-wood, p 17. J Frank Inst v 1552p. 163-07, 1903—Apparatus for and methods of treating wood to protect it from fire and preserve it from decay. Eng Club Phil Pro w 20, p 20ges0. 1903—Concerning tie preservation. Ry & Eng Rev v 43, p 441. 19083—Protection and preservation of wood. Am Arch v 81, p 12-3. 1904—Preservation of wood from fire and decay. W Soc Eng J v 9, p 38-43. Fifth Annual Convention of the Wood 1909 Preservers’ Association. Eng Darke. 61, p 114-5; Chem Abstr vy 3, p : WOOD PRESERVATION Flad, Henry. 1887—Wood preservation. vice Bul no 1, p 66-98. Fleming, R. M., and Humphrey, C. J. 1915—Toxicity of various wood pre- servatives. J Ind & Eng Chem v 7, p 652-8, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2580. Folsom, H. P. 1907—Sterilization and preservation of poles. Am Telephone J v 15, p 271-2. 1907—Sterilization and preservation of electric line poles. Om ce) Lrris v 18, p 651-5. 1909—Preservation of telegraph poles. Railroad Age Gaz v 47; p 111-12; Chem Abstr v 38, p 2502. Forestier. 1861—Emploi a la mer des bois créo- sotés. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 4, v 1, p 352-4. 1868—Mémoir sur la conservation des bois &@ la mer au point de vue de leur préservation contre les ravages du taret. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- sées ser 4, v 1, p 307-92. Forrest, Chas. N. 1911—Characteristics of creosote and tar oils available for wood preserva- tion. Soc Chem Ind J v 30, p 193-6, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2428-9. 1911—Creosote and tar as a preserva- tive. Min Wld v 35, p 100. Fox, C. 1854-5—Zincked wrought iron scupper nails for the protection of piles. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 14, p 266. Kraming timber bridge trusses before 192 treatment. Ry Age v 68, p 1479- ~ 80. Frankland, F. H. 1914—More about teredo-proof wood piles. Eng News v 71, p 1140. Frary, F.. C., and Mastin, M. G. 1913—Determination of zine in treated ties. J Ind & Eng Chem v 5, p 738- 9, Chem Abstr v 7, p 4057. Fredendoll, P. E. 1912—Evaporation of creosote and crude oils. Eng Rec v 65, p 79-80, Chem Abstr v 6, p 924. Fulks, E. B., and others. 1917—Report of committee on preserv- atives. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Prouvels, p 206-77, Chem Abstr v 2, p 695. Fuller, M. O. 1921—Tests of timber dock stringers. Eng News v 86, p 928. Fumet-Dejort. 18683—Procédé de conservation des bois par le chlorure de sodium. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 62, p 740. de Gemini. 1848—Moyens propres 4 préserver les bois des causes naturelles de lal- Forest Ser- tération. -Soc de l’Hncouragement Bul v 47, p 279, from Comptes Ren- dus. George, John. 1829—Cause of dry rot discovered, with description of a patent inven- tion for preserving decked vessels from dry rot, and goods on board from damage by heat. Longman, London, 186 p. A81 Glenn, W. H. 1898—The preservation of ties. St Ry Rev v 8, p 90-1. Goldman, J. M. re 1914-5—Preservative treatment of tim- ber. Assoc Eine, Soe J v.58, p 207-15, Collins Ww wos pol 47. Golsan, Page. 1920—Natural life of cedar poles. Elec W v.75, p 257-8. Goltra, W. F. 1911—Concerning tie preservation. Ry & Eng Rev v 51, p 956-7. 1911—Preservation of timber; treating of cross-ties. Eng Mag v 42, p 433-6. 1911—Preservation of timber from de- cay. Ry & Eng Rev v 51, p 874-7. 1912—Improved method of treating ties and timbers. Ry & Eng Rev v 52, no 2, p 29-35. 1912—-Some facts about treating rail- road ties. Cleveland, Savage. 1913—History of wood preservation. Am Wood Preservers Assoe Pro v 9, p 178-203. 1915—Prolonging the life of poles. Wood Preserving v 2, p 49-50, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2807. 1915—Strength and quality of zine chloride per tie or per cubic foot of timber. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 11, p 60-83, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2130. Gosline, C. E. 1920—Catalogue of service test rec- ords of ties. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 93-148, Chem Abstr Vo 14 p 1024: Goss, O. P. M. 1916—Methods of creosoting Douglas fir timbers. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 70-83, Chem Abstr v 10, p 682. Gould, Clark W. 1914-5—Quantity of wood preserva- tives consumed and amount of wood treated in the U. S. in 1913-4. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 10, p 432-49, v 11, p 436-51. Government factories for preserving 1908 wood. Harpers Weekly v 52, ja) Gy, Ago 2S, Greeley, W. B. 1911—Timber-treating plant of the Anaconda Copper Co. Min Wld v 34, p 687-8, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2174. Green, P. E. 1911—Notes on creosoted wood block pavements. Eng News v 65, p 474-5, Chem Abstr v 5, p 3508. Greenberg, Morris. 1916—Eixperiment in the preservative treatment of fence posts. Wood pre- Serving Vv 3, D 91-2, vy 4, p 17-8, 42-2, 56, v 5, p 238-4, p 47-8. Gregory, W. B. 1913—Tests of creosoted timber. Am Soc. Civil bine. Trans sv 276,00 92 = 1203, Chem Abstr. v 7, p 2849. Gribble or boring limnoria. 1888—Twenty-second annual report of the City Engineer of Boston, Mass. Document 388, p 40-4. 482 Griffin, A. E. 1910-1—Ravages of the teredo at Taikoo dock yard, Hong Kong. Inst Civil Eng Pro y 183, p 256. Griffin, R. A. 1913—Preservative treatment of poles. Eng News v 70, p 61-2, Chem Abstr Vela Dio tae Grinnell, Henry. 1906—Prolonging the life of telephone poles. Yearbook of Dept Agri 1905, p 455-64. 1906—Report on the experiments of the Forest Service; seasoning, treat- ing, and setting of telephone poles in cooperation with the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. and the Postal Cablé- .Co, 9 July “ip 1904" to January 1, 1906. Forest Products Laboratory Manuscript rept. Grondal, Bror L, 1915—Preservation of log building. be. Coast Lumberman v 29, no 339, p : 1917—Preservative treatment of poles. Washington U Forest Club Ann v 5, p 8-11. 1918—Present status of the wood pre- serving industry in the Pacific Northwest. Washington U Forest Club Ann. V6; pa 4628. 1918—Use of creosoted fir for marine construction. Sci Am S v 86, p 263. Groom, Percy. Iron & Chem Abstr v 10, p 2039. Guibert. 1865—Vernis pour la conservation des bois au sein de la mer. Soc de l’En- couragement Bul v 64, p 3828. Hains, Peter C, 1896—Decay of entirely submerged piles. Am Soc Civil Eng Pro v 35; p 469-70. Halen, S. 1912—Verfahren zur behandlung des holzes mit chemikalien zum zwecke gegen die verschiedensten einfliisse bestandige produkte zu erzeugen. Kunststoffe v 2, p 424-8, p 449-54, p 461-6, Chem Abstr v 7, p 692. 1913—Die in Deutschland patentierten vorrichtungen zum imprignieren des holzes mit konservierungsmitteln und farbstoflésungen. Kunststoffe Vids Doact=i eco ka hoe Hammersley, Hunan, R. H. 1888-9—Teredo and other timber pests. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 96, p 364-7 Hammond, A. J. 1912—Investigation of creosoted wood block pavings after nine and one- half years of service. Eng News v 67, p 42, Chem Abstr v 6, p 924. Handbook on wood preservation. 1916—Am Wood Preservers Assoc 73 p. Bib 56-78. Baltimore, Peters. Hardesty, W. P. 1908—Effect of teredo in piles in Co- lumbia river jetty work. Eng News v 60, p 109-17. Harte, Charles R. 1919—Eixtending the life of wood piles. Elec Ry J v 53, p 554-9. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hartmann, E. F. 1908—IlInstallation of open tank for wood preservation processes. Eng News v 60, p 740-2, Chem Abstr Vv 4, p 8296, Am Ry Bridge & Building Assoc Pro v 18, p 234-55, Harvey, W. H., and Co. : 1906—Carbolineum treatment of tim - ber for paving blocks. Canadian Lumberman v 26, no 5, p 30. Haskin process of treating sleepers. 1898—Engineering v 85, p 81-4. Hatt, W. K. 1906—Experiments on the strength of treated timber. Forest Service Circe. 39. 1911—Ellectrical resistance of wood treated with preservatives. Elec Wi1d.v 57, » 828, Chem “Abstr ey 5) p 1875. Haugh, James C. 1906—Inspection of treatment for the protection of timber by the injection of creosote oil. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans vo 56, p10; Haupt, Hermann. 1872—Preservation of wood from de- cay. Van Nostrands Eng Mag v 6, p 481-94. Hausser, M. ; 1904—Wooden sleepers or cross-ties; selection of species of timber used, and processes of preservation. Int Ry Congress Bul v 18, p 885-904. Havelik, K. 1906—Uber den wert der imprdagnier- ung der telegraphenstangen. All Forst & Jagdz v 82, p 301-4. Havelock, W. B. 1907—The creosoting of home-grown timber. Roy Scottish Arboriculture Soc Trans: ¥°20, p 58-647 Healy Tibbits construction company. 1910—Efficiency and cost of concrete for the preservation of piles exposed to sea water. Cement Rec v 4, p 16- 17; Chem Abstr v 4, p 2563. Helphenstine, P. K. 1916-9—Quantity of wood treated and preservatives used in the U. S. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 12, : 496-508, v 14, p 225-47, v 16, p 310- Henry, E. 1909—Hssai en grand du carbolineum avenarius. Rev d Eaux & Foréts v 48, p 204-15. 1907—Recherches sur la valeur com- parative de divers produits destinés a assurer la conservation des bois. Bul d Seances de la Soc d Sci de Nancy Ser 3, v 8, no l, p 42-139. Herzenstein, Vladimir. 1901—On the question of the preserva- tion of timber. Inter Ry Congress Bul v 15, p 1445-1635, 2407-30. Hetherington, F. A. 1898—Defects of creosoted wood block pavements. Munic Eng v 15, p 1387- 47, Hieks, C. S. 1918—Fireproofing and antiseptic treatment of New Zealand timbers. New Zealand J Sei yv 1, py 286=40 300-81. ed hil WOOD PRESERVATION Hicks, P. R. 1917—Service tests of cross-ties. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v_ 18, p 85-228, Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 18, Dz eeonem Abstr v 12, p 89. 1920—Protection of piling from marine borers. Sixth inspection of San Diego, Cal. Forest Products Labora- tory, manuscript rept, Project L 120. 1920—Report of the tenth inspection of treated and untreated experimen- tal piling at Fort Mason, San Fran- cisco, Cal. Forest Products Labora- tory, manuscript rept, Project L 107. 1921—Results with butt-treated poles iMmowweorniae lec Ry J v 57, p 400. 1921—Report of the tenth inspection of treated and untreated experimen- tal piling at San Diego, Cal. Forest Products Laboratory, manuscript rept. Hill, Geo. 1894—Protection of piles from teredo. Am soe Civil Hnge Trans v 31, p 234. Hill, L. L. 1920—Report of Committee No. 10 on non-pressure treatments. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 77-83, Chem Abstr v 14, p 1024. Hodgdon, F. S. 1903—Action of sea worms on foun- dations in Boston harbor. Assoc Eng Soc J v 31, p 49-56. Hopkins and Snyder. 1917—Damage to seasoned hard wood by lyetus beetles. Sci’ Am §S v 83, p 246-7. Horn, A. von. 1887—Die widerstandsfahigkeit von griinholz gegen die angriffe des pfahlwurms. Zentralblatt der Bau- verwalt v 7, p 204-5. 1887—Verhalten im griinholz gegen den pfahlwurm bei wasserbauten in Holland. Zentralblatt der Bauver- walt v 7, p 279-80. Horrocks, H. E. 1916—Pacific coast timber treating plant. Wood-preserving v 3, p 51-3. -Horton. 1882—-Plan for circumventing the ter- edo. American naturalist v 16, p 967. Howard, W. J. 1915—-Wood block pavements with ref- erence to economic and _ efficient wood preservatives. Am Soc Munic Imp Pro 1915, p 238-44, Chem Abstr wel Omens 1420. How to increase the life of ties. 1901—Ry & Eng Rev v 41, p 618-9. Hoxie, F. J. 1915—-Treated timber for factory con- struction. AMM VVsOlOl(.= Ereservers mssoc. Pro vy it, p 215-33, .Chem ADStr’ Vio, Doo las. 1915—Dry rot in factory timbers. As- soc Factory Mutual Fire Ins Co. (Boston, Mass.) 107 p. Hughes, O. J. D. 1902—-German tests in mine timber preserving. PS Datlyvws Consular rept v 70, p 403. Humphrey, C. J. 1915—Toxicity to fungi of various oils and salts, particularly those used in wood preservation. U. S. Dept of Agri, Bul no 227. 483 Humphrey, C. J., and Fleming, Ruth M. 1914—Toxicity of various wood pre- servatives. J Ind & Eng Chem vy 6, DelZc-o | ponent ADSL? 'VEoneD elea Os Hunt, Geo. M. 1915—Preservative treatment of farm timbers. Wood-Preserving wv p 67-8, Chem Abstr v 10, p 520. 1915—Preservative treatment of wood- en Silos. Wood-Preserving v 2, p 23, Chem “Abstr v9, p 1987: 1915—Temperature changes in wood under treatment. Ene Recev ie p 144-5, Chem Abstr v 9, p 1236, Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v_ 11, p 85-99, discussion p 100-10. 1917—Caleculating the volume of poles and piles. Am Woodpreservers As- soe Pro v 18, p 245-9. 1917—Effect of soaking and _ subse- quent air seasoning of Douglas fir upon absorption and penetration of creosote. Wood-Preserving v 4, p 50-3, Chem Abstr v 12, pi 302. 1920—Brush coat should follow trim- ming of treated timber. Eng News Viste Deoce 1920—Will sodium fluoride come into general use for preserving wood? Eng & Contr v 54, p 94-5, Chem & Met Eng v 23, p 1123-4. 1921—-Preservative treatment of farm timbers. US Dept Agr Farmers Bul no 744. 1923—Methods of applying wood pre- servatives. Lefax cir, 13-458, re- placing Lefax cir 11-247. 1923—-Wood preservatives. U S Dept Agr, Forest Products Laboratory. Approved copy filed April. Hurst, J. T. ed. 1871—Principles of carpentry based upon original work of Tredgold, Spon, London, ed 3. Hutin and Boutigny. 1848—Sur la conservation des bois de construction. Soc de l’Encourage- ment Bul v 47, p 280. Hyde, F. W. 1920—Fence posts that do not decay. SGLeAm@eval23-e pe Oloe Impregnation of mine timber. 1914—Engineering v 97, p 602, Chem Abstr v 8, p 2470. Impregnation of timber. 1909—Sci Am S v 67, p 162. Increased interest in tie preservation. 1900—Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 176-7. Inflammability of treated and untreated 1915 wood. Lumber W Rev v 28, no 6, p 29-30. Inseet depredations in wood. 1917—Sci Am v 116, p 405. Isaaes, John D. 1897—Preservation of structural tim- ber. Eng News v 37, p 135-6. 1916—Vacuum process in creosoting. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 83-6, Chem Abstr v 10, p 2038. Janka, Gabriel. 1904—BKignung des strassenpflaster nadalholzern. v 80, p 321-22. buchenholzes zu im vergleiche mit NE OLS Le onmen) a 0a A84 Jones, F. Meredith. 1894—Tie and timber works at Las Vegas, Eng News v 32, p 204. Joyee, A. R. 1917—Report of committee on specifi- eations for the purchase and pres- ervation of treatable timber. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 18, p 392-407. Kansas City plant of the American Creo- 1908 soting Co. Ry Age v 45, p 499- 504. Karitschkoff, M. 1899—Conservation des bois par les déchets du pétrole. Soc de l’En- couragement Bul 1899, p 881-6. preserving New Mexico. Keghel, Maurice de 1912—-Aging and preservation of wood. Insulated wood. Chem Abstr v 6, p 1218, 2681. Kelleher, W. T. 19283—-Lake Pontchartrain trestle. Am. Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 19, p 30-9. Kellogg, R. S. 1914-Protecting piling from marine borers. Southern Lumberman v 74, no 9ST, Awe 225) D450; Kemp. Harry. 