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MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE
THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE
AND ART
mi CHEOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA, 1914
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
LIFE. Illustrated. Svo .
“ Besides being a striking contribution to the theory
of the origin of life, embodying all that is soundest
in modern thought and research, this book gives as
fascinating an account of the prehistoric condition of
the earth and of the earliest forms of life that existed
upon it as any reader could desire for his information
and delight.’’—North American Review.
Charles Scribner’s Sons
.Px. I. Neanderthal man at the station of Le Moustier, overlooking the valley of the Vézére,
Dordogne. Drawing by Charles R. Knight, under the direction of the author.
MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE
THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE
Nee
BY,
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN
SC.D. PRINCETON, HON. LL.D. TRINITY, PRINCETON, COLUMBIA, HON. D.SC. CAMBRIDGE
HON. PH.D. CHRISTIANIA
RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
VERTEBRATE PALZONTOLOGIST U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, HONORARY CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE
PALZONTOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
ILLUSTRATIONS BY
UPPER PALZOLITHIC ARTISTS
AND
CHARLES R. KNIGHT, ERWIN S. CHRISTMAN
| AND OTHERS
THIRD EDITION
With new notes and illustrations on the archeology of
Spain and North Africa
NEW. YORK
SHAR UES SERIBNER’S SONS
1924
CopyricutT, 1915, 1918, sy
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
Published November, 1915
Second edition, January, 1916
Reprinted March, May, June, 1916
Third edition, September, 1918
Reprinted April, 1919; April, 1921; October, 1922;
June, 1923; August, 1924
Printed in the United States of America
Published in England by
G. BELL AND SONS, Ltp.
DEDICATED
TO
MY DISTINGUISHED GUIDES THROUGH THE UPPER
PALZOLITHIC CAVERNS OF
THE PYRENEES, DORDOGNE, AND THE CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS OF SPAIN
EMILE CARTAILHAC
HENRI BREUIL
HUGO OBERMAIER
PREFACE
Tu1s volume is the outcome of an ever memorable tour
through the country of the men of the Old Stone Age, guided by
three of the distinguished archzologists of France, to whom the
work is gratefully dedicated. This Paleolithic tour™ of three
weeks, accompanied as it was by a constant flow of conversation
and discussion, made a very profound impression, namely, of
the very early evolution of the spirit of man, of the close relation
between early human environment and industry and the devei-
opment of mind, of the remote antiquity of the human powers of
observation, of discovery, and of invention. It appears that men
with faculties and powers like our own, but in the infancy of edu-
cation and tradition, were living in this region of Europe at least
25,000 years ago. Back of these intelligent races were others, .
also of eastern origin but in earlier stages of mental development,
all pointing to the very remote ancestry of man from earlier
mental and physical stages.
Another great impression from this region is that it is the
oldest centre of human habitation of which we have a complete,
unbroken record of continuous residence from a period as remote
aS 100,000 years corresponding with the dawn of human culture,
to the hamlets of the modern peasant of France of A. D. 1915.
In contrast, Egyptian, A“gean, and Mesopotamian civilizations
appear as of yesterday.
The history of this region and its people has been developed
chiefly through the genius of French archeologists, beginning
with Boucher de Perthes. The more recent discoveries, which
have come in rapid and almost bewildering succession since the
foundation of the Institut de Paléontologie humaine, have been
treated in a number of works recently published by some of the
* The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author’s
tour.
vii
Vill PREFACE
experienced archeologists of England, France, and Germany. I
refer especially to the Prehistoric Times of Lord Avebury, to the
Ancient Hunters of Professor Sollas, to Der Mensch der Vor-
zeit of Professor Obermaier, and to Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutsch-
lands of Doctor R. R. Schmidt. Thus, on receiving the in-
vitation from President Wheeler to lecture upon this subject
before the University of California, I hesitated from the feeling
that it would be difficult to say anything which had not been
already as well or better said. On further reflection, however,
I accepted the invitation with the purpose of attempting to
give this great subject a more strictly historical or chronological
treatment than it had previously received within the limits of
a popular work in our own language, also to connect the environ-
ment, the animal and human life, and the art.
This element of the ¢zme in which the various events occurred
can only be drawn from a great variety of sources, from the
simultaneous consideration of the geography, climate, plants and
animals, the mental and bodily development of the various
races, and the industries and arts which reflect the relations be-
tween the mind and the environment. In more technical terms,
I have undertaken in these lectures to make a synthesis of the
results of geology, paleontology, anthropology, and archeology,
a correlation of environmental and of human events in the Euro-
pean Ice Age. Such a synthesis was begun many years ago in
the preparation of my Age of Mammals, but could not be com-
pleted until I had gone over the territory myself.
The attempt to place this long chapter of prehistory on a
historical basis has many dangers, of which I am fully aware. Af-
ter weighing the evidence presented by the eminent authorities
in these various branches of science, I have presented my con-
clusions in very definite and positive form rather than in vague or
general terms, believing that a positive statement has at least the
merit of being positively supported or rebutted by fresh evidence.
For example, I have placed the famous Piltdown man, Eoanthro-
pus, in a comparatively recent stage of geologic time, an entirely
opposite conclusion to that reached by Doctor A. Smith Wood-
PREFACE ix
ward, who has taken a leading part in the discovery of this famous
race and has concurred with other British geologists in placing it
in early Pleistocene times. The difference between early and late
Pleistocene times is not a matter of thousands but of hundreds of
thousands of years; if so advanced a stage as the Piltdown man
should definitely occur in the early Pleistocene, we may well
expect to discover man in the Pliocene; on the contrary, in my
opinion even in late Pliocene times man had only reached a stage
similar to the Pithecanthropus, or prehuman Trinil race of Java;
in other words, according to my view, man as such chiefly evolved
during the half million years of the Pleistocene Epoch and not
during the Pliocene.
This question is closely related to that of the antiquity of
the oldest implements shaped by the human hand. Here again
I have adopted an opinion opposed by some of the highest au-
thorities, but supported by others, namely, that the earliest of
these undoubted handiworks occur relatively late in the Pleis-
tocene, namely, about 125,000 years ago. Since the Piltdown
man was found in association with such implements, it is at once
seen that the two questions hang together.
This work represents the co-operation of many specialists on
a single, very complex problem. I am not in any sense an ar-
cheologist, and in this important and highly technical field I have
relied chiefly upon the work of Hugo Obermaier and of Déchelette
in the Lower Paleolithic, and of Henri Breuil in the Upper Pa-
leolithic. ‘Through the courtesy of Doctor Obermaier I had the
privilege of watching the exploration of the wonderful grotto of
Castillo, in northern Spain, which affords a unique and almost
complete sequence of the industries of the entire Old Stone Age.
This visit and that to the cavern of Altamira, with its wonderful
frescoed ceiling, were in themselves a liberal education in the pre-
history of man. With the Abbé Breuil I visited all the old camp-
ing stations of Upper Paleolithic times in Dordogne and noted
with wonder and admiration his detection of all the fine grada-
tions of invention which separate the flint-makers of that period.
With Professor Cartailhac I enjoyed a broad survey of the Lower
x PREFACE
and Upper Paleolithic stations and caverns of the Pyrenees
region and took note of his learned and spirited comments.
Here also we had the privilege of being with the party who entered
for the first time the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert, with the Comte
de Bégouen and his sons.
In the American Museum I have been greatly aided by Mr.
Nels C. Nelson, who has reviewed all the archeological notes
and greatly assisted me in the classification of the flint and bone
implements which is adopted in this volume.
In the study of the divisions, duration, and fluctuations of
climate during the Old Stone Age I have been assisted chiefly
by Doctor Chester A. Reeds, a geologist of the American Museum,
who devoted two months to bringing together in a comprehensive
and intelligible form the results of the great researches of Albrecht
Penck and Eduard Briickner embraced in the three-volume
work, Die Alpen wm FEiszeitalter. The temperatures and snow-
levels of the Glacial Epoch, which is contemporaneous with the
Old Stone Age, together with the successive phases of mammalian
life which they conditioned, afford the firm basis of our chronology;
that is, we must reckon the grand divisions of past time in terms
of Glacial and Interglacial Stages; the subdivisions are recorded
in terms of the human invention and progress of the flint industry.
I have also had frequent recourse to The Great Ice Age and the
more recent Antiquity of Man in Europe of James Geikie, the
founder of the modern theory of the multiple Ice Age in Europe.
It is a unique pleasure to express my indebtedness to the
Upper Paleolithic artists of the now extinct Cré-Magnon race,
from whose work I have sought to portray so far as possible
the mammalian and human life of the Old Stone Age. While
we owe the discovery and early interpretation of this art to a
generation of archzologists, it has remained for the Abbé Breuil
not only to reproduce the art with remarkable fidelity but to
firmly establish a chronology of the stages of art development.
These results are brilliantly set forth in a superb series of volumes
published by the Institut de Paléontologie humaine on the founda-
tion of the Prince of Monaco; in fact, the memoirs on the art
PREFACE xl
and industry of Grimaldi, Font-de-Gaume, Altamira, La Pasiega,
and the Cantabrian caves of Spain (Les Cavernes de la Région
Cantabrique), representing the combined labors of Capitan, Car-
tailhac, Verneau, Boule, Obermaier, and Breuil, mark a new epoch
in the prehistory of man in Europe. There never has been a
more fortunate union of genius, opportunity, and princely support.
In the collection of materials and illustrations from the vast
number of original papers and memoirs consulted in the prepara-
tion of this volume, as well as in the verification of the text and
proofs, I have been constantly aided by one of my research as-
sistants, Miss Christina D. Matthew, who has greatly facilitated
the work. I am indebted also to Miss Mabel R. Percy for the
preparation and final revision of the manuscript. From the
bibliography prepared by Miss Jannette M. Lucas, the reader
may find the original authority for every statement which does
not rest on my own observation or reflection.
Interest in human evolution centres chiefly in the skull and
in the brain. The slope of the forehead and the other angles,
which are so important in forming an estimate of the brain ca-
pacity, may be directly compared throughout this volume, be-
cause the profile or side view of every skull figured is placed
in exactly the same relative position, namely, on the lines es-
tablished by the anatomists of the Frankfort Convention to
conform to the natural pose of the head on the living body.
In anatomy I have especially profited by the co-operation of
my former student and present university colleague Professor
J. Howard McGregor, of Columbia, who has shown great ana-
tomical as well as artistic skill in the restoration of the heads of
the four races of Trinil, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cré-Magnon.
-The new reconstruction of the Piltdown head is with the aid of
casts sent to me by my friend Doctor A. Smith Woodward, of the
British Museum of Natural History. The problem of reconstruc-
tion of the Piltdown skull has, through the differences of inter-
pretation by Smith Woodward, Elhot Smith, and Arthur Keith,
become one of the causes célébres of anthropology. On the plac-
ing of the fragments of the skull and jaws, which have few points
xil PREFACE
of contact, depends the all-important question of the size of the
brain and the character of the profile of the face and jaws. In
Professor McGregor’s reconstruction different methods have been
used from those employed by the British anatomists, and ad-
vantage has been taken of an observation of Mr. A. E. Anderson
that the single canine tooth belongs in the upper and not in
the lower jaw. In these models, and in all the restorations of
men by Charles R. Knight under my direction, the controlling
principle has been to make the restoration as human as the
anatomical evidence will admit. This principle is based upon
the theory for which I believe very strong grounds may be
adduced, that all these races represent stages of advancing and
progressive development; it has seemed to me, therefore, that
in our restorations we should indicate as much alertness,
intelligence, and upward tendency as possible. Such progressive
expression may, in fact, be observed in the faces of the higher
anthropoid apes, such as the chimpanzees and orangs, when in
process of education. No doubt, our ancestors of the early
Stone Age were brutal in many respects, but the represen-
tations which have been made chiefly by French and German
artists of men with strong gorilla or chimpanzee characteristics
are, I believe, unwarranted by the anatomical remains and are
contrary to the conception which we must form of beings in the
scale of rapidly ascending intelligence.
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.
AMERICAN MusEuM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Junes2rrors:
In sending forth the second edition I have been able to add
the results of recent research on the jaw of the Piltdown man,
and on the presence of anthropoid apes in Europe during the
Old Stone Age.
HFS:
December 20, 1915.
Peepacr fO-THE THIRD EDITION
THE call for a third edition of this volume has afforded me
an opportunity not only to correct a number of minor errors in
the illustrations and text, to which friendly reviewers and critics
have called attention, but also to add an account of the Palzo-
lithic history of Spain and of the western region of northern
Africa.
The relations of the ancient life of the Iberian Peninsula
with that of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were at times very
close indeed. In fact, the very characteristic industry known as
the Capsian, which developed in North Africa during Upper
Paleolithic times, extended throughout southeastern Spain, the
two regions constituting a single archzologic province. ‘The art
of Alpera and Cogul, which in the earlier editions of this work
was attributed to Neolithic times, belongs rather to the close of
the Palzolithic and was probably contemporary with the Cap-
sian and Tardenoisian flint industry of these stations. It em-
braces hunting scenes with numerous human figures in silhouette,
wholly distinct from the possibly contemporaneous Magdalenian
art of the north.
Before perusing Chapter VI, which covers the close of
the Upper Palzolithic in France, the reader will therefore do
well to turn to the new and extensive note in the Appendix
describing this African life and industry. A clear understanding
of the sources of the flint industry of Aurignacian times and also
of the Tardenoisian flint industry and so-called Azilio-Tardenoi-
sian culture described in Chapter VI will thus be gained.
Although the recent researches in Spain have greatly ex-
tended our knowledge, it is still to France that we turn for the
most significant developments in the prehistory of Europe.
Since the first publication of this work French archeology has
xiii
XIV PREFACE
suffered by the tragic death of Déchelette in the war; and also
by a suspension of the wonderful course of discovery and re-
search that marked the decade preceding the fateful year of
tg14. Many problems—especially those discussed in the earlier
chapters of this work—which might have been cleared up by
further French research have remained untouched. For the
same reason it would be premature to reconsider the chronologic
succession of human types and geologic events which was pro-
visionally proposed in the first edition of this work in 1915. We
hope that brighter days are coming when science and art may be
able to resume their peaceful paths, and that materials may
then be gathered for a fourth edition of this work in which some,
at least, of the many unanswered questions may be reconsidered
in the light of further researches in the archeology of France.
The anatomy of Paleolithic man has been debated in a long
discussion about the Piltdown Race, and even at this writing it
is not finally agreed that the Piltdown jaw belongs with the Pilt-
down skull, because the new evidence brought forward by Dr.
Smith Woodward, although strong, is not deemed entirely con-
clusive. This uncertainty is an instance not of the failure of
scientific inquiry, but of the general desire of scientists to accept
only that which has been conclusively demonstrated and to keep
on seeking for conclusive evidence. Similar uncertainty exists
regarding the anatomy of the Briinn Race, to which no new con-
tributions have been made. It is interesting to record the fact
that Professor J. H. McGregor, whose models and restorations
of Paleolithic man included in the illustrations of this book
have been so widely appreciated, is now making a special and
intensive study of Paleolithic man which will no doubt be attended
by important results. Similarly, another colleague of the author,
Professor William K. Gregory, is studying anew the evolution of
_the anthropoid apes and other Primates, so that further light on the
anatomy and evolution of primitive man may shortly be expected.
HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. ©
May tst, 1918. .
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN . . « 6 © es © 6 I
Pete THPOPOLOGY (400. ke ew ek we wee eee 3
OOO ee he we He ep en # Mell re IO
Prpeieeitioh ORY OFSMAN =... 5 ee) ee a ule hey tetas. ei er ~ a8
Bree MOH ANGES] (pe. oe we ale wee ye et of otie oie. 34
rm EON GES Wein hots Ie cee esc. cee Se? Betis Mek we OST
Pee PC OPE MAM UALS 00S reds ee fe tievie Nae) 42
CHAPTER I
MuCieteyeOrerur ANTHROPOID APES .. . . 2 6 « « » « «© 49
PUIQCRNESCIIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE .°1.5. 9. « « s « » «60
reise TOP THM ee LEISTOCENE =... +6) 6 ce. ek of eh Teese 62
PPemC CHG MEGT ACUNTION Te. i 6S es) ven ce el wines yeh ep ia pene 2 O04
SeeteR SP INTERGLACIAL STAGE 2g.) 6. ek we ee wo 2 OO
EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA . Me tee Wired he egl a Satie seek oes ics, ea Fee lO
Reet Fs ke ee ee ee te ee ee ee 8
mri PORSERIMITIV iC FIINTS ©. -< 5 '6. sine 0) ee ea) eae Od
Tren DMICLACTATION®: 50). «os /-+ 6. ve) hen o © oie eeyien 100
CON MOINTERGTACIAL STAGE ¢ . os. se ota eins, tyne ye 100
PRE IOP TUE RGUEACE. 5 555. “6 div we cce ren ne: cb epee ste BOS
Oma tones Pari REINDEER.) 9, 0% eels, © se > "e -e) 6» * 1102
ime er EGTACTALTION .. ce f¢ fs Petiipidece 8. ¢ wipe 6 onto cs e104
CHAPTER II
WATEeOFSTHE Ee RE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY. » 0 «..¢ © » « 6 11 107
ere Vira NOACTIMATES, «><. 6 o> dome Boneh wo ele eae eee EO
XV
XvVl
THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS
PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY
THE PILTDOWN RACE.
MAMMALIAN LIFE...
CHELLEAN INDUSTRY. .
CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY .
PALZOLITHIC STATIONS OF
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY .
THE USE OF FIRE. . .
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY .
THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE
GERMANY
CONTENTS
LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS
e
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA
CHAPTER
CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL
THE FourtTH GLACIAL STAGE
ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE :
ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE .
MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS .
CAVELTIFE So te eee
THE NEANDERTHAL’ RACE
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHALS
OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC
THE GRIMALDI RACE
ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS
UPPER PALZOLITHIC CULTURES
CHAPTER
e e
IV
PAGE
119g
126
130
144
148
154
159
161
165
166
173
177
181
186
188
190
196
202
211
214
244
256
260
264
269
275
CONTENTS
REPE EP ATMOLITHIC RACES. . 2.) 15 ed %e
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE . .. » » « «
EAMAPAU TIN TIRE Gk. Swe te eee
‘ure GRO-IVIAGNON-RACE < . . . . %. %
PAICUSTOMG NS Re ek we
PEO IGNACIANSINDUSTRY. 5 5 we sw
eilemrIHeUPMART © 5005 6 8 ee wt
ORIGIN OF THE SOLUTREAN CULTURE .. .
PARE POSSITS 9) ok cg ce ue ee ee
THE BRUNN RACE A psi aan Ca ae ae Ri ea ean Be
BOLO TPRANGINDUSTRY <. ol 6 * ee
POrVCHEOMESPAINTING §.. ool de ee
NEAGDATENIAN “SCULPTURE .. 60 0) ee ce 8
EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE .
DECLINE OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE .
CrO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS . 2 6 © © «
347
351
354
360
304
376
382
392
396
408
409
414
427
434
449
451
XV1ll CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
PAGE
CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE. . . . . . /)) 1) ees
INVASION OF NEW RACES . 9. 2): 6.» @ 1 ler
WAS DVAZIL ee ee ar ae a err
FERS‘EN-TARDENOIS . 9.04 5 2. 4. sw 5 ss
AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE . . .. . . «990 9 une
MAMMALIAN LIFE. 200s 0 000s eo a.
AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY . 2...)
THE BURIALS AT OFNET 5)... 7 5 er
THE NEW RACES . 0. %s 6 6 4 4%) 5)
ANCESTRY OF EUROPEAN RACES . . . 2 53 ©): eee
TRANSITION ‘TO THE -NEOLITHIC . . . % «) 4) Gyasuueg
NNEOL THIC CULTURE . » 2 5) 0) 56 3 ne
NEOLITHIC FAUNA. 2 5s 9 foe 0 9 kr
PREHISTORIC AND HISTORIC RACES OF EUROPE. . 2). 2) ee aOD
CONCLUSIONS — 2 5 20) 0) 0, 0s eae) «eee
APPENDIX
NOTE
I. LucRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN 503
II. HoRACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN. . .. . . 504
III. ASscHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN . . . . . 505
IV. ‘Urocus’ or “AUEROCHS’ AND - WISENT 2) ge ge ene
V. THE Cr6-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS . . . . . 500
VI. THE LENGTH OF POSTGLAC AL TIME AND THE Bea SE. OF
: THE AUR GNACIAN CULTURE |). 1.) ee ec
VII. THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND. -
SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA ... ......: SII
VIII. ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS 511
IX. THE JAW AND SKULL OF THE PILTDOWN MAN. . . . «. 512
X. FAMILY SEPULTURE OF LA FERRASSIE, FRANCE. . . . . 513
XI. PALAOLITHIC HISTORY OF NORTHWESTERN AFRICA AND
SOUTHERN. SPAIN (04.03% © 0)". ce ep
BIBLIOGRAPHY |. 00. (6.6 00) te ones a
INDEX... 0. 6 6 0s 0 te ew 6. oan
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate I. Neanderthal man at the grotto of Le Moustier (in tint)
Frontispiece
PAGE
Plate IT. Discovery sites of the type specimens of human and pre-
PREG CeS (I COOL). os) week «eta OGINg ~1G
Plate IMI. Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java... ..... 8&7
Plate IV. UM ee CREAT ere el eee Tose ck te ead he (ee te LAS
Plate V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints . . . . 203
Plate VI. ieewiagenian of Cro-Magnon’. 2. « 2's. oe 3 298
Plate VII. Cré-Magnon artists in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume (in
feet I ee Pes she Reis eg whee aj a Me ene FACING $358
Plate VIII. Bison painted by Paleolithic artists in the cavern of Alta-
mira (in color) eee oor ke Peete = Tog ee RT OCINS CAAT A
FIG.
1. Modern, Paleolithic, and chimpanzee skulls compared ... . 8
2. Skull and brain of Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java... . 9
eiree-greattypes ol flint implements «... . . 2 « « +s. ft!
Ieomimenmmenetiemdnce-DOINt fol... 8k ae ee TS
Map—Type stations of Palewolithic cultures . ...... =. £16
Section—Terraces of the River Rhine above Basle . ..... 26
Section—Terraces of the River Thames near London .... .. 28
3
4
5
6. Section—Terraces of the River Inn near Scharding . . . . . .~) 25
7
8
9
Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach in Lower Austria. . . . 29
To. ‘Section of the site of the Neanderthal cave . ... .. . . 31
11. Sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern. . 32
12. Map—Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation. . 35
13. Section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the Glacial Epoch . . 37
14. Chronological chart—Great events of the Glacial Epoch . . . . 41
PEEL MOREOMEA ALG NAD ily Aso odes AP ae eS a Pee, eee on AS
Rm PLU VOT Gemett eg 1a) vo ket fa! win BuRal ag Se, Cre pa <0 Ry Mee Me aerE aeRO
xix
ILLUSTRATIONS
Thhecorang 9 200). Gk Rolae tenis “tpn 6 @ ne de ae
The-chimpanzee, walking «<> .5.. «> s:s< 35 er
The chimpanzee, sitting .
The gorilla
Median sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man
Side view of a human brain of high type
Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (side view)
Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (top view)
Map—Europe during the Second Glacial Stage
The musk-ox
. . The giant deer (Megaceros)
The sabre-tooth tiger (Macherodus)
Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man
Discovery site of Pithecanthropus .
Section of the volcano of Lawoe and the valley of the Solo River
Map—Solo River and discovery site of Pithecanthropus
Section of the Pithecanthropus discovery site
Skull-top of Pithecanthropus, top and side views .
Head of chimpanzee, front and side views .
Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, side view
Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, three views
Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, side view .... .
Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, front view
Side view of a human brain of high type
Outlines of human and prehuman brains, side and top views
The hippopotamus and the southern mammoth
Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant
Map—Geographic distribution of Merck’s rhinoceros, the aa
potamus, and the straight-tusked elephant . a :
Section of the Heidelberg discovery site. . . . .
The sand-pit at Mauer, discovery site of the Heidelberg man
The Heidelberg jaw. .> .. eden hue | eee
PAGE
FIG.
48.
49.
50.
ae
cer
53+
54.
55:
56.
57:
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
Wi.
72,
73-
74.
75-
76.
77-
78.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (side view) .
Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (top view)
Restoration of Heidelberg man .
Map—Europe during the Third Glacial Stage
Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch
Map—Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations .
Map—Europe during the Third Glacial Stage
Excavation at Chelles-sur-Marne
Map—Western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage .
Three terraces on the Connecticut River
Four forms of the Chellean coup de poing
Section—Terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul
Very primitive paleoliths from Piltdown
Pre-Chellean coups de poing from St. Acheul .
Pre-Chellean grattoir or planing tool from St. Acheul
Discovery site of the Piltdown skull .
Section of the Piltdown discovery site
Primitive worked flint found near the Piltdown skull
Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown site .
Piltdown skull and skull of South African Bushman
Restoration of the Piltdown skull, three views
Section of the Piltdown skull, showing the brain .
Brain outlines of the Piltdown man, of a chimpanzee, and of mod-
ern man, compared .
The Piltdown man, side view
The Piltdown man, front view .
Map—Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations .
Section—Middle and high terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul
Excavation on the high terrace at St. Acheul .
Small Chellean implements .
Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany .
Hnirence:to the grotto of Castillo ©. 29 2. bee
Xx]
PAGE
99
100
IO1
105
108
109
Xx1l1
FIG.
79:
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
Qo.
Ql.
gz!
93-
04.
95-
96.
97:
08.
99.
100.
IOI.
102.
TO3:
104.
105.
106.
tO7.
108.
100.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Section—archeologic layers of the grotto of Castillo
Map—Acheulean stations
Late Acheulean station of La Micoque in Dordogne
Method of ‘flaking’ flint .
Method of ‘chipping’ flint
The fracture of flint
Large Acheulean implements
Map—Valleys of the Dordogne and the Garonne
The valley of the Vézére .
Acheulean implements, large and small .
A Levallois flake
The grotto of Krapina
Section—Valley of the Krapinica River and grotto of Krapina .
Section—The grotto of Krapina
Skull from Krapina, side view .
Map—Europe during the Fourth Glacial Stage
The woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth
Typical tundra fauna .
Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany :
The type station of Le Moustier
Excavations at Le Moustier .
The Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli . . .
Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein
The woolly mammoth and his hunters
The woolly rhinoceros .
Map—Distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids
The Gibraltar skull, front view
Section of the Neanderthal discovery site
The Neanderthal skull, side view . . . .. .
The skull known as Spy I, side view .
Discovery site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints . . ,
PAGE
FIG.
IIo.
Ill.
I12.
TE%;
I14.
II5.
116.
117.
118.
119.
I20.
I21I.
122.
Tos.
124.
126.
‘126.
127.
128.
“ies
130.
131.
132:
133.
134.
545.
136.
137.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints .
The skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, three views
Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type from La Cotte de St. Brelade .
Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern
Frenchman, side view
Outlines of the Gibraltar skull and of a modern Australian skull
Skull of La eo Saints teat with one of ee modern
type, side view A eve
Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern
Frenchman, top view
Diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men .
Section of the skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, showing the brain .
Brain outlines of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, of a chimpanzee, and of
modern man, compared
Brains of Lower and Upper Paleolithic races, top and side views
Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints
_ Thigh-bones of the Trinil, Neanderthal, Cro- wie and modern
races .
The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, side view .
The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, front view
Map—Movusterian stations
The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia
Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia
Typical Mousterian ‘points’ from Le Moustier
Mousterian ‘points’ and scrapers .
Late Mousterian implements
Entrance to the Grotte du Prince near Mentone .
Section of the Grotte des Enfants .
3 The Grimaldi skeletons
Skull of the Grimaldi youth, front and side views
Map—Distribution of Upper Paleolithic human fossils
Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch
‘Tectiforms’ from Font-de-Gaume ... .
240
242
243
245
246
247
250
25%
255
262
265
267
268
279
280
283
XXIV
FIG.
138.
139.
140.
I4I.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
140.
150.
I5I.
152.
153:
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Map—Distribution of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhi-
NOCETOS Ay". . V ay, Paints eles teh ae 7c
Section of the grotto of Aurignac .
Section of the grotto of Cré-Magnon
Skull of Cr6-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants
Head showing the method of restoration used by J. H. McGregor .
The rock shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne
Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and skeleton of Cré-Magnon
type from the Grotte des Enfants, compared areata
Sections of normal and platycnemic tibias .” . 72) fee
The ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ side view .
The ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ front view
Brain outlines of Combe-Capelle, of a chimpanzee, and of modern
man, compared
Evolution of the burin, early Aurignacian to late Solutrean . . .
Typical Aurignacian graitoirs, or scrapers
Evolution of the Aurignacian ‘point’
Prototypes of the Solutrean ‘laurel-leaf point’ {ee
Map—Aurignacian stations .
Outlook from the cavern of Pindal
Mammoth painted,in the cavern of Pindal > <)7 jaa
Primitive paintings of animals from Font-de-Gaume .. .
Woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume .
Carved female figurine from the Grottes de Grimaldi
Female figurine in limestone from Willendorf .
Female figurine in soapstone from the Grottes de Grimaldi
Superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from Le Tri-
lobite .
silhouettes of hands from Gargas 2 2 407) 9 nee
The rock shelter of Laussel on the Beune 72 5° eee
Section of the industrial layers at Laussel . . . .
Bas-relief of a woman from Laussel . ......
ILLUSTRATIONS
aaereteuntrarinan arom laussele tii. ve. ie he 8d ee
Map—Solutrean stations .
The skull known as Briinn I, discovered at Briinn, Moravia .
Solutrean ‘laurel-leaf points’
The type station of Solutré .
Excavations at Solutré
Typical Solutrean implements .
Mammoth sculptured on ivory, from Predmost, Moravia .
Engraved and painted bison from Niaux
Decorated sagaies or javelin points of bone
Horse’s head engraved on a fragment of bone, from Brassempouy .
Painting of a wolf, from Font-de-Gaume
Crude sculpture of the ibex, from Mas d’Azil. . ..
Decorated batons de commandement
Chronological chart.-of the last third of the Glacial epoch
.. Engraved and painted reindeer from Font-de-Gaume
Four types of horse frequent in Upper Paleolithic times
Horse of Celtic type, painted on the ceiling of Altamira
Four chamois heads engraved on reindeer horn, from Gourdan .
Typical alpine fauna
Typical steppe fauna
Ptarmigan or grouse carved in bone, from Mas d’Azil .
The rock shelter of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne
Human skull-tops cut into bowls, from Placard
Male and female skulls of Cré-Magnon type, from Obercassel
The type station of La Madeleine
Magdalenian flint implements
Magdalenian bone harpoons
Magdalenian flint blades with denticulated edge .
Bone needles from Lacave
Map—Paleolithic art stations of Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the
Cantabrian Mountains
XXV
PAGE
32g
331
335
339
342
343
346
349
353
354
355
356
357
359
362
305
367
368
309.
371
374
375
377
379
381
383
386
387
390
391
394 -
XXVI1
FIG.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
200.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
20s
216.
207,
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
DOR
224.
225.
226.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Primitive engravings of the mammoth from Combarelles .
Preliminary engraving of painted mammoth from Font-de-Gaume .
Charging mammoth engraved on ivory, from La Madeleine .
Human grotesques from Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles
Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles, Dordogne
Engraved cave-bear, from Combarelles .
Magdalenian stone lamp, from La Mouthe .
Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega
Engraved bison from Marsoulas
Herd of horses engraved on a slab of stone, from Chaffaud
Herd of reindeer engraved on an eagle radius, from La Mairie
Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet
Engraved lioness and horses, from Font-de-Gaume .
Painted horse of Celtic type, from Castillo
Galloping horse of steppe type, from Font-de-Gaume
Entrance to the cavern of Niaux
Engraved horse with heavy winter coat, from Niaux
Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of Le Portel
Engraved horse and reindeer, from La Mairie
Engraved reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses, from La Mairie .
Engraved wild cattle, from La Mairie
Preliminary etched outline of bison from Font-de-Gaume .
Entrance to the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . |
Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume
Narrow passage known as the ‘Rubicon,’ Font-de-Gaume
Plan showing reindeer and procession of bison, Font-de-Gaume .
Plan showing preliminary engraving and painting of the procession
of mammoths, superposed on drawings of bison, reindeer, and
horses
Example of superposition of paintings, from Font-de-Gaume
Entrance to the cavern of Altamira... -.5 ee
Plan of paintings on the ceiling of Altamira . .....
PAGE
397
397
398
399
400
401
401
402
403
404
405
1
407
408
408
409
410
411
412
413.
413
414
415
416
417
419
420
421
422
423
’ FIG.
oe
228.
229.
230.
ae 5s
o32:
233.
234.
23.
236.
gars
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
BAG,
248.
240.
250.
251.
252.
253;
254.
aS5:
256.
ILLUSTRATIONS
The ceiling of Altamira
Painting of female bison lying down, from Altamira
Royal stag engraved on the ceiling of Altamira
Statuette of a mammoth carved in reindeer horn, from Bruniquel .
Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert
Engraved head of a reindeer from Tuc d’Audoubert
Two bison, male and female, modelled in clay, from Tuc d’Audou-
bert
Horse carved in high relief, from Cap Blanc
Horse head carved on a reindeer antler, from Mas d’Azil .
Statuette of horse carved in ivory, from Les Espelugues .
Woman’s head carved in ivory, from Brassempouy .
Map—Magdalenian stations
Necklace of marine shells, from Cr6-Magnon .
Map—Paleolithic stations of Germany
Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kess-
lerloch
Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch
The rock shelter of Schweizersbild - .
The open loess station of Aggsbach
Saiga antelope carved on a bone dart-thrower, from Mas d’Azil.
Western entrance to the cavern of Mas d’Azil
Periaenarpoons OL stagsnorn = 6 «se wile se Ga ee
Azilian galets coloriés, or painted pebbles
MEA OMGteANTHIN(S 1, or. vera wie 6's) fad soa et hws
Map—aAzilian-Tardenoisian stations .
Azilian stone implements . |
Double-rowed Azilian harpoons of stag horn, from Oban .
Section—Archeologic layers in the grotto of Ofnet .
Burial nest of six skulls, from the grotto of Ofnet
Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls from Ofnet . . . . .
preadthested skiultliot Grenclicegs. steve) sie eeec tl tomiran see
XXVIII
PAGE
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
432
433
435
437
439
441
444
445
448
449
460
462
464
467
471
473
474
476
477
478
482
XXVill
FIG.
257.
258.
250.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
"274,
"pas,
ILLUSTRATIONS
FAGE
Entrance to the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse . .. . 482
Section of the grotto of Furtooz i. 40 2)... & 50%. 1s er
One of the type skulls of the Furfooz race... . 3s) .eeees 483
Restoration of the:man_of,Grenelle>g, 2) ..-3 2) a, 484
Implements and decorations from Maglemose ..... . 487
Ancestry of the Pre-Neolithic races 90-3, 6.) ee 491
Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax . .. . . 403
Stone hatchet from Campigny’ . 2.) 3) 0) ye
Stone pick from Campigny . 2 9.5 5 = yp years
Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes : ~~ 2.
Stag hunt, painting from the rock shelter of Alpera. . . . 407
Map—Distribution of the types of recent man in western Europe . 499
Cross section of the Piltdown site 3 e5ts
Map—Early Paleolithic and Capsian stations of Spain and north-_
west Africa ~~ SERAA LG. Gee 515
Maps—Industrial migration routes into Spain 517
Map—Paleolithic stations of Spainand Portugal . . . . . ~- 519
Late Paleolithic paintings at Alpera—human figures <> <= cueeeee 523
Progressive conventionalization of the human fees toate bg 524
yees2s
Bows and arrows shown in the paintings of Alpera . .
Map of Paleolithic Tour... . . . . folded at the end of the volume
MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE
*
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
INTRODUCTION
GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN — RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY,
OF ARCHAOLOGY, OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN — TIME
DIVISIONS OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH — GEOGRAPHIC, CLIMATIC, AND
LIFE PERIODS OF THE OLD STONE AGE
THE anticipation of nature by Lucretius* in his philosophical
poem, De Rerum Natura, accords in a broad and remarkable way
with our present knowledge of the prehistory of man:
“Things throughout proceed
In firm, undevious order, and maintain,
To nature true, their fixt generic stamp.
Yet man’s first sons, as o’er the fields they trod,
Reared from the hardy earth, were hardier far;
Strong built with ampler bones, with muscles nerved
Broad and substantial; to the power of heat,
Of cold, of varying viands, and disease,
Each hour superior; the wild lives of beasts
Leading, while many a lustre o’er them rolled.
Nor crooked plough-share knew they, nor to drive,
Deep through the soil, the rich-returning spade;
Nor how the tender seedling to re-plant,
Nor from the fruit-tree prune the withered branch.
e e e e e ) ° e ° e e
“Nor knew they yet the crackling blaze t’excite,
Or clothe their limbs with furs, or savage hides.
But groves concealed them, woods, and hollow hills;
And, when rude rains, or bitter blasts o’erpowered,
Low bushy shrubs their squalid members wrapped.
*Lucretius was born 95 B.C. His poem was completed before 53 B.C. In the
opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks.
See Appendix, Note I. :
1
4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
“And in their keen rapidity of hand
And foot confiding, oft the savage train
With missile stones they hunted, or the force
Of clubs enormous; many a tribe they felled,
Yet some in caves shunned, cautious; where, at night,
Thronged they, like bristly swine; their naked limbs
With herbs and leaves entwining. Nought of fear
Urged them to quit the darkness, and recall,
With clamorous cries, the sunshine and the day:
But sound they sunk in deep, oblivious sleep,
Till o’er the mountains blushed the roseate dawn.
“This ne’er distressed them, but the fear alone
Some ruthless monster might their dreams molest,
The foamy boar, or lion, from their caves
Drive them aghast beneath the midnight shade,
And seize their leaf-wrought couches for themselves.
e® e e e e e e e e e e
“Yet then scarce more of mortal race than now
Left the sweet lustre of the liquid day.
Some doubtless, oft the prowling monsters gaunt
Grasped in their jaws, abrupt; whence, through the groves,
The woods, the mountains, they vociferous groaned,
Destined thus living to a living tomb.
“Yet when, at length, rude huts they first devised,
And fires, and garments; and, in union sweet,
Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged
Of chaste connubial love, and children rose,
The rough barbarians softened. The warm hearth
Their frames so melted they no more could bear,
As erst, th’ uncovered skies; the nuptial bed
Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress
Of prattling children from the bosom chased
Their stern ferocious manners.” *
This is a picture of many phases in the life of primitive man:
his powerful frame, his ignorance of agriculture, his dependence
on the fruits and animal products of the earth, his discovery of
fire and of clothing, his chase of wild beasts with clubs and
missile stones, his repair to caverns, his contests with the lion
*Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn’
Classical Library, London, 1890.
GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN 3
and the boar, his invention of rude huts and dwellings, the soft-
ening of his nature through the sweet influence of family life and
of children, all these are veritable stages in our prehistoric devel-
opment. The influence of Greek thought is also reflected in the
Satires of Horace,* and the Greek conception of the natural
history of man, voiced by Aéschylusf as early as the fifth cen-
tury B. C., prevailed widely before the Christian era, when it
gradually gave way to the Mosaic conception of special creation,
which spread all over western Europe.
RIsE OF MODERN ANTHROPOLOGY
As the idea of the natural history of man again arose, during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it came not so much
from previous sources as from the dawning science of compara-
tive anatomy. From the year 1597, when a Portuguese sailor’s
account of an animal resembling the chimpanzee was embodied
in Filippo Pigafetta’s Description of the Kingdom of the Congo, the
many points of likeness between the anthropoid apes and man
were treated both in satire and caricature and in serious anatom-
ical comparison as evidence of kinship.
The first French evolutionist, Buffon,f observed in 1740:
“The first truth that makes itself apparent on serious study of
nature is one that man may perhaps find humiliating; it is
this—that he, too, must take his place in the ranks of animals,
being, as he is, an animal in every material point.” Buffon’s
convictions were held in check by clerical and official influences,
yet from his study of the orang in 1766 we can entertain no doubt
of his belief that men and apes are descended from common
ancestors. :
The second French evolutionist, Lamarck,|| in 1809 boldly
' *Horace was born 65 B. C., and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B.C.
See Appendix, Note II.
{ A’schylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note ITI.
t Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon’s opinions
and theories see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 130-9; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74-172.
|| Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b.
1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of Lamarck see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 152-
181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck’s opinions.
4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
proclaimed the descent of man from the anthropoid apes, point-
ing out their close anatomical resemblances combined with in-
feriority both in bodily and mental capacity. In the evolution
of man Lamarck perceived the great importance of the erect
position, which is only occasionally assumed by the apes; also
that children pass gradually from the quadrumanous to the
upright position, and thus repeat the history of their ancestors.
Man’s origin is traced as follows: A race of quadrumanous apes
gradually acquires the upright position in walking, with a corre-
sponding modification of the limbs, and of the relation of the
head and face to the back-bone. Such a race, having mastered
all the other animals, spreads out over the world. It checks the
increase of the races nearest itself and, spreading in all directions,
begins to lead a social life, develops the power of speech and the
communication of ideas. It develops also new requirements,
one after another, which lead to industrial pursuits and to the
gradual perfection of its powers. Eventually this pre-eminent
race, having acquired absolute supremacy, comes to be widely
different from even the most perfect of the lower animals.
The period following the latest publication of Lamarck’s!*
remarkable speculations in the year 1822, was distinguished by
the earliest discoveries of the industry of the caveman in southern
France in 1828, and in Belgium, near Liége, in 1833; discoveries
which afforded the first scientific proof of the geologic antiquity
of man and laid the foundations of the science of archeology.
The earliest recognition of an entirely extinct race of men was
that which was called the ‘Neanderthal,’ found, in 1856, near
Diisseldorf, and immediately recognized by Schaaffhausen? as a
primitive race of low cerebral development and of uncommon
bodily strength. pipes
Darwin in the Origin of Species,’ which appeared in 1858,
did not discuss the question of human descent, but indicated
* References are indicated by numbers only throughout the text. At the close of
each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference number for every citation.
A full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been
taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the end
of the book.
RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 5
the belief that light would be thrown by his theory on the origin
of man and his history.
It appears that Lamarck’s doctrine in the Philosophie Zoolo-
gique (1809)* made a profound impression on the mind of Lyell,
who was the first to treat the descent of man in a broad way
from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and of geologic
age. In his great work of 1863, The Geological Evidences of the
Antiquity of Man, Lyell cited Huxley’s estimate of the Neander-
thal skull as more primitive than that of the Australian but of
surprisingly large cranial capacity. He concludes with the no-
table statement: ‘‘The direct bearing of the ape-like character
of the Neanderthal skull on Lamarck’s doctrine of progressive
development and transmutation . . . consists in this, that the
newly observed deviation from a normal standard of human
structure is not in a casual or random direction, but just what
might have been anticipated if the laws of variation were such as
the transmutationists require. For if we conceive the cranium
to be very ancient, it exemplifies a less advanced stage of pro-
gressive development and improvement.’’®
Lyell followed this by an exhaustive review of all the then
existing evidence in favor of the great geological age of man,
considering the ‘river-drift,’ the ‘loess,’ and the loam deposits,
and the relations of man to the divisions of the Glacial Epoch.
Referring to what is now known as the Lower Paleolithic of
St. Acheul and the Upper Paleolithic of Aurignac, he says that
they were doubtless separated by a vast interval of time, when
we consider that the flint implements of St. Acheul belong either
to the Post-Pliocene or early Pleistocene time, or the ‘older
drift.’ |
It is singular that in the Descent of Man, published in 1871,
eight years after the appearance of Lyell’s great work, Charles
Darwin made only passing mention of the Neanderthal race, as
follows: ‘‘ Nevertheless, it must be admitted that some skulls of
very high antiquity, such as the famous one at Neanderthal, are
well-developed and capacious.”’ It was the relatively large brain
capacity which turned Darwin’s attention away from a type
6
6 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
which has furnished most powerful support to his theory of
human descent. In the two hundred pages which Darwin de-
votes to the descent of man, he treats especially the evidences
presented in comparative anatomy and comparative psychology,
as well as the evidence afforded by the comparison of the lower
and higher races of man. As regards the “birthplace and an-
tiquity of man,”’ he observes :
‘“’, . In each great region of the world the living mammals
are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It
is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by ex-
tinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as
these two species are now man’s nearest allies, it is somewhat
more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African
continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this
subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the
Dryopithecus of Lartet, nearly as large as a man, and closely
allied to Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Miocene Age;
and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone
many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for
migration on the largest scale.
“At the period and place, whenever and wherever it was,
when man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a
hot country; a circumstance favorable for the frugivorous diet
on which, judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from
knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged from the
catarrhine stock; but it may have occurred at an epoch as re-
mote as the Eocene Period; for that the higher apes had diverged
from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene Period is
shown by the existence of the Dryopithecus.”’
With this speculation of Darwin the reader should compare
the state of our knowledge to-day regarding the descent of man,
as presented in the first and last chapters of this volume.
The most telling argument against the Lamarck-Lyell-
Darwin theory was the absence of those missing links which,
theoretically, should be found connecting man with the anthro-
poid apes, for at that time the Neanderthal race was not recog- |
RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 7
nized as such. Between 1848 and 1914 successive discoveries
have been made of a series of human fossils belonging to inter-
mediate races: some of these are now recognized as missing
links between the existing human species, Homo sapiens, and the
anthropoid apes; and others as the earliest known forms of
Homo sapiens :
Locality
Gibraltar.
Neanderthal, near Diissel-
dorf.
La Naulette, Belgium.
Furfooz, Belgium.
Cr6-Magnon, Dordogne.
Spy, Belgium.
Trinil River, Java.
Krapina, Austria-Hungary.
Grimaldi grotto, Mentone.
Heidelberg.
La Chapelle, Corréze.
Le Moustier, Dordogne.
La Ferrassie I, Dordogne.
La Ferrassie II, Dordogne.
La Quina II, Charente.
Piltdown, Sussex.
Obercassel, near Bonn, Ger-
many.
Character of Remains
Well-preserved skull.
Skullcap, etc.
Fragment of lower jaw.
Two skulls.
Three skeletons and frag-
ments of two others.
Two crania and skeletons.
Skullcap and femur.
Fragments of at least ten
individuals.
Two skeletons.
Lower jaw with teeth.
Skeleton.
Almost complete skeleton,
greater part of which was
in bad state of preservation.
Fragments of skeleton.
Fragments of skeleton, fe-
male.
Fragments of skeleton, sup-
posed female.
Portions of skull and jaw.
Two skeletons, male and fe-
male.
Neanderthal.
Type of Neanderthal
race.
Neanderthal race.
Type oi Furfooz race.
Type of Cré-Ma-
gnon race.
Spy type of Nean-
derthal race.
Type of Pithecan-
thropus race.
Krapina type of Ne-
anderthal race.
Type of Grimaldi
race.
Type of Homo heidel-
bergensis.
Mousterian type of
Neanderthal race.
Neanderthal.
Neanderthal.
Neanderthal.
Neanderthal.
Type of Eoanthropus,
the ‘dawn man.’
Cr6-Magnon.
In his classic lecture of 1844, On the Form of the Head in Dif-
ferent Peoples, Anders Retzius laid the foundation of the mod-
ern study of the skull. Referring to his original publication,
he says: “‘In the system of classification which I devised, I have
distinguished just two forms, namely, the short (round or four-
cornered) which I named brachycephalic, and the long, oval, or
dolichocephalic. In the former there is little or no difference
8 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
between the length and breadth of the skull; in the latter there
is a notable difference.’’ ‘The expression of this primary distinc-
tion between races is called the cephalic index, and it is deter-
mined as follows:
Breadth of skull X roo + length of skull.
In this sense the primitive men of the Old Stone Age were
mostly ‘dolichocephalic,’ that is, the breadth of the skull was
in general less than 75 per
cent of the length, as in the
existing Australians, Kaffirs,
Zulus, Eskimos, and Fijians.
But some of the Paleolithic
races were ‘mesaticephalic’;
that is, the breadth was be-
tween 75 per cent and 80 per
cent of the length, as in the
existing Chinese and Polyne-
sians. The third or ‘brach-
ycephalic’ type is the excep-
Fie. tT
Outline of a modern brachycephalic
skull (fine dots), superposed upon a doli-
chocephalic skull (dashes) , superposed upon
a chimpanzee skull (line).
g. glabella or median prominence between
the eyebrows.
1. inion—external occipital protuberance.
g-i. glabella-inion line.
Vertical line from g-7 to top of skull in-
dicates the height of the brain-case.
Modified after Schwalbe.
tion among Paleolithic skulls,
in which the breadth is over 80
per cent of the length, as in the
Malays, Burmese, American
Indians, and Andamanese.
The cephalic index, how-
ever, tells us little of the po-
sition of the skull as a brain-case in the ascending or descending
scale, and following the elaborate systems of skull measurements
which were built up by Retzius’ and Broca,!® and based chiefly
on the outside characters of the skull, came the modern system of
Schwalbe, which has been devised especially to measure the
skull with reference to the all-important criterion of the size
of the different portions of the brain, and of approximately
estimating the cubic capacity of the brain from the more or
less complete measurements of the skull.
RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 9
Among these measurements are the slope of the forehead,
the height of the median portion of the skullcap, and the ratio
between the upper portion of the cranial chamber and the lower
portion. In brief, the seven principal measures which Schwalbe
now employs are chiefly expressions of diameters which corre-
spond with the number of cubic centimetres occupied by the
brain as a whole.
In this manner Schwalbe" confirms Boule’s estimates of the
variations in the cubic capacity of the brain in different members
of the Neanderthal race as follows:
Neanderthal race—La Chapelle. .1620 c.cm.
™ ——-Neanderthal..1408 .“
a hoa Ouina 44 136% ta
* ham =r LOTAILAT 2s 5. 12965)"
Thus the variations between the
largest known brain in one mem-
ber of the Neanderthal race, the
male skull of La Chapelle, and
the smallest brain of the same
race, the supposed female skull .
of Gibraltar, is BAe C. Cin.) a OEIG. 2. The skull and brain-case, showing
See : the low, retreating forehead, prominent
range similar to that which we
supraorbital ridges, and small brain
find in the existing species of capacity, of Pithecanthropus, the Java
: ape-man, as restored by J. H. McGregor.
man (Homo sapiens).
As another test for the classification of primitive skulls, we
may select the well-known frontal angle of Broca, as modified by
Schwalbe, for measuring the retreating forehead. The angle is
measured by drawing a line along the forehead upward from the
bony ridge between the eyebrows, with a horizontal line carried
from the glabella to the inion at the back of the skull. The
various primitive races are arranged as follows:
PER CENT
Hovoseoiens, witnan average forehead.:.. ...0.. 62.0 es ss. frontal angle 90
Homo sapiens, with extreme retreating forehead............ “ ewe PR
Homo neanderthalensis, with the least retreating ievaicnily, Miandad
Homo “gna ae with the most retreating forehead. “ bey BO a
Pithecanthropus erectus (Trinil race).............000 cee ee - ie OD
Bee eR EAME UEODOIUL A DES ia Stole go T'S ow sts vie ena w HB wheels te cae OO
10 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
For instance, this illustrates the fact that in the Trinil race
the forehead is actually lower than in some of the highest an-
thropoid apes; that in the Neanderthal race the forehead is
more retreating than in any of. the existing human races of
Homo sapiens.
ARCHEOLOGY OF THE OLD STONE AGE *
The proofs of the prehistory of man arose afresh, and from
an entirely new source, in the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury through discoveries in Germany, by which the Greek an-
ticipations of a stone age were verified. For a century and a
half the great animal life of the diluvial world had aroused the
wonder and speculation of the early naturalists. In 1750
Eccardus’’ of Braunschweig advanced the first steps toward
prehistoric chronology, in expressing the opinion that the human
race first lived in a period in which stone served as the only
weapon and tool, and that this was followed by a bronze and
then by an iron period of human culture. As early as 1700 a
human skull was discovered at Cannstatt and was believed to
be of a period as ancient as the mammoth and the cave-bear. f
France, favored beyond all other countries by the men of
the Old Stone Age, was destined to become the classic centre
of prehistoric archeology. As early as 1740 Mahudel’® pub-
lished a treatise upon stone implements and laid the founda-
tions both of Neolithic and Palzeolithic research. By the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century the problem of fossil man had
awakened wide-spread interest and research. In Buckland’s'®
Reliquie diluviane, published in 1824, the great mammals of the
Old Stone Age are treated as relics of the flood. In 1825 Mac-
Enery explored the cavern of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, finding
human bones and flint flakes associated with the remains of the
* The best reference works on the history of French and German Paleolithic Arche-
ology are: Cartailhac,” La France Préhistorique; Déchelette,* Manuel d’ Archéologie,
T. I; Reinach," Catalogue du Musée de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes; Schmidt,™
Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands ; Avebury, Prehistoric Times.
+t The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and there-
fore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear.
RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 7
cave-bear and cave-hyzena, but the notes of this discovery were
not published until 1840, when Godwin-Austen” gave the first
description of Kent’s Hole. In 1828 Tournal and Christol *
announced the first discoveries in France (Languedoc) of the
association of human bones with the remains of extinct animals.
In 1833-4 Schmerling” described his explorations in the cav-
Tic, 3. Three great types of flint implements.
A. An eolith of accidental shape.
B. A paleolith of Chellean type, partly fashioned.
C. A Neolithic axe head, partly polished.
After MacCurdy.
erns near Liége, in Belgium, in which he found human bones
and rude flint implements intermingled with the remains of the
mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave-hyzena, and the cave-
bear. This is the first published evidence of the life of the
Cave Period of Europe, and was soon followed by the recogni-
tion of similar cavern deposits along the south coast of Great
Britain, in France, Belgium and Italy.
The work of the caveman, gradually revealed between 1828
and 1840, is now known to belong to the closing period of the
Old Stone Age, and it is very remarkable that the next discovery
related to the very dawn of the Old Stone Age, namely, to the
life of the ‘river-drift’ man of the Lower Paleolithic.
12 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
This discovery of what is now known as Chellean and Acheu-
lean industry came through the explorations of Boucher de
Perthes, between 1839 and 1846, in the valley of the River Somme,
which flows through Amiens and Abbeville and empties into the
English Channel half-way between Dieppe and Boulogne. In
1841 this founder of modern archeology unearthed near Abbe-
ville a single flint, rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument,
buried in river sand and associated with mammalian re-
mains. This was followed by the collection of many other
ancient weapons and implements, and in the year 1846 Boucher
de Perthes published his first work, entitled De Industrie pri-
mitive, ou des Arts a leur Origine, in which he announced that
he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belong-
Ing to the age of the ‘river-drift.’ This work and the succeed-
ing (1857), Antiquités celtiques et antédiluviennes,* were received
with great scepticism until confirmed in 1853 by Rigollot’s”
discovery of the now famous ‘river-drift’ beds of St. Acheul,
near Amiens. In the succeeding years the epoch-making work
of Boucher de Perthes was welcomed and confirmed by leading
British geologists and archeologists, Falconer, Prestwich, Evans,
and others who visited the Somme. Lubbock’s’® article of
1862, on the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man Afforded by the
Physical Structure of the Somme Valley, pointing out the great
geologic age of the river sands and gravels and of the mammals
which they contained, was followed by the discovery of similar
flints in the ‘river-drifts’ of Suffolk and Kent, England, in the
valley of the Thames near Dartford. Thus came the first posi-
tive proofs that certain types of stone implements were wide-
spread geographically, and thus was afforded the means of com-
paring the age of one deposit with another.
This led Sir John Lubbock?’ to divide the prehistoric period
into four great epochs, in descending order as follows:
The [ron A ge, in which iron had superseded bronze for arms, axes,
knives, etc., while bronze remained in common use for ornaments.
The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cut-
ting instruments of all kinds.
RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 13
The later or polished Stone Age, termed by Lubbock the
Neolithic Period, characterized by weapons and instruments made
of flint and other kinds of stone, with no knowledge of any
metal excepting gold.
Age of the Drift, termed by Lubbock the Paleolithic Period,
characterized by chipped or flaked implements of flint and
other kinds of stone, and by the presence of the mammoth, the
cave-bear, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.
Edouard Lartet, in 1860, began exploring the caverns of the
Pyrenees and of Périgord, first examining the remarkable cavern
of Aurignac with its burial vault, its hearths, its reindeer and
mammoth fauna, its spear points of bone and engravings on
bone mingled with a new and distinctive flint culture. This dis-
covery, published in 1861,”° led to the full revelation of the
hitherto unknown Reindeer and Art Period of the Old Stone
Age, now known as the Upper Paleolithic. As a paleontologist,
it was natural for Lartet to propose a fourfold classification of the
‘Reindeer Period,’ based upon the supposed succession of the
dominant forms of mammalian life, namely:
(d) Age of the Aurochs or Bison.
(c) Age of the Woolly Mammoth and Rhinoceros.
(b) Age of the Reindeer.
(a) Age of the Cave-Bear.
Lartet, in association with the British archeologist, Christy,
explored the now famous rock shelters and caverns of Dordogne
—Laugerie, La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, and Le Moustier—which
one by one yielded a variety of flint and bone implements, en-
gravings and sculpture on bone and ivory, and a rich extinct
fauna, in which the reindeer and mammoth predominated.
The results of this decade of exploration are recorded in their
classic work, Reliquie Aquitanice.”? Lartet, observes Breuil,°°
clearly perceived the level of Aurignac, where the fauna of the
great cave-bear and of the mammoth appears to yield to that of
the reindeer. Above he perceived the stone culture of the Solu-
14 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
trean type in Laugerie Haute, and of the Magdalenian type in
Laugerie Basse. Lartet also distinguished between the arche-
ological period of St. Acheul (= Lower Paleolithic) and that of
Aurignac (= Upper Paleolithic).
It remained, however, for Gabriel de Mortillet, the first
French archeologist to survey and systematize the development
of the flint industry throughout the entire Paleolithic Period, to
recognize that the Magdalenian followed the Solutrean, and that
during the latter stage industry in stone reached its height,
while during the Magdalenian the industry in bone and in wood
developed in a marvelous manner. Mortillet failed to recognize
the position of the Aurignacian and omitted it from his arche-
ological chronology, which was first published in 1869, Essai de
classification des cavernes et des stations sous abri, fondée sur les
produits de Vindustrie humaine :*!
(5) Magdalénien,* characterized by a number and variety of
bone implements;
(4) Solutréen, leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked;
(3) Moustérien, flints worked mostly on one side only;
(2) Acheuléen, the ‘langues de chat’ hand-axes of St.
Acheul;
(1) Chelléen, bold, primitive, partly worked hand-axes.
Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, Edouard Piette
(b. 1827, d. 1906), who had held the office of magistrate in vari-
ous towns in the departments of Ardennes and Aisne, France,
and who was already distinguished for his general scientific
attainments, began to devote himself especially to the evolution
of art in Upper Paleolithic times, and assembled the great col-
lections which are described and illustrated in his classic work,
L’Art pendant Age du Renne (1907). He first established
several phases of artistic evolution in the Magdalenian stage, and
only recognized in his later years the station of Brassempouy, not
* Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunz, etc., in this volume are
given not in chronological but in stratigraphic order, beginning with the most recent at
the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom.
RISE OF ARCHAOLOGY 15
comprehending that the Aurignacian art which he found there
underlay the Solutrean culture and was separated by a long in-
terval of time from the most ancient Magdalenian. His dis-
tinct contribution to Paleolithic history is his discovery of the
Solutrean
Magdalenian
oF FF
fit bone
Aurignacian Axzilian
RLM fh
Op, 5244 a
"i
es oe am
NN Gz
‘ ma 4 7
a) j is
"act Al
: Nay My fy tl i}
Sito we } yp ‘oh |
iis NS Jugs 4
Hee
i
Chellean
Early Acheulean Mousteriaw
Fic. 4. Evolution of the lance-point, spear, or dart head. Note the increasing sym-
metry and skill in the flaking and retouch as the types pass in ascending order
through the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, and Aurignacian, into the perfected,
symmetrical, double-pointed ‘laurel-leaf’ of the Solutrean; and into the subsequent
decline in the flint industry of the Magdalenian and Azilian stages. After de Mor-
tillet, Obermaier, and Hoernes.
Etage azilien overlying the Magdalenian in the cavern of Mas
d’ Azil.
Henri Breuil, a pupil of Piette and of Cartailhac, exploring
during the decade, 1902-12, chiefly under the influence of Car-
tailhac, formed a clear conception of the whole Upper Pale-
olithic and its subdivisions, and placed the Aurignacian definitely
at the base of the series.
Thus step by step the culture stages of archeological evolu-
tion have been established and may be summarized with the
type stations as follows:
16 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ETAGE STATION
Tardenoisien, Fére-en-Tardenois, Aisne.
Azilien, Mas d’Azil, Ariége.
Magdalenien, La Madeleine, prés Tursac, Dordogne.
Solutréen, Solutré prés Macon, Sadne-et-Loire.
Aurignacien, Aurignac, Haute-Garonne.
Moustérien, Le Moustier, commune de Peyzac, Dordogne.
Acheuléen, St. Acheul, prés Amiens, Somme.
Chelléen, Chelles-sur-Marne, Seine-et-Marne.
Pre-Chelléen
(= Mesvinien, Rutot), Mesvin, Mons, Belgique.
These stages, at first regarded as single, have each been
subdivided into three or more substages, as a result of the more
refined appreciation of the subtle advances in Paleolithic inven-
tion and technique.
DEINO
Fic. 5. The type stations of the successive stages of Paleolithic culture from the
Chellean to the Azilian-Tardenoisian.
A new impulse to the study of Paleolithic culture was given
in 1895, when E. Riviére discovered examples of Paleolithic
RISE OF ARCHAZOLOGY 17
mural art in the cavern of La Mouthe,* thus confirming the
original discovery, in 1880, by Marcelino de Sautuola of the
wonderful ceiling frescoes of the cave of Altamira, northern
Spain.*4 This created the opportunity for the establishment
by the Prince of Monaco of the Institut de Paléontologie humaine
in Igio, supporting the combined researches of the Upper
Paleolithic culture and art of France and Spain, by Cartailhac,
Capitan, Riviere, Boule, Breuil, and Obermaier, and marking a
new epoch in the brilliant history of the archeology of France.
It remained for the prehistory of the borders of the Danube,
Rhine, and Neckar to be brought into harmony with that of
France, and this has been accomplished with extraordinary pre-
cision and fulness through the labors of R. R. Schmidt, begun in
1906, and brought together in his invaluable work, Die diluviale
Vorzeit Deutschlands.*
To an earlier and longer epoch belongs the Prepalzeolithic
or Eolithic stage. Beginning in 1867 with the supposed dis-
covery by Abbé Bourgeois®® of a primordial or Prepalzolithic
stone culture, much observation and speculation has been de-
voted to the Eolithic®’ era and the Eolithic industry, culmi-
nating in the complete chronological system of Rutot, as follows:
LOWER QUATERNARY, OR PLEISTOCENE
Strépyan (= Pre-Chellean, in part).
Mesvinian, culture of Mesvin, near Mons, Belgium (= Pre-Chellean).
Mafflean, culture of Maffle, near Ath, Hennegau.
Reutelian, culture of Reutel, Ypres, West Flanders.
TERTIARY
Prestian, culture of St. Prest, Eure-et-Loire, Upper Pliocene.
Kentian, culture of the plateau of Kent, Middle Pliocene.
Cantalian, culture of Aurillac, Cantal, Upper Miocene or Lower
Pliocene.
Fagnian, culture of Boncelles, Ardennes, Middle Oligocene. |
Only the Mesvinian stage is generally accepted by arche-
ologists, and this embraces the prototypes of the Lower Pale-
18 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
olithic culture, which among most French authors are termed
Pre-Chellean or Proto-Chellean. The Eolithic problem has
aroused the most animated controversy, in which opinion is
divided. A critical consideration of this era, however, falls
without the province of the present work.
SUCCESSION OF HUMAN INDUSTRIES AND CULTURES *
Ve CLA LER ERON SAGE noe ee EUROPE 500 B. C. to RoMAN TIMEs.
(LA TENE CULTURE)
LVe EARL ERALRONOAGE. Sa oe ee EUROPE 1000-500 B. C,
fELALLSTATT @CULTURE) a0 tao on oe ee ORIENT 1800-1000
Ill, BRONZE AGE. .2.. cde0. cane eteese+ss>- SUROPE @b0Ut@o0c=toos
ORIENT ‘* 4000-1800
II. NEW STONE AGE, NEOLITHIC
3. LATE NEOLITHIC and COPPER
AGE (TRANSITION PERIOD)......... EuROPE ‘“ 3000-2000.
2. TYPICAL NEOLITHIC AGE (RoBEnN-
HAUSIAN, SWISS LAKE-DWELLERS) ....EUROPE ‘“ 7000.
1. EARLY NEOLITHIC STAGES
(CAMPIGNIAN “CULTURE) cc .fo5 ws ete EUROPE
I. OLD STONE AGE, PALAOLITHIC
UPPERSPALAOLITHIC. cea oe EUROPE
8. AZILIAN—-TARDENOISIAN. ** 12,000.
7. MAGDALENIAN. (Close of Post- 16,000,
glacial time.)
6. SOLUTREAN.
5. AURIGNACIAN. (Beginning of Post-
glacial time.)
LOWER PALAOLITHIC
4. MOuSTERIAN. (Fourth Glacial
time.)
3. ACHEULEAN. (Transition to
shelters.)
2. CHELLEAN.
1. PRE-CHELLEAN (MESVINIAN.)
40,000.
“€ 100,000.
RiveR- REINDEER, SHELTER,
DRIFT AND AND CAVE PERIOD.
TERRACE
PERIOD.
EOLITHIC.
* This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensch der Vorzeit.32 To each period
of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era.
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN
Man emerges from the vast geologic history of the earth in
the period known as the Pleistocene, or Glacial, and Postglacial,
the ‘Diluvium’ of the older geologists. The men of the Old
Stone Age in western Europe are now known through the latter
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GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 19
half of Glacial times to the very end of Postglacial times, when
the Old Stone Age, with its wonderful environment of mammalian
and human life, comes to a gradual close, and the New Stone
Age begins with the climate and natural beauties of the forests,
meadows, and Alps of Europe as they were before the destroying
hand of economic civilization fell upon them.
It is our difficult but fascinating task to project in our imag-
ination the extraordinary series of prehistoric natural events
which were witnessed by the successive races of Paleolithic men
in Europe; such a combination and sequence never occurred be-
fore in the world’s history and will never occur again. They
centred around three distinct and yet closely related groups of
causes. First, the formation of the two great ice-fields centring
over the Scandinavian peninsula and over the Alps; second, the
arrival or assemblage in western Europe of mammals from five
entirely different life-zones or natural habitats; third, the ar-
rival in Europe of seven or eight successive races of men by
migration, chiefly from the great Eurasiatic continent of the
Fast.
