Berens maedeoed td aoete test so te Sees See eecees", = ts Us Chet) Peron ed x ees! ns moe esi fy reer late ‘yy ie f a iar te a bees RES seis ofits “ hi 5 paged naa $i Poel 6 ery ot pre lecetes: Z cats 32 * buetats, Simeat 3 : ¥ he ‘ Pesh el ah Dae pal. £ bs + 2 + $3 ‘i ' sy he te tee ot ree > tamer d oy + 4 te. 37 ee carers an tre oe gens Seana: aes td Oe ee gk ne » att ra oer MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE AND ART mi CHEOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 1914 BY THE SAME AUTHOR THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE. Illustrated. Svo . “ Besides being a striking contribution to the theory of the origin of life, embodying all that is soundest in modern thought and research, this book gives as fascinating an account of the prehistoric condition of the earth and of the earliest forms of life that existed upon it as any reader could desire for his information and delight.’’—North American Review. Charles Scribner’s Sons .Px. I. Neanderthal man at the station of Le Moustier, overlooking the valley of the Vézére, Dordogne. Drawing by Charles R. Knight, under the direction of the author. MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE Nee BY, HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN SC.D. PRINCETON, HON. LL.D. TRINITY, PRINCETON, COLUMBIA, HON. D.SC. CAMBRIDGE HON. PH.D. CHRISTIANIA RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY VERTEBRATE PALZONTOLOGIST U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, HONORARY CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE PALZONTOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ILLUSTRATIONS BY UPPER PALZOLITHIC ARTISTS AND CHARLES R. KNIGHT, ERWIN S. CHRISTMAN | AND OTHERS THIRD EDITION With new notes and illustrations on the archeology of Spain and North Africa NEW. YORK SHAR UES SERIBNER’S SONS 1924 CopyricutT, 1915, 1918, sy CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS Published November, 1915 Second edition, January, 1916 Reprinted March, May, June, 1916 Third edition, September, 1918 Reprinted April, 1919; April, 1921; October, 1922; June, 1923; August, 1924 Printed in the United States of America Published in England by G. BELL AND SONS, Ltp. DEDICATED TO MY DISTINGUISHED GUIDES THROUGH THE UPPER PALZOLITHIC CAVERNS OF THE PYRENEES, DORDOGNE, AND THE CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS OF SPAIN EMILE CARTAILHAC HENRI BREUIL HUGO OBERMAIER PREFACE Tu1s volume is the outcome of an ever memorable tour through the country of the men of the Old Stone Age, guided by three of the distinguished archzologists of France, to whom the work is gratefully dedicated. This Paleolithic tour™ of three weeks, accompanied as it was by a constant flow of conversation and discussion, made a very profound impression, namely, of the very early evolution of the spirit of man, of the close relation between early human environment and industry and the devei- opment of mind, of the remote antiquity of the human powers of observation, of discovery, and of invention. It appears that men with faculties and powers like our own, but in the infancy of edu- cation and tradition, were living in this region of Europe at least 25,000 years ago. Back of these intelligent races were others, . also of eastern origin but in earlier stages of mental development, all pointing to the very remote ancestry of man from earlier mental and physical stages. Another great impression from this region is that it is the oldest centre of human habitation of which we have a complete, unbroken record of continuous residence from a period as remote aS 100,000 years corresponding with the dawn of human culture, to the hamlets of the modern peasant of France of A. D. 1915. In contrast, Egyptian, A“gean, and Mesopotamian civilizations appear as of yesterday. The history of this region and its people has been developed chiefly through the genius of French archeologists, beginning with Boucher de Perthes. The more recent discoveries, which have come in rapid and almost bewildering succession since the foundation of the Institut de Paléontologie humaine, have been treated in a number of works recently published by some of the * The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author’s tour. vii Vill PREFACE experienced archeologists of England, France, and Germany. I refer especially to the Prehistoric Times of Lord Avebury, to the Ancient Hunters of Professor Sollas, to Der Mensch der Vor- zeit of Professor Obermaier, and to Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutsch- lands of Doctor R. R. Schmidt. Thus, on receiving the in- vitation from President Wheeler to lecture upon this subject before the University of California, I hesitated from the feeling that it would be difficult to say anything which had not been already as well or better said. On further reflection, however, I accepted the invitation with the purpose of attempting to give this great subject a more strictly historical or chronological treatment than it had previously received within the limits of a popular work in our own language, also to connect the environ- ment, the animal and human life, and the art. This element of the ¢zme in which the various events occurred can only be drawn from a great variety of sources, from the simultaneous consideration of the geography, climate, plants and animals, the mental and bodily development of the various races, and the industries and arts which reflect the relations be- tween the mind and the environment. In more technical terms, I have undertaken in these lectures to make a synthesis of the results of geology, paleontology, anthropology, and archeology, a correlation of environmental and of human events in the Euro- pean Ice Age. Such a synthesis was begun many years ago in the preparation of my Age of Mammals, but could not be com- pleted until I had gone over the territory myself. The attempt to place this long chapter of prehistory on a historical basis has many dangers, of which I am fully aware. Af- ter weighing the evidence presented by the eminent authorities in these various branches of science, I have presented my con- clusions in very definite and positive form rather than in vague or general terms, believing that a positive statement has at least the merit of being positively supported or rebutted by fresh evidence. For example, I have placed the famous Piltdown man, Eoanthro- pus, in a comparatively recent stage of geologic time, an entirely opposite conclusion to that reached by Doctor A. Smith Wood- PREFACE ix ward, who has taken a leading part in the discovery of this famous race and has concurred with other British geologists in placing it in early Pleistocene times. The difference between early and late Pleistocene times is not a matter of thousands but of hundreds of thousands of years; if so advanced a stage as the Piltdown man should definitely occur in the early Pleistocene, we may well expect to discover man in the Pliocene; on the contrary, in my opinion even in late Pliocene times man had only reached a stage similar to the Pithecanthropus, or prehuman Trinil race of Java; in other words, according to my view, man as such chiefly evolved during the half million years of the Pleistocene Epoch and not during the Pliocene. This question is closely related to that of the antiquity of the oldest implements shaped by the human hand. Here again I have adopted an opinion opposed by some of the highest au- thorities, but supported by others, namely, that the earliest of these undoubted handiworks occur relatively late in the Pleis- tocene, namely, about 125,000 years ago. Since the Piltdown man was found in association with such implements, it is at once seen that the two questions hang together. This work represents the co-operation of many specialists on a single, very complex problem. I am not in any sense an ar- cheologist, and in this important and highly technical field I have relied chiefly upon the work of Hugo Obermaier and of Déchelette in the Lower Paleolithic, and of Henri Breuil in the Upper Pa- leolithic. ‘Through the courtesy of Doctor Obermaier I had the privilege of watching the exploration of the wonderful grotto of Castillo, in northern Spain, which affords a unique and almost complete sequence of the industries of the entire Old Stone Age. This visit and that to the cavern of Altamira, with its wonderful frescoed ceiling, were in themselves a liberal education in the pre- history of man. With the Abbé Breuil I visited all the old camp- ing stations of Upper Paleolithic times in Dordogne and noted with wonder and admiration his detection of all the fine grada- tions of invention which separate the flint-makers of that period. With Professor Cartailhac I enjoyed a broad survey of the Lower x PREFACE and Upper Paleolithic stations and caverns of the Pyrenees region and took note of his learned and spirited comments. Here also we had the privilege of being with the party who entered for the first time the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert, with the Comte de Bégouen and his sons. In the American Museum I have been greatly aided by Mr. Nels C. Nelson, who has reviewed all the archeological notes and greatly assisted me in the classification of the flint and bone implements which is adopted in this volume. In the study of the divisions, duration, and fluctuations of climate during the Old Stone Age I have been assisted chiefly by Doctor Chester A. Reeds, a geologist of the American Museum, who devoted two months to bringing together in a comprehensive and intelligible form the results of the great researches of Albrecht Penck and Eduard Briickner embraced in the three-volume work, Die Alpen wm FEiszeitalter. The temperatures and snow- levels of the Glacial Epoch, which is contemporaneous with the Old Stone Age, together with the successive phases of mammalian life which they conditioned, afford the firm basis of our chronology; that is, we must reckon the grand divisions of past time in terms of Glacial and Interglacial Stages; the subdivisions are recorded in terms of the human invention and progress of the flint industry. I have also had frequent recourse to The Great Ice Age and the more recent Antiquity of Man in Europe of James Geikie, the founder of the modern theory of the multiple Ice Age in Europe. It is a unique pleasure to express my indebtedness to the Upper Paleolithic artists of the now extinct Cré-Magnon race, from whose work I have sought to portray so far as possible the mammalian and human life of the Old Stone Age. While we owe the discovery and early interpretation of this art to a generation of archzologists, it has remained for the Abbé Breuil not only to reproduce the art with remarkable fidelity but to firmly establish a chronology of the stages of art development. These results are brilliantly set forth in a superb series of volumes published by the Institut de Paléontologie humaine on the founda- tion of the Prince of Monaco; in fact, the memoirs on the art PREFACE xl and industry of Grimaldi, Font-de-Gaume, Altamira, La Pasiega, and the Cantabrian caves of Spain (Les Cavernes de la Région Cantabrique), representing the combined labors of Capitan, Car- tailhac, Verneau, Boule, Obermaier, and Breuil, mark a new epoch in the prehistory of man in Europe. There never has been a more fortunate union of genius, opportunity, and princely support. In the collection of materials and illustrations from the vast number of original papers and memoirs consulted in the prepara- tion of this volume, as well as in the verification of the text and proofs, I have been constantly aided by one of my research as- sistants, Miss Christina D. Matthew, who has greatly facilitated the work. I am indebted also to Miss Mabel R. Percy for the preparation and final revision of the manuscript. From the bibliography prepared by Miss Jannette M. Lucas, the reader may find the original authority for every statement which does not rest on my own observation or reflection. Interest in human evolution centres chiefly in the skull and in the brain. The slope of the forehead and the other angles, which are so important in forming an estimate of the brain ca- pacity, may be directly compared throughout this volume, be- cause the profile or side view of every skull figured is placed in exactly the same relative position, namely, on the lines es- tablished by the anatomists of the Frankfort Convention to conform to the natural pose of the head on the living body. In anatomy I have especially profited by the co-operation of my former student and present university colleague Professor J. Howard McGregor, of Columbia, who has shown great ana- tomical as well as artistic skill in the restoration of the heads of the four races of Trinil, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cré-Magnon. -The new reconstruction of the Piltdown head is with the aid of casts sent to me by my friend Doctor A. Smith Woodward, of the British Museum of Natural History. The problem of reconstruc- tion of the Piltdown skull has, through the differences of inter- pretation by Smith Woodward, Elhot Smith, and Arthur Keith, become one of the causes célébres of anthropology. On the plac- ing of the fragments of the skull and jaws, which have few points xil PREFACE of contact, depends the all-important question of the size of the brain and the character of the profile of the face and jaws. In Professor McGregor’s reconstruction different methods have been used from those employed by the British anatomists, and ad- vantage has been taken of an observation of Mr. A. E. Anderson that the single canine tooth belongs in the upper and not in the lower jaw. In these models, and in all the restorations of men by Charles R. Knight under my direction, the controlling principle has been to make the restoration as human as the anatomical evidence will admit. This principle is based upon the theory for which I believe very strong grounds may be adduced, that all these races represent stages of advancing and progressive development; it has seemed to me, therefore, that in our restorations we should indicate as much alertness, intelligence, and upward tendency as possible. Such progressive expression may, in fact, be observed in the faces of the higher anthropoid apes, such as the chimpanzees and orangs, when in process of education. No doubt, our ancestors of the early Stone Age were brutal in many respects, but the represen- tations which have been made chiefly by French and German artists of men with strong gorilla or chimpanzee characteristics are, I believe, unwarranted by the anatomical remains and are contrary to the conception which we must form of beings in the scale of rapidly ascending intelligence. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. AMERICAN MusEuM OF NATURAL HISTORY Junes2rrors: In sending forth the second edition I have been able to add the results of recent research on the jaw of the Piltdown man, and on the presence of anthropoid apes in Europe during the Old Stone Age. HFS: December 20, 1915. Peepacr fO-THE THIRD EDITION THE call for a third edition of this volume has afforded me an opportunity not only to correct a number of minor errors in the illustrations and text, to which friendly reviewers and critics have called attention, but also to add an account of the Palzo- lithic history of Spain and of the western region of northern Africa. The relations of the ancient life of the Iberian Peninsula with that of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were at times very close indeed. In fact, the very characteristic industry known as the Capsian, which developed in North Africa during Upper Paleolithic times, extended throughout southeastern Spain, the two regions constituting a single archzologic province. ‘The art of Alpera and Cogul, which in the earlier editions of this work was attributed to Neolithic times, belongs rather to the close of the Palzolithic and was probably contemporary with the Cap- sian and Tardenoisian flint industry of these stations. It em- braces hunting scenes with numerous human figures in silhouette, wholly distinct from the possibly contemporaneous Magdalenian art of the north. Before perusing Chapter VI, which covers the close of the Upper Palzolithic in France, the reader will therefore do well to turn to the new and extensive note in the Appendix describing this African life and industry. A clear understanding of the sources of the flint industry of Aurignacian times and also of the Tardenoisian flint industry and so-called Azilio-Tardenoi- sian culture described in Chapter VI will thus be gained. Although the recent researches in Spain have greatly ex- tended our knowledge, it is still to France that we turn for the most significant developments in the prehistory of Europe. Since the first publication of this work French archeology has xiii XIV PREFACE suffered by the tragic death of Déchelette in the war; and also by a suspension of the wonderful course of discovery and re- search that marked the decade preceding the fateful year of tg14. Many problems—especially those discussed in the earlier chapters of this work—which might have been cleared up by further French research have remained untouched. For the same reason it would be premature to reconsider the chronologic succession of human types and geologic events which was pro- visionally proposed in the first edition of this work in 1915. We hope that brighter days are coming when science and art may be able to resume their peaceful paths, and that materials may then be gathered for a fourth edition of this work in which some, at least, of the many unanswered questions may be reconsidered in the light of further researches in the archeology of France. The anatomy of Paleolithic man has been debated in a long discussion about the Piltdown Race, and even at this writing it is not finally agreed that the Piltdown jaw belongs with the Pilt- down skull, because the new evidence brought forward by Dr. Smith Woodward, although strong, is not deemed entirely con- clusive. This uncertainty is an instance not of the failure of scientific inquiry, but of the general desire of scientists to accept only that which has been conclusively demonstrated and to keep on seeking for conclusive evidence. Similar uncertainty exists regarding the anatomy of the Briinn Race, to which no new con- tributions have been made. It is interesting to record the fact that Professor J. H. McGregor, whose models and restorations of Paleolithic man included in the illustrations of this book have been so widely appreciated, is now making a special and intensive study of Paleolithic man which will no doubt be attended by important results. Similarly, another colleague of the author, Professor William K. Gregory, is studying anew the evolution of _the anthropoid apes and other Primates, so that further light on the anatomy and evolution of primitive man may shortly be expected. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. © May tst, 1918. . CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN . . « 6 © es © 6 I Pete THPOPOLOGY (400. ke ew ek we wee eee 3 OOO ee he we He ep en # Mell re IO Prpeieeitioh ORY OFSMAN =... 5 ee) ee a ule hey tetas. ei er ~ a8 Bree MOH ANGES] (pe. oe we ale wee ye et of otie oie. 34 rm EON GES Wein hots Ie cee esc. cee Se? Betis Mek we OST Pee PC OPE MAM UALS 00S reds ee fe tievie Nae) 42 CHAPTER I MuCieteyeOrerur ANTHROPOID APES .. . . 2 6 « « » « «© 49 PUIQCRNESCIIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE .°1.5. 9. « « s « » «60 reise TOP THM ee LEISTOCENE =... +6) 6 ce. ek of eh Teese 62 PPemC CHG MEGT ACUNTION Te. i 6S es) ven ce el wines yeh ep ia pene 2 O04 SeeteR SP INTERGLACIAL STAGE 2g.) 6. ek we ee wo 2 OO EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA . Me tee Wired he egl a Satie seek oes ics, ea Fee lO Reet Fs ke ee ee ee te ee ee ee 8 mri PORSERIMITIV iC FIINTS ©. -< 5 '6. sine 0) ee ea) eae Od Tren DMICLACTATION®: 50). «os /-+ 6. ve) hen o © oie eeyien 100 CON MOINTERGTACIAL STAGE ¢ . os. se ota eins, tyne ye 100 PRE IOP TUE RGUEACE. 5 555. “6 div we cce ren ne: cb epee ste BOS Oma tones Pari REINDEER.) 9, 0% eels, © se > "e -e) 6» * 1102 ime er EGTACTALTION .. ce f¢ fs Petiipidece 8. ¢ wipe 6 onto cs e104 CHAPTER II WATEeOFSTHE Ee RE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY. » 0 «..¢ © » « 6 11 107 ere Vira NOACTIMATES, «><. 6 o> dome Boneh wo ele eae eee EO XV XvVl THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY THE PILTDOWN RACE. MAMMALIAN LIFE... CHELLEAN INDUSTRY. . CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY . PALZOLITHIC STATIONS OF ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY . THE USE OF FIRE. . . ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY . THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE GERMANY CONTENTS LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS e THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA CHAPTER CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL THE FourtTH GLACIAL STAGE ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE : ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE . MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS . CAVELTIFE So te eee THE NEANDERTHAL’ RACE MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHALS OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC THE GRIMALDI RACE ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS UPPER PALZOLITHIC CULTURES CHAPTER e e IV PAGE 119g 126 130 144 148 154 159 161 165 166 173 177 181 186 188 190 196 202 211 214 244 256 260 264 269 275 CONTENTS REPE EP ATMOLITHIC RACES. . 2.) 15 ed %e GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE . .. » » « « EAMAPAU TIN TIRE Gk. Swe te eee ‘ure GRO-IVIAGNON-RACE < . . . . %. % PAICUSTOMG NS Re ek we PEO IGNACIANSINDUSTRY. 5 5 we sw eilemrIHeUPMART © 5005 6 8 ee wt ORIGIN OF THE SOLUTREAN CULTURE .. . PARE POSSITS 9) ok cg ce ue ee ee THE BRUNN RACE A psi aan Ca ae ae Ri ea ean Be BOLO TPRANGINDUSTRY <. ol 6 * ee POrVCHEOMESPAINTING §.. ool de ee NEAGDATENIAN “SCULPTURE .. 60 0) ee ce 8 EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE . DECLINE OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE . CrO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS . 2 6 © © « 347 351 354 360 304 376 382 392 396 408 409 414 427 434 449 451 XV1ll CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE. . . . . . /)) 1) ees INVASION OF NEW RACES . 9. 2): 6.» @ 1 ler WAS DVAZIL ee ee ar ae a err FERS‘EN-TARDENOIS . 9.04 5 2. 4. sw 5 ss AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE . . .. . . «990 9 une MAMMALIAN LIFE. 200s 0 000s eo a. AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY . 2...) THE BURIALS AT OFNET 5)... 7 5 er THE NEW RACES . 0. %s 6 6 4 4%) 5) ANCESTRY OF EUROPEAN RACES . . . 2 53 ©): eee TRANSITION ‘TO THE -NEOLITHIC . . . % «) 4) Gyasuueg NNEOL THIC CULTURE . » 2 5) 0) 56 3 ne NEOLITHIC FAUNA. 2 5s 9 foe 0 9 kr PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC RACES OF EUROPE. . 2). 2) ee aOD CONCLUSIONS — 2 5 20) 0) 0, 0s eae) «eee APPENDIX NOTE I. LucRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN 503 II. HoRACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN. . .. . . 504 III. ASscHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN . . . . . 505 IV. ‘Urocus’ or “AUEROCHS’ AND - WISENT 2) ge ge ene V. THE Cr6-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS . . . . . 500 VI. THE LENGTH OF POSTGLAC AL TIME AND THE Bea SE. OF : THE AUR GNACIAN CULTURE |). 1.) ee ec VII. THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND. - SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA ... ......: SII VIII. ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS 511 IX. THE JAW AND SKULL OF THE PILTDOWN MAN. . . . «. 512 X. FAMILY SEPULTURE OF LA FERRASSIE, FRANCE. . . . . 513 XI. PALAOLITHIC HISTORY OF NORTHWESTERN AFRICA AND SOUTHERN. SPAIN (04.03% © 0)". ce ep BIBLIOGRAPHY |. 00. (6.6 00) te ones a INDEX... 0. 6 6 0s 0 te ew 6. oan ILLUSTRATIONS Plate I. Neanderthal man at the grotto of Le Moustier (in tint) Frontispiece PAGE Plate IT. Discovery sites of the type specimens of human and pre- PREG CeS (I COOL). os) week «eta OGINg ~1G Plate IMI. Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java... ..... 8&7 Plate IV. UM ee CREAT ere el eee Tose ck te ead he (ee te LAS Plate V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints . . . . 203 Plate VI. ieewiagenian of Cro-Magnon’. 2. « 2's. oe 3 298 Plate VII. Cré-Magnon artists in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume (in feet I ee Pes she Reis eg whee aj a Me ene FACING $358 Plate VIII. Bison painted by Paleolithic artists in the cavern of Alta- mira (in color) eee oor ke Peete = Tog ee RT OCINS CAAT A FIG. 1. Modern, Paleolithic, and chimpanzee skulls compared ... . 8 2. Skull and brain of Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java... . 9 eiree-greattypes ol flint implements «... . . 2 « « +s. ft! Ieomimenmmenetiemdnce-DOINt fol... 8k ae ee TS Map—Type stations of Palewolithic cultures . ...... =. £16 Section—Terraces of the River Rhine above Basle . ..... 26 Section—Terraces of the River Thames near London .... .. 28 3 4 5 6. Section—Terraces of the River Inn near Scharding . . . . . .~) 25 7 8 9 Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach in Lower Austria. . . . 29 To. ‘Section of the site of the Neanderthal cave . ... .. . . 31 11. Sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern. . 32 12. Map—Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation. . 35 13. Section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the Glacial Epoch . . 37 14. Chronological chart—Great events of the Glacial Epoch . . . . 41 PEEL MOREOMEA ALG NAD ily Aso odes AP ae eS a Pee, eee on AS Rm PLU VOT Gemett eg 1a) vo ket fa! win BuRal ag Se, Cre pa <0 Ry Mee Me aerE aeRO xix ILLUSTRATIONS Thhecorang 9 200). Gk Rolae tenis “tpn 6 @ ne de ae The-chimpanzee, walking «<> .5.. «> s:s< 35 er The chimpanzee, sitting . The gorilla Median sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man Side view of a human brain of high type Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (side view) Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (top view) Map—Europe during the Second Glacial Stage The musk-ox . . The giant deer (Megaceros) The sabre-tooth tiger (Macherodus) Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man Discovery site of Pithecanthropus . Section of the volcano of Lawoe and the valley of the Solo River Map—Solo River and discovery site of Pithecanthropus Section of the Pithecanthropus discovery site Skull-top of Pithecanthropus, top and side views . Head of chimpanzee, front and side views . Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, side view Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, three views Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, side view .... . Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, front view Side view of a human brain of high type Outlines of human and prehuman brains, side and top views The hippopotamus and the southern mammoth Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant Map—Geographic distribution of Merck’s rhinoceros, the aa potamus, and the straight-tusked elephant . a : Section of the Heidelberg discovery site. . . . . The sand-pit at Mauer, discovery site of the Heidelberg man The Heidelberg jaw. .> .. eden hue | eee PAGE FIG. 48. 49. 50. ae cer 53+ 54. 55: 56. 57: 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Wi. 72, 73- 74. 75- 76. 77- 78. ILLUSTRATIONS Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (side view) . Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (top view) Restoration of Heidelberg man . Map—Europe during the Third Glacial Stage Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch Map—Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations . Map—Europe during the Third Glacial Stage Excavation at Chelles-sur-Marne Map—Western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage . Three terraces on the Connecticut River Four forms of the Chellean coup de poing Section—Terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul Very primitive paleoliths from Piltdown Pre-Chellean coups de poing from St. Acheul . Pre-Chellean grattoir or planing tool from St. Acheul Discovery site of the Piltdown skull . Section of the Piltdown discovery site Primitive worked flint found near the Piltdown skull Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown site . Piltdown skull and skull of South African Bushman Restoration of the Piltdown skull, three views Section of the Piltdown skull, showing the brain . Brain outlines of the Piltdown man, of a chimpanzee, and of mod- ern man, compared . The Piltdown man, side view The Piltdown man, front view . Map—Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations . Section—Middle and high terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul Excavation on the high terrace at St. Acheul . Small Chellean implements . Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany . Hnirence:to the grotto of Castillo ©. 29 2. bee Xx] PAGE 99 100 IO1 105 108 109 Xx1l1 FIG. 79: 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. Qo. Ql. gz! 93- 04. 95- 96. 97: 08. 99. 100. IOI. 102. TO3: 104. 105. 106. tO7. 108. 100. ILLUSTRATIONS Section—archeologic layers of the grotto of Castillo Map—Acheulean stations Late Acheulean station of La Micoque in Dordogne Method of ‘flaking’ flint . Method of ‘chipping’ flint The fracture of flint Large Acheulean implements Map—Valleys of the Dordogne and the Garonne The valley of the Vézére . Acheulean implements, large and small . A Levallois flake The grotto of Krapina Section—Valley of the Krapinica River and grotto of Krapina . Section—The grotto of Krapina Skull from Krapina, side view . Map—Europe during the Fourth Glacial Stage The woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth Typical tundra fauna . Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany : The type station of Le Moustier Excavations at Le Moustier . The Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli . . . Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein The woolly mammoth and his hunters The woolly rhinoceros . Map—Distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids The Gibraltar skull, front view Section of the Neanderthal discovery site The Neanderthal skull, side view . . . .. . The skull known as Spy I, side view . Discovery site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints . . , PAGE FIG. IIo. Ill. I12. TE%; I14. II5. 116. 117. 118. 119. I20. I21I. 122. Tos. 124. 126. ‘126. 127. 128. “ies 130. 131. 132: 133. 134. 545. 136. 137. ILLUSTRATIONS Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints . The skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, three views Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type from La Cotte de St. Brelade . Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern Frenchman, side view Outlines of the Gibraltar skull and of a modern Australian skull Skull of La eo Saints teat with one of ee modern type, side view A eve Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern Frenchman, top view Diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men . Section of the skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, showing the brain . Brain outlines of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, of a chimpanzee, and of modern man, compared Brains of Lower and Upper Paleolithic races, top and side views Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints _ Thigh-bones of the Trinil, Neanderthal, Cro- wie and modern races . The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, side view . The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, front view Map—Movusterian stations The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia Typical Mousterian ‘points’ from Le Moustier Mousterian ‘points’ and scrapers . Late Mousterian implements Entrance to the Grotte du Prince near Mentone . Section of the Grotte des Enfants . 3 The Grimaldi skeletons Skull of the Grimaldi youth, front and side views Map—Distribution of Upper Paleolithic human fossils Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch ‘Tectiforms’ from Font-de-Gaume ... . 240 242 243 245 246 247 250 25% 255 262 265 267 268 279 280 283 XXIV FIG. 138. 139. 140. I4I. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 140. 150. I5I. 152. 153: 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. ILLUSTRATIONS Map—Distribution of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhi- NOCETOS Ay". . V ay, Paints eles teh ae 7c Section of the grotto of Aurignac . Section of the grotto of Cré-Magnon Skull of Cr6-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants Head showing the method of restoration used by J. H. McGregor . The rock shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and skeleton of Cré-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants, compared areata Sections of normal and platycnemic tibias .” . 72) fee The ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ side view . The ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ front view Brain outlines of Combe-Capelle, of a chimpanzee, and of modern man, compared Evolution of the burin, early Aurignacian to late Solutrean . . . Typical Aurignacian graitoirs, or scrapers Evolution of the Aurignacian ‘point’ Prototypes of the Solutrean ‘laurel-leaf point’ {ee Map—Aurignacian stations . Outlook from the cavern of Pindal Mammoth painted,in the cavern of Pindal > <)7 jaa Primitive paintings of animals from Font-de-Gaume .. . Woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . Carved female figurine from the Grottes de Grimaldi Female figurine in limestone from Willendorf . Female figurine in soapstone from the Grottes de Grimaldi Superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from Le Tri- lobite . silhouettes of hands from Gargas 2 2 407) 9 nee The rock shelter of Laussel on the Beune 72 5° eee Section of the industrial layers at Laussel . . . . Bas-relief of a woman from Laussel . ...... ILLUSTRATIONS aaereteuntrarinan arom laussele tii. ve. ie he 8d ee Map—Solutrean stations . The skull known as Briinn I, discovered at Briinn, Moravia . Solutrean ‘laurel-leaf points’ The type station of Solutré . Excavations at Solutré Typical Solutrean implements . Mammoth sculptured on ivory, from Predmost, Moravia . Engraved and painted bison from Niaux Decorated sagaies or javelin points of bone Horse’s head engraved on a fragment of bone, from Brassempouy . Painting of a wolf, from Font-de-Gaume Crude sculpture of the ibex, from Mas d’Azil. . .. Decorated batons de commandement Chronological chart.-of the last third of the Glacial epoch .. Engraved and painted reindeer from Font-de-Gaume Four types of horse frequent in Upper Paleolithic times Horse of Celtic type, painted on the ceiling of Altamira Four chamois heads engraved on reindeer horn, from Gourdan . Typical alpine fauna Typical steppe fauna Ptarmigan or grouse carved in bone, from Mas d’Azil . The rock shelter of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne Human skull-tops cut into bowls, from Placard Male and female skulls of Cré-Magnon type, from Obercassel The type station of La Madeleine Magdalenian flint implements Magdalenian bone harpoons Magdalenian flint blades with denticulated edge . Bone needles from Lacave Map—Paleolithic art stations of Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains XXV PAGE 32g 331 335 339 342 343 346 349 353 354 355 356 357 359 362 305 367 368 309. 371 374 375 377 379 381 383 386 387 390 391 394 - XXVI1 FIG. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 200. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 20s 216. 207, 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. DOR 224. 225. 226. ILLUSTRATIONS Primitive engravings of the mammoth from Combarelles . Preliminary engraving of painted mammoth from Font-de-Gaume . Charging mammoth engraved on ivory, from La Madeleine . Human grotesques from Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles, Dordogne Engraved cave-bear, from Combarelles . Magdalenian stone lamp, from La Mouthe . Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega Engraved bison from Marsoulas Herd of horses engraved on a slab of stone, from Chaffaud Herd of reindeer engraved on an eagle radius, from La Mairie Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet Engraved lioness and horses, from Font-de-Gaume . Painted horse of Celtic type, from Castillo Galloping horse of steppe type, from Font-de-Gaume Entrance to the cavern of Niaux Engraved horse with heavy winter coat, from Niaux Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of Le Portel Engraved horse and reindeer, from La Mairie Engraved reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses, from La Mairie . Engraved wild cattle, from La Mairie Preliminary etched outline of bison from Font-de-Gaume . Entrance to the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . | Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume Narrow passage known as the ‘Rubicon,’ Font-de-Gaume Plan showing reindeer and procession of bison, Font-de-Gaume . Plan showing preliminary engraving and painting of the procession of mammoths, superposed on drawings of bison, reindeer, and horses Example of superposition of paintings, from Font-de-Gaume Entrance to the cavern of Altamira... -.5 ee Plan of paintings on the ceiling of Altamira . ..... PAGE 397 397 398 399 400 401 401 402 403 404 405 1 407 408 408 409 410 411 412 413. 413 414 415 416 417 419 420 421 422 423 ’ FIG. oe 228. 229. 230. ae 5s o32: 233. 234. 23. 236. gars 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. BAG, 248. 240. 250. 251. 252. 253; 254. aS5: 256. ILLUSTRATIONS The ceiling of Altamira Painting of female bison lying down, from Altamira Royal stag engraved on the ceiling of Altamira Statuette of a mammoth carved in reindeer horn, from Bruniquel . Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert Engraved head of a reindeer from Tuc d’Audoubert Two bison, male and female, modelled in clay, from Tuc d’Audou- bert Horse carved in high relief, from Cap Blanc Horse head carved on a reindeer antler, from Mas d’Azil . Statuette of horse carved in ivory, from Les Espelugues . Woman’s head carved in ivory, from Brassempouy . Map—Magdalenian stations Necklace of marine shells, from Cr6-Magnon . Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kess- lerloch Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch The rock shelter of Schweizersbild - . The open loess station of Aggsbach Saiga antelope carved on a bone dart-thrower, from Mas d’Azil. Western entrance to the cavern of Mas d’Azil Periaenarpoons OL stagsnorn = 6 «se wile se Ga ee Azilian galets coloriés, or painted pebbles MEA OMGteANTHIN(S 1, or. vera wie 6's) fad soa et hws Map—aAzilian-Tardenoisian stations . Azilian stone implements . | Double-rowed Azilian harpoons of stag horn, from Oban . Section—Archeologic layers in the grotto of Ofnet . Burial nest of six skulls, from the grotto of Ofnet Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls from Ofnet . . . . . preadthested skiultliot Grenclicegs. steve) sie eeec tl tomiran see XXVIII PAGE 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 432 433 435 437 439 441 444 445 448 449 460 462 464 467 471 473 474 476 477 478 482 XXVill FIG. 257. 258. 250. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. "274, "pas, ILLUSTRATIONS FAGE Entrance to the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse . .. . 482 Section of the grotto of Furtooz i. 40 2)... & 50%. 1s er One of the type skulls of the Furfooz race... . 3s) .eeees 483 Restoration of the:man_of,Grenelle>g, 2) ..-3 2) a, 484 Implements and decorations from Maglemose ..... . 487 Ancestry of the Pre-Neolithic races 90-3, 6.) ee 491 Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax . .. . . 403 Stone hatchet from Campigny’ . 2.) 3) 0) ye Stone pick from Campigny . 2 9.5 5 = yp years Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes : ~~ 2. Stag hunt, painting from the rock shelter of Alpera. . . . 407 Map—Distribution of the types of recent man in western Europe . 499 Cross section of the Piltdown site 3 e5ts Map—Early Paleolithic and Capsian stations of Spain and north-_ west Africa ~~ SERAA LG. Gee 515 Maps—Industrial migration routes into Spain 517 Map—Paleolithic stations of Spainand Portugal . . . . . ~- 519 Late Paleolithic paintings at Alpera—human figures <> <= cueeeee 523 Progressive conventionalization of the human fees toate bg 524 yees2s Bows and arrows shown in the paintings of Alpera . . Map of Paleolithic Tour... . . . . folded at the end of the volume MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE * MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE INTRODUCTION GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN — RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY, OF ARCHAOLOGY, OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN — TIME DIVISIONS OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH — GEOGRAPHIC, CLIMATIC, AND LIFE PERIODS OF THE OLD STONE AGE THE anticipation of nature by Lucretius* in his philosophical poem, De Rerum Natura, accords in a broad and remarkable way with our present knowledge of the prehistory of man: “Things throughout proceed In firm, undevious order, and maintain, To nature true, their fixt generic stamp. Yet man’s first sons, as o’er the fields they trod, Reared from the hardy earth, were hardier far; Strong built with ampler bones, with muscles nerved Broad and substantial; to the power of heat, Of cold, of varying viands, and disease, Each hour superior; the wild lives of beasts Leading, while many a lustre o’er them rolled. Nor crooked plough-share knew they, nor to drive, Deep through the soil, the rich-returning spade; Nor how the tender seedling to re-plant, Nor from the fruit-tree prune the withered branch. e e e e e ) ° e ° e e “Nor knew they yet the crackling blaze t’excite, Or clothe their limbs with furs, or savage hides. But groves concealed them, woods, and hollow hills; And, when rude rains, or bitter blasts o’erpowered, Low bushy shrubs their squalid members wrapped. *Lucretius was born 95 B.C. His poem was completed before 53 B.C. In the opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks. See Appendix, Note I. : 1 4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE “And in their keen rapidity of hand And foot confiding, oft the savage train With missile stones they hunted, or the force Of clubs enormous; many a tribe they felled, Yet some in caves shunned, cautious; where, at night, Thronged they, like bristly swine; their naked limbs With herbs and leaves entwining. Nought of fear Urged them to quit the darkness, and recall, With clamorous cries, the sunshine and the day: But sound they sunk in deep, oblivious sleep, Till o’er the mountains blushed the roseate dawn. “This ne’er distressed them, but the fear alone Some ruthless monster might their dreams molest, The foamy boar, or lion, from their caves Drive them aghast beneath the midnight shade, And seize their leaf-wrought couches for themselves. e® e e e e e e e e e e “Yet then scarce more of mortal race than now Left the sweet lustre of the liquid day. Some doubtless, oft the prowling monsters gaunt Grasped in their jaws, abrupt; whence, through the groves, The woods, the mountains, they vociferous groaned, Destined thus living to a living tomb. “Yet when, at length, rude huts they first devised, And fires, and garments; and, in union sweet, Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged Of chaste connubial love, and children rose, The rough barbarians softened. The warm hearth Their frames so melted they no more could bear, As erst, th’ uncovered skies; the nuptial bed Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress Of prattling children from the bosom chased Their stern ferocious manners.” * This is a picture of many phases in the life of primitive man: his powerful frame, his ignorance of agriculture, his dependence on the fruits and animal products of the earth, his discovery of fire and of clothing, his chase of wild beasts with clubs and missile stones, his repair to caverns, his contests with the lion *Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn’ Classical Library, London, 1890. GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN 3 and the boar, his invention of rude huts and dwellings, the soft- ening of his nature through the sweet influence of family life and of children, all these are veritable stages in our prehistoric devel- opment. The influence of Greek thought is also reflected in the Satires of Horace,* and the Greek conception of the natural history of man, voiced by Aéschylusf as early as the fifth cen- tury B. C., prevailed widely before the Christian era, when it gradually gave way to the Mosaic conception of special creation, which spread all over western Europe. RIsE OF MODERN ANTHROPOLOGY As the idea of the natural history of man again arose, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it came not so much from previous sources as from the dawning science of compara- tive anatomy. From the year 1597, when a Portuguese sailor’s account of an animal resembling the chimpanzee was embodied in Filippo Pigafetta’s Description of the Kingdom of the Congo, the many points of likeness between the anthropoid apes and man were treated both in satire and caricature and in serious anatom- ical comparison as evidence of kinship. The first French evolutionist, Buffon,f observed in 1740: “The first truth that makes itself apparent on serious study of nature is one that man may perhaps find humiliating; it is this—that he, too, must take his place in the ranks of animals, being, as he is, an animal in every material point.” Buffon’s convictions were held in check by clerical and official influences, yet from his study of the orang in 1766 we can entertain no doubt of his belief that men and apes are descended from common ancestors. : The second French evolutionist, Lamarck,|| in 1809 boldly ' *Horace was born 65 B. C., and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B.C. See Appendix, Note II. { A’schylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note ITI. t Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon’s opinions and theories see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 130-9; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74-172. || Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b. 1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of Lamarck see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 152- 181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck’s opinions. 4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE proclaimed the descent of man from the anthropoid apes, point- ing out their close anatomical resemblances combined with in- feriority both in bodily and mental capacity. In the evolution of man Lamarck perceived the great importance of the erect position, which is only occasionally assumed by the apes; also that children pass gradually from the quadrumanous to the upright position, and thus repeat the history of their ancestors. Man’s origin is traced as follows: A race of quadrumanous apes gradually acquires the upright position in walking, with a corre- sponding modification of the limbs, and of the relation of the head and face to the back-bone. Such a race, having mastered all the other animals, spreads out over the world. It checks the increase of the races nearest itself and, spreading in all directions, begins to lead a social life, develops the power of speech and the communication of ideas. It develops also new requirements, one after another, which lead to industrial pursuits and to the gradual perfection of its powers. Eventually this pre-eminent race, having acquired absolute supremacy, comes to be widely different from even the most perfect of the lower animals. The period following the latest publication of Lamarck’s!* remarkable speculations in the year 1822, was distinguished by the earliest discoveries of the industry of the caveman in southern France in 1828, and in Belgium, near Liége, in 1833; discoveries which afforded the first scientific proof of the geologic antiquity of man and laid the foundations of the science of archeology. The earliest recognition of an entirely extinct race of men was that which was called the ‘Neanderthal,’ found, in 1856, near Diisseldorf, and immediately recognized by Schaaffhausen? as a primitive race of low cerebral development and of uncommon bodily strength. pipes Darwin in the Origin of Species,’ which appeared in 1858, did not discuss the question of human descent, but indicated * References are indicated by numbers only throughout the text. At the close of each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference number for every citation. A full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the end of the book. RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 5 the belief that light would be thrown by his theory on the origin of man and his history. It appears that Lamarck’s doctrine in the Philosophie Zoolo- gique (1809)* made a profound impression on the mind of Lyell, who was the first to treat the descent of man in a broad way from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and of geologic age. In his great work of 1863, The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, Lyell cited Huxley’s estimate of the Neander- thal skull as more primitive than that of the Australian but of surprisingly large cranial capacity. He concludes with the no- table statement: ‘‘The direct bearing of the ape-like character of the Neanderthal skull on Lamarck’s doctrine of progressive development and transmutation . . . consists in this, that the newly observed deviation from a normal standard of human structure is not in a casual or random direction, but just what might have been anticipated if the laws of variation were such as the transmutationists require. For if we conceive the cranium to be very ancient, it exemplifies a less advanced stage of pro- gressive development and improvement.’’® Lyell followed this by an exhaustive review of all the then existing evidence in favor of the great geological age of man, considering the ‘river-drift,’ the ‘loess,’ and the loam deposits, and the relations of man to the divisions of the Glacial Epoch. Referring to what is now known as the Lower Paleolithic of St. Acheul and the Upper Paleolithic of Aurignac, he says that they were doubtless separated by a vast interval of time, when we consider that the flint implements of St. Acheul belong either to the Post-Pliocene or early Pleistocene time, or the ‘older drift.’ | It is singular that in the Descent of Man, published in 1871, eight years after the appearance of Lyell’s great work, Charles Darwin made only passing mention of the Neanderthal race, as follows: ‘‘ Nevertheless, it must be admitted that some skulls of very high antiquity, such as the famous one at Neanderthal, are well-developed and capacious.”’ It was the relatively large brain capacity which turned Darwin’s attention away from a type 6 6 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE which has furnished most powerful support to his theory of human descent. In the two hundred pages which Darwin de- votes to the descent of man, he treats especially the evidences presented in comparative anatomy and comparative psychology, as well as the evidence afforded by the comparison of the lower and higher races of man. As regards the “birthplace and an- tiquity of man,”’ he observes : ‘“’, . In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by ex- tinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now man’s nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus of Lartet, nearly as large as a man, and closely allied to Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Miocene Age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. “At the period and place, whenever and wherever it was, when man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a hot country; a circumstance favorable for the frugivorous diet on which, judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged from the catarrhine stock; but it may have occurred at an epoch as re- mote as the Eocene Period; for that the higher apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene Period is shown by the existence of the Dryopithecus.”’ With this speculation of Darwin the reader should compare the state of our knowledge to-day regarding the descent of man, as presented in the first and last chapters of this volume. The most telling argument against the Lamarck-Lyell- Darwin theory was the absence of those missing links which, theoretically, should be found connecting man with the anthro- poid apes, for at that time the Neanderthal race was not recog- | RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 7 nized as such. Between 1848 and 1914 successive discoveries have been made of a series of human fossils belonging to inter- mediate races: some of these are now recognized as missing links between the existing human species, Homo sapiens, and the anthropoid apes; and others as the earliest known forms of Homo sapiens : Locality Gibraltar. Neanderthal, near Diissel- dorf. La Naulette, Belgium. Furfooz, Belgium. Cr6-Magnon, Dordogne. Spy, Belgium. Trinil River, Java. Krapina, Austria-Hungary. Grimaldi grotto, Mentone. Heidelberg. La Chapelle, Corréze. Le Moustier, Dordogne. La Ferrassie I, Dordogne. La Ferrassie II, Dordogne. La Quina II, Charente. Piltdown, Sussex. Obercassel, near Bonn, Ger- many. Character of Remains Well-preserved skull. Skullcap, etc. Fragment of lower jaw. Two skulls. Three skeletons and frag- ments of two others. Two crania and skeletons. Skullcap and femur. Fragments of at least ten individuals. Two skeletons. Lower jaw with teeth. Skeleton. Almost complete skeleton, greater part of which was in bad state of preservation. Fragments of skeleton. Fragments of skeleton, fe- male. Fragments of skeleton, sup- posed female. Portions of skull and jaw. Two skeletons, male and fe- male. Neanderthal. Type of Neanderthal race. Neanderthal race. Type oi Furfooz race. Type of Cré-Ma- gnon race. Spy type of Nean- derthal race. Type of Pithecan- thropus race. Krapina type of Ne- anderthal race. Type of Grimaldi race. Type of Homo heidel- bergensis. Mousterian type of Neanderthal race. Neanderthal. Neanderthal. Neanderthal. Neanderthal. Type of Eoanthropus, the ‘dawn man.’ Cr6-Magnon. In his classic lecture of 1844, On the Form of the Head in Dif- ferent Peoples, Anders Retzius laid the foundation of the mod- ern study of the skull. Referring to his original publication, he says: “‘In the system of classification which I devised, I have distinguished just two forms, namely, the short (round or four- cornered) which I named brachycephalic, and the long, oval, or dolichocephalic. In the former there is little or no difference 8 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE between the length and breadth of the skull; in the latter there is a notable difference.’’ ‘The expression of this primary distinc- tion between races is called the cephalic index, and it is deter- mined as follows: Breadth of skull X roo + length of skull. In this sense the primitive men of the Old Stone Age were mostly ‘dolichocephalic,’ that is, the breadth of the skull was in general less than 75 per cent of the length, as in the existing Australians, Kaffirs, Zulus, Eskimos, and Fijians. But some of the Paleolithic races were ‘mesaticephalic’; that is, the breadth was be- tween 75 per cent and 80 per cent of the length, as in the existing Chinese and Polyne- sians. The third or ‘brach- ycephalic’ type is the excep- Fie. tT Outline of a modern brachycephalic skull (fine dots), superposed upon a doli- chocephalic skull (dashes) , superposed upon a chimpanzee skull (line). g. glabella or median prominence between the eyebrows. 1. inion—external occipital protuberance. g-i. glabella-inion line. Vertical line from g-7 to top of skull in- dicates the height of the brain-case. Modified after Schwalbe. tion among Paleolithic skulls, in which the breadth is over 80 per cent of the length, as in the Malays, Burmese, American Indians, and Andamanese. The cephalic index, how- ever, tells us little of the po- sition of the skull as a brain-case in the ascending or descending scale, and following the elaborate systems of skull measurements which were built up by Retzius’ and Broca,!® and based chiefly on the outside characters of the skull, came the modern system of Schwalbe, which has been devised especially to measure the skull with reference to the all-important criterion of the size of the different portions of the brain, and of approximately estimating the cubic capacity of the brain from the more or less complete measurements of the skull. RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 9 Among these measurements are the slope of the forehead, the height of the median portion of the skullcap, and the ratio between the upper portion of the cranial chamber and the lower portion. In brief, the seven principal measures which Schwalbe now employs are chiefly expressions of diameters which corre- spond with the number of cubic centimetres occupied by the brain as a whole. In this manner Schwalbe" confirms Boule’s estimates of the variations in the cubic capacity of the brain in different members of the Neanderthal race as follows: Neanderthal race—La Chapelle. .1620 c.cm. ™ ——-Neanderthal..1408 .“ a hoa Ouina 44 136% ta * ham =r LOTAILAT 2s 5. 12965)" Thus the variations between the largest known brain in one mem- ber of the Neanderthal race, the male skull of La Chapelle, and the smallest brain of the same race, the supposed female skull . of Gibraltar, is BAe C. Cin.) a OEIG. 2. The skull and brain-case, showing See : the low, retreating forehead, prominent range similar to that which we supraorbital ridges, and small brain find in the existing species of capacity, of Pithecanthropus, the Java : ape-man, as restored by J. H. McGregor. man (Homo sapiens). As another test for the classification of primitive skulls, we may select the well-known frontal angle of Broca, as modified by Schwalbe, for measuring the retreating forehead. The angle is measured by drawing a line along the forehead upward from the bony ridge between the eyebrows, with a horizontal line carried from the glabella to the inion at the back of the skull. The various primitive races are arranged as follows: PER CENT Hovoseoiens, witnan average forehead.:.. ...0.. 62.0 es ss. frontal angle 90 Homo sapiens, with extreme retreating forehead............ “ ewe PR Homo neanderthalensis, with the least retreating ievaicnily, Miandad Homo “gna ae with the most retreating forehead. “ bey BO a Pithecanthropus erectus (Trinil race).............000 cee ee - ie OD Bee eR EAME UEODOIUL A DES ia Stole go T'S ow sts vie ena w HB wheels te cae OO 10 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE For instance, this illustrates the fact that in the Trinil race the forehead is actually lower than in some of the highest an- thropoid apes; that in the Neanderthal race the forehead is more retreating than in any of. the existing human races of Homo sapiens. ARCHEOLOGY OF THE OLD STONE AGE * The proofs of the prehistory of man arose afresh, and from an entirely new source, in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury through discoveries in Germany, by which the Greek an- ticipations of a stone age were verified. For a century and a half the great animal life of the diluvial world had aroused the wonder and speculation of the early naturalists. In 1750 Eccardus’’ of Braunschweig advanced the first steps toward prehistoric chronology, in expressing the opinion that the human race first lived in a period in which stone served as the only weapon and tool, and that this was followed by a bronze and then by an iron period of human culture. As early as 1700 a human skull was discovered at Cannstatt and was believed to be of a period as ancient as the mammoth and the cave-bear. f France, favored beyond all other countries by the men of the Old Stone Age, was destined to become the classic centre of prehistoric archeology. As early as 1740 Mahudel’® pub- lished a treatise upon stone implements and laid the founda- tions both of Neolithic and Palzeolithic research. By the begin- ning of the nineteenth century the problem of fossil man had awakened wide-spread interest and research. In Buckland’s'® Reliquie diluviane, published in 1824, the great mammals of the Old Stone Age are treated as relics of the flood. In 1825 Mac- Enery explored the cavern of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, finding human bones and flint flakes associated with the remains of the * The best reference works on the history of French and German Paleolithic Arche- ology are: Cartailhac,” La France Préhistorique; Déchelette,* Manuel d’ Archéologie, T. I; Reinach," Catalogue du Musée de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes; Schmidt,™ Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands ; Avebury, Prehistoric Times. +t The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and there- fore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear. RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 7 cave-bear and cave-hyzena, but the notes of this discovery were not published until 1840, when Godwin-Austen” gave the first description of Kent’s Hole. In 1828 Tournal and Christol * announced the first discoveries in France (Languedoc) of the association of human bones with the remains of extinct animals. In 1833-4 Schmerling” described his explorations in the cav- Tic, 3. Three great types of flint implements. A. An eolith of accidental shape. B. A paleolith of Chellean type, partly fashioned. C. A Neolithic axe head, partly polished. After MacCurdy. erns near Liége, in Belgium, in which he found human bones and rude flint implements intermingled with the remains of the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave-hyzena, and the cave- bear. This is the first published evidence of the life of the Cave Period of Europe, and was soon followed by the recogni- tion of similar cavern deposits along the south coast of Great Britain, in France, Belgium and Italy. The work of the caveman, gradually revealed between 1828 and 1840, is now known to belong to the closing period of the Old Stone Age, and it is very remarkable that the next discovery related to the very dawn of the Old Stone Age, namely, to the life of the ‘river-drift’ man of the Lower Paleolithic. 12 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE This discovery of what is now known as Chellean and Acheu- lean industry came through the explorations of Boucher de Perthes, between 1839 and 1846, in the valley of the River Somme, which flows through Amiens and Abbeville and empties into the English Channel half-way between Dieppe and Boulogne. In 1841 this founder of modern archeology unearthed near Abbe- ville a single flint, rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument, buried in river sand and associated with mammalian re- mains. This was followed by the collection of many other ancient weapons and implements, and in the year 1846 Boucher de Perthes published his first work, entitled De Industrie pri- mitive, ou des Arts a leur Origine, in which he announced that he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belong- Ing to the age of the ‘river-drift.’ This work and the succeed- ing (1857), Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes,* were received with great scepticism until confirmed in 1853 by Rigollot’s” discovery of the now famous ‘river-drift’ beds of St. Acheul, near Amiens. In the succeeding years the epoch-making work of Boucher de Perthes was welcomed and confirmed by leading British geologists and archeologists, Falconer, Prestwich, Evans, and others who visited the Somme. Lubbock’s’® article of 1862, on the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man Afforded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley, pointing out the great geologic age of the river sands and gravels and of the mammals which they contained, was followed by the discovery of similar flints in the ‘river-drifts’ of Suffolk and Kent, England, in the valley of the Thames near Dartford. Thus came the first posi- tive proofs that certain types of stone implements were wide- spread geographically, and thus was afforded the means of com- paring the age of one deposit with another. This led Sir John Lubbock?’ to divide the prehistoric period into four great epochs, in descending order as follows: The [ron A ge, in which iron had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc., while bronze remained in common use for ornaments. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cut- ting instruments of all kinds. RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 13 The later or polished Stone Age, termed by Lubbock the Neolithic Period, characterized by weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone, with no knowledge of any metal excepting gold. Age of the Drift, termed by Lubbock the Paleolithic Period, characterized by chipped or flaked implements of flint and other kinds of stone, and by the presence of the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. Edouard Lartet, in 1860, began exploring the caverns of the Pyrenees and of Périgord, first examining the remarkable cavern of Aurignac with its burial vault, its hearths, its reindeer and mammoth fauna, its spear points of bone and engravings on bone mingled with a new and distinctive flint culture. This dis- covery, published in 1861,”° led to the full revelation of the hitherto unknown Reindeer and Art Period of the Old Stone Age, now known as the Upper Paleolithic. As a paleontologist, it was natural for Lartet to propose a fourfold classification of the ‘Reindeer Period,’ based upon the supposed succession of the dominant forms of mammalian life, namely: (d) Age of the Aurochs or Bison. (c) Age of the Woolly Mammoth and Rhinoceros. (b) Age of the Reindeer. (a) Age of the Cave-Bear. Lartet, in association with the British archeologist, Christy, explored the now famous rock shelters and caverns of Dordogne —Laugerie, La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, and Le Moustier—which one by one yielded a variety of flint and bone implements, en- gravings and sculpture on bone and ivory, and a rich extinct fauna, in which the reindeer and mammoth predominated. The results of this decade of exploration are recorded in their classic work, Reliquie Aquitanice.”? Lartet, observes Breuil,°° clearly perceived the level of Aurignac, where the fauna of the great cave-bear and of the mammoth appears to yield to that of the reindeer. Above he perceived the stone culture of the Solu- 14 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE trean type in Laugerie Haute, and of the Magdalenian type in Laugerie Basse. Lartet also distinguished between the arche- ological period of St. Acheul (= Lower Paleolithic) and that of Aurignac (= Upper Paleolithic). It remained, however, for Gabriel de Mortillet, the first French archeologist to survey and systematize the development of the flint industry throughout the entire Paleolithic Period, to recognize that the Magdalenian followed the Solutrean, and that during the latter stage industry in stone reached its height, while during the Magdalenian the industry in bone and in wood developed in a marvelous manner. Mortillet failed to recognize the position of the Aurignacian and omitted it from his arche- ological chronology, which was first published in 1869, Essai de classification des cavernes et des stations sous abri, fondée sur les produits de Vindustrie humaine :*! (5) Magdalénien,* characterized by a number and variety of bone implements; (4) Solutréen, leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked; (3) Moustérien, flints worked mostly on one side only; (2) Acheuléen, the ‘langues de chat’ hand-axes of St. Acheul; (1) Chelléen, bold, primitive, partly worked hand-axes. Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, Edouard Piette (b. 1827, d. 1906), who had held the office of magistrate in vari- ous towns in the departments of Ardennes and Aisne, France, and who was already distinguished for his general scientific attainments, began to devote himself especially to the evolution of art in Upper Paleolithic times, and assembled the great col- lections which are described and illustrated in his classic work, L’Art pendant Age du Renne (1907). He first established several phases of artistic evolution in the Magdalenian stage, and only recognized in his later years the station of Brassempouy, not * Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunz, etc., in this volume are given not in chronological but in stratigraphic order, beginning with the most recent at the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom. RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 15 comprehending that the Aurignacian art which he found there underlay the Solutrean culture and was separated by a long in- terval of time from the most ancient Magdalenian. His dis- tinct contribution to Paleolithic history is his discovery of the Solutrean Magdalenian oF FF fit bone Aurignacian Axzilian RLM fh Op, 5244 a "i es oe am NN Gz ‘ ma 4 7 a) j is "act Al : Nay My fy tl i} Sito we } yp ‘oh | iis NS Jugs 4 Hee i Chellean Early Acheulean Mousteriaw Fic. 4. Evolution of the lance-point, spear, or dart head. Note the increasing sym- metry and skill in the flaking and retouch as the types pass in ascending order through the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, and Aurignacian, into the perfected, symmetrical, double-pointed ‘laurel-leaf’ of the Solutrean; and into the subsequent decline in the flint industry of the Magdalenian and Azilian stages. After de Mor- tillet, Obermaier, and Hoernes. Etage azilien overlying the Magdalenian in the cavern of Mas d’ Azil. Henri Breuil, a pupil of Piette and of Cartailhac, exploring during the decade, 1902-12, chiefly under the influence of Car- tailhac, formed a clear conception of the whole Upper Pale- olithic and its subdivisions, and placed the Aurignacian definitely at the base of the series. Thus step by step the culture stages of archeological evolu- tion have been established and may be summarized with the type stations as follows: 16 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ETAGE STATION Tardenoisien, Fére-en-Tardenois, Aisne. Azilien, Mas d’Azil, Ariége. Magdalenien, La Madeleine, prés Tursac, Dordogne. Solutréen, Solutré prés Macon, Sadne-et-Loire. Aurignacien, Aurignac, Haute-Garonne. Moustérien, Le Moustier, commune de Peyzac, Dordogne. Acheuléen, St. Acheul, prés Amiens, Somme. Chelléen, Chelles-sur-Marne, Seine-et-Marne. Pre-Chelléen (= Mesvinien, Rutot), Mesvin, Mons, Belgique. These stages, at first regarded as single, have each been subdivided into three or more substages, as a result of the more refined appreciation of the subtle advances in Paleolithic inven- tion and technique. DEINO Fic. 5. The type stations of the successive stages of Paleolithic culture from the Chellean to the Azilian-Tardenoisian. A new impulse to the study of Paleolithic culture was given in 1895, when E. Riviére discovered examples of Paleolithic RISE OF ARCHAZOLOGY 17 mural art in the cavern of La Mouthe,* thus confirming the original discovery, in 1880, by Marcelino de Sautuola of the wonderful ceiling frescoes of the cave of Altamira, northern Spain.*4 This created the opportunity for the establishment by the Prince of Monaco of the Institut de Paléontologie humaine in Igio, supporting the combined researches of the Upper Paleolithic culture and art of France and Spain, by Cartailhac, Capitan, Riviere, Boule, Breuil, and Obermaier, and marking a new epoch in the brilliant history of the archeology of France. It remained for the prehistory of the borders of the Danube, Rhine, and Neckar to be brought into harmony with that of France, and this has been accomplished with extraordinary pre- cision and fulness through the labors of R. R. Schmidt, begun in 1906, and brought together in his invaluable work, Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands.* To an earlier and longer epoch belongs the Prepalzeolithic or Eolithic stage. Beginning in 1867 with the supposed dis- covery by Abbé Bourgeois®® of a primordial or Prepalzolithic stone culture, much observation and speculation has been de- voted to the Eolithic®’ era and the Eolithic industry, culmi- nating in the complete chronological system of Rutot, as follows: LOWER QUATERNARY, OR PLEISTOCENE Strépyan (= Pre-Chellean, in part). Mesvinian, culture of Mesvin, near Mons, Belgium (= Pre-Chellean). Mafflean, culture of Maffle, near Ath, Hennegau. Reutelian, culture of Reutel, Ypres, West Flanders. TERTIARY Prestian, culture of St. Prest, Eure-et-Loire, Upper Pliocene. Kentian, culture of the plateau of Kent, Middle Pliocene. Cantalian, culture of Aurillac, Cantal, Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene. Fagnian, culture of Boncelles, Ardennes, Middle Oligocene. | Only the Mesvinian stage is generally accepted by arche- ologists, and this embraces the prototypes of the Lower Pale- 18 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE olithic culture, which among most French authors are termed Pre-Chellean or Proto-Chellean. The Eolithic problem has aroused the most animated controversy, in which opinion is divided. A critical consideration of this era, however, falls without the province of the present work. SUCCESSION OF HUMAN INDUSTRIES AND CULTURES * Ve CLA LER ERON SAGE noe ee EUROPE 500 B. C. to RoMAN TIMEs. (LA TENE CULTURE) LVe EARL ERALRONOAGE. Sa oe ee EUROPE 1000-500 B. C, fELALLSTATT @CULTURE) a0 tao on oe ee ORIENT 1800-1000 Ill, BRONZE AGE. .2.. cde0. cane eteese+ss>- SUROPE @b0Ut@o0c=toos ORIENT ‘* 4000-1800 II. NEW STONE AGE, NEOLITHIC 3. LATE NEOLITHIC and COPPER AGE (TRANSITION PERIOD)......... EuROPE ‘“ 3000-2000. 2. TYPICAL NEOLITHIC AGE (RoBEnN- HAUSIAN, SWISS LAKE-DWELLERS) ....EUROPE ‘“ 7000. 1. EARLY NEOLITHIC STAGES (CAMPIGNIAN “CULTURE) cc .fo5 ws ete EUROPE I. OLD STONE AGE, PALAOLITHIC UPPERSPALAOLITHIC. cea oe EUROPE 8. AZILIAN—-TARDENOISIAN. ** 12,000. 7. MAGDALENIAN. (Close of Post- 16,000, glacial time.) 6. SOLUTREAN. 5. AURIGNACIAN. (Beginning of Post- glacial time.) LOWER PALAOLITHIC 4. MOuSTERIAN. (Fourth Glacial time.) 3. ACHEULEAN. (Transition to shelters.) 2. CHELLEAN. 1. PRE-CHELLEAN (MESVINIAN.) 40,000. “€ 100,000. RiveR- REINDEER, SHELTER, DRIFT AND AND CAVE PERIOD. TERRACE PERIOD. EOLITHIC. * This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensch der Vorzeit.32 To each period of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era. GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN Man emerges from the vast geologic history of the earth in the period known as the Pleistocene, or Glacial, and Postglacial, the ‘Diluvium’ of the older geologists. The men of the Old Stone Age in western Europe are now known through the latter itd ‘sgovi uvumMyYaid pue urwMNyY jo suawtdeds ad4j ay} Jo SazIs AIBAOOSICT "8-1 SVM YOIYM ‘vISy Jo pue sdom7y usJo}Sva JO SSVUT PUL] }eII8 JY} Wor} prvM d & sv poMalA aq 0} st adoing U10}SaM Yoda Zuo] sty} oYsnosy L,, punodins ‘eynsurua land co cay] URUMY pu [eUTUY JO YO UOTINJOAa Jo aI}vOY} Joly 9} ~Jsam Suiyojarys pue vas oy} Aq sapls [[v uo p zoojy.ny ‘L uun.ig ‘9 woUse]Y-91D ‘S [VUIAOpuVva N ‘¢ uMOpHId 2 BAIIqeploy 'f sndoayjurooynig | coor 3 0f |] SNV300 4O SH1id3d ooo ora LA 000°0% 93 o00'eT | 000°¢T 93 000‘0T Ld 000°0T °3 o00'T Fd) Ue f Uy, , Ui, Ba GZ ZT} ISE/T Me GaN, TYAN NZ Ly : 4 m © sa > at oO a yyy yy Ma Wrngsns etal 000°0% 4040 000‘0T 93 000'T 000°ET 93 000OT VAS 3AO8V SNOILVAS13 000°0% ©3 000°ET aes | PAa] vag MoTag FJ 0001 09 Josey vag BSS ae ia GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 19 half of Glacial times to the very end of Postglacial times, when the Old Stone Age, with its wonderful environment of mammalian and human life, comes to a gradual close, and the New Stone Age begins with the climate and natural beauties of the forests, meadows, and Alps of Europe as they were before the destroying hand of economic civilization fell upon them. It is our difficult but fascinating task to project in our imag- ination the extraordinary series of prehistoric natural events which were witnessed by the successive races of Paleolithic men in Europe; such a combination and sequence never occurred be- fore in the world’s history and will never occur again. They centred around three distinct and yet closely related groups of causes. First, the formation of the two great ice-fields centring over the Scandinavian peninsula and over the Alps; second, the arrival or assemblage in western Europe of mammals from five entirely different life-zones or natural habitats; third, the ar- rival in Europe of seven or eight successive races of men by migration, chiefly from the great Eurasiatic continent of the Fast. Throughout this long epoch western Europe is to be viewed as a peninsula, surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching westward from the great land mass of eastern Europe and of Asia, which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal and human life. It was the ‘far west’ of all migrations of animals and men. Nor may we disregard the vast African land mass, the northern coasts of which afforded a great southern migration route from Asia, and may have supplied Europe with certain of its human races such as the ‘Grimaldi.’ These three principal phenomena of the ice-fields, the mam- mals,and the human life and industry, together establish the chro- nology of the Age of Man. In other words, there are four ways of keeping prehistoric time: that of geology, that of paleontology, that of anatomy, and that of human industry. Geologic events mark the grander divisions of time; palzontologic and anatomic events mark the lesser divisions; while the successive phases of human industry mark the least divisions. The geologic chro- 20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE nology deals with such immense periods of time that its ratio to the animal and to the human chronology is like that of years to hours and to minutes of our own solar time. The Glacial Epoch when first revealed by Charpentier®® and Agassiz,*” between 1837 and 1840, was supposed to correspond to a single great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various centres. The vague problem of the antiquity of Pliocene man and Diluvial man soon merged into the far more definite chro- nology of glacial and interglacial man. As early as 1854, Morlot discovered near Diirnten, on the borders of the lake of Ziirich, a bed of fossil plants indicating a period of south temperate cli- mate intervening between two great deposits of glacial origin. This led to the new conception of cold glacial stages and warm interglacial stages, and Morlot*! himself advanced the theory that there had been three glacial stages separated by two inter- glacial stages. Other discoveries followed both of fossil plants and mammals adapted to warmer periods intervening between the colder periods. Moreover, successive glacial moraines and ‘drifts,’ and successive river ‘terraces’ were found to confirm the theory of multiple glacial stages. The British geologist, James Geikie (1871-94) marshalled all the evidence for the extreme hypothesis of a succession of six glacial and five inter- glacial stages, each with its corresponding cold and warm climates. Strong confirmation of a theory of four great glaciations came through the American geologists, Chamberlin,” Salisbury,” and others, in the discovery of evidence of four chief glacial and three interglacial stages in northern portions of our own continent. Finally, a firm foundation of the quadruple glacial theory in Europe was laid by the classic researches of Penck and Briickner™ in the Alps, which were published in tg09. ‘Thus the exhaustive research of Geikie, of Chamberlin and Salisbury, of Penck and Briickner, and finally of Leverett* has firmly established eight subdivisions or stages of Pleistocene time, namely, four glacial, three interglacial, and one postglacial. These not only mark the great eras of European time but also make ese eh: ns synchrony of America with Europe. | GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 1 Since most of the skeletal and cultural remains of man can now be definitely attributed to certain glacial, interglacial, or Major Divisions Periods and Epochs Advances in Life Dominant Life QUATERNARY. TERTIARY. LATE MESOZOIC. EARLY MEsozoic. HOLOCENE. PLEISTOCENE, or ICE AGE. PLIOCENE. MIOCENE. OLIGOCENE. EOCENE. PALHZOCENE. Cretaceous. Comanchian. Jurassic. Triassic. Recent alluvial. Postglacial stage. Glacial stages. Late Tertiary. Early Tertiary. Rise of world civiliza- tion. Industry in iron, cop- per, and polished stone. Extinction of great mammals. Dawn of mind, art, and industry. Transformation of man-ape into man. Culmination of mam- mals. Beginnings of anthro- poid ape life. Appearance of higher types of mammals, and vanishing of archaic forms. Rise of archaic mam- mals. Extinction of great reptiles. Extreme specializa- tion of reptiles. Rise of flowering plants. Rise of birds and fly- ing reptiles. Rise of dinosaurs. AGE OF MAN. TRON, BRONZE, AND NEW STONE AGES. Men of the Old Stone Age. AGE OF MAMMALS AND MopDERN PLANT LIFE. OF REPTILES. PLACE OF THE OLD STONE AGE IN THE EARTH’S HISTORY _ (Indicated in heavy-face letter.) Compare Schuchert’s Table, 1914. postglacial stages, vast interest attaches to the very difficult problem of the duration of the whole Ice Age and the relative duration of its various glacial and interglacial stages. The fol- 22 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lowing figures set forth the wide variations in opinion on this subject and the two opposite tendencies of speculation which lead to greatly expanded or greatly abbreviated estimates of Pleistocene time : DURATION OF THE ICE AGE Charles Lyell,* Principles of Geology 800,000 years. James D. Dana,” Manual of Geology a Charles D. Walcott, Geologic Time as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America W. Upham,® Estimates of Geologic Times, Amer. Jour. Sci., A. Heim,” Ueber das absolute Alter der Eiszett W. J. Sollas,! Evolutional Geology Albrecht Penck,” Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter 520,000-840,000 James Geikie,* The Antiquity of Man in Europe...620,000 (min.) We may adopt for the present work the more conservative estimate of Penck, that since the first great ice-fields developed in Scandinavia, in the Alps, and in North America west of Hud- son Bay a period of time of not less than 520,000 years has elapsed. The relative duration of the subdivisions of the Glacial Epoch is also studied by Penck in his Chronologie des Eiszeitalters in den Alpen.” ‘These stages are not in any degree rhythmic, or of equal length either in western Europe or in North America. The unit of glacial measurement chosen by Penck is the time which has elapsed since the close of the fourth and last great glaciation; this is known as the Wiirm in the Alpine region and as the Wisconsin in America. While more limited than the ice- caps of the second glaciation, those of the fourth glaciation were still of vast extent in Europe and in this country, so that an esti- mate of 20,000 to 34,000 years for the unit of the entire Postglacial stage is not extreme. Estimating this unit at 25,000 years and accepting Reeds’s** estimate of the relative length of time orru- pied by each of the preceding glacial and interglacial stages, we reach the following results (compare Fig. 14, p, 41): GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 23 Relative | Grand Descent Duration | Totals eS POSTGLACIAL TIME. Years Years Meters (Period of Upper Paleolithic culture, Cré- Magnon and Briinn races) 25,000 | 25,000 GLACIAL STAGE (= Wiirm, Wisconsin). (Close of Lower Paleolithic culture, Neanderthal 25,000 3d. Interglactal Stage. (Opening period of Lower Paleolithic culture, Piltdown and pre-Neanderthaloid races)..... 100,000 | 150,000 GLACIAL STAGE (= Riss, Illinoian) 25,000 | 175,000 2d. Interglacial Stage (= Mindel-Riss, Yarmouth). . 200,000 | 375,000 (Period of Heidelberg race.) GLACIAL STAGE (= Mindel, Kansan) 400,000 ist. Interglacial Stage (= Giinz-Mindel, Aftonian) . 475,000 (Period of Pithecanthropus or Trinil race.) GLACIAL STAGE (=Giinz, Nebraskan) 500,000 The Postglacial time divisions are dated by three successive advances of the ice-caps, which broadly correspond with Geikie’s fifth and sixth glaciations; they are known in the Alpine region as the Bihl, Gschnitz, and Daun. ‘These three waves of cold and humid climate, each accompanied by glacial advances, finally terminated with the retreat of the snow and ice in the Alpine region, the same conditions prevailing as with the present cli- mate. The minimum time estimates of these Postglacial stages and the corresponding periods of human culture, as calculated by Heim,*° Niiesch,*> Penck,*? and many others, are summarized in the Upper Paleolithic (p. 281). GEOLOGIC AND HUMAN CHRONOLOGY There are four ways in which the lesser divisions and sequence of human chronology may be dated through geologic or earth- forming events. First, through the age of the culture stations or human remains, as indicated by the ‘river-drifts’ and ‘river terraces’ in or upon which they occur; second, through the age of the open ‘loess’ stations which are found both on the ‘older terraces’ and on the plateaus between the river valleys; third, 24 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE through the age of the shelters and caverns in which skeletal and cultural remains occur; fourth, through the age of the ‘loam’ deposits, which have drifted down on the ‘terraces’ from the surrounding meadows and hills. The men of the Old Stone Age were attracted to these natural camps and dwelling-places both by the abundance of the raw flint materials from which the pale- oliths were fashioned and by the presence of game. In more than ninety years of exploration only three skeletal relics of man have been found in the ancient ‘river-drifts’; these are the ‘Trinil,’ the ‘Heidelberg,’ and the ‘Piltdown’; in each instance the human remains were buried accidentally with those of extinct animals, after drifting for some distance in the river or stream beds. It is only in late Acheulean times that human burial rites or interments begin and that skeletal remains are found. Owing to the less perishable nature of flint, relics of the quarries and stations are infinitely more common; they are found both in the river sands and gravels, in the ‘river terraces,’ and in the ‘loess’ stations of the plateaus and uplands. Thus pre- historic chronology is based on observations of the geologist, who in turn is greatly aided by the archeologist, because the evolution stages of each type of implement are practically the same all over western Europe, with the exception of unimportant local inven- tions and variations. In brief, the large divisions of time are determined by the amount of work done by geologic agencies ; the comparative age of the various camp sites is determined by their geologic succession, by the mammals and plants which oc- cur in them, and finally by the cultural type of any industrial remains that may be found. TIMES OF THE ‘HIGH’ AND ‘Low’ RIVER ‘TERRACES’ The so-called ‘terrace’ chronology is to be used by the pre- historian with caution, for it is obvious that the ‘terraces’ in the different river-valleys of western Europe were not all formed at the same time; thus the testimony of the ‘terraces’ is always to be checked off by other evidence, GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 25 As to the origin of the sands and gravels which compose the ‘terraces’ we know that the glacial stages were periods of the wearing away of vast materials from the summits and sides of the mountains, which were transported by the rivers to the valleys and plains. These vast deposits of glacial times spread out over the very broad surfaces of the pristine river-bottoms, which in many valleys it is important to note were from roo to 150 feet above the present levels. The diminished and contracted NW. S.E. a 8 Conley, : DP mots ey 88 yes, y; 7,-$00m Y/ Se AT MRS ya Aigen S32 YY, wyyysiy yy are RETREAT EOA a fe 0 2 4 6 Oia 2 km. Fic. 6. Terraces on either side of the valley of the River Inn, Scharding, Austria, formed by sand and gravel deposits partly covered with loess. After Briickner. Ib. Very broad river deposits of First Glaciation, on the first erosion level, covered with the ‘Upper Loess’ of the Second Interglacial Stage. IIb. Somewhat narrower river deposits of Second Glaciation on the second erosion level. ITIb. Still narrower river terraces of the Third Glaciation on the third erosion level, covered with the ‘Lower Loess’ of the Third Interglacial Stage. IVb. Fourth or lowest terrace of the Fourth Glaciation on the fourth erosion level. Va. Erosion terraces, Achen. Via. Post-Biihl erosion. Loess’, ‘Upper Loess’ of Second Interglacial. Loess’’, ‘Lower Loess’ of Third In- terglacial. streams of interglacial times cut into these ancient river beds, forming narrower channels into which they transported their own materials. Thus, as the successive ‘river terraces’ were formed, a descending series of steps was created along the sides of the valleys. In many valleys there are four of these ‘terraces,’ which may correspond with several glacial stages; in other val- leys there are only three; in others, again, like the valley of the River Inn which flows past Innsbruck in the Tyrol (Fig. 6), there are five ‘terraces,’ while in the valley of the Rhine above Basle there are six, corresponding, it is believed, with the mate- rials brought down by the four great glaciations and with the river levels of Postglacial times. In general, therefore, the ‘high terraces’ are the oldest ones, that is, they are composed of 26 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE materials brought down during the pluvial periods of the First, Second, and Third Glacial Stages, while the ‘lower terraces’ and the ‘lowest terraces’ in the alpine regions are composed of materials borne by the great rivers of the Fourth Glacial and Postglacial Stages. In the region around the Alps the ‘higher terraces’ are products chiefly of the third glaciation; in the Rheinfelder Hilt | Upper Schworstadt Moliner Fela Cc G + +O+0+0% SoFOt04 OF O40 40 0 j 2 3 ie Fic. 7. Cross-section through the terraced Pleistocene formations of the Rhine valley above Basle, Switzerland. After Penck. Ib. Outwash of the First Glaciation—Giinz—Deposits on the first erusion level. ITb. Outwash of the Second Glaciation—Mindel—Deposits on the second erosion level. ITIb. Outwash of the Third Glaciation—Riss—Deposits on the third erosion level. IVb. Outwash of the Fourth Glaciation—Wiirm—Deposits on the fourth erosion level. Va. Erosion terrace, Achen oscillation—fifth erosion level. Via. Vila. ITIc. Moraine of the Third Glaciation—Riss. The section of the Rheinfelder Hill lies 3 km. west from the MOliner Field. } Post-Buhl erosion—sixth and seventh erosion levels. valley of the Rhine they are visible near Basle. On the upper Rhine the ‘low terraces’ are products of the fourth glaciation ; they cover vast surfaces and contain remains of the woolly mam- moth (E. primigenius), an animal distinctive of Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times. More remote from the glacial regions, but equally subject to the inundations of glacial times are the ‘high terraces’ along the River Seine, which are ninety feet above the present level of the river and contain the remains of mammals characteristic of the First Interglacial Stage, such as the southern elephant (E. meridionalis), while the ‘low terraces’ along the Seine are only fifteen feet above the present level of the river and contain mammals belonging to the Third Interglacial Stage. Similarly, GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN Q7 the ‘high terraces’ of the River Eure contain mammals of First Interglacial times, such as the southern elephant (EZ. meridionalis) and Steno’s horse (E. stenonis); these fossils occur in coarse river sands and gravels which were deposited by a broad stream that flowed at least ninety feet above the present waters of the Eure. The human interest which attaches to these dry facts of geology appears especially in the valleys of the Somme and the Marne in northern France; here again we find ‘high terraces,’ ‘middle terraces,’ and ‘low terraces’; the latter are still sub- ject to flooding. In the deep gravels upon each of these terraces we find the first proofs of human residence, for here occur the earliest Pre-Chellean and Chellean implements associated with the remains of the hippopotamus, of Merck’s rhinoceros, and of the straight-tusked elephant (EF. antiquus), together with mam- mals which are characteristic both of Second and Third Inter- glacial times. This raises a very important distinction, which is often mis- understood; namely, between the materials composing the orig- inal terraces and those subsequently deposited upon the terraces. It appears to be in the latter that human artifacts are chiefly, if not exclusively, found. TIMES OF THE LOAM STATIONS The ‘loam’ which washes down over the original sand and gravel ‘terraces’ from the surrounding hills and meadows is of much later date than the ‘terraces’ themselves, and the arche- ologist in the valley of the Somme as well as in that of the Thames may well be deceived unless he clearly distinguishes between the newer deposits of gravels and of loams and the far older gravels and river sands which compose the original ‘terraces.’ This is well illustrated by the observations of Commont on the section of St. Acheul.°* The loams and brick-earth are of much more recent age than the original gravels and sands of the ‘terraces’ which they overlap and conceal; the lowest and oldest ‘loam’ 28 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE (limon fendillé) contains Acheulean flints, while the overlying ‘loam’ contains Mousterian flints. Although occurring on the ‘higher terraces,’ these flints are of somewhat later date than the primitive Chellean flints which occur in the coarse gravels and sands that have collected upon the very Jowest levels (Fig. 59). A similar prehistoric inversion doubtless occurs in the ‘ter- races’ of the Thames, for materials on the ‘highest terrace’ (Fig. 8) contain Acheulean flints, while materials on the ‘lowest terrace’ belong to a much more recent age. S % iN Q ~S & R re SS pes BS SS OSS 8 Se re N % » =| 4 s ; ~ gx Sourh o N ve SS 0S Saas N North Feer ~ is S 30° 5.5 oes Eocene Qe UG $2 Se See Beds Sete ee aidnr & J. foo aoe 100A oo [775 | 7 100 feet Sea Level ie Ww a ~— sy Sea Leve/ Cretaceous 100 oO ey WES an Aza 100 ao 200 200 0 | 2 % 4+ miles Fic. 8. Section—Four terraces indicated in the valley of the Thames at Galley Hill, near London. Site of the discovery of the ‘Galley Hill Man’ in deposits overlying one of the high terraces. Site also of Gray’s Thurrock, a deposit of Third Interglacial times containing mammals and flints of Chellean age. A typical camping station of ‘river-drift man.’ Drawn by Dr. C. A. Reeds. We have no record of a single Paleolithic station found in the true original. sands and gravels of the ‘higher terraces’ in any part of Europe; only eoliths are found on the ‘high terrace’ levels, as at St. Prest. The earliest palzoliths occur in the gravels on both the ‘mid- dle’ and ‘upper terraces’ of the Somme and the Marne, proving that the gravels were deposited long subsequent to the cutting ot the original terraces. Geikie,®’ moreover, is of the opinion that the valley of the Somme has remained as it is since early Pleistocene times, and that even the ‘lowest terrace’ here was completed at that period ; this is contrary to the view of Commont, who considers that this ‘lowest terrace’ belongs to Third Inter- glacial times; a restudy of the stations along the Thames may throw light upon this very important difference of opinion, GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 29 TIMES OF THE ‘LOESS’ STATIONS The glacial stages were generally times of relatively great humidity, of heavy rain and snow fall, of full rivers charged with gravels and sands, and with loam the finest product of the ero- Fic. 9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach, in Lower Austria. A quarry camping station of the open-plains type. This typical Postglacial loess de- posit contains flints of early Magdalenian age. After Obermaier. sive action of ice upon the rocks. This loam on the barren wastes left bare by the glaciers or on the river borders and over- flow basins was retransported by the winds and laid down afresh in layers of varying thickness known as ‘loess.’ There was no ‘loess’ formation either in Europe or America during the humid climate of First Interglacial times, but during the latter part of the Second Interglacial Stage, again toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage, and finally during Postglacial times there were periods of arid climate when the ‘loess’ was lifted and transported by the prevailing winds over the ‘terraces’ and 30 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE plateaus and even to great heights among the mountain valleys. As observed by Huntington®* in his interesting book The Pulse of Asia, even at the present time there are districts where we find ‘loess’ dust filling the entire atmosphere either during the heated months of summer or during the cold months of winter. In Pleistocene Europe there were at least three warm or cold arid periods, accompanied in some phases by prevailing westerly winds,°*® in which ‘loess’ was widely distributed over northern Germany, covering the ‘river terraces,’ plateaus, and uplands bordering the Rhine and the Neckar. These ‘loess’ periods can be dated by the fossil remains of mammals which they con- tain, also by the stations of the flint quarries in different culture stages. ‘Thus we find late Acheulean implements in drifts of ‘loess’ at Villejuif, south of Paris. Among the most famous stations of late Acheulean times is that of Achenheim, west of Strasburg, and not far distant is the ‘loess’ station of Mom- menheim, of Mousterian times; both belong to the period of the fourth glaciation. An Aurignacian ‘loess’ station is that of Willendorf, Austria. TIMES OF. THE LIMESTONE SHELTERS AND CAVERNS Beginning in the late or cold Acheulean period, the Pale- olithic hunters commenced to seek the warm or sheltered side of deepened river-valleys, also the shelter afforded by overhanging cliffs and the entrances of caverns. It is quite probable that during the warm season of the year they still repaired to their open flint quarries along the rivers and on the uplands; in fact, the river Somme was a favorite resort through Acheulean into Mousterian times. In general, however, the open rivers and plateaus were aban- doned, and all the regions of limestone rock favorable to the formation of shelter cliffs, grottos, and caverns were sought out by the early Paleolithic men from Mousterian times on ; and thus from the beginning of the Mousterian to the close of the Upper Paleolithic their lines of migration and of residence followed the GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 31 exposures of the limestones which had been laid down by the sea in bygone geologic ages from Carboniferous to Cretaceous times. The upper valleys of the Rhine and Danube traversed the white Jurassic limestones which are again exposed in a broad band along the foot-hills of the Pyrenees, extending far west to the Cantabrian Alps of modern Spain. In Dordogne the great horizontal plateau of Cretaceous limestone had been dissected by branching rivers, such as the Vézére, to a depth of two hun- Dussel R MOO Fic. 10. Ideal section of the bluff overlying the Diissel River, near Diisscldozf, showing the mode of formation of the famous Neanderthal Cave, where the original type of the Neanderthal race was discovered in 1856. A typical resort of the ‘cave man.’ After Lyell. c. Entrance of percolating waters from above. f. Exit from the grotto. a—b. Interior of the cavern. dred feet. Under overhanging cliffs long rock shelters were formed, such as that of the Magdalenian station at La Madeleine. Many caverns were formed, some of them in early Pleistocene times, by water percolating from above and (Fig. 11) resulting in subterranean streams which issued at the entrance; this formed the expanded grotto, sometimes a chamber of vast dimensions, such as the Grotte de Gargas. Outside of this, again, may be an abri or shelter of overhanging rock. In other cases the rock shelter is found quite independent of any cave. Where the glaciers or ice-caps passed over the summits of the hills the subglacial streams penetrated the limestone of the mountain and formed vast caverns, such as that of Niaux, near the river Ariége. Here a nearly horizontal cavern was formed, extending half a mile into the heart of the mountain. The ma- 32 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE terial with which the floors of the caverns are covered is either a fine cave loam or the insoluble remainder of the limestone form- ing a brown or gray clayey substance. The Magdalenian artists produced drawings on these soft clays and, in rare instances, used them for modelling purposes, as in the Tuc d’Audoubert. The sands and gravels were also swept in from the streams above and carried by strong currents along the wall surfaces, smoothing and YY MMM YM) polishing the limestone Uvuhebefe vouslimestonéZ in preparation for the : higher forms of Upper [i”- // Paleolithic draughts- G eae manship and painting. It would appear that the majority of the cayv- y erns were formed in plu- vial periods of early glacial times; the for- Fic. 11. Formation of the typical limestone cav- mation had been com- em. After Gaudry. pleted, the subterranean V. Vertical section of limestone cliff showing (S) waters percolating from above; (A—O) inte- streams had ceased to rior of the cavern; and (G) grotto entrance, orig- flow, and the interiors inal exit of the cavern waters. H. Horizontal : section of the same cavern showing the (G) Were relatively dry and grotto entrance and (A, G, O, B) the ramifica~ free from moisture in Sep ae tala Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial times, when man first entered them. There is no evidence, however, that the cavern depths were generally in- habited, for the obvious reason that there was no exit for the smoke; the old hearths are invariably found close to or outside of the entrance, the only exception being in the en- trance to the great cavern of Gargas, where there is a natura! chimney for the exit of smoke. There was no cave life, strictly speaking—it was grotto life; the deep caves and caverns were probably penetrated only by artists and possibly also by magi- clans or priests. It is in the abrzs or shelters in front of the grottos and in the floors of the caverns that remarkable prehistoric records are found from late Acheulean times to the very close ot GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 33 the Paleolithic, as in the wonderful grotto in front of the cave at Castillo, near Santander. Thus, as Obermaier® observes: ‘‘In Chellean times primitive man was a care-free hunter wandering as he chose in the mild and pleasant weather, and even the colder climate of the arid ‘loess’ period of the late Acheulean was not sufficient to overcome his love of the open; he still, made his camp on the plains at the edge of the forest, or in the shelter of some overhanging cliff.”” Only in rare instances, as at Castillo, were the Acheulean hearths brought within the entrance line of the grotto. | BI rs Panel stone | ff pee ler eOlogic Ime Ve 4 iegers. IQI3 ermaler, IQI2 Geikie, 1914 | Schmidt, ro12 Bronze. Magdalenian. Postglacial. Magdalenian. Neolithic. Solutrean. Azilian. Aurignacian. Magdalenian. EV; - GLACIAL. Solutrean. castes Mousterian. urignacian. Mousterian. Early Mousterian. Cold Acheulean. Third Interglacial. Mousterian. Mousterian. Warm “ Chellean. Pre-Chellean. Cold Acheu- lean. III. GtactAt. Mousterian. Warm Acheu- lean. Chellean. ; Acheulean. Second Interglacial. Chellean. II. GLACIAL. Pre-Chellean First Interglacial. DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AS TO THE GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE PALAZOLITHIC CULTURE STAGES The right-hand column represents the theory adopted in this volume. Interpretation of these four kinds of evidence as to the an- tiquity of human culture in western Europe still leads to widely diverse opinions. On the one hand, we have the high authority of Penck*! and Geikie® that the Chellean and Acheulean cul- tures are as ancient as the second long warm interglacial period. 34 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE An extreme exponent of the same theory is Wiegers,® who would carry the Pre-Chellean back even into First Interglacial times. On the other side, Boule,** Schuchardt,®® Obermaier,®* Schmidt, * and the majority of the French archeologists place the begin- ning of the Pre-Chellean culture in Third Interglacial times. In favor of the latter theory is the strikingly close succession of the Lower Paleeolithic cultures in the valley of the Somme, fol- lowed by an equally close succession from Acheulean to Mag- dalenian times, as, for example, in the station of Castillo. It does not appear possible that a vast interval of time, such as that of the third glaciation, separated the Chellean from the Mous- terian culture. On the other hand, in favor of the greater antiquity of the Pre-Chellean and Chellean cultures may be urged their alleged _ association in several localities with very primitive mammals of early Pleistocene type, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno’s horse, and the saber-tooth tiger, as witnessed in Spain and in the deposits of the Champs de Mars, at Abbeville. It is true, moreover, that at points distant from the great ice-fields, like the valley of the Somme and that of the Marne, we have no other means of separating glacial from interglacial! times than that afforded by the deposition and erosion of the ‘terraces’; in fact, the interpretation of the age of the cultures may be similar to that applied to the age of the mammalian fauna. There are no proofs of periods of severe cold in western Europe in any country remote from the glaciers until the very cold steppe-tundra climate immediately preceding the fourth glaciation swept the entire land and drove out the last of the African-Asiatic mammals. GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES The migrations of mammals and of races of men into western Europe from the Eurasiatic continent on the east and from Africa on the south were favored or interrupted by the periods of elevation or of subsidence of the coastal borders of the A¢gean, Mediterranean, and North Seas, and also of the Iberian and GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES 35 British coast-lines. The maximum period of elevation of the coastal borders, as represented in the accompanying map (Fig. 12), never occurred in all portions of the continent of Europe at the same time, because there were oscillations both on the north- be | | | | | ss Fic. 12. Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation, in which the coast- lines are widely extended, connecting Africa and Europe—including Great Britain and Ireland—in a single vast peninsula, and affording free migration routes for animal and human races north and south, as well as east and west. The ocean boundaries are more remote and the interior seas are greatly reduced in area. After Obermaier. ern and southern coasts of Europe and Africa. ‘The early Pleis- tocene, especially the period of the First Interglacial Stage, was one of elevation remarkable for the broad land bridges which brought the animal life of Europe, Africa, and Asia together. The Mediterranean coast rose 300 feet. Land bridges from Africa were formed at Gibraltar and over to the island of Sicily, so that for the time there was a free migration of mammalian life north and south. It is to this that western Europe owes the majestic 36 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE mammals of Asiatic and African life which dominated the native fauna. In general, the e/evation of the continent took place during interglacial, the subsidence during glacial times, but Great Britain appears to have been almost continuously elevated and a part of the continent, and was certainly so during the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages, because there was a free migration of animal life and of human culture. The Lower Paleolithic peoples of Pre-Chellean and Chellean times wandered at will from the valley of the Somme to the not far distant valley of the Thames, interchanging their weapons and inventions. The close proximity of these stations is well illus- trated in the admirable map (Fig. 56) prepared under the direc- tion of Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock). The relation which elevation and subsidence respectively bear to the glacial and inter- glacial stages is believed to be as follows: ELEVATION, emergence of the coast-lines from the sea, broad land connections facilitating migration, retreat of the glaciers, deepening of the river-valleys, and cutting of terraces. Arid continental climate and deposition of ‘loess.’ SUBSIDENCE, submergence of the coast-lines and advance of the sea, interruption of land connections and of migration routes, advance of the glaciers, filling of the river-valleys with the prod- ucts of glacial erosion, the sand and gravel materials of which the ‘terraces’ are composed, and subglacial erosion of the loam, from which in arid periods the ‘loess’ is derived. Subsidence was the great feature of closing glacial times both in Europe and America. During the Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial Stages the Black and Caspian Seas and the eastern por- tion of the Mediterranean were deeply depressed, while the British Isles were still connected with France, but by a nar- rower isthmus than that of early interglacial times. The scat- tered stations of Upper Palzeolithic culture found in the British Isles include one Aurignacian, one Solutrean, two Magdalenian, and two Azilian; this shows that travel communication with the continent continued throughout that period, in all proba- CLIMATIC CHANGES 37 bility by means of a land connection. In late Neolithic times the English Channel was formed, Great Britain became isolated from Europe, and Ireland lost its land connection first with Wales and then with Scotland. CHANGES OF CLIMATE Penck®® estimates the intensity of the cold and of the humid- ity which prevailed during the glacial stages by the descent of the snow-line in the Alps, which in the two periods of greatest Sierra de Gredos . Alps Mts. ae Mts. Pyrenees Mts. German Scandinavian Plateau rare Cape ~— a 81 8r LPA 2 > 5000, = > — PROBABLE _ se SEA LEVEL_AT_THE_|: Trine oA FI MAXIMUM ELEVATION, i= ~Tsecwa cu GLAC ATION, _ " MINDEL.$ x3 = Strait of Gibraltar Garonne Rhone North Skager Valley Valley Sea Fak SNOW LINES OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL GLACIAL EPOCHS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD A-B Profile across Europe along the line A-8 of map 5 Present snow line 4 Snow line of the Fourth (Wirm) Glacial Sf 3 as 8 > Third CRiss) 4 2 w « w » Second (Minde/) ” 1 n » ¢» » First (GUnz) » ” Fic. 13. An ideal earth section from the North Cape across the Scandinavian plateau, through the North Sea, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, and Straits of Gibraltar, to the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa, along the line indicated on the map (Fig. 25, p. 65), illustrating the sea-level at the time of the greatest elevation of the conti- nent during the Second Glacial Stage, as compared with the present sea-level; also the successive lines of descent of the region of perpetual snow during the four great glacial advances, as compared with the present snow-line. From studies Dy Dr-C. A.’ Reeds: glaciation reached from 1,200 m. (3,937 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4, 921 ft.) below the present snow-level, with the consequent formation of vast ice-caps hung with glaciers which flowed great distances down the valleys of the Rhéne and of the Rhine and left their moraines at very distant points. The moraines and drifts of the lesser glaciations, such as the first and fourth, stand considerably within the boundaries of these outer moraines and drift fields. On the contrary, the warmer climates of interglacial times are indicated by the sun-loving plants found at H6tting, along the valley of the Inn, in the Tyrol, which are proofs of a tempera- ture higher than the present and of the ascent of the snow-line 300 m. (984 ft.) above the existing snow-level of the Alps. 38 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The alternation of the cold climates of the glacial stages with the warm temperate climates of the interglacial stages formed great oscillations of temperature (Figs. 13, 14). The fossil plant life indicates that during the periods of the First, Second, and Third Interglacial Stages the climate of western Europe was cooler than it had been during the preceding Pliocene Epoch and somewhat warmer than it is at the present time in the same localities. During the First, Second, and Third Glacial Stages there was certainly a marked lowering of temperature in the regions bordering the great glacial fields. This is indicated by the arrival in the northern glacial border regions of animals and plants adapted to arctic and subarctic climates. It has been generally believed that the whole of western Europe was extremely cold during these glacial stages, and that the heat-loving animals, the southern elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were driven to the south, to return only with the renewed warmth of the next interglacial stage. There is, however, no proof of the departure of these suppos- edly less hardy mammals nor of the spread over Europe of the more hardy arctic and steppe types until the advent of the Fourth Glacial Stage. Then, for the first time, all western Europe north of the Pyrenees experienced a general fall of temperature, and conditions of climate prevailed such as are now found in the arctic tundra regions of the north and in the high steppes of central Asia, which are swept by dry and cold winter winds. Fluctuations of temperature, of moisture, and of aridity in Pleis- tocene time, are evidenced not only by the rise and fall of the snow-line and the advance and retreat of the ice-caps but also by the appearance of plant and animal life in the periods of the ‘loess’ deposition, indicating the following cycles of climatic change as witnessed from beginning to end of the Third Interglacial Stage: IV. Glacial maximum, cold and moist climate, arctic and cold steppe fauna and flora. Cool and dry steppe climate, wide-spread deposition of ‘loess,’ CLIMATIC CHANGES 39 Interglacial maximum, a long period of warm temperate forest and meadow conditions. Glacial retreat, cool and moist climate bordering the gla- cial regions. III. Glacial maximum, cold and humid climate bordering the glaciers, favorable to arctic and subarctic plant and animal life. That great fields of ice and advancing glaciers alone do not constitute proof of very low temperatures is shown at the present time in southeastern Alaska, where very heavy snowfall or pre- cipitation causes the accumulation of vast glaciers, although the mean annual temperature is only 10° Fahr. (5.56° C.) lower than that of southern Germany. Neumayr®® estimated that during the Ice Age there was a general lowering of temperature in Eu- rope of not more than 6° C. (10.8° Fahr.), and held that even during the glacial advances a comparatively mild climate pre- vailed in Great Britain. Martins’ estimated that a lowering of the temperature to the extent of 4° C. (7.2° Fahr.) would bring _the glaciers of Chamonix down to the level of the plain of Geneva. Penck estimates that, all the atmospheric conditions remaining the same as at present, a fall of temperature to the extent of 4° to 5 C. would be sufficient to bring back the Glacial Epoch in Europe. These moderate estimates entirely agree with our theory that animals of African and Asiatic habit flourished in western Europe to the very close of the Third Interglacial Stage, and that then for the first time the warm fauna, or faune chaude, gradually disappeared. Similarly the hypothesis of extremely warm or subtropical conditions prevailing in interglacial times as far north as Britain, which originated with the discovery of the northerly distribution of the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, animals which we now associate with the torrid climate of Africa, is not supported by the study either of the plant life of interglacial stages or by the history of the animals themselves. It is quite probable that both the hippopotami and the rhinoceroses of the ‘warm fauna’ 40 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE were protected by hairy covering, although not by the thick undercoating of wool which protected the woolly rhinoceros and woolly mammoth, animals favoring the borders of glaciers and flourishing during the last very cold glacial and Postglacial periods. The combined evidence from all these great events in western Europe leads us to conclusions somewhat different from those reached by Penck as to the chronology of human culture. In the chart (Fig. 14) on the opposite page, prepared by Dr. C. A. Reeds in collaboration with the author, a new correlation of geologic, climatic, human, industrial, and faunal events is presented. The great waves of glacial advance and retreat (oblique shading) are based upon Penck’s estimates of the rise and fall of the snow-line (vertical dotted lines) in the Swiss Alps. (Compare Fig. 13.) The length of these waves corresponds with the relative duration of the glacial and interglacial stages as estimated by the varying amounts of erosion and deposition of materials. The entire Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is thus seen to occupy not more than 125,000 years, or only the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, which is estimated as extending. over a period of 525,000 years. The present opinion of the leading archeologists of France and Gerrnany, which is shared by the author, is that the Pre-Chellean industry is not older than the Third Interglacial Stage. As the Piltdown man was found in deposits containing Pie-Chellean implements, he prob- ably lived in the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, and not in early Pleistocene times as estimated by some British geologists. This causes us to regard the Piltdown remains as more recent than the jaw of Heidelberg, which all authorities agree is prob- ably of Second Interglacial Age. According to our estimates the Heidelberg man is nearly twice as ancient as the Piltdown man, while Pithecanthropus (Trinil Race) is four times as ancient. Yet the Piltdown man must still be regarded as of very great antiquity, for he is four times as ancient as the final type of Ne- anderthal man belonging to the Mousterian industrial stage. The various archeologic and paleontologic evidences for this CORRELATION, oe, CLIMATIC, RACIAL, CULTURE & LIFE STAGES /9/4 Ht ~-——_4 i; LTE TITRE TS, NEC Se ———— RECENT FOREST, MEADOW. ALPINE S MRODALENVA UPPER | GSOLUTREAN PALAEQ- Gee “MAGNON Bit Waseceafi SAUBIGNACIAN bie ted ae LITHI/ GRIMALDI NEANDERTHAL REINDEER PERIOD, ARCTIC TUNDRA, STEPPE , ALPINE FOREST, MEADOW COLD FAUNA ARRIVAL: STEPPE, TUNDRA, FAUNA IV. GLACIAL WURM, Ua aad 19 oe HG Zz “ (KRAPINA) 1 AST WARM AFRICAN-ASIATIC 3ACHEULEAN LOWER 3}75000 YEARS PALAEO- aaauabaaas 3. INTER - GLAC/AL bijti | |2CHELLEAN LITHIC E.ANTIQUUS,, H/PPOPOTAMUS GH RISS - WURM Hit 41/00000 YEARS D.MERCKII, E. TROGONTHERI| NGAM ALSO FOREST, MEADO SANGAMON Ail! | |» pRe-CHELLEAN P/LTDOWN a raid “Middle Loess’ EURASIATIC FAUNA Ait ee oe a a ae ee Ill, GLACIAL Bees COLD TUNDRA FAUNA RISS, POLANDIAN WOOLLY MAMMOTH & “Middle britt” RHINOCEROS. FIRST LLOLL ALAS ae < /LLINOIAN Zi Sheen BA LEEEL EEE LE A EER Lait 8+200,000 YEARS ee iecteay kt) lyre) Se GLACIAL in eRe WARM AFRICAN ASIATIC HELVETIAN FAUNA YARMOUTH E.ANTIQUUS , E TROGONTH- HEIDELBERG) ery Dp. MERCKII, HIPPO- POTAMUS Long Warm 2 Stage ‘Older Loess” FIRST COLD ‘old Drift’ Zag Lt LINTER- Zt pre anne GLACIAL I NORFOLKIAN il GUNZ-MINDEL Witte: E GLACIAL “% AFRICAN - ASIATIC FAUNA E. MER/D/ONALIS —TROGON - THERIT, D ETRUSCUS, HIPPOPOTAMUS MACHA_RODUS LA Bees P/THECAN- [ Z COLD FOREST BED ONEBRASKAN Z FAUNA Iv 8. BRITAIN | TYROPUS "Old Terraces” 0500000 YEARS (TRINIL) ee ee ee PLIOCENE ~~ PLIOCENE itt WARM FOREST GLA‘ CIAL STONE CULTURES | HUMAN | STAGES OF MAMMAL/AN INTERGLA CIAL AND COLD FAUNAS | RACES AND PLANT LIFE Fic. 14. Great events of the Glacial Epoch. ‘To the left the relation of glacial and in- - terglacial stages in Europe and North America, with the author’s theory regarding the divisions of time, the beginning of the Old Stone Age, and the successive appearance in Europe of different branches of the human race. To the right the prolonged warm temperate period in Europe in the non-glaciated regions, followed by the relatively brief cold period during the past 70,000 years. Prepared by Dr. C. A. Reeds, in co-operation with the author. 41 42 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE general correlation theory of the Glacial Epoch are fully dis- cussed in the succeeding chapters of this volume. MAMMALS OF FIVE DISTINCT GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS (Compare Color Map, Pl. II, and Fig. 15) As we have already observed, during the whole history of mammalian life in various parts of the world never did there prevail conditions so unusual and so complex as those which surrounded the men of the Old Stone Age in Europe. ‘The suc- cessive races of Palzolithic men in Europe were all flesh eaters, depending upon the chase. The mammals, first pursued only for food, utensils, and clothing, finally became subjects of artis- tic appreciation and endeavor which resulted in a remarkable esthetic development. From the beginning to the end of Palzolithic times the vari- ous races of man witnessed the assemblage in Europe of animals indigenous to every continent on the globe except South America and Australia and adapted to every climatic life-zone, from the warm and dry plains of southern Asia and northern Africa to the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia; from the heights of the Alps, Himalayas, Pyrenees, and Altai Mountains to the high, arid, dry steppes of central Asia with their alternating heat of summer and cold of winter; from the tundras or barren grounds of Scandinavia, northern Europe, and Siberia to the mild forests and plains of southern Europe.’’ Members of all these highly varied groups of animals had been evolving in various parts of the northern hemisphere from the Eocene Epoch onward. In Pliocene times they had become thoroughly adapted to their various habitats. Throughout early Pleistocene times, with the increasing cold extending southward from the arctic circle, such mammals as the elephant, rhinoceros, musk-ox, and rein- deer had become thoroughly adapted to the climate of the ex- treme north. There is every reason to believe that when these tundra quadrupeds first arrived in Europe, during early mid- glacial stages, they had already acquired the heavy coat of hair RECENT PREHISTORIC. POSTGLACIAL. Severe climate. IV. GLaActIAL. Cold Steppe cli- mate. 3d INTERGLACIAL. Warm climate. Reindeer MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS Return of the Alpine Mammals to the Mountains. Wide dispersal of Forest and Meadow Mammals over the Northern nem oS te Northern Hemisphere, 9d Retreat of the Tundra and Steppe Mammals to the North and East. Mingling in the lowlands of France and Germany of the Reindeer-Mammoth fauna, the Alpine fauna, the Steppe Mammals, and the hardy Eur- asiatic Forest and’ Meadow Mammals. Arrival of the Tundra Mammals from the North. Arrival of the Steppe Mammals from Western Asia. . Southward migration and extinction of all the African-Asiatic Mammals except the lions and hyzenas. Mingled African-Asiatic and Eurasiatic Mammals in different parts of the non-glaciated regions, the hippopotamus, southern mammoth, straight- tusked elephant, Merck’s broad-nosed rhinoceros, lion, hyzna, jackal, sabre- and tooth tiger. Woolly Mam- TIT. GLactAt. moth in North Germany and the Alps. 2d INTERGLACIAL. Reindeer Also the stag, giant deer, bison, wild cattle, forest horse, boar, wolf, fox, and lynx, wildcat, several species of bear. IT. GLAcrAt. Woolly Mam- mothin North- ern Germany. 1st INTERGLACIAL. Musk-ox in Sus- I. GLACIAL. sex, England. Survival of many Pliocene African- AsiaticMammals, mingled with Pliocene and recent Eurasiatic Forest and Mead- ow Mammals. Early Migrations of Scandinavian and North Sibe- rian Mammals near the Ice- fields. so REGIONS NEAR THE ICE-FIELDS AND GLACIAL BorDERS. GEOLOGIC AND CLIMATIC STAGES. More feces Day he eae Eur- asiatic Mammals. ‘Warm’ African- Asiatic Mammals. Temperate and shel- Cool temperate for- tered parts of ests and mead- Western Europe. ows. Oa More SHELTERED NON-GLACIATED RE- GIONS REMOTE FROM THE GLACIAL BORDERS AND ICE-FIELDS. MIGRATIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF MAMMALIAN LIFE DURING THE FOUR GLACIAL, THREE INTERGLACIAL, AND POSTGLACIAL STAGES 43 PERIOD OF RECENT ANIMALS. ee NUR PERIOD IN WESTERN EUROPE. PERIOD OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS, spect: Eun, ‘OF THE Bee Bison po EUROPE. THREE CHIEF LIFE PERIODS. 44 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and undercoating of wool, such as now characterizes the musk- ox, one of the living representatives of this northern fauna. The five great sources of mammalian migration into western Europe in Pleistocene times were accordingly as follows: 1. WARM PLAINS of northern Africa and of southern Asia. “African: Asiatic”? fauna—hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant. 2. TEMPERATE MEADOWS AND FORESTS of Europe and Asia. ‘“Eura- — siatic’’ fauna—deer, bison, horse. | 3. HIGH, COOL MOUNTAIN RANGES—Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Urals. Fauna—chamois, ibex, ptarmigan. (See Fig. 185.) 4. STEPPES AND DESERTS. Dry, elevated plateaus and steppes of east- ern Europe and central Asia. Fauna—desert ass and horse, saiga ante- lope, jerboa. (See Fig. 186.) 5. TUNDRAS AND BARREN GROUNDS within or near the arctic circle. Fauna—reindeer, musk-ox, arctic fox. (See Figs. 95 and 96.) (Compare Figs. 14 and 15.) In the warm plains, forests, and rivers of southern Asia and northern Africa there developed the elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, lions, hyznas, and jackals, which, taken together, may be known as the African-Asiatic fauna. It contains alto- gether fourteen species of mammals. The great geographic area from the far east to the far west over which ranged similar or identical species of these pachyderms and carnivores is indicated by the oblique lines in the geographic chart (Fig. 15). The north temperate belt of Asia and Europe, with its hardy — forests and genial meadows, was the home of the even more highly varied Eurasiatic Forest and Meadow fauna. This includes twenty-six or more species. Of these the red deer, or stag, was most characteristic of the forests and the bison and wild cattle* of the meadows. Even at the very beginning of Pleistocene times there appear the stag, the wild boar, and the roe-deer with their natural pursuers, the wolf and the brown bear. From the northern woods came the moose and the wolverene. Most of these mam- mals were so similar to existing forms that the older naturalists * Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found. The prehistoric ‘urus’ and ‘wisent’ of Europe were both found in forests, but this may not have been their natural habitat in Paleolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV. MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 45 placed them in existing species, but the tendency now is to sepa- rate them or place them in distinct subspecies. Mingled with these forest and meadow mammals were a few others which have tye =Yore S t= Meadow = bp 7 MU eed ati ed) a] fe La, “a myth ian v=) s) ) ™~: Ile Yj sig (f Wie i ¢ Kel OTe pt iy Fic. 15. Zoogeographic map. Range of the large mammals of Africa and southern Asia in Pliocene and Pleistocene times until nearly the close of the Lower Palzo- lithic (oblique lines). Range of the forest and meadow fauna of Europe and Asia from early Pleistocene to prehistoric times; stag and bison fauna (horizontal lines). Present range of the tundra or barren-ground mammals (dots) which wan- dered south during the fourth glaciation, expelling the large Asiatic mammals. Present range of mammals of the deserts and steppes of eastern Europe and _. southern Asia, which also invaded western Europe during the glacial and Post-. . glacial stages (vertical lines). The alpine mammals dwelt in the high mountain — regions and invaded the plains and lowlands during Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial times. since become extinct, such as the giant deer (Megaceros), the giant beaver (Trogontherium), and the primitive forest and meadow horses. From this region also there developed the cave- bear (Ursus speleus). Certainly it is astonishing to find the re- mains of these mammals mingled with those from southern Asia and Africa, as is frequently the case. In early glacial times the 46 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE bison and wild cattle mingled freely with the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, but in late glacial and Postglacial times they oc- curred as companions of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. In prehistoric times they survived with the mammals brought from the Orient by the Neolithic agriculturists. During a great glaciation, but especially during the severe climate of late Pleistocene times, the Alpine mammals were driven down from the heights into the plains and among the lower mountains and foot-hills. Thus the ibex, chamois, and argali sheep from the Altai Mountains are represented both in drawing and in sculpture by the men of the Reindeer Period. Still more remarkable is the arrival in Europe of the Steppe Fauna of Russia and of western Siberia, mammals which now survive in the vast Kirghiz steppes, east of the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains, where the climate is one of hot, dry summers and prolonged cold winters, with sweeping dust and snow storms. These animals are very hardy, alert, and swift of foot, such as the jerboa, the saiga antelope, the wild asses, and the wild horses, including the Przewalski type, which still sur- vives in the desert of Gobi. From this region also came the Elasmothere (EZ. sibiricum), with its single giant horn above the eyes. Very distinctive of the fauna frequenting the caverns are the small rodents, including the dwarf pikas, the steppe hamsters, and the lemmings. These animals were attracted into Europe during the ‘steppe’ and ‘loess’ periods of cold, dry climate. The advance of the great Scandinavian glaciers from the north crowded to the south the Tundra or Barren Ground fauna of the arctic circle. The herald of this fauna during the First Glacial Stage was the musk-ox, which appears in Sussex, and then came the reindeer of the existing Scandinavian type. These animals are followed by the woolly mammoth (E. primigenius) and the woolly rhinoceros (D. antiquitatis) with their panoply of hair and wool which had long been developing in the north. Finally in the Fourth Glacial Stage arrived the lemming of the river Obi, also the more northern banded lemming, the arctic fox, the wolverene, and the ermine, as well as the arctic hare. MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 47 These tundra mammals for a short period mingled in places with survivors of the African-Asiatic fauna, such as Merck’s rhinoc- eros and the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus). In general, they swept southward as far as the Pyrenees over country which had long been enjoyed by the African-Asiatic mammals, while the hippopotami and the southern elephants retreated still far- ther south and became extinct. The only survivors of the great African-Asiatic fauna in Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times were the hyenas (H. crocuta spelea) and the lions (Felis leo spelwa). The lion fre- quently appears in the drawings of the cavemen. The various species belonging to these five great faunz ap- parently succeed each other, and wherever their remains are mingled with the palzoliths, as along the rivers Somme, Marne, and Thames, or in the hearths of the shelters and caverns, they become of extreme interest both in their bearing on the chronology of man and on the development of human culture, art, and in- dustry. They also tell the story of the sequence of climatic conditions both in the regions bordering the glaciers and in the more temperate regions remote from the ice-caps. Thus they guide the anthropologist over the difficult gaps where the geologic record is limited or undecipherable. The general succession of these great faunz is illustrated in Fig. 14 and also in the above table. (1) Lamarck, 1815.1. (77) eccardus,17 50.1. (2) Schaaffhausen, 1858.1. (18) Mahudel, 1740.1. (3) Darwin, C., 1909.2. (19) Buckland, 1824.1. (4) Lamarck, 1809.1. (20) Godwin-Austen, 1840.1. (5) Lyell, 1863.1, pp. 84-80. (21) Christol, 1829.1. (6) Darwin, C., 1871.1, p. 146. (22) Schmerling, 1833.1. (7) Darwin, C., 1909.1, p. 158. (23) Boucher de Perthes, 1846.1. (8) Retzius, A., 1864.1, p. 27. (24) Op. cit. (9) Ob. cit., p. 166. (25) Rigollot, 1854.1. (10) Broca, 1875.1. (26) Lubbock, 1862.1. (11) Schwalbe, G., 1914.1, p. 592. (27) Avebury, 1913.1, pp. 2, 8. (12) Cartailhac, 1903.1. (28) Lartet, 1861.1. (13) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I. (29) Lartet, 1875.1. (14) Reinach, S., 1889.1. (30) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 165. (15) Schmidt, 1912.1. (31) de Mortillet, 1869.1. (16) Avebury, 1913.1. (32) Piette, E., 1907.1. 48 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE (33) Riviére 1897.1. (34) de Sautuola, 1880.1. (35) Schmidt, 1912.1. (36) Bourgeois, 1867.1. (37) Schmidt, op. cit:, p. 5. (38) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 170-174; 316-320; 332, 545. (39) Charpentier, 1841.1. (40) Agassiz, 1837.1; 1840.1; 1840.2. (41) Morlot, 1854.1. (42) Chamberlin, 1895.1; 1905.1, vol. III, chap. XIX, pp. 327-516. (43) Salisbury, 1905.1. (44) Penck, 1909.1. (45) Leverett, 1910.1. (46) Lyell, 1867.1, vol. I, pp. 2093- SOT MOTT de VOL peso (47) Dana, 1875.1, p. 501. (48) Walcott, 1893.1. (49) Upham, 1893.1, p. 217. (50) Heim, 1894.1. (51) Sollas, 1go00.1. (52) Penck, r909.1, vol. III, pp. 1153- 1176; (53) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 302. (54) Reeds, rors.t. (55) Niiesch, 1902.1. (56) Geikie, op. cit., pp. I1I-114. (5%) OD. Git Datos: (58) Huntington, 1907.1. (59) Leverett, 1910.1. (60) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 132. (61) Penck, 1908.1; 1909.1. (62) Geikie, 1914.1, Pp. 312. (63) Wiegers, 1913.1. (64) Boule, 1888.1. (65) Schuchardt, 1913.1, p. 144. (66) Obermaier, 1909.2; 1912.1. (67) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 266. (68. Penck, 1909.1, vol. III, p. 1168, Fig. 136. (69) Neumayr, 1800.1, vol. II, p. 621. (7o) Martins, 1847.1, pp. 941, 942. (71) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 386-427. GAP TERS 1 ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES — PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE OF WESTERN EUROPE — TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTO- CENE, OR AGE OF MAN — THE FIRST GLACIATION, ITS EFFECTS ON CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND ANIMAL LIFE — THE PREHUMAN TRINIL RACE OF JAVA—THE EOLITHS OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS — THE SEC- OND GLACIATION — THE HEIDELBERG, EARLIEST KNOWN HUMAN RACE — THE THIRD GLACIATION THE partly known ancestors of the anthropoid apes and the unknown ancestors of man probably originated among the for- ests and flood-plains of southern Asia and early began to migrate westward into northern Africa and western Europe. As early as Oligocene times a forerunner of the great apes (Propliopithecus), most nearly resembling the gibbons, appears in the desert bordering the Fayum in northern Egypt. Early in Miocene times true tree-living gibbons found their way into Europe and continued throughout the Pliocene in the forms known as Pliopithecus and Pliohylobates, the latter being a true gibbon in its proportions; it ranged northward into the present region of Germany. Another ape which early reached Europe is the Dryopithecus; it is found in Miocene times in southern France; the grinding-teeth suggest those of the orang, the jaw is deep and in some ways resembles that of the Piltdown man. A third ape (Veopithecus) occurs in the Lower Pliocene near Eppelsheim, in Germany, and is known only from a single lower molar tooth, which recalls the dentition of Dryopithecus and more remotely that of Homo. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik hills of Asia is found Pale@opithecus, a generalized form which is believed to be related to the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and the gibbon; the upper premolars resemble those of man. None of these fossil anthropoids either of Europe or of Asia can be regarded as ancestral to man, although both Neopithecus 49 50 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and Dryopithecus have been placed in or near the line of human ancestry by such high authorities as Branco and Gaudry. When Dryopithecus was first discovered by Lartet, Gaudry’ considered it to be by far the most manlike of all the apes, even attributing to it sufficient intelligence for the working of flints, but fuller Fic. 16. The gibbon is primitive in its skull and dentition, but extremely special- ized in the adaptation of its limbs to arboreal life. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. knowledge of this animal has shown that some of the living anthropoids are more manlike than Dryopithecus. ‘This animal is closely related to the ancestral stock of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and orang. The jaw, it is true, resembles that of the Piltdown man (Eoanthropus), but the grinding-teeth are much more primitive and there is little reason to think that it is an- cestral to any human type.* * A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain (see Woodward, 1914.2). ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 51 Among these fossil anthropoids, as well as among the four living forms, we discover no evidence of direct relationship to man but very strong evidence of descent from the same ances- tral stock. These proofs of common ancestry, which have already been observed in the existing races of man, become far more conspicuous in the ancient Paleolithic races; in fact, we cannot interpret the anatomy of the men of the Old Stone Age without Fic. 17. The orang has a high rounded skull and long face. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. a survey of the principal characters of the existing anthropoid apes, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla. The gibbon is the most primitive of living apes in its skull and dentition, but the most specialized in the length of its arms and its other extreme adaptations to arboreal life. As in the other anthropoids, the face is abbreviated, the narial region is narrow, 7. e., catarrhine, and the brain-case is widened, but the top of the skull is smooth, and the forehead lacks the promi- nent ridges above the orbits; thus the profile of the skull of 52 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the gibbon (Fig. 16) is more human than that of the other an- thropoid apes. When on the ground the gibbon walks erect and is thus afforded the free use of its arms and independent move- ments of its fingers. In the brain there is a striking develop- ment of the centres of sight, touch, and hearing. It is these characteristics of the modern gibbon which preserve with rela- Fic. 18. The chimpanzee. This figure illustrates the walking powers of the chimpanzee, the great length of the arms, and the abbreviation of the legs. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. tively slight changes the type of the original ancestor of ee as noted by Elliot Smith.? The limbs of the orang are less elongated and less extremely specialized for arboreal life than those of the gibbon but more so than those of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The skull is rounded and of great vertical height, with broad, bony ridges above the orbits and a great median crest on top of the skull in old males. The lower jaw of the orang is stout and deep, and, although used as a fighting weapon, the canine tusks are much ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 53 less prominent than in either the gibbon, chimpanzee, or gorilla. In the chimpanzee we observe the very prominent bony ridges above the eyes, like those in the Trinil and Neanderthal races of men. Of all the anthropoid apes the lower jaw of the chim- Fic. 19. The chimpanzee. This figure shows certain facial characteristics which are preserved in the Neanderthal race of men. Note also the shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. panzee most nearly resembles that of the Piltdown man. The prognathous or protruding tooth rows and receding chin sug- gest those in the Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal races. When the chimpanzee is walking (Fig. 18) the arms reach down below the level of the knees, whereas in the higher races of man they reach only half-way down the thighs. 54 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Thus, the fore limb, although much shorter than that of the gib- bon, is relatively longer than that of any human race, recent or We observe also in the walking chimpanzee (Fig. 18) ancient. EXISTING GIBBON. MAN CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. ORANG. APES AND Asia. (Homo sapiens). Africa. Africa. Asia. Man. Asia, Europe. ; / Cré-Magnon and other races. / More primitive spe- i / cies, human and / GLACIAL OR prehuman. / / PLEISTOCENE : i / Macaque AGE. Neanderthal race. ' ! 3 of Eu- | i / rope. H Piltdown race. H { / : { H i / H 2 / H | Heidelberg race. i / / ' ; | { sks | fl / Trinil race ‘ / Primitive Gib- (Pithecanthropus). Ancestral anthro- / Macaques PLIOCENE bon of Eu- poids of Asia | of Asia AGE. rope tate / and (Pliohylobates). Unknown Pliocene bho Europe. ancestors of man. / : if : : ae oF : : MI0cENE Primitive anthropoids A AGE. Earliest ‘Gibbons i of Asia and Europe. / of Europe i / / (Pliopithecus). v uf A i j AE. eT js A ne & we Ancestral anthro- Small monkeys OLIGOCENE, poids of Egypt of Egypt. (Propliopithecus). ie \ a Ne a Unknown ancestral stock of the Old World pri- mates, including man. ANCESTRAL TREE OF THE ANTHROPOID APES AND OF MAN From the unknown and ancestral stock of the anthropoid apes and man the GIBBON was the first to branch off in Oligocene times; the ORANG then branched off in a widely different direction. The stem of the CHIMPANZEE and of the GorILLA branched off at a more recent date and is more nearly allied to that of man. Five early human races have been found in Europe in Glacial or Pleistocene times, but no traces of other primates except the macaques, which are related to the lower division of the baboons, have been found in Europe in Pleistocene times, Modified after Gregory. (For latest discovery see Appendix, Note VII.) ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 55 that the upper part of the leg, the thigh-bone, or femur, is rela- tively long, while the lower part, the shin-bone, or tibia, is rela- tively short. Indeed, both in the arm and in the leg the upper bones are relatively long and the lower bones are relatively short. These proportions, which are inheritances of arboreal life, are in very marked contrast to those observed in the arms and Fic. 20. The Gorilla. An immature female, about three years of age, showing none of the adult male characteristics. Photo- graph from the New York Zoological Park. legs of the Neanderthal race of men, in which the limbs are of the terrestrial or walking type. We observe also in the chimpanzee a contrast between the grasping power of the big toe, which is a kind of thumb, and the lack of that power in the hand, in which the thumb is nearly useless ; in all apes this function is characteristic of the foot, in man of the hand alone. The opposable thumb, with its power of bringing the thumb against each of the fingers, is the one char- acter which is lacking in every one of the anthropoid apes and which was early developed among the ancestors of man. The skull of the chimpanzee is longer than that of the orang, the most prominent feature in the top view being the extreme protuberance of the orbits, which are surrounded by a supra- 56 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE orbital and circumorbital bony ridge, which is also strongly de- veloped in the Neanderthal skull as well as in the Pithecanthropus or Trinil skull but, so far as we know, is entirely lacking in that of Piltdown. Asin the orang and the gorilla, a crest develops along the middle of the top of the skull for the insertion of the powerful muscles of the jaws, a crest which is wholly wanting in the gibbon and probably wanting in all the true ancestors of man. | The gorilla illustrates in the extreme the specializations which are begun in the chimpanzee, and which are attributable to a Fic. 21. Contrast of the projecting face (prognathism), retreating forehead, and small brain-case of a young gorilla, as compared with the vertical face, promi- nent nose, high forehead, and large brain-case of a high race of man. After Klaatsch. life partly arboreal, partly terrestrial, with the skull and jaws used as powerful fighting organs. The head is lengthened by the for- ward growth of the muzzle into an extreme prognathism. ‘The limbs and body of the gorilla show a departure from the primitive, slender-limbed, arboreal type of apes and are partly adapted to a bipedal, ground-dwelling habit. As regards psychic evolution,’ Elliot Smith observes that the arboreal mode of life of the early ancestors of man developed quick, alert, and agile movements which stimulated the progress- ive development of the posterior and lateral portions of the brain. The sense of smell had been well developed in a previous terrestrial life, but once these creatures left the earth and took ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 57 to the trees, guidance by the olfactory sense was less essential, for life amidst the branches of the trees is most favorable to the high development of the senses of vision, touch, and hearing. Moreover, it demands an agility and quickness of movement that necessitate efficient motor centres in the brain to co-ordinate and control such actions as tree life calls for. The specialization of sight awakens curiosity to examine objects with greater mi- \ SELF CONTROL / ATTENTION CONDUCT Fic. 22. Side view of a human brain of high type, showing the chief areas of muscular control and of the sensory impressions of sight and hearing, also the prefrontal area in which the higher mental faculties are centred. Modified after M. Allen Starr. nuteness and guides the hands to more precise and skilled move- ments. The anatomy of man is full of remote reminders of this orig- inal arboreal existence, which also explains the very large and early development of the posterior portions of the brain, in which the various senses of sight, touch, and hearing are located. The first advance from arboreal to terrestrial life is marked by the power of walking more or less erect on the hind limbs and thus releasing the arms; this power is developed to a greater or less degree in all the anthropoid apes; with practice they become 58 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE expert walkers. The additional freedom which the erect atti- tude gives to the arms and to the movements of the hands and the separate movements of the fingers is especially noticeable in the gibbon. The cultivation of the powers of the hand reacts upon the further growth and specialization of the brain; thus the brain and the erect attitude react upon each other. In Fic. 23. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (side view) of typical human and prehuman brains, showing the early development of the posterior por- tions of the brain and the relatively late development of the anterior portions, the seat of the higher mental faculties. the gibbon there is a marked increase in the size of those por- tions of the brain which supply the centres of touch, vision, and hearing. Discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four lines of structural evo- lution: first, the assumption of the erect attitude; second, the development of the opposable thumb; third, the growth of the brain; and fourth, the acquisition of the power of speech. ‘The argument for the erect attitude suggested by Lamarck, and ably put by Munro! in 1893, indicates that the cultivation of skill ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 59 with the hands and fingers lies at the root of man’s mental su- premacy. Elliot Smith’s argument that the steady growth and specialization of the brain itself has been the chief factor in lead- ing the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that Fic. 24. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (top view) of typical human and prehuman brains, showing the narrow forebrain of the primitive type and the successive expansion of the seat of the higher mental faculties in the successive races. such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about be- cause the brain had made possible the skilled movements of the hands. The true conception of prehuman evolution, which occurred during Miocene and Pliocene times, is rather that of the coin- cident development of these four distinctively human powers. It appears from the limb proportions in the Neanderthal race 60 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined. The intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sus- tained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant use of the hands, for the action and reaction between hand and brain is found to develop the mind. A similar action and reac- tion between foot and brain developed the erect gait which re- leased the hand from its locomotive and limb-grasping function, and by the resultant perfecting of the motion of thumbs and fin- gers turned the hand into an organ ready for the increasing specialization demanded by the manufacture of flint imple- ments. This is the stage reached, we believe, in late Pliocene times in which the human ancestor emerges from the age of mammals and enters the age of man, the period when the prehistory of man properly begins. ‘The attitude is erect, the hand has a well- developed opposable thumb, the centres of the brain relating to the higher senses and to the control of all the motions of the limbs, hands, and fingers are well developed. The power of speech may still be rudimentary. The anterior centres of the brain for the storing of experience and the development of ideas are certainly very rudimentary. -CHANGE OF ENVIRONMENT IN EUROPE Considering that the origin and development of any creature are best furthered by a struggle for existence sufficiently severe to demand the full and frequent exercise of its powers of mind and body, it is interesting to trace the sequence of natural events which prepared western Europe for the entrance of the earliest branches of the human race. The forests and plants portray even more vividly than the animals the changing conditions of the environment and temperature which marked the approach and various vicissitudes of the great Ice Age. PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE 61 The forests of central France in Pliocene times, as well as those of the valley of the Arno in northern Italy, were very similar to the forests of the middle United States at the present time, comprising such trees as the sassafras, the locust, the honey- locust, the sumach, the bald cypress, and the tulip. Thus the regions which harbored the rich forest and meadow fauna of northern Italy in Upper Pliocene times abounded in trees fa- miliar to-day in North and South Carolina, including even such distinctively American forms as the sweet gum (Liguidambar styraciflua), the sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica), and the bay, beside those above mentioned. To the south, along the Mediterranean, there also flourished trees incident to a more tropical climate, the bamboo, the sabal palm, and the dwarf fan-palm; most interest- ing is the presence of the sabal, which now flourishes in the sub- tropical rain forests of central Florida. The sequoia also was abundant. ‘Toward the close of the Pliocene the first indications of the coming Glacial Epoch were a lowering of the temperature, and, in the higher mountainous areas perhaps, a beginning of the glacial stages. The ancestors of the modern forests of Europe predominated in central France: the oak, the beech, the poplar, the willow, and the larch. It is these forests, which survived the vicissitudes of glacial times, that gave descent to the forests of Postglacial Europe, while all the purely American types disappeared from Europe and are now found only in the temperate regions of the. United States.