1855—Conservation des bois. Soc de VEncouragement Bul v 54, p 310; from Newton’s London Journal. Kempfer, W. H. 1911—Preservative treatment of poles. Forest Service Bul no 84, Chem APS Veo. Deetal: Kendrick, J. W. 1905—Ties and tie preservation. Ry Age v 39, p 52, 63-4, 150-3. 1905—Tie preservation. Ry & Eng Rev v 45, p 327-8. 1905—-Wooden sleepers or cross-ties; selection of species of timber used and processes of preservation. Inter Ry Congress Bul v 19, p 31-94. Ixern, M. G., and others. 1887—Report on the relation of rail- roads to forest supplies and forestry, together with appendices on the structure of some timber ties, their behavior and the cause of their de- cay in the road-bed; on wood pres- ervation; on metal ties and on the use of spark arresters. Forest Ser- vice Bul no 1, 149 p. Kerr, George L. 1900—Preservation of timber. tical Coal Mining, p 177-9. Griffin, 462 p. Kitehin, Paul C. 1918—The relation between the struc- tures of some coniferous woods and their penetration by preservatives. Michigan Acad Sci Ann rept v 20, p 203-21. Knight, N. 1909—A wood preservative. J Ind Eng Chem v1, p> 260; Chem (Abstriev. 3; p 2380. Knowlton, H. H. 1906—Timber Shirley, Ind. p 267-8. Prac- London, creosoting plant at Eng News v 56, 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY Koller, Theodor. : 1896—Impragnierungs-technik. Hand- buch der darstellung aller faulniss- widerstehenden, wasserdichten und feuersicheren stoffe fiir techniker fabrikanten und industrielle. Vienna, Hartleben. Krause, Max. 1898—Ueber das Hasselmannsche im- pragnierungs verfahren, speziell in seiner bedeutung fiir das gruben- holz.. Gltickauf v 34, p 760-4, Coll Guard v 56; p° 1013, Kroemer, F. W. 1909—Test of preservative penetra- tion. Wood-Preserving v 5, p 18-21, Chem Abstr v 12, p 1695. Keuhn, A. L. 1911—Wood_ preservation. Canadian Eng v 20, p 4380-2, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2174. 1917—Report of committee on plant operation. Am Wood Preservers As- soc Pro v 13, p 240-1, Chem Abstr v 11, p 697. Kummer, F. A. 1900—Proposed method for the pres- ervation of timber. Am Soc Civil Eng Pro v 44, p 181-219, abstr Eng News v 43, p 378-9. Labrot, S. W. 1903—Notes on the treatment of tim- ber. Ry & Eng Rev v 43, p 309-10. Lamb, R., and Schreiber, J. M. 1911—Timber preservation, its devel- opment and present scope. Am Soc Civil Ene Provy 27. pe 41-a2 Lantier, M. F. 1907—Nouveau procédé d’injection des bois. (systéme Riiping). Rev Gen Sits Chemins de Fer v 30, pt 2, p 238- Larkin, A. EF. 1916—Discussion on preservative spec- ifications for wood paving blocks. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 148-54, Chem Abstr v 10, p 2039. Laslett, Thomas, 1894—On the seasoning and preserva- tion of timber, p 73-90. Timber & ee Trees, London, Macmillan, p. Laurent, L. . 1850—Recherches et résultats d’obser- vations des moeurs des animaux nuisibles aux grands approvisionne- * ments de bois de marine. Comptes Rendus v 31, p 74-8. Leavitt, W. M. 1920—Pole preservation. D 32122; 1921—-Butt treatment of cedar poles by open tank method. v 78, p 403-4. Elec J v 45, Lee, Laurence. 1921—Prolonging the life of Fiabe tim- . N. Y. State Col Hor eghey; Syra-_ bers. cuse U Cir-no 34, 22 p Leger and Perronet. 1858—Emploi du_ sulfate de cuivre pour la conservation des bois. Soe de Encouragement Bul v 57, p 746- 7; from Soe Ing Civil. | q : Elec Rec) WOOD PRESERVATION Legros, P. 1855—Conservation des bois. Soc de V’Encouragement Bul v 54, p 440-1. Lemaire, E. 1907—Conservation des bois par les nouvelles méthodes d’imprégnation. Génie Civil v 50, p 403-6 1908—Valeur comparative des anti- septiques employés pour la préser- vation des bois. Génie Civil v 53, p 351-4. Leugny, G. 1900—Sénilisation rapide et Vignifuga- tion des bois par l’électricité. Rev Technique v 21, p 245-50. Leven, George. 1904—Creosoting timber for estate purposes. Roy Scotish Arboricul- tural Soc Trans v 17, p 93-6. Lewis, H. W. 1866—Preservation of wood in damp and wet situations. J Frank Inst v 81, p 217-23, 289-95. Lewis, R. G. 1913—Preservative treatment of fence posts. Canada Dept Int Forestry Branch Cire no 6. Light creosote oils in wood preservation. 1920—Eng & Contr v 53, p 722, Chem & Met Eng v 23, p 56. Limnoria lignorum und andere holzzer- 1868 st6rer an den Nordsseekiisten. “at pane der Bauverwalt v 6, p . Lindsey, J. B., jr. 1906—Inspection of treatment for the protection of timber by the injec- tion of creosote oil. Am Soc Civil Eng Pro v 32, p 148-53. Lingard, J. 1827—Philosophic and _ practical in- quiry into the nature and constitu- tion of timber; including an inves- tigation into the causes of dry rot, and a proposal for effectually pre- serving timber against premature decay. 2nd edition (London) Long- man. Loeust Point pier collapse in Baltimore. 1907—Eng News v 58, p 1384-5. Long life for creosoted piles in railroad 1920 trestle. Ry Age v 68, p 247-9, Chem Abstr v 14, p 2066. Ludlow, William. 188i1—Report relating to the use of creosote for protecting submerged timber, Delaware Breakwater Har- bor. U S Ann Rept Chief of Engrs U S Army Appendix F, p 818-9 McBee, E. 1909—Plea for wood preserving proc- ess. Eng News v 61, p 108 MeDonald, G. B. 1912—Methods for the preservation of mine timbers. Min & Eng Wld v 36, p 1049-50, Chem Abstr v 6, p 2998. 1915—Preservative treatment of fence posts. Iowa State Col Agr & Mech Arts Bul no 158, 150 p; Chem Abstr v 10, p 1088. MeKenzie, Wm. B. 1906—Creosoting timber. from Canadian Eng, 14 p. Reprinted 485 MeLean, J. D. 1917—Protection of piling from ma- rine borers; progress report no. 9. ‘Treatment of piling specimens with six different coal tar creosotes: For- est Products Laboratory manu- script rept., project 120. 1919—Report of seventh inspection of treated piling specimens on the Gulf Coast. Forest Products Laboratory manuscript rept, project L 120. 1920—Report of eighth inspection of treated piling specimens on the Gulf Coast. Forest Products Laboratory manuscript rept, project L 120. 1922—Report of ninth inspection of treated piling specimens on the Gulf Coast. Forest Products Laboratory manuscript rept, project L 120. 1923—Report of tenth inspection of treated piling specimens on the Gulf Coast. Forest Products Laboratory manuscript rept, project L 120. 1924—-Results of treatment of piling specimens against attack by marine _ borers. Forest Products Laboratory. Reprint from Eng & Contr Railways issue March 1924. MeNeil, J. E. 1902—Improvement in the use of. ties. Ry & Eng Rev v 43, p 706. MacKFarland, H. B. 1912—-Test of the strength of- creo- soted bridge ‘timber. ling News v 68, p 1035, Chem Abstr v 7, p 545. 1914-—Effect of creosoting on strength of Oregon fir piling. Eng News v 72, p 863, Chem Abstr v 9, p 140. 1914—-Effect of steaming process of creosoting on strength of Oregon fir piling. Eng Rec v 70, p 487-8. 1915—Tests of Oregon fir piling. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 16, pt 2, p 47- 150, Chem Abstr v.10, p 262. 1916—Tests of Douglas fir bridge stringers (to determine the effect of treatment on strength). Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul 184, pt 2, p 281-467, Chem Abstr v 10, p 1259. Malenkovie, Basilius. 1906—Neure ergebnisse in der bekaimp- fung der im hochbau auftretenden holzzerstorenden pilze. Zeit d. oes- terr Ing Arch Ver v 58, p 81-4. 1907—Holzkonservierung im hochbaue mit besonderer riticksichtnahme auf die bekimpfung des hausschwam- mes. Vienna A. Hartleben. 1914—-Zukunft der holzkonservierung mit wasserlédslichen' stoffen. Zeit angew Chem v 27, p 1382-5, Chem Abstr v 8, p 2470. Mann, J. C. 1910—Testing of coaltar creosote. Soc Chem Ind J v 29, p 732-5, Chem Abstr Vv 5s p99; Manterola, J. P. 1916—Observaciones sobre el ataque de las maderas por el taret en la bahia de Valparaiso. Ann Inst de Ing de Chile v 16, p 4138-16. Marechal. 1863—Procédés de durcissement et @imperméabilisation du _ bois. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 62, p 252. 486 Margery, L. 1841—-Procédé propre a garantir. de toute altération les matiéres végé- tales et animales. Soc de 1]’Encour- agement Bul v 40, p 209-10. Martin, Robert. 1895-6—-Treatment of timber for ust in mines. Min Inst Scotland Trans v 17, p 69-74, Fed Inst Min Eng Trans. vValOsepeoo Los Mason, T. H. : 1908—Preservation of timber. Sci Pr v 97, p 37-41. Mathers, F. C., and Moncreift, Tae ING 1913—Preservation treatment of wood with water-gas tar. Gas Age v 3l, p 393, Chem Abstr v 7, p 1963. Mattoon, W. R. | 1920—-Treating fence posts on farms. Louisiana State U Ext Div Circ no oe ON Pe Mattos, F. D., and Blake, E. M. 1920—Report on creosoted piling re- moved from Long Wharf, Oakland, Cal. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 148-78. Mayer, Adlof Eduard. 1872—Chemische technologie des holzes als baumaterial. Braunschweig, F. Viewegund Sohn. Min & Meier, H. 1862—-Die Pfahlmuschel. Aus der Heimat col. 149-56, 173-6. Meigs, M 1911—Experiment in wood preserva- tion. Prof Mem, Eng Corps U 3s ATrMy W i, D 2ol-o. Mell, C. D., and Brush, W. D. 1913—Greenheart. Forest Service Cir no 211. Melsens. *1865—Sur la conservation des bois. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 64, p 28-34. Meredith, Mark. 1917—Common salt for preserving wood. Machinery v 23, p 586, Chem 7% oX=1 0 ee ae Os ee oe Merklen, J. M. 1905—Creosoting works of the West- ern Central Railway of France. Eng News v 54, p 87-8. Method of preserving railroad timbers. 1903 Am Lumberman Mar 21, p 25. Methods of increasing durability of 1907 wood. Canadian Lumberman Vell eNO wD “LOE Meyer, Herbert W. 1917—Prolonging the existence of cedar poles. Elec Wld v 70, p 610-11. Milburn, H. W. 1912—Effect of creosote oil on bitu- minous fillers for creosoted wood block. Munic Eng v 43, p 109, Chem ADStEV Om Decora. Millet. 1847—Dessication de bois, procédé de M. Millet. Soc de 1l’Encouragement Bul v 46, p 436-7. Mitchell, W. G. 1915—Treated wood block paving. Can Dept Interior Forestry Branch Bul no 49, bibliography p 40. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1916—Experimental wood preserving laboratory. Wood Preserving v 3, p 33-5, Chem Abstr v 10, p 2039. 1916—Preservative treatment of tim- ber. Canadian Lumberman v_ 36, no 12, p 34-7. preservation of railroad ties. Sci Am v 93, p 414-5. Modern 1905 Moll, F. 1912—-Preservation of posts. Chimiste M 2, p 306-9, Chem Abstr v 6, p 1667, rom. 1913—Kunstliche schutz des holzes durch Aatzsublimat (Kyanisierung). Zeit Angew Chem v 26, p 459-63. 1913—Physikalische und chemische eigenschaften der zur holzkonser- -vierung angewandten teere und teerderivate. Zeit angew Chem yv 26, p 792-800, Chem Abstr v 8, p 3623. 1914—The ship-worm (Genus Teredo Linne) from Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirt- schaft, v 12, p 505-64. 1914—Hinrichtung und betrieb von an- stalten zum impragnieren von holz unter druck mit antiseptischen fliis- sigkeiten. Chemische? 2Appiea. a5 p 49-52, 101-3) Chem, Absinasy — 5; D "eau 1914—-Preservation of wood by means of corrosive sublimate. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 10, p 236-49, Chem Abstr v 8, p 2934. 1915—Artificial preservation of mine ‘timbers. Forestry Q v 13, p 308-16. 1915—Beitrage zur frage der giftge- fahr durch die zur holzkonservie- rung benutzten stoffe. Zeit angew Chem v_ 28, p 73-5,, ChemyAbpstr vcs Dp 486; 1237: 1915—Entwicklung und der gegen- wartige stand der holzimprdagnie- rung mit salzen. Vo 28, pres. ieee. v 9, p 2580. 1915—Impragnierung des Holzes nach dem Verfahren des Dr. Boucherie. Chemische App v 2, p 49-53, 63-67, Chem Abstr v 9, p 13881. 1915—Schutz des holzes gegen faulnis durch anstriche und ueberztige. Kunststoffe -v 5; ps 169-7 gelseeo- 210-2, 219-22, Chem Abstr v 10, p 108. 1916—Bibliography of wood-boring crustaceans. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 409-13. 1916—Uber die Verwendung ammoniak- alischer Salsl6sungen zur Holzkon- sevierung. Zeit angew Chem v 29, part 1, p 339-41, Chem Abstr v 11, p 1284. Zeit angew Chem 328-31, Chem Abstr 1917—Gegenwartige stand der impra- gnierung von holzmasten. Elek- trotech Zeit. vo 38,0 pe2T0alw Ghent Abstr v 12, pn T756-%, 1918—Influence of the war on the preservative treatment of wood. Zeit angew Chem v 31, p 224, Chem Abstr v 14, p 108. 1920—Salt mixtures as preservatives for wood against fungus and decay. Zeit angew Chem v 33, p 39-40, Chem Abstr v 14, p 2066. Montfort, R. 1894—Protecting piles against the teredo navalis on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Am Soc (Civil Eng Trans v 31, p 220-32. WOOD PRESERVATION Montpellier, dix aXe 1899—Sénilisation rapide des bois par Vélectricité. Electricien v 18, p 237, 255-8. Moore, W. EF. 1902—Does it pay to creosote wooden poles for electric line work? Hlec Rev v 40, p 708-9. More soda treatment of sap timber; 1909 steaming of timbers. Southern Lumberman v 58, no 696, p 29. Moreau, Aug. 1911—Sur l’antiseptique le “‘microsol.”’ Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v 115, p 613-27, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2926. Miiller, J. 1868—Ueber die mittel, das zu _ see- schiffen und wasserbauten zu ver- wendende holz gegen die zerstorung des holzwurms zu bewahren. Poly Novumblatt. vo fe.) pel ie-21% Nansouty. 1885—Mangeurs' des pilotis. Génie Civil v 7, p 308-9. Neale, R. E. 1913—Powell saccharine process for seasoning and preserving timber. Elec Rev (London) v 73, p 444-5, Chem Abstr v 8, p 230. 1913—Saccharine timber preservative; equipment, operation and efficiency of the Powe!l seasoning process. Eng Mag v 46, p 437-9. Nelson, John M. 1906—New timber preservative. Ry & Eng Rev v 46, p 341. 1907—New wood preservative. Ry & Eng Rev v 47, p 633. 1907—-Preservation of mine _ timber. Min Wld v 26, p 656-7. 1907—Prolonging the life of mine tim- bets eat orest Cir no! 111,°22 p. 1909—Preservation of mine timbers. Hng & Min J v 88, p 211-2. New concrete covering for timber piles 1906 in teredo infested waters. Eng News v 55, p 21-2. New process of timber treatment. Eng 1912 News v 68, Neel oe Dimes oo. p 954, Chem Abstr En- Chem New process of wood seasoning. Lop eecineering iv 113) p 463, ADStr ev 6.2 p 2159. New specifications of the board of local 1912 improvements of Chicago for creosoted wood block pavements. Eng & Contr v 38, p 68, Chem Abstr iO. Drago 2. New tie and timber preserving plant of 1906 the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway at Somerville, Tex. Eng News v 55, p 490-8. New tie treating plants on the Rock 1908 Island lines. Suny Oakes “Daas = larenyy vy 428, p 3891-2. Newton, H. M., Chureh, S. R.,, Schrenk, H. von. 1915—Specifications for wood paving Dlock soil Wood preserving v 2, p 44, Chem Abstr v9, p 2702. and 487 Norfolk Creosoting Company. Creosoted 1900 timber; its preparation and uses. Philadelphia, Heywoods. Nowotny, R. LOOT ZF frage der holzkonservierung im telegraphenlinienbaue. Bauma- terialienkunde v 12, p 65-9. 