Throughout this long epoch western Europe is to be viewed
as a peninsula, surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching
westward from the great land mass of eastern Europe and of
Asia, which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal
and human life. It was the ‘far west’ of all migrations of
animals and men. Nor may we disregard the vast African land
mass, the northern coasts of which afforded a great southern
migration route from Asia, and may have supplied Europe with
certain of its human races such as the ‘Grimaldi.’
These three principal phenomena of the ice-fields, the mam-
mals,and the human life and industry, together establish the chro-
nology of the Age of Man. In other words, there are four ways
of keeping prehistoric time: that of geology, that of paleontology,
that of anatomy, and that of human industry. Geologic events
mark the grander divisions of time; palzontologic and anatomic
events mark the lesser divisions; while the successive phases of
human industry mark the least divisions. The geologic chro-
20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
nology deals with such immense periods of time that its ratio to
the animal and to the human chronology is like that of years to
hours and to minutes of our own solar time.
The Glacial Epoch when first revealed by Charpentier®® and
Agassiz,*” between 1837 and 1840, was supposed to correspond to
a single great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various
centres. The vague problem of the antiquity of Pliocene man
and Diluvial man soon merged into the far more definite chro-
nology of glacial and interglacial man. As early as 1854, Morlot
discovered near Diirnten, on the borders of the lake of Ziirich,
a bed of fossil plants indicating a period of south temperate cli-
mate intervening between two great deposits of glacial origin.
This led to the new conception of cold glacial stages and warm
interglacial stages, and Morlot*! himself advanced the theory
that there had been three glacial stages separated by two inter-
glacial stages. Other discoveries followed both of fossil plants
and mammals adapted to warmer periods intervening between
the colder periods. Moreover, successive glacial moraines and
‘drifts,’ and successive river ‘terraces’ were found to confirm
the theory of multiple glacial stages. The British geologist,
James Geikie (1871-94) marshalled all the evidence for the
extreme hypothesis of a succession of six glacial and five inter-
glacial stages, each with its corresponding cold and warm climates.
Strong confirmation of a theory of four great glaciations came
through the American geologists, Chamberlin,” Salisbury,” and
others, in the discovery of evidence of four chief glacial and three
interglacial stages in northern portions of our own continent.
Finally, a firm foundation of the quadruple glacial theory in
Europe was laid by the classic researches of Penck and Briickner™
in the Alps, which were published in tg09. ‘Thus the exhaustive
research of Geikie, of Chamberlin and Salisbury, of Penck and
Briickner, and finally of Leverett* has firmly established eight
subdivisions or stages of Pleistocene time, namely, four glacial,
three interglacial, and one postglacial. These not only mark the
great eras of European time but also make ese eh: ns synchrony
of America with Europe. |
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 1
Since most of the skeletal and cultural remains of man can
now be definitely attributed to certain glacial, interglacial, or
Major Divisions Periods and Epochs Advances in Life Dominant Life
QUATERNARY.
TERTIARY.
LATE
MESOZOIC.
EARLY
MEsozoic.
HOLOCENE.
PLEISTOCENE,
or
ICE AGE.
PLIOCENE.
MIOCENE.
OLIGOCENE.
EOCENE.
PALHZOCENE.
Cretaceous.
Comanchian.
Jurassic.
Triassic.
Recent alluvial.
Postglacial
stage.
Glacial stages.
Late Tertiary.
Early Tertiary.
Rise of world civiliza-
tion.
Industry in iron, cop-
per, and polished
stone.
Extinction of great
mammals.
Dawn of mind, art,
and industry.
Transformation of
man-ape into man.
Culmination of mam-
mals.
Beginnings of anthro-
poid ape life.
Appearance of higher
types of mammals,
and vanishing of
archaic forms.
Rise of archaic mam-
mals.
Extinction of great
reptiles.
Extreme specializa-
tion of reptiles.
Rise of flowering
plants.
Rise of birds and fly-
ing reptiles.
Rise of dinosaurs.
AGE OF MAN.
TRON, BRONZE,
AND NEW
STONE AGES.
Men
of the
Old Stone Age.
AGE OF
MAMMALS
AND
MopDERN
PLANT LIFE.
OF
REPTILES.
PLACE OF THE OLD STONE AGE IN THE EARTH’S HISTORY
_ (Indicated in heavy-face letter.)
Compare Schuchert’s Table, 1914.
postglacial stages, vast interest attaches to the very difficult
problem of the duration of the whole Ice Age and the relative
duration of its various glacial and interglacial stages. The fol-
22 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
lowing figures set forth the wide variations in opinion on this
subject and the two opposite tendencies of speculation which
lead to greatly expanded or greatly abbreviated estimates of
Pleistocene time :
DURATION OF THE ICE AGE
Charles Lyell,* Principles of Geology 800,000 years.
James D. Dana,” Manual of Geology a
Charles D. Walcott, Geologic Time as Indicated by
the Sedimentary Rocks of North America
W. Upham,® Estimates of Geologic Times, Amer.
Jour. Sci.,
A. Heim,” Ueber das absolute Alter der Eiszett
W. J. Sollas,! Evolutional Geology
Albrecht Penck,” Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter 520,000-840,000
James Geikie,* The Antiquity of Man in Europe...620,000 (min.)
We may adopt for the present work the more conservative
estimate of Penck, that since the first great ice-fields developed
in Scandinavia, in the Alps, and in North America west of Hud-
son Bay a period of time of not less than 520,000 years has
elapsed. The relative duration of the subdivisions of the
Glacial Epoch is also studied by Penck in his Chronologie des
Eiszeitalters in den Alpen.” ‘These stages are not in any degree
rhythmic, or of equal length either in western Europe or in
North America.
The unit of glacial measurement chosen by Penck is the time
which has elapsed since the close of the fourth and last great
glaciation; this is known as the Wiirm in the Alpine region and
as the Wisconsin in America. While more limited than the ice-
caps of the second glaciation, those of the fourth glaciation were
still of vast extent in Europe and in this country, so that an esti-
mate of 20,000 to 34,000 years for the unit of the entire Postglacial
stage is not extreme. Estimating this unit at 25,000 years and
accepting Reeds’s** estimate of the relative length of time orru-
pied by each of the preceding glacial and interglacial stages, we
reach the following results (compare Fig. 14, p, 41):
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 23
Relative | Grand Descent
Duration | Totals eS
POSTGLACIAL TIME. Years Years Meters
(Period of Upper Paleolithic culture, Cré-
Magnon and Briinn races) 25,000 | 25,000
GLACIAL STAGE (= Wiirm, Wisconsin).
(Close of Lower Paleolithic culture, Neanderthal
25,000
3d. Interglactal Stage.
(Opening period of Lower Paleolithic culture,
Piltdown and pre-Neanderthaloid races)..... 100,000 | 150,000
GLACIAL STAGE (= Riss, Illinoian) 25,000 | 175,000
2d. Interglacial Stage (= Mindel-Riss, Yarmouth). . 200,000 | 375,000
(Period of Heidelberg race.)
GLACIAL STAGE (= Mindel, Kansan) 400,000
ist. Interglacial Stage (= Giinz-Mindel, Aftonian) . 475,000
(Period of Pithecanthropus or Trinil race.)
GLACIAL STAGE (=Giinz, Nebraskan) 500,000
The Postglacial time divisions are dated by three successive
advances of the ice-caps, which broadly correspond with Geikie’s
fifth and sixth glaciations; they are known in the Alpine region
as the Bihl, Gschnitz, and Daun. ‘These three waves of cold and
humid climate, each accompanied by glacial advances, finally
terminated with the retreat of the snow and ice in the Alpine
region, the same conditions prevailing as with the present cli-
mate. The minimum time estimates of these Postglacial stages
and the corresponding periods of human culture, as calculated by
Heim,*° Niiesch,*> Penck,*? and many others, are summarized in
the Upper Paleolithic (p. 281).
GEOLOGIC AND HUMAN CHRONOLOGY
There are four ways in which the lesser divisions and sequence
of human chronology may be dated through geologic or earth-
forming events. First, through the age of the culture stations
or human remains, as indicated by the ‘river-drifts’ and ‘river
terraces’ in or upon which they occur; second, through the age
of the open ‘loess’ stations which are found both on the ‘older
terraces’ and on the plateaus between the river valleys; third,
24 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
through the age of the shelters and caverns in which skeletal and
cultural remains occur; fourth, through the age of the ‘loam’
deposits, which have drifted down on the ‘terraces’ from the
surrounding meadows and hills. The men of the Old Stone Age
were attracted to these natural camps and dwelling-places both
by the abundance of the raw flint materials from which the pale-
oliths were fashioned and by the presence of game.
In more than ninety years of exploration only three skeletal
relics of man have been found in the ancient ‘river-drifts’; these
are the ‘Trinil,’ the ‘Heidelberg,’ and the ‘Piltdown’; in each
instance the human remains were buried accidentally with those
of extinct animals, after drifting for some distance in the river
or stream beds. It is only in late Acheulean times that human
burial rites or interments begin and that skeletal remains are
found. Owing to the less perishable nature of flint, relics of the
quarries and stations are infinitely more common; they are found
both in the river sands and gravels, in the ‘river terraces,’ and
in the ‘loess’ stations of the plateaus and uplands. Thus pre-
historic chronology is based on observations of the geologist, who
in turn is greatly aided by the archeologist, because the evolution
stages of each type of implement are practically the same all over
western Europe, with the exception of unimportant local inven-
tions and variations. In brief, the large divisions of time are
determined by the amount of work done by geologic agencies ;
the comparative age of the various camp sites is determined by
their geologic succession, by the mammals and plants which oc-
cur in them, and finally by the cultural type of any industrial
remains that may be found.
TIMES OF THE ‘HIGH’ AND ‘Low’ RIVER ‘TERRACES’
The so-called ‘terrace’ chronology is to be used by the pre-
historian with caution, for it is obvious that the ‘terraces’ in
the different river-valleys of western Europe were not all formed
at the same time; thus the testimony of the ‘terraces’ is always
to be checked off by other evidence,
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 25
As to the origin of the sands and gravels which compose the
‘terraces’ we know that the glacial stages were periods of the
wearing away of vast materials from the summits and sides of
the mountains, which were transported by the rivers to the
valleys and plains. These vast deposits of glacial times spread
out over the very broad surfaces of the pristine river-bottoms,
which in many valleys it is important to note were from roo to
150 feet above the present levels. The diminished and contracted
NW. S.E.
a 8 Conley, :
DP mots ey 88 yes, y; 7,-$00m
Y/ Se AT MRS ya Aigen S32 YY,
wyyysiy yy are RETREAT EOA a fe
0 2 4 6 Oia 2 km.
Fic. 6. Terraces on either side of the valley of the River Inn, Scharding, Austria,
formed by sand and gravel deposits partly covered with loess. After Briickner.
Ib. Very broad river deposits of First Glaciation, on the first erosion level, covered
with the ‘Upper Loess’ of the Second Interglacial Stage.
IIb. Somewhat narrower river deposits of Second Glaciation on the second erosion
level.
ITIb. Still narrower river terraces of the Third Glaciation on the third erosion
level, covered with the ‘Lower Loess’ of the Third Interglacial Stage.
IVb. Fourth or lowest terrace of the Fourth Glaciation on the fourth erosion level.
Va. Erosion terraces, Achen.
Via. Post-Biihl erosion.
Loess’, ‘Upper Loess’ of Second Interglacial. Loess’’, ‘Lower Loess’ of Third In-
terglacial.
streams of interglacial times cut into these ancient river beds,
forming narrower channels into which they transported their
own materials. Thus, as the successive ‘river terraces’ were
formed, a descending series of steps was created along the sides
of the valleys. In many valleys there are four of these ‘terraces,’
which may correspond with several glacial stages; in other val-
leys there are only three; in others, again, like the valley of
the River Inn which flows past Innsbruck in the Tyrol (Fig. 6),
there are five ‘terraces,’ while in the valley of the Rhine above
Basle there are six, corresponding, it is believed, with the mate-
rials brought down by the four great glaciations and with the
river levels of Postglacial times. In general, therefore, the ‘high
terraces’ are the oldest ones, that is, they are composed of
26 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
materials brought down during the pluvial periods of the First,
Second, and Third Glacial Stages, while the ‘lower terraces’
and the ‘lowest terraces’ in the alpine regions are composed
of materials borne by the great rivers of the Fourth Glacial and
Postglacial Stages. In the region around the Alps the ‘higher
terraces’ are products chiefly of the third glaciation; in the
Rheinfelder Hilt | Upper Schworstadt
Moliner Fela
Cc
G +
+O+0+0% SoFOt04 OF O40 40
0 j 2 3 ie
Fic. 7. Cross-section through the terraced Pleistocene formations of the Rhine valley
above Basle, Switzerland. After Penck.
Ib. Outwash of the First Glaciation—Giinz—Deposits on the first erusion level.
ITb. Outwash of the Second Glaciation—Mindel—Deposits on the second erosion level.
ITIb. Outwash of the Third Glaciation—Riss—Deposits on the third erosion level.
IVb. Outwash of the Fourth Glaciation—Wiirm—Deposits on the fourth erosion level.
Va. Erosion terrace, Achen oscillation—fifth erosion level.
Via.
Vila.
ITIc. Moraine of the Third Glaciation—Riss.
The section of the Rheinfelder Hill lies 3 km. west from the MOliner Field.
} Post-Buhl erosion—sixth and seventh erosion levels.
valley of the Rhine they are visible near Basle. On the upper
Rhine the ‘low terraces’ are products of the fourth glaciation ;
they cover vast surfaces and contain remains of the woolly mam-
moth (E. primigenius), an animal distinctive of Fourth Glacial
and Postglacial times.
More remote from the glacial regions, but equally subject to
the inundations of glacial times are the ‘high terraces’ along the
River Seine, which are ninety feet above the present level of
the river and contain the remains of mammals characteristic
of the First Interglacial Stage, such as the southern elephant (E.
meridionalis), while the ‘low terraces’ along the Seine are only
fifteen feet above the present level of the river and contain
mammals belonging to the Third Interglacial Stage. Similarly,
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN Q7
the ‘high terraces’ of the River Eure contain mammals of First
Interglacial times, such as the southern elephant (EZ. meridionalis)
and Steno’s horse (E. stenonis); these fossils occur in coarse river
sands and gravels which were deposited by a broad stream that
flowed at least ninety feet above the present waters of the
Eure.
The human interest which attaches to these dry facts of
geology appears especially in the valleys of the Somme and the
Marne in northern France; here again we find ‘high terraces,’
‘middle terraces,’ and ‘low terraces’; the latter are still sub-
ject to flooding. In the deep gravels upon each of these terraces
we find the first proofs of human residence, for here occur the
earliest Pre-Chellean and Chellean implements associated with
the remains of the hippopotamus, of Merck’s rhinoceros, and of
the straight-tusked elephant (EF. antiquus), together with mam-
mals which are characteristic both of Second and Third Inter-
glacial times.
This raises a very important distinction, which is often mis-
understood; namely, between the materials composing the orig-
inal terraces and those subsequently deposited upon the terraces.
It appears to be in the latter that human artifacts are chiefly, if
not exclusively, found.
TIMES OF THE LOAM STATIONS
The ‘loam’ which washes down over the original sand and
gravel ‘terraces’ from the surrounding hills and meadows is of
much later date than the ‘terraces’ themselves, and the arche-
ologist in the valley of the Somme as well as in that of the Thames
may well be deceived unless he clearly distinguishes between the
newer deposits of gravels and of loams and the far older gravels
and river sands which compose the original ‘terraces.’ This is
well illustrated by the observations of Commont on the section
of St. Acheul.°* The loams and brick-earth are of much more
recent age than the original gravels and sands of the ‘terraces’
which they overlap and conceal; the lowest and oldest ‘loam’
28 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
(limon fendillé) contains Acheulean flints, while the overlying
‘loam’ contains Mousterian flints. Although occurring on the
‘higher terraces,’ these flints are of somewhat later date than
the primitive Chellean flints which occur in the coarse gravels
and sands that have collected upon the very Jowest levels (Fig. 59).
A similar prehistoric inversion doubtless occurs in the ‘ter-
races’ of the Thames, for materials on the ‘highest terrace’
(Fig. 8) contain Acheulean flints, while materials on the ‘lowest
terrace’ belong to a much more recent age.
S %
iN Q ~S &
R re SS pes
BS SS OSS 8 Se
re N % » =| 4 s ; ~ gx
Sourh o N ve SS 0S Saas N North
Feer ~ is S 30° 5.5 oes
Eocene Qe UG $2 Se See
Beds Sete ee aidnr & J. foo aoe
100A oo [775 | 7 100 feet
Sea Level ie Ww a ~— sy Sea Leve/
Cretaceous 100 oO ey WES an Aza 100
ao 200 200
0 | 2 % 4+ miles
Fic. 8. Section—Four terraces indicated in the valley of the Thames at Galley
Hill, near London. Site of the discovery of the ‘Galley Hill Man’ in deposits
overlying one of the high terraces. Site also of Gray’s Thurrock, a deposit of
Third Interglacial times containing mammals and flints of Chellean age. A
typical camping station of ‘river-drift man.’ Drawn by Dr. C. A. Reeds.
We have no record of a single Paleolithic station found in the
true original. sands and gravels of the ‘higher terraces’ in any
part of Europe; only eoliths are found on the ‘high terrace’
levels, as at St. Prest.
The earliest palzoliths occur in the gravels on both the ‘mid-
dle’ and ‘upper terraces’ of the Somme and the Marne, proving
that the gravels were deposited long subsequent to the cutting
ot the original terraces. Geikie,®’ moreover, is of the opinion
that the valley of the Somme has remained as it is since early
Pleistocene times, and that even the ‘lowest terrace’ here was
completed at that period ; this is contrary to the view of Commont,
who considers that this ‘lowest terrace’ belongs to Third Inter-
glacial times; a restudy of the stations along the Thames may
throw light upon this very important difference of opinion,
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 29
TIMES OF THE ‘LOESS’ STATIONS
The glacial stages were generally times of relatively great
humidity, of heavy rain and snow fall, of full rivers charged with
gravels and sands, and with loam the finest product of the ero-
Fic. 9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach, in Lower Austria. A quarry
camping station of the open-plains type. This typical Postglacial loess de-
posit contains flints of early Magdalenian age. After Obermaier.
sive action of ice upon the rocks. This loam on the barren
wastes left bare by the glaciers or on the river borders and over-
flow basins was retransported by the winds and laid down afresh
in layers of varying thickness known as ‘loess.’ There was no
‘loess’ formation either in Europe or America during the humid
climate of First Interglacial times, but during the latter part of
the Second Interglacial Stage, again toward the close of the
Third Interglacial Stage, and finally during Postglacial times
there were periods of arid climate when the ‘loess’ was lifted
and transported by the prevailing winds over the ‘terraces’ and
30 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
plateaus and even to great heights among the mountain valleys.
As observed by Huntington®* in his interesting book The Pulse
of Asia, even at the present time there are districts where we
find ‘loess’ dust filling the entire atmosphere either during the
heated months of summer or during the cold months of winter.
In Pleistocene Europe there were at least three warm or cold
arid periods, accompanied in some phases by prevailing westerly
winds,°*® in which ‘loess’ was widely distributed over northern
Germany, covering the ‘river terraces,’ plateaus, and uplands
bordering the Rhine and the Neckar. These ‘loess’ periods
can be dated by the fossil remains of mammals which they con-
tain, also by the stations of the flint quarries in different culture
stages. ‘Thus we find late Acheulean implements in drifts of
‘loess’ at Villejuif, south of Paris. Among the most famous
stations of late Acheulean times is that of Achenheim, west of
Strasburg, and not far distant is the ‘loess’ station of Mom-
menheim, of Mousterian times; both belong to the period of the
fourth glaciation. An Aurignacian ‘loess’ station is that of
Willendorf, Austria.
TIMES OF. THE LIMESTONE SHELTERS AND CAVERNS
Beginning in the late or cold Acheulean period, the Pale-
olithic hunters commenced to seek the warm or sheltered side of
deepened river-valleys, also the shelter afforded by overhanging
cliffs and the entrances of caverns. It is quite probable that
during the warm season of the year they still repaired to their
open flint quarries along the rivers and on the uplands; in fact,
the river Somme was a favorite resort through Acheulean into
Mousterian times.
In general, however, the open rivers and plateaus were aban-
doned, and all the regions of limestone rock favorable to the
formation of shelter cliffs, grottos, and caverns were sought out
by the early Paleolithic men from Mousterian times on ; and thus
from the beginning of the Mousterian to the close of the Upper
Paleolithic their lines of migration and of residence followed the
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 31
exposures of the limestones which had been laid down by the
sea in bygone geologic ages from Carboniferous to Cretaceous
times. The upper valleys of the Rhine and Danube traversed
the white Jurassic limestones which are again exposed in a broad
band along the foot-hills of the Pyrenees, extending far west to
the Cantabrian Alps of modern Spain. In Dordogne the great
horizontal plateau of Cretaceous limestone had been dissected
by branching rivers, such as the Vézére, to a depth of two hun-
Dussel R
MOO
Fic. 10. Ideal section of the bluff overlying the Diissel River, near Diisscldozf, showing
the mode of formation of the famous Neanderthal Cave, where the original type of
the Neanderthal race was discovered in 1856. A typical resort of the ‘cave man.’
After Lyell.
c. Entrance of percolating waters from above.
f. Exit from the grotto.
a—b. Interior of the cavern.
dred feet. Under overhanging cliffs long rock shelters were
formed, such as that of the Magdalenian station at La Madeleine.
Many caverns were formed, some of them in early Pleistocene
times, by water percolating from above and (Fig. 11) resulting in
subterranean streams which issued at the entrance; this formed
the expanded grotto, sometimes a chamber of vast dimensions,
such as the Grotte de Gargas. Outside of this, again, may be an
abri or shelter of overhanging rock. In other cases the rock
shelter is found quite independent of any cave.
Where the glaciers or ice-caps passed over the summits of the
hills the subglacial streams penetrated the limestone of the
mountain and formed vast caverns, such as that of Niaux, near
the river Ariége. Here a nearly horizontal cavern was formed,
extending half a mile into the heart of the mountain. The ma-
32 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
terial with which the floors of the caverns are covered is either a
fine cave loam or the insoluble remainder of the limestone form-
ing a brown or gray clayey substance. The Magdalenian artists
produced drawings on these soft clays and, in rare instances, used
them for modelling purposes, as in the Tuc d’Audoubert. The
sands and gravels were also swept in from the streams above and
carried by strong currents along the wall surfaces, smoothing and
YY MMM YM) polishing the limestone
Uvuhebefe vouslimestonéZ in preparation for the
: higher forms of Upper
[i”- // Paleolithic draughts-
G eae
manship and painting.
It would appear that
the majority of the cayv-
y erns were formed in plu-
vial periods of early
glacial times; the for-
Fic. 11. Formation of the typical limestone cav- mation had been com-
em. After Gaudry. pleted, the subterranean
V. Vertical section of limestone cliff showing
(S) waters percolating from above; (A—O) inte- streams had ceased to
rior of the cavern; and (G) grotto entrance, orig- flow, and the interiors
inal exit of the cavern waters. H. Horizontal :
section of the same cavern showing the (G) Were relatively dry and
grotto entrance and (A, G, O, B) the ramifica~ free from moisture in
Sep ae tala Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial times, when man first entered them. There is no
evidence, however, that the cavern depths were generally in-
habited, for the obvious reason that there was no exit for
the smoke; the old hearths are invariably found close to or
outside of the entrance, the only exception being in the en-
trance to the great cavern of Gargas, where there is a natura!
chimney for the exit of smoke. There was no cave life, strictly
speaking—it was grotto life; the deep caves and caverns were
probably penetrated only by artists and possibly also by magi-
clans or priests. It is in the abrzs or shelters in front of the grottos
and in the floors of the caverns that remarkable prehistoric
records are found from late Acheulean times to the very close ot
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 33
the Paleolithic, as in the wonderful grotto in front of the cave
at Castillo, near Santander. Thus, as Obermaier® observes: ‘‘In
Chellean times primitive man was a care-free hunter wandering
as he chose in the mild and pleasant weather, and even the colder
climate of the arid ‘loess’ period of the late Acheulean was not
sufficient to overcome his love of the open; he still, made his
camp on the plains at the edge of the forest, or in the shelter of
some overhanging cliff.”” Only in rare instances, as at Castillo,
were the Acheulean hearths brought within the entrance line of
the grotto.
| BI rs Panel stone | ff pee ler
eOlogic Ime Ve 4 iegers. IQI3 ermaler, IQI2
Geikie, 1914 | Schmidt, ro12
Bronze. Magdalenian.
Postglacial. Magdalenian. Neolithic. Solutrean.
Azilian. Aurignacian.
Magdalenian.
EV; - GLACIAL. Solutrean. castes Mousterian.
urignacian.
Mousterian.
Early Mousterian.
Cold Acheulean.
Third Interglacial. Mousterian. Mousterian. Warm “
Chellean.
Pre-Chellean.
Cold Acheu-
lean.
III. GtactAt. Mousterian.
Warm Acheu-
lean.
Chellean.
; Acheulean.
Second Interglacial. Chellean.
II. GLACIAL.
Pre-Chellean
First Interglacial.
DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AS TO THE GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE
PALAZOLITHIC CULTURE STAGES
The right-hand column represents the theory adopted in this volume.
Interpretation of these four kinds of evidence as to the an-
tiquity of human culture in western Europe still leads to widely
diverse opinions. On the one hand, we have the high authority
of Penck*! and Geikie® that the Chellean and Acheulean cul-
tures are as ancient as the second long warm interglacial period.
34 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
An extreme exponent of the same theory is Wiegers,® who would
carry the Pre-Chellean back even into First Interglacial times.
On the other side, Boule,** Schuchardt,®® Obermaier,®* Schmidt, *
and the majority of the French archeologists place the begin-
ning of the Pre-Chellean culture in Third Interglacial times.
In favor of the latter theory is the strikingly close succession
of the Lower Paleeolithic cultures in the valley of the Somme, fol-
lowed by an equally close succession from Acheulean to Mag-
dalenian times, as, for example, in the station of Castillo. It
does not appear possible that a vast interval of time, such as that
of the third glaciation, separated the Chellean from the Mous-
terian culture.
On the other hand, in favor of the greater antiquity of the
Pre-Chellean and Chellean cultures may be urged their alleged _
association in several localities with very primitive mammals of
early Pleistocene type, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno’s
horse, and the saber-tooth tiger, as witnessed in Spain and in
the deposits of the Champs de Mars, at Abbeville.
It is true, moreover, that at points distant from the great
ice-fields, like the valley of the Somme and that of the Marne,
we have no other means of separating glacial from interglacial!
times than that afforded by the deposition and erosion of the
‘terraces’; in fact, the interpretation of the age of the cultures
may be similar to that applied to the age of the mammalian
fauna. There are no proofs of periods of severe cold in western
Europe in any country remote from the glaciers until the very
cold steppe-tundra climate immediately preceding the fourth
glaciation swept the entire land and drove out the last of the
African-Asiatic mammals.
GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES
The migrations of mammals and of races of men into western
Europe from the Eurasiatic continent on the east and from
Africa on the south were favored or interrupted by the periods
of elevation or of subsidence of the coastal borders of the A¢gean,
Mediterranean, and North Seas, and also of the Iberian and
GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES 35
British coast-lines. The maximum period of elevation of the
coastal borders, as represented in the accompanying map (Fig.
12), never occurred in all portions of the continent of Europe at
the same time, because there were oscillations both on the north-
be
| |
| | |
ss
Fic. 12. Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation, in which the coast-
lines are widely extended, connecting Africa and Europe—including Great Britain
and Ireland—in a single vast peninsula, and affording free migration routes for
animal and human races north and south, as well as east and west. The ocean
boundaries are more remote and the interior seas are greatly reduced in area. After
Obermaier.
ern and southern coasts of Europe and Africa. ‘The early Pleis-
tocene, especially the period of the First Interglacial Stage, was
one of elevation remarkable for the broad land bridges which
brought the animal life of Europe, Africa, and Asia together.
The Mediterranean coast rose 300 feet. Land bridges from Africa
were formed at Gibraltar and over to the island of Sicily, so that
for the time there was a free migration of mammalian life north
and south. It is to this that western Europe owes the majestic
36 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
mammals of Asiatic and African life which dominated the native
fauna.
In general, the e/evation of the continent took place during
interglacial, the subsidence during glacial times, but Great
Britain appears to have been almost continuously elevated and
a part of the continent, and was certainly so during the Third
Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages, because there
was a free migration of animal life and of human culture. The
Lower Paleolithic peoples of Pre-Chellean and Chellean times
wandered at will from the valley of the Somme to the not far
distant valley of the Thames, interchanging their weapons and
inventions. The close proximity of these stations is well illus-
trated in the admirable map (Fig. 56) prepared under the direc-
tion of Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock). The relation which
elevation and subsidence respectively bear to the glacial and inter-
glacial stages is believed to be as follows:
ELEVATION, emergence of the coast-lines from the sea, broad
land connections facilitating migration, retreat of the glaciers,
deepening of the river-valleys, and cutting of terraces. Arid
continental climate and deposition of ‘loess.’
SUBSIDENCE, submergence of the coast-lines and advance of
the sea, interruption of land connections and of migration routes,
advance of the glaciers, filling of the river-valleys with the prod-
ucts of glacial erosion, the sand and gravel materials of which
the ‘terraces’ are composed, and subglacial erosion of the loam,
from which in arid periods the ‘loess’ is derived.
Subsidence was the great feature of closing glacial times both
in Europe and America. During the Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial Stages the Black and Caspian Seas and the eastern por-
tion of the Mediterranean were deeply depressed, while the
British Isles were still connected with France, but by a nar-
rower isthmus than that of early interglacial times. The scat-
tered stations of Upper Palzeolithic culture found in the British
Isles include one Aurignacian, one Solutrean, two Magdalenian,
and two Azilian; this shows that travel communication with
the continent continued throughout that period, in all proba-
CLIMATIC CHANGES 37
bility by means of a land connection. In late Neolithic times
the English Channel was formed, Great Britain became isolated
from Europe, and Ireland lost its land connection first with
Wales and then with Scotland.
CHANGES OF CLIMATE
Penck®® estimates the intensity of the cold and of the humid-
ity which prevailed during the glacial stages by the descent of
the snow-line in the Alps, which in the two periods of greatest
Sierra de Gredos . Alps Mts.
ae Mts.
Pyrenees Mts.
German Scandinavian Plateau
rare Cape
~—
a 81 8r LPA 2 >
5000, = > — PROBABLE _ se SEA LEVEL_AT_THE_|: Trine oA FI MAXIMUM ELEVATION, i= ~Tsecwa cu GLAC ATION, _ " MINDEL.$ x3 =
Strait of Gibraltar Garonne Rhone North Skager
Valley Valley Sea Fak
SNOW LINES OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL GLACIAL EPOCHS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD
A-B Profile across Europe along the line A-8 of map
5 Present snow line
4 Snow line of the Fourth (Wirm) Glacial Sf
3 as 8 > Third CRiss) 4
2 w « w » Second (Minde/) ”
1 n » ¢» » First (GUnz) » ”
Fic. 13. An ideal earth section from the North Cape across the Scandinavian
plateau, through the North Sea, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, and Straits of Gibraltar, to
the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa, along the line indicated on the map (Fig. 25,
p. 65), illustrating the sea-level at the time of the greatest elevation of the conti-
nent during the Second Glacial Stage, as compared with the present sea-level;
also the successive lines of descent of the region of perpetual snow during the four
great glacial advances, as compared with the present snow-line. From studies
Dy Dr-C. A.’ Reeds:
glaciation reached from 1,200 m. (3,937 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4, 921 ft.)
below the present snow-level, with the consequent formation of
vast ice-caps hung with glaciers which flowed great distances
down the valleys of the Rhéne and of the Rhine and left their
moraines at very distant points. The moraines and drifts of the
lesser glaciations, such as the first and fourth, stand considerably
within the boundaries of these outer moraines and drift fields.
On the contrary, the warmer climates of interglacial times are
indicated by the sun-loving plants found at H6tting, along the
valley of the Inn, in the Tyrol, which are proofs of a tempera-
ture higher than the present and of the ascent of the snow-line
300 m. (984 ft.) above the existing snow-level of the Alps.
38 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The alternation of the cold climates of the glacial stages with
the warm temperate climates of the interglacial stages formed
great oscillations of temperature (Figs. 13, 14). The fossil
plant life indicates that during the periods of the First, Second,
and Third Interglacial Stages the climate of western Europe
was cooler than it had been during the preceding Pliocene
Epoch and somewhat warmer than it is at the present time in
the same localities. During the First, Second, and Third Glacial
Stages there was certainly a marked lowering of temperature in
the regions bordering the great glacial fields. This is indicated
by the arrival in the northern glacial border regions of animals
and plants adapted to arctic and subarctic climates.
It has been generally believed that the whole of western
Europe was extremely cold during these glacial stages, and that
the heat-loving animals, the southern elephants, rhinoceroses,
and hippopotami, were driven to the south, to return only with
the renewed warmth of the next interglacial stage.
There is, however, no proof of the departure of these suppos-
edly less hardy mammals nor of the spread over Europe of the
more hardy arctic and steppe types until the advent of the
Fourth Glacial Stage. Then, for the first time, all western Europe
north of the Pyrenees experienced a general fall of temperature,
and conditions of climate prevailed such as are now found in the
arctic tundra regions of the north and in the high steppes of
central Asia, which are swept by dry and cold winter winds.
Fluctuations of temperature, of moisture, and of aridity in Pleis-
tocene time, are evidenced not only by the rise and fall of the
snow-line and the advance and retreat of the ice-caps but also by
the appearance of plant and animal life in the periods of the ‘loess’
deposition, indicating the following cycles of climatic change as
witnessed from beginning to end of the Third Interglacial Stage:
IV. Glacial maximum, cold and moist climate, arctic and cold
steppe fauna and flora.
Cool and dry steppe climate, wide-spread deposition of
‘loess,’
CLIMATIC CHANGES 39
Interglacial maximum, a long period of warm temperate
forest and meadow conditions.
Glacial retreat, cool and moist climate bordering the gla-
cial regions.
III. Glacial maximum, cold and humid climate bordering the
glaciers, favorable to arctic and subarctic plant and
animal life.
That great fields of ice and advancing glaciers alone do not
constitute proof of very low temperatures is shown at the present
time in southeastern Alaska, where very heavy snowfall or pre-
cipitation causes the accumulation of vast glaciers, although the
mean annual temperature is only 10° Fahr. (5.56° C.) lower than
that of southern Germany. Neumayr®® estimated that during
the Ice Age there was a general lowering of temperature in Eu-
rope of not more than 6° C. (10.8° Fahr.), and held that even
during the glacial advances a comparatively mild climate pre-
vailed in Great Britain. Martins’ estimated that a lowering of
the temperature to the extent of 4° C. (7.2° Fahr.) would bring
_the glaciers of Chamonix down to the level of the plain of Geneva.
Penck estimates that, all the atmospheric conditions remaining
the same as at present, a fall of temperature to the extent of 4°
to 5 C. would be sufficient to bring back the Glacial Epoch in
Europe. These moderate estimates entirely agree with our
theory that animals of African and Asiatic habit flourished in
western Europe to the very close of the Third Interglacial
Stage, and that then for the first time the warm fauna, or
faune chaude, gradually disappeared.
Similarly the hypothesis of extremely warm or subtropical
conditions prevailing in interglacial times as far north as Britain,
which originated with the discovery of the northerly distribution
of the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, animals which we now
associate with the torrid climate of Africa, is not supported by
the study either of the plant life of interglacial stages or by the
history of the animals themselves. It is quite probable that
both the hippopotami and the rhinoceroses of the ‘warm fauna’
40 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
were protected by hairy covering, although not by the thick
undercoating of wool which protected the woolly rhinoceros and
woolly mammoth, animals favoring the borders of glaciers and
flourishing during the last very cold glacial and Postglacial
periods.
The combined evidence from all these great events in western
Europe leads us to conclusions somewhat different from those
reached by Penck as to the chronology of human culture. In
the chart (Fig. 14) on the opposite page, prepared by Dr.
C. A. Reeds in collaboration with the author, a new correlation
of geologic, climatic, human, industrial, and faunal events is
presented. The great waves of glacial advance and retreat
(oblique shading) are based upon Penck’s estimates of the rise
and fall of the snow-line (vertical dotted lines) in the Swiss Alps.
(Compare Fig. 13.) The length of these waves corresponds
with the relative duration of the glacial and interglacial stages
as estimated by the varying amounts of erosion and deposition
of materials. The entire Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is thus
seen to occupy not more than 125,000 years, or only the last
quarter of the Glacial Epoch, which is estimated as extending.
over a period of 525,000 years. The present opinion of the
leading archeologists of France and Gerrnany, which is shared
by the author, is that the Pre-Chellean industry is not older
than the Third Interglacial Stage. As the Piltdown man was
found in deposits containing Pie-Chellean implements, he prob-
ably lived in the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, and not in
early Pleistocene times as estimated by some British geologists.
This causes us to regard the Piltdown remains as more recent
than the jaw of Heidelberg, which all authorities agree is prob-
ably of Second Interglacial Age. According to our estimates the
Heidelberg man is nearly twice as ancient as the Piltdown man,
while Pithecanthropus (Trinil Race) is four times as ancient.
Yet the Piltdown man must still be regarded as of very great
antiquity, for he is four times as ancient as the final type of Ne-
anderthal man belonging to the Mousterian industrial stage.
The various archeologic and paleontologic evidences for this
CORRELATION, oe, CLIMATIC, RACIAL, CULTURE & LIFE STAGES /9/4
Ht ~-——_4
i; LTE TITRE TS,
NEC Se ———— RECENT FOREST, MEADOW. ALPINE
S MRODALENVA UPPER
| GSOLUTREAN PALAEQ- Gee “MAGNON
Bit Waseceafi SAUBIGNACIAN bie ted ae LITHI/ GRIMALDI
NEANDERTHAL
REINDEER PERIOD, ARCTIC
TUNDRA, STEPPE , ALPINE
FOREST, MEADOW
COLD FAUNA
ARRIVAL: STEPPE, TUNDRA, FAUNA
IV. GLACIAL
WURM, Ua aad
19 oe HG
Zz
“ (KRAPINA) 1 AST WARM AFRICAN-ASIATIC
3ACHEULEAN LOWER
3}75000 YEARS PALAEO-
aaauabaaas
3. INTER -
GLAC/AL bijti | |2CHELLEAN LITHIC E.ANTIQUUS,, H/PPOPOTAMUS
GH RISS - WURM Hit 41/00000 YEARS D.MERCKII, E. TROGONTHERI|
NGAM ALSO FOREST, MEADO
SANGAMON Ail! | |» pRe-CHELLEAN P/LTDOWN a raid
“Middle Loess’ EURASIATIC FAUNA
Ait ee oe a a ae ee
Ill, GLACIAL Bees COLD TUNDRA FAUNA
RISS, POLANDIAN WOOLLY MAMMOTH &
“Middle britt”
RHINOCEROS. FIRST
LLOLL ALAS ae <
/LLINOIAN Zi Sheen BA
LEEEL EEE LE A EER
Lait 8+200,000 YEARS
ee iecteay kt) lyre) Se
GLACIAL
in eRe WARM AFRICAN ASIATIC
HELVETIAN FAUNA
YARMOUTH E.ANTIQUUS , E TROGONTH-
HEIDELBERG) ery Dp. MERCKII, HIPPO-
POTAMUS
Long Warm 2
Stage
‘Older Loess”
FIRST COLD
‘old Drift’ Zag
Lt
LINTER- Zt pre anne
GLACIAL I
NORFOLKIAN il
GUNZ-MINDEL
Witte:
E GLACIAL “%
AFRICAN - ASIATIC FAUNA
E. MER/D/ONALIS —TROGON -
THERIT, D ETRUSCUS,
HIPPOPOTAMUS
MACHA_RODUS
LA Bees P/THECAN-
[ Z COLD FOREST BED
ONEBRASKAN Z FAUNA Iv 8. BRITAIN | TYROPUS
"Old Terraces” 0500000 YEARS (TRINIL)
ee ee ee PLIOCENE ~~
PLIOCENE itt WARM FOREST
GLA‘ CIAL STONE CULTURES | HUMAN | STAGES OF MAMMAL/AN
INTERGLA CIAL AND COLD FAUNAS | RACES AND PLANT LIFE
Fic. 14. Great events of the Glacial Epoch. ‘To the left the relation of glacial and in-
- terglacial stages in Europe and North America, with the author’s theory regarding the
divisions of time, the beginning of the Old Stone Age, and the successive appearance
in Europe of different branches of the human race. To the right the prolonged
warm temperate period in Europe in the non-glaciated regions, followed by the
relatively brief cold period during the past 70,000 years. Prepared by Dr. C. A.
Reeds, in co-operation with the author.
41
42 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
general correlation theory of the Glacial Epoch are fully dis-
cussed in the succeeding chapters of this volume.
MAMMALS OF FIVE DISTINCT GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
(Compare Color Map, Pl. II, and Fig. 15)
As we have already observed, during the whole history of
mammalian life in various parts of the world never did there
prevail conditions so unusual and so complex as those which
surrounded the men of the Old Stone Age in Europe. ‘The suc-
cessive races of Palzolithic men in Europe were all flesh eaters,
depending upon the chase. The mammals, first pursued only
for food, utensils, and clothing, finally became subjects of artis-
tic appreciation and endeavor which resulted in a remarkable
esthetic development.
From the beginning to the end of Palzolithic times the vari-
ous races of man witnessed the assemblage in Europe of animals
indigenous to every continent on the globe except South America
and Australia and adapted to every climatic life-zone, from the
warm and dry plains of southern Asia and northern Africa to
the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia; from the heights
of the Alps, Himalayas, Pyrenees, and Altai Mountains to the
high, arid, dry steppes of central Asia with their alternating heat
of summer and cold of winter; from the tundras or barren grounds
of Scandinavia, northern Europe, and Siberia to the mild forests
and plains of southern Europe.’’ Members of all these highly
varied groups of animals had been evolving in various parts of
the northern hemisphere from the Eocene Epoch onward. In
Pliocene times they had become thoroughly adapted to their
various habitats. Throughout early Pleistocene times, with the
increasing cold extending southward from the arctic circle,
such mammals as the elephant, rhinoceros, musk-ox, and rein-
deer had become thoroughly adapted to the climate of the ex-
treme north. There is every reason to believe that when these
tundra quadrupeds first arrived in Europe, during early mid-
glacial stages, they had already acquired the heavy coat of hair
RECENT
PREHISTORIC.
POSTGLACIAL.
Severe climate.
IV. GLaActIAL.
Cold Steppe cli-
mate.
3d INTERGLACIAL.
Warm climate.
Reindeer
MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS
Return of the Alpine Mammals to the Mountains.
Wide dispersal of Forest and Meadow Mammals
over the Northern nem oS te Northern Hemisphere, 9d
Retreat of the Tundra and Steppe Mammals to the
North and East.
Mingling in the lowlands of France and Germany
of the Reindeer-Mammoth fauna, the Alpine
fauna, the Steppe Mammals, and the hardy Eur-
asiatic Forest and’ Meadow Mammals.
Arrival of the Tundra Mammals from the North.
Arrival of the Steppe Mammals from Western Asia. .
Southward migration and extinction of all the
African-Asiatic Mammals except the lions and
hyzenas.
Mingled African-Asiatic and Eurasiatic Mammals
in different parts of the non-glaciated regions,
the hippopotamus, southern mammoth, straight-
tusked elephant, Merck’s broad-nosed
rhinoceros, lion, hyzna, jackal, sabre-
and tooth tiger.
Woolly Mam-
TIT. GLactAt.
moth in North
Germany and
the Alps.
2d INTERGLACIAL.
Reindeer
Also the stag, giant deer, bison, wild
cattle, forest horse, boar, wolf, fox,
and lynx, wildcat, several species of bear.
IT. GLAcrAt. Woolly Mam-
mothin North-
ern Germany.
1st INTERGLACIAL.
Musk-ox in Sus-
I. GLACIAL. sex, England.
Survival of many Pliocene African-
AsiaticMammals, mingled with Pliocene
and recent Eurasiatic Forest and Mead-
ow Mammals.
Early Migrations
of Scandinavian
and North Sibe-
rian Mammals
near the Ice-
fields.
so
REGIONS NEAR
THE ICE-FIELDS
AND GLACIAL
BorDERS.
GEOLOGIC
AND
CLIMATIC
STAGES.
More feces Day he eae Eur-
asiatic Mammals.
‘Warm’ African-
Asiatic Mammals.
Temperate and shel- Cool temperate for-
tered parts of ests and mead-
Western Europe. ows.
Oa
More SHELTERED NON-GLACIATED RE-
GIONS REMOTE FROM THE GLACIAL
BORDERS AND ICE-FIELDS.
MIGRATIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF MAMMALIAN LIFE DURING THE
FOUR GLACIAL, THREE INTERGLACIAL, AND POSTGLACIAL STAGES
43
PERIOD OF
RECENT
ANIMALS.
ee NUR
PERIOD
IN
WESTERN
EUROPE.
PERIOD
OF THE
HIPPOPOTAMUS,
spect:
Eun,
‘OF THE
Bee
Bison
po
EUROPE.
THREE
CHIEF
LIFE
PERIODS.
44 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
and undercoating of wool, such as now characterizes the musk-
ox, one of the living representatives of this northern fauna.
The five great sources of mammalian migration into western
Europe in Pleistocene times were accordingly as follows:
1. WARM PLAINS of northern Africa and of southern Asia. “African:
Asiatic”? fauna—hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant.
2. TEMPERATE MEADOWS AND FORESTS of Europe and Asia. ‘“Eura- —
siatic’’ fauna—deer, bison, horse. |
3. HIGH, COOL MOUNTAIN RANGES—Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Urals.
Fauna—chamois, ibex, ptarmigan. (See Fig. 185.)
4. STEPPES AND DESERTS. Dry, elevated plateaus and steppes of east-
ern Europe and central Asia. Fauna—desert ass and horse, saiga ante-
lope, jerboa. (See Fig. 186.)
5. TUNDRAS AND BARREN GROUNDS within or near the arctic circle.
Fauna—reindeer, musk-ox, arctic fox. (See Figs. 95 and 96.)
(Compare Figs. 14 and 15.)
In the warm plains, forests, and rivers of southern Asia and
northern Africa there developed the elephants, rhinoceroses,
hippopotami, lions, hyznas, and jackals, which, taken together,
may be known as the African-Asiatic fauna. It contains alto-
gether fourteen species of mammals. The great geographic area
from the far east to the far west over which ranged similar or
identical species of these pachyderms and carnivores is indicated
by the oblique lines in the geographic chart (Fig. 15).
The north temperate belt of Asia and Europe, with its hardy —
forests and genial meadows, was the home of the even more
highly varied Eurasiatic Forest and Meadow fauna. This includes
twenty-six or more species. Of these the red deer, or stag, was
most characteristic of the forests and the bison and wild cattle* of
the meadows. Even at the very beginning of Pleistocene times
there appear the stag, the wild boar, and the roe-deer with their
natural pursuers, the wolf and the brown bear. From the northern
woods came the moose and the wolverene. Most of these mam-
mals were so similar to existing forms that the older naturalists
* Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain
and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found.
The prehistoric ‘urus’ and ‘wisent’ of Europe were both found in forests, but this may
not have been their natural habitat in Paleolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV.
MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 45
placed them in existing species, but the tendency now is to sepa-
rate them or place them in distinct subspecies. Mingled with
these forest and meadow mammals were a few others which have
tye =Yore S t= Meadow =
bp
7 MU eed
ati
ed)
a]
fe
La,
“a
myth
ian
v=)
s)
)
™~:
Ile
Yj sig (f
Wie
i ¢ Kel OTe
pt iy
Fic. 15. Zoogeographic map. Range of the large mammals of Africa and southern
Asia in Pliocene and Pleistocene times until nearly the close of the Lower Palzo-
lithic (oblique lines). Range of the forest and meadow fauna of Europe and
Asia from early Pleistocene to prehistoric times; stag and bison fauna (horizontal
lines). Present range of the tundra or barren-ground mammals (dots) which wan-
dered south during the fourth glaciation, expelling the large Asiatic mammals.
Present range of mammals of the deserts and steppes of eastern Europe and
_. southern Asia, which also invaded western Europe during the glacial and Post-. .
glacial stages (vertical lines). The alpine mammals dwelt in the high mountain —
regions and invaded the plains and lowlands during Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial times.
since become extinct, such as the giant deer (Megaceros), the
giant beaver (Trogontherium), and the primitive forest and
meadow horses. From this region also there developed the cave-
bear (Ursus speleus). Certainly it is astonishing to find the re-
mains of these mammals mingled with those from southern Asia
and Africa, as is frequently the case. In early glacial times the
46 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
bison and wild cattle mingled freely with the hippopotami and
rhinoceroses, but in late glacial and Postglacial times they oc-
curred as companions of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.
In prehistoric times they survived with the mammals brought
from the Orient by the Neolithic agriculturists.
During a great glaciation, but especially during the severe
climate of late Pleistocene times, the Alpine mammals were
driven down from the heights into the plains and among the
lower mountains and foot-hills. Thus the ibex, chamois, and
argali sheep from the Altai Mountains are represented both in
drawing and in sculpture by the men of the Reindeer Period.
Still more remarkable is the arrival in Europe of the Steppe
Fauna of Russia and of western Siberia, mammals which now
survive in the vast Kirghiz steppes, east of the Caspian Sea
and the Ural Mountains, where the climate is one of hot, dry
summers and prolonged cold winters, with sweeping dust and
snow storms. These animals are very hardy, alert, and swift of
foot, such as the jerboa, the saiga antelope, the wild asses, and
the wild horses, including the Przewalski type, which still sur-
vives in the desert of Gobi. From this region also came the
Elasmothere (EZ. sibiricum), with its single giant horn above the
eyes. Very distinctive of the fauna frequenting the caverns are
the small rodents, including the dwarf pikas, the steppe hamsters,
and the lemmings. These animals were attracted into Europe
during the ‘steppe’ and ‘loess’ periods of cold, dry climate.
The advance of the great Scandinavian glaciers from the
north crowded to the south the Tundra or Barren Ground fauna
of the arctic circle. The herald of this fauna during the First
Glacial Stage was the musk-ox, which appears in Sussex, and then
came the reindeer of the existing Scandinavian type. These
animals are followed by the woolly mammoth (E. primigenius)
and the woolly rhinoceros (D. antiquitatis) with their panoply of
hair and wool which had long been developing in the north.
Finally in the Fourth Glacial Stage arrived the lemming of the
river Obi, also the more northern banded lemming, the arctic
fox, the wolverene, and the ermine, as well as the arctic hare.
MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 47
These tundra mammals for a short period mingled in places with
survivors of the African-Asiatic fauna, such as Merck’s rhinoc-
eros and the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus). In general,
they swept southward as far as the Pyrenees over country which
had long been enjoyed by the African-Asiatic mammals, while
the hippopotami and the southern elephants retreated still far-
ther south and became extinct.
The only survivors of the great African-Asiatic fauna in
Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times were the hyenas (H.
crocuta spelea) and the lions (Felis leo spelwa). The lion fre-
quently appears in the drawings of the cavemen.
The various species belonging to these five great faunz ap-
parently succeed each other, and wherever their remains are
mingled with the palzoliths, as along the rivers Somme, Marne,
and Thames, or in the hearths of the shelters and caverns, they
become of extreme interest both in their bearing on the chronology
of man and on the development of human culture, art, and in-
dustry. They also tell the story of the sequence of climatic
conditions both in the regions bordering the glaciers and in the
more temperate regions remote from the ice-caps. Thus they
guide the anthropologist over the difficult gaps where the geologic
record is limited or undecipherable. The general succession of
these great faunz is illustrated in Fig. 14 and also in the above
table.
(1) Lamarck, 1815.1. (77) eccardus,17 50.1.
(2) Schaaffhausen, 1858.1. (18) Mahudel, 1740.1.
(3) Darwin, C., 1909.2. (19) Buckland, 1824.1.
(4) Lamarck, 1809.1. (20) Godwin-Austen, 1840.1.
(5) Lyell, 1863.1, pp. 84-80. (21) Christol, 1829.1.
(6) Darwin, C., 1871.1, p. 146. (22) Schmerling, 1833.1.
(7) Darwin, C., 1909.1, p. 158. (23) Boucher de Perthes, 1846.1.
(8) Retzius, A., 1864.1, p. 27. (24) Op. cit.
(9) Ob. cit., p. 166. (25) Rigollot, 1854.1.
(10) Broca, 1875.1. (26) Lubbock, 1862.1.
(11) Schwalbe, G., 1914.1, p. 592. (27) Avebury, 1913.1, pp. 2, 8.
(12) Cartailhac, 1903.1. (28) Lartet, 1861.1.
(13) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I. (29) Lartet, 1875.1.
(14) Reinach, S., 1889.1. (30) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 165.
(15) Schmidt, 1912.1. (31) de Mortillet, 1869.1.
(16) Avebury, 1913.1. (32) Piette, E., 1907.1.
48 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
(33) Riviére 1897.1.
(34) de Sautuola, 1880.1.
(35) Schmidt, 1912.1.
(36) Bourgeois, 1867.1.
(37) Schmidt, op. cit:, p. 5.
(38) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 170-174;
316-320; 332, 545.
(39) Charpentier, 1841.1.
(40) Agassiz, 1837.1; 1840.1; 1840.2.
(41) Morlot, 1854.1.
(42) Chamberlin, 1895.1; 1905.1, vol.
III, chap. XIX, pp. 327-516.
(43) Salisbury, 1905.1.
(44) Penck, 1909.1.
(45) Leverett, 1910.1.
(46) Lyell, 1867.1, vol. I, pp. 2093-
SOT MOTT de VOL peso
(47) Dana, 1875.1, p. 501.
(48) Walcott, 1893.1.
(49) Upham, 1893.1, p. 217.
(50) Heim, 1894.1.
(51) Sollas, 1go00.1.
(52) Penck, r909.1, vol. III, pp. 1153-
1176;
(53) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 302.
(54) Reeds, rors.t.
(55) Niiesch, 1902.1.
(56) Geikie, op. cit., pp. I1I-114.
(5%) OD. Git Datos:
(58) Huntington, 1907.1.
(59) Leverett, 1910.1.
(60) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 132.
(61) Penck, 1908.1; 1909.1.
(62) Geikie, 1914.1, Pp. 312.
(63) Wiegers, 1913.1.
(64) Boule, 1888.1.
(65) Schuchardt, 1913.1, p. 144.
(66) Obermaier, 1909.2; 1912.1.
(67) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 266.
(68. Penck, 1909.1, vol. III, p. 1168,
Fig. 136.
(69) Neumayr, 1800.1, vol. II, p. 621.
(7o) Martins, 1847.1, pp. 941, 942.
(71) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 386-427.
GAP TERS 1
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES — PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS,
AND LIFE OF WESTERN EUROPE — TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTO-
CENE, OR AGE OF MAN — THE FIRST GLACIATION, ITS EFFECTS ON
CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND ANIMAL LIFE — THE PREHUMAN TRINIL
RACE OF JAVA—THE EOLITHS OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS — THE SEC-
OND GLACIATION — THE HEIDELBERG, EARLIEST KNOWN HUMAN
RACE — THE THIRD GLACIATION
THE partly known ancestors of the anthropoid apes and the
unknown ancestors of man probably originated among the for-
ests and flood-plains of southern Asia and early began to migrate
westward into northern Africa and western Europe.
As early as Oligocene times a forerunner of the great apes
(Propliopithecus), most nearly resembling the gibbons, appears
in the desert bordering the Fayum in northern Egypt. Early in
Miocene times true tree-living gibbons found their way into
Europe and continued throughout the Pliocene in the forms
known as Pliopithecus and Pliohylobates, the latter being a true
gibbon in its proportions; it ranged northward into the present
region of Germany. Another ape which early reached Europe
is the Dryopithecus; it is found in Miocene times in southern
France; the grinding-teeth suggest those of the orang, the jaw
is deep and in some ways resembles that of the Piltdown man.
A third ape (Veopithecus) occurs in the Lower Pliocene near
Eppelsheim, in Germany, and is known only from a single lower
molar tooth, which recalls the dentition of Dryopithecus and more
remotely that of Homo. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik hills of
Asia is found Pale@opithecus, a generalized form which is believed
to be related to the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and the gibbon; the
upper premolars resemble those of man.
None of these fossil anthropoids either of Europe or of Asia
can be regarded as ancestral to man, although both Neopithecus
49
50 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
and Dryopithecus have been placed in or near the line of human
ancestry by such high authorities as Branco and Gaudry. When
Dryopithecus was first discovered by Lartet, Gaudry’ considered
it to be by far the most manlike of all the apes, even attributing
to it sufficient intelligence for the working of flints, but fuller
Fic. 16. The gibbon is primitive in its skull and dentition, but extremely special-
ized in the adaptation of its limbs to arboreal life. Photograph
from the New York Zoological Park.
knowledge of this animal has shown that some of the living
anthropoids are more manlike than Dryopithecus. ‘This animal
is closely related to the ancestral stock of the chimpanzee,
gorilla, and orang. The jaw, it is true, resembles that of the
Piltdown man (Eoanthropus), but the grinding-teeth are much
more primitive and there is little reason to think that it is an-
cestral to any human type.*
* A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of
Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain (see Woodward, 1914.2).
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 51
Among these fossil anthropoids, as well as among the four
living forms, we discover no evidence of direct relationship to
man but very strong evidence of descent from the same ances-
tral stock. These proofs of common ancestry, which have already
been observed in the existing races of man, become far more
conspicuous in the ancient Paleolithic races; in fact, we cannot
interpret the anatomy of the men of the Old Stone Age without
Fic. 17. The orang has a high rounded skull and long face. Photograph
from the New York Zoological Park.
a survey of the principal characters of the existing anthropoid
apes, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla.
The gibbon is the most primitive of living apes in its skull
and dentition, but the most specialized in the length of its arms
and its other extreme adaptations to arboreal life. As in the
other anthropoids, the face is abbreviated, the narial region is
narrow, 7. e., catarrhine, and the brain-case is widened, but the
top of the skull is smooth, and the forehead lacks the promi-
nent ridges above the orbits; thus the profile of the skull of
52 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
the gibbon (Fig. 16) is more human than that of the other an-
thropoid apes. When on the ground the gibbon walks erect and
is thus afforded the free use of its arms and independent move-
ments of its fingers. In the brain there is a striking develop-
ment of the centres of sight, touch, and hearing. It is these
characteristics of the modern gibbon which preserve with rela-
Fic. 18. The chimpanzee. This figure illustrates the walking powers of the
chimpanzee, the great length of the arms, and the abbreviation of the
legs. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park.
tively slight changes the type of the original ancestor of ee
as noted by Elliot Smith.?
The limbs of the orang are less elongated and less extremely
specialized for arboreal life than those of the gibbon but more
so than those of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The skull is
rounded and of great vertical height, with broad, bony ridges
above the orbits and a great median crest on top of the skull in
old males. The lower jaw of the orang is stout and deep, and,
although used as a fighting weapon, the canine tusks are much
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 53
less prominent than in either the gibbon, chimpanzee, or
gorilla.
In the chimpanzee we observe the very prominent bony ridges
above the eyes, like those in the Trinil and Neanderthal races
of men. Of all the anthropoid apes the lower jaw of the chim-
Fic. 19. The chimpanzee. This figure shows certain facial characteristics
which are preserved in the Neanderthal race of men. Note also the
shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe. Photograph
from the New York Zoological Park.
panzee most nearly resembles that of the Piltdown man. The
prognathous or protruding tooth rows and receding chin sug-
gest those in the Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal races.
When the chimpanzee is walking (Fig. 18) the arms reach down
below the level of the knees, whereas in the higher races of man
they reach only half-way down the thighs.
54 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Thus, the fore limb, although much shorter than that of the gib-
bon, is relatively longer than that of any human race, recent or
We observe also in the walking chimpanzee (Fig. 18)
ancient.
EXISTING GIBBON. MAN CHIMPANZEE. GORILLA. ORANG.
APES AND Asia. (Homo sapiens). Africa. Africa. Asia.
Man. Asia, Europe. ; /
Cré-Magnon and
other races.
/
More primitive spe- i /
cies, human and /
GLACIAL OR prehuman. / /
PLEISTOCENE : i / Macaque
AGE. Neanderthal race. ' ! 3 of Eu-
| i / rope.
H Piltdown race. H { / :
{ H i / H
2 / H
| Heidelberg race. i / / '
; |
{ sks | fl /
Trinil race ‘ /
Primitive Gib- (Pithecanthropus). Ancestral anthro- / Macaques
PLIOCENE bon of Eu- poids of Asia | of Asia
AGE. rope tate / and
(Pliohylobates). Unknown Pliocene bho Europe.
ancestors of man. /
: if
: : ae
oF : :
MI0cENE Primitive anthropoids A
AGE. Earliest ‘Gibbons i of Asia and Europe. /
of Europe i / /
(Pliopithecus). v uf A
i j AE. eT js
A ne & we
Ancestral anthro- Small monkeys
OLIGOCENE, poids of Egypt of Egypt.
(Propliopithecus). ie
\ a
Ne a
Unknown ancestral stock
of the Old World pri-
mates, including man.
ANCESTRAL TREE OF THE ANTHROPOID APES AND OF MAN
From the unknown and ancestral stock of the anthropoid apes and man the GIBBON was the first
to branch off in Oligocene times; the ORANG then branched off in a widely different direction.
The stem of the CHIMPANZEE and of the GorILLA branched off at a more recent date and is
more nearly allied to that of man. Five early human races have been found in Europe in
Glacial or Pleistocene times, but no traces of other primates except the macaques, which are
related to the lower division of the baboons, have been found in Europe in Pleistocene times,
Modified after Gregory. (For latest discovery see Appendix, Note VII.)
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 55
that the upper part of the leg, the thigh-bone, or femur, is rela-
tively long, while the lower part, the shin-bone, or tibia, is rela-
tively short. Indeed, both in the arm and in the leg the upper
bones are relatively long and the lower bones are relatively short.
These proportions, which are inheritances of arboreal life, are
in very marked contrast to those observed in the arms and
Fic. 20. The Gorilla. An immature female, about three years of age,
showing none of the adult male characteristics. Photo-
graph from the New York Zoological Park.
legs of the Neanderthal race of men, in which the limbs are of
the terrestrial or walking type.
We observe also in the chimpanzee a contrast between the
grasping power of the big toe, which is a kind of thumb, and the
lack of that power in the hand, in which the thumb is nearly
useless ; in all apes this function is characteristic of the foot, in
man of the hand alone. The opposable thumb, with its power of
bringing the thumb against each of the fingers, is the one char-
acter which is lacking in every one of the anthropoid apes and
which was early developed among the ancestors of man.
The skull of the chimpanzee is longer than that of the orang,
the most prominent feature in the top view being the extreme
protuberance of the orbits, which are surrounded by a supra-
56 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
orbital and circumorbital bony ridge, which is also strongly de-
veloped in the Neanderthal skull as well as in the Pithecanthropus
or Trinil skull but, so far as we know, is entirely lacking in that
of Piltdown. Asin the orang and the gorilla, a crest develops
along the middle of the top of the skull for the insertion of the
powerful muscles of the jaws, a crest which is wholly wanting
in the gibbon and probably wanting in all the true ancestors
of man. |
The gorilla illustrates in the extreme the specializations which
are begun in the chimpanzee, and which are attributable to a
Fic. 21. Contrast of the projecting face (prognathism), retreating forehead, and
small brain-case of a young gorilla, as compared with the vertical face, promi-
nent nose, high forehead, and large brain-case of a high race of man. After
Klaatsch.
life partly arboreal, partly terrestrial, with the skull and jaws used
as powerful fighting organs. The head is lengthened by the for-
ward growth of the muzzle into an extreme prognathism. ‘The
limbs and body of the gorilla show a departure from the primitive,
slender-limbed, arboreal type of apes and are partly adapted to
a bipedal, ground-dwelling habit.
As regards psychic evolution,’ Elliot Smith observes that the
arboreal mode of life of the early ancestors of man developed
quick, alert, and agile movements which stimulated the progress-
ive development of the posterior and lateral portions of the
brain. The sense of smell had been well developed in a previous
terrestrial life, but once these creatures left the earth and took
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 57
to the trees, guidance by the olfactory sense was less essential,
for life amidst the branches of the trees is most favorable to the
high development of the senses of vision, touch, and hearing.
Moreover, it demands an agility and quickness of movement
that necessitate efficient motor centres in the brain to co-ordinate
and control such actions as tree life calls for. The specialization
of sight awakens curiosity to examine objects with greater mi-
\
SELF CONTROL /
ATTENTION
CONDUCT
Fic. 22. Side view of a human brain of high type, showing the chief areas of
muscular control and of the sensory impressions of sight and hearing, also the
prefrontal area in which the higher mental faculties are centred. Modified after
M. Allen Starr.
nuteness and guides the hands to more precise and skilled move-
ments.
The anatomy of man is full of remote reminders of this orig-
inal arboreal existence, which also explains the very large and
early development of the posterior portions of the brain, in which
the various senses of sight, touch, and hearing are located.
The first advance from arboreal to terrestrial life is marked
by the power of walking more or less erect on the hind limbs and
thus releasing the arms; this power is developed to a greater or
less degree in all the anthropoid apes; with practice they become
58 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
expert walkers. The additional freedom which the erect atti-
tude gives to the arms and to the movements of the hands and
the separate movements of the fingers is especially noticeable in
the gibbon. The cultivation of the powers of the hand reacts
upon the further growth and specialization of the brain; thus
the brain and the erect attitude react upon each other. In
Fic. 23. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (side view) of typical human
and prehuman brains, showing the early development of the posterior por-
tions of the brain and the relatively late development of the anterior portions,
the seat of the higher mental faculties.
the gibbon there is a marked increase in the size of those por-
tions of the brain which supply the centres of touch, vision, and
hearing.
Discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has
chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four lines of structural evo-
lution: first, the assumption of the erect attitude; second, the
development of the opposable thumb; third, the growth of the
brain; and fourth, the acquisition of the power of speech. ‘The
argument for the erect attitude suggested by Lamarck, and ably
put by Munro! in 1893, indicates that the cultivation of skill
ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 59
with the hands and fingers lies at the root of man’s mental su-
premacy. Elliot Smith’s argument that the steady growth and
specialization of the brain itself has been the chief factor in lead-
ing the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that
Fic. 24. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (top view) of typical human
and prehuman brains, showing the narrow forebrain of the primitive type
and the successive expansion of the seat of the higher mental faculties in
the successive races.
such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about be-
cause the brain had made possible the skilled movements of
the hands.