° _ We have seen that few anthropoid apes have been Heeraed either in the Middle or Upper Pliocene of Europe; the gibbon- ape line disappears with the Pliohylobates of the Upper Pliocene. These animals are, however, rarely found in fossil form, owing to their retreat to the trees in times of flood and danger, so that we need not necessarily assume that the anthropoids had actually become extinct in France. The primates which are found in the Upper Pliocene belong to the lower types of the Old World monkeys, related to the living langur of India and to the macaque and baboon. The evidence, as far as it goes, indicates that the 62 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ancestors of man were at this time evolving in Asia and‘not in Europe. This evidence, nevertheless, would be completely off- set if it could be proven that the eoliths, or primitive flints, found in various parts of Europe from Oligocene to Pleistocene times are really artifacts of human or prehuman origin. The mammals of Europe in Pliocene times were derived by very remote migrations from North America and, more directly, from southern Asia. The Oriental element is very strong, in- cluding types of rhinoceroses now peculiar to Sumatra and south- ern Asia, numerous mastodons very similar to the south Asiatic types of the times, gazelles and antelopes, including types re- lated to the existing elands, and primitive types of horses and of tapirs. Among the carnivores in Europe similar to south Asiatic species were the hyenas, the dog bears (Hyenarctos), the civets, and the pandas (Azlurus); there were also the sabre-tooth tigers and numerous other felines. In the trees were found the south Asiatic and north African monkeys; and in the forests the axis deer, now restricted to Asia. But the most distinctive African- Asiatic animal of this period was found in the rivers; namely, the hippopotamus, which arrived in Italy in the early Pliocene and ranged south by way of the Sicilian land bridge into northern Africa and east along the southern shores of the Black Sea to the Siwalik hills of India. Thus, many of the ancestors of what we have termed the African-Asiatic mammal group of Pleistocene times had already found their way into Europe early in Pliocene times. In middle and late Pliocene times there arrived three very important types of mammals which played a great rdéle in the early Pleistocene. These are: The true horses (Equus stenonis) of remote North American origin. The first true cattle (Leptobos elatus), originating in southern Asia. The true elephants, first Elephas planifrons and later E. meridi- onalis, better known as the southern mammoth, both orig- inating in Asia. TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTOCENE 63 The forests and river borders of the valley of the Arno, near Florence, contained all these African-Asiatic animals in Upper Pliocene times. Here they received their names which remind us of this region of Italy as it is to-day, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus etruscus), the Florentine macaque (Ma- cacus florentinus), Steno’s horse (Equus stenonis), the Etruscan cattle (Leptobos etruscus), which was the earliest ox to reach Europe. In Italy and France these African-Asiatic mammals were mingled with ancestors of the more hardy Eurasiatic forest and meadow group. Of these the most graceful were a variety of deer with very elaborate or many-branched antlers, hence known as the ‘polycladine’ deer. In the forests roamed the wild boars of Auvergne (Sus arvernensis), also the bears of Auvergne (Ursus arvernensis), lynxes, foxes, and wildcats. In the rivers swam the otter and the beaver, closely allied to existing forms. Among the rocks of the high hills were the pikas or tailless hares (Lagomys), also hamsters, moles, and shrews. Many of the most characteristic animals of the dry modern plateaus of Africa had disappeared from Europe before the close of Pliocene times, namely, species of gazelles, antelopes, and the hipparion horses, all of which were adapted to the dry uplands or deserts of Africa. In the remaining fawne Pliocene récente of French authors we find evidence that the Pliocene in all of western Europe closed with a moist, warm, temperate climate, with wide- spread forests and rivers interspersed with meadows favorable to the life of a great variety of browsing deer as well as of grazing elephants, horses and cattle. The flora of the Middle Pliocene as found at Meximieux indicates a mean annual temperature of 62° to 63° Fahr. One of the proofs of the gradual lowering of temperature toward the close of Pliocene times in Europe is the southward retreat and disappearance of the apes and monkeys; the Upper Miocene gibbon is found as far north as Eppelsheim, near Worms, Germany; in Lower Pliocene times the monkeys and apes are found only in the forests of the south of France; in Upper 64 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Pliocene times they are recorded only in the forests of northern Italy ; the evidence, so far as it goes, indicates a gradual retreat toward the south. Finally, at the end of the Pliocene there existed very close geographic relations eastward with the mammalian life of India by way of what was then the isthmus of the Dardanelles and southward with the mammalian life of Africa by way of the Sicilian land bridge. This would indicate that the long lines of eastward and westward migration were open and favorable to the arrival in western Europe of new migrants from the far east, including perhaps the most primitive races of man. There 1s not the least evidence that Pliocene man or ancestors of man existed in Europe, excepting such as may be afforded by the problematic eoliths, or most primitive flints. THe First GLACIATION In Upper Pliocene times cold marine currents® from the north began to flow along the southeastern coast of England, with in- dications of a gradually lowering temperature culminating at a time when the sea abounded in the arctic mollusks, which have been preserved in the ‘Weybourn Crags,’ a geologic formation along the coast of Norfolk. This arctic current was the herald of the First Glacial Stage. It does not appear that a glacial cap of any considerable extent was formed in Great Britain at this stage, but about this time the first great ice-cap was formed in British North America west of Hudson Bay, which sent its ice-sheets as far south as Iowa and Nebraska. In the latter State forests of spruce and other coniferous species indicate the appearance of a cool tem- perate flora in advance of the glaciation. In the Swiss Alps the snow descended 1,200 meters below the present snow-line, and in Scandinavia and northern Germany the first great ice-sheets were formed from which flowed the glaciers and rivers convey- ing the ‘Old Diluvium,’ or the ‘oldest drift.’ Accompanying the cold wave along the eastern coast of England we note, in the famous fossil deposits known as the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ THE FIRST GLACIATION 65 which overlie the Weybourn Crags, the arrival from the north of the fir-tree (Abies). This is most significant, because it had hitherto been known only in the arctic region of Grinnell Land, and this was its first appearance in central Europe. Another | STS as SS ap] Y 200 400 600 800 1000 ee a ee Kilometers Fic. 25. The First (Giinz) Glacial Stage was far less extensive than that in the above map, which shows Europe in the Second Glacial Stage, during the greatest extension of the ice-fields and glaciers (dots), a period of continental depression in which the Mediter- ranean, Black, and Caspian Seas were connected. ‘The line from Scandinavia to the Atlas Mountains corresponds with the section shown in Fig. 13, p. 37. Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie and Penck. herald of northern conditions was the first occurrence of the musk-ox in England, which is attributed’ to the ‘Forest Bed’ deposits. While Great Britain was less affected at this time than other regions, there is no doubt as to the vast extent of the First Glacial Stage in British America, in Scandinavia, and in the Alps; in the latter region it has been termed ‘the Giinz stage’ by Penck and Briickner. The ‘drift’ deposits have a general thickness of 9814 66 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE feet (30 m.), but they are largely covered and buried by those of the far more extensive Second Glacial Stage. The Scandi- navian ice-sheet® not only occupied the basin of the Baltic but overflowed Scania—the southern part of Sweden—and extended as far south as Hamburg and Berlin. In the Alps the glaciers Fic. 26. ‘The musk-ox, belonging to the tundra region of the arctic circle, which is reported to have migrated as far south as the southern coast of England during the First (Ganz) Glacial Stage. passed down all the great mountain valleys to the low grounds of the foreland, implying a depression of the snow-line to 4,000 feet below its present level. THe First INTERGLACIAL STAGE. Se DoE. Proofs that a prolonged cool wave passed over Britain dur- ing the first glaciation are seen in its after effects, namely, in the modernization of the forests and in the disappearance both in Britain and France of a very considerable number of animals which were abundant in Upper Pliocene times. Yet by far the greater part of the Pliocene mammal life survived, a fact which tends to show that, while very cold conditions of climate and great precipitation of moisture may have characterized the regions immediately surrounding the ice-fields, the remainder of western Europe at most passed through a prolonged cool period during THE FIRST INTERGLACIAL STAGE 67 the climax of the First Glacial Stage. This was followed during the First Interglacial by the return of a period somewhat warmer than the present. This First Interglacial Stage is known as the Norfolkian, from the fact that it was first recognized in Europe in the deposits known as the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk, which contain rich records not only of the forests of the period, but of the noble forms of mammals which roamed over Great Britain and France in Norfolkian times. The forests of Norfolk, in latitude 52° 40’ N. mainly abounded in trees still indigenous to this region, such as the maple, elm, birch, willow, alder, oak, beech, pine, and spruce, a forest flora closely corresponding to that of the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts of England at the present time, although we find in this fossil flora several exotic species which give it a slightly different character.’ From this tree flora Reid concludes that the climate of southeastern England was nearly the same as at present but slightly warmer. We note especially that a very great change had taken place in the entire disappearance in these forests of the trees which in Pliocene times were common to Europe and America, as described above; in other words, the flora of Europe was greatly impover- ished during the first cold wave. In southern France, as at the present time, the interglacial climatic conditions were milder, for we find numerous species of plants, which are now represented in the Caucasus, Persia, southern Italy, Portugal, and Japan. Thus the First Intergla- cial Stage, which was a relatively short one, enjoyed a tempera- ture now belonging about 4° of latitude farther south. a This First Interglacial Stage is also known as the St.-Prestzen, because among the many localities in France and Italy which preserve the plant and mammal life of the times that of St. Prest, in the Paris basin, is the most famous. Here in 1863 Desnoyers”” first reported the discovery of a number of mammal bones with incision lines upon them, which he considered to be the work of man. ‘These deposits were regarded at the time as of Pliocene age, and this gave rise immediately to a wide-spread theory 68 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the appearance of man as early as the Pliocene. The human origin of the incisions discovered by Desnoyers has long been a matter of dispute and is now regarded as very improbable. Sim- ilar lines may be of animal origin, namely, marks left by claws Fic. 27. The giant deer (Megaceros), which first appears in western Europe during the First Interglacial Stage, probably as a migrant from the forested regions of Eurasia, After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History, or teeth, or due to accidental pressure of sharp cutting surfaces. However, we do not pretend to express an opinion of any value as to the cause of these incisions. Supposed confirmation of the evidence of Desnoyers of the existence of Pliocene man was the alleged finding by Abbott of several worked flints, two im situ, in the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk. Many years later in sim- ilar deposits at St. Prest were discovered the supposed ‘eoliths’ which have been referred to the Etage Prestien by Rutot. The age of the St. Prest deposits is, therefore, a matter of the very highest interest and importance. EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 69 St. Prest is not Pliocene; it is rather the most ancient Pleis- tocene deposit in the basin of Paris,'’ and these incised mammal bones probably date from the First Interglacial Stage. The bed which has yielded the incised bones and the rich series of fossils consists of coarse river sands and gravels, forming part of a ‘high terrace,’ 98% feet (30 m.) above the present level of the river Eure. ‘This, like other ‘high terraces,’ contains a characteristic First Interglacial fauna, including the southern mammoth (E. meridionalis), and Steno’s horse (E. stenonis). We also find here other very characteristic early Pleistocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros (D. etruscus), the giant hippopotamus of early Pleistocene times (H. major), the giant beaver of the early Pleistocene (Trogontherium), three forms of the common beaver (Castor), and one of the bison (Bison antiquus). This mammalian life of St. Prest is very similar to that of Norfolk, England; to that of Malbattu in central France, Puy-de-Déme; of Peyrolles, near the mouth of the Rhéne, in southern France; of Solilhac near Puy; of Durfort, Gard; of Cajarc, Lot-et-Garonne; and finally to that of the valley of the Arno, in northern Italy. One reason why certain authors, such as Boule and Depéret, have placed this stage in the Upper Pliocene is that the mam- mals include so many surviving Pliocene forms, such as the sabre-tooth tigers (Macherodus), the ‘polycladine’ deer with the elaborate antlers (C. sedgwicki), the Etruscan rhinoceros, and the primitive Steno’s horse. But we have recently discovered that, with the exception of the ‘polycladine’ deer, these mam- mals certainly survived in Europe as late as the Second Inter- glacial Stage, and there is said to be evidence that some even persisted into the Third Interglacial Stage. It is, therefore, the extinction or disappearance from Europe of many of the animals very abundant even in late Pliocene times which marks this fauna as early Pleistocene. Anthropoid apes are no longer found; indeed, there is no evidence of the survival of any of the primates, except macaques, which survive in the Pyrenees to late Pleistocene times; the tapir has entirely disappeared from the forests of Europe; but the most signifi- 70 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cant departure is that of the mastodon, which is believed to have lingered in north Africa and which certainly survived in America into very late Pleistocene times. The animal life of western Europe, like the plant life, has lost one part of its Pliocene aspect while retaining another part, both in its mamma- lian fauna and in its forest flora. The living environment as a whole, moreover, takes on a novel aspect through the arrival, chiefly from the north, of the Fic. 28. The sabre-tooth tiger (Wacherodus), which survives from the Upper Pliocene and is widely distributed over western Europe until the Middle Pleistocene. After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History. more hardy animals and plants which had been evolving for a very long period of time in the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia to the northeast and northwest. From this Eurasiatic region came the stag, or red deer (Cervus elaphus), also the giant deer (Megaceros), and from the northerly swamps the broad- headed moose (Alces latifrons). The presence of members of the deer family (Cervide) in great numbers and representing many different lines of descent is one of the most distinctive features of First Interglacial times. Beside the new northerly forms mentioned above, there was the roe-deer (Capreolus), which still survives in Europe, but there is no longer any record of the EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 71 beautiful axis deer (Axis), which has now retreated to southern Asia. The ‘polycladine’ deer, first observed in the valley of the Arno, is represented in First Interglacial times by Sedgwick’s deer (C. sedgwicki), in Norfolk, and by the species C. dicranius of northern Italy, where there also occurs the ‘deer of the Car- nutes’ (C. carnutorum). We observe that browsing, forest-living, and river-living types predominate. Among the forest-frequenting carnivores were the wolverene, the otter, two kinds of bear, the wolf, the fox, and the marten; another forest dweller was a wild boar, related to the existing Sus scrofa of Europe. Thus in the very beginning of Pleistocene times the forests of Europe were full of a wild life very similar to that of prehistoric times, mingled with which was the Oriental element, the great elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami connecting Europe with the far east. Among these eastern migrants in the early Pleis- tocene were two new arrivals, the primitive wild cattle (Bos primigenius), and the first of the bison (Bison priscus). The theoretical map of western Europe during First Inter- glacial times (Fig. 12, also Fig. 56) enables us to understand these migrations from the northeast and from the Orient. As in- dicated by the sunken river channels discovered on the old con- tinental shelf, the coast-line extended far to the west to the bor- ders of the continental plateau which is now sunk deep beneath the ocean; the British Isles were separated from France not by the sea but by a broad valley, while the Rhine, with the Thames as a western tributary flowed northward over an extensive flood- plain, which is the present floor of the North Sea basin.” It is not improbable that the rich mammalian life deposits in the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk, were washed down by tribu- taries of this ancient Rhine River. In all the great rivers of this enlarged western Europe occurred the hippopotami, and along the river borders and in the forests browsed the Etruscan rhinoceros. Among the grazing and meadow-living forms of the Norfolk country of Britain were species of wild cattle (Bos, Leptobos), together with two species 72 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of horses, including a lighter form resembling Steno’s horse (E. stenonis cocchi) of the Val d’Arno and a heavier type probably belonging to the forests. The giant elephant of this period is the southern mammoth (E. meridionalis trogontherit), a somewhat specialized descendant of the Pliocene southern mammoth of the valley of the Arno; this animal is best known from a superb specimen discovered at Durfort (Fig. 42) and preserved in the Paris Museum. It is said to have attained a height of over 12 feet as compared with 11 feet 3 inches, the height of the largest existing African elephants. It is probable that all these south Asiastic migrants into Europe were partially or wholly covered with hair, in adaptation to the warm, temperate climate of the summers and the cool winters. To the south, in the still milder climate of Italy, the arrival of another great species, known as the ‘ancient’ or ‘straight-tusked elephant’ (EZ. antiquus), is re- corded. This animal had not yet reached France or Britain. Preying upon the defenseless members of this heterogeneous fauna were the great macherodonts, or sabre-tooth tigers, which ranged over Europe and northern Africa and into Asia. It does not appear that the true lions (Felis leo) had as yet entered Europe. An intercommunication of life over a vast area extending 6,000 miles from the Thames valley on the west to India on the southeast is indicated by the presence of six or more similar or related species of elephants and rhinoceroses. Twenty-five hun- dred miles southeast of the foot-hills of the Himalayas similar herds of mammals, but in an earlier stage of evolution, roamed over the island of Java, which was then a part of the Asiatic mainland. THE TRINIL RACE OF JAVA The human interest in this great life throng lies in the fact that the migration routes opened by these great races of animals may also have afforded a pathway for the earliest races of men. Thus the discovery of the Trinil race in central Java, amidst a THE TRINIL RACE 73 fauna closely related to that of the foot-hills of the Himalayas and more remotely related to that of southern Europe, has a more direct bearing upon our subject than would at first appear. On the Bengawan River in central Java, a Dutch army sur- geon, Eugen Dubois, had been excavating for fossils in the hope of finding prehuman remains. In the year 1891 he found near Trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones, including a single upper molar tooth which he regarded as that of a new species of Fic. 29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, modelled by the Belgian artist Mascré, under the direction of Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels, Belgium. ape. On carefully clearing away the rock the top of a skull ap- peared at about a meter’s distance from the tooth. Further ex- cavation at the close of the rainy season brought to light a second molar tooth and a left thigh-bone about 15 meters from the spot where the skull was found, imbedded and fossilized in the same manner. These scattered parts were described by Dubois® in 1894 as the type of Pithecanthropus erectus,* a term signifying the * There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utilized in the present de- scription includes Dubois, Fischer,* Schwalbe,'® Biichner,'® 74 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE upright-standing ape-man. ‘The specific term erectus refers to the thigh-bone, of which the author observes: “We must there- fore conclude that the femur of Pithecanthropus was designed for the same mechanical functions as that of man. The two articu- lations and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the same parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between the form and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that this Fic. 30. The Solo or Bengawan River in central Java. Scene of the discovery of the type specimen of Pithecanthropus erectus in 1894. After Selenka and Blanckenhorn. Compare map (Fig. 32, p. 75). fossil creature had the same upright posture as man and likewise walked on two legs. . . . From this it necessarily follows that the creature had the free use of the upper extremities—now su- perfluous for walking—and that these last were no doubt already far advanced in that line of differentiation which developed them in mankind into tools and organs of touch. . . . From a study of the femur and skull it follows with certainty that this fossil cannot be classified as simian. . . . And, as with the skull, so also with the femur, the differences that separate Pithecanthropus from man are less than those distinguishing it from the highest anthropoid. . . . Although far advanced in the course of differ- entiation, this Pleistocene form had not yet attained to the human THE TRINIL RACE 75 type. Pithecanthropus erectus is the transition form between man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach us. must have existed. He is the ancestor of man.’’ Thus the author placed Pithecanthropus in a new family, of the order Primates, which he named the Pithecanthropide. The geologic age Vatoie of the bones referred SELL OLS RE to is a matter of first | ’ Pleistocene importance. ‘The re- and Recent NNE ° - Yvium mains of Puithecan- Neogene thropus lay in a de- posit about one meter 7 80 Kilomerers in thickness, consist- Fic. 31. Geological section of the volcano of Lawoe : in the Solo River basin. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. ing of loose, coarse, tufaceous sandstones, below this a stratum of hard, blue- gray clay, and under that marine breccia. Above the Pith- ecanthropus layer were the ‘Kendeng’ strata, a many-layered tufaceous sandstone, about 15 meters in thickness. This geo- logic series was considered by Dubois and others to be of late , Tertiary or Plio- Scale 1: 4800 TRIN/L cene ave; — Pithe- ) x 3 canthropus ac- cordingly became known as the long- awaited ‘Pliocene ape-man.’ Subse- quent researches by expert geolo- gists have tended to refer the age to Fic. 32. Map of the Solo River, showing the Pithecan- the early Pleisto- thropus discovery site, also two excavations (Pit No. 1, i : Pit No. 2) in the ancient gravel of the river-bottom, made cene. According by the Selenka-Blanckenhorn expedition of 1907. After to Elbert?8 the Selenka and Blanckenhorn. Kendeng strata overlying the Pithecanthropus layer correspond to an early plu- vial period of low temperature and, in point of time, to the 76 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Ice Age of Europe. For even in Java one can distinguish three divisions of the Pleistocene period, including the first period of low temperature to which the Pithecanthropus layer is referred. The fossil mammals contained in the Pithecanthropus layer have also been thoroughly studied,'? and they tend to confirm the original reference to the uppermost Pliocene. They yield a very rich fauna similar to that of the Siwalik hills of India, in- cluding the porcupine, pangolin, several felines, the hyzna, and Friver Solo Fithecanthropus 90M fe water mark of Ri ver Solo aoirtrt ind So | | SS 75M age ceeeee eee wee! | 70M af 2 iP5°6 EC rats All d 65M above Sea leve/ Fic. 33. Section corresponding to line A—B in Fig. 32, showing the river-drift gravels and sands at the point where the skull-top of Pithecanthropus was found. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. Recent 7 River wash, blue-black clay. ( 6 Light-colored sandstone, like tuff. | 5 Gray tuff with balls of clay, fresh-water shells. 4 White streaked sandstone resembling tufa. 3 Blue-black clay with plant remains. — 2 Bone-bearing stratum. Pithecanthrobus. 1 Lahar conglomerate. Pleistocene the otter. Among the primates beside Pithecanthropus there is a macaque. Among the larger ungulates are two species of rhi- noceros related to existing Indian forms, the tapir, the boar, the hippopotamus, the axis and rusa deer, the Indian buffalo, and wild cattle. It is noteworthy that three species of late Pliocene elephants, all known as Stegodon, and especially the species Stegodon ganeza, occur, as well as Elephas hysudricus, a species related to FE. antiquus, or the straight-tusked elephant, which entered Europe in early Pleistocene times. Fossils of the same animals are found in the foot-hills of the Himalayas of India, about 2,500 miles distant to the northwest. The India deposits are considered of uppermost Pliocene age,”° for this is the closing life period of the upper Siwaliks of India. THE TRINIL RACE i Certainly Java was then a part of the Asiatic continent, and similar herds of great mammals roamed freely over the plains from the foot-hills of the Himalaya Mountains to the borders of the ancient Trinil River, while similar apes inhabited the for- ests. At this time the orang may have entered the forests of Borneo, which are at present its home; it is the only ape thus far found in the uppermost | Pliocene of India. We may, therefore, anticipate the dis- covery, atany time, in India of a race similar to Pithecanthro pus. The geologic age of the Trinil race is, therefore, to be considered as late Plio- cene or early Pleistocene. This great discovery of Dubois aroused wide-spread and heated discussion, in which the foremost anato- mists and paleontologists of the world took part. Some regarded the skull as that of a giant gibbon, others as prehuman, and still others as a transition fic. 34. The top (1) and side (1a) views of cme cy gio ous Hs Sten of Tukeoenys wa own opinion, however, from a fuller understanding of the specimens themselves, always keep- ing in mind that it is a question whether the femur and the skull belong to the same individual or even to the same race. First, we are struck by the marked resemblance which the top of the skull bears, both on viewing it from the side and from above, to that of the Neanderthal race. This fully justifies the opinion of the anatomist Schwalbe’ that the skull of Pithecanthropus is nearer to that of Neanderthal man than to that of even the 78 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE highest of the anthropoid apes. As measured by Schwalbe, the index of the height of the cranium (Kalottenhiheindex) may be compared with others as follows: Lowest. human racé<)0 7 shy Geen ee 52 per cent. Neanderthal: man." race: sees wars kee 40.4 per cent. Pihecanthropus, or Unniltrace ose oe eee 34,2 Der. Cent, This accords with the estimate of the brain capacity™ of 855 c.cm. (Dubois) as compared with 1,230 c.cm., the smallest brain Fic. 35. Head of chimpanzee—front and side views—exhibiting a head of somewhat sim- ilar shape to that of Pithecanthropus, with prominent eyebrow ridges, but much ~ smaller brain capacity. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. capacity found in a member of the Neanderthal race. Second, as seen from above, we are struck with the great length of the calvarium as compared with its breadth, the cephalic index or ratio of breadth to length being 73.4 per cent (Schwalbe) as compared with 73.9 per cent in the Neanderthal type skull; this dolichocephaly accords with the fact that all of the earliest human races thus far found are long-headed, although according to Schwalbe” all anthropoids are broad-headed. This is a very important distinction. The third feature is the prominence and width of the bony eyebrow ridges above the orbits, which are almost as great as in the chimpanzee and greatly exceed those *TIn the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is goo c.cm. THE TRINIL RACE 79 of the Neanderthal race and of the modern Australian. The profile of the Trinil head restored by McGregor (Fig. 38) ex- hibits this prominent bony ridge and the low, retreating fore- head. In the latest opinion of Schwalbe” Pithecanthropus may be regarded as one of the direct ancestors of Neanderthal man and even of the highest human species, Homo sapiens. He also considers that when the lower jaw of the Trinil race becomes Fic. 36. Profile of the skull of Pithecanthropus, as restored by J. H. McGregor. 1914. One-third life size. known, it will be found to be very similar to that of the Heidel- berg man, the final conclusion being that Pithecanthropus and the nearly allied Heidelberg man may be regarded as the common ancestors of the Neanderthal race, on the one hand, and of the higher races on the other. There are, however, reasons for ex~ cluding Pithecanthropus from the direct ancestral line of the higher races of man. } This prehuman stage has, none the less, a very great signifi- cance in the developmental history of man. In our opinion it is the very stage which, theoretically, we should anticipate finding in the dawn of the Pleistocene. A similar view is taken by Biichner,”4 who presents in an admirable diagram (Fig. 117) the 80 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE result of his comparison of twelve different characters in the skulls of Pithecanthropus, the Neanderthals, the Australians, and the Tasmanians. One of the main objects of Biichner’s research was a very detailed comparison of the Trinil skull with that of the lowly and now extinct Tasmanian race, which, we observe oa we rio y og ZY 4 oouwe G YY 2 / We <é a es ee a i ZA eh & eal \ \4 \ Ir a i> wane SNS As UN | SS ie H Lg CxS Fic. 37. Three views of the skuil of Pithecanthropus, as restored by J. H. McGregor, showing the original (shaded) and restored (black lines) portions. About one-quarter life size. in the diagram, occupies a position only a little higher than that of the Spy-Neanderthal race. If the femur belongs with the skull, the Trinils were a tall race, reaching a height of 5 feet 7 inches as compared with 5 feet 3 inches in the Neanderthals. The thigh-bone (Fig. 122) has a very slight curvature as compared with that of any of the apes or lemurs, and in this respect is more human; it is remarkably elongate (455 mm.), surpassing that of the Neanderthals; the THE TRINIL RACE 81 shin-bone (tibia) was probably correspondingly short. The two upper grinding-teeth preserved are much more human than those of the gibbon, but they do not resemble those of man closely enough to positively confirm the prehuman theory. Dubois ob- serves > “That the tooth belongs to some hominid form needs no Fic. 38. Profile view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. further demonstration. Aside from its size and the greater roughness of the grinding surface, it differs from the human grinder in that the less developed cusp of Pithecanthropus is the posterior cusp next the cheek, while in man it is generally the posterior cusp next the tongue. The simplification of the crown and the root of the Trinil grinder is quite as extensive as it usually is in man.” Various efforts have been made to supplement the scattered and scanty materials collected by Dubois. The Selenka expedi- tion of 1907-8 brought back a human left lower molar as the only result of an express search for more Pithecanthropus remains. 82 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Dubois is also said to possess the fragment of a primitive-looking lower jaw from the range known as the Kendeng Hills, at tke southern base of which lies the village of Trinil. It remains for us to consider the stage of psychic evolution attained by the Trinil race, and this naturally turns upon the Fic. 39. Front view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. erect attitude and what little is known of the size and proportions of the brain. | The assumption of the erect attitude is not merely a question of learning to balance the body on the hinder extremities.*® It involves changes in the interior of the body, the loss of the tail, the freeing of the arms, and the establishment of the diaphragm as the chief muscle of respiration. The thigh-bone of Pithecan- thropus is so much like that of man as to support the theory that the erect position may have been assumed by the ancestors of man as early as Oligocene times. It would appear that Pitke- canthropus had free use of the arms and it is possible that the THE TRINIL RACE 83 control of the thumb and fingers had been cultivated, perhaps in the fashioning of primitive implements of wood and stone. The discovery of the use of wood as an implement and weapon probably preceded that of the use of stone. Elliot Smith describes this stage of development as follows :?” . . . The emancipation of the hands from progression threw the whole responsibility upon the legs, which became more effi- cient for their pur- pose as supports once they lost their pre- hensile powers and became elongated and specialized for rapid progression. Thus the erect atti- > Bt een tude became stereo- ATTENTION” ee aa: typed and fixed and the limbs specialized, ce e Auditory Tmpr Fic. 40. Side view of brain of high type, illustrating and these upright the contrast between the motor, sensory, and idea- simians emerged from tional centres in a high type of modern brain; and ? 8 Elliot Smith’s characterization of the probable cen- their ancestral forests tres in the Pithecanthropus type of brain. Modified in societies, armed after M. Allen Starr. with sticks and stones and with the rudiments of all the powers that eventually enabled them to conquer the world. The greater exposure to danger which these more adventurous spirits en- countered once they emerged in the open, and the constant struggles these first semihuman creatures must have had in encounters with definite enemies, no less than with the forces of Nature, provided the factors which rapidly weeded out those unfitted for the new conditions and by natural selection made real men of the survivors.” The undeveloped forehead of Pithecanthropus and the dimin- utive frontal area of the brain indicate that the Trinil race had a limited faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tra- dition, for in this prefrontal area of the brain are located the powers of attention and of control of the activities of all other 84 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE parts of the brain. In the brain of the ape the sensory areas of touch, taste, and vision predominate, and these are well devel- Fic. 41. Diagram showing the side (lower figure) and top (upper figure) views of the outline of the Pithecanthropus brain as compared with that of the chimpanzee and the higher human types of the Piltdown, Neanderthal, and modern races. oped in Pithecanthro- pus. The central area of the brain, which is the storehouse of the memories of actions and of the feelings associ- ated with them, is also well developed, but the prefrontal area, which is the seat of the faculty of profiting by experi- ence or of recalling the consequences of previ- ous responses to experi- ence, is developed to a very limited degree.”® Thus, while the brain of Pithecanthropus is estimated at 855-900 c.cm., as compared with 600 c.cm. of the largest simian brain, and 930 c.cm. of the smallest brain recorded in the lower members of the human race, it indicates a very low stage of in- telligence. ABSENCE OF PALZOLITHS AND PRESENCE OF EOLITHS IN WESTERN EUROPE Returning to First Interglacial conditions in Europe, we ob- serve that the river courses flowed through the same valleys as at present but that in early glacial times the channels were far EOLITHS, OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS 85 broader and were elevated from 100 to 150 feet above the present relatively narrow river levels. ‘The vast floods of the succeeding glaciation filled these valleys, but some of the ‘high terraces’ were already formed. It is extremely important to note that Pre-Chellean flints or true palzoliths have never been found in the sands or gravels of these ‘high terraces.’ Eoliths found on this ‘high-terrace’ level at St. Prest belong to the Prestien culture of Rutot,?® who regards this station as of Upper Pliocene age. These, like other supposed Eolithic flints, are very rough, but, rude as they are, they generally exhibit one part shaped as if to be grasped by the hand, while the other part is edged or pointed as for cutting. It is generally admitted that these flints are mostly of accidental shapes, and there has been little or no proof of their being fashioned by human hands. On this point Boule®® observes: “As to the eoliths, I have combated the theory not only because it seems tome improbable but because a long geological experience has shown me that it is often impos- sible to distinguish stones split, cut, or retouched by purely physi- cal agents from certain products of rudimentary workmanship.” On the other side, it is interesting at this point to quote the words of MacCurdy :*' ‘‘My opinion, based on personal experi- ence, . . . is that the existence of a primitive industry, antedat- ing what is commonly accepted as Paleolithic, has been estab- lished. ‘This industry occurs as far back as the Upper Miocene and continues on through the Upper Tertiary into and including the Lower Quaternary. The distinguishing characters of the in- dustry remain but little changed throughout the entire period, the subdivision of the period into epochs being based on stratig- raphy [geologic stages| and not on industrial characters. The requirements in the way of tools being very simple and the supply of material in the way of natural flakes and fragments of flint being very plentiful, the inventive powers of the population remained dormant for ages. Hammer and knife were the orig- inal tools. Both were picked up ready-made. A sharp-edged, natural flake served for one, and a nodule or fragment served for the other. When the edge of the flake became dulled by use, the 86 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE piece was either thrown away or the edge was retouched for further use. If hammer or flake did not admit of being held com- fortably in the hand, the troublesome points or edges were re- moved or reduced by chipping. The stock of tools increased slowly with the slowly growing needs. As these multiplied and the natural supply of raw material diminished, the latter was supplemented by the manufacture of artificial flakes. When the lesson of associating definite forms of implements with definite uses was learned, special types arose, notably the amygdaloid implement and the poniard. ‘Then came the transition from the Eolithic to the Palzolithic, a stage that has been so thoroughly investigated by Rutot.” It is not improbable that the Trinil race was in a stage of Eolithic culture; it is highly probable that the prehuman races of this very remote geologic age used more than one weapon of wood and stone. THE GREAT SECOND GLACIATION CEIg 725. spegony In early Pleistocene times a general elevation of southern Eu- rope united the islands of the Mediterranean with Europe on the north and with Africa on the south, forming broad land connec- tions between the two continents which afforded both northward and southward migration routes. At this time certain character- istically African mammals, such as the straight-tusked elephant and the lion, were probably finding their way north; Sicily at this time gained its large fauna of elephants and hippopotami, and the island of Malta was connected with the mainland, as well as the easterly islands of Cyprus and Crete. It appears probable that the connection between the Italian mainland and Malta was renewed more than once. The approach of the second glaciation is indicated along the southeast coast of Great Britain by the subsidence of the land and the rise of the sea, accompanied by a fresh arctic current, bring- ing with it an invasion of arctic mollusks which were deposited in a layer of marine beds directly over those which contain the 6 Px. III. Pithecanthropus erectus, the ape-man of Java. Antiquity estimated at 500,00c years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. It is not im- probable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one natural weapon of wood or stone, the latter of the accidental ‘ Eolithic’ type. “hs THE SECOND GLACIATION 89 rich warm fauna and flora of the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Nor- folk. It also appears probable that a cold northern current swept along the western coasts of Europe, and Geikie estimates that a lowering of temperature occurred of not less than 20° Fahr., a change as great as is now experienced in passing from the south of England to the North Cape. The second glaciation was by far the greatest both in Europe and America. In the region of the Pyrenees, which at the very. much later period of the Third Interglacial Stage became a favor- ite country with Palzolithic man, there were glaciers of vast extent. This is realized by comparison with present conditions. The largest of the present glaciers of the Pyrenees is only 2 miles in length and terminates at a height of 7,200 feet above the sea. During the greatest glaciation the snow appears to have de- scended 4,265 feet below its present level. From the Pyrenees through the Gallego valley into Spain there flowed a glacier 38 miles in length, while to the north the glacier in the valley of the Garonne flowed for a distance of 45 miles to a point near Montré- jeau. Even in its lower reaches this glacier was over half a mile in thickness. To the east was a glacier 38 miles in length, filling the valley of the Ariége and covering the sites of such great Pa- leolithic caverns as that of Niaux; it is probable that at this time the formation of this cavern began. ‘That these glaciers were all prior to the period of the Lower Paleolithic Acheulean culture is proven by the fact that Acheulean implements are frequently met with lying on the surface of the moraines laid down by these ancient ice-floes.*® To the north was the vast Scandinavian ice-field, which swept over Great Britain and beyond the valleys of the Rhine, Elbe, and Vistula, reaching nearly to the Carpathians. Even the lesser mountain chains were capped with glaciers, including the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa. In North America from the great centre west of Hudson Bay the ice-cap extended its drift southward into Missouri, lowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, beyond the limits of earlier and sub- sequent glaciations. 90 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The materials of the chief ‘high terraces’ of the great river- valleys of western Europe were deposited at this time. LIFE OF THE WARM SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE The long warm period which followed the great glaciation is remarkable in presenting the first proofs of the presence of man in western Europe. It is the period of the Heidelberg race of man (Homo heidelbergensis), known only from a single jaw dis- covered by Schoetensack in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg, in 1907. No other proofs of the existence of man have been found in any of the deposits which took place during this vast interval of geologic time, unless we accept the theory of Penck and of Geikie that the Pre-Chellean and Chellean quarries of the River Somme belong in the Second Interglacial Stage. The vast duration of this interglacial time is evidenced both in Europe and America by the deep cutting and wearing away of the ‘drifts’ brought down by the second glaciation. Penck believes that this ‘long warm stage’ represents a greater period of time than the entire interval between the third glaciation and the present time. The climate immediately following the re- treat of the glaciers was cool and moist in the glaciated regions, but this was followed by such a prolonged period of heat and dryness that the glaciers on the Alps withdrew to a point far above their present limits. In one of the old ‘high terraces’ of the River Inn, in the north Tyrol, is a deposit containing the prevailing forest flora of the period, from which Penck concludes that the climate of Inns- bruck was 2° C. higher than it is at the present time. Correspond- ing with this the snow-line stood 1,000 feet above its present level, and the Alps, save for the higher peaks, were almost completely denuded of ice and snow. A characteristic plant is the Pontic alpine rose (Rhododendron ponticum), which flourishes now in an annual temperature of 57°-65° Fahr.,*4 indicating that the cli- mate of Innsbruck was as genial as that of the Italian slopes of the Alps to-day. This rhododendron is now found in the Cau- casus. Other southern species of the time were a buckthorn, THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE 91 related to a species now living in the Canary Islands, and the box. There were also more hardy plants, including the fir (Pinus sylvestris), spruce, maple, willow, yew, elm, beech, and moun- tain-ash. The forests of the same period in Provence were, for the most part, similar to those now found in that region; out of thirty-seven species twenty-nine still occur in this part of southern France. On the whole, the aspect of southern France at this time was surprisingly modern. The forests included oaks, elms, poplars, willows, lindens, maples, sumachs, dogwood, and hawthorn. Among the climbing plants were the vine and the clematis. Here also were some forms which have since retreated to the south, such as species of the sweet bay and laurel which are now confined to the Canary Islands. The great humidity of the time is indicated by the presence of certain species of con- ifers which require considerable moisture. As in First Intergla- cial times, the presence of the fig indicates mild winters. It is difficult to imagine forests of this modern character, which farther northward included a number of still more tem- perate and hardy species, as the setting of the great African and Asiatic life that roamed all over western Europe at this time. It was the presence of hippopotami, elephants, and rhinoceroses which gave to Lyell, Evans, and other early observers the im- pression that a tropical temperature and vegetation were char- acteristic of this long life period. These animals were formerly regarded as proofs of an almost tropical climate, but the more trustworthy evidence of the forests, strengthened by that of the presence of very numerous hardy types of forest and meadow animals, has set aside all the early theories as to extremely warm temperatures during Second Interglacial times. The remains of what is still conveniently known as the ‘faune chaude,’ or warm fauna, are chiefly found in the sands and gravels of the ancient beds of the Neckar, Garonne, and Thames, and other rivers of the north and south, also in Essex, England. The most surprising fact is that the mammal life of western Europe remained entirely unchanged by the vast second glaciation just described ; the few extinctions which occurred as well as a num- 92 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ber of new arrivals may be attributed to new geographical con- nections with Africa on the south and to the steady progress of migration from the far east. ; IS aes epee Z go" 4 ee “ea Yi, “4 Zz | Yj. i Teka b 7! XG, mn yy GY k } Y Gi I, e 4 2 : : ‘Sel ADS " My ‘river terraces’ composed of sands and gravels were still sharply defined, for the soft covering of ‘loam’ and alluvial soil from the surrounding uplands and hills had not yet washed down to soften the outlines of the ‘terraces.’ Neither were the ‘terraces’ covered with the newer deposits of ‘loess.’ Irish Channel River © . gr English Channel He Fic. 56. Restoration of the geography of western Europe during the Third Interglacial] Stage, showing the ancient land areas (dots) and the ancient river channels now submerged by the sea. Modified after Avebury’s Prehistoric Times by permission of Henry Holt & Co. The six white crosses (X) indicate the location of the principal Pre- Chellean stations of Piltdown on the Ouse, and Gray’s Thurrock on the Thames, in England; of Abbeville, on the north bank, and St. Acheul, on the south bank of the Somme, and Chelles on the Marne, in France; and of Helin in Belgium. It will be observed that the English stations are separated from the others only by the ancient broad valley corresponding with the present English Channel. GEOGRAPHY AND. CLIMATE 117 SECULAR CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN LOWER PALZOLITHIC TIMES We find evidences of four climatic and life phases during the long period of Lower Paleolithic evolution, as follows: 4. Cold Moist Climate.—Advent of the fourth glaciation. Arrival of the ‘full Mousterian’ culture and of the Neanderthal race in Belgium and France. Repair of men to the warmer shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. Final disappearance of the hardy Merck’s rhinoceros and ‘the straight-tusked elephant. Arrival of the tundra fauna, the reindeer, the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros. Refrigeration of western Europe as far south as northern Spain and Italy. Wide distribution of cold alpine, tundra, and steppe mammals all over Germany and France, and into northern Spain. Cold tundra flora in the Thames valley, and at Hoxne, in Suffolk. Migration of the tundra mammals, the reindeer, mammoth, and rhinoceros all over southern Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, and Austria. 3. Arid Climate in Western Europe.—Period of the close of the Acheulean culture; some of the flint workers seeking the shelter of cliffs and approach- ing the entrances to the grottos during the cold season of the year. A dry steppe climate, prevailing westerly winds, and deposits of ‘loess’ all over northern France and Germany. Appearance of the first Neanderthaloid men in Krapina, Croatia. Cool forest flora in the region of La Celle-sous- Moret near Paris, followed by depositions of ‘loess’ and increasingly cool and arid climate. Early Mousterian industry. Disappearance first of the more sensitive pair of Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus and the southern mammoth (E. trogontherit) ; persistence of the more hardy, straight-tusked elephant (EZ. antiquus) and the broad-nosed rhinoceros (D. merckit). 2. Continued Warm Temperate Period.—Time of the Chellean culture found at Chelles, St. Acheul, Gray’s Thurrock, Ilford, Essex, and southward in Torralba, Spain. Abundance of hippopotami, rhinoceroses, southern mammoths, and straight-tusked elephants in northern Germany at Taubach, Weimar, Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim. Rare appearance of sabre-tooth tigers. Temperate forest and alpine flora of Diirnten and Utznach, Switzer- land. Early Acheulean culture widely distributed over all of western Europe. 1. Early Warm Temperate Period.—The warm climate of the Pre-Chel- lean culture period, as seen in the valleys of the Somme, of the Thames, and of the Seine near Paris, favorable to the southern mammoth and the hip- popotamus. Apparent survival of the sabre-tooth tiger and the Etruscan rhinoceros in favored regions. A warm temperate forest flora in La Celle- 118 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE sous-Moret near Paris and in Lorraine. Arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint workers and of the Piltdown race in southern England. It is believed that the climate of Third Interglacial times when it reached its maximum warmth was again somewhat milder than the present climate in the same region. In the Alps the glaciers and the snow-line retreated once more to their present levels. The period opened with humid continental conditions. The areas left bare by the ice were gradually reforested. A picture of the climate in this warm period is presented in the region near Paris in the so-called tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret (Seine-et-Marne). This tufa, which is a hot-springs deposit, overlies river-gravels of Pleistocene age.’ The lower levels of the tufa contain the syca- more-maple (Acer pseudo platanus), willows, and the Austrian pine, indicating a temperate climate. Higher up in the same deposits we find evidences of increasingly mild temperatures in the pres- ence of the box (Buxus) and not infrequently of the fig-tree; the Canary laurel (Laurus nobilis) is somewhat rarer and both it and the fig indicate that the winters were mild, because these plants have the peculiarity of flowering during the winter season ; we infer, therefore, that the climate was somewhat milder and more damp than it is in the same region at the present time. The mollusks also indicate greater equability of climate. These deposits are believed to correspond with the period of Chellean and early Acheulean industry. The plants in the highest levels of the same tufa, however, indicate the advent of a colder climate and also connect this with the Acheulean culture stage through the presence of Acheu- lean flints. The deposit of tufa is covered by a sheet of ‘loess’ corresponding with the return of an arid period in late Acheulean times, in the very heart of northern France. Thus we have a record in the region near the present city of Paris of three cli- matic phases, which are also more or less completely indicated in deposits to the north along the River Somme and in the valley of the ancient Thames. In western France we again interpret the fossil flora of Lor- raine as belonging to the cooler closing period of Third Intergla- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 119 cial times and to the advent of the fourth glaciation, for here the most northern varieties of the larch (Larix) and of the moun- tain-pine (Pinus lambertiana) predominate. The clearest view of the contemporary alpine forests is found near Ziirich in the lignitic deposits of Diirnten and of Utznach, which are so characteristic of the temperate period of the Third Interglacial Stage that Geikie has proposed to call this stage the Diirntenian.’ It was, we recall, at Diirnten that Morlot® found the first proofs of a warm or temperate interglacial flora, between the deposits of a retreating glacier and those of an advancing glacier; for Diirnten is well within the region which was covered by the vast ice-fields both of the third and fourth glaciations. The forests which flourished there in Third Interglacial times were similar to those now found in the same region, consisting of the spruce, fir, mountain-pine, larch, beech, yew, and sycamore, with undergrowth of hazel. With this hardy flora are associated the remains of the straight-tusked elephant, of Merck’s rhi- noceros, of wild cattle, and of the stag; another evidence for our opinion that all these Asiatic mammals had become habituated to the cool temperate climate of the north. LIFE ON THE RIVER SOMME FROM PRE-CHELLEAN TO NEOLITHIC TIMES The borders of the River Somme at St. Acheul give us a vista of the whole story of the succession of geologic events; the great changes of climate, the procession of animal life, the sequence of human races and cultures. Here Commont’® has found the key to the history of this entire country and enabled us to parallel events here with those occurring far away in Taubach, on the borders of the Thuringian forest, and at Krems in Lower Austria, as studied by Obermaier. This is because the ‘older’ and ‘newer’ loess periods, the succession of climates and of mammals, and the development of human cultures were all not local but con- tinental events. The purely local events are found in the kinds of gravels and soils which washed down over the terraces. 120 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE It is very important first to clearly picture in our minds and understand the geography of the Somme at the time of the arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint workers. It appears certain that all three of the old river terraces composed of limestone had been cut long before and that the river had already reached the bottom level of the underlying chalk rock.’ The higher terrace, then as now, was 100 feet above the Somme, the middle terrace about 70 feet, and the lowest terrace extended from a height of about 40 feet down underneath the present river level (see Fig. 59). Fic. 57. Three ancient river terraces (I, II, III), on the west bank of the Connecticut River in Vermont, believed to be of Postglacial age. The terraces are respectively 140, 60, and 20 feet above the river, and thus show a profile similar to that of the ter- races on the Somme in Pre-Chellean times previous to the accumulation of the deposits bearing Paleolithic flints. Photograph by H. H. H. Langill. Since the most primitive Pre-Chellean flints occur in the coarse gravels which lie on the floors of these terraces immediately above the chalk, they prove that the entire excavation of the valley had been completed when the Pre-Chellean workers arrived there. Commont believes that this was the actual topography of the valley during the Third Interglacial Stage. The occurrence of Chellean flints in the white sands overlying the coarse gravels of the middle and upper terraces does not indicate that the flint workers were encamped here while these terraces were being cut out by the River Somme but rather that they sought these convenient bluffs for their quarries during the time that these sands and gravels were washing down from the sides of the valleys and from the plateaus above. Fic. 58. Four typical forms of the Chellean coup de poing, or ‘hand-stone,’ from the ancient quarries of St. Acheul. About one-half actual size. a. Disc-shaped—upper left. c. Poniard-shaped—lower left. b. Oval—upper right. d. Almond-shaped—lower right, In the collection of the American Museum of Natural History. ‘stvaA 00o'$z1 sdeyiad—asy 9u03g pO 24} Jo potied oitjua oy} J9A00 YoryM ‘syusUIdureoUA JUdIDUR VS9Y} JO JUd}X9 YSVA dy} JO Vapi QUIOS SOAIS SIG, “S90vIIO} YSIY puv o[pplul oy} UO SUIoq Way} Jo ysour ‘suoresado Zurprnq YySnozy} Apatyo ‘aiay paraAoosip useq aavy suone}s SULIOM-JUIP U99}XIS ISYI UI SUOT]VARXA S4JOTOSY VdUIG -Moaq (Jaz ¢ SI) srojour £°L¥ IIALI 9Y} 0} UMOP “[aag]-vas aAoqe (ja9j O£z ynoqe) si9}oUL of “yruruMs oy} Wory “YWSua] Ul saftul %¢1 Ayreou adojs o[}USZ v ur ‘ysvay}NOS pu ysaMYIIOU suNI UMOYS UOI}OVS IY], “UMBIPII pue poyIpour —6061 “go61 “YuoWOD Jaq}yY ‘a5Y 9U0}S PIO 94} Jo pus ArOA dy} 07 SuruuIsoq A1dA 9y} WOIf PIYIOM o19M SJUT VIIA soovI19} YSsIy Due ‘OIPPHU “MOT oY} UO sUOT}RIS SuLMOYS ‘suaTUTY-[NIyDY “7S 1B sUIWOG JaATY oy} JO Yue YNOs 9y} UO sadeII0} JOALI JUIIIUR JY} JO UOTJaG «OS “or Goaag 4amorT Pert ny : He 3 | SVANT UAATU-FIVENAL M hyo 1124S 2424 tg pus Ystmojjay ssa0] 4210, haawas Kaur f saddy , Uvtdagsnow Kaos ee 7 -=--uvs.vu sian hyav ; UDLADISNOPR — iS al 90'6T ; ee Serco a Et Se Pe suctwavrd — TaRTT WAAL GVaWAL HOI, ¢ SS2077 zama 6) N, “WMooT 914111408 uv a 1702070] aodd 7-43) O98T On wh tg Ade Sila ee yornysang hg PIZVAVIXT qysray foazoog ut OF rman ey OL THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 123 The history of the climatic changes in the ancient valley of the Somme is most clearly written in these successive deposits, PREHISTORY OF ST. ACHEUL NEOLITHIC. Campignian, recent earth and loam. DPPICk PAL AOLITHIC. Solutrean. Upper Aurignacian, loam. Middle Aurignacian, ‘newer loess’ and gravel. DOWER PAL AOLITHIC. Late Mousterian, gravel and ‘newer loess.’ Early Mousterian, base of ‘newer loess’ (l’ergeron). Middle Acheulean, ‘older loess’ and drift. Early Acheulean, gravels below ‘older loess’ (E. antiquus). Late Chellean, fluviatile sands and mollusk fauna. Early Chellean, first coups de poing; old ‘white sands’ (E. antiquus). Pre-Chellean, prototypes of coup de poing; old ‘lower gravels’ (E. antiquus). 15 feet in thickness, above the ‘lower gravels’ at St. Acheul. Along with the Pre-Chellean and Chellean flints in the ‘old gravels’ and ‘white sands’ we find rec- ords of the moist warm temperate climate which then prevailed in northern France and which un- doubtedly was most favorable to the hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and elephants of those times. The river mollusks found with the late Chellean flints are another indication of the temperate forest climate which continued through early Acheulean times. In the middle Acheulean are found the earliest deposits of ‘older loess’ which indicate a cli- mate still temperate but arid, be- longing to the middle of the Third Interglacial Stage. In Mouste- rian times we find heavy deposits of gravels corresponding to the moist cold climate of the Fourth Glacial Stage, followed in middle Aurignacian times by fresh layers of ‘newer loess,’ indicating the return of a dry climate. Finally, the layers of loam which were washed down over the sides of the valley, and in which the re- mains of Solutrean and Aurignacian camps are found, indicate the renewal of moist and probably forested conditions. Thus, two dry loess periods are indicated in this valley, the first or ‘older loess’ belonging to Third Interglacial times, and the second or ‘newer loess’ to Postglacial times; and we clearly perceive that in the culture layers here there is no evidence what- 124 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ever of more than one glacial stage preceded by a dry climatic period and deposits of loess. If the Pre-Chellean flint workers had arrived in this river-valley as early as Second Interglacial times, we should find proofs of three periods of arid climate and loess deposition and of two glaciations. Beginning with middle Acheulean times the flints are found in deposits of gravels, loams, brick-earths, and ‘older loess,’ which all belong to a succeeding geologic stage and are of more recent date than the lower gravels and sands on the terraces which they overlap and conceal. Deposits of this kind have also been drifted down from the highest levels toward the bottom of the valley, and Commont distinguishes three different depositions or layers of ‘loess loam,’ the lowest or oldest of which contain Acheulean flints, while the middle loams contain Mousterian im- plements. Even toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage there were periods of warmth, perhaps during the height of the hot summer season, when animals of the warm fauna migrated from the south. Thus Commont has recently discovered in the valley of the Somme a station of Mousterian flint workers, whose in- dustry is associated with remains of the three animals typical of the warmer climatic phase; namely, the straight-tusked elephant, the broad-nosed rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus. He has re- affirmed his belief that the greater part of this chapter of human prehistory, both as to the surface topography of the Somme valley and the evolution of the flint cultures from Pre-Chellean to Mousterian times, occurred during the Third Interglacial Stage. THE EARLY WARM TEMPERATE PERIOD OF THE PRE- CHELLEAN CULTURE* We have observed that from Torralba in the Province of Soria, Spain, to Abbeville, near the mouth of the Somme, in the north of France, three types of animals which entered Europe as * The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l’Abbé Henri Breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period. THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 125 early as Upper Pliocene times, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, the horse of Steno, and the sabre-tooth tiger, are said to occur in connection with early Chellean artifacts. The two former species may possibly be confused with early forms of Merck’s rhinoceros and the true forest horses of Europe, but there can be no question as to the identification of the sabre-tooth tiger, num- bers of which were found by M. d’Ault du Mesnil, at Abbeville, on the Somme, with early Chellean flints. The mammalian life of the Somme at this time, as found in the gisement du Champ de Mars near Abbeville, is very rich. Among the larger forms there is cer- PRE-CHELLEAN FAUNA Southern mammoth. Etruscan rhinoceros. Hippopotamus. Primitive horse (Equus stenonis) ? Sabre-tooth tiger. Broad-nosed rhinoceros. Straight-tusked elephant. Giant beaver (Trogontherium cuvieri). Short-faced hyzena. Typical Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna, in- cluding deer, bison, and wild cattle. tainly the great southern mammoth (EF. meridionalis trogontherit), and possibly also the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus). ‘There are unquestionably two species of rhinoceros, the smaller of which is recognized by Boule as the Etruscan, and the larger as Merck’s rhinoceros. Steno’s horse is said to oc- cur here, and there are abundant re- mains of the great hippopotamus (H. major); the sabre-tooth tigers were very numerous as attested by the dis- covery of the lower jaws of thirty or more individuals. The short-faced hyena (H. brevirostris) is also found, and there are several species of deer and wild cattle. This remarkably rich collection of mammals is associated with flints of primitive Chellean or, possibly, of Pre-Chellean type.” In Torralba, Spain, the same very ancient animals occur, and it appears possible that this was the prevailing mammalian life of Pre-Chellean times. We may conclude, therefore, that there is considerable evi- dence, although not as yet quite convincing, that the early Chel- lean flint workers arrived in western Europe before the disap- pearance of the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger. 126 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE THE PRE-CHELLEAN STATIONS (See Figs. 53 and 56.) The dawn of the Palzolithic Age is indicated in various river- drift stations by the appearance of crude flint weapons as well as tools or wmplements, in addition to the supposed tools of Eolithic times. There is an unmistakable effort to fashion the flint into a definite shape to serve a definite purpose: there can no longer be any question of human handiwork. Thus there gradually arise various types of flints, each of which undergoes its own evolution into a more perfect form. Naturally, the workers at some stations were more adept and inventive than at others. Nevertheless, the primitive stages of invention and of technique were carried from station to station; and thus for the first time we are enabled to establish the archeological age of various stations in western Europe. Only a few stations have been discovered where the Paleo- lithic men were first fashioning their flints into prototypes of the Chellean and Acheulean forms. With relation to the theory that these primitive flint workers may have entered Europe by way of the northern coast of Africa, we observe that these stations are confined to Spain, southern and northern France, Belgium, and Great Britain. Neither Pre-Chellean nor Chellean stations of unquestioned authenticity have been found in Germany or central Europe, and, so far as present evidence goes, it would appear that the Pre-Chellean culture did not enter Europe directly from the east, or even along the northern coast of the Mediter- ranean, but rather along the northern coast of Africa,* where Chellean culture is recorded in association with mammalian re- mains belonging to the middle Pleistocene Epoch. The southernmost stations of Chellean culture at present known in Europe are those of Torralba and San Isidro, in central Spain. In the Department of the Gironde is the Chellean station of Marignac, and it is not unlikely that other stations will be dis- * Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape. PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 197 covered in the same region, because the Paleolithic races strongly favored the valleys of the Dordogne and Garonne, but thus far this is the only station known in southern France which represents this period of the dawn of human culture. The chief Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations were clustered along the valleys of the Somme and Seine. Of those rare sites G. M. Woodward, del Bemrose, Colla, Derby, Fic. 60. Very primitive palezoliths from Piltdown, Sussex, consisting chiefly of tools and points of triangular and oval form, fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked on one side only, with very coarse marginal retouch. After Dawson. Nos. 1 and 2 are nearly one-half actual size; No. 3 nearly one-quarter actual size. presenting a typical Pre-Chellean culture, we may note the neigh- boring stations of St. Acheul and Montiéres, both in the suburbs of Amiens on the Somme, and the station of Helin, near Spiennes, in Belgium, explored by Rutot. A very primitive and possibly Pre-Chellean culture was found on the site of the Champ de Mars, at Abbeville. This culture also extended westward across the broad plain which is now the Strait of Dover to the valley of the Thames, on whose northern bank is the important station of 128 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Gray’s Thurrock, while farther to the south is the recently dis- covered site of Piltdown, in the valley of the Ouse, Sussex. The flint tools (Fig. 60) found in the layer immediately over- lying the Piltdown skull are excessively primitive and indicate that the Piltdown flint workers had not attained the stage of craftsmanship described by Commont as ‘Pre-Chellean’ at St. Acheul. “Among the flints,”’ observes Dawson, ‘‘we found sev- eral undoubted flint implements besides numerous ‘eoliths.’ The workmanship of the former is similar to that of the Chellean or Pre-Chellean stage; but in the ma- jority of the Piltdown specimens the work appears chiefly on one face of the implements.” In the Helin quarry near Spien- nes’ occur rude prototypes of the Tite Pinitiven eres Paleolithic coup de poing associated ‘hand-stones’ of Pre-Chellean with numerous flakes which do not Pea Onna Ne es greatly differ from those in the lowest at St. Acheul. AfterCommont. river-gravels of St. Acheul; there is a One-quarter actual size. : close correspondence in the workman- ship of the two sites, so that we may regard the Mesvinian of Rutot* as a culture stage equivalent to the Pre-Chellean. The river-gravels and sands of Helin which contain the implements also resemble those of St. Acheul in their order of stratification. Of special interest is the fact that a primitive flint from this Helin quarry, known as the ‘borer,’ is strikingly similar to the ‘Eolithic’ borer found in the same layer with the Piltdown skull in Sussex. By such indications as this, when strengthened by further evidence of the same kind, we may be able eventually to establish the date both of this Pre-Chellean or Mesvinian culture and of the Piltdown race. In considering the Pre-Chellean implements found at St. Acheul in 1906, we note™ that at this dawning stage of human * Schmidt regards the Strépyan implements, which are considered by Rutot and others to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the - Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age. PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 129 invention the flint workers were not deliberately designing the form of their implements but were dealing rather with the chance shapes of shattered blocks of flint, seeking with a few well- directed blows to produce a sharp point or a good cutting edge. This was the beginning of the art of ‘retouch,’ which was done by means of light blows with a second stone instead of the ham- mer-stone with which the rough flakes were first knocked off. The retouch served a double purpose: Its first and most im- portant object was further to sharpen the point or edge of the i Dy 2 Sik Sy RS FA ANN WS X3 WW Bi i i ENY WWW, Ty i KZ wini’EG Fic. 62. Primitive gratioir, or planing tool (side and edge views), of Pre- Chellean type, found in the lowest gravels of the terraces at St. Acheul. After Commont. One-quarter actual size. tool. This was done by chipping off small flakes from the upper side, so as to give the flint a saw-like edge. Its second object was to protect the hand of the user by blunting any sharp edges or points which might prevent a firm grip of the implement. Often the smooth, rounded end of the flint nodule, with crust intact, is carefully preserved for this purpose (Fig. 61). It is this grasping of the primitive tool by the hand to which the terms ‘coup de. poing,’ ‘Faustkeil,’ and ‘hand-axe’ refer. ‘Hand- stone’ is, perhaps, the most fitting designation in our language, but it appears best to retain the original French designation, coup de poing. As the shape of the flint is purely due to chance, these Pre- Chellean implements are interpreted by archeologists chiefly according to the manner of retouch they have received. Already 130 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE they are adapted to quite a variety of purposes, both as weapons of the chase and for trimming and shaping wooden implements and dressing hides. Thus Obermaier observes that the concave, serrated edges characteristic of some of these implements may well have been used for scraping the bark from branches and smoothing them down into poles; that the rough coups de poing would be well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides; that the sharp-pointed fragments could be used as borers, and others that are clumsier and heavier as planes (see Fig. 62). The inventory of these ancestral Pre-Chellean forms of im- plements, used in industrial and domestic life, in the chase, and in war, is as follows: Sata ee ool: It includes five, possibly six, Pavaiie drill, borer. chief types. The true coup de Couteau, knife. poing, a combination tool of canals hammer-stone. — Chellean times, is not yet devel- pee Se OU oped in the Pre-Chellean, and the coup de poing, hand-stone. other implements, although sim- ilar in form, are more primitive. They are all in an experimental stage of development. Indications that this primitive industry spread over south- eastern England as well, and that a succession of Pre-Chellean into Chellean culture may be demonstrated, occur in connection with the recent discovery of the very ancient Piltdown race. THE PILTDOWN Race” The ‘dawn man’ is the most ancient human type in which the form of the head and size of the brain are known. Its anatomy, as well as its geologic antiquity, is therefore of pro- found interest and worthy of very full consideration. We may first review the authors’ narrative of this remarkable discovery and the history of opinion concerning it. Piltdown, Sussex, lies between two branches of the Ouse, about 35 miles south and slightly to the east of Gray’s Thurrock, the Chellean station of the Thames. To the east is the plateau of Kent, in which many flints of Eolithic type have been found. THE PILTDOWN RACE 131 The gravel layer in which the Piltdown skull occurred is situ- ated on a well-defined plateau of large area and lies about 80 feet above the level of the main stream of the Ouse. Remnants of the flint-bearing gravels and drifts occur upon the plateau and Fic. 63. Discovery site of the famous Piltdown skull near Piltdown, Sussex. After Dawson. A shallow pit of dark-brown gravel, at the bottom of which were found the fragments of the skull and a single primitive implement of worked flint (see Fig. 65). the slopes down which they trail toward the river and streams. This region was undoubtedly favorable to the flint workers of Pre-Chellean and Chellean times. Kennard'® believes that the gravels are of the same age as those of the ‘high terrace’ of the lower valley of the Thames; the height above the stream level is practically the same, namely, about 80 feet. Another geologist, Clement Reid,” holds that the plateau, composed of Wealden chalk, through which flowed the stream bearing the Piltdown gravels, belongs to a period later than that of the maximum de- 132 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE pression of Great Britain; that the deposits are of Pre-Glacial or early Pleistocene age; that they belong to the epoch after the cold period of the first glaciation had passed but occur at the very base of the succession of implement-bearing deposits in the south- east of England. On the other hand, Dawson,!® the discoverer of the Piltdown skull, in his first description states: ‘From these facts it appears probable that the skull and mandible cannot safely be described as being of earlier date than the first half of the Pleistocene Epoch. The individual probably lived during the warm cycle in that age.” The section of the gravel bed (Fig. 64) indicates that the re- mains of the Piltdown man were washed down with other fossils by a shallow stream charged with dark-brown gravel and un- worked flints; some of these fossils were of Pliocene times from strata of the upper parts of the stream. In this channel were found the remains of a number of animals of the same age as the Piltdown man, a few flints resembling eoliths, and one very primi- tive worked flint of Pre-Chellean type, which may also have been washed down from deposits of earlier age. These precious geo- logic and archzologic records furnish the only means we have of determining the age of Eoanthropus, the ‘dawn man,’ one of the most important and significant discoveries in the whole his- tory of anthropology. We are indebted to the geologist Charles Dawson and the paleontologist Arthur Smith Woodward for preserving these ancient records and describing them with great fulness and accuracy as follows (pp. 132 to 139): Several years ago Dawson discovered a small portion of an unusually thick human parietal bone, taken from a gravel bed which was being dug for road-making purposes on a farm close to Piltdown Common. In the autumn of 1911 he picked up among the rain-washed spoil-heaps of the same gravel-pit another and larger piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over the left eyebrow. Immediately impressed with the importance of this discovery, Dawson enlisted the co-operation of Smith Woodward, and a systematic search was made in these spoil- THE PILTDOWN RACE 133 heaps and gravels, beginning in the spring of 1912; all the material was looked over and carefully sifted. It appears that the whole or greater part of the human skull had been scattered by the workmen, who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed. Thor- 1. Surface soil, with flints. Thick : ness = 1 foot. @ gg Cc J eS ae ae 2. Pale-yellow sandy loam with . gravel and flints. One Palzo- lithic worked flint was found in the middle of this bed. Thickness = 2 feet, 6 inches. 3. Dark-brown gravel, with flints, Pliocene rolled fossils and Eoanthropus skull, beaver tooth, ‘eoliths’ and one worked flint. Thickness=18 inches. 4. Pale-yellow clay and_ sand. Thickness = 8 inches. 5. Undisturbed strata of Wealden age. Fic. 64. Geologic section of the Piltdown gravel bed, showing in restored outlines at the bottom of layer 3 the position in which the fragments of the skull and jaw were found. After Dawson. ough search in the bottom of the gravel bed itself revealed the right half of a jaw, which was found in a depression of undis- turbed, finely stratified gravel, so far as could be judged on the spot identical with that from which the first portions of the cranium were exhumed. A yard from the jaw an important piece of the occipital bone of the skull was found. Search was renewed in 1913 by Father P. Teilhard, of Chardin, a French anthropologist, who fortunately recovered a single canine tooth, and later a pair of nasal bones were found, all of which frag- 134 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ments are of very great significance in the restoration of the skull, | The jaw appears to have been broken at the symphysis, and somewhat abraded, perhaps after being caught in the gravel before it was completely covered with sand. The fragments of the cranium show little or no signs of stream rolling or other abrasion save an incision caused by the workman’s pick. Analysis of the bones showed that the skull was in a condi- tion of fossilization, no gelatine or organic matter remained, and Fic. 65. The single worked flint of very primitive type found in the same layer (3) with the fragments of the Piltdown skull. After Dawson. One-half actual size. mingled with a large proportion of the phosphates, originally present, was a considerable proportion of iron.* , The dark gravel bed (Fig. 64, layer 3), 18 inches in thickness, at the bottom of which the skull and jaw were found, contained a number of fossils which manifestly were not of the same age as the skull but were certainly from Pliocene deposits up-stream ; these included the water-vole and remains of the mastodon, the southern mammoth, the hippopotamus, and a fragment of the grinding-tooth of a primitive elephant, resembling Stegodon. In the spoil-heaps, from which it is believed the skull of the Pilt- down man was taken, were found an upper tooth of a rhinoceros, either of the Etruscan or of Merck’s type; the tooth of a beaver and of a hippopotamus, and the leg-bone of a deer, which may have been cut or incised by man. Much more distinctive was a * The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geo- logical Society of London, December, 1912, and published as a separate pamphlet in March, 1913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others was held at the time of the reading of the original paper. . THE PILTDOWN RACE 135 single flint (Fig. 65), worked only on one side, of the very primi- tive or Pre-Chellean type. Implements of this stage, as the au- thor observes, are difficult to classify with certainty, owing to the rudeness of their workmanship; they resemble certain rude im- plements occasionally found on the surface of the chalk downs near Piltdown. ‘The majority of the flints found in the gravel were worked only on one face; their form is thick, and the flaking is broad and sparing; the original sur- face of the flint is left in a smooth, natural condition at the point grasped by the hand; the whole implement thus has a very rude and massive form. These flints ap- pear to be of even more primitive form than those at St. Acheul described as Pre-Chellean by Com- mont. \ The eoliths found in the gravel- Fic. 66. Eoliths found in or near the e : : Piltdown gravel-pit. After Dawson. pit and in the adjacent fields are Oren ee ean coe: of the ‘borer’ and ‘hollow-scraper’ a. Borer (above). b. Curved scraper (below). forms; also, some are of the ‘crescent-shaped-scraper’ type, mostly rolled and water-worn, as if transported from a distance. ‘This is a stream or river bed, not a Paleolithic quarry. There can be little doubt, however, that the Piltdown man belonged to a period when the flint industry was in a very primi- tive stage, antecedent to the true Chellean. It has subsequently been observed that the gravel strata (3) containing the Pilt- down man were deeper than the higher stratum containing flints nearer the Chellean type. The discovery of this skull aroused interest as great as or even greater than that attending the discovery of the two other ‘river-drift’ races, the Trinil and the Heidelberg. In this dis- cussion the most distinguished anatomists of Great Britain, Arthur Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith, took 136 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE part, and finally the original pieces were re-examined by three anatomists of this country.* It is important to present in full the original opinions of Smith Woodward, who devoted most careful study to the first Fic..67. Skull of South African Bushman (upper) exhibiting the contrast in the structure of the jaw and forehead. One- quarter life size. Original restoration of the Piltdown skull (lower) made by Smith Woodward in 1913. One-quarter life size. reconstruction of the skull (Fig. 67), a model which was subse- quently modified by the actual discovery of one of the canine teeth. In his original descrip- tion it is observed that the pieces of the skull preserved are noteworthy for the great thickness of the bone, it being rr to 12 mm. as compared with 5 to 6 mm., the average thick- ness in the modern European skull, or 6 to 8 mm., the thick- ness in the skull of the Neander- thal races and in that of the modern Australian; the cepha- lic index is estimated at 78 or 79, that is, the skull is believed to have been proportionately low and wide, almost brachy- cephalic; there was apparently no prominent or thickened ridge above the orbits, a feature which immediately distin- guishes this skull from that of the Neanderthal races; the sev- eral bones of the brain-case are typically human and not in the least like those of the anthropoid apes; the brain capacity was originally estimated at 1070 c.cm., not equalling that of some of the lowest brain types in the existing Australian races and de- * By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American Museum of Natural History. ‘THE PILTDOWN RACE 137 cidedly below that of the Neanderthal man of Spy and La Chapelle-aux-Saints; the nasal bones are typically human but relatively small and broad, so that the nose was flattened, re- sembling that in some of the existing Malay and African races. Fic. 68. Three views of the Piltdown skull as reconstructed by J. H. McGregor, 1914. ‘This restoration includes the nasal bones and canine tooth, which were not known at the time of Smith Woodward’s reconstruction of 1913. One- quarter life size. The jaw presents profoundly different characters; the whole of the bone preserved closely resembles that of a young chim- panzee; thus the slope of the bony chin as restored is between that of an adult ape and that of the Heidelberg man, with an extremely receding chin; the ascending portion of the jaw for the attachment of the temporal muscles is broad and thickened 138 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE anteriorly. Associated with the jaw were two elongated molar teeth, worn down by use to such an extent that the individual could not have been less than thirty years of age and was prob- ably older. These teeth are relatively longer and narrower than those in the modern human jaw. The canine tooth, identified by Smith Woodward as belonging in the lower jaw, strength- ened by the evidence afforded by the jaw itself, proves that the face was elongate or prognathous and that the canine teeth were very prominent like those of the anthropoid apes; it affords definite proof that the front teeth of the Piltdown man resembled those of the ape. The author’s conclusion is that while the skull is essentially human, it approaches the lower races of man in certain char- acters of the brain, in the attachment of the muscles of the neck, in the large extent of the temporal muscles attached to the jaw, and in the probably large size of the face. The man- dible, on the other hand, appears precisely like that of the ape, with nothing human except the molar teeth, and even these ap- proach the dentition of the apes in their elongate shape and well- developed fifth or posterior intermediate cusp. This type of man, distinguished by the smooth forehead and supraorbital borders and ape-like jaw, represents a new genus called EKoanthropus, or ‘dawn man,’ while the species has been named dawsoni in honor of the discoverer, Charles Dawson. ‘This very ancient type of man is defined by the ape-like chin and junction of the two halves of the jaw, by a series of parallel grinding-teeth, with narrow lower molar teeth, which do not diminish in size backward, and by the steep forehead and slight development of the brow ridges. The jaw manifestly differs from that of the Heidelberg man in its comparative slenderness and relative deepening toward the symphysis. The discussion of this very important paper by Smith Wood- ward and Dawson centred about two points. First, whether the ape-like jaw really belonged with the human skull rather than with that of some anthropoid ape which happened to be drifted down in the same stratum; and second, whether the extremely THE PILTDOWN RACE 139 low original estimate of the brain capacity of 1070 c.cm., was not due to incorrect adjustment or reconstruction of the separate pieces of the skull. Keith,!® the leader in the criticism of Woodward’s reconstruc- tion, maintained that when the two sides of the skull were properly restored and made approximately symmetrical, the brain capacity would be found to equal 1500 c.cm.; the brain cast of the skull even as originally reconstructed was found to be close to 1200 c.cm. This author agreed that skull, jaw, and canine tooth belonged to Eoanthropus but that they could not well belong to the same individual. In defense of Woodward’s reconstruction came the powerful support of Elliot Smith.?® He maintained that the evidence af- forded by the re-examination of the bones corroborated in the main Smith Woodward’s identification of the median plane of the skull; further, that the original reconstruction of the prog- nathous face was confirmed by the discovery of the canine tooth, also that there remained no doubt that the association of the skull, the jaw, and the canine tooth was a correct one. The back portion of the skull is decidedly asymmetrical, a condition found both in the lower and higher races of man. A slight rearrange- ment and widening of the bones along the median upper line of the skull raise the estimate of the brain capacity to 1100 c.cm. as the probable maximum. Elliot Smith continued that he considered the brain to be of a more primitive kind than any human brain that he had ever seen, yet that it could be called human and that it already showed a considerable development of those parts which in modern man we associate with the power of speech; thus, there was no doubt of the unique importance of this skull as representing an entirely new type of ‘‘man in the making.” As regards the form of the lower jaw, it was observed that in the dawn of human existence teeth suitable for weapons of offense and defense were retained long after the brain had attained its human status. Thus the ape-like form of the chin does not signify inability to speak, for speech must have come when the jaws were still ape-like in char- 140 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE acter, and the bony changes that produced the recession of the tooth line and the form of the chin were mainly due to sexual Fic. 69. The Piltdown skull with the right half removed to display the extreme thick- ness of the bones and the shape of the brain. As restored by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. selection, to the reduction in the size of the grinding-teeth, and, in a minor degree, to the growth and specialization of the muscles of the jaw and tongue employed in speech. At first sight the brain-case resembles that of the Ne- anderthal skull found at Gib- raltar, which is supposed to be that of a woman; it is rela- tively long, narrow, and es- pecially flat, but it is smaller and presents more primitive features than those of any known human brain. Taking all these features into consideration, we must regard this as being the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far ——_— oe — -_-— P = See Modern (Home a onset ee eseen..y. . ce ee Qn: I “Cn ON Fic. 70. Outline of the left side of the Piltdown brain, compared with similar brain out- lines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modern man. One-half life size. THE PILTDOWN RACE 141 recorded; one such as might reasonably be associated with a jaw which presented such distinctive ape characters. The brain, however, is far more human than the jaw, from which we may infer that the evolution of the brain preceded that of the man- dible, as well as the development of beauty of the face and the human development of the bodily characters in general. The latest opinion of Smith Woodward” is that the brain, while the most primitive which has been discovered, had a bulk of nearly 1300 c.cm., equalling that of the smaller human brains of to-day and surpassing that of the Australians, which rarely exceeds I250 c.cm. The original views of Smith Woodward and of Elliot Smith regarding the relation of the Piltdown race to the Heidelberg and Neanderthal races are also of very great interest and may be cited. First, the fact that the Piltdown and Heidelberg races are almost of the same geologic age proves that at the end of the Pliocene Epoch the representatives of man in western Europe had already branched into widely divergent groups: the one (Heidel- berg-Neanderthal) characterized by a very low projecting fore- head, with a subhuman head of Neanderthaloid contour; the other with a flattened forehead and with an ape-like jaw of the Piltdown contour. We should not forget that in the Piltdown skull the absence of prominent ridges above the eyes may possi- bly be due in some degree to the fact that the type skull may belong to a female, as suggested by certain characters of the jaw; but among all existing apes the skull in early life has the rounded shape of the Piltdown skull, with a high forehead and scarcely any brow ridges. It seems reasonable, therefore, to interpret the Piltdown skull as exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of our human ancestors in mid-Tertiary times than any fossil skull hitherto found. If this view be accepted, we may suppose that the Piltdown type became gradually modified into the Neander- thal type by a series of changes similar to those passed through by the early apes as they evolved into typical modern apes, with their low brows and prominent ridges above the eyes. This * Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 1915.1. 142 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE would tend to support the theory that the Neanderthal men were degenerate offshoots of the Tertiary race, of which the Piltdown skull provides the first discovered evidence—a race with a simple, flattened forehead and developed eye ridges. Elliot Smith concluded that members of the Piltdown race might well have been the direct ancestors of the existing species Fic. 71. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, in profile, based upon the reconstruction shown in Fig. 68, p. 137. After model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. of man (Homo sapiens), thus affording a direct link with undis- covered Tertiary apes; whereas, the more recent fossil men of the Neanderthal type, with prominent brow ridges resembling those of the existing apes, may have belonged to a degenerate race which later became extinct. According to this view, Eoan- thropus represents a persistent and very slightly modified de- scendant of the type of Tertiary man which was the common ' THE PILTDOWN RACE 143 ancestor of a branch giving rise to Homo sapiens, on the one hand, and of another branch giving rise to Homo neandertha- lensis, on the other. Another theory as to the relationships of Hoanthropus is that of Marcelin Boule,”' who is inclined to regard the jaws of the Piltdown and Heidelberg races as of similar geologic age, but of Fic. 72. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, full front, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. (Compare Figs. 68 and 71.) dissimilar racial type. He continues: “If the skull and jaw of Piltdown belong to the same individual, and if the mandibles of the Heidelberg and Piltdown men are of the same type, this dis- covery is most valuable in establishing the cranial structure of the Heidelberg race. But it appears rather that we have here two types of man which lived in Chellean times, both distinguished by very low cranial characters. Of these the Piltdown race seems 144 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE to us the probable ancestor in the direct line of the recent species of man, Homo sapiens; while the Heidelberg race may be con- sidered, until we have further knowledge, as a possible precursor of Homo neanderthalensis.”’ : The latest opinion of the German anatomist Schwalbe” is that the proper restoration of the region of the chin in the Pilt- down man might make it possible to refer this jaw to Homo sapiens, but this would merely prove that Homo sapiens already existed in early Pleistocene times. The skull of the Piltdown man, continues Schwalbe, corresponds with that of a well-developed, good-sized skull of Homo sapiens ; the only unusual feature is the remarkable thickness of the bone.” Finally, our own opinion is that the Piltdown race is not an- cestral to either the Heidelbergs or the Neanderthals. Very re- centlyt the jaw of the Piltdown man has been restudied and referred by more than one expert to a fully adult chimpanzee. This leaves us still in doubt as to the exact geologic age and relationships of the Piltdown man (see Appendix, Note IX), whom we are still inclined to regard as a side branch of the human family as shown in the family tree on p. 4ot. MAMMALIAN LIFE OF CHELLEAN AND ACHEULEAN TIMES” The mammalian life which we find with the more advanced implements of Chellean times apparently does not include the old Pliocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger. With this exception it is so similar to that of Second Interglacial times that it may serve to prove again that the third glaciation was a local episode and not a wide-spread climatic influence. This life is everywhere the same, from the * The reconstruction (Fig. 68) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. Mc- Gregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the re- construction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the con- clusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History. 1 See Appendix, Note IX, p. 512. Pi. IV. The Piltdown man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at 100,000 to 300,000 years. The ape-like structure of the jaw does not prevent the expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face. After the restora- tion modelled by J. H. McGregor. he a ape er re nd -MAMMATIAN LIFE> — 147 valley of the Thames, as witnessed in the low river-gravels of Gray’s Thurrock and Ilford, to the region of the present Thu- ringian forests near Weimar, where it Southern mammoth. is found in the deposits of Taubach, Ske ae Sg TeR -Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim, in which eee orocederhinacercs. the mammals belong to the more recent Spotted hyena. date of early Acheulean culture.’ The ue eer life of this great region during Chellean Rear and early Acheulean times was a min- Roe-deer. | _giling of the characteristic forest and Giant deer. meadow fauna of western Europe with ah port - the descendants of the African-Asiatic Badger. | invaders of late Pliocene ‘tang early Marten. ae Pleistocene times. Otter. | | The forests were full of the red deer ie i ) ~ (Cervus elaphus), of the roe-deer (C. cap- Water cole: ___-reolus),and of the giant deer (Megaceros), also of a primitive species of wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus) and of wild horses probably representing more than one variety. The brown bear (Ursus arctos) of Europe is now for the first time identified ; there was also a primitive species of wolf (Canis suessi). The small carnivora of the forests and of the streams are all considered as closely related to existing species, namely, the badger (Meles taxus), the marten (Mustela martes), the otter (Lutra vulgaris), and the water-vole (Arvicola amphibius). The prehistoric beaver of Europe (Castor fiber) now replaces the giant beaver (Trogontherium) of Second Interglacial times. Among the large carnivora, the lion (Felis leo antiqua) and the spotted hyena (H. crocuta) have replaced the sabre-tooth tiger and the striped hyzena of early Pleistocene times. Four great Asiatic mammals, including two species of elephants, one species of rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, roamed through the forests and meadows of this warm temperate region. The horse of this period is considered** to belong to the Forest or Nordic type, from which our modern draught-horses. have descended. The 148 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lions and hyzenas which abounded in Chellean and early Acheulean times are in part ancestors of the cave types which appear in the succeeding Reindeer or Cavern Period. In general, this mam- malian life of Chellean and early Acheulean times in Europe fre- quented the river shores and the neighboring forests and meadows favored by a warm temperate climate with mild winters, such as is indicated by the presence of the fig-tree and of the Canary laurel in the region of north central France near Paris. Undoubtedly the Chellean and Acheulean hunters had begun the chase both of the bison, or wisent (B. priscus), and of the wild cattle, or aurochs.* This warm temperate mammalian life spread very widely over northern Europe, as shown especially in the distribution (Fig. 44) of the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and Merck’s rhinoceros. The latter pair were constant companions and are seen to have a closely similar and somewhat more north- erly range than the hippopotamus, which is rather the climatic companion of the southern mammoth and ranges farther south. These animals in the gravel and sand layers along the river slopes and ‘terraces’ mingled their remains with the artifacts of the flint workers. For example, in the gravel ‘terraces’ of the Somme we find the bones of the straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros in the same sand layers with the Chellean flints. Thus the men of Chellean times may well have pursued this giant elephant (E. antiquus) and rhinoceros (D. merckii) as their tribal successors in the same valley hunted the woolly mam- moth and woolly rhinoceros. DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHELLEAN IMPLEMENTS All over the world may be found traces of a Stone Age, ancient or modern, primitive implements of stone and flint analogous to * The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, ‘wisent,’ wild ox, ‘auerochs,’ ‘urochs’ (the ‘urus’ of Cesar). The urus survived in Germany as late as the seventeenth century, while a few of the bison or ‘wisent’ survive to the present time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Diirnten, near Ziirich, remains of the urus are found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck’s rhinoc- eros. (See Appendix, Note IV.) CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 149 those of the true Chellean period of western Europe but not really identical when very closely compared. These represent the early attempts of the human hand, directed by the primitive mind, to fashion hard materials into forms adapted to the pur- poses of war, the chase, and domestic life. The result is a series aa Fic. 73. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations in western Europe. of parallels in form which come under the evolution principle of convergence. ‘Thus, in all the continents except Australia—in Europe, in Asia, and even in North and South America—primi- tive races have passed through an industrial stage similar to the typical Chellean of western Europe. This we should rather at- tribute to a similarity in human invention and in human needs than to the theory that the Chellean industry originated at some particular centre and travelled in a slowly enlarging \ wave over the entire world. 150 MEN OF THE OLD STONE: AGE In western Europe the Chellean culture certainly had a de- velopment all its own, adapted to a race of bold hunters who lived in the open and whose entire industry developed around the products of the chase. For them flint and quartzite took the place of bronze, iron, or steel. This culture marked a distinct and probably a very long epoch of time in which inventions and multiplications of form were gradually spread from tribe to tribe, Old Fréville Quarry 1883-1907 SS. gfe Old Tellier Quarry aa Upper Paleolithic G7 —and Neolithi Chaussee ord and Neolithic ACEN Mou sterian ! ? Early Mousterian? Late Acheulean WDLENCERRACE—-\-——- = | ommmeaere Early Acheulean and Late Acheulean| Chellean | Prechellean and Chellean Fic. 74. Section of the middle and high terraces at St. Acheul, from southwest to north- east. After Commont, 1908, 1909, modified and redrawn. The Pre-Chellean workers first established themselves here at the time when the Somme was visited by the straight- tusked elephant and other primitive mammals of the warm African-Asiatic pes (Compare Fig. 509, p. 122.) exactly as modern inventions, usually originating at a single point and often in the mind of one ingenious individual, gradually spread over the world. | | The clearest examples of the evolution of the seven or eight implements of the Chellean culture from the five or six rudimen- tary types of the Pre-Chellean have been found at. St. Acheul by Commont. The abundance and variety of flint at this great station on the Somme made it a centre of industry from the dawn of the Old Stone Age to its very close.. It was probably a.region favorable to all kinds of large and small game. The researches of Commont show that with the exception of Castillo in northern Spain no other station in all Europe was so continuously occupied. CHELLEAN INDUSTRY . 151 From Pre-Chellean to Neolithic times the men of every culture stage except the Magdalenian and Azilian-Tardenoisian found their way here, and thus the site of St. Acheul presents an epit- ome of the entire prehistoric industry. Even during the colder periods of climate this region continued to be visited—possibly during the warm weather of the summer seasons. At Montiéres, along the Somme, we find deposits of Mousterian culture which Fic. 75. Excavation on the ‘high terrace’ at St. Acheul, known as the ancienne carriére Dupont and more recently as the carriére Bultel, showing eight geologic layers from the Upper Palzolithic deposits of brick-earth at the top (9g) down to the sub-Chellean yellow gravels (2) overlying the chalk terrace at the bottom. is generally characteristic of the cold climatic period but is here associated with a temperate fauna, including the hippopotamus, Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant. Great geographic and climatic changes took place in the valley of the Somme during this long period of human evolution. The Pre- Chellean workers first established their industry on the middle and high ‘terraces’ at the time when the Somme was visited by the straight-tusked elephant and other much more primitive mammals of the warm Asiatic fauna. The early Acheulean camps on the same terraces were pitched in the gravels be- low layers of ‘loess’ which betoken an entire climatic change. The fourth glaciation passed by, and the Upper Paleolithic flint 152 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE workers again returned and left the débris of their industry in the layers of loam which swept down the slopes of the valley from the surrounding hills. This succession will be studied more in detail in connection with the industry. As contrasted with the four or more Pre-Chellean stations already known, namely, St. Acheul, Montiéres, Helin, Gray’s Thurrock, and possibly Abbeville and Piltdown, there are at least sixteen stations in western Europe which are characteristi- cally Chellean. In addition to the sites named above, all of which show deposits of typical Chellean implements above the Pre-Chellean, we may note the important Chellean stations of San Isidro and Torralba in central Spain; Tilloux and Marignac in southwestern France; Créteil, Colombes, Bois Colombes, and Billancourt on the Seine, in the immediate vicinity of Paris; Cergy on the Oise; the type station of Chelles on the Marne; Abbeville on the northern bank of the Somme; and the famous station of Kent’s Hole, Devon, on the southwestern coast of Eng- land. Thus far no typical Chellean station has been discovered in Portugal, Italy, Germany, or Austria, nor, indeed, in any part of central Europe. This leaves the original habitat of the tribes that brought the Chellean culture to western Europe still a mys- tery; but, as already observed, the location of the stations favors the theory of a migration through northern Africa rather than through eastern Europe. Compared with the Pre-Chellean flint workers the Chellean artisans advanced both by the improvement of the older types of implements and by the invention of new ones.” As observed by Obermaier, the flint worker is still dependent on the chance shape of the shattered fragments of flint which he has not yet learned to shape symmetrically. In the experimental search after the most useful form of flint which could be grasped by the hand, the very characteristic Chellean coup de poing was evolved out of its Pre-Chellean prototype. This implement was made of an elon- gate nodule, either of quartzite or, preferably, of flint, and flaked by the hammer on both sides to a more or less almond shape; as a rule, the point and its adjacent edges are sharpened; the NS h ny SH a, aA 8. “ZG Fic. 76. Principal forms of small, late Chellean scraping, planing, and boring tools of flint, after Commont and Obermaier. One-half actual size. 1. Combination tool—small flake with a sharp point (a), cutting edge (6), and curved-in scraper (c). 2. Cutting tool with protective retouch for the index finger on the upper edge (a), and a sharp cutting edge (b). 3. Primitive knife. 4. ‘Point.’ 5. Combination tool—small flake with scraper edge (b), and two curved-in scraper edges (a and a1). 6. Borer. 7. Pointed scraper. 8. Knife with coarse boring point at one end. 9g. Thick scraper or planing tool. 10. Curved scraper. 154 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE other end being rounded and blunted. Like most, if not all, of the Chellean implements, it. was designed to be grasped by the bare hand and not furnished with a wooden haft or handle. It is not impossible that some of the pointed forms may have been wedged into a wooden handle, but there is no proof of it. In size the coup de poing varies from 4 to 8 inches in length, and examples have been found as large as 9% inches. That it served a variety of purposes is indicated by the existence of four well- defined, different forms: first, a primitive, almond-shaped form ; second, an ovaloid form; third, a disk form; and fourth, a pointed form resembling a lance-head. De Mortillet?® speaks of it as the only tool of the Chellean tribes, but in its various forms it served all the purposes of axe, saw, chisel, and awl, and was in truth a combination tool. Capitan?’ also holds that the coup de poing is not a single tool but is designed to meet many various needs. The primitive almond and ovaloid forms were designed for use along the edges, either for heavy hacking or for sawing; the disk forms may have been used as axes or as sling-stones; the more rounded forms would’ serve as knives and scrapers; while the pointed, lance-shaped forms might be used as daggers, both in war and in the chase. The Chellean flint workers also developed especially a num- ber of small, pointed forms from the accidentally shaped frag- ments of flint, showing both short and long points carefully flaked and chipped. ‘Thus, out of the small types of the Pre-Chellean there evolved a great variety of tools adapted to domestic pur- poses, to war, and to the chase. CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE The type station of the Chellean culture is somewhat east of the present town of Chelles. Here in Chellean times the broad floods of the ancient River Marne were transporting great quanti- ties of sand and débris, products of the early pluvial periods of Third Interglacial times; and here, on the right bank, embedded in sands and gravels 24 feet thick, are found the typical Chellean CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 155 implements mingled with remains of the hippopotamus, straight- tusked elephant, Merck’s rhinoceros, giant beaver, hyena, and many members of the Asiatic forest and meadow fauna. The flint-working stations at St. Acheul were on bluffs from 40 to 80 feet above the present level of the Somme. The Chel- lean and the following Acheulean industry was carried on here on a very extensive scale. In one year Rigollot collected as many as 800 coups de poing from the ancient quarries; near by are other quarries equally rich in material, and we may imagine that the products of the flint industry in this favorable locality were car- ried far and wide into other parts of the country. In the vicinity of Paris, and again at Arcy, in the valley of the Biévre, the workers of Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian flints sought in succession the old river-gravels belonging to the lower levels; these ‘low terraces’ are only 15 feet above the present height of the river and are still occasionally flooded by the high waters of the Seine, indicating that the Seine borders have not - altered their levels. The animal life here was identical with that of the Somme and of the Thames and included the hippopotamus, Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant. Thus it would appear that, in regard to the river courses and the hills through which they flowed, the topography and land- scape of northern France and of southern Britain were everywhere the same as at the present time. The forests which clothed the hills were not greatly different from the present, except for the presence of a few trees of a warmer clime, nor was there anything strange or unfamiliar in the majority of the animals that roamed through forest and meadow. The three chief archaic elements consisted in the presence of two very ancient races of men and their rude stage of culture, in the great forms of Asiatic and African life which mingled with the more familiar native types, and in the broad, continuous land surfaces which swept off un- broken to the west and southwest. For in those days Europe, though even then little more than a great peninsula, extended far beyond its present limits. Eng- land and Ireland were still part of the mainland, and great rivers 156 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE flowed through the broad valleys that are now the Irish Sea, the North Sea, and the English Channel—rivers that counted the Seine, the Thames, the Garonne, and even the Rhine, as mere tributaries. The Strait of Gibraltar was then the Isthmus of Gibraltar—a narrow land bridge connecting Europe with Africa. The Mediterranean was then an inland lake, or rather two inland lakes, for Italy and Sicily stretched out in a broad, irregular mass to join the northern coast of Africa, while Corsica and Sardinia formed a long peninsula extending from the Italian mainland and almost, if not quite, reaching to the African coast. THE THAMES VALLEY IN CHELLEAN TIMES The interpretation of the features of stratification in the valley of the Somme is especially interesting because it gives us a key to the understanding of a similar sequence of prehistoric events in the valley of the Thames. The station of Gray’s Thurrock in this valley is barely 120 miles distant from the Chellean station of Abbeville, in the val- ley of the Somme, and it is apparent that the old flint workers were freely passing across the broad intervening country and in- terchanging their ideas and inventions. Thus it happened that Chellean implements identical with, or closely related to, the types of the Somme valley were being fashioned all over southern Britain from the Thames to the Ouse. The ancient River Thames (Lyell, Geikie?®) was then flowing over a bed of boulder-clays which had been deposited during the preceding glaciations. Its broad, swift stream was bringing down great deposits of ochreous gravels and of sands interstratified with loams and clays. It is these old true river-gravels which display their greatest thickness on the lowest levels of the Thames and which are largely made up of well-bedded and distinctly water-worn materials. On these low levels the flint workers sought their materials, and here they left behind them the archaic Chellean implements which are now found embedded in these older river-gravels, just as they occur in the gravels washed down over the three terraces of the Somme and the Marne. In the Thames this old gravel wash seems to have CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 157 been down-stream, whereas on the middle and upper terraces of the Somme the gravel wash came directly down the sides of the valley, except, perhaps, in very high floods. These deep beds of grave!, sand, and loam lie for the most part above the present overflow plain of the Thames, although in some places they de- scend below it; which proves that the main landscape of the Thames also, except for the changes of the flora and of animal life, was the same in Pre-Chellean and Chellean times as it is at present. Thus the Somme, the Thames, and the Seine had all worn their channels to the present or even to lower levels when the Pre-Chellean hunters appeared. Since Chellean times all three rivers have silted up their channels. The changes along the Thames which have since occurred are in the superficial layers brought down from the sides of the valley which have softened the contours of the old terraces and have also entombed the later phases of the valley’s prehistory. Sections on the south bank at Ilford, Kent, and on the north bank at Gray’s Thurrock, Essex, confirm this view. At the latter station, in low-lying strata of brick-earth, loam, and gravel, such as would be formed by the silting up of the bottom of an old river channel, are found the remains of the straight-tusked elephant, broad-nosed rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. All the discoveries of recent years lead to the conclusion that the old flu- viatile gravels which contain these ancient mammals and flints are restricted to the lower levels of the Thames valley, while the high level gravels and loams are of later date. Old Chellean flints also occur occasionally on the higher levels, but here it would seem that they have been washed down from the old land surfaces above, because they are found mingled with flints of the late Acheulean and early Mousterian industry. ENGLAND IN EARLY PALZOLITHIC TIMES It is on the higher levels of the Thames, as of the Somme, and in the superficial deposits covering the sides of the valley that we read the story of the subsequent Paleolithic cultures and of an early warm temperate climate being followed by a cold climate 158 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with frozen subsoil belonging to the fourth glaciation and the contemporary Mousterian flint industry. The Paleolithic his- tory of the Thames*® has not yet been fully interpreted, but it would appear that the relics of the old stations of Kent and Nor- folk will yield all the forms of Chellean and Acheulean imple- ments, and probably also those of the Mousterian which have been discovered in the valley of the Somme, thus proving that the Lower Paleolithic races of this region pursued the same cul- ture development as the neighboring tribes of France and Bel- gium, as well as those of Spain, up to the close of middle Acheulean times. A similar sequence of events appears to be indicated at Hoxne, Suffolk, where archaic palzoliths were discovered as far back as 1797. This discovery was neglected for upward of sixty years, until in 1859 these flints were re-examined by Prestwich and Evans after their visit to the stations of the Somme (Geikie,** Avebury”). This site was in the hollow of a surface of boulder- clay, overlain by the deposit of a fresh-water stream; in the bed of its narrow channel, besides flint implements of early Acheulean type, abundant plant remains were found which give | us an inter- esting vision of the flora of the time. These plants are decidedly characteristic of a temperate cli- mate, including such trees as the oak, yew, and fir, and mostly of species which are still found in the forests of the same region. This life gave place, as indicated in plant deposits of a higher level, to an arctic flora, probably corresponding with the tundra climate of Mousterian times, the period of the fourth glaciation. Above these are found again layers of plants and of mollusks which point to the return of a temperate, climate. : SPREAD OF THE ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY It is noteworthy that not a single ‘river-drift,’ Pre-Chellean or Chellean, station has been found in Germany or Switzerland, or, in fact, in all central Europe in.the region lying between the Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers. Either this region was un- PALEOLITHIC STATIONS OF GERMANY 159 favorable to human habitation or the remains of the stations have been buried or washed away. It is significant that the earliest proof of human migration into this region, whether from the east or from the west we do not certainly know, is coincident with the dry climate of Acheulean times. ‘The ‘loess’ conditions of climate seem to be coincident with the earliest Acheulean stations in Germany, such as Sablon. ‘Loess’ deposition is by no means a proof of a cold climate but rather of an arid one, especially in regions where areas of finely eroded soil were liable to be raised by the wind; such areas were found over the whole recently glaciated country north of the Alps and south of the Scandinavian peninsula. The Paleolithic discovery sites of Germany are principally grouped in three regions® as follows: To the south, along the /eadwaters of the Rhine and the Danube, among the limestones of Swabia and the Jura were formed the caverns sought by early Mousterian man. To the west of these were many older stations in the ‘loess’ deposits of the upper Rhine, between the mountain ridges of the Vosges and the Black Forest, and still nearer the sources of the Rhine, ex- tending over the border into Switzerland, are a number of famous cave sites in the valleys cut by the Rhine and its tributaries through the white Jurassic limestone. To the west is the group of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia, which includes the open Acheulean camps in the ‘loess’ deposits above the river and a number of cavern stations. To the north is the scattered group of stations, both of Acheulean and Mousterian times, of north Germany. Here the sites are few and far between. The open- country camps were established chiefly in the valley of the Ilm and near the caves of the Harz Mountains, in the neighborhood of Gera. No discoveries of certain date or unquestioned authen- ticity are reported from eastern Germany. Along the upper Rhine the flint workers of Acheulean times established their ancient camps mostly in the open on the broad sheets of the ‘lower loess,’ which, constantly drifted by the wind, covered and preserved the stations. These stations are @ PALAZOLITHIC STATIONS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY Fic. 77. Flint working stations of the Men of the Old Stone Age along the waters of the Ilm, the Rhine, and the Danube, from Acheulean to Azilian times. After R. R. Schmidt, modified and redrawn. These Paleolithic sites of Germany lie between the terminal moraines of the successive glacial advances of the Second, Third, and Fourth (II, III, IV) Glacial Stages, extending from the borders of the Scandinavian ice-fields on the north to those of the Alpine ice-fields on the south. The dotted surface represents the area covered by the drift of the Fourth Glacial Stage. ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 161 widely scattered, but they were frequented from earliest Acheu- lean times, and the region was revisited to the very close of the Upper Paleolithic. Early in Acheulean times the important ‘loess’ station of Achenheim was established. This is a most famous locality and is of especial importance because it is the only station in Ger- many which was continuously frequented from late Acheulean times throughout the Lower Paleolithic and into the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic; here the ‘older loess’ of the Third Inter- glacial Stage yields a typical Acheulean industry. Thus far the region of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia has not shown any evidence of Acheulean culture. The north German stations, however, were entered in Acheulean times, and the principal open stations of this region lie along the valley of the Ilm. Here, at Taubach, Ehringsdorf, and Weimar, we find implements of typical Acheulean form belonging to the early warm temperate Acheulean period. ‘The stations of the Ilm val- ley southwest of Leipsic are also of great importance because of the rich record which they contain of the warm temperate animal life of early Acheulean times; the flint culture is typically Acheu- lean, and the climatic conditions are read both in the travertines and in the subsequent deposits of the ‘lower loess,’ which be- long to the cold dry period of late Acheulean times. Here lin- gered the straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros, con- temporary with the workers of the Acheulean flints. It will be observed that in Germany the early Acheulean was a warm period which in certain regions was also arid and subject to great dust-storms. At this time the camps were for the most part in the open country. In the late period, also arid and sub- ject to high winds but with a cooler climate, the flint workers continued to frequent the open Acheulean stations in the ‘loess.’ lf there were shelter and cavern stations in this region, they have not as yet been discovered. This would appear to indicate that the climate had not yet become severe. Similar testimony is found in the great scarcity of cavern and shelter stations in Acheulean times In every part of western Eu- 162 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE rope; yet occasionally the tribes repaired to the vicinity of shel- tering cliffs, as along the Vézére. In some scattered localities they sought the caverns, as at Krapina, in Croatia, at Spy, on the Meuse in Belgium, and at Castillo, in northern Spain. These rare exceptions to the open camps would tend to prove that the caverns were sought rather for protection from enemies and as rain shelters than as retreats from a bitter-cold climate. In the valley of the Beune, a small tributary of the Vézére, in Dordogne, we find a true Acheulean station quite close to the river shore. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was already deepened to the same degree as it is to-day. In the valley of the Somme the Acheulean culture stretches from the ‘highest terrace’ down below the present level of the river, which has made for itself a new high channel. The fact that two Acheulean stations are found on the upper Garonne, high above the present water-level, is of little significance, as at that time the water-level was also high. In general the Acheulean flint workers preferred the open stations throughout all Acheulean times, and their camps are found on the open plateaus between the rivers or on the various ‘terrace’ levels, as on the higher, middle, and lower ‘terraces’ of the Somme at St. Acheul, or again close along the borders of the rivers and streams, as in the Dordogne region. Even during the early Acheulean stage a dry climate had begun to prevail in certain parts of Germany. Near Metz is the ‘older loess’ station of Sablon, which was occupied in early Acheulean times, indicating a warm period of arid climate fa- vorable to the transportation of the wind-blown ‘loess’; doubt- less, this fine dust at times filled the entire atmosphere and ob- scured the sun, as is the case to-day on the high steppes and deserts of eastern Asia. An exception to the open-country life preferred by the Acheu- lean flint workers is found in the great grotto* of Castillo, near Puente Viesgo, in the Province of Santander, northern Spain. * The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the summer of 1912. ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 163 The deposits which filled this grotto to a thickness of 45 feet from the floor to the roof were explored by Obermaier, who found them divided into thirteen layers, covering eleven periods of industry and presenting the most wonderful epitome of the pre- Fic. 78. Entrance (white cross) to the great grotto of Castillo in northern Spain. This grotto was frequented by the Men of the Old Stone Age from Acheulean to Azilian times, an archeologic sequence surpassed only by that of the open camps along the terraces of the Somme. Photograph from Obermaier. history of western Europe from Acheulean times to the Age of Bronze, in Spain (Fig. 709). As early as 1908, Breuil** discovered in the interior of the cave back of the grotto some quartzites worked into Acheulean types, proving that the cavern was entered in Acheulean times. Obermaier,®’ in the course of three years’ work, has found that the floor of the grotto was possibly used as a flint-making station in Acheulean and, possibly, in Chellean times. The culture sec- tion which he has revealed here under the direction of the [n- stitut de Paléontologie humaine can be compared only with that which Commont has found on the ‘terraces’ of the Somme at St. Acheul. The difference is that in the shelter of the Castillo 164 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE na i cm a : Se ee : LE LEE Ze —_— Gia LM LOM —— ——— ec ea a Mill dhidacset ZZ Ze ope Sie ee So — wi VON IN nN SN Fic. 79. Stratigraphic sec- tion showing the archzo- logic layers of the great grotto of Castillo. After Obermaier. grotto the climate is recorded only through the changing forms of animal life which are mingled around the fire-hearths and with the flints in the ascending levels. (13) Eneolithic Age. Small, triangular dagger in copper. (12) Azilian. Flint industry—Age of the Stag. (11) Upper Magdalenian. Artistic engravings on stag-horn. (10) Lower Magdalenian. Flints and fine en- gravings on bone. Reindeer baton. (9) Archaic Solutrean. Fewilles de laurier, re- touched on one side only. (8, 7, 6) Upper Aurignacian in three layers. Remains of the reindeer and burins. (5) Lower Aurignacian. Implements of stone and bone. Remains of an infant. (4) Upper Mousterian. Rich in small imple- ments and large tools of quartzite. Merck’s rhinoceros very abundant. (3) Typical Mousterian flints and quartzites. Merck’s rhinoceros. (2) Early Mousterian industry. Bones of cave-bear and Merck’s rhinoceros. (1) Acheulean flints. The entrance to this grotto is on the side of a high hill overlooking the valley and might easily have been barricaded against attack. In early Acheulean times, when the flint workers were on the very floor of the grotto, the lower entrance of the cavern was still open, leading far into the heart of the mountain. The succes- sive accumulations of débris, cave loam, fire-stones, bones, and innumerable flints, together with great blocks falling over the entrance of the cavern, reached a height of 45 feet, so that during the Upper Paleolithic only the upper entrance to the cavern was used by the artists of Magdalenian THE USE OF FIRE 165 times. The subsequent Azilian and Eneolithic cultures were crowded under the very roof of the grotto at the sides. This station, repaired to and then abandoned by tribe after tribe over a period estimated at present as not less than 50,000 years, 1s a monumental volume of prehistory, read and interpreted by the archeologist almost as clearly as if the whole record were in writing. The first positive evidences of the use of fire are the layers of charred wood and bones frequently found in the industrial deposits of early Acheulean times. GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES During the early period of development of the Acheulean industry, the geography, the climate, and the plant and animal life continued to present exactly the same aspect as during Chel- lean times. The mammals which we find in Thuringia in the lower travertines of the valley of the Ilm, at Taubach, near Wei- mar, and at Ehringsdorf, mingled with flints of early Acheulean industry, are of the same species as those found in the valley of the Somme mingled with the implements of the Chellean indus- try. ‘The southern mammoth occurs at Taubach, and we find the straight-tusked elephant (EZ. antiquus), Merck’s rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the lion, and the hyzna representing the an- cient African-Asiatic migrants, while the north European and Asiatic life is represented by the giant deer, roe-deer, wild goat, brown bear, wolf, badger, marten, otter, beaver, meadow ham- ster, and shrew. Grazing in the meadows were the aurochs, or wild ox, and the wisent, or bison. There was one variety of horse, probably of the forest type. Thus, the fauna as a whole contains six Asiatic types, or eight if we include the bison and wild cattle. Of the forest life there are nine species, including the wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus) not mentioned above. The. layers of travertine are indicative of very important geographical changes which were occurring in central and southern Europe in the middle period of Third Interglacial times. The 166 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE travertines of the Ilm and of other parts of central Germany were due to wide-spread volcanic disturbances and eruptions, accom- panied by the deposition of travertines, gypsums, and tufas. To this volcanic disturbance in central France is attributed the deposition of the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, which records the warm temperate climate of early Acheulean times, as well as the somewhat cooler succeeding climate of late Acheulean times. This uplift in the centre of Germany and France appar- ently left the region between France and Great Britain undis- turbed, because there is evidence of continued free migration of the tribes and of the Acheulean cultures; but there appears to have been a wide-spread subsidence of the coasts of southern Europe by which the islands of the Mediterranean became iso- lated from the mainland, and the migrating routes between Europe and Africa across the central Mediterranean region were cut off. Thus, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were separated from the mainland after having received a large contingent of mammalian life from the continents both to the north and to the south. While descendants of the African and Asiatic mammals, as well as of the northerly European forest and meadow types, survive on these islands, there is, thus far, no indication that they were invaded by hunters carrying the implements of the Acheulean culture, although these Acheulean flint workers ranged over all parts of the Italian peninsula (Fig. 80), as indicated by the dis- covery of nine stations. DISTRIBUTION OF ACHEULEAN STATIONS The Acheulean stations are widely distributed along the Seine, Marne, and Somme in northern France, where flint is abundant and well adapted for fine workmanship. In central and southern France, where large flints are scarce, the Acheulean tribes were forced to use quartz, which fashions into clumsier forms. In the north the Acheulean workers continued on the old Chellean sites at Chelles, St. Acheul, Abbeville, and Helin. In late Acheulean times were established the new stations of ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 167 Wolvercote on the Thames, near Oxford, and of Levallois on the Seine, near Paris, both famous for their ‘Levallois’ flint knives or blades. Near Levallois is the late Acheulean station of Ville- juif, south of Paris, where the flints are buried in drifts of loess. In Normandy are the important stations of Frileuse, Bléville, khleeberg Mar AEE ar @. oh a ; ®Taubach > De oe = 4 & § Ehringsdor. 1- La Ferrassie 2- La Micoque 3- Le Moustier 4-La Rochette 5- Pataud 6- Laussel I:G. 80. Distribution of the principal Acheulean industrial stations in western Europe. and La Mare-aux-Clercs, which give the whole Acheulean devel- opment, both early and late. Ona small tributary valley of the Vézére, in Dordogne, in late Acheulean times there was estab- lished the station of La Micoque, which gives its name to a num- ber of miniature flints of distinctive form which were first found there and are known as the ‘type of La Micoque.’ Other sta- tions, such as Combe-Capelle, also show examples of this ‘minia- ture’ Acheulean workmanship. Altogether, over thirty Acheulean stations have been found in France, two—Castillo and San Isidro—in northern and central 168 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Spain, the single station of Furninha in Portugal, over eight in Germany, three in Austria, and three in Russian Poland. Espe- cially remarkable is the wide distribution of this culture all over Italy, where explorations by no means exhaustive have resulted in the discovery of at least nine or ten very prolific stations ex- tending from Goccianello in the north to Capri in the south, but not into Sicily as far as is at present known. Thus all of western Fic. 81. Late Acheulean station of La Micoque, in Dordogne, where miniature flints of distinctive late Acheulean form are found. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. Europe, excepting the area covered by the Scandinavian ice- fields on the north and by the Alpine ice-fields on the south, was penetrated by the workers of Acheulean flints, probably members, for the most part, of the Neanderthal race. The general uniformity of Acheulean workmanship in all parts of western Europe is an indication that these Neanderthaloid tribes were more or less migratory and that the inventions of new and useful implements, such as the lance-pointed coup de poing of La Micoque and the flint-flakes of Levallois, which probably ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 169 originated at an especial centre, or perhaps even in the inventive mind of a single workman, became widely distributed and highly distinctive of certain periods. The development of the imple- ments in different regions is so uniform as to prove that the evo- lution of the early Paleolithic cultures extended all over western Europe and that the various types or stages were essentially contemporary. Forms oF ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS There is a close sequence between the coup de poing of the Chellean workers and its development into the finer and more Fic. 82. Illustrating the method of ‘flaking’ flint implements by direct or indirect blow with a hammer-stone. symmetrical forms of the Acheulean. The latter, according to Obermaier,*® is distinguished by the flaking of the entire surface, by the far more skilful fashioning, and by the really symmetrical almond form which is attained by retouching both the surface and the edges. This more refined retouch becomes the means of producing symmetrical instruments, with straight, convex, or concave cutting edges, as well as finer and lighter tools. The early Acheulean industry belonged to a warm temperate climatic period and directly succeeds the Chellean, as shown in 170 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE a most perfect manner in the quarries of the type station of St. Acheul on the Somme. In these earlier strata the prevailing forms of coup de poing are the ‘pointed oval’ and the ‘lance- pointed,’ the latter showing very simple chipping, a broad point, and a thick base. The oval coups de poing are smaller than the Chellean tools of the same kind, carefully fashioned on all sides and round the base, and very symmetrical; there are four dis- tinct varieties of these: the almond type, oval almond-shaped, elongate oval, and subtriangular—the latter evolving into the Fic. 83. Illustrating the method of ‘chipping’ flint implements by pressure with a bone or wooden implement, to produce the finer retouch of the surfaces and edges. finely modelled type of late Acheulean times. It may have been from these oval types that the disc form was finally evolved. There is wide difference of opinion regarding the use of these thin ovaloid, triangular, and disc forms. Obermaier considers that they may have been clamped in wood, or furnished with a shaft, thus forming a spear head. Another suggestion is that they were used with a leather guard to protect the hand; and there is no doubt that in either case they would have served as effective weapons in chase or war. Another view is that of Com- mont,®’ who believes that not a single implement down to the very end of Acheulean times can be regarded as a weapon of war ; this author maintains that many of these implements, including those dressed on both edges, were still in various ways grasped -ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 1"1 by the hand, although they do not present the firm, blunted grip of the ancient coups de poing. We also note the development of a type of coup de poing, with cutting blade fashioned straight across the end: this primitive “Reverse *--. Point of percussion ~~ Bulb of percussion * Sear , =>! Concentric waves Flakes Fic. 84. Method of producing the long flake and the central core of flint by sharp blows at the indicated point of percussion. After R. R. Schmidt. In this case:a series of flakes have been cut off the entire periphery of the core. ‘The primitive use of the flake begins in the Pre-Chellean. chisel or adze-shaped tool may have been used as a chopper, or as an axe, in fashioning wooden tools. In the lance-pointed coup de poing of narrow, elongate shape, the flaking is very simple and the edges are continued into the short base, generally very thick, and often showing part of the original crust of the flint nodule, which is well adapted for the grip of the hand. This implement, which serves the original idea of the coup de poing, develops into the round-pointed and lance- pointed forms. ‘There is no question that, whether in industrial 172 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE use, in war, or in the chase, these implements were held only by the hand. The small implements of the early Acheulean included a great variety of designs developing out of the far more primitive tools INDUSTRIAL. Coup de poing. Ovaloid. Double-edged. Subtriangular. Straight cutting blade across the end. Disc-shaped. Triangular—very thin and flat. Hachette, chopper. Grattoir, planing tool. Racloir, scraper. Percor, drill, borer: Couteau, knife. ‘Pointe’ (Levallois blade). ‘Pointe,’ point—oval and chisel-shaped. WAR AND CHASE. Coup de poing. Of pointed and lance-pointed types. Pierre de jet, throwing stone. Couteau, knife. ‘Pointe,’ dart and spear heads. of Chellean and Pre-Chellean times, namely, the planing tool, the scraper, the borer, and the knife. Each of these types de- velops its own variety, often fashioned with great care, prim- itive blades, straight-edged cut- ting tools, with the back rounded or blunted for the grip of the fingers, scrapers with straight or curved edges, and percoirs or borers. The scraping and plan- ing tools, doubtless used for the dressing of hides, are now more carefully fashioned. We also observe the racloir and the scraper finished to a point which is the precursor of the graving tool of the Upper Palz- olithic.*® Characteristic of this stage is the systematic use of large ‘flakes’ or outlying pieces of flint struck off from the core, which were used as scrapers or planes, or developed into small ‘haches,’ or coups de poing. The core or centre of the flint nodule still constitutes the ma- terial out of which the large typical implements are fashioned ; but the flake begins to lend itself to a great variety of forms, as witnessed in the evolution of the Levallois knives of the Upper Acheulean and the highly varied flake implements of the Mousterian and Aurignacian industries. The ‘pointe,’ or point, is a special implement chipped out -ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 173 of a short, sharply convex flake, taking the form of a blunt dart or spear head, pointed at one end and oval or flat at the other. Fic. 85. Large, typical Acheulean implements, chiefly described as coups de poing, after de Mortillet. One-quarter actual size. One of these (41) shows at one end a part of the crust of the flint nodule left intact to afford a smooth, firm grip to the -hand. Another (43) shows a part of the crust remaining along the left side, for the same purpose. Two of the coups de poing (47 and 48) show, the one a double-curved, the other a straight, lateral edge. Another coup de poing (49), from a submarine deposit near the shore at Havre, is partly covered by acorn shells. LATE ACHEULEAN CLIMATE The Acheulean industry continued over a very long period, and by the time the late Acheulean culture stage had been reached a decided change of climate ensued in western Europe. Along the borders of the Danube and of the Rhine, in the valley of the Somme, and even in central and southern France there are indi- cations of a cool dry continental climate, similar to that which 174 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE is now found on the southern steppes of Russia, in the Ural Mountains, and in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea. Indications of this climate have been mentioned above, as seen in the plant life in the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, where there are evidences that trees of a cool temperate climate took the place of the warm temperate forests of early Acheulean times. That the climate should be considered as cool and arid rather than comparable with the bitter-cold climate of the ‘upper loess’ period, when a true steppe fauna entered Europe for the first time, is further indicated by the fact that late Acheulean imple- ments are more frequently found in the centre and north of France than in the south. To the far north, before the close of Acheulean times, the Scandinavian ice-fields had again begun to advance southward ; the region bordering the glaciers was cold and moist and favored the migration from the tundra regions of the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros to the locality still frequented by the Acheulean flint workers, for it is said *° that Acheulean flints are occasionally associated even with the remains of these tundra mammals. At the very same time the Acheulean flint workers along the Somme may have enjoyed a more genial climate. It is only through this interpretation of the various climatic and life zones in western Europe that we can explain the survival on the River Somme, or return to this river from the south, of a warm temperate fauna, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and ele- phants, in the Mousterian period, which is even subsequent to the close of Acheulean times. The valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau, and the Garonne draining the eastern Pyrenees, were now sought by the Acheulean flint workers. The valley of the Vézére, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of lime- stone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with vertical sides. Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present.*° Evidences of a change of climate are observed even in the sheltered valleys where the THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE 175 flint workers were seeking the warmer and sunnier river-slopes. The river channels were the same as they are to-day, and the quarries of the early Acheulean flint workers are found quite close to the streams; but as the period progressed they moved up nearer to the cliffs and shelters. Here, too, there is evidence that a dry continental climate prevailed. On the upper levels of eesti a a, oe MelCazead_ Bounds Cirgrlde Dordogne / &f. Xe. | Mend 0, ende ome. Marmande Cahors R. a oy 0 . o HOG ez AR: Nyareg Aveyronyo Laguepies aS ¢ Millay Hauteur 34002 Fic. 86. ‘Valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau and the Garonne draining. the eastern Pyrenees.” After Harlé. the old plateaus of Dordogne we still find the Quercus ilex occur- ring quite frequently, a tree which belongs to relatively dry regions and which in southern Russia is reckoned with the flora of the steppes. Yet the greater aridity toward the close of the Acheu- lean stage was probably not such as to prevent the growth of forests along the borders of the streams. Thus, in the mammalian life of the period there was, perhaps, a division between the more hardy forms which frequented the dry plateaus above and the forest-loving and less hardy forms which frequented the river- valleys. The most convincing proof of an arid climate in the north of France with prevailing high westerly winds is found in the layers 176 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of ‘loess’ which occur on the ‘terraces’ of the Somme, the Seine, the Rhine, and the Danube. These ‘lower loess’ layers of Third Interglacial times frequently contain implements of the late Acheulean industry. Thus, at Villejuif, south of Paris, late vic. 87. **The valley of the Vézére, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with vertical sides,” favorable to the formation of caverns, grottos, and shelters. ‘Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present.”’ Photo- graph by N. C. Nelson. Acheulean implements are found embedded in drifts of ‘loess.’ In the valley of the Somme, flints of the middle Acheulean stage are also found in the loess ancien and ‘river-drift.’ In the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret the layer of ‘loess’ immediately over- lies the tufa layer containing late Acheulean implements and proofs of a cooler climate. Among the most famous of the ‘loess’ stations of late Acheu- lean times is that of Achenheim on the upper Rhine, west of Stras- burg. Here the ‘older loess’ contains a typical Acheulean culture. LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS ieee With this prolonged epoch of cooler temperature the hippo- potamus and the southern mammoth retreated to the warmer portions of southern Europe, and their remains are no longer found associated with the late Acheulean flints. The more hardy straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros still continued in the north, apparently well adapted to sustain a very consider- able fall in temperature. Forms OF LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS The coups de poing of the late Acheulean exhibit a great ad- vance upon the Chellean, being fashioned into dagger or lance forms, with all the edges carefully chipped. The ovaloid imple- ments of late Acheulean times are often worked into fine and sharp blades, which may have been used like butcher-knives for dismembering the carcasses of game and for cutting up the pelts, while the fine almond and disc shapes may have been used as scrapers to cut off the tissues of the inner surfaces of the hides, which were finally dressed by the grattoir, or flint planing tool. In brief, the coup de poing reaches its acme of development in late Acheulean times, both in the fineness of flaking and retouching and in its symmetry of form. The use of large flakes of flint and the retouching both of the borders and of the extremities of these flakes shows a constantly improving technique. It is in the thin, flat, triangular blades and in the lance-pointed forms that the coup de poing reaches its culmination; but we still observe the development of the oval or almond-shaped forms and of the flattened discs. The implements of this time reach their greatest perfection in the north of France, where flint is so abundant. The late Acheulean is further distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements and tools. The knives are now very fine and perfect, although they retain the broad, thick form of the original flint fragment and seldom attain the sym- metrical shape which characterizes the blades of the Upper Palz- olithic.4! The ‘points’ are also of finer technique, with their edges converging from a broad base to a well-formed point. It is 178 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE generally assumed that these were held in the bare hand, but it is quite as probable that they were attached to wooden shafts and used as dart or spear heads. By far the most numerous as well as the most varied of the smaller tools were the racloirs, Fic. 88. Varied shapes of the Acheulean flints described as coups de poing, including some ‘miniature’ forms, after de Mortillet. The oval, the pointed, the almond, the triangular, the disc-shaped. ‘The late Acheulean is distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements, tools, and weapons; yet the finest work of Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the best Solutrean work of the Upper Paleolithic. One-quarter actual size. or scrapers, which were developed, doubtless, by the increasing use of skins for clothing as a protection against the somewhat more rigorous ciimate of late Acheulean times. Probably the women of the tribe were employed in dressing hides by means of these scrapers, which were either flat and broad with crescent- shaped edges, flat and narrow, or double-edged with rounded LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS 179 ends. The development of other fine tools—borers, small discs, triangular and ovaloid shapes, miniature coups de poing, and many varied forms besides—is best witnessed in the station of La Micoque, close to the junction of the Vézére with the Dor- dogne. These miniature implements may well have been used in the final dressing of skins for clothing, in the chase of smaller kinds of game, or at feasts for splitting marrow-bones. No bone implements whatever have been found even with Fic. 89. The chef-d’euvre of the Acheulean industry is the Levallois flake, which may have evolved from the large flakes of Chellean times. After Worthington Smith. these late Acheulean flints, but it is important to observe that the majority of these stations are open and exposed to the weather and that bone implements would not be preserved here as they would in the sheltered grottos and caverns to which the flint workers repaired in the Mousterian and succeeding times. As regards the finish of these flint implements, it is important to note that it is fine only by comparison with the crude work of the early Acheulean or the still coarser types of Chellean times and that the very finest work of Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the finer work of the Upper Paleolithic. The chef-d’ euvre of the late Acheulean industry is the Levallois flake, first found at Levallois-Perret, near Paris, which de Mor- tillet believed to be fashioned out of a divided coup de poing 180 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with a flat under-side, but which may have been evolved from the very large primitive flakes of Pre-Chellean date. These flakes date back earlier than the Chellean coup de poing but con- tinued in use after its invention and may have been greatly perfected into the Levallois type. This type of ‘couteau’ is a large, wide, thin flake of fairly symmetrical shape, with a flat back formed by the original smooth surface of the flake. These implements are pointed, oval, or sharply rectangular in form and present the most characteristic tool of the closing stage of the Acheulean industry. It is most interesting at this point to observe the two modes of evolution which seem to pervade all nature: first, the gradual perfection and modification in size and proportion of a certain older form; second, the sudden change or mutation into a new form, which in turn enters the stage of gradual improvement. The late Acheulean is seen to present the climax of a gradual and unbroken development from the early Chellean industries and ideas; and to our mind this is strongly suggestive of a corre- sponding evolution of manual skill and mental development in the workmen themselves, who may have been partly of Pre- Neanderthaloid race. The next industrial stage, namely, the Mousterian, which cer- tainly presents the closing workmanship of the Neanderthal race, shows a marked retrogression of technique in contrast to the steady progression which we have observed up to this time. We have, in fact, witnessed a number of successive stages of progres- sion, which are to be followed in the Mousterian by a stage of retrogression. Such a retrogression in industrial development may for certain known or unknown reasons occur in the same race. It is a noteworthy parallel that in the Upper Paleolithic, where the Solutrean culture represents the climax and perfection of flint working, the succeeding Magdalenian shows marked retrogression in the technique of flint retouch. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 181 THE KRAPINA NEANDERTHALOIDS In northern Croatia, near the small town of Krapina, in the valley of the Krapinica River, is the now famous cavern of Kra- pina, where in 1899 was made the fourth discovery of the remains of men of the Neanderthaloid race in western Europe, twelve Fic. 90. The grotto of Krapina, overlooking the valley of the Krapinica River, near Krapina, Croatia, in Austria-Hungary. After Kraemer. years after the discovery of the men of Spy, in Belgium, and forty-three years after the discovery of the man of Neanderthal. Even now opinion is divided as to the age of the human remains found in this cavern. The discoverer, Professor Gorjanovic- Kramberger of Agram considered that the stone implements and chips were of Mousterian age, and Breuil still refers them to the early, or so-called warm, Mousterian period; this opinion is shared by Déchelette. Schmidt, however, regards Krapina as a true Acheulean station, lacking in some of the typical implements, and-of the same age as the ‘loess’ station of Ehringsdorf. 182 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The mammals found in the cavern certainly belong to the very late Acheulean period and include Merck’s rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the urus, a species of horse, the giant deer (Megaceros), the beaver, and the marmot (Arctomys marmotta). The cavern was originally washed out by the river, but now it is 82 feet above the present water-level. When found it was completely filled with sand and gravel deposits, weathered frag- ments from the roof and walls, and loose stones and boulders.” Enclosed in this mass. in separate strata which are perfectly G 4 & arte ei Eee Nes g ~~ QX 5 NJ Se ~ SoS eases S Pu ST ue S “Fees gs 8 NE N ¢ 8 s Merers SW Meters | <= s 7300 Sarmatian Btn fe Pe res aL a ns ° 4 Ov |-- es +250 formation (OR a a he aa Marine Sandsrone and Cconglomera Miocene - of et se - Cc ° Sept . feictateage ° oa ee oe. CI Tae ee eet ey Sa lI Char Ie A AAC] ahr) s Sie 2",20°7 . Cs eit 3 - ofa. Sree a ee eg eae a eae etal e wag ore Olga oa ese CHEE Nig CEI ile ° PS Doe Wee en Jes F060. 0 0 4. 2? a BYR. ani Nig Oe Sine - ea Leve. S SEeCe eee en te Ae ere Bites moe ear Upper Oligocene Fic. 91. Cross-section of the valley traversed by the Krapinica River showing the loca- tion of the grotto known as the Krapina recess on the bank to the left. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. distinguishable, there lay, variously distributed through the different layers, thousands of animal bones, mingled with hun- dreds of human bones, and hundreds of stone implements and chips. During the years 1899-1905 Gorjanovic-Kramberger made a thorough exploration of the contents of this cavern, and published a complete account of his researches in 1906. There were about three hundred pieces of human bones, among them many small fragments, also many sizable pieces of skull and several entire limb bones perfectly preserved. The bones are of a strongly characterized type, and the lower jaws, face bones, bones of the thigh and arm, the teeth, and the bones of many children establish the Krapina race as belonging unquestionably in the same group with that of Neanderthal and of Spy. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 183 The skull of the Krapina man (Fig. 93) is somewhat broader or more brachycephalic than that of any other members of the Neanderthal race. In general, the race is somewhat dwarfed, of broader head form and with less prominent supraorbital processes. The species is unquestionably Homo neanderthalensis, of which Fic. 92. Detail showing the interior contents of the Krapina grotto. be- fore its excavation in the years 1899 to 1905. After Gorjanovi¢é-Kramberger. the Krapina men constitute a local race. Schwalbe and Boule observe that the greater breadth of the Krapina skull is partly due to the manner in which the bones have been put together,“ and they do not consider that the Krapina man represents a different subrace (Homo neanderthalensis krapinensis) as held by the discoverer. The cephalic index of one Krapina skull is re- corded as 83.7 per cent (?) as compared with 73.9 per cent, the cephalic index of the true H. neanderthalensis, a difference which, as above noted, may be partly due to the restoration. The bones are in such a fragmentary condition that it is impossible to form a proper estimate of the brain capacity in either the males or females of this race; nor is it possible to estimate the stature. The space between the eyes is the same as in the Neanderthal 184 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE race; the angle of the retreat of the forehead (52°) is nearly the same as in the Gibraltar female Neanderthal skull (50°), this high forehead being due to the lesser development of the supra- orbital ridges. That the brain was of a low, flat-headed Nean- derthal type is shown by the close similarity of the index of the height of skull (42.2) to that of one of the men of Spy (44.3), as compared with the lowest index among the existing races of men (48.9); yet the Krapina man presents a considerable advance Fic. 93. Profile view, right side, of one of the skulls from Krapina. This skull is much broader than that of the typical Neanderthaloid. After Gorjanovi¢-Kramberger. One-quarter life size. over Pithecanthropus, in which the index of the height of skull is only 34.2. The jaw is more slender than that of the Heidelberg man but is still thick and massive; the chin is receding, a character- istic of all the Neanderthal races. The broken condition of all the human bones in this cavern, and the abundant indications of fire, have led to the charge that the Neanderthals of Krapina were cannibals, and that these mingled remains are the bones of animals and men collected here during cannibalistic feasts. Against this supposition Breuil ob- serves that none of the human bones are split lengthwise, as is the usual practice when extracting the marrow, but they are broken crosswise. ‘This is the only evidence of such practice that has been found during all Paleolithic times, and we should hesi- tate to accept it unless corroborated by other localities. The various layers indicate that the cavern was successively occupied by man; in or near the hearths are found stone imple- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 185 ments, broken and incinerated bones, and pieces of charcoal, which may indicate that this grotto was visited only at intervals, perhaps during the colder seasons of the year. (x) Harlé, 1910.1. (2) d’Ault du Mesnil, 1896.1, pp. 284-2096. (3) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 146. (4) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 118-126. (5) Boule, 1888.1. (6) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 327-320. (7) Haug, 1907.1, vol., II, pp. 327- 329. (8) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 262. (9) Morlot, 1854.1. (10) Commont, 1906.1. (11) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 107-111. (12) d’Ault du Mesnil, op. cit. (rads oChmidt,. 1072-5, Dp. 124, 125. (14) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 118. (15) Dawson, 1913.1; 1013-2; 1913.3. (16) Kennard, 1913.1. (17) Reid, 1913.1. (18) Dawson, 1913.1, p. 123; 1914.1, pp. 82-86. (oye Welt, As, 1083.1; 1013.23 1913.3. (aoe mide tu, TOL4:1; 1913.23 1913.3; 1913.4. (21) Boule, 1913.1, pp. 245, 246. (22) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 603. (23) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 404-409. (24) Ewart, 1904.1; 1907.13 1909.1. (25) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 120. (26) de Mortillet, 1869.1. (27) Obermaier, op. cit., p. 116. (28) Lyell, 1863.1, p. 164. (29) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 119, 263, 264. (30) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 125, 126. (31) Geikie, op. cit., p. 228. (32) Avebury.) 1013-1. -D- 342, 0K ig. F205 (33) Schmidt, op. cit., pp. 17-105. (34) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 14. (35) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 164. (36) Obermaier, op. cit., pp. 124, 125, 127, 130. (37) Commont, 1908.1. (38) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp. 80-90. (39) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 255. (40) Hilzheimer, 1913.1, p. 145. (41) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 127. (42) Fischer, 1913.1. (43) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1901.1; 1903.1; 1906.1. (44) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 597. CHAPTER III CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL, TEMPERATE, AND ARID CLI- MATE, ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY — ADVENT OF THE FOURTH GLA- CIATION, PROFOUND CHANGES IN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE— THE ARCTIC TUNDRA PERIOD OF MAMMALIAN AND PLANT LIFE — CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE, OF THEIR MOUS- TERIAN FLINT INDUSTRY — SUPPOSED CAUSES OF EXTINCTION OR DISPERSAL WE now reach a prolonged and important stage in the pre- history of Europe, namely, the period of the fourth glaciation, of the final development of the Neanderthal race of man, of the Mousterian industry, of the beginnings of cave life, of the chase of the reindeer, and its use for food and clothing. In all Europe the Acheulean industry appears to have come to a close during a period of arid climate, warm in some parts of western Europe and cool or even cold in others. The seasonal va- riations may well have been extreme, as on the steppes of south- ern Russia, where exceedingly hot summers may be followed by intensely cold winters, with high winds and snow-storms destruc- tive of life. It is this seasonal alternation, as well as the recurrence, either seasonal or secular, of milder climate, which explains the survival or return of the Asiatic fauna even after the close of the Acheulean industry and when the Mousterian industry was well advanced. From deposits found at Grimaldi, in the Grotte des Enfants and in the Grotte du Prince, it has long been said that men of early Mousterian times lived contemporary with the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and Merck’s rhinoceros in the genial climate of the Mediterranean Riviera. More recently the same animals have been found as far north as the Somme valley in the ‘river-drifts’ of Montiéres-les-Amiens.'! Here, again, we find re- 186 CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL 187 mains of the hippopotamus, the stright-tusked elephant, and its companion, Merck’s rhinoceros, in Mousterian deposits, a surpris- ing discovery, because it had always been supposed that a cold climatic period had set in all over western Europe even before the close of the Acheulean culture. But there is also evidence of a temperate climate still prevailing in the Thames valley in the period of the Mousterian ‘floors.’? Again, along the Vézére valley, Dordogne, we find that at the station of La Micoque, where the industry marks the transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times, Merck’s rhinoceros is found in the lowest layers associated with remains of the moose (Alces). There is evidence that Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight- tusked elephant lingered in western Europe during the whole period of the early development of the Mousterian industry. As observed above, these animals were hardier than the southern mammoth, which was the first of the Asiatic mammals to disap- pear, soon to be followed by its companion, the hippopotamus. Even after the advent of the closely associated tundra pair, the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, Merck’s rhinoceros persists, as, for example, in the deposits of Rixdorf, near Berlin, where this ancient type occurs in the same deposits with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the musk-ox, as well as with the forest forms, the moose, stag, wolf, and forest horse. The extreme northern latitude of this deposit explains the absence of the straight-tusked elephant, which may at the time have been living farther to the south. The same mingling of south and north Asiatic mammals is found at Stein- heim, in the valley of the Murr, some degrees to the west and south of Rixdorf, not far from Géttingen, where we find Merck’s rhinoceros’ and the straight-tusked elephant in association with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, and the reindeer. | Thus the Neanderthal races were entering the Mousterian stage of culture during the close of the Third Interglacial Stage and during the early period of the advance of the ice-fields from the great centres in Scandinavia and the Alps. As these ice- 188 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE fields slowly approached each other from the north and from the south a very great period of time must have elapsed during which all the south Asiatic mammals abandoned western Europe or became extinct, with the exception of the lions and hyzenas, which became well fitted to the very severe climate that pre- vailed over Europe during the fourth glaciation, and even during the long Postglacial Stage which ensued. The large carnivora readily become thoroughly adapted to cold climates, as they sub- sist on animal life wherever it may be found; tigers of the same stock as those of India have been found as far north as the river Lena, in latitude 52° 25’, where the climate is colder than that of Petrograd or of Stockholm, while the lion throve in the cold atmosphere of the upper Atlas range. Thus the cave-lion (Felis leo spelea) and the cave-hyena (H. crocuta spelea) doubtless evolved an undercoating of fur as well as an overcoating of long hair, like the tundra mammals. In size the lion of this period in France often equalled and sometimes surpassed its existing rela- tives, the African and west Asiatic lion; it frequently figures in the art of the Upper Paleolithic artists and survived in western Europe to the very close of Upper Paleolithic times. THE FOURTH GLACIATION Penck‘ has estimated that the first ‘maximum of the fourth glaciation in the Alps was reached 40,000 years ago, and that after the recession period the second maximum ended not less than 20,000 years ago. This would extend the Mousterian in- dustry over a very long period of time, for there can be no doubt that the Mousterian culture was practically contemporaneous with the fourth glaciation, even if a briefer period of time should be allotted to this great natural event. The fourth glaciation, like the first, is believed to have been contemporaneous in Europe and North America,® a fact which is of especial importance to American anthropologists in connec- tion with the question of the date of arrival of primitive man in America. In both countries the glaciation reached an early THE FOURTH GLACIAL STAGE 189 maximum, which was followed by a period of recession of the ice-fields, a time during which a somewhat more temperate cli- mate prevailed, but this in turn gave way to a second advance of as great severity as the first.* Fe | ‘ f At) « Rh | Fic. 94. Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers of the Fourth Glacial Stage. This is also supposed to have been a period of land depression and of extension of the inland seas of southern Europe. Britain was probably connected with France. The ice-covered areas in western Europe and Britain were far more limited than during the Third Glacial Stage, yet the climate appears to have been more severe than at any previous period. For the snow-level compare Fig. 13. Drawn by C. A. Reeds after -Geikie and De Geer. In the north, Scandinavia and Finland were again enshrouded in ice, and a great mer de glace occupied the basin of the Baltic Sea, sending its terminal moraines into Denmark and Schleswig- * The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenburgian by Geikie;® the recession may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the Lower Forestian. It is the Wiirm of Penck in the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the re- cession known as the Laufenschwankung. In America it is the early Wisconsin with the Peorian recession interval, followed by the late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaci- ation of America. 190 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Holstein and over the northern provinces of Germany, but this great ice-field did not again become confluent with that of Great Britain.’ At the commencement of the fourth glaciation large nM We us SS ~~ 1ts /, SS 3S } Y “UV Le Fic. 95. The two large tundra mammals, the woolly rhinoceros (upper), drawn from the work of Upper Paleolithic artists and from the specimen discovered at Starunia, in Galicia, Austria; and the woolly mammoth (lower). These hardy animals gradually replaced the African-Asiatic pair, Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant. _ Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. One-sixtieth life size. glaciers descended over the Scottish mountain valleys and filled many of them even to the sea; the coast subsided at least 13¢ feet in this region. In southern Britain along the valley of the Thames there spread an arctic flora, with the polar willow (Sakix polaris) and the dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa); an arctic plant ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE 191 bed has also been discovered in the valley of the Lea. Thus the tundra climate extended from the Scottish lowlands to the south of England, the land being bleak and almost treeless.* This, we believe, was also the period of the arctic flora at Hoxne, Suffolk, and of the arctic plant bed in the valley of the Thames. At this time the valley was frequented by the reindeer, the woolly rhi- noceros, and the mammoth, whose remains are entombed in the low-level alluvia swept down from the sides of the valley, so that the remains of this arctic fauna may in places actually overlie those of the more deeply buried and far more ancient warm Asiatic fauna of Chellean times. Like the Somme, the Thames? was then from to to 25 feet below its present level, the bottom having since silted up with alluvial soil. This was the period of the deposition of the ‘upper drift’ over the north German lowlands, the Alps, and northern England, also of the early and late Wisconsin, or ‘upper drift,’ which spreads very widely over the Eastern States, from Wisconsin southward and eastward to the latitude of New York. The gravels and sands of some of the ‘lowest terraces’ were also deposited. MAMMALIAN LIFE OF MOUSTERIAN TIMES The three successive phases of climate and environment sur- rounding the Neanderthal men during the period of the develop- ment of the Mousterian industry, were in descending order as follows : 3. Extreme Cold Climate of the Last Great Glacial Advance. Period of the late Mousterian industry of La Quina. Spread of all the arctic and tundra mammals over western Europe, including the musk-ox; migrations of the obi and banded lemming of the extreme north. Life and industry of the Neanderthal races, chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. 2. Cold Moist Climate. Period of the middle or ‘full Mousterian’ industry of the Neanderthal races. Appearance of the tundra life, including well- protected mammals and birds from the arctic region, also descent of the Alpine types to the foot-hills and river borders. First forerunners of the steppe life; the full Eurasiatic forest and field life widely spread over 192 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Europe. Life and industry chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. Reindeer very abundant. 1. Warm or Cool Arid Climate. ‘Transition from the Acheulean to the early Mousterian culture, as observed in the stations of La Micoque and of Combe-Capelle. The so-called ‘warm Mousterian’ fauna, including the surviving hippopotamus, Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked ele- phant in northern and southern France; herds of bison, cattle, and wild horses in southwestern France. ‘Tribal life, with the industry partly in open stations, partly under sheltering cliffs. This is the beginning of the ‘Reindeer Period,’ for this mi- grant from Scandinavia, with its companions of the northeastern tundras, the woolly mammoth and the rhinoceros, wandered slowly southward before the advancing Scandinavian ice-fields, which were greatly augmented by the increasingly cold and moist climate. Thus these animals are found in the north with flints of the Mousterian culture before they appear in the more genial region of Dordogne. In the somewhat older Acheulean- Mousterian station of La Micoque, along the Vézére, the fire- hearths contain almost exclusively the remains of horses and relatively few remains of bison and wild cattle, but no reindeer. A fireplace near the station of Combe-Capelle yields numerous remains of the bison, only a few of the horse, and the first of the reindeer. Before the appearance of the reindeer in the valley of the Vézére we may picture the meadow-lands as covered with bison and wild horses, the latter of the type which is now charac- teristic of the high plateaus of central Asia, while the bison of the period appears to be more similar to the American buffalo than to the surviving European form. Gradually the tundra animals spread toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe. The whole aspect of the country slowly changed with the approach of the reindeer, and the northern flora of the spruce, the fir, and the arctic willow clad the more sheltered river-valleys and hillsides, while the plateaus and fields were partly or wholly deforested. Thus the country became adapted chiefly to the tundra types of mammals; and in the middle Mousterian strata these herds, Mt, is AM co er ace “A \ lt Bee Wages) } it yy \ N i,\ ; ‘y n ( V7 \ J My ifs y | hs hy DR | Ny i if " \\) iN yf Fic. 96. Typical tundra fauna. ‘‘Gradually the tundra animals pressed toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe.” The wolverene, Gulo luscus borealis; the barren-ground reindeer, Rangifer tarandus (drawn from the living type); the arctic fox, Canis lagopus; the musk-ox, Ovibos mos- chatus ; and the banded lemming, Myodes torquatus. One-twenty-fifth life size. The lemming (A) is also shown one-seventh life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. 194 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE newly migrated from the far north and from the northeastern steppes bordering the Obi River, largely outnumber the steppe forms, which are limited to two or three species. Of these the principal types are the steppe horse, related to the Fizewalski horse now living in the desert of Gobi, the steppe suslik (Spermo- philus rufescens), and the steppe grouse, or moor-hen. The more characteristic forms of steppe life, such as the saiga antelope, the jerboa, and the kiang, were all later arrivals and did not appear until after the close of the Mousterian industry and the disap- pearance of the Neanderthal race. This was due to the fact that the climate surrounding the Neanderthal race in Mousterian times was cold and moist, with heavy rainfalls in summer and snow-storms in winter, a climate thoroughly suited to the arctic tundra mammals with their heavy covering of hair acting as a rain shed and the undercoating of wool protecting them in the most severe weather. The mammal life during the fourth glaciation, as it spread into the middle Rhine and Westphalian region, is fully recorded in the ‘loess’ deposits of Achenheim and in the famous grotto of Sir- genstein, on the upper Danube, lying northwest of Munich, where, together with traces of the most primitive Mousterian in- dustry, are found remains of the mammoth, the bison, the rein- deer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear. Following these mammals there is a record in the same deposit of the arrival of the Obi lemming, from northern Russia. The fact that only seven Mousterian stations are known in all Germany, or eight if we include the site of the Neanderthal burial, may be accounted for by the relatively close proximity of the great Scandinavian glacier on the north, which was only 350 miles distant from the great Alpine glacier on the south. To the east were the plains of Bohemia and the vast lowland region stretching northeastward to the tundras and eastward to the steppes, through which came the great migrations of tundra and steppe life. | | c ! LEIPSi %j Lsted = Rid rbache i leenk& verze ribild Boss a3 Obe larg®@ 12 @ PALAOLITHIC STATIONS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY FIG. 97. The seven Mousterian stations of Germany lay between the Scandinavian glacier (IV) on the north and the Alpine glacier (IV) on the south (dotted areas). They include the grottos of Sirgenstein, Irpfelhohle, and Réuberhihle, along the valley of the Danube ; Kartstein and Buchenloch, near the middle Rhine, and Baumannshéhle, south of Han- over; also the open loess station of Mommenheim. The Mousterian grotto of Wild- kirchli, in Switzerland, lay within the limits of the Alpine ice-fields; and the burial at Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, was probably of Mousterian age. After R, R. Schmidt, modified and redrawn. 196 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDER- THAL RACE Let us first glance at Dordogne. Among the stations of the early Mousterian industry we have seen that the Neanderthals in the valley of the Vézére, at La Micoque, were in the midst of a fauna chiefly composed of the bison and of the wild horse, the remains found in the hearths being almost exclusively of the latter animal.* In the primitive Mousterian station of Combe- Capelle near by the fire-hearths yield remains of the bison but only a few of the horse. Among the earliest caves inhabited by man’ was that of Le Moustier, situated on the right bank of the Vézére, and about go feet above it. This shelter and cave were examined as early as 1860-3 by Lartet™ and Christy and subsequently by de Vibraye,” Massénat,'® and others. Besides the deposits in the floor of the grotto there, a deep Mousterian culture layer has been found under the cliff in front, and this has been selected for our repre- sentation of the life of the men of Mousterian times, and of the flora of the Vézére in this early period (see frontispiece). Peyrony observes that, here as elsewhere, the older and lower industrial camps were farther away from the shelters; indeed, in this very region there are evidences that the Chellean and Acheulean flint workers occasionally visited the plateaus above; but as time passed and the weather became more severe the Neanderthals began to work nearer to the overhanging cliffs and finally directly beneath them. At this classic station of Le Moustier, one of the most complete skeletons of Neanderthal man was unearthed by Hauser, in 1908. There was a continuous residence here in mid- dle and upper Mousterian times, extending into the lower Aurig- nacian of the Upper Paleolithic. The contemporary fauna in these deposits included the mammoth, the reindeer, the giant deer (Megaceros), the horse, the bison, the woolly rhinoceros, and the * Obermaier, Breuil, and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times, ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 197 cave-bear. During the habitation of this typical station by man the climate was very cold and damp. In this region is found the complete record of the course of Mousterian evolution, both in the implements and in the advent of new forms of life; the number of reindeer gradually increases in the ascending layers with the development of the Mousterian industry. There is a constant gradation from the Acheulean into the Mousterian industrial types; according to Cartailhac, this Fic. 98. The type station of Le Moustier, on the right bank of the Vézére, Dordogne. The culture layer is on the middle terrace, overlooking the hamlet of Le Moustier. (Compare frontispiece, Pl. 1.) Photograph by Belvés. industry is alf the work of the same people, with no sharp lines of division. Thus at Combe-Capelle, where the début of the true Mous- terian culture took place, we find a number of large coups de poing, pointing back to the early Acheulean implements. The gradations which are exhibited here in these successive layers are quite in contrast to the advance of the industry at the close of Mousterian times in the very same locality, where there is an abrupt cultural transition toward the Aurignacian. Southern Britain tells of a similar sequence, which we may interpret as follows. Belonging either to the temperate climate 198 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of early Mousterian times, or to the period of the recession of the fourth glaciation, known in the Alps as the Laufenschwankung, are the Mousterian stations along the Lea and near the mouth of the Thames at Crayford (Worthington Smith,“ Geikie?). These Paleolithic ‘floors’ of Moustcrian times are buried be- Fic. 99. Excavations of the Mousterian culture layer under the cliff of Le Moustier. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. neath 4 to 5 feet of sand and loam and rest upon the surface of older river-gravels. Among the later river deposits several old land surfaces have been discovered; they consist of a few inches of angular gravel, crowded in places with unabraded implements and flakes which obviously occur just where they were left by Paleolithic workmen. At one point there is evidence that the flint maker squatted over his work, with his knees slightly apart, for the chips are thrown to the right and left in small piles. Here and there, mixed with these Mousterian implements, are more archaic forms which may have been drifted down from the older land surfaces above. ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 199 One such floor has been traced by Worthington Smith! through Middlesex and on both sides of the Thames. Plant remains occur plentifully on this old land surface, including im- pressions of portions of leaves, stems of grass, rushes, and sedges. The birch, alder, pine, yew, elm, and hazel have been recognized. The common male fern is of frequent occurrence, while the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) is found in profusion. Upon the whole, this assemblage of plants indicates a temperate climate. The flints described and figured by Worthington Smith are either of the late Acheulean ‘Levallois flake’ type or else of early Mousterian age. This writer!’ notes the great number of instruments known as trimmed flakes, which are found on the Paleolithic ‘floor’; these are flakes of large size, trimmed to an implement-like form on one side, while the other side is left per- fectly plain; the examples are remarkably constant to one form. The type of implement here described resembles the flakes of Levallois or Combe-Capelle, or even the typical ‘point’ from Le Moustier. Such flakes, shaped into the Mousterian forms of racloir, or scraper, are very common in the gravels of the Lea and of the Thames. While the remains of the woolly mammoth are found here, there are also indications of the presence of a well-marked tem- perate flora. These high-level ‘river-drifts’ along the Thames'® were certainly deposited when the climatic conditions were tem- perate, but they are succeeded by deposits indicating a renewed cold period, which may represent the cold ‘full Mousterian’ times of the Lower Paleolithic habitation of the Thames. Here we find the remarkable sheets of contorted ‘drift’ attributable to the movements of the frozen soil and subsoil when exposed to the heat of the summer sun. At the same time there may have been deposited along the Thames the alluvial loams and gravels, occasionally containing stones and rocks, which were brought down by ice-rafts; these low-level gravels are not to be confused with the underlying ‘old river-gravels’ which contain the warm tem- perate hippopotamus fauna, for they were accumulated under very cold conditions; they yield remains of the woolly rhinoceros and 200 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the mammoth. Thus, on the high levels of the Thames as well as on the low levels we find evidences of the human culture and of the extinct fauna of the period of the fourth great gla- ciation. The upper waters of the Rhine and Danube were also fre- quented by late Acheulean and early Mousterian flint workers. At a point far distant from southern England there is the cavern of Wildkirchli on the Santis Mountains, near Appenzell, in Swit- zerland ; in Mousterian times this was in the very heart of the Fic. 100. Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli. After Bachler. Entrances indicated at 1, 2, and 3, in the side of the limestone cliff. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet above sea- level, Bachler discovered proofs of occupation by Mousterian man in the very heart of the Alpine ice-fields of the Fourth Glacial Stage. north Alpine ice-field. The animal life here may indicate that this cavern was open during the period of recession between the two great advances of the fourth glaciation. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet, Bachler!® between 1903-6, discovered proofs of oc- cupation by Neanderthal man during Mousterian times; the flints are not well formed; the presence of crude bone implements may point to late Mousterian times; but the flints are considered by Bachler to be of the same stage as those of Le Moustier. It is asserted that when the Neanderthals followed the chase here ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 201 the climate was more genial, because the animals found include the stag, Alpine wolf (Cyon alpinus fossilis), cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-leopard (Felis pardus spelea), badger, marten, and otter, together with the typical Alpine forms, the ibex, chamois, and Fic. ror. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein. After R. R. Schmidt. ‘‘Of all the stations along the Danube by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein . . . which was first occupied by the Neanderthals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by the Lower and Upper Paleolithic men until the very close of the Upper Paleolithic.” marmot. But this fauna alone can hardly be taken as proof of a temperate climate, for at this Alpine height we should not ex- pect to discover the tundra life of the period; in fact, it is entirely absent. Of all the stations along the Danube, by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein, lying between the modern cities of Nurem- berg and Augsburg, which was first occupied by the Neander- thals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by the Lower and Upper Paleolithic men until the very close of the 202 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Upper Paleolithic. The continuous section of animal life and of human culture which this remarkable cavern yields afforded Schmidt,?° who began his researches here in the spring of 1906, a key to the prehistory of all the eighteen caverns in the region of the upper Danube and upper Rhine. In Sirgenstein the primi- tive Mousterian culture of the early Neanderthals was found, to- gether with remains of the mammoth, bison, reindeer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear ; this Mousterian industry closed with a record of the arrival in this region of the Obi lemming from northern Russia. Later on the Cré-Magnon race of Aurig- nacian times left on the floor of the cavern remains of their flint industry and of their feasts, including the bones of the woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, and reindeer. During Upper Pa- leolithic Solutrean times the cavern was not occupied ; but early in Magdalenian times it was again inhabited by man, and coin- cident with his return is the arrival of a great migration of the banded .lemming (Mvyodes torquatus) from the arctic tundras of the north. Finally, toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic, in late Magdalenian times, another climatic transition is indi- cated by the appearance of the pika, or tailless hare (Lagomys pusillus). During the Bronze Age this favorite grotto was again entered, and it was also inhabited during a portion of the Iron Age. The débris of these various cultures, hearths, and deposits of cave loam reach a total thickness of 814 feet and mark Sirgen- stein as first in rank among the Paleolithic stations of Germany. Typrs AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MAMMALS HunTED BY THE e foe NEANDERTHALS - This is the life of the period of the fourth scan when a very cold and moist climate prevailed all over western Europe as far south as northern Spain and northern Italy. While the glacial fields were not so extensive as during the third or the second glaciation, the climate was very severe, as indicated by the southward migration not only of the arctic flora but of the mammals and birds of the tundra region bordering the southern shores of the Arctic Ocean. Two or three forms from the cold Pi. V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, inhabiting the Dordogne region of central France in Mousterian times. Antiquity estimated as between 40,000 and 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this hunting race compare the frontispiece, Pl. I. MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 205 steppes of northern Russia also found their way into western Europe, but this was distinctly not a steppe period because of the prevailing moisture of the climate; in place of the westerly winds and great dust clouds of closing Acheulean times, cold mists and clouds heavy with moisture swept over the country, which during the winters was at times buried in snow, and subject to rapid changes of temperature. These ‘climatic* conditions appear to be demonstrated by the predominance of the arctic tundra life, mammals which were adapted only to severe weather and attracted by the northern flora. The summers were undoubtedly warm, like the present Arctic summers, but very much longer in these southerly latitudes. It is not improbable that there were seasonal migrations, north- ward and southward, of the mammoths, rhinoceroses, and rein- deer, and also that the northern flint quarries along the Somme and the Marne may have been visited chiefly during the warm summer season. The Asiatic mammals had entirely disappeared from the regions of France and Germany during the first max- imum of the fourth glaciation, but there are some who maintain that during the amelioration of climate that followed, an interval in the Alpine region termed the Laufenschwankung by Penck, the straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros again mi- grated into northern France. It is true that occasionally we find the bones of these animals in close association with those of the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. It is possible to explain such intermingling either as having occurred during the advance of the fourth glaciation, or as due to the northward and southward migration of the respective herds of mammals in the summer and winter seasons. As the period of the fourth glaciation continued it is certain that these Asiatic mammals entirely disappeared. At the same time the Neanderthals had passed through the first stage of development of the Mousterian industry and had reached what is known as the ‘full’ or ‘high’ Mousterian, which, * The climate of the tundras is extreme, the winter temperature falling on an average to 27° F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 50° F. In the subarctic steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 30° F., while that of July is 70° F. 206 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with few exceptions, was carried on under: the shelter of the overhanging cliffs or within the grottos. The mammalian life of these ‘full’ Mousterian times, as found along the headwaters of the Danube, the Rhine, and the branches of the Dordogne and Vézére, is divided among the various faunal groups as follows: LIFE OF MIDDLE MOUSTERIAN | TIMES TUNDRA LIFE. Woolly mammoth. ~ Woolly rhinoceros. Scandinavian reindeer. _ Arctic fox. Arctic hare. — Banded lemming. _ Arctic ptarmigan. ALPINE LIFE. Alpine marmot. Tex sae Alpine ptarmigan. STEPPE LIFE. Steppe horse. -. Steppe suslik. Moor-hen. ASIATIC LIFE. Cave-lion. Cave-hyena. Cave-leopard. ForeEstT LIFE. Stag, lynx, wolf, fox, water- vole, brown bear, giant deer. Cave-bear. MeEapow LIFE.. Bisons = ~ Wild cattle. _ It would appear that the reindeer, _ the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros were already widely dis- tributed over western Europe, ac- companied by the arctic fox (Canis lagopus), the arctic hare (Lepus vari- abilis), and the banded lemming (Myodes torquatus). There is no proof that the musk-ox had at this time reached its extreme southerly distribution, and it would appear that the arrival of the second type of -northern lemming from the region of the river Obi (Myodes obensis) did not occur until the close of Mous- terian times,?! because the great mi- gration of these animals is recorded by their abundant remains in the so-called ‘lower rodent layer’ of all the stations along the Rhine and Danube, such as Sirgenstein, Wild- scheuer, and Ofnet, after the final stage of Mousterian industry. In fact, this remarkable little rodent ap- pears to mark the second maximum or close of the fourth glaciation by its migration all over western Eu- rope, and wherever its remains are found in the grotto deposits they furnish one of the most im- portant and positive of prehistoric dates, namely, that of the MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 207 ‘lower rodent layer.’ The lemmings surpass all other mammals in the great distances covered by their migrations, and it would appear that this northern species swept all over western Europe at the same time, leaving its remains not only in the caverns along the Danube but in those of Belgium and of Thiede, near Braunschweig. The latter station, Thiede, was not far from the southern border of the Scandinavian glacier; it was subjected to a very severe arctic climate, as the only associates of the Obi lemming were the banded lemming, the arctic fox, the arctic hare, the reindeer, the mammoth, and the musk-ox. The woolly mammoth now reaches the height of its evolution and specialization ; as preserved in the frozen tundras of northern Siberia, and as represented in very Lire oF Late MovustErIAN numerous drawings and engravings TIMES by the Upper Paleolithic artists, it Second Maximum of Fourth is the most completely known of all Glaciation fossil mammalia.” Its proportions, as shown in the accompanying figure, which represents the information Tundra, Steppe, Alpine, Asi- atic and Meadow life, as above. Obi lemming. gathered from all sources, are en- Musk-ox, tirely different from those of either Ermine. pts the Indian or African elephant. rctic ptarmigan. ; 5 ee ere crea cel The head is very high and sur- (Steppe weasel). mounted by a great mass of hair and wool; behind this a sharp de- pression separates the back of the head from the great hump on the back; the hinder portion of the back falls away very rapidly and the tail is short; the overcoat of long hair nearly reaches the ground, and beneath this is a warm undercoating of wool. It is not improbable that the humps on the head and the back were fat reservoirs. The color of the hair was a yellowish brown, varying from light brown to pure brown; woolly hair, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, covered the whole body ; interspersed with the shorter hairs was a large number of longer and thicker hairs, which formed mane-like patches on the cheeks, chin, shoulders, flanks, and abdomen. A broad fringe of this 208 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE long hair extended along the sides of the body, as depicted in the work of the Upper Paleolithic artists in the Combarelles Cave. Especially interesting to us is the food found in the stomach and mouth of the frozen Siberian mammoths, which consists chiefly of a meadow flora such as flourishes during the summer in north- ern Siberia at the present day, including grasses and sedges, wild Fic. 102. The woolly mammoth (Elephas primigenius) and the contemporary Neander- thal hunters (Homo neanderthalensis), after the drawings of Upper Paleolithic artists and the frozen mammoths found in northern Siberia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915. thyme, beans of the wild oxytropis, also the arctic variety of the upright crowfoot (Ranunculus acer). This was the summer food. The winter food undoubtedly included the leaves and stems of the willow, the juniper, and other winter plants. The woolly rhinoceros was the invariable companion of the mammoth, even as Merck’s rhinoceros always associated itself with the straight-tusked elephant. This remarkable animal is related to the northern African group of white rhinoceroses, from which it branched off at a very remote period. The profile of its very long, narrow head, of its enormous anterior and lesser pos- terior horn, and its humped back resembles that of the existing MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 209 African form, but its protection against the arctic climate gave it a wholly different outward appearance; the hair of the face, of a golden-brown color, with an undercovering of wool, is pre- served in the Museum of Petrograd. Through a discovery at Starunia, in eastern Galicia, in 1911, this animal is now completely known to us, except the tail; its remains were found here at a depth of 30 feet, and included the head, left fore leg, and the skin of the left side of the body. ‘The Starunia specimen has a broad, truncated upper lip adapted to grazing habits, small oblique eyes, long, narrow, and pointed ears, a long anterior horn with oval base, and a shorter posterior horn, a short neck, on the back of which is a small, fleshy hump, quite independent of the skeleton ; the legs are comparatively short. It differs from the living African form in the somewhat narrower muzzle, in its small, pointed ears, and in the presence of a thick coating of hair. Like the white rhinoceros, the woolly form was a plains dweller, living on grass and small herbs.” This rhinoceros kept more closely to the borders of the great ice-sheets than did the mammoth, arrest- ing its migration in Germany and France; that is, it did not migrate so far to the south as the mammoth, which wandered. - down into Italy as far as Rome. The reindeer was the herald or forerunner of all the arctic tundra fauna; it reached the valley of the Vézére at the begin- ning of the period of the true Mousterian culture and already had penetrated much farther south during the Third Glacial Stage, probably migrating along the borders of the ice-fields ; in fact, it is found in northern Europe even during the second glaciation. It is the true Scandinavian or barren-ground species, which is now typified by two forms of the Old World reindeer (R. tarandus, R. spitzbergensis), and by the existing American barren-ground forms. The antlers are round, slender, and long in proportion to the relatively small size of the animal; the brow tines are palmated. There is little proof that the Neanderthals made much use of the bones of the reindeer, but there is every reason to suppose that they used the pelts, for the preparation of which the Mousterian scrapers and planers were especially well fitted. 210 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In the Iberian peninsula the tundra fauna did not penetrate as far south as Portugal, although the Norwegian lemming (Myodes lemmus) reached the vicinity of Lisbon. The woolly mammoth, accompanied by the woolly rhinoceros, has been dis- covered in two localities on the extreme northern coast of Spain, in the province of Santander, bordering the Bay of Biscay. The Fic. 103. The woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis), after the drawings of Palzo- lithic artists and the specimen from Starunia preserved in the museum of Lemberg, Galicia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915. reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is found in the cavern of Serifia, south of the Pyrenees; as early as Acheulean times it reached the region of Altamira, near Santander. Thus Harlé™ concludes it is certain that the tundra fauna spread from France westward into Catalonia, along the northern coast of Spain, flanking the Pyrenees. It is generally believed that the cave-bear (Ursus speleus) occupied many of the caverns before their possession by man, and developed certain peculiarities of structure in these haunts. Thus the phalanges bearing the claws are feebly de- CAVE LIFE 211 veloped, indicating that the claws had partly lost their prehen- sile function; the anterior grinding-teeth are very much reduced, and the cusps of the posterior grinders are blunted in a way which is indicative of an omnivorous diet; yet the front paws were of tremendous size, the body was thick-set and of heavier proportions than that of the larger recent bears (Ursus arctos) of Europe. Hence, it would appear that the Neanderthals drove out from the caves a type of bear less formidable than the exist- ing species but nevertheless a serious opponent to men armed with the small weapons of the Mousterian period. CUSTOMS OF THE CHASE AND OF CAVE LIFE We have only indirect means of knowing the courage and ac- tivity of the Neanderthals in the chase, through the bones of animals hunted for food which are found intermingled with the flints around their ancient hearths. These include in the early Mousterian hearths, as we have seen, bones of the bison, the wild cattle, and the horse, which are followed at Combe-Capelle by the first appearance of the bones of the reindeer. The bones of the bison and of the wild horse are both utilized in the bone anvils of the closing Mousterian culture at La Quina. What we believe to be the period of the great mammalian life of the region of the upper Danube is found in the Mousterian levels of the grotto of Sirgenstein, from which it would appear that the Nean- derthals hunted the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the wild horse, bison, and cattle, and the giant deer as well as the reindeer. We should keep in mind, however, that when these caves were for a time deserted, the beasts of prey returned, and so it often happens that the succeeding layers afford proofs of alternate occupation by man and by beasts of prey of sufficient size to bring in the larger kinds of game, while owls may be responsible for the deposits of the lemming, as in the ‘lower rodent layer.’ Obermaier” has given careful study to the vicissitudes of cave life in Mousterian times. Long before these caves were in- habited by man, they served as lairs or refuges for the cave-bear 212 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and cave-hyzena, as well as for many birds of prey. For example, the cave of Echenoz-la-Moline, on the upper waters of the Sadne, contained the remains of over eight hundred skeletons of the cave-bear, and no doubt it cost the Neanderthals many a hard- fought battle before the beasts were driven out and man possessed himself of the grotto. Fire may have been the means employed. It has been questioned whether the caves were not unhealthy dwelling-places, but it must be remembered that, except in cer- tain caverns which had natural openings through the roof for the exit of smoke, there was no true cave life, but rather a grotto life, which centred around the entrance of the cave. The small- est cave, this author observes, was considerably larger and better ventilated than the small, smoky cabins of some of the European peasants, or the snow huts of the Eskimo. The most serious obstacle was the prevailing dampness, which varied periodically in the caverns, so that dry seasons were succeeded by abundant moisture seeping through the limestone roof and down the side walls. At such times the caverns were probably uninhabitable, and in the bones of both men and beasts many instances have been observed of diseased swellings and of inflammation of the vertebre, such as are caused by extreme dampness. The com- pensating advantages were the shelter offered from the rain and cold, a constant temperature at moderate distances from the en- trance, and also the fact that the caves were very easily defensible, because the entrance was generally small and the approach often steep and difficult; a high stone wall across the opening would have made the defense still easier, and a flaming firebrand would have prevented the approach of bears and other beasts of prey. On account of this shelter from the weather and wild beasts the grottos and the larger openings of the caverns were certainly crowded with the Mousterian flint workers during the inclement seasons of the year. Yet the greater part of the life of the Neanderthals was un- doubtedly passed in the open and in the chase. Throughout Mousterian times the commonest game consisted of the wild horse, wild ox, and reindeer. Both flesh and pelts were utilized, CAVE LIFE 213 and the marrow was sought by splitting all the larger bones. Thus, frequently we find in the hearths the remains of the mam- moth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, the cave-bear, and the brown bear. From these beasts of prey the Neanderthal hunters obtained pelts and perhaps also fat for torches used to light the caverns; there is no proof of the invention of the lamp at this period. The work of the women undoubtedly consisted of preparing the meals and making the pelts into covers and clothing. When- ever possible this would be done in the daylight outside of the grottos, but in chilly, rainy weather, or the bitter cold of winter, the whole tribe would seek refuge in the grotto, gathering around the fire-hearths fed with wood; odd corners would serve as store- houses for fuel or dried meat, preserved against the days when extreme cold and blinding snow forbade the hunters to venture forth. It appears that the game was dismembered where it fell and the best parts removed. The skull was split open for the brain; the long bones were preserved for the marrow; thus the bones of the flank and shoulder of game occur frequently in cave deposits, while the ribs and vertebre are rare. The pitfall may have been part of the hunting craft known to the Neanderthals. The chase was pursued with spears or darts fitted with flint points, also by means of ‘throwing stones,’ which are found in great numbers in the upper Mousterian levels of La Quina, in the Wolf Cave of Yonne, Les Cottés, and various places in Spain. If one imagines, as is quite possible, that the throwing stone was placed in a leather sling or in the cleft end of a stick, or fastened to a long leather thong, one can readily see it would prove a very effective weapon. The methods of chase by the Neanderthals are, nevertheless, somewhat of a mystery. There was a very decided disparity between the size and effectiveness of their weapons. and the strength and resistance of the animals which they pursued. None of the very heavy implements of Acheulean times was pre- served; the dart and spear heads are not greatly improved, cer- 214 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tainly they could not penetrate the thick hides of the larger arctic tundra mammals, heavily protected with hair and wool; the chase even of the horses, wild cattle, and reindeer was apparently without the aid of the bow and arrow and prior to the invention of the barbed arrow or lance head. 49 @% PRENEANDERTHALOIDS — @©NEANDERTHALOIDS ea PS a 2 ; 0 5 10 Fic. 104. Geographic distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids in western Europe, showing the localities where the remains of Pre-Neanderthaloid races (Heidelberg and Piltdown) and of true Neanderthaloids have thus far been dis- covered. (Compare table, p. 219.) DISCOVERY OF THE NEANDERTHALOID RACES The open-air or nomadic life of all the tribes of western Europe from Pre-Chellean nearly to the close of Acheulean times was very unfavorable to the preservation of human re- mains. It is possible that the bodies of the dead and of the aged were thrown out to the hyznas which surrounded the stations, as among some of the tribes of Africa to-day, but it is equally THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 215 possible that they were interred in some manner. Skeletons buried near the surface in the river sands or gravels of the ‘ter- races’ would not have been preserved. We have seen that the preservation of the Heidelberg and Piltdown remains was en- tirely due to chance, the bones having been washed down and mingled with those of the animals; nor has any evidence been found in the grotto of Krapina of ceremonial burial or of respect for the dead, but on the contrary there is some evidence of canni- balistic customs. Even before the close of early Mousterian times all this was changed. Perhaps the closer association en- Fic. 105. Front view of the Neanderthaloid skull found at Gibraltar in 1848—the earliest discovery of a member of this race, now re- garded as the skull of a woman. Photograph by A. Hrdlicka from the original specimen. One-quarter life size. forced by the more rigorous climate indirectly produced greater respect for the dead and led to the custom of burial or the orderly laying out of the remains of the dead in the floors of the partly protected grottos and caverns, to which custom we owe our present knowledge of the structure of Neanderthal man in Mousterian times. The first discovery of a Neanderthaloid was made in 1848, eight years before the type of the Neanderthal race came to light. This was the Gibraltar skull?® found by Lieutenant Flint, near Forbes Quarry, on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. It consists of a well-preserved skull, with the parietal bones only missing and the face and base of the cranium remarkably com- plete. In 1868 it was presented by Busk to the Museum of the 216 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Royal College of Surgeons, in London, where it lies to-day. The exact site of the discovery can no longer be positively identified ; it was probably found in a still existing cave, and although its archeologic age cannot be determined, yet as its anatomical fea- tures are those of the Neanderthal race, and as all the remains of this race which can be dated with certainty are of Mousterian age, it probably belongs to the Mousterian period. Of recent years its great importance in the history of man has been revealed in the studies of Sollas, Keith, and Schwalbe. Thus it has come © rN eae o & $ Ne 2 > anaes Sass 8 SS 2 Pe SE ¥ > a ts MS S & Nagar N NNE ree se 3 r & 8 S Merers 25K 5 = ZILA, 125 >) 100 igi Zs | 100 rR a Devonian 2 75. Yip ty, A 75 Jimestone| 50 Uy A 50 25S Z GUtGe: e Sea Level COOOX%Y7 ~L4AYADS KLELS 1 Sea Leve/ Oo 1000 2000 meters Fic. 106. Section of that part of the valley of the Diissel known as the Neanderthal, showing the location of the limestone grotto where the Neanderthal skeleton was discovered. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. to be ranked among the Neanderthaloids and is considered of a particularly primitive form, because of the extremely small size of the brain. This feature and the slight development of the supraorbital ridges, so characteristic of the Neanderthaloids, are explained by the theory that the skull belonged to a female. Sera*’ considers the Gibraltar skull to be the most ape-like of all human fossils and thinks it should not be classed with the Neanderthaloids at all, but should be regarded as Pre-Neander- thaloid; this view is shared by Keith. Boule, however, believes that this skull is of the same geologic age as that of Spy, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and La Quina; everything leads us to be- lieve,’* he remarks, that the skull of Gibraltar is a female skull of Neanderthal type. He elsewhere refers to the skulls of Gi- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 217 braltar, of La Quina, and of La Ferrassie II as probably those of female Neanderthals. The type skull of this great extinct race of men is that of Neanderthal—certainly the most famous and the most disputed of all anthropologic remains—appreciated by Lyell and Huxley, but passed over by Darwin, and finally established by Schwalbe as the most important missing link between the existing species of man (Homo sapiens) and the anthropoid apes. In 185679 some workmen were engaged in clearing a small loam-covered cave about six feet in height, the so-called Feldhofner Grotto, in the cretaceous limestone of the valley known as the Neander- thal, on the small stream Diissel flowing between Elberfeld and I'ic. 107. The original type skull of Neanderthal (left side) discovered in 1856. After Schwalbe. One-quarter life size. Diisseldorf. They discovered some human bones, probably a complete skeleton representing an interment, which, unfortu- nately, were allowed to be scattered and crushed. Doctor Fuhl- rott rescued the parts that remained, including the now famous skullcap, both thigh-bones, the right upper-arm bone, portions of the lower arm, bones of both sides, the right collar-bone, and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade, and ribs. All the bones were perfectly preserved and are now to be found in the provincial museum of Bonn. The discovery made a great sensation, but at first the age of these fossils remained doubtful; some 150 paces from the grotto, in a similar small cave were found bones of the cave-bear and rhinoceros. In 1858 Schaaffhausen’s memoir®® appeared, in which he gave the first detailed description of these remains as belonging to a primitive original race differing in every point from recent man, and he never wavered from this standpoint. 218 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In 1863?! Busk, Huxley, and Lyell also placed this skeleton in its true intermediate position between man and the anthropoid apes. The determined opinion of Virchow that this was not a normal type of man exerted so great an influence that not until the classic work of Schwalbe,” between 1899 and 1gor1, did this skel- eton assume its commanding importance for all time, and even this was subsequent to the discovery of two other Neanderthaloid races. At first, quite erroneously, this was associated with the so- called race of Cannstatt, but long before Schwalbe’s work it was recognized by King,** in 1864, as a distinct species of man (Homo neanderthalensis) ‘the man of the Neander valley.’ Not long after the discovery of the Neanderthaloids of Spy, in Belgium, Cope,* in 1893, proposed the same specific name of Homo neander- thalensis. In 1897 Wilser®> suggested the name of Homo primi- genius, which has been widely adopted in Germany, while among French authors the same species of man is sometimes known to-day as Homo moustertensis. ‘This variety of names serves at least to record the unanimous opinion that this mid-Pleistocene man belongs to a distinct species. Since the race was very widely distributed, we may speak of these people as the ‘Neanderthals,’ while races resembling the Neanderthal species may be characterized as * Neanderthaloid.’ The complete series of discoveries of members of this race is now very large indeed. In the year 1887 the Belgian geologists Fraipont and Lohest*® discovered in a grotto near Spy, not far from Dinant on the Meuse, the remains of two individuals which are now distinguished as Spy I and Spy II. In the same stratum with the skeletons, beneath a layer of tufaceous limestone, flint implements of Mous- terian age were embedded, together with remains of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, and cave-hyzena. ‘This discovery is one of the most important in the history of anthro- pology, because it definitely dated the Spy men as belonging to the period of Mousterian industry, and also because the authors immediately recognized these men as belonging to the race of THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 219 DISTRIBUTION OF THE REMAINS OF THE NEANDERTHALS (Compare Fig. 104) 1. OF UNKNOWN LOWER PALZOLITHIC TIMES Gibraltar. Forbes Quarry. Fragmentary skull. Neanderthal. Diisseldorf, Germany. Skullcap and_ skeletal fragments. Arcy-sur-Cure. Yonne, France. t lower jaw. La Naulette. Belgium. t lower jaw. Malarnaud. Ariége, France. 1 lower jaw. ?Gourdan. Hautes-Pyrénées. t lower jaw. Ochos. Moravia. t lower jaw. LATE MOoOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY epyeL, LL. Near Dinant, Bel- Tws skulls and _ skel- gium. etons. Petit-Puymoyen. Charente, France. Fragments of upper and lower jaws. Pech del Azé. Dordogne, France. Skull of a child. La Ferrassie II. Dordogne, France. t skeleton (female). iar Cotte de St. Isle of Jersey. 13 human teeth. Brelade. La Quina II. Charente, France. Skull and fragments of skeleton. 3. WitH MIppLE MovusTERIAN INDUSTRY Sipka. Moravia. Jaw of a child. La Chapelle-aux- Corréze, France. Almost complete skull Saints. and skeleton. La Ferrassie I. Dordogne, France. Portions of one skeleton. La Quina I. Charente, France. Foot bones. 4. WitTH EArRLty MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY Le Moustier. Vézére Valley, Dor- Skeleton of a youth. dogne, France. Ehringsdorf.*” Near Weimar. Lower jaw. 5. WitH MOUSTERIAN OR ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY Krapina. Croatia, Austria-Hun- Portions of many skel- gary. etons of adults and. of children. Taubach. Near Weimar. 1 milk tooth. 220 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Neanderthal and of Cannstatt, which at the time were supposed to be the same. Here for the first time the proportions of the cranium and the brain, the very primitive features of the lower jaw and of the teeth, the low stature, and several ape-like char- acters of the limb bones became known; here were observed the prominent supraorbital ridges of the Neanderthal type, the receding forehead, the cranial profile inferior to that of the lowest existing Australian races, the narrow, dolichocephalic skull. Fic. 108. Skull known as Spy I, discovered in 1887, in front of the grotto of Spy, near Namur, Belgium. After Kraemer. One-quarter life size. The limbs were found to have retained the anthropoid dispropor- tion between the thigh-bone and the shin-bone, and the important discovery was made that this short, massively built, heavy- browed, dull-visaged Neanderthal man was unable to stand absolutely erect, the structure of the knee-joint being such that the knees were constantly slightly bent. In other words, the Spy man had not yet fully acquired the erect position of the lower limbs. | This discovery may be said to have established the Neander- thals in all their characters as a very distinct low race, but twenty- two years elapsed before this was further confirmed by the finding of another and still earlier type of Neanderthaloid at Krapina, in northern Croatia, Austria-Hungary, as described at the close of Chapter II (p. 181 above); a type which with its local varia- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 291 tions was soon determined as unquestionably belonging in the same group with the man of Neanderthal and the men of Spy. Many years before, namely, in 1866, the Belgian anthro- pologist Dupont®* had discovered the remains of another mem- ber of this race in a grotto on the bank of the River Lesse, near La Naulette, not far from Furfooz, in northern Belgium. This is now known as the La Naulette jaw and is found to be of Neanderthal type. It was associated with bones of the woolly mammoth, the rhinoceros, the reindeer, and a few fragments of other human bones. Again, in 1882, Ma&ka*® found in a cave near Sipka, in Mo- ravia, south of Sternberg, and six miles east of Neutitschein, fragments of a child’s lower jaw, extraordinarily strong, thick, and large, and showing the incoming of the permanent teeth. From this very same region is the jaw of Ochos, Moravia, found by Rzehak* about 1906. Only the alveolar part of the jaw was found, but it served to demonstrate the very wide geographical distribution of the Neanderthal race. At this time the Dordogne region, long known to be an inten- sive centre of Mousterian industry, from the time of Lartet’s discovery of Le Moustier, in 1863, had not yielded a single skel- eton, or any anatomical evidence of the type of man which in Mousterian times inhabited it. But beginning in the spring of 1908 there came in succession a whole series of such discoveries, mostly of ceremonial burials, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, at the type station of Le Moustier itself, at La Ferrassie, another station on the lower Vézére, and at La Quina. In October, 1910, was discovered the skull known as La Fer- rassie II, of late Mousterian age; it is probably that of a female, and the remains were arranged in what was presumably a special form of ceremonial burial, because the bones, instead of being laid out straight in a certain direction, were in a crouching or flexed position (see Appendix, Note X). The Le Moustier skeleton was found by Hauser in the lower grotto of Le Moustier, in the Vézére valley, in the spring of 1908, and carefully removed with the aid of Professor Klaatsch.” 