1911—Ueber den wert von laboratori- umsversuchen fiir die holzimprag- nierung. Zeit angew Chem v 24, p 923-8, Chem Abstr v 5, p 2720. 1912—Preservation of wood with “Bel- lit.” J Inds&. Eng Chem v 4, p 542, Chem Abstr v 6, p 2681, from Oesterr Chem Zeit. 1912—Ueber die voraussichtliche leb- ensdauer impragnierter holzmasten. Elektrotech Zeit v 33, p 976-9. 1913—Erfahrungen aus der praxis der holzimpragnierung mit fluoriden. Zeit angew Chem v_ 26, p 694-700, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1003. 1917—Impregnation of wood with mercuric chloride’ solution. Soc Chem Ind J v 36, p 880, Chem Abstr Vials eps 89: 1919—Impregnation of wood with lim- ited amounts of mercuric chloride. Soc Chem Ind J v 38, p 502A, Chem Abstr vyeiZznp 88 icv 18; p* 2987; 1919—tber gesetzmdszige aufnahmen von impragniermitteln bei leitunge- masten. Hlektrotech und Maschin- enbau v 37, p 105-08, Chem Abstr Veuls eDe 2049), 1921—Basilit: a preservative for wood- en poles. Elec W v 77, p 722, from Telegraphen u Fernsvrechtechnik. Noyon. 1859—Sur Vinefficacité de Vinjection par le procédé Boucherie pour la conservation des bois employés & la mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées Greve ay oy alt, qo Faieoc ik Oakes, John C. 1909—Creosoted and creosoting. Prof a Ene Corps UcsStArmysy lL, p 10s= Old Dominion Creosoting Works. 1906—Preserving timber. Mfg Ree vy 49, no i) p 12. Olwares, J. de. 1909—Safeguarding wood against ants. USS = Danly Consular —repts oh ep. i112 no 3404, p 138. Park, E. S., and Weber, J. M. 1920—Processes and equipment used in wood preservation. Ry Rev v 67, p 972-5, Mech Eng v 43, p 98-9. Parker, J. F. 1907—Preservatives' for wood metal. Ry Age v 44, p 544. 1918—Treated versus untreated ties. Eng Mag v 45, p 741-4. and Paeleorms og Paelekrebs Angreb Ved 1921 Skandinaviens Kyster. Betaen- kning. Ingenioren v 30, p 287-304. Faton, J. 1849—Southend timber _ pier. Inst Cival Hines Brow. 9) pace ole Payen. . 1840—Procédé de conservation de bois. Soe de l’EHncouragement Bul v _ 39, p 20-1. 488 1841—Conservation de bois, essais et expérience. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul w <-40.peLs0. 1841—Conservation de bois, procédé de M. Bréant. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v-40 p 20-2. 1849—Conservation de bois, procédé de Périn. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul Vi Ser Tere) te Payne. 1847—Conservation de bois, procédé de Payne. Soc de ’Encouragement Bul v 46,..p .703. 1861—Mémoire sur la conservation des bois. Ann du Conservatoire Arts & Métiers v 1, p 692-732. Pearson, R. S. 1918—Further note on the antiseptic treatment of timber, recording re- sults obtained from past’ experi- ments. “Calcutta, 128 p; 2.0L Lor estry v 17, p 190-1, pm 718; Chem Abstr v 13, p 504. Perlewitz, K. 1910—Konservierung h6lzerner maste fiir elektrische leitungen. Elektro- tech Zeit v 31, p 913-5, Chem Abstr Westen Dank O4y Perten, J. 1909—New process of impregnating wood. Soc Chem Ind J v 28, p 711, Chem Abstr v 5, p 194. 1911—Bekampfung von hausschwamm und trockenfaule. Chem Zeit v 35, p 310, Chem Abstr v5.) p 2274. Peters, Evelyn Willing. 1912—Preservation of mine timbers. Forest Service Bul no 107. Petritseh, E. F. 1907—Beitrag zur frage der konser- vierung holzerner leitungmaster. Maschinenbau v 25, p 193-7. Portable plant for the preservation of 1899 railway ties. Eng News, v 42, p 108. Port Reading creosoting plant. 1915—Wood-preserving v 2, p 37-40, Chem Abstr v 9, p 27038. Powell, E. L. 1914—Timber conservation and preser- vation. Assoc Eng Soc Pro v 52, p Soa =i, inst Civilgtine sero uy, 198. p 1914—-Treatment of piling and timber according to conditions of use and exposure. Am Woodpreservers As- soc Pro v 10, p 280-2. Powell process of preserving timber. 1904—Eng News v 52, p 473. Powellsehe verfahren zur konservierung 1907 von Holz mittolst zucker, Bau- materialienkunde v 12, p 268- 70, Sci Am §S v 63, p 26216-7. Powell wood process. anion Lumberman vy 27, no 9, p 17 Praille, G. de la. 1916—Preservation of wood. Abstr v 10, p 1419, p 1920. Chem Preliminary report on preservation of 1882 timber. Am. Soc-) Civil gine Trans v 1l, p 325-44, BIBLIOGRAPHY Present condition of timber preserving 1902 in the United States. Railroad Gaz v 34, p 618-9. Preservation of mine timbers from de- 1907 cay. Mines & Min v 27, p 460-1. Preservation of mine timbers. 1909—Min Wld v 30, p 3438-4. Preservation of mine timber. ae ee Age v 16, p 164, 377-8, 459, Preservation of outdoor timber. 1914—Gt Brit Bd Agr & Fisheries Lon- don 4 p Leaflet no 284. Preservation of ties in France. 1895—Ry Gaz v 27, p 218. Preservation of ties on the Southern 1900 Pacific Railway. Eng News v 44, p 278-9. Preservation of timber. 1907—Sci Am §S, v 64, p 71-2, Preservation of timber; report of the 1885 committee on the preservation of timber, presented and accepted at the Annual Convention, June 25, 1885. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 14, p 247-398. Preservation of timber; some new data 1907 on penetration. Sci Am §S v 64, p 71-2. Preservation of timber; standing sub- 1908 ject no 5. Am Ry Bridge & Bldg Assoc Pro v 18, p 256-70. Preservation of timber from boring or- 1917 ganisms. Engineering v_ 1038, DL: Preservation of wood. 1903—Sci Am §S, v 56, p 23075, from La Chronique Industrielle. Preservation of wood by “Aczol’”’ 1911—Chem Abstr v 5, p 381, from Le Chimiste. Preservation of wood by the Powell 1913 process. Canadian Eng v 24, p 155, Chem Abstr v 7, p 1088. Preservation for wood and metal. 1907—Assoe Ry Superintendents of Bridges and Bldgs Pro v 17, p 141-54. Preservative against wood splitting. 1907—Timber Tr J v 62, p 727. Preservative agents on mine timber, On 1890-1 the effects of. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 104, p 394-5. Preservative treatment of wood poles. 1921—Pub Works v 50, p 63. Preservative treatment of yellow pine. 1909—Eng Dig v 6, p 220, Chem Abstr Vicoe mows Preserve the pole line. 1921—Elec Ry J v 57, p 126. Preserving methods for ties. 1902—Ry & Eng Rev v 42, p 303-4, 383, 425, 609, 658-9. Preserving of timber, a statement of re- 1900 cent suggestions regarding the methods of preserving timber and a hint concerning the reason that treated timber ties last longer in ee i ses than in U. S. Eng Ree v 42, p WOOD PRESERVATION Preserving timber, final report of com- 1885 mittee. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 14, p 247-398. Preserving timber with woodiline. 1896—Ry Gaz v 28, p 60-1. Preserving wood roof timbers. 1921—Textile Wld v 59, p 215, 217. Prince, R. E. 1914—Preliminary work in fire-proof- ing wood. Am Woodpreservers As- soc Pro v 10, p 158-74, Chem Abstr v 8, p 29384. Prindle, F. C. 1890—Wood treatment tests. Eng News v 238, p 159, Elec W v 15, p 176. Procédé de conservation des bois em- 1853 ployé sur les chemins de fer. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul v_ 52, p 82-5. Protecting piles from the teredo. 1906—Railroad Gaz v 41, p 137-8. Protecting piles from the teredo. 1918—Sci Am v 119, p 128. Protection of piles against teredo. 1895—Ry Rev v 35, p 636. Protection of piles against teredo. & 1893 N. R.R. Eng News v 30, p 319° 2.0. Protection of piles by gunite. 1922—Canadian Eng v 42, p 559. Protection of piles in water infested by 1921 marine borers; report of sub- committee. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul 2338, D 472-9. Puncturing poles before impregnation. 1921—Elect Ry J v 57, p 560. Purse, D. G. 1907—Relief for lumber situation; vul- canizing to improve the character of timber. Mfg Rec v 52, no 16, p 54-5. Putman, W. 1910—Failure of wooden piling due to private agencies and methods of protection. Canadian Hine vy 18, p 293-5. Putnam, J. W. 1880—Preservation of timber. Civilvibne "Trans v 9, p 206. Am Soc Quatrefages. 1848—Moyen de préserver les appro-- visionnements de bois de la marine de la piqtre des tarets. Soc de l’En- couragement Bul v 47, p 280. Radford, H. V. 1904-6—Artificial preservation of tim- ber. N Y Forest Fish & Game Com- mission 10-12 Ann rept p 345-59. Railway tie question; gives abstracts of 1903 reports, addresses and discussion of this subject at the recent conven- tion of the Roadmasters and Main- tenance of Way Association in Kan- sas City. Eng News v 50, p 463-5. Rawson, Ralph H. 1920—Penetration of creosote in vari- ous sizes of sawed lumber and round piling. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 16, p 74-83, Chem Abstr v 14, p 1024. Reeent developments in wood preserva- 1921 tion. Eng News v 86, p 297-9. 489 Record of treated ties, Atchison, Topeka 1905 and Santa Fe Railway. 1885- 1904. Ry & Eng Rev v 45, p.137. Reilly, P. C. add 1914—-Creosote oil. Am Wood Pre- servers Assoc Pro ¥V 10, p, 84-8, Chem AWStr ives. Dp 2934 1915—Proper oil for treating creosoted wood blocks for paving. Am ‘Soc Munic Impr Pro 1915, p 210-37,'Chem Abstr v 10, p 1420. 1915—Specification for a coal-tar:creo- sote solution. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 11, p 158-68, Chem .Abstr Vie Oe imc ait, 1918—Destruction of wood block pave- ment due to use of tar in the creo- sote oil. Munic Eng v 54, p 183-4, J Forestry v 16, p 826-7. Report of Committee on preservatives. 1914—Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro Vv LOs=p 5s; Chem Abstr -v S72 pi 29338. Report of Committee on preservative 1911 treatment of poles and cross- arms. Nat Elec Light Assoc v 41, p 579-700. Report of Committee on specifications 1916 for the purchase and preserva- tion of treatable timber. Am Wood- preservers Assoc Pro v 12, p 171-87. Report of Committee on wood preserva- 1920 tion. Railway Age, v 68, p 924-8. Report of Committee XVII—Wood Pres- 1919 ervation. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bulsveed, niow222.. pp) 29-00 le Report of Marine Piling Committee. £923° N,. R in cooperation with Committee on wood preservation A. R. H. A. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul no 255, p 959-64. Report of San Francisco Bay Marine 1921 Piling Committee. Eng News- Rec v 86, p 471-2. Report on the abuse of treated materi- TOO Salse Rye Aeeuve 69. pao 0 shine & Contr v 54, p 509. Reports of creosoted piling in Galveston 1914 Bay bridge of Santa Fe Railway. Report on piling in water 38 years. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 10, p 112-94. Resistance des pieux ecréosotés ou 1922 cuivrés aux attaques du teredo. Génie Civil v 80, p 414. Review of the railway tie question. 1908—Eng News v 50, p 2238-5. Rex, Geo. F. 1920—Catalogue of service test rec- ords of ties. Report of committee on service records. Am Wood Pre- servers Assoc Pro v 16, p 146. Rhodes, F. L., and Hosford, R. F. 1915—Recent results obtained from the preservative treatment of tele- phone poles. Am Inst Elec Eng Pro v 34, p 2343-87, Chem Abstr v 10, p 108. Richards, C. Audrey. : 1923—-Methods of testing the relative toxicity of wood preservatives. Am Wood Preservers Assoc Pro v 19, p 127-35. 490 Ridgeway, EF. B. 1914—Creosoted piling in Galveston Bay bridge. Eng News v 71, p 1176- 82. Rivierre et Arnoux. 1871—Sur le créosotage des bois au port de Trouville. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées 1871, p 293-305. Roach, D. E. 1906—Creosoted piles. Ry Age v 41, p 885. Rockwell, D. A. 1907—Preservative treatment of poles by the open tank process. Elec W v 50, p 1170-2. Rodd Company. 1919—Preservation of wood. Pitts- Durehy Paw as. Dip. Rollins, H. M. 1915—Report of committee on plant operation. Am Wood Preservers As- soc, Prov 11, pi43=%- Rottier. 1875—Use of copper salts for preserv- ing wood. erat) ee nis tae vee O08 p 234-6, from Rev Industrielle. 1877—Preservation of timber with salts of copper. Van Nostrand’s Hinge Mas “v.06, ps co-o we ocorle Hii gineering. Rowe, Samuel M. 1899—Preservation of timber. W Soc MAS ever e pr aSoele 1907—Present outlook for railway tie preserving processes in the U. S. Eng News v 57, p 638-4. 1908—Preservation of railway ties. Ry Age v 45, p 698-700. 1908—Proper methods of treating tim- ber. Eng News v 60, p 20. Sackett, H. S. 1911—Consumption of wood preserva- tives and quantity of wood treated in the U. S. in 1910. Forest Service Cir no 186, Chem Abstr v 6, p 540. Sadtler, Samuel P. 1904—Preservative treatment of wood. Neeh QO tv 47) pel29)=443 Saline solution treatment to prevent sap UO Semestalnee tn ted. von. Southern Liumberman vy 560 July os 6b. oie Seammell, Edward Thomas. 1903-4—-Preservation of timber, with special reference to its protection from dry rot and the increase of its usefulness for estate fencing and other purposes. Surveyors’ Inst cree y 36, p 69-93, discussion p 93- 9) Schackell, L. F. 1915—Comparative toxicity of coal tar creosote and creosote distillates and of individual constituents for the marine woodborer, Xylotrya. Am Woodpreservers’ ‘Assoc’ Proves i, p 233-47, Chem Abstr v 9, p 704. 1916—Marine Borers from the wood preservers’ standpoint. Am Wood- preservers Assoc Pro vv 12) po 124531" Ry Age Gaz v 60, p 508-10, Chem ADStt vie lLOsep E2038. 1919—Surface tension of wood pre- serving oils as factors in protection against marine borers. Am Wood- preservers Assoc Pro v 15, p 113-238. BIBLIOGRAPHY F Schaffnit, E. 1911—Zur beurteilung und bekaimpf- ung von hausschwamm und trocken- fauleschaden nach neueren gesicht- spunkten. Chem Zeit v 35, p 253-4. Schiffsbohrwurm Europa’s. 1866—Ausland v 39, p 392-5. Schlauf. 1912—Kyan’s Process and its sanitary importance. Chem Abstr v 6, p 2159. Schmidt, J. 1919-20—Ueber freileitungsmasten und mittel zur erhGdhrung ihrer lebens- dauer. Elektrotech Anzeiger v 36, p 353-4. v 37, p 289-90, 295-6, 319-20, 323-4, 339-40, 345-6. Schneidt, A. 1897—Trankung der hGlzernen eisen- bahnschwellen mit chlorzink und mit karbolsauerehaltigem theerdle. Or- gan f d Fortsch d Hisenbahnw vy 34, p 75-80, 92-7. Schoch, FE. P. 1308—Economics of wood preservation. Eng Mag v 35, p 607-9. 1908—Review of the present practice and economics of timber preserva- tion. Elec Ry Rev v 19, p 555, 568- 70. 1914—Toxicity of various wood pre- servatives. J Ind Eng Chem vy 6, p 603-4. ; Schutz der wasserbauhOlzer. 1914—Holzwelt v 1, p 13-4, March 27. Seience of wood preservation. 1903—Am Lumberman, Oct. 31, p 44-6. Seasoning and preserving ties. 1903—Am Lumberman, Sept. 12, p 16. Seldensechnur, F. 1901—Okonomische trankung von holz mit theer6él. Zeit Angew Chem vy 14, p 437-41, 488-95. 1906—Ueber die imprégnierung von grubenh6lzern. Gliuckauf Vv 42, p 560-8. 1909—Zur frage der holzkonservier- ung. Chem Zeit v 33, p 701-2. Service tests of treated and untreated 1917 posts of various. species. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro vy _ 13, p 229-34. Sharp, Wim. 1887-S8—Creosoting timber in New Zealand. p 408-20. Sherfesee, W. F. 1908—Preservative treatment of lob- lolly pine cross arms. Forest Ser- vicel Cir’ nowt: 1908—Primer of wood preservation. Forest Service Cir no 139. 1908—Seasoning and preservative treatment of hemlock and tamarack cross-ties. Forest Service Cir no 132. 