The true conception of prehuman evolution, which occurred
during Miocene and Pliocene times, is rather that of the coin-
cident development of these four distinctively human powers.
It appears from the limb proportions in the Neanderthal race
60 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed
much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined. The
intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and
the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sus-
tained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of
developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant
use of the hands, for the action and reaction between hand and
brain is found to develop the mind. A similar action and reac-
tion between foot and brain developed the erect gait which re-
leased the hand from its locomotive and limb-grasping function,
and by the resultant perfecting of the motion of thumbs and fin-
gers turned the hand into an organ ready for the increasing
specialization demanded by the manufacture of flint imple-
ments.
This is the stage reached, we believe, in late Pliocene times
in which the human ancestor emerges from the age of mammals
and enters the age of man, the period when the prehistory of
man properly begins. ‘The attitude is erect, the hand has a well-
developed opposable thumb, the centres of the brain relating to
the higher senses and to the control of all the motions of the
limbs, hands, and fingers are well developed. The power of
speech may still be rudimentary. The anterior centres of the
brain for the storing of experience and the development of ideas
are certainly very rudimentary.
-CHANGE OF ENVIRONMENT IN EUROPE
Considering that the origin and development of any creature
are best furthered by a struggle for existence sufficiently severe
to demand the full and frequent exercise of its powers of mind
and body, it is interesting to trace the sequence of natural events
which prepared western Europe for the entrance of the earliest
branches of the human race. The forests and plants portray
even more vividly than the animals the changing conditions of
the environment and temperature which marked the approach
and various vicissitudes of the great Ice Age.
PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE 61
The forests of central France in Pliocene times, as well as
those of the valley of the Arno in northern Italy, were very similar
to the forests of the middle United States at the present time,
comprising such trees as the sassafras, the locust, the honey-
locust, the sumach, the bald cypress, and the tulip. Thus the
regions which harbored the rich forest and meadow fauna of
northern Italy in Upper Pliocene times abounded in trees fa-
miliar to-day in North and South Carolina, including even such
distinctively American forms as the sweet gum (Liguidambar
styraciflua), the sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica), and the bay, beside
those above mentioned. To the south, along the Mediterranean,
there also flourished trees incident to a more tropical climate, the
bamboo, the sabal palm, and the dwarf fan-palm; most interest-
ing is the presence of the sabal, which now flourishes in the sub-
tropical rain forests of central Florida. The sequoia also was
abundant. ‘Toward the close of the Pliocene the first indications
of the coming Glacial Epoch were a lowering of the temperature,
and, in the higher mountainous areas perhaps, a beginning of the
glacial stages.
The ancestors of the modern forests of Europe predominated
in central France: the oak, the beech, the poplar, the willow, and
the larch. It is these forests, which survived the vicissitudes of
glacial times, that gave descent to the forests of Postglacial
Europe, while all the purely American types disappeared from
Europe and are now found only in the temperate regions of the.
United States.°
_ We have seen that few anthropoid apes have been Heeraed
either in the Middle or Upper Pliocene of Europe; the gibbon-
ape line disappears with the Pliohylobates of the Upper Pliocene.
These animals are, however, rarely found in fossil form, owing
to their retreat to the trees in times of flood and danger, so that
we need not necessarily assume that the anthropoids had actually
become extinct in France. The primates which are found in the
Upper Pliocene belong to the lower types of the Old World
monkeys, related to the living langur of India and to the macaque
and baboon. The evidence, as far as it goes, indicates that the
62 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ancestors of man were at this time evolving in Asia and‘not in
Europe. This evidence, nevertheless, would be completely off-
set if it could be proven that the eoliths, or primitive flints, found
in various parts of Europe from Oligocene to Pleistocene times
are really artifacts of human or prehuman origin.
The mammals of Europe in Pliocene times were derived by
very remote migrations from North America and, more directly,
from southern Asia. The Oriental element is very strong, in-
cluding types of rhinoceroses now peculiar to Sumatra and south-
ern Asia, numerous mastodons very similar to the south Asiatic
types of the times, gazelles and antelopes, including types re-
lated to the existing elands, and primitive types of horses and of
tapirs. Among the carnivores in Europe similar to south Asiatic
species were the hyenas, the dog bears (Hyenarctos), the civets,
and the pandas (Azlurus); there were also the sabre-tooth tigers
and numerous other felines. In the trees were found the south
Asiatic and north African monkeys; and in the forests the axis
deer, now restricted to Asia. But the most distinctive African-
Asiatic animal of this period was found in the rivers; namely, the
hippopotamus, which arrived in Italy in the early Pliocene and
ranged south by way of the Sicilian land bridge into northern
Africa and east along the southern shores of the Black Sea to
the Siwalik hills of India. Thus, many of the ancestors of what
we have termed the African-Asiatic mammal group of Pleistocene
times had already found their way into Europe early in Pliocene
times. In middle and late Pliocene times there arrived three
very important types of mammals which played a great rdéle in
the early Pleistocene. These are:
The true horses (Equus stenonis) of remote North American
origin.
The first true cattle (Leptobos elatus), originating in southern
Asia.
The true elephants, first Elephas planifrons and later E. meridi-
onalis, better known as the southern mammoth, both orig-
inating in Asia.
TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTOCENE 63
The forests and river borders of the valley of the Arno, near
Florence, contained all these African-Asiatic animals in Upper
Pliocene times. Here they received their names which remind
us of this region of Italy as it is to-day, such as the Etruscan
rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus etruscus), the Florentine macaque (Ma-
cacus florentinus), Steno’s horse (Equus stenonis), the Etruscan
cattle (Leptobos etruscus), which was the earliest ox to reach
Europe.
In Italy and France these African-Asiatic mammals were
mingled with ancestors of the more hardy Eurasiatic forest and
meadow group. Of these the most graceful were a variety of
deer with very elaborate or many-branched antlers, hence known
as the ‘polycladine’ deer. In the forests roamed the wild boars
of Auvergne (Sus arvernensis), also the bears of Auvergne (Ursus
arvernensis), lynxes, foxes, and wildcats. In the rivers swam the
otter and the beaver, closely allied to existing forms. Among the
rocks of the high hills were the pikas or tailless hares (Lagomys),
also hamsters, moles, and shrews.
Many of the most characteristic animals of the dry modern
plateaus of Africa had disappeared from Europe before the close
of Pliocene times, namely, species of gazelles, antelopes, and the
hipparion horses, all of which were adapted to the dry uplands
or deserts of Africa. In the remaining fawne Pliocene récente of
French authors we find evidence that the Pliocene in all of western
Europe closed with a moist, warm, temperate climate, with wide-
spread forests and rivers interspersed with meadows favorable
to the life of a great variety of browsing deer as well as of grazing
elephants, horses and cattle. The flora of the Middle Pliocene
as found at Meximieux indicates a mean annual temperature of
62° to 63° Fahr.
One of the proofs of the gradual lowering of temperature
toward the close of Pliocene times in Europe is the southward
retreat and disappearance of the apes and monkeys; the Upper
Miocene gibbon is found as far north as Eppelsheim, near
Worms, Germany; in Lower Pliocene times the monkeys and apes
are found only in the forests of the south of France; in Upper
64 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Pliocene times they are recorded only in the forests of northern
Italy ; the evidence, so far as it goes, indicates a gradual retreat
toward the south.
Finally, at the end of the Pliocene there existed very close
geographic relations eastward with the mammalian life of India
by way of what was then the isthmus of the Dardanelles and
southward with the mammalian life of Africa by way of the
Sicilian land bridge. This would indicate that the long lines of
eastward and westward migration were open and favorable to the
arrival in western Europe of new migrants from the far east,
including perhaps the most primitive races of man. There 1s not
the least evidence that Pliocene man or ancestors of man existed in
Europe, excepting such as may be afforded by the problematic
eoliths, or most primitive flints.
THe First GLACIATION
In Upper Pliocene times cold marine currents® from the north
began to flow along the southeastern coast of England, with in-
dications of a gradually lowering temperature culminating at a
time when the sea abounded in the arctic mollusks, which have
been preserved in the ‘Weybourn Crags,’ a geologic formation
along the coast of Norfolk. This arctic current was the herald
of the First Glacial Stage.
It does not appear that a glacial cap of any considerable
extent was formed in Great Britain at this stage, but about this
time the first great ice-cap was formed in British North America
west of Hudson Bay, which sent its ice-sheets as far south as
Iowa and Nebraska. In the latter State forests of spruce and
other coniferous species indicate the appearance of a cool tem-
perate flora in advance of the glaciation. In the Swiss Alps the
snow descended 1,200 meters below the present snow-line, and
in Scandinavia and northern Germany the first great ice-sheets
were formed from which flowed the glaciers and rivers convey-
ing the ‘Old Diluvium,’ or the ‘oldest drift.’ Accompanying the
cold wave along the eastern coast of England we note, in the
famous fossil deposits known as the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’
THE FIRST GLACIATION 65
which overlie the Weybourn Crags, the arrival from the north
of the fir-tree (Abies). This is most significant, because it had
hitherto been known only in the arctic region of Grinnell Land,
and this was its first appearance in central Europe. Another
|
STS
as
SS
ap]
Y
200 400 600 800 1000
ee a ee
Kilometers
Fic. 25. The First (Giinz) Glacial Stage was far less extensive than that in the above map,
which shows Europe in the Second Glacial Stage, during the greatest extension of the
ice-fields and glaciers (dots), a period of continental depression in which the Mediter-
ranean, Black, and Caspian Seas were connected. ‘The line from Scandinavia to the
Atlas Mountains corresponds with the section shown in Fig. 13, p. 37. Drawn by
C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie and Penck.
herald of northern conditions was the first occurrence of the
musk-ox in England, which is attributed’ to the ‘Forest Bed’
deposits.
While Great Britain was less affected at this time than other
regions, there is no doubt as to the vast extent of the First Glacial
Stage in British America, in Scandinavia, and in the Alps; in the
latter region it has been termed ‘the Giinz stage’ by Penck and
Briickner. The ‘drift’ deposits have a general thickness of 9814
66 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
feet (30 m.), but they are largely covered and buried by those
of the far more extensive Second Glacial Stage. The Scandi-
navian ice-sheet® not only occupied the basin of the Baltic but
overflowed Scania—the southern part of Sweden—and extended
as far south as Hamburg and Berlin. In the Alps the glaciers
Fic. 26. ‘The musk-ox, belonging to the tundra region of the arctic circle, which is
reported to have migrated as far south as the southern coast of
England during the First (Ganz) Glacial Stage.
passed down all the great mountain valleys to the low grounds of
the foreland, implying a depression of the snow-line to 4,000 feet
below its present level.
THe First INTERGLACIAL STAGE. Se DoE.
Proofs that a prolonged cool wave passed over Britain dur-
ing the first glaciation are seen in its after effects, namely, in the
modernization of the forests and in the disappearance both in
Britain and France of a very considerable number of animals
which were abundant in Upper Pliocene times. Yet by far the
greater part of the Pliocene mammal life survived, a fact which
tends to show that, while very cold conditions of climate and
great precipitation of moisture may have characterized the regions
immediately surrounding the ice-fields, the remainder of western
Europe at most passed through a prolonged cool period during
THE FIRST INTERGLACIAL STAGE 67
the climax of the First Glacial Stage. This was followed during
the First Interglacial by the return of a period somewhat warmer
than the present.
This First Interglacial Stage is known as the Norfolkian, from
the fact that it was first recognized in Europe in the deposits
known as the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk, which contain
rich records not only of the forests of the period, but of the noble
forms of mammals which roamed over Great Britain and France
in Norfolkian times. The forests of Norfolk, in latitude 52° 40’ N.
mainly abounded in trees still indigenous to this region, such as
the maple, elm, birch, willow, alder, oak, beech, pine, and spruce,
a forest flora closely corresponding to that of the Norfolk and
Suffolk coasts of England at the present time, although we find
in this fossil flora several exotic species which give it a slightly
different character.’ From this tree flora Reid concludes that
the climate of southeastern England was nearly the same as at
present but slightly warmer.
We note especially that a very great change had taken place
in the entire disappearance in these forests of the trees which in
Pliocene times were common to Europe and America, as described
above; in other words, the flora of Europe was greatly impover-
ished during the first cold wave.
In southern France, as at the present time, the interglacial
climatic conditions were milder, for we find numerous species
of plants, which are now represented in the Caucasus, Persia,
southern Italy, Portugal, and Japan. Thus the First Intergla-
cial Stage, which was a relatively short one, enjoyed a tempera-
ture now belonging about 4° of latitude farther south. a
This First Interglacial Stage is also known as the St.-Prestzen,
because among the many localities in France and Italy which
preserve the plant and mammal life of the times that of St. Prest,
in the Paris basin, is the most famous. Here in 1863 Desnoyers””
first reported the discovery of a number of mammal bones with
incision lines upon them, which he considered to be the work of
man. ‘These deposits were regarded at the time as of Pliocene
age, and this gave rise immediately to a wide-spread theory
68 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of the appearance of man as early as the Pliocene. The human
origin of the incisions discovered by Desnoyers has long been a
matter of dispute and is now regarded as very improbable. Sim-
ilar lines may be of animal origin, namely, marks left by claws
Fic. 27. The giant deer (Megaceros), which first appears in western Europe during the
First Interglacial Stage, probably as a migrant from the forested regions of Eurasia,
After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History,
or teeth, or due to accidental pressure of sharp cutting surfaces.
However, we do not pretend to express an opinion of any value
as to the cause of these incisions. Supposed confirmation of the
evidence of Desnoyers of the existence of Pliocene man was the
alleged finding by Abbott of several worked flints, two im situ, in
the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk. Many years later in sim-
ilar deposits at St. Prest were discovered the supposed ‘eoliths’
which have been referred to the Etage Prestien by Rutot. The
age of the St. Prest deposits is, therefore, a matter of the very
highest interest and importance.
EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 69
St. Prest is not Pliocene; it is rather the most ancient Pleis-
tocene deposit in the basin of Paris,'’ and these incised mammal
bones probably date from the First Interglacial Stage. The bed
which has yielded the incised bones and the rich series of fossils
consists of coarse river sands and gravels, forming part of a ‘high
terrace,’ 98% feet (30 m.) above the present level of the river
Eure. ‘This, like other ‘high terraces,’ contains a characteristic
First Interglacial fauna, including the southern mammoth (E.
meridionalis), and Steno’s horse (E. stenonis). We also find here
other very characteristic early Pleistocene mammals, such as the
Etruscan rhinoceros (D. etruscus), the giant hippopotamus of
early Pleistocene times (H. major), the giant beaver of the early
Pleistocene (Trogontherium), three forms of the common beaver
(Castor), and one of the bison (Bison antiquus). This mammalian
life of St. Prest is very similar to that of Norfolk, England; to
that of Malbattu in central France, Puy-de-Déme; of Peyrolles,
near the mouth of the Rhéne, in southern France; of Solilhac
near Puy; of Durfort, Gard; of Cajarc, Lot-et-Garonne; and
finally to that of the valley of the Arno, in northern Italy.
One reason why certain authors, such as Boule and Depéret,
have placed this stage in the Upper Pliocene is that the mam-
mals include so many surviving Pliocene forms, such as the
sabre-tooth tigers (Macherodus), the ‘polycladine’ deer with the
elaborate antlers (C. sedgwicki), the Etruscan rhinoceros, and
the primitive Steno’s horse. But we have recently discovered
that, with the exception of the ‘polycladine’ deer, these mam-
mals certainly survived in Europe as late as the Second Inter-
glacial Stage, and there is said to be evidence that some even
persisted into the Third Interglacial Stage.
It is, therefore, the extinction or disappearance from Europe
of many of the animals very abundant even in late Pliocene
times which marks this fauna as early Pleistocene. Anthropoid
apes are no longer found; indeed, there is no evidence of the
survival of any of the primates, except macaques, which survive
in the Pyrenees to late Pleistocene times; the tapir has entirely
disappeared from the forests of Europe; but the most signifi-
70 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
cant departure is that of the mastodon, which is believed to
have lingered in north Africa and which certainly survived in
America into very late Pleistocene times. The animal life of
western Europe, like the plant life, has lost one part of its
Pliocene aspect while retaining another part, both in its mamma-
lian fauna and in its forest flora.
The living environment as a whole, moreover, takes on a
novel aspect through the arrival, chiefly from the north, of the
Fic. 28. The sabre-tooth tiger (Wacherodus), which survives from the Upper Pliocene
and is widely distributed over western Europe until the Middle Pleistocene. After
a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History.
more hardy animals and plants which had been evolving for a
very long period of time in the temperate forests and meadows
of Eurasia to the northeast and northwest. From this Eurasiatic
region came the stag, or red deer (Cervus elaphus), also the giant
deer (Megaceros), and from the northerly swamps the broad-
headed moose (Alces latifrons). The presence of members of the
deer family (Cervide) in great numbers and representing many
different lines of descent is one of the most distinctive features
of First Interglacial times. Beside the new northerly forms
mentioned above, there was the roe-deer (Capreolus), which still
survives in Europe, but there is no longer any record of the
EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 71
beautiful axis deer (Axis), which has now retreated to southern
Asia. The ‘polycladine’ deer, first observed in the valley of the
Arno, is represented in First Interglacial times by Sedgwick’s
deer (C. sedgwicki), in Norfolk, and by the species C. dicranius
of northern Italy, where there also occurs the ‘deer of the Car-
nutes’ (C. carnutorum).
We observe that browsing, forest-living, and river-living types
predominate. Among the forest-frequenting carnivores were the
wolverene, the otter, two kinds of bear, the wolf, the fox, and
the marten; another forest dweller was a wild boar, related to
the existing Sus scrofa of Europe.
Thus in the very beginning of Pleistocene times the forests of
Europe were full of a wild life very similar to that of prehistoric
times, mingled with which was the Oriental element, the great
elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami connecting Europe with
the far east. Among these eastern migrants in the early Pleis-
tocene were two new arrivals, the primitive wild cattle (Bos
primigenius), and the first of the bison (Bison priscus).
The theoretical map of western Europe during First Inter-
glacial times (Fig. 12, also Fig. 56) enables us to understand
these migrations from the northeast and from the Orient. As in-
dicated by the sunken river channels discovered on the old con-
tinental shelf, the coast-line extended far to the west to the bor-
ders of the continental plateau which is now sunk deep beneath
the ocean; the British Isles were separated from France not by
the sea but by a broad valley, while the Rhine, with the Thames
as a western tributary flowed northward over an extensive flood-
plain, which is the present floor of the North Sea basin.” It is
not improbable that the rich mammalian life deposits in the
‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Norfolk, were washed down by tribu-
taries of this ancient Rhine River.
In all the great rivers of this enlarged western Europe occurred
the hippopotami, and along the river borders and in the forests
browsed the Etruscan rhinoceros. Among the grazing and
meadow-living forms of the Norfolk country of Britain were
species of wild cattle (Bos, Leptobos), together with two species
72 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of horses, including a lighter form resembling Steno’s horse (E.
stenonis cocchi) of the Val d’Arno and a heavier type probably
belonging to the forests. The giant elephant of this period is the
southern mammoth (E. meridionalis trogontherit), a somewhat
specialized descendant of the Pliocene southern mammoth of the
valley of the Arno; this animal is best known from a superb
specimen discovered at Durfort (Fig. 42) and preserved in the
Paris Museum. It is said to have attained a height of over 12
feet as compared with 11 feet 3 inches, the height of the largest
existing African elephants. It is probable that all these south
Asiastic migrants into Europe were partially or wholly covered
with hair, in adaptation to the warm, temperate climate of the
summers and the cool winters. To the south, in the still milder
climate of Italy, the arrival of another great species, known as
the ‘ancient’ or ‘straight-tusked elephant’ (EZ. antiquus), is re-
corded. This animal had not yet reached France or Britain.
Preying upon the defenseless members of this heterogeneous
fauna were the great macherodonts, or sabre-tooth tigers, which
ranged over Europe and northern Africa and into Asia. It
does not appear that the true lions (Felis leo) had as yet entered
Europe.
An intercommunication of life over a vast area extending
6,000 miles from the Thames valley on the west to India on the
southeast is indicated by the presence of six or more similar or
related species of elephants and rhinoceroses. Twenty-five hun-
dred miles southeast of the foot-hills of the Himalayas similar
herds of mammals, but in an earlier stage of evolution, roamed
over the island of Java, which was then a part of the Asiatic
mainland.
THE TRINIL RACE OF JAVA
The human interest in this great life throng lies in the fact
that the migration routes opened by these great races of animals
may also have afforded a pathway for the earliest races of men.
Thus the discovery of the Trinil race in central Java, amidst a
THE TRINIL RACE 73
fauna closely related to that of the foot-hills of the Himalayas
and more remotely related to that of southern Europe, has
a more direct bearing upon our subject than would at first
appear.
On the Bengawan River in central Java, a Dutch army sur-
geon, Eugen Dubois, had been excavating for fossils in the hope
of finding prehuman remains. In the year 1891 he found near
Trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones, including a single
upper molar tooth which he regarded as that of a new species of
Fic. 29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, modelled
by the Belgian artist Mascré, under the direction of
Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels, Belgium.
ape. On carefully clearing away the rock the top of a skull ap-
peared at about a meter’s distance from the tooth. Further ex-
cavation at the close of the rainy season brought to light a second
molar tooth and a left thigh-bone about 15 meters from the spot
where the skull was found, imbedded and fossilized in the same
manner. These scattered parts were described by Dubois® in
1894 as the type of Pithecanthropus erectus,* a term signifying the
* There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utilized in the present de-
scription includes Dubois, Fischer,* Schwalbe,'® Biichner,'®
74 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
upright-standing ape-man. ‘The specific term erectus refers to
the thigh-bone, of which the author observes: “We must there-
fore conclude that the femur of Pithecanthropus was designed for
the same mechanical functions as that of man. The two articu-
lations and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the same
parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between the form
and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that this
Fic. 30. The Solo or Bengawan River in central Java. Scene of the discovery of the
type specimen of Pithecanthropus erectus in 1894. After Selenka and
Blanckenhorn. Compare map (Fig. 32, p. 75).
fossil creature had the same upright posture as man and likewise
walked on two legs. . . . From this it necessarily follows that
the creature had the free use of the upper extremities—now su-
perfluous for walking—and that these last were no doubt already
far advanced in that line of differentiation which developed them
in mankind into tools and organs of touch. . . . From a study
of the femur and skull it follows with certainty that this fossil
cannot be classified as simian. . . . And, as with the skull, so
also with the femur, the differences that separate Pithecanthropus
from man are less than those distinguishing it from the highest
anthropoid. . . . Although far advanced in the course of differ-
entiation, this Pleistocene form had not yet attained to the human
THE TRINIL RACE 75
type. Pithecanthropus erectus is the transition form between
man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach us.
must have existed. He is the ancestor of man.’’
Thus the author placed Pithecanthropus in a new family, of
the order Primates, which he named the Pithecanthropide.
The geologic age Vatoie
of the bones referred SELL OLS RE
to is a matter of first |
’ Pleistocene
importance. ‘The re- and Recent NNE
° - Yvium
mains of Puithecan- Neogene
thropus lay in a de-
posit about one meter 7 80 Kilomerers
in thickness, consist- Fic. 31. Geological section of the volcano of Lawoe
: in the Solo River basin. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.
ing of loose, coarse,
tufaceous sandstones, below this a stratum of hard, blue-
gray clay, and under that marine breccia. Above the Pith-
ecanthropus layer were the ‘Kendeng’ strata, a many-layered
tufaceous sandstone, about 15 meters in thickness. This geo-
logic series was considered by Dubois and others to be of late
, Tertiary or Plio-
Scale 1: 4800 TRIN/L cene ave; — Pithe-
) x 3 canthropus ac-
cordingly became
known as the long-
awaited ‘Pliocene
ape-man.’ Subse-
quent researches
by expert geolo-
gists have tended
to refer the age to
Fic. 32. Map of the Solo River, showing the Pithecan- the early Pleisto-
thropus discovery site, also two excavations (Pit No. 1, i :
Pit No. 2) in the ancient gravel of the river-bottom, made cene. According
by the Selenka-Blanckenhorn expedition of 1907. After to Elbert?8 the
Selenka and Blanckenhorn.
Kendeng strata
overlying the Pithecanthropus layer correspond to an early plu-
vial period of low temperature and, in point of time, to the
76 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Ice Age of Europe. For even in Java one can distinguish
three divisions of the Pleistocene period, including the first
period of low temperature to which the Pithecanthropus layer is
referred.
The fossil mammals contained in the Pithecanthropus layer
have also been thoroughly studied,'? and they tend to confirm
the original reference to the uppermost Pliocene. They yield a
very rich fauna similar to that of the Siwalik hills of India, in-
cluding the porcupine, pangolin, several felines, the hyzna, and
Friver Solo
Fithecanthropus 90M
fe water mark of Ri ver Solo aoirtrt ind So
| | SS 75M
age ceeeee eee wee! | 70M
af 2 iP5°6 EC rats All d 65M above
Sea leve/
Fic. 33. Section corresponding to line A—B in Fig. 32, showing the river-drift gravels
and sands at the point where the skull-top of Pithecanthropus
was found. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.
Recent 7 River wash, blue-black clay.
( 6 Light-colored sandstone, like tuff.
| 5 Gray tuff with balls of clay, fresh-water shells.
4 White streaked sandstone resembling tufa.
3 Blue-black clay with plant remains. —
2 Bone-bearing stratum. Pithecanthrobus.
1 Lahar conglomerate.
Pleistocene
the otter. Among the primates beside Pithecanthropus there is a
macaque. Among the larger ungulates are two species of rhi-
noceros related to existing Indian forms, the tapir, the boar, the
hippopotamus, the axis and rusa deer, the Indian buffalo, and
wild cattle. It is noteworthy that three species of late Pliocene
elephants, all known as Stegodon, and especially the species
Stegodon ganeza, occur, as well as Elephas hysudricus, a species
related to FE. antiquus, or the straight-tusked elephant, which
entered Europe in early Pleistocene times. Fossils of the same
animals are found in the foot-hills of the Himalayas of India,
about 2,500 miles distant to the northwest. The India deposits
are considered of uppermost Pliocene age,”° for this is the closing
life period of the upper Siwaliks of India.
THE TRINIL RACE i
Certainly Java was then a part of the Asiatic continent, and
similar herds of great mammals roamed freely over the plains
from the foot-hills of the Himalaya Mountains to the borders of
the ancient Trinil River, while similar apes inhabited the for-
ests. At this time the orang may have entered the forests of
Borneo, which are at present its home; it is the only ape thus far
found in the uppermost |
Pliocene of India. We may,
therefore, anticipate the dis-
covery, atany time, in
India of a race similar to
Pithecanthro pus.
The geologic age of the
Trinil race is, therefore, to
be considered as late Plio-
cene or early Pleistocene.
This great discovery of
Dubois aroused wide-spread
and heated discussion, in
which the foremost anato-
mists and paleontologists
of the world took part.
Some regarded the skull as
that of a giant gibbon,
others as prehuman, and
still others as a transition fic. 34. The top (1) and side (1a) views of
cme cy gio ous Hs Sten of Tukeoenys wa
own opinion, however, from
a fuller understanding of the specimens themselves, always keep-
ing in mind that it is a question whether the femur and the skull
belong to the same individual or even to the same race. First,
we are struck by the marked resemblance which the top of the
skull bears, both on viewing it from the side and from above, to
that of the Neanderthal race. This fully justifies the opinion of
the anatomist Schwalbe’ that the skull of Pithecanthropus is
nearer to that of Neanderthal man than to that of even the
78 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
highest of the anthropoid apes. As measured by Schwalbe, the
index of the height of the cranium (Kalottenhiheindex) may be
compared with others as follows:
Lowest. human racé<)0 7 shy Geen ee 52 per cent.
Neanderthal: man." race: sees wars kee 40.4 per cent.
Pihecanthropus, or Unniltrace ose oe eee 34,2 Der. Cent,
This accords with the estimate of the brain capacity™ of 855
c.cm. (Dubois) as compared with 1,230 c.cm., the smallest brain
Fic. 35. Head of chimpanzee—front and side views—exhibiting a head of somewhat sim-
ilar shape to that of Pithecanthropus, with prominent eyebrow ridges, but much ~
smaller brain capacity. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park.
capacity found in a member of the Neanderthal race. Second,
as seen from above, we are struck with the great length of the
calvarium as compared with its breadth, the cephalic index or
ratio of breadth to length being 73.4 per cent (Schwalbe) as
compared with 73.9 per cent in the Neanderthal type skull; this
dolichocephaly accords with the fact that all of the earliest human
races thus far found are long-headed, although according to
Schwalbe” all anthropoids are broad-headed. This is a very
important distinction. The third feature is the prominence and
width of the bony eyebrow ridges above the orbits, which are
almost as great as in the chimpanzee and greatly exceed those
*TIn the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is
goo c.cm.
THE TRINIL RACE 79
of the Neanderthal race and of the modern Australian. The
profile of the Trinil head restored by McGregor (Fig. 38) ex-
hibits this prominent bony ridge and the low, retreating fore-
head. In the latest opinion of Schwalbe” Pithecanthropus may
be regarded as one of the direct ancestors of Neanderthal man
and even of the highest human species, Homo sapiens. He also
considers that when the lower jaw of the Trinil race becomes
Fic. 36. Profile of the skull of Pithecanthropus, as restored by
J. H. McGregor. 1914. One-third life size.
known, it will be found to be very similar to that of the Heidel-
berg man, the final conclusion being that Pithecanthropus and
the nearly allied Heidelberg man may be regarded as the common
ancestors of the Neanderthal race, on the one hand, and of the
higher races on the other. There are, however, reasons for ex~
cluding Pithecanthropus from the direct ancestral line of the higher
races of man. }
This prehuman stage has, none the less, a very great signifi-
cance in the developmental history of man. In our opinion it is
the very stage which, theoretically, we should anticipate finding
in the dawn of the Pleistocene. A similar view is taken by
Biichner,”4 who presents in an admirable diagram (Fig. 117) the
80 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
result of his comparison of twelve different characters in the
skulls of Pithecanthropus, the Neanderthals, the Australians, and
the Tasmanians. One of the main objects of Biichner’s research
was a very detailed comparison of the Trinil skull with that
of the lowly and now extinct Tasmanian race, which, we observe
oa
we rio
y og ZY 4 oouwe
G YY 2
/ We <é a es ee a i
ZA
eh &
eal
\ \4
\
Ir a
i> wane
SNS
As
UN
|
SS
ie
H
Lg
CxS
Fic. 37. Three views of the skuil of Pithecanthropus, as restored by
J. H. McGregor, showing the original (shaded) and restored
(black lines) portions. About one-quarter life size.
in the diagram, occupies a position only a little higher than that
of the Spy-Neanderthal race.
If the femur belongs with the skull, the Trinils were a tall race,
reaching a height of 5 feet 7 inches as compared with 5 feet 3
inches in the Neanderthals. The thigh-bone (Fig. 122) has a very
slight curvature as compared with that of any of the apes or
lemurs, and in this respect is more human; it is remarkably
elongate (455 mm.), surpassing that of the Neanderthals; the
THE TRINIL RACE 81
shin-bone (tibia) was probably correspondingly short. The two
upper grinding-teeth preserved are much more human than those
of the gibbon, but they do not resemble those of man closely
enough to positively confirm the prehuman theory. Dubois ob-
serves > “That the tooth belongs to some hominid form needs no
Fic. 38. Profile view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man,
after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.
further demonstration. Aside from its size and the greater
roughness of the grinding surface, it differs from the human
grinder in that the less developed cusp of Pithecanthropus is the
posterior cusp next the cheek, while in man it is generally the
posterior cusp next the tongue. The simplification of the crown
and the root of the Trinil grinder is quite as extensive as it usually
is in man.”
Various efforts have been made to supplement the scattered
and scanty materials collected by Dubois. The Selenka expedi-
tion of 1907-8 brought back a human left lower molar as the
only result of an express search for more Pithecanthropus remains.
82 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Dubois is also said to possess the fragment of a primitive-looking
lower jaw from the range known as the Kendeng Hills, at tke
southern base of which lies the village of Trinil.
It remains for us to consider the stage of psychic evolution
attained by the Trinil race, and this naturally turns upon the
Fic. 39. Front view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man,
after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.
erect attitude and what little is known of the size and proportions
of the brain. |
The assumption of the erect attitude is not merely a question
of learning to balance the body on the hinder extremities.*® It
involves changes in the interior of the body, the loss of the tail,
the freeing of the arms, and the establishment of the diaphragm
as the chief muscle of respiration. The thigh-bone of Pithecan-
thropus is so much like that of man as to support the theory that
the erect position may have been assumed by the ancestors of
man as early as Oligocene times. It would appear that Pitke-
canthropus had free use of the arms and it is possible that the
THE TRINIL RACE 83
control of the thumb and fingers had been cultivated, perhaps
in the fashioning of primitive implements of wood and stone.
The discovery of the use of wood as an implement and weapon
probably preceded that of the use of stone.
Elliot Smith describes this stage of development as follows :?”
. . . The emancipation of the hands from progression threw
the whole responsibility upon the legs, which became more effi-
cient for their pur-
pose as supports once
they lost their pre-
hensile powers and
became elongated
and specialized for
rapid progression.
Thus the erect atti- > Bt een
tude became stereo- ATTENTION” ee aa:
typed and fixed and
the limbs specialized,
ce
e
Auditory Tmpr
Fic. 40. Side view of brain of high type, illustrating
and these upright the contrast between the motor, sensory, and idea-
simians emerged from tional centres in a high type of modern brain; and
? 8 Elliot Smith’s characterization of the probable cen-
their ancestral forests tres in the Pithecanthropus type of brain. Modified
in societies, armed after M. Allen Starr.
with sticks and stones and with the rudiments of all the powers
that eventually enabled them to conquer the world. The greater
exposure to danger which these more adventurous spirits en-
countered once they emerged in the open, and the constant
struggles these first semihuman creatures must have had in
encounters with definite enemies, no less than with the forces of
Nature, provided the factors which rapidly weeded out those
unfitted for the new conditions and by natural selection made
real men of the survivors.”
The undeveloped forehead of Pithecanthropus and the dimin-
utive frontal area of the brain indicate that the Trinil race had a
limited faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tra-
dition, for in this prefrontal area of the brain are located the
powers of attention and of control of the activities of all other
84 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
parts of the brain. In the brain of the ape the sensory areas of
touch, taste, and vision predominate, and these are well devel-
Fic. 41. Diagram showing the side (lower figure)
and top (upper figure) views of the outline of the
Pithecanthropus brain as compared with that of
the chimpanzee and the higher human types of
the Piltdown, Neanderthal, and modern races.
oped in Pithecanthro-
pus. The central area
of the brain, which is
the storehouse of the
memories of actions and
of the feelings associ-
ated with them, is also
well developed, but the
prefrontal area, which
is the seat of the faculty
of profiting by experi-
ence or of recalling the
consequences of previ-
ous responses to experi-
ence, is developed to a
very limited degree.”®
Thus, while the brain
of Pithecanthropus is
estimated at 855-900
c.cm., as compared with
600 c.cm. of the largest
simian brain, and 930
c.cm. of the smallest
brain recorded in the
lower members of the
human race, it indicates
a very low stage of in-
telligence.
ABSENCE OF PALZOLITHS AND PRESENCE OF EOLITHS IN WESTERN
EUROPE
Returning to First Interglacial conditions in Europe, we ob-
serve that the river courses flowed through the same valleys as
at present but that in early glacial times the channels were far
EOLITHS, OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS 85
broader and were elevated from 100 to 150 feet above the present
relatively narrow river levels. ‘The vast floods of the succeeding
glaciation filled these valleys, but some of the ‘high terraces’
were already formed. It is extremely important to note that
Pre-Chellean flints or true palzoliths have never been found in
the sands or gravels of these ‘high terraces.’
Eoliths found on this ‘high-terrace’ level at St. Prest belong
to the Prestien culture of Rutot,?® who regards this station as of
Upper Pliocene age. These, like other supposed Eolithic flints,
are very rough, but, rude as they are, they generally exhibit one
part shaped as if to be grasped by the hand, while the other part
is edged or pointed as for cutting. It is generally admitted that
these flints are mostly of accidental shapes, and there has been
little or no proof of their being fashioned by human hands. On
this point Boule®® observes: “As to the eoliths, I have combated
the theory not only because it seems tome improbable but because
a long geological experience has shown me that it is often impos-
sible to distinguish stones split, cut, or retouched by purely physi-
cal agents from certain products of rudimentary workmanship.”
On the other side, it is interesting at this point to quote the
words of MacCurdy :*' ‘‘My opinion, based on personal experi-
ence, . . . is that the existence of a primitive industry, antedat-
ing what is commonly accepted as Paleolithic, has been estab-
lished. ‘This industry occurs as far back as the Upper Miocene
and continues on through the Upper Tertiary into and including
the Lower Quaternary. The distinguishing characters of the in-
dustry remain but little changed throughout the entire period,
the subdivision of the period into epochs being based on stratig-
raphy [geologic stages| and not on industrial characters. The
requirements in the way of tools being very simple and the
supply of material in the way of natural flakes and fragments of
flint being very plentiful, the inventive powers of the population
remained dormant for ages. Hammer and knife were the orig-
inal tools. Both were picked up ready-made. A sharp-edged,
natural flake served for one, and a nodule or fragment served for
the other. When the edge of the flake became dulled by use, the
86 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
piece was either thrown away or the edge was retouched for
further use. If hammer or flake did not admit of being held com-
fortably in the hand, the troublesome points or edges were re-
moved or reduced by chipping. The stock of tools increased
slowly with the slowly growing needs. As these multiplied and
the natural supply of raw material diminished, the latter was
supplemented by the manufacture of artificial flakes. When the
lesson of associating definite forms of implements with definite
uses was learned, special types arose, notably the amygdaloid
implement and the poniard. ‘Then came the transition from the
Eolithic to the Palzolithic, a stage that has been so thoroughly
investigated by Rutot.”
It is not improbable that the Trinil race was in a stage of
Eolithic culture; it is highly probable that the prehuman races
of this very remote geologic age used more than one weapon of
wood and stone.
THE GREAT SECOND GLACIATION
CEIg 725. spegony
In early Pleistocene times a general elevation of southern Eu-
rope united the islands of the Mediterranean with Europe on the
north and with Africa on the south, forming broad land connec-
tions between the two continents which afforded both northward
and southward migration routes. At this time certain character-
istically African mammals, such as the straight-tusked elephant
and the lion, were probably finding their way north; Sicily at
this time gained its large fauna of elephants and hippopotami,
and the island of Malta was connected with the mainland, as
well as the easterly islands of Cyprus and Crete. It appears
probable that the connection between the Italian mainland and
Malta was renewed more than once.
The approach of the second glaciation is indicated along the
southeast coast of Great Britain by the subsidence of the land and
the rise of the sea, accompanied by a fresh arctic current, bring-
ing with it an invasion of arctic mollusks which were deposited
in a layer of marine beds directly over those which contain the
6
Px. III. Pithecanthropus erectus, the ape-man of Java. Antiquity estimated at
500,00c years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. It is not im-
probable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one
natural weapon of wood or stone, the latter of the accidental ‘ Eolithic’ type.
“hs
THE SECOND GLACIATION 89
rich warm fauna and flora of the ‘Forest Bed of Cromer,’ Nor-
folk. It also appears probable that a cold northern current
swept along the western coasts of Europe, and Geikie estimates
that a lowering of temperature occurred of not less than 20°
Fahr., a change as great as is now experienced in passing from
the south of England to the North Cape.
The second glaciation was by far the greatest both in Europe
and America. In the region of the Pyrenees, which at the very.
much later period of the Third Interglacial Stage became a favor-
ite country with Palzolithic man, there were glaciers of vast
extent. This is realized by comparison with present conditions.
The largest of the present glaciers of the Pyrenees is only 2 miles
in length and terminates at a height of 7,200 feet above the sea.
During the greatest glaciation the snow appears to have de-
scended 4,265 feet below its present level. From the Pyrenees
through the Gallego valley into Spain there flowed a glacier 38
miles in length, while to the north the glacier in the valley of the
Garonne flowed for a distance of 45 miles to a point near Montré-
jeau. Even in its lower reaches this glacier was over half a mile
in thickness. To the east was a glacier 38 miles in length, filling
the valley of the Ariége and covering the sites of such great Pa-
leolithic caverns as that of Niaux; it is probable that at this time
the formation of this cavern began. ‘That these glaciers were all
prior to the period of the Lower Paleolithic Acheulean culture is
proven by the fact that Acheulean implements are frequently
met with lying on the surface of the moraines laid down by these
ancient ice-floes.*®
To the north was the vast Scandinavian ice-field, which swept
over Great Britain and beyond the valleys of the Rhine, Elbe,
and Vistula, reaching nearly to the Carpathians. Even the lesser
mountain chains were capped with glaciers, including the Atlas
Mountains in northern Africa.
In North America from the great centre west of Hudson Bay
the ice-cap extended its drift southward into Missouri, lowa,
Kansas, and Nebraska, beyond the limits of earlier and sub-
sequent glaciations.
90 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The materials of the chief ‘high terraces’ of the great river-
valleys of western Europe were deposited at this time.
LIFE OF THE WARM SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE
The long warm period which followed the great glaciation is
remarkable in presenting the first proofs of the presence of man
in western Europe. It is the period of the Heidelberg race of
man (Homo heidelbergensis), known only from a single jaw dis-
covered by Schoetensack in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg,
in 1907. No other proofs of the existence of man have been
found in any of the deposits which took place during this vast
interval of geologic time, unless we accept the theory of Penck
and of Geikie that the Pre-Chellean and Chellean quarries of
the River Somme belong in the Second Interglacial Stage.
The vast duration of this interglacial time is evidenced both
in Europe and America by the deep cutting and wearing away
of the ‘drifts’ brought down by the second glaciation. Penck
believes that this ‘long warm stage’ represents a greater period
of time than the entire interval between the third glaciation and
the present time. The climate immediately following the re-
treat of the glaciers was cool and moist in the glaciated regions,
but this was followed by such a prolonged period of heat and
dryness that the glaciers on the Alps withdrew to a point far
above their present limits.
In one of the old ‘high terraces’ of the River Inn, in the
north Tyrol, is a deposit containing the prevailing forest flora of
the period, from which Penck concludes that the climate of Inns-
bruck was 2° C. higher than it is at the present time. Correspond-
ing with this the snow-line stood 1,000 feet above its present level,
and the Alps, save for the higher peaks, were almost completely
denuded of ice and snow. A characteristic plant is the Pontic
alpine rose (Rhododendron ponticum), which flourishes now in an
annual temperature of 57°-65° Fahr.,*4 indicating that the cli-
mate of Innsbruck was as genial as that of the Italian slopes of
the Alps to-day. This rhododendron is now found in the Cau-
casus. Other southern species of the time were a buckthorn,
THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE 91
related to a species now living in the Canary Islands, and the
box. There were also more hardy plants, including the fir (Pinus
sylvestris), spruce, maple, willow, yew, elm, beech, and moun-
tain-ash. The forests of the same period in Provence were, for
the most part, similar to those now found in that region; out
of thirty-seven species twenty-nine still occur in this part of
southern France. On the whole, the aspect of southern France
at this time was surprisingly modern. The forests included oaks,
elms, poplars, willows, lindens, maples, sumachs, dogwood, and
hawthorn. Among the climbing plants were the vine and the
clematis. Here also were some forms which have since retreated
to the south, such as species of the sweet bay and laurel which
are now confined to the Canary Islands. The great humidity
of the time is indicated by the presence of certain species of con-
ifers which require considerable moisture. As in First Intergla-
cial times, the presence of the fig indicates mild winters.
It is difficult to imagine forests of this modern character,
which farther northward included a number of still more tem-
perate and hardy species, as the setting of the great African and
Asiatic life that roamed all over western Europe at this time. It
was the presence of hippopotami, elephants, and rhinoceroses
which gave to Lyell, Evans, and other early observers the im-
pression that a tropical temperature and vegetation were char-
acteristic of this long life period. These animals were formerly
regarded as proofs of an almost tropical climate, but the more
trustworthy evidence of the forests, strengthened by that of the
presence of very numerous hardy types of forest and meadow
animals, has set aside all the early theories as to extremely warm
temperatures during Second Interglacial times.
The remains of what is still conveniently known as the ‘faune
chaude,’ or warm fauna, are chiefly found in the sands and gravels
of the ancient beds of the Neckar, Garonne, and Thames, and
other rivers of the north and south, also in Essex, England. The
most surprising fact is that the mammal life of western Europe
remained entirely unchanged by the vast second glaciation just
described ; the few extinctions which occurred as well as a num-
92 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ber of new arrivals may be attributed to new geographical con-
nections with Africa on the south and to the steady progress of
migration from the far east.
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‘river terraces’ composed of sands and gravels were still sharply
defined, for the soft covering of ‘loam’ and alluvial soil from
the surrounding uplands and hills had not yet washed down to
soften the outlines of the ‘terraces.’ Neither were the ‘terraces’
covered with the newer deposits of ‘loess.’
Irish Channel River ©
. gr
English Channel He
Fic. 56. Restoration of the geography of western Europe during the Third Interglacial]
Stage, showing the ancient land areas (dots) and the ancient river channels now
submerged by the sea. Modified after Avebury’s Prehistoric Times by permission of
Henry Holt & Co. The six white crosses (X) indicate the location of the principal Pre-
Chellean stations of Piltdown on the Ouse, and Gray’s Thurrock on the Thames,
in England; of Abbeville, on the north bank, and St. Acheul, on the south bank of the
Somme, and Chelles on the Marne, in France; and of Helin in Belgium. It will be
observed that the English stations are separated from the others only by the ancient
broad valley corresponding with the present English Channel.
GEOGRAPHY AND. CLIMATE 117
SECULAR CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN LOWER PALZOLITHIC TIMES
We find evidences of four climatic and life phases during the
long period of Lower Paleolithic evolution, as follows:
4. Cold Moist Climate.—Advent of the fourth glaciation. Arrival of the
‘full Mousterian’ culture and of the Neanderthal race in Belgium and
France. Repair of men to the warmer shelters, grottos, and entrances to
the caverns. Final disappearance of the hardy Merck’s rhinoceros and ‘the
straight-tusked elephant. Arrival of the tundra fauna, the reindeer, the
woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros. Refrigeration of western
Europe as far south as northern Spain and Italy. Wide distribution of
cold alpine, tundra, and steppe mammals all over Germany and France, and
into northern Spain. Cold tundra flora in the Thames valley, and at Hoxne,
in Suffolk. Migration of the tundra mammals, the reindeer, mammoth,
and rhinoceros all over southern Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, and
Austria.
3. Arid Climate in Western Europe.—Period of the close of the Acheulean
culture; some of the flint workers seeking the shelter of cliffs and approach-
ing the entrances to the grottos during the cold season of the year. A dry
steppe climate, prevailing westerly winds, and deposits of ‘loess’ all over
northern France and Germany. Appearance of the first Neanderthaloid
men in Krapina, Croatia. Cool forest flora in the region of La Celle-sous-
Moret near Paris, followed by depositions of ‘loess’ and increasingly cool
and arid climate. Early Mousterian industry. Disappearance first of the
more sensitive pair of Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus and the southern
mammoth (E. trogontherit) ; persistence of the more hardy, straight-tusked
elephant (EZ. antiquus) and the broad-nosed rhinoceros (D. merckit).
2. Continued Warm Temperate Period.—Time of the Chellean culture
found at Chelles, St. Acheul, Gray’s Thurrock, Ilford, Essex, and southward
in Torralba, Spain. Abundance of hippopotami, rhinoceroses, southern
mammoths, and straight-tusked elephants in northern Germany at Taubach,
Weimar, Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim. Rare appearance of sabre-tooth
tigers. Temperate forest and alpine flora of Diirnten and Utznach, Switzer-
land. Early Acheulean culture widely distributed over all of western
Europe.
1. Early Warm Temperate Period.—The warm climate of the Pre-Chel-
lean culture period, as seen in the valleys of the Somme, of the Thames, and
of the Seine near Paris, favorable to the southern mammoth and the hip-
popotamus. Apparent survival of the sabre-tooth tiger and the Etruscan
rhinoceros in favored regions. A warm temperate forest flora in La Celle-
118 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
sous-Moret near Paris and in Lorraine. Arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint
workers and of the Piltdown race in southern England.
It is believed that the climate of Third Interglacial times when
it reached its maximum warmth was again somewhat milder than
the present climate in the same region. In the Alps the glaciers
and the snow-line retreated once more to their present levels.
The period opened with humid continental conditions. The
areas left bare by the ice were gradually reforested. A picture
of the climate in this warm period is presented in the region near
Paris in the so-called tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret (Seine-et-Marne).
This tufa, which is a hot-springs deposit, overlies river-gravels of
Pleistocene age.’ The lower levels of the tufa contain the syca-
more-maple (Acer pseudo platanus), willows, and the Austrian pine,
indicating a temperate climate. Higher up in the same deposits
we find evidences of increasingly mild temperatures in the pres-
ence of the box (Buxus) and not infrequently of the fig-tree; the
Canary laurel (Laurus nobilis) is somewhat rarer and both it
and the fig indicate that the winters were mild, because these
plants have the peculiarity of flowering during the winter season ;
we infer, therefore, that the climate was somewhat milder and
more damp than it is in the same region at the present time.
The mollusks also indicate greater equability of climate. These
deposits are believed to correspond with the period of Chellean
and early Acheulean industry.
The plants in the highest levels of the same tufa, however,
indicate the advent of a colder climate and also connect this
with the Acheulean culture stage through the presence of Acheu-
lean flints. The deposit of tufa is covered by a sheet of ‘loess’
corresponding with the return of an arid period in late Acheulean
times, in the very heart of northern France. Thus we have a
record in the region near the present city of Paris of three cli-
matic phases, which are also more or less completely indicated
in deposits to the north along the River Somme and in the valley
of the ancient Thames.
In western France we again interpret the fossil flora of Lor-
raine as belonging to the cooler closing period of Third Intergla-
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 119
cial times and to the advent of the fourth glaciation, for here
the most northern varieties of the larch (Larix) and of the moun-
tain-pine (Pinus lambertiana) predominate.
The clearest view of the contemporary alpine forests is found
near Ziirich in the lignitic deposits of Diirnten and of Utznach,
which are so characteristic of the temperate period of the Third
Interglacial Stage that Geikie has proposed to call this stage the
Diirntenian.’ It was, we recall, at Diirnten that Morlot® found
the first proofs of a warm or temperate interglacial flora, between
the deposits of a retreating glacier and those of an advancing
glacier; for Diirnten is well within the region which was covered
by the vast ice-fields both of the third and fourth glaciations.
The forests which flourished there in Third Interglacial times
were similar to those now found in the same region, consisting of
the spruce, fir, mountain-pine, larch, beech, yew, and sycamore,
with undergrowth of hazel. With this hardy flora are associated
the remains of the straight-tusked elephant, of Merck’s rhi-
noceros, of wild cattle, and of the stag; another evidence for our
opinion that all these Asiatic mammals had become habituated
to the cool temperate climate of the north.
LIFE ON THE RIVER SOMME FROM PRE-CHELLEAN TO
NEOLITHIC TIMES
The borders of the River Somme at St. Acheul give us a vista
of the whole story of the succession of geologic events; the great
changes of climate, the procession of animal life, the sequence of
human races and cultures. Here Commont’® has found the key
to the history of this entire country and enabled us to parallel
events here with those occurring far away in Taubach, on the
borders of the Thuringian forest, and at Krems in Lower Austria,
as studied by Obermaier. This is because the ‘older’ and ‘newer’
loess periods, the succession of climates and of mammals, and
the development of human cultures were all not local but con-
tinental events. The purely local events are found in the kinds
of gravels and soils which washed down over the terraces.
120 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
It is very important first to clearly picture in our minds and
understand the geography of the Somme at the time of the arrival
of the Pre-Chellean flint workers. It appears certain that all
three of the old river terraces composed of limestone had been
cut long before and that the river had already reached the bottom
level of the underlying chalk rock.’ The higher terrace, then as
now, was 100 feet above the Somme, the middle terrace about
70 feet, and the lowest terrace extended from a height of about
40 feet down underneath the present river level (see Fig. 59).
Fic. 57. Three ancient river terraces (I, II, III), on the west bank of the Connecticut
River in Vermont, believed to be of Postglacial age. The terraces are respectively
140, 60, and 20 feet above the river, and thus show a profile similar to that of the ter-
races on the Somme in Pre-Chellean times previous to the accumulation of the deposits
bearing Paleolithic flints. Photograph by H. H. H. Langill.
Since the most primitive Pre-Chellean flints occur in the coarse
gravels which lie on the floors of these terraces immediately above
the chalk, they prove that the entire excavation of the valley had
been completed when the Pre-Chellean workers arrived there.
Commont believes that this was the actual topography of the
valley during the Third Interglacial Stage. The occurrence of
Chellean flints in the white sands overlying the coarse gravels of
the middle and upper terraces does not indicate that the flint
workers were encamped here while these terraces were being
cut out by the River Somme but rather that they sought these
convenient bluffs for their quarries during the time that these
sands and gravels were washing down from the sides of the valleys
and from the plateaus above.
Fic. 58. Four typical forms of the Chellean coup de poing, or ‘hand-stone,’ from the
ancient quarries of St. Acheul. About one-half actual size.
a. Disc-shaped—upper left. c. Poniard-shaped—lower left.
b. Oval—upper right. d. Almond-shaped—lower right,
In the collection of the American Museum of Natural History.
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THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS
123
The history of the climatic changes in the ancient valley of
the Somme is most clearly written in these successive deposits,
PREHISTORY OF ST. ACHEUL
NEOLITHIC.
Campignian, recent earth and
loam.
DPPICk PAL AOLITHIC.
Solutrean.
Upper Aurignacian, loam.
Middle Aurignacian, ‘newer
loess’ and gravel.
DOWER PAL AOLITHIC.
Late Mousterian, gravel and
‘newer loess.’
Early Mousterian, base of
‘newer loess’ (l’ergeron).
Middle Acheulean, ‘older loess’
and drift.
Early Acheulean, gravels below
‘older loess’ (E. antiquus).
Late Chellean, fluviatile sands
and mollusk fauna.
Early Chellean, first coups de
poing; old ‘white sands’ (E.
antiquus).
Pre-Chellean, prototypes of
coup de poing; old ‘lower
gravels’ (E. antiquus).
15 feet in thickness, above the
‘lower gravels’ at St. Acheul.
Along with the Pre-Chellean and
Chellean flints in the ‘old gravels’
and ‘white sands’ we find rec-
ords of the moist warm temperate
climate which then prevailed in
northern France and which un-
doubtedly was most favorable to
the hippopotami, rhinoceroses,
and elephants of those times. The
river mollusks found with the
late Chellean flints are another
indication of the temperate forest
climate which continued through
early Acheulean times.
In the middle Acheulean are
found the earliest deposits of
‘older loess’ which indicate a cli-
mate still temperate but arid, be-
longing to the middle of the Third
Interglacial Stage. In Mouste-
rian times we find heavy deposits
of gravels corresponding to the
moist cold climate of the Fourth Glacial Stage, followed in middle
Aurignacian times by fresh layers of ‘newer loess,’ indicating the
return of a dry climate. Finally, the layers of loam which were
washed down over the sides of the valley, and in which the re-
mains of Solutrean and Aurignacian camps are found, indicate
the renewal of moist and probably forested conditions.
Thus, two dry loess periods are indicated in this valley, the
first or ‘older loess’ belonging to Third Interglacial times, and
the second or ‘newer loess’ to Postglacial times; and we clearly
perceive that in the culture layers here there is no evidence what-
124 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ever of more than one glacial stage preceded by a dry climatic
period and deposits of loess. If the Pre-Chellean flint workers
had arrived in this river-valley as early as Second Interglacial
times, we should find proofs of three periods of arid climate and
loess deposition and of two glaciations.
Beginning with middle Acheulean times the flints are found
in deposits of gravels, loams, brick-earths, and ‘older loess,’
which all belong to a succeeding geologic stage and are of more
recent date than the lower gravels and sands on the terraces
which they overlap and conceal. Deposits of this kind have also
been drifted down from the highest levels toward the bottom of
the valley, and Commont distinguishes three different depositions
or layers of ‘loess loam,’ the lowest or oldest of which contain
Acheulean flints, while the middle loams contain Mousterian im-
plements.
Even toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage there
were periods of warmth, perhaps during the height of the hot
summer season, when animals of the warm fauna migrated from
the south. Thus Commont has recently discovered in the valley
of the Somme a station of Mousterian flint workers, whose in-
dustry is associated with remains of the three animals typical of
the warmer climatic phase; namely, the straight-tusked elephant,
the broad-nosed rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus. He has re-
affirmed his belief that the greater part of this chapter of human
prehistory, both as to the surface topography of the Somme
valley and the evolution of the flint cultures from Pre-Chellean
to Mousterian times, occurred during the Third Interglacial
Stage.
THE EARLY WARM TEMPERATE PERIOD OF THE PRE-
CHELLEAN CULTURE*
We have observed that from Torralba in the Province of
Soria, Spain, to Abbeville, near the mouth of the Somme, in the
north of France, three types of animals which entered Europe as
* The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l’Abbé Henri Breuil for
their observations on this fauna and culture period.
THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 125
early as Upper Pliocene times, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros,
the horse of Steno, and the sabre-tooth tiger, are said to occur in
connection with early Chellean artifacts. The two former
species may possibly be confused with early forms of Merck’s
rhinoceros and the true forest horses of Europe, but there can be
no question as to the identification of the sabre-tooth tiger, num-
bers of which were found by M. d’Ault du Mesnil, at Abbeville,
on the Somme, with early Chellean flints.
The mammalian life of the Somme at this time, as found in
the gisement du Champ de Mars near Abbeville, is very rich.
Among the larger forms there is cer-
PRE-CHELLEAN FAUNA
Southern mammoth.
Etruscan rhinoceros.
Hippopotamus.
Primitive horse
(Equus stenonis) ?
Sabre-tooth tiger.
Broad-nosed rhinoceros.
Straight-tusked elephant.
Giant beaver
(Trogontherium cuvieri).
Short-faced hyzena.
Typical Eurasiatic forest
and meadow fauna, in-
cluding deer, bison, and
wild cattle.
tainly the great southern mammoth (EF.
meridionalis trogontherit), and possibly
also the straight-tusked elephant (E.
antiquus). ‘There are unquestionably
two species of rhinoceros, the smaller
of which is recognized by Boule as the
Etruscan, and the larger as Merck’s
rhinoceros. Steno’s horse is said to oc-
cur here, and there are abundant re-
mains of the great hippopotamus (H.
major); the sabre-tooth tigers were
very numerous as attested by the dis-
covery of the lower jaws of thirty or
more individuals. The short-faced
hyena (H. brevirostris) is also found, and there are several species
of deer and wild cattle.
This remarkably rich collection of mammals is associated
with flints of primitive Chellean or, possibly, of Pre-Chellean
type.” In Torralba, Spain, the same very ancient animals occur,
and it appears possible that this was the prevailing mammalian
life of Pre-Chellean times.
We may conclude, therefore, that there is considerable evi-
dence, although not as yet quite convincing, that the early Chel-
lean flint workers arrived in western Europe before the disap-
pearance of the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger.
126 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
THE PRE-CHELLEAN STATIONS
(See Figs. 53 and 56.)
The dawn of the Palzolithic Age is indicated in various river-
drift stations by the appearance of crude flint weapons as well
as tools or wmplements, in addition to the supposed tools of
Eolithic times. There is an unmistakable effort to fashion the
flint into a definite shape to serve a definite purpose: there can
no longer be any question of human handiwork. Thus there
gradually arise various types of flints, each of which undergoes
its own evolution into a more perfect form. Naturally, the
workers at some stations were more adept and inventive than at
others. Nevertheless, the primitive stages of invention and of
technique were carried from station to station; and thus for
the first time we are enabled to establish the archeological age
of various stations in western Europe.
Only a few stations have been discovered where the Paleo-
lithic men were first fashioning their flints into prototypes of the
Chellean and Acheulean forms. With relation to the theory
that these primitive flint workers may have entered Europe by
way of the northern coast of Africa, we observe that these stations
are confined to Spain, southern and northern France, Belgium,
and Great Britain. Neither Pre-Chellean nor Chellean stations
of unquestioned authenticity have been found in Germany or
central Europe, and, so far as present evidence goes, it would
appear that the Pre-Chellean culture did not enter Europe directly
from the east, or even along the northern coast of the Mediter-
ranean, but rather along the northern coast of Africa,* where
Chellean culture is recorded in association with mammalian re-
mains belonging to the middle Pleistocene Epoch.
The southernmost stations of Chellean culture at present
known in Europe are those of Torralba and San Isidro, in central
Spain. In the Department of the Gironde is the Chellean station
of Marignac, and it is not unlikely that other stations will be dis-
* Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed
all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.
PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 197
covered in the same region, because the Paleolithic races strongly
favored the valleys of the Dordogne and Garonne, but thus far
this is the only station known in southern France which represents
this period of the dawn of human culture.
The chief Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations were clustered
along the valleys of the Somme and Seine. Of those rare sites
G. M. Woodward, del Bemrose, Colla, Derby,
Fic. 60. Very primitive palezoliths from Piltdown, Sussex, consisting chiefly of tools and
points of triangular and oval form, fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked
on one side only, with very coarse marginal retouch. After Dawson. Nos. 1 and 2 are
nearly one-half actual size; No. 3 nearly one-quarter actual size.
presenting a typical Pre-Chellean culture, we may note the neigh-
boring stations of St. Acheul and Montiéres, both in the suburbs
of Amiens on the Somme, and the station of Helin, near Spiennes,
in Belgium, explored by Rutot. A very primitive and possibly
Pre-Chellean culture was found on the site of the Champ de Mars,
at Abbeville. This culture also extended westward across the
broad plain which is now the Strait of Dover to the valley of the
Thames, on whose northern bank is the important station of
128 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Gray’s Thurrock, while farther to the south is the recently dis-
covered site of Piltdown, in the valley of the Ouse, Sussex.
The flint tools (Fig. 60) found in the layer immediately over-
lying the Piltdown skull are excessively primitive and indicate
that the Piltdown flint workers had not attained the stage of
craftsmanship described by Commont as ‘Pre-Chellean’ at St.
Acheul. “Among the flints,”’ observes Dawson, ‘‘we found sev-
eral undoubted flint implements besides numerous ‘eoliths.’
The workmanship of the former is
similar to that of the Chellean or
Pre-Chellean stage; but in the ma-
jority of the Piltdown specimens the
work appears chiefly on one face of
the implements.”
In the Helin quarry near Spien-
nes’ occur rude prototypes of the
Tite Pinitiven eres Paleolithic coup de poing associated
‘hand-stones’ of Pre-Chellean with numerous flakes which do not
Pea Onna Ne es greatly differ from those in the lowest
at St. Acheul. AfterCommont. river-gravels of St. Acheul; there is a
One-quarter actual size. :
close correspondence in the workman-
ship of the two sites, so that we may regard the Mesvinian of
Rutot* as a culture stage equivalent to the Pre-Chellean. The
river-gravels and sands of Helin which contain the implements
also resemble those of St. Acheul in their order of stratification.
Of special interest is the fact that a primitive flint from this
Helin quarry, known as the ‘borer,’ is strikingly similar to the
‘Eolithic’ borer found in the same layer with the Piltdown skull
in Sussex. By such indications as this, when strengthened by
further evidence of the same kind, we may be able eventually to
establish the date both of this Pre-Chellean or Mesvinian culture
and of the Piltdown race.
In considering the Pre-Chellean implements found at St.
Acheul in 1906, we note™ that at this dawning stage of human
* Schmidt regards the Strépyan implements, which are considered by Rutot and others
to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the
- Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age.
PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 129
invention the flint workers were not deliberately designing the
form of their implements but were dealing rather with the
chance shapes of shattered blocks of flint, seeking with a few well-
directed blows to produce a sharp point or a good cutting edge.
This was the beginning of the art of ‘retouch,’ which was done
by means of light blows with a second stone instead of the ham-
mer-stone with which the rough flakes were first knocked off.
The retouch served a double purpose: Its first and most im-
portant object was further to sharpen the point or edge of the
i
Dy
2 Sik
Sy
RS
FA
ANN WS
X3 WW Bi
i i ENY
WWW, Ty
i KZ
wini’EG
Fic. 62. Primitive gratioir, or planing tool (side and edge views), of Pre-
Chellean type, found in the lowest gravels of the terraces at
St. Acheul. After Commont. One-quarter actual size.
tool. This was done by chipping off small flakes from the upper
side, so as to give the flint a saw-like edge. Its second object
was to protect the hand of the user by blunting any sharp edges
or points which might prevent a firm grip of the implement.
Often the smooth, rounded end of the flint nodule, with crust
intact, is carefully preserved for this purpose (Fig. 61). It is
this grasping of the primitive tool by the hand to which the terms
‘coup de. poing,’ ‘Faustkeil,’ and ‘hand-axe’ refer. ‘Hand-
stone’ is, perhaps, the most fitting designation in our language,
but it appears best to retain the original French designation,
coup de poing.
As the shape of the flint is purely due to chance, these Pre-
Chellean implements are interpreted by archeologists chiefly
according to the manner of retouch they have received. Already
130 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
they are adapted to quite a variety of purposes, both as weapons
of the chase and for trimming and shaping wooden implements
and dressing hides. Thus Obermaier observes that the concave,
serrated edges characteristic of some of these implements may
well have been used for scraping the bark from branches and
smoothing them down into poles; that the rough coups de poing
would be well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides; that
the sharp-pointed fragments could be used as borers, and others
that are clumsier and heavier as planes (see Fig. 62).
The inventory of these ancestral Pre-Chellean forms of im-
plements, used in industrial and domestic life, in the chase, and
in war, is as follows:
Sata ee ool: It includes five, possibly six,
Pavaiie drill, borer. chief types. The true coup de
Couteau, knife. poing, a combination tool of
canals hammer-stone. — Chellean times, is not yet devel-
pee Se OU oped in the Pre-Chellean, and the
coup de poing, hand-stone. other implements, although sim-
ilar in form, are more primitive.
They are all in an experimental stage of development.
Indications that this primitive industry spread over south-
eastern England as well, and that a succession of Pre-Chellean
into Chellean culture may be demonstrated, occur in connection
with the recent discovery of the very ancient Piltdown race.
THE PILTDOWN Race”
The ‘dawn man’ is the most ancient human type in which
the form of the head and size of the brain are known. Its
anatomy, as well as its geologic antiquity, is therefore of pro-
found interest and worthy of very full consideration. We may
first review the authors’ narrative of this remarkable discovery
and the history of opinion concerning it.
Piltdown, Sussex, lies between two branches of the Ouse,
about 35 miles south and slightly to the east of Gray’s Thurrock,
the Chellean station of the Thames. To the east is the plateau
of Kent, in which many flints of Eolithic type have been found.
THE PILTDOWN RACE 131
The gravel layer in which the Piltdown skull occurred is situ-
ated on a well-defined plateau of large area and lies about 80
feet above the level of the main stream of the Ouse. Remnants
of the flint-bearing gravels and drifts occur upon the plateau and
Fic. 63. Discovery site of the famous Piltdown skull near Piltdown, Sussex. After
Dawson. A shallow pit of dark-brown gravel, at the bottom of which were found the
fragments of the skull and a single primitive implement of worked flint (see Fig. 65).
the slopes down which they trail toward the river and streams.
This region was undoubtedly favorable to the flint workers of
Pre-Chellean and Chellean times. Kennard'® believes that the
gravels are of the same age as those of the ‘high terrace’ of the
lower valley of the Thames; the height above the stream level
is practically the same, namely, about 80 feet. Another geologist,
Clement Reid,” holds that the plateau, composed of Wealden
chalk, through which flowed the stream bearing the Piltdown
gravels, belongs to a period later than that of the maximum de-
132 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
pression of Great Britain; that the deposits are of Pre-Glacial or
early Pleistocene age; that they belong to the epoch after the
cold period of the first glaciation had passed but occur at the very
base of the succession of implement-bearing deposits in the south-
east of England.
On the other hand, Dawson,!® the discoverer of the Piltdown
skull, in his first description states: ‘From these facts it appears
probable that the skull and mandible cannot safely be described
as being of earlier date than the first half of the Pleistocene Epoch.
The individual probably lived during the warm cycle in that age.”
The section of the gravel bed (Fig. 64) indicates that the re-
mains of the Piltdown man were washed down with other fossils
by a shallow stream charged with dark-brown gravel and un-
worked flints; some of these fossils were of Pliocene times from
strata of the upper parts of the stream. In this channel were
found the remains of a number of animals of the same age as the
Piltdown man, a few flints resembling eoliths, and one very primi-
tive worked flint of Pre-Chellean type, which may also have been
washed down from deposits of earlier age. These precious geo-
logic and archzologic records furnish the only means we have of
determining the age of Eoanthropus, the ‘dawn man,’ one of
the most important and significant discoveries in the whole his-
tory of anthropology. We are indebted to the geologist Charles
Dawson and the paleontologist Arthur Smith Woodward for
preserving these ancient records and describing them with great
fulness and accuracy as follows (pp. 132 to 139):
Several years ago Dawson discovered a small portion of an
unusually thick human parietal bone, taken from a gravel bed
which was being dug for road-making purposes on a farm close
to Piltdown Common. In the autumn of 1911 he picked up
among the rain-washed spoil-heaps of the same gravel-pit another
and larger piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the
same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over
the left eyebrow. Immediately impressed with the importance
of this discovery, Dawson enlisted the co-operation of Smith
Woodward, and a systematic search was made in these spoil-
THE PILTDOWN RACE 133
heaps and gravels, beginning in the spring of 1912; all the material
was looked over and carefully sifted. It appears that the whole
or greater part of the human skull had been scattered by the
workmen, who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed. Thor-
1. Surface soil, with flints. Thick
: ness = 1 foot.
@ gg Cc J
eS ae ae 2. Pale-yellow sandy loam with
. gravel and flints. One Palzo-
lithic worked flint was found
in the middle of this bed.
Thickness = 2 feet, 6 inches.
3. Dark-brown gravel, with flints,
Pliocene rolled fossils and
Eoanthropus skull, beaver
tooth, ‘eoliths’ and one
worked flint. Thickness=18
inches.
4. Pale-yellow clay and_ sand.
Thickness = 8 inches.
5. Undisturbed strata of Wealden
age.
Fic. 64. Geologic section of the Piltdown gravel bed, showing in restored outlines at the
bottom of layer 3 the position in which the fragments of the skull
and jaw were found. After Dawson.
ough search in the bottom of the gravel bed itself revealed the
right half of a jaw, which was found in a depression of undis-
turbed, finely stratified gravel, so far as could be judged on the
spot identical with that from which the first portions of the
cranium were exhumed. A yard from the jaw an important
piece of the occipital bone of the skull was found. Search was
renewed in 1913 by Father P. Teilhard, of Chardin, a French
anthropologist, who fortunately recovered a single canine tooth,
and later a pair of nasal bones were found, all of which frag-
134 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ments are of very great significance in the restoration of the
skull, |
The jaw appears to have been broken at the symphysis, and
somewhat abraded, perhaps after being caught in the gravel
before it was completely covered with sand. The fragments of
the cranium show little or no signs of stream rolling or other
abrasion save an incision caused by the workman’s pick.
Analysis of the bones showed that the skull was in a condi-
tion of fossilization, no gelatine or organic matter remained, and
Fic. 65. The single worked flint of very primitive type found in the same layer (3) with
the fragments of the Piltdown skull. After Dawson. One-half actual size.
mingled with a large proportion of the phosphates, originally
present, was a considerable proportion of iron.* ,
The dark gravel bed (Fig. 64, layer 3), 18 inches in thickness,
at the bottom of which the skull and jaw were found, contained
a number of fossils which manifestly were not of the same age as
the skull but were certainly from Pliocene deposits up-stream ;
these included the water-vole and remains of the mastodon, the
southern mammoth, the hippopotamus, and a fragment of the
grinding-tooth of a primitive elephant, resembling Stegodon. In
the spoil-heaps, from which it is believed the skull of the Pilt-
down man was taken, were found an upper tooth of a rhinoceros,
either of the Etruscan or of Merck’s type; the tooth of a beaver
and of a hippopotamus, and the leg-bone of a deer, which may
have been cut or incised by man. Much more distinctive was a
* The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geo-
logical Society of London, December, 1912, and published as a separate pamphlet in
March, 1913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others
was held at the time of the reading of the original paper. .
THE PILTDOWN RACE 135
single flint (Fig. 65), worked only on one side, of the very primi-
tive or Pre-Chellean type. Implements of this stage, as the au-
thor observes, are difficult to classify with certainty, owing to the
rudeness of their workmanship; they resemble certain rude im-
plements occasionally found on the surface of the chalk downs
near Piltdown. ‘The majority of the flints found in the gravel
were worked only on one face; their
form is thick, and the flaking is
broad and sparing; the original sur-
face of the flint is left in a smooth,
natural condition at the point
grasped by the hand; the whole
implement thus has a very rude
and massive form. These flints ap-
pear to be of even more primitive
form than those at St. Acheul
described as Pre-Chellean by Com-
mont. \
The eoliths found in the gravel- Fic. 66. Eoliths found in or near the
e : : Piltdown gravel-pit. After Dawson.
pit and in the adjacent fields are Oren ee ean coe:
of the ‘borer’ and ‘hollow-scraper’ a. Borer (above).
b. Curved scraper (below).
forms; also, some are of the
‘crescent-shaped-scraper’ type, mostly rolled and water-worn, as
if transported from a distance. ‘This is a stream or river bed,
not a Paleolithic quarry.
There can be little doubt, however, that the Piltdown man
belonged to a period when the flint industry was in a very primi-
tive stage, antecedent to the true Chellean. It has subsequently
been observed that the gravel strata (3) containing the Pilt-
down man were deeper than the higher stratum containing flints
nearer the Chellean type.
The discovery of this skull aroused interest as great as or
even greater than that attending the discovery of the two other
‘river-drift’ races, the Trinil and the Heidelberg. In this dis-
cussion the most distinguished anatomists of Great Britain,
Arthur Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith, took
136
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
part, and finally the original pieces were re-examined by three
anatomists of this country.*
It is important to present in full the original opinions of
Smith Woodward, who devoted most careful study to the first
Fic..67.
Skull of South African Bushman
(upper) exhibiting the contrast in the
structure of the jaw and forehead. One-
quarter life size. Original restoration
of the Piltdown skull (lower) made by
Smith Woodward in 1913. One-quarter
life size.
reconstruction of the skull (Fig.
67), a model which was subse-
quently modified by the actual
discovery of one of the canine
teeth. In his original descrip-
tion it is observed that the
pieces of the skull preserved
are noteworthy for the great
thickness of the bone, it being
rr to 12 mm. as compared with
5 to 6 mm., the average thick-
ness in the modern European
skull, or 6 to 8 mm., the thick-
ness in the skull of the Neander-
thal races and in that of the
modern Australian; the cepha-
lic index is estimated at 78 or
79, that is, the skull is believed
to have been proportionately
low and wide, almost brachy-
cephalic; there was apparently
no prominent or thickened ridge
above the orbits, a feature
which immediately distin-
guishes this skull from that of
the Neanderthal races; the sev-
eral bones of the brain-case are typically human and not in the
least like those of the anthropoid apes; the brain capacity was
originally estimated at 1070 c.cm., not equalling that of some of
the lowest brain types in the existing Australian races and de-
* By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia
University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American
Museum of Natural History.
‘THE PILTDOWN RACE 137
cidedly below that of the Neanderthal man of Spy and La
Chapelle-aux-Saints; the nasal bones are typically human but
relatively small and broad, so that the nose was flattened, re-
sembling that in some of the existing Malay and African races.
Fic. 68. Three views of the Piltdown skull as reconstructed by J. H. McGregor,
1914. ‘This restoration includes the nasal bones and canine tooth, which were
not known at the time of Smith Woodward’s reconstruction of 1913. One-
quarter life size.
The jaw presents profoundly different characters; the whole
of the bone preserved closely resembles that of a young chim-
panzee; thus the slope of the bony chin as restored is between
that of an adult ape and that of the Heidelberg man, with an
extremely receding chin; the ascending portion of the jaw for
the attachment of the temporal muscles is broad and thickened
138 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
anteriorly. Associated with the jaw were two elongated molar
teeth, worn down by use to such an extent that the individual
could not have been less than thirty years of age and was prob-
ably older. These teeth are relatively longer and narrower than
those in the modern human jaw. The canine tooth, identified
by Smith Woodward as belonging in the lower jaw, strength-
ened by the evidence afforded by the jaw itself, proves that the
face was elongate or prognathous and that the canine teeth were
very prominent like those of the anthropoid apes; it affords
definite proof that the front teeth of the Piltdown man resembled
those of the ape.
The author’s conclusion is that while the skull is essentially
human, it approaches the lower races of man in certain char-
acters of the brain, in the attachment of the muscles of the
neck, in the large extent of the temporal muscles attached to
the jaw, and in the probably large size of the face. The man-
dible, on the other hand, appears precisely like that of the ape,
with nothing human except the molar teeth, and even these ap-
proach the dentition of the apes in their elongate shape and well-
developed fifth or posterior intermediate cusp. This type of man,
distinguished by the smooth forehead and supraorbital borders
and ape-like jaw, represents a new genus called EKoanthropus, or
‘dawn man,’ while the species has been named dawsoni in honor
of the discoverer, Charles Dawson. ‘This very ancient type of
man is defined by the ape-like chin and junction of the two halves
of the jaw, by a series of parallel grinding-teeth, with narrow lower
molar teeth, which do not diminish in size backward, and by the
steep forehead and slight development of the brow ridges. The
jaw manifestly differs from that of the Heidelberg man in its
comparative slenderness and relative deepening toward the
symphysis.
The discussion of this very important paper by Smith Wood-
ward and Dawson centred about two points. First, whether the
ape-like jaw really belonged with the human skull rather than
with that of some anthropoid ape which happened to be drifted
down in the same stratum; and second, whether the extremely
THE PILTDOWN RACE 139
low original estimate of the brain capacity of 1070 c.cm., was not
due to incorrect adjustment or reconstruction of the separate
pieces of the skull.
Keith,!® the leader in the criticism of Woodward’s reconstruc-
tion, maintained that when the two sides of the skull were properly
restored and made approximately symmetrical, the brain capacity
would be found to equal 1500 c.cm.; the brain cast of the skull
even as originally reconstructed was found to be close to 1200 c.cm.
This author agreed that skull, jaw, and canine tooth belonged to
Eoanthropus but that they could not well belong to the same
individual.
In defense of Woodward’s reconstruction came the powerful
support of Elliot Smith.?® He maintained that the evidence af-
forded by the re-examination of the bones corroborated in the
main Smith Woodward’s identification of the median plane of
the skull; further, that the original reconstruction of the prog-
nathous face was confirmed by the discovery of the canine tooth,
also that there remained no doubt that the association of the
skull, the jaw, and the canine tooth was a correct one. The back
portion of the skull is decidedly asymmetrical, a condition found
both in the lower and higher races of man. A slight rearrange-
ment and widening of the bones along the median upper line of
the skull raise the estimate of the brain capacity to 1100 c.cm.
as the probable maximum.
Elliot Smith continued that he considered the brain to be of
a more primitive kind than any human brain that he had ever
seen, yet that it could be called human and that it already showed
a considerable development of those parts which in modern man
we associate with the power of speech; thus, there was no doubt
of the unique importance of this skull as representing an entirely
new type of ‘‘man in the making.” As regards the form of the
lower jaw, it was observed that in the dawn of human existence
teeth suitable for weapons of offense and defense were retained
long after the brain had attained its human status. Thus the
ape-like form of the chin does not signify inability to speak, for
speech must have come when the jaws were still ape-like in char-
140 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
acter, and the bony changes that produced the recession of the
tooth line and the form of the chin were mainly due to sexual
Fic. 69. The Piltdown skull with the right
half removed to display the extreme thick-
ness of the bones and the shape of the
brain. As restored by J. H. McGregor.
One-quarter life size.
selection, to the reduction in
the size of the grinding-teeth,
and, in a minor degree, to the
growth and specialization of
the muscles of the jaw and
tongue employed in speech.
At first sight the brain-case
resembles that of the Ne-
anderthal skull found at Gib-
raltar, which is supposed to be
that of a woman; it is rela-
tively long, narrow, and es-
pecially flat, but it is smaller
and presents more primitive
features than those of any
known human brain. Taking
all these features into consideration, we must regard this as
being the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far
——_— oe —
-_-— P =
See Modern (Home a
onset ee eseen..y.
.
ce
ee
Qn:
I “Cn ON
Fic. 70. Outline of the left side of the Piltdown brain, compared with similar brain out-
lines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modern man. One-half life size.
THE PILTDOWN RACE 141
recorded; one such as might reasonably be associated with a
jaw which presented such distinctive ape characters. The brain,
however, is far more human than the jaw, from which we may
infer that the evolution of the brain preceded that of the man-
dible, as well as the development of beauty of the face and the
human development of the bodily characters in general.
The latest opinion of Smith Woodward” is that the brain,
while the most primitive which has been discovered, had a bulk
of nearly 1300 c.cm., equalling that of the smaller human brains
of to-day and surpassing that of the Australians, which rarely
exceeds I250 c.cm.
The original views of Smith Woodward and of Elliot Smith
regarding the relation of the Piltdown race to the Heidelberg and
Neanderthal races are also of very great interest and may be
cited. First, the fact that the Piltdown and Heidelberg races
are almost of the same geologic age proves that at the end of the
Pliocene Epoch the representatives of man in western Europe had
already branched into widely divergent groups: the one (Heidel-
berg-Neanderthal) characterized by a very low projecting fore-
head, with a subhuman head of Neanderthaloid contour; the
other with a flattened forehead and with an ape-like jaw of the
Piltdown contour. We should not forget that in the Piltdown
skull the absence of prominent ridges above the eyes may possi-
bly be due in some degree to the fact that the type skull may
belong to a female, as suggested by certain characters of the jaw;
but among all existing apes the skull in early life has the rounded
shape of the Piltdown skull, with a high forehead and scarcely
any brow ridges. It seems reasonable, therefore, to interpret the
Piltdown skull as exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of
our human ancestors in mid-Tertiary times than any fossil skull
hitherto found. If this view be accepted, we may suppose that
the Piltdown type became gradually modified into the Neander-
thal type by a series of changes similar to those passed through
by the early apes as they evolved into typical modern apes, with
their low brows and prominent ridges above the eyes. This
* Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 1915.1.
142 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
would tend to support the theory that the Neanderthal men were
degenerate offshoots of the Tertiary race, of which the Piltdown
skull provides the first discovered evidence—a race with a simple,
flattened forehead and developed eye ridges.
Elliot Smith concluded that members of the Piltdown race
might well have been the direct ancestors of the existing species
Fic. 71. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, in profile, based upon the
reconstruction shown in Fig. 68, p. 137. After model by
J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.
of man (Homo sapiens), thus affording a direct link with undis-
covered Tertiary apes; whereas, the more recent fossil men of
the Neanderthal type, with prominent brow ridges resembling
those of the existing apes, may have belonged to a degenerate
race which later became extinct. According to this view, Eoan-
thropus represents a persistent and very slightly modified de-
scendant of the type of Tertiary man which was the common
' THE PILTDOWN RACE 143
ancestor of a branch giving rise to Homo sapiens, on the one
hand, and of another branch giving rise to Homo neandertha-
lensis, on the other.
Another theory as to the relationships of Hoanthropus is that
of Marcelin Boule,”' who is inclined to regard the jaws of the
Piltdown and Heidelberg races as of similar geologic age, but of
Fic. 72. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, full front, after model by
J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. (Compare Figs. 68 and 71.)
dissimilar racial type. He continues: “If the skull and jaw of
Piltdown belong to the same individual, and if the mandibles of
the Heidelberg and Piltdown men are of the same type, this dis-
covery is most valuable in establishing the cranial structure of
the Heidelberg race. But it appears rather that we have here
two types of man which lived in Chellean times, both distinguished
by very low cranial characters. Of these the Piltdown race seems
144 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
to us the probable ancestor in the direct line of the recent species
of man, Homo sapiens; while the Heidelberg race may be con-
sidered, until we have further knowledge, as a possible precursor
of Homo neanderthalensis.”’ :
The latest opinion of the German anatomist Schwalbe” is
that the proper restoration of the region of the chin in the Pilt-
down man might make it possible to refer this jaw to Homo
sapiens, but this would merely prove that Homo sapiens already
existed in early Pleistocene times. The skull of the Piltdown man,
continues Schwalbe, corresponds with that of a well-developed,
good-sized skull of Homo sapiens ; the only unusual feature is the
remarkable thickness of the bone.”
Finally, our own opinion is that the Piltdown race is not an-
cestral to either the Heidelbergs or the Neanderthals. Very re-
centlyt the jaw of the Piltdown man has been restudied and
referred by more than one expert to a fully adult chimpanzee.
This leaves us still in doubt as to the exact geologic age and
relationships of the Piltdown man (see Appendix, Note IX),
whom we are still inclined to regard as a side branch of the
human family as shown in the family tree on p. 4ot.
MAMMALIAN LIFE OF CHELLEAN AND ACHEULEAN TIMES”
The mammalian life which we find with the more advanced
implements of Chellean times apparently does not include the
old Pliocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros and the
sabre-tooth tiger. With this exception it is so similar to that
of Second Interglacial times that it may serve to prove again
that the third glaciation was a local episode and not a wide-spread
climatic influence. This life is everywhere the same, from the
* The reconstruction (Fig. 68) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. Mc-
Gregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very
narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the re-
construction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor
Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as
a right lower canine is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the con-
clusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History.
1 See Appendix, Note IX, p. 512.
Pi. IV. The Piltdown man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at
100,000 to 300,000 years. The ape-like structure of the jaw does not prevent the
expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face. After the restora-
tion modelled by J. H. McGregor.
he a
ape
er
re nd
-MAMMATIAN LIFE> — 147
valley of the Thames, as witnessed in the low river-gravels of
Gray’s Thurrock and Ilford, to the region of the present Thu-
ringian forests near Weimar, where it
Southern mammoth. is found in the deposits of Taubach,
Ske ae Sg TeR -Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim, in which
eee orocederhinacercs. the mammals belong to the more recent
Spotted hyena. date of early Acheulean culture.’ The
ue eer life of this great region during Chellean
Rear and early Acheulean times was a min-
Roe-deer. | _giling of the characteristic forest and
Giant deer. meadow fauna of western Europe with
ah port - the descendants of the African-Asiatic
Badger. | invaders of late Pliocene ‘tang early
Marten. ae Pleistocene times.
Otter. | | The forests were full of the red deer
ie i ) ~ (Cervus elaphus), of the roe-deer (C. cap-
Water cole: ___-reolus),and of the giant deer (Megaceros),
also of a primitive species of wild boar
(Sus scrofa ferus) and of wild horses probably representing more
than one variety. The brown bear (Ursus arctos) of Europe is
now for the first time identified ; there was also a primitive species
of wolf (Canis suessi).
The small carnivora of the forests and of the streams are all
considered as closely related to existing species, namely, the
badger (Meles taxus), the marten (Mustela martes), the otter
(Lutra vulgaris), and the water-vole (Arvicola amphibius). The
prehistoric beaver of Europe (Castor fiber) now replaces the giant
beaver (Trogontherium) of Second Interglacial times.
Among the large carnivora, the lion (Felis leo antiqua) and the
spotted hyena (H. crocuta) have replaced the sabre-tooth tiger
and the striped hyzena of early Pleistocene times. Four great
Asiatic mammals, including two species of elephants, one species
of rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, roamed through the forests
and meadows of this warm temperate region. The horse of this
period is considered** to belong to the Forest or Nordic type,
from which our modern draught-horses. have descended. The
148 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
lions and hyzenas which abounded in Chellean and early Acheulean
times are in part ancestors of the cave types which appear in the
succeeding Reindeer or Cavern Period. In general, this mam-
malian life of Chellean and early Acheulean times in Europe fre-
quented the river shores and the neighboring forests and meadows
favored by a warm temperate climate with mild winters, such as
is indicated by the presence of the fig-tree and of the Canary
laurel in the region of north central France near Paris.
Undoubtedly the Chellean and Acheulean hunters had begun
the chase both of the bison, or wisent (B. priscus), and of the wild
cattle, or aurochs.*
This warm temperate mammalian life spread very widely
over northern Europe, as shown especially in the distribution
(Fig. 44) of the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and
Merck’s rhinoceros. The latter pair were constant companions
and are seen to have a closely similar and somewhat more north-
erly range than the hippopotamus, which is rather the climatic
companion of the southern mammoth and ranges farther south.
These animals in the gravel and sand layers along the river slopes
and ‘terraces’ mingled their remains with the artifacts of the
flint workers. For example, in the gravel ‘terraces’ of the
Somme we find the bones of the straight-tusked elephant and
Merck’s rhinoceros in the same sand layers with the Chellean
flints. Thus the men of Chellean times may well have pursued
this giant elephant (E. antiquus) and rhinoceros (D. merckii) as
their tribal successors in the same valley hunted the woolly mam-
moth and woolly rhinoceros.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHELLEAN IMPLEMENTS
All over the world may be found traces of a Stone Age, ancient
or modern, primitive implements of stone and flint analogous to
* The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, ‘wisent,’
wild ox, ‘auerochs,’ ‘urochs’ (the ‘urus’ of Cesar). The urus survived in Germany as
late as the seventeenth century, while a few of the bison or ‘wisent’ survive to the present
time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the
urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Diirnten, near Ziirich, remains of the urus are
found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck’s rhinoc-
eros. (See Appendix, Note IV.)
CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 149
those of the true Chellean period of western Europe but not
really identical when very closely compared. These represent
the early attempts of the human hand, directed by the primitive
mind, to fashion hard materials into forms adapted to the pur-
poses of war, the chase, and domestic life. The result is a series
aa
Fic. 73. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations in
western Europe.
of parallels in form which come under the evolution principle of
convergence. ‘Thus, in all the continents except Australia—in
Europe, in Asia, and even in North and South America—primi-
tive races have passed through an industrial stage similar to the
typical Chellean of western Europe. This we should rather at-
tribute to a similarity in human invention and in human needs
than to the theory that the Chellean industry originated at some
particular centre and travelled in a slowly enlarging \ wave over
the entire world.
150 MEN OF THE OLD STONE: AGE
In western Europe the Chellean culture certainly had a de-
velopment all its own, adapted to a race of bold hunters who
lived in the open and whose entire industry developed around the
products of the chase. For them flint and quartzite took the
place of bronze, iron, or steel. This culture marked a distinct
and probably a very long epoch of time in which inventions and
multiplications of form were gradually spread from tribe to tribe,
Old Fréville Quarry
1883-1907
SS. gfe
Old Tellier Quarry aa Upper Paleolithic
G7
—and Neolithi
Chaussee ord and Neolithic
ACEN Mou sterian ! ?
Early Mousterian?
Late Acheulean
WDLENCERRACE—-\-——- = |
ommmeaere Early Acheulean and Late Acheulean|
Chellean |
Prechellean and Chellean
Fic. 74. Section of the middle and high terraces at St. Acheul, from southwest to north-
east. After Commont, 1908, 1909, modified and redrawn. The Pre-Chellean workers
first established themselves here at the time when the Somme was visited by the straight-
tusked elephant and other primitive mammals of the warm African-Asiatic pes
(Compare Fig. 509, p. 122.)
exactly as modern inventions, usually originating at a single point
and often in the mind of one ingenious individual, gradually spread
over the world. | |
The clearest examples of the evolution of the seven or eight
implements of the Chellean culture from the five or six rudimen-
tary types of the Pre-Chellean have been found at. St. Acheul
by Commont. The abundance and variety of flint at this great
station on the Somme made it a centre of industry from the dawn
of the Old Stone Age to its very close.. It was probably a.region
favorable to all kinds of large and small game. The researches
of Commont show that with the exception of Castillo in northern
Spain no other station in all Europe was so continuously occupied.
CHELLEAN INDUSTRY . 151
From Pre-Chellean to Neolithic times the men of every culture
stage except the Magdalenian and Azilian-Tardenoisian found
their way here, and thus the site of St. Acheul presents an epit-
ome of the entire prehistoric industry. Even during the colder
periods of climate this region continued to be visited—possibly
during the warm weather of the summer seasons. At Montiéres,
along the Somme, we find deposits of Mousterian culture which
Fic. 75. Excavation on the ‘high terrace’ at St. Acheul, known as the ancienne carriére
Dupont and more recently as the carriére Bultel, showing eight geologic layers from the
Upper Palzolithic deposits of brick-earth at the top (9g) down to the sub-Chellean
yellow gravels (2) overlying the chalk terrace at the bottom.
is generally characteristic of the cold climatic period but is here
associated with a temperate fauna, including the hippopotamus,
Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant. Great
geographic and climatic changes took place in the valley of the
Somme during this long period of human evolution. The Pre-
Chellean workers first established their industry on the middle
and high ‘terraces’ at the time when the Somme was visited
by the straight-tusked elephant and other much more primitive
mammals of the warm Asiatic fauna. The early Acheulean
camps on the same terraces were pitched in the gravels be-
low layers of ‘loess’ which betoken an entire climatic change.
The fourth glaciation passed by, and the Upper Paleolithic flint
152 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
workers again returned and left the débris of their industry in
the layers of loam which swept down the slopes of the valley
from the surrounding hills. This succession will be studied more
in detail in connection with the industry.
As contrasted with the four or more Pre-Chellean stations
already known, namely, St. Acheul, Montiéres, Helin, Gray’s
Thurrock, and possibly Abbeville and Piltdown, there are at
least sixteen stations in western Europe which are characteristi-
cally Chellean. In addition to the sites named above, all of
which show deposits of typical Chellean implements above the
Pre-Chellean, we may note the important Chellean stations of
San Isidro and Torralba in central Spain; Tilloux and Marignac
in southwestern France; Créteil, Colombes, Bois Colombes, and
Billancourt on the Seine, in the immediate vicinity of Paris;
Cergy on the Oise; the type station of Chelles on the Marne;
Abbeville on the northern bank of the Somme; and the famous
station of Kent’s Hole, Devon, on the southwestern coast of Eng-
land. Thus far no typical Chellean station has been discovered
in Portugal, Italy, Germany, or Austria, nor, indeed, in any part
of central Europe. This leaves the original habitat of the tribes
that brought the Chellean culture to western Europe still a mys-
tery; but, as already observed, the location of the stations favors
the theory of a migration through northern Africa rather than
through eastern Europe.
Compared with the Pre-Chellean flint workers the Chellean
artisans advanced both by the improvement of the older types of
implements and by the invention of new ones.” As observed by
Obermaier, the flint worker is still dependent on the chance shape
of the shattered fragments of flint which he has not yet learned
to shape symmetrically. In the experimental search after the
most useful form of flint which could be grasped by the hand, the
very characteristic Chellean coup de poing was evolved out of its
Pre-Chellean prototype. This implement was made of an elon-
gate nodule, either of quartzite or, preferably, of flint, and flaked
by the hammer on both sides to a more or less almond shape;
as a rule, the point and its adjacent edges are sharpened; the
NS
h ny
SH
a, aA
8. “ZG
Fic. 76. Principal forms of small, late Chellean scraping, planing, and boring tools of
flint, after Commont and Obermaier. One-half actual size. 1. Combination tool—small
flake with a sharp point (a), cutting edge (6), and curved-in scraper (c). 2. Cutting tool
with protective retouch for the index finger on the upper edge (a), and a sharp cutting
edge (b). 3. Primitive knife. 4. ‘Point.’ 5. Combination tool—small flake with
scraper edge (b), and two curved-in scraper edges (a and a1). 6. Borer. 7. Pointed
scraper. 8. Knife with coarse boring point at one end. 9g. Thick scraper or planing
tool. 10. Curved scraper.
154 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
other end being rounded and blunted. Like most, if not all,
of the Chellean implements, it. was designed to be grasped by
the bare hand and not furnished with a wooden haft or handle.
It is not impossible that some of the pointed forms may have
been wedged into a wooden handle, but there is no proof of it.
In size the coup de poing varies from 4 to 8 inches in length, and
examples have been found as large as 9% inches. That it served
a variety of purposes is indicated by the existence of four well-
defined, different forms: first, a primitive, almond-shaped form ;
second, an ovaloid form; third, a disk form; and fourth, a pointed
form resembling a lance-head. De Mortillet?® speaks of it as the
only tool of the Chellean tribes, but in its various forms it served
all the purposes of axe, saw, chisel, and awl, and was in truth a
combination tool. Capitan?’ also holds that the coup de poing
is not a single tool but is designed to meet many various needs.
The primitive almond and ovaloid forms were designed for use
along the edges, either for heavy hacking or for sawing; the disk
forms may have been used as axes or as sling-stones; the more
rounded forms would’ serve as knives and scrapers; while the
pointed, lance-shaped forms might be used as daggers, both in
war and in the chase.
The Chellean flint workers also developed especially a num-
ber of small, pointed forms from the accidentally shaped frag-
ments of flint, showing both short and long points carefully flaked
and chipped. ‘Thus, out of the small types of the Pre-Chellean
there evolved a great variety of tools adapted to domestic pur-
poses, to war, and to the chase.
CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE
The type station of the Chellean culture is somewhat east of
the present town of Chelles. Here in Chellean times the broad
floods of the ancient River Marne were transporting great quanti-
ties of sand and débris, products of the early pluvial periods of
Third Interglacial times; and here, on the right bank, embedded in
sands and gravels 24 feet thick, are found the typical Chellean
CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 155
implements mingled with remains of the hippopotamus, straight-
tusked elephant, Merck’s rhinoceros, giant beaver, hyena, and
many members of the Asiatic forest and meadow fauna.
The flint-working stations at St. Acheul were on bluffs from
40 to 80 feet above the present level of the Somme. The Chel-
lean and the following Acheulean industry was carried on here on
a very extensive scale. In one year Rigollot collected as many as
800 coups de poing from the ancient quarries; near by are other
quarries equally rich in material, and we may imagine that the
products of the flint industry in this favorable locality were car-
ried far and wide into other parts of the country.
In the vicinity of Paris, and again at Arcy, in the valley of the
Biévre, the workers of Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian flints
sought in succession the old river-gravels belonging to the lower
levels; these ‘low terraces’ are only 15 feet above the present
height of the river and are still occasionally flooded by the high
waters of the Seine, indicating that the Seine borders have not
- altered their levels. The animal life here was identical with that
of the Somme and of the Thames and included the hippopotamus,
Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant.
Thus it would appear that, in regard to the river courses and
the hills through which they flowed, the topography and land-
scape of northern France and of southern Britain were everywhere
the same as at the present time. The forests which clothed the
hills were not greatly different from the present, except for the
presence of a few trees of a warmer clime, nor was there anything
strange or unfamiliar in the majority of the animals that roamed
through forest and meadow. The three chief archaic elements
consisted in the presence of two very ancient races of men and
their rude stage of culture, in the great forms of Asiatic and
African life which mingled with the more familiar native types,
and in the broad, continuous land surfaces which swept off un-
broken to the west and southwest.
For in those days Europe, though even then little more than
a great peninsula, extended far beyond its present limits. Eng-
land and Ireland were still part of the mainland, and great rivers
156 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
flowed through the broad valleys that are now the Irish Sea, the
North Sea, and the English Channel—rivers that counted the
Seine, the Thames, the Garonne, and even the Rhine, as mere
tributaries. The Strait of Gibraltar was then the Isthmus of
Gibraltar—a narrow land bridge connecting Europe with Africa.
The Mediterranean was then an inland lake, or rather two inland
lakes, for Italy and Sicily stretched out in a broad, irregular mass
to join the northern coast of Africa, while Corsica and Sardinia
formed a long peninsula extending from the Italian mainland and
almost, if not quite, reaching to the African coast.
THE THAMES VALLEY IN CHELLEAN TIMES
The interpretation of the features of stratification in the
valley of the Somme is especially interesting because it gives us
a key to the understanding of a similar sequence of prehistoric
events in the valley of the Thames.
The station of Gray’s Thurrock in this valley is barely 120
miles distant from the Chellean station of Abbeville, in the val-
ley of the Somme, and it is apparent that the old flint workers
were freely passing across the broad intervening country and in-
terchanging their ideas and inventions. Thus it happened that
Chellean implements identical with, or closely related to, the
types of the Somme valley were being fashioned all over southern
Britain from the Thames to the Ouse. The ancient River Thames
(Lyell, Geikie?®) was then flowing over a bed of boulder-clays
which had been deposited during the preceding glaciations. Its
broad, swift stream was bringing down great deposits of ochreous
gravels and of sands interstratified with loams and clays. It is
these old true river-gravels which display their greatest thickness
on the lowest levels of the Thames and which are largely made up
of well-bedded and distinctly water-worn materials. On these
low levels the flint workers sought their materials, and here they
left behind them the archaic Chellean implements which are now
found embedded in these older river-gravels, just as they occur in
the gravels washed down over the three terraces of the Somme and
the Marne. In the Thames this old gravel wash seems to have
CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 157
been down-stream, whereas on the middle and upper terraces of
the Somme the gravel wash came directly down the sides of the
valley, except, perhaps, in very high floods. These deep beds of
grave!, sand, and loam lie for the most part above the present
overflow plain of the Thames, although in some places they de-
scend below it; which proves that the main landscape of the
Thames also, except for the changes of the flora and of animal
life, was the same in Pre-Chellean and Chellean times as it is at
present. Thus the Somme, the Thames, and the Seine had all
worn their channels to the present or even to lower levels when
the Pre-Chellean hunters appeared. Since Chellean times all
three rivers have silted up their channels.
The changes along the Thames which have since occurred are
in the superficial layers brought down from the sides of the valley
which have softened the contours of the old terraces and have
also entombed the later phases of the valley’s prehistory.
Sections on the south bank at Ilford, Kent, and on the north
bank at Gray’s Thurrock, Essex, confirm this view. At the
latter station, in low-lying strata of brick-earth, loam, and gravel,
such as would be formed by the silting up of the bottom of an
old river channel, are found the remains of the straight-tusked
elephant, broad-nosed rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. All the
discoveries of recent years lead to the conclusion that the old flu-
viatile gravels which contain these ancient mammals and flints
are restricted to the lower levels of the Thames valley, while the
high level gravels and loams are of later date. Old Chellean flints
also occur occasionally on the higher levels, but here it would seem
that they have been washed down from the old land surfaces
above, because they are found mingled with flints of the late
Acheulean and early Mousterian industry.
ENGLAND IN EARLY PALZOLITHIC TIMES
It is on the higher levels of the Thames, as of the Somme, and
in the superficial deposits covering the sides of the valley that we
read the story of the subsequent Paleolithic cultures and of an
early warm temperate climate being followed by a cold climate
158 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
with frozen subsoil belonging to the fourth glaciation and the
contemporary Mousterian flint industry. The Paleolithic his-
tory of the Thames*® has not yet been fully interpreted, but it
would appear that the relics of the old stations of Kent and Nor-
folk will yield all the forms of Chellean and Acheulean imple-
ments, and probably also those of the Mousterian which have
been discovered in the valley of the Somme, thus proving that
the Lower Paleolithic races of this region pursued the same cul-
ture development as the neighboring tribes of France and Bel-
gium, as well as those of Spain, up to the close of middle Acheulean
times.
A similar sequence of events appears to be indicated at Hoxne,
Suffolk, where archaic palzoliths were discovered as far back as
1797. This discovery was neglected for upward of sixty years,
until in 1859 these flints were re-examined by Prestwich and
Evans after their visit to the stations of the Somme (Geikie,**
Avebury”). This site was in the hollow of a surface of boulder-
clay, overlain by the deposit of a fresh-water stream; in the bed
of its narrow channel, besides flint implements of early Acheulean
type, abundant plant remains were found which give | us an inter-
esting vision of the flora of the time.
These plants are decidedly characteristic of a temperate cli-
mate, including such trees as the oak, yew, and fir, and mostly of
species which are still found in the forests of the same region.
This life gave place, as indicated in plant deposits of a higher
level, to an arctic flora, probably corresponding with the tundra
climate of Mousterian times, the period of the fourth glaciation.
Above these are found again layers of plants and of mollusks
which point to the return of a temperate, climate. :
SPREAD OF THE ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY
It is noteworthy that not a single ‘river-drift,’ Pre-Chellean
or Chellean, station has been found in Germany or Switzerland,
or, in fact, in all central Europe in.the region lying between the
Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers. Either this region was un-
PALEOLITHIC STATIONS OF GERMANY 159
favorable to human habitation or the remains of the stations
have been buried or washed away.
It is significant that the earliest proof of human migration into
this region, whether from the east or from the west we do not
certainly know, is coincident with the dry climate of Acheulean
times. ‘The ‘loess’ conditions of climate seem to be coincident
with the earliest Acheulean stations in Germany, such as Sablon.
‘Loess’ deposition is by no means a proof of a cold climate but
rather of an arid one, especially in regions where areas of finely
eroded soil were liable to be raised by the wind; such areas were
found over the whole recently glaciated country north of the Alps
and south of the Scandinavian peninsula.
The Paleolithic discovery sites of Germany are principally
grouped in three regions® as follows:
To the south, along the /eadwaters of the Rhine and the
Danube, among the limestones of Swabia and the Jura were
formed the caverns sought by early Mousterian man. To the
west of these were many older stations in the ‘loess’ deposits of
the upper Rhine, between the mountain ridges of the Vosges and
the Black Forest, and still nearer the sources of the Rhine, ex-
tending over the border into Switzerland, are a number of famous
cave sites in the valleys cut by the Rhine and its tributaries
through the white Jurassic limestone. To the west is the group
of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia, which includes the open
Acheulean camps in the ‘loess’ deposits above the river and a
number of cavern stations. To the north is the scattered group
of stations, both of Acheulean and Mousterian times, of north
Germany. Here the sites are few and far between. The open-
country camps were established chiefly in the valley of the Ilm
and near the caves of the Harz Mountains, in the neighborhood
of Gera. No discoveries of certain date or unquestioned authen-
ticity are reported from eastern Germany.
Along the upper Rhine the flint workers of Acheulean times
established their ancient camps mostly in the open on the broad
sheets of the ‘lower loess,’ which, constantly drifted by the
wind, covered and preserved the stations. These stations are
@ PALAZOLITHIC STATIONS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY
Fic. 77. Flint working stations of the Men of the Old Stone Age along the waters of the
Ilm, the Rhine, and the Danube, from Acheulean to Azilian times. After R. R. Schmidt,
modified and redrawn. These Paleolithic sites of Germany lie between the terminal
moraines of the successive glacial advances of the Second, Third, and Fourth (II, III, IV)
Glacial Stages, extending from the borders of the Scandinavian ice-fields on the north
to those of the Alpine ice-fields on the south. The dotted surface represents the area
covered by the drift of the Fourth Glacial Stage.
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 161
widely scattered, but they were frequented from earliest Acheu-
lean times, and the region was revisited to the very close of the
Upper Paleolithic.
Early in Acheulean times the important ‘loess’ station of
Achenheim was established. This is a most famous locality and
is of especial importance because it is the only station in Ger-
many which was continuously frequented from late Acheulean
times throughout the Lower Paleolithic and into the beginning of
the Upper Paleolithic; here the ‘older loess’ of the Third Inter-
glacial Stage yields a typical Acheulean industry.
Thus far the region of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia
has not shown any evidence of Acheulean culture. The north
German stations, however, were entered in Acheulean times, and
the principal open stations of this region lie along the valley of
the Ilm. Here, at Taubach, Ehringsdorf, and Weimar, we find
implements of typical Acheulean form belonging to the early
warm temperate Acheulean period. ‘The stations of the Ilm val-
ley southwest of Leipsic are also of great importance because of
the rich record which they contain of the warm temperate animal
life of early Acheulean times; the flint culture is typically Acheu-
lean, and the climatic conditions are read both in the travertines
and in the subsequent deposits of the ‘lower loess,’ which be-
long to the cold dry period of late Acheulean times. Here lin-
gered the straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros, con-
temporary with the workers of the Acheulean flints.
It will be observed that in Germany the early Acheulean was
a warm period which in certain regions was also arid and subject
to great dust-storms. At this time the camps were for the most
part in the open country. In the late period, also arid and sub-
ject to high winds but with a cooler climate, the flint workers
continued to frequent the open Acheulean stations in the ‘loess.’
lf there were shelter and cavern stations in this region, they have
not as yet been discovered. This would appear to indicate that
the climate had not yet become severe.
Similar testimony is found in the great scarcity of cavern and
shelter stations in Acheulean times In every part of western Eu-
162 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
rope; yet occasionally the tribes repaired to the vicinity of shel-
tering cliffs, as along the Vézére. In some scattered localities
they sought the caverns, as at Krapina, in Croatia, at Spy, on
the Meuse in Belgium, and at Castillo, in northern Spain. These
rare exceptions to the open camps would tend to prove that the
caverns were sought rather for protection from enemies and as
rain shelters than as retreats from a bitter-cold climate.
In the valley of the Beune, a small tributary of the Vézére,
in Dordogne, we find a true Acheulean station quite close to the
river shore. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley
was already deepened to the same degree as it is to-day. In the
valley of the Somme the Acheulean culture stretches from the
‘highest terrace’ down below the present level of the river,
which has made for itself a new high channel. The fact that two
Acheulean stations are found on the upper Garonne, high above
the present water-level, is of little significance, as at that time
the water-level was also high.
In general the Acheulean flint workers preferred the open
stations throughout all Acheulean times, and their camps are
found on the open plateaus between the rivers or on the various
‘terrace’ levels, as on the higher, middle, and lower ‘terraces’
of the Somme at St. Acheul, or again close along the borders of
the rivers and streams, as in the Dordogne region.
Even during the early Acheulean stage a dry climate had
begun to prevail in certain parts of Germany. Near Metz is
the ‘older loess’ station of Sablon, which was occupied in early
Acheulean times, indicating a warm period of arid climate fa-
vorable to the transportation of the wind-blown ‘loess’; doubt-
less, this fine dust at times filled the entire atmosphere and ob-
scured the sun, as is the case to-day on the high steppes and
deserts of eastern Asia.
An exception to the open-country life preferred by the Acheu-
lean flint workers is found in the great grotto* of Castillo, near
Puente Viesgo, in the Province of Santander, northern Spain.
* The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the
summer of 1912.
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 163
The deposits which filled this grotto to a thickness of 45 feet
from the floor to the roof were explored by Obermaier, who found
them divided into thirteen layers, covering eleven periods of
industry and presenting the most wonderful epitome of the pre-
Fic. 78. Entrance (white cross) to the great grotto of Castillo in northern Spain. This
grotto was frequented by the Men of the Old Stone Age from Acheulean to Azilian times,
an archeologic sequence surpassed only by that of the open camps along the terraces of
the Somme. Photograph from Obermaier.
history of western Europe from Acheulean times to the Age of
Bronze, in Spain (Fig. 709).
As early as 1908, Breuil** discovered in the interior of the
cave back of the grotto some quartzites worked into Acheulean
types, proving that the cavern was entered in Acheulean times.
Obermaier,®’ in the course of three years’ work, has found that
the floor of the grotto was possibly used as a flint-making station
in Acheulean and, possibly, in Chellean times. The culture sec-
tion which he has revealed here under the direction of the [n-
stitut de Paléontologie humaine can be compared only with that
which Commont has found on the ‘terraces’ of the Somme at
St. Acheul. The difference is that in the shelter of the Castillo
164 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
na i cm a
: Se ee :
LE LEE
Ze
—_—
Gia LM LOM
——
——— ec ea a Mill dhidacset
ZZ Ze
ope
Sie ee
So
— wi
VON
IN nN
SN
Fic. 79. Stratigraphic sec-
tion showing the archzo-
logic layers of the great
grotto of Castillo. After
Obermaier.
grotto the climate is recorded only through
the changing forms of animal life which
are mingled around the fire-hearths and
with the flints in the ascending levels.
(13) Eneolithic Age. Small, triangular dagger
in copper.
(12) Azilian. Flint industry—Age of the Stag.
(11) Upper Magdalenian. Artistic engravings
on stag-horn.
(10) Lower Magdalenian. Flints and fine en-
gravings on bone. Reindeer baton.
(9) Archaic Solutrean. Fewilles de laurier, re-
touched on one side only.
(8, 7, 6) Upper Aurignacian in three layers.
Remains of the reindeer and burins.
(5) Lower Aurignacian. Implements of stone
and bone. Remains of an infant.
(4) Upper Mousterian. Rich in small imple-
ments and large tools of quartzite.
Merck’s rhinoceros very abundant.
(3) Typical Mousterian flints and quartzites.
Merck’s rhinoceros.
(2) Early Mousterian industry. Bones of
cave-bear and Merck’s rhinoceros.
(1) Acheulean flints.
The entrance to this grotto is on the
side of a high hill overlooking the valley
and might easily have been barricaded
against attack. In early Acheulean times,
when the flint workers were on the very
floor of the grotto, the lower entrance of
the cavern was still open, leading far into
the heart of the mountain. The succes-
sive accumulations of débris, cave loam,
fire-stones, bones, and innumerable flints,
together with great blocks falling over the
entrance of the cavern, reached a height
of 45 feet, so that during the Upper Paleolithic only the upper
entrance to the cavern was used by the artists of Magdalenian
THE USE OF FIRE 165
times. The subsequent Azilian and Eneolithic cultures were
crowded under the very roof of the grotto at the sides.
This station, repaired to and then abandoned by tribe after
tribe over a period estimated at present as not less than 50,000
years, 1s a monumental volume of prehistory, read and interpreted
by the archeologist almost as clearly as if the whole record were
in writing.
The first positive evidences of the use of fire are the layers
of charred wood and bones frequently found in the industrial
deposits of early Acheulean times.
GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES
During the early period of development of the Acheulean
industry, the geography, the climate, and the plant and animal
life continued to present exactly the same aspect as during Chel-
lean times. The mammals which we find in Thuringia in the
lower travertines of the valley of the Ilm, at Taubach, near Wei-
mar, and at Ehringsdorf, mingled with flints of early Acheulean
industry, are of the same species as those found in the valley of
the Somme mingled with the implements of the Chellean indus-
try. ‘The southern mammoth occurs at Taubach, and we find
the straight-tusked elephant (EZ. antiquus), Merck’s rhinoceros,
the hippopotamus, the lion, and the hyzna representing the an-
cient African-Asiatic migrants, while the north European and
Asiatic life is represented by the giant deer, roe-deer, wild goat,
brown bear, wolf, badger, marten, otter, beaver, meadow ham-
ster, and shrew. Grazing in the meadows were the aurochs, or
wild ox, and the wisent, or bison. There was one variety of horse,
probably of the forest type. Thus, the fauna as a whole contains
six Asiatic types, or eight if we include the bison and wild cattle.
Of the forest life there are nine species, including the wild boar
(Sus scrofa ferus) not mentioned above.
The. layers of travertine are indicative of very important
geographical changes which were occurring in central and southern
Europe in the middle period of Third Interglacial times. The
166 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
travertines of the Ilm and of other parts of central Germany were
due to wide-spread volcanic disturbances and eruptions, accom-
panied by the deposition of travertines, gypsums, and tufas.
To this volcanic disturbance in central France is attributed the
deposition of the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, which
records the warm temperate climate of early Acheulean times, as
well as the somewhat cooler succeeding climate of late Acheulean
times. This uplift in the centre of Germany and France appar-
ently left the region between France and Great Britain undis-
turbed, because there is evidence of continued free migration of
the tribes and of the Acheulean cultures; but there appears to
have been a wide-spread subsidence of the coasts of southern
Europe by which the islands of the Mediterranean became iso-
lated from the mainland, and the migrating routes between
Europe and Africa across the central Mediterranean region were
cut off. Thus, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were separated from the
mainland after having received a large contingent of mammalian
life from the continents both to the north and to the south.
While descendants of the African and Asiatic mammals, as well
as of the northerly European forest and meadow types, survive
on these islands, there is, thus far, no indication that they were
invaded by hunters carrying the implements of the Acheulean
culture, although these Acheulean flint workers ranged over all
parts of the Italian peninsula (Fig. 80), as indicated by the dis-
covery of nine stations.
DISTRIBUTION OF ACHEULEAN STATIONS
The Acheulean stations are widely distributed along the
Seine, Marne, and Somme in northern France, where flint is
abundant and well adapted for fine workmanship. In central
and southern France, where large flints are scarce, the Acheulean
tribes were forced to use quartz, which fashions into clumsier
forms. In the north the Acheulean workers continued on the
old Chellean sites at Chelles, St. Acheul, Abbeville, and Helin.
In late Acheulean times were established the new stations of
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 167
Wolvercote on the Thames, near Oxford, and of Levallois on the
Seine, near Paris, both famous for their ‘Levallois’ flint knives
or blades. Near Levallois is the late Acheulean station of Ville-
juif, south of Paris, where the flints are buried in drifts of loess.
In Normandy are the important stations of Frileuse, Bléville,
khleeberg
Mar AEE
ar @. oh a
; ®Taubach > De
oe = 4
& § Ehringsdor.
1- La Ferrassie
2- La Micoque
3- Le Moustier
4-La Rochette
5- Pataud
6- Laussel
I:G. 80. Distribution of the principal Acheulean industrial stations in western Europe.
and La Mare-aux-Clercs, which give the whole Acheulean devel-
opment, both early and late. Ona small tributary valley of the
Vézére, in Dordogne, in late Acheulean times there was estab-
lished the station of La Micoque, which gives its name to a num-
ber of miniature flints of distinctive form which were first found
there and are known as the ‘type of La Micoque.’ Other sta-
tions, such as Combe-Capelle, also show examples of this ‘minia-
ture’ Acheulean workmanship.
Altogether, over thirty Acheulean stations have been found in
France, two—Castillo and San Isidro—in northern and central
168 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Spain, the single station of Furninha in Portugal, over eight in
Germany, three in Austria, and three in Russian Poland. Espe-
cially remarkable is the wide distribution of this culture all over
Italy, where explorations by no means exhaustive have resulted
in the discovery of at least nine or ten very prolific stations ex-
tending from Goccianello in the north to Capri in the south, but
not into Sicily as far as is at present known. Thus all of western
Fic. 81. Late Acheulean station of La Micoque, in Dordogne, where miniature flints of
distinctive late Acheulean form are found. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.
Europe, excepting the area covered by the Scandinavian ice-
fields on the north and by the Alpine ice-fields on the south, was
penetrated by the workers of Acheulean flints, probably members,
for the most part, of the Neanderthal race.
The general uniformity of Acheulean workmanship in all parts
of western Europe is an indication that these Neanderthaloid
tribes were more or less migratory and that the inventions of new
and useful implements, such as the lance-pointed coup de poing
of La Micoque and the flint-flakes of Levallois, which probably
ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 169
originated at an especial centre, or perhaps even in the inventive
mind of a single workman, became widely distributed and highly
distinctive of certain periods. The development of the imple-
ments in different regions is so uniform as to prove that the evo-
lution of the early Paleolithic cultures extended all over western
Europe and that the various types or stages were essentially
contemporary.
Forms oF ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS
There is a close sequence between the coup de poing of the
Chellean workers and its development into the finer and more
Fic. 82. Illustrating the method of ‘flaking’ flint implements by direct or
indirect blow with a hammer-stone.
symmetrical forms of the Acheulean. The latter, according to
Obermaier,*® is distinguished by the flaking of the entire surface,
by the far more skilful fashioning, and by the really symmetrical
almond form which is attained by retouching both the surface
and the edges. This more refined retouch becomes the means
of producing symmetrical instruments, with straight, convex, or
concave cutting edges, as well as finer and lighter tools.
The early Acheulean industry belonged to a warm temperate
climatic period and directly succeeds the Chellean, as shown in
170 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
a most perfect manner in the quarries of the type station of St.
Acheul on the Somme. In these earlier strata the prevailing
forms of coup de poing are the ‘pointed oval’ and the ‘lance-
pointed,’ the latter showing very simple chipping, a broad point,
and a thick base. The oval coups de poing are smaller than the
Chellean tools of the same kind, carefully fashioned on all sides
and round the base, and very symmetrical; there are four dis-
tinct varieties of these: the almond type, oval almond-shaped,
elongate oval, and subtriangular—the latter evolving into the
Fic. 83. Illustrating the method of ‘chipping’ flint implements by pressure
with a bone or wooden implement, to produce the finer
retouch of the surfaces and edges.
finely modelled type of late Acheulean times. It may have
been from these oval types that the disc form was finally
evolved.
There is wide difference of opinion regarding the use of these
thin ovaloid, triangular, and disc forms. Obermaier considers
that they may have been clamped in wood, or furnished with a
shaft, thus forming a spear head. Another suggestion is that
they were used with a leather guard to protect the hand; and
there is no doubt that in either case they would have served as
effective weapons in chase or war. Another view is that of Com-
mont,®’ who believes that not a single implement down to the
very end of Acheulean times can be regarded as a weapon of war ;
this author maintains that many of these implements, including
those dressed on both edges, were still in various ways grasped
-ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 1"1
by the hand, although they do not present the firm, blunted grip
of the ancient coups de poing.
We also note the development of a type of coup de poing, with
cutting blade fashioned straight across the end: this primitive
“Reverse
*--. Point of percussion
~~ Bulb of percussion
* Sear
, =>! Concentric waves
Flakes
Fic. 84. Method of producing the long flake and the central core of flint by
sharp blows at the indicated point of percussion. After R. R. Schmidt.
In this case:a series of flakes have been cut off the entire periphery of the
core. ‘The primitive use of the flake begins in the Pre-Chellean.
chisel or adze-shaped tool may have been used as a chopper, or
as an axe, in fashioning wooden tools.
In the lance-pointed coup de poing of narrow, elongate shape,
the flaking is very simple and the edges are continued into the
short base, generally very thick, and often showing part of the
original crust of the flint nodule, which is well adapted for the grip
of the hand. This implement, which serves the original idea of
the coup de poing, develops into the round-pointed and lance-
pointed forms. ‘There is no question that, whether in industrial
172
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
use, in war, or in the chase, these implements were held only by
the hand.
The small implements of the early Acheulean included a great
variety of designs developing out of the far more primitive tools
INDUSTRIAL.
Coup de poing.
Ovaloid.
Double-edged.
Subtriangular.
Straight cutting blade across
the end.
Disc-shaped.
Triangular—very thin and flat.
Hachette, chopper.
Grattoir, planing tool.
Racloir, scraper.
Percor, drill, borer:
Couteau, knife.
‘Pointe’ (Levallois blade).
‘Pointe,’ point—oval and
chisel-shaped.
WAR AND CHASE.
Coup de poing.
Of pointed and lance-pointed
types.
Pierre de jet, throwing stone.
Couteau, knife.
‘Pointe,’ dart and spear
heads.
of Chellean and Pre-Chellean
times, namely, the planing tool,
the scraper, the borer, and the
knife. Each of these types de-
velops its own variety, often
fashioned with great care, prim-
itive blades, straight-edged cut-
ting tools, with the back rounded
or blunted for the grip of the
fingers, scrapers with straight
or curved edges, and percoirs or
borers. The scraping and plan-
ing tools, doubtless used for the
dressing of hides, are now more
carefully fashioned. We also
observe the racloir and the
scraper finished to a point
which is the precursor of the
graving tool of the Upper Palz-
olithic.*®
Characteristic of this stage
is the systematic use of large
‘flakes’ or outlying pieces of
flint struck off from the core, which were used as scrapers or
planes, or developed into small ‘haches,’ or coups de poing.
The core or centre of the flint nodule still constitutes the ma-
terial out of which the large typical implements are fashioned ;
but the flake begins to lend itself to a great variety of forms,
as witnessed in the evolution of the Levallois knives of the
Upper Acheulean and the highly varied flake implements of the
Mousterian and Aurignacian industries.
The ‘pointe,’ or point, is a special implement chipped out
-ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 173
of a short, sharply convex flake, taking the form of a blunt dart
or spear head, pointed at one end and oval or flat at the other.
Fic. 85. Large, typical Acheulean implements, chiefly described as coups de poing, after
de Mortillet. One-quarter actual size. One of these (41) shows at one end a part of the
crust of the flint nodule left intact to afford a smooth, firm grip to the -hand.
Another (43) shows a part of the crust remaining along the left side, for the same
purpose. Two of the coups de poing (47 and 48) show, the one a double-curved,
the other a straight, lateral edge. Another coup de poing (49), from a submarine
deposit near the shore at Havre, is partly covered by acorn shells.
LATE ACHEULEAN CLIMATE
The Acheulean industry continued over a very long period,
and by the time the late Acheulean culture stage had been reached
a decided change of climate ensued in western Europe. Along the
borders of the Danube and of the Rhine, in the valley of the
Somme, and even in central and southern France there are indi-
cations of a cool dry continental climate, similar to that which
174 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
is now found on the southern steppes of Russia, in the Ural
Mountains, and in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea. Indications
of this climate have been mentioned above, as seen in the plant
life in the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, where there are
evidences that trees of a cool temperate climate took the place
of the warm temperate forests of early Acheulean times.
That the climate should be considered as cool and arid rather
than comparable with the bitter-cold climate of the ‘upper loess’
period, when a true steppe fauna entered Europe for the first
time, is further indicated by the fact that late Acheulean imple-
ments are more frequently found in the centre and north of
France than in the south.
To the far north, before the close of Acheulean times, the
Scandinavian ice-fields had again begun to advance southward ;
the region bordering the glaciers was cold and moist and favored
the migration from the tundra regions of the woolly mammoth
and woolly rhinoceros to the locality still frequented by the
Acheulean flint workers, for it is said *° that Acheulean flints are
occasionally associated even with the remains of these tundra
mammals. At the very same time the Acheulean flint workers
along the Somme may have enjoyed a more genial climate.
It is only through this interpretation of the various climatic
and life zones in western Europe that we can explain the survival
on the River Somme, or return to this river from the south, of
a warm temperate fauna, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and ele-
phants, in the Mousterian period, which is even subsequent to
the close of Acheulean times.
The valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern
France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau, and the
Garonne draining the eastern Pyrenees, were now sought by the
Acheulean flint workers. The valley of the Vézére, a northern
tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of lime-
stone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with
vertical sides. Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore
the same general aspect as at present.*° Evidences of a change
of climate are observed even in the sheltered valleys where the
THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE 175
flint workers were seeking the warmer and sunnier river-slopes.
The river channels were the same as they are to-day, and the
quarries of the early Acheulean flint workers are found quite
close to the streams; but as the period progressed they moved up
nearer to the cliffs and shelters. Here, too, there is evidence
that a dry continental climate prevailed. On the upper levels of
eesti a a, oe MelCazead_ Bounds Cirgrlde
Dordogne / &f.
Xe. | Mend
0, ende
ome. Marmande Cahors R. a
oy 0 . o HOG ez AR:
Nyareg
Aveyronyo Laguepies aS ¢ Millay
Hauteur 34002
Fic. 86. ‘Valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne
draining the central plateau and the Garonne draining. the eastern
Pyrenees.” After Harlé.
the old plateaus of Dordogne we still find the Quercus ilex occur-
ring quite frequently, a tree which belongs to relatively dry regions
and which in southern Russia is reckoned with the flora of the
steppes. Yet the greater aridity toward the close of the Acheu-
lean stage was probably not such as to prevent the growth of
forests along the borders of the streams. Thus, in the mammalian
life of the period there was, perhaps, a division between the more
hardy forms which frequented the dry plateaus above and the
forest-loving and less hardy forms which frequented the river-
valleys.
The most convincing proof of an arid climate in the north of
France with prevailing high westerly winds is found in the layers
176 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of ‘loess’ which occur on the ‘terraces’ of the Somme, the Seine,
the Rhine, and the Danube. These ‘lower loess’ layers of Third
Interglacial times frequently contain implements of the late
Acheulean industry. Thus, at Villejuif, south of Paris, late
vic. 87. **The valley of the Vézére, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through
a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with
vertical sides,” favorable to the formation of caverns, grottos, and shelters. ‘Here the
landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present.”’ Photo-
graph by N. C. Nelson.
Acheulean implements are found embedded in drifts of ‘loess.’
In the valley of the Somme, flints of the middle Acheulean stage
are also found in the loess ancien and ‘river-drift.’ In the tuf
de La Celle-sous-Moret the layer of ‘loess’ immediately over-
lies the tufa layer containing late Acheulean implements and
proofs of a cooler climate.
Among the most famous of the ‘loess’ stations of late Acheu-
lean times is that of Achenheim on the upper Rhine, west of Stras-
burg. Here the ‘older loess’ contains a typical Acheulean culture.
LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS ieee
With this prolonged epoch of cooler temperature the hippo-
potamus and the southern mammoth retreated to the warmer
portions of southern Europe, and their remains are no longer
found associated with the late Acheulean flints. The more hardy
straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros still continued
in the north, apparently well adapted to sustain a very consider-
able fall in temperature.
Forms OF LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS
The coups de poing of the late Acheulean exhibit a great ad-
vance upon the Chellean, being fashioned into dagger or lance
forms, with all the edges carefully chipped. The ovaloid imple-
ments of late Acheulean times are often worked into fine and
sharp blades, which may have been used like butcher-knives for
dismembering the carcasses of game and for cutting up the pelts,
while the fine almond and disc shapes may have been used as
scrapers to cut off the tissues of the inner surfaces of the hides,
which were finally dressed by the grattoir, or flint planing tool.
In brief, the coup de poing reaches its acme of development in late
Acheulean times, both in the fineness of flaking and retouching
and in its symmetry of form. The use of large flakes of flint and
the retouching both of the borders and of the extremities of these
flakes shows a constantly improving technique. It is in the thin,
flat, triangular blades and in the lance-pointed forms that the
coup de poing reaches its culmination; but we still observe
the development of the oval or almond-shaped forms and of the
flattened discs. The implements of this time reach their greatest
perfection in the north of France, where flint is so abundant.
The late Acheulean is further distinguished by an advance in
all the finer and smaller implements and tools. The knives are
now very fine and perfect, although they retain the broad, thick
form of the original flint fragment and seldom attain the sym-
metrical shape which characterizes the blades of the Upper Palz-
olithic.4! The ‘points’ are also of finer technique, with their edges
converging from a broad base to a well-formed point. It is
178 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
generally assumed that these were held in the bare hand, but
it is quite as probable that they were attached to wooden shafts
and used as dart or spear heads. By far the most numerous
as well as the most varied of the smaller tools were the racloirs,
Fic. 88. Varied shapes of the Acheulean flints described as coups de poing, including
some ‘miniature’ forms, after de Mortillet. The oval, the pointed, the almond, the
triangular, the disc-shaped. ‘The late Acheulean is distinguished by an advance in
all the finer and smaller implements, tools, and weapons; yet the finest work of
Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the best Solutrean
work of the Upper Paleolithic. One-quarter actual size.
or scrapers, which were developed, doubtless, by the increasing
use of skins for clothing as a protection against the somewhat
more rigorous ciimate of late Acheulean times. Probably the
women of the tribe were employed in dressing hides by means
of these scrapers, which were either flat and broad with crescent-
shaped edges, flat and narrow, or double-edged with rounded
LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS 179
ends. The development of other fine tools—borers, small discs,
triangular and ovaloid shapes, miniature coups de poing, and
many varied forms besides—is best witnessed in the station of
La Micoque, close to the junction of the Vézére with the Dor-
dogne. These miniature implements may well have been used
in the final dressing of skins for clothing, in the chase of smaller
kinds of game, or at feasts for splitting marrow-bones.
No bone implements whatever have been found even with
Fic. 89. The chef-d’euvre of the Acheulean industry is the Levallois flake,
which may have evolved from the large flakes of Chellean
times. After Worthington Smith.
these late Acheulean flints, but it is important to observe that the
majority of these stations are open and exposed to the weather
and that bone implements would not be preserved here as they
would in the sheltered grottos and caverns to which the flint
workers repaired in the Mousterian and succeeding times.
As regards the finish of these flint implements, it is important
to note that it is fine only by comparison with the crude work of
the early Acheulean or the still coarser types of Chellean times
and that the very finest work of Acheulean times appears thick
and clumsy when contrasted with the finer work of the Upper
Paleolithic.
The chef-d’ euvre of the late Acheulean industry is the Levallois
flake, first found at Levallois-Perret, near Paris, which de Mor-
tillet believed to be fashioned out of a divided coup de poing
180 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
with a flat under-side, but which may have been evolved from
the very large primitive flakes of Pre-Chellean date. These
flakes date back earlier than the Chellean coup de poing but con-
tinued in use after its invention and may have been greatly
perfected into the Levallois type. This type of ‘couteau’ is a
large, wide, thin flake of fairly symmetrical shape, with a flat
back formed by the original smooth surface of the flake. These
implements are pointed, oval, or sharply rectangular in form and
present the most characteristic tool of the closing stage of the
Acheulean industry.
It is most interesting at this point to observe the two modes
of evolution which seem to pervade all nature: first, the gradual
perfection and modification in size and proportion of a certain
older form; second, the sudden change or mutation into a new
form, which in turn enters the stage of gradual improvement.
The late Acheulean is seen to present the climax of a gradual
and unbroken development from the early Chellean industries
and ideas; and to our mind this is strongly suggestive of a corre-
sponding evolution of manual skill and mental development in
the workmen themselves, who may have been partly of Pre-
Neanderthaloid race.
The next industrial stage, namely, the Mousterian, which cer-
tainly presents the closing workmanship of the Neanderthal race,
shows a marked retrogression of technique in contrast to the
steady progression which we have observed up to this time. We
have, in fact, witnessed a number of successive stages of progres-
sion, which are to be followed in the Mousterian by a stage of
retrogression. Such a retrogression in industrial development
may for certain known or unknown reasons occur in the same
race. It is a noteworthy parallel that in the Upper Paleolithic,
where the Solutrean culture represents the climax and perfection
of flint working, the succeeding Magdalenian shows marked
retrogression in the technique of flint retouch.
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 181
THE KRAPINA NEANDERTHALOIDS
In northern Croatia, near the small town of Krapina, in the
valley of the Krapinica River, is the now famous cavern of Kra-
pina, where in 1899 was made the fourth discovery of the remains
of men of the Neanderthaloid race in western Europe, twelve
Fic. 90. The grotto of Krapina, overlooking the valley of the Krapinica River, near
Krapina, Croatia, in Austria-Hungary. After Kraemer.
years after the discovery of the men of Spy, in Belgium, and
forty-three years after the discovery of the man of Neanderthal.
Even now opinion is divided as to the age of the human remains
found in this cavern. The discoverer, Professor Gorjanovic-
Kramberger of Agram considered that the stone implements and
chips were of Mousterian age, and Breuil still refers them to the
early, or so-called warm, Mousterian period; this opinion is
shared by Déchelette. Schmidt, however, regards Krapina as a
true Acheulean station, lacking in some of the typical implements,
and-of the same age as the ‘loess’ station of Ehringsdorf.
182 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The mammals found in the cavern certainly belong to the
very late Acheulean period and include Merck’s rhinoceros, the
cave-bear, the urus, a species of horse, the giant deer (Megaceros),
the beaver, and the marmot (Arctomys marmotta).
The cavern was originally washed out by the river, but now
it is 82 feet above the present water-level. When found it was
completely filled with sand and gravel deposits, weathered frag-
ments from the roof and walls, and loose stones and boulders.”
Enclosed in this mass. in separate strata which are perfectly
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Upper Oligocene
Fic. 91. Cross-section of the valley traversed by the Krapinica River showing the loca-
tion of the grotto known as the Krapina recess on the bank to
the left. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.
distinguishable, there lay, variously distributed through the
different layers, thousands of animal bones, mingled with hun-
dreds of human bones, and hundreds of stone implements and
chips.
During the years 1899-1905 Gorjanovic-Kramberger made a
thorough exploration of the contents of this cavern, and published
a complete account of his researches in 1906. There were about
three hundred pieces of human bones, among them many small
fragments, also many sizable pieces of skull and several entire
limb bones perfectly preserved. The bones are of a strongly
characterized type, and the lower jaws, face bones, bones of the
thigh and arm, the teeth, and the bones of many children establish
the Krapina race as belonging unquestionably in the same group
with that of Neanderthal and of Spy.
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 183
The skull of the Krapina man (Fig. 93) is somewhat broader
or more brachycephalic than that of any other members of the
Neanderthal race. In general, the race is somewhat dwarfed, of
broader head form and with less prominent supraorbital processes.
The species is unquestionably Homo neanderthalensis, of which
Fic. 92. Detail showing the interior contents of the Krapina grotto. be-
fore its excavation in the years 1899 to 1905. After
Gorjanovi¢é-Kramberger.
the Krapina men constitute a local race. Schwalbe and Boule
observe that the greater breadth of the Krapina skull is partly
due to the manner in which the bones have been put together,“
and they do not consider that the Krapina man represents a
different subrace (Homo neanderthalensis krapinensis) as held by
the discoverer. The cephalic index of one Krapina skull is re-
corded as 83.7 per cent (?) as compared with 73.9 per cent, the
cephalic index of the true H. neanderthalensis, a difference which,
as above noted, may be partly due to the restoration. The bones
are in such a fragmentary condition that it is impossible to form
a proper estimate of the brain capacity in either the males or
females of this race; nor is it possible to estimate the stature.
The space between the eyes is the same as in the Neanderthal
184 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
race; the angle of the retreat of the forehead (52°) is nearly the
same as in the Gibraltar female Neanderthal skull (50°), this
high forehead being due to the lesser development of the supra-
orbital ridges. That the brain was of a low, flat-headed Nean-
derthal type is shown by the close similarity of the index of the
height of skull (42.2) to that of one of the men of Spy (44.3), as
compared with the lowest index among the existing races of men
(48.9); yet the Krapina man presents a considerable advance
Fic. 93. Profile view, right side, of one of the skulls from Krapina. This skull
is much broader than that of the typical Neanderthaloid. After
Gorjanovi¢-Kramberger. One-quarter life size.
over Pithecanthropus, in which the index of the height of skull is
only 34.2.
The jaw is more slender than that of the Heidelberg man
but is still thick and massive; the chin is receding, a character-
istic of all the Neanderthal races.
The broken condition of all the human bones in this cavern,
and the abundant indications of fire, have led to the charge that
the Neanderthals of Krapina were cannibals, and that these
mingled remains are the bones of animals and men collected here
during cannibalistic feasts. Against this supposition Breuil ob-
serves that none of the human bones are split lengthwise, as is
the usual practice when extracting the marrow, but they are
broken crosswise. ‘This is the only evidence of such practice that
has been found during all Paleolithic times, and we should hesi-
tate to accept it unless corroborated by other localities.
The various layers indicate that the cavern was successively
occupied by man; in or near the hearths are found stone imple-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA
185
ments, broken and incinerated bones, and pieces of charcoal,
which may indicate that this grotto was visited only at intervals,
perhaps during the colder seasons of the year.
(x) Harlé, 1910.1.
(2) d’Ault du Mesnil, 1896.1, pp.
284-2096.
(3) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 146.
(4) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 118-126.
(5) Boule, 1888.1.
(6) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 327-320.
(7) Haug, 1907.1, vol., II, pp. 327-
329.
(8) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 262.
(9) Morlot, 1854.1.
(10) Commont, 1906.1.
(11) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 107-111.
(12) d’Ault du Mesnil, op. cit.
(rads oChmidt,. 1072-5, Dp. 124, 125.
(14) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 118.
(15) Dawson, 1913.1; 1013-2; 1913.3.
(16) Kennard, 1913.1.
(17) Reid, 1913.1.
(18) Dawson, 1913.1, p. 123; 1914.1,
pp. 82-86.
(oye Welt, As, 1083.1; 1013.23 1913.3.
(aoe mide tu, TOL4:1; 1913.23
1913.3; 1913.4.
(21) Boule, 1913.1, pp. 245, 246.
(22) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 603.
(23) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 404-409.
(24) Ewart, 1904.1; 1907.13 1909.1.
(25) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 120.
(26) de Mortillet, 1869.1.
(27) Obermaier, op. cit., p. 116.
(28) Lyell, 1863.1, p. 164.
(29) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 119, 263, 264.
(30) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 125, 126.
(31) Geikie, op. cit., p. 228.
(32) Avebury.) 1013-1. -D- 342, 0K ig.
F205
(33) Schmidt, op. cit., pp. 17-105.
(34) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 14.
(35) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 164.
(36) Obermaier, op. cit., pp. 124, 125,
127, 130.
(37) Commont, 1908.1.
(38) Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp.
80-90.
(39) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 255.
(40) Hilzheimer, 1913.1, p. 145.
(41) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 127.
(42) Fischer, 1913.1.
(43) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1901.1;
1903.1; 1906.1.
(44) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 597.
CHAPTER III
CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL, TEMPERATE, AND ARID CLI-
MATE, ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY — ADVENT OF THE FOURTH GLA-
CIATION, PROFOUND CHANGES IN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE—
THE ARCTIC TUNDRA PERIOD OF MAMMALIAN AND PLANT LIFE
— CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE, OF THEIR MOUS-
TERIAN FLINT INDUSTRY — SUPPOSED CAUSES OF EXTINCTION OR
DISPERSAL
WE now reach a prolonged and important stage in the pre-
history of Europe, namely, the period of the fourth glaciation,
of the final development of the Neanderthal race of man, of the
Mousterian industry, of the beginnings of cave life, of the chase
of the reindeer, and its use for food and clothing.
In all Europe the Acheulean industry appears to have come to
a close during a period of arid climate, warm in some parts of
western Europe and cool or even cold in others. The seasonal va-
riations may well have been extreme, as on the steppes of south-
ern Russia, where exceedingly hot summers may be followed by
intensely cold winters, with high winds and snow-storms destruc-
tive of life.
It is this seasonal alternation, as well as the recurrence, either
seasonal or secular, of milder climate, which explains the survival
or return of the Asiatic fauna even after the close of the Acheulean
industry and when the Mousterian industry was well advanced.
From deposits found at Grimaldi, in the Grotte des Enfants and
in the Grotte du Prince, it has long been said that men of early
Mousterian times lived contemporary with the hippopotamus,
the straight-tusked elephant, and Merck’s rhinoceros in the genial
climate of the Mediterranean Riviera. More recently the same
animals have been found as far north as the Somme valley in the
‘river-drifts’ of Montiéres-les-Amiens.'! Here, again, we find re-
186
CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL 187
mains of the hippopotamus, the stright-tusked elephant, and its
companion, Merck’s rhinoceros, in Mousterian deposits, a surpris-
ing discovery, because it had always been supposed that a cold
climatic period had set in all over western Europe even before
the close of the Acheulean culture. But there is also evidence of
a temperate climate still prevailing in the Thames valley in the
period of the Mousterian ‘floors.’? Again, along the Vézére
valley, Dordogne, we find that at the station of La Micoque,
where the industry marks the transition between late Acheulean
and early Mousterian times, Merck’s rhinoceros is found in the
lowest layers associated with remains of the moose (Alces).
There is evidence that Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight-
tusked elephant lingered in western Europe during the whole
period of the early development of the Mousterian industry.
As observed above, these animals were hardier than the southern
mammoth, which was the first of the Asiatic mammals to disap-
pear, soon to be followed by its companion, the hippopotamus.
Even after the advent of the closely associated tundra pair, the
woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, Merck’s rhinoceros
persists, as, for example, in the deposits of Rixdorf, near Berlin,
where this ancient type occurs in the same deposits with the
woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the
musk-ox, as well as with the forest forms, the moose, stag, wolf,
and forest horse. The extreme northern latitude of this deposit
explains the absence of the straight-tusked elephant, which may
at the time have been living farther to the south. The same
mingling of south and north Asiatic mammals is found at Stein-
heim, in the valley of the Murr, some degrees to the west and
south of Rixdorf, not far from Géttingen, where we find Merck’s
rhinoceros’ and the straight-tusked elephant in association with
the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, and
the reindeer. |
Thus the Neanderthal races were entering the Mousterian
stage of culture during the close of the Third Interglacial Stage
and during the early period of the advance of the ice-fields from
the great centres in Scandinavia and the Alps. As these ice-
188 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
fields slowly approached each other from the north and from the
south a very great period of time must have elapsed during which
all the south Asiatic mammals abandoned western Europe or
became extinct, with the exception of the lions and hyzenas,
which became well fitted to the very severe climate that pre-
vailed over Europe during the fourth glaciation, and even during
the long Postglacial Stage which ensued. The large carnivora
readily become thoroughly adapted to cold climates, as they sub-
sist on animal life wherever it may be found; tigers of the same
stock as those of India have been found as far north as the river
Lena, in latitude 52° 25’, where the climate is colder than that of
Petrograd or of Stockholm, while the lion throve in the cold
atmosphere of the upper Atlas range. Thus the cave-lion (Felis
leo spelea) and the cave-hyena (H. crocuta spelea) doubtless
evolved an undercoating of fur as well as an overcoating of long
hair, like the tundra mammals. In size the lion of this period in
France often equalled and sometimes surpassed its existing rela-
tives, the African and west Asiatic lion; it frequently figures in
the art of the Upper Paleolithic artists and survived in western
Europe to the very close of Upper Paleolithic times.
THE FOURTH GLACIATION
Penck‘ has estimated that the first ‘maximum of the fourth
glaciation in the Alps was reached 40,000 years ago, and that
after the recession period the second maximum ended not less
than 20,000 years ago. This would extend the Mousterian in-
dustry over a very long period of time, for there can be no doubt
that the Mousterian culture was practically contemporaneous
with the fourth glaciation, even if a briefer period of time should
be allotted to this great natural event.
The fourth glaciation, like the first, is believed to have been
contemporaneous in Europe and North America,® a fact which
is of especial importance to American anthropologists in connec-
tion with the question of the date of arrival of primitive man
in America. In both countries the glaciation reached an early
THE FOURTH GLACIAL STAGE 189
maximum, which was followed by a period of recession of the
ice-fields, a time during which a somewhat more temperate cli-
mate prevailed, but this in turn gave way to a second advance of
as great severity as the first.*
Fe
|
‘
f
At)
«
Rh
|
Fic. 94. Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers of the Fourth Glacial
Stage. This is also supposed to have been a period of land depression and of extension
of the inland seas of southern Europe. Britain was probably connected with France.
The ice-covered areas in western Europe and Britain were far more limited than during
the Third Glacial Stage, yet the climate appears to have been more severe than at any
previous period. For the snow-level compare Fig. 13. Drawn by C. A. Reeds after
-Geikie and De Geer.
In the north, Scandinavia and Finland were again enshrouded
in ice, and a great mer de glace occupied the basin of the Baltic
Sea, sending its terminal moraines into Denmark and Schleswig-
* The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenburgian by Geikie;® the recession
may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the Lower Forestian. It is the
Wiirm of Penck in the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the re-
cession known as the Laufenschwankung. In America it is the early Wisconsin with the
Peorian recession interval, followed by the late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaci-
ation of America.
190 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Holstein and over the northern provinces of Germany, but this
great ice-field did not again become confluent with that of Great
Britain.’ At the commencement of the fourth glaciation large
nM
We
us SS ~~ 1ts /,
SS 3S } Y “UV Le
Fic. 95. The two large tundra mammals, the woolly rhinoceros (upper), drawn from the
work of Upper Paleolithic artists and from the specimen discovered at Starunia, in
Galicia, Austria; and the woolly mammoth (lower). These hardy animals gradually
replaced the African-Asiatic pair, Merck’s rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant.
_ Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. One-sixtieth life size.
glaciers descended over the Scottish mountain valleys and filled
many of them even to the sea; the coast subsided at least 13¢
feet in this region. In southern Britain along the valley of the
Thames there spread an arctic flora, with the polar willow (Sakix
polaris) and the dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa); an arctic plant
ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE 191
bed has also been discovered in the valley of the Lea. Thus the
tundra climate extended from the Scottish lowlands to the south
of England, the land being bleak and almost treeless.* This, we
believe, was also the period of the arctic flora at Hoxne, Suffolk,
and of the arctic plant bed in the valley of the Thames. At this
time the valley was frequented by the reindeer, the woolly rhi-
noceros, and the mammoth, whose remains are entombed in the
low-level alluvia swept down from the sides of the valley, so that
the remains of this arctic fauna may in places actually overlie
those of the more deeply buried and far more ancient warm
Asiatic fauna of Chellean times. Like the Somme, the Thames?
was then from to to 25 feet below its present level, the bottom
having since silted up with alluvial soil.
This was the period of the deposition of the ‘upper drift’
over the north German lowlands, the Alps, and northern England,
also of the early and late Wisconsin, or ‘upper drift,’ which
spreads very widely over the Eastern States, from Wisconsin
southward and eastward to the latitude of New York. The
gravels and sands of some of the ‘lowest terraces’ were also
deposited.
MAMMALIAN LIFE OF MOUSTERIAN TIMES
The three successive phases of climate and environment sur-
rounding the Neanderthal men during the period of the develop-
ment of the Mousterian industry, were in descending order as
follows :
3. Extreme Cold Climate of the Last Great Glacial Advance. Period of the
late Mousterian industry of La Quina. Spread of all the arctic and tundra
mammals over western Europe, including the musk-ox; migrations of the
obi and banded lemming of the extreme north. Life and industry of
the Neanderthal races, chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the
caverns.
2. Cold Moist Climate. Period of the middle or ‘full Mousterian’ industry
of the Neanderthal races. Appearance of the tundra life, including well-
protected mammals and birds from the arctic region, also descent of the
Alpine types to the foot-hills and river borders. First forerunners of the
steppe life; the full Eurasiatic forest and field life widely spread over
192 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Europe. Life and industry chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances
to the caverns. Reindeer very abundant.
1. Warm or Cool Arid Climate. ‘Transition from the Acheulean to the
early Mousterian culture, as observed in the stations of La Micoque and of
Combe-Capelle. The so-called ‘warm Mousterian’ fauna, including the
surviving hippopotamus, Merck’s rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked ele-
phant in northern and southern France; herds of bison, cattle, and wild
horses in southwestern France. ‘Tribal life, with the industry partly in
open stations, partly under sheltering cliffs.
This is the beginning of the ‘Reindeer Period,’ for this mi-
grant from Scandinavia, with its companions of the northeastern
tundras, the woolly mammoth and the rhinoceros, wandered
slowly southward before the advancing Scandinavian ice-fields,
which were greatly augmented by the increasingly cold and
moist climate. Thus these animals are found in the north with
flints of the Mousterian culture before they appear in the more
genial region of Dordogne. In the somewhat older Acheulean-
Mousterian station of La Micoque, along the Vézére, the fire-
hearths contain almost exclusively the remains of horses and
relatively few remains of bison and wild cattle, but no reindeer.
A fireplace near the station of Combe-Capelle yields numerous
remains of the bison, only a few of the horse, and the first of the
reindeer. Before the appearance of the reindeer in the valley of
the Vézére we may picture the meadow-lands as covered with
bison and wild horses, the latter of the type which is now charac-
teristic of the high plateaus of central Asia, while the bison of
the period appears to be more similar to the American buffalo
than to the surviving European form.
Gradually the tundra animals spread toward the south with
the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western
Europe. The whole aspect of the country slowly changed with
the approach of the reindeer, and the northern flora of the spruce,
the fir, and the arctic willow clad the more sheltered river-valleys
and hillsides, while the plateaus and fields were partly or wholly
deforested.
Thus the country became adapted chiefly to the tundra types
of mammals; and in the middle Mousterian strata these herds,
Mt, is AM co
er ace “A \ lt
Bee Wages) } it yy
\ N
i,\ ; ‘y
n
( V7
\ J My
ifs y |
hs
hy DR
| Ny i if " \\) iN
yf
Fic. 96. Typical tundra fauna. ‘‘Gradually the tundra animals pressed toward the
south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe.”
The wolverene, Gulo luscus borealis; the barren-ground reindeer, Rangifer tarandus
(drawn from the living type); the arctic fox, Canis lagopus; the musk-ox, Ovibos mos-
chatus ; and the banded lemming, Myodes torquatus. One-twenty-fifth life size. The
lemming (A) is also shown one-seventh life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman.
194 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
newly migrated from the far north and from the northeastern
steppes bordering the Obi River, largely outnumber the steppe
forms, which are limited to two or three species. Of these the
principal types are the steppe horse, related to the Fizewalski
horse now living in the desert of Gobi, the steppe suslik (Spermo-
philus rufescens), and the steppe grouse, or moor-hen. The more
characteristic forms of steppe life, such as the saiga antelope, the
jerboa, and the kiang, were all later arrivals and did not appear
until after the close of the Mousterian industry and the disap-
pearance of the Neanderthal race.
This was due to the fact that the climate surrounding the
Neanderthal race in Mousterian times was cold and moist, with
heavy rainfalls in summer and snow-storms in winter, a climate
thoroughly suited to the arctic tundra mammals with their heavy
covering of hair acting as a rain shed and the undercoating of
wool protecting them in the most severe weather.
The mammal life during the fourth glaciation, as it spread into
the middle Rhine and Westphalian region, is fully recorded in the
‘loess’ deposits of Achenheim and in the famous grotto of Sir-
genstein, on the upper Danube, lying northwest of Munich,
where, together with traces of the most primitive Mousterian in-
dustry, are found remains of the mammoth, the bison, the rein-
deer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear. Following these
mammals there is a record in the same deposit of the arrival of
the Obi lemming, from northern Russia.
The fact that only seven Mousterian stations are known in
all Germany, or eight if we include the site of the Neanderthal
burial, may be accounted for by the relatively close proximity of
the great Scandinavian glacier on the north, which was only 350
miles distant from the great Alpine glacier on the south. To
the east were the plains of Bohemia and the vast lowland region
stretching northeastward to the tundras and eastward to the
steppes, through which came the great migrations of tundra and
steppe life.
|
|
c
!
LEIPSi
%j Lsted =
Rid rbache
i leenk& verze ribild Boss a3
Obe larg®@
12
@ PALAOLITHIC STATIONS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY
FIG. 97. The seven Mousterian stations of Germany lay between the Scandinavian glacier
(IV) on the north and the Alpine glacier (IV) on the south (dotted areas). They include
the grottos of Sirgenstein, Irpfelhohle, and Réuberhihle, along the valley of the Danube ;
Kartstein and Buchenloch, near the middle Rhine, and Baumannshéhle, south of Han-
over; also the open loess station of Mommenheim. The Mousterian grotto of Wild-
kirchli, in Switzerland, lay within the limits of the Alpine ice-fields; and the burial at
Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, was probably of Mousterian age. After R, R. Schmidt,
modified and redrawn.
196 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDER-
THAL RACE
Let us first glance at Dordogne. Among the stations of the
early Mousterian industry we have seen that the Neanderthals
in the valley of the Vézére, at La Micoque, were in the midst of
a fauna chiefly composed of the bison and of the wild horse, the
remains found in the hearths being almost exclusively of the latter
animal.* In the primitive Mousterian station of Combe-
Capelle near by the fire-hearths yield remains of the bison but
only a few of the horse.
Among the earliest caves inhabited by man’ was that of Le
Moustier, situated on the right bank of the Vézére, and about go
feet above it. This shelter and cave were examined as early as
1860-3 by Lartet™ and Christy and subsequently by de Vibraye,”
Massénat,'® and others. Besides the deposits in the floor of the
grotto there, a deep Mousterian culture layer has been found
under the cliff in front, and this has been selected for our repre-
sentation of the life of the men of Mousterian times, and of the
flora of the Vézére in this early period (see frontispiece). Peyrony
observes that, here as elsewhere, the older and lower industrial
camps were farther away from the shelters; indeed, in this very
region there are evidences that the Chellean and Acheulean flint
workers occasionally visited the plateaus above; but as time
passed and the weather became more severe the Neanderthals
began to work nearer to the overhanging cliffs and finally directly
beneath them. At this classic station of Le Moustier, one of the
most complete skeletons of Neanderthal man was unearthed by
Hauser, in 1908. There was a continuous residence here in mid-
dle and upper Mousterian times, extending into the lower Aurig-
nacian of the Upper Paleolithic. The contemporary fauna in
these deposits included the mammoth, the reindeer, the giant deer
(Megaceros), the horse, the bison, the woolly rhinoceros, and the
* Obermaier, Breuil, and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late
Acheulean and early Mousterian times,
ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 197
cave-bear. During the habitation of this typical station by man
the climate was very cold and damp.
In this region is found the complete record of the course of
Mousterian evolution, both in the implements and in the advent
of new forms of life; the number of reindeer gradually increases
in the ascending layers with the development of the Mousterian
industry. There is a constant gradation from the Acheulean into
the Mousterian industrial types; according to Cartailhac, this
Fic. 98. The type station of Le Moustier, on the right bank of the Vézére, Dordogne.
The culture layer is on the middle terrace, overlooking the hamlet of Le Moustier.
(Compare frontispiece, Pl. 1.) Photograph by Belvés.
industry is alf the work of the same people, with no sharp lines
of division.
Thus at Combe-Capelle, where the début of the true Mous-
terian culture took place, we find a number of large coups de
poing, pointing back to the early Acheulean implements. The
gradations which are exhibited here in these successive layers are
quite in contrast to the advance of the industry at the close of
Mousterian times in the very same locality, where there is an
abrupt cultural transition toward the Aurignacian.
Southern Britain tells of a similar sequence, which we may
interpret as follows. Belonging either to the temperate climate
198 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of early Mousterian times, or to the period of the recession of the
fourth glaciation, known in the Alps as the Laufenschwankung,
are the Mousterian stations along the Lea and near the mouth
of the Thames at Crayford (Worthington Smith,“ Geikie?).
These Paleolithic ‘floors’ of Moustcrian times are buried be-
Fic. 99. Excavations of the Mousterian culture layer under the cliff of Le Moustier.
Photograph by N. C. Nelson.
neath 4 to 5 feet of sand and loam and rest upon the surface of
older river-gravels. Among the later river deposits several old
land surfaces have been discovered; they consist of a few inches
of angular gravel, crowded in places with unabraded implements
and flakes which obviously occur just where they were left by
Paleolithic workmen. At one point there is evidence that the
flint maker squatted over his work, with his knees slightly apart,
for the chips are thrown to the right and left in small piles.
Here and there, mixed with these Mousterian implements, are
more archaic forms which may have been drifted down from the
older land surfaces above.
ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 199
One such floor has been traced by Worthington Smith!
through Middlesex and on both sides of the Thames. Plant
remains occur plentifully on this old land surface, including im-
pressions of portions of leaves, stems of grass, rushes, and
sedges. The birch, alder, pine, yew, elm, and hazel have been
recognized. The common male fern is of frequent occurrence,
while the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) is found in profusion.
Upon the whole, this assemblage of plants indicates a temperate
climate. The flints described and figured by Worthington Smith
are either of the late Acheulean ‘Levallois flake’ type or else of
early Mousterian age. This writer!’ notes the great number of
instruments known as trimmed flakes, which are found on the
Paleolithic ‘floor’; these are flakes of large size, trimmed to an
implement-like form on one side, while the other side is left per-
fectly plain; the examples are remarkably constant to one form.
The type of implement here described resembles the flakes of
Levallois or Combe-Capelle, or even the typical ‘point’ from
Le Moustier. Such flakes, shaped into the Mousterian forms of
racloir, or scraper, are very common in the gravels of the Lea
and of the Thames.
While the remains of the woolly mammoth are found here,
there are also indications of the presence of a well-marked tem-
perate flora. These high-level ‘river-drifts’ along the Thames'®
were certainly deposited when the climatic conditions were tem-
perate, but they are succeeded by deposits indicating a renewed
cold period, which may represent the cold ‘full Mousterian’
times of the Lower Paleolithic habitation of the Thames. Here
we find the remarkable sheets of contorted ‘drift’ attributable
to the movements of the frozen soil and subsoil when exposed to
the heat of the summer sun. At the same time there may have
been deposited along the Thames the alluvial loams and gravels,
occasionally containing stones and rocks, which were brought down
by ice-rafts; these low-level gravels are not to be confused with
the underlying ‘old river-gravels’ which contain the warm tem-
perate hippopotamus fauna, for they were accumulated under very
cold conditions; they yield remains of the woolly rhinoceros and
200 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of the mammoth. Thus, on the high levels of the Thames as
well as on the low levels we find evidences of the human culture
and of the extinct fauna of the period of the fourth great gla-
ciation.
The upper waters of the Rhine and Danube were also fre-
quented by late Acheulean and early Mousterian flint workers.
At a point far distant from southern England there is the cavern
of Wildkirchli on the Santis Mountains, near Appenzell, in Swit-
zerland ; in Mousterian times this was in the very heart of the
Fic. 100. Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli. After Bachler. Entrances indicated at
1, 2, and 3, in the side of the limestone cliff. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet above sea-
level, Bachler discovered proofs of occupation by Mousterian man in the very heart of
the Alpine ice-fields of the Fourth Glacial Stage.
north Alpine ice-field. The animal life here may indicate that
this cavern was open during the period of recession between the
two great advances of the fourth glaciation. Here, at a height of
4,500 feet, Bachler!® between 1903-6, discovered proofs of oc-
cupation by Neanderthal man during Mousterian times; the
flints are not well formed; the presence of crude bone implements
may point to late Mousterian times; but the flints are considered
by Bachler to be of the same stage as those of Le Moustier. It
is asserted that when the Neanderthals followed the chase here
ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 201
the climate was more genial, because the animals found include
the stag, Alpine wolf (Cyon alpinus fossilis), cave-bear, cave-lion,
cave-leopard (Felis pardus spelea), badger, marten, and otter,
together with the typical Alpine forms, the ibex, chamois, and
Fic. ror. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein. After R. R. Schmidt. ‘‘Of all the
stations along the Danube by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein . . . which
was first occupied by the Neanderthals in early Mousterian times and continued to be
visited by the Lower and Upper Paleolithic men until the very close of the Upper
Paleolithic.”
marmot. But this fauna alone can hardly be taken as proof of
a temperate climate, for at this Alpine height we should not ex-
pect to discover the tundra life of the period; in fact, it is entirely
absent.
Of all the stations along the Danube, by far the most important
is that of Sirgenstein, lying between the modern cities of Nurem-
berg and Augsburg, which was first occupied by the Neander-
thals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by
the Lower and Upper Paleolithic men until the very close of the
202 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Upper Paleolithic. The continuous section of animal life and of
human culture which this remarkable cavern yields afforded
Schmidt,?° who began his researches here in the spring of 1906, a
key to the prehistory of all the eighteen caverns in the region of
the upper Danube and upper Rhine. In Sirgenstein the primi-
tive Mousterian culture of the early Neanderthals was found, to-
gether with remains of the mammoth, bison, reindeer, a species
of wild horse, and the cave-bear ; this Mousterian industry closed
with a record of the arrival in this region of the Obi lemming
from northern Russia. Later on the Cré-Magnon race of Aurig-
nacian times left on the floor of the cavern remains of their flint
industry and of their feasts, including the bones of the woolly
rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, and reindeer. During Upper Pa-
leolithic Solutrean times the cavern was not occupied ; but early
in Magdalenian times it was again inhabited by man, and coin-
cident with his return is the arrival of a great migration of the
banded .lemming (Mvyodes torquatus) from the arctic tundras
of the north. Finally, toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic,
in late Magdalenian times, another climatic transition is indi-
cated by the appearance of the pika, or tailless hare (Lagomys
pusillus). During the Bronze Age this favorite grotto was again
entered, and it was also inhabited during a portion of the Iron
Age. The débris of these various cultures, hearths, and deposits
of cave loam reach a total thickness of 814 feet and mark Sirgen-
stein as first in rank among the Paleolithic stations of Germany.
Typrs AND MIGRATIONS OF THE MAMMALS HunTED BY THE
e foe NEANDERTHALS -
This is the life of the period of the fourth scan when a
very cold and moist climate prevailed all over western Europe
as far south as northern Spain and northern Italy. While the
glacial fields were not so extensive as during the third or the
second glaciation, the climate was very severe, as indicated by
the southward migration not only of the arctic flora but of the
mammals and birds of the tundra region bordering the southern
shores of the Arctic Ocean. Two or three forms from the cold
Pi. V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, inhabiting the Dordogne
region of central France in Mousterian times. Antiquity estimated as between
40,000 and 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. For
the bodily proportions of this hunting race compare the frontispiece, Pl. I.
MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 205
steppes of northern Russia also found their way into western
Europe, but this was distinctly not a steppe period because of
the prevailing moisture of the climate; in place of the westerly
winds and great dust clouds of closing Acheulean times, cold
mists and clouds heavy with moisture swept over the country,
which during the winters was at times buried in snow, and subject
to rapid changes of temperature. These ‘climatic* conditions
appear to be demonstrated by the predominance of the arctic
tundra life, mammals which were adapted only to severe weather
and attracted by the northern flora.
The summers were undoubtedly warm, like the present Arctic
summers, but very much longer in these southerly latitudes. It
is not improbable that there were seasonal migrations, north-
ward and southward, of the mammoths, rhinoceroses, and rein-
deer, and also that the northern flint quarries along the Somme
and the Marne may have been visited chiefly during the warm
summer season. The Asiatic mammals had entirely disappeared
from the regions of France and Germany during the first max-
imum of the fourth glaciation, but there are some who maintain
that during the amelioration of climate that followed, an interval
in the Alpine region termed the Laufenschwankung by Penck,
the straight-tusked elephant and Merck’s rhinoceros again mi-
grated into northern France. It is true that occasionally we
find the bones of these animals in close association with those of
the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. It is possible
to explain such intermingling either as having occurred during
the advance of the fourth glaciation, or as due to the northward
and southward migration of the respective herds of mammals in
the summer and winter seasons. As the period of the fourth
glaciation continued it is certain that these Asiatic mammals
entirely disappeared.
At the same time the Neanderthals had passed through the
first stage of development of the Mousterian industry and had
reached what is known as the ‘full’ or ‘high’ Mousterian, which,
* The climate of the tundras is extreme, the winter temperature falling on an average
to 27° F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 50° F. In the subarctic
steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 30° F., while that of July is 70° F.
206
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
with few exceptions, was carried on under: the shelter of the
overhanging cliffs or within the grottos.
The mammalian life of these ‘full’ Mousterian times, as
found along the headwaters of the Danube, the Rhine, and the
branches of the Dordogne and Vézére, is divided among the
various faunal groups as follows:
LIFE OF MIDDLE MOUSTERIAN |
TIMES
TUNDRA LIFE.
Woolly mammoth.
~ Woolly rhinoceros.
Scandinavian reindeer.
_ Arctic fox.
Arctic hare. —
Banded lemming.
_ Arctic ptarmigan.
ALPINE LIFE.
Alpine marmot.
Tex sae
Alpine ptarmigan.
STEPPE LIFE.
Steppe horse.
-. Steppe suslik.
Moor-hen.
ASIATIC LIFE.
Cave-lion.
Cave-hyena.
Cave-leopard.
ForeEstT LIFE.
Stag, lynx, wolf, fox, water-
vole, brown bear, giant
deer.
Cave-bear.
MeEapow LIFE..
Bisons =
~ Wild cattle.
_ It would appear that the reindeer,
_ the woolly mammoth, and the woolly
rhinoceros were already widely dis-
tributed over western Europe, ac-
companied by the arctic fox (Canis
lagopus), the arctic hare (Lepus vari-
abilis), and the banded lemming
(Myodes torquatus). There is no
proof that the musk-ox had at this
time reached its extreme southerly
distribution, and it would appear
that the arrival of the second type of
-northern lemming from the region of
the river Obi (Myodes obensis) did
not occur until the close of Mous-
terian times,?! because the great mi-
gration of these animals is recorded
by their abundant remains in the
so-called ‘lower rodent layer’ of all
the stations along the Rhine and
Danube, such as Sirgenstein, Wild-
scheuer, and Ofnet, after the final
stage of Mousterian industry. In
fact, this remarkable little rodent ap-
pears to mark the second maximum
or close of the fourth glaciation by
its migration all over western Eu-
rope, and wherever its remains are
found in the grotto deposits they furnish one of the most im-
portant and positive of prehistoric dates, namely, that of the
MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 207
‘lower rodent layer.’ The lemmings surpass all other mammals
in the great distances covered by their migrations, and it would
appear that this northern species swept all over western Europe
at the same time, leaving its remains not only in the caverns
along the Danube but in those of Belgium and of Thiede, near
Braunschweig. The latter station, Thiede, was not far from the
southern border of the Scandinavian glacier; it was subjected to
a very severe arctic climate, as the only associates of the Obi
lemming were the banded lemming, the arctic fox, the arctic
hare, the reindeer, the mammoth, and the musk-ox.
The woolly mammoth now reaches the height of its evolution
and specialization ; as preserved in the frozen tundras of northern
Siberia, and as represented in very
Lire oF Late MovustErIAN numerous drawings and engravings
TIMES by the Upper Paleolithic artists, it
Second Maximum of Fourth is the most completely known of all
Glaciation fossil mammalia.” Its proportions,
as shown in the accompanying figure,
which represents the information
Tundra, Steppe, Alpine, Asi-
atic and Meadow life, as
above.
Obi lemming. gathered from all sources, are en-
Musk-ox, tirely different from those of either
Ermine.
pts the Indian or African elephant.
rctic ptarmigan. ; 5
ee ere crea cel The head is very high and sur-
(Steppe weasel). mounted by a great mass of hair
and wool; behind this a sharp de-
pression separates the back of the head from the great hump on
the back; the hinder portion of the back falls away very rapidly
and the tail is short; the overcoat of long hair nearly reaches the
ground, and beneath this is a warm undercoating of wool. It is
not improbable that the humps on the head and the back were
fat reservoirs. The color of the hair was a yellowish brown,
varying from light brown to pure brown; woolly hair, from an
inch to an inch and a half in length, covered the whole body ;
interspersed with the shorter hairs was a large number of longer
and thicker hairs, which formed mane-like patches on the cheeks,
chin, shoulders, flanks, and abdomen. A broad fringe of this
208 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
long hair extended along the sides of the body, as depicted in the
work of the Upper Paleolithic artists in the Combarelles Cave.
Especially interesting to us is the food found in the stomach and
mouth of the frozen Siberian mammoths, which consists chiefly
of a meadow flora such as flourishes during the summer in north-
ern Siberia at the present day, including grasses and sedges, wild
Fic. 102. The woolly mammoth (Elephas primigenius) and the contemporary Neander-
thal hunters (Homo neanderthalensis), after the drawings of Upper Paleolithic artists
and the frozen mammoths found in northern Siberia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915.
thyme, beans of the wild oxytropis, also the arctic variety of the
upright crowfoot (Ranunculus acer). This was the summer food.
The winter food undoubtedly included the leaves and stems of
the willow, the juniper, and other winter plants.
The woolly rhinoceros was the invariable companion of the
mammoth, even as Merck’s rhinoceros always associated itself
with the straight-tusked elephant. This remarkable animal is
related to the northern African group of white rhinoceroses, from
which it branched off at a very remote period. The profile of its
very long, narrow head, of its enormous anterior and lesser pos-
terior horn, and its humped back resembles that of the existing
MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 209
African form, but its protection against the arctic climate gave
it a wholly different outward appearance; the hair of the face,
of a golden-brown color, with an undercovering of wool, is pre-
served in the Museum of Petrograd. Through a discovery at
Starunia, in eastern Galicia, in 1911, this animal is now completely
known to us, except the tail; its remains were found here at a
depth of 30 feet, and included the head, left fore leg, and the skin
of the left side of the body. ‘The Starunia specimen has a broad,
truncated upper lip adapted to grazing habits, small oblique eyes,
long, narrow, and pointed ears, a long anterior horn with oval
base, and a shorter posterior horn, a short neck, on the back of
which is a small, fleshy hump, quite independent of the skeleton ;
the legs are comparatively short. It differs from the living
African form in the somewhat narrower muzzle, in its small,
pointed ears, and in the presence of a thick coating of hair. Like
the white rhinoceros, the woolly form was a plains dweller, living
on grass and small herbs.” This rhinoceros kept more closely to
the borders of the great ice-sheets than did the mammoth, arrest-
ing its migration in Germany and France; that is, it did not
migrate so far to the south as the mammoth, which wandered.
- down into Italy as far as Rome.
The reindeer was the herald or forerunner of all the arctic
tundra fauna; it reached the valley of the Vézére at the begin-
ning of the period of the true Mousterian culture and already had
penetrated much farther south during the Third Glacial Stage,
probably migrating along the borders of the ice-fields ; in fact, it
is found in northern Europe even during the second glaciation.
It is the true Scandinavian or barren-ground species, which is
now typified by two forms of the Old World reindeer (R. tarandus,
R. spitzbergensis), and by the existing American barren-ground
forms. The antlers are round, slender, and long in proportion
to the relatively small size of the animal; the brow tines are
palmated. There is little proof that the Neanderthals made
much use of the bones of the reindeer, but there is every reason
to suppose that they used the pelts, for the preparation of which
the Mousterian scrapers and planers were especially well fitted.
210 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
In the Iberian peninsula the tundra fauna did not penetrate
as far south as Portugal, although the Norwegian lemming
(Myodes lemmus) reached the vicinity of Lisbon. The woolly
mammoth, accompanied by the woolly rhinoceros, has been dis-
covered in two localities on the extreme northern coast of Spain,
in the province of Santander, bordering the Bay of Biscay. The
Fic. 103. The woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis), after the drawings of Palzo-
lithic artists and the specimen from Starunia preserved in the museum of Lemberg,
Galicia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915.
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is found in the cavern of Serifia,
south of the Pyrenees; as early as Acheulean times it reached the
region of Altamira, near Santander. Thus Harlé™ concludes it
is certain that the tundra fauna spread from France westward
into Catalonia, along the northern coast of Spain, flanking the
Pyrenees. It is generally believed that the cave-bear (Ursus
speleus) occupied many of the caverns before their possession by
man, and developed certain peculiarities of structure in these
haunts. Thus the phalanges bearing the claws are feebly de-
CAVE LIFE 211
veloped, indicating that the claws had partly lost their prehen-
sile function; the anterior grinding-teeth are very much reduced,
and the cusps of the posterior grinders are blunted in a way
which is indicative of an omnivorous diet; yet the front paws
were of tremendous size, the body was thick-set and of heavier
proportions than that of the larger recent bears (Ursus arctos)
of Europe. Hence, it would appear that the Neanderthals drove
out from the caves a type of bear less formidable than the exist-
ing species but nevertheless a serious opponent to men armed
with the small weapons of the Mousterian period.
CUSTOMS OF THE CHASE AND OF CAVE LIFE
We have only indirect means of knowing the courage and ac-
tivity of the Neanderthals in the chase, through the bones of
animals hunted for food which are found intermingled with the
flints around their ancient hearths. These include in the early
Mousterian hearths, as we have seen, bones of the bison, the wild
cattle, and the horse, which are followed at Combe-Capelle by
the first appearance of the bones of the reindeer. The bones of
the bison and of the wild horse are both utilized in the bone
anvils of the closing Mousterian culture at La Quina. What we
believe to be the period of the great mammalian life of the region
of the upper Danube is found in the Mousterian levels of the
grotto of Sirgenstein, from which it would appear that the Nean-
derthals hunted the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the wild horse,
bison, and cattle, and the giant deer as well as the reindeer. We
should keep in mind, however, that when these caves were for a
time deserted, the beasts of prey returned, and so it often happens
that the succeeding layers afford proofs of alternate occupation
by man and by beasts of prey of sufficient size to bring in the
larger kinds of game, while owls may be responsible for the
deposits of the lemming, as in the ‘lower rodent layer.’
Obermaier” has given careful study to the vicissitudes of
cave life in Mousterian times. Long before these caves were in-
habited by man, they served as lairs or refuges for the cave-bear
212 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
and cave-hyzena, as well as for many birds of prey. For example,
the cave of Echenoz-la-Moline, on the upper waters of the Sadne,
contained the remains of over eight hundred skeletons of the
cave-bear, and no doubt it cost the Neanderthals many a hard-
fought battle before the beasts were driven out and man possessed
himself of the grotto. Fire may have been the means employed.
It has been questioned whether the caves were not unhealthy
dwelling-places, but it must be remembered that, except in cer-
tain caverns which had natural openings through the roof for the
exit of smoke, there was no true cave life, but rather a grotto
life, which centred around the entrance of the cave. The small-
est cave, this author observes, was considerably larger and better
ventilated than the small, smoky cabins of some of the European
peasants, or the snow huts of the Eskimo. The most serious
obstacle was the prevailing dampness, which varied periodically
in the caverns, so that dry seasons were succeeded by abundant
moisture seeping through the limestone roof and down the side
walls. At such times the caverns were probably uninhabitable,
and in the bones of both men and beasts many instances have
been observed of diseased swellings and of inflammation of the
vertebre, such as are caused by extreme dampness. The com-
pensating advantages were the shelter offered from the rain and
cold, a constant temperature at moderate distances from the en-
trance, and also the fact that the caves were very easily defensible,
because the entrance was generally small and the approach often
steep and difficult; a high stone wall across the opening would
have made the defense still easier, and a flaming firebrand would
have prevented the approach of bears and other beasts of prey.
On account of this shelter from the weather and wild beasts the
grottos and the larger openings of the caverns were certainly
crowded with the Mousterian flint workers during the inclement
seasons of the year.
Yet the greater part of the life of the Neanderthals was un-
doubtedly passed in the open and in the chase. Throughout
Mousterian times the commonest game consisted of the wild
horse, wild ox, and reindeer. Both flesh and pelts were utilized,
CAVE LIFE 213
and the marrow was sought by splitting all the larger bones.
Thus, frequently we find in the hearths the remains of the mam-
moth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, the cave-bear, and
the brown bear. From these beasts of prey the Neanderthal
hunters obtained pelts and perhaps also fat for torches used to
light the caverns; there is no proof of the invention of the lamp
at this period.
The work of the women undoubtedly consisted of preparing
the meals and making the pelts into covers and clothing. When-
ever possible this would be done in the daylight outside of the
grottos, but in chilly, rainy weather, or the bitter cold of winter,
the whole tribe would seek refuge in the grotto, gathering around
the fire-hearths fed with wood; odd corners would serve as store-
houses for fuel or dried meat, preserved against the days when
extreme cold and blinding snow forbade the hunters to venture
forth.
It appears that the game was dismembered where it fell
and the best parts removed. The skull was split open for the
brain; the long bones were preserved for the marrow; thus the
bones of the flank and shoulder of game occur frequently in cave
deposits, while the ribs and vertebre are rare.
The pitfall may have been part of the hunting craft known
to the Neanderthals. The chase was pursued with spears or
darts fitted with flint points, also by means of ‘throwing stones,’
which are found in great numbers in the upper Mousterian levels
of La Quina, in the Wolf Cave of Yonne, Les Cottés, and various
places in Spain. If one imagines, as is quite possible, that the
throwing stone was placed in a leather sling or in the cleft end of
a stick, or fastened to a long leather thong, one can readily see
it would prove a very effective weapon.
The methods of chase by the Neanderthals are, nevertheless,
somewhat of a mystery. There was a very decided disparity
between the size and effectiveness of their weapons. and the
strength and resistance of the animals which they pursued.
None of the very heavy implements of Acheulean times was pre-
served; the dart and spear heads are not greatly improved, cer-
214 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
tainly they could not penetrate the thick hides of the larger arctic
tundra mammals, heavily protected with hair and wool; the
chase even of the horses, wild cattle, and reindeer was apparently
without the aid of the bow and arrow and prior to the invention
of the barbed arrow or lance head.
49
@% PRENEANDERTHALOIDS — @©NEANDERTHALOIDS
ea PS a
2 ; 0 5 10
Fic. 104. Geographic distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids in
western Europe, showing the localities where the remains of Pre-Neanderthaloid
races (Heidelberg and Piltdown) and of true Neanderthaloids have thus far been dis-
covered. (Compare table, p. 219.)
DISCOVERY OF THE NEANDERTHALOID RACES
The open-air or nomadic life of all the tribes of western
Europe from Pre-Chellean nearly to the close of Acheulean
times was very unfavorable to the preservation of human re-
mains. It is possible that the bodies of the dead and of the aged
were thrown out to the hyznas which surrounded the stations,
as among some of the tribes of Africa to-day, but it is equally
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 215
possible that they were interred in some manner. Skeletons
buried near the surface in the river sands or gravels of the ‘ter-
races’ would not have been preserved. We have seen that the
preservation of the Heidelberg and Piltdown remains was en-
tirely due to chance, the bones having been washed down and
mingled with those of the animals; nor has any evidence been
found in the grotto of Krapina of ceremonial burial or of respect
for the dead, but on the contrary there is some evidence of canni-
balistic customs. Even before the close of early Mousterian
times all this was changed. Perhaps the closer association en-
Fic. 105. Front view of the Neanderthaloid skull found at Gibraltar
in 1848—the earliest discovery of a member of this race, now re-
garded as the skull of a woman. Photograph by A. Hrdlicka from
the original specimen. One-quarter life size.
forced by the more rigorous climate indirectly produced greater
respect for the dead and led to the custom of burial or the
orderly laying out of the remains of the dead in the floors of the
partly protected grottos and caverns, to which custom we owe
our present knowledge of the structure of Neanderthal man in
Mousterian times.
The first discovery of a Neanderthaloid was made in 1848,
eight years before the type of the Neanderthal race came to light.
This was the Gibraltar skull?® found by Lieutenant Flint, near
Forbes Quarry, on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. It
consists of a well-preserved skull, with the parietal bones only
missing and the face and base of the cranium remarkably com-
plete. In 1868 it was presented by Busk to the Museum of the
216 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Royal College of Surgeons, in London, where it lies to-day. The
exact site of the discovery can no longer be positively identified ;
it was probably found in a still existing cave, and although its
archeologic age cannot be determined, yet as its anatomical fea-
tures are those of the Neanderthal race, and as all the remains of
this race which can be dated with certainty are of Mousterian
age, it probably belongs to the Mousterian period. Of recent
years its great importance in the history of man has been revealed
in the studies of Sollas, Keith, and Schwalbe. Thus it has come
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Fic. 106. Section of that part of the valley of the Diissel known as the Neanderthal,
showing the location of the limestone grotto where the Neanderthal
skeleton was discovered. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.
to be ranked among the Neanderthaloids and is considered of a
particularly primitive form, because of the extremely small size
of the brain. This feature and the slight development of the
supraorbital ridges, so characteristic of the Neanderthaloids, are
explained by the theory that the skull belonged to a female.
Sera*’ considers the Gibraltar skull to be the most ape-like
of all human fossils and thinks it should not be classed with the
Neanderthaloids at all, but should be regarded as Pre-Neander-
thaloid; this view is shared by Keith. Boule, however, believes
that this skull is of the same geologic age as that of Spy, La
Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and La Quina; everything leads us to be-
lieve,’* he remarks, that the skull of Gibraltar is a female skull
of Neanderthal type. He elsewhere refers to the skulls of Gi-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 217
braltar, of La Quina, and of La Ferrassie II as probably those of
female Neanderthals.
The type skull of this great extinct race of men is that of
Neanderthal—certainly the most famous and the most disputed
of all anthropologic remains—appreciated by Lyell and Huxley,
but passed over by Darwin, and finally established by Schwalbe
as the most important missing link between the existing species
of man (Homo sapiens) and the anthropoid apes. In 185679
some workmen were engaged in clearing a small loam-covered
cave about six feet in height, the so-called Feldhofner Grotto, in
the cretaceous limestone of the valley known as the Neander-
thal, on the small stream Diissel flowing between Elberfeld and
I'ic. 107. The original type skull of Neanderthal (left side) discovered
in 1856. After Schwalbe. One-quarter life size.
Diisseldorf. They discovered some human bones, probably a
complete skeleton representing an interment, which, unfortu-
nately, were allowed to be scattered and crushed. Doctor Fuhl-
rott rescued the parts that remained, including the now famous
skullcap, both thigh-bones, the right upper-arm bone, portions
of the lower arm, bones of both sides, the right collar-bone,
and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade, and ribs. All the
bones were perfectly preserved and are now to be found in the
provincial museum of Bonn.
The discovery made a great sensation, but at first the age of
these fossils remained doubtful; some 150 paces from the grotto,
in a similar small cave were found bones of the cave-bear and
rhinoceros. In 1858 Schaaffhausen’s memoir®® appeared, in
which he gave the first detailed description of these remains as
belonging to a primitive original race differing in every point
from recent man, and he never wavered from this standpoint.
218 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
In 1863?! Busk, Huxley, and Lyell also placed this skeleton in its
true intermediate position between man and the anthropoid apes.
The determined opinion of Virchow that this was not a normal
type of man exerted so great an influence that not until the
classic work of Schwalbe,” between 1899 and 1gor1, did this skel-
eton assume its commanding importance for all time, and even
this was subsequent to the discovery of two other Neanderthaloid
races.
At first, quite erroneously, this was associated with the so-
called race of Cannstatt, but long before Schwalbe’s work it was
recognized by King,** in 1864, as a distinct species of man (Homo
neanderthalensis) ‘the man of the Neander valley.’ Not long
after the discovery of the Neanderthaloids of Spy, in Belgium,
Cope,* in 1893, proposed the same specific name of Homo neander-
thalensis. In 1897 Wilser®> suggested the name of Homo primi-
genius, which has been widely adopted in Germany, while among
French authors the same species of man is sometimes known
to-day as Homo moustertensis. ‘This variety of names serves at
least to record the unanimous opinion that this mid-Pleistocene
man belongs to a distinct species.
Since the race was very widely distributed, we may speak of
these people as the ‘Neanderthals,’ while races resembling the
Neanderthal species may be characterized as * Neanderthaloid.’
The complete series of discoveries of members of this race is now
very large indeed.
In the year 1887 the Belgian geologists Fraipont and Lohest*®
discovered in a grotto near Spy, not far from Dinant on the
Meuse, the remains of two individuals which are now distinguished
as Spy I and Spy II. In the same stratum with the skeletons,
beneath a layer of tufaceous limestone, flint implements of Mous-
terian age were embedded, together with remains of the woolly
mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, and cave-hyzena. ‘This
discovery is one of the most important in the history of anthro-
pology, because it definitely dated the Spy men as belonging to
the period of Mousterian industry, and also because the authors
immediately recognized these men as belonging to the race of
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 219
DISTRIBUTION OF THE REMAINS OF THE NEANDERTHALS
(Compare Fig. 104)
1. OF UNKNOWN LOWER PALZOLITHIC TIMES
Gibraltar. Forbes Quarry. Fragmentary skull.
Neanderthal. Diisseldorf, Germany. Skullcap and_ skeletal
fragments.
Arcy-sur-Cure. Yonne, France. t lower jaw.
La Naulette. Belgium. t lower jaw.
Malarnaud. Ariége, France. 1 lower jaw.
?Gourdan. Hautes-Pyrénées. t lower jaw.
Ochos. Moravia. t lower jaw.
LATE MOoOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY
epyeL, LL. Near Dinant, Bel- Tws skulls and _ skel-
gium. etons.
Petit-Puymoyen. Charente, France. Fragments of upper and
lower jaws.
Pech del Azé. Dordogne, France. Skull of a child.
La Ferrassie II. Dordogne, France. t skeleton (female).
iar Cotte de St. Isle of Jersey. 13 human teeth.
Brelade.
La Quina II. Charente, France. Skull and fragments of
skeleton.
3. WitH MIppLE MovusTERIAN INDUSTRY
Sipka. Moravia. Jaw of a child.
La Chapelle-aux- Corréze, France. Almost complete skull
Saints. and skeleton.
La Ferrassie I. Dordogne, France. Portions of one skeleton.
La Quina I. Charente, France. Foot bones.
4. WitTH EArRLty MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY
Le Moustier. Vézére Valley, Dor- Skeleton of a youth.
dogne, France.
Ehringsdorf.*” Near Weimar. Lower jaw.
5. WitH MOUSTERIAN OR ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY
Krapina. Croatia, Austria-Hun- Portions of many skel-
gary. etons of adults and.
of children.
Taubach. Near Weimar. 1 milk tooth.
220 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Neanderthal and of Cannstatt, which at the time were supposed
to be the same. Here for the first time the proportions of the
cranium and the brain, the very primitive features of the lower
jaw and of the teeth, the low stature, and several ape-like char-
acters of the limb bones became known; here were observed the
prominent supraorbital ridges of the Neanderthal type, the
receding forehead, the cranial profile inferior to that of the lowest
existing Australian races, the narrow, dolichocephalic skull.
Fic. 108. Skull known as Spy I, discovered in 1887, in front of the
grotto of Spy, near Namur, Belgium. After Kraemer.
One-quarter life size.
The limbs were found to have retained the anthropoid dispropor-
tion between the thigh-bone and the shin-bone, and the important
discovery was made that this short, massively built, heavy-
browed, dull-visaged Neanderthal man was unable to stand
absolutely erect, the structure of the knee-joint being such that
the knees were constantly slightly bent. In other words, the
Spy man had not yet fully acquired the erect position of the
lower limbs. |
This discovery may be said to have established the Neander-
thals in all their characters as a very distinct low race, but twenty-
two years elapsed before this was further confirmed by the finding
of another and still earlier type of Neanderthaloid at Krapina,
in northern Croatia, Austria-Hungary, as described at the close
of Chapter II (p. 181 above); a type which with its local varia-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 291
tions was soon determined as unquestionably belonging in the
same group with the man of Neanderthal and the men of Spy.
Many years before, namely, in 1866, the Belgian anthro-
pologist Dupont®* had discovered the remains of another mem-
ber of this race in a grotto on the bank of the River Lesse, near
La Naulette, not far from Furfooz, in northern Belgium. This
is now known as the La Naulette jaw and is found to be of
Neanderthal type. It was associated with bones of the woolly
mammoth, the rhinoceros, the reindeer, and a few fragments of
other human bones.
Again, in 1882, Ma&ka*® found in a cave near Sipka, in Mo-
ravia, south of Sternberg, and six miles east of Neutitschein,
fragments of a child’s lower jaw, extraordinarily strong, thick, and
large, and showing the incoming of the permanent teeth. From
this very same region is the jaw of Ochos, Moravia, found by
Rzehak* about 1906. Only the alveolar part of the jaw was
found, but it served to demonstrate the very wide geographical
distribution of the Neanderthal race.
At this time the Dordogne region, long known to be an inten-
sive centre of Mousterian industry, from the time of Lartet’s
discovery of Le Moustier, in 1863, had not yielded a single skel-
eton, or any anatomical evidence of the type of man which in
Mousterian times inhabited it. But beginning in the spring of
1908 there came in succession a whole series of such discoveries,
mostly of ceremonial burials, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, at the
type station of Le Moustier itself, at La Ferrassie, another
station on the lower Vézére, and at La Quina.
In October, 1910, was discovered the skull known as La Fer-
rassie II, of late Mousterian age; it is probably that of a female,
and the remains were arranged in what was presumably a special
form of ceremonial burial, because the bones, instead of being
laid out straight in a certain direction, were in a crouching or
flexed position (see Appendix, Note X).
The Le Moustier skeleton was found by Hauser in the lower
grotto of Le Moustier, in the Vézére valley, in the spring of 1908,
and carefully removed with the aid of Professor Klaatsch.”
222 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
It belonged to a youth some sixteen years of age. The most
interesting feature of the discovery was the manner in which the
skeleton was laid out.*2 The head rested on a number of flint
fragments carefully piled together—a sort of stone pillow; the
dead lay in a sleeping posture, with the head resting on the right
forearm. An exceptionally fine coup de poing was close by the
hand, and numerous charred and split bones of wild cattle (Bos
primigenius) were placed around, indicative of a food offering.
The flints were believed to belong to the Acheulean stage, which
underlies the layer of true Mousterian industry, long known in
Fic. 109. Grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Corréze, a few miles to the eastward of Le
Moustier. After Boule.
this locality; but by French archeologists and by Schmidt these
implements are regarded as of the earliest Mousterian age, in
which it is well known that the Acheulean coup de poing still
persisted. Unfortunately, the skeleton was not very well pre-
served and, while Klaatsch was entirely justified in classifying
it with the Neanderthaloids, it should be regarded not as a dis-
tinct species (Homo mousteriensis hauseri) but rather as a mem-
ber of the true Neanderthal race (Homo neanderthalensis). It
also proves to be a rather stocky individual, robust and of low
stature: the arms and legs are relatively short, especially the
forearm and the shin-bone.
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 223
At the same time that the skeleton of Le Moustier was
being disinterred, the Abbés A. and J. Bouyssonie, and L. Bar-
don* were exploring the Mousterian culture of the grotto near
La Chapelle-aux-Saints, a few miles to the eastward of Le Mous-
tier, and came upon a skeleton which has proved to be by far
the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils, including a remark-
Fic. 110 Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, where the finest of all the
Neanderthaloid fossils was discovered in t908. After Boule.
ably well-preserved skull, almost the entire back-bone, twenty
ribs, bones of the arm and of the greater part of the leg, and a
number of the bones of the hands and feet. This was also a
ceremonial burial of an individual between fifty and fifty-five
years of age, most carefully laid out in an east-and-west direc-
tion in a small, natural depression. With it were found typical
Mousterian flints, also a number of shells and remains chiefly
of the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the reindeer, and the bison.
The finding of a mature skull with the bones of the face in posi-
tion, and in a relatively perfect state of preservation without
distortion of the entire cranium, afforded for the first time the
224 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
opportunity of finally determining not only all the skeletal char-
acters and proportions of Neanderthal man but also the actual
size and proportions of the brain. ‘This superb specimen was
sent to the Paris Museum, and Boule’s preliminary descriptions“
Fic. 111. The Neanderthaloid skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints—side, front
and top views. After Boule. One-quarter life size.
and finally his almost faultless monograph* aroused world-wide
interest in the Neanderthal race.
A year later a third Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in
the cave of La Ferrassie not far from Le Bugue, Dordogne, by
Peyrony. The bones were badly shattered, and the proofs of
ceremonial burial were not perfectly clear, but at a glance the
skeleton was clearly recognized from the characters of the skull,
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 295
and particularly from those of the forehead, as belonging to the
Neanderthal race. ;
In the succeeding year, rgro, in the cavern of La Quina, De-
partment of Charente, to the north of the Vézére region‘® were
found the foot bones of a man precisely resembling the La Cha-
pelle type, and again in 1g11 several parts of the skeleton of an-
other entirely typical member of the Neanderthal race were dis-
covered in the earliest Mousterian strata. The skull bones were
somewhat separated at the sutures. This was certainly not a
Fic. 112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type, discovered in a cave on the Isle of Jersey.
After Marett and Hrdlicka.
case of ceremonial burial. Like the Gibraltar skull, this is sup-
posed to be that of a female.
Of especial geographic interest is the discovery by Nicolle
and Sinel*? of thirteen human teeth in a Mousterian cavern on
St. Brelade’s Bay, on the Island of Jersey,*® which furnishes
proof of the extension of the Neanderthal race to the Channel
Islands, when these were, in all probability, still a part of the
mainland. ‘The teeth were associated with bones of the woolly
rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of two varieties of the horse,
as well as with evidences of Mousterian hearths and flint imple-
ments. The distinctive features of the Neanderthal grinding-
teeth are the stout size, deep implantation, and expanded form
of the roots, which, with the heavy jaw, point to the toughness
of the food and to the muscular strength exerted in mastication.
226 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The roots, instead of tapering to a point below, as in modern
man, form a broad, stout column, supporting the crown, adapted
to a sweeping motion of the jaw. This special feature alone would
exclude the Neanderthals from the ancestry of the higher races.
Thus, through a long series of discoveries, beginning in 1848
and rapidly multiplying during the last few years, we have found
the materials for a complete knowledge of the skeletal structure
of the men, women, and children of the Neanderthal race; we
know the relative brain development as well as the stature of
the sexes; we have determined that this race, and this only,
extended over all western Europe during late Acheulean and the
entire period of Mousterian times, and we have also learned that
it was a race imbued with reverence for the dead and therefore
probably animated by the belief in some form of future existence.
CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE
The skulls and skeletons‘? of Neanderthal, Spy, Krapina,
Le Moustier, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and Gibraltar have so
many distinctive features in common that it is beyond question
that they must be classed in a closely related group. ‘The dis-
tinctive features of this group are:
First, features found also in the different existing races of
man, but never in the anthropoid apes, and therefore human ;
' second, features, all of which have never been found combined in
any race of recent man, the group, therefore, represents a distinct
species of man; third, features outside of the limits of variation
in the recent races of man, and intermediate between them and
the variation limits of the anthropoid apes.
Before looking at Neanderthal man as a whole, we may turn
our attention especially to a number of these peculiar features of
the race. All the earliest observers were impressed by the heavy,
overhanging brows and retreating forehead. In recent man
there is often a decided prominence above the eyes, from the
glabella or median point above the nose outward toward each
side, but generally the outer third of the margin of these promi-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 207
nences turns upward beneath the outer line of the eyebrows. In
the Neanderthals, on the contrary, these prominences beneath
the eyebrows surround the whole upper edge of the eye socket,
extending outward around the external
borders of the forehead, so that they
may be called ‘tori supraorbitales’ ; the
extent of this prominent ridge above
and to the sides forms a veritable roof
over the eye sockets, which appear like
two deep, lateral cav-
erns. Such lateral
prominences do
occur, though
rarely, in re-
cent inan ;
they are observed,
for example, in
certain Austra-
lians.
The front view of the Neanderthal
face, as seen in the female Gibraltar
skull, in which these eyebrow ridges
are by no means so prominent as in
the male skulls, is no less remarkable
Poe Als ole ae for the great height of the face as com-
pee suicts (centre), | pared with the flatness of the forehead.
and of a modern French- Placing the skull side by side with that
man (right), showing the t
gradual disappearance of Of the Australian,®® we observe at once
pene are wane the enormous difference in the propor-
tions of the face and the cranium in
these two types, although the Australian represents one of the
lowest existing races of Homo sapiens; we observe in the Gi-
braltar skull the very wide space between the eyes and the very
large size of the narial opening, which indicate a broad, flat-
tened nose; there is a correspondingly long space between the
bottom of the narial opening and the line for the insertion of
the incisor teeth, indicating a very long upper lip.
228 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The jaw is less powerful than that of the Heidelberg man.
The Heidelberg jaw we have seen to be distinguished by its gen-
eral strength and clumsiness and its lack of chin, or rather a
chin without the slightest indication of a prominence; on the
inside of this very thick, rounded chin plate, the characteristic
chin spine (spina mentalis) is lacking; instead, a double groove
is present as the point of attachment for the muscles which con-
Fic. 114. Face view of the Gibraltar skull (left) after Hrdlicka, and of a modern
Australian skull (right) after Schwalbe, displaying the high, large visage of the former,
which suggests that of the anthropoid apes. Both one-quarter life size. The com-
parative horizontal lines are across the (a) masion, or root of the nose, the (6) lower
edges of the orbits, the (c) lower edge of the nasal aperture, and the (d) top of the
front teeth.
nect the chin and tongue with the hyoid-bone; the ascending
process for the attachment of the muscles of the jaw is seen to
be unusually broad, 60 mm., in contrast to about 37 mm. in the
recent jaw; finally, the condyle for attachment with the skull
is particularly large.*!
Like the Heidelberg jaw, that of the Neanderthals is distin-
guished by great thickness and massiveness. In general the
contours are similar; in a few instances the chin process is sug-
gested by a slight prominence, but in general the chin is strongly
receding, and it agrees with that of Heidelberg in lacking the
spina mentalis. In other characteristics there are decided dif-
ferences in the Heidelberg and Neanderthal jaws. The form of
the latter is now known from the specimens of Krapina, of Spy,
of La Naulette, of Ochos, and of Sipka, and from the perfect
examples of Le Moustier and La Chapelle. The Sipka speci-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 229
men proves that even in a child ten years of age the jaw was
remarkable for thickness and strength. Boule™ entirely agrees
with Gorjanovic-Kramberger® that the chin in the Neanderthal
jaw was only in process of formation, and throughout life at-
tained no more than an infantile form, that the Neanderthals
may be ranked, however, as Homines mentales, whereas the Heidel-
bergs, in which the chin is entirely lacking, may be regarded as
Homines amentales.
The proportions of the teeth in the Neanderthals are equally
distinctive, especially in the size of the true grinders and cutting
teeth. As in the Heidelberg jaw, they form a closely set row,
from which the canine does not project as in the Piltdown den-
tition; in fact, the contour of the jaw and the proportions of
the teeth are distinctly human when compared with the orang-
like jaw of the Piltdown man. The grinding surface of the teeth
has many layers of enamel, and the cusps are well developed.
Unlike those of recent man, the incisors display folds of enamel
on the inner or lingual surfaces, a condition rarely observed in the
modern cutting teeth. In the teeth of the Heidelberg jaw,
the pulp cavities are exceptionally large, whereas in the teeth of
the Krapina race there is the unique feature that the molars have
no normal roots, the roots having been more or less absorbed, a
very rare occurrence inrecent man. ‘The dentition of La Chapelle
is also distinctly human, but extraordinarily massive, correspond-
ing with the general massiveness of the skull and masticating
apparatus; in detail it is not that of civilized races, but an ex-
aggerated form of the type called macrodont.** The elongation
of the crown is also similar to what is termed hypsodont.
The grinding-teeth do not all show this massive size and co-
lumnar form, for about fifty per cent of the Krapina teeth have
distinct roots and are more like normal modern grinders. In
the Neanderthaloids of Spy the teeth are small and the roots
are of moderate size.*
_ This study of the forehead and of the eyebrow ridges, of the
great depth of the face, and of the peculiarly high, square form
of the eye sockets prepares us for a profile view of the skull of
230 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
La Chapelle in contrast with that of the most highly developed
and intellectual European type, namely, the profile of the dis-
tinguished American paleontologist, the late Professor Edward
D. Cope, who bequeathed his skull and skeleton for purposes of
scientific study and comparison. In La Chapelle we at once
notice the platycephaly, or flattening of the skullcap, the retreat-
ing forehead, the great prominence of the eyebrow ridges resem-
bling that of the anthropoid apes, the lengthening of the face as
Fre. 115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints (outline) in comparison with
that of a high modern type (shaded); illustrating the projecting eye-
brows and prognathous, ape-like face of the Neanderthaloids. After
Boule. One-quarter life size.
compared with the flattening of the cranium, the great promi-
nence or prognathism of the face as a whole, and the special promi-
nence of the rows of cutting teeth as compared with the vertical
or indrawn line, and the recession of the tooth row in the Cope
profile. This comparison also brings out the striking contrast
between the high chin prominence of Homo sapiens and the
deeply receding chin of the Neanderthals. The contrast is
hardly less remarkable in the superior view of the skull in which
the Neanderthal type is seen to be extremely dolichocephalic, the
back of the skull being relatively broad and the front narrowing
in the region of the forebrain until it suddenly expands in the
prominent supraorbital processes.
As shown in the diagram on page 8, Fig. 1, the greatest
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE g31
length of the Neanderthal skull is found on the horizontal line
directly through the brain chamber, known as the glabella-inion
line, a line drawn from a prominence between the eyebrow ridges
to a point at the back of the skull known as the external occipital
protuberance, or inion. ‘This is also the longest line in the skulls
of Spy and of La Chapelle, as well as of the anthropoid apes,*®
but in the north Australian skull, Fig. 1, owing to the greater
expansion of the upper part of the brain, the greatest length of
Fic. 116. Top view of three skulls—of a chimpanzee (left), of the man of La Chapelle:
aux-Saints (centre), and of a modern Frenchman (right)—showing the retreat
of the projecting face and prominent eyebrow ridges. After Boule.
the skull is at a point considerably above the glabella-inion line.
The median section of the skull of the chimpanzee, of the Nean-
derthal, and of the north Australian displays in a very striking
manner the generalization made by Schwalbe, in 1901, that the
Neanderthal skull is truly an intermediate or half-way form
between that of the anthropoid apes and that of Homo sapiens.
We observe in this illuminating section the growth of the dome of
the skull, that is, the great brain-bearing cavity above the glabella-
inion line g-1, by noting the contrast in the length of the vertical
line of the cranial height, as compared with the space below the
glabella-inion line indicated by the letters. This very important
vertical line terminates below at the opening, where the spinal
cord enters the base of the brain (see Fig. 1),
232 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
In many characteristics the Neanderthal skull is shown to
be nearer to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of Homo
sapiens. This conclusion arrived at by Schwalbe, in 1g901,°’ has
been more than confirmed by Boule’s masterly study®® of the
very complete skull of La Chapelle. After his detailed review, he
concludes: As to the unity of the Neanderthal head form, these
features are not peculiar to the skull of La Chapelle; in every case
they are also found in the skulls of Neanderthal, Gibraltar, Spy,
Krapina, La Ferrassie, which witness to the homogeneity of that
human fossil type called Neanderthal. These features show a
structural affinity between the fossil men of the Mousterian period
and the anthropoid apes. It must be noted that many of these
features may be found also in recent human skulls of the inferior
races, but that they are very rare, very scattered, very isolated,
and occur only as aberrations. It is the accumulation of all
these features in every skull of a whole series which constitutes
an assemblage entirely new and of great importance. In the
skull, as in other parts of the anatomy of the Neanderthals, we
should not expect to find every character intermediate between
the anthropoids and recent man. The long Neanderthal face is
somewhat similar to that of the Eskimo and is in contrast with
the very short face of the existing Australians and Tasmanians.
The depression at the root of the nose, just below the glabella,
is very marked in all Neanderthals; there is less of the nose
bridge than in any recent races, except those of the male Aus-
tralians, yet the nose is not flattened but somewhat arched or
aquiline. ‘This feature is not characteristic of all the anthropoid
apes, and in this respect the Neanderthals, Australians, and Tas-
manians are more different from the anthropoid apes than are
some of the white races; thus the Neanderthal nose, far from
resembling that of the anthropoids, differs from it more than
does that of some recent human types.*® Many anatomists,
following Huxley, have described the Australian and Tasmanian
skulls as more or less Neanderthaloid, and some authors have
gone so far as to regard these races as surviving Neanderthals. -
It is true that some of the skulls in these existing races are ex-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 233
traordinarily platycephalic and show a retreating forehead, that
others show supraorbital ridges almost as prominent as in the
Neanderthals, that sometimes the
prominence of the occipital inion
is very marked, that certain jaws
Thus
one or another of these Neander-
thal features has been observed in
these lower existing races, but all of
these characteristics have never
been combined in one race as con-
stant features, and invariably asso-
ciated, as in all the skulls of the
show a very retreating chin.
Neanderthals known to us.
In brief, the Australian type cf
head has nothing in common with
that of the Neanderthals except in
a small number of characteristics in
the region of the forehead and of
The distinguishing traits
the nose.
Cré6-Magnon.
European.
Galley Hill-Briix-Briinn.
Tasmanian.
Australian.
Spy-Neanderthal.
Gibraltar.
Pithecanthropus erectus
of the Neanderthal head and face
are platycephaly, a retreat-
ing forehead, flattening of
the occiput or lower portion
of the skull, prominence of
the supraorbital ridges, chin
retreating or lacking, pro-
jection of the entire face
owing to the peculiar form
of the upper jaw, and the
relatively small size of the
trontal lobes of the brain.
Tneact, concludes Boule:
‘‘ All these modern so-called
BiG. 117,
Anthropoid ape.
Scale of ascent indicated in the skull
form of eleven races of fossil and living men,
based on the result of twelve different char.
acters of comparison. At the bottom stands
the anthropoid ape, and above this Pithe-
canthropus, the ape-man of Java. A wide
range is observed between the Neanderthaloid
skulls of Gibraltar and of Spy-Neanderthal.
Not far above these in the scale of ascent
stand the modern Australians and the re-
cently extinct Tasmanians. Above these low
races are found the fossil Upper Paleolithic
races of Galley Hill, Briix, Briinn, and Pred-
most. At the top stand the modern Euro-
pean races, beside which the Upper Palzo-
lithic Cré-Magnon race takes a high rank.
After Biichner.
‘Neanderthaloids’ are nothing but varieties of individuals of
Homo sapiens, remarkable for the accidental exaggeration of cer-
234 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
tain anatomical traits which are normally developed in all speci-
mens of Homo neanderthalensis. The simplest explanation of
these accidents in most cases is atavism or reversion. We can-
not assert that there has never been an infusion of Neander-
thaloid blood in the groups belonging to species Homo sapiens,
but what seems to be quite certain is that any such infusion
can have been only accidental, for there is no recent type which
can be considered even as a modified direct descendant of the
Neanderthals.”
This opinion is confirmed by the latest and most exhaustive
researches of Berry and Robertson,®® who conclude that neither
Australians nor Tasmanians have any direct relationship with
Homo neanderthalensis; the superficial points of cranial re-
semblance are explicable solely on the grounds of the remoteness
of the ancestry. The Australians and Tasmanians are descen-
dants not of the Neanderthal stock but of a late Pliocene or early
Pleistocene stock, which, following Sergi, may be called Homo
sapiens tasmanianus, of which the Tasmanian aboriginal, now
extinct, was the almost unchanged offspring. In respect to ‘low’
characters, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 117, the Spy-Nean-
derthal skulls stand quite close to. the Tasmanians and Aus-
tralians, and the Gibraltar skull stands midway between this
type and Pithecanthropus with respect to twelve different char-
acters of comparison.
It is interesting to note* that the Tasmanians were found in
a stage of flint industry very similar to that practised by the
Neanderthals in Mousterian times; their flints were made from
artificially produced flakes, including a few examples® that ex-
hibited a neatness of edge trimming and resultant regularity of
outline, whereas the greater part were characterized by an un-
skilful trimming and irregular outline; the low status of the Tas-
manian implements can most correctly be described by the word
Pre-Aurignacian, that is, of Mousterian or of an earlier stage, but
not by any means ‘ Eolithic.’
* The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct
in 1577," ;
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 235
The brain of Neanderthal man was known to be of large size
even when estimated from the original skullcap of the Neander-
thal type. Darwin was com-
pelled to admit that the fa-
mous skull of Neanderthal
was well developed and capa-
cious, and Broca offered an
ingenious explanation of the
otherwise inexplicable fact
that the mean capacity of the
skull of the ancient cave-
dweller is greater than that
of many modern Frenchmen,
namely, that the average
capacity of the skull in civi-
lized nations must be lowered
by the preservation of a con-
siderable number of individ-
Fic. 118. The Neanderthaloid skull of La
Chapelle-aux-Saints, with the right half re-
moved to show the shape of the brain, as
restored by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter
life size.
uals, weak in mind and body, who would have been promptly
eliminated in the savage state, whereas among savages the
Fic. 119. Outline of the left side of the Neander-
thaloid brain of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, compared
with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a
high type of modern man. One-third life size.
average includes only
the more capable indi-
viduals who have been
able to survive under
extremely hard condi-
tions of life. The skulls
of La Chapelle and of
Spy afforded an oppor-
tunity of determining
this very interesting
problem, and the re-
sults entirely confirm
the earlier estimates
of Schaaffhausen and
of Broca as to the great cubic capacity of the Neanderthal brain.
The estimates in descending order are as follows:
236
Skull of
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
SpyeLL (Eraipont) se sera: sec oetitewe ene ee P1723 cm,
La Chapelle (Boule, Verneau, and Rivet)............ Logo tes
Spy-l(Frampont)) 2. a. 4: oad ween coat ee CT50e0
Neanderthalyje ne, oo ee 1405)" 5
La Quina, female (Boule approximation)............ 730
Gibraltar, female (Boule estimate); 22. =...) een T2007
The size of the brain in the existing races of Homo sapiens
varies from g50 c.cm. to 2020 c.cm.®
Fic. 120.
views).
cast from the type skull; Combe-Capelle (right) from the base of the Upper Paleolithic,
after Klaatsch. ‘The Combe-Capelle brain, though unnaturally compressed, shows a
relatively broad frontal area. One-quarter life size.
wt 1) \
ie il i}
\) wld
feet}
G ombe-Capelle
EA FY SF.
AEE Ge ee N
cs ones a ae x
* ~ eee
Thus in respect to the
Brains of Lower and Upper Paleolithic races compared (top and left side
Piltdown (left), as restored by J. H. McGregor; Neanderthal (centre) brain,
volume of cerebral matter the brain of the Neanderthal man is
surely human, but in form the brain lacks the proportions char-
acteristic of the superior organization of the brain in recent man.
In another important respect it is human: in the larger size of
the left hemisphere, indicating the development of the use of
the right hand. In its general form the brain is more like that
of the anthropoid apes in the relatively smaller size of the frontal
portion, in the simplicity and length of the convolutions, and in
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 237
the position and direction of the great fissures at the side known
as the ‘fissures of Sylvius’ and of ‘Rolando.’ As studied by
Boule and Anthony® there are many primitive characteristics
in the brain of the Neanderthals. The front of the forebrain,
the so-called prefrontal area, which is the seat of the higher facul-
ties, is not fully developed but has a protuberance as in the
brain of the anthropoids. The left frontal lobe in particular,
which is associated with the power of speech, is not much de-
veloped in the lower part, so that a limited development of the
faculty of speech is inferred. The lateral fissure of Sylvius is
relatively wide and open, and this and other features suggest
the brain of the anthropoid. ‘The brain of the skull of La Quina,
which is believed to be that of a female, also shows many primi-
tive features. The absolute cubic capacity of the brain is less
significant of intelligence than the relative development of those
portions of the brain which are concerned in the higher processes
of the mind.
The stature of the various examples of the Neanderthal race
is estimated somewhat differently by Boule and by Manouvrier,
and also varies with the sex:
Neanderthal CUSSHUTLT SS) (os aS jue hieen Sede pe in.
Proeeuvricl| @iseg oe) cn. lec 1.6320 sit Aor 5) -4in.
La Chapelle ele me eee eo Poke t dela nes - ey esi Mavaiees atery As ha
PAGUVTIET pistes. eins fia vanishes sues ERA. ee oy Moe tha
Sy Sa Se Re T-Oscnins ttt AS TON.
Heeeeerra-ie.) ( Mianouviricr).................. TCOR TEIN Wee Come ety Cee.
Average of Neanderthals supposed male....... 162340). Sita 4eey ron.
om bcrteoser rr femiale) oi... cs hele ees 1.482 m. 4 ft. 10 3/10 in.
- The Neanderthal head is very large in proportion to the short,
thick-set body, which we observe rarely exceeds 5 feet 5 inches
in height in the male, and 4 feet 10 inches in the female. The
proportions of the body and limbs of the Neanderthals throw a
surprising light on their ancestral history as well as upon their
defects as a race dependent upon the chase. In proportion to
the length of the thigh, the lower leg is much shorter than in any
existing human race. The tibia or shin-bone is only 76.6 per
238
MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
cent of the length of the femur or thigh-bone, whereas in the ex-
isting races with the shortest shin-bone, such as the Eskimos and
BS
é
‘J
7
Fic. 121. Skeleton of the
Neanderthaloid man of
La Chapelle-aux-Saints.
About one - seventeenth
life size. After Boule.
the majority of the yellow races, it is
never less than 80 per cent of the length
of the thigh-bone. Im this respect the
Neanderthal man is not like the anthro-
poid apes but has a relatively shorter
shin-bone, because the gorillas have an
index of 80.6 per cent, the chimpanzees of
82 per cent, the orangs and gibbons of
above 83 per cent; thus all the anthro-
poid apes and the lower races of man
have a relatively longer leg from the knee
down than has the Neanderthal race.
The shortness of the shin-bone as com-
pared with the length of the thigh-bone is
proof that the Neanderthals were very
clumsy and slow of foot, because this
proportion is characteristic of all slow-
moving animals, whereas a long shin-bone
and a short thigh-bone indicate that a
race is naturally fleet of foot.
Similarly the Neanderthal man has a
very short forearm, only 73.8 per cent of
the upper arm; it approaches the propor-
tions seen in the Eskimos, Lapps, and
Bushmen. Here, again, the Neanderthal
man differs from the anthropoid apes,
among which the shortest forearm is that
of the gorilla, having a ratio of 80 per
Cent.
There are other features which would
tend to show that the ancestors of the
Neanderthaloids had been ground dwellers rather than tree
dwellers back into a very remote period of geologic time; the
arms are much shorter than the legs, whereas in tree dwellers
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 939
they are much longer. Thus, we have observed in the anthro-
poid apes that the arm is very long in proportion to the leg; in
the chimpanzee, which has relatively the shortest arms among
the anthropoid apes, the index is 104 per cent, that is, the arms
are slightly longer than the legs. On the contrary, in the Ne-
anderthals the arm length is only 68 per cent of the leg length ;
thus it is very far removed from the anthropoid-ape type and
comes nearest to the Australian and African negro types.
Thus, to sum up the bodily proportions of the Neanderthals :
Arm short in proportion to leg, average index 68 per cent.
Forearm short in proportion to upper arm, average index 73.8 per cent.
Shin-bone short in proportion to thigh-bone, average index 76.6 per cent.
Stature extremely short in proportion to size of head.
The structure of the shoulder and of the chest is full of in-
terest. All the ribs are remarkably robust and of large volume,
and, whereas in existing races they exhibit a flattened section, in
the Neanderthals the section is distinctly triangular in form.
This implies a very muscular and robust torso in correlation with
the gigantic head and stout limbs. The collar-bones are corre-
spondingly long, presenting a ratio to the humerus exceeding
54 per cent, which is much higher than that among the average
existing races; this indicates a very broad shoulder. The shoul-
der-blade is also very different in type from that of the higher
races of men, and even from that of the higher Primates; it is
extremely short and broad.
While, as noted above, the arm of the Neanderthals is rela-
tively short and thus non-anthropoid, it presents a mingling of
human and ape characters. The upper arm, or humerus, is truly
of the human type, the torsion angle upon its axis being 148°,
whereas in the anthropoid apes the angle of torsion never passes
141. Among the bones of the lower arm the most significant
is the radius, with which the turning movement of the hand is
correlated ; the structure of the head of the radius has more re-
semblance to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of existing
species of man. The structure of the other bone of the forearm,
240 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
the ulna, is also very primitive, exhibiting certain monkey char-
acteristics.
The structure of the hand is a matter of the highest interest
in connection with the implement-making powers of the Neander-
thals. The hand is remarkably large and robust, comparable
Pithecanthropus
Modern
Fic. 122. Thigh-bones, or femora, of the Trinil, Neanderthal, and Cré-Magnon races,
compared with one of modern type. The Neanderthal femur seems to be short and
stout, whereas that attributed to Pithecanthropus is relatively long, slender, and
straight. Of the femora illustrated the Neanderthal and Trinil are those of the type
specimens, the Cré-Magnon is from the skeletal fragments of La Madeleine. After
Dubois, Boule, Lartet, and Christy. One-eighth life size.
in size with that of men of very large stature in existing races.
With respect to the opposition power of the thumb against the
fingers by means of the opponens muscle, a distinctively human
characteristic, the stage of Neanderthal development is decidedly
lower than that of existing races, because the joint of the meta-
carpal bone which supports the thumb is of a peculiar form, con-
vex, and presenting a veritable convex condyle, whereas in the
existing human races the articular surface of the upper part of the
thumb joint is saddle-shaped, that is, concave from within back-
ward, and convex from without inward. Thus the highly per-
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 241
fected motions of the thumb in Homo sapiens were not attained
in Homo neanderthalensis. Two phalanges which are preserved
in the Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton show that the fingers were
relatively short and robust.
In the structure of the hip-girdle our fossil man is altogether
human; nevertheless, some of its characters are very primitive
and distinctive.
Similarly, the thigh-bone shows several primitive characters
which are only rarely seen in existing races, such as the third
trochanter and the strong, general forward curvature.
The structure of the knee-joint in relation to the shin-bone is
very peculiar, because it shows that the shin was always retro-
verted or bent backward. ‘Two other features of the shin-bone
are its extreme abbreviation as compared with the femur, and
the absence of flattening, or platycnemism. Where the shin-
bone joins the ankle-bone (astragalus) are shown two facets, such
as are preserved only in those races of existing men which have
retained the habit of squatting or the folded position of the
limbs; these facets are not found in races which have the habit
of sitting. They indicate that the resting position of the Nean-
derthals while engaged in industrial work was squatting, as
shown in our restoration of one of the Neanderthals at Le
Moustier.
Associated with these powerful and peculiarly shaped limbs
is the particularly short and thick-set vertebral column, each bone
of which is remarkable for its abbreviation. The neck especially
is entirely different in construction from that of existing races of
men. It would appear that the concave curvature of the back
in the Neanderthals was carried directly upward and continued
into the concave curvature of the neck, as among the anthropoid
apes, and especially in the chimpanzee. The vertebre of the
neck, especially the fifth, sixth, and seventh, and the first dorsal,
resemble those of the chimpanzee far more closely than those of
the modern European; the spinous processes are directed back-
ward instead of downward. ‘This caused the habitual stooping
of Neanderthal man at the neck and shoulders and prevented
242 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
him from ever holding his head entirely erect. Whereas in the
back-bone of existing races the erect position is maintained by
four graceful curvatures, two toward the front, and two toward
the back, in the Neanderthals, as in the newly-born members of
the higher races, we observe only three curvatures, two concave
Fic. 123. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-
aux-Saints, in profile, after model by J. H. McGregor.
One-quarter life size.
toward the front, namely, the back and neck curvature, just de-
scribed, and a sacral or pelvic curvature; there is also a convex
lumbar curvature in the lower part of the Neanderthal back-bone,
which, however, is less pronounced than in existing species of
man.
Summing up the characters of the back-bone in the Neander-
thals, certain of them are very primitive, such as the structure
of the vertebrz of the neck and the robust development of the
THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 243
spinous processes, the absence of marked curvature in the lower
part of the back-bone and the very gentle curvature of the bones
of the sacrum.
The total aspect of Neanderthal man may be characterized
in the following manner :*’ An enormous head placed upon a
Fic. 124. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-
aux-Saints, in front view, after model by J. H. McGregor.
One-quarter life size.
short and thick trunk, with limbs very short and thick-set, and
very robust; the shoulders broad and stooping, with the head
and neck habitually bent forward into the same curvature as
the back; the arms relatively short as compared with the legs ;
the lower leg, as compared with the upper leg, shorter than in
any of the existing races of men; the knee habitually bent for-
ward without the power of straightening the joint or of standing
fully erect; the hands extremely large and without the delicate
24.4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
play between the thumb and fingers characteristic of modern
races; the resort to a squatting position while occupied in flint-
making and other industries. Thus the ordinary attitudes char-
acteristic of Homo neanderthalensis would be quite different from
our own and most ungainly. The heavy head, the enormous
development of the face, and the backward position of the
foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord connects with
the brain, would tend to throw the upper part of the body for-
ward, and this tendency, with the lesser curvature of the neck,
the heavy shoulders, and the flattened form of the head, would
give this portion of the body a more or less anthropoid aspect.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF MOUSTERIAN STATIONS
The Neanderthal race of Mousterian times established sta-
tions all over western Europe, of which upward of fifty have
already been discovered, as compared with the fifty-seven or more
Acheulean stations known. At some points the old open camps
of the Acheulean flint workers were still visited, as along the
Thames, the Somme, and the Marne. Thus Abbeville, St.
Acheul, Montiéres, and Chelles, in northern France, show a suc-
cession of Mousterian industry following the Acheulean, the Chel-
lean, and, at St. Acheul, even the Pre-Chellean. These may well
have been summer stations, visited at favorable seasons of the
year because of their abundant supply of flint. About 125 miles
to the east of St. Acheul, in Belgium, on a small tributary of
the Meuse, is the grotto of Spy, which, together with Mousterian
implements, has yielded two human fossil skeletons of the Nean-
derthal race. |
In southern Devonshire is the famous cavern of Kent’s Hole,
near Torquay, discovered as long ago as 1825 by MacEnery and
described in 1840 by Godwin-Austen.** It is interesting to note
that teeth of the sabre-tooth tiger (Macherodus latidens) have
been found in this cavern, leading Boyd Dawkins to believe that
this animal survived to late geologic times: it will be recalled
as a contemporary of the early Chellean flint workers at Abbe-
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 245
ville. The animal life of Kent’s Hole, as originally described by
Godwin-Austen, included remains of ‘‘elephant, rhinoceros, ox,
deer, horse, bear, hyeena, and a feline animal of large size’”’—fauna
now known to belong to the period of the fourth glaciation.*
° Si
St. Acheul Rauber hihlee “am,
Irpfelhghits:
Montieres
1- La Ferrassie
2- La Mucogue
3- Le Moustier
4- La Rochetle
Biph ey @© CEREMONIAL BURIALS
- Abri Audit
- La Mouthe
8- Laussel
Fic. 125. Geographic distribution of the principal Mousterian industrial stations in
western Europe, attributed to the Neanderthal race.
To the south are three stations, one of which, La Cotte de St.
Brelade, on the present isle of Jersey, then part of the mainland,
has yielded Mousterian flakes and thirteen human teeth of
Neanderthal type.
Still farther to the south, in the Dordogne region, is found the
type station described on a previous page, of Le Moustier, the
* This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological
research, was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding
of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains.
246 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
centre of a group of eight sites crowded along the north and south
shores of the Vézére, which have become famous for the knowl-
edge they yield of the successive stages in the development of
the Mousterian implements, beginning with the primitive cul-
ture station of La Micoque, and including La Ferrassie, Le Mous-
tier, La Rochette, Pataud, La Mouthe, Laussel, and finally the
Abri Audit, which marks the closing stage in the development of
Fic. 126. The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia, in the Cantabrian
Mountains of northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.
the Mousterian industry and, in the opinion of many arche-
ologists, its transition to the Aurignacian. At several of these
places important discoveries have been made, both of human fos-
sils and of noteworthy transitions in the progress of invention.
Circling round this Vézére group are the stations of Petit-Puy-
moyen, La Quina, where implements of the closing stage of Mous-
terlan industry have been found as well as a human fossil of the
Neanderthal type, and La Chapelle-aux-Saints, which has yielded
the only complete skeleton of a ‘Neanderthal man so far dis-
covered.
In Spain is the station of San Isidro, near the headwaters of
the Tagus, and the beautifully situated grottos of Castillo and
Hornos de la Pefia, on the northern slopes of the Cantabrian
Mountains.
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 247
As contrasted with the very numerous Acheulean sites of
Italy, it is surprising to note that only two Mousterian grottos
have thus far been discovered in this region: the Grotte delle
Fate in the mountains of Liguria, and the very important group
of caves on the Riviera, near Mentone, known as the Grottes
de Grimaldi, close to the seashore and at the very point where
the Italian Alps abut upon the sea. Crossing to the north, we
Fic. 127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia. Photograph
by N. C. Nelson.
note the superb Swiss grotto of Wildkirchli, on the headwaters
of the Rhine, 5,000 feet above sea-level.
In all Germany there are only about seven stations of unques-
tioned Mousterian age. Of these six are grottos, and the seventh,
Mommenhein, is a fluvial redeposit of loess along a small stream,
where only one implement has been found.®® It is interesting to
observe that in Germany these Mousterian sites occupy the great
wedge of territory between the Scandinavian ice-fields on the
north, and the Alpine on the south, and that Wildkirchli was
actually within the area of glaciation; while the caves of Rauber-
hdhle and Sipka were not far from the glaciers which clothed
the Carpathian Mountains, and Baumannshohle was not so very
remote from the great Scandinavian ice-field. In the region of
the headwaters of the Rhine and Danube the industry of the
248 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Neanderthal race has thus far been traced only at the stations
of Irpfelhdhle, R&éuberhohle, and Sirgenstein. The latter cav-
ern is of especial importance because it comprises the entire
Paleolithic history of this region, presenting a series of succes-
sive culture layers from Mousterian times up to the arrival of
the Neolithic race. Further to the east are the Gudenushohle,
near Krems, in Lower Austria, and Ochos and Sipka, in Moravia,
while over the Russian border are Wierschovie and Miskolcz. Well
to the northwest of Wildkirchli are the stations of Mommen-
heim and Kartstein, and to the north that of Baumannshohle.
WORKMANSHIP OF THE NEANDERTHALS
The dense communal life of Mousterian times may have fa-
vored a social evolution, the development of the imagination and
of tribal lore, and the beginnings of the religious belief and cere-
monial of which apparent indications are found to be wide-spread
among the entirely different races of Upper Paleolithic times. The
life is not, however, marked by industrial progress or invention.
The successive stages of the Mousterian industry have
not as yet been so clearly defined as those of the Acheulean
(Schmidt”). In the open Mousterian stations and caverns of
Belgium and England Schmidt has observed the stages of early,
middle, and late Mousterian. Breuil and Obermaier consider
La Micoque as belonging to the close of the Acheulean but as
marking the transition into the Mousterian. Breuil considers
the industry of the Combe-Capelle station as representing the
oldest true Mousterian culture. The researches which have
been carried thus far would appear to justify the following sub-
divisions of the Mousterian culture in southwestern France:
6. Abri Audit culture, marking the transition from late Mousterian to early
Aurignacian industry.
5. Late true Mousterian industry. La Quina type of implements with
scrapers and bone anvils.
4. Middle Mousterian industry, with a predominance of handsome, large
Mousterian points carefully ‘retouched’ on the edge and sometimes
on one side, a ‘retouch’ at times approaching the superior Solutrean
technique.
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 249
3. Primitive early Mousterian industry, with a limited inventory of im-
plements.
2. Combe-Capelle stage, with heart-shaped coups de poing and typical
Mousterian ‘points.’ (Arrival of reindeer.)
1. La Micoque culture, transitional from Acheulean to Mousterian times.
(No reindeer.)
The flint industry, although very different in its outward
- appearance, is recognizable as a direct evolution from the Acheu-
lean, with the suppression or decline of certain implements and
the improvements of others. It is the product of the same kind
of mind at work with the same materials, but under different
climatic conditions and with new demands, especially for cloth-
ing as protection against the severe weather. We also cannot
avoid the feeling that the abandonment of the free, open life of
Chellean and early Acheulean times and the crowding of the
Neanderthal tribesmen beneath the shelters and in the grottos
nad a dwarfing effect both upon the physique and upon the in-
dustry itself. The Mousterian implements, as compared with
the Acheulean, impress one as the work of a less muscular and
vigorous race.
In addition to the many fine transitions that one observes”
between the Acheulean and Mousterian industries at St. Acheul,
strong evidence is also furnished in favor of a close connection be-
tween these cultures by the discoveries at Laussel, on the Vézére,
near Les Eyzies. There, broad and deep before this shelter of
Laussel, lies the Mousterian layer, and directly beneath it is a
true Acheulean layer close to the waters of the valley of the
Beune. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was
deepened to the same degree as to-day, and a close union of the
Acheulean to the Mousterian is here again evident. In the
valley of the Somme near St. Acheul Commont has also observed
proofs of a similar close connection between these cultures.
With such records in northern and southern France, the Nean-
derthal race, which is known toward the end of Acheulean times
and especially covers the entire period of Mousterian time, comes
much nearer to us. If we assign the Mousterian industry to
250 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
the last glacial period, we give it a duration of some 30,000 years,
and this is about the reckoning which thoughtful anatomists
have already assigned for the Neanderthal man.
SPECIAL MOUSTERIAN IMPLEMENTS
Two instruments are especially typical of the Mousterian in-
dustry from beginning to end; these are the ‘pointe’ and the
‘racloir.’ The former, pointed and spear-shaped, is from 1 to 4
SWS: Vy:
ww
Ml]
ra
SS
ey
if)
ili
ff
\\
Naot
=
LFA
\
\\
Se
SS
IN
*
\\
Woy A
PES (Nas Gs
INOS a Wf,
WS:
/ ic
sa) SS jl
Ss AMD Myon
ia A ‘IN \ \S
}
ay,
Fic. 128. Typical Mousterian ‘points’ from the type station of Le Moustier, made of a
large flake of flint struck off from the nodule and retouched on only one side, leaving
on the opposite side a smooth, conchoidal surface. After Déchelette, by permission
of M. A. Picard, Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils.
inches in length; the latter is a broad scraper, from 1 to 2 inches
in width; and both have the distinctive peculiarity of being
composed of a large flake of flint struck off from a larger bulb
or nodule and of being retouched only on one side, leaving on
the opposite side the smooth conchoidal surface of the flake.”
This point and scraper are highly characteristic not only of the
early stages but of the Mousterian industry throughout its en-
tire course, including even the late La Quina types, and their
manner of making is obviously a modified usage of the late
Acheulean discovery of the flakes of Levallois.
A matter of the greatest interest in the industrial develop-
ment of western Europe at this time is the fact that this dis-
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 251
covery of the utilization of the flake, whether in the ‘lames de
Levallois’ or in the Mousterian point and scraper, led to the
decline of the coup de
poing. The retouched
flakes of various shapes
‘were easier to make and
tomrepair and served
equally well the purposes
of skinning and dismem-
bering game which had
been previously served
by the ancient coup de
poing.”
In consequence, the
coup de poing, fashioned
from the core of the no-
dule, begins to play a very
secondary réle and occurs
but rarely in the Mous-
terian levels. Even at St.
Acheul, the very centre of
its former reign, we begin
to find decadent forms
and poor workmanship,
which make it difficult to
recognize that these are
the successors of the finely
retouched Acheulean
coups de poing. While
the coups de poing at the
type station of Le Mous-
tier continue to retain
the old Acheulean pat-
terns—the oval, the heart-
FIG. 120.
107
Mousterian ‘points’ and scrapers from
various parts of Europe, as interpreted by de
Mortillet. In some cases both sides of the im-
plement are shown; all are one-quarter actual
size except tor, which is one-half actual size.
1oo—De Mortillet’s theory of the manner of
using the Mousterian ‘point,’ which was held in
the hand and not shafted. 1o1—Mousterian
point from Suffolk, England. 102—Mousterian
point from Umbria, Italy. 103, 104—A single
flake point from the Crimea, in southern Russia.
105, 1o6—A long, narrow Mousterian point from
Oise, France. 107—A _ curved-in scraper, or
grattoir, from Dordogne, France; perhaps an im-
plement for dressing a wooden spear or lance.
108—Bone splinter, broken for the marrow, but
not shaped.
shaped, the sharp-pointed—they are all of smaller size and
rather coarsely retouched. Thus, after thousands of years of
252 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
development and employment, the coup de poing falls into a
period of degeneration and of final disuse. .The history of this
implement, which we have traced from its Pre-Chellean proto-
types, presents a most interesting analogy with the course of
evolution observed in so many animal and plant forms. It
passes through many stages of improvement and reaches a climax
of perfection and adaptation; it then comes into competition
with another form evolving on a fundamentally different and
superior plan and disappears in the struggle for existence through
the greater usefulness of the replacing type.
SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY
The succession of industrial stages is best shown along the
Vézere. The oldest Mousterian industry is that of Combe-Capelle
with its heart-shaped, roughly fashioned coups de poing, entirely
lacking, however, any evidence of a surface prepared for the
grasp of the hand.
In the valley of the Somme Commont™ has observed the
three following stages in the advance of the Mousterian industry :
3. A late Mousterian culture which lies on the upper layers near the top
of the same gravel deposit and which shows entirely new technical
elements. The old coup-de-poing culture is no longer valued, and
all the implements found here are of flakes worked only on one side
and with an extraordinarily fine retouch.
2. A middle Mousterian horizon which lies in the lower layers of a gravel
deposit, belonging to the ‘newer loess,’ and which contains only one
small coup de poing.
1. An early Mousterian, with quite numerous lance-shaped coups de poing,
lies at the base of the ‘newer loess,’ showing that the coup-de-poing
tradition still lingers and the coup-de-poing type is still preserved.
With these are associated the new types of implements and espe-
cially the ‘hand-points,’ which are so typical of the Mousterian
industry.
The more recent levels (2, 3) contain longer flakes, which already exhibit
a tendency toward the blades, or ‘lames,’ of the Upper Paleolithic.
In the shelters and caverns of Dordogne the same industrial
sequence may be observed, although the chronological succession
MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 253
of the strata is not always clearly defined. At the grotto of
Combe-Capelle the heart-shaped coups de poing retain most
strongly the old traditions, but even here these are outnumbered
by the well-fashioned Mousterian ‘points,’ chipped only on one
side.
The further development of the Mousterian industry may be
observed in the type station of Le Moustier, where the lower
levels show a primitive Mousterian consisting mostly of very
fine, irregularly fashioned flakes, made into small scrapers, tri-
angular points, borers, and disks. The overlying layer includes
very carefully worked Mousterian points which are frequently
retouched on one side over the entire surface; here the Mous-
terian technique reaches its highest development, so that Schmidt
designates it as ‘high Mousterian.’” Above this layer, again,
is a level of typical late Mousterian forms, quite unlike the small
primitive flakes of the lower level and resembling the character-
istic forms of La Quina, the dominant type being the finely
shaped La Quina racloir. The few diminutive coups de poing
which occur in this level at Le Moustier furnish the only distinc-
tion between the industry here and that of La Quina, where no
coups de poing are found. At Le Moustier also occur the typical
bone anvils which were first recognized at La Quina.
The Mousterian industry of the Neanderthals was thus de-
voted mainly to the development of the smaller forms of imple-
ments, for the most part retouched on one side only, and with
a constant improvement of technique. Yet the chief types of
Mousterian implements remain the same as in Acheulean times,
as shown in the accompanying table. |
~The implement known as the pointe, or the ‘hand-point,’
is a principal and very characteristic Mousterian form further
perfected from its Acheulean stage. It is spear-headed in shape
and chipped on one side only, and continues into late Mous-
terian times, being still found in the Mousterian levels of Spy,
in Belgium.
The pointe double, a double-pointed, spear-shaped form, at
times almost attains the elongate shape of the Solutrean pointe
254 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
de laurier, though never its slenderness, symmetry, and per-
fection of technique.
There are five or six well-defined varieties of the racloir, or
scraper, carefully fashioned out of flakes. The principal form
is crescentic in shape, with
LDU SAG Ne : outward-curved edge. Other
cence fay ipa aut forms are saw-like with straight
nia Re edges or knife-edged. Another
heart-shaped. form with very neatly and
eR symmetrically incurved borders
achette, chopper. :
Catia Blamneitoc has its edges sharply retouched,
Percoir, drill, borer. as if for the smoothing down of
Couteau, knife. bone or wooden shafts. The
Kes i borer is also fashioned of an
knife-edged.
curved-out edge. elongate flake and sometimes
saw-edged. finished with a very fine point
double-edged. at one of its extremities. It is
bara noteworthy that the grattoir,
Pointe, ‘hand-point.’ or planing tool, so well devel-
Percuteur ? hammer-stone? oped in the Upper Paleolithic
Nira seRne aT re industries, appears only spo-
Pointe, ‘hand-point.’ radically in Mousterian times.
Pointe double, spear head? For example, ate oa Quina, in
COUD) Ge) PQUIe tee ncnreeoH) the closing stages of the Mous-
Pierre die jet throwing stone. ; : :
Gore icnites terian industry, out of 220 im-
plements collected at hazard,
there were 166 scrapers of six different forms, 45 ‘hand-points’ of
five different forms, and 5 double points, as compared with 5 grat-
toirs, or planing tools. There are very few knife-shaped forms.
It would appear that the racloir and the percoir were the principal
implements employed in the preparation of skins for clothing.
In early Mousterian times the coup de poing may still have
been used by the Neanderthals in the chase, and the fine, spear-
headed ‘point’ and the rarer ‘double point’ may have been de-
veloped in response to the needs of hunters, who now ventured
the chase of the bison, the urus, the wild horse, and the reindeer,
MOUSTERIAN INDUSIRY 255
The most striking features of all the implements which may
have been used in the chase are: first, the absence of any definite
proof of their attachment
to a shaft or handle ; and
second, the absence of
any barbed or headed
type of point. The use
of the barb, as we shall
see, appears to be a rela-
tively recent discovery
of the later cultures of
Upper Paleolithic times.
The transition from
the Mousterian to the
Aurignacian appears in
the Abri Audit, which
also lies in the valley of
the Vézére. Here we still
find irregularly fashioned
coups de poing, decadent
followers of the heart-
shaped types of the earli-
est Mousterian industry ;
this is nearly the last
phase in the decline of
the old coup-de-poing
manufacture. While the
lance-shaped coup de
poing of the late Acheu-
lean never appears in any
true Mousterian indus-
try, the shorter, more
Fic. 130. Late Mousterian implements, after de
Mortillet, one-quarter actual size. 109, 110—
Point, finely retouched at one end, from Seine-et-
Marne, France. ‘The reverse shows a retouch on
the flaked surface which suggests the double-face
Solutrean retouch. is11, r112—A very large
racloir, or scraper, from La Quina, Charente,
France; part of the bulb of percussion has been
chipped off. 113—Double-ended point from Le
Moustier, retouched on both surfaces. 114, 115
—Combination point and scraper from Le Mous-
tier, Dordogne, France. 116—Double scraper,
or racloir, with grattoir, or planing end.
heart-shaped type of Combe-Capelle traverses the entire Mouste-
rian and, after further stages of degeneration, passes into the Abri
Audit culture and even lingers into the early Aurignacian. At this
latter station the typical Mousterian ‘points’ are almost wanting.
256 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
The Mousterian, observes Schmidt,’ which preserves the tra-
ditions of the Lower Paleolithic coup-de-poing culture, is one of
the most interesting phases in the development of Paleolithic
industry, in that its successive stages exhibit the very last phases
of the great coup-de-poing industry, of which only the almond
and oval scraper types appear, and that very rarely, in the early
Aurignacian. On the other hand, in the late Mousterian we ob-
serve a trend toward the blade (Jame) industry of the Upper
Paleolithic. Careful study and observation of the subdivisions
of Mousterian culture have thus far been limited to central and
southern France, and they have not yet been traced in Spain;
but in the grottos of Belgium and England the early, middle,
and late Mousterian types are known to exist.
Bone anvils, fashioned out of the hard surfaces of the fore-
leg and foot bones of the bison and horse, were discovered at
La Quina in 1906. They show a flattened surface with cross
incisions too regular to be accidental and too far from the artic-
ulation to be the result of an inexpert attempt to sever the
joint.”° This was not the only use of bone in Mousterian times,
however, for primitive pointed implements of bone are occa-
sionally found in Dordogne, mingled with Mousterian flints. A
variety of rudely fashioned bone implements also occurs at Wild-
kirchli, in Switzerland.
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE
We have seen that the Neanderthals dwelt in Europe for a
very long time, many thousands of years, during which they
doubtless underwent considerable evolution from lower to higher
types, and into varieties, under the modifying influences of
climate, food, and racial habits. Consequently the known re-
mains of Neanderthals exhibit a decided variation in head form,
as well as in dentition: some are more primitive and ape-like;
others, such as Spy II, are more like the modern races. ‘The
Krapina variety is more broad-headed than the typical Neander-
thal variety. The Gibraltar variety is in many respects of low
DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHALS 257
type. The individual known as Spy II is of higher type than
the other Neanderthals. The variations in stature so far as
known are slight.
For these and other reasons Hrdlicka,’’ who has recently |
made a broad comparative study of the chief Neanderthal re-
mains of Europe, is of the opinion that the Neanderthals partly
evolved into the lower races of Homo sapiens ; being not only in
some measure ancestral to such very primitive forms as the
Briinn or Predmost race of Upper Paleolithic times, but even
contributing to the higher race of the Cré-Magnons. He also
holds that traces of Neanderthal blood and physiognomy are
not lacking even among modern Europeans.
A contrary view is set forth in the present volume; namely,
that the Neanderthals represent a side branch of the human
race which became wholly extinct in western Europe. This
view the author shares with Boule and with Schwalbe. Cer-
tainly the evidence afforded by the known Upper Paleolithic
burial sites does not support the theory that the Neanderthals
persisted. It is possible, however, that the Upper Paleolithic
skeletons discovered at Predmost, and now awaiting descrip-
tion by Maska, may modify this conclusion and demonstrate
Hrdlicka’s theory that the Neanderthals survived and left de-
scendants or men of mixed Neanderthal and Homo sapiens race
along the valley of the Danube.
Whatever may have been their fate in other regions, cer-
tainly the most sudden racial change which we know of in the
whole prehistory of western Europe is the disappearance of the
Neanderthal race at the close of the Mousterian culture stage,
which was the latest industrial period of Lower Paleolithic times,
and their replacement by the Cré-Magnon race. From geologic
evidence the date of this replacement is believed to have been
between 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era. So far as we
know at present, the Neanderthals were entirely eliminated; no
trace of the survival of the pure Neanderthal type has been
found in any of the Upper Paleolithic burial sites; nor have
the alleged instances of the survival of the Neanderthal strain
258 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
or of people bearing the Neanderthal cranial characters been
substantiated. We incline to agree with Boule and Schwalbe
that the supposed cases among modern races of the transmis-
sion of Neanderthal characters are simply low or reversional
types, which, upon close analysis, are never found to present
the highly distinctive and Sali combination of Neanderthal
characteristics.
There is some reason to believe that the Neanderthals were
degenerating physically and industrially during the very severe
conditions of life of the fourth glaciation, but the consequent in-
feriority and diminution in numbers would not account for their
total extinction, and we are inclined to attribute this to the
entrance into the whole Neanderthal country of western Europe
toward the close of Lower Palzolithic times of a new and highly
superior race. Archeeologists find traces of a new culture and
industry in certain Mousterian stations preceding the disappear-
ance of the typical Mousterian industry. Such a mingling is
found in the valley of the Somme in northern France.
From this scanty evidence we may infer that the new race
competed for a time with the Neanderthals before they dispos-
sessed them of their principal stations and drove them out of the
country or killed them in battle. The Neanderthals, no doubt,
fought with wooden weapons and with the stone-headed dart
and spear, but there is no evidence that they possessed the bow
and arrow. ‘There is, on the contrary, some possibility that the
newly arriving Cré-Magnon race may have been familiar with
the bow and arrow, for a barbed arrow or spear head appears
in drawings of a later stage of Cré-Magnon history, the so-called
Magdalenian. It is thus possible, though very far from being
demonstrated, that when the Cré-Magnons entered western Eu-
rope, at the dawn of the Upper Paleolithic, they were armed
with weapons which, with their superior intelligence and physique,
would have given them a very great advantage in contests with
the Neanderthals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Commont, 1912.1, p. 294.
Smith, W., 1894.1, chap. XV.
Dietrich, 1910.1, pp. 329, 330.
Penck, 1909.1.
Leverett, I910.1, pp. 306-314.
Geikie, 1914.1.
OD2 ctu D. 272.
Op. cit.; pp. 265-266.
Ket slOlE.t, p. 23, Fig. -5.
Munro, 1912.1, pp. 46, 47.
arcec, roorli; 1875.1.
De Vibraye, 1864.1.
Massénat, 1868.1.
Smith, W., 1894.1, chap. XIV.
Geikie, 1914.1, p. IIo.
Simin WwW... oP. -czi.,
co
OP7 Cii.,-D, 224.
Geikie, 1914.1, p. 118.
Bachler, 1912.1.
Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 18-32, 165—
ty Ae
Op. cit., Table opposite p. 270.
Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 419, 420.
Niezabitowski, 1g1I.1.
Harlé, 1908.1, p. 302.
Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 135.
Reith s16 01 2
Dovlesior 2. pp.220, 221.
Op. cit., Dp. Od.
Piscner FOL 3.1, Pp. 336, 337.
Schaaffhausen, 1875.1; 1858.1.
Lyell, 1863.1, pp. 80-92.
Schwalbe, 1897.1; 1901.1; 1901.23
1904.1.
King, 1864.1.
Cope, 1893.1.
Wilser, 1898.1.
Fraipont, 1887.1.
Schwalbe, 1914.2.
Dupont, 1866.1.
pp. 1096,
‘Maska, 1886.1.
Rzehak, 1906.1.
Fischer, 1913.1.
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(59)
(60)
(61)
(62)
(63)
(64)
(65)
(66)
(67)
(68)
(69)
(70)
(71)
(72)
(73)
(74)
(75)
(76)
(77)
259
Klaatsch, 1909.1.
Bouyssonie, 1909.1.
Boule, 1908.1; 1908.2; 1909.1;
FQVIon: e1OE 25,
Boule; 1913.1.
Martins Ey) 1011.1-
Nicolle, 1910.1.
Keith, rgrp.1.
Fischer; 1013.1, p. 352.
Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 544, Figs.
4 and 5.
Fischer, op. cit.
BOulest oie. Daas:
Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1909.1.
Boule, 1913.1, p. 104.
Tomes, 1914.1, pp. 588-508.
Schwalbe, 1901.2; 1914.1, pp. 534,
535+
Schwalbe, rgo1.t.
Boulesrorsc1.
Opacity ppe.00,.07 172, 75:
Berry-.i0c4.1,
Johnson, 1913.1.
Quatrefages, 1884.1, p. 394.
Martin, R., 1914.1, p. 645.
Boule; 1910.1; 19ft.1.
Anthony, 1912.1.
Boules1913.77p; 110.
Op. cit, Pp. 120.
Geikie, 1914.1, p. 130; Godwin-
Austen, 1840.1.
schmidt, 1912.1, pps-23, 42, 66,
75, 70, 101, 169.
Op ie p12 5.
schuchhardt;“1943i1,py 144,
Déchelette, 1908.1, vol. I, pp.
OS-I0r.
Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 130.
Commont, 1909.1.
Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 126-128.
Déchelette; “1908:1, ‘vol. -1,.. pp.
104, I05. cone
Hrdlicka, 1914.1
CHAPTER IV
OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC — THE GRIMALDI RACE —
ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNON RACE AND OF THE AURIG-
NACIAN INDUSTRY — GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS —
MAMMALIAN LIFE — CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF THE CRO-
MAGNONS — DISTRIBUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY —
THE BIRTH OF ART —ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOLU-
TREAN INDUSTRY — BRUNN RACE — SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY AND
ART.
In the whole racial history of western Europe there has never
occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappear-
ance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Cré-
Magnon race. It was the replacement of a race lower than
any existing human type by one which ranks high among the
existing types in capacity and intelligence. The Cré-Magnons
belonged to Homo sapiens, the same species of man as our-
selves, and appear to have been the chief race of the Upper
Paleolithic Period up to the very close of Magdalenian times,
after which they apparently underwent a decline.
Although there were one or more other races which influ-
enced the industrial development of western Europe, the Cré-
Magnons were certainly dominant, as shown both by the abun-
dance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of
their industry and art; the Upper Paleolithic may almost be
said to be the period of the Cré-Magnons as the Lower Pale-
olithic is that of the Neanderthals and the Pre-Neanderthals.
Their arrival toward the end of Mousterian times effected a so-
cial and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound
a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the
Upper Paleolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which
separates the former from the Neolithic.1
The arrival of the Cré-Magnons and the introduction of the
260
OPENING OF THE UPPER PALZOLITHIC 261
Aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of
Europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of con-
fidence; they correspond geologically with the close of the
fourth glaciation and the beginning of Postglacial time, the dura-
tion of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of
many different kinds, but which brings us, nevertheless, to sub-
stantially similar conclusions. It seems that 25,000 years is a
conservative estimate for the duration of the Postglacial Period ;
this is supported by the independent observations of Lyell,
Taylor, Penck and Briickner, and Coleman ; it is within the esti-
mates made by Chamberlin and Salisbury, Fairchild, Sardeson,
and Spencer; it is somewhat larger than the estimates of Gilbert
and Upham.* Thus, with considerable confidence we may
record man of the modern type of Homo sapiens as entering
western Europe between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago.
The Lower Paleolithic industrial cycle, comprising the
Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian, seems to have been
similar in evolution both around the Mediterranean coasts and
in the northern portions of Europe. From the fact that the
Cré-Magnons arrived with the Aurignacian industry it would
appear that they came through Phoenicia and along the south-
ern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain;
also perhaps along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean
through Italy. Their evolution had probably taken place some-
where on the continent of Asia, for their physical structure is
entirely of Asiatic type, and not in the least of African or Ethio-
pian type; that is, they exhibit no negroid characters what-
ever. The reason that Breuil considers that the Aurignacian
did not come in through central or eastern Europe is that there
are no early Aurignacian stations in either region, whereas the
Aurignacian is abundantly developed along the Mediterranean
coasts, both of Europe and Africa. The passage of the Crd-
Magnons along these coasts was, therefore, like the subsequent
wave of the true Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed,
narrow-faced people, which followed this coast in early Neolithic
* See Appendix, Note VI.
262 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
times, or, again, like the wave of the Arabian or Moslem ad-
vance, which pressed forward along the northern coast of Africa
and into southwestern Europe.
Some support of this theory of migration along the north
coast of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two
members of an entirely distinct race, which are commonly known
Fic. 131. Entrance to the great Grotte du Prince at the base of the limestone promontory
known as the Baoussé Roussé, with a view of Mentone in the distance.
After Davanne.
as the ‘negroids of Grimaldi’ because of their discovery in the
Grottes de Grimaldi near Mentone, and because they alone among
all the Upper Paleolithic races thus far discovered in Europe
display a number of resemblances to the African negroid race.
Anatomically they are related neither to the Neanderthals nor
to the Cré-Magnons. Their archeologic age appears to be early
Aurignacian because they are found immediately above the
layer which marks the close of Mousterian time and the last
climate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals.
OPENING OF THE UPPER PALZOLITHIC 263
This sunny coast where modern France joins Italy has sup-
plied some. of the most valuable records of the racial and indus-
trial transition from the Lower to the Upper Paleolithic. Of
the nine Grottes de Grimaldi three at least show evidences of
occupation in closing Mousterian times, probably by men of the
Neanderthal race, although no skeletal remains of Neanderthals
have been found here. Four of the grottos, namely, the Grotte
des Enfants, the Grotte de Cavillon, the Barma Grande, and the
Baousso da Torre, have yielded altogether the skeletal remains
of sixteen individuals, all associated with implements of Aurig-
nacian culture and evidently representing a number of cere-
monial burials. Fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by
Verneau to the Cré-Magnon race; the other two are the ‘ne-
groids of Grimaldi’ above referred to. This is, therefore, a pre-
historic record of the greatest significance, which we shall now
examine more in detail.
RACIAL SUCCESSION ALONG THE ANCIENT RIVIERA
Where the southern spurs of the Alps descend into the Med-
iterranean and separate France from Italy we find a limestone
promontory, known as the Baoussé Roussé, projecting in a long
cliff, beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the
sea. Opening toward the south, and at intervals along the
base of this cliff are the nine Grottes de Grimaldi. Doubtless
the Neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when
the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus),
and Merck’s rhinoceros (R. merckii) still abounded as the last
representatives of the great African-Asiatic fauna. These hunters
of Mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great
Grotte du Prince™ (Fig. 131), with a ceiling height at that time
perhaps of over 80 feet, carrying in their game to the fire-hearths,
and leaving Mousterian implements in the accumulating de-
posits. In the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing
forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth gla-
* Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal
interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible.
264 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
ciation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of Mous-
terian times.
The smaller Grotte des Enfants (Fig. 132), which lies to the
west of the Prince’s Grotto, was apparently occupied at a some-
what more recent period, because the lowest fire-hearths con-
tain, together with the Mousterian implements, remains of
Merck’s rhinoceros only—apparently the last survivor here, as
well as in other parts of western Europe, of the warm African-
Asiatic fauna. The hippopotamus and the straight-tusked ele-
phant had either become extinct or had been driven farther
south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto. In
the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire-
hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes
the wild boar, stag, roe-deer, wild horse, wolf, and bear. The
first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the
appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the
Alpine heights. Then in still higher layers appears the reindeer,
harbinger of the tundra climate.
THE GRIMALDI RACE
Verneau is inclined to regard the Grimaldi as a very ancient
race, antedating the Cré-Magnon.? He believes that they be-
long to a new ethnic type which played an important réle in
Europe and enjoyed a wide geographic distribution. There does
not, however, seem to be much support for this opinion, be-
cause, unlike some other races, no traces of the Grimaldis have
been found elsewhere, and it would appear more probable that
they were, as their skeletal characters indicate, true negroids
which perhaps found their way from Africa but never became
established as a race in western Europe.
The type consists of two skeletons found in the Grotte des
Enfants by Verneau in 1906. One skeleton is that of a middle-
aged woman; the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seven-
teen. Both are referred to the existing species of man, Homo
sapiens. ‘The layer which contained them is on a level two feet
oo cn
“grt
"4 Sn =
f Sa, My,”
My - My
D iW "
mr, =
PP - rn
ur a oo;
K 1
7,
p
‘ u .
ane
--"
“crore?
greet emee ==
oe Z
Fic. 132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants, after Tschirret. In deposits which accumu-
lated to a thickness of over 30 feet this grotto contains in its ascending strata a com-
plete epitome of the vicissitudes of climate, together with four burials of members of
the Cré-Magnon Race, and, near the base, the burial of the two Grimaldi skeletons.
The layers in descending order are as follows:
A. Burial of two infant skeletons. Remains of forest and alpine ([bex) mammals.
B. Burial of the skeleton of a Cré-Magnon woman. Remains of forest and alpine
mammals.
C. Fire-hearths containing forest mammals—the wild boar, also the reindeer.
D. Fire-hearths with flints of Aurignacian type. Remains of forest fauna—the marten.
E. Layer containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone. Remains of ibex, horse, wolf,
cave-lion, and fox.
Intermediate layer. Remains of the wild ass, perhaps of the steppe type, and of the
reindeer; also of the ibex, the wild horse, and forest fauna—the wild boar.
F. Large fragments fallen from the cave roof. No evidence of habitation.
G. Fire-hearths. Remains of the moose, roe-deer, fallow deer, stag, wild cattle, ibex,
fox, leopard, and rabbit.
H. Burial of a very tall skeleton of the CRO-MacGNon RAcE (see Fig. 144, p. 297). Fire-
hearths containing remains of the forest fauna, also the alpine chamois and mar-
mot, the cave-hyena, and the leopard.
I. Burial of two skeletons of the GrrmALpi RAcE (see Fig. 133, p. 267). Flints of Aurig-
nacian type and remains of a forest fauna which includes the deer, also of the wild
horse, the alpine ibex, and the hyzena.
K. Traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths.
K-L. Remains of Merck’s rhinoceros and of the hyena. Alpine (Jbex) and temperate
forest fauna.
L. Traces of fire-hearths with Mousterian implements, chiefly of quartzite, probably left
by members of the NEANDERTHAL Race on the ancient floor of the grotto, following
the recession of the sea. Evidence of previous occupation by hyzenas.
265
266 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
lower than any which contained Cré-Magnons, and immediately
above the culture layer of Mousterian times.
The Grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of
the Cré-Magnon. The two known skeletons, of a woman and a
youth, are of inferior stature, not exceeding 5 feet 3 inches:
Grimaldittemalezestimated athens wee ee 1757 Me 5 tte
i youth x AG eT REO nt 1.55 Mae
These measurements, however, are only slightly inferior to those
of the Cré-Magnon woman and youth, which rise to 5 feet 5
inches. There are many negroid characters in the skull, in the
structure of the hip-girdle, and in the proportions of the limbs;
there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid
apes, namely, the long forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the
marked prognathism, or projection of the tooth row; the face is
low and broad, and extremely prognathous; the nose is platy-
rhine, or broad and flat; the jaw is heavy, with large teeth and
without the chin prominence; the head form, like that of the
Cré-Magnons, is dolichocephalic and somewhat disharmonic;
that is, while the head is long, the face is short and relatively
broad. Yet the cranial capacity is relatively high, being esti-
mated at 1,580 c.cm. Unlike the Cré-Magnons, the Grimaldis
have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis.
The proportions of the leg are, however, somewhat similar to
those of the leg of the Cré-Magnon, the thigh-bone being short
and the shin-bone long, the index being 83.8 per cent. In addi-
tion to the long forearm, which approaches in form that of the
living anthropoid apes, there is a curved femur, distinctly of
anthropoid-ape character.
“Tn its body and tooth characters,” observes Verneau,’ ‘‘ this
negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to
the anthropoid apes than does the Neanderthal race.” He con-
tinues: ‘“‘The fact remains that at a very remote period of the
Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the Neanderthal race,
a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters, in the
structure of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions showed strik-
THE GRIMALDI RACE 267
ing analogies to the negro of to-day. In their remarkable pro-
portions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent
negroes; the teeth resemble those of the Australian types.
Fic. 133. The Grimaldi skeletons found in the lower Aurignacian layer of the Grotte
des Enfants—the youth to the right and the woman to the left. After Verneau.
There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Gri-
maldi race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial
reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neo-
lithic Age, the Bronze Age, and the early Iron Age in Brittany,
268 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Switzerland, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism is the
characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances
there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities
that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals
show dolichocephaly, nearly always combined with a short,
broad face. Until the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were
at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a
population from which they differed so radically.”
Fic. 134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth in front and in profile. After Verneau, one-
quarter life size.
Against this opinion of Verneau we should weigh the entire
absence of any trace of this Grimaldi race in any part of western
Europe among all the burials and other human remains of Upper
Paleolithic age known at the present time. Setting aside any
such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to
diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature, there remains
a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals
discovered at over fifteen widely distributed localities. None of
these shows any features of the Grimaldi race.
In describing the Grimaldi skeletons, Keith* agrees that they
are of a mixed or negroid type; the shallow, projecting incisor
part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features
of recent negroid races; so are the wide opening of the nose, the
prominent cheek-bones, the flat and short face. Yet the bridge
ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS 269
of the nose is not flat as in negroes, but rather prominent as in
Europeans, and the capacity of the skull in the woman (1,375
c.cm.) is ample. In the boy the teeth are large and of the negro
type; he bears a striking resemblance to the woman, and his
cranial capacity (1,580 c.cm.) indicates a distinctly modern brain ;
the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median
line as in certain negroids and in the Neanderthals. Keith
concludes that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate
type in the evolution of the typical white and black races.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENTIRE UPPER
PA ALOUL TALC sHISTORY
Having now considered the opening of the Upper Palzo-
lithic, also the single appearance of the Grimaldi race of which
no further trace is known, it is desirable to briefly review the
entire Upper Paleolithic history before we attempt to follow
in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of
the Aurignacian industry.
There is evidence of various kinds that the Cré-Magnons
arrived in western Europe, bringing in their Aurignacian indus-
try, while the Neanderthals were still in possession of the country
and practising their Mousterian industry. Thus in the valley
of the Somme, Commont believes he has recognized a level of
flints, exhibiting the primitive Aurignacian ‘retouch’ of Dor-
dogne, but occurring beneath a late Mousterian level. Addi-
tional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two
races is found at the stations of La Ferrassie, of Les Bouffia, and
especially of the Abri Audit, where there is a distinct transition
period, in which the characteristic types of the late Mousterian
are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the
early Aurignacian ;? here it would appear that the development
of the Aurignacian is partly a local evolution, and not an inva-
sion of wholly new types of implements. Breuil® suggests that
these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition
270 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
that we have here degenerate or modified Mousterian tools, more
or less influenced by contact with the Aurignacian industry of
the Cro-Magnon race.
THE STONE IMPLEMENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF LOWER AND
UPPER PALAOLITHIC TIMES
LOWER PALZOLITHIC UpprreR PALZOLITHIC
THe TypicAL STONE IMPLEMENTS
PrEe-CHELLEAN
ACHEULEAN
MOUSTERIAN
CHELLEAN
AURIGNACIAN
| SOLUTREAN
A.—WAR AND CHASE
*1, MICROLITHIQUE ? ARROW POINT? ETC.
2. POINTE
3. PomntE A Sore LANCE OR KNIFE.
4. PoIntE A CRAN LAaNCE-HEAD
5. POINTE DE
LAURIER
. Coup DE PoING Hanp-AxeE,
IPONTARD AoE TG.
. PIERRE DE JET THROWING STONE.
. COUTEAU
> + | TARDENOISIAN
+
t i+:
athe
ce 73
wv wll il il | Macbaventaw
ae)
++
i
B.—INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC
9. LAMPE LAMP Cpe eeee aae
to. LISSOIR POLISHERS ee
-11. MORTIER MORTAR Soniye ate er
12. HACHETTE
(TRANCHETTE) CHOPPER
*13. Coup DE POING HaANpD-AXE, ETC...
14. GRATTOIR PLANING TOOL....
15. RACLOIR
16. PERGOIR
*r7, COUTEAU
18. ENCLUME
19. PERCUTEUR HAMMER-STONE...
ti ft t+~
hot ae see
Pea Rie |
a i
Se a
NY ey ie Meee pe
tw ll eu i
Wet WOW he
~
vu s
C.—ART, SCULPTURE, ENGRAVING
. MICROLITHIQUE DRILL, GRAVER,
AND ETCHER....
. CISEAU CHISEL
. GRAVETTE ETCHING -LOOL ae
. BURIN GRAVER
(aLso Mortar, HAMMER-STONE, AND
POLISHER)
te |
* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).
+ or ff denotes an unusual or culminating development.
Again, the burial customs of the Neanderthals were in many
respects followed by the Cré-Magnons; they chose, in fact, the
same kind of burial sites, namely, at the entrances of grottos
ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS 271
or in proximity to the shelters. Some degree of ceremony must
have marked these burials, for with the remains were interred
implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of
food. Most of the Neanderthal burials were with the body ex-
tended; the two burials of the Grimaldi race were with the
THE BONE IMPLEMENTS APPEARING AT THE CLOSE OF THE LOWER
PALAZOLITHIC AND HIGHLY CHARACTERISTIC OF )
THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC
LOWER PALZOLITHIC UpprpER PALZOLITHIC
THE TypicAL BonE IMPLEMENTS
| PRE-CHELLEAN
| CHELLEAN
| ACHEULEAN
| MOoustTERIAN
| AURIGNACIAN
| MAGDALENIAN
| TARDENOISIAN
eS CHASE, FISHING
. LAMES
. POIGNARD
. HAMECON?
. PROPULSEUR Spee THROWER. .
. HARPON HARPOON
. POINTE DE SAGAIE JAVELIN POINT...
. POINTE DE LANCE SPEAR POINT
opie anaes | eee
Huse wi dl
2S eceiag AND DOMESTIC
8. SPATULE SPATULA
9. NAVETTE SHUTTLE
10. EPINGLE
tz. AIGUILLE NEEDLE
*72. LAMES BLADES: 0.523
13. COMPRESSEUR
14. LISSOIR
15. CoIn WEDGE
16. CISEAU CHISEL
17. POINCON
il
eae tl
toi i i
Hou ul
C.—CEREMONIAL, SOCIAL
18. BATON DE Com-
MANDEMENT CEREMONIAL STAFF
19. BAGUETTE WAND
* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).
+ or {ff denotes an unusual or culminating development.
limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body, prob-
ably with skin garments or thongs. The Cré-Magnon burials
are either with the body extended, as in the Grottes de Gri-
maldi, or with the limbs flexed, as in the Aurignacian burial of
Laugerie Haute.
272 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
Whether the Neanderthals were exterminated entirely or
whether they were driven out of the country is not known; the
encounter was certainly between a very superior people, both
physically and mentally, who possibly had the use of the bow
and arrow, and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people
that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numer-
ically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation.
The Neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places
and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race, for at no
less than eighteen points the Aurignacian immediately succeeds
upon the Mousterian industry and in a few instances Cré-
Magnon burials occur very near the Neanderthal burial sites.
In the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic
peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and
taken into families of the warriors, but no evidence has thus
far been found that even the Neanderthal women were spared
or allowed to remain in the country, because in none of the
burials of Aurignacian times is there any evidence of the cross-
ing or admixture of the Cré-Magnons and the Neanderthals.
The chief source of the change which swept over western
Europe lay in the brain power of the Cré-Magnons, as seen not
only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in
the almost modern forehead and forebrain. It was a race which
had evolved in Asia and which was in no way connected by any
ancestral links with the Neanderthals; a race with a brain
capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination, and more highly
endowed with artistic sense and ability than any uncivilized
race which has ever been discovered. No trace of artistic in-
stinct whatever has been found among the Neanderthals; we
have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry
and proportion in the fashioning of their implements. After
prolonged study of the works of the Cré-Magnons one cannot
avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite
as high as our own; that they were capable of advanced educa-
tion; that they had a strongly developed esthetic as well as a
religious sense ; that their society was quite highly differentiated
Pr. VI. The head of the Cré-Magnon type of Homo sapiens, a race inhabiting
southwestern Europe from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times. Antiquity in
western Europe estimated as at least 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled
by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this finely developed race
compare Pl. VII.
UPPER PALZOLITHIC CULTURES 275
along the lines of talent for work of different kinds. One de-
rives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding
the development of their art, which are still mysterious and an
interpretation of which we shall attempt to give in the follow-
ing chapter.
CULTURAL, RACIAL, AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS
The Upper Paleolithic covers the greater part of the ‘Rein-
deer Epoch’ as it was conceived by Lartet and Christy, who
began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of
Dordogne in 1863. They were soon joined by Massénat and the
Marquis de Vibraye, while Dupont took up the work in Belgium
and Piette made the artistic development, especially in the
Pyrenees, his chosen field.
_ Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto
of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Palzo-
lithic in northern France; he also recognized in the shelter of
Laugerie Haute, in Dordogne, that there was still another cul-
ture, which is now known as the Solutrean; also that in the
shelter of Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne, there was yet another
industry, that which we now know as Magdalenian. M. de
Mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the Solu-
trean industry in stone, which in this period reached its height,
and its succession by the Magdalenian period, in which the in-
dustry in bone and horn reached a climax; but he failed to
recognize the very important preceding position of the Aurig-
nacian, and it was not until 1906 that the clear presentation by
Breuil of the entire distinctness of the Aurignacian industry led
to the adoption by the Archeological Congress at Geneva of
three cultural divisions of the Upper Paleolithic. In the mean-
time Piette had discovered that in the Mas d’Azil there was a
. distinct cultural phase, the Azilian, following the Magdalenian,
and thus a fourfold division of the Upper Paleolithic (Breuil,’
Obermaier®) was established, as follows:
AZILIAN.—Industry of the surviving Cré-Magnon and other resident
races, and of newly arrived brachycephalic and dolichocephalic races in
276 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
western Europe; decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship; entire
absence of art. Daun stage of Postglacial retreat; Europe with a milder
climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early historic times.
MAGDALENIAN.—Closing stage of the industry and art of the Cro6-
Magnon race; bone implements highly developed; marked decline in the
flint industry. Close of Postglacial Period; climate alternately cold and
moist (corresponding with the Bihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances of
the ice in the Alpine region), or cold and arid; Europe covered with the
tundra and steppe fauna; life chiefly in the shelters and grottos.
SOLUTREAN.—Culminating stage of flint industry; apparent in-
vasion in eastern Europe of the Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [| ?] Galley Hill)
race. The highly developed flint industry of the Solutrean types; art
development of the Cré-Magnon race partly suspended. Dry, cold climate;
life largely in the open.
AURIGNACIAN.—Appearance of the Cré-Magnon race in south-
western Europe, succeeding the Mousterian industry; art of engraving
and drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing. Animal
life the same as during the fourth glaciation; climate cold and increasingly
dry; life chiefly in the grottos and shelters.
The successive phases of development of Upper Paleolithic
industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision
in Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, in northern Spain, and along the
Danube and upper Rhine by a host of able workers—Cartailhac,
Capitan, Peyrony, Bouyssonnie, Lalanne, and others. Breuil
has made himself master especially of the Aurignacian and has
succeeded Piette as the great historian of Upper Paleolithic art.
Obermaier’s chief service has been the comparison of the Upper
Paleolithic of the Danubian region with that of Dordogne and
northern Spain both in regard to the geologic age and the arche-
ologic and racial succession. The labors of Schmidt along the
upper Rhine and Danube have not only brought this region into
definite prehistoric relation with the Dordogne and the Pyrenees
but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation
between the human and the industrial development and the suc-
cession of climatic phases in northern Europe. Finally, the ex-
plorations of Commont along the River Somme have proved that
this region, too, was frequented throughout all Upper Paleolithic
times, during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly
less important than that of the Lower Paleolithic.
UPPER PALAOLITHIC CULTURES 277
There are two very distinct lines of thought among these
archeologists: the first is shown in the tendency to regard the
industries as mainly autochthonous, or as following local lines of
development; the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly
on the transitions between the Mousterian, the Aurignacian,
and the Solutrean industries. For example, the chief object of
Schuchhardt’s tour? through the Paleolithic stations of Dor-
dogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another
and the evidence afforded of successive changes: of climate.
This writer is impressed with the transitions; he notes that the
typical curved knives of the Abri Audit furnish a transition
from the Mousterian scrapers to the Aurignacian. ‘points’ of
La Gravette and La Font Robert; that the Solutrean takes
up all the fine threads of the Aurignacian culture and spins
them further into Magdalenian times. Thus we get an Aurig-
nacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian industrial cycle which is compar-
able to the Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian cycle.
Breuil, on the other hand, from the archeologist’s stand-
point—because he is not especially interested in the matter of
racial development—is a strong exponent of the idea of suc-
cessive invasions of cultures, either from the south or Mediter-
ranean region or from the central region of Europe, which he calls
the ‘Atlantic’; and he distinguishes sharply between these
two great areas of Upper Paleolithic evolution, namely, the
southern and the central European, pointing out that it was only
after the establishment of more.genial climatic conditions, like
those of modern times, that.there was an added element of
northern or Baltic invasion. Certainly the archzologic testi-
mony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it
appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the
human types, although this:study has not progressed beyond
the stage of hypothesis. When the Upper Paleolithic races
have been studied with as close attention as those of the Lower
Paleolithic we may be able to establish positively the relation
between these human types and the advance of certain cultures
and industries.
278 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE.
DISTRIBUTION OF UPPER PALAZOLITHIC HUMAN FOSSILS
Our present view, as drawn from a consideration of the facts
before us, is that western Europe in Upper Paleolithic times was
entered by four or five distinct races, all belonging to Homo
sapiens, only three of which became established :
5. The Furfooz (Ofnet, and [?| Grenelle) race, extremely broad-headed,
entering central Europe possibly from central Asia, bringing an Azilian
culture, without art or developed flint industry. (Alpine type.)
4. A dolichocephalic race with a narrow face, associated with the Fur-
fooz race, either connected with the Briinn and Briix, or an advance wave
of one of the dolichocephalic Neolithic races. (Mediterranean type.)
3. The Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [?] Galley Hill) race, long-headed,
with a narrow, short face, probably entering central Europe directly from
Asia through Hungary and along the Danube; bringing a perfected Solu-
trean culture; inferior in brain development to the Cré-Magnons, in in-
dustrial contact with them but not displacing them.
2. The Cré-Magnon race, long-headed with a very broad face, entering
Europe in closing Mousterian or early Aurignacian times, probably from
the south along the Mediterranean coast, and bringing in an Aurignacian
flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of Aurignacian and
Magdalenian times; greatly reduced in number in closing Magdalenian
times, but leaving descendants in various colonies in western Europe.
1. The Grimaldi race, in the transition between the Mousterian and the
Aurignacian; negroid or African in character; apparently never established
as a race of any influence in western Europe.
The presence of these five races, and perhaps of a sixth if
the ‘Aurignacian man’ of Klaatsch proves to be distinct from
the Cré-Magnon, is firmly established by anatomy. It is most
important constantly to keep before our minds certain great prin-
ciples of racial evolution: (1) that the development of a racial
type, whether long-headed or broad-headed, narrow-faced or
broad-faced, of tall or of short stature, must necessarily be very
slow; (2) that this development of the races which invaded west-
ern Europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the
vast continent of Asia and eastern Europe; (3) that, once estab-
lished through a long process of isolation and separate evolution,
these racial types are extremely stable and persistent ; their head
UPPER PALZOLITHIC RACES 279
form, their bodily characters, and especially their psychic char-
acters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered ; nor are
they in any marked degree blended by crossing. Crosses do not
produce merely blends; they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct
characters derived from one race or the other.
1 Laugerie Basse
2 Laugerte Haute
3 La Madeleivie
4 La Mouthe
5 Les Eyzies
6 Cré-Magnon
Fic. 135. Geographic distribution of Upper Paleolithic human fossils in western Europe.
We must therefore imagine western Europe in Upper Pale-
olithic times again as a terminal region; a great peninsula toward
which the human migrants from the east and from the south
came to mingle and superpose their cultures. These races took
the great migration routes which had been followed by other
waves of animal life before them; they were pressed upon from
behind by the increasing populations of the east; they were at-
tracted to western Europe as a fresh and wonderful game coun-
try, where food in the forests, in the meadows, and in the streams
abounded in unparalleled profusion. The Cro-Magnons espe-
280 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
cially were a nomadic hunting people, perfectly fitted by their
physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary
appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of
animal life which existed in no other part of the world at the
time. Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers
Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube,
PZ im 8 AZILIAN-TARD
TZA7 GL! | 7 MAGDALENIAN
OLUTREAN :
; ee A GRIMALDI
IV. GLACIAL 77 ij ; ? NEANDERTHAL
WURM, WISCONSIN ue _
», Upper Dritt
Lowest igs aos
“oe
3 ACHEULEAN LOWER | “” (KRAPINA)
3175000 YEARS
3.INTER- 2 tit PALAEO-
GLACIAL “{A\\i;!i | |2CHELLEAN LITHIC
RISS -WURM Alii |i! 4 44100000 YEARS
SANGAMON are
pz "Middle Loess" Z nt descr tat
BG
/ PRE-CHELLEAN P/LTDOWN
Fic. 136. Epitome of human history in western Europe during the Third Interglacial,
Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages; showing also the three Postglacial advances
and retreats which succeeded the close of the Fourth Glacial Stage in the Alpine
region, theoretically corresponding with the climatic vicissitudes of Postglacial time.
From the data of Penck and Schmidt. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. (Compare Fig. 14.)
extending to central and southern Asia; on the north, however,
along the Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave
of human migration, and there is no trace of man along these
northern shores until the close of the Upper Paleolithic, nor of
any residence of man in the Scandinavian peninsula until the
great wave of Neolithic migration established itself in that
region.
The climatic and cultural relations of Upper Paleolithic times
may be correlated* in descending order as follows:
* This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his Diluviale Vorzeit
Deutschlands.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 281
6. The Daun or final Postglacial advance of the glaciers of the Alps,
estimated at 7,000 B. C. Europe with its modern or prehistoric forest
fauna, the lion lingering in the Pyrenees, the moose in Spain. AZzILIAN-
TARDENOISIAN, Closing stage of the Upper Paleolithic culture; western
Europe peopled by the broad-headed race of Furfooz and Ofnet, also by a
narrow-headed race. Baltic Migration, MAGLEMOSE culture.
5. The Gschnitz stage in the Alps or second Postglacial advance. Cli-
mate still cold and moist but gradually moderating. Decline of the Mag-
dalenian. Period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals; mam-
moth, reindeer, and arctic rodents becoming more rare; Eurasiatic forest
mammals becoming more abundant.
Close of steppe period. Crdé-Magnon race still dominant in western
Europe in the LATE MAGDALENIAN stage of culture.
4. Interval between the Biihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances in the
Alps. A renewed steppe and ‘loess’ period. Climate cold and dry.
Mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, full tundra and steppe fauna
very abundant. Cré-Magnon race in the stage of MippLE MAGDALENIAN
culture.
3. The Bihl stage of Postglacial advance in the Alps; renewal of severe
conditions of cold moist climate, and spread all over western Europe of
the arctic banded and Obi lemmings of the Upper Rodent Layer. Biihl
moraines in Lake Lucerne estimated as having been deposited between
16,000 and 24,000 years B. C. Cré-Magnon race dominant in the Earty
MAGDALENIAN stage of culture.
2. Period of the first Postglacial interval or Achen retreat of the glaciers
in the Alpine region. A dry cold climate. Cré-Magnon and Briinn races
in the stage of SOLUTREAN culture.
1. Close of fourth glaciation, between 24,000 and 40,000 years B. C.
Cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth glacia-
tion and deposition of Lower Rodent Layer, or first invasion of the arctic
tundra rodents. Cré-Magnon and possibly Aurignacian race in the stage
of AURIGNACIAN culture.
BEGINNING OF THE UPPER PALAOLITHIC
THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY
We now glance at western Europe as it was between 25,000
and 30,000 years ago, at the opening of the Upper Paleolithic.
During Aurignacian times France was still broadly con-
nected with Great Britain,’ The British Islands were not
282 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
only united with each other but with the continent, while the
elevation of the Scandinavian peninsula converted the Baltic
Sea into a great fresh-water lake, the old shores of which are
readily traced. Geikie also maintains that the rise of land in
Scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an
amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions ;
a strong forest growth covered the lowlands, hence this is termed
the Lower Forestian stage of the physiographic history of north-
ern Britain; it corresponds to the temporary period of the
retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region, which Penck has
named the Achenschwankung. ‘The latter author is not inclined
to connect any marked rise of temperature in the Alpine region
with this interval of time; to our knowledge no fossil plant
beds have been preserved which would give us such indications,
and the animal life, as we shall see, certainly affords only a
very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat
of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lem-
mings to the north; the greater number of tundra forms re-
mained. ‘The continental elevation of the northern coast-line
of Europe would explain the advent of a dry continental cli-
mate and the renewal of high prevailing winds, at least during
the warmer and drier summer seasons, for it is certain that at-
mospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms
and deposition of ‘loess’ after the second and third glaciations
prevailed again in western Europe after the fourth glaciation.
This gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists
as the ‘newer loess,’ and we find these sheets of ‘newer loess’
spreading immediately above the Mousterian culture at a num-
ber of different points in western Europe.
When the Cré-Magnon race entered this part of aes the
climate was becoming more dry and stimulating; the summers
were warm or temperate, the winters very severe. Great ice-
caps still spread over the Scandinavian peninsula and also over
the Alps, but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the
plains; in a sense, the Glacial Epoch had not yet closed, for
during the whole period of Postglacial time the glaciers of the
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 283
Alps, beginning in early Magdalenian times, developed three re-
newed advances, each somewhat less vigorous than the preced-
ing one, with intervening stages of a drier climate.
The greater number of the Aurignacian stations, like those
of Mousterian times, were under the shelters or within the
Fic. 137. ‘Tectiforms’—schematic drawings in lines and dots believed to represent
huts and larger shelters built of logs and covered with hides. From the
walls of the cavern of Font-de-Gawme, Dordogne. After Breuil.
entrances of the grottos and caverns; all the stations in south-
western France are of this character. There was, however, a
great open camp at Solutré, which was a most famous hunting
station for the wild horse in Aurignacian times. In northern
France there are several open stations, such as those of Mon-
tiéres and St. Acheul, along the River Somme, and to the east,
284 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
along the middle Rhine, there are several open ‘loess’ stations,
such as those of Achenheim, Vo6lklinshofen, Rhens, and Metter-
nich. It may very well be that these open stations were visited
only during the mild summer season, The continued choice of
sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the
weather, in France, Britain, Belgium, and all along the Dan-
‘ube, as well as in the genial region of the Riviera, is a sure in-
dication of a prevailing severe climate. It is hardly possible,
however, that the closed or protected stations were the only
residences of these people; they merely indicate the points
where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also
the vast foyers and gathering places; but there is little doubt
from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the cav-
erns, known as ‘tectiforms,’ that huts and large shelters built of
logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these
stations and scattered through the country at points favorable
for hunting and fishing. These would be the only dwelling-
places possible in such vast open camps, for example, as Solutré.
CLIMATE AND LIFE OF AURIGNACIAN TIMES
3. First Postglacial Retreat, Achenschwinkung in the Alpine region.
Period of Solutrean industry. A cold dry climate, with dust-storms and
wide-spread deposition of ‘loess’ in western Europe. Flint workers seeking
many open stations. Horses and wild asses numerous on the prairies; rein-
deer and wild cattle very abundant.
2. Recession of the Ice-Fields of the Fourth Glaciation. Period of Aurig-
nacian industry. Climate cold and increasingly dry; renewal of the dust-
storms and deposits of the ‘newer loess.’ Flint industry in the caverns,
grottos, shelters, and a few open stations. Opening of the Upper Pale-
olithic period. Arrival of the Cré-Magnon race.
1. Final Stage of Fourth Glaciation. Close of the Lower Paleolithic
Mousterian culture. Gradual extinction of the Neanderthal race.
The arrival of the Cré-Magnon race and the beginning of the
Aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of
the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation. As we pass from the
levels of the early Aurignacian industry into those of the middle
and upper Aurignacian, we find that the mammal life of Mous-
MAMMALIAN LIFE 285
terian times continued in its prime all over western Europe, with
the addition, one by one, of some new forms from the tundras,
such as the musk-ox, and the successive arrival from the moun-
tains and steppes of western Asia of such characteristic forms as
the argali sheep and the wild ass, or kiang.
a
Z
. .
Pde ee AG
say - << o>
sae a ane ast Diy
° en
(
(
Ly
FS LMS
Fic. 140. Section of the Grotto of Cré-Magnon, in which the fossilized skeleton
of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ type of the Cré-Magnon race, was discovered
in 1868, together with the remains of four other individuals. After Louis
Lartet. Scale = 1-125.
skeletons, which have become the type of the great Cré-Magnon
race of Upper Paleolithic times. The grotto was accidentally
discovered by workmen building a road in the Vézére valley.
Here Lartet found the skeleton of an old man, now known as the
‘old man of Cré-Magnon’; then that of a woman, whose fore-
head bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow; close
to her lay the fragments of a child’s skeleton and near by those
of two young men. Flint implements and perforated shells were
found with these skeletons.
In May, 1868, the material was first described by Broca,'®
his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the
Reliquie Aquitanice of Lartet and Christy.'’ Broca referred to
292 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous
existence of man and the mammoth. The associated mammalian
life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be
of the Aurignacian stage. In his classic original description of
this type Broca remarks upon the high stature, the face very
Fic. 141. Head of the very tall skeleton of Cré-Magnon type discovered in the Groite
des Enfants. After Verneau. One-quarter life size. . ;
broad in relation to its height, with very long and very narrow
orbits; the large and markedly dolichocephalic skull, with an
unusually large brain capacity, noting that the brain capacity
of the Cré-Magnon woman surpasses that of the average male
of to-day; the forehead correspondingly broad, vertical, convex
on the median line; the bones of the limbs robust, and the shin-
bones flattened transversely ; altogether a very high racial ee
of skeleton belonging to the species Homo sapiens.
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 293
Verneau,"* in his description of the Cré-Magnon type, empha-
sizes the disharmonic form of the head, for the dolichocephalic
form of the skull is combined with a face very broad for its height,
and this, in fact, is the unique and most distinctive feature of
the Cré-Magnon race. The cheek-bones are both broad and
high. It is curious that in this face, so broad across the cheek-
Fic. 142. Head of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ rejuvenated by the restoration of
the teeth, showing the method of restoration of the features adopted in all the models
by J. H. McGregor. The diameter of the head across the cheek-bones is seen to be
greater than that across the cranium. (Compare Figs. 146 and 147, also Pl. VL.)
bones and cheek arches, the space between the eyes is small, the
nose is narrow and aquiline, and the upper jaw is noticeably
narrow; it is no less remarkable that this upper jaw projects
forward, while the upper part of the face is almost vertical, as in
the highest types of Homo sapiens. ‘The eye sockets, which are
remarkably broad, are rather shallow, and their angles are but
slightly rounded off, so that the form suggests a very long rec-
tangle ; the mandible is thick and strong, and the chin massive,
294 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
triangular, and very prominent; the marks of muscular attach-
ment denote great muscular development around the thick,
strong jaws, in which the parts for the attachment of the vertical
DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND GRIMALDI
RACES *
REFERRED TO AURIGNACIAN TIMES
pees Locality Number of Individuals Culture Stage
CRO-MAGNON AND (?) AURIGNACIAN RACE
1823. Paviland cave, western Wales. One skeleton. Aurignacian.
Burial.
1852. Aurignac, Haute-Garonne, Pyrenees, | Seventeen skeletons. | ? =
France. Burial.
1868. Cré-Magnon, Dordogne, France. Three incomplete *
skeletons and
fragments of two
others.
? Burial.
1872-1884. | Grottes de Grimaldi, Baoussé-Roussé, Burial.
Italy.
1. Grotte des Enfants Four skeletons. “
(Grotte de Grimaldi).
2. Grotte de Cavillon. One . a
3. Barma Grande. Six “ <
4. Baousso da Torre. Three =f bby
1909. Combe-Capelle, Dordogne. Type of Homo aurig-
nacensis, Klaatsch.
Burial.
1909. Laugerie Haute, Dordogne. One skeleton. ? ¥
Burial.
Solutré. Fragments. £6
Camargo (Santander), Spain. Fragment of skull. ay
Willendorf, Austria. Fragments. Late Aurignacian.
Cave of Antelias (Syria). Scattered bones. Aurignacian.
GRIMALDI RACE
1900. Grottes de Grimaldi, Baoussé-Roussé,
Italy.
1. Grotte des Enfants
(Grotte de Grimaldi).
|
Two skeletons.
* Obermaier, R. Martin.”
Aurignacian or
Late Mous-
terian.
muscles are unusually large. I would add, says Verneau, to
these essential characteristics the surprising capacity of the
cranium, which Broca estimated as at least 1,590 c.cm. The
majority of these features are found in almost all of the skulls
of the Cré-Magnon race in the Grottes de Grimaldi, The top
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 295
view of the skull is unusual on account of the extreme prominence
of the eminences of the parietals, which give the skull a pentag-
onal effect when seen from above. The eyebrow ridges show
decided prominences above the orbits but disappear completely
in the median line and at the sides and thus differ totally from
those in the Neanderthal head.
Of the numerous skeletons found in the Grottes de Grimaldi,
or Baoussé-Roussé, near Mentone, the one first discovered is
most widely known as the ‘man of Mentone,’ which was found
in the Grotte de Cavillon, in 1872, by Riviére; hence this is
sometimes spoken of as the Mentone race ; but, as Verneau shows,
while the measurements of the skulls of Baoussé-Roussé show
some variety, they do not exceed what might be expected in
individual variation, and we conclude that all the men of tall
stature found in the Grottes de Grimaldi belong to the Cré-
Magnon race, which is not to be confused with the very distinct
dwarf Grimaldi race discovered in the Grottes de Grimaldi by
Verneau, in 1906, in a lower level than any of the skeletons of
the Cré-Magnon type.
In Aurignacian times, lofty stature seems to have been a gen-
eral characteristic of this race, but there appears to have been a
gradual decrease in height, so that in later industrial times the
race in general is somewhat smaller in stature. The heights are
as follows :
Cré- Magnon Byer OLMOON ER i palit sens 8 hes 180m. 5 ft. 1034 in.
woman slightly inferior in size. |
Baoussé-Roussé, Grottes de Grimaldi.
Adult males of
COMLOLISEL 2g oy ae Sid at lg a a en ea L7o;Ma jut, 1034.1n.
aie U6 P0516 Cd Mapa a arene ToGo ese tel tin,
Re eRe AML OLEC ED Cte hoes gh. ei ois Sentra a Ss Poorman sari;
Scag MTP: "Cee OR Ne aati a ae eS FQ c aie sO tam, ALIN
RTE eeeSPPNIANUS 20.0002 dh 2 UN ea. van sige Daigle To4um. 16 fte 434, in.
OAC CEE oles 8 RSE nee oa a Teo 7s Olit.2.1 24, I.
Woman of Barma Grande estimated at........ TOS i Sit tes l0.
Youth of 15 years, Barma Grande, estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in.
The woman had not reached complete development. As
there is a variation of 6 inches in the height of the various male
296 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
skeletons, it is evident that we cannot reach a trustworthy con-
clusion from a single subject; but there would seem to be ae
a disparity in height between the sexes.
The very large skeleton from the Grotte des Enfants, measur-
ing 6 feet 414 inches, was found associated with the remains of
Fic. 143. The abri or shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne, France, where the Aurig-
nacian burial of a skeleton referred to the Cré- Magnon race, was discovered _
in 1909. Photograph by Belvés.
the reindeer, 15 feet below the surface, from which it would ap-
pear probable that the skeleton antedates the Aurignacian skel-
eton of Laugerie Haute, and even of Cré-Magnon. Thus the
so-called man of Mentone may be an ancestor of the race which
was found in Cré-Magnon and other regions of Dordogne. It
is these men of great height, found in Barma Grande and the
Grotte des Enfants, which Verneau selects for his description of
the primitive members of the Cré-Magnon race, which at this
time lived along the Riviera and in the valley of the Vézére and
later spread over a vast area in western Europe. It is probable
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 297
that in the genial climate of the Riviera these men obtained
their finest development; the country was admirably protected
ip
AS
EA
Fic. 144. Comparative view of the Neanderthal skeleton (left) from La Chapelle-aux
Saints, and of the skeleton of a very tall member of the Cré-Magnon race (right) dis-
covered in the Grotte des Enfants. After Boule and Verneau. Both figures are ap-
proximately one-seventeenth life size.
from the cold winds of the north, refuges were abundant,
and game by no means scarce, to judge from the quantity of
animal bones found in the caves. Under such conditions of
298 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
life the race enjoyed a fine physical development and dispersed
widely.
With an average height of 6 feet 114 inches, these cave-dwellers
may be said to demonstrate one of the most striking traits of
the Cré-Magnon race. In the proportions of the limbs and in
the great size of the upper part of the chest these men are re-
moved from the modern European type and approach some of
the African negroid types, although there is not the least resem-
blance to the negro type in the skull or in the dentition. In
contrast with the Neanderthals are three characters of the limbs :
A
|
Fie. 145. Sections of the tibia or shin-bone, (1) the normal triangular type;
and (2) the extremely platycnemic flattened type characteristic of the
Cré6-Magnon race. After Broca.
the leg was very long in comparison with the arm; they show a
remarkable lengthening of the forearm in proportion to the upper
arm and a still more remarkable lengthening of the lower leg or
shin-bone in proportion to the thigh-bone; the tibia has an index
of 81-86 per cent as compared with the femur, which is relatively
greater than that of the average modern European, with a tibio-
femoral index of 79.7 per cent. This long shin-bone indicates
that these men were swift of foot, quite in keeping with their
undoubted nomadic habits and wide distribution. The flatness
of the tibia, which is strongly marked in 62 per cent of the
skeletons, may well be due to the habit of squatting while en-
gaged in fashioning flints and in other industrial occupations.
The leg, long in comparison with the arm, and the thigh-bone,
strongly developed, are both characters of a hunting race. The
foot has a very protruding heel, but the sole and the toes are
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 999
of moderate length. The hip-girdle is of a type which has noth-
ing negroid about it, but is as fine as that of the most civilized
whites; it is marked by its strength, the augmentation of all
the vertical and transverse diameters, and the reduction of the
anteroposterior diameters. The shoulders are exceptionally
broad. The fact that the arms are relatively short as com-
pared with the legs is also a high racial character. The upper
arm is very robust, and in some cases the left arm is more largely
developed, in others the right.
In all the skulls from these grottos near Mentone, the face
shows the essential features of the Cré-Magnon race, its breadth
being due to the development of the cheek-bones and the zygo-
matic arches, for the upper jaws are narrow, and the nose is thin
or leptorhine. At the root the nose shows a marked depression,
but it rises immediately to a considerable prominence; it thus
undoubtedly had an aquiline profile. The orbits always present
the form of a long rectangle, so characteristic of the race along
the Vézére. All these characters leave no doubt of the racial
affinity of the skeletons from the Grottes de Grimaldi with the
original Cré-Magnon type. It must be concluded, therefore,
that certain peculiar features noted in the type of the ‘old man
of Cré-Magnon’ are purely individual, and that we are not jus-
tified in assuming the admixture of a foreign element to ac-
count for the weakness of some characteristics which we notice
in the majority of the Cré-Magnon subjects from the caves of
Grimaldi. | | eae
The highly evolved characters of the skeleton in this race
are in keeping with the extraordinarily great cranial capacity.
Broca estimated the ‘old man of Cré-Magnon’ as having a
cranial capacity of 1,590 c.cm., and in the female the brain is
estimated at 1550 c.cm. Verneau estimates the five large male
skulls of Cré-Magnon type at Grimaldi as having an average
capacity of 1,800 c.cm., the lowest being 1,715 c.cm., and the
highest 1,880 c.cm. This race, observes Keith,’’ was one of
the finest the world has ever seen. The wide, short face, the
extremely prominent cheek-bones, the spread of the palate and
300 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
a tendency of the upper cutting teeth and incisors to project
forward, and the narrow, pointed chin recall a facial type which
is best seen to-day in tribes living in Asia to the north and to
the south of the Himalayas. As regards their stature the Cro-
Fic. 146. Restoration of the head of the ‘Old Man of Cr6é-Magnon,’ in pro-
file, modelled after the type skull of Cré-Magnon, Dordogne, with the
teeth restored and the head given a younger appearance. After the
model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.
Magnon race recalls the Sikhs living to the south of the Him-
alayas. In the disharmonic proportions of the face, that is,
the combination of broad cheek-bones and narrow skull, they
resemble the Eskimo. ‘The sum of the Cré-Magnon characters
is certainly Asiatic rather than African, whereas in the Gri-
maldis the sum of the characters is decidedly negroid or African.
We shall trace this great race through the Solutrean and
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 301
Magdalenian stages of the Upper Paleolithic and consider its
disappearance and possible distribution at the close of Mag-
dalenian times. It will then be interesting to consider the evi-
dence of the survival of the descendants of this race in various
_ Fic. 147. Restoration of the head of the ‘Old Man of Cré-Magnon,’ front ~ |
view. After the model by J. H. McGregor. siete life size.
parte of western. Europe and possibly among the primitive. in-
habitants of the Canary Islands, known as the Guanches.
EVIDENCE OF OTHER RACES
It is a mooted question whether the Cré-Magnons were the
only people inhabiting Europe in early Aurignacian time or
whether there were also two other races, the Grimaldi and the
Aurignacian. As we have seen in the preceding pages, there
is no evidence that the negroid Grimaldi race ever became es-
302 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
tablished in Europe ; the idea of the presence of a negroid race has
taken the fancy of archeologists like Breuil and Rutot, when seek-
ing an African, Egyptian, or Bushman analogy in certain phases
of early Aurignacian art; but it rests merely on the slender evi-
dence afforded by the isolated skeletons of a woman and of a boy.
The case of the Aurignacian race is different; this is held
by competent anatomists (Klaatsch,” Keith”) to be distinct from
the Cré-Magnon race and to bear some resemblance to the
Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, [?| Galley Hill) race which, we know,
became established in central Europe certainly as early as So-
lutrean times, if not before.
The so-called Aurignacian race (Homo sapiens aurignacensis),
described as a subspecies of existing man, is based upon a type
found in the shelter of Combe-Capelle near Montferrand, Péri-
gord, in the summer of 1909 by O. Hauser.% It is commonly
known as the ‘Combe-Capelle’ man from the scene of its dis-
covery, or as the Aurignacian man (Homo aurignacensis) ; if a sub-
species, it certainly belongs to Homo sapiens. The adult male
skeleton was discovered lying undisturbed in the lowest stratum of
an Aurignacian industry and was carefully disinterred by Klaatsch
and Hauser. It was apparently a case of ceremonial burial;
a great number of unusually fine flints of early Aurignacian type
was found with it, also a necklace of perforated shells (Littorina,
Nassa); the limbs were bent.”> Water saturated with lime had
dripped upon the burial-place, resulting in the remarkable preser-
vation of the skeleton. This skeleton is compared by Klaatsch
with that of Briinn, Moravia, and of Galley Hill, near London,
from which he concludes that it represents a distinct type, the
Aurignacian race; the stature is 5 feet 3 inches, as compared with
6 feet 114 inches, the average in the five Cré-Magnon males of
Grimaldi; the brain case is well arched and falls within the
variation limits of Homo sapiens. ‘The skull is very long and
narrow, the cephalic index being 65.7 per cent; in some points
it shows a striking similarity to that of Briinn, in others it varies
from it in the direction of the recent European form; the face
is not narrow nor is it prognathous ; the lower jaw is small with a
BURIAL CUSTOMS 303
well-developed chin. Klaatsch finds many characteristics re-
sembling those of the Cré-Magnon race, including the Chancelade
type which is a late Cré-Magnon. He suggests that the Cré6-
Magnon type may be considered a further development of the
Aurignacian. It seems probable that the Aurignacian man is a
member of the true Cré-Magnon race and that additional evidence
is required to establish it as distinct. Schliz”® considers that this
a oe ee aloe em L
=
Homo sapiens
au rion, Qc,
eo teem ne
Pe tata
e
ee
Fic. 199. Charging mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory tusk, from the station of
La Madeleine. After E. Lartet. For the sake of showing this figure clearly, other
outlines in this drawing, which were probably designed to indicate a herd of charging
mammoths, are omitted or represented by dotted lines. This classic engraving, de-
scribed on pages 384 and 385, is one of the most lifelike Palzolithic representations
known of an animal in action.
The engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe were discovered
by Riviére, in 1895, and were the means of directing attention
afresh to the long-forgotten parietal art found in Altamira by
Sautuola in 1880. The drawings at La Mouthe begin about
270 feet from the entrance and may be traced for a distance of
too feet, scattered in various groups; they manifestly belong to
a very primitive stage, probably early Magdalenian, the point
of chief interest being that, while the greater part of the engrav-
ings are in simple incised lines, here and there the contour is
enforced by a line of red or black paint; this is the beginning of
MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 399
a method pursued throughout the Magdalenian parietal art, in
which the artist carefully sketches his contours with sharp-
pointed flints before he applies any color. This treatment, at
first limited to the simple outlines, led to tracing in many of the
details with engraved lines, the eyes, the ears, the hair; thus
Breuil has shown that in its
final development a carefully
worked-out engraving under-
lies the painting. In the La
Mouthe drawings the propor-
tions are very bad; they repre-
sent the reindeer, bison, mam-
moth, horse, ibex, and urus;
spots of red are sometimes
splashed on the sides of the
animals; here and there is a
bit of superior work, such as
the reindeer in motion.
The cavern of Combarelles,
discovered in igor, in Dor-
dogne, near Les Eyzies, con-
tains by far the most remark-
able record of early Magdale- Fic. 200. Engraved outlines believed to
; represent human grotesques or masked
nian art; there are upward of figures found on the cavern walls of
four hundred drawings and en- ee Altamira, and Combarelles.
ter Obermaier.
gravings representing almost
every animal of early Magdalenian times, among them the horse,
rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, bison, stag, ibex, lion, and wolf ;
there are also between five and six representations of the men of
the time, both masked and unmasked; the style is more recent
than that of the oldest drawings in Font-de-Gaume, but much
more ancient than the period of polychrome art.* The gallery
is 720 feet long, and barely 6 feet broad; the drawings begin
about 350 feet from the entrance, and are scattered at irregular
* Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous
mammoth of Combarelles; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil.
400 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
intervals to the very end. In general the art is very fine and
evidently largely the work of one artist; representations of the
woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth are very true to life;
there is a pair of splendid lions, male and female; the drawings
of the horse are abundant, and side by side we have a represen-
Fic. 201. Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles near Les Eyzies, Dordogne, where
upward of four hundred wall engravings have been discovered.
Photograph by Belvés.
tation of several types of horses, the pure forest type with the
arched forehead, the small, fine-headed Celtic type, and a larger
type reminding us of the kiang, or wild ass. Here the greater
part of the work is engraving, as contrasted with the painted
outlines in the cavern of Niaux and with the etched outlines of
the Grotte de la Mairie.
Even a large cavern like Combarelles offers comparatively
few surfaces favorable to these engraved lines; but, small or large,
such surfaces were eagerly sought, sometimes near the floor,
sometimes on the walls, and again on the ceilings; even with
MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 401
the brilliant light of an acetylene lamp it is now difficult to dis-
cover all these outlines, some of which are drawn in the most
unlooked-for places. If the
extremely fine incisions, such
as those representing the hair
of the mammoth, are so diffi-
cult to detect with a powerful
illuminant, one may imagine
the task of the Cré-Magnon
artists with their small stone
lamps and wick fed by the Fic. 202. Cave-bear engraved in outline,
melting grease. One such lamp from the cavern of Combarelles.
has been found in the grotto ee
of La Mouthe, about 50 feet from the entrance; the workman’s
pick broke it into four pieces, only three of which were re-
covered. The shallow bowl contained some carbonized matter,
Fic. 203. Stone lamp of Magdalenian age discovered in the grotto of La Mouthe by E.
Riviére. It is cut in sandstone and ornamented on the lower surface with the head
and horns of the ibex. Such lamps were doubtless used by the artists to light the
deep recesses of the caverns. After Riviére, redrawn by Erwin S. Christman. One-
third actual size. (Compare PI. VII.)
an analysis of which led Berthelot, the chemist, to conclude that
an animal fat was used for lighting purposes. Like most other
implements, this lamp is decorated—in this instance by an en-
402 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
graving of the head and horns of the ibex. Three of these lamps
have been found in Charente and Lot, and it is noteworthy that
lamps similar to those of the Magdalenian period are used in
Dordogne at the present day.
Fic. 204. Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega, not far from Castillo. The seated
figure with the staff is M. Abbé Henri Breuil, the present leader in the
study of Upper Paleolithic art. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.
In the great cavern of Castillo,* at Puente-Viesgo, discovered
in 1903 by Alcalde del Rio, which is entered by the majestic
grotto already described on p. 162, the animal drawings are
mostly of an archaic character, belonging to the very beginnings
* The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer,
under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912.
MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 403
of early Aurignacian parietal art. The most abundant subjects
are horses and deer, which entirely replace the reindeer drawings
so abundant in central France, outlines of the stag and of the
doe being very numerous; on the other hand, the bison and the
ox are rarely drawn. Belonging to the category of most primi-
tive painting are the simple
outlines in black of a horse and
of a mammoth, the two limbs
of one side being represented as
inverted triangles, terminating
in a sharp point, like the draw-
ings of children. Of more re-
cent style are the rather crude
polychrome bisons, numerous
hands outlined in red, and a
vast number of tectiform signs
and symbols which represent
inferior work of the middle
Magdalenian period.
On the other side of the
same mountain is the grotto of |
Pasiega, discovered in 1912 by Fic. 205. Carefully engraved half-figure
Nene Hugo @pemnaicr vrhic of eg cavern of re er
an example O e€ engravers Work pre
small grotto, about 500 feet ceding the application of color. After
? : : Breuil. One-eighth actual size.
above the river, receives its
name as a retreat of the shepherds. In the floor is a very narrow
opening through which one rapidly descends by means of a tube
of limestone barely large enough to admit the passage of the
body. The interior is very labyrinthine. After passing through
the Galerie des Animaux and the Galerie des Inscriptions, one
reaches, after a most difficult détour, the terminal chamber,
which Obermaier has called the Salle du Tréne, the throne-
room; here there is a natural seat of limestone, with supports
at the sides for the arms, and one can still see the discolora-
tion of the rock by the soiled hands of the magicians or of the
artists. In this salle there are a few drawings and engravings
404 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
on the walls, and a few pieces of flint have been discovered. In
no other cavern, perhaps, is there a greater sense of mystery
as to the influence, whether religious, magical, or artistic, which
impelled men to seek out and enter these dangerous passages,
the slippery rocks illumined at best by a very imperfect light,
leading to the deep and dangerous recesses below, where a mis-
step would be fatal. The impulse, whatever it may have been,
was doubtless very strong, and in this, as in other caverns,
Fic. 206. Herd of horses engraved on a small slab of stone, found in the grotto of Chaf-
faud, Vienne, France. After Cartailhac. This impressionistic grouping and perspec-
tive is very exceptional in Paleolithic design. About nine-tenths actual size.
almost every surface favorably prepared by the processes of
nature has received a drawing. No industrial flints have been
found at the entrance to this cavern, but some have been traced
into the interior. The art is considered partly of late Aurigna-
cian, perhaps of Solutrean, and certainly in part of early Mag-
dalenian times; in general it is much more recent than that of
Castillo. It consists both of engravings and painted outlines,
with proportions usually excellent and sometimes admirable.
The paintings of deer are in yellow ochre, of the chamois in
red. There are altogether 226 paintings and 36 engravings, in
which are represented 50 roe-deer, 51 horses, 47 tectiforms, 16
MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 405
Bos, 15 bison, 12 stags, 9 ibexes, 1 chamois, and 16 other forms,
distributed in all parts of the cave. The outlines are in solid
red color or in stripes of red or black, or there is a series of spots;
the subjects are chiefly the stag, the doe, the wild cattle (which
are rather common), the bison (which are less common), the
ibex, and the chamois. Among the numerous representations
of the horse there are two small engravings of a type with erect
mane, both the feet and the hair being indicated with great
care, the limbs well designed and of excellent proportions, clearly
in early Magdalenian style. Of the utmost interest is the dis-
covery here of two horses drawn with rounded forehead and
drooping mane, the only instance in which the drooping mane
ie ——
Fic. 207. Impressionistic design of a herd of reindeer engraved on the radius of an
eagle nearly eight inches in length, found in the upper Magdalenian layers of the
Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil.
of the modern type of horse (Equus caballus) has been observed
in the cavern drawings.
In the advanced development of middle or high Magdalenian
art, parietal engraving with finely pointed flint implements pre-
sents a nearer approach to the truth both of proportion and of
detail than do the earlier stages. In this stage the engravings
seem to consist chiefly of independent animal figures and to
furnish a prelude to the application of color. A simple but
striking example of approaching perfection of technique is seen in
the bison (Fig. 205) engraved in the cavern of Marsoulas, where
the profile is outlined and great shaggy masses of hair beneath
the neck are admirably indicated. In these drawings the com-
plicated details of the feet, with their characteristic tufts of hair,
and of the head show far more careful observation. In the
406 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
great series of bison at Font-de-Gaume the entire animal is
sketched in with these finely engraved lines, as brought out
through the wonderfully close observation and studies of Breuil.
This is quite similar to the practice of the modern artist who
sketches his figure in crayon or charcoal before applying the
color.
There are two quite different styles in this engraving, one
seen in the deep incised lines of the reindeer head in the cavern
Fic. 208. Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet, Hautes-
Pyrénées. After Piette. This design is believed to represent a herd of
stag crossing a stream, one of the very rare Paleolithic attempts at
composition.
of Tuc d’Audoubert (Fig. 232), a complete design in itself, an-
other seen in the deep incisions in the limestone outlining the
horses and the bison as observed in the cavern of Niaux
(Fig. 174). Here the engraved line is followed by the appli-
cation of a black painted line, the effect being to bring out the
body in the surrounding rock so as to give the silhouette a
high relief.
In the drawings in the large on these curved wall surfaces,
only part of which could be seen by the eye at one time, the
difficulties of maintaining the proportions were extreme, and
one is ever impressed by the boldness and confidence with which
the long sweeping strokes of the flint were made, for one rarely
if ever sees any evidences of corrected outline. Only a lifelong
MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 407
observer of the fine points which distinguish the different pre-
historic breeds of the horse could appreciate the extraordinary
skill with which the spirited, aristocratic lines of the Celtic are
executed, on the one hand, and, on the other, the plebeian and
heavy outlines of the steppe horse. In the best examples of
Magdalenian engraving, both parietal and on bone or ivory, one
can almost immediately detect the specific type of horse which
the artist had before him or in mind, also the season of the year,
y : *
A DY) wer! wh x y \
oak my) wo
Fic. 209. Outlines of a lioness and a small group of horses of the Celtic or Arab type,
a delicate wall engraving in the Diverticule final of the cavern of Font-
de-Gaume. After Breuil.
as indicated by the representation of a summer or winter coat
of hair.
The realism of most of the parietal art passes into the 1m-
pressionism of the excessively fine engravings on bone or reindeer
horn, executed with a few strokes, of a herd of horses or of rein-
deer (Fig. 207), or where a herd of deer is seen (Fig. 208) cross-
ing a stream full of fishes, as in the well-known engravings on
reindeer horn found in the grotto of Lorthet, in the Pyrenees.
This is one of the very rare instances in Paleolithic art, either
engraving or painting, which shows a sense of composition or the
treatment of a subject or incident involving more than one figure.
Others are the herd of passing reindeer found engraved on a bit
of schist in the grotto of Laugerie Basse, the lion facing a group
of horses engraved on a stalagmite at Font-de-Gaume, and the
procession of mammoths engraved upon a procession cf bison in
the same cavern.
408 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
BEGINNINGS OF PAINTING
The beginnings of painting in Aurignacian times, consisting
of simple contours and crude outlines in red or black, with little
or no attempt at shading, pass in early Magdalenian time into
a long phase of mono-
chromes, either in black
or red, in which the tech-
nique pursues a number
of variations, from simple
linear treatment, contin-
uous or dotted, to half
tints or full tints, grad-
ually encroaching on the
sides of the body from
Fic. 210. Early painting. A small horse of the the linear contour. Of
Celtic or Arab type, with painted outline and :
body colored in black, from a wall of the cavern this order are the figures
of Castillo, Spain. After Breuil. in flat tints and sha ding,
resembling those of the Chinese, without modelling; also the
figures entirely covered with dots, such as are seen at Marsoulas,
Fic. 2tr. Early painting . Galloping horse of the Celtic or of the steppe type painted
in black and white, from a wall of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil.
Font-de-Gaume, and Altamira. The tints, as in the drawing of
the galloping steppe horse, pass inward from the black outline
MAGDALENIAN PAINTING 409
to enhance the effect of roundness or relief. In the splendid
series of paintings in the cavern of Niaux there is little more than
the black outline of the body, but the covering of the sides with
lines, indicating the hair, lends itself to the rounded presentation
of form. A somewhat similar effect is sought in the lines of the
woolly rhinoceros painted in red in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume,
which Breuil attributes to the Aurignacian stage, but which also
suggests the early Magdalenian.
Fic. 212. Opening (cross) of the cavern of Niaux, in the Pyrenees, near Tarascon.
DRAWINGS IN VARIOUS CAVERNS OF THE EARLY AND
MIDDLE MAGDALENIAN
The grandest cavern thus far discovered in France is that of
Niaux (1906), which from a small opening on the side of a lime-
stone mountain and 300 feet above the River Vic de Sos extends
almost horizontally 4,200 feet into the heart of the mountain.”®
Not far from Tarascon on the Ariége it lay near one of the most
accessible routes between France and Spain. Passing through
the long gallery beyond the borders of the subterranean lake
which bars the entrance, at a distance of half a mile we reach a
410 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
great chamber where the overhanging walls of limestone have
been finely polished by the sands and gravels transported by
the subglacial streams; on these broad, slightly concave panels
of a very light ochre color are drawings of a large number of
bison and of horses, as fresh and brilliant as if they were the
work of yesterday; the outlines drawn with black oxide of man-
ganese and grease on the smooth stone resemble coarse lithog-
raphy. The animals are drawn in splendid, bold contours, with
no cross-hatching, but with solid masses of bright color here and
there; the bison, as the most admired animal of the chase, is
\y ‘
\ yy | Ate \
Willa
Ne tat
Fic. 213. Engraved and painted horse, apparently of the Celtic type and
with heavy winter coat, from the cavern of Niaux. ‘There is a mark behind
the right shoulder which has been interpreted as the sign of an arrow or
spear head. After Cartailhac and Breuil. (Compare Fig. 174.)
drawn majestically with a superb crest, the muzzle most per-
fectly outlined, the horns indicated by single lines only, the eyes
with the defiant expression highly distinctive of the animal
when wounded or enraged. Here for the first time are re-
vealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for
upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear
heads with the shafts still attached; the most positive proof of
the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden
shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of
the drawings. There are also many silhouettes of horses which
strongly resemble the pure Asiatic steppe type now living in
the desert of Gobi, the Przewalski horse, with erect mane and
with no drooping forelock; in contrast to the bison, the eyes are
rather dull and stupid in expression. There are also drawings
THE ART OF THE CAVERNS 411
of other types of horses, a very fine ibex, a chamois, a few out-
lines of wild cattle, and a very fine one of the royal stag; we find
no reindeer or mammoth represented. In some of the narrower
passages the rock has been beautifully sculptured by water, and
Fic. 214. Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of the cavern of Le Portel, Ariége.
Photograph by H. F. Osborn.
the artists have been quick to take advantage of any natural
lines to add a bit of color here or there and thus bring out the
outline of a bison.
Presenting the widest possible contrast to Niaux is the cavern
of Le Portel, west of Tarascon, with its contracted entrance and
a very rapidly descending passage hardly broad enough to admit
the body. This narrow and tortuous cave terminates in an ex-
412 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
tremely small passage, so narrow as barely to admit the athletic
and determined artist explorer, the Abbé Breuil. Here, as in
Font-de-Gaume and other caverns, is one of the greatest myster-
ies of the cave art, namely, that these terminal and dangerous
diverticules finals were wrought with some of the most careful
and artistic designs. Le Portel, like Niaux, reveals a single style,
but one altogether different. Very numerous bison are drawn in
outline both in red and black; the sides of the body are often
x F
O KD
SS 4
> ie y) X ae
rad | Y) hh a
“Uy iy Wail »S
: \
il
i
j
Fic. 215. Finely engraved outlines of the Celtic horse and of the reindeer, in the Grotte
de la Mairie, near Teyjat, Dordogne. After Capitan and Breuil.
dotted with red or hatched in close parallel lines. On a long
horizontal panel are seen many bison in red, and one observes
here a finely drawn pair of bison feet in the best Magdalenian
style. The horse as represented here is of a quite different type
with thin upper tail and a tail-tuft resembling that of the wild
ass, so that one is almost tempted to believe that the kiang is
intended, but the ears are too short; it has a high rump and a
high, splendidly arched neck, like that of the stallion, and the eye
is better drawn; the body is covered with long vertical or oblique
lines which might be mistaken for stripes, but this hatching:is a
matter of technique only. Again, the mane is erect, and there is
no forelock; in fact, none of these Magdalenian artists has rep-
resented the horse with the forelock, indicating that this char-
THE ART OF THE CAVERNS 413
acter of the modern horse was unknown in western Europe and
probably came in during Neolithic times.
Of an entirely different type are the beautifully engraved
miniature figures of animals discovered in 1903 in the Grotte de
Fic. 216. Reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses of the large-headed forest type with
arched forehead, engraved on a panel about twenty inches in length in the
Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil.
la Mairie.2® The outlines, from 18 to 20 inches in length, are
sharply engraved on the limestone stalagmites; they are all in
the middle Magdalenian style and include the stag, reindeer,
Fic. 217. Wild cattle, bull and cow (Bos primigenius), engraved in the Grotte de la
Mairie, each figure being about twenty inchesinlength. After Capitan and Breuil.
bison, cave-bear, lion, wild cattle, and two very distinct types
of horses: one of these types is large-headed with an arched
forehead; this is probably the forest type and perhaps represents
414 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
the horse most abundant at the Solutré encampment (see p. 288) ;
the other horse is small-headed, with a perfectly flat, straight
forehead, corresponding with the Arab or Celtic pony type.
DRAWINGS AND PAINTINGS OF THE END OF THE
MiIppLE MAGDALENIAN
The fourth and final developmental phase of painting flowers
out toward the end of middle Magdalenian times in the grand
period of polychromes. ‘These are first etched with underlying
Fic. 218. Outline of one of the bison in the Galerie des Fresques at Font-
de-Gaume, showing the preliminary etching or engraving preparatory
to the polychrome fresco painting. After Breuil.
lines engraved with flint, the surface of the limestone having
been previously prepared by the thinning or scraping of the
borders (rvaclage) to heighten the relief of the drawing; then a
very strong contour is laid down in black, and this may be fol-
lowed by a further contour line in red (the use of black and red
is very ancient); an ochreous brown color is mixed in, conform-
ing well with what we know to be the tints of the hairy portions
of the bison. Thus gradually a complete polychrome fresco art
develops. ‘The final stage of this art follows, in which the filling
out of various tones of color requires the use of black, brown, red,
and yellowish shades. The underlying or preliminary engraving
now begins to recede, being retained only for the tracing in of
the final details of the hair, the eyes, the horns, and the hoofs,
After Breuil.
One of the bisons on the ceiling of Altamira, representing the final stage of polychrome art in which four
shades of color are used.
je A RUE
POLYCHROME PAINTING 415
The early stages of this art are seen in the cavern of Marsoulas.
and its height is reached in the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume
and in the ceiling of Altamira, the latter still in a perfect and
brilliant state of preservation.
To prepare the colors, ochre and oxide of manganese were
ground down to a fine powder in stone mortars; raw pigment
Fic. 219. Entrance on the right to the grotto leading to the great cavern of Font-de-
Gaume on the Beune. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.
was carried in ornamented cases made from the lower-limb bones
of the reindeer, and such tubes still containing the ochre have
been found in the Magdalenian hearths; the mingling of the
finely ground powder with the animal oils or fats that were used
was probably done on the flat side of the shoulder-blade of the
reindeer or on some other palette. The pigment was quite per-
manent, and in the darkness of the Altamira grotto it has been
so perfectly preserved that the colors are still as brilliant as if
they had been applied yesterday.
The art of the grotto of Marsoulas, in the Pyrenees, is both
416 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE
of an earlier and of a later period; the engraved lines, as of
the head and front of a bison, are beautifully done in advanced
Magdalenian style, deep incisions representing the larger out-
lines and finer incisions representing the hair; here the outlines
are also traced in color, and there are several masks or grotesques
of the human face; these last are treated with a total disregard
of the truth which characterizes the animal work. Among the
few bison represented here, some are covered with dots or
splashes of color, others show the painted outline which begins
Rubicon
f
Grande Galerie
des Fresques
ant Diverticule = a
PLAN pe ta GROTTE ° final
DE
FONT DEGAUME
relevé par
le D? CAPITAN.
Pe
Echelle de "2 pour | metre.
Petite Salle
Fic. 220. Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, showing the ‘Rubicon,’ the Grande
Galerie des Fresques, in which the chief polychrome paintings are found, and
the Diverticule final. After Capitan.
to extend over the surface with gradations of tint, anticipating
the color effects attained in the finished paintings of Altamira and
of Font-de-Gaume. All the details of the early technique are
found here: the artist outlines the form with an engraved line;
he traces in black color the contours of the head and of the body;
he begins to apply masses of red over the figure. This beginning
of polychrome art at Marsoulas is a step toward coloring the en-
tire surface with red ochre and black, as in the finished paintings
of a later period.
The grand cavern of Font-de-Gaume,”’ on the Beune, not far
from Les Eyzies, contains the most complete record of Upper
Paleolithic art, especially from the close of Aurignacian to the
?
are
and on both walls
After Lassalle.
inted bison,
ee
int are two pa
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marks left by the claws of the cave-bear.
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3 *
50: Uj ealden, Lower <= Say 50
‘Sea bier A Sea Level
t 2 Smiles
Fic. 269. Geologic section of the valley of the Ouse River at Piltdown, England, show-
ing earlier (1, 2) and present (3) river levels. The cross indicates the location of the
Piltdown quarry and theoretic former level of the River Ouse which has since cut a
deep valley nearly 100 ft. below its level when the Piltdown skull was deposited.
Drawn by C. A. Reeds.
As to the geological age of the Piltdown race, if confirmed by future
discovery, the presence in Germany near Taubach, Weimar, of teeth
similar to those in the Piltdown jaw, found in Sussex, England, would tend
to confirm the opinion expressed in the first edition of this work that the
Piltdown race belongs to Third Interglacial times.
NOTE X
FAMILY SEPULTURE OF LA FERRASSIE, FRANCE
The only instance of the knee-flexed burial position known in the Lower
Paleolithic is the unique family sepulture at the Mousterian station of La
Ferrassie, in Dordogne, discovered by D. Peyrony in the years 1909-1911.
It includes the remains of two adults and two children. One of the adult
skeletons lay upon its back with the legs strongly flexed. The body lay
upon the floor of the cave without any sign of a cavity to contain it. The
head and shoulders had been protected and surrounded by slabs of stone,
while the rest of the body may have been covered by pelts or woven
branches. The second skeleton was that of a woman with the arms folded
upon the breast, while the legs were pressed against the body, indicating
that they were bound with cords or thongs. Two children were interred
in shallow graves.
This sepulture, like that of Spy, Belgium, of late Mousterian times,
was apparently a case of genuine burial, testifying to the ancient reverence
for the dead, joined, perhaps, with the belief in a life after death. In the
Ferrassie burial, close to the children’s remains, there was a grave filled
514 APPENDIX
with ashes and bones of the wild ox. Similarly, in the interment at La
Chapelle-aux-Saints there was a cavity containing a bison horn and a
second cavity where large bones of the same animal were found, indicating
possibly the remains of sacrificial offerings or funeral feasts.
NOTE XI
PALZOLITHIC HISTORY OF NORTHWESTERN AFRICA AND SOUTHERN
SPAIN
The flint workers of Lower and Upper Paleolithic times who inhabited
the existing geographic regions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis sought the
flint-bearing limestones for the manufacture of their implements and fash-
ioned them into forms which are closely similar to those found in Spain
and France. As a result of the explorations of J. de Morgan, L. Capitan,
and P. Boudy between 1907 and 1909* it appears that Paleolithic man in
Africa became acquainted with fewer types of implements than his contem-
poraries in Europe. It is true that we find the Lower Paleolithic repre-
sented by typical Chellean coups de poing, and there were also true
Acheulean implements and true Mousterian implements marking the
close of Lower Paleolithic time.
As to the great antiquity of man in these regions, it appears likely that
there was a kind of pre-Chellean industry at Gafsa, as at St. Acheul in
France, with flakes roughly adapted to the functions of racloirs, points,
knives, etc. It is, in fact, very possible so to interpret the very coarse
flakes found by Boudy in such abundance in the lower deposits of hill 328
at Gafsa. The Chellean and then the Acheulean culture would have
succeeded to this earliest stage, being characterized by an industry strik-
ingly similar for these two epochs. The Mousterian, with its predomi-
nance of racloirs, points, and discs, appears in Tunis to have been only a
modality, a stage of the great Chelleo-Mousterian period, just as it was
in Europe.
Then follows the Aurignacian, the first stage of the Upper Paleolithic
cultures, in which the forms of the flints are, in the opinion of Capitan,
extremely similar to those of the Lower Aurignacian of northern Spain and
of France. It was at this time, it is believed, that the great wave of indus-
trial migration and perhaps the men of the Cré-Magnon race passed from
these northwestern African stations into Spain and France; for it has
been noted that the Lower Aurignacian of western Europe comes from the
south and not from the east of Europe. The flint-making stations during
the long Lower Paleolithic are widely distributed, as indicated by the
black dots of the accompanying map (Fig. 270).
* J. de Morgan, L. Capitan, and P. Boudy, “Stations préhistoriques du sud Tunisien,”
Rev. Ecole d’Anthr., 1910, pp. 105-136, 206-221, 267-286, 335-347; I9II, pp. 217-228.
APPENDIX 515
But now a very important change occurs, as indicated in the stations
marked by a crossed circle, in the genesis of new modes of fashioning the
flints which are for a long time peculiar to this region and which—centring
Tamerza ay 00?
ier Reade] OA
“ wm El Oued
& CAPSIAN
@ LOWER PALAEOLITHIC
AURIGNACIAN
ofsocutmean or
MAGDALENIAN
A Create or Insokki ®
TARDENOISIAN
Fic. 270. Extension of the Early Paleolithic and Capsian industries throughout Spain
and northwest Africa. It is supposed that at this time there was a land connection
across the Straits of Gibraltar. Stations too closely grouped to be shown separately
are as follows:
Africa.—At Mostaganem (8) are the eight stations of Aboukir, Ain-bou-Brahim, Karouba,
Ouled Zérifa, Ain-el-Bahr, Oued Melah, Oued Ria, and Mazouna. Near Mascara
are the sites of Ain-Hadjar, Ain-Ksibia, Palikao, and Ain-Harca.
Spain.—At Vélez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los
Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known
as Serr6n, Zdjara, and Humosa; while the figure 8 marks the eight caves of Palo-
marico, Las Perneras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada, Cueva de los
Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro. Only the Capsian stations of Spain are named hére.
For the names of others see Fig. 272, p. 519.
in the stations crowded around Gafsa in the heart of Tunis—receive the
name of CAPSIAN.
The explanation of the life and art of the Capsian is probably that of a
climatic change in this region of Africa from a moist and semiforested con-
dition favorable to the larger kinds of game to an arid condition in which
516 APPENDIX
the larger kinds of game became less numerous and the chase was aban-
doned. This is Capitan’s opinion, that the Capsian corresponds to new
climatic conditions in northern Africa; for in the depths of the limestone
caves it appears that men’s food partly consisted of the animals of the
chase, but more commonly of edible land snails belonging to species still
existing in this region and occurring in great abundance during the winter
and spring rains. This change of climate came after the close of Mous-
terian time, namely, the period which we estimated (p. 281) at about
25,000 years B. C. on the theory that the Fourth Glaciation closed not less
than 25,000 years ago (p, 41).
LOWER PALAOLITHIC OF AFRICA
When we consider that the genuine Chellean industry is completely
lacking in central Europe* we are driven to the conclusion that this in-
dustry came to France and England not from the east but from Africa in
the south. Therefore it becomes clear why, in passing to the aforesaid
countries from northern Africa, this industry was more widely distributed in
Spain than in Italy. Without doubt the same conditions of migration pre-
vailed throughout the entire Lower Paleolithic. The Acheulean and
Mousterian industries followed the same route, for both are typically rep-
resented in northern Africa and there is no convincing evidence of these
industries having followed any different course.
THE CAPSIAN——-UPPER AND LOWER
The succeeding Aurignacian industry of the Mediterranean also had
its centre of dispersion in the northwestern part of Africa—a centre known
through the labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy, and, more recently,
through those of Pallary, Gobert, and Breuil. Obermaier regards the
Lower Capsian as presenting an industry containing only the Lower Aurig-
nacian (types of Chatelperron) and Upper Aurignacian (types of La Gra-
vette) and considers that the Middle Aurignacian is wanting in northern
Africa. This Middle Aurignacian culture is regarded as of French origin,
having apparently extended southward only in the Cantabrian region,
where it is typically represented at Castillo, Hornos de la Pefia, and the
Cueva del Conde.
The Upper Capsian, then, is regarded as extending from Post-Aurig-
nacian time through the entire epoch of the Solutrean and the Magdalenian
of western Europe. Thus for a very long period of time there was no
contact whatever between the industry of northwestern Africa and of
southwestern Europe. During this period the Capsian itself developed
* Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre foésil, 1916, p. 203.
APPENDIX 517
its peculiar forms, and toward the close of the Upper Paleolithic this
industry spread into Spain as indicated by the dotted area and arrows in
the accompanying map (Fig. 271, B).
In the development of the Capsian itself* it is found that the in-
dustry varies according to the sites, each with its own evolution of types.
For example, at the rock shelter of El Mekta flint knives with blunted
backs were of large size, probably because they were used to cut the flesh
of game. At Sidi-Mansour, on the contrary, the dwellers, being snail-
eaters, used only blades as fine as needles and of a type found also at El
Mekta, but fewer in number. This, then, is the origin of the microlithic
flints which were first discovered at the station of Fére-en-Tardenois, in
ee
A Tea be WAC
. 2 rae 4 os
ett Sexi: Tense ip d
° . ol @
Canslense tuperion Capsiense final-Tardenoisiense.
‘Solutreo-Magdaleniense. - Aziliense.
Fic. 271. Maps showing the supposed migration routes into Spain of the:
A. Solutrean and Magdalenian industries from France.
B. Late Capsian (Tardenoisian) industry from Africa. After Obermaier.
France, and hence received the name of Tardenoisian. If the conclusions
of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy are well founded, the Upper Capsian
industry of Africa is the true parent of the Tardenoisian of France.
On the other hand, the identity of the Lower Capsian with the Aurig-
nacian in Europe is strongly insisted upon by the same authors. The
Lower Capsian is a Tunisian phase of the Aurignacian of Europe and _ab-
solutely identical with it. The forms from the rock shelters of Rédéyef,
Foum-el-Maza, and, above all, El Mekta are absolutely typical. In the
latter station occur, moreover, forms closely paralleling those distinctive
of the Aurignacian of Europe, Lower, Middle, and Upper—the great picks;
the large flakes finely retouched; the long, fine blades retouched on one or
both sides, often curved, with blunted backs; the notched blades; the
* Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre fésil, 1916, pp. 346, 347.
518 APPENDIX
nuclei with edges worked into grattoirs; and, above all, the blades with
square-edged grattoirs across the ends, often presenting a lateral burin,
so characteristic of the Aurignacian. Thus these authors conclude that
human evolution and probably the human stock in Tunis was uniform
with that of Europe throughout all Aurignacian time until its very close,
and that, following this, an independent evolution in North Africa took place.
Little is known of the anatomy of these Lower Capsian workmen. In
an abri about two kilometres from Rédéyef, and associated with a flint in-
dustry characteristic of the Lower Capsian, there were found numerous
fragments of human bones much altered, friable, and with very irregular
surfaces. Recognizable among this skeletal débris were a decidedly thick
cranial vault, and portions of two large thigh-bones (femora) and of shin-
bones (tibias) which are also thick and very much flattened (platycnzemic).
It is interesting to recall that the abundant skeletal remains found at
Grimaldi were chiefly of the well-known Cré-Magnon type with markedly
platycnzmic tibias, and were associated with flint implements characteristic
of the Aurignacian culture, which Capitan considers identical with the Lower
Capsian.
INDUSTRIES OF NORTH AFRICA GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS INDUSTRIES OF EUROPE
Upper Capsian Reunion with Spain and Close of the Upper Palzo-
(Late Upper Paleolithic) France lithic
(final phase of Capsian = Tardenoisian and Azilian
Tardenoisian) Stages
(Middle Upper Paleolithic) Separation from Spain Solutrean and Magdalenian
and France Stages
Lower Capsian Union with Spain Aurignacian Stage
(Beginning of the Upper and France
Paleolithic)
Lower Paleolithic Union with Spain and Lower Paleolithic
Mousterian, Acheulean, and France Mousterian, Acheulean,
Chellean Stages and Chellean Stages
PALAOLITHIC HISTORY OF SPAIN.
Having now considered northern Africa, it is interesting to look at
Spain as influenced by Africa on the south, by the industrial and artistic
life of France on the north, and as having an important independent evo-
lution of its own. These conditions are fully described in Hugo Ober-
maier’s recent work, El Hombre foésil,* to which the reader is referred.
Over eighty Paleolithic stations have been discovered in Spain. Spain
shares with the greater part of Africa (including Egypt), with Syria, Meso-
potamia, and parts of India, the extraordinarily wide distribution of in-
* Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre fésil, 1916.
APPENDIX 519
Soto de las Regueras @
@s Palomas
© *tlzpitarte
Can
rio 000
yf 7 -
270% @T orrglba
Agua Amarga
Coctinilla del Obispo
\
Parpa
Alpera@® i
El Arabi&B
Fast. Wi ail.
modévar
del Rio
Bobadillae
CAPSIAN
@ LOWER PALAEOLITHIC
AURIGNACIAN
ie) {souuTREAK o
MAGDALENIAN
AZILIAN or
© lecariaehsta Ts
Fic. 272. Upper and Lower Paleolithic stations of Spain and Portugal. Stations too
closely grouped to be shown separately on this map are as follows:
North.—s, Cueva del Conde, Cueva del Rio, Collubil, Viesca, La Cuevona; 4, Cueto
de la Mina, Balmori, Arnero, Fonfria; 14 (also marked ‘Castillo’), four symbols
represent the fourteen closely grouped stations of Castillo, Altamira, Hornos de la
Pena, Camargo, Cueva del Mar, Truchiro, Astillero, Nuestra Sefiora de Loreto,
Villanueva, Pendo, Cobalejos, San Felices.de Buelna, Pefia de Carranceja, and El
Cuco. A little west of Fuente del Francés is San Vitores.
West.—At Oporto are the three stations of Pacos, Ervilha, and Castello do Queijo.
In or near Lisbon are the fifteen stations of Agonia, Alto do Duque, Amoreira, Bica,
Boticaria, Casal da Serra, Casal das Osgas, Casal do Monte, Estrada de Aguda-
Queluz, Leiria, Moinho das Cruzes, Pedreiras, Pefias Alvas, Rabicha, and Serra de
Monsanto.
Southeast—At Vélez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los
Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known
as Serr6n, Zajara, and Humosa; while between the two sites marked 8 are the eight
caves of Palomarico, Las Perneras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada,
Cueva de los Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro.
dustries resembling those of the three Lower Paleolithic stages—the
Chellean, the Acheulean, and the Mousterian.
By what types of man these industries were pursued in these different
countries it would be premature to say. At the beginning of the Upper
Paleolithic a profound change occurs, for in the Aurignacian industry we
have to do with a Mediterraneo-European culture exhibiting advances in
technique which are not developed elsewhere.
520 APPENDIX
IMPORTANT PALOLITHIC SITES IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
PALAZOLITHIC CULTURES
Lower Upper
PROVINCES AND STATIONS
| Aurignacian
Solutrean
| Magdalenia
Azilio-
Tardenoisian
| Chellean
| Acheulean
| Mousterian
SPAIN
GUIPUZCOA
Aitzbitarte (Landarbaso)
VIZCAYA
LS RSS
s+: +:
aie pie
+i ++ +4++4+4+4+4+: +4444:
Castillo
Pendo, Cueva del (San Pantaleén)
Cobalejos (Puente Arce)
Camargo
Hornos de la Pefia
Altamira
OVIEDO
++++4++:
Cueto de la Mina
Conde, Cueva del
Paloma, Cueva de: lac). oss ue ee ne ee nae
SORIA
Torralba
MADRID
San Isidro
CORDOBA
Posadas-Almodévar del Rio
JAEN
Campos de Olivar de Puente Mocho
cADIZ
Laguna de la Janda
BARCELONA
Abrich Romani RIV SH e 2. Ace ne ran
GERONA
Serinya Pe aN | le pm
Pr « .
LERIDA Capsian
HO eae
MURCIA
Bermeja, Cueva de la
ALBACETE
VALENCIA
Parpallo, Cueva del
Maravillas, Cueva de las
Truche (Turche), Abrigo de la
PORTUGAL
Mugen, in the valley of the Tagus (four stations)
Furninha
Lisbon and environs (fifteen stations
APPENDIX 521
At the close of Upper Aurignacian time the community of culture
ceases in Spain itself, and this country divides sharply into two regions,
namely, northern and southern.
In the northern region we observe a close similarity with the industrial
evolution of France during the entire period of Solutreo-Magdalenian time.
The true Solutrean extended from France throughout the northern part
of the Iberian Peninsula. In Cantabria, Early Solutrean is represented by
laurel-leaf points found at Castillo, Hornos de la Pefia, and elsewhere;
while Late Solutrean types—shouldered points, and laurel-leaf and willow-
leaf points with concave base—appear at Altamira, Camargo, and the
Cueva del Conde. True Solutrean strata have not yet been discovered in
the east of Spain, although the discovery—made by H. Breuil—of a willow-
leaf point at El Arabi would seem to indicate that there may have been
some slight infiltration of the Solutrean along the seacoast. Implements
suggesting the Solutrean found in Almerfa (Cueva Chiquita de los Treinta)
and Murcia (Cueva de las Perneras) are doubtful, as it is very possible
that they represent Neolithic types. The true Magdalenian appears also
to be an intrusion restricted to the northern part of the peninsula. It
is found in the east in the provinces of Gerona and Barcelona, but occurs
chiefly in the Whole Cantabrian region. The homogeneity of the Mag-
dalenian in these parts with that of France is very marked, not only in the
stratification and types of Paleolithic implements but also in the objects
of mobiliary art.
SOUTHERN AND EASTERN SPAIN—-THE CAPSIAN
At the same time the southern and eastern regions of Spain were com-
pletely under the influence of the Upper Capsian industry of northern
Africa and in these regions the typical forms of the Lower Capsian (=
Lower and Upper Aurignacian) tend to become reduced in size and to
evolve toward the geometric forms until they finally acquire the aspect
of the Tardenoisian microliths. Thus we find that in the Upper Capsian
of eastern and southern Spain, as in northern Africa, true Solutrean and
Magdalenian implements are unknown. These implements are replaced
by the microlithic industry, chiefly characterized by trapezoidal forms which
can be traced eastward along the coast of Africa to Egypt, Phoenicia, and
even to the Crimea. A notable part of this industry found its way also
into Sicily.
The final phase of the Upper Capsian of Spain is essentially identical
with the Tardenoisian of France. Certain discoveries have been made in
Guadalajara, in Murcia, and in Albacete (Alpera). To these must be added
other Azilio-Tardenoisian stations no less important found in Portugal
in the valley of the Tagus. At Mugem and at other stations heaps of
sea-shells of a great variety of species prove that when the Upper Capsian
men were living they sought the same kinds of food in Spain as in northern
522 APPENDIX
Africa. In these heaps the trapezoidal forms of implements predominate,
closely similar to those of the Tardenoisian. The animal life of these de-
posits does not include any sort of domestic animal except the dog.
Of great interest are the numerous burials—chiefly of women and chil-
dren, more rarely of men—in which the skeletons occur most often in the
folded position. The human type has not been determined, but long-
headed (dolichocephalic) skulls greatly predominate, while short-headed
(brachycephalic) skulls occur but rarely. It is probable, therefore, that
these people belonged to the small, long-headed, dark-skinned Mediter-
rean race.
Inasmuch as the origins of the Tardenoisian of France are found in
the final Capsian stage of Spain, reinforced by African elements, Ober-
maier regards the Spanish Tardenoisian as:somewhat older than the French.
CAPSIAN AND AZILIO-TARDENOISIAN ART
Obermaier observes that it is as yet impossible to determine the period
of the commencement of this peculiar art of central and southern Spain,
but considers that a transition from the naturalistic art of the Quaternary
to the conventionalized schematic art was effected by almost impercept-
ible degrees. This would imply that no sudden changes took place at
this time in the population of Spain, but that the tribes of Upper Capsian
culture evolved im situ into the Azilio-Tardenoisian stage, and eventually,
owing to the influence of exterior civilizations, into the Neolithic. Final
phases of this schematic art contain idols and representations of faces which
coincide absolutely with Neolithic idols in the collections of L. Siret, F.
de Motos, and others. Moreover, they present similarities to certain designs
from the dolmens of the final Neolithic.
This art is characterized by its numerous reproductions of the human
figure. In almost all the important rock shelters of the eastern region
(Alpera) it has been possible to distinguish layers of more recent designs
painted over the classic Quaternary paintings, and classified—on account
of their superposition—as ‘‘ Post-Paleolithic.”” Of these a small portion
are figures still retaining the naturalistic style—representations of animals
and men—but poor in conception, stiff and lifeless, in most cases bearing
no comparison with the vigor and abandon of the figures of Alpera. The
greater part of these designs consist of geometric or conventionalized signs
or figures.
Still purer.in style and more abundant are the instances of this con-
ventionalized mural art in southern Spain, where M. de Géngora, Vilanova,
Jiménez de la Espada, Gonzalez de Linares, M. Gémez Moreno, F. de
Motos, H. Breuil, J. Cabré, and E. Hernandez-Pacheco have devoted
themselves sedulously to its study. Numerous painted rock shelters are
known, but almost all without the slightest trace of Paleolithic art and
with numerous conventionalized (schematic) petroglyphs, in Andalusia
APPENDIX 523
(Vélez Blanco, Ronda, and Tarifa) and throughout the Sierra Morena
(Fuencaliente). In many cases it would be difficult to guess the deriva-
tion of these designs of human or animal figures, were it not for the exist-
ence of gradations in conventionalization from the naturalistic design to
the final geometric scheme. With these, arranged in a regular manner,
there occur further a great number of ramiform, pectiniform, stelliform,
serpentine, and alphabet-like signs, with designs in zigzags, circles, and dots.
Another important centre is found in western Spain (Estremadura)
the notable designs of which are mentioned by Lope de Vega in 1597—
Fic. 273. Detail from the Late Paleolithic designs painted on the sides of two natural
recesses in the rock shelter of Alpera. After Obermaier.
doubtless referring to the paintings of Canchal de las Cabras in Las
Batuecas.
Slight infiltrations of the same art have been recognized in northern
Spain at Castillo, Santander, and at the open station of Pefa Tu, near
Vidiago, Oviedo. As a notable exception to the naturalistic art prevail-
ing north of the Pyrenees we may mention the paintings in this same geo-
metric style found in the cave of La Vache, near Tarascon, Ariége, in south-
ern France.
524 APPENDIX
Of equally great interest is the explanation which this art affords of
the remarkable painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil which are now seen to be
partly pictographic in origin, chiefly schematized representations of the
human figure which gradually begin to assume shapes closely resembling
those of the Phoenician alphabet. As early as 1912 Henri Breuil was con-
sidering this pictographic theory and beginning to refer to the ‘Azilian
signs’ at Las Batuecas as reminiscent both of the painted pebbles of Mas
d’Azil and of the mural paintings of Andalusia. But chiefly he made clear
the importance of the ‘‘dotted lines, ramiform, pectiniform, and stelli-
form signs, zigzags, circles, and figures vaguely resembling alphabetic
forms.”’ A very ingenious study of these schematic Azilian signs has been
made by Obermaier in El Hombre fésil, where he endeavors to trace the
conventionalized descendants of the human figure of the ancient natural-
istic style as shown in Fig. 274. The demonstration of this theory may in
Fic. 274. Figures from Piedra Escrita (a-e) and from Cimbarillo de Marfa Antonia (f),
compared with a design occurring on the painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil, showing a
progressive conventionalization of the human figure. After Obermaier,
good time make possible a logical interpretation of a great part of these
same painted pebbles of the Azilian. Obermaier feels confident that they
should be considered as religious symbols, and that these petroglyphs of
Spain will supply a proof that many of the designs on these pebbles plainly
show conventionalized human figures:
Some years ago A. B. Cook drew attention to the fact that a native
tribe in central Australia, the Arunta, is distinguished by each clan having
a deposit of ‘churingas’ in a cave. There the churinga of each individual
of the clan, be it man or woman, is the object of vigilant protection. They
are made of wood or stone, and in the latter case show a striking resem-
blance in form and decoration to the Azilian pebbles. The Australian sees —
in each churinga the incarnation of one of his ancestors, whose spirit has
passed to him and whose qualities he has inherited. It is noteworthy that,
according to Australian beliefs, they can acquire the gift of speech by
means of the ‘bull-roarer,’ an amulet of stone or bone.
By analogy with the preceding, it is possible that some of the Azilian
pebbles represent such ‘stones of the ancestors,’ an incarnation of mas-
culine or feminine forefathers whose symbols were the objects of an es-
pecial cult. F. Sarasin found in the cave of Birseck, near Arlesheim,
Switzerland, a typical Azilian deposit with painted pebbles which had all
APPENDIX 525
been intentionally broken, without exception. He advanced the not im-
probable theory that this evidenced an act of the extremest hostility
against the sanctuary of a tribe, performed in order to despoil its members
forever of the protection of their ancestors, seeking in this way to subju-
gate or annihilate them.
In the Capsian silhouettes there is little likeness to the naturalistic
art of the Cré-Magnons in the north of Spain and in France. We are re-
minded rather of the rock paintings of the Bushmen and of the hunting-
scenes depicted by North American Indians, but on the whole there is
greater tendency to grouping and composition of standing figures, mascu-
line and feminine, in ceremonies and in the chase. The male figures are
mostly nude, and occasionally have head ornaments of feathers; while the
Fic. 275. Various types of bows and arrows shown in the paintings of the ‘Cueva de la
Vieja’ at Alpera. After J. Cabré.
female figures are represented with kirtles, head-dresses, and ornaments
on the body, arms, and ankles. Masculine figures in the chase are ac-
companied by hunting-dogs and exhibit the bow and arrow. If these
drawings are correctly assigned to the close of the Upper Paleolithic, this
is the most ancient representation of this primitive weapon of the chase
of which we have record. The arrow seems to be single-barbed, as shown
in the accompanying cut from Alpera. It may have been pointed with
flint fastened on one side to the shaft. We recall that double-barbed
arrow-heads were in use in Magdalenian times, as shown in the cavern
of Niaux.
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Morph. u. Anthropol., Bd. XVI, Heft 3, pp. 527-610.
1914.2 Uber einen béi Ehringsdorf in der Nahe von Weimar gefundenen
Unterkiefer des Homo primigenius. Anat. Anzeiger, Band 47,
nos. 13-17. Oktober, 1914, pp. 337-345.
Selenka, L.
tg11.1 Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java. (With Blanckenhorn.)
Geologische und palaontologische Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition
(1907-1908). Herausgegeben von M. Lenore Selenka und Prof
Max Blanckenhorn, Leipzig, 4to, 1or1t.
Serrano Gomez, P.
1912.1 Les peintures rupestres d’Espagne. (With Breuil and Cabre Aguilo.)
See, DIeUlL eLoraas:
Sierra, R. P. L.
1912.1 Les cavernes de la région cantabrique (Espagne). (With Alcalde
del Rio and Breuil.) See Alcalde del Rio, 1912.1.
Smith, G. E.
1912.1 Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section (B. A. A. S.).
Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sct., Dundee, 1912, pp. 575-598.
1913.1 The Controversies concerning the Interpretation and Meaning of
the Remains of the Dawn-Man Found near Piltdown. [Abstract.]
Meet. Manchester Lit. and Philosoph. Soc., November 18, 1913.
1913.2 On the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a
Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at
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Demat ts .
1913.4 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, no. 2206,
October 30, 1913, pp. 267, 268.
1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palzolithic Human Skull
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Smith, W.
1894.1 Man the Primeval Savage. His Haunts and Relics from the Hill-
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1900.1 Evolutional Geology. Presidential Address to the Geological Sec-
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1913.1 Paviland Cave: An Aurignacian Station in Wales. (The Huxley
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1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Verworn
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1909.1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Obermaier, H.)
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1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Bonnet
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INDEX*
A
Abbeville, 109, 116, 124, 125, 127, 149, 152,
150, 166, 167, 244, 331
Abri Audit, 245, 246, 248, 255, 269, 277,
305, 307, 309, 311, 314
Abri Dufaure, 471
Abri Mége, 435, 442
Abris, see Rock Shelters
Achenheim, 30, 160, 161, 167, 176, 195, 284,
314
Achenschwankung, see Postglacial Stage
Ackeulean, 14-16, 18, 30; chronology, 33,
41, 89; climate, 112, 117, 118, 165, 166,
173, 174, 175-177, 180; fauna, 144-148,
165; geography (physical), 166; human
fossils, 24, 181-185; industry, 14, 16,
18, 41, 108, 113, 122-124, 169-173, 177-
180, 270, 280, 362; stations, 151, 158-
162, 166-169; see Origin
#Eschylus, on the prehistory of man, 3, 505
Aggsbach, 29, 435, 448
Agriculture, 2, 486, 496
Aiguille, needle, 271, 310, 313, 387, 388,
391, 392, 440, 443-445, 449, 461, 462
Alactaga jaculus, 373, 374; see Jerboa
Alces, 187, 287, 369; latifrons, 70, see Moose
Alento, 167
Alpera, 469, 497
Alpine fauna, see Fauna
Alpine race, 278, 458, 479, 480, 481, 484,
485, 491, 499, 500
Alpine vole, 371, see Arvicola nivalis
Altamira, 17, 319, 321, 331, 332, 346, 368,
385, 394, 395, 399, 408, 415, 416, 422-427,
434, 435, Pl. VIII
Ancestry of Man, see Man
Ancona, 167
Andernach, 160, 195, 279, 372, 378, 435
Anthropoid Apes, 3, 21; ancestry, 49-61;
brain, 52-60; compared with Grimaldi,
266, with Neanderthal, 9, 217, 230-233,
237-240, with Piltdown, 140, 141, with
Pithecanthropus, 9, 77-79; known to
Carthaginians, 511, 512; recent dis-
coveries, 511
Anthropology, rise of, 3-10
Axtilope saiga, see Saiga antelope
Anvils, bone, 211, 253, 256, 271; see Come
presseur
Apes, see Anthropoid
Arboreal life, effects of, 56, 57
Archeology, rise of, 10-18
Archer, 329
Arctomys marmotta, 182, 370; see Marmot
Arcy-sur-Cure, 214, 219, 435
Argali sheep, 46, 285, 287, 371; see Ovis
argaloides
Arrow, 214, 258, 270, 272, 344, 353,354, 410,
450, 497
Art, 13, 14, 17, 21, 315-330, 332, 347-350,
392-434, 449, see Aurignacian, Magda-
lenian, Solutrean, Engraving, Painting,
Sculpture, Industry; implements used in,
270, 3090-312, 321, 329, 330, 385, 396, 415,
463; means of dating, 317-320
Arudy, 435, 436
Arvicola, amphibius, 147;
nivalis, 370, 371
Ascoli Piceno, 167
Ass, wild (kiang), see Horse
Aurensan, 435, 438, 471
Aurignac, 5, 13, 14, 16, 275, 279, 290, 294,
314
Aurignacian, 14-16, 18, 275, 276; art, 315-
330, 403, 404, 408; burial customs, 302-
305; chronology, 33, 41, 351; climate, 123,
281-286; fauna, 285-289; human fossils,
289-305; industry, 16, 18, 41, 108, 269-
271, 275-277, 280, 305-313, 320, 330,
362; stations, 275, 283, 284, 289, 307,
313-315; see Origin
Aurignacian race, see Combe-Capelle man
Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle
Australian head type, 136, 228, 232, 234
Awl, see Poingon
Axe, 493, 404
Azilian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian
Azilian-Tardenoisian, 16, 275, 451, 456;
art, 456; burial customs, 475-479; chro-
nology, 275, 456, 459; climate, 463, 468;
fauna, 463, 466, 468-470, 471, 472, 4743
gregalis, 3733
* Authors’ names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter.
549
550
human fossils, 461, 475-485; industry
(Azitian) ,.15, 16, 18;.270, 271, 275,270,
450, 459-465, 460, 470-475, (Tardenoi-
sian) 16, 18, 270, 271, 450, 456, 465-468,
470-472, (painted pebbles) 394, 456, 461,
463- 465; stations, 459, 463, 400, 407,
472-475; see Origin
B
Badegoule, 279, 331, 336, 435
Badger, 165, 201, 343, 367, 447,
Meles taxus
Ballahohle, 279, 331, 336
Baltic race, 458, 486, 500; see Maglemose
Balverhohle, 471
Baoussé Roussé, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Baousso da Torre, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Barma Grande, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Bdton de commandement, 271, 311, 312, 345,
358, 359, 388, 301, 432, 443-445, 449
Baumannshodhle, 160, 195, 245, 247, 248,
439
Bear, 43, 44, 62, 95; 96, 165, 213, 245, 264,
287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 367, 378, 430, 441,
447, 461, 468, 498; see Cave-bear and
Ursus
Beaver, 63, 95, 134, 165, 182, 288, 348, 367,
447, 461, 468, 498, see Castor; giant, 111,
155, see Trogontherium
Bernifal, 321, 395, 396, 435
Billancourt, 109, 149, 152
Bison, Wisent, 13, 43, 44, 69, 71, 95, 98, 106,
125,147, 165, 192, 194, 196, 202, 206, 211,
223, 287, 288, 317, 321, 333; 348, 353, 356,
364, 368, 372, 385, 403, 405, 406, 410, 414,
420, 421, 423-428, 430, 431, 440, 400, 460,
406, 408, 505, 506, Pls. VII and VII; see
Bison
Bison, antiquus, 69; priscus, 71, 95, 148, 368,
see Bison
Blade, see Couteau and Lame
Bléville, 167
Boar, wild, 2, 3, 43, 44, 76, 95, 264, 265, 421,
426, 447, 461, 466, 468, 498; see Sus
Bockstein, 285, 314, 435, 442
Bois Colombes, 109, 149, 152
Borer, drill, see Pergoir
Bos, 71, 369, 405; longifrons, 498; primi-
genius, 71, 94, 222, 368, 413, 468, 469,
498; taurus, 447, 498; see Cattle
Bossuet, on the prehistory of man, 563, 504
Mane Reena 7,8, 78, 183, 4575 458, 478-
455
Brain, anthropoid, 51, 52, 56, 59; Briinn,
334, 490; Combe-Capelle, 236, 302, 490;
498; see
INDEX
Cr6-Magnon, 272, 292, 204, 209, 490;
evolution of, 8, 9, 56-60; Grimaldi, 269,
490; Modern, 56-59, 83, 84, 140, 235,
303, 490; Neanderthal, 9, 58, 59, 235-
237, 490; Ofnet, 480, 490; Piltdown, 58,
59, 139-141, 236, 490; Pithecanthropus
9, 58, 59, 83, 84, 490
Brassempouy, 14, 279, 314, 322, 331, 347;
355, 393, 395, 433-435, 438
Brive, 307, 314
Bronze Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267, 460, 461,
476
Bruniquel, 279, 348, 388, 427, 435, 436
Briinn, 279; 315, 322, 331, 334-337, 395, Pl.
II; race, 23, 257, 276, 278, 3602, 331, 333,
334-338, 480, 489-491, 500; see Briix,
Galley Hill, Pfedmost, Human fossils,
and Origin
Briix, 334; see Briinn race
Buchenloch, 245, 314, 435
Buffon, G. L. L., 3
Buhl, see Postglacial Stage
Burial customs, 24, 215, 221-223, 270, 271,
302, 303-305, 337, 376-380, 475-479
Burin, graver, 2'70, 306-308, 310, 386, 380,
479
Cc
Cabeco da Arruda, 467, 471, 474
Camargo, 279, 294, 314, 331, 435
Campignian, 493-495
Campigny, 471; see Campignian
Camps, open, 29, 30, 176, 283, 284, 314,
334, 337, 341-343, 442, 448
Canary Islands, 453, 454, 506-510
Canis, lagopus, 193, 206, see Fox, arctic;
neschersensis, 333; Ssuesst, 147; see Dog,
Jackal, and Wolf
Cannibalism, 184, 477
Cannstatt, 10, 105, 218, 220, 331
Cap-Blanc, 317, 395, 428, 431, 435
Capreolus, 70, 147, 367, 469; see Deer,
roe-
Capri, 167, 168
Caramanico, 167
Castillo, 33, 150, 162-165, 167, 245, 246,
279; 314; 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342, 340,
395, 402, 408, 435, 436, 450, 460, 471
Castor, 69; fiber, 147, 183, 470; see Beaver
Cattle, wild (Aurochs, Urochs, urus), 43, 44,
62, 66, 76, 95, 98, 106, 119, 125, 148, 165,
182, 192, 206, 211, 214, 245, 265, 284, 288,
325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 302, 405, 413,
461, 466, 468, 469, 497, 498, 505, 506; see
Bos and Leptobos
INDEX
Cave-bear, 16, Ti, 15; 2U2, 194, 197; 207,
202, 206, 210; 211, 212, 213, 218, 287, 401,
413; see Ursus speleus
Cave-hyzena, 11, 212; 218, 265, 287, 288;
see Hyena crocuta spelea
Cave-leopard, 206, 287; see Felis pardus
spelea
Cave-lion, 201, 206, 265, 287; see Felis leo
spele@a
Caverns, 24; formation of, 30-33, 212; life
in, 2; 30, 32, 211-213, 457
Cavillon, Grotte de, see Grimaldi, Grottes
de
Cazelle, 435
Cephalic index, 8, 480, 490
Ceppagna, 167
Cergy, 109, 149; 152
Cervus, carmutorum, 71;dama, 498; dicranius,
71; elaphus, 79; 94, 147, 367, 392; 420,
461, 469; maral, 367, 447; sedgwicki, 60,
71; see Deer and Stag
Chaffaud, Grotte du, 396, 404, 435, 438
Chaleux, Trou de, 435
Chamois, Rupicapra, 44, 46, 201, 264, 265,
357; 365, 366, 369, 371, 466
Champs, 435, 436
Champs Blancs, 331, 348; 435
Chancelade, 279, 376-378, 382, 435
Chapelle-aux-Saints, La, 7, 9, 203, 214; 222-
224, 226-232, 235-238, 241-243, 245, 246
Chatelperron, 305, 307, 314; seé Pointe
Chellean, 14-16, 18; chronology, 33, 34,
113-115, 120; climate, 117, 118; fauna,
144-148; geography (physical), 115, 116,
154-157; industry, 12, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108,
114, 148-154, 270, 280, 362; stations, 149,
152, 154-158; see Origin
Chelles, 16, 109, 111, 116, 140, 152, 154,
167, 244
Chimpanzee, 3, 8, 49, 52-56, 58, 59, 78, 140,
227, 231, 235, 490, 511, 512
Chipping, see Flint
Chisel, see Ciseau
Chronology, 10, 12-14, 16, 18-24, 41, 510;
tables, 18, 21, 22, 23; 33, 41, 43, 54, 108,
280, 362, 395, 491; means of estimating,
IQ, 20, 22-24, 317-320
Ciseau, chisel, 270, 271, 388, 392, 444
Climate, effect on fauna, 46, 47, 192, 194,
205, 284-287; effect on man, 33, 297, 332;
372, 382; glacial, 20, 29, 34, 37-43, 64-66,
89, 1604, 105, 114, 117; 188-194, 202, 205,
281, 285; interglacial, 20, 29, 30, 33, 34,
37-41, 43; 67, 9°, OI, 95, 103, I12, 117,
118, 186-188; Pliocene, 63; Postglacial,
23, 41, 43, 276, 281-284, 361-363
551
Clothing, 2, 178, 186, 213, 388, 392, 4096 °
Cogul, 394, 497
Colombes, 109, 149, 152
Combarelles, 319, 395-397, 399-401, 435
Combe-a-Roland, 331
Combe-Capelle, 167, 192, 196, 197, 190, 211,
245, 248, 249, 252, 253, 285, 270, 314;
man (Homo aurignacensis), 302, 303, 338
Combo-Negro, 435, 436
Compresseur, 271; see Anvils
Continental outline, 19, 34-37, 64, 65, 71,
86, 92, 105, II5, 116, 155, 156, 166, 180,
190, 281, 282, 288, 362
Cotte dé St. Brelade, La, 214, 225, 245
Cottés, Les, 213, 314
Coup de poing, 113, 114, 121, 129, 130, 152-
154, 169-173, 177-180, 222, 251-254, 256,
270
Couteau (knife, blade), 130, 172, 177, 180,
270, 306, 308, 310, 386, 389, 488, 494
Crayford, 198, 245
Créteil, 109, 149, 152
Cricetus pheus, 373, 374; see Hamster
Cré-Magnon, 279, 291, 314, 331, 437, Pl.
IT; man, 7, 273, 279, 291-294, 300, 301;
race, 7, 23, 54, 240, 257, 258, 260, 261,
263, 265-276, 278, 280-282, 284, 289-
305, 336, 351, 358, 376-382, 434, 440,
443, 449-454, 457-459, 489-492, 499, 500,
506-510, Pl. VIL
Cromer, Forest Bed of, 64, 67, 68, 71
Crosle Biscot, 435
Crouzade, 331, 341, 435, 437
Culture, see Industry
Cyon alpinus fossilis, 201
D
Dart-thrower, see Propulseur
Daun, see Postglacial Stage
Deer, 44; 125, 134, 245, 265, 356, 426, see
Cervus; Axis, 62, 71, 76, 102; fallow, 265,
469, 497, see Cervus dama; giant, 43, 94,
QO UIOs) OTe 209 ae larr 21s. ho kao.
see Megaceros; polycladine, 63, 102, see
Cervus dicranius and sedgwicki; red, 44,
287, 426, 447, seé Cervus elaphus and
Stag; roe-, 44, 94; 95, 165, 264, 265, 287;
404, 447, 466, 468, 488, 498, see Capre-
olus; tusa, 76
Dicerorhinus (R.), antiquitatis, 46, 106, 285,
séé Rhinoceros, woolly; etriscus, 41, 63,
69, seé Rhinoceros, Etruscan; merckii,
41, 92-94, 117, 148, 263, see Rhinoceros,
Merck’s
_ Dog; domestic, 474, 486, 488, 497, 499
552
Dolichocephaly, 7, 8, 78, 220, 230, 231, 266,
268, 334, 330, 338, 457, 478-481
Domestic Animals, 447, 466, 474, 486, 488,
497-499
Drill, see Pergoir
Dryopithecus, 6, 49, 50, 511
Diirnten, 20, 117, 119
Diirntenian, 107, 119
Duruthy, see Sorde
E
Ehringsdorf, 167, 181, 214
Elasmothere, E. szbiricum, 46, 286, 373
Elephant, 38, 43, 44, 47, 72, 76, 86, 91-95,
102, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 155,157,
161, 174,177, 180, 187, 192, 205, 245, 2045
see Elephas
Elephas, antiquus, 27, 41, 47, 72, 76, 92-94,
96, 117, 123, 125, 148, 165, 263; hysudri-
cus, 76; meridionalis, 26, 27, 41, 62, 69, 72,
92, 125; planifrons, 62; primigenius, 26,
46, 106, 285; trogontherit, 41, 93, 102, 1175
see Elephant and Mammoth
Elevation, see Continental outline
Enfants, Grotte des, see Grimaldi, Grottes
de, and Grimaldi race
Engis, 435, 453
Engraving, 317, 319-324, 326, 348, 349, 353,
355, 356, 358, 392-407
Eoanthropus dawsoni, 138, see Piltdown
Eolith, 11, 68, 84-86, 135
Eolithic, Era, 17, 18; industry, 17
Equus, caballus celticus, 367-369, 400, 408,
412, 419, 431, 432, 408; przewalski, 194,
367, 373, 408, 410, 419; stenonis, 27, 62,
63, 69, 72; see Horse
Erect attitude, 4, 57-60, 73, 74, 82, 241-244
Ermine, Mustela erminia, 46, 207, 370, 447,
469
Etruscan rhinoceros, see Rhinoceros
Eyzies, Les, 13, 249, 279, 331, 378, 388, 394,
435
F
Fate, Grotte delle, 245, 247
Fauna, 19-21, 38-47, 61-64, 66, 69, 108;
Acheulean, 117, 147, 148, 165, 177, 182;
African-Asiatic, 43, 44, 47, 62, 63, 71, 72,
86, 91-94, 205, 206, 287; alpine, 44, 46,
- 206, 287; Aurignacian, 284-289; Azilian-
Tardenoisian, 466, 468-470, 472; Chel-
lean, 117, 125, 144-148; forest, 44, 71,
206, 287; glacial, 105, 106, 117, 190-194,
196, 197, 205-214, 265; interglacial, 69-_
INDEX
72, QI-98, IOI-103, 108-112, 117, 110,
123-125, 186-188, 265; Magdalenian,
364-376, 385, 397-434, 449, 466, 469;
meadow, 44, 71, 206, 287; Mousterian,
117, 186-188, 190-194, 196, 197, I99-
214, 218, 221-223, 225, 263, 264; Plio-
cene, 54, 61-64, 144; Postglacial, 281,
364, 468, 469, 498, 499; Pre-Chellean,
108-112, 117, 125; Siwalik, 76; Solu-
trean, 332, 333, 343, 348; steppe, 44, 46,
194, 200, 281, 287, 362-366, 373-376,
449, 450; tundra, 44, 46, 190-194, 206-
211, 281, 285, 287, 349, 40L, 302—400,
370-373; migrations of, 19, 34-37, 62-
64, 71, 72, 202, 205-210, 287; represented
in Paleolithic art (list), 366; see Climate,
for effect of, and Faunal lists
Faunal lists, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287,
366
Faune chaude, 39, 91, 192; see Mousterian
fauna
Faune froide, see Mousterian fauna
Faustkeil, see Coup de poing
Fées, Grotte des, 279, 435
Felis, leo, 72, 92, 469; leo antiqua, 147; leo
spel@a, 47, 188; manul, 447; pardus
spelea, 201; see Cave-leopard, Cave-
lion, Leopard, Lion, and Wildcat
Femur (thigh-bone), 735 745 77,80, 237-241,
266, 298, 376, 380
Fére-en-Tardenois, 16, 465, 471
Ferrassie, La, 7, 214, 216, 219, 224, 232, 237,
245, 240, 269
Fire, use of, 2, 165, 212, 213
First Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
First Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Fishing, 355, 385, 390, 450, 465, 471
Flake, see Levallois
Flaking, see Flint
Flint, chipping, 170; cleavage, 171; flaking,
169
Floors, Mousterian, 198, 199
Flora, 20; Acheulean, 117, 118, 174, 1753
Chellean, 117, 118; glacial, 65, 108, 117—
IIQ, IQI, 192, 202, 208; interglacial, 20,
67, 90, 91, 117-119; Mousterian, 199;
Pliocene, 61, 63; Postglacial, 361, 372,
aThe 6a 488; Pre-Chellean, 117, 118;
Pre-Neolithic, 488
Font-de-Gaume: 283, 214, 318, 320, 321,
325, 331, 349, 356, 358, 365, 372, 395-
397, 399, 406-409, 412, 414-424, 435,
449
Font Robert, 277, 311, 314, 331, 340, 344
Forestian, Upper, 362; Lower, 282
Forests, see Flora
INDEX
Foro, 167
Fourth Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Fox, 43, 63, 71, 206, 265, 287, 333, 343, 348,
366, 447, 498, see Vulpes; arctic, 44, 46,
193, 207, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 408,
469, see Canis lagopus.
Freudenthal, 279, 435
Frileuse, 167
Frontal, Trou de, 435
- Fuente del Frances, 435
Furfcoz, 7, 279, 481-483, Pl. II; race, 278,
458, 480, 482-485, 489, 491, 492, 500; see
Grenelle, Ofnet, and Origin
Furninha, 167, 168
G
Galley Hill, 28, 302, 337, 338; see Briinn
race
Gansersfelsen, 435
Garenne, 435, 440
Gargano, 167
Gargas, 31, 307, 314, 317, 325, 327, 349, 394,
395
Germolles, 307, 314
Gibbon, 49-54, 58, 61, 63,77, 511; see Hylob-
ates
Gibraltar skull, 7, 9, 140, 214, 215, 216, 219,
220, 228, 232; 233, 236
Glacial Epoch, 18-23, 33, 40, 41, 43, 54;
chronology, 18-23, 40, 41, 108, 188, 280,
- 362; see Climate, Continental outline,
Fauna, Glaciers; First Glacial Stage
(Giinz), 23, 25, 26, 37, 38, 41, 43, 64-66;
Second Glacial Stage (Mindel), 23, 25,
26, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 65, 86-90; Third
Glacial Stage (Riss) :+23; 25, 26, 33, 37~
39, 41, 43, 94, 104-106, 115; Fourth
Glacial Stage (Wiirm), 18, 22, 23, 25, 26,
30, 32, 33, 36-38, 41, 43, 107, 108, 117,
160, 188-195, 205, 206, 280, 281, 284, 285,
362, Laufenschwankung, 41, 108, 280, 362;
First Interglacial Stage (Giinz-Mindel or
Norfolkian), 23, 26, 29, 33-35, 38,41, 43,
66-72, 84, 95, 115; Second Interglacial
Stage (Mindel-Riss), 23, 25, 29, 33, 38,
40, 41, 43, 69, 90-95, IOQ-IITI, 114, 115;
Third Interglacial Stage (Riss-Wiirm),
23, 25, 29, 33; 34, 36, 38-41, 43> 69, 94,
107, 108, 112, 113, 115-119, 186-188, 280,
' 362; Postglacial Stage, 18-23, 29, 32, 33,
36, 41, 43, 108, 280-284, 362, 468, 510,
Raid. 23.25, 26, 41, 108,276, 280, 28r,
361, 362, 370, 372, 446, 447, 449, Gschniiz,
23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 362, 363, 372,
449, 450, Daun, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281,
553
362, 363, Achenschwankung, 25, 26, 281,
282, 284
Glaciers, 64-66, 89, 90, 94, 104-106, 118,
189, 190, 361-363
Glutton, see Gulo luscus and Wolverene
Gobelsburg, 435, 448
Goccianello, 167, 168
Gorge d’Enfer, 331, 435
Gorilla, 49, 52, 54-56, 511, 512
Goulaine, 435, 438
Gourdan, 214, 279, 331, 341, 369, 388, 392,
435, 438
Goyet, 435
Grattoir, 129, 130, 177, 254, 2'70, 306-310,
386, 390, 470, 473, 494; caréné, 308, 309,
463
Graver, see Burin
Gravette, etching tool, 270
Gravette. La 377) 211P S14
Gray’s Thurrock, 28, 109, 116, 128, 149,
152, 156, 157
Greek conception of nature and of the pre-
history of man, 1-3
Grenelle, 279, 481, 482, 484; race, see
Furfooz
Gréze, La, 314, 317, 327, 331, 395, 396
Grimaldi, Grottes de (Baoussé Roussé), 245,
247, 262-265, 270, 294, 205, 312-314, 321,
323, 380; Baousso da Torre, 263, 294;
Barma Grande, 263, 294; Cavillon,
Grotte de, 263, 294; Enfants, Grotte
des, 263-265, 292, 294-297, see Grimaldi
race; Prince, Grotte du, 262, 263
Grimaldi race, 7, 19, 245, 260, 262-269,
278, 279, 294, 301, 314, 490-492
Gschnitz, see Postglacial Stage
Guanches, 453-455, 507-510
Sep aes 245, 248, 279, 307, 314, 435,
44
Gulo luscus, 469; borealis, 193; see Wol-
verene
Giinz, see Glacial Epoch
H
Hachette (tranchette, chopper, cleaver), 270,
488, 494
Hammer-stone, see Percuteur
Hamster, 46, 63, 147, 165, 287, 362, 364
374 |
Hand-axe, see Coup de poing
Hand-stone, see Coup de poing
Hare, 289, 333, 368, 447, 468, 498, see
Lepus (timidus); arctic, 46, 207, 287,
348, 379; 447, 468, 469, see Lepus vari-
abilis; tailless, see Lagomys and Pika
554
Harpoons, 355, 383-385, 387, 388, 390, 3901,
440, 443-445, 449, 450, 450, 460-462, 465,
466, 470, 474; 486, 487
Hastings, 471, 475
Heidelberg man; Mauer,.7, 23, 24, 40, 41,
53) 54, 90, 95-101, 114, 138, 143, 144, 214,
228, 229, 489, 491; 492, Pl. II
Heidelberg race, see Heidelberg man and
Origin
Helin, 109, 116, 127, 128, 149, 152, 166, 167
Helvetian, see Diirntenian
Hermida, La, 435
Hippopotamus, H. major, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44,
47, 99, 71, 86, QI, 92-94, 102, 117, 123-
125, 134, 147, 148, 155, 157, 165, 174, 177,
186, 192, 199, 263, 264
HoGhlefels bei Hiitten, 435, 442
Hohlefels bei Schelklingen, 435, 442
Hohlestein, 314, 435
Hommes, Grotte des, 279, 435
Homo, aurignacensis, see Combe-Capelle
man; heidelbergensis, see Heidelberg man;
moustertensis, see Neanderthal race;
neanderthalensis, see Neanderthal race;
sapiens, 7, 9, 10, 54, 230-234, 257; 260,
261, 278, 334, 484, 490, 491, 500
Horace, on the prehistory of man, 3, 504
Hornos de la Pefia, 245-247, 314, 331, 395,
435, 430
Horse, 45, 165, 182, 192, 225, 284, 355, 385,
392, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 412-414, 431,
432, 469, 498; Desert, Plateau of Celtic,
see Equus caballus celticus; Forest or Nor-
dic, 95, 147, 288, 289, 367, 369, 400, 498;
Hipparion, 63; kiang or wild ass, 194,
285-287, 366, 367, 372-374, 400, 447;
Solutré, 288, 289, 414; Steno’s, 34, 096,
TIO, I1I, 125, see Equus stenonis ; Steppe,
see Equus przewalski
Hoéteaux, Les, 279, 378, 379, 435
Hoxne, 158
Human figures, 317, 321-323, 328, 329, 337,
357, 393, 395, 399; 433, 434, 497
Human fossils, 4, 11; distribution of, 214,
279; tables of, 7, 219, 294, 336, 378, 490;
see Lists
Human races, see Lists and Origin
Hunting, 2, 11, 166, 202, 211-214, 283, 272,
450, 471, 490, 497
Hyena, 43, 62, 76, 110, 147, 148, 155, 165,
188, 214, 245, 265,317, 350, 470; see Cave-
hyena and Hyena
Hyena, brevirostris, 125; crocuta, 102, 147;
crocuta spelea, 47, 102, 188; striata, 92,
192; see Hyzena
Hylobates, 6; see Gibbon
INDEX
I
Ibex, Ibex priscus, 44, 46, 201, 206, 264, 265,
287, 289, 321, 348, 357, 369, 371, 391, 401,
405, 433, 447, 406, 469, 497
Ice Age, seé Glacial Epoch
Ice-fields, 19, 22; see Glaciers
lnploments, Il, 27-36, £30, 270278, ort
270, 329, 330; see Eolith, Flint, Tudustry,
Lists, Neolith, Paleolith
Industry, 4, 11, 12-14, 19, 33, see Acheulean,
Aurignacian, Azilian-Tardenoisian, Chel-
lean, Campignian, Magdalenian, Mous-
terian, Neolithic, Pre-Chellean, Solu-
trean; see Lists and Implements
Interglacial Stages, see Glacial Epoch
Iron Age, 12, 18, 21; 202, 267
Irpfelhdhle, 245, 248
Istein, 469, 471-473
Isturitz, 347, 395
J
Jackal, 43, 44; see Canis neschersensis
Javelin point, see Sagaie
Jerboa, 46, 194, 287, 364; see Alactaga ja-
culus
K
Karlich, 314
Kartstein, 245, 248, 314, 435
Kastlhing, 370, 435, 442
Kerit’s Hole, 10, 152, 244, 245, 435, 440
Kesslerloch, 279, 286, 355, 361, 364, 378,
383, 435; 430, 441, 442, 444-446, 449
Kiang, wild ass, see Horse
Kleinkems, 471
Knife, blade, see Couwteau and Lame
Knight, Charles R., see Restorations
Kostelik, 435, 448
Krapina, 7, 162, 167, 181-185, 214, 219, 220,
228, 429, 256
Krems, 119, 248, 289, 307, 314, 435, 448
L
Lacave, 279, 331, 340, 345, 347, 301
Lagomys, 63; pusillus, 202, 370, see Pika
Lagopus, see Ptarmigan
Lamarck, on man, 4
Lame, blade, 271
Lampe, lamp, 270, 401, 402
Laufenschwankung, see Glacial Epoch
Laugerié Basse, 13, 14, 275, 279, 331, 348,
376-378, 385, 388, 392, 407, 434, 435, 471
Laugerie Haute, 13, 14, 279, 294, 296, 314,
331, 346, 352, 435
Laussel, 245, 246, 249, 275, 313, 314, 317)
326-329, 331, 352, 395, 435
INDEX
Lauterach, 314
Lemming, 46, 191, 193; 194, 202, 207, 281,
287, 333, 348, 361, 364, 370, 469, 476;
see M yodes
Leopard, 265, 348; see Cave-leopard and
Felis pardus spelea
Leptobos, 71; elatus, 62; etruscus, 63; see
Cattle
Lepus, 469; cuniculus, 364, see Rabbit;
timidus, 364, see Hare; variabilis, 206,
see Hare, arctic
Levallois, 167, 179
Levallois flake, 167, 168, 179, 180, 199, 250,
251
Limeuil, 279, 435
Lion, 43, 86, 94-96, 98, 148, 165, 188, 281,
317, 348, 356, 365, 378, 400, 407, 446, 468,
472, 498; see Cave-lion and Felis leo
Lissoir, polisher, smoother, 270, 271, 380,
388, 392, 456; 463, 466, 470
Lists and Tables, chronology, 18, 21, 22, 23,
33, 41,54, 108, 280, 362; climatic changes,
38, 39, 41, 43, 117, 191, 192, 275, 281, 284,
361-364; fauna, 21, 41, 43, 54, 62, 95,
125, 147, 206, 207, 287; human fossils, 7,
Q, 219, 236, 237, 239, 266, 294, 295, 330,
378, 490; human races, 41, 54, 108, 278,
280, 362, 458, 490, 491, 409, 500; indus-
tries, divisions of, 18, 113, 114, 248, 240,
252, 340, 380, succession of, 12, 13, 14, 16,
17,18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; implements,
Liveyre, 331, 435
Loam; 5, 24, 27; 28
Loess, 5) 23-25, 29, 30, 36, 38, 46, 97, 103,
Proeehs, 17-110, 122-124, 151, £86; 161,
162,174, 176, 181, 252, 281, 282, 284, 286,
314, 334, 337, 304, 376, 442,448; stations,
see Camps, open
Longueroche, 435, 471
Lorthet, 406, 407, 435, 438, 471
Lourdes, 279, 388, 432, 435, 430, 438, 471
Lower Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers
Lucretius on the prehistory of man, 1, 2, 503
Lussac, 279, 435
Lutra vulgaris, 147; see Otter
Lynchus lynx, 469; see Lynx
Lynx, 43, 63, 206, 287, 367, 466; See Lyn-
chus lynx
M
Macaque, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76
Macerata, 167
Macherodus, 41, 69, 244; see Sabre-tooth
tiger
355
Madeleine, La, 13, 16, 279, 351, 383-389,
398, 435, 443, 445, 449, 471
Magdalenian, 14-16, 18, 276, 277, 351-360;
art, 351-357, 305, 366, 393, 395-434; bur-
ial customs, 376-380; chronology, 18, 33,
41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 351, 361-364; cli-
mate, 276, 360-364, 370-376, 443, 447,
449, 450; fauna, 361-376, 443, 445-447,
449, 450; human fossils, 376-382; indus-
try, 14-16, 270, 271, 275, 270, 351-356,
358, 382-392, 436, 440, 443-450; stations,
351, 434-449; see Origin and Rodent
Layers
Maglemose, 458, 471, 487, 488, 501
Magrite, Trou, 314, 331, 344, 435
Mairie, Grotte de la, 317, 395, 400, 405, 412,
413, 435, 442
Malarnaud, 214, 219
Mammoth, to, 43, 102, 109, 117, 134, 147,
148,177, 187, 194, 200, 262, 208, 200; 213,
218, 281, 288, 280, 316, 317, 321, 324-326,
333) 337; 348-350, 350, 364, 372, 385, 401,
403, 420, 421, 427, 429; 449, 450, 476, see
Elephas; woolly, 13, 40, 41, 43, 106, 117,
174, 187, 190-192, 196, 205, 207, 208, 210,
218, 221, 285-289, 334, 335, 363, 379, 372,
384, 397; 398, 420, 427, 446, see Elephas
primigenius
Man, ancestry of, 3-7, 49-64, 491, 511
Mantes-la-Ville, 167
Marcilly-sur-Eure, 214
Mare-au-Clercs, La, 167
Marignac, 109, 126, 149, 152
Markkleeberg, 167
Marmot, Arctomys marmotta, 182, 201, 206,
265, 370
Marsoulas, 314, 319, 321, 328, 373, 394, 395,
396, 399, 403, 405, 415, 416, 435, 471, 485
Marten, 71, 165, 201, 265, 367, 380, 447,
498; see Mustela martes
Martinshohle, 435, 471
Mas d@’Azil, 15, 16, 279, 319, 357, 375, 380,
385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449,
458-465, 471, 472, 474
Massat, 437, 471
Mastodon, 62; 70, 134
Maszycka, 435, 436, 449
Mauer, see Heidelberg man
McGregor, J. Howard, see Restorations
Mediterranean race, 261, 278, 457, 458,
479, 480, 485, 489, 491, 492, 499, 500
Megaceros, 45, 68, 70, 106, 147, 182, 106,
287, 367; see Deer, giant
Meles taxus, 147; see Badger
Mentone, 247, 322, 395, 472, 473; see Gri-
maldi, Grottées de
556
Merck’s Rhinoceros, see Dicerorhinus and
Rhinoceros
Mesaticephaly, 8, 479
Metternich, 284, 314
Micoque, La, 113, 167, 168, 179, 192, 196,
245, 240, 248, 249
Microlith, see Microlithique
Microlithique, microlith, 270, 306, 308, 310,
388, 396, 450, 470-472
Migration, of fauna, see Fauna; of human
races and industries, see Origin
Mindel, see Glacial Epoch
Miskolcz, 245, 248, 331
Mommenheim, 245, 247, 248
Monkeys, 54, 61-63
Montconfort, 279, 331, 435
Montfort, 341, 471
Monthaud, 331, 346
Montiéres, 109, 127, 149, 152, 186, 244, 245,
283, 314, 331
Moose, 44, 94, 96, 265, 281, 348, 366, 468,
469, 472, 488, 496-498; see Alces
Moulin-de-Laussel, 331
Mousterian, 14-16, 18, 30, 186-188, 248-
250; ) burial” customs), 32259222, m7:
chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362;
climate, 117, 123, 188-199, 202, 205, 207;
fauna, 117. 190-194, 196, 199-214; flora,
199; human fossils, 218-226; industry,
14-16, 113, 248-256, 270, 271; stations,
194-202, 244-248; see Caverns, life in,
Floors, and Origin
Moustier, Le, 13, 16, 196-199, 214, 245, 246,
251, 253, 255; man, 7, 196, 214, 221-223,
226, 228, frontispiece
Mouthe, La, 17, 246, 279, 314, 317, 320,
321, 394, 395, 398, 399, 401
Mugem, 471, 474, 486
Munzingen, 160, 195, 435, 439, 442, 443
Murals, see Painting
Musk-ox, 42-44, 46, 65, 66, 187, IOI, 193,
207, 285, 287, 289, 348, 362, 366, 370;
see Ovibos moschatus
Mustela, erminea, see Ermine; martes, 147,
469, see Marten.
M yodes, lemmus, 210; obensis, 206, 285, 3703
torquatus, 193, 202, 206, 285, 370, 441,
446, 447; see Lemming
N
Narbonne, 435, 437
Naulette, La, 7, 214, 221, 228
Neanderthal, cave, 31, 214, 216, 217, Pl.
II; burial customs, see Mousterian; man,
5) 7) 9, 56, 181, 216-219, 490; race, fron-
INDEX
tispiece, 5-7, 9, 23, 40, 41, 54, 136, 182,
IQI, 196, 211-244, 256, 258, 263, 272, 401,
492, anatomical features, 53-56, 183, 184,
203, 219-223, 226-244, 490, chronology,
41, 108, 257, 262, 280, 491, compared
with Cré-Magnon, 297, 298, discoveries,
181-185, 215-226, distribution of, 214,
219; see Origin
Necklace, 302, 304, 376, 378, 437, 472
Needle, see Aiguille
Negroid race, 261, 262, 266-269, 278, 301,
302, 321, 492
Neolith, 11, 496
Neolithic, New Stone Age, Io, 13, 18, 19, 21,
41, 108, 280, 362, 447, 482, 484-486, 488,
493-501
Neopithecus, 49
Neschers, 245, 435, 438
Niaux, 314, 319, 353, 373) 391, 394, 395, 400,
406, 409-411, 412, 429, 435
Niedernau, 370, 435
Norfolkian, see First Interglacial Stage
and Forest Bed of Cromer
Nutons, Trou des, 435
O
Oban, 474, 475, 486
Obercassel, man, 7, 279, 353, 378, 380-382,
435, 443
Oberlarg, 435
Ochos, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 248
Ofnet, 279, 285, 314, 331, 379, 435, 469, 471,
473, 475-481, races, 442, 457-460, 480,
481, 490, 491,500; see Furfooz race and
Origin
Ojcow, 331, 436, 449
Ondratitz, 331
Orang, 3, 49, 52-54, 56, 77) 511
Origin, of industries, Acheulean, 261, 492,
Aurignacian, 261, 289, 305-307, 322, 402,
Azilian-Tardenoisian, 457, 470-472, 492,
Chellean, 126, 261, 492, Magdalenian,
351-353, 383, Mousterian, 261, Pre-
Chellean, 126, Solutrean, 330, 331, 340,
353, 492; of human races, Alpine, 458,
484, 485, Briinn, 331, 492, Cré-Magnon,
261, 322, 492, Furfooz, 492, Grimaldi,
262, Heidelberg, 492, Mediterranean, 492,
Neanderthal, 492, Ofnet, 457, 484, 485,
Piltdown, 492, Teutonic, 486
Otter, 63, 71, 76, 165, 201, 287, 468, 498;
see Lutra vulgaris P
Ovibos, 376; maschatus, 193, 445, 447, see
Musk-ox
Ovis argaloides, 369; see Argali sheep
INDEX
Pp
Painted Pebbles, see Azilian-Tardenoisian
industry
Painting, 305, 316-318, 320, 321, 324, 325,
327, 328, 330, 358, 365, 394-396, 404-406,
408-429, 464, 465, 474, 496, 497
Pair-non-Pair, 279, 307, 314, 317, 320-322,
331, 336, 394-396
Paleolith, 11, 24, 84, 85, 109, 111, 158, 389
Paleolithic, Old Stone Age, 13, 16, 18, 19,
21, 28, 33, 41, 108, 160, 280, 362; Lower
Paleolithic, 14, 41, 108, 113, 114, 214,
280, 362, 490, 491; Upper Paleolithic,
14, 41, 108, 214, 275, 276, 278, 280, 362,
395, 396, 490, 491, 500; chronology, 18,
41, 108, 280, 362, 456
Paleo pithecus, 49, 511
Parietal Art, see Painting
Pasiega, La, 319, 395, 402-405
Pataud, 245, 246, 331
Paviland, 279, 289, 290, 294, 314, 440
Pech de l’Azé, 214, 219,, 245
Pergoir, drill, borer, 130, 135, 153, 172, 179,
253, 254, 270, 306, 308, 310, 311, 344,
346, 385, 386, 388, 390, 392, 470, 473,
488
Percuteur, hammer-stone, 130, 254, 270,
306 :
Pescara, 167
Petit Puymoyen, 214, 245, 246
Pic, pick, 494
Pierre de jet, throwing stone, 130, 172, 213,
254, 270, 306
Pika, 46, 362, 447; see Lagomys (pusillus)
Piltdown, 109, 116, 128, 130-135, 149, 152,
ai4,11. 11; industry, 127, 128, 133-135;
man (Eoanthropus), 7, 23, 24, 40, 59, 53,
54, 50, 130-145, 214, 489-491; race, see
Piltdown man and Origin
Pindal, 314-316, 325, 349, 394, 395
Pithecanthropus, 'Trinil race, 7, 23, 24, 40,
53, 54, 86, 491, 511, Pl. II; anatomical
features, 9, 10, 53; 56, 74; 77-84, 233, 234,
240, 490; discovery, 73-77
Placard, 279, 331, 333, 334, 340, 345-348,
352; 353) 355, 378-380, 383, 385, 389, 435,
436, 438
Rlaning tool, see Grattoir
Pleistocene, see Glacial Epoch
Pliohylobates, 49, 54
Pliopithecus, 49, 54
Poignard, dagger, poniard, 271, 392, 432
Poingon, awl, 271, 308, 346, 392, 470
Pointe, point, knife, lance head, spear head,
15, 113, 153, 172, 177, 179, 248-255, 270,
557
306, 308, 310, 311, 473; Chatelperron, 306,
307, 311; potnte d cran, shouldered, 270,
308, 310, 313, 334, 340, 342, 345, 346, 352;
pointe a face plane, 341; pointe de lance,
271, 300; pointe de laurier, laurel leaf, 15,
270, 310-312, 334, 337, 339-341, 344, 345,
347, 348, 352; pointe de sagaie, javelin
point, 271, 308, 340, 346, 354, 355, 361,
364, 370, 383, 387, 390, 442, 440, 462, 494;
pointe de saule, willow leaf, 340, 344, 347;
pointe a sole, 270, 310, 311, 313, 340,
345
Polisher, see Lissoir
Portel, Le, 319, 394, 411, 412
Postglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Pottery, 461, 466, 474, 486, 488, 496
Praule, Trou de, 435
Pre-Chellean, 16, 18, 36, 41; chronology,
18, 33, 40, 41, 90, 107-115, 280, 362;
climate, 108,. 112; 114, 117, 118, 123;
fauna, 108-112, I17, 124, 125; industry,
40, I14, 120-130, 270; stations, 10g, 116,
122-128, 149, I50-152, 158, see Conti-
nental outline and Origin
Predmost, 257, 279, 331, 341, 345, 348, 3490,
366, 395, 427; see Briinn race; mam-
moth hunters, 279, 337
Primates, 3-10, 40, 49-64, 73-84, 86, 140,
I4I, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233-235, 237-240,
490, 491
Prince, Grotte du, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Propliopithecus, 49, 54
Propstfels, 372, 435, 442, 469
Propulseur, spear thrower, dart thrower,
271, 355, 391, 432, 433, 430, 445, 449
Ptarmigan, Lagopus, 44, 206, 207, 287, 289,
37°, 371, 375, 409
Q
Quartz, 166
Quartzite, 163, 164, 265
Quina, la; 0; 113,251, 283, 214, 245) 226,
248, 253-250; man, 7, 9, 214, 210, 217;
219) 221, 225, 230,°227, 246
R
Rabbit, 265, 343, 368, 468; see Lepus
cuniculus
Racloir, scraper, 113, 114, 130, 135, 172, 178,
200, 248, 250, 251, 253-255, 270, 300, 387,
388, 470, 472, 473, 488
Rangifer tarandus, 193, 209, 210, 285; see
Reindeer
Rauberhohle, 245, 247, 248, 314
558
Raymenden, 340, 376, 388, 435
Reilhac, 331, 471
Reindeer, 13, 41, 43, 44, 46, 102, 103, 187,
I9I-194, 196, 197, 202, 205, 206, 209,
219-212, 214, 221, 223, 225,. 284, :285,
286-280, 314, 317, 332, 333, 365, 366,
370, 372, 385, 392, 399, 405, 407, 411-
413, 415, 419-421, 429, 433, 440, 441,
445, 447, 461, 462, 408, 469, 471, 474,
481, 498; see Rangifer
Reindeer Epoch, Period, 13, 14, 102, 192,
275, 286, 363, 375, 392, 438, 450, 459
Religion, 272, 358-360, 463, 465, 501
Remouchamp, 471, 474
Ressaulier, 435, 436
Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontis-
piece, 358; McGregor, J. Howard, 9,
79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203,
242, 243, 273, 203, 300, 301; Rutot-
Mascré, 73, 101, 484, 495
Retouch, 169-172, 248, 269, 306, 308, 310,
331, 332, 338, 339, 358, 389
Rey, 331
Rhens, 284, 314
Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221,
245, 280, 337, 350, 305, see Dicerorhinus ;
Etruscan, 34, 95-907, IQI, 100, I10-%52,
117, £25. 334, (dd, Bee, vesscus
Merck’s (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, 93,
94, 97, 102, 109, I19, 124, 125, 134, 147,
148, I5I, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177,
182, 186, 187, 192, 205, 2603-265, see 2).
merckit; woolly, 11, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148,
174, 187, 190, I9I, 196, 199, 205, 206,
208-210, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, 285-288,
314, 319, 324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372,
400, 409, see D. antiquitatis
Riss, see Glacial Epoch
River-drifts, 5, 11, 12, 23; formation, 24-
27, 90, IIQ, 154-157, 186; stations, 114-
116, 119-124, 154-156; terraces, 20, 23,
24-28, 34) 85, 90, 104, 154-157; 162
Robenhausen, 471, 495
Roccamorice, 167
Roche au Loup, 307, 314
Rochette, La, 245, 246
Rock Shelters, 32, 33
Rodent Layers, 447; Lower, 206,
213, 281, 314; Upper, 281, 301,
446
Romanelli, 306, 314
Riiderbach, 167
Riidersheim, 167
Rupicapra, see Chamois
Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435
Rutot-Mascré, see Restorations
207,
363,
INDEX
Sablon, 162, 167
Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, 70, 72, 94,
102,, 110-112, I17, 125, 44 1475 see
Macheradus
Sagaie, javelin point, see Poy de sagaie
Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333
357, 362, 366, 373, 374, 376, 449
Saiga tartarica, see Saiga antelope
Salitre, 435
Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, 119-124,
127-129, 149-152, 155, 162, 163, 166, 167,
170, 244, 245, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435, 440
Saint Lizier, 435
Saint Martin d’Excideuil, 331
Saint Prest, 17, 67-69
San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246
Sciurus vulgaris, 367; see Squirrel
Schmiechenfels, 372, 435, 469
Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442
Schussenried, 435, 441; see Schussenquelle
Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441,
442, 444-447, 440, 460
Scraper, see Racloir
Sculpture, 317, 320-323, 328, 320, 347-349,
356-358, 392, 303, 395, 396, 427-434
Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Seven Oaks, 471, 475
Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters
Sipka, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435,
449
mireull, 314, ¢24.905
Sirgenstein, 201, 202, 245, 248, 285, 314,
331, 379, 372, 435, 441, 460
Sivapithecus, 511
Siwalik, see Fauna
Solutré, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330,
331, 341-345, 373, 435, 436, 438
Solutrean, 14-16, 18, 41, 2'70, 271, 276, 278,
280; art, 347-350, 357; burial customs,
332; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362;
climate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 332, 333;
fauna, 332-334, 343, 348, 366; human
fossils, 279, 334-337; industry, 275-278,
330-332, 334, 338-348, 351, 352, 354, 358;
stations, 326-328, 331, 337, 340-348, see
Origin
Somme River, 12, 110, 112, 114-117, 119,
120, 122-125, 127, 104, 69,0070
Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438
Souzy, 435
Spermophilus rufescens, 194, 3733; see Sus-
lik
Spear-point, see Pointe
INDEX
Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140
Spiennes, 127, 128, 495
Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331; Man,
ay Ol, 214, 218-220, 226, 228, 220, 231—
233, 235-237, 244, 250, 257, 490
Squirrel, 447, 498; see Sciurus vulgaris
Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264,
265, 288, 333, 364, 367, 370, 372, 405, 426,
429, 450, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488, 497,
498; see Cervus elaphus and Deer, red
Stegodon, 76, 134
Strassberg, 435
Stratification of Castillo, 164; Enfants,
Grotte des, 265; Heidelberg, 97; Made-
leine, La, 385; Mas d’Azil, 461; Ofnet,
476; Piltdown, 133; Placard, 333-3343
Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150; Schweizers-
bild, 447; Sirgenstein, 202
Subsidence, see Continental outline
Sureau, Trou du, 435
Sus, arvernensis, 63; scrofa, 71; scrofa
ferus, 147, 165, 368, 469; scrofa palustris,
499; see Boar
Suslik, 206, 289, 447; see Spermophilus
rufescens
Au
Tables, see Lists
Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian
Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal,
232, 233; see Neanderthal
Taubach, 119, 167, 244
Tectiforms, 283, 284, 403, 404
Terraces, see River-drifts
Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501
Teyjat, 388, 394, 306, 435; see Mairie,
Grotte de la, and Abri Mége
Thiede, 314
Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Throwing stone, see Pierre de jet
Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240
Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298
Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167
Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152
Tourasse, La, 471, 486
Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, 324, 326, 331, 340,
341, 344, 347, 440
Trinil race, see Pithecanthropus
Trogontherium, 45, 69, 94; see Beaver, giant
559
Tuc d’Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, 427-
431, 435
Tundra, see Climate, glacial; see Fauna
Turbarian, Lower, 361; Upper, 363
U
Upper drift, 191
Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers
Urochs, Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and
Cattle
Ursus, arctos, 102, 147, 211, 469; arvernen-
$15, 63,94, 102; deningert, 102; spele@us, 45,
183, 210, 211, 369; see Bear and Cave-
bear
V
Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471
Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474
Venosa, 167
Villejuif, 30, 167, 176
Volgu, 331, 339, 345
Voélklinshofen, 284, 314
Vulpes, 469; see Fox
WwW
Warm fauna, see Faune chaude
Weimar, 167
Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331
Wildcat, Felis catus, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498
Wildhaus, 314, 435
Wildkirchli, 200, 201, 245, 247, 256
Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444
Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395
Winterlingen, 435
Wisent, see Bison
Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206,
264, 265, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 356,
366, 441, 447, 468, 408; see Canis suessi
and Cyon alpinus fossilis
Wolvercote, 167
Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, 193, 287,
289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 498; see Gule
luscus
Wiirm, see Glacial Epoch
Wiiste Scheuer, 471
Z
Zonhoven, 471, 474
Zuffenhausen, 314
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