222 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE It belonged to a youth some sixteen years of age. The most interesting feature of the discovery was the manner in which the skeleton was laid out.*2 The head rested on a number of flint fragments carefully piled together—a sort of stone pillow; the dead lay in a sleeping posture, with the head resting on the right forearm. An exceptionally fine coup de poing was close by the hand, and numerous charred and split bones of wild cattle (Bos primigenius) were placed around, indicative of a food offering. The flints were believed to belong to the Acheulean stage, which underlies the layer of true Mousterian industry, long known in Fic. 109. Grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Corréze, a few miles to the eastward of Le Moustier. After Boule. this locality; but by French archeologists and by Schmidt these implements are regarded as of the earliest Mousterian age, in which it is well known that the Acheulean coup de poing still persisted. Unfortunately, the skeleton was not very well pre- served and, while Klaatsch was entirely justified in classifying it with the Neanderthaloids, it should be regarded not as a dis- tinct species (Homo mousteriensis hauseri) but rather as a mem- ber of the true Neanderthal race (Homo neanderthalensis). It also proves to be a rather stocky individual, robust and of low stature: the arms and legs are relatively short, especially the forearm and the shin-bone. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 223 At the same time that the skeleton of Le Moustier was being disinterred, the Abbés A. and J. Bouyssonie, and L. Bar- don* were exploring the Mousterian culture of the grotto near La Chapelle-aux-Saints, a few miles to the eastward of Le Mous- tier, and came upon a skeleton which has proved to be by far the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils, including a remark- Fic. 110 Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, where the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils was discovered in t908. After Boule. ably well-preserved skull, almost the entire back-bone, twenty ribs, bones of the arm and of the greater part of the leg, and a number of the bones of the hands and feet. This was also a ceremonial burial of an individual between fifty and fifty-five years of age, most carefully laid out in an east-and-west direc- tion in a small, natural depression. With it were found typical Mousterian flints, also a number of shells and remains chiefly of the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the reindeer, and the bison. The finding of a mature skull with the bones of the face in posi- tion, and in a relatively perfect state of preservation without distortion of the entire cranium, afforded for the first time the 224 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE opportunity of finally determining not only all the skeletal char- acters and proportions of Neanderthal man but also the actual size and proportions of the brain. ‘This superb specimen was sent to the Paris Museum, and Boule’s preliminary descriptions“ Fic. 111. The Neanderthaloid skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints—side, front and top views. After Boule. One-quarter life size. and finally his almost faultless monograph* aroused world-wide interest in the Neanderthal race. A year later a third Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in the cave of La Ferrassie not far from Le Bugue, Dordogne, by Peyrony. The bones were badly shattered, and the proofs of ceremonial burial were not perfectly clear, but at a glance the skeleton was clearly recognized from the characters of the skull, THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 295 and particularly from those of the forehead, as belonging to the Neanderthal race. ; In the succeeding year, rgro, in the cavern of La Quina, De- partment of Charente, to the north of the Vézére region‘® were found the foot bones of a man precisely resembling the La Cha- pelle type, and again in 1g11 several parts of the skeleton of an- other entirely typical member of the Neanderthal race were dis- covered in the earliest Mousterian strata. The skull bones were somewhat separated at the sutures. This was certainly not a Fic. 112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type, discovered in a cave on the Isle of Jersey. After Marett and Hrdlicka. case of ceremonial burial. Like the Gibraltar skull, this is sup- posed to be that of a female. Of especial geographic interest is the discovery by Nicolle and Sinel*? of thirteen human teeth in a Mousterian cavern on St. Brelade’s Bay, on the Island of Jersey,*® which furnishes proof of the extension of the Neanderthal race to the Channel Islands, when these were, in all probability, still a part of the mainland. ‘The teeth were associated with bones of the woolly rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of two varieties of the horse, as well as with evidences of Mousterian hearths and flint imple- ments. The distinctive features of the Neanderthal grinding- teeth are the stout size, deep implantation, and expanded form of the roots, which, with the heavy jaw, point to the toughness of the food and to the muscular strength exerted in mastication. 226 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The roots, instead of tapering to a point below, as in modern man, form a broad, stout column, supporting the crown, adapted to a sweeping motion of the jaw. This special feature alone would exclude the Neanderthals from the ancestry of the higher races. Thus, through a long series of discoveries, beginning in 1848 and rapidly multiplying during the last few years, we have found the materials for a complete knowledge of the skeletal structure of the men, women, and children of the Neanderthal race; we know the relative brain development as well as the stature of the sexes; we have determined that this race, and this only, extended over all western Europe during late Acheulean and the entire period of Mousterian times, and we have also learned that it was a race imbued with reverence for the dead and therefore probably animated by the belief in some form of future existence. CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE The skulls and skeletons‘? of Neanderthal, Spy, Krapina, Le Moustier, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and Gibraltar have so many distinctive features in common that it is beyond question that they must be classed in a closely related group. ‘The dis- tinctive features of this group are: First, features found also in the different existing races of man, but never in the anthropoid apes, and therefore human ; ' second, features, all of which have never been found combined in any race of recent man, the group, therefore, represents a distinct species of man; third, features outside of the limits of variation in the recent races of man, and intermediate between them and the variation limits of the anthropoid apes. Before looking at Neanderthal man as a whole, we may turn our attention especially to a number of these peculiar features of the race. All the earliest observers were impressed by the heavy, overhanging brows and retreating forehead. In recent man there is often a decided prominence above the eyes, from the glabella or median point above the nose outward toward each side, but generally the outer third of the margin of these promi- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 207 nences turns upward beneath the outer line of the eyebrows. In the Neanderthals, on the contrary, these prominences beneath the eyebrows surround the whole upper edge of the eye socket, extending outward around the external borders of the forehead, so that they may be called ‘tori supraorbitales’ ; the extent of this prominent ridge above and to the sides forms a veritable roof over the eye sockets, which appear like two deep, lateral cav- erns. Such lateral prominences do occur, though rarely, in re- cent inan ; they are observed, for example, in certain Austra- lians. The front view of the Neanderthal face, as seen in the female Gibraltar skull, in which these eyebrow ridges are by no means so prominent as in the male skulls, is no less remarkable Poe Als ole ae for the great height of the face as com- pee suicts (centre), | pared with the flatness of the forehead. and of a modern French- Placing the skull side by side with that man (right), showing the t gradual disappearance of Of the Australian,®® we observe at once pene are wane the enormous difference in the propor- tions of the face and the cranium in these two types, although the Australian represents one of the lowest existing races of Homo sapiens; we observe in the Gi- braltar skull the very wide space between the eyes and the very large size of the narial opening, which indicate a broad, flat- tened nose; there is a correspondingly long space between the bottom of the narial opening and the line for the insertion of the incisor teeth, indicating a very long upper lip. 228 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The jaw is less powerful than that of the Heidelberg man. The Heidelberg jaw we have seen to be distinguished by its gen- eral strength and clumsiness and its lack of chin, or rather a chin without the slightest indication of a prominence; on the inside of this very thick, rounded chin plate, the characteristic chin spine (spina mentalis) is lacking; instead, a double groove is present as the point of attachment for the muscles which con- Fic. 114. Face view of the Gibraltar skull (left) after Hrdlicka, and of a modern Australian skull (right) after Schwalbe, displaying the high, large visage of the former, which suggests that of the anthropoid apes. Both one-quarter life size. The com- parative horizontal lines are across the (a) masion, or root of the nose, the (6) lower edges of the orbits, the (c) lower edge of the nasal aperture, and the (d) top of the front teeth. nect the chin and tongue with the hyoid-bone; the ascending process for the attachment of the muscles of the jaw is seen to be unusually broad, 60 mm., in contrast to about 37 mm. in the recent jaw; finally, the condyle for attachment with the skull is particularly large.*! Like the Heidelberg jaw, that of the Neanderthals is distin- guished by great thickness and massiveness. In general the contours are similar; in a few instances the chin process is sug- gested by a slight prominence, but in general the chin is strongly receding, and it agrees with that of Heidelberg in lacking the spina mentalis. In other characteristics there are decided dif- ferences in the Heidelberg and Neanderthal jaws. The form of the latter is now known from the specimens of Krapina, of Spy, of La Naulette, of Ochos, and of Sipka, and from the perfect examples of Le Moustier and La Chapelle. The Sipka speci- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 229 men proves that even in a child ten years of age the jaw was remarkable for thickness and strength. Boule™ entirely agrees with Gorjanovic-Kramberger® that the chin in the Neanderthal jaw was only in process of formation, and throughout life at- tained no more than an infantile form, that the Neanderthals may be ranked, however, as Homines mentales, whereas the Heidel- bergs, in which the chin is entirely lacking, may be regarded as Homines amentales. The proportions of the teeth in the Neanderthals are equally distinctive, especially in the size of the true grinders and cutting teeth. As in the Heidelberg jaw, they form a closely set row, from which the canine does not project as in the Piltdown den- tition; in fact, the contour of the jaw and the proportions of the teeth are distinctly human when compared with the orang- like jaw of the Piltdown man. The grinding surface of the teeth has many layers of enamel, and the cusps are well developed. Unlike those of recent man, the incisors display folds of enamel on the inner or lingual surfaces, a condition rarely observed in the modern cutting teeth. In the teeth of the Heidelberg jaw, the pulp cavities are exceptionally large, whereas in the teeth of the Krapina race there is the unique feature that the molars have no normal roots, the roots having been more or less absorbed, a very rare occurrence inrecent man. ‘The dentition of La Chapelle is also distinctly human, but extraordinarily massive, correspond- ing with the general massiveness of the skull and masticating apparatus; in detail it is not that of civilized races, but an ex- aggerated form of the type called macrodont.** The elongation of the crown is also similar to what is termed hypsodont. The grinding-teeth do not all show this massive size and co- lumnar form, for about fifty per cent of the Krapina teeth have distinct roots and are more like normal modern grinders. In the Neanderthaloids of Spy the teeth are small and the roots are of moderate size.* _ This study of the forehead and of the eyebrow ridges, of the great depth of the face, and of the peculiarly high, square form of the eye sockets prepares us for a profile view of the skull of 230 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE La Chapelle in contrast with that of the most highly developed and intellectual European type, namely, the profile of the dis- tinguished American paleontologist, the late Professor Edward D. Cope, who bequeathed his skull and skeleton for purposes of scientific study and comparison. In La Chapelle we at once notice the platycephaly, or flattening of the skullcap, the retreat- ing forehead, the great prominence of the eyebrow ridges resem- bling that of the anthropoid apes, the lengthening of the face as Fre. 115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints (outline) in comparison with that of a high modern type (shaded); illustrating the projecting eye- brows and prognathous, ape-like face of the Neanderthaloids. After Boule. One-quarter life size. compared with the flattening of the cranium, the great promi- nence or prognathism of the face as a whole, and the special promi- nence of the rows of cutting teeth as compared with the vertical or indrawn line, and the recession of the tooth row in the Cope profile. This comparison also brings out the striking contrast between the high chin prominence of Homo sapiens and the deeply receding chin of the Neanderthals. The contrast is hardly less remarkable in the superior view of the skull in which the Neanderthal type is seen to be extremely dolichocephalic, the back of the skull being relatively broad and the front narrowing in the region of the forebrain until it suddenly expands in the prominent supraorbital processes. As shown in the diagram on page 8, Fig. 1, the greatest THE NEANDERTHAL RACE g31 length of the Neanderthal skull is found on the horizontal line directly through the brain chamber, known as the glabella-inion line, a line drawn from a prominence between the eyebrow ridges to a point at the back of the skull known as the external occipital protuberance, or inion. ‘This is also the longest line in the skulls of Spy and of La Chapelle, as well as of the anthropoid apes,*® but in the north Australian skull, Fig. 1, owing to the greater expansion of the upper part of the brain, the greatest length of Fic. 116. Top view of three skulls—of a chimpanzee (left), of the man of La Chapelle: aux-Saints (centre), and of a modern Frenchman (right)—showing the retreat of the projecting face and prominent eyebrow ridges. After Boule. the skull is at a point considerably above the glabella-inion line. The median section of the skull of the chimpanzee, of the Nean- derthal, and of the north Australian displays in a very striking manner the generalization made by Schwalbe, in 1901, that the Neanderthal skull is truly an intermediate or half-way form between that of the anthropoid apes and that of Homo sapiens. We observe in this illuminating section the growth of the dome of the skull, that is, the great brain-bearing cavity above the glabella- inion line g-1, by noting the contrast in the length of the vertical line of the cranial height, as compared with the space below the glabella-inion line indicated by the letters. This very important vertical line terminates below at the opening, where the spinal cord enters the base of the brain (see Fig. 1), 232 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In many characteristics the Neanderthal skull is shown to be nearer to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of Homo sapiens. This conclusion arrived at by Schwalbe, in 1g901,°’ has been more than confirmed by Boule’s masterly study®® of the very complete skull of La Chapelle. After his detailed review, he concludes: As to the unity of the Neanderthal head form, these features are not peculiar to the skull of La Chapelle; in every case they are also found in the skulls of Neanderthal, Gibraltar, Spy, Krapina, La Ferrassie, which witness to the homogeneity of that human fossil type called Neanderthal. These features show a structural affinity between the fossil men of the Mousterian period and the anthropoid apes. It must be noted that many of these features may be found also in recent human skulls of the inferior races, but that they are very rare, very scattered, very isolated, and occur only as aberrations. It is the accumulation of all these features in every skull of a whole series which constitutes an assemblage entirely new and of great importance. In the skull, as in other parts of the anatomy of the Neanderthals, we should not expect to find every character intermediate between the anthropoids and recent man. The long Neanderthal face is somewhat similar to that of the Eskimo and is in contrast with the very short face of the existing Australians and Tasmanians. The depression at the root of the nose, just below the glabella, is very marked in all Neanderthals; there is less of the nose bridge than in any recent races, except those of the male Aus- tralians, yet the nose is not flattened but somewhat arched or aquiline. ‘This feature is not characteristic of all the anthropoid apes, and in this respect the Neanderthals, Australians, and Tas- manians are more different from the anthropoid apes than are some of the white races; thus the Neanderthal nose, far from resembling that of the anthropoids, differs from it more than does that of some recent human types.*® Many anatomists, following Huxley, have described the Australian and Tasmanian skulls as more or less Neanderthaloid, and some authors have gone so far as to regard these races as surviving Neanderthals. - It is true that some of the skulls in these existing races are ex- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 233 traordinarily platycephalic and show a retreating forehead, that others show supraorbital ridges almost as prominent as in the Neanderthals, that sometimes the prominence of the occipital inion is very marked, that certain jaws Thus one or another of these Neander- thal features has been observed in these lower existing races, but all of these characteristics have never been combined in one race as con- stant features, and invariably asso- ciated, as in all the skulls of the show a very retreating chin. Neanderthals known to us. In brief, the Australian type cf head has nothing in common with that of the Neanderthals except in a small number of characteristics in the region of the forehead and of The distinguishing traits the nose. Cré6-Magnon. European. Galley Hill-Briix-Briinn. Tasmanian. Australian. Spy-Neanderthal. Gibraltar. Pithecanthropus erectus of the Neanderthal head and face are platycephaly, a retreat- ing forehead, flattening of the occiput or lower portion of the skull, prominence of the supraorbital ridges, chin retreating or lacking, pro- jection of the entire face owing to the peculiar form of the upper jaw, and the relatively small size of the trontal lobes of the brain. Tneact, concludes Boule: ‘‘ All these modern so-called BiG. 117, Anthropoid ape. Scale of ascent indicated in the skull form of eleven races of fossil and living men, based on the result of twelve different char. acters of comparison. At the bottom stands the anthropoid ape, and above this Pithe- canthropus, the ape-man of Java. A wide range is observed between the Neanderthaloid skulls of Gibraltar and of Spy-Neanderthal. Not far above these in the scale of ascent stand the modern Australians and the re- cently extinct Tasmanians. Above these low races are found the fossil Upper Paleolithic races of Galley Hill, Briix, Briinn, and Pred- most. At the top stand the modern Euro- pean races, beside which the Upper Palzo- lithic Cré-Magnon race takes a high rank. After Biichner. ‘Neanderthaloids’ are nothing but varieties of individuals of Homo sapiens, remarkable for the accidental exaggeration of cer- 234 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tain anatomical traits which are normally developed in all speci- mens of Homo neanderthalensis. The simplest explanation of these accidents in most cases is atavism or reversion. We can- not assert that there has never been an infusion of Neander- thaloid blood in the groups belonging to species Homo sapiens, but what seems to be quite certain is that any such infusion can have been only accidental, for there is no recent type which can be considered even as a modified direct descendant of the Neanderthals.” This opinion is confirmed by the latest and most exhaustive researches of Berry and Robertson,®® who conclude that neither Australians nor Tasmanians have any direct relationship with Homo neanderthalensis; the superficial points of cranial re- semblance are explicable solely on the grounds of the remoteness of the ancestry. The Australians and Tasmanians are descen- dants not of the Neanderthal stock but of a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene stock, which, following Sergi, may be called Homo sapiens tasmanianus, of which the Tasmanian aboriginal, now extinct, was the almost unchanged offspring. In respect to ‘low’ characters, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 117, the Spy-Nean- derthal skulls stand quite close to. the Tasmanians and Aus- tralians, and the Gibraltar skull stands midway between this type and Pithecanthropus with respect to twelve different char- acters of comparison. It is interesting to note* that the Tasmanians were found in a stage of flint industry very similar to that practised by the Neanderthals in Mousterian times; their flints were made from artificially produced flakes, including a few examples® that ex- hibited a neatness of edge trimming and resultant regularity of outline, whereas the greater part were characterized by an un- skilful trimming and irregular outline; the low status of the Tas- manian implements can most correctly be described by the word Pre-Aurignacian, that is, of Mousterian or of an earlier stage, but not by any means ‘ Eolithic.’ * The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct in 1577," ; THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 235 The brain of Neanderthal man was known to be of large size even when estimated from the original skullcap of the Neander- thal type. Darwin was com- pelled to admit that the fa- mous skull of Neanderthal was well developed and capa- cious, and Broca offered an ingenious explanation of the otherwise inexplicable fact that the mean capacity of the skull of the ancient cave- dweller is greater than that of many modern Frenchmen, namely, that the average capacity of the skull in civi- lized nations must be lowered by the preservation of a con- siderable number of individ- Fic. 118. The Neanderthaloid skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, with the right half re- moved to show the shape of the brain, as restored by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. uals, weak in mind and body, who would have been promptly eliminated in the savage state, whereas among savages the Fic. 119. Outline of the left side of the Neander- thaloid brain of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, compared with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modern man. One-third life size. average includes only the more capable indi- viduals who have been able to survive under extremely hard condi- tions of life. The skulls of La Chapelle and of Spy afforded an oppor- tunity of determining this very interesting problem, and the re- sults entirely confirm the earlier estimates of Schaaffhausen and of Broca as to the great cubic capacity of the Neanderthal brain. The estimates in descending order are as follows: 236 Skull of MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE SpyeLL (Eraipont) se sera: sec oetitewe ene ee P1723 cm, La Chapelle (Boule, Verneau, and Rivet)............ Logo tes Spy-l(Frampont)) 2. a. 4: oad ween coat ee CT50e0 Neanderthalyje ne, oo ee 1405)" 5 La Quina, female (Boule approximation)............ 730 Gibraltar, female (Boule estimate); 22. =...) een T2007 The size of the brain in the existing races of Homo sapiens varies from g50 c.cm. to 2020 c.cm.® Fic. 120. views). cast from the type skull; Combe-Capelle (right) from the base of the Upper Paleolithic, after Klaatsch. ‘The Combe-Capelle brain, though unnaturally compressed, shows a relatively broad frontal area. One-quarter life size. wt 1) \ ie il i} \) wld feet} G ombe-Capelle EA FY SF. AEE Ge ee N cs ones a ae x * ~ eee Thus in respect to the Brains of Lower and Upper Paleolithic races compared (top and left side Piltdown (left), as restored by J. H. McGregor; Neanderthal (centre) brain, volume of cerebral matter the brain of the Neanderthal man is surely human, but in form the brain lacks the proportions char- acteristic of the superior organization of the brain in recent man. In another important respect it is human: in the larger size of the left hemisphere, indicating the development of the use of the right hand. In its general form the brain is more like that of the anthropoid apes in the relatively smaller size of the frontal portion, in the simplicity and length of the convolutions, and in THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 237 the position and direction of the great fissures at the side known as the ‘fissures of Sylvius’ and of ‘Rolando.’ As studied by Boule and Anthony® there are many primitive characteristics in the brain of the Neanderthals. The front of the forebrain, the so-called prefrontal area, which is the seat of the higher facul- ties, is not fully developed but has a protuberance as in the brain of the anthropoids. The left frontal lobe in particular, which is associated with the power of speech, is not much de- veloped in the lower part, so that a limited development of the faculty of speech is inferred. The lateral fissure of Sylvius is relatively wide and open, and this and other features suggest the brain of the anthropoid. ‘The brain of the skull of La Quina, which is believed to be that of a female, also shows many primi- tive features. The absolute cubic capacity of the brain is less significant of intelligence than the relative development of those portions of the brain which are concerned in the higher processes of the mind. The stature of the various examples of the Neanderthal race is estimated somewhat differently by Boule and by Manouvrier, and also varies with the sex: Neanderthal CUSSHUTLT SS) (os aS jue hieen Sede pe in. Proeeuvricl| @iseg oe) cn. lec 1.6320 sit Aor 5) -4in. La Chapelle ele me eee eo Poke t dela nes - ey esi Mavaiees atery As ha PAGUVTIET pistes. eins fia vanishes sues ERA. ee oy Moe tha Sy Sa Se Re T-Oscnins ttt AS TON. Heeeeerra-ie.) ( Mianouviricr).................. TCOR TEIN Wee Come ety Cee. Average of Neanderthals supposed male....... 162340). Sita 4eey ron. om bcrteoser rr femiale) oi... cs hele ees 1.482 m. 4 ft. 10 3/10 in. - The Neanderthal head is very large in proportion to the short, thick-set body, which we observe rarely exceeds 5 feet 5 inches in height in the male, and 4 feet 10 inches in the female. The proportions of the body and limbs of the Neanderthals throw a surprising light on their ancestral history as well as upon their defects as a race dependent upon the chase. In proportion to the length of the thigh, the lower leg is much shorter than in any existing human race. The tibia or shin-bone is only 76.6 per 238 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cent of the length of the femur or thigh-bone, whereas in the ex- isting races with the shortest shin-bone, such as the Eskimos and BS é ‘J 7 Fic. 121. Skeleton of the Neanderthaloid man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints. About one - seventeenth life size. After Boule. the majority of the yellow races, it is never less than 80 per cent of the length of the thigh-bone. Im this respect the Neanderthal man is not like the anthro- poid apes but has a relatively shorter shin-bone, because the gorillas have an index of 80.6 per cent, the chimpanzees of 82 per cent, the orangs and gibbons of above 83 per cent; thus all the anthro- poid apes and the lower races of man have a relatively longer leg from the knee down than has the Neanderthal race. The shortness of the shin-bone as com- pared with the length of the thigh-bone is proof that the Neanderthals were very clumsy and slow of foot, because this proportion is characteristic of all slow- moving animals, whereas a long shin-bone and a short thigh-bone indicate that a race is naturally fleet of foot. Similarly the Neanderthal man has a very short forearm, only 73.8 per cent of the upper arm; it approaches the propor- tions seen in the Eskimos, Lapps, and Bushmen. Here, again, the Neanderthal man differs from the anthropoid apes, among which the shortest forearm is that of the gorilla, having a ratio of 80 per Cent. There are other features which would tend to show that the ancestors of the Neanderthaloids had been ground dwellers rather than tree dwellers back into a very remote period of geologic time; the arms are much shorter than the legs, whereas in tree dwellers THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 939 they are much longer. Thus, we have observed in the anthro- poid apes that the arm is very long in proportion to the leg; in the chimpanzee, which has relatively the shortest arms among the anthropoid apes, the index is 104 per cent, that is, the arms are slightly longer than the legs. On the contrary, in the Ne- anderthals the arm length is only 68 per cent of the leg length ; thus it is very far removed from the anthropoid-ape type and comes nearest to the Australian and African negro types. Thus, to sum up the bodily proportions of the Neanderthals : Arm short in proportion to leg, average index 68 per cent. Forearm short in proportion to upper arm, average index 73.8 per cent. Shin-bone short in proportion to thigh-bone, average index 76.6 per cent. Stature extremely short in proportion to size of head. The structure of the shoulder and of the chest is full of in- terest. All the ribs are remarkably robust and of large volume, and, whereas in existing races they exhibit a flattened section, in the Neanderthals the section is distinctly triangular in form. This implies a very muscular and robust torso in correlation with the gigantic head and stout limbs. The collar-bones are corre- spondingly long, presenting a ratio to the humerus exceeding 54 per cent, which is much higher than that among the average existing races; this indicates a very broad shoulder. The shoul- der-blade is also very different in type from that of the higher races of men, and even from that of the higher Primates; it is extremely short and broad. While, as noted above, the arm of the Neanderthals is rela- tively short and thus non-anthropoid, it presents a mingling of human and ape characters. The upper arm, or humerus, is truly of the human type, the torsion angle upon its axis being 148°, whereas in the anthropoid apes the angle of torsion never passes 141. Among the bones of the lower arm the most significant is the radius, with which the turning movement of the hand is correlated ; the structure of the head of the radius has more re- semblance to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of existing species of man. The structure of the other bone of the forearm, 240 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the ulna, is also very primitive, exhibiting certain monkey char- acteristics. The structure of the hand is a matter of the highest interest in connection with the implement-making powers of the Neander- thals. The hand is remarkably large and robust, comparable Pithecanthropus Modern Fic. 122. Thigh-bones, or femora, of the Trinil, Neanderthal, and Cré-Magnon races, compared with one of modern type. The Neanderthal femur seems to be short and stout, whereas that attributed to Pithecanthropus is relatively long, slender, and straight. Of the femora illustrated the Neanderthal and Trinil are those of the type specimens, the Cré-Magnon is from the skeletal fragments of La Madeleine. After Dubois, Boule, Lartet, and Christy. One-eighth life size. in size with that of men of very large stature in existing races. With respect to the opposition power of the thumb against the fingers by means of the opponens muscle, a distinctively human characteristic, the stage of Neanderthal development is decidedly lower than that of existing races, because the joint of the meta- carpal bone which supports the thumb is of a peculiar form, con- vex, and presenting a veritable convex condyle, whereas in the existing human races the articular surface of the upper part of the thumb joint is saddle-shaped, that is, concave from within back- ward, and convex from without inward. Thus the highly per- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 241 fected motions of the thumb in Homo sapiens were not attained in Homo neanderthalensis. Two phalanges which are preserved in the Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton show that the fingers were relatively short and robust. In the structure of the hip-girdle our fossil man is altogether human; nevertheless, some of its characters are very primitive and distinctive. Similarly, the thigh-bone shows several primitive characters which are only rarely seen in existing races, such as the third trochanter and the strong, general forward curvature. The structure of the knee-joint in relation to the shin-bone is very peculiar, because it shows that the shin was always retro- verted or bent backward. ‘Two other features of the shin-bone are its extreme abbreviation as compared with the femur, and the absence of flattening, or platycnemism. Where the shin- bone joins the ankle-bone (astragalus) are shown two facets, such as are preserved only in those races of existing men which have retained the habit of squatting or the folded position of the limbs; these facets are not found in races which have the habit of sitting. They indicate that the resting position of the Nean- derthals while engaged in industrial work was squatting, as shown in our restoration of one of the Neanderthals at Le Moustier. Associated with these powerful and peculiarly shaped limbs is the particularly short and thick-set vertebral column, each bone of which is remarkable for its abbreviation. The neck especially is entirely different in construction from that of existing races of men. It would appear that the concave curvature of the back in the Neanderthals was carried directly upward and continued into the concave curvature of the neck, as among the anthropoid apes, and especially in the chimpanzee. The vertebre of the neck, especially the fifth, sixth, and seventh, and the first dorsal, resemble those of the chimpanzee far more closely than those of the modern European; the spinous processes are directed back- ward instead of downward. ‘This caused the habitual stooping of Neanderthal man at the neck and shoulders and prevented 242 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE him from ever holding his head entirely erect. Whereas in the back-bone of existing races the erect position is maintained by four graceful curvatures, two toward the front, and two toward the back, in the Neanderthals, as in the newly-born members of the higher races, we observe only three curvatures, two concave Fic. 123. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints, in profile, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. toward the front, namely, the back and neck curvature, just de- scribed, and a sacral or pelvic curvature; there is also a convex lumbar curvature in the lower part of the Neanderthal back-bone, which, however, is less pronounced than in existing species of man. Summing up the characters of the back-bone in the Neander- thals, certain of them are very primitive, such as the structure of the vertebrz of the neck and the robust development of the THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 243 spinous processes, the absence of marked curvature in the lower part of the back-bone and the very gentle curvature of the bones of the sacrum. The total aspect of Neanderthal man may be characterized in the following manner :*’ An enormous head placed upon a Fic. 124. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints, in front view, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. short and thick trunk, with limbs very short and thick-set, and very robust; the shoulders broad and stooping, with the head and neck habitually bent forward into the same curvature as the back; the arms relatively short as compared with the legs ; the lower leg, as compared with the upper leg, shorter than in any of the existing races of men; the knee habitually bent for- ward without the power of straightening the joint or of standing fully erect; the hands extremely large and without the delicate 24.4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE play between the thumb and fingers characteristic of modern races; the resort to a squatting position while occupied in flint- making and other industries. Thus the ordinary attitudes char- acteristic of Homo neanderthalensis would be quite different from our own and most ungainly. The heavy head, the enormous development of the face, and the backward position of the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord connects with the brain, would tend to throw the upper part of the body for- ward, and this tendency, with the lesser curvature of the neck, the heavy shoulders, and the flattened form of the head, would give this portion of the body a more or less anthropoid aspect. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF MOUSTERIAN STATIONS The Neanderthal race of Mousterian times established sta- tions all over western Europe, of which upward of fifty have already been discovered, as compared with the fifty-seven or more Acheulean stations known. At some points the old open camps of the Acheulean flint workers were still visited, as along the Thames, the Somme, and the Marne. Thus Abbeville, St. Acheul, Montiéres, and Chelles, in northern France, show a suc- cession of Mousterian industry following the Acheulean, the Chel- lean, and, at St. Acheul, even the Pre-Chellean. These may well have been summer stations, visited at favorable seasons of the year because of their abundant supply of flint. About 125 miles to the east of St. Acheul, in Belgium, on a small tributary of the Meuse, is the grotto of Spy, which, together with Mousterian implements, has yielded two human fossil skeletons of the Nean- derthal race. | In southern Devonshire is the famous cavern of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, discovered as long ago as 1825 by MacEnery and described in 1840 by Godwin-Austen.** It is interesting to note that teeth of the sabre-tooth tiger (Macherodus latidens) have been found in this cavern, leading Boyd Dawkins to believe that this animal survived to late geologic times: it will be recalled as a contemporary of the early Chellean flint workers at Abbe- MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 245 ville. The animal life of Kent’s Hole, as originally described by Godwin-Austen, included remains of ‘‘elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear, hyeena, and a feline animal of large size’”’—fauna now known to belong to the period of the fourth glaciation.* ° Si St. Acheul Rauber hihlee “am, Irpfelhghits: Montieres 1- La Ferrassie 2- La Mucogue 3- Le Moustier 4- La Rochetle Biph ey @© CEREMONIAL BURIALS - Abri Audit - La Mouthe 8- Laussel Fic. 125. Geographic distribution of the principal Mousterian industrial stations in western Europe, attributed to the Neanderthal race. To the south are three stations, one of which, La Cotte de St. Brelade, on the present isle of Jersey, then part of the mainland, has yielded Mousterian flakes and thirteen human teeth of Neanderthal type. Still farther to the south, in the Dordogne region, is found the type station described on a previous page, of Le Moustier, the * This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological research, was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains. 246 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE centre of a group of eight sites crowded along the north and south shores of the Vézére, which have become famous for the knowl- edge they yield of the successive stages in the development of the Mousterian implements, beginning with the primitive cul- ture station of La Micoque, and including La Ferrassie, Le Mous- tier, La Rochette, Pataud, La Mouthe, Laussel, and finally the Abri Audit, which marks the closing stage in the development of Fic. 126. The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia, in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. the Mousterian industry and, in the opinion of many arche- ologists, its transition to the Aurignacian. At several of these places important discoveries have been made, both of human fos- sils and of noteworthy transitions in the progress of invention. Circling round this Vézére group are the stations of Petit-Puy- moyen, La Quina, where implements of the closing stage of Mous- terlan industry have been found as well as a human fossil of the Neanderthal type, and La Chapelle-aux-Saints, which has yielded the only complete skeleton of a ‘Neanderthal man so far dis- covered. In Spain is the station of San Isidro, near the headwaters of the Tagus, and the beautifully situated grottos of Castillo and Hornos de la Pefia, on the northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains. MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 247 As contrasted with the very numerous Acheulean sites of Italy, it is surprising to note that only two Mousterian grottos have thus far been discovered in this region: the Grotte delle Fate in the mountains of Liguria, and the very important group of caves on the Riviera, near Mentone, known as the Grottes de Grimaldi, close to the seashore and at the very point where the Italian Alps abut upon the sea. Crossing to the north, we Fic. 127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. note the superb Swiss grotto of Wildkirchli, on the headwaters of the Rhine, 5,000 feet above sea-level. In all Germany there are only about seven stations of unques- tioned Mousterian age. Of these six are grottos, and the seventh, Mommenhein, is a fluvial redeposit of loess along a small stream, where only one implement has been found.®® It is interesting to observe that in Germany these Mousterian sites occupy the great wedge of territory between the Scandinavian ice-fields on the north, and the Alpine on the south, and that Wildkirchli was actually within the area of glaciation; while the caves of Rauber- hdhle and Sipka were not far from the glaciers which clothed the Carpathian Mountains, and Baumannshohle was not so very remote from the great Scandinavian ice-field. In the region of the headwaters of the Rhine and Danube the industry of the 248 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Neanderthal race has thus far been traced only at the stations of Irpfelhdhle, R&éuberhohle, and Sirgenstein. The latter cav- ern is of especial importance because it comprises the entire Paleolithic history of this region, presenting a series of succes- sive culture layers from Mousterian times up to the arrival of the Neolithic race. Further to the east are the Gudenushohle, near Krems, in Lower Austria, and Ochos and Sipka, in Moravia, while over the Russian border are Wierschovie and Miskolcz. Well to the northwest of Wildkirchli are the stations of Mommen- heim and Kartstein, and to the north that of Baumannshohle. WORKMANSHIP OF THE NEANDERTHALS The dense communal life of Mousterian times may have fa- vored a social evolution, the development of the imagination and of tribal lore, and the beginnings of the religious belief and cere- monial of which apparent indications are found to be wide-spread among the entirely different races of Upper Paleolithic times. The life is not, however, marked by industrial progress or invention. The successive stages of the Mousterian industry have not as yet been so clearly defined as those of the Acheulean (Schmidt”). In the open Mousterian stations and caverns of Belgium and England Schmidt has observed the stages of early, middle, and late Mousterian. Breuil and Obermaier consider La Micoque as belonging to the close of the Acheulean but as marking the transition into the Mousterian. Breuil considers the industry of the Combe-Capelle station as representing the oldest true Mousterian culture. The researches which have been carried thus far would appear to justify the following sub- divisions of the Mousterian culture in southwestern France: 6. Abri Audit culture, marking the transition from late Mousterian to early Aurignacian industry. 5. Late true Mousterian industry. La Quina type of implements with scrapers and bone anvils. 4. Middle Mousterian industry, with a predominance of handsome, large Mousterian points carefully ‘retouched’ on the edge and sometimes on one side, a ‘retouch’ at times approaching the superior Solutrean technique. MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 249 3. Primitive early Mousterian industry, with a limited inventory of im- plements. 2. Combe-Capelle stage, with heart-shaped coups de poing and typical Mousterian ‘points.’ (Arrival of reindeer.) 1. La Micoque culture, transitional from Acheulean to Mousterian times. (No reindeer.) The flint industry, although very different in its outward - appearance, is recognizable as a direct evolution from the Acheu- lean, with the suppression or decline of certain implements and the improvements of others. It is the product of the same kind of mind at work with the same materials, but under different climatic conditions and with new demands, especially for cloth- ing as protection against the severe weather. We also cannot avoid the feeling that the abandonment of the free, open life of Chellean and early Acheulean times and the crowding of the Neanderthal tribesmen beneath the shelters and in the grottos nad a dwarfing effect both upon the physique and upon the in- dustry itself. The Mousterian implements, as compared with the Acheulean, impress one as the work of a less muscular and vigorous race. In addition to the many fine transitions that one observes” between the Acheulean and Mousterian industries at St. Acheul, strong evidence is also furnished in favor of a close connection be- tween these cultures by the discoveries at Laussel, on the Vézére, near Les Eyzies. There, broad and deep before this shelter of Laussel, lies the Mousterian layer, and directly beneath it is a true Acheulean layer close to the waters of the valley of the Beune. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was deepened to the same degree as to-day, and a close union of the Acheulean to the Mousterian is here again evident. In the valley of the Somme near St. Acheul Commont has also observed proofs of a similar close connection between these cultures. With such records in northern and southern France, the Nean- derthal race, which is known toward the end of Acheulean times and especially covers the entire period of Mousterian time, comes much nearer to us. If we assign the Mousterian industry to 250 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the last glacial period, we give it a duration of some 30,000 years, and this is about the reckoning which thoughtful anatomists have already assigned for the Neanderthal man. SPECIAL MOUSTERIAN IMPLEMENTS Two instruments are especially typical of the Mousterian in- dustry from beginning to end; these are the ‘pointe’ and the ‘racloir.’ The former, pointed and spear-shaped, is from 1 to 4 SWS: Vy: ww Ml] ra SS ey if) ili ff \\ Naot = LFA \ \\ Se SS IN * \\ Woy A PES (Nas Gs INOS a Wf, WS: / ic sa) SS jl Ss AMD Myon ia A ‘IN \ \S } ay, Fic. 128. Typical Mousterian ‘points’ from the type station of Le Moustier, made of a large flake of flint struck off from the nodule and retouched on only one side, leaving on the opposite side a smooth, conchoidal surface. After Déchelette, by permission of M. A. Picard, Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils. inches in length; the latter is a broad scraper, from 1 to 2 inches in width; and both have the distinctive peculiarity of being composed of a large flake of flint struck off from a larger bulb or nodule and of being retouched only on one side, leaving on the opposite side the smooth conchoidal surface of the flake.” This point and scraper are highly characteristic not only of the early stages but of the Mousterian industry throughout its en- tire course, including even the late La Quina types, and their manner of making is obviously a modified usage of the late Acheulean discovery of the flakes of Levallois. A matter of the greatest interest in the industrial develop- ment of western Europe at this time is the fact that this dis- MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 251 covery of the utilization of the flake, whether in the ‘lames de Levallois’ or in the Mousterian point and scraper, led to the decline of the coup de poing. The retouched flakes of various shapes ‘were easier to make and tomrepair and served equally well the purposes of skinning and dismem- bering game which had been previously served by the ancient coup de poing.” In consequence, the coup de poing, fashioned from the core of the no- dule, begins to play a very secondary réle and occurs but rarely in the Mous- terian levels. Even at St. Acheul, the very centre of its former reign, we begin to find decadent forms and poor workmanship, which make it difficult to recognize that these are the successors of the finely retouched Acheulean coups de poing. While the coups de poing at the type station of Le Mous- tier continue to retain the old Acheulean pat- terns—the oval, the heart- FIG. 120. 107 Mousterian ‘points’ and scrapers from various parts of Europe, as interpreted by de Mortillet. In some cases both sides of the im- plement are shown; all are one-quarter actual size except tor, which is one-half actual size. 1oo—De Mortillet’s theory of the manner of using the Mousterian ‘point,’ which was held in the hand and not shafted. 1o1—Mousterian point from Suffolk, England. 102—Mousterian point from Umbria, Italy. 103, 104—A single flake point from the Crimea, in southern Russia. 105, 1o6—A long, narrow Mousterian point from Oise, France. 107—A _ curved-in scraper, or grattoir, from Dordogne, France; perhaps an im- plement for dressing a wooden spear or lance. 108—Bone splinter, broken for the marrow, but not shaped. shaped, the sharp-pointed—they are all of smaller size and rather coarsely retouched. Thus, after thousands of years of 252 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE development and employment, the coup de poing falls into a period of degeneration and of final disuse. .The history of this implement, which we have traced from its Pre-Chellean proto- types, presents a most interesting analogy with the course of evolution observed in so many animal and plant forms. It passes through many stages of improvement and reaches a climax of perfection and adaptation; it then comes into competition with another form evolving on a fundamentally different and superior plan and disappears in the struggle for existence through the greater usefulness of the replacing type. SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY The succession of industrial stages is best shown along the Vézere. The oldest Mousterian industry is that of Combe-Capelle with its heart-shaped, roughly fashioned coups de poing, entirely lacking, however, any evidence of a surface prepared for the grasp of the hand. In the valley of the Somme Commont™ has observed the three following stages in the advance of the Mousterian industry : 3. A late Mousterian culture which lies on the upper layers near the top of the same gravel deposit and which shows entirely new technical elements. The old coup-de-poing culture is no longer valued, and all the implements found here are of flakes worked only on one side and with an extraordinarily fine retouch. 2. A middle Mousterian horizon which lies in the lower layers of a gravel deposit, belonging to the ‘newer loess,’ and which contains only one small coup de poing. 1. An early Mousterian, with quite numerous lance-shaped coups de poing, lies at the base of the ‘newer loess,’ showing that the coup-de-poing tradition still lingers and the coup-de-poing type is still preserved. With these are associated the new types of implements and espe- cially the ‘hand-points,’ which are so typical of the Mousterian industry. The more recent levels (2, 3) contain longer flakes, which already exhibit a tendency toward the blades, or ‘lames,’ of the Upper Paleolithic. In the shelters and caverns of Dordogne the same industrial sequence may be observed, although the chronological succession MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 253 of the strata is not always clearly defined. At the grotto of Combe-Capelle the heart-shaped coups de poing retain most strongly the old traditions, but even here these are outnumbered by the well-fashioned Mousterian ‘points,’ chipped only on one side. The further development of the Mousterian industry may be observed in the type station of Le Moustier, where the lower levels show a primitive Mousterian consisting mostly of very fine, irregularly fashioned flakes, made into small scrapers, tri- angular points, borers, and disks. The overlying layer includes very carefully worked Mousterian points which are frequently retouched on one side over the entire surface; here the Mous- terian technique reaches its highest development, so that Schmidt designates it as ‘high Mousterian.’” Above this layer, again, is a level of typical late Mousterian forms, quite unlike the small primitive flakes of the lower level and resembling the character- istic forms of La Quina, the dominant type being the finely shaped La Quina racloir. The few diminutive coups de poing which occur in this level at Le Moustier furnish the only distinc- tion between the industry here and that of La Quina, where no coups de poing are found. At Le Moustier also occur the typical bone anvils which were first recognized at La Quina. The Mousterian industry of the Neanderthals was thus de- voted mainly to the development of the smaller forms of imple- ments, for the most part retouched on one side only, and with a constant improvement of technique. Yet the chief types of Mousterian implements remain the same as in Acheulean times, as shown in the accompanying table. | ~The implement known as the pointe, or the ‘hand-point,’ is a principal and very characteristic Mousterian form further perfected from its Acheulean stage. It is spear-headed in shape and chipped on one side only, and continues into late Mous- terian times, being still found in the Mousterian levels of Spy, in Belgium. The pointe double, a double-pointed, spear-shaped form, at times almost attains the elongate shape of the Solutrean pointe 254 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE de laurier, though never its slenderness, symmetry, and per- fection of technique. There are five or six well-defined varieties of the racloir, or scraper, carefully fashioned out of flakes. The principal form is crescentic in shape, with LDU SAG Ne : outward-curved edge. Other cence fay ipa aut forms are saw-like with straight nia Re edges or knife-edged. Another heart-shaped. form with very neatly and eR symmetrically incurved borders achette, chopper. : Catia Blamneitoc has its edges sharply retouched, Percoir, drill, borer. as if for the smoothing down of Couteau, knife. bone or wooden shafts. The Kes i borer is also fashioned of an knife-edged. curved-out edge. elongate flake and sometimes saw-edged. finished with a very fine point double-edged. at one of its extremities. It is bara noteworthy that the grattoir, Pointe, ‘hand-point.’ or planing tool, so well devel- Percuteur ? hammer-stone? oped in the Upper Paleolithic Nira seRne aT re industries, appears only spo- Pointe, ‘hand-point.’ radically in Mousterian times. Pointe double, spear head? For example, ate oa Quina, in COUD) Ge) PQUIe tee ncnreeoH) the closing stages of the Mous- Pierre die jet throwing stone. ; : : Gore icnites terian industry, out of 220 im- plements collected at hazard, there were 166 scrapers of six different forms, 45 ‘hand-points’ of five different forms, and 5 double points, as compared with 5 grat- toirs, or planing tools. There are very few knife-shaped forms. It would appear that the racloir and the percoir were the principal implements employed in the preparation of skins for clothing. In early Mousterian times the coup de poing may still have been used by the Neanderthals in the chase, and the fine, spear- headed ‘point’ and the rarer ‘double point’ may have been de- veloped in response to the needs of hunters, who now ventured the chase of the bison, the urus, the wild horse, and the reindeer, MOUSTERIAN INDUSIRY 255 The most striking features of all the implements which may have been used in the chase are: first, the absence of any definite proof of their attachment to a shaft or handle ; and second, the absence of any barbed or headed type of point. The use of the barb, as we shall see, appears to be a rela- tively recent discovery of the later cultures of Upper Paleolithic times. The transition from the Mousterian to the Aurignacian appears in the Abri Audit, which also lies in the valley of the Vézére. Here we still find irregularly fashioned coups de poing, decadent followers of the heart- shaped types of the earli- est Mousterian industry ; this is nearly the last phase in the decline of the old coup-de-poing manufacture. While the lance-shaped coup de poing of the late Acheu- lean never appears in any true Mousterian indus- try, the shorter, more Fic. 130. Late Mousterian implements, after de Mortillet, one-quarter actual size. 109, 110— Point, finely retouched at one end, from Seine-et- Marne, France. ‘The reverse shows a retouch on the flaked surface which suggests the double-face Solutrean retouch. is11, r112—A very large racloir, or scraper, from La Quina, Charente, France; part of the bulb of percussion has been chipped off. 113—Double-ended point from Le Moustier, retouched on both surfaces. 114, 115 —Combination point and scraper from Le Mous- tier, Dordogne, France. 116—Double scraper, or racloir, with grattoir, or planing end. heart-shaped type of Combe-Capelle traverses the entire Mouste- rian and, after further stages of degeneration, passes into the Abri Audit culture and even lingers into the early Aurignacian. At this latter station the typical Mousterian ‘points’ are almost wanting. 256 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The Mousterian, observes Schmidt,’ which preserves the tra- ditions of the Lower Paleolithic coup-de-poing culture, is one of the most interesting phases in the development of Paleolithic industry, in that its successive stages exhibit the very last phases of the great coup-de-poing industry, of which only the almond and oval scraper types appear, and that very rarely, in the early Aurignacian. On the other hand, in the late Mousterian we ob- serve a trend toward the blade (Jame) industry of the Upper Paleolithic. Careful study and observation of the subdivisions of Mousterian culture have thus far been limited to central and southern France, and they have not yet been traced in Spain; but in the grottos of Belgium and England the early, middle, and late Mousterian types are known to exist. Bone anvils, fashioned out of the hard surfaces of the fore- leg and foot bones of the bison and horse, were discovered at La Quina in 1906. They show a flattened surface with cross incisions too regular to be accidental and too far from the artic- ulation to be the result of an inexpert attempt to sever the joint.”° This was not the only use of bone in Mousterian times, however, for primitive pointed implements of bone are occa- sionally found in Dordogne, mingled with Mousterian flints. A variety of rudely fashioned bone implements also occurs at Wild- kirchli, in Switzerland. DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE We have seen that the Neanderthals dwelt in Europe for a very long time, many thousands of years, during which they doubtless underwent considerable evolution from lower to higher types, and into varieties, under the modifying influences of climate, food, and racial habits. Consequently the known re- mains of Neanderthals exhibit a decided variation in head form, as well as in dentition: some are more primitive and ape-like; others, such as Spy II, are more like the modern races. ‘The Krapina variety is more broad-headed than the typical Neander- thal variety. The Gibraltar variety is in many respects of low DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHALS 257 type. The individual known as Spy II is of higher type than the other Neanderthals. The variations in stature so far as known are slight. For these and other reasons Hrdlicka,’’ who has recently | made a broad comparative study of the chief Neanderthal re- mains of Europe, is of the opinion that the Neanderthals partly evolved into the lower races of Homo sapiens ; being not only in some measure ancestral to such very primitive forms as the Briinn or Predmost race of Upper Paleolithic times, but even contributing to the higher race of the Cré-Magnons. He also holds that traces of Neanderthal blood and physiognomy are not lacking even among modern Europeans. A contrary view is set forth in the present volume; namely, that the Neanderthals represent a side branch of the human race which became wholly extinct in western Europe. This view the author shares with Boule and with Schwalbe. Cer- tainly the evidence afforded by the known Upper Paleolithic burial sites does not support the theory that the Neanderthals persisted. It is possible, however, that the Upper Paleolithic skeletons discovered at Predmost, and now awaiting descrip- tion by Maska, may modify this conclusion and demonstrate Hrdlicka’s theory that the Neanderthals survived and left de- scendants or men of mixed Neanderthal and Homo sapiens race along the valley of the Danube. Whatever may have been their fate in other regions, cer- tainly the most sudden racial change which we know of in the whole prehistory of western Europe is the disappearance of the Neanderthal race at the close of the Mousterian culture stage, which was the latest industrial period of Lower Paleolithic times, and their replacement by the Cré-Magnon race. From geologic evidence the date of this replacement is believed to have been between 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era. So far as we know at present, the Neanderthals were entirely eliminated; no trace of the survival of the pure Neanderthal type has been found in any of the Upper Paleolithic burial sites; nor have the alleged instances of the survival of the Neanderthal strain 258 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE or of people bearing the Neanderthal cranial characters been substantiated. We incline to agree with Boule and Schwalbe that the supposed cases among modern races of the transmis- sion of Neanderthal characters are simply low or reversional types, which, upon close analysis, are never found to present the highly distinctive and Sali combination of Neanderthal characteristics. There is some reason to believe that the Neanderthals were degenerating physically and industrially during the very severe conditions of life of the fourth glaciation, but the consequent in- feriority and diminution in numbers would not account for their total extinction, and we are inclined to attribute this to the entrance into the whole Neanderthal country of western Europe toward the close of Lower Palzolithic times of a new and highly superior race. Archeeologists find traces of a new culture and industry in certain Mousterian stations preceding the disappear- ance of the typical Mousterian industry. Such a mingling is found in the valley of the Somme in northern France. From this scanty evidence we may infer that the new race competed for a time with the Neanderthals before they dispos- sessed them of their principal stations and drove them out of the country or killed them in battle. The Neanderthals, no doubt, fought with wooden weapons and with the stone-headed dart and spear, but there is no evidence that they possessed the bow and arrow. ‘There is, on the contrary, some possibility that the newly arriving Cré-Magnon race may have been familiar with the bow and arrow, for a barbed arrow or spear head appears in drawings of a later stage of Cré-Magnon history, the so-called Magdalenian. It is thus possible, though very far from being demonstrated, that when the Cré-Magnons entered western Eu- rope, at the dawn of the Upper Paleolithic, they were armed with weapons which, with their superior intelligence and physique, would have given them a very great advantage in contests with the Neanderthals. BIBLIOGRAPHY Commont, 1912.1, p. 294. Smith, W., 1894.1, chap. XV. Dietrich, 1910.1, pp. 329, 330. Penck, 1909.1. Leverett, I910.1, pp. 306-314. Geikie, 1914.1. OD2 ctu D. 272. Op. cit.; pp. 265-266. Ket slOlE.t, p. 23, Fig. -5. Munro, 1912.1, pp. 46, 47. arcec, roorli; 1875.1. De Vibraye, 1864.1. Massénat, 1868.1. Smith, W., 1894.1, chap. XIV. Geikie, 1914.1, p. IIo. Simin WwW... oP. -czi., co OP7 Cii.,-D, 224. Geikie, 1914.1, p. 118. Bachler, 1912.1. Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 18-32, 165— ty Ae Op. cit., Table opposite p. 270. Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 419, 420. Niezabitowski, 1g1I.1. Harlé, 1908.1, p. 302. Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 135. Reith s16 01 2 Dovlesior 2. pp.220, 221. Op. cit., Dp. Od. Piscner FOL 3.1, Pp. 336, 337. Schaaffhausen, 1875.1; 1858.1. Lyell, 1863.1, pp. 80-92. Schwalbe, 1897.1; 1901.1; 1901.23 1904.1. King, 1864.1. Cope, 1893.1. Wilser, 1898.1. Fraipont, 1887.1. Schwalbe, 1914.2. Dupont, 1866.1. pp. 1096, ‘Maska, 1886.1. Rzehak, 1906.1. Fischer, 1913.1. (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) (55) (56) (57) (58) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63) (64) (65) (66) (67) (68) (69) (70) (71) (72) (73) (74) (75) (76) (77) 259 Klaatsch, 1909.1. Bouyssonie, 1909.1. Boule, 1908.1; 1908.2; 1909.1; FQVIon: e1OE 25, Boule; 1913.1. Martins Ey) 1011.1- Nicolle, 1910.1. Keith, rgrp.1. Fischer; 1013.1, p. 352. Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 544, Figs. 4 and 5. Fischer, op. cit. BOulest oie. Daas: Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1909.1. Boule, 1913.1, p. 104. Tomes, 1914.1, pp. 588-508. Schwalbe, 1901.2; 1914.1, pp. 534, 535+ Schwalbe, rgo1.t. Boulesrorsc1. Opacity ppe.00,.07 172, 75: Berry-.i0c4.1, Johnson, 1913.1. Quatrefages, 1884.1, p. 394. Martin, R., 1914.1, p. 645. Boule; 1910.1; 19ft.1. Anthony, 1912.1. Boules1913.77p; 110. Op. cit, Pp. 120. Geikie, 1914.1, p. 130; Godwin- Austen, 1840.1. schmidt, 1912.1, pps-23, 42, 66, 75, 70, 101, 169. Op ie p12 5. schuchhardt;“1943i1,py 144, Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp. OS-I0r. Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 130. Commont, 1909.1. Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 126-128. Déchelette; “1908:1, ‘vol. -1,.. pp. 104, I05. cone Hrdlicka, 1914.1 CHAPTER IV OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC — THE GRIMALDI RACE — ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNON RACE AND OF THE AURIG- NACIAN INDUSTRY — GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS — MAMMALIAN LIFE — CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF THE CRO- MAGNONS — DISTRIBUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY — THE BIRTH OF ART —ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOLU- TREAN INDUSTRY — BRUNN RACE — SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY AND ART. In the whole racial history of western Europe there has never occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappear- ance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Cré- Magnon race. It was the replacement of a race lower than any existing human type by one which ranks high among the existing types in capacity and intelligence. The Cré-Magnons belonged to Homo sapiens, the same species of man as our- selves, and appear to have been the chief race of the Upper Paleolithic Period up to the very close of Magdalenian times, after which they apparently underwent a decline. Although there were one or more other races which influ- enced the industrial development of western Europe, the Cré- Magnons were certainly dominant, as shown both by the abun- dance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of their industry and art; the Upper Paleolithic may almost be said to be the period of the Cré-Magnons as the Lower Pale- olithic is that of the Neanderthals and the Pre-Neanderthals. Their arrival toward the end of Mousterian times effected a so- cial and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the Upper Paleolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which separates the former from the Neolithic.1 The arrival of the Cré-Magnons and the introduction of the 260 OPENING OF THE UPPER PALZOLITHIC 261 Aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of Europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of con- fidence; they correspond geologically with the close of the fourth glaciation and the beginning of Postglacial time, the dura- tion of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of many different kinds, but which brings us, nevertheless, to sub- stantially similar conclusions. It seems that 25,000 years is a conservative estimate for the duration of the Postglacial Period ; this is supported by the independent observations of Lyell, Taylor, Penck and Briickner, and Coleman ; it is within the esti- mates made by Chamberlin and Salisbury, Fairchild, Sardeson, and Spencer; it is somewhat larger than the estimates of Gilbert and Upham.* Thus, with considerable confidence we may record man of the modern type of Homo sapiens as entering western Europe between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago. The Lower Paleolithic industrial cycle, comprising the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian, seems to have been similar in evolution both around the Mediterranean coasts and in the northern portions of Europe. From the fact that the Cré-Magnons arrived with the Aurignacian industry it would appear that they came through Phoenicia and along the south- ern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain; also perhaps along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean through Italy. Their evolution had probably taken place some- where on the continent of Asia, for their physical structure is entirely of Asiatic type, and not in the least of African or Ethio- pian type; that is, they exhibit no negroid characters what- ever. The reason that Breuil considers that the Aurignacian did not come in through central or eastern Europe is that there are no early Aurignacian stations in either region, whereas the Aurignacian is abundantly developed along the Mediterranean coasts, both of Europe and Africa. The passage of the Crd- Magnons along these coasts was, therefore, like the subsequent wave of the true Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed, narrow-faced people, which followed this coast in early Neolithic * See Appendix, Note VI. 262 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE times, or, again, like the wave of the Arabian or Moslem ad- vance, which pressed forward along the northern coast of Africa and into southwestern Europe. Some support of this theory of migration along the north coast of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two members of an entirely distinct race, which are commonly known Fic. 131. Entrance to the great Grotte du Prince at the base of the limestone promontory known as the Baoussé Roussé, with a view of Mentone in the distance. After Davanne. as the ‘negroids of Grimaldi’ because of their discovery in the Grottes de Grimaldi near Mentone, and because they alone among all the Upper Paleolithic races thus far discovered in Europe display a number of resemblances to the African negroid race. Anatomically they are related neither to the Neanderthals nor to the Cré-Magnons. Their archeologic age appears to be early Aurignacian because they are found immediately above the layer which marks the close of Mousterian time and the last climate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals. OPENING OF THE UPPER PALZOLITHIC 263 This sunny coast where modern France joins Italy has sup- plied some. of the most valuable records of the racial and indus- trial transition from the Lower to the Upper Paleolithic. Of the nine Grottes de Grimaldi three at least show evidences of occupation in closing Mousterian times, probably by men of the Neanderthal race, although no skeletal remains of Neanderthals have been found here. Four of the grottos, namely, the Grotte des Enfants, the Grotte de Cavillon, the Barma Grande, and the Baousso da Torre, have yielded altogether the skeletal remains of sixteen individuals, all associated with implements of Aurig- nacian culture and evidently representing a number of cere- monial burials. Fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by Verneau to the Cré-Magnon race; the other two are the ‘ne- groids of Grimaldi’ above referred to. This is, therefore, a pre- historic record of the greatest significance, which we shall now examine more in detail. RACIAL SUCCESSION ALONG THE ANCIENT RIVIERA Where the southern spurs of the Alps descend into the Med- iterranean and separate France from Italy we find a limestone promontory, known as the Baoussé Roussé, projecting in a long cliff, beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the sea. Opening toward the south, and at intervals along the base of this cliff are the nine Grottes de Grimaldi. Doubtless the Neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus), and Merck’s rhinoceros (R. merckii) still abounded as the last representatives of the great African-Asiatic fauna. These hunters of Mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great Grotte du Prince™ (Fig. 131), with a ceiling height at that time perhaps of over 80 feet, carrying in their game to the fire-hearths, and leaving Mousterian implements in the accumulating de- posits. In the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth gla- * Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible. 264 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ciation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of Mous- terian times. The smaller Grotte des Enfants (Fig. 132), which lies to the west of the Prince’s Grotto, was apparently occupied at a some- what more recent period, because the lowest fire-hearths con- tain, together with the Mousterian implements, remains of Merck’s rhinoceros only—apparently the last survivor here, as well as in other parts of western Europe, of the warm African- Asiatic fauna. The hippopotamus and the straight-tusked ele- phant had either become extinct or had been driven farther south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto. In the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire- hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes the wild boar, stag, roe-deer, wild horse, wolf, and bear. The first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the Alpine heights. Then in still higher layers appears the reindeer, harbinger of the tundra climate. THE GRIMALDI RACE Verneau is inclined to regard the Grimaldi as a very ancient race, antedating the Cré-Magnon.? He believes that they be- long to a new ethnic type which played an important réle in Europe and enjoyed a wide geographic distribution. There does not, however, seem to be much support for this opinion, be- cause, unlike some other races, no traces of the Grimaldis have been found elsewhere, and it would appear more probable that they were, as their skeletal characters indicate, true negroids which perhaps found their way from Africa but never became established as a race in western Europe. The type consists of two skeletons found in the Grotte des Enfants by Verneau in 1906. One skeleton is that of a middle- aged woman; the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seven- teen. Both are referred to the existing species of man, Homo sapiens. ‘The layer which contained them is on a level two feet oo cn “grt "4 Sn = f Sa, My,” My - My D iW " mr, = PP - rn ur a oo; K 1 7, p ‘ u . ane --" “crore? greet emee == oe Z Fic. 132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants, after Tschirret. In deposits which accumu- lated to a thickness of over 30 feet this grotto contains in its ascending strata a com- plete epitome of the vicissitudes of climate, together with four burials of members of the Cré-Magnon Race, and, near the base, the burial of the two Grimaldi skeletons. The layers in descending order are as follows: A. Burial of two infant skeletons. Remains of forest and alpine ([bex) mammals. B. Burial of the skeleton of a Cré-Magnon woman. Remains of forest and alpine mammals. C. Fire-hearths containing forest mammals—the wild boar, also the reindeer. D. Fire-hearths with flints of Aurignacian type. Remains of forest fauna—the marten. E. Layer containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone. Remains of ibex, horse, wolf, cave-lion, and fox. Intermediate layer. Remains of the wild ass, perhaps of the steppe type, and of the reindeer; also of the ibex, the wild horse, and forest fauna—the wild boar. F. Large fragments fallen from the cave roof. No evidence of habitation. G. Fire-hearths. Remains of the moose, roe-deer, fallow deer, stag, wild cattle, ibex, fox, leopard, and rabbit. H. Burial of a very tall skeleton of the CRO-MacGNon RAcE (see Fig. 144, p. 297). Fire- hearths containing remains of the forest fauna, also the alpine chamois and mar- mot, the cave-hyena, and the leopard. I. Burial of two skeletons of the GrrmALpi RAcE (see Fig. 133, p. 267). Flints of Aurig- nacian type and remains of a forest fauna which includes the deer, also of the wild horse, the alpine ibex, and the hyzena. K. Traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths. K-L. Remains of Merck’s rhinoceros and of the hyena. Alpine (Jbex) and temperate forest fauna. L. Traces of fire-hearths with Mousterian implements, chiefly of quartzite, probably left by members of the NEANDERTHAL Race on the ancient floor of the grotto, following the recession of the sea. Evidence of previous occupation by hyzenas. 