1908—Wood preservation. Sci Am §S v 66, p 78-80. 1908—Wood preservatives and proc- esses in the U. SS. J Elec Power & Gas ove 21-ap 317. 1908—Wood preservation in the U. S. Forest Service Bul no 78. 1909—Open-tank process of preservation. p 435-8. Inst. Civil Hime, Prov .o2: timber Eng .Mas )weest WOOD PRESERVATION 1909—Relation of non-pressure proces- ses of wood preservation to pressure processes. Eng News v 61, p 230-2, Chem Abstr v 4, p 1804. Shimek, B. 1907—Wood preservation. v 6, p 153-6. Shipley, G. B. 1906—Santa Fe’s modern timber treat- ing plant at Somerville. Ry Age v 41, p 425-31. 1909—Comparison of the various proc- esses of preserving timber. Eng News v 62, p 396-400. 1910—Cost of timber’ preservation. Eng Mag v 38, p 599-602. 1910—New timber treating plant of the Eppinger and Russell Co., Jack- sonville, Fla. Hng News v 63, p 545- (enemy Abstr y 4, p 2043. Shirley Plant of the Columbia Creosot- Wood Craft LUG “ine — Co. Railroad Gaz v 40, p 282-4. Smart, V. I. 1905—Rail circuits and zine treated ties. Railroad Gaz v 38, p 277-8. Smith, C. G. 1875—Pine timber. Di vsol=2, 392-3. Smith, C. Stowell. 1908—Preservation of piling against marine wood borers. Forest Service Cir no i123; Hne & Contr v 53, p 91. 1908—Seasoning and preservative Engineering v 19, treatment of arborvitae poles. For- est Service Cir no 136. Smith, E. R. 1900—Some notes of an _ experience with teredo navalis. Eng News v 43, p 361 Smith, Lowry. 1916—Penetration of preservatives. Ry Maintenance Engr v 12, p 173-4, Wood-Preserving v 3, p 66-8, Chem ADpstrev 10) p 2512. 1920—Wood preservation. Cini Hines) v 7, p 127-35. Snow, Chas. H. 1898—Marine wood borers. Am Soc Civil Hine Trans v 40, p 178-214. Snyder, Thomas E. 1912—Insect damage to mine props and methods of preventing the in- j U S Bureau of Entomology Boston Soe jury. Cir no 56, 4p. 1919—White-ant-proof wood for the tes. Am Lumberman no 2324, 8. Sodium Fluoride as a wood preservative. 1920—Eng News v 84, p 1258. Sodium Fluoride as a preservative. 1920—Ry Maintenance Eng v 16, p 142, Chem Abstr v 14, p 2066. Some FEuropean 1900 tion. 4; 432-3. Special forms for jacketing wood piles 1917 with concrete. Eng News v 77, p 283. Specifications for creosoting Oregon fir £907. piling and bridge timber. Ry & Eng Rev v 47, p 823-4. methods of preserva- Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 243- AOL Specifications for the preservative treat- 1920 ment of wood. Boston Soc Civil Hng J v 7, p 136-44, Spofford, C. M. 1917—Zine chloride as a preservative Of -Sstructurals timber: Nat Assoc Cottons Mie. rans) no et 02Zs peecooL4w Chem Abstr v 12, p 2047. Spring, F. J. 1904—Report on the question of wood- en sleepers or cross-ties. Tate giv. Congress Bul v 18, p 777-840. Springer, J. F. 1921—Enemies of timber construction. SCAM envy Love Deel Woman. Standage, H. C. 1902—Preservative processes Om woodwork. Builder v 82, p 372-4. Standard specifications for creosoted 19238 piling for Atlantic coast waters adopted. Wood-preserving News v1, p 46-9. Stanford, H. R. 1906—Inspection of treatment for the protection of timber by the injection of creosote oil. Am Soc Civil Eng ration ve DO Dil 9. 1916—Pearl Harbor dry dock. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 80, p 2238-94, dis- cussion p 295-337. Staniford, Chas. W. 1914—Modern pier construction in New York. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans Viv, D o0e-Oo% Stearns, R. E. C. 1886—The teredo, or shipworm. Am Naturalist v 20, p 1381-6. Sterling, E. A. 1912—Development and status of the wood preserving industry in Amer- ica. 8th Inter Congress Appl Chem Orig Com appendix v 26, p 17-30. 1915—Report of committee on specifi- cations for the purchase and pres- ervation of treatable timber. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 11, p)252-68, v 12; p 171-87, Chem Abstr Neste Te SSO 1916—Preservative treatment of farm timbers. Chicago. p Nat Lum Mfg Assoc Tr Extension Dept, Farm JESUNL Save) Sie Stevenson, David. 1862—Notice on the ravages of the limnoria terebrans on _ creosoted timber. J Frank Inst v 84, p 188-91. 1862—Ravages of the limnoria tere- brans on creosoted timber. Civil Bne & Arch Jeve co, p20 0—1- 1868—Des ravages que l’insecte connu sous le nom de limnoria terebrans exerce dans les travaux & la mer sur les bois injectés de créosote. Soc de V’Encouragement Bul v 62, p 235-9, from Roy Soe Edinburgh. 1872—-Notice on the ravages of the limnoria terebrans on greenheart timber. Roy Soc Edinburgh Pro v 8, p 182-5. Stevenson, Thomas. 1874—Design and the construction of harbors. Destruction of timber by marine insects, p 175-6. 492, Stimson. 1917—Report of Committee on wood preservation. Am Ry Eng Assoc Bul v 18, p 1261-98. Strength of treated timber. 1910—Report of the Committee on wood preservation of the Am Ry Eng and Maintenance of way Assoc Bul no 120, p 380-9, Eng News v 63, p 333-4, Chem Abstr v 4, p 1668, Strength tests of structural timbers 1915 treated by commercial wood pre- serving processes. US Dept of Agri Bul no 286) Summer, and others. 1914—Report on the physical condi- tions of San Francisco Bay. Based on operations of U S Fisheries Steamer SAIDALTOSS. Pl OLoac- California U Pub Zool vol 14, no 1, 198 p. Taft, H. S. 1915—Use of wood and concrete in structures standing in sea water. Int Eng Congress Trans Materials of eng vol p 321-61, discussion p 361-4, Chem Abstr v 9, p 3346. Taylor, C. M. 1910—Treating timber with crude petroleum. Chem Eng v i1, p 35-6, Chem Abstr v 4, p 1667. 1915—Final inspection of timber. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 11, DelZea=9. Teesdale, C. H. 1912—Absorption of creosote by cell walls of wood. U S Dept Agr For- est Service Cir no 200, Chem Abstr Vil GRD oo ee 1912—Volatilization of various frac- tions of creosote after their injec- tion into wood. US Dept Agr For- est Service Cir no 188, Chem Abstr Veer Chae dela 1913—Condition of experimental tele- graph poles, treated and untreated after eight years’ service. Eng News v 70, p 1084-6. 1914—Effect of varying the prelimin- ary air pressure in treating ties upon absorption and penetration of creosote. Am Woodpreservers As- soc Prov, 10,2p, 323, Chem Abstr vis. De 29828 1914—Efficiency of various parts of coal-tar-creosotes against marine wood borers. Eng Rec v 70, p 302-3. 1914—Penetrance of creosote. Eng Ree v 10s p 506: 1914—-Penetration of timber by pre- servatives. Am Woodpreservers As- soc Bul v 1, p 18-9, Chem Abstr v 8, p 2934, 3623. 1914—Relative resistance of various conifers to injection with creosote. Forest Service Bul no 101. 1915—Saving creosote oil in the treat- ment of piling. W oodpreserving v 2, p 63,.Chem Abstr v 10, p 520: 1916—Destruction of creosoted long- leaf pine piling by marine wood bor- ers. Forest Products Laboratory manuscript rept. 1916—Protection of piling from ma- rine borers. Gulf. Coast experi- ments, fifth inspection report. For- est Products Laboratory manuscript rept, project L-120. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1916—Treatment of blocks. Vines, pe2i 9s: 1916-7—Use of fluorides in wood pres- ervation. Wood-preserving v_° 3, p oan v 4, p 6-10, Chem Abstr v 11, p 5, Teesdale, C. H., and MeLean, J. D. 1918—Relative resistance of various hardwoods to injection with creo- sote. Forest Service Bul no 606, Chem Abstr. vila peioge: 1918—Tests of the absorption and penetration of coal tar and creosote in long-leaf pine. Forest Service Bul no 607, Chem Abstr v 12, p 1823. Teesdale, C. H., and Newlin, J. A. 1917—Influence of the proposed treat- ment on the strength of paving blocks and the influence which the condition of the timber at time of test may have on strength test data. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 13, p 462-90. Teesdale, C. H., and Shackell, L. F. 1917—Field tests made on oil treat- ment of wood against marine bor- ers. Eng News Rec v 179, p 83347; Ry Age Gaz v 63, p 800-4. Teichman, W. C. 1908—Railway cross-ties; experiments for their preservation by steriliza- tion. U S Daily Consular rept no a1 595 Dabs Tennant, J. 1842—Ravages of teredo navalis pre- vented by studding with nails. Inst Civil Eng Pro y¥.2, p- i169, Tentative specifications for creosote oil 1917 for priming coat with coal tar pitch for use in damp-proofing and wood paving Am Soc Munic Impr Pro p 79-94, Chem Abstr v.10, waterproofing. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 17, pt 1, p 721-3, Chem Apstr Ve Lh sap leet Tentative specifications for selected 1917 structural Douglas fir bridge and trestle timbers. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 17, pt 1, p 704-7... uem Abstr Vel2-epeLiies Tentative specifications for Southern 1917 yellow pine timber to be creo- soted. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 17, pt 1, p 708-9, Chem Abstihey a. p 1114. Tentative specifications for Southern 1917 yellow pine poles and piles to ‘be creosoted. Am Soc Test Mat Pro Vv cLErk 1, p 710-11, Chem Abstr v 12, p ; Tentative methods for the analysis of 1917 creosote oil. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 17, pt 1, p 826-8, Chem Abstr, Vi L2 eR alee Teredo-proof paint and timber preserva- 1907 tive. Ry Age v 44, p 559, Ry & Eng Rev v 47, p 980. Teredo proof sheathing for piles. 1894—-Eng News v 31, p 111-12. Thompson, W. 1847—Note on the teredo norvegica, xylophaga dorsalis, limnoria tere- brans and chelura terebrans com- bined in destroying the submerged woodwork at the harbour of Ard- rossna on the coast of Ayrshire. Ann & Mag Nat History v 20, p 157-64. WOOD PRESERVATION Tidy, C. M. 1885—Creosote. Van Nostrand’s Eng Mag v 33, p 499-508. Tie and lumber preserving plant at 1897 g omerniie, Texas. Ry Rev vy 37, p 524-5. Tie preservation, Progress in. 1902—Ry & Eng Rev v 42, p 506. Tie preservation in Germany. 1900—Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 436-7. Tie preservation in the Southwest. 1898—Ry & Eng Rev v 388, p 500. Tie preserving. 1897—Ry Rev v 37, p 577. Tie preserving plant, B and M Ry. 1900—Ry & Eng Rev v 40, p 172-3. Tiemann, H. D. 1910—Physical structure of wood in relation to its penetrability by pre- servative fluids. Am Ry Eng & Main- tenance Way Assoc Bul no 120, p 359-75. Ties. Abstracts of report presented at 1906 the Annual meeting of the Am Eng & Main of Way Assoc Chicago. Ry Age v 41, p 464-72. Ties—discussed by members of the com- 1901-2 mittee of the Am Ry Eng & Main of Way Assoc. Ry Age v 31, p 341-48, v 33, p 439-49. Tillson, George W. 1907—Requirements for treating wood paving blocks. Muanie Hnes v 33, p 319-24. Timber perforating patent released. 1919—Ry Age v 67, p 1203-4, Ry Main- ’ tenance Eng v 16, p 17-8. Timber-preserving methods and appli- 1895 ances. Ry Eng v 16, p 181-5. Timber preserving plant of the Alamo- 1902 gordo Lumber Co. Eng News v 48, p 366-8. Timber protection on the Santa Fe. 1917—Ry Maintenance Eng v 13, p 5- of eenem Absir y 11, p 1029. Townsend, T. G. 1915—Attack of marine borers. on creosoted material. Am W ood- preservers Assoc Pro v 11, p 307-16. Tratman, E. EE. R. 1894—Report on the use of metal rail- road ties and on preservative pro- cesses and metal-tie plates for wood- en ties. US Dept Agr Bul no 9. Treated ties on the Sante Fe Railroad. 1906—Ry Age v 41, p 797. Treating lumber to prevent stain. 1907—So Lumberman v 53, no 631, p 20. Treating railroad ties and timber. 1900—Loc Eng v 13, p 185. Treating three million feet of lumber on 1920 the job. Eng News-Rec v 84, p 754. * Treating wood paving blocks. 1907—Muniec J & Eng v 23, p 515-6. Treatment designed to add to the dura- Dose eoility Of-posts: R I Agr Hxp Sta 16th Ann rept pt 2, p 226-9. Treatment of mine timbers. 1921—Min Sci Press v 122, p 336. A493 Treatment of railway ties in England. 1889—Forest Service Bul no 3, p 49-51. Troschel, 1912—Holzzerst6rer unter wasser. Zentralblatt d Bauverwalt v 32, p 394-5, Chem Abstr v 7, p 4058. 1913—Ist die impragnierung der was- serbauhOlzer wirtschaftlich? Glasers Ann v 72, p 30-8. 1916—Handbuch_ der ung. \ € holzkonservier- Berlin, Springer, Berlin. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 1904 Service. Timber preservation and timber testing at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition 6 p. U. S. Surgeon-General’s Office. 1872—Report on the preservation of wood, "by (Gen, "J. kK “Barnes, Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Gen. M. C. Meigs and Gen. O. EK. Babcock. Unusual record for creosoted piles. 1919—Ry Maintenance Eng v 15, p 278-80. Use of coal tar in creosote. 1915—Report of committee on wood preservation. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 16, p 825-7, Chem Abstr v 10, p 107. Value of tie preservation. 1908—Railroad Gaz v 44, p 44. Van der Hoeven. 1860—Observations on the teredo. Brit ASSOCGZACYV PSCcisrept oO) ptr 2, pols. Van Vioten, H. K. 1915—Resinates for preserving wood and textiles. Chem Abstr v 10, p 123, from Chem Weekblad. Vedel, P. 1907—Destructive work of marine bor- ers and some preventive measures against their attacks. Den Tekniske Roren Tidsskrift July 24. Trans by M. C. Jensen, Forest Products Lab- oratory Manuscript rept. Verrill, G. E. 1909—Durability of creosoted lumber in sea water. Prof Mem Eng Corps UPS Army, v lp 219-21. Verslagen en mededeelingen der konink- 1860-9 lijke akademie van _ weten- schappen, Amsterdam. Verslagen over den pallworm. 2, Verslag 1861, Velze Dud so=500 56. Verslac Leo2.w la, p 318-29; 4, Verslag 1863, v 15, p 293- DOG ae VCrSla ee L865 eave. 1.8 Dp) 4d ioe 6, Verslag 1866, v 1, p 157-80; 7, Ver- slag 1869, v 3, p 207-30. Villon. 1894—Preservation of wood; Eng Rec v 29, p 3849-50, from Revue Tech- nique. Vinot, G. 1897—-Note sur la conservation des traverses en bois; Rev Tech v 18, p 205-7. Vinsonneau. 1901—Du control de l’injection et de la reception des bois injectés. Rev Tech v 32, p 448-50. Vohl. 1858—Conservation des bois, au moyen de la créosote extraite de l’huile de goudron de houille. Soe de )]’En- couragement Bul v 57, p 450-1. 494 von Sehrenk, Hermann. 1901—Decay of ties and bridge timber. IRA Tye ie aye Fey AUIS. 1901—Factors which cause the decay of wood. W Soc Eng J v 6, p 89-103. 1902—Decay of timber and methods of preventing it. 96 pp. U S Plant In- dustry Bureau Bul 14. 1902—Report on the condition of treated timbers laid in Texas. For- estry Bul no 51. 1902—Texas experiment with treated ties. Ry & Eng Rev v 42, p 658-9. 1902—Timber preservation. W Ry Clube Rroa wel 5.1m 3 808s 1903—Chemical treatment of timber. Ry & Eng Rev v 43, p 435-6. 1903—Cutting and laying of ties. Rail- road Gazevs by pp babe 1903—Fungous diseases of forest tLeese ein t Rye Cone febulny Line pe ode al. - 1903—Recent progress in timber pres- ervation. Year Book of Dept Agr p 427-40. 1904—Cross-tie forms and rail fasten- ings with special reference’ to treated timbers. 70 p U. S. Forestry Bur Bul 50. 1904—Recent investigation with treated ties; Hne Ree v 49) p 381-2: 1904—Some problems in the use of timber by railroads. Worcester Poly Un Sige anv ac (ee moe eels 1905—EXxperiments with treated cross ties in Texas. Eng Rec v 51, p 440-2. 