ROUND THE V ORLD : TRAVE LLER D.E.LORENZ Lt oYue BENARES SS COLOMBGC: Jee : CEYTON — THE ’ROUND THE WORLD TRAVELLER “Better than a Shelf of Guide-Books” Complete Tourists’ Handbooks BY D. E. LORENZ, Pu.D. Director of World Cruises The ’Round the World Traveller with 464 pages, 8 maps and 60 original illustrations—$5.00 Third, 1925, Edition A new volume by the famous world- traveller supplies a long felt need. It takes the place of an armful of guide-books for the various countries visited—giving the neces- sary information in complete, attractive and easily remembered form. Similar in scope and treatment to “The New Mediterranean Traveller,” it will doubtless soon take its place as a standard handbook for ’Round the World tourists. The New Mediterranean Traveller 357 pages, with maps, plans, pictures Tenth, 1925, Edition—$4.00 The New Mediterranean Traveller will be found to include the latest and fullest development in the Lands visited by tourists in the Near East. It has long been recog- nized as the most satisfactory volume covering the necessary facts and details of Mediterranean travel, and its original value has been greatly increased in this present rewritten and revised form. Boston Transcript says: “Even the travel- ler on his first trip abroad cannot fail to know what is best for him to see and to know when he finds it.” A KYOTO GARDEN IN MID-WINTER The >Round the World Traveller A Complete Summary of Practical Information By D. E. LORENZ, Ph.D. Author of “The New Mediterranean Traveller” Director of World Wide Cruises THIRD, 1925, EDITION, REVISED FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS New York CHICAGO Preming H. Revell Company LONDON AND EDINBURGH Copyright, 1924, 1925, by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. London: 21 Paternoster Square Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street INTRODUCTION HIS new volume, the outcome of three "Round the World trips by the author, is especially prepared for people who visit only the more important centres of the Far East, such as are usually included in the itinerary of travellers, thus making it possible, within the scope of 464 pages, to give a thorough treatment of these essential places. This obviates the necessity of carrying a dozen dif- ferent guide books for the various countries visited, which give most of their space to the minute description of places rarely visited. The author has reason to feel, after going over the litera- ture on this subject, that no other book gives so complete a survey of the essential facts and details of the countries and places usually visited. It is similar in scope to the author’s ““New Mediterranean Traveller,’’ which has become the standard manual of travel for Mediterranean lands. The information in this volume is put in a systematic and serviceable form, with prominent headings and sub-headings, so as to give added convenience while sightseeing. A selected bibliography, and a condensed outline of facts and figures, serve as a valuable supplement to each country visited. There is also a brief preliminary survey of history, govern- ment, international relations, religions, art and national cus- toms. ‘The illuminating reviews of the Filipino Independ- ence movement, the so-called “Japanese Menace,” the alarm- ing situation in China, Gondhiism, and similar questions, are believed to be a valuable feature. The book includes a general survey of Cuba, specialising Havana; the Isthmus of Panama, featuring Colon and Pan- ama City, and especially the Panama Canal; Hawaii, stress- ing Hilo, the Kilauea volcano, and Honolulu and its environ- ment; Japan, featuring Tokyo, Kamakura, Nikko, Kyoto, 5 6 INTRODUCTIGaY Nara, Osaka, Kobe, the Inland Sea, Nagasaki, and some conspicuous places in an overland trip across Japan; Korea, with a special treatment of Seoul; China, giving prominence to Shanghai, Tientsin, Peking, Hong Kong, Canton and Macao; the Philippine Islands, putting emphasis upon Ma- nila and its surroundings; Java, with descriptions of Batavia, Buitenzorg, Sourabaya and Borobudur; the Malay Penin- sula, featuring Singapore; Burma, giving special prominence to Rangoon; India, describing Calcutta, Darjeeling, Benares, Lucknow, Cawnpore, Agra and the Taj Mahal, Delhi, Jaipur, Amber, Bombay, Madras, Trichinopoli and Ma- dura; Ceylon, placing stress upon Colombo and Kandy; the Suez Canal, including Suez and Port Said; and Egypt, em- phasising Cairo, Luxor, Karnak, and the tomb of Tutank- hamen at Thebes. | The materials have been gathered from many sources, special credit being due to such notable books as Powell’s “Asia at the Cross-Roads,”’ Bland’s “China, Korea and Japan,” Greenbie’s “The Pacific Triangle” and others. The author is also indebted to Dr. Burton M. VanDervoort for the use of his photographs. Several of the illustrations ap- peared originally in “Twice Around the World,” by Edgar A. Forbes. New York City. D.E.L. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Events in the Far East have moved in the last eighteen months at such a bewildering pace, especially in Japan, China and India, that a revised edition, bringing history, political situations, statistics and bibliography up to date, has seemed imperative. Scores of pages have been entirely rewritten and evidences of revision will be seen throughout. The writer appreciates the cordial reception given to the first two editions. JULY I, 1925. Es. CHAPTER I. ae Iil. IV. CONTENTS WUBA Ga. Se ae 13 eo Tan Ase ant ecru ar 5. Per eae, Fes £2) I Ae en re hs re SOS 4 20 BEPERACTICAL HINTS . =. 31 4. SUPPLEMENTARY FAcTS AND Wicutss 35 Reet BCeN tT DIBLIOGRAPHY . . .. . +» 34 PANAMA 2, > SCONES aie ORR rename mere 1 Pee OLONG dn: A soe BU ae aes OF 2. THE PANAMA Caner 5 die LPS SPA y Peay 2.) Reema A Ciry 203 2/94 50 4. SUPPLEMENTARY FAcTS AND eons 56 Ran CORNT DIBLIOGRAPHY.. 9.) .0>. . — 88 COAG tol ot Na 2 iil see nea ane ne TGHLISTORY . -; ree ROO 2. THE AMERICAN ae eran SOF URE era) te ahatilen Mia, cl ie ID 4. HonoLuLu . . 73 5. SUPPLEMENTARY or AND pene 82 Pe ECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY + HOMO ON AMNBW DH lal bo VII. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS : 1. THE Unirep Statrs ADMINISTRATION 2. Maniza . cP SAA panies Fa ACTS AND Fiocae 4. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . VIII. JAVA> Oo 2°.) ek 1.- BATAVIA 4 3) )) PAGE 119 124 130 133 144 149 156 159 160 164 165 165 170 173 174 187 198 206 208 222 223 230 238 246 248 252 253 253 265 271 275 276 279 Soave NLD 'S 9 CHAPTER PAGE 2. BUITENZORG 282 3. SOURABAYA 287 4. BoROBUDUR . 288 5. SUPPLEMENTARY Pacts AND pieced 289 6. REcENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 291 IX. SINGAPORE ; 291 1. THOMAS STAMFORD Rice tee : 292 2. PLaces OF INTEREST 294 3. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND ee 295 moenpU RMA fl ee a tt 207, 1. History AND SEN Mant ete Wain CoN 2. KANGOON . en eel 3. SHwE Dacon PRtoDe 302 4. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND F IGURES 310 5. Recent BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . 31I XI. INDIA oy ae mee irae. be 1. History AND escntprion hin! & Seu ey Lk 2. GANDHIISM 318 3. RELIGIONS OF ite Er Kt Be 331 TTA ee ws 338 5. DARJEELING . 348 6. BENARES . 354 7. THE SEPOY vik 366 8. LucKNoWw 368 9. CAWNPORE uot 370 10. AGRA, THE Taj rhe Pie Sth 375 11. THE AGRA Fort, SIKANDRA, ore es RRL oo su) as oe B83, SOO 12 ELH... ON, art ee wy ty ce Ta PeeereaPUs AMBER...) 2) s % 399, 401 14. BomMBay . . 402 15. Mapras, igicaiocern Ree 414-417 16. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND FIGURES hs NJ . RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . 417 420 10 CHAPTER XII. AITI. XIV. XV. CONTENTS CEYLON 30 20. ee 1. COLOMBO .- .. sas 2. KanpDy 3. SUPELEMENTARY. Facts AND icons THE SUEZ CANAL 1. THE CANAL. : 2. SUEZ. °.. 2) 3 oe ee 3. Port SAW 3s) + fe) eee EGYPT 1. Carro 2. Luxor, Kine Time ; 3. SUPPLEMENTARY Facts AND oie 4. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY . RECENT ’ROUND THE WORLD BIB- LIOGRAPHY INDEX e Le] ,e@ e @ e e Co e PAGE 421 423 426 434 435 436 436 440 440 441 449 456 457 458 461 ILLUSTRATIONS WINTER SCENE IN A Kyoto GarpEN . .. title page FACING PAGE ENTRANCE TO HAvANA HarspourR .. . Sie eee HosAINABAD, ‘““T'HE PALACE OF LIGHTS,” IN LuUCK- NOW ; 5 ORO on THE Taj MAHAL Seat ta y Man Divine Eicuty FEEt at FaTepur Srxrt ’ Peart MosogurE aT AGRA (AUTHOR IN FOoRE- GROUND) . . 2 ea ParsEE WoMAN AND ines So eee : Hinpu WomMaN CarryYING MANURE Carns FOR FeEiervcner et ee VULTURES AT THE ‘Towers or SILENCE) 2a AUTHENTIC BIRTHPLACE OF Mr. KIPLING. . . A .CINGHALESE MADONNA’ 4° S "0oo ea ee TEMPLE OF THE ToorH AT Kanpy (AUTHOR IN FOREGROUND) £0) °°. a en PyRAMID AND SPHINX 20) SS MopvEerN INNOVATIONS oe te Se MAPS 1, “ROUND THE WoRLD)).. °) <2. eee 2. West INDIES 4... «0 o0 ala) 3. CANAL ZONE (000 2S. nek). 4.. HAWAUAN ISLANDS...) 0.) ee 5. PuHiviwpineE IsLaANDS~ .° >... Soon 6. SouTHERN AsIA,—SINGAPORE, BuRMA, INDIA . RN epg ra Bae ey She 8. EASTERN ASIA —JAPAN, Korea, Cuina 296 296 308 308 316 316 332 332 342 342 356 6 inside back cover CoUsBiA “The Pearl of the Antilles” UBA was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, a at which time he believed it to be the west shore of Asia. He called it Juana, after the daughter of his royal patrons, Ferdinand and Isabella. Subsequently it was named Santiago, after the patron saint of Spain. For a time the name was changed to Ave Maria, and finally it took its native name of Cuba. Velasquez, who founded Havana in 1515, called it the “key to the New World and the bulwark of the West Indies.” In 1848 President Polk suggested the purchase of Cuba for one million dollars, but the plan was not approved. AMERICAN OCCUPATION Several years before the Spanish-American War, the American people were horrified by the frequent reports of the brutalities which General Weyler and his Spanish forces were visiting upon the Cuban people. ‘The Battleship Maine, of 6,650 tons’ displacement, with officers and crew numbering 354 men, was sent on a friendly mission to Havana, principally to afford a place of refuge for American citizens in case of any emergency. She arrived on January 25, 1898, and about three weeks later, on the night of Feb- ruary 16, was destroyed by an explosion. “‘T’wo hundred and sixty-seven men were killed, only nineteen of those who were on the ship at the time, remaining uninjured. ‘The funeral procession in connection with the temporary inter- ment was the most imposing ever seen in Havana, the Bishop of Havana himself officiating. The dead were placed 13 14 GR. in a plot in Colon Cemetery, but later were removed to the National Cemetery at Arlington, Va. The top of the wreck was visible in the harbour until 1912, when the hull was dragged five miles out to sea and sunk. The Spanish-American War. ‘This incident proved to the American Government that Spain was an impossible neighbour. The blowing up of the Maine was undoubtedly the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War. It is unnecessary here to recount the destruction of Admiral Cer- vera’s Spanish fleet at Santiago on July 3, 1898, by Admirals Sampson and Schley, or the story of the storming of San Juan Hill under the leadership of Colonel Roosevelt. In December, the American troops entered Havana and the 17,000 Spanish soldiers evacuated the city. On January 1, 1899, Governor Castellanos, the last of the Spanish gov- ernors of Cuba, made a formal surrender of Spanish sovereignty. The Results of the American Intervention can be expressed in a few words: ‘The indescribable filth of the city was removed, and cleanliness and sanitation were substi- tuted ; the streets were paved; the parks and boulevards were restored and increased in number; docks were built; a sys- tem of pure water inaugurated; the Malecén, or sea-wall, constructed; public schools established and the yellow fever and other diseases eradicated. Havana, once a veritable pest-hole and a menace to the world, became a model city of exceptionally fine health conditions. —Thhe super-man work of General Gorgas in making such a sanitary transformation is one of the signal accomplishments of our time. Cuba as a whole also benefited by the work of reconstruction. The story of the elimination of yellow fever is a fas- cinating one. Doctors Walter Reed and Jesse W. Lazear became convinced that yellow fever was transmitted by the Stegomyia mosquito, and in the year 1900 Dr. Lazear made a test upon himself and others, submitting to the bites of mosquitoes which he considered infected. He himself died a martyr to science, contracting the disease in its most viru- AMERICAN OCCUPATION 15 lent form. Others who submitted to the experiment sur- vived, but the test proved the source of the disease beyond any doubt whatever, and it also suggested methods of pre- vention. Within a little over a year thereafter, and during the intervening years since, owing to the measures of pre- caution inaugurated, not a case of yellow fever has occurred in Havana. ‘This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that a recrudescence of the disease had occurred once or more annually for over one hundred and fifty years. The Platt Amendment. ‘The United States, during its occupation of Cuba, expended over ten million dollars in schoolhouses and equipments alone, and sent a thousand Cuban teachers to the Harvard College Summer School in 1900, and others to the New York State Normal School. In 1903 the American Government withdrew, turning Cuba over to the new Cuban Republic, only reserving Guanta- namo as a naval station. The Platt Amendment provides that there should be “no treaty with any foreign power that should endanger the independence of Cuba; no debt should be contracted for which the current revenue would be insufficient; the United States should have use of all naval stations, and maintain the right of intervention.” General Machado, the new President, recently announced that he would make a cam- paign against the Platt Amendment, expressing the hope that the United States might “relieve Cuba of its swaddling clothes.’ The Havana Prensa, however, said “The Platt Amendment is both a protection and a shield, since it con- tains mutual obligations and promises.” New Problems. Recently some new complications have arisen which have almost precipitated a crisis. General Crowder, the United States Ambassador, acting under the authority of the United States Government, gave approval to the Cuban Government of placing a loan of $50,000,000 to pay fixed charges. This was based upon a demand that the Cuban Government should reorganise its method of col- lecting revenues, establish a strict accounting of government 16 CUBA finances, and use a wiser method of handling floating in- debtedness and of carrying on judicial procedure. A new Cuban Cabinet, containing several of the ablest men in public life, was selected, but the politicians brought such pressure to bear on President Zayas that in April, 1923, he asked the new Cabinet to resign, and then reappointed all but four of these same members, omitting only the ones who were the uncompromising reformers. A part of the reform demanded by the United States was the abolishment of the graft system in connection with the Government Lottery. While the Government has received its ten per cent. tax, amounting to $3,500,000 annually, the politicians, headed by the son of former President Zayas who is Chief Director, have controlled the sales through ‘“‘commissionaries’ and have shared in the premium at which the tickets were sold. ‘This netted the ring several times as much as the Government received in revenue. Gen- eral Crowder did not demand the abolishing of the lottery altogether, partly because the Government insisted upon the revenue derived, and partly because the Cubans would be apt to patronise the lotteries of Mexico and Spain and thus send money out of the country. On August 1, 1923, both Houses of the Cuban Congress passed a new Lottery Bill, without making the restrictions demanded, but instead increased the lottery agencies to two thousand, thus doubling the number, and gave lottery off- cials a life tenure. ‘They at the same time adopted a reso- lution condemning the United States for alleged interference with Cuban affairs. General Crowder was called to Wash- ington by Secretary Hughes for conference with him and with President Coolidge in these important issues. The Tarafa Bill, which was also under dispute, not only provided for a unification of railroad lines, but also for the closing of forty-seven ports used for exporting sugar. These ports and the connecting railroads are largely the property of American investors and their closing would ren- der millions of dollars’ worth of property useless. It should MePpRIGAN OCCUPATION 17 be remembered that American commercial enterprises have $1,350,000,000 invested in Cuba. Secretary Hughes on August 30, 1923, re-emphasised the vital relationship of the Monroe Doctrine to the national safety of our own country, implying that anything that would be detrimental to our interests might be a reason for intervention. “The Bill, however, was passed and signed September 25, 1923, but a compromise was later effected, protecting American interests. At present, relations are most harmonious. At a lunch in New York, President Machado said “Cuba has unlimited faith in the United States. Whenever a difference may arise, I am convinced that a just solution will be forthcoming.” In June, 1925, the United States ceded the Isle of Pines to Cuba, although thereby American investments have been greatly depreciated. It is fortunate that the first critical situation which has developed since 1906 should have been harmoniously ad- judicated. Doubtful Success in Self-Government. It is an open question whether the Cubans have the ability, at present, to properly conduct elections and carry on a stable self-gov- ernment. ‘The Conservatives represent the better element, but the Liberals are apt to hold the balance of power, be- cause they can influence the ignorant masses and dominate the elections. Illiteracy is increasing, there being fewer pupils (334,331 in 1922, and 272,892 in 1924) and teach- ers in the public schools; the roads are in wretched condi- tion; the Government Lottery dissipates $35,000,000 of the people’s money annually, and the finances have reeked with graft, public funds being used for private enterprises, and special laws being passed favoring big interests. One President, Jose Miguel Gomez, boasted that he and his friends had made away with $50,000,000. It would be a wise thing for the Cuban Government to accept a commis- sion of experienced Americans to supervise expenditures, sanitation, banks, commerce and schools, but it doubtless would not consent to such an arrangement. Fortunately, 18 CUBA if the situation becomes impossible, the United States Gov- ernment can intervene. During the sugar panic of 1921, the Bank of Cuba failed. The Banco Espafiol also went into bankruptcy. Cuba’s Loyalty. Any just estimate of the relation of Cuba to the United States should not leave out of account her loyalty during the World War. She not only imme- diately lined up with the United States and drafted men for the army, using her small fleet for policing the Gulf of Mexico, but also co-operated in the Liberty Bond drive and Red Cross work. ’ It is also true that the attitude of Cuba, as a whole, has been appreciative of the assistance which the United States has given her, and of the sacrifice of men and money in- volved in the Spanish-American War. CUBAN HOUSES The houses of Cuba are built flush with the streets, with no exterior lawn or garden. They are from one to three stories high, constructed largely of limestone blocks and rough rubble work, and are extremely substantial, built almost like a miniature fortress. Each story is frequently from eighteen to twenty-five feet high. Heavy wooden doors, often double, studded with metal and furnished with pon- derous bolts, and sometimes fifteen feet high, give access into an inside court, where there is usually a garden of trees, flowers and vines, a fountain in the centre and pieces of statuary adding to the piquant ensemble. ‘The rooms are built around this inner court. Above on the flat roof, which is usually covered with dark red tiles, are parapets, enclosed for family gatherings at night. The very high windows are fronted with ornamental iron grill work, sometimes exquisitely artistic, which is also often seen on the balconies. There are many palatial homes built by sugar kings, mostly on the Prado, the Paseo de Tacon, and in the new Jesus del Monte and Cerro sections. The people live very much in the open, which has a pro- ~> CUBAN HOUSES 19 nouncedly good effect upon the health of the people. Win- dows and doors are thrown wide, a practice not conducive to privacy, as people eat, visit and do their courting in the most public fashion. As in other tropical countries, the walls of the usual house are bare and the carpetless floors are cemented or tiled. Upholstered furniture is not used, that made of wicker predominating. Three-fourths of the people in Havana live in densely populated slums, which are, however, reasonably sanitary. ‘The tenements are usually oblong buildings of one story, with little apartments of one or two small rooms opening on a court. Frequently eight or ten people live in one of these small segments. Cuban People. The original Indian aborigines, to the number of perhaps 100,000, were enslaved by their Spanish conquerors and within a hundred years were completely wiped out by cruelty and overwork, or else were merged into the new Cuban race. Afterwards British planters intro- duced African slaves, and during the sixty years previous to 1883, when slavery was abolished, 400,000 African slaves were brought to the Island. ‘There is a considerable pro- portion of negroes in the Island with more or less admixture of race. “The Cubans are predominantly Spanish, although it is hard to draw any exact line on account of the com- mingling of races. “The population has the proportion of one-half native white, one-fifth foreigners, one-sixth mixed races, and one-seventh negro. The Cubans represent the usual Spanish type, having care-free and light-hearted proclivities, being fond of danc- ing, music, and social festivities. “The people of the lower classes are rather irresponsible and perhaps, on account of the enervating climate, not very industrious. Among the popular sports are baseball, horse-racing, and especially a Spanish sport called “jai alai,’ which is an athletic game calling for agility and physical strength, usually played by professionals. Bull-fighting has been pro- hibited by law. 20 CUBA The Cubans are very fond of betting and bookmaking, the latter being largely controlled by Americans, who are said to pay the Cuban Government roundly for the privi- lege. ‘The people are natural gamblers, and use almost any opportunity that lends itself to the gratification of this taste. For instance, sometimes four men will sit solemnly about a table, neither eating nor talking, each with a lump of sugar before him. Each man wagers that his particular lump will be the first to draw a fly, and the one whose sugar the first fly visits gathers in all the stakes placed in the centre of the table. Perhaps the scarcity of flies, because of the clean- liness of the city, adds zest to the sport. e HAV Ae Havana is a “Castilian city” magically transferred to the Caribbean, and makes an impressive picture. As one ap- proaches from the sea two cone-shaped hills south of the city, one rising 732 feet, indicate its site; then appear the lofty tower and gloomy walls of Morro Castle, with the Cuban flag waving from its pinnacle. La Punta, an old fort in the centre of a popular park and recreation ground, is seen on the right, and soon the whole city is visible, nestled around the crescent-shaped gulf. Near the shore the dark blue of the sea suddenly changes to a pale green, which when combined with the pink, blue, yellow and brown tints against a background of white, together with a cerulean sky and a vista of emerald hills, produces a strikingly pictur- esque effect. “The population of Havana is 538,720 (1925). The Harbour Entrance is rather narrow and bottle- necked, and is not more than 1,000 feet wide. Ships pass under the very guns of Morro Castle and the fortifications of Cabana Castle. ‘To the right one sees the Malecén, a comprehensive name which includes the great sea wall, to- gether with the adjoining park with its fine music pavilion, and the fashionable drive along Gulf Avenue which faces aOdavH VNVAVH OL ZONVUYLNGA HAVANA 21 the sea tront. ‘The picture from the moving ship includes La Punta, the fort on the Point, the yellow Carcel