265 266 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lower than any which contained Cré-Magnons, and immediately above the culture layer of Mousterian times. The Grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of the Cré-Magnon. The two known skeletons, of a woman and a youth, are of inferior stature, not exceeding 5 feet 3 inches: Grimaldittemalezestimated athens wee ee 1757 Me 5 tte i youth x AG eT REO nt 1.55 Mae These measurements, however, are only slightly inferior to those of the Cré-Magnon woman and youth, which rise to 5 feet 5 inches. There are many negroid characters in the skull, in the structure of the hip-girdle, and in the proportions of the limbs; there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid apes, namely, the long forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the marked prognathism, or projection of the tooth row; the face is low and broad, and extremely prognathous; the nose is platy- rhine, or broad and flat; the jaw is heavy, with large teeth and without the chin prominence; the head form, like that of the Cré-Magnons, is dolichocephalic and somewhat disharmonic; that is, while the head is long, the face is short and relatively broad. Yet the cranial capacity is relatively high, being esti- mated at 1,580 c.cm. Unlike the Cré-Magnons, the Grimaldis have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis. The proportions of the leg are, however, somewhat similar to those of the leg of the Cré-Magnon, the thigh-bone being short and the shin-bone long, the index being 83.8 per cent. In addi- tion to the long forearm, which approaches in form that of the living anthropoid apes, there is a curved femur, distinctly of anthropoid-ape character. “Tn its body and tooth characters,” observes Verneau,’ ‘‘ this negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to the anthropoid apes than does the Neanderthal race.” He con- tinues: ‘“‘The fact remains that at a very remote period of the Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the Neanderthal race, a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters, in the structure of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions showed strik- THE GRIMALDI RACE 267 ing analogies to the negro of to-day. In their remarkable pro- portions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent negroes; the teeth resemble those of the Australian types. Fic. 133. The Grimaldi skeletons found in the lower Aurignacian layer of the Grotte des Enfants—the youth to the right and the woman to the left. After Verneau. There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Gri- maldi race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neo- lithic Age, the Bronze Age, and the early Iron Age in Brittany, 268 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Switzerland, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism is the characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals show dolichocephaly, nearly always combined with a short, broad face. Until the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a population from which they differed so radically.” Fic. 134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth in front and in profile. After Verneau, one- quarter life size. Against this opinion of Verneau we should weigh the entire absence of any trace of this Grimaldi race in any part of western Europe among all the burials and other human remains of Upper Paleolithic age known at the present time. Setting aside any such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature, there remains a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals discovered at over fifteen widely distributed localities. None of these shows any features of the Grimaldi race. In describing the Grimaldi skeletons, Keith* agrees that they are of a mixed or negroid type; the shallow, projecting incisor part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features of recent negroid races; so are the wide opening of the nose, the prominent cheek-bones, the flat and short face. Yet the bridge ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS 269 of the nose is not flat as in negroes, but rather prominent as in Europeans, and the capacity of the skull in the woman (1,375 c.cm.) is ample. In the boy the teeth are large and of the negro type; he bears a striking resemblance to the woman, and his cranial capacity (1,580 c.cm.) indicates a distinctly modern brain ; the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median line as in certain negroids and in the Neanderthals. Keith concludes that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate type in the evolution of the typical white and black races. MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENTIRE UPPER PA ALOUL TALC sHISTORY Having now considered the opening of the Upper Palzo- lithic, also the single appearance of the Grimaldi race of which no further trace is known, it is desirable to briefly review the entire Upper Paleolithic history before we attempt to follow in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of the Aurignacian industry. There is evidence of various kinds that the Cré-Magnons arrived in western Europe, bringing in their Aurignacian indus- try, while the Neanderthals were still in possession of the country and practising their Mousterian industry. Thus in the valley of the Somme, Commont believes he has recognized a level of flints, exhibiting the primitive Aurignacian ‘retouch’ of Dor- dogne, but occurring beneath a late Mousterian level. Addi- tional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two races is found at the stations of La Ferrassie, of Les Bouffia, and especially of the Abri Audit, where there is a distinct transition period, in which the characteristic types of the late Mousterian are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the early Aurignacian ;? here it would appear that the development of the Aurignacian is partly a local evolution, and not an inva- sion of wholly new types of implements. Breuil® suggests that these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition 270 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE that we have here degenerate or modified Mousterian tools, more or less influenced by contact with the Aurignacian industry of the Cro-Magnon race. THE STONE IMPLEMENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF LOWER AND UPPER PALAOLITHIC TIMES LOWER PALZOLITHIC UpprreR PALZOLITHIC THe TypicAL STONE IMPLEMENTS PrEe-CHELLEAN ACHEULEAN MOUSTERIAN CHELLEAN AURIGNACIAN | SOLUTREAN A.—WAR AND CHASE *1, MICROLITHIQUE ? ARROW POINT? ETC. 2. POINTE 3. PomntE A Sore LANCE OR KNIFE. 4. PoIntE A CRAN LAaNCE-HEAD 5. POINTE DE LAURIER . Coup DE PoING Hanp-AxeE, IPONTARD AoE TG. . PIERRE DE JET THROWING STONE. . COUTEAU > + | TARDENOISIAN + t i+: athe ce 73 wv wll il il | Macbaventaw ae) ++ i B.—INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC 9. LAMPE LAMP Cpe eeee aae to. LISSOIR POLISHERS ee -11. MORTIER MORTAR Soniye ate er 12. HACHETTE (TRANCHETTE) CHOPPER *13. Coup DE POING HaANpD-AXE, ETC... 14. GRATTOIR PLANING TOOL.... 15. RACLOIR 16. PERGOIR *r7, COUTEAU 18. ENCLUME 19. PERCUTEUR HAMMER-STONE... ti ft t+~ hot ae see Pea Rie | a i Se a NY ey ie Meee pe tw ll eu i Wet WOW he ~ vu s C.—ART, SCULPTURE, ENGRAVING . MICROLITHIQUE DRILL, GRAVER, AND ETCHER.... . CISEAU CHISEL . GRAVETTE ETCHING -LOOL ae . BURIN GRAVER (aLso Mortar, HAMMER-STONE, AND POLISHER) te | * = twice mentioned (in different classifications). + or ff denotes an unusual or culminating development. Again, the burial customs of the Neanderthals were in many respects followed by the Cré-Magnons; they chose, in fact, the same kind of burial sites, namely, at the entrances of grottos ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS 271 or in proximity to the shelters. Some degree of ceremony must have marked these burials, for with the remains were interred implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of food. Most of the Neanderthal burials were with the body ex- tended; the two burials of the Grimaldi race were with the THE BONE IMPLEMENTS APPEARING AT THE CLOSE OF THE LOWER PALAZOLITHIC AND HIGHLY CHARACTERISTIC OF ) THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC LOWER PALZOLITHIC UpprpER PALZOLITHIC THE TypicAL BonE IMPLEMENTS | PRE-CHELLEAN | CHELLEAN | ACHEULEAN | MOoustTERIAN | AURIGNACIAN | MAGDALENIAN | TARDENOISIAN eS CHASE, FISHING . LAMES . POIGNARD . HAMECON? . PROPULSEUR Spee THROWER. . . HARPON HARPOON . POINTE DE SAGAIE JAVELIN POINT... . POINTE DE LANCE SPEAR POINT opie anaes | eee Huse wi dl 2S eceiag AND DOMESTIC 8. SPATULE SPATULA 9. NAVETTE SHUTTLE 10. EPINGLE tz. AIGUILLE NEEDLE *72. LAMES BLADES: 0.523 13. COMPRESSEUR 14. LISSOIR 15. CoIn WEDGE 16. CISEAU CHISEL 17. POINCON il eae tl toi i i Hou ul C.—CEREMONIAL, SOCIAL 18. BATON DE Com- MANDEMENT CEREMONIAL STAFF 19. BAGUETTE WAND * = twice mentioned (in different classifications). + or {ff denotes an unusual or culminating development. limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body, prob- ably with skin garments or thongs. The Cré-Magnon burials are either with the body extended, as in the Grottes de Gri- maldi, or with the limbs flexed, as in the Aurignacian burial of Laugerie Haute. 272 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Whether the Neanderthals were exterminated entirely or whether they were driven out of the country is not known; the encounter was certainly between a very superior people, both physically and mentally, who possibly had the use of the bow and arrow, and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numer- ically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation. The Neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race, for at no less than eighteen points the Aurignacian immediately succeeds upon the Mousterian industry and in a few instances Cré- Magnon burials occur very near the Neanderthal burial sites. In the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and taken into families of the warriors, but no evidence has thus far been found that even the Neanderthal women were spared or allowed to remain in the country, because in none of the burials of Aurignacian times is there any evidence of the cross- ing or admixture of the Cré-Magnons and the Neanderthals. The chief source of the change which swept over western Europe lay in the brain power of the Cré-Magnons, as seen not only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in the almost modern forehead and forebrain. It was a race which had evolved in Asia and which was in no way connected by any ancestral links with the Neanderthals; a race with a brain capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination, and more highly endowed with artistic sense and ability than any uncivilized race which has ever been discovered. No trace of artistic in- stinct whatever has been found among the Neanderthals; we have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry and proportion in the fashioning of their implements. After prolonged study of the works of the Cré-Magnons one cannot avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite as high as our own; that they were capable of advanced educa- tion; that they had a strongly developed esthetic as well as a religious sense ; that their society was quite highly differentiated Pr. VI. The head of the Cré-Magnon type of Homo sapiens, a race inhabiting southwestern Europe from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times. Antiquity in western Europe estimated as at least 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this finely developed race compare Pl. VII. UPPER PALZOLITHIC CULTURES 275 along the lines of talent for work of different kinds. One de- rives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding the development of their art, which are still mysterious and an interpretation of which we shall attempt to give in the follow- ing chapter. CULTURAL, RACIAL, AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS The Upper Paleolithic covers the greater part of the ‘Rein- deer Epoch’ as it was conceived by Lartet and Christy, who began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of Dordogne in 1863. They were soon joined by Massénat and the Marquis de Vibraye, while Dupont took up the work in Belgium and Piette made the artistic development, especially in the Pyrenees, his chosen field. _ Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Palzo- lithic in northern France; he also recognized in the shelter of Laugerie Haute, in Dordogne, that there was still another cul- ture, which is now known as the Solutrean; also that in the shelter of Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne, there was yet another industry, that which we now know as Magdalenian. M. de Mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the Solu- trean industry in stone, which in this period reached its height, and its succession by the Magdalenian period, in which the in- dustry in bone and horn reached a climax; but he failed to recognize the very important preceding position of the Aurig- nacian, and it was not until 1906 that the clear presentation by Breuil of the entire distinctness of the Aurignacian industry led to the adoption by the Archeological Congress at Geneva of three cultural divisions of the Upper Paleolithic. In the mean- time Piette had discovered that in the Mas d’Azil there was a . distinct cultural phase, the Azilian, following the Magdalenian, and thus a fourfold division of the Upper Paleolithic (Breuil,’ Obermaier®) was established, as follows: AZILIAN.—Industry of the surviving Cré-Magnon and other resident races, and of newly arrived brachycephalic and dolichocephalic races in 276 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE western Europe; decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship; entire absence of art. Daun stage of Postglacial retreat; Europe with a milder climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early historic times. MAGDALENIAN.—Closing stage of the industry and art of the Cro6- Magnon race; bone implements highly developed; marked decline in the flint industry. Close of Postglacial Period; climate alternately cold and moist (corresponding with the Bihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances of the ice in the Alpine region), or cold and arid; Europe covered with the tundra and steppe fauna; life chiefly in the shelters and grottos. SOLUTREAN.—Culminating stage of flint industry; apparent in- vasion in eastern Europe of the Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [| ?] Galley Hill) race. The highly developed flint industry of the Solutrean types; art development of the Cré-Magnon race partly suspended. Dry, cold climate; life largely in the open. AURIGNACIAN.—Appearance of the Cré-Magnon race in south- western Europe, succeeding the Mousterian industry; art of engraving and drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing. Animal life the same as during the fourth glaciation; climate cold and increasingly dry; life chiefly in the grottos and shelters. The successive phases of development of Upper Paleolithic industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision in Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, in northern Spain, and along the Danube and upper Rhine by a host of able workers—Cartailhac, Capitan, Peyrony, Bouyssonnie, Lalanne, and others. Breuil has made himself master especially of the Aurignacian and has succeeded Piette as the great historian of Upper Paleolithic art. Obermaier’s chief service has been the comparison of the Upper Paleolithic of the Danubian region with that of Dordogne and northern Spain both in regard to the geologic age and the arche- ologic and racial succession. The labors of Schmidt along the upper Rhine and Danube have not only brought this region into definite prehistoric relation with the Dordogne and the Pyrenees but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation between the human and the industrial development and the suc- cession of climatic phases in northern Europe. Finally, the ex- plorations of Commont along the River Somme have proved that this region, too, was frequented throughout all Upper Paleolithic times, during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly less important than that of the Lower Paleolithic. UPPER PALAOLITHIC CULTURES 277 There are two very distinct lines of thought among these archeologists: the first is shown in the tendency to regard the industries as mainly autochthonous, or as following local lines of development; the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly on the transitions between the Mousterian, the Aurignacian, and the Solutrean industries. For example, the chief object of Schuchhardt’s tour? through the Paleolithic stations of Dor- dogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another and the evidence afforded of successive changes: of climate. This writer is impressed with the transitions; he notes that the typical curved knives of the Abri Audit furnish a transition from the Mousterian scrapers to the Aurignacian. ‘points’ of La Gravette and La Font Robert; that the Solutrean takes up all the fine threads of the Aurignacian culture and spins them further into Magdalenian times. Thus we get an Aurig- nacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian industrial cycle which is compar- able to the Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian cycle. Breuil, on the other hand, from the archeologist’s stand- point—because he is not especially interested in the matter of racial development—is a strong exponent of the idea of suc- cessive invasions of cultures, either from the south or Mediter- ranean region or from the central region of Europe, which he calls the ‘Atlantic’; and he distinguishes sharply between these two great areas of Upper Paleolithic evolution, namely, the southern and the central European, pointing out that it was only after the establishment of more.genial climatic conditions, like those of modern times, that.there was an added element of northern or Baltic invasion. Certainly the archzologic testi- mony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the human types, although this:study has not progressed beyond the stage of hypothesis. When the Upper Paleolithic races have been studied with as close attention as those of the Lower Paleolithic we may be able to establish positively the relation between these human types and the advance of certain cultures and industries. 278 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE. DISTRIBUTION OF UPPER PALAZOLITHIC HUMAN FOSSILS Our present view, as drawn from a consideration of the facts before us, is that western Europe in Upper Paleolithic times was entered by four or five distinct races, all belonging to Homo sapiens, only three of which became established : 5. The Furfooz (Ofnet, and [?| Grenelle) race, extremely broad-headed, entering central Europe possibly from central Asia, bringing an Azilian culture, without art or developed flint industry. (Alpine type.) 4. A dolichocephalic race with a narrow face, associated with the Fur- fooz race, either connected with the Briinn and Briix, or an advance wave of one of the dolichocephalic Neolithic races. (Mediterranean type.) 3. The Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [?] Galley Hill) race, long-headed, with a narrow, short face, probably entering central Europe directly from Asia through Hungary and along the Danube; bringing a perfected Solu- trean culture; inferior in brain development to the Cré-Magnons, in in- dustrial contact with them but not displacing them. 2. The Cré-Magnon race, long-headed with a very broad face, entering Europe in closing Mousterian or early Aurignacian times, probably from the south along the Mediterranean coast, and bringing in an Aurignacian flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of Aurignacian and Magdalenian times; greatly reduced in number in closing Magdalenian times, but leaving descendants in various colonies in western Europe. 1. The Grimaldi race, in the transition between the Mousterian and the Aurignacian; negroid or African in character; apparently never established as a race of any influence in western Europe. The presence of these five races, and perhaps of a sixth if the ‘Aurignacian man’ of Klaatsch proves to be distinct from the Cré-Magnon, is firmly established by anatomy. It is most important constantly to keep before our minds certain great prin- ciples of racial evolution: (1) that the development of a racial type, whether long-headed or broad-headed, narrow-faced or broad-faced, of tall or of short stature, must necessarily be very slow; (2) that this development of the races which invaded west- ern Europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the vast continent of Asia and eastern Europe; (3) that, once estab- lished through a long process of isolation and separate evolution, these racial types are extremely stable and persistent ; their head UPPER PALZOLITHIC RACES 279 form, their bodily characters, and especially their psychic char- acters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered ; nor are they in any marked degree blended by crossing. Crosses do not produce merely blends; they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct characters derived from one race or the other. 1 Laugerie Basse 2 Laugerte Haute 3 La Madeleivie 4 La Mouthe 5 Les Eyzies 6 Cré-Magnon Fic. 135. Geographic distribution of Upper Paleolithic human fossils in western Europe. We must therefore imagine western Europe in Upper Pale- olithic times again as a terminal region; a great peninsula toward which the human migrants from the east and from the south came to mingle and superpose their cultures. These races took the great migration routes which had been followed by other waves of animal life before them; they were pressed upon from behind by the increasing populations of the east; they were at- tracted to western Europe as a fresh and wonderful game coun- try, where food in the forests, in the meadows, and in the streams abounded in unparalleled profusion. The Cro-Magnons espe- 280 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cially were a nomadic hunting people, perfectly fitted by their physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of animal life which existed in no other part of the world at the time. Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube, PZ im 8 AZILIAN-TARD TZA7 GL! | 7 MAGDALENIAN OLUTREAN : ; ee A GRIMALDI IV. GLACIAL 77 ij ; ? NEANDERTHAL WURM, WISCONSIN ue _ », Upper Dritt Lowest igs aos “oe 3 ACHEULEAN LOWER | “” (KRAPINA) 3175000 YEARS 3.INTER- 2 tit PALAEO- GLACIAL “{A\\i;!i | |2CHELLEAN LITHIC RISS -WURM Alii |i! 4 44100000 YEARS SANGAMON are pz "Middle Loess" Z nt descr tat BG / PRE-CHELLEAN P/LTDOWN Fic. 136. Epitome of human history in western Europe during the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages; showing also the three Postglacial advances and retreats which succeeded the close of the Fourth Glacial Stage in the Alpine region, theoretically corresponding with the climatic vicissitudes of Postglacial time. From the data of Penck and Schmidt. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. (Compare Fig. 14.) extending to central and southern Asia; on the north, however, along the Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave of human migration, and there is no trace of man along these northern shores until the close of the Upper Paleolithic, nor of any residence of man in the Scandinavian peninsula until the great wave of Neolithic migration established itself in that region. The climatic and cultural relations of Upper Paleolithic times may be correlated* in descending order as follows: * This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his Diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 281 6. The Daun or final Postglacial advance of the glaciers of the Alps, estimated at 7,000 B. C. Europe with its modern or prehistoric forest fauna, the lion lingering in the Pyrenees, the moose in Spain. AZzILIAN- TARDENOISIAN, Closing stage of the Upper Paleolithic culture; western Europe peopled by the broad-headed race of Furfooz and Ofnet, also by a narrow-headed race. Baltic Migration, MAGLEMOSE culture. 5. The Gschnitz stage in the Alps or second Postglacial advance. Cli- mate still cold and moist but gradually moderating. Decline of the Mag- dalenian. Period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals; mam- moth, reindeer, and arctic rodents becoming more rare; Eurasiatic forest mammals becoming more abundant. Close of steppe period. Crdé-Magnon race still dominant in western Europe in the LATE MAGDALENIAN stage of culture. 4. Interval between the Biihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances in the Alps. A renewed steppe and ‘loess’ period. Climate cold and dry. Mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, full tundra and steppe fauna very abundant. Cré-Magnon race in the stage of MippLE MAGDALENIAN culture. 3. The Bihl stage of Postglacial advance in the Alps; renewal of severe conditions of cold moist climate, and spread all over western Europe of the arctic banded and Obi lemmings of the Upper Rodent Layer. Biihl moraines in Lake Lucerne estimated as having been deposited between 16,000 and 24,000 years B. C. Cré-Magnon race dominant in the Earty MAGDALENIAN stage of culture. 2. Period of the first Postglacial interval or Achen retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region. A dry cold climate. Cré-Magnon and Briinn races in the stage of SOLUTREAN culture. 1. Close of fourth glaciation, between 24,000 and 40,000 years B. C. Cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth glacia- tion and deposition of Lower Rodent Layer, or first invasion of the arctic tundra rodents. Cré-Magnon and possibly Aurignacian race in the stage of AURIGNACIAN culture. BEGINNING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY We now glance at western Europe as it was between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago, at the opening of the Upper Paleolithic. During Aurignacian times France was still broadly con- nected with Great Britain,’ The British Islands were not 282 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE only united with each other but with the continent, while the elevation of the Scandinavian peninsula converted the Baltic Sea into a great fresh-water lake, the old shores of which are readily traced. Geikie also maintains that the rise of land in Scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions ; a strong forest growth covered the lowlands, hence this is termed the Lower Forestian stage of the physiographic history of north- ern Britain; it corresponds to the temporary period of the retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region, which Penck has named the Achenschwankung. ‘The latter author is not inclined to connect any marked rise of temperature in the Alpine region with this interval of time; to our knowledge no fossil plant beds have been preserved which would give us such indications, and the animal life, as we shall see, certainly affords only a very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lem- mings to the north; the greater number of tundra forms re- mained. ‘The continental elevation of the northern coast-line of Europe would explain the advent of a dry continental cli- mate and the renewal of high prevailing winds, at least during the warmer and drier summer seasons, for it is certain that at- mospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms and deposition of ‘loess’ after the second and third glaciations prevailed again in western Europe after the fourth glaciation. This gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists as the ‘newer loess,’ and we find these sheets of ‘newer loess’ spreading immediately above the Mousterian culture at a num- ber of different points in western Europe. When the Cré-Magnon race entered this part of aes the climate was becoming more dry and stimulating; the summers were warm or temperate, the winters very severe. Great ice- caps still spread over the Scandinavian peninsula and also over the Alps, but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the plains; in a sense, the Glacial Epoch had not yet closed, for during the whole period of Postglacial time the glaciers of the GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 283 Alps, beginning in early Magdalenian times, developed three re- newed advances, each somewhat less vigorous than the preced- ing one, with intervening stages of a drier climate. The greater number of the Aurignacian stations, like those of Mousterian times, were under the shelters or within the Fic. 137. ‘Tectiforms’—schematic drawings in lines and dots believed to represent huts and larger shelters built of logs and covered with hides. From the walls of the cavern of Font-de-Gawme, Dordogne. After Breuil. entrances of the grottos and caverns; all the stations in south- western France are of this character. There was, however, a great open camp at Solutré, which was a most famous hunting station for the wild horse in Aurignacian times. In northern France there are several open stations, such as those of Mon- tiéres and St. Acheul, along the River Somme, and to the east, 284 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE along the middle Rhine, there are several open ‘loess’ stations, such as those of Achenheim, Vo6lklinshofen, Rhens, and Metter- nich. It may very well be that these open stations were visited only during the mild summer season, The continued choice of sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the weather, in France, Britain, Belgium, and all along the Dan- ‘ube, as well as in the genial region of the Riviera, is a sure in- dication of a prevailing severe climate. It is hardly possible, however, that the closed or protected stations were the only residences of these people; they merely indicate the points where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also the vast foyers and gathering places; but there is little doubt from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the cav- erns, known as ‘tectiforms,’ that huts and large shelters built of logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these stations and scattered through the country at points favorable for hunting and fishing. These would be the only dwelling- places possible in such vast open camps, for example, as Solutré. CLIMATE AND LIFE OF AURIGNACIAN TIMES 3. First Postglacial Retreat, Achenschwinkung in the Alpine region. Period of Solutrean industry. A cold dry climate, with dust-storms and wide-spread deposition of ‘loess’ in western Europe. Flint workers seeking many open stations. Horses and wild asses numerous on the prairies; rein- deer and wild cattle very abundant. 2. Recession of the Ice-Fields of the Fourth Glaciation. Period of Aurig- nacian industry. Climate cold and increasingly dry; renewal of the dust- storms and deposits of the ‘newer loess.’ Flint industry in the caverns, grottos, shelters, and a few open stations. Opening of the Upper Pale- olithic period. Arrival of the Cré-Magnon race. 1. Final Stage of Fourth Glaciation. Close of the Lower Paleolithic Mousterian culture. Gradual extinction of the Neanderthal race. The arrival of the Cré-Magnon race and the beginning of the Aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation. As we pass from the levels of the early Aurignacian industry into those of the middle and upper Aurignacian, we find that the mammal life of Mous- MAMMALIAN LIFE 285 terian times continued in its prime all over western Europe, with the addition, one by one, of some new forms from the tundras, such as the musk-ox, and the successive arrival from the moun- tains and steppes of western Asia of such characteristic forms as the argali sheep and the wild ass, or kiang. a Z . . Pde ee AG say - << o> sae a ane ast Diy ° en ( ( Ly FS LMS Fic. 140. Section of the Grotto of Cré-Magnon, in which the fossilized skeleton of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ type of the Cré-Magnon race, was discovered in 1868, together with the remains of four other individuals. After Louis Lartet. Scale = 1-125. skeletons, which have become the type of the great Cré-Magnon race of Upper Paleolithic times. The grotto was accidentally discovered by workmen building a road in the Vézére valley. Here Lartet found the skeleton of an old man, now known as the ‘old man of Cré-Magnon’; then that of a woman, whose fore- head bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow; close to her lay the fragments of a child’s skeleton and near by those of two young men. Flint implements and perforated shells were found with these skeletons. In May, 1868, the material was first described by Broca,'® his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the Reliquie Aquitanice of Lartet and Christy.'’ Broca referred to 292 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth. The associated mammalian life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be of the Aurignacian stage. In his classic original description of this type Broca remarks upon the high stature, the face very Fic. 141. Head of the very tall skeleton of Cré-Magnon type discovered in the Groite des Enfants. After Verneau. One-quarter life size. . ; broad in relation to its height, with very long and very narrow orbits; the large and markedly dolichocephalic skull, with an unusually large brain capacity, noting that the brain capacity of the Cré-Magnon woman surpasses that of the average male of to-day; the forehead correspondingly broad, vertical, convex on the median line; the bones of the limbs robust, and the shin- bones flattened transversely ; altogether a very high racial ee of skeleton belonging to the species Homo sapiens. THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 293 Verneau,"* in his description of the Cré-Magnon type, empha- sizes the disharmonic form of the head, for the dolichocephalic form of the skull is combined with a face very broad for its height, and this, in fact, is the unique and most distinctive feature of the Cré-Magnon race. The cheek-bones are both broad and high. It is curious that in this face, so broad across the cheek- Fic. 142. Head of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ rejuvenated by the restoration of the teeth, showing the method of restoration of the features adopted in all the models by J. H. McGregor. The diameter of the head across the cheek-bones is seen to be greater than that across the cranium. (Compare Figs. 146 and 147, also Pl. VL.) bones and cheek arches, the space between the eyes is small, the nose is narrow and aquiline, and the upper jaw is noticeably narrow; it is no less remarkable that this upper jaw projects forward, while the upper part of the face is almost vertical, as in the highest types of Homo sapiens. ‘The eye sockets, which are remarkably broad, are rather shallow, and their angles are but slightly rounded off, so that the form suggests a very long rec- tangle ; the mandible is thick and strong, and the chin massive, 294 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE triangular, and very prominent; the marks of muscular attach- ment denote great muscular development around the thick, strong jaws, in which the parts for the attachment of the vertical DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND GRIMALDI RACES * REFERRED TO AURIGNACIAN TIMES pees Locality Number of Individuals Culture Stage CRO-MAGNON AND (?) AURIGNACIAN RACE 1823. Paviland cave, western Wales. One skeleton. Aurignacian. Burial. 1852. Aurignac, Haute-Garonne, Pyrenees, | Seventeen skeletons. | ? = France. Burial. 1868. Cré-Magnon, Dordogne, France. Three incomplete * skeletons and fragments of two others. ? Burial. 1872-1884. | Grottes de Grimaldi, Baoussé-Roussé, Burial. Italy. 1. Grotte des Enfants Four skeletons. “ (Grotte de Grimaldi). 2. Grotte de Cavillon. One . a 3. Barma Grande. Six “ < 4. Baousso da Torre. Three =f bby 1909. Combe-Capelle, Dordogne. Type of Homo aurig- nacensis, Klaatsch. Burial. 1909. Laugerie Haute, Dordogne. One skeleton. ? ¥ Burial. Solutré. Fragments. £6 Camargo (Santander), Spain. Fragment of skull. ay Willendorf, Austria. Fragments. Late Aurignacian. Cave of Antelias (Syria). Scattered bones. Aurignacian. GRIMALDI RACE 1900. Grottes de Grimaldi, Baoussé-Roussé, Italy. 1. Grotte des Enfants (Grotte de Grimaldi). | Two skeletons. * Obermaier, R. Martin.” Aurignacian or Late Mous- terian. muscles are unusually large. I would add, says Verneau, to these essential characteristics the surprising capacity of the cranium, which Broca estimated as at least 1,590 c.cm. The majority of these features are found in almost all of the skulls of the Cré-Magnon race in the Grottes de Grimaldi, The top THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 295 view of the skull is unusual on account of the extreme prominence of the eminences of the parietals, which give the skull a pentag- onal effect when seen from above. The eyebrow ridges show decided prominences above the orbits but disappear completely in the median line and at the sides and thus differ totally from those in the Neanderthal head. Of the numerous skeletons found in the Grottes de Grimaldi, or Baoussé-Roussé, near Mentone, the one first discovered is most widely known as the ‘man of Mentone,’ which was found in the Grotte de Cavillon, in 1872, by Riviére; hence this is sometimes spoken of as the Mentone race ; but, as Verneau shows, while the measurements of the skulls of Baoussé-Roussé show some variety, they do not exceed what might be expected in individual variation, and we conclude that all the men of tall stature found in the Grottes de Grimaldi belong to the Cré- Magnon race, which is not to be confused with the very distinct dwarf Grimaldi race discovered in the Grottes de Grimaldi by Verneau, in 1906, in a lower level than any of the skeletons of the Cré-Magnon type. In Aurignacian times, lofty stature seems to have been a gen- eral characteristic of this race, but there appears to have been a gradual decrease in height, so that in later industrial times the race in general is somewhat smaller in stature. The heights are as follows : Cré- Magnon Byer OLMOON ER i palit sens 8 hes 180m. 5 ft. 1034 in. woman slightly inferior in size. | Baoussé-Roussé, Grottes de Grimaldi. Adult males of COMLOLISEL 2g oy ae Sid at lg a a en ea L7o;Ma jut, 1034.1n. aie U6 P0516 Cd Mapa a arene ToGo ese tel tin, Re eRe AML OLEC ED Cte hoes gh. ei ois Sentra a Ss Poorman sari; Scag MTP: "Cee OR Ne aati a ae eS FQ c aie sO tam, ALIN RTE eeeSPPNIANUS 20.0002 dh 2 UN ea. van sige Daigle To4um. 16 fte 434, in. OAC CEE oles 8 RSE nee oa a Teo 7s Olit.2.1 24, I. Woman of Barma Grande estimated at........ TOS i Sit tes l0. Youth of 15 years, Barma Grande, estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in. The woman had not reached complete development. As there is a variation of 6 inches in the height of the various male 296 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE skeletons, it is evident that we cannot reach a trustworthy con- clusion from a single subject; but there would seem to be ae a disparity in height between the sexes. The very large skeleton from the Grotte des Enfants, measur- ing 6 feet 414 inches, was found associated with the remains of Fic. 143. The abri or shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne, France, where the Aurig- nacian burial of a skeleton referred to the Cré- Magnon race, was discovered _ in 1909. Photograph by Belvés. the reindeer, 15 feet below the surface, from which it would ap- pear probable that the skeleton antedates the Aurignacian skel- eton of Laugerie Haute, and even of Cré-Magnon. Thus the so-called man of Mentone may be an ancestor of the race which was found in Cré-Magnon and other regions of Dordogne. It is these men of great height, found in Barma Grande and the Grotte des Enfants, which Verneau selects for his description of the primitive members of the Cré-Magnon race, which at this time lived along the Riviera and in the valley of the Vézére and later spread over a vast area in western Europe. It is probable THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 297 that in the genial climate of the Riviera these men obtained their finest development; the country was admirably protected ip AS EA Fic. 144. Comparative view of the Neanderthal skeleton (left) from La Chapelle-aux Saints, and of the skeleton of a very tall member of the Cré-Magnon race (right) dis- covered in the Grotte des Enfants. After Boule and Verneau. Both figures are ap- proximately one-seventeenth life size. from the cold winds of the north, refuges were abundant, and game by no means scarce, to judge from the quantity of animal bones found in the caves. Under such conditions of 298 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE life the race enjoyed a fine physical development and dispersed widely. With an average height of 6 feet 114 inches, these cave-dwellers may be said to demonstrate one of the most striking traits of the Cré-Magnon race. In the proportions of the limbs and in the great size of the upper part of the chest these men are re- moved from the modern European type and approach some of the African negroid types, although there is not the least resem- blance to the negro type in the skull or in the dentition. In contrast with the Neanderthals are three characters of the limbs : A | Fie. 145. Sections of the tibia or shin-bone, (1) the normal triangular type; and (2) the extremely platycnemic flattened type characteristic of the Cré6-Magnon race. After Broca. the leg was very long in comparison with the arm; they show a remarkable lengthening of the forearm in proportion to the upper arm and a still more remarkable lengthening of the lower leg or shin-bone in proportion to the thigh-bone; the tibia has an index of 81-86 per cent as compared with the femur, which is relatively greater than that of the average modern European, with a tibio- femoral index of 79.7 per cent. This long shin-bone indicates that these men were swift of foot, quite in keeping with their undoubted nomadic habits and wide distribution. The flatness of the tibia, which is strongly marked in 62 per cent of the skeletons, may well be due to the habit of squatting while en- gaged in fashioning flints and in other industrial occupations. The leg, long in comparison with the arm, and the thigh-bone, strongly developed, are both characters of a hunting race. The foot has a very protruding heel, but the sole and the toes are THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 999 of moderate length. The hip-girdle is of a type which has noth- ing negroid about it, but is as fine as that of the most civilized whites; it is marked by its strength, the augmentation of all the vertical and transverse diameters, and the reduction of the anteroposterior diameters. The shoulders are exceptionally broad. The fact that the arms are relatively short as com- pared with the legs is also a high racial character. The upper arm is very robust, and in some cases the left arm is more largely developed, in others the right. In all the skulls from these grottos near Mentone, the face shows the essential features of the Cré-Magnon race, its breadth being due to the development of the cheek-bones and the zygo- matic arches, for the upper jaws are narrow, and the nose is thin or leptorhine. At the root the nose shows a marked depression, but it rises immediately to a considerable prominence; it thus undoubtedly had an aquiline profile. The orbits always present the form of a long rectangle, so characteristic of the race along the Vézére. All these characters leave no doubt of the racial affinity of the skeletons from the Grottes de Grimaldi with the original Cré-Magnon type. It must be concluded, therefore, that certain peculiar features noted in the type of the ‘old man of Cré-Magnon’ are purely individual, and that we are not jus- tified in assuming the admixture of a foreign element to ac- count for the weakness of some characteristics which we notice in the majority of the Cré-Magnon subjects from the caves of Grimaldi. | | eae The highly evolved characters of the skeleton in this race are in keeping with the extraordinarily great cranial capacity. Broca estimated the ‘old man of Cré-Magnon’ as having a cranial capacity of 1,590 c.cm., and in the female the brain is estimated at 1550 c.cm. Verneau estimates the five large male skulls of Cré-Magnon type at Grimaldi as having an average capacity of 1,800 c.cm., the lowest being 1,715 c.cm., and the highest 1,880 c.cm. This race, observes Keith,’’ was one of the finest the world has ever seen. The wide, short face, the extremely prominent cheek-bones, the spread of the palate and 300 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE a tendency of the upper cutting teeth and incisors to project forward, and the narrow, pointed chin recall a facial type which is best seen to-day in tribes living in Asia to the north and to the south of the Himalayas. As regards their stature the Cro- Fic. 146. Restoration of the head of the ‘Old Man of Cr6é-Magnon,’ in pro- file, modelled after the type skull of Cré-Magnon, Dordogne, with the teeth restored and the head given a younger appearance. After the model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. Magnon race recalls the Sikhs living to the south of the Him- alayas. In the disharmonic proportions of the face, that is, the combination of broad cheek-bones and narrow skull, they resemble the Eskimo. ‘The sum of the Cré-Magnon characters is certainly Asiatic rather than African, whereas in the Gri- maldis the sum of the characters is decidedly negroid or African. We shall trace this great race through the Solutrean and THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 301 Magdalenian stages of the Upper Paleolithic and consider its disappearance and possible distribution at the close of Mag- dalenian times. It will then be interesting to consider the evi- dence of the survival of the descendants of this race in various _ Fic. 147. Restoration of the head of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ front ~ | view. After the model by J. H. McGregor. siete life size. parte of western. Europe and possibly among the primitive. in- habitants of the Canary Islands, known as the Guanches. EVIDENCE OF OTHER RACES It is a mooted question whether the Cré-Magnons were the only people inhabiting Europe in early Aurignacian time or whether there were also two other races, the Grimaldi and the Aurignacian. As we have seen in the preceding pages, there is no evidence that the negroid Grimaldi race ever became es- 302 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tablished in Europe ; the idea of the presence of a negroid race has taken the fancy of archeologists like Breuil and Rutot, when seek- ing an African, Egyptian, or Bushman analogy in certain phases of early Aurignacian art; but it rests merely on the slender evi- dence afforded by the isolated skeletons of a woman and of a boy. The case of the Aurignacian race is different; this is held by competent anatomists (Klaatsch,” Keith”) to be distinct from the Cré-Magnon race and to bear some resemblance to the Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, [?| Galley Hill) race which, we know, became established in central Europe certainly as early as So- lutrean times, if not before. The so-called Aurignacian race (Homo sapiens aurignacensis), described as a subspecies of existing man, is based upon a type found in the shelter of Combe-Capelle near Montferrand, Péri- gord, in the summer of 1909 by O. Hauser.% It is commonly known as the ‘Combe-Capelle’ man from the scene of its dis- covery, or as the Aurignacian man (Homo aurignacensis) ; if a sub- species, it certainly belongs to Homo sapiens. The adult male skeleton was discovered lying undisturbed in the lowest stratum of an Aurignacian industry and was carefully disinterred by Klaatsch and Hauser. It was apparently a case of ceremonial burial; a great number of unusually fine flints of early Aurignacian type was found with it, also a necklace of perforated shells (Littorina, Nassa); the limbs were bent.”> Water saturated with lime had dripped upon the burial-place, resulting in the remarkable preser- vation of the skeleton. This skeleton is compared by Klaatsch with that of Briinn, Moravia, and of Galley Hill, near London, from which he concludes that it represents a distinct type, the Aurignacian race; the stature is 5 feet 3 inches, as compared with 6 feet 114 inches, the average in the five Cré-Magnon males of Grimaldi; the brain case is well arched and falls within the variation limits of Homo sapiens. ‘The skull is very long and narrow, the cephalic index being 65.7 per cent; in some points it shows a striking similarity to that of Briinn, in others it varies from it in the direction of the recent European form; the face is not narrow nor is it prognathous ; the lower jaw is small with a BURIAL CUSTOMS 303 well-developed chin. Klaatsch finds many characteristics re- sembling those of the Cré-Magnon race, including the Chancelade type which is a late Cré-Magnon. He suggests that the Cré6- Magnon type may be considered a further development of the Aurignacian. It seems probable that the Aurignacian man is a member of the true Cré-Magnon race and that additional evidence is required to establish it as distinct. Schliz”® considers that this a oe ee aloe em L = Homo sapiens au rion, Qc, eo teem ne Pe tata e ee Fic. 199. Charging mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory tusk, from the station of La Madeleine. After E. Lartet. For the sake of showing this figure clearly, other outlines in this drawing, which were probably designed to indicate a herd of charging mammoths, are omitted or represented by dotted lines. This classic engraving, de- scribed on pages 384 and 385, is one of the most lifelike Palzolithic representations known of an animal in action. The engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe were discovered by Riviére, in 1895, and were the means of directing attention afresh to the long-forgotten parietal art found in Altamira by Sautuola in 1880. The drawings at La Mouthe begin about 270 feet from the entrance and may be traced for a distance of too feet, scattered in various groups; they manifestly belong to a very primitive stage, probably early Magdalenian, the point of chief interest being that, while the greater part of the engrav- ings are in simple incised lines, here and there the contour is enforced by a line of red or black paint; this is the beginning of MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 399 a method pursued throughout the Magdalenian parietal art, in which the artist carefully sketches his contours with sharp- pointed flints before he applies any color. This treatment, at first limited to the simple outlines, led to tracing in many of the details with engraved lines, the eyes, the ears, the hair; thus Breuil has shown that in its final development a carefully worked-out engraving under- lies the painting. In the La Mouthe drawings the propor- tions are very bad; they repre- sent the reindeer, bison, mam- moth, horse, ibex, and urus; spots of red are sometimes splashed on the sides of the animals; here and there is a bit of superior work, such as the reindeer in motion. The cavern of Combarelles, discovered in igor, in Dor- dogne, near Les Eyzies, con- tains by far the most remark- able record of early Magdale- Fic. 200. Engraved outlines believed to ; represent human grotesques or masked nian art; there are upward of figures found on the cavern walls of four hundred drawings and en- ee Altamira, and Combarelles. ter Obermaier. gravings representing almost every animal of early Magdalenian times, among them the horse, rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, bison, stag, ibex, lion, and wolf ; there are also between five and six representations of the men of the time, both masked and unmasked; the style is more recent than that of the oldest drawings in Font-de-Gaume, but much more ancient than the period of polychrome art.* The gallery is 720 feet long, and barely 6 feet broad; the drawings begin about 350 feet from the entrance, and are scattered at irregular * Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous mammoth of Combarelles; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil. 400 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE intervals to the very end. In general the art is very fine and evidently largely the work of one artist; representations of the woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth are very true to life; there is a pair of splendid lions, male and female; the drawings of the horse are abundant, and side by side we have a represen- Fic. 201. Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles near Les Eyzies, Dordogne, where upward of four hundred wall engravings have been discovered. Photograph by Belvés. tation of several types of horses, the pure forest type with the arched forehead, the small, fine-headed Celtic type, and a larger type reminding us of the kiang, or wild ass. Here the greater part of the work is engraving, as contrasted with the painted outlines in the cavern of Niaux and with the etched outlines of the Grotte de la Mairie. Even a large cavern like Combarelles offers comparatively few surfaces favorable to these engraved lines; but, small or large, such surfaces were eagerly sought, sometimes near the floor, sometimes on the walls, and again on the ceilings; even with MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 401 the brilliant light of an acetylene lamp it is now difficult to dis- cover all these outlines, some of which are drawn in the most unlooked-for places. If the extremely fine incisions, such as those representing the hair of the mammoth, are so diffi- cult to detect with a powerful illuminant, one may imagine the task of the Cré-Magnon artists with their small stone lamps and wick fed by the Fic. 202. Cave-bear engraved in outline, melting grease. One such lamp from the cavern of Combarelles. has been found in the grotto ee of La Mouthe, about 50 feet from the entrance; the workman’s pick broke it into four pieces, only three of which were re- covered. The shallow bowl contained some carbonized matter, Fic. 203. Stone lamp of Magdalenian age discovered in the grotto of La Mouthe by E. Riviére. It is cut in sandstone and ornamented on the lower surface with the head and horns of the ibex. Such lamps were doubtless used by the artists to light the deep recesses of the caverns. After Riviére, redrawn by Erwin S. Christman. One- third actual size. (Compare PI. VII.) an analysis of which led Berthelot, the chemist, to conclude that an animal fat was used for lighting purposes. Like most other implements, this lamp is decorated—in this instance by an en- 402 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE graving of the head and horns of the ibex. Three of these lamps have been found in Charente and Lot, and it is noteworthy that lamps similar to those of the Magdalenian period are used in Dordogne at the present day. Fic. 204. Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega, not far from Castillo. The seated figure with the staff is M. Abbé Henri Breuil, the present leader in the study of Upper Paleolithic art. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. In the great cavern of Castillo,* at Puente-Viesgo, discovered in 1903 by Alcalde del Rio, which is entered by the majestic grotto already described on p. 162, the animal drawings are mostly of an archaic character, belonging to the very beginnings * The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer, under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912. MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 403 of early Aurignacian parietal art. The most abundant subjects are horses and deer, which entirely replace the reindeer drawings so abundant in central France, outlines of the stag and of the doe being very numerous; on the other hand, the bison and the ox are rarely drawn. Belonging to the category of most primi- tive painting are the simple outlines in black of a horse and of a mammoth, the two limbs of one side being represented as inverted triangles, terminating in a sharp point, like the draw- ings of children. Of more re- cent style are the rather crude polychrome bisons, numerous hands outlined in red, and a vast number of tectiform signs and symbols which represent inferior work of the middle Magdalenian period. On the other side of the same mountain is the grotto of | Pasiega, discovered in 1912 by Fic. 205. Carefully engraved half-figure Nene Hugo @pemnaicr vrhic of eg cavern of re er an example O e€ engravers Work pre small grotto, about 500 feet ceding the application of color. After ? : : Breuil. One-eighth actual size. above the river, receives its name as a retreat of the shepherds. In the floor is a very narrow opening through which one rapidly descends by means of a tube of limestone barely large enough to admit the passage of the body. The interior is very labyrinthine. After passing through the Galerie des Animaux and the Galerie des Inscriptions, one reaches, after a most difficult détour, the terminal chamber, which Obermaier has called the Salle du Tréne, the throne- room; here there is a natural seat of limestone, with supports at the sides for the arms, and one can still see the discolora- tion of the rock by the soiled hands of the magicians or of the artists. In this salle there are a few drawings and engravings 404 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE on the walls, and a few pieces of flint have been discovered. In no other cavern, perhaps, is there a greater sense of mystery as to the influence, whether religious, magical, or artistic, which impelled men to seek out and enter these dangerous passages, the slippery rocks illumined at best by a very imperfect light, leading to the deep and dangerous recesses below, where a mis- step would be fatal. The impulse, whatever it may have been, was doubtless very strong, and in this, as in other caverns, Fic. 206. Herd of horses engraved on a small slab of stone, found in the grotto of Chaf- faud, Vienne, France. After Cartailhac. This impressionistic grouping and perspec- tive is very exceptional in Paleolithic design. About nine-tenths actual size. almost every surface favorably prepared by the processes of nature has received a drawing. No industrial flints have been found at the entrance to this cavern, but some have been traced into the interior. The art is considered partly of late Aurigna- cian, perhaps of Solutrean, and certainly in part of early Mag- dalenian times; in general it is much more recent than that of Castillo. It consists both of engravings and painted outlines, with proportions usually excellent and sometimes admirable. The paintings of deer are in yellow ochre, of the chamois in red. There are altogether 226 paintings and 36 engravings, in which are represented 50 roe-deer, 51 horses, 47 tectiforms, 16 MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 405 Bos, 15 bison, 12 stags, 9 ibexes, 1 chamois, and 16 other forms, distributed in all parts of the cave. The outlines are in solid red color or in stripes of red or black, or there is a series of spots; the subjects are chiefly the stag, the doe, the wild cattle (which are rather common), the bison (which are less common), the ibex, and the chamois. Among the numerous representations of the horse there are two small engravings of a type with erect mane, both the feet and the hair being indicated with great care, the limbs well designed and of excellent proportions, clearly in early Magdalenian style. Of the utmost interest is the dis- covery here of two horses drawn with rounded forehead and drooping mane, the only instance in which the drooping mane ie —— Fic. 207. Impressionistic design of a herd of reindeer engraved on the radius of an eagle nearly eight inches in length, found in the upper Magdalenian layers of the Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil. of the modern type of horse (Equus caballus) has been observed in the cavern drawings. In the advanced development of middle or high Magdalenian art, parietal engraving with finely pointed flint implements pre- sents a nearer approach to the truth both of proportion and of detail than do the earlier stages. In this stage the engravings seem to consist chiefly of independent animal figures and to furnish a prelude to the application of color. A simple but striking example of approaching perfection of technique is seen in the bison (Fig. 205) engraved in the cavern of Marsoulas, where the profile is outlined and great shaggy masses of hair beneath the neck are admirably indicated. In these drawings the com- plicated details of the feet, with their characteristic tufts of hair, and of the head show far more careful observation. In the 406 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE great series of bison at Font-de-Gaume the entire animal is sketched in with these finely engraved lines, as brought out through the wonderfully close observation and studies of Breuil. This is quite similar to the practice of the modern artist who sketches his figure in crayon or charcoal before applying the color. There are two quite different styles in this engraving, one seen in the deep incised lines of the reindeer head in the cavern Fic. 208. Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet, Hautes- Pyrénées. After Piette. This design is believed to represent a herd of stag crossing a stream, one of the very rare Paleolithic attempts at composition. of Tuc d’Audoubert (Fig. 232), a complete design in itself, an- other seen in the deep incisions in the limestone outlining the horses and the bison as observed in the cavern of Niaux (Fig. 174). Here the engraved line is followed by the appli- cation of a black painted line, the effect being to bring out the body in the surrounding rock so as to give the silhouette a high relief. In the drawings in the large on these curved wall surfaces, only part of which could be seen by the eye at one time, the difficulties of maintaining the proportions were extreme, and one is ever impressed by the boldness and confidence with which the long sweeping strokes of the flint were made, for one rarely if ever sees any evidences of corrected outline. Only a lifelong MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 407 observer of the fine points which distinguish the different pre- historic breeds of the horse could appreciate the extraordinary skill with which the spirited, aristocratic lines of the Celtic are executed, on the one hand, and, on the other, the plebeian and heavy outlines of the steppe horse. In the best examples of Magdalenian engraving, both parietal and on bone or ivory, one can almost immediately detect the specific type of horse which the artist had before him or in mind, also the season of the year, y : * A DY) wer! wh x y \ oak my) wo Fic. 209. Outlines of a lioness and a small group of horses of the Celtic or Arab type, a delicate wall engraving in the Diverticule final of the cavern of Font- de-Gaume. After Breuil. as indicated by the representation of a summer or winter coat of hair. The realism of most of the parietal art passes into the 1m- pressionism of the excessively fine engravings on bone or reindeer horn, executed with a few strokes, of a herd of horses or of rein- deer (Fig. 207), or where a herd of deer is seen (Fig. 208) cross- ing a stream full of fishes, as in the well-known engravings on reindeer horn found in the grotto of Lorthet, in the Pyrenees. This is one of the very rare instances in Paleolithic art, either engraving or painting, which shows a sense of composition or the treatment of a subject or incident involving more than one figure. Others are the herd of passing reindeer found engraved on a bit of schist in the grotto of Laugerie Basse, the lion facing a group of horses engraved on a stalagmite at Font-de-Gaume, and the procession of mammoths engraved upon a procession cf bison in the same cavern. 408 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING The beginnings of painting in Aurignacian times, consisting of simple contours and crude outlines in red or black, with little or no attempt at shading, pass in early Magdalenian time into a long phase of mono- chromes, either in black or red, in which the tech- nique pursues a number of variations, from simple linear treatment, contin- uous or dotted, to half tints or full tints, grad- ually encroaching on the sides of the body from Fic. 210. Early painting. A small horse of the the linear contour. Of Celtic or Arab type, with painted outline and : body colored in black, from a wall of the cavern this order are the figures of Castillo, Spain. After Breuil. in flat tints and sha ding, resembling those of the Chinese, without modelling; also the figures entirely covered with dots, such as are seen at Marsoulas, Fic. 2tr. Early painting . Galloping horse of the Celtic or of the steppe type painted in black and white, from a wall of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil. Font-de-Gaume, and Altamira. The tints, as in the drawing of the galloping steppe horse, pass inward from the black outline MAGDALENIAN PAINTING 409 to enhance the effect of roundness or relief. In the splendid series of paintings in the cavern of Niaux there is little more than the black outline of the body, but the covering of the sides with lines, indicating the hair, lends itself to the rounded presentation of form. A somewhat similar effect is sought in the lines of the woolly rhinoceros painted in red in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, which Breuil attributes to the Aurignacian stage, but which also suggests the early Magdalenian. Fic. 212. Opening (cross) of the cavern of Niaux, in the Pyrenees, near Tarascon. DRAWINGS IN VARIOUS CAVERNS OF THE EARLY AND MIDDLE MAGDALENIAN The grandest cavern thus far discovered in France is that of Niaux (1906), which from a small opening on the side of a lime- stone mountain and 300 feet above the River Vic de Sos extends almost horizontally 4,200 feet into the heart of the mountain.”® Not far from Tarascon on the Ariége it lay near one of the most accessible routes between France and Spain. Passing through the long gallery beyond the borders of the subterranean lake which bars the entrance, at a distance of half a mile we reach a 410 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE great chamber where the overhanging walls of limestone have been finely polished by the sands and gravels transported by the subglacial streams; on these broad, slightly concave panels of a very light ochre color are drawings of a large number of bison and of horses, as fresh and brilliant as if they were the work of yesterday; the outlines drawn with black oxide of man- ganese and grease on the smooth stone resemble coarse lithog- raphy. The animals are drawn in splendid, bold contours, with no cross-hatching, but with solid masses of bright color here and there; the bison, as the most admired animal of the chase, is \y ‘ \ yy | Ate \ Willa Ne tat Fic. 213. Engraved and painted horse, apparently of the Celtic type and with heavy winter coat, from the cavern of Niaux. ‘There is a mark behind the right shoulder which has been interpreted as the sign of an arrow or spear head. After Cartailhac and Breuil. (Compare Fig. 174.) drawn majestically with a superb crest, the muzzle most per- fectly outlined, the horns indicated by single lines only, the eyes with the defiant expression highly distinctive of the animal when wounded or enraged. Here for the first time are re- vealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with the shafts still attached; the most positive proof of the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of the drawings. There are also many silhouettes of horses which strongly resemble the pure Asiatic steppe type now living in the desert of Gobi, the Przewalski horse, with erect mane and with no drooping forelock; in contrast to the bison, the eyes are rather dull and stupid in expression. There are also drawings THE ART OF THE CAVERNS 411 of other types of horses, a very fine ibex, a chamois, a few out- lines of wild cattle, and a very fine one of the royal stag; we find no reindeer or mammoth represented. In some of the narrower passages the rock has been beautifully sculptured by water, and Fic. 214. Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of the cavern of Le Portel, Ariége. Photograph by H. F. Osborn. the artists have been quick to take advantage of any natural lines to add a bit of color here or there and thus bring out the outline of a bison. Presenting the widest possible contrast to Niaux is the cavern of Le Portel, west of Tarascon, with its contracted entrance and a very rapidly descending passage hardly broad enough to admit the body. This narrow and tortuous cave terminates in an ex- 412 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tremely small passage, so narrow as barely to admit the athletic and determined artist explorer, the Abbé Breuil. Here, as in Font-de-Gaume and other caverns, is one of the greatest myster- ies of the cave art, namely, that these terminal and dangerous diverticules finals were wrought with some of the most careful and artistic designs. Le Portel, like Niaux, reveals a single style, but one altogether different. Very numerous bison are drawn in outline both in red and black; the sides of the body are often x F O KD SS 4 > ie y) X ae rad | Y) hh a “Uy iy Wail »S : \ il i j Fic. 215. Finely engraved outlines of the Celtic horse and of the reindeer, in the Grotte de la Mairie, near Teyjat, Dordogne. After Capitan and Breuil. dotted with red or hatched in close parallel lines. On a long horizontal panel are seen many bison in red, and one observes here a finely drawn pair of bison feet in the best Magdalenian style. The horse as represented here is of a quite different type with thin upper tail and a tail-tuft resembling that of the wild ass, so that one is almost tempted to believe that the kiang is intended, but the ears are too short; it has a high rump and a high, splendidly arched neck, like that of the stallion, and the eye is better drawn; the body is covered with long vertical or oblique lines which might be mistaken for stripes, but this hatching:is a matter of technique only. Again, the mane is erect, and there is no forelock; in fact, none of these Magdalenian artists has rep- resented the horse with the forelock, indicating that this char- THE ART OF THE CAVERNS 413 acter of the modern horse was unknown in western Europe and probably came in during Neolithic times. Of an entirely different type are the beautifully engraved miniature figures of animals discovered in 1903 in the Grotte de Fic. 216. Reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses of the large-headed forest type with arched forehead, engraved on a panel about twenty inches in length in the Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil. la Mairie.2® The outlines, from 18 to 20 inches in length, are sharply engraved on the limestone stalagmites; they are all in the middle Magdalenian style and include the stag, reindeer, Fic. 217. Wild cattle, bull and cow (Bos primigenius), engraved in the Grotte de la Mairie, each figure being about twenty inchesinlength. After Capitan and Breuil. bison, cave-bear, lion, wild cattle, and two very distinct types of horses: one of these types is large-headed with an arched forehead; this is probably the forest type and perhaps represents 414 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the horse most abundant at the Solutré encampment (see p. 288) ; the other horse is small-headed, with a perfectly flat, straight forehead, corresponding with the Arab or Celtic pony type. DRAWINGS AND PAINTINGS OF THE END OF THE MiIppLE MAGDALENIAN The fourth and final developmental phase of painting flowers out toward the end of middle Magdalenian times in the grand period of polychromes. ‘These are first etched with underlying Fic. 218. Outline of one of the bison in the Galerie des Fresques at Font- de-Gaume, showing the preliminary etching or engraving preparatory to the polychrome fresco painting. After Breuil. lines engraved with flint, the surface of the limestone having been previously prepared by the thinning or scraping of the borders (rvaclage) to heighten the relief of the drawing; then a very strong contour is laid down in black, and this may be fol- lowed by a further contour line in red (the use of black and red is very ancient); an ochreous brown color is mixed in, conform- ing well with what we know to be the tints of the hairy portions of the bison. Thus gradually a complete polychrome fresco art develops. ‘The final stage of this art follows, in which the filling out of various tones of color requires the use of black, brown, red, and yellowish shades. The underlying or preliminary engraving now begins to recede, being retained only for the tracing in of the final details of the hair, the eyes, the horns, and the hoofs, After Breuil. One of the bisons on the ceiling of Altamira, representing the final stage of polychrome art in which four shades of color are used. je A RUE POLYCHROME PAINTING 415 The early stages of this art are seen in the cavern of Marsoulas. and its height is reached in the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume and in the ceiling of Altamira, the latter still in a perfect and brilliant state of preservation. To prepare the colors, ochre and oxide of manganese were ground down to a fine powder in stone mortars; raw pigment Fic. 219. Entrance on the right to the grotto leading to the great cavern of Font-de- Gaume on the Beune. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. was carried in ornamented cases made from the lower-limb bones of the reindeer, and such tubes still containing the ochre have been found in the Magdalenian hearths; the mingling of the finely ground powder with the animal oils or fats that were used was probably done on the flat side of the shoulder-blade of the reindeer or on some other palette. The pigment was quite per- manent, and in the darkness of the Altamira grotto it has been so perfectly preserved that the colors are still as brilliant as if they had been applied yesterday. The art of the grotto of Marsoulas, in the Pyrenees, is both 416 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of an earlier and of a later period; the engraved lines, as of the head and front of a bison, are beautifully done in advanced Magdalenian style, deep incisions representing the larger out- lines and finer incisions representing the hair; here the outlines are also traced in color, and there are several masks or grotesques of the human face; these last are treated with a total disregard of the truth which characterizes the animal work. Among the few bison represented here, some are covered with dots or splashes of color, others show the painted outline which begins Rubicon f Grande Galerie des Fresques ant Diverticule = a PLAN pe ta GROTTE ° final DE FONT DEGAUME relevé par le D? CAPITAN. Pe Echelle de "2 pour | metre. Petite Salle Fic. 220. Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, showing the ‘Rubicon,’ the Grande Galerie des Fresques, in which the chief polychrome paintings are found, and the Diverticule final. After Capitan. to extend over the surface with gradations of tint, anticipating the color effects attained in the finished paintings of Altamira and of Font-de-Gaume. All the details of the early technique are found here: the artist outlines the form with an engraved line; he traces in black color the contours of the head and of the body; he begins to apply masses of red over the figure. This beginning of polychrome art at Marsoulas is a step toward coloring the en- tire surface with red ochre and black, as in the finished paintings of a later period. The grand cavern of Font-de-Gaume,”’ on the Beune, not far from Les Eyzies, contains the most complete record of Upper Paleolithic art, especially from the close of Aurignacian to the ? are and on both walls After Lassalle. inted bison, ee int are two pa is poi marks left by the claws of the cave-bear. 4 ° a Q =} a o en! —_ Ww) a] S = je) S 4 h, | = iss} = oO ae) ww S oO oy an ie) fo Lol oO > ia] 1S) o cr g : WEST BY ie (Ea Re Oe ee ets . foriner level of- Alvar dest, bacpesdioes eras caf” EAST. Oa vanities, 2 ceili coir epsptereh ; YY : ie S 100° 3 * 50: Uj ealden, Lower <= Say 50 ‘Sea bier A Sea Level t 2 Smiles Fic. 269. Geologic section of the valley of the Ouse River at Piltdown, England, show- ing earlier (1, 2) and present (3) river levels. The cross indicates the location of the Piltdown quarry and theoretic former level of the River Ouse which has since cut a deep valley nearly 100 ft. below its level when the Piltdown skull was deposited. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. As to the geological age of the Piltdown race, if confirmed by future discovery, the presence in Germany near Taubach, Weimar, of teeth similar to those in the Piltdown jaw, found in Sussex, England, would tend to confirm the opinion expressed in the first edition of this work that the Piltdown race belongs to Third Interglacial times. NOTE X FAMILY SEPULTURE OF LA FERRASSIE, FRANCE The only instance of the knee-flexed burial position known in the Lower Paleolithic is the unique family sepulture at the Mousterian station of La Ferrassie, in Dordogne, discovered by D. Peyrony in the years 1909-1911. It includes the remains of two adults and two children. One of the adult skeletons lay upon its back with the legs strongly flexed. The body lay upon the floor of the cave without any sign of a cavity to contain it. The head and shoulders had been protected and surrounded by slabs of stone, while the rest of the body may have been covered by pelts or woven branches. The second skeleton was that of a woman with the arms folded upon the breast, while the legs were pressed against the body, indicating that they were bound with cords or thongs. Two children were interred in shallow graves. This sepulture, like that of Spy, Belgium, of late Mousterian times, was apparently a case of genuine burial, testifying to the ancient reverence for the dead, joined, perhaps, with the belief in a life after death. In the Ferrassie burial, close to the children’s remains, there was a grave filled 514 APPENDIX with ashes and bones of the wild ox. Similarly, in the interment at La Chapelle-aux-Saints there was a cavity containing a bison horn and a second cavity where large bones of the same animal were found, indicating possibly the remains of sacrificial offerings or funeral feasts. NOTE XI PALZOLITHIC HISTORY OF NORTHWESTERN AFRICA AND SOUTHERN SPAIN The flint workers of Lower and Upper Paleolithic times who inhabited the existing geographic regions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis sought the flint-bearing limestones for the manufacture of their implements and fash- ioned them into forms which are closely similar to those found in Spain and France. As a result of the explorations of J. de Morgan, L. Capitan, and P. Boudy between 1907 and 1909* it appears that Paleolithic man in Africa became acquainted with fewer types of implements than his contem- poraries in Europe. It is true that we find the Lower Paleolithic repre- sented by typical Chellean coups de poing, and there were also true Acheulean implements and true Mousterian implements marking the close of Lower Paleolithic time. As to the great antiquity of man in these regions, it appears likely that there was a kind of pre-Chellean industry at Gafsa, as at St. Acheul in France, with flakes roughly adapted to the functions of racloirs, points, knives, etc. It is, in fact, very possible so to interpret the very coarse flakes found by Boudy in such abundance in the lower deposits of hill 328 at Gafsa. The Chellean and then the Acheulean culture would have succeeded to this earliest stage, being characterized by an industry strik- ingly similar for these two epochs. The Mousterian, with its predomi- nance of racloirs, points, and discs, appears in Tunis to have been only a modality, a stage of the great Chelleo-Mousterian period, just as it was in Europe. Then follows the Aurignacian, the first stage of the Upper Paleolithic cultures, in which the forms of the flints are, in the opinion of Capitan, extremely similar to those of the Lower Aurignacian of northern Spain and of France. It was at this time, it is believed, that the great wave of indus- trial migration and perhaps the men of the Cré-Magnon race passed from these northwestern African stations into Spain and France; for it has been noted that the Lower Aurignacian of western Europe comes from the south and not from the east of Europe. The flint-making stations during the long Lower Paleolithic are widely distributed, as indicated by the black dots of the accompanying map (Fig. 270). * J. de Morgan, L. Capitan, and P. Boudy, “Stations préhistoriques du sud Tunisien,” Rev. Ecole d’Anthr., 1910, pp. 105-136, 206-221, 267-286, 335-347; I9II, pp. 217-228. APPENDIX 515 But now a very important change occurs, as indicated in the stations marked by a crossed circle, in the genesis of new modes of fashioning the flints which are for a long time peculiar to this region and which—centring Tamerza ay 00? ier Reade] OA “ wm El Oued & CAPSIAN @ LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AURIGNACIAN ofsocutmean or MAGDALENIAN A Create or Insokki ® TARDENOISIAN Fic. 270. Extension of the Early Paleolithic and Capsian industries throughout Spain and northwest Africa. It is supposed that at this time there was a land connection across the Straits of Gibraltar. Stations too closely grouped to be shown separately are as follows: Africa.—At Mostaganem (8) are the eight stations of Aboukir, Ain-bou-Brahim, Karouba, Ouled Zérifa, Ain-el-Bahr, Oued Melah, Oued Ria, and Mazouna. Near Mascara are the sites of Ain-Hadjar, Ain-Ksibia, Palikao, and Ain-Harca. Spain.—At Vélez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known as Serr6n, Zdjara, and Humosa; while the figure 8 marks the eight caves of Palo- marico, Las Perneras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada, Cueva de los Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro. Only the Capsian stations of Spain are named hére. For the names of others see Fig. 272, p. 519. in the stations crowded around Gafsa in the heart of Tunis—receive the name of CAPSIAN. The explanation of the life and art of the Capsian is probably that of a climatic change in this region of Africa from a moist and semiforested con- dition favorable to the larger kinds of game to an arid condition in which 516 APPENDIX the larger kinds of game became less numerous and the chase was aban- doned. This is Capitan’s opinion, that the Capsian corresponds to new climatic conditions in northern Africa; for in the depths of the limestone caves it appears that men’s food partly consisted of the animals of the chase, but more commonly of edible land snails belonging to species still existing in this region and occurring in great abundance during the winter and spring rains. This change of climate came after the close of Mous- terian time, namely, the period which we estimated (p. 281) at about 25,000 years B. C. on the theory that the Fourth Glaciation closed not less than 25,000 years ago (p, 41). LOWER PALAOLITHIC OF AFRICA When we consider that the genuine Chellean industry is completely lacking in central Europe* we are driven to the conclusion that this in- dustry came to France and England not from the east but from Africa in the south. Therefore it becomes clear why, in passing to the aforesaid countries from northern Africa, this industry was more widely distributed in Spain than in Italy. Without doubt the same conditions of migration pre- vailed throughout the entire Lower Paleolithic. The Acheulean and Mousterian industries followed the same route, for both are typically rep- resented in northern Africa and there is no convincing evidence of these industries having followed any different course. THE CAPSIAN——-UPPER AND LOWER The succeeding Aurignacian industry of the Mediterranean also had its centre of dispersion in the northwestern part of Africa—a centre known through the labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy, and, more recently, through those of Pallary, Gobert, and Breuil. Obermaier regards the Lower Capsian as presenting an industry containing only the Lower Aurig- nacian (types of Chatelperron) and Upper Aurignacian (types of La Gra- vette) and considers that the Middle Aurignacian is wanting in northern Africa. This Middle Aurignacian culture is regarded as of French origin, having apparently extended southward only in the Cantabrian region, where it is typically represented at Castillo, Hornos de la Pefia, and the Cueva del Conde. The Upper Capsian, then, is regarded as extending from Post-Aurig- nacian time through the entire epoch of the Solutrean and the Magdalenian of western Europe. Thus for a very long period of time there was no contact whatever between the industry of northwestern Africa and of southwestern Europe. During this period the Capsian itself developed * Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre foésil, 1916, p. 203. APPENDIX 517 its peculiar forms, and toward the close of the Upper Paleolithic this industry spread into Spain as indicated by the dotted area and arrows in the accompanying map (Fig. 271, B). In the development of the Capsian itself* it is found that the in- dustry varies according to the sites, each with its own evolution of types. For example, at the rock shelter of El Mekta flint knives with blunted backs were of large size, probably because they were used to cut the flesh of game. At Sidi-Mansour, on the contrary, the dwellers, being snail- eaters, used only blades as fine as needles and of a type found also at El Mekta, but fewer in number. This, then, is the origin of the microlithic flints which were first discovered at the station of Fére-en-Tardenois, in ee A Tea be WAC . 2 rae 4 os ett Sexi: Tense ip d ° . ol @ Canslense tuperion Capsiense final-Tardenoisiense. ‘Solutreo-Magdaleniense. - Aziliense. Fic. 271. Maps showing the supposed migration routes into Spain of the: A. Solutrean and Magdalenian industries from France. B. Late Capsian (Tardenoisian) industry from Africa. After Obermaier. France, and hence received the name of Tardenoisian. If the conclusions of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy are well founded, the Upper Capsian industry of Africa is the true parent of the Tardenoisian of France. On the other hand, the identity of the Lower Capsian with the Aurig- nacian in Europe is strongly insisted upon by the same authors. The Lower Capsian is a Tunisian phase of the Aurignacian of Europe and _ab- solutely identical with it. The forms from the rock shelters of Rédéyef, Foum-el-Maza, and, above all, El Mekta are absolutely typical. In the latter station occur, moreover, forms closely paralleling those distinctive of the Aurignacian of Europe, Lower, Middle, and Upper—the great picks; the large flakes finely retouched; the long, fine blades retouched on one or both sides, often curved, with blunted backs; the notched blades; the * Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre fésil, 1916, pp. 346, 347. 518 APPENDIX nuclei with edges worked into grattoirs; and, above all, the blades with square-edged grattoirs across the ends, often presenting a lateral burin, so characteristic of the Aurignacian. Thus these authors conclude that human evolution and probably the human stock in Tunis was uniform with that of Europe throughout all Aurignacian time until its very close, and that, following this, an independent evolution in North Africa took place. Little is known of the anatomy of these Lower Capsian workmen. In an abri about two kilometres from Rédéyef, and associated with a flint in- dustry characteristic of the Lower Capsian, there were found numerous fragments of human bones much altered, friable, and with very irregular surfaces. Recognizable among this skeletal débris were a decidedly thick cranial vault, and portions of two large thigh-bones (femora) and of shin- bones (tibias) which are also thick and very much flattened (platycnzemic). It is interesting to recall that the abundant skeletal remains found at Grimaldi were chiefly of the well-known Cré-Magnon type with markedly platycnzmic tibias, and were associated with flint implements characteristic of the Aurignacian culture, which Capitan considers identical with the Lower Capsian. INDUSTRIES OF NORTH AFRICA GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS INDUSTRIES OF EUROPE Upper Capsian Reunion with Spain and Close of the Upper Palzo- (Late Upper Paleolithic) France lithic (final phase of Capsian = Tardenoisian and Azilian Tardenoisian) Stages (Middle Upper Paleolithic) Separation from Spain Solutrean and Magdalenian and France Stages Lower Capsian Union with Spain Aurignacian Stage (Beginning of the Upper and France Paleolithic) Lower Paleolithic Union with Spain and Lower Paleolithic Mousterian, Acheulean, and France Mousterian, Acheulean, Chellean Stages and Chellean Stages PALAOLITHIC HISTORY OF SPAIN. Having now considered northern Africa, it is interesting to look at Spain as influenced by Africa on the south, by the industrial and artistic life of France on the north, and as having an important independent evo- lution of its own. These conditions are fully described in Hugo Ober- maier’s recent work, El Hombre foésil,* to which the reader is referred. Over eighty Paleolithic stations have been discovered in Spain. Spain shares with the greater part of Africa (including Egypt), with Syria, Meso- potamia, and parts of India, the extraordinarily wide distribution of in- * Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre fésil, 1916. APPENDIX 519 Soto de las Regueras @ @s Palomas © *tlzpitarte Can rio 000 yf 7 - 270% @T orrglba Agua Amarga Coctinilla del Obispo \ Parpa Alpera@® i El Arabi&B Fast. Wi ail. modévar del Rio Bobadillae CAPSIAN @ LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AURIGNACIAN ie) {souuTREAK o MAGDALENIAN AZILIAN or © lecariaehsta Ts Fic. 272. Upper and Lower Paleolithic stations of Spain and Portugal. Stations too closely grouped to be shown separately on this map are as follows: North.—s, Cueva del Conde, Cueva del Rio, Collubil, Viesca, La Cuevona; 4, Cueto de la Mina, Balmori, Arnero, Fonfria; 14 (also marked ‘Castillo’), four symbols represent the fourteen closely grouped stations of Castillo, Altamira, Hornos de la Pena, Camargo, Cueva del Mar, Truchiro, Astillero, Nuestra Sefiora de Loreto, Villanueva, Pendo, Cobalejos, San Felices.de Buelna, Pefia de Carranceja, and El Cuco. A little west of Fuente del Francés is San Vitores. West.—At Oporto are the three stations of Pacos, Ervilha, and Castello do Queijo. In or near Lisbon are the fifteen stations of Agonia, Alto do Duque, Amoreira, Bica, Boticaria, Casal da Serra, Casal das Osgas, Casal do Monte, Estrada de Aguda- Queluz, Leiria, Moinho das Cruzes, Pedreiras, Pefias Alvas, Rabicha, and Serra de Monsanto. Southeast—At Vélez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known as Serr6n, Zajara, and Humosa; while between the two sites marked 8 are the eight caves of Palomarico, Las Perneras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada, Cueva de los Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro. dustries resembling those of the three Lower Paleolithic stages—the Chellean, the Acheulean, and the Mousterian. By what types of man these industries were pursued in these different countries it would be premature to say. At the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic a profound change occurs, for in the Aurignacian industry we have to do with a Mediterraneo-European culture exhibiting advances in technique which are not developed elsewhere. 520 APPENDIX IMPORTANT PALOLITHIC SITES IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL PALAZOLITHIC CULTURES Lower Upper PROVINCES AND STATIONS | Aurignacian Solutrean | Magdalenia Azilio- Tardenoisian | Chellean | Acheulean | Mousterian SPAIN GUIPUZCOA Aitzbitarte (Landarbaso) VIZCAYA LS RSS s+: +: aie pie +i ++ +4++4+4+4+4+: +4444: Castillo Pendo, Cueva del (San Pantaleén) Cobalejos (Puente Arce) Camargo Hornos de la Pefia Altamira OVIEDO ++++4++: Cueto de la Mina Conde, Cueva del Paloma, Cueva de: lac). oss ue ee ne ee nae SORIA Torralba MADRID San Isidro CORDOBA Posadas-Almodévar del Rio JAEN Campos de Olivar de Puente Mocho cADIZ Laguna de la Janda BARCELONA Abrich Romani RIV SH e 2. Ace ne ran GERONA Serinya Pe aN | le pm Pr « . LERIDA Capsian HO eae MURCIA Bermeja, Cueva de la ALBACETE VALENCIA Parpallo, Cueva del Maravillas, Cueva de las Truche (Turche), Abrigo de la PORTUGAL Mugen, in the valley of the Tagus (four stations) Furninha Lisbon and environs (fifteen stations APPENDIX 521 At the close of Upper Aurignacian time the community of culture ceases in Spain itself, and this country divides sharply into two regions, namely, northern and southern. In the northern region we observe a close similarity with the industrial evolution of France during the entire period of Solutreo-Magdalenian time. The true Solutrean extended from France throughout the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. In Cantabria, Early Solutrean is represented by laurel-leaf points found at Castillo, Hornos de la Pefia, and elsewhere; while Late Solutrean types—shouldered points, and laurel-leaf and willow- leaf points with concave base—appear at Altamira, Camargo, and the Cueva del Conde. True Solutrean strata have not yet been discovered in the east of Spain, although the discovery—made by H. Breuil—of a willow- leaf point at El Arabi would seem to indicate that there may have been some slight infiltration of the Solutrean along the seacoast. Implements suggesting the Solutrean found in Almerfa (Cueva Chiquita de los Treinta) and Murcia (Cueva de las Perneras) are doubtful, as it is very possible that they represent Neolithic types. The true Magdalenian appears also to be an intrusion restricted to the northern part of the peninsula. It is found in the east in the provinces of Gerona and Barcelona, but occurs chiefly in the Whole Cantabrian region. The homogeneity of the Mag- dalenian in these parts with that of France is very marked, not only in the stratification and types of Paleolithic implements but also in the objects of mobiliary art. SOUTHERN AND EASTERN SPAIN—-THE CAPSIAN At the same time the southern and eastern regions of Spain were com- pletely under the influence of the Upper Capsian industry of northern Africa and in these regions the typical forms of the Lower Capsian (= Lower and Upper Aurignacian) tend to become reduced in size and to evolve toward the geometric forms until they finally acquire the aspect of the Tardenoisian microliths. Thus we find that in the Upper Capsian of eastern and southern Spain, as in northern Africa, true Solutrean and Magdalenian implements are unknown. These implements are replaced by the microlithic industry, chiefly characterized by trapezoidal forms which can be traced eastward along the coast of Africa to Egypt, Phoenicia, and even to the Crimea. A notable part of this industry found its way also into Sicily. The final phase of the Upper Capsian of Spain is essentially identical with the Tardenoisian of France. Certain discoveries have been made in Guadalajara, in Murcia, and in Albacete (Alpera). To these must be added other Azilio-Tardenoisian stations no less important found in Portugal in the valley of the Tagus. At Mugem and at other stations heaps of sea-shells of a great variety of species prove that when the Upper Capsian men were living they sought the same kinds of food in Spain as in northern 522 APPENDIX Africa. In these heaps the trapezoidal forms of implements predominate, closely similar to those of the Tardenoisian. The animal life of these de- posits does not include any sort of domestic animal except the dog. Of great interest are the numerous burials—chiefly of women and chil- dren, more rarely of men—in which the skeletons occur most often in the folded position. The human type has not been determined, but long- headed (dolichocephalic) skulls greatly predominate, while short-headed (brachycephalic) skulls occur but rarely. It is probable, therefore, that these people belonged to the small, long-headed, dark-skinned Mediter- rean race. Inasmuch as the origins of the Tardenoisian of France are found in the final Capsian stage of Spain, reinforced by African elements, Ober- maier regards the Spanish Tardenoisian as:somewhat older than the French. CAPSIAN AND AZILIO-TARDENOISIAN ART Obermaier observes that it is as yet impossible to determine the period of the commencement of this peculiar art of central and southern Spain, but considers that a transition from the naturalistic art of the Quaternary to the conventionalized schematic art was effected by almost impercept- ible degrees. This would imply that no sudden changes took place at this time in the population of Spain, but that the tribes of Upper Capsian culture evolved im situ into the Azilio-Tardenoisian stage, and eventually, owing to the influence of exterior civilizations, into the Neolithic. Final phases of this schematic art contain idols and representations of faces which coincide absolutely with Neolithic idols in the collections of L. Siret, F. de Motos, and others. Moreover, they present similarities to certain designs from the dolmens of the final Neolithic. This art is characterized by its numerous reproductions of the human figure. In almost all the important rock shelters of the eastern region (Alpera) it has been possible to distinguish layers of more recent designs painted over the classic Quaternary paintings, and classified—on account of their superposition—as ‘‘ Post-Paleolithic.”” Of these a small portion are figures still retaining the naturalistic style—representations of animals and men—but poor in conception, stiff and lifeless, in most cases bearing no comparison with the vigor and abandon of the figures of Alpera. The greater part of these designs consist of geometric or conventionalized signs or figures. Still purer.in style and more abundant are the instances of this con- ventionalized mural art in southern Spain, where M. de Géngora, Vilanova, Jiménez de la Espada, Gonzalez de Linares, M. Gémez Moreno, F. de Motos, H. Breuil, J. Cabré, and E. Hernandez-Pacheco have devoted themselves sedulously to its study. Numerous painted rock shelters are known, but almost all without the slightest trace of Paleolithic art and with numerous conventionalized (schematic) petroglyphs, in Andalusia APPENDIX 523 (Vélez Blanco, Ronda, and Tarifa) and throughout the Sierra Morena (Fuencaliente). In many cases it would be difficult to guess the deriva- tion of these designs of human or animal figures, were it not for the exist- ence of gradations in conventionalization from the naturalistic design to the final geometric scheme. With these, arranged in a regular manner, there occur further a great number of ramiform, pectiniform, stelliform, serpentine, and alphabet-like signs, with designs in zigzags, circles, and dots. Another important centre is found in western Spain (Estremadura) the notable designs of which are mentioned by Lope de Vega in 1597— Fic. 273. Detail from the Late Paleolithic designs painted on the sides of two natural recesses in the rock shelter of Alpera. After Obermaier. doubtless referring to the paintings of Canchal de las Cabras in Las Batuecas. Slight infiltrations of the same art have been recognized in northern Spain at Castillo, Santander, and at the open station of Pefa Tu, near Vidiago, Oviedo. As a notable exception to the naturalistic art prevail- ing north of the Pyrenees we may mention the paintings in this same geo- metric style found in the cave of La Vache, near Tarascon, Ariége, in south- ern France. 524 APPENDIX Of equally great interest is the explanation which this art affords of the remarkable painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil which are now seen to be partly pictographic in origin, chiefly schematized representations of the human figure which gradually begin to assume shapes closely resembling those of the Phoenician alphabet. As early as 1912 Henri Breuil was con- sidering this pictographic theory and beginning to refer to the ‘Azilian signs’ at Las Batuecas as reminiscent both of the painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil and of the mural paintings of Andalusia. But chiefly he made clear the importance of the ‘‘dotted lines, ramiform, pectiniform, and stelli- form signs, zigzags, circles, and figures vaguely resembling alphabetic forms.”’ A very ingenious study of these schematic Azilian signs has been made by Obermaier in El Hombre fésil, where he endeavors to trace the conventionalized descendants of the human figure of the ancient natural- istic style as shown in Fig. 274. The demonstration of this theory may in Fic. 274. Figures from Piedra Escrita (a-e) and from Cimbarillo de Marfa Antonia (f), compared with a design occurring on the painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil, showing a progressive conventionalization of the human figure. After Obermaier, good time make possible a logical interpretation of a great part of these same painted pebbles of the Azilian. Obermaier feels confident that they should be considered as religious symbols, and that these petroglyphs of Spain will supply a proof that many of the designs on these pebbles plainly show conventionalized human figures: Some years ago A. B. Cook drew attention to the fact that a native tribe in central Australia, the Arunta, is distinguished by each clan having a deposit of ‘churingas’ in a cave. There the churinga of each individual of the clan, be it man or woman, is the object of vigilant protection. They are made of wood or stone, and in the latter case show a striking resem- blance in form and decoration to the Azilian pebbles. The Australian sees — in each churinga the incarnation of one of his ancestors, whose spirit has passed to him and whose qualities he has inherited. It is noteworthy that, according to Australian beliefs, they can acquire the gift of speech by means of the ‘bull-roarer,’ an amulet of stone or bone. By analogy with the preceding, it is possible that some of the Azilian pebbles represent such ‘stones of the ancestors,’ an incarnation of mas- culine or feminine forefathers whose symbols were the objects of an es- pecial cult. F. Sarasin found in the cave of Birseck, near Arlesheim, Switzerland, a typical Azilian deposit with painted pebbles which had all APPENDIX 525 been intentionally broken, without exception. He advanced the not im- probable theory that this evidenced an act of the extremest hostility against the sanctuary of a tribe, performed in order to despoil its members forever of the protection of their ancestors, seeking in this way to subju- gate or annihilate them. In the Capsian silhouettes there is little likeness to the naturalistic art of the Cré-Magnons in the north of Spain and in France. We are re- minded rather of the rock paintings of the Bushmen and of the hunting- scenes depicted by North American Indians, but on the whole there is greater tendency to grouping and composition of standing figures, mascu- line and feminine, in ceremonies and in the chase. The male figures are mostly nude, and occasionally have head ornaments of feathers; while the Fic. 275. Various types of bows and arrows shown in the paintings of the ‘Cueva de la Vieja’ at Alpera. After J. Cabré. female figures are represented with kirtles, head-dresses, and ornaments on the body, arms, and ankles. Masculine figures in the chase are ac- companied by hunting-dogs and exhibit the bow and arrow. If these drawings are correctly assigned to the close of the Upper Paleolithic, this is the most ancient representation of this primitive weapon of the chase of which we have record. The arrow seems to be single-barbed, as shown in the accompanying cut from Alpera. 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Pilgrim, G. 1913.1 The Correlation of the Siwaliks with Mammal Horizons of Europe. Records, Geol. Survey India, vo]. XLIII, part 4, pp. 264-326, Pls. 20-201 Quatrefages, A. 1884.1 Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages. Etudes d’Anthropologie. Paris, 8vo, 1884. R Reeds, C. A. tots5.t The Graphic Projection of Pleistocene Climatic Oscillations. Bull. iscols0c. 4 mer., VOl. 20,,N0. I, 1015, .pp- 100-100. Reid, C. 1908.1 The Pre-Glacial Flora of Britain. (With E. M. Reid.) Journ. Pimis0c Botany, vol. X XXVIII, 1908; pp. 206-227. 1913.1 [Discussion of] On the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Miancibies....; at Piltdown ..... Sussex... See DawsonjorCy 1013.1; Reinach, S. 1889.1 Antiquités nationales. Déscription raisonnée du Musée de Saint- Germain-en-Laye. I—Epoque des alluvions et des cavernes Paris, 8vo [1880], 322 pp. 1913.1 Répertoire de l’Art quaternaire. Paris, 12mo0, 1913. 542 BIBLIOGRAPHY Retzius, A. 1864.1 Ethnologische Schriften. 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L. 1912.1 Les cavernes de la région cantabrique (Espagne). (With Alcalde del Rio and Breuil.) See Alcalde del Rio, 1912.1. Smith, G. E. 1912.1 Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section (B. A. A. S.). Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sct., Dundee, 1912, pp. 575-598. 1913.1 The Controversies concerning the Interpretation and Meaning of the Remains of the Dawn-Man Found near Piltdown. [Abstract.] Meet. Manchester Lit. and Philosoph. Soc., November 18, 1913. 1913.2 On the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1913.1. 1913.3. The Piltdown Skull. Nature, vol. 92, no. 2292, October 2, 109013, Demat ts . 1913.4 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, no. 2206, October 30, 1913, pp. 267, 268. 1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palzolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Dawson and Wood- ward.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1914.1. Smith, W. 1894.1 Man the Primeval Savage. His Haunts and Relics from the Hill- Tops of Bedfordshire to Blackwall. London, 8vo, 1894. Sollas, W. J. 1900.1 Evolutional Geology. Presidential Address to the Geological Sec- tion (B. A. A.S.). Rpt. 70th Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brad- ford, 1900, pp. 711-730. BIBLIOGRAPHY 545 tor1.7 Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives. London, 8vo. IQII. 1913.1 Paviland Cave: An Aurignacian Station in Wales. (The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1913.) Journ. R. Anthropol. Inst. of Gr. Brit. &.Ireland, vol. XLITI, 1913, pp. 325-373. Steinmann, C. 1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Verworn and Bonnet.) IV—Uber das geologische Alter der Fundstelle. See Verworn, M., 1914.1. Strobel, J. 1909.1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Obermaier, H.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. Jahrb. Altertumskunde, Bd. III, 1909, pp. 129-148, Pls. XI-XXI. dk Tomes, C. S. 1914.1 A Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative. Edited by H. W. Marett Tims and A. Hopewell-Smith. Seventh edition. (J. and A. Churchill.) London, 8vo, 1914, 616 pp. von Troll, O. 1909.1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Strobel and Obermaier.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. See Strobel, J., 1909.1. U Upham, W. 1893.1 Estimates of Geologic Time. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. XLV, 1893, Pp. 209-220. V Verneau, R. 1886.1 Larace de Cré-Magnon. Rev. Anthropol., sér. 3, tome I, 1886, pp. 10-24. 1891.1 Cinq années de séjour aux iles Canaries. Paris, 1891. 1906.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). Tome II, fasc. I— Anthropologie. Monaco, 4to, 1906 Verworn, M. 1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Bonnet and Steinmann.) I—Fundbericht, Verworn. II—Die Kulturstufe des Fundes, Verworn. III—Die Skelete, Bonnet. IV—Uber das geologische Alter der Fundstelle, Steinmann. Die Naturwissen- schaften, Heft 27, Jahrg. 2, 3 Juli 1914, pp. 645-650. 546 BIBLIOGRAPHY de Vibraye. 1864.1 Note sur des nouvelles preuves de l’existence de l’homme dans le centre de la France a une époque ou s’y trouvaient aussi divers animaux qui de nos jours n’habitent pas cette contrée. C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, tome 58, 1864, pp. 409-416. Villeneuve, L. 1906.1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé). . Tome I, fasc. I—His- torique et Déscription. Monaco, 4to, 1906. Volz, W. 1907.1 Das geologische Alter der Pithecanthropus-Schichten bei Trinil, Ost-Java. N. Jahrb. Miner., Geol. u. Paldontol., Festband, 1907, pp. 256-271. W Walcott, C. D. 1893.1 Geologic Time as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America, Amer. Geol., vol. XII, no. 6, 1893, pp. 343-368, Pl. XV. Wiegers, F. 1913.1 Eine Studienreise zu den paldolithischen Fundstellen der Dordogne. (With Schuchhardt and Hilzheimer.) Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Jahrg. 43, Heit I, 1943, pp. 126-160. Wilser, L. 1898.1 Menschenrassen und Weltgeschichte. Naturwiss. Wochenschr., Band ALU Helter, 130s. Woodward, A. S. 1913.1 On the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching, Sussex. (With Dawson, C.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C., 1913.1. 1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Charles Dawson.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, CG elor4.t. 1914.2 On the Lower Jaw of an Anthropoid Ape (Dryopithecus) from the Upper Miocene of Lérida (Spain). Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, vol. LXX, pp. 316-320, Pl. XLIV. 1915.1 A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department of Geology and Paleontology in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, S. W, With 4 plates and 12 text-figures. Printed by order of the trustees of the British Museum. 8vo. TQI5, 33 PP- INDEX* A Abbeville, 109, 116, 124, 125, 127, 149, 152, 150, 166, 167, 244, 331 Abri Audit, 245, 246, 248, 255, 269, 277, 305, 307, 309, 311, 314 Abri Dufaure, 471 Abri Mége, 435, 442 Abris, see Rock Shelters Achenheim, 30, 160, 161, 167, 176, 195, 284, 314 Achenschwankung, see Postglacial Stage Ackeulean, 14-16, 18, 30; chronology, 33, 41, 89; climate, 112, 117, 118, 165, 166, 173, 174, 175-177, 180; fauna, 144-148, 165; geography (physical), 166; human fossils, 24, 181-185; industry, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108, 113, 122-124, 169-173, 177- 180, 270, 280, 362; stations, 151, 158- 162, 166-169; see Origin #Eschylus, on the prehistory of man, 3, 505 Aggsbach, 29, 435, 448 Agriculture, 2, 486, 496 Aiguille, needle, 271, 310, 313, 387, 388, 391, 392, 440, 443-445, 449, 461, 462 Alactaga jaculus, 373, 374; see Jerboa Alces, 187, 287, 369; latifrons, 70, see Moose Alento, 167 Alpera, 469, 497 Alpine fauna, see Fauna Alpine race, 278, 458, 479, 480, 481, 484, 485, 491, 499, 500 Alpine vole, 371, see Arvicola nivalis Altamira, 17, 319, 321, 331, 332, 346, 368, 385, 394, 395, 399, 408, 415, 416, 422-427, 434, 435, Pl. VIII Ancestry of Man, see Man Ancona, 167 Andernach, 160, 195, 279, 372, 378, 435 Anthropoid Apes, 3, 21; ancestry, 49-61; brain, 52-60; compared with Grimaldi, 266, with Neanderthal, 9, 217, 230-233, 237-240, with Piltdown, 140, 141, with Pithecanthropus, 9, 77-79; known to Carthaginians, 511, 512; recent dis- coveries, 511 Anthropology, rise of, 3-10 Axtilope saiga, see Saiga antelope Anvils, bone, 211, 253, 256, 271; see Come presseur Apes, see Anthropoid Arboreal life, effects of, 56, 57 Archeology, rise of, 10-18 Archer, 329 Arctomys marmotta, 182, 370; see Marmot Arcy-sur-Cure, 214, 219, 435 Argali sheep, 46, 285, 287, 371; see Ovis argaloides Arrow, 214, 258, 270, 272, 344, 353,354, 410, 450, 497 Art, 13, 14, 17, 21, 315-330, 332, 347-350, 392-434, 449, see Aurignacian, Magda- lenian, Solutrean, Engraving, Painting, Sculpture, Industry; implements used in, 270, 3090-312, 321, 329, 330, 385, 396, 415, 463; means of dating, 317-320 Arudy, 435, 436 Arvicola, amphibius, 147; nivalis, 370, 371 Ascoli Piceno, 167 Ass, wild (kiang), see Horse Aurensan, 435, 438, 471 Aurignac, 5, 13, 14, 16, 275, 279, 290, 294, 314 Aurignacian, 14-16, 18, 275, 276; art, 315- 330, 403, 404, 408; burial customs, 302- 305; chronology, 33, 41, 351; climate, 123, 281-286; fauna, 285-289; human fossils, 289-305; industry, 16, 18, 41, 108, 269- 271, 275-277, 280, 305-313, 320, 330, 362; stations, 275, 283, 284, 289, 307, 313-315; see Origin Aurignacian race, see Combe-Capelle man Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle Australian head type, 136, 228, 232, 234 Awl, see Poingon Axe, 493, 404 Azilian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian Azilian-Tardenoisian, 16, 275, 451, 456; art, 456; burial customs, 475-479; chro- nology, 275, 456, 459; climate, 463, 468; fauna, 463, 466, 468-470, 471, 472, 4743 gregalis, 3733 * Authors’ names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter. 549 550 human fossils, 461, 475-485; industry (Azitian) ,.15, 16, 18;.270, 271, 275,270, 450, 459-465, 460, 470-475, (Tardenoi- sian) 16, 18, 270, 271, 450, 456, 465-468, 470-472, (painted pebbles) 394, 456, 461, 463- 465; stations, 459, 463, 400, 407, 472-475; see Origin B Badegoule, 279, 331, 336, 435 Badger, 165, 201, 343, 367, 447, Meles taxus Ballahohle, 279, 331, 336 Baltic race, 458, 486, 500; see Maglemose Balverhohle, 471 Baoussé Roussé, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Baousso da Torre, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Barma Grande, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Bdton de commandement, 271, 311, 312, 345, 358, 359, 388, 301, 432, 443-445, 449 Baumannshodhle, 160, 195, 245, 247, 248, 439 Bear, 43, 44, 62, 95; 96, 165, 213, 245, 264, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 367, 378, 430, 441, 447, 461, 468, 498; see Cave-bear and Ursus Beaver, 63, 95, 134, 165, 182, 288, 348, 367, 447, 461, 468, 498, see Castor; giant, 111, 155, see Trogontherium Bernifal, 321, 395, 396, 435 Billancourt, 109, 149, 152 Bison, Wisent, 13, 43, 44, 69, 71, 95, 98, 106, 125,147, 165, 192, 194, 196, 202, 206, 211, 223, 287, 288, 317, 321, 333; 348, 353, 356, 364, 368, 372, 385, 403, 405, 406, 410, 414, 420, 421, 423-428, 430, 431, 440, 400, 460, 406, 408, 505, 506, Pls. VII and VII; see Bison Bison, antiquus, 69; priscus, 71, 95, 148, 368, see Bison Blade, see Couteau and Lame Bléville, 167 Boar, wild, 2, 3, 43, 44, 76, 95, 264, 265, 421, 426, 447, 461, 466, 468, 498; see Sus Bockstein, 285, 314, 435, 442 Bois Colombes, 109, 149, 152 Borer, drill, see Pergoir Bos, 71, 369, 405; longifrons, 498; primi- genius, 71, 94, 222, 368, 413, 468, 469, 498; taurus, 447, 498; see Cattle Bossuet, on the prehistory of man, 563, 504 Mane Reena 7,8, 78, 183, 4575 458, 478- 455 Brain, anthropoid, 51, 52, 56, 59; Briinn, 334, 490; Combe-Capelle, 236, 302, 490; 498; see INDEX Cr6-Magnon, 272, 292, 204, 209, 490; evolution of, 8, 9, 56-60; Grimaldi, 269, 490; Modern, 56-59, 83, 84, 140, 235, 303, 490; Neanderthal, 9, 58, 59, 235- 237, 490; Ofnet, 480, 490; Piltdown, 58, 59, 139-141, 236, 490; Pithecanthropus 9, 58, 59, 83, 84, 490 Brassempouy, 14, 279, 314, 322, 331, 347; 355, 393, 395, 433-435, 438 Brive, 307, 314 Bronze Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267, 460, 461, 476 Bruniquel, 279, 348, 388, 427, 435, 436 Briinn, 279; 315, 322, 331, 334-337, 395, Pl. II; race, 23, 257, 276, 278, 3602, 331, 333, 334-338, 480, 489-491, 500; see Briix, Galley Hill, Pfedmost, Human fossils, and Origin Briix, 334; see Briinn race Buchenloch, 245, 314, 435 Buffon, G. L. L., 3 Buhl, see Postglacial Stage Burial customs, 24, 215, 221-223, 270, 271, 302, 303-305, 337, 376-380, 475-479 Burin, graver, 2'70, 306-308, 310, 386, 380, 479 Cc Cabeco da Arruda, 467, 471, 474 Camargo, 279, 294, 314, 331, 435 Campignian, 493-495 Campigny, 471; see Campignian Camps, open, 29, 30, 176, 283, 284, 314, 334, 337, 341-343, 442, 448 Canary Islands, 453, 454, 506-510 Canis, lagopus, 193, 206, see Fox, arctic; neschersensis, 333; Ssuesst, 147; see Dog, Jackal, and Wolf Cannibalism, 184, 477 Cannstatt, 10, 105, 218, 220, 331 Cap-Blanc, 317, 395, 428, 431, 435 Capreolus, 70, 147, 367, 469; see Deer, roe- Capri, 167, 168 Caramanico, 167 Castillo, 33, 150, 162-165, 167, 245, 246, 279; 314; 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342, 340, 395, 402, 408, 435, 436, 450, 460, 471 Castor, 69; fiber, 147, 183, 470; see Beaver Cattle, wild (Aurochs, Urochs, urus), 43, 44, 62, 66, 76, 95, 98, 106, 119, 125, 148, 165, 182, 192, 206, 211, 214, 245, 265, 284, 288, 325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 302, 405, 413, 461, 466, 468, 469, 497, 498, 505, 506; see Bos and Leptobos INDEX Cave-bear, 16, Ti, 15; 2U2, 194, 197; 207, 202, 206, 210; 211, 212, 213, 218, 287, 401, 413; see Ursus speleus Cave-hyzena, 11, 212; 218, 265, 287, 288; see Hyena crocuta spelea Cave-leopard, 206, 287; see Felis pardus spelea Cave-lion, 201, 206, 265, 287; see Felis leo spele@a Caverns, 24; formation of, 30-33, 212; life in, 2; 30, 32, 211-213, 457 Cavillon, Grotte de, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Cazelle, 435 Cephalic index, 8, 480, 490 Ceppagna, 167 Cergy, 109, 149; 152 Cervus, carmutorum, 71;dama, 498; dicranius, 71; elaphus, 79; 94, 147, 367, 392; 420, 461, 469; maral, 367, 447; sedgwicki, 60, 71; see Deer and Stag Chaffaud, Grotte du, 396, 404, 435, 438 Chaleux, Trou de, 435 Chamois, Rupicapra, 44, 46, 201, 264, 265, 357; 365, 366, 369, 371, 466 Champs, 435, 436 Champs Blancs, 331, 348; 435 Chancelade, 279, 376-378, 382, 435 Chapelle-aux-Saints, La, 7, 9, 203, 214; 222- 224, 226-232, 235-238, 241-243, 245, 246 Chatelperron, 305, 307, 314; seé Pointe Chellean, 14-16, 18; chronology, 33, 34, 113-115, 120; climate, 117, 118; fauna, 144-148; geography (physical), 115, 116, 154-157; industry, 12, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108, 114, 148-154, 270, 280, 362; stations, 149, 152, 154-158; see Origin Chelles, 16, 109, 111, 116, 140, 152, 154, 167, 244 Chimpanzee, 3, 8, 49, 52-56, 58, 59, 78, 140, 227, 231, 235, 490, 511, 512 Chipping, see Flint Chisel, see Ciseau Chronology, 10, 12-14, 16, 18-24, 41, 510; tables, 18, 21, 22, 23; 33, 41, 43, 54, 108, 280, 362, 395, 491; means of estimating, IQ, 20, 22-24, 317-320 Ciseau, chisel, 270, 271, 388, 392, 444 Climate, effect on fauna, 46, 47, 192, 194, 205, 284-287; effect on man, 33, 297, 332; 372, 382; glacial, 20, 29, 34, 37-43, 64-66, 89, 1604, 105, 114, 117; 188-194, 202, 205, 281, 285; interglacial, 20, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37-41, 43; 67, 9°, OI, 95, 103, I12, 117, 118, 186-188; Pliocene, 63; Postglacial, 23, 41, 43, 276, 281-284, 361-363 551 Clothing, 2, 178, 186, 213, 388, 392, 4096 ° Cogul, 394, 497 Colombes, 109, 149, 152 Combarelles, 319, 395-397, 399-401, 435 Combe-a-Roland, 331 Combe-Capelle, 167, 192, 196, 197, 190, 211, 245, 248, 249, 252, 253, 285, 270, 314; man (Homo aurignacensis), 302, 303, 338 Combo-Negro, 435, 436 Compresseur, 271; see Anvils Continental outline, 19, 34-37, 64, 65, 71, 86, 92, 105, II5, 116, 155, 156, 166, 180, 190, 281, 282, 288, 362 Cotte dé St. Brelade, La, 214, 225, 245 Cottés, Les, 213, 314 Coup de poing, 113, 114, 121, 129, 130, 152- 154, 169-173, 177-180, 222, 251-254, 256, 270 Couteau (knife, blade), 130, 172, 177, 180, 270, 306, 308, 310, 386, 389, 488, 494 Crayford, 198, 245 Créteil, 109, 149, 152 Cricetus pheus, 373, 374; see Hamster Cré-Magnon, 279, 291, 314, 331, 437, Pl. IT; man, 7, 273, 279, 291-294, 300, 301; race, 7, 23, 54, 240, 257, 258, 260, 261, 263, 265-276, 278, 280-282, 284, 289- 305, 336, 351, 358, 376-382, 434, 440, 443, 449-454, 457-459, 489-492, 499, 500, 506-510, Pl. VIL Cromer, Forest Bed of, 64, 67, 68, 71 Crosle Biscot, 435 Crouzade, 331, 341, 435, 437 Culture, see Industry Cyon alpinus fossilis, 201 D Dart-thrower, see Propulseur Daun, see Postglacial Stage Deer, 44; 125, 134, 245, 265, 356, 426, see Cervus; Axis, 62, 71, 76, 102; fallow, 265, 469, 497, see Cervus dama; giant, 43, 94, QO UIOs) OTe 209 ae larr 21s. ho kao. see Megaceros; polycladine, 63, 102, see Cervus dicranius and sedgwicki; red, 44, 287, 426, 447, seé Cervus elaphus and Stag; roe-, 44, 94; 95, 165, 264, 265, 287; 404, 447, 466, 468, 488, 498, see Capre- olus; tusa, 76 Dicerorhinus (R.), antiquitatis, 46, 106, 285, séé Rhinoceros, woolly; etriscus, 41, 63, 69, seé Rhinoceros, Etruscan; merckii, 41, 92-94, 117, 148, 263, see Rhinoceros, Merck’s _ Dog; domestic, 474, 486, 488, 497, 499 552 Dolichocephaly, 7, 8, 78, 220, 230, 231, 266, 268, 334, 330, 338, 457, 478-481 Domestic Animals, 447, 466, 474, 486, 488, 497-499 Drill, see Pergoir Dryopithecus, 6, 49, 50, 511 Diirnten, 20, 117, 119 Diirntenian, 107, 119 Duruthy, see Sorde E Ehringsdorf, 167, 181, 214 Elasmothere, E. szbiricum, 46, 286, 373 Elephant, 38, 43, 44, 47, 72, 76, 86, 91-95, 102, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 155,157, 161, 174,177, 180, 187, 192, 205, 245, 2045 see Elephas Elephas, antiquus, 27, 41, 47, 72, 76, 92-94, 96, 117, 123, 125, 148, 165, 263; hysudri- cus, 76; meridionalis, 26, 27, 41, 62, 69, 72, 92, 125; planifrons, 62; primigenius, 26, 46, 106, 285; trogontherit, 41, 93, 102, 1175 see Elephant and Mammoth Elevation, see Continental outline Enfants, Grotte des, see Grimaldi, Grottes de, and Grimaldi race Engis, 435, 453 Engraving, 317, 319-324, 326, 348, 349, 353, 355, 356, 358, 392-407 Eoanthropus dawsoni, 138, see Piltdown Eolith, 11, 68, 84-86, 135 Eolithic, Era, 17, 18; industry, 17 Equus, caballus celticus, 367-369, 400, 408, 412, 419, 431, 432, 408; przewalski, 194, 367, 373, 408, 410, 419; stenonis, 27, 62, 63, 69, 72; see Horse Erect attitude, 4, 57-60, 73, 74, 82, 241-244 Ermine, Mustela erminia, 46, 207, 370, 447, 469 Etruscan rhinoceros, see Rhinoceros Eyzies, Les, 13, 249, 279, 331, 378, 388, 394, 435 F Fate, Grotte delle, 245, 247 Fauna, 19-21, 38-47, 61-64, 66, 69, 108; Acheulean, 117, 147, 148, 165, 177, 182; African-Asiatic, 43, 44, 47, 62, 63, 71, 72, 86, 91-94, 205, 206, 287; alpine, 44, 46, - 206, 287; Aurignacian, 284-289; Azilian- Tardenoisian, 466, 468-470, 472; Chel- lean, 117, 125, 144-148; forest, 44, 71, 206, 287; glacial, 105, 106, 117, 190-194, 196, 197, 205-214, 265; interglacial, 69-_ INDEX 72, QI-98, IOI-103, 108-112, 117, 110, 123-125, 186-188, 265; Magdalenian, 364-376, 385, 397-434, 449, 466, 469; meadow, 44, 71, 206, 287; Mousterian, 117, 186-188, 190-194, 196, 197, I99- 214, 218, 221-223, 225, 263, 264; Plio- cene, 54, 61-64, 144; Postglacial, 281, 364, 468, 469, 498, 499; Pre-Chellean, 108-112, 117, 125; Siwalik, 76; Solu- trean, 332, 333, 343, 348; steppe, 44, 46, 194, 200, 281, 287, 362-366, 373-376, 449, 450; tundra, 44, 46, 190-194, 206- 211, 281, 285, 287, 349, 40L, 302—400, 370-373; migrations of, 19, 34-37, 62- 64, 71, 72, 202, 205-210, 287; represented in Paleolithic art (list), 366; see Climate, for effect of, and Faunal lists Faunal lists, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287, 366 Faune chaude, 39, 91, 192; see Mousterian fauna Faune froide, see Mousterian fauna Faustkeil, see Coup de poing Fées, Grotte des, 279, 435 Felis, leo, 72, 92, 469; leo antiqua, 147; leo spel@a, 47, 188; manul, 447; pardus spelea, 201; see Cave-leopard, Cave- lion, Leopard, Lion, and Wildcat Femur (thigh-bone), 735 745 77,80, 237-241, 266, 298, 376, 380 Fére-en-Tardenois, 16, 465, 471 Ferrassie, La, 7, 214, 216, 219, 224, 232, 237, 245, 240, 269 Fire, use of, 2, 165, 212, 213 First Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch First Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Fishing, 355, 385, 390, 450, 465, 471 Flake, see Levallois Flaking, see Flint Flint, chipping, 170; cleavage, 171; flaking, 169 Floors, Mousterian, 198, 199 Flora, 20; Acheulean, 117, 118, 174, 1753 Chellean, 117, 118; glacial, 65, 108, 117— IIQ, IQI, 192, 202, 208; interglacial, 20, 67, 90, 91, 117-119; Mousterian, 199; Pliocene, 61, 63; Postglacial, 361, 372, aThe 6a 488; Pre-Chellean, 117, 118; Pre-Neolithic, 488 Font-de-Gaume: 283, 214, 318, 320, 321, 325, 331, 349, 356, 358, 365, 372, 395- 397, 399, 406-409, 412, 414-424, 435, 449 Font Robert, 277, 311, 314, 331, 340, 344 Forestian, Upper, 362; Lower, 282 Forests, see Flora INDEX Foro, 167 Fourth Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Fox, 43, 63, 71, 206, 265, 287, 333, 343, 348, 366, 447, 498, see Vulpes; arctic, 44, 46, 193, 207, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 408, 469, see Canis lagopus. Freudenthal, 279, 435 Frileuse, 167 Frontal, Trou de, 435 - Fuente del Frances, 435 Furfcoz, 7, 279, 481-483, Pl. II; race, 278, 458, 480, 482-485, 489, 491, 492, 500; see Grenelle, Ofnet, and Origin Furninha, 167, 168 G Galley Hill, 28, 302, 337, 338; see Briinn race Gansersfelsen, 435 Garenne, 435, 440 Gargano, 167 Gargas, 31, 307, 314, 317, 325, 327, 349, 394, 395 Germolles, 307, 314 Gibbon, 49-54, 58, 61, 63,77, 511; see Hylob- ates Gibraltar skull, 7, 9, 140, 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 228, 232; 233, 236 Glacial Epoch, 18-23, 33, 40, 41, 43, 54; chronology, 18-23, 40, 41, 108, 188, 280, - 362; see Climate, Continental outline, Fauna, Glaciers; First Glacial Stage (Giinz), 23, 25, 26, 37, 38, 41, 43, 64-66; Second Glacial Stage (Mindel), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 65, 86-90; Third Glacial Stage (Riss) :+23; 25, 26, 33, 37~ 39, 41, 43, 94, 104-106, 115; Fourth Glacial Stage (Wiirm), 18, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 32, 33, 36-38, 41, 43, 107, 108, 117, 160, 188-195, 205, 206, 280, 281, 284, 285, 362, Laufenschwankung, 41, 108, 280, 362; First Interglacial Stage (Giinz-Mindel or Norfolkian), 23, 26, 29, 33-35, 38,41, 43, 66-72, 84, 95, 115; Second Interglacial Stage (Mindel-Riss), 23, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 41, 43, 69, 90-95, IOQ-IITI, 114, 115; Third Interglacial Stage (Riss-Wiirm), 23, 25, 29, 33; 34, 36, 38-41, 43> 69, 94, 107, 108, 112, 113, 115-119, 186-188, 280, ' 362; Postglacial Stage, 18-23, 29, 32, 33, 36, 41, 43, 108, 280-284, 362, 468, 510, Raid. 23.25, 26, 41, 108,276, 280, 28r, 361, 362, 370, 372, 446, 447, 449, Gschniiz, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 362, 363, 372, 449, 450, Daun, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 553 362, 363, Achenschwankung, 25, 26, 281, 282, 284 Glaciers, 64-66, 89, 90, 94, 104-106, 118, 189, 190, 361-363 Glutton, see Gulo luscus and Wolverene Gobelsburg, 435, 448 Goccianello, 167, 168 Gorge d’Enfer, 331, 435 Gorilla, 49, 52, 54-56, 511, 512 Goulaine, 435, 438 Gourdan, 214, 279, 331, 341, 369, 388, 392, 435, 438 Goyet, 435 Grattoir, 129, 130, 177, 254, 2'70, 306-310, 386, 390, 470, 473, 494; caréné, 308, 309, 463 Graver, see Burin Gravette, etching tool, 270 Gravette. La 377) 211P S14 Gray’s Thurrock, 28, 109, 116, 128, 149, 152, 156, 157 Greek conception of nature and of the pre- history of man, 1-3 Grenelle, 279, 481, 482, 484; race, see Furfooz Gréze, La, 314, 317, 327, 331, 395, 396 Grimaldi, Grottes de (Baoussé Roussé), 245, 247, 262-265, 270, 294, 205, 312-314, 321, 323, 380; Baousso da Torre, 263, 294; Barma Grande, 263, 294; Cavillon, Grotte de, 263, 294; Enfants, Grotte des, 263-265, 292, 294-297, see Grimaldi race; Prince, Grotte du, 262, 263 Grimaldi race, 7, 19, 245, 260, 262-269, 278, 279, 294, 301, 314, 490-492 Gschnitz, see Postglacial Stage Guanches, 453-455, 507-510 Sep aes 245, 248, 279, 307, 314, 435, 44 Gulo luscus, 469; borealis, 193; see Wol- verene Giinz, see Glacial Epoch H Hachette (tranchette, chopper, cleaver), 270, 488, 494 Hammer-stone, see Percuteur Hamster, 46, 63, 147, 165, 287, 362, 364 374 | Hand-axe, see Coup de poing Hand-stone, see Coup de poing Hare, 289, 333, 368, 447, 468, 498, see Lepus (timidus); arctic, 46, 207, 287, 348, 379; 447, 468, 469, see Lepus vari- abilis; tailless, see Lagomys and Pika 554 Harpoons, 355, 383-385, 387, 388, 390, 3901, 440, 443-445, 449, 450, 450, 460-462, 465, 466, 470, 474; 486, 487 Hastings, 471, 475 Heidelberg man; Mauer,.7, 23, 24, 40, 41, 53) 54, 90, 95-101, 114, 138, 143, 144, 214, 228, 229, 489, 491; 492, Pl. II Heidelberg race, see Heidelberg man and Origin Helin, 109, 116, 127, 128, 149, 152, 166, 167 Helvetian, see Diirntenian Hermida, La, 435 Hippopotamus, H. major, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 99, 71, 86, QI, 92-94, 102, 117, 123- 125, 134, 147, 148, 155, 157, 165, 174, 177, 186, 192, 199, 263, 264 HoGhlefels bei Hiitten, 435, 442 Hohlefels bei Schelklingen, 435, 442 Hohlestein, 314, 435 Hommes, Grotte des, 279, 435 Homo, aurignacensis, see Combe-Capelle man; heidelbergensis, see Heidelberg man; moustertensis, see Neanderthal race; neanderthalensis, see Neanderthal race; sapiens, 7, 9, 10, 54, 230-234, 257; 260, 261, 278, 334, 484, 490, 491, 500 Horace, on the prehistory of man, 3, 504 Hornos de la Pefia, 245-247, 314, 331, 395, 435, 430 Horse, 45, 165, 182, 192, 225, 284, 355, 385, 392, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 412-414, 431, 432, 469, 498; Desert, Plateau of Celtic, see Equus caballus celticus; Forest or Nor- dic, 95, 147, 288, 289, 367, 369, 400, 498; Hipparion, 63; kiang or wild ass, 194, 285-287, 366, 367, 372-374, 400, 447; Solutré, 288, 289, 414; Steno’s, 34, 096, TIO, I1I, 125, see Equus stenonis ; Steppe, see Equus przewalski Hoéteaux, Les, 279, 378, 379, 435 Hoxne, 158 Human figures, 317, 321-323, 328, 329, 337, 357, 393, 395, 399; 433, 434, 497 Human fossils, 4, 11; distribution of, 214, 279; tables of, 7, 219, 294, 336, 378, 490; see Lists Human races, see Lists and Origin Hunting, 2, 11, 166, 202, 211-214, 283, 272, 450, 471, 490, 497 Hyena, 43, 62, 76, 110, 147, 148, 155, 165, 188, 214, 245, 265,317, 350, 470; see Cave- hyena and Hyena Hyena, brevirostris, 125; crocuta, 102, 147; crocuta spelea, 47, 102, 188; striata, 92, 192; see Hyzena Hylobates, 6; see Gibbon INDEX I Ibex, Ibex priscus, 44, 46, 201, 206, 264, 265, 287, 289, 321, 348, 357, 369, 371, 391, 401, 405, 433, 447, 406, 469, 497 Ice Age, seé Glacial Epoch Ice-fields, 19, 22; see Glaciers lnploments, Il, 27-36, £30, 270278, ort 270, 329, 330; see Eolith, Flint, Tudustry, Lists, Neolith, Paleolith Industry, 4, 11, 12-14, 19, 33, see Acheulean, Aurignacian, Azilian-Tardenoisian, Chel- lean, Campignian, Magdalenian, Mous- terian, Neolithic, Pre-Chellean, Solu- trean; see Lists and Implements Interglacial Stages, see Glacial Epoch Iron Age, 12, 18, 21; 202, 267 Irpfelhdhle, 245, 248 Istein, 469, 471-473 Isturitz, 347, 395 J Jackal, 43, 44; see Canis neschersensis Javelin point, see Sagaie Jerboa, 46, 194, 287, 364; see Alactaga ja- culus K Karlich, 314 Kartstein, 245, 248, 314, 435 Kastlhing, 370, 435, 442 Kerit’s Hole, 10, 152, 244, 245, 435, 440 Kesslerloch, 279, 286, 355, 361, 364, 378, 383, 435; 430, 441, 442, 444-446, 449 Kiang, wild ass, see Horse Kleinkems, 471 Knife, blade, see Couwteau and Lame Knight, Charles R., see Restorations Kostelik, 435, 448 Krapina, 7, 162, 167, 181-185, 214, 219, 220, 228, 429, 256 Krems, 119, 248, 289, 307, 314, 435, 448 L Lacave, 279, 331, 340, 345, 347, 301 Lagomys, 63; pusillus, 202, 370, see Pika Lagopus, see Ptarmigan Lamarck, on man, 4 Lame, blade, 271 Lampe, lamp, 270, 401, 402 Laufenschwankung, see Glacial Epoch Laugerié Basse, 13, 14, 275, 279, 331, 348, 376-378, 385, 388, 392, 407, 434, 435, 471 Laugerie Haute, 13, 14, 279, 294, 296, 314, 331, 346, 352, 435 Laussel, 245, 246, 249, 275, 313, 314, 317) 326-329, 331, 352, 395, 435 INDEX Lauterach, 314 Lemming, 46, 191, 193; 194, 202, 207, 281, 287, 333, 348, 361, 364, 370, 469, 476; see M yodes Leopard, 265, 348; see Cave-leopard and Felis pardus spelea Leptobos, 71; elatus, 62; etruscus, 63; see Cattle Lepus, 469; cuniculus, 364, see Rabbit; timidus, 364, see Hare; variabilis, 206, see Hare, arctic Levallois, 167, 179 Levallois flake, 167, 168, 179, 180, 199, 250, 251 Limeuil, 279, 435 Lion, 43, 86, 94-96, 98, 148, 165, 188, 281, 317, 348, 356, 365, 378, 400, 407, 446, 468, 472, 498; see Cave-lion and Felis leo Lissoir, polisher, smoother, 270, 271, 380, 388, 392, 456; 463, 466, 470 Lists and Tables, chronology, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41,54, 108, 280, 362; climatic changes, 38, 39, 41, 43, 117, 191, 192, 275, 281, 284, 361-364; fauna, 21, 41, 43, 54, 62, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287; human fossils, 7, Q, 219, 236, 237, 239, 266, 294, 295, 330, 378, 490; human races, 41, 54, 108, 278, 280, 362, 458, 490, 491, 409, 500; indus- tries, divisions of, 18, 113, 114, 248, 240, 252, 340, 380, succession of, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17,18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; implements, Liveyre, 331, 435 Loam; 5, 24, 27; 28 Loess, 5) 23-25, 29, 30, 36, 38, 46, 97, 103, Proeehs, 17-110, 122-124, 151, £86; 161, 162,174, 176, 181, 252, 281, 282, 284, 286, 314, 334, 337, 304, 376, 442,448; stations, see Camps, open Longueroche, 435, 471 Lorthet, 406, 407, 435, 438, 471 Lourdes, 279, 388, 432, 435, 430, 438, 471 Lower Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers Lucretius on the prehistory of man, 1, 2, 503 Lussac, 279, 435 Lutra vulgaris, 147; see Otter Lynchus lynx, 469; see Lynx Lynx, 43, 63, 206, 287, 367, 466; See Lyn- chus lynx M Macaque, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76 Macerata, 167 Macherodus, 41, 69, 244; see Sabre-tooth tiger 355 Madeleine, La, 13, 16, 279, 351, 383-389, 398, 435, 443, 445, 449, 471 Magdalenian, 14-16, 18, 276, 277, 351-360; art, 351-357, 305, 366, 393, 395-434; bur- ial customs, 376-380; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 351, 361-364; cli- mate, 276, 360-364, 370-376, 443, 447, 449, 450; fauna, 361-376, 443, 445-447, 449, 450; human fossils, 376-382; indus- try, 14-16, 270, 271, 275, 270, 351-356, 358, 382-392, 436, 440, 443-450; stations, 351, 434-449; see Origin and Rodent Layers Maglemose, 458, 471, 487, 488, 501 Magrite, Trou, 314, 331, 344, 435 Mairie, Grotte de la, 317, 395, 400, 405, 412, 413, 435, 442 Malarnaud, 214, 219 Mammoth, to, 43, 102, 109, 117, 134, 147, 148,177, 187, 194, 200, 262, 208, 200; 213, 218, 281, 288, 280, 316, 317, 321, 324-326, 333) 337; 348-350, 350, 364, 372, 385, 401, 403, 420, 421, 427, 429; 449, 450, 476, see Elephas; woolly, 13, 40, 41, 43, 106, 117, 174, 187, 190-192, 196, 205, 207, 208, 210, 218, 221, 285-289, 334, 335, 363, 379, 372, 384, 397; 398, 420, 427, 446, see Elephas primigenius Man, ancestry of, 3-7, 49-64, 491, 511 Mantes-la-Ville, 167 Marcilly-sur-Eure, 214 Mare-au-Clercs, La, 167 Marignac, 109, 126, 149, 152 Markkleeberg, 167 Marmot, Arctomys marmotta, 182, 201, 206, 265, 370 Marsoulas, 314, 319, 321, 328, 373, 394, 395, 396, 399, 403, 405, 415, 416, 435, 471, 485 Marten, 71, 165, 201, 265, 367, 380, 447, 498; see Mustela martes Martinshohle, 435, 471 Mas d@’Azil, 15, 16, 279, 319, 357, 375, 380, 385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449, 458-465, 471, 472, 474 Massat, 437, 471 Mastodon, 62; 70, 134 Maszycka, 435, 436, 449 Mauer, see Heidelberg man McGregor, J. Howard, see Restorations Mediterranean race, 261, 278, 457, 458, 479, 480, 485, 489, 491, 492, 499, 500 Megaceros, 45, 68, 70, 106, 147, 182, 106, 287, 367; see Deer, giant Meles taxus, 147; see Badger Mentone, 247, 322, 395, 472, 473; see Gri- maldi, Grottées de 556 Merck’s Rhinoceros, see Dicerorhinus and Rhinoceros Mesaticephaly, 8, 479 Metternich, 284, 314 Micoque, La, 113, 167, 168, 179, 192, 196, 245, 240, 248, 249 Microlith, see Microlithique Microlithique, microlith, 270, 306, 308, 310, 388, 396, 450, 470-472 Migration, of fauna, see Fauna; of human races and industries, see Origin Mindel, see Glacial Epoch Miskolcz, 245, 248, 331 Mommenheim, 245, 247, 248 Monkeys, 54, 61-63 Montconfort, 279, 331, 435 Montfort, 341, 471 Monthaud, 331, 346 Montiéres, 109, 127, 149, 152, 186, 244, 245, 283, 314, 331 Moose, 44, 94, 96, 265, 281, 348, 366, 468, 469, 472, 488, 496-498; see Alces Moulin-de-Laussel, 331 Mousterian, 14-16, 18, 30, 186-188, 248- 250; ) burial” customs), 32259222, m7: chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; climate, 117, 123, 188-199, 202, 205, 207; fauna, 117. 190-194, 196, 199-214; flora, 199; human fossils, 218-226; industry, 14-16, 113, 248-256, 270, 271; stations, 194-202, 244-248; see Caverns, life in, Floors, and Origin Moustier, Le, 13, 16, 196-199, 214, 245, 246, 251, 253, 255; man, 7, 196, 214, 221-223, 226, 228, frontispiece Mouthe, La, 17, 246, 279, 314, 317, 320, 321, 394, 395, 398, 399, 401 Mugem, 471, 474, 486 Munzingen, 160, 195, 435, 439, 442, 443 Murals, see Painting Musk-ox, 42-44, 46, 65, 66, 187, IOI, 193, 207, 285, 287, 289, 348, 362, 366, 370; see Ovibos moschatus Mustela, erminea, see Ermine; martes, 147, 469, see Marten. M yodes, lemmus, 210; obensis, 206, 285, 3703 torquatus, 193, 202, 206, 285, 370, 441, 446, 447; see Lemming N Narbonne, 435, 437 Naulette, La, 7, 214, 221, 228 Neanderthal, cave, 31, 214, 216, 217, Pl. II; burial customs, see Mousterian; man, 5) 7) 9, 56, 181, 216-219, 490; race, fron- INDEX tispiece, 5-7, 9, 23, 40, 41, 54, 136, 182, IQI, 196, 211-244, 256, 258, 263, 272, 401, 492, anatomical features, 53-56, 183, 184, 203, 219-223, 226-244, 490, chronology, 41, 108, 257, 262, 280, 491, compared with Cré-Magnon, 297, 298, discoveries, 181-185, 215-226, distribution of, 214, 219; see Origin Necklace, 302, 304, 376, 378, 437, 472 Needle, see Aiguille Negroid race, 261, 262, 266-269, 278, 301, 302, 321, 492 Neolith, 11, 496 Neolithic, New Stone Age, Io, 13, 18, 19, 21, 41, 108, 280, 362, 447, 482, 484-486, 488, 493-501 Neopithecus, 49 Neschers, 245, 435, 438 Niaux, 314, 319, 353, 373) 391, 394, 395, 400, 406, 409-411, 412, 429, 435 Niedernau, 370, 435 Norfolkian, see First Interglacial Stage and Forest Bed of Cromer Nutons, Trou des, 435 O Oban, 474, 475, 486 Obercassel, man, 7, 279, 353, 378, 380-382, 435, 443 Oberlarg, 435 Ochos, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 248 Ofnet, 279, 285, 314, 331, 379, 435, 469, 471, 473, 475-481, races, 442, 457-460, 480, 481, 490, 491,500; see Furfooz race and Origin Ojcow, 331, 436, 449 Ondratitz, 331 Orang, 3, 49, 52-54, 56, 77) 511 Origin, of industries, Acheulean, 261, 492, Aurignacian, 261, 289, 305-307, 322, 402, Azilian-Tardenoisian, 457, 470-472, 492, Chellean, 126, 261, 492, Magdalenian, 351-353, 383, Mousterian, 261, Pre- Chellean, 126, Solutrean, 330, 331, 340, 353, 492; of human races, Alpine, 458, 484, 485, Briinn, 331, 492, Cré-Magnon, 261, 322, 492, Furfooz, 492, Grimaldi, 262, Heidelberg, 492, Mediterranean, 492, Neanderthal, 492, Ofnet, 457, 484, 485, Piltdown, 492, Teutonic, 486 Otter, 63, 71, 76, 165, 201, 287, 468, 498; see Lutra vulgaris P Ovibos, 376; maschatus, 193, 445, 447, see Musk-ox Ovis argaloides, 369; see Argali sheep INDEX Pp Painted Pebbles, see Azilian-Tardenoisian industry Painting, 305, 316-318, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 328, 330, 358, 365, 394-396, 404-406, 408-429, 464, 465, 474, 496, 497 Pair-non-Pair, 279, 307, 314, 317, 320-322, 331, 336, 394-396 Paleolith, 11, 24, 84, 85, 109, 111, 158, 389 Paleolithic, Old Stone Age, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 28, 33, 41, 108, 160, 280, 362; Lower Paleolithic, 14, 41, 108, 113, 114, 214, 280, 362, 490, 491; Upper Paleolithic, 14, 41, 108, 214, 275, 276, 278, 280, 362, 395, 396, 490, 491, 500; chronology, 18, 41, 108, 280, 362, 456 Paleo pithecus, 49, 511 Parietal Art, see Painting Pasiega, La, 319, 395, 402-405 Pataud, 245, 246, 331 Paviland, 279, 289, 290, 294, 314, 440 Pech de l’Azé, 214, 219,, 245 Pergoir, drill, borer, 130, 135, 153, 172, 179, 253, 254, 270, 306, 308, 310, 311, 344, 346, 385, 386, 388, 390, 392, 470, 473, 488 Percuteur, hammer-stone, 130, 254, 270, 306 : Pescara, 167 Petit Puymoyen, 214, 245, 246 Pic, pick, 494 Pierre de jet, throwing stone, 130, 172, 213, 254, 270, 306 Pika, 46, 362, 447; see Lagomys (pusillus) Piltdown, 109, 116, 128, 130-135, 149, 152, ai4,11. 11; industry, 127, 128, 133-135; man (Eoanthropus), 7, 23, 24, 40, 59, 53, 54, 50, 130-145, 214, 489-491; race, see Piltdown man and Origin Pindal, 314-316, 325, 349, 394, 395 Pithecanthropus, 'Trinil race, 7, 23, 24, 40, 53, 54, 86, 491, 511, Pl. II; anatomical features, 9, 10, 53; 56, 74; 77-84, 233, 234, 240, 490; discovery, 73-77 Placard, 279, 331, 333, 334, 340, 345-348, 352; 353) 355, 378-380, 383, 385, 389, 435, 436, 438 Rlaning tool, see Grattoir Pleistocene, see Glacial Epoch Pliohylobates, 49, 54 Pliopithecus, 49, 54 Poignard, dagger, poniard, 271, 392, 432 Poingon, awl, 271, 308, 346, 392, 470 Pointe, point, knife, lance head, spear head, 15, 113, 153, 172, 177, 179, 248-255, 270, 557 306, 308, 310, 311, 473; Chatelperron, 306, 307, 311; potnte d cran, shouldered, 270, 308, 310, 313, 334, 340, 342, 345, 346, 352; pointe a face plane, 341; pointe de lance, 271, 300; pointe de laurier, laurel leaf, 15, 270, 310-312, 334, 337, 339-341, 344, 345, 347, 348, 352; pointe de sagaie, javelin point, 271, 308, 340, 346, 354, 355, 361, 364, 370, 383, 387, 390, 442, 440, 462, 494; pointe de saule, willow leaf, 340, 344, 347; pointe a sole, 270, 310, 311, 313, 340, 345 Polisher, see Lissoir Portel, Le, 319, 394, 411, 412 Postglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Pottery, 461, 466, 474, 486, 488, 496 Praule, Trou de, 435 Pre-Chellean, 16, 18, 36, 41; chronology, 18, 33, 40, 41, 90, 107-115, 280, 362; climate, 108,. 112; 114, 117, 118, 123; fauna, 108-112, I17, 124, 125; industry, 40, I14, 120-130, 270; stations, 10g, 116, 122-128, 149, I50-152, 158, see Conti- nental outline and Origin Predmost, 257, 279, 331, 341, 345, 348, 3490, 366, 395, 427; see Briinn race; mam- moth hunters, 279, 337 Primates, 3-10, 40, 49-64, 73-84, 86, 140, I4I, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233-235, 237-240, 490, 491 Prince, Grotte du, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Propliopithecus, 49, 54 Propstfels, 372, 435, 442, 469 Propulseur, spear thrower, dart thrower, 271, 355, 391, 432, 433, 430, 445, 449 Ptarmigan, Lagopus, 44, 206, 207, 287, 289, 37°, 371, 375, 409 Q Quartz, 166 Quartzite, 163, 164, 265 Quina, la; 0; 113,251, 283, 214, 245) 226, 248, 253-250; man, 7, 9, 214, 210, 217; 219) 221, 225, 230,°227, 246 R Rabbit, 265, 343, 368, 468; see Lepus cuniculus Racloir, scraper, 113, 114, 130, 135, 172, 178, 200, 248, 250, 251, 253-255, 270, 300, 387, 388, 470, 472, 473, 488 Rangifer tarandus, 193, 209, 210, 285; see Reindeer Rauberhohle, 245, 247, 248, 314 558 Raymenden, 340, 376, 388, 435 Reilhac, 331, 471 Reindeer, 13, 41, 43, 44, 46, 102, 103, 187, I9I-194, 196, 197, 202, 205, 206, 209, 219-212, 214, 221, 223, 225,. 284, :285, 286-280, 314, 317, 332, 333, 365, 366, 370, 372, 385, 392, 399, 405, 407, 411- 413, 415, 419-421, 429, 433, 440, 441, 445, 447, 461, 462, 408, 469, 471, 474, 481, 498; see Rangifer Reindeer Epoch, Period, 13, 14, 102, 192, 275, 286, 363, 375, 392, 438, 450, 459 Religion, 272, 358-360, 463, 465, 501 Remouchamp, 471, 474 Ressaulier, 435, 436 Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontis- piece, 358; McGregor, J. Howard, 9, 79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203, 242, 243, 273, 203, 300, 301; Rutot- Mascré, 73, 101, 484, 495 Retouch, 169-172, 248, 269, 306, 308, 310, 331, 332, 338, 339, 358, 389 Rey, 331 Rhens, 284, 314 Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221, 245, 280, 337, 350, 305, see Dicerorhinus ; Etruscan, 34, 95-907, IQI, 100, I10-%52, 117, £25. 334, (dd, Bee, vesscus Merck’s (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, 93, 94, 97, 102, 109, I19, 124, 125, 134, 147, 148, I5I, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177, 182, 186, 187, 192, 205, 2603-265, see 2). merckit; woolly, 11, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148, 174, 187, 190, I9I, 196, 199, 205, 206, 208-210, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, 285-288, 314, 319, 324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372, 400, 409, see D. antiquitatis Riss, see Glacial Epoch River-drifts, 5, 11, 12, 23; formation, 24- 27, 90, IIQ, 154-157, 186; stations, 114- 116, 119-124, 154-156; terraces, 20, 23, 24-28, 34) 85, 90, 104, 154-157; 162 Robenhausen, 471, 495 Roccamorice, 167 Roche au Loup, 307, 314 Rochette, La, 245, 246 Rock Shelters, 32, 33 Rodent Layers, 447; Lower, 206, 213, 281, 314; Upper, 281, 301, 446 Romanelli, 306, 314 Riiderbach, 167 Riidersheim, 167 Rupicapra, see Chamois Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435 Rutot-Mascré, see Restorations 207, 363, INDEX Sablon, 162, 167 Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, 70, 72, 94, 102,, 110-112, I17, 125, 44 1475 see Macheradus Sagaie, javelin point, see Poy de sagaie Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333 357, 362, 366, 373, 374, 376, 449 Saiga tartarica, see Saiga antelope Salitre, 435 Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, 119-124, 127-129, 149-152, 155, 162, 163, 166, 167, 170, 244, 245, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435, 440 Saint Lizier, 435 Saint Martin d’Excideuil, 331 Saint Prest, 17, 67-69 San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246 Sciurus vulgaris, 367; see Squirrel Schmiechenfels, 372, 435, 469 Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442 Schussenried, 435, 441; see Schussenquelle Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441, 442, 444-447, 440, 460 Scraper, see Racloir Sculpture, 317, 320-323, 328, 320, 347-349, 356-358, 392, 303, 395, 396, 427-434 Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Seven Oaks, 471, 475 Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters Sipka, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435, 449 mireull, 314, ¢24.905 Sirgenstein, 201, 202, 245, 248, 285, 314, 331, 379, 372, 435, 441, 460 Sivapithecus, 511 Siwalik, see Fauna Solutré, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330, 331, 341-345, 373, 435, 436, 438 Solutrean, 14-16, 18, 41, 2'70, 271, 276, 278, 280; art, 347-350, 357; burial customs, 332; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; climate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 332, 333; fauna, 332-334, 343, 348, 366; human fossils, 279, 334-337; industry, 275-278, 330-332, 334, 338-348, 351, 352, 354, 358; stations, 326-328, 331, 337, 340-348, see Origin Somme River, 12, 110, 112, 114-117, 119, 120, 122-125, 127, 104, 69,0070 Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438 Souzy, 435 Spermophilus rufescens, 194, 3733; see Sus- lik Spear-point, see Pointe INDEX Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140 Spiennes, 127, 128, 495 Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331; Man, ay Ol, 214, 218-220, 226, 228, 220, 231— 233, 235-237, 244, 250, 257, 490 Squirrel, 447, 498; see Sciurus vulgaris Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264, 265, 288, 333, 364, 367, 370, 372, 405, 426, 429, 450, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488, 497, 498; see Cervus elaphus and Deer, red Stegodon, 76, 134 Strassberg, 435 Stratification of Castillo, 164; Enfants, Grotte des, 265; Heidelberg, 97; Made- leine, La, 385; Mas d’Azil, 461; Ofnet, 476; Piltdown, 133; Placard, 333-3343 Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150; Schweizers- bild, 447; Sirgenstein, 202 Subsidence, see Continental outline Sureau, Trou du, 435 Sus, arvernensis, 63; scrofa, 71; scrofa ferus, 147, 165, 368, 469; scrofa palustris, 499; see Boar Suslik, 206, 289, 447; see Spermophilus rufescens Au Tables, see Lists Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal, 232, 233; see Neanderthal Taubach, 119, 167, 244 Tectiforms, 283, 284, 403, 404 Terraces, see River-drifts Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501 Teyjat, 388, 394, 306, 435; see Mairie, Grotte de la, and Abri Mége Thiede, 314 Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Throwing stone, see Pierre de jet Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240 Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298 Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167 Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152 Tourasse, La, 471, 486 Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, 324, 326, 331, 340, 341, 344, 347, 440 Trinil race, see Pithecanthropus Trogontherium, 45, 69, 94; see Beaver, giant 559 Tuc d’Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, 427- 431, 435 Tundra, see Climate, glacial; see Fauna Turbarian, Lower, 361; Upper, 363 U Upper drift, 191 Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers Urochs, Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle Ursus, arctos, 102, 147, 211, 469; arvernen- $15, 63,94, 102; deningert, 102; spele@us, 45, 183, 210, 211, 369; see Bear and Cave- bear V Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471 Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474 Venosa, 167 Villejuif, 30, 167, 176 Volgu, 331, 339, 345 Voélklinshofen, 284, 314 Vulpes, 469; see Fox WwW Warm fauna, see Faune chaude Weimar, 167 Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331 Wildcat, Felis catus, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498 Wildhaus, 314, 435 Wildkirchli, 200, 201, 245, 247, 256 Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444 Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395 Winterlingen, 435 Wisent, see Bison Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206, 264, 265, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 356, 366, 441, 447, 468, 408; see Canis suessi and Cyon alpinus fossilis Wolvercote, 167 Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, 193, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 498; 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