1905—Results in the preservative treatment of railroad) Stimbersea: to preserve durability. Am Forest Congr Prov1905, pp 276-89) 1908—Some phases of the modern use of lumber. Southern Lumberman v 54, no 646, p 52-4. 1913—Requirements for successful timber treatment. Am Woodpre- SELVErSs A SSOGIP LO V9, Dll 42-9: 1915—Oil specification for creosoted wood block. Am Soc Munic Impr Pro 1915 Convention p 178-209, Chem Abstr v 10, p 1419. 1916—Causes of failure in creosoted wood-block pavement. Kng News v U3, p 204-6; Chem Abstr y 10; p 2289. 1916—Sampling and analysis of creo- soted oil. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 16, Diy ae p 064-71, Chem Abstr yi; p 5. 1916—Specifications for selected struc- tural Douglas fir bridge and trestle timber. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 16, pt 15 py 479-82) Chem eA pst aveein p 396. 1916—Tentative specifications tour southern yellow-pine piles and poles to be creosoted. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 16, pt 1, p 485-6, Chem Abstr Ville pes 96. 1916—Tentative specifications TOR southern yellow-pine timber to be creosoted. Am Soc Test Mat Pro v 16, pt 1, p 483-4 Chem Abstr yw £1, p 396. 1917—Teredo destroys improperly treated piles. Ly Age Gaze 63, p 657-8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1918—Creosoting industry and its fire hazards. 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Waddell, K. M. 1919—Proper grade of creosote oil for wood paving blocks. Munic & County Eng v 57, p 269-70. Wade, C. 1907—Creosoted wooden poles. Timber TY J Vo 6256 De sues Wallis-Tayler, A. J. 1914—-Preservation of wood. Roy Soc Arts J v_ 62, p 286-315, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1655. 1915—Preservation of wood. A de- scriptive treatise on the processes and on the mechanical appliances used for the preservation of wood. London, Rider. Walsh, A. C. 1915-6—Protection from the _ teredo. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 201, p 125-6. Walsh, George Ethelbert. 1902—Protecting timber from natural enemies. Arch & Bld Mag Jan, v 34, p 145-7: Wanier, A. G. : 1900—Wood preserving in Germany. Railroad Gaz v 32, p 81-2. Ward, Marshall. 1888—Timber, its diseases. V>2D,.p 101 (2-3. Water in creosote. 1915—Report of committee on wood preservation. Am Ry Eng Assoc meh 16, p 827-32, Chem Abstr v 10, p : Water sampling in creosote oil. 1916—Report of committee on wood preservation. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 17, Bul 184, “p 447-58; ‘Ghema Abstr v 10, p 1088. Water solubility a necessary property 1920 of wood preservatives. Sci Am v 124, p 431, Eng News v 85, p 940. Sci Am §S WOOD PRESERVATION Waterman, J. H. 1915—Treatment of red oak ties. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 11, DelLo=2oeohem: Abstr v 9; p 2139. 1915—Additional facts on treated ties. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 11, p 207-14, Chem Abstr v 9, p 2139. Watkins, S. S. 1920—Effect of preliminary steaming in the treatment of air-seasoned ties. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro Valo ep ecson-ol, Chem Abstr vy 14, p 1024. Webb, E. B. 1859-60—Efficiency of copper sheath- Me Ore piles: in brazil. Inst Civil Pne Pro v 19, p 244-5. 1862-3—Action of marine worm on native timber, Bay of Rio de Janeiro. sta cCivaretne Pro -v.22, p 413: Wehmer, C. 1913—Versuche tiber die hemmende wirkunge von giften auf mikroor- ganismen. IV. Wirkung von fluor- verbindungen auf hausschwamm, schimmelbildung, u. s. w. Chem Zeit Veos-spell4=p, 122-3, Chem Abstr v 8, p 1808. Weihe, Edward J. 1907—Maximum length of service for poles, ties and timbers. tbe yne)| v 30, p 668-70. Weiss, Howard F. 1907—Preservative treatment of fence posts. Forest Ser Cir 117. 1908—Open tank method of preserving tumbere Miec Ry J v 32, p 1194-5, Eng News v 60, p 457-8, Eng & Min J v 87, p 840-1. 1908—Progress in chestnut pole pres- ervation. Forest Service Cir no 147. Am Tel J v 18, p 204-7. 1912—Prolonging the useful life of cross-ties. Forest Service Bul no 118, Eng Rec v 66, p 599-600, Chem Wpetreve (, 0p 45. 1912—Structure of commercial woods in relation to the injection of pre- servatives. Am Woodpreservers As- soe Pro v 8,.p 158-87. 1912—Tests to determine the commer- cial value of wood preservatives. 8th Int Congress Appl Chem v 13, p 279- SOUeaisecussionm vez, p 118-95; J Ind & Chem v 5, p 372-8, Chem Abstr v 6, p 3174. 1914—-Teredo proof wood? Vol, ip 34-15. 1916—Preservation of structural tim- ber. 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H. 1915—Some factors affecting the ap- plication of wood preservation to electric railways. Am Elec Ry Eng Assoc 1915, p 539-53. Wolff, Friedenau Th. 1915—Methods for preserving wood. Kunststoffe, v 5, p 86-7, 98-100, 111-2, Chem Abstr v 9, p 1986. Wonderful wood vulcanizing invention, 90 Tx) 2Acs SN Yes bombers try devas. 110 IS ge) bce ksy Wood borers take the count; protecting 1921 piling by cement gun. Sci Am Wen 2 4 oe daa: Wood creosote for the preservation of 1886 timber. Eng News v 15, p 39. Wood, Galen. 1920—Iodine - potassium ferricyanide starch color reaction test for de- termining zine chloride penetration. Am Woodpreservers Assoc Pro v 16, pls2-6, Chem, Abstr vel4epel0243 Wood piles coated with concrete applied 1920 by cement gun. Eng News v 84, p 225-6. Wood preservation. 1903—Arboriculture v 2, p 152. Wood preservation. 1909—Chem Abstr v 4, p 1098, Chem Tr J. from BIBLIOGRAPHY Wood preservation. 1911—Elec Ry J v 37, Abstr v 5, p 2427. 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E. 1914—Concrete where exposed to sea water or frost. Prof Mem Eng Corps US Army v 6, p 119-23. Crary, A. P. 1915—Some experiences with concrete iMethewiepupliic, Of Panama. Eng News v 73, p 214-16. Creighton, H. J. M. 1917—Deteriorating action of salt and brine on reinforced concrete. J Frank Inst v 184, p 689-704; J Soc Chem Ind v 37, p 9-A 1918—Reinforced concrete vs. salt brine and sea water. Chem & Met Eng v 19, p 618-23; Faraday Soc rans wv 14,-p 155-163. Crofts, C. J. 1912-3—Natal harbour works. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 193, p 32-53, discus- Sion p 54-122. Cross, W. M. °1912—Use of reinforced concrete in hypoclorite water purification works. Nat Assoc Cement Users IPEOLV oD ala-D. Cummings, Uriah. 1893—American cements. Rogers & Marison, Boston. Czarnowski, W. 1909—On the conditions of the cement blocks in some of the Russian ports in the Black and Caspian Seas. Ce- “ment in sea water. 5th Congress of the Int Assoc Test Mat Copenhagen, Paper (XI-2), discussion p 124. -1912—Preservation of test blocks im- i“ mersed in the Baltic Sea at Libau - harbour. Int Assoc Test Mat Pro : Part 2, v 17, pamphlet 1; Abstr Eng bee VEKoweDmole; tune Ree vi 66, p E Czarnowski, W., and Baykoff, A. 1906—Behavior of cement in sea wa- '> ter: Int Assoc Test Mat Pro 1906 Brussels, paper XI-2. Daguenet. 1847—Ciment. de Guetauy. Ann des Ponts et:Chaussées ser 2, v 14, p 375. Darcel,. 1858—Mortiers et bétons de ciment. Ann des Ponts © et Chaussées ser 3, v 15, p 370-3. Dare, Henry H. 1921-2—Spillways of Burrinjuck dam. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 214, p 333-41, appendices p 342-5. Darton, N. H. 1911—Economic geology of Richmond, Virginia and vicinity. U S Geol Sur Bul, 483. Davey, i. Ae 1923—Ciment fondu. v 115;‘p 624. Davis, Chandler. 1910—Concrete for. marine structures. 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St. Claire. 1870—Préparation de _ pierres artifi- cielles & base magnésie calcinée résistant énergiquement A leau de mer. Soc de l’Encouragement Bul VeOo mDeoo ce Different iron and slag cements. 1911—Eng News v 66, p 294. Disintegration of cement by sea water, 1910 alkali, sewage, ete, Eng Contr v 33, p 539-40. Disintegration of concrete and corrosion 1914 of reinforcing metal. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 15, p 564-8. Disintegration of concrete and corrosion 1921 of reinforcing material in con- nection with the use of concrete in sea water. Report of committee 8 on masonry. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro Ve 22,0 43=5. Dixon, J. 1886-87—Concrete breakwater at the Island of Grand Canary. Inst Civil Eng Prov 87, p 152-3, Dobrzynski. 1892—Einwirkung einiger chloride auf portland-cement. Tonind Ztge v 16, p 64-6. Dock flottant en béton de 2000 tonnes du 1922 port de ‘Trieste, Génie Civil v 80, p 489-91. Doeks and action of sea water on con- 1909 crete. Concrete Inst Trans v 2, p 5-6. Dodwell, C. EF. 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Durand and Dubray. 1886—Accidents constatés dans divers ouvrages d’art par suite de l’emploi de ciments magnésiens. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 6, v 11, p 845-6. 1888—Phénoménes de dilatation des pates de ciment portland. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées, ser 6, v 15, p 810-5. y Durcissement, par la vapeur, des élé- 1922 ments de construction en béton, armé ou non. Génie civil v_ 80, p 144, Duryee, E. 1910—Puzzolan-portland cement; a suggestion for an improved hydrau- lic cement. Eng News v 64, p 596-8. 1912—-Further investigations of puz- zolan portland cements. Eng News v 68, p 297-9. Dyckerhoft 1895—Hinwirkung von meerwasser auf hydraulische bindemittel. Zeit angew Chem 1895, p 492-4, 1897—Bericht der kommission zur er- mittelung tiber die einwirkung von meerwasser auf hydraulische binde- mittel. Deut Ver Fabr Ziegeln, usw Vv. 33; °p 58-108, 1906—Behavior of cement in sea wa- ter. Inter Assoc Test Mat Pro 1906, Brussels, p 142-60. 1910—Action of sea water on portland cement. Chem Zeit v 34, p 419; abstr J Soc Chem Ind v 29, p 567. 1910—Effect of included sulphuric acid on the strength and behavior of . portland cement exposed to sea wa- ter. Eng News v 64, p 4-5, abstr. Cement Age v 11, p 118, Dyckerhoff and Biebrich 1910—Uber die auf sylt gemachten versuche der meerwasser kommis sion. Chem Zeit v 34, p 419. Dyckerhoff and Wideman 1922—-Festigkeit von beton. Ausschuss f Hisenbeton, no 51 Dyer, A. F. 1915—New deep water pier at Halifax, Nova Scotia. Concrete Cement Age Vo 1; Detalse 1918—Reinforced concrete in harbor oe ee Canadian Eng v 35, p 277- 84, 289. Eekel, E. C. 1909—Cements, Wiley, N. Y. 1911—Ferrite cement and ferro-port- lands. Eng News v 66, p 157-8. 1921—Quick hardening cement devel- oped by the French. Eng News-Ree Vv 8%, Dp 566-72 Deut limes and _ plasters. CEMENT AND CONCRETE IN SEA WATER 1922—Cements, limes and plasters. ed Ze Wiley, N.Y. Effeet of alkali soils and water on con- 1908 crete. Munic Eng v 35, p 317-19. Effeet of salt on concrete sidewalks. 1917 Discussion. Concrete v 11, p 186. Effect of salt water on brick, mortar and 1916 concrete. Concrete v 8, p 149, from Annali Chimi Appl. Effeet of sea water on concrete. Rail- 1906 road Gaz v 40, p 98. Effeet of sea water on concrete. Eng 1910 News v 64, p 319, from Canal Rec. Effect of sea water on concrete. Rept 1912 Inter Nav Congr reports no 89- 100, abstr Concrete Cement Age v l, Oct 19t2 2p: 0.1. Effeet of sea water on concrete. 1918 crete v 13, p 35 Effeets of acids and alkaline solutions Con- 1914 on mortar. Eng Rec v 70, p 271. Eger. 1897—Verhalten der hydraulischen bindemittel im seewasser. Centr der Bauverwalt v 17, p 313-6. Einwirkung des meerwassers auf mortel. 1897—Tonind Zeit v 21, p 128-30. Einwirkung von meerwasser auf hy- 1893 draulische bindemittel. Zeit Ver deut Ing v 37, p 317-18. Ellis, S. H. 1911-12—-Reinforced concrete wharves - and warehouses at Lower Pootung, - Shanghai. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 188, p 81-96 Endres, D. 1881—-Verwendung des cementbetons zu wasserbauten, u.Ss.W. Zeit Ver deut Ing v 25, p 521-30. Erdmenger 1884—-Cement containing magnesia. Dinglers polytech J v 252, p 135, J Soc Chem Ind v 3, p 571. Erie builds new type of pier at Wee- 1923 hawken, je Ry Agwevvy 74, p 852-5. Esling, F. 1919—Setting time of cement as af- fected by the quality of waters. Ferro-Concrete v 11, p 101-38. Etudes sur les pouzzolanes artificielles. 1846—Soe de l’Encouragement Bul v 45, p 466. Examples of decomposition of concrete 1908 in ioe water. Eng News v 60, p 238, Expérienees sur l’altération des ciments 1900 armés par l’eau de mer. Nou- velles Ann de la Constr ser 5, v 7, Dilod misosesersb,0.vS,. pel the deterioration of 1923 concrete. structures. Rept Masonry Committee. Am Ry Eng Assoc Pro v 24, p 134-42. Faija, Henry 1881—Results of experiments with portland cement gaged with sea and fresh water. Inst Civil Eng Pro, v 67, p 349-52. Factors causing 503 1887—Portland cement testing. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 17, p 218-27. 1888—Effect of sea water on portland cement. Iron v 31, p 204-6. 1893—On the manufacture and testing of portland cement. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 30, p 438-61 discussion p 594-610. Fairthorne, R. F. 1869—Acid proof cement. lai SGGVeS ta Dacous Falk, M. S. 1904—Action of sea water on cements, p 45-51. Chapter in book on ‘“Ce- ments, mortars and concretes”; con- tains a summary of results of tests by the author. J Frank Feburier 1852—Emploi du mortier hydraulique dans l’eau de mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 3, p 348-69. 1852—Trass de Hollande pour la fabri- cation des mortiers destinés aux travaux a la mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 3, v 3, p 369-77. 1853—Construction dans l’eau de mer. Mortiers. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- sées ser 3, v 5, p 222-4 Feichtinger, G. 1870—Ueber die santorinerde. Centr 386 col 1685-8. Poly Feret, R. 1890—Diverses expériences concernant les ciments. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 6, v 19, p 313-80. 1892—-Compacité des mortiers hydrau- liques. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 7, v 4, p 5-161. 1893—-Mortar for sea works. Engineer- inZoy 96, p 130: 1896—E'ssais des divers sables pour mortiers. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- sées ser 7, v 12, p 174-200, Bauma- terialienkunde v 1, p 139-40. . 1898—La constitution des ciments hy- drauliques d’apres Newberry. Soc de l’’Encouragement Bul ser 5, v 3, p 867-70. 1901—Addition de pouzzolanes aux ciments portland dans les travaux maritimes. Ann des Ponts et Chaus- sées ser 8, 1901, pt 4, p 191-208. 1905—Adherence of mortars to iron. Cement Age v 2, p 175-80, from Reun des Membres Franc et Belges de l’Assoec Inte Test Mat. 1905—Effect of sea water upon con- erete and ‘mortar. Concrete Plain and Reinforced, by ‘Taylor and Thompson, chap 18, p 400-8, Wiley, N. Y., same in editions of 1909 and 1914. 1908—Aptitude des liants hydrauliques aA la décomposition par l’eau de mer. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 8, vy 31, p* 107-20. : 1909—Addition of puzzolanic matter to cement and action of sea water on concrete p 342-4; general discussion of action of sea water on p 309-18. (Concrete Plain and Reinforced by Taylor and Thompson.) 1910—Resistance of cement to sea wa- ter increased by admixtures of puz- pana Cement & Eng News v 22, p 11-8. 504 1913—L’imperméabilisation des mor- tiers et les huiles lourdes. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 9, 19138, no. 51, p 413-36. 1915—L’imperméabilisation des mor- tiers et V’huile anthracénique. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées ser 9, v 28, p 51-69. 1922—-Eissais prolongés de résistance de décomposition des principaux types de liants hydrauliques. Ann des Ponts et Chaussées 1922, pt 4, p 5-38. 1922—-On the choice of materials for use as sand in hydraulic mortars. Am Ceramic Soc J, v 5, p 240-2, from Rev des Mat de Const et de Trav Publics. 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Ann Industrielles v 15, Col 24-6, 51-8, 81-4, 106-11, 146-54, 173-9. Framm, F. 1911—-Die verdnderung der chemischen zusammensetzung von portlandze- ment-beton mit verschiedenem gips- gehalt im meerwasser. Chem Zeit Vi Sb, D206; a Soc Chem inde verso, p 425. Fraser, O. 1907—Effect of confined and com- pressed air on exposed sea walls. Eng News.v 58, p .589-90; Chem AUD SUG aes. D.o. Fresenius, 1885—On the adulteration of portland cement. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 79, 16) 101%) (ere ' 1903—Nachweis von fremden Beimisch- ungen im portlandzement, Thonind Zte v 27, p 1189-40. BIBLIOGRAPHY Friswell, R. J. 1887—Ransome’s improvement in the manufacture of portland cement. J igor Inst v 123; p 470-5; Ww 224 p -6. Sted B., and Thompson, Sanford 1907—Laws of proportioning concrete. Am Soc Civil Bune w 59.0 p) 67-143: discussion p 144-72. Galveston causeway, Rebuilding of. 1922—Ry Age v 72, p 1113-16. Gary, M. 1893—Testing of portland cement and the development of the cement in- dustry in Germany. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 30, p 1-42. 1900—Verhalten hydraulischer binde- mittel im seewasser nach versuchen der K6nigl Tech Versuchsanstalten zu Berlin im auftrage der von dem KO6nigl Ministerium der Offentlichen Arbeiten zu Berlin berufenen kom- mission. Mitt Konigl Tech Ver- suchsanstalten, Berlin, Erganzungs- heft 1. 1909—Bericht tiber das verhalten hy- draulischer bindemittel im seewas- ser. Mitt K6nigl Materialprifung- samt v 27, p 239-317, abstr Cement Age, v 9, p 364-8, Tonind Zeit v 33, p 1232; Concrete :«& Const, Enea, p 23-9. 1915—Prtifung von eisenportiandze- ment bei lufterhartung im vergleich zur wassererhartunge. Mitt K6énigl Materialpriifungsamt v 33, p 271-90. 1919—Bericht tiber das verhalten hy- draulischer bindemittel im seewas- ser. Mitt K6nig] Materialpriifungs- amt v 3%, p 1382-70; ChemiyAbsts v 14, p 2694. 1919—Feinde des zementes. Mitt Ko6nigl Materialprifungsamt v _ 37, p 12-18 Chem Abstr v 14, p 2541. 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J. 1890-91—Failure of the Limerick dock walls and the methods adopted for reconstruction and_ repairs. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 103, p 257-68. Hambloch, Anton. 1909—Trass, seine entstehung, gewin- nung und bedeutung im dienste der technik. Zeit Ver deut Ing v 53, p 663-8. 505 1911—Hydratwasser im trasse. Armier- ter Béton v 4, p 195-7. 1913 Hin weiterer beitrag zum thema uber zement-kalkmoOrtel bei talsper- renbauten. Armierter Beton, v 6, p 198-202. 1913-14—Exposuré of reinforced-con- crete structures to the action of sea Wiley welnste Civils Ene Pro iv) sor. p 5382-3. 1914—Hisenbeton im meerwasser. Ar- mierter Beton v 7, p 23-7. Harrison, J. L. 1916—Cracking of reinforced concrete by salt water. J Soc Chem Ind v 86, p 86, Eng & Min J v 102, p 1019-20. 1916—HEffect of using salt water for gaging concrete on the life of the reinforcing steel. 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AP US yoy Lee J Frank Inst Hawkshaw, J. 1864-5—Durability of concrete blocks in sea water. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 24, p 168-9. Hawthorn, T. 1864-5—Account of the docks and warehouses at Marseilles. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 24, p 144-67, discus- sion p 168-83, Hayter, H. : 1892-3—Partial failure of the concrete walls of the Alexandra dock, Bel- fast. dbeshy ACG «epee: SiPbeaie Sie a iats p 86-8. Heath-eclay for cement in sea water. 1906-(—-Inst. Civil) Hing=-2ro «Vv 4168, p 4386-9. 506 Heidenreich, EK. Lee. 19283—-Ciment fondu or alcement. Lec- ture to the Danish Engineering So- ciety. Concrete v 22, p 25-8. Hell Gate Bridge, New York. 1915—Engineer v 120, p 495-7. Herrmann. 1923—Uber betonzerst6rungen durch sulfate und andere schwefelhaltige stoffe. Zentr der Bauverwalt v 43, Dil soe Los 1923—tiber die wirkung von trass in mischung mit portlandzement. Deut- sche Bauzeitung v 57, p 38-40. portlandzement aus Zeit Ver Herstellung von 1903 hochofenschlacken. deut Ing v 47, p 689-90. Heyn and Bauer. 1909—Corfrosion of iron in water and aqueous solutions. Fifth Inst Assoc Test Mat Pro section 17, pt 1. Higgins, Bryan. 1780—Experiments and on calcareous cements. don, 233 pp. High alumina cement. LO 22 ewe 4 pes. Hill, James M. 1921—-Bauxite and aluminum in 1917. U S Geol Sur, Min Res of U 8 1917, Peel, pelo. 1921—Bauxite and aluminum in 1918. U S Geol Sur, Min Res of U S 1918, Dil, iprole= 25. 1923—Marketing of bauxite. Min J-Press v 115, p 800-2. Hiroi, I. 1905—Preparation and use of concrete blocks for harbor works. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 54, pt A, p 211-36. 19183—On long time test of portland cement. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 76, p 1027-32, discussion p 1033-44. 1920—On long time tests of portland cement, hydraulic lime and volcanic ashes. J College of Eng Toyko Imp UeVe1:0 200 iee ps bom ies Hodgdon, F. W. 1911—Disintegration of concrete works in Boston harbor. Eng Rec We bo, D 601) 5655-6. Hollister, S. C. 1923—Behavior of concrete exposed to sea water. Am Soc Test Mat Pro ee 2, p 202-10, discussion observations Cadell, Lon- Engineering Eng & Hood, W. 1915—Use of concrete in sea water. West Eng v 6, p 182, abstr Concrete Cement Age v 7, p 205. Horton, C. C. 1910—Efficiency and cost of concrete for the preservation of piles exposed to sea water. Nat. Assoc Cement Users Pro iv 6p 169-71. Hosbach. 1910—Temperaturerh6hung beim ab- binden von portlandzement. Chem DCLG NV, 84,1 De too: Howell, C. S. 1916—Bottom driven concrete piles on rene job. Eng News v 76, Dp : BIBLIOGRAPHY Huber, F. W. 1912—-Concrete in sea water. Am Contr Vv Ss, Nov aneveame 1914—-Factors controlling the durabil- ity of concrete in sea water. West Eng v5, p 197-201, Huek. 1870—Neues verfahren zur gewinnung eines cementes aus hochofenschlack- en. Poly Centr vy 36,60), 1@o- Hughes, J. 1888—Composition of ancient mortar. Builder v 54, p 333 Huisman, H. 1906-7—Sea coast protection with re- inforced concrete. Inst Civil ) Ene Pro v 169, p°443-5. Humphreys, G. 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Third (In- terim) report of the committee of the Inst Civil Eng. Dumonteil. 1852—Bois de la Guyane. Soc de ]’En- couragement Bul v 51, p 399-408. Ferrel, W. 1885—Harmonic analysis of tides at Governor’s Island, N. Y harbor. U S Coast and Geodetic report p 489-98. Statistical digest South Atlantic Jacksonville, Florida. ioe ot) the port. Ports v 4, p 84-90. James, J. W. 1890-1—-Timber in the teredo navalis and white ant. Civil Eng Pro v 103, p 8387-41. Jones, W. A. 1910—Protection of submarine struc- tures. Eng Mag v 38, p 876-82. MeCandless, B. 1916—The harbor of St. Thomas. Naval Inst v 42, p 1619-22. Maiden, J. H. 1894—Turpentine tree. Gaz v 5, pt 7, p 4638-7. Marine borers and their work shown in 1922 exhibit. Eng News-Rec v 88, p 419. Marine borers 1923 discussion. p 543 Matthews, Wm. 1903-4—-Resistance to the teredo of Karri and Jarrah timber. Inst Civil Eng Pro v 158, p 137-9. tropics; the Inst US N S W Agr subject of engineering Eng News-Rec v 88, 1905—Harbors of Great Britain. Am Soe Civil, Dng. Trans vo 54, pt oA, p 159-80. Mell, C. D., and Brush, W. D. 1913—Greenheart. U S Dept Agr For- est Service Cir 211. Methven, C. W. ; 1912-3—-Durban Harbour, South A EriGas Inst Civil Eng Pro v 193, p 1-31. Mitehell, Henry. 1886—Circulation of sea through New York harbor. U S Coast and Geo- detic report p 409-32. 1887—Report on results of physical surveys of New York harbor. Ss Coast and Geodetic report p 301-11. Molesworth, Guilford. 1895-6—-Action of the teredo on Jarrah at Colombo. inst: (Civil ne eo Vo 1205) Deed 2s Moore, Paul. ‘ 1923—-That worm is still boring. South Atlantic Ports v 4, p 180-1. National Research Council opens fight 1922 on marine borers. Eng News- Rec v 88, p 330. Ocean out-fall sewer syphon under the 1923 Middle Harbor, Sydney, N. S. W. Engineering v 115, p 547-50. Old Testament. Vulgate: 2 Kings, 23:8; Sept: Prov- erbs, 12:4; Sept: Proverbs, 25:20. Piekwell, R. 1892-3—Construction of concrete grav- ing dock at Newport, Mon. Inst Civil Ene: Pro w 1i1,-p 75-85, dis- cussion p 86-128. 522 Protecting piles from teredo. 1918—Sci Am v 119, p 128. Ramsbotham, Joshua F. 1913—Freemantle graving dock: steel dam construction for north wall. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 76, p 1942. Report on San Francisco Bay marine L921 piling survey. Committee pub- lication, San Francisco 104 p. Report on San Francisco Bay marine 1922 piling survey. Committee pub- lication, San Francisco 82 p. Report on San Francisco Bay marine 1923 piling survey. Committee pub- lication, San Francisco 48 p. Resistance of 1920 borers. p 704. Resistance of greenheart to various ma- 1920 rine borers. U S Dept Agr For- est Products Lab Tech notes no 96. greenheart to marine Eng News-Rec v_ 84, Resistance of piles to attacks of t-~e- 1905 does. Eng News v 53, p 451. Savannah, Ga. Statistical digest of the 19238 port. South Atlantic Ports v 4, p 118-9, 122-6. Shenton, H. C. H. 1922—-Pile foundation and clay. Can- adian Eng v 43, p 442-3. Smith, Alexander R. 1920—Port of New York annual. Smith’s Port Publishing Co. Staniford, Chas. W. 1917—Unusual coffer-dam for 1000- foot pier, New York City. Am Soc Civil Eng Trans v 81, p 498-542, dis- cussion p 543-81. BIBLIOGRAPHY Starling, William. 1892—Some notes on the Holland dikes. Am Soc Civil Eng ‘Trans v 26, p 559-656, discussion p 656-700. Stevenson, Robert. 1824—-Account of the Bell-Rock light- house. Edinburgh, 533 p. Stevenson, Thomas. 1856—Harbours. Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica ed 8, p 216-25. Altserbien Oest Ing Arch Strassenbrickenbiuten in 1922 und Mazedonien. Ver v 74, p 135-6. Tampa, Florida. Statistical digest of 1923 the port. South Atlantic Ports v 4, p 248-52. $2,500,000 asked to fight teredo. 1922—-Eng News-Rec v 88, p 461. Van Iterson, G., and Séhngen, N. L. 1911—Over onderzoekingen verricht omtrent geconstateerde aantasting van het zoogenaamd manbarklac. De Ingenieur Vv 21, p 321-2. Von Sechrenk. 1922—Marine borer problems in the vicinity of New York. Muniec Eng J City of N ¥ v78,. pont -s0. Wagoner, Luther. 1909—Notes upon docks and harbors. Am Soc Civil‘ Eng Trans y 62, p 125-— 58, discussion p 149-56. Wood borer takes the count; protecting 1921 piling by cement gun. Sci Am Ve A245 pes Young, E. W. 1892-3—Biloela graving dock Cockatoo Island, Sydney Harbour, N. S. W Inst Civil Eng Proc v 111, p 48-58. ADDENDA TO NEW YORK HARBOR REPORT Since the preparation of this report Mr. R. T. Betts, chairman of the committee, received from Mr. Allen Spooner of Allen N. Spooner & Co., Inc., a section of the pine timber cover plates from the outlet nozzles of the Passaic Valley sewer, which terminates in the channel near Robbins Reef Light in a depth of 40 feet below mean low water. Mr. Van Duyne, Chief Engineer of the Passaic Valley Sewerage Com- missioners, states that this timber was new when installed and that it has been in place not more than four years. The cover plates were tem- Fic. 169—SEcTION FROM COVER PLATES OF PASSAIC OUTLET SEWER NEAR ROBBINS REEF LiGHT, NEw YORK HARBOR porary, screw bolted to a cast iron nozzle and placed in such a manner that broken stone filling could be put around the nozzles for support. They lay in a horizontal plane, the nozzles pointing upward. The section shown in the illustration (Fig. 169) is from the plank join- ing the cover plates and was removed May 31, 1924. As may be seen from the illustration, the damage by shipworms was quite heavy and as it occurred in what by some has been considered terri- tory free from serious attacks by marine borers, the information is thought to be of sufficient importance to justify its being appended to this report. Living organisms were taken from the timber at the time this specimen was obtained. 523 INDEX A Abrams, Duff A., 462 Absecon Inlet, 285 Academy of Arts and Sciences, Mass., 53 Academy of Science of St. Louis, Mo., 53 Acetate of lead, service records of, 106 Aczol, 207, 214, 219 impregnation, 212 Alaska Central Railway, 77 Alea cement, see ciment fondu Algae, see “organisms found’? under harbor reports Allen, M. S., toxicological investigations by, Boston, 5] Aloes, 184, 190 American Cyanamid Co., 268 American Museum of Natural History, 4 American Railway Association, 2 American Railway Engineering Associa~ tion, 2, 5 American Sugar Refining Company, 5, 240, 268, 289 Ammonia, 177 Amphipoda, see “organisms found” under harbor reports Animals boring in timber, 21 Animals boring in rock, 71 Anomia, see ‘organisms found’ under harbor reports Antimony compounds, 184, 190, 195, 391 Arecibo, port of, 435 Armstrong, A. K., 77 records of tests of protection methods compiled by, 87 Arsenic and its compounds, 195 Arsenious iodide and copper iodide, service records of, 106 Scape eon eenam & Atlantic R. R., 314, uf ; - Atlantic City, 285 Atlantic Coast Line R. R., 314, 322, 326 Atlantic Steamship Lines (Southern Pacific Company), 5 Atwood, Col. Wm. G., 2, 168 Aux Cayes, Haiti, 424 B Babcock and Wilcox Company, 270 water analyses by, 18, 276 Balanus, see “organisms found” under har- bor reports Baltimore & Ohio R. R., 5, 268, 289 Baltimore, harbor board of, 289 Baltimore harbor, see harbor reports Bancroft, Dr. W. D., 1 ' Bangor & Aroostock R. R., 5 Bankia, 26, 28, 31, 48; see also “organisms found” under harbor reports breeding season of, 169 effect of decrease-in salinity on, 192 gouldi, 169 locations where found, 49 mexicana, 49 reaction of the digestive tract of, 192 season of activity of, see individual har- bor reports setacea, 48, 49 species I, K, T, X, 50 species V, 424 study of the wood boring activities of, 194 zeteki, 50 Barger, G., 169 Barium and its compounds, 215, 219 Barren oil, 391 Benzol and its compounds, Barks, service records of, 87 Barnea crucigera, 443 Barnegat City, 285 Barol, service records of, 346 Barrett Company, 5, 122 Barrows, Dr. Albert L., 1, 462 Bartsehs Dr Paul 4 protection process patented by, 106 Bates, 155 Bay Shore yacht club, 269 Beaufort harbor, see harbor reports Bermuda Biological Board, 8 Betisvene ly tlwo2s Beverly harbor, 232 Bibliography, 462 Bied, M. Jules, 157 Biological Board of Canada, 7, 20 Biological survey, 3 Biology, 6 Blast furnace slag cement, 156 Blue Points Co., 269 Bomme, Leendert, description of boring method of pholads by, 71 Borers, protection against, 87; Animals, etc. Boston Army Supply Base, structures of, 246 Boston & Albany R. R., 240, 241 Boston & Maine R. R., 227, 240 Boston harbor, see harbor reports Bray, el cec Agee Goro. Bridgeport harbor, 261 British Columbia, see harbor reports British Museum, 10 Brunswick, Ga., 312 Bryozoa, see “organisms found” under har- bor reports Built up piles, service records of, 88 Burchartz, H., 155 Bureau of Fisheries, Beaufort, N. C., 3 Bureau of Standards, 155 Buzzards Bay, see harbor reports 186, 190; 208, Mite 184, 186, see also condition of Cc Calcium fluoride, 184, 190 Calms Oia VW eee O 525 526 INDEX Camp process concrete casings, 105 Canal Zone, see harbor reports Cancer productus, 400 Candlot, H., 155 Cape Ann, condition of Sandy Bay break- water at, 238 Cape Cod canal, 250, 252 Cape Fear river, 303 service records of structures in, 396 Caper Mayo NeeJdeanaso Carbolineum avenarius, service records of, 90, 91, 348 Carbolineum Wood Preserving Co., 90 Carquinez Straits, 1, 384 Carter)! Re Ho iia 18% Cast iron, 158, 164 comparison of, with concrete, 159 objections to use of, 159 service records of, 160; reports Cast iron casings, service records of, 94, 641; see also harbor reports Cavite, P.-1., 450 coaling plant at, 459 Cedar Keys, Fla., 337 Cement gun used for precasting casings, 100 Central of Georgia R. R., 5, 314 Central Railread of New Jersey, 5, 268 Channel Five Fla., 321 Charleston Dry Dock & Machine Co. 310 Charleston harbor, see harbor reports Charleston lighthouse depot, 309 Charlestown Navy Yard, condition of struc- tures of, 241 Charring and tarring, service records of, 88 Chelura, 21, 25 terebrans, 23, 25 insulae, 25, 53, 57, 58 Chemical Warfare Service, 2, 48, 164, 303 progress report of, 165 Chesapeake & Ohio R. R., 5, 297 Chestnut, 261 Chlorinated cellulose, 208, 211, 216 Chlorinated paraffine, 218 in carbon tetrachloride, 209 Chlorine, generation of, by electrolysis, 198 Chlorvinyl arsenious oxide, 172, 184, 186, LSS lS Set 90s 195 Christiana river, 285 Christiansted, V. I., 420 Church, Sumner R., 122 Ciment électrique, 157 Ciment fondu, 157 @lapp We Leas 2 taelkis description of new species by, 37, 40, 41, , 46 Clark, Austin H., 4 Cliona, oyster shells attacked by, 72 Coast and Geodetic Survey, 20 Coco Solo, C. Z., 445 Coker Dre uel Hoa aes paint process, service records of, see also harbor Committee on Marine Piling Investigations, 7 Concrete casings, service records of, 99, 164 result of building too short, 107 Concrete, 151, 164 comparative shrinkage of lean and rich mixtures of, 158 reinforced, deterioration of, due to cor- rosion of metal, 158 structures in American waters, service records of, 154; see also harbor re- ports ‘ : structures in foreign waters, service rec- ords of, 152 Corpus Christi, Tex., 359 Copper and its compounds, 172, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 207, 208, 209, 214, 215, 216, 217, 2usie2i9 Copper bound blocks, tests of, 11, 14, 256, 309, 370 Copper paints, service records of, 91; see also harbor reports Copper sheathing for piles, tests of, 18, 336 service records of, 93, 94, 164; see also harbor reports Copper strips as sheathing for piles, tests of, 718) 9 Copper sulphate, service records of, 106 Cottonwood, see timber Crabs found in disintegrated concrete, 400 Crabtree Ledge, Me., 223 Creosote; 108,163) 177,208, 211-2317 e2i5 cause of failure of, 109 efficacy of, against marine borers, 109 extracted from old piles, analyses of, 109 Biloxi Bay trestle, 119 crane foundation of N. N. S. B. & D. D. Co., 125 Galveston Bay bridge of A. T. & S. F. RAR ik Hen pier, San Juan, Porto Rico, Long wharf, Oakland, Cal., 109 N. & W. coal pier No. 2, Norfolk, 123 N. & W. warehouse No. Ue Norfolk, 122 N. & W. warehouse No. 2, Norfolk, 122 naval wharf, St. Thomas, Vee 123 Pensacola naval station, 123 pier 1, San Juan, Porto Rico, 124 tabulated results of, 137 cere river docks, So. Ry., Brunswick, fractions, tests of, 140 Gulfport experiments, 141 National Research Council tests, 145 Pensacola experiments, San Diego experiments, 141 San Francisco Bay Committee tests, 144 San Francisco experiments, 141 necessity for care in handling timber im- pregnated with, 150 ey he securing uniform penetration of, recommendations for use of, 150 service records of, 137; see also harbor reports Charleston Terminal Co. wharf, 138 Clyde Line pier, ment a. 138 Pinners Point, Va., So. Ry. coal pier, Snarkestee 137 sees Turtle River docks, Brunswick, Creosote impregnation, 211; see also creosote Crustacea, 21 rock boring, 71 Crustacean borers, 6 Crystal violet, 172, 181, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 212, 215 Crystal violet ‘and copper tannate 207, 219 Cumberland Sound, 320 Cunard Line, 5 Cutler, Me., 223 D Davies, J. Vipond, on graphitic corrosion of east iron, 159 Day, A. L., 155. de Castro, Eduardo, 155 INDEX Delaware Bay, see harbor reports Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R., Diatomaceous earth, use of as admixture, 156 Diphenylamine arsenious oxide, 184, 186, 190 Diphenyl arsenious oxide, 184, 186, 190, 216, 218 in creosote, 208, 219 in fuel oil, 209 Diphenylamine chlorarsine, 1838, 186, 188, 190; 215, 218), 219 in creosote, 208 paraffine solution of, 209 Diphenylchlorarsine in creosote, 208, 209 in fuel oil, 209 in paraffine, 209 Direct black, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 215 Direct blue, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 215 Dixon, S. M., 169 Dominican Republic, see harbor reports Douglas fir, tests of, at Port Bolivar, 370 Dutch Harbor, Alaska, 408 Dye impregnation, 210 1D Eastern coast of Florida, see harbor reports Eddystone Lighthouse, cement used in con- struction of, 155 Edgewood arsenal, 203 Engineering Foundation, 3 Engineering Standards Committee, specifi- cations for blast furnace slag cement adopted by, 156 Erie Railroad, 5 Exosphaeroma oregonensis, 26, 403 Explanation of plates, 53 r Fajardo harbor, 436 Fall River, 250 Feret, R., 155 Fernandina, Fla., 320 Ferric ferricyanide, 207 Ferric orthonitrobenzoate, 186, 190 Finance, 5 Fishers Island, 259 Flinn, Alfred D., 2 Florida East Coast Ry., 5, 18, 322, 332 Fort Dade, Fla., 337 Fort Heath, seawall at, 244 Fort Jackson, La., 340 Fort Lyon, revetment at, 229 seawall at, 229 Fort McKinley, seawall at, 231 Fort Marion, Fla., service records of con- erete structures at, 330 Fort Morgan, Ala., 355, 358 Fort Moultrie, cast iron pile wharf near, 310 Fort Point, Me., 223 Fort Taylor, condition of seawall at, 330 Fort Terry wharf, 260 Fort Warren, seawall at, 244 Fort Williams, wharf at, 229 Fuller, Nelson M., 46 527 G Galveston, Tex., 358 Gardner, Dr. Henry A., 169 Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, 155 Gerlaches solution, service records of, 106 Glass (soluble) and chloride of calcium, ser- vice records of, 106 Goodrich hie be Grand Trunk Railway, 18, 229 Great Bridge, Va., 298 Greenport harbor, 260 Gribble, 21; see also limnoria Guantanamo, Cuba, see harbor reports Guantanamo naval station, concrete pier at, 415 Guaymas, Mexico, 371 Guilford harbor, 260. Gulf, Mobile & Northern R. R., 355 Gulfport, Miss., 340 Gulf & Ship Island R. R., 342 H Hale, I’. E., 271 Harbor reports, 221 Alaskan Coast, 403 history of past attacks along, 408 organisms found, 408 water analyses, 410 Baltimore harbor, 288 ; history of past attacks in, 288 organisms found in, 289 test boards placed in, 289 water analyses of, 289 Beaufort harbor and Cape Fear river, 303 concrete structures in, service records of, 306 organisms found in, 304 season of shipworm activity in, 307 test boards placed in, 303 Boston harbor, 238 history of past attacks in, 240 organisms found in, 240 structures in, service records of, 241 test boards placed in, 240 water analyses of, 241 British Columbia, 403 water analyses of Departure bay, 403 Brunswick, see Savannah and Brunswick harbors. Buzzards and Narragansett Bays, 248 history of past attacks, 250 organisms found in, 252 season of shipworm activity in, 254 structures in, service records of, 256 water analyses of, 256 Canal Zone, 442 history of past attacks, 443 organisms found, 445 season of shipworm activity, 445 special tests, 445 structures, service records of, 448 test boards placed, 445 water analyses, 443, 445 Cape Fear river, see Beaufort, etc. Charleston, S. C., harbor, 308 field experiments in, 309 organisms found in, 308 season of shipworm activity in, 312 structures in, service records of, 310 water analyses of, 309 Delaware Bay, see New Jersey Coast, etc. Dominican Republic, 426 history of past attacks, 427 organisms found, 428 528 Harbor reports (continued) Dominican Republic (continued) season of shipworm activity, 435 structures, service records of, 429 test boards placed, 428 Eastern coast of Florida, 319 history ot past attacks along, 321 organism found along, 322 season of shipworm activity, 331 structures along, service records of, 326 test boards placed along, 322 water analyses, 326 Guantanamo, Cuba, 413 history of past attacks at, 413 organisms found at, 413 season of shipworm activity, 414 structures at, service records of, 415 test boards placed at, 414 water analyses, 414 Gulf of Mexico—Mississippi River to Key West, 336 history of past attacks in, 342 organisms found in, 342 season of shipworm activity in, 354 structures in, service records of, 346 test boards placed in, 342 water analyses of, 346 Gulf of Mexico—Sabine Pass to Point Isabel, 358 history of past attacks in, 359 organisms found in, 359 season of shipworm activity in, 360 special tests in, 370 structures in, service records of, 370 test boards placed in, 366 water analyses of, 368 Key West harbor, 331 history of past attacks in, 332 organisms found in, 332 season of shipworm activity in, 336 special tests in, 336 structures in, service records of, 334 test boards placed in, 332 water analyses of, 332 Long Island Sound (Point Judith to Throgs Neck), 258 history of past attacks in, 261 organisms found in, 261 season of shipworm activity in, 265 special tests of pine and oak in, 264 structures in, service records of, 264 test boards placed in, 262 Los Angeles harbor, 379 history of past attacks in, 379 organisms found in, 379 season of shipworm activity, 383 structures in, service records of, 380 test boards placed in, 379 Maine coast, 221 experiments with copper strips at Port- land, 229 history of past attacks along, 227 organisms found along, 227 structures along, service records of, 229 test boards placed along, 227 Mobile harbor, 354 history of past attacks in, 355 organisms found in, 357 season of shipworm activity in, 355 structures in, service records of, 357 test boards placed in, 355 water analyses of, 357 Narragansett Bay, see Buzzards Bay, etc. New Jersey coast and Delaware Bay, 285 history of past attacks, 285 organisms found, 287 season of shipworm activity, 288 structures, service records of, 288 test boards placed, 286 New York harbor, 265 history of past attacks in, 265 organisms found in, 269 INDEX organization of local committee of, 265 recent attack by shipworms in, 523 season of shipworm activity in, 271 test boards placed in, 268 water analyses of, 271 Norfolk harbor 289 history of past attacks in, 293 organisms found in, 297 protection methods, 299 season of shipworm activity in, 298 structures (concrete), service records of, 302 eee (metal), service records of, water analyses of, 298 Pacific Islands, 448 history of past attacks, 450 organisms found, 450 structures, service records of, 455 test boards placed, 452 water analyses, 450 Porto Rico, 435 history of past attacks, 436 organisms found, 437 structures, service records of, 439 test boards placed, 437 water analyses, 441 Portsmouth, N. H. to Provincetown, Mass., 231 history of past attacks, 234 organisms found, 234 structures, service records of, 238 test boards placed, 236 Puget Sound, 392 history of past attacks in, 392 organisms found in, 393 structures in, service records of, 396 test boards placed in, 393 water analyses of, 393 Republic of Haiti, 423 history of past attacks, 423 organisms found, 424 test boards placed, 423 San Diego bay, 372 history of past attacks in, 374 organisms found in, structures in, service records of, 377 test boards placed in, 374 San Francisco bay, 383 history of past attacks in, 384 structures in, service records of, 388 studies of by San Francisco Committee, 385 test boards placed in, 390 water analyses of, 384 Savannah and Brunswick harbors, 312 organisms found in, 312 season of shipworm activity in, 316 test boards placed in, 314 water analyses of, 316 Virgin Islands, 418 history of past attacks, 420 organisms found, 420 structures, service records of, 423 test boards placed, 420 , West Coast of Mexico, 371 organisms found, 371 test boards placed, 371 Harington, C. R., 169. Hatsel, Chas. H., 168, 181, 203 Hemlock, 408 Hexachlorethane, 182, 184, 190 Hingham’ ammunition depot, condition of structures of, 242 Hoboken, N. J., see New York harbor Honolulu, 449 Hoop iron, service records of, 99 Housatonic river, 260 Houston, port of, 366 INDEX Houston Ship Channel, Tex., 359, 366 Hunt, Geo. M., 2 Huston, ©: Aa 2 Hydrogen ion concentration, 18, 193 Hydroids, see “organisms found” harbor reports Hydrometer, see salinometer under I Illinois Central R. R., 342 Injected preservatives, 106, see also creosote double injection process, 108 Baia process, service records of, creosote impregnation, also creosote powellizing process, 108 108, see service records of, soluble salts, 106 wood products as records of, 108 International Navigation Congress, 153 Todine, 195 Isopods, see “organisms harbor reports protection, service found” under J Jacksonville, Fla., 320 Jeanneret, Dr. B., 155 Jersey City, N. J., see New York harbor Johnson, A. A., 45 Jouannetia pectinata, 443 Juneau, Alaska, 405 Jupiter, Fla., 320 K Kansas City Southern Ry., 5, 366 Kennons teredo proof paint, service records of, 91, 348 Ketchikan, Alaska, 405 Kodiak, Alaska, 408 Koetitz pile, service records of, 100 Kofoid, Dr. Chas. A., 2, 3, 462 Kornhauser, Dr. S. L., 4 Kyanizing, service records of, 106 L Lead orthonitrobenzoate, 184, 190 Le Chatelier, H., 155 Lehigh Valley R. R., 5, 268 Lewes, Del., 285 Lewis Institute, 462 Lewisite, 167 Limnoria, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26.. see also “organisms found’ under’ harbor reports andrewsi, 24, 53, 57, 58 attack on creosoted timber of, 23 breeding season of, 169 effect of the increase in the hydrogen ion concentration on. 193 lignorum, 21, 22, 24, 26, 533 169 locations where found, toxicity tests on, 183 Long Island R. R., 5, 269 Lorenz, Dr. G., reports received through, 99 Luiggi, Luigi, 155 529 M Maine coast, see harbor reports Manasquan inlet, 285 Manila, P. I., 450 Mare Island Navy Yard, 1 Marine borers, see borers Marine piling investigations, progress report on by Chemical Warfare Service, 167 generation of chlorine by electrolysis (append II), 198 table of contents, 197 preservation of new structures (appendix III), PAUBS See also protection against borers table of contents, 202 toxicity of certain compounds, (appendix I), 181; see also protection against borers table of contents, 180 Mark, Dr. BE. L., 4 Martesia, 26, 28, 29, 50; see also “organ- isms found” under harbor reports curta, 443 how affected by creosote, 50 locations where found, 50 rate of destruction caused by, 50 striata, 51, 56, extremely destructive to test blocks at Cavite, P. I., . found in palmetto poles, 78 xzylophaga, 443 Warttosee bw Dp 122 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 4 Mayaguez bay, 435 Mazatlan, 371 Mercuric compounds, 172, 184, 186, 188, 190, 208, 209, 214, 219 Metal structures, 158, harbor reports Methylene blue, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 209 copper tannate, 217, 219 Miami, Fla., 321 Michaelis, W., 155 Milford Point, 260 Miller, Dr Re Cres paper on ‘‘Wood boring mollusks from the Hawaiian, Samoan and Philippine Islands” by, 338, 51 Miner, Roy, 4 Mississippi sound, 339 Moll, Dr. Frederick, 462 Mollusca, 26 rock boring, 71 attack on concrete structures by, 71, 72 Carditamera affinis, 72 Gastrochaena ovata, stone perforated Deere Lithophaga aristata, Boca dock by, 71 meh ag aE ks bisculata, stone perforated Ys Mya arenaria, 74 Petricola carditoides, 74 Pholadidea panita Conrad, 74 Platyodon cancellara, 74 Saxicava purascens, 72 Saavicava solida, 72 wood boring, see Bankia, Martesia or Teredo Molluscan borers, 6, see also Mollusca Mollusks, see mollusca Monel metal as sheathing for piles, tests of, 18, Moran process, service records of, 96 Muntz metal, service records of, 93, 348 Museum de |’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 10 see also individual damage to La 530 Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 4 Mystic river, 259 Mytilus, see “organisms harbor reports found’ under N Narragansett Bay, see harbor reports National Research Council, 5 Nawiliwili, 450 Ps Newark, N. J., see New York harbor New Bedford harbor, 250 New Haven harbor, 260 New Jersey Board of Commerce & Navi- gation, 286 New Jersey coast, see harbor reports New London, 259 New London submarine base, condition of structures at, 264 Newport direct black, 208 Newport direct sky blue, 207 Newport harbor, 250 Newport News, 290 Newport News Shipbuilding Co,, 16, 18, 297 Newport, R. I., naval station, condition of structures at, 256 New York Central R. R., 5, 268 New York City Board of Estimate & Ap- portionment, 271 New he City Department of Docks, 268, New York Committee, 3 New York harbor, see harbor reports New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R., 5, 14, 18, 236, 240, 252, 262, 268 Norfolk & Western R. R., 5, 297 Norfolk harbor, see harbor reports Norfolk Southern R. R., 297, 303 & Dry Dock C0) Oak, tests of at Port Bolivar, 370 Olongapo, concrete wharves at, 459 Oregonia gracilis, 400 Orthonitrobenzoic acid, 184, 190 Ostrea. see “organisms found’’ under har- bor reports Oxygen content, determinations of, 18 P Pacific Islands, see harbor reports Pago Pago harbor, Samoa, 450, 452 service records of structures in, 460 Paint Manufacturers’ Association, 169 Palatka, Fla., 10 Palmetto wood, immunity of, 11 Se paint process, service records of, 458, Paranitrobenzoic acid, 184, 186, 189, 190 Parapholas acuminata, 443 Paravar varnish, 211 Paris green, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190 Pascagoula river, 340 Pearl harbor, 449 service records of structures in, 455 Pectin, see “organisms found” under harbor reports Pensacola bay, 339 INDEX Pensacola naval air station, service records of structures at, 353 Paynizing, service records of, 106 Pennsylvania Railroad, 5, 206, 286, 289 Perfection piles, service records of, 95, 97 Perry, Jr., R. So. 168; 181, 204 Perth Amboy, N. J., see New York harbor Petersburg, Alaska, 405 Petroleum fuel oil, 209, 217 Phenyl arsenious oxide, 172, 177, 181, 184, 186, 189, 190, 191, 195, 218 in carbon tetrachloride, 209 in creosote, 209 Pholadidae tubifera, 443 Pholas, 29 in concrete casings at Los Angeles, Cal., chiloensis, 443 “ Picric acid, 196 Pile armors, service records of, 92, 163 Pile coatings, service records of, 90, 91, 92 efficacious for temporary structures only, miscellaneous, service records of, 91, 92 Pine, loblolly, tests of at Port Bolivar, 370 Pine, long leaf yellow, tests of at Port Bolivar, 307 Plates, explanation of, 53 Point Isabel, Tex., 359 Poke root, 184, 190 Ponce harbor, 436 Port Aransas, Tex., 359 Port Arthur, Tex., 358 Port au Prince, Haiti, 424 Port of New Orleans, 5 Portland cement, free lime formed on set- ting of, 156 Portland cement association, 462 Portland, Me., 223 Porto Rico, see harbor reports Portsmouth, N. H., 231 coaling plant wall of U. S. Navy at, 237 Portsmouth, Va., 293 Poulsen, A., 155 Pozzuolana, 155, cement Prescott, Prof. S. C., 40 Protection against borers, 87 Protection of existing structures, 168, 173; see also protection against borers Protection of new structures, 168, 175; see also protection against borers Providence, port of, 250 Providence river, 250 Provincetown harbor, 234 Provincetown, Mass., 232 Puerto Plata, 427 service records of structures at, 434 Puget Sound Navy Yard, service records of structures at, 398 Q 156, see also Roman Quarantine, La., 340 Quebracho (Argentine) records of, 98 Quinine sulphate, 186, 189, 190 R process, service Rankin, G. A., 155 Ray, George J., 1 Reeds wood preservative, 346 INDEX Republic of Haiti, 423 Ridgway, F. B., 115 Ripley pile, service records of, 100 Rocellaria lamellosa, 453 Rock borers, see mollusca Rockport, Tex., 359 Roman cement, mixture of lime and poz- zuolana, 155 Rubber in benzene, 207 mupper iatex 208, 209, 216, 217 impregnation, 211 ) Sabine Pass, Tex., 358 St. Andrews Bay, 337 St. Augustine, Fla., service records of ¢con- erete structures at, 327 St. Johns river, Fla., 320 concrete blocks for jetty in, 331 St. Petersburg, Fla., 337 Sieenomas: Van T., 418 Salinity, determination of, 18, see also har- bor reports Salinometer used for determining salinity, > San oa wearansas Pass R. R., 5, 366, San Francisco bay, 1, see also harbor re- ports Francisco Bay Marine Piling Com- mittee, 3, 18, 169, 3838, 386 SaniJuan, P. R., 435 San Pablo bay, 1, 384 San Pedro de Macoris, D. R., 426 service records of structures at, 429 Santa Fe System, 5, 18, 366 Santo Domingo, 426 service records of structures at, 431 Santorin earth, 156 Sap- ary Heart-wood, comparative tests of, San Saugatuck river, 261 Savannah, see harbor reports Saxicava, see ‘‘organisms found” under har- bor. reports Scandinavian Engin2ering Societies, 87 Schmitt, Dr. Waldo, 4 Seupper nailing, 18, 163 service records of, 98, 99, 102, 310 Searle, Dr. Harriet Richardson, 4 Seaboard Air Line Ry., 5, 16, 609, 322, 342 Seward, Alaska, 4C8 Sewell, Col. John Stephen, 2 Shackell, Dr. L. F., 173 Shingle blocks, 10 Shipworms. see Teredo, Bankia Sigerfoos, Chas. P., 30 Silica gel, 209, 218 Singer Mfg. Co., 2€8 Sitka, Alaska, 405 Slag, blast furnace. as silicious material, 156 Smeaton, John 155 Sotor, service records of, yl Soummerntacitic KR. R., 5, 18, 366, 371 Southern Railway, 5, 297, 308, 314, 342 South Pass, La., 310 Spackman, Col. Henry, high alumina cement first developed by, 157 Special tests, 10 531 Specimens, collection of, 6 Sphaeroma, 21, 26, 27, see also ‘organisms found”? under harbor reports quadridentum, 25, 2 destructor, 25, 26 locations where found, 26 pentadon, 25, 26 Spooner, Allen, 523 Spruce, 408 Standard Oil Co., 268, 289, 308 Staten Island, N. Y., see New York harbor Steel, comparison of with concrete, 162 durability of, 158 service records of, 161; see also harbor reprots Steel bound blocks, tests of, 16 Charleston, S. C., 16, 309 Coca Sola, C. Z., 16, 445 Sin AMavepanteusy YY ti. abc beak Steel or iron sheathing, service records of, Sulphate of iron, service records of, 106 Sulphur, 208 impregnation, 211, 212 4 (Dara pan Daye blade Tar as pile coating, service records of, 90 Temperature, records of, 18; see also har- bor reports Teredo, 26, 28, 32; see also “organisms found” under harbor reports affinis, 34, 54, 61 vbartschi, 37, 54, 62, 63 batilliformis, 41,.438, 55, 65, 67 bipartita, 36 clappi, 36 diegensis, 37 dilatata, 36 dominicensis, 36 effect of the increase of hydrogen ion con- centration on, 193 found in test blocks of cocoanut palm, 78 fulleri, 46, 56, 69 furcillatus, 34, 54, 60 johnsoni, 45, 55, 68 miraflora, 443 navalis, 33, 169 found in palmetto poles, 78 locations where found, 33 panamensis, 36 parksi, 33, 53, 59 portoricensis, 40, 55, 64 samoaensis, 35, 54, 60 sigerfoosi, 36, 169 somersi, 44, 55, 66, 67 species D, FE. L., 43 species F, 48 species G, 43 species J, 43 species Q, 43 species W, 43 species Z, 48 thomsoni, 36 trulliformis, 35, 54, 61 Test boards, 1922 model, 6 1923 model, 7 special, employed by Newport News Ship- building & Dry Dock Co., 16 Thames river, 259 Thilmany process, service records of, 106 Timber impregnation, methods of, 204 cost of, 210, 211 toxicity of compounds used in, 213 Timber preservation, see protection against borers : 532 | | INDEX Timber, substitutes for, 4, 151 ginaiang, 82 advantages not found in other materials, 151 economy of use of, 151 Timber for which immunity is claimed, kinds and service records of, 77 Achras sapota, 84 adios, 82 alder, 391 angelique, 18, 85, 86 anigad, 82 aningat, 82 antam, 81 aranga, 80, 82 arangan, 82 arare, 84 arombi, 81 Aspidosperma quebracho, 84 azobe, 391 bakayan, 82 bangoran, 81 baniakan, 81 banutan, 81 barit, 82 barosingsing, 81 barusingsing, 81 batik, 81 bayagkabayo dumon, 82 binggas, 82 binggau, 82 birch, 86 bitik, 81 blackbutt, 79, 80 black jucaro, 84 blue gum, 79, 80 bongog, 82 botabon, 82 box of East Gippsland, 79 buch, 86 Bucida buceras, 84 bungalon, 81 bunglo, 82 busag, 82 chicozapate, 84 chocolate mahogany, 84 coast ash, 79 cottonwood, 77, 86 tests “of —~byw Co Meeks Gee yee tests of, by Northern Pacific Ry., 78 tests of, by Southern Pacific Ry., 78 used in construction of wharf by Alaska Central Ry., 77 dagingdingan, 81 dalingdingan, 81 daniri, 81 Dicorynia paraensis, 85 dinglas, 82 dungon-dungonan, 82 dungon, 82 dungul, 82 eucalyptus, 78 EKucalyptus amygadalina and other spe- cies, 78 flintwood, 79 forest red gum, 79 giho, 81 gisek, 81 gisik, 81 giso, 81 gisok, 81 gisok-gisok, 81 gray ironbark, 79 gray gum, 78, 79 greenheart, 85, 86 green top ironbark, 79 guijo, 80, 81 gunaimai, 82 haras, 81 Heritiera littoralis, 82 Homalium luzoniense, 82 Hopea acuminata, 81 Hopea plagata, 81 i hublas, 82 ilukabban, 81 jarrah, 79 jigue moruro de costa, 84 jucaro, 83 jucaro prieto, 84 kagemkem, 82 Kaliot, 81 kaliot manggachopui, 81 kamagahai, 82 ; kamagahi, 82 kamilitingan, 82 kangkangan, 82 kapganzan, 82 karatakat, 82 karri, 79 kulatingan, 82 kuriat, 81 kuribu, 81 laiusin, 82 langog, 82 lankangan, 82 Lecythis ollaria, 85 liusin, 80, 82 lukabban, 81 lumuluas, 82 Lysiloma formosa, 84 Lysiloma sabicu, 84 magayan, 82 magkono, 82 malabayabas, 81, 82, 163 malaigang, 82 malapiga, 82 malapuyen, 82 malarungon, 82 malatumbaga, 82 malium, 81 maluklik, 82 malumbayabas, 82 manbarklak, 18, 83, 85, 86, 163 mancono, 81, 82, 163 mangachapuy, 80, S1 Manggasinoro, S1 mangkono, 82 mangroves, 78 manna gum, 79 mantalina, 82 mantalingan, 82 a | : ’ j ss matamata,. 82 messmate, 79 mountain ash, 79, 80 narrow leaved ironbark, 80 nasewood, 84 Nectandra rodioei, 85 nispero, 84 INDEX takdangan, 82 tallow wood, 391 tamulanan, 82 tapgas, 82 Tarrietia sylvatica, 82 Terminalis buceras, $4 tiga, 82 oak, 86 tinadan, 82 pagatpat, 80 Toledo wood, 370, 391 palalan, 81 totara, 84 palapat, 81 Tristania decorticata, 82 533 palmetto, 78, 163 palm, 78 palo de hierro, 82 palogapig, 82 palongapoi, 82 pamayanasen, 81 paniggaian, 81 pantoy-use pasak, 82 Parinarium corymbosum, 82 paronapoi, 82 paronopin, 82 patpat, 81 pedada, 81 peppermint gum, 79 philippine ironwood, 81, 82 Philippine lignum-vitae, 81, 32 turpentine wood, 18, 83, 86, 163, 391 uas-uasa, 82 white gum, 79 white ironbark, 79 white stringybark, 79 Xanthostemon verdugonianus, $2 yacal, 80, 81 yamban, 81 zapotechico, 84 Topolobampo, 371 Townsend, Dr. C, H., 4 Townsend, T. G., 130 Abepeciinl, SUS6 abseS TSI, aR), ellis ale Toxicity tests of different compounds, 172 discussion of results of, 189 pirara, 81 on Bankia embryos, 187 pisak, 81 on Bankia in wood blocks, 185 pisek, 81 on exposed Bankia, 183 on Limnoria, 183 summary of, 190 Toxics, list of most efficient, 177, 192 carriers for, 177 Trass, tests of, 153, 156 Triphenyl arsine, 184, 190 Tuff, 156 Tutuila, Samoa, see Pago Pago harbor Podacarpus totara, 84 quebracho, 84 quiebra-hacha, 81, 84 red gum, 79 red ironbark, 79 red stringybark, 79 Rhizophora mangle, 78 Rhizophora natalensis, 78 Rhizophora racemosa, 78 Sabal palmetto, 78 sabicu, 84 U sabougkaag, 82 salifungan, 82 salutin, 82 sallapugud, 81 sapodilla, 84 saplungan, 81 sarabsaban, 81 sarangan, 82 Unalaska, Alaska, 408 U. S. Government Departments, 2 Agriculture, 2 Forest products Laboratory, 2 Commerce, 2, 165 Bureau of Fisheries, 2, 165 Bureau of Lighthouses, 2, 8; see also sarrai, 81 , harbor reports perked guiso, 51 Coast & Geodetic Survey, 2, 20 siakal, 81 sigaadan, 82 Navy, 2, 8, 165 : ; sigai, 81 Bureau of Construction & Repair, 2, 165 : ‘ Bureau of Yards & Docks, 2, 165; see siggai, $1 : also harbor reports silver top, 79 siyan, 81 Treasury, 2 Sonneratia pagatpat, 81 Coast Guard, 2, 8; see also harbor re- spotted gum, 79, 80 | ports stringbark gum, 79 sugar gum, 79 Syncarpia laurifola, 83 War, 2, 165 Corps of Engineers, 2, 8; see also har- bor reports taba, 82 Quartermaster Corps, 2, 165 tabon-tabon, 82 U. S. National Museum (Smithsonian In- taggai, 81 stitution), 10 . i erat) a ae Se 2 SSA - =) “ ne ey A Te vowed Te > ees 534 University of California, 4 publications in zoology, 53 University of Copenhagen, 10 Vv Van Duyne, J. R., 523 van Kuffeler, P. de Blocq, 155 Varrelman, F, A., 4 Vicat, study of cements by, 155 Virgin Islands, see harbor reports Virginian Railway, 5, 297 Vitrified pipe casings, service records of, 94, 164; see also harbor reports von Schrenk, Dr. Hermann, 2 Vulcanized rubber latex—sulphur chloride, 219 Ww Warren, 25% Washington, D. C., 289 Water analyses, 18 locations of samples, 20 a* Westport harbor, 261 St West River, 260 Rr a * ran Weymouth Back river, 243 ae .* Wood preservation, see protection ¢ borers ; Woods Hole, Mass., 250 Wright, F. E., 155 Vee Wrought iron, comparison of wit 159 aye ae durability of, 159, 164 service records of, 61 x Re Xylotomea globosa Xylotria, see Bankia _ ¥ v, Zetek, James, 71, 444 oe Zine cyanide, 188, 190 en % Zine sheathing, service records WE, rf AU FORM 1137.3 | GETTY CENTER LIBRARY TMT 33125 00141 3042 AAs, Vee GA on a tea ee Mh lhe ted ot nce At he eahay Qo ai . . —— OO OD vette rn ’ Of nig UN a