or jail, and the large factory of the Havana Tobacco Company. Further away, on the harbour front, is the tower of La Fuerza Fort, and beyond is the tower of the old San Fran- cisco Church, the highest in the city. Havana Bay. SBeyond the harbour entrance lies Havana Bay, two and a half miles wide, large enough to accommo- date the greatest fleet in the world. ‘Thirty-five hundred ships enter this harbour each year. Here the Spanish treasure galleons assembled before starting together for Spain with their treasures. In Spanish days the harbour was the reposi- tory of the city sewage, and as the narrow entrance gave little opportunity of washing it out to sea, it became a menace to health. Since then its vile mud has largely been dredged, and no sewage is permitted to defile the water. Eighty per cent. of all the imports of Cuba and sixty per cent. of all exports are handled here in Havana. But ships, instead of going to the docks to discharge their cargoes, are unloaded by lighters because the lighterage interests are so absolutely in control. It costs as much to transfer goods from the ship to the dock as it does to haul them from Liverpool. This is a great handicap to the commerce of Havana. Cruising ships do not usually land at docks, but anchor somewhere near the spot where on the night of February 15, 1898, the Maine was destroyed, and the tourists are taken by tenders to Caballeria Wharf, although the Machina Wharf is sometimes used as a steamer landing. SBEIEGHTSEEING THE PLAZA DE ARMAS Landing at Caballeria Wharf one enters into the adjoin- ing Plaza de Armas, which marks the spot where Havana was founded in 1519. This was long employed as the mili- tary drill square of the Spaniards, and now is a popular 22 CUBA evening promenade. In the centre of the Park is a statue of King Ferdinand VII. La Fuerza. On the north side is the old fortress, La Fuerza, the “cornerstone” of Havana. It was built in 1538 by Hernando de Soto, at that time Governor of Cuba, the fort thus being fifty years older than Morro Castle. It was not only used as a protection to the city, but for the safe- keeping of the cargoes of gold and silver, which were to be delivered to the royal treasury in Spain. It is quadrilateral, with double walls, having a bastion at each corner, and originally it had a moat. On the tower is the statue of an Indian girl holding a cross and facing the gulf. She is known all over the marine world as “La Habana.” ‘The bell in the tower was used by the sentinel to alarm the people if he saw a hostile fleet approaching. From this fort, Her- nando (or Fernando) de Soto, who discovered the Muis- sissippi, blithely set forth to conquer Florida, and when he failed to come back his wife, Dofia Isabella, died of a broken heart. The La Fuerza Fort had gone into decay and was used as a prison, but the government of American Intervention excavated the moat and rebuilt the moat wall, even replacing the drawbridge, in order to maintain this historic landmark. It is now used as a Hall of Records for the national archives. The El Templete, or Little Temple, stands near the spot where the priests first said mass in 1519. ‘Ihe present structure dates from 1828, at which time the images were brought from the Church and mass was celebrated in com- memoration of the first mass three hundred years before. The present structure was consecrated on the Spanish Queen’s birthday, and the Governor with his staff in full- dress uniform, with 5,000 of his troops, and the Bishop and his clergy in their robes, together with thousands of promi- nent citizens, made up the imposing procession. “The ancient ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, under which the mass was cele- brated, is gone, but the column in front of the Chapel marks the spot. ‘The bust of Columbus which stands in the court SIGHTSEEING 23 is believed to be so good a likeness that the American painter Vanderlyn, when he desired to find the best available like- ness of Columbus, came to Havana to study this bust in connection with his painting, ‘““[The Landing of Columbus,” now adorning the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. The El Templete is opened only on November 16 of each year, the official “birthday” of Havana. On its inner walls may be found several significant historical paintings by Escobar. The President’s Palace, formerly the palace of the Spanish Governor General, is an exceptionally fine building erected in 1834, and its colonnaded facade fills the entire east side of the Plaza de Armas. Its great entrance is crested with a medallion bearing the Spanish Arms. ‘The interior court, or patio, is encircled by arcades with spacious balconies and halls, and in the centre, surrounded by palms and flowering plants, is a fine statue of Columbus. ‘This palace is the official residence of the President of the Repub- lic, whose private apartments, reached by broad, marble stairways, are on the third floor. In connection with the residence are three state reception rooms, the one in which special guests are now received having formerly been the Spanish Governor’s room. In this palace are also the offices of the Mayor and other city officials, and a hall in which the city council meets. Here, on January 1, 1899, Castellanos, the last Spanish Governor, yielded his place to General William Ludlow, Commander of the Havana Division of the War Depart- ment of the United States. Three years and five months later, the Americans transferred their government to Palma, the first Governor of the Republic of Cuba. The Cathedral, usually spoken of as the Columbus Cathedral, although its real name is the Cathedral of thie Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception, is located on Empedrado Street. It is a Jesuit Church, built in 1704, on the site of an earlier church structure. It has deep-throated and sonorous bells, which were cast centuries ago, which 24 CUBA can be heard over the city. Associated with it is the ecclesias- tical Court Room and the theological seminary of San Carlos. Entering the door on the left, one comes into the robing room where there are many specimens of richly embroidered and priceless vestments. From this room one passes into the chancel, close by the High Altar constructed of the purest Carrara marble. ‘The Church interior is of a beautiful dark marble, and is finished in heavily-carved mahogany woodwork. ‘The Cathedral has been the centre of the mooted question as to whether the bones, for a time enshrined there, were those of the great discoverer, Columbus. ‘The usual version is that the body of Columbus, who died in Valladolid in 1508, was buried in that city, and from thence was trans- ferred to the Cathedral in Seville, Spain. From Spain, in accordance with the wish expressed in his will, his body was brought to Santo Domingo and placed in front of the High Altar of the Santo Domingo Cathedral. When, in 1795, Santo Domingo passed into French hands, certain bones, reputed to be those of Columbus, were brought to the Havana Cathedral. In 1898, when Spain withdrew from Cuba, these remains were carried to Spain and restored to the Seville Cathedral. The authorities of the Cathedral at Santo Domingo asserted, however, that the true bones of Columbus were never removed, and that those which were taken away were the remains of a member of the family of Columbus in the next vault. They claim that their archives show that the true remains are in the battered leaden casket, with his name and titles roughly inscribed, which they still retain. “They have built an elaborate mausoleum of sculptured marble over this casket and placed it before the Cathedral altar, OTHER PLACES “OF thet The Malecon (the word means wall) is a great sea-wall enclosure which has an artistic music pavilion, supported by meacrs OF OI NTEREST 25 twenty Ionic columns, overlooking the gulf and the harbour entrance. It marks the beginning, also, of Gulf Avenue, which extends in sinuous windings along the sea front, giving a combination of exquisite land vistas and turquoise sea views that make an entrancing picture. It is one of the world’s famous drives and leads out to the Vedado, about six miles distant, a suburb of charming homes set in tropical gardens. Here also is the American colony, with some beautiful residences. Everywhere are superb villas, largely of Spanish architectural types, but having modern ideas of construction and ornamentation, which are set in semi- tropical gardens, of varied horticultural design which enhance the charming effect. A moonlight night in the Malecdn and along the Gulf Avenue drive, is an experience that will make Havana memorable. The Parque Colon or Columbus Park, which formerly Was a mosquito marsh and later a drill ground for Spanish troops, was transformed by the Americans into a lovely park, with palms, fountains and flowers in an effective setting. The Indian Park, near Colon Park, takes its name from a marble fountain made in Rome, which has the allegorical figure of an Indian maiden as its central feature. The Students’ Memorial is a panel set in the wall of the former Spanish Commissary Building, the grounds of which were used for public executions. Here in 1871 eight students, the oldest only sixteen years of age, were shot. ‘They were part of a group of forty who were charged with having spoken offensively of, and having desecrated the tomb of, a certain Spanish journalist named Castanon, who was killed in a duel at Key West by a young Cuban who resented some of his published statements derogatory to Cuban women. It is said that the father of one of these young men offered the weight of his son in gold as a ransom, but the offer was refused. “The forty were lined up in a row, and every fifth boy was shot. It is stated that when one of them saw that his younger brother next to him was the fatal fifth, he 26 CUBA quickly changed places with him and met his fate unflinch- ingly. The other thirty-two students were sentenced to be transported to Africa. After an investigation of this tragedy by the Cortez in Spain, the students were all pronounced innocent, and the thirty-two who remained alive were released. The Carcel is at the lower end of the Prado and is a yellow building which suggests a palace rather than a jail. It has a capacity of 5,000, but rarely has more than a thousand inmates. “The Americans when they entered Havana victoriously found many confined here, some of whom had been imprisoned for years without a trial. The Cuban garrote was used in this prison to inflict the sentence of death and consisted of a band encircling the neck, in which a screw was suddenly pressed upon the first vertebra at the base of the skull, producing instant death. Although the name “‘garrote’ is ominous, death by its use was really more merciful than by hanging. Here also public whippings took place, the victim being placed backward on a mule and then whipped through the city streets. The Botanical Garden, in connection with the Univer- sity of Havana, adjoins the President’s summer home, and contains avenues of royal palms, miniature cascades and grottoes, as well as tropical trees and flowers. Cuba has a flora of 3,350 plants, not including those which have been introduced from without. | The University of Havana was founded in 1728 in an old convent building, having stone walls over six feet thick, which is still standing, although more than three hundred years old. ‘The University is now located in the Piro- tecnia Militar and has over two thousand students. The National Theatre faces Central Park and accom- modates audiences of three thousand. It is also called the Tacon Theatre, in memory of the masterful Governor, who assumed office in 1834. It was built in 1837 and cost over $500,000. Nearly all the world stars, both in opera and in drama, have appeared here. Peers OF INTEREST 27 The National Library has a famous collection of docu- ments and books about Cuba, which is second only to that in the British Museum on the same subject. It has been enriched by the private libraries of several prominent col- lectors. Central Park, as its name implies, is the real centre of the social life of the city. It has a fine statue of Jose Marti, one of the leaders of the Cuban rebellion. Some of the footpaths are completely arched by laurels with the under side cut horizontally so that one walks under a thick green roof. Landscape gardening of an artificial kind is prevalent, but a wealth of luxuriant vegetation and floral colour gives real charm to the Park. Here at night concerts are given, thousands of gay people crowding the promenades, and every- thing is ablaze with electric lights. The neighbouring res- taurants and cafés are brilliant with life and colour, and the scene is extremely animated. The Municipal Band, which plays here as well as in the Malecén, was one of the musical competitors who took honours at the Buffalo Exposition in 1902. Selections from Verdi, Chopin, Wagner, Mendelssohn, etc., are in constant evidence on its musical programs. The most prominent club houses, hotels and theatres are centred around this Park. The Prado, as remodelled and beautified by the Amer- icans, consists of a central double promenade, bordered by ample seats, and broad drives on either side. It connects Columbus, India and Central Parks with the Punta and the Malecén. It is the fashionable thoroughfare, both for pedestrians and conveyances. ‘This is the central scene of the Carnival festivities, during which time the drives and walks are congested with a merry crowd, and confetti and streamers and deafening noises are in evidence. ‘The resi- dences that face the Prado are among the most fashionable in Havana. On the east side of the avenue are the Spanish Casino and the white marble building of the Association of Clerks, a club which has some 27,000 members, each paying monthly dues of $1.50. 28 CUBA Morro Castle was built after a scare caused by the ap- pearance of Sir Francis Drake in front of Havana in 1585, but as there was little to tempt him, he voluntarily with- drew. ‘This caused Philip II, surnamed “the Prudent,” to prepare against further possible encroachments, and in 1587 work was begun on the El Morro (the word means promon- tory) as a means of defence. It was modelled after the Moorish fortress at Lisbon. It stands on solid rock, more than one hundred feet above the sea, and is surrounded by a moat seventy feet deep. ‘The rays from its lighthouse tower, built in 1844, can be seen at a distance of eighteen miles. The approach is by an inclined road, passing under the shadow of the frowning battlements, which is skirted with royal poincianas and laurels, and fringed with cactus hedges. One crosses the moat on a drawbridge, quite after the romantic fashion of the time “when knighthood was in flower,” and passes through massive gates and hall into an open court. All around are gloomy storerooms, kitchens, and dungeons with grated windows. Ascending the stairs to the rampart, one gets a fine panorama of Havana and all the surrounding environs. In the clear depths of the sea, which meets the outer wall, can be seen the large, fierce sharks which, according to the story, were often fed with the bodies of executed prisoners. Around the Castle are great bat- teries of the most powerful guns on the Island and nearby is a signal service station. The Fortress of Cabana, across the harbour, is on a hill rising abruptly one hundred feet out of the sea. The forti- fications are more elaborate than those of Morro Castle, but give an impression of vastness and weariness which does not minister to tourists’ enjoyment, but those who are inter- ested in historical and military matters will find it worth seeing. Cabana, however, has never fired a shot in defence of Havana, and is now worthless as a fortification. It has in the past largely served as a place for military prisoners, and there is some talk of changing it into a government Poets OP INTEREST 29 prison for the convicts who are now confined in the Presidio. It is at present used by a corps of artillery, and also, in part, as a Cuban West Point, where the sons of some of the best families receive military training. An object of gruesome interest here is the wall where many Cubans were lined up and shot, the bullet marks being distinctly in evidence. In 1851 an American West Pointer, a native of Kentucky, joined an expedition, having for its object the freeing of Cuba, and after his capture he, with fifty others, was shot at the Fort of Atares, across the harbour. Colon Cemetery. It is not usually a part of tourists’ programmes to visit cemeteries, but the Colon Cemetery is so unique and distinctive that it is one of the conspicuous sights of Cuba. The entrance is through a great arch with triple gates. Over the central gate is a sculptured panel representing the Crucifixion and above the gate is a group of heroic figures representing Columbus bringing the light of religion to the New World. Just inside the entrance is the Memorial Tomb of General Calixto Garcia, and immediately beyond is the Students’ Monument which should not be confused with the Students’ Memorial found in the city. Both, however, refer to the cruel execution of innocent Cuban students by the Spanish authorities, to which reference has previously been made. A little further on is the conspicuous Fireman’s Monu- ment, erected to the memory of thirty firemen who perished in a conflagration in 1890, in which there was an explosion of hidden gunpowder, illegally stored. “The monument is seventy-five feet high and is surmounted by an angel with unfurled wings, holding a cross. Nearby is the tomb of General Maximo Gomez, the Chief in Command of the Cuban Army of Insurrection, known as the “Grand Old Man of Cuba.” The usual mode of burial is in a stone-encased niche, 30 CUBA covered with a marble slab. It is rented for a brief term of years, and if thereafter no payment is forthcoming, the bones are taken out and thrown into the Osario, or Bone House. ‘This is a walled structure, seventy-five feet square and fifty feet deep, built in one corner of the cemetery, and into this great receptacle the remains of skeletons taken from the graves on which payment has been defaulted, are thrown helter-skelter. Some of the skeletons can be seen through various apertures in the walls, making a very gruesome spectacle. The Streets of Havana are kept commendably clean, being still under the system inaugurated by Colonel Waring in 1898. ‘There are many old-time narrow streets, but modern parts of the city have broad, attractive boulevards, notably the Prado. The Paseo of Carlos ITI, which has a marble statue of that King by Canova, as well as the Monument of the Five Goddesses, is one of these beautiful thoroughfares. Havana Cigars are made in many factories to which visitors are allowed access. “The Henry Clay factory, for instance, has 800 employés and makes 53,000 cigars daily. Churches. Under the Spanish administration the rule was that ‘“‘no others but Roman Catholics can be inhabitants of the Island.’”’ ‘This was so strictly enforced that the Custom House would not even permit a Protestant Bible to be admitted. As late as 1898 the request to read the Protestant service over the Protestant victims of the Maine was not granted, Captain Sigsbee reading part of it in his private carriage on the way to the cemetery and the rest in his room at the hotel. While the Cathedral is the most conspicuous church in Havana, the La Merced Catholic Church has the most aristocratic congregation. In its Sunday morning service the singing is accompanied by a large orchestra. It has some beautiful chapels, altars and paintings. “The Church of the Sacred Heart is conspicuous by its graceful single spire, visible over the city. a PLACES OF INTEREST 31 Among Protestant churches are the Holy Trinity Cathedral (Episcopal) on Neptune Street, the Methodist Church on Virtudes Street, the Presbyterian Church on Salud Street, and the Baptist Church on Bragones Street. Mow is FTO TRAVELLERS Shopping Streets. Obispo and O’Reilly Streets are the main shopping centres, although they are quite narrow, trafic being permitted in but one direction. Each shop is also the parlour and living room for the proprietor and his family, and at noon is turned into a dining room. ‘The shops often have striking names, such as Hope, Modesty, Patience, La Diana, etc., as the Cubans are fond of poetic and romantic associations in names. There are a few distinctive articles to be bought in Havana, including fans with carved ivory handles, em- broidered or hand-painted on silk or lace. Mantillas, Cuban drawnwork, hand-made laces and embroideries, walking sticks, Panama hats, snake-skin purses and belts, feather work, photographs and jewellery, are among the lures dis- played to tempt the tourist. It should, of course, be under- stood that everything that is not typically Cuban can be bought to better advantage in the United States, and that similar work, much better, and very much cheaper, can be purchased in Japan and China. The Restaurants and Cafés are popular institutions, and the prices are high, especially to tourist Americans. Several distinctive temperance drinks make an interesting experiment, particularly the pina fria, made from fresh pine- apples. There are also limonada, or lemonade, naranjada, or orangeade, tamarindo, made from tamarind paste, orchata, made of milk of almonds, and especially panal, or honey- comb drink. ‘The ices, ice cream, cakes and sweets are of excellent quality. The wine usually drunk by Cubans with their meals comes from Spain. The combination of coffee (the beans 32 CUBA of which have been burned to a crisp), and salted milk is an acquired taste, but it is said that such coffee is robbed of its toxic properties. The city water, which is carried from four hundred springs nine miles to the south, is rather hard but quite pure, being free from all organic matter. Fruits are abundant, including oranges, grapefruit, bananas, limes, citrons, mangoes, alligator pears, pineapples, figs and guavas. Vegetables are extremely varied and of first quality. ‘The three important markets are Iacon, Colon and Christina. Hotels. The Plaza and Seville are both fine hotels, although the prices are very high. “The Plaza has an attrac- tive roof garden where meals are served, from which a view of the city and all the neighbouring environment, including the harbour, can be seen to advantage. Money. ‘Cuba has no paper money, United States bank- notes forming the medium of paper currency. “The Spanish coinage in silver is in twenty- and forty-cent pieces, instead of twenty-five and fifty as with us. Climate. ‘The heat is not excessive, see rather humid. The highest temperature recorded is 100.6° F., but the nights are reasonably cool. Taxis are on the zone system, the charge being thirty cénts within each zone, and an additional charge of thirty cents for every zone entered. It is well in hiring an auto to make a definite bargain, otherwise the charges will prove to be excessive. The United States Consulate is in Room 505, National Bank Building, and Americans will always be able to get counsel and co-operation, as may be needed. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES Cuba is ninety miles from Key West. It has a coast line of 2,000 miles and more deep harbours than any other coun- i Mendocino as a UN Tv I - eI 5 | San FranciscdS\ 4M. ho’ 3 i] Whitney Los Angeles@ | : San fat At 2} esd e Seanad 2 4 va BA Y Br. CALIFORNIA e —~ toy a ane GER a SS) EH SP CSan Dar C. enor ene we % co”: REVILLAG ~ Sa +, LEEWARD IS. "ISLA . Bay t *Caracds 6. r inoco rgetoun 16° aly ena ; gramaribo, | fquaTor | | any r es 2 $ eS £ f po es ___Tropie,___ of |___ Capricorn, _* A | SE RS CEE EE TEP Dee IIIT Py tn nigga OAs ty Bei Aad mye = y, mas aa: Re A 3 pessoa > i ome. heer cel inane reagan anos ar a Ps ke? ae re a rig oe 3 eee eS as Me tee oe t! j tye bf ry SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 33 try in the Western Hemisphere. Of its 1,300 islands (mostly coral reefs), the most prominent, next to Cuba, is the Isle of Pines, recently ceded to Cuba by the United States. Cuba has a commanding position not only among the islands of the West Indies, but also in its relation to Florida and our Southern States. The fact that it is a natural port of call en route to the Panama Canal adds not a little to its strategic, as well as its commercial importance. Cuba, except for a brief British occupancy in 1762 (a year later England exchanged it for Florida), was a Spanish possession until December 10, 1898, when, by the Treaty of Paris, it was relinquished to the United States. From this date to February 21, 1901, there was a provisional United States Government under the direction of the War Department, and in 1903 a Cuban Republic was established, modelled after that of the United States. Certain reserva- tions were made by the United States in the Platt Amend- ment, which included the Right of Intervention. Owing to local troubles, there was again a provisional United States Government from August, 1906, to January, 1909. The President is General G. Machado, whose term ex- pires May 20, 1929. With him is associated a cabinet of ten, whose members are in charge of the various govern- mental departments. ‘There is a Senate of twenty-four mem- bers (four from each Province), which meets in a building facing the Plaza de Armas, and a House of one hundred and eighteen members, one for every twenty-five thousand in- habitants, which has its building in Officio Street. Each of the six provinces is ruled by a local Governor. The Rural Guard, or constabulary of the Island, is com- posed of over four thousand men, stationed at two hundred and fifty posts. They patrol the country, maintain order in towns and villages, and act as guards on railway trains. Cuba has six provinces and fifteen hundred municipal 34. CUBA districts. Its area is 44,215 square miles, or larger than Pennsylvania, and its population in 1925 was 3,368,923, of which 2,294,115 are white, 830,791 are colored, and the remainder mixed. Its length is seven hundred and thirty miles and the breadth from twenty-five to one hundred miles. Each municipality has a Board of Education, the schools being free and the attendance compulsory. In 1924 there were 272,892 children enrolled, with 5,970 teachers. There are also various institutions for advanced education. ‘The University of Havana (founded 1721) had 2,272 students in 1919, of whom 1,457 were in medicine and pharmacy. The revenue for 1924 was $59,670,000, and the expendi- tures $49,238,322. The National Debt is $105,697,300. There is a standing army of 10,941 men, and the navy has 976 men. Cuba is wonderfully productive, having yielded a sugar crop in the year 1924 of 4,076,000 tons. ‘There are 183 sugar mills. ‘The estimate for 1925 is 4,700,000 tons. To- bacco, coffee, cacao, cereals and fruits are raised and ex- ported. ‘Twelve million gallons of rum are also produced annually. In 1919, 8,900 vessels entered Cuban harbours. There are 3,020 miles of railway. The National Bank of Cuba at Havana had assets in 1920 of 145,000,00 pesos, or $72,500,000, but it has since become bankrupt, although now reorganised. Cuba’s imports in 1923 were $267,627,871, of which $180,230,840 came from the United States. Its exports were $418,119,979, of which $366,639,782 went to the United States. In 1920 there were 314 commercial com- panies with a total capital of $229,662,000. | RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Anglo-South American Handbook (Central America, Mex- ico, Cuba), ’22, Macmillan. BIBLIOGRAPHY 35 Crusading in the West Indies, W. F. Jordan. ’22, Revell. Journal of a Lady of Quality in the West Indies, J. Shaw. 21, Yale University Press. Cubans of Today, W. R. Parker. ’19, Putnam. In the Sunshine at Havana, C. D. Burrage. Rosemary Press. History of Cuba, W. F. Johnson. ’20, Buck & Co. Cuba, Past and Present, A. H. Verrill. ’14, Dodd. Cuba, I. A. Wright. ’12, Macmillan. Cuba, F. Fairford. ’13, Macmillan. In Darkest Cuba, U, G, Gonzales, ’22, State Co. PANAMA “The Open Gate between two oceans” P AHE Isthmus of Panama (the Indian name for fish) was first visited in 1499 by a certain Span- iard, Alonso de Ojeda,who founded a colony which he called Neuva Andalucia. “Three years later Columbus established a settlement in Porto Bello Bay on his fourth and last voyage, and from this Bay he hoped to find a pas- sage to India, as he conceived Panama to be on the shores of Asia. | Balboa. The next explorer to visit this region was Balboa, who after leaving San Domingo in a cask as a stowaway in a ship under the command of Ensiso, became the recognised leader before the expedition ended, and suc- ceeded Ensiso as the governor of the new colony of Darien. One of the native rulers told him about the great waters on the other side of the divide, which led him in 1513 to take with him a force of Spaniards and natives and to cross Panama, choosing his way along the route of the present Canal. He climbed the divide and reached the Pacific at a Bay which he named San Miguel (a name still retained) 36 PANAMA because it was on St. Michael’s Day. Coming to the open sea, he waded out into the Pacific, taking possession of the “Great South Sea,” as he called it, in the name of the King of Spain. At first he was hailed as an epoch-making ex- plorer, but a conspiracy was formed against him within four years thereafter, and he was tried and shot at the age of forty-two. Balboa was probably the best administrator and states- man of his day, but like Raffles, that other empire builder of Singapore fame, he was not appreciated by his own coun- try or by the people of his own time. In 1819 Panama freed itself from Spanish domination under Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, and formed a coalition with Colombia, but withdrew in 1842 and again in 1857. Hence it is clear that its relation to Colombia has been neither long nor loyal. Canal Projects. When the wealth of the new coun- tries on the Pacific side of South America and Central America was discovered, the gold was carried across the Isthmus on the backs of mules over a road called the “Gold Road.” As far back as 1529, de Suadedra, a companion of Balboa and Cortez in their explorations, projected plans for a canal. Later a certain Portuguese navigator, Galolo, wrote a book projecting a plan for a canal, and since then the Dutch, English, Belgians and Spaniards outlined canal schemes and finally came the French enterprise which proved such a fiasco. In 1849, during the California gold rush, certain Ameri- cans constructed a railway over the Isthmus, the first train crossing in 1855. Then de Lesseps came into the field and, backed by a Company which he had organised, he bought this railroad for $25,500,000. ‘The actual work of the French Canal was begun in 1881 on the basis of a sea-level canal. Immensely valuable machinery was sent from Europe, but fraud, inefficiency, and disease caused the French Company CANAL PROJECTS 37 to spend $300,000,000 upon only a fraction of the work to be done; after which it went into bankruptcy in 18809, whereupon a new French Company took over the rights and did some additional digging. The United States Canal Plans. In 1898 the Spanish- American War showed the great need of such a canal to the United States, from the fact that the battleship Oregon had to make a long and dangerous trip of 13,000 miles to meet the emergency at Cuba. The first commission of engineers who were appointed by the United States Government were favourable to the Nicaragua Canal, partly because the French company de- manded a price for their Panama rights which was regarded as excessive. Subsequently the French Company reduced this price, as they realised that if the Nicaragua Canal was built, their property would be worthless. During the inter- val of negotiation a heated debate ensued in the United States as to the respective advantages of the Panama and Nicaragua Canals, prominent engineers taking opposite sides. This was due to the fact that while the Nicaragua Canal was longer, it had fewer natural barriers to remove. The Atlantic side, where the proposed Nicaragua Canal would have started, was under the control of Great Britain, and the famous Bulwer-Clayton ‘Treaty provided that neither country should have exclusive control of the canal or erect fortifications. Finally the Panama route was decided upon and the pur- chase from the French Company and the arrangements for securing the leased territory were authorised by the Spooner Act in 1902. By the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1gor, Great Britain waived the right of joint control on condition that the Canal should be ‘free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war, to all nations on terms of entire equality.” An effort was then made to negotiate a treaty with Colom- bia whereby the United States should make an initial pay- ment of $10,000,000 and $100,000 a year rental. Colombia 38 PANAMA refused, and a few days later the Province of Panama de- clared her independence from Colombia and established the Republic of Panama. The United States Government, under President Roosevelt, immediately recognised the Re- public of Panama as an independent country, and at once negotiated terms for the leased lands required for the Panama Canal. ‘The agreement of the immediate payment of $10,000,000 and an additional annual payment of $250,000 was consummated. President Roosevelt was severely criticised by many United States citizens who were sticklers for the theoretic rights of nations, but who seemed oblivious to the practical necessity of the Canal. Some even asserted that he was a party to the secession of Panama, and that our Government co-operated with Panama in its withdrawal from Colombia. ‘This, how- ever, was not substantiated by proof and is very improbable. GOVERNMENT CONTROL The United States Government, under the direction of the Secretary of War, appoints a Governor of the Panama Canal, who is also President of the Panama Railroad. There are various divisions: Marine, Dock, Dredging, Elec- trical, Health, Supplies, etc. There are two distinct sets of quarters for Canal em- ployés widely removed from each other, one being occupied by the “gold roll,” or Americans to the number of 3,000, who are paid in United States currency, and the other by the “‘silver roll,” largely dark-skinned people numbering 9,000, who are paid in silver pesos. Each quarter has its own recreation grounds, club houses and amusements. It is said that there is a government rule forbidding any employé to use the name of “nigger.” A ‘‘Silver’’ Strike. In 1920, there was a general strike of the “silver” men for higher wages, which was promptly broken by the “gold” employés, who volunteered for extra service and did the work of the strikers. The proprietor of GOVERNMENT CONTROL 39 the Tivoli Hotel and his guests (many of them government officers) cooked and served their own meals. Others helped in the Commissary, and in a few days the ‘“‘silver” people went back to work at a slightly lower wage than they had previously been paid. Care of United States Employés. The government store-houses, together with its ice-making and refrigerating plants, laundries, hospitals and hotels, can take care of its 25,000 resident people and an unlimited number of travellers, Government employés both here and at Ancon and Balboa on the Pacific side are well housed. ‘There are detached houses for married couples, commensurate with their rank and needs. Quarters are provided for rooming a number of single men, and there are also accommodations for single women. Many of the latter cook their own breakfasts and sometimes their lunches, using electrical devices in their own rooms, and get only their dinner at the Commissary. This Commissary is under government control and fur- nishes excellent food at a low price. “The Government farm at Corozal supplies fresh eggs and all dairy products. A luncheon of rolls and butter, a glass of milk, a fruit salad, with ice cream and cake, may be had for about twenty-five cents. A cafeteria service for those who prefer it reduces even this small expense. Government stores give opportunity for the purchase of all clothing, toilet articles, drugs, stationery, books, food supplies, etc., at much lower rates than the articles ordi- narily cost in the United States, the reason being that the Government does not operate these stores as a money- making proposition. No currency is offered in payment for anything bought in the Zone, a Commissary Book being used in lieu of money. On payment of $15, this book is issued to each employé, enclosed in a neat pasteboard cover, bearing his name, date, number and department. It contains a 300-inch strip of narrow paper folded back and forth for convenience in han- dling, with heavy ruled lines crossing at each inch. Each 40 PANAMA inch of space is subdivided with lighter ruling into five parts representing one cent each. When a purchase is made, the amount is computed, and the proper length is detached from the owner’s book. Because of the extreme humidity, all private houses and residence quarters are provided with a “dry closet” for clothing, in which a specially designed electric lamp heats the air and keeps the clothing dry. No gummed envelopes are sold in Panama and hotel desks are equipped with jars of paste to be used in sealing letters. THE PANAMA CANAL Canal Facts. ‘The Panama Canal is like a spiritual, as well as a physical, oasis. It is four times as large as the District of Columbia, and quite as safe, although tropical diseases lie in wait in the adjoining jungles. “The death rate is 13.47, comparing favourably with that of the United States. Panama stands as a shining evidence of the ability of white men to live and work in the humid tropics when sanitation, transportation, medical service, and other advan- tages are present. ‘The building of the Panama Canal by the United States Government has, as Captain Mahan said, “changed the Caribbean Sea from a local terminus into one of the greatest sea highways of the world.” Colon and Panama are outside the Zone, but in both places the United States Government is supreme in matters of defence, sanitation and water supply, and has the right to maintain order in case the Republic of Panama finds itself unable to do so. The Canal does not run east and west, as commonly sup- posed, but runs south from Cristobal (the American suburb of Colon) to Gatun, and from there southeast. It is rather confusing at Panama to see the sun rise in the Pacific Ocean. As compared with the Suez Canal, Panama is 5014 miles long, Suez being 104; 41 feet deep, Suez being 31-36; there having been 251,000,000 cubic yards excavated, instead of CANAL FACTS 41 80,000,000} and the cost being $368,543,000, while that of Suez was $152,760,000. The Canal Zone contains an actual land area of 332 ~miles, although including the Islands in the Bay of Panama and water areas, the United States controls 502 square miles. “The civil population of the Zone in 1924 was 27,143, of whom 7,805 were Americans. No private individuals or traders can acquire property there. The Canal is forty-four miles long and the Channel is from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. Summarised in a word, it follows the valley of the Chagres River on the Atlantic side, is raised by a series of three locks, passes through the divide at the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut, is lowered by a series of three locks, and continues down the valley of the Rio Grande to the Pacific. Ihe maximum depth is forty-one feet. “The average time for passage of a ship is from seven to eight hours, although the record is four hours, ten minutes. The maximum traffic capacity is thirty-six ships a day. While the direct distance between the oceans is thirty- four miles, the Canal channel is forty-two miles long. By the building of Gatun Dam, the Gatun Lake was formed, with a level of eighty-five feet above the sea, thus saving eighty-five feet of cutting between Gatun and Pedro Miguel, a distance of twenty-four miles. On the Atlantic side there is a series of three Gatun locks, after seven miles of sea level. ‘These three locks raise an ocean steamer eighty-five feet. “The ship then passes under its own steam through Gatun Lake fifteen miles, to Bas Obispo, and then nine miles through the Gaillard Cut, all on the highest water level-of the Canal. On the Pacific side there is the Pedro Miguel Lock at the end of the Gaillard Cut, then Miraflores Lake, one mile wide, followed by two Miraflores locks, after which it is eight miles on sea level to the Pacific. “These locks average, including approaching walls, about a mile in length and are constructed in pairs to admit of ships going in opposite directions at the same time. Each lock has a length of 1,000 42 PANAMA feet, a width of 110 feet, and a depth of 70 feet, the lower Miraflores lock being somewhat deeper to allow for the variations in the Pacific tides, which are from twelve to twenty feet, while on the Atlantic side the tide variation is only twenty-two inches. Strange to say, the mean level of the Pacific at the Isthmus is eight inches higher than the mean level of the Atlantic. The lock gates are steel structures seven feet thick and 65 feet long. Some are 47 feet high and weigh 390 tons; others 82 feet high and weigh 730 tons. Ships are towed through the locks by electric “mules” which run on tracks along the bank of the locks. ‘They handle the starts and stops of a huge steamer as a child would direct a baby carriage. Fender chains are lowered when the ship passes and raised by electric machinery to avoid risks of vessels jamming against the locks. ‘The entire action of the locks is operated by the electricity generated from a part of the overflow of the waters of Gatun Dam. One man at each group of locks controls all the complicated machinery, including the emptying of as. much as five million cubic feet of water in the lock chambers,. the lifting and lowering of the lock safety chains, and the: swinging of the giant gates. Both entrances to the Canal are protected by great break-. waters, and there is a remarkable system of lighting here and elsewhere in the Zone, making the Canal equally usable at night. “These entrances and other parts of the construc- tion have been fortified in the most modern and elaborate way and should make the Canal almost immune against naval aggression, although a bombing airplane or a traitorous. dynamiting might easily put it out of commission. A dry dock, 1,000 feet long and 120 feet wide, can easily handle the largest vessel afloat. CRISTOBAL Cristobal is an American suburb of Colon, within the Canal Zone itself, and was built to accommodate its admin- See OBAL, COLON 43 istrative offices and its employés. The houses are mostly of concrete with modern conveniences and are all mosquito- proof, being screened with copper gauze. Near the sea wall is the former house of Ferdinand de Lesseps, now used by the Isthmian Canal Commission. Everywhere are seen the triumphs of American control,— concrete wharves, cold storage plants, electric laundries, a Club House, Army and Navy Y. M. C. A.’s, wireless sta- tions, connecting railway tracks and the Atlantic coaling plant, the largest of its kind in the world. COLON Colon is sometimes called Aspinwall, the name being taken from one of the founders of the first Panama railroad. It was formerly surrounded by mosquito-breeding swamps, which have since been drained by the American adminis- tration. Colon is now an up-to-date, sanitary city. It has been greatly modernised since April, 1915, at which time twenty- two blocks and 430 buildings were destroyed by fire, involv- ing a loss of $3,000,000. Modern concrete buildings have taken the place of the old wooden structures. The great Breakwater which protects the Atlantic en- trance of the Canal will be seen on the right as the steamer approaches. It is 11,700 feet long and cost $5,500,000. The foundation for this breakwater was formed by dropping twenty-five-ton concrete blocks into Limon Bay. Among the interesting buildings are the Panama Govern- ment building, the Panama railroad station, the hospital and the commissary. There is a Strangers’ Club at Colon which gives cordial welcome to visitors, in which Americans espe- cially will feel very much at home. The Americans associated with the Canal here and at Panama indulge in various athletic sports, such as swim- ming, fishing, motoring, baseball, golf and tennis. They 44 | PANAMA also can enjoy the theatre, dancing, bull-fighting and horse- racing, as well as the native entertainments and dances. Washington Hotel, which is operated by the United States Government, has accommodations for 180 guests. In front of the hotel entrance is a bronze statue of Columbus pro- tecting an Indian maiden. ‘This statue formerly stood be- fore the house of de Lesseps and was presented to Colombia by the Empress Eugenie in 1866. Here also is a decorated column with the sculptured portraits of Aspinwall, Chaun- cey and Stevens, the three great pioneers of the first Panama railway. CANAL SIGHTSEEING After leaving Colon by motor car on the way to Gatun, the visitor passes Mount Hope Cemetery, sometimes known as Monkey Hill (owing to the number of monkeys found in this vicinity when the French first began operations), where multiplied thousands of the victims of the yellow fever scourge lie buried. Old Cristobal, Fort Randolph, France Field, which is an aviation station, Coco Solo, a naval station, and Fort Davis, a military station near Gatun, are all passed on the way to Gatun and add to the zest and variety of the drive. Of course the Canal itself is the supreme object of inter- est, and tourists with but a brief time at their disposal will hardly feel it of sufficient importance to inspect the details of the lesser objects of interest. Much of the time, how- ever, should be spent in making a complete inspection of the Gatun Locks, where ships will be passing in both directions every hour of the day, as well as that marvellous example of engineering,—the Gatun Dam and Spillway. Cruise passengers are usually taken from the steamer to Colon by a short ride by train, landing them at the Colon railway station, where automobiles ordinarily are in waiting. Meals of a most satisfactory standard generally are served at the Sete ol GH rSEAING 45 attractive Hotel Washington, which is usually swept with ocean breezes and commands a lovely sea view. Gatun Dam, 6.7 miles from Colon and located at the lower end of the Chagres valley, is nearly one and a half miles long, including the Spillway, and half a mile wide at its base, gradually sloping to a width of one hundred feet at the top. It is constructed of clay and sand (which was dredged from the Canal) wedged between two great walls of rock. ‘The crest of the dam is one hundred and five feet above the sea, being twenty feet above the surface of the lake. It means little to say that it contains 21,000,000 cubic yards of excavated material. The dam itself is largely con- cealed by shrubbery, the east wing being laid out with a nine-hole golf course. Gatun Lake has been formed by the accumulated waters of the Chagres River restrained by the Gatun Dam. It has an area of 164 square miles, being about the size of Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The Spillway is in the form of the arc of a circle and is 808 feet long and 285 feet wide. It regulates the depth of the Lake and empties surplus water which flows into the Atlantic, following the old channel of the Chagres River. There are fourteen gates to this Spillway, and one or more can be opened, according to the amount of excess water. At the northern end is the hydro-electric generating station of 13,140 kilowatt capacity, which uses the water-power of the overflow to generate light and power for the entire Canal Zone, including locks, shops and industrial plants, the distributing current being taken across the Isthmus along the Panama railroad tracks. There are Canal Villages near the Locks, provided by the Government, each with its clubhouse, schools, churches, dispensaries, restaurants, etc. Only people connected with the Government service may live permanently in the Canal Zone. The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut is the most mammoth en- gineering feat in Panama, or for that matter, in the world. Wo 4 ee PANAMA It is nine miles long, representing a total excavation of 230,000,000 cubic yards, of which only 20,419,720 cubic yards were dug by the French. Considering that the French planned to make a sea-level canal which would have re- quired digging an extra eighty-five feet for the distance of twenty-four miles from Gatun to Pedro Miguel, and in view of the fact that they spent $300,000,000 in digging less than one-tenth of the amount required for a Canal with locks, it would have cost multiplied billions to have finished their work on the basis attempted. Even with the lesser exca- vation made by the United States Government, it is esti- mated that the material taken out would make sixty-three pyramids like that of Cheops, and the cement used in the construction of the Canal would make a solid pyramid nearly as high. This Cut is colloquially called the ‘Big Ditch” and rep- resents a channel nine miles long with an average depth of 120 feet, varying from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. It is said that fifty million pounds of dynamite were needed for the blasting, and that the material, if loaded on the cars of a single train, would reach around the world four times. Digging through Gold Hill and Contractor Hill, where there is a sheer cutting of 375 feet, and hauling away this stupendous mass of material is almost a superhuman accom- plishment. When one adds the fact that the various slides added hundreds of thousands of tons, sometimes making a channel for invading floods from diverted streams, it adds to the achievement that would seem to have been possible only to Titans. The Culebra Cut, as it was known prior to 1913, was at that time named the Gaillard Cut in commemoration of Lieut.-Col. D. D. Gaillard, who had charge of this work from 1907 to its practical completion in 1913, and who broke down from the strain and died soon after. Just after the passing of the Prince of Wales on H. M. S. Renown, a huge boulder weighing fifty tons crashed down the mountain and blocked the channel for some hours. A 79°55! CARIBBEAN SE a] Mt. Hope . Brazos ,Brook ~ Las Campanas Was & f<] PUBLIC oF Pan CANAL ore # Cerro Grandé® (1000 Ft ) C Leos) \ \ {ehirbo : ( 2 ee Res. - Rio Grande iRes, = PEORO MIGUEL LOCKS\A) t aN ¢ ----""Mirajtores Lake Elev. +55 Ft. MIRAFLORES t& Cocoli Lake SK) Balbo: Wie (U.S. Admijnistration Git NS = = Pi.Farfan ‘we = AY” peRICO Tr Palo Se ~ (Leper Colony) += Pt. Bruja \, evap I. ; N\ COcovI |. Chorrera =e . X ° yera ow Orortova te MAP OF THE $ UNITED STATES ; A TABOGUILLA CANAL ZONE : | = Zena SHOWING THE COMPLETED PANAMA CANAL Scale of Miles 2a 6 Hammond's 5 x7 Map|of United States Canal Zone ~opyright by*C:S. Hammond & Co.. N.Y. 79°55! CANAL SIGHTSEEING 47 The Pedro Miguel Lock, sometimes familiarly spoken of as the “Peter McGill,” is similar to the Gatun Lock and lowers a ship 30.5 feet to Miraflores Lake, which is a mile wide. ‘This also has a Spillway with eight gates. Then come the two Miraflores Locks (both duplicated in case of emergency), which together lower the ship 54.7 feet to the level of the Pacific. From this point the Canal continues eight miles to the ocean. A Masterpiece of Construction. To view these forty- two miles of Canal construction and realise what such a penetration of Panama jungles and hills meant, will make a man gasp with amazement even though he be well versed in engineering. ‘To cut the Western Hemisphere so that a ship can pass in six hours, saving a trip around Cape Horn, which takes nearly as many weeks, is certainly a masterpiece of twentieth century accomplishment. ‘The fact that one man at each of the two systems of locks, touching a key at the Control House, can set the machinery in motion that operates the massive gates and fills and empties the immense locks, is one of the world’s marvels. ‘The silence and speed of operation in emptying and filling the huge locks, which will pass all steamers except several like the Leviathan or Majestic (we will not decide the controversy as to which is the larger), is a veritable miracle of science. It is now entirely clear that the Canal never could have been completed under the old unsanitary conditions. It was the discovery that yellow fever was carried and trans- mitted by the Stegomyia mosquito and the remarkable sys- tem of scientific extermination which followed, together with the new sanitary methods employed, that made success possible. All the features of construction have been employed be- fore, but both in its mechanical and electric appliances the Panama Canal is the last word, and its size is so stupendous as to stagger the imagination. It represents the United States at its best in financial integrity, sanitation, engineer- - ing, and executive efficiency. . 48 PANAMA GENERAL CANAL INFORMATION The Panama Railroad is 47.5 miles long, is modern in every respect, including ninety-pound rails, automatic sig- nals and oil-burning locomotives. ‘There are three trains daily each way, taking two hours for the trip. A first-class fare is five cents a mile. More and more, Panama is becoming a repair and supply centre. Its coaling stations contain a maximum of 700,000 tons of coal, with facilities for loading 500 tons an hour, while 1,440,000 barrels of oil can be stored in its great tanks. The Canal tariff for Jaden freight ships is $1.20 per net ton; for others it is 72 cents. A “net” ton is one hundred cubic feet. In 1924 the tolls on each ship averaged $4,600. During the ten years ending July 1, 1924, 25,704 com- mercial vessels have passed through the Canal, carrying about 43,000,000 tons of cargo, the total tolls paid amount- ing to $100,840,309, of which $24,290,963 was received during the year ending July 1, 1924,—a clear profit above maintenance of about $17,209,572, which is nearly five per cent. on the entire investment of the Government. ‘The Panama railway earned $1,044,887 additionally. The entire cost of the Canal was $373,000,000, including $40,000,000 paid to the French Canal Company. It was opened on August 15, 1914, when the S. S. Ancon, of 9,000 tons, passed through, although it has since been blocked by slides at various times aggregating seven months. In 1917, forty-one vessels made the transit, while in 1924 there were 5,230, an increase Over 1923 of 31.8 per cent. in number of ships and 38.7 per cent. in tolls. “Twenty-three flags were represented, 62 per cent. being America and 22 per cent. British. The question of a second canal is already receiving atten- tion in official circles because the present indication is that the Panama Canal will not likely be large enough by 1962 to handle the necessary traffic. A second system of two CANAL INFORMATION 49 locks parallel to the two locks which are now in operation can be constructed, but no additional locks are possible be- cause of the fact that the water supply would not be suff- cient. By the Bryan-Chamorro treaty, the United States has already paid $3,000,000 for the right to construct a canal by way of the San Juan River, Lake Nicaragua and the Gulf of Ponseca. It would probably cost over a billion dollars, but before 1962, the present Canal is sure to earn twice this.sum. Bunau-Varilla, the well-known canal authority, believes that the annual tonnage will be 100,000,000 tons by 1944, and recommends that a sea-level canal be built at Panama, which would not interfere with the operation of the present Canal. It would require the removal of five times as much material, be 1,000 feet wide (instead of 110) and would cost a billion dollars. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 and the Hay- Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 both designated absolute neu- trality, and the United States law, which provided for the exemption of the payment of tolls by United States coast- wise shipping, was so clearly a violation of these Treaty terms, that good faith and national self-respect forced the abrogation of the law, and it was repealed June 15, 1914. Pees THE CANAL The trip by steamer through the Canal is one of constant charm and surprise. ‘The beautiful shores with their luxu- riant tropical verdure reveal a constantly changing pano-. rama of beauty. ‘The shores of Miraflores Lake especially are bewitchingly lovely, and the passage through the Gail- lard Cut with its rugged sides, and abrupt cliffs at close range, through which man has cut his way, is most impres- sive. Standing on the deck and watching the operations of the various locks as the steamer rises from the Atlantic level to the Gatun Lake, and then descending again to the level of the Pacific, is a novel and thrilling experience. The | whole trip is a growing crescendo. 50 PANAMA BALBOA The steamer reaches the dock at Balboa, the suburb of Panama on United States soil, where the Canal enters the Pacific. ‘This was formerly known as La Boca, but was renamed by the Americans in order to give honour to the great discoverer. Here automobiles are usually waiting to give Cruise passengers a ride through the picturesque region around the Pacific port. Such a ride passes by the Panama Canal Administration buildings, the residences of the Canal officials, the Army headquarters and the charming Ancon Hospital grounds, and climbs Balboa Heights. A superb panoramic view, including the Pedro Miguel and Mira- flores Locks, may be seen from the summit. ‘These moun- tain-top views, that overlook the whole Canal valley and the vast stretches of the Pacific, are most inspiring. From the entrance door of the Ancon Hospital, both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans may be seen. A drive through Panama City, passing the former exposi- tion grounds to the bull-ring, bathing-beach, and residential sections, gives a good idea of the quaint and picturesque characteristics of the town. Such a ride usually includes the shopping district and the ride over the Causeway to the fortified Island. Balboa is a beautiful little city, charmingly situated and artistically laid out with perfect driveways and broad park- © like squares. ‘The homes of officials are built of concrete, in a modern style of architecture. Here are also dry docks, repair shops and naval storehouses. The Administration Building, also of concrete, is con- spicuously placed on the top of a hill, being approached by three broad flights of stairs in front, and by an encircling motor road in the rear. In this building many things of historic interest have been preserved, including old models and pieces of machinery and relics of de Lesseps’ time, form- ing the nucleus of a museum. Here also are kept on file the personal records, constantly open for the inspection of THE CATHEDRAL OF PANAMA BALBOA 51 the public, of all employés, giving age, nationality, place of birth, and previous employment. . Sari OF PANAMA Panama, with a population of 66,851, is the Capital of the Republic of Panama, and was first built by Fernandez de Cordova after the destruction of Old Panama, which was located four or five miles to the west, and which had been destroyed by Henry Morgan, the buccaneer, in 1671. It lies at the base of Ancon Hill (which is 560 feet high), at the summit of which is the cone of an extinct volcano. The City has been improved in recent years, some. of the $10,000,000 paid to the Republic having been used to erect several fine public buildings. “The United States controls all sanitation and water supply, although these sys- tems are conducted at the expense of the Panama City Govy- ernment. ‘The new Panama site is much more favourably situated for shipping than was the old. The narrow streets with their houses of two or three stories with red-tiled roofs and peopled balconies make a striking picture. The main street is the Avenida Central, which makes a circular detour and leads to the Malecén or sea wall. Most of the shops in the Avenida Central are in the hands of Chinamen. ‘They began coming in such large numbers that those arriving after 1904 have been charged a $250 head tax. Apparently, they pay this cheerfully for the privilege of doing business in Panama City. The Cathedral was built by a negro who became a Bishop of Panama, whose father was a charcoal burner. It was financed by this good Bishop and took eighty-eight years to complete. It is a rather dingy building with two towers encased in mother-of-pearl. Opposite the Cathedral are the Bishop’s Palace and the old Government Palace. The Lottery is legal in Panama and there is one con- - ducted under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church, a PANAMA the proceeds of which are divided among three charities. The drawings take place each Sunday morning at the corner of the Bishop’s Palace on the Cathedral Plaza. Vendors of these lottery tickets are to be met everywhere along the streets and so well is the lottery patronised that prizes run as high as several thousand dollars. Other churches are the San Felipe Neri, whose arch goes back to 1688; the San Francisco, completed 1740, and the Santa Ana, that has an altar service of hammered silver. The City Hall or Palacio Municipal, the Teatro Nacional, an unusually handsome structure, and a fine Union Club, where the Prince of Wales was recently given a great recep- tion, are important centres of interest. The Instituto Nacional, the University of Panama, was opened in 1911, and has.a group of buildings at the base of Ancon Hill. The Malecon, or sea wall, is the fashionable promenade. From here there is a good view over the islands in Panama Bay, which have been strongly fortified by the United States. One of these guns, according to report, will throw a shell weighing twenty-four hundred pounds a distance of seventeen miles, and another has a reach of thirty miles. There is a picturesque scene on the beach under the walls of the City where boats laden with meats, vegetables, fish and fruits from along the coast run in at high tide and wait until the tide ebbs, after which they can unload on the beach and sell their produce without the extra expense of hand- - ling it. In the early days of Spanish ownership it was decided to protect the city against invasion by building this sea wall, but the project proved so costly to Spain, and was so long in building that the Spanish King is said to have facetiously inquired if he would not soon be able to see the wall from Madrid. On Taboga Island, situated in the Bay of Panama and easily reached by launch from Panama City, is a Sana- tarium which was originally built by the French as a hos- pital and which is now utilised by the Canal Commission Pere Ol PANAMA 53 for convalescing government workers. ‘The Island is also used as a pleasure resort for employés on vacation, offering very moderate hotel rates, a fine bathing-beach and a variety of amusements, and hence is very popular. Government employés are each allotted certain vacation days in each month which are cumulative up to a specified number. ‘This enables them to take a long rest at times, if they so desire. OLD PANAMA The ruins of old Panama, four or five miles away, make an interesting objective for a drive. It was the oldest city of European origin in America and was once supposed to be the most impregnable fortress in the Western Hemi- sphere, but it is now only a heap of ancient ruins, having been sacked and destroyed in 1671 by the famous adventurer, Henry Morgan. He attacked with twelve hundred men, and a fierce battle ensued in which six hundred Panama sol- diers were killed, the victorious ‘““Morganites”’ immediately besieging the city and, after three hours’ conflict, taking possession of the supposed stronghold. It was said to have had eight monasteries and two handsome churches enriched with gold and silver paraphernalia, together with fine paint- ings and other treasures. “The city contained two thousand houses built of cedar. Record has it that Morgan carried away its spoils, using one hundred and seventy-five beasts of burden laden with Spanish treasures, Paes TOL RAVELLCERS Hotels. Ihe Hotel Washington, in Colon, with eighty- eight rooms, and the Tivoli Hotel, in Ancon, with two hun- dred rooms, are both operated by the United States Gov- ernment and are extremely comfortable, and the charges are quite reasonable. ‘The drinking water is pure. Panama is becoming a favourite winter resort because of its excellent - hotels and its many attractions. 54 | PANAMA Conveyances. Automobiles and carriages are on the system of zones, costing each passenger fifteen cents within one zone, and fifteen cents additional for each extra zone. Money. Money is either ‘‘gold”—that is, regular United States currency, or “silver,’’ based on the peso of Panama, and worth half a dollar. It is divided into one hundred cents. Weather. ‘The weather is continually tropical summer, and although the heat is not excessive, the humidity is very trying. ‘The highest official temperature recorded is 98° F., the lowest, 59° F. Purchases. Panama hats are the conspicuous article made locally, for which very reasonable prices are charged. Bargaining is recommended, even at “one price’ shops. There are other kinds of native handiwork, gay striped bags, made of fine hemp, which can be secured at modest rates, but all articles that are not of native manufacture cost more in Panama than in the United States. It should be remem- bered that all wood and ivory carving, laces, embroideries, silks, jewellery, ornaments and bric-a-brac can be bought at very much lower rates in Japan and China, than in Panama or elsewhere in Round-the-World travel. Social Life. The presence of Army and Navy officers, as well as of Canal officials, makes for a very active social life, with every modern sport, not even omitting bull fights (on the Republic of Panama territory), in full blast. There are some high class clubs, conspicuously the Union Club, designated by those who are not fortunate enough to be members as the “Onion Club.” Churches. While Panama is mainly Catholic, the major- ity of Americans within the Zone are Protestants, and various denominations are represented. In Panama, as in the Philippines and elsewhere in the American Army, too great a social distinction is made be- tween the army officers and the men in the ranks. The latter have little or no entrée into even modest American homes, Pere 2CrRlLG. OCEAN. 555 and being deprived of the pleasures and restraints of the American home life, the soldiers too often betake themselves to the cafés and dance halls, and find their association with the uncultured and sometimes vicious natives. meer ACIFICV’OCEAN Leaving the port at Panama one enters the great Pacific Ocean, containing 68,634,000 square miles with an average depth of 12,780 feet, which is ten thousand miles at its wid- est and nine thousand miles extreme distance from north to south. It contains over twenty-five hundred islands large enough to be named and inhabited. It represents the un- changing elements of nature quite as much as do the ever- lasting mountains. The Pacific has steep-sloped shores throughout, and con- tains such an illimitable expanse that a shipwrecked sailor might go many weeks without seeing a ship or being driven upon an island. One can see both the North Star and the Southern Cross near its equatorial belt. There is an immensity which commands admiration and awe and is sug- gestive of eternity. “These are the waters that have fur- nished the tales of perilous shipwrecks on cannibal islands, the “Mysterious Island” of Jules Verne, the Jack London “Sea Wolf” tales, and the ‘Treasure Island” of Robert Louis Stevenson. The Pacific is also the centre of most of the great earth- quake movements. ‘The earthquake belt extends along nearly the whole of the South American and Central Amer- ican coast on its Pacific side, a part of the California coast, and several sections in Alaska, together with the entire Aleutian Islands, the whole of the Japanese islands, the Philippines, and large parts of the South Sea islands, ex- tending into the Indian Ocean to the Bay of Bengal, as far as Calcutta, which in September, 1923, had some severe shocks. . Outside of this great Pacific earthquake belt, encircling 56 PANAMA the Pacific Ocean, there are comparatively few disturbed regions, the others being mostly in the Mediterranean, in- cluding Asia Minor, Italy and southern Spain. Spain, in the time of Balboa, owned all the American side of the Pacific, as well as the Philippine Islands on the Asiatic, but now has no colonial possessions. SUPPLEMENTARY PAU FIGURES The Republic of Panama asserted its independence of the Republic of Colombia November 3, 1903, and this de facto Government was recognised by the United States ten days later, and soon thereafter by the other Powers. On April 6, 1914, Colombia signed the Treaty of Bogota, agreeing to recognise the independence of Panama on the basis of re- ceiving $25,000,000 from the United States. “This was rati- fied by the United States Senate on April 20, 1921, and by the Colombian Congress December 24, 1921. The President of the Republic of Panama is elected by direct vote every four years and cannot succeed himself. ‘There are three vice-presidents and a cabinet of five min- isters. A Chamber of Deputies, having thirty-three mem- bers, meets bi-annually. A dispute with Costa Rica about boundaries was sub- mitted to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States as arbiter, who gave a decision in 1914, but Panama refused to accept the verdict. “The United States insisted on this ruling, and in September, 1921, the disputed region was occupied by Costa Rica, although Panama does not recognise the occupation. On November 18, 1903, a treaty was enacted between the United States and the new Republic of Panama, giving the United States the right to construct a Canal, together with a lease of the land five miles on either side, the United States Government having exclusive control in this section ete NIGARY FACTS $7 for police, judicial and sanitary purposes. Other territory was later ceded for possible subsidiary canals and for the defence of the Canal itself, including the coast line and the Islands on Panama Bay. While the towns of Panama and Colon are under the authority of the Republic of Panama, the United States controls their harbours, as well as their sanitation and quarantine. “The United States paid Panama $10,000,000 in cash, and, in addition, pays $250,000 an- nually (beginning with 1912), besides buying the individual holdings of land from their respective owners. The extreme length of the Republic of Panama, which is now a country in Central America (and not, as formerly, a part of South America), is 480 miles, and the breadth about 110 miles, with an area of 32,380 square miles. “The popu- lation (1920), excluding the Canal Zone, is 446,098, or about twelve to the square mile. “There is a mixed Spanish, Indian, and Negro population, including 3,500 Chinese, only ten to fifteen per cent. being white. ‘The city of Panama has a population of 66,851 (1920); Colon, 31,230. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, although the Prot- estant Church predominates in the Canal Zone. ‘There are 384 public schools, with 43,215 children, school attendance being obligatory for children from seven to fifteen years of age. [here is a National University whose buildings cost $1,250,000. ‘The revenues (1924) are $9,561,762, and expenditures $7,095,114. “The United States can import all Canal materials free of duty. There is no Army or Navy. The Panama railroad, 47.61 miles long, connecting Colon and Panama, cost $8,866,392, and belongs to the United States Government. The United Fruit Company, of the United States, operates 140 miles of its own railroad. ‘Two mountain ranges traverse the country, with fertile valleys lying between. The soil is of great fertility,— bananas, coffee, cacao, rubber, cocoanuts, sugar and tobacco, being the principal products. Hides, tortoise-shell, mother- of-pearl and dye woods are also exported. The standard ‘unit of money is the peso, equivalent to 58 PANAMA fifty cents American, each peso being divided into 100 cents. Part of the $10,000,000 paid by the United States was used in establishing a real estate loan bank, and $6,000,000 has been invested in the United States. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY In Quest of El Dorado, 8. Graham. ’23, Appleton. Panama, Past and Present, A. H. Verrill. ’21, Dodd-Mead. Sailing South, P.S. Marden. ’21, Houghton. Prowling About Panama, G. A. Miller. ’19, Abingdon Press. Guide to the West Indies, F. A. Ober. ’20, Dodd-Mead. Great Adventure of Panama, P. Bunau-Varilla. ’20, Doubleday. The Panama Plot, A. B. Reeve. Harper. Panama Canal, H. C. Lodge. Government Printing Press. Panama, the Canal, the Country and the People, Albert Edwards. 711, Macmillan. The Panama Canal and Its Makers, Vaughn Cornish. ’o9, I. Fisher Unwin. Panama and the Canal, W. J. Abbot. ’14, Dodd. Panama, A. Bullard. ’14, Macmillan. Panama, C. H. A. Forbes-Lindsay. ’12, Page. Panama and What It Means, J. F. Fraser. 713, Funk. Panama, Past and Present, F. Bishop. ’16, Century. Panama Canal, R. E. Bakenhus. ’14, Wiley. Panama Gateway, J. B. Bishop. ’15, Scribner. Panama, E. A. Browne. 713, Macmillan. Panama, P. Bunan-Varilla. °14, McBride. HAWATI “The loveliest fleet of islands that lies anchored in any ocean.” —Mark Twain. HE Hawaiian Islands, sometimes spoken of as the “Paradise of the Pacific,” and termed by Captain Cook, “The Rainbow Isles,” consist of eight habitable islands with a total area of 6,449 square miles. The first Malays or Polynesians probably landed at these islands about 500 a.p. ‘They may have drifted across the ocean from the South Sea Islands by way of Tahiti, perhaps going from one group of islands to the next. How they could have crossed these great stretches of thousands of miles in small open boats and survived, will remain a mys- tery. Some people, however, say that Hawaii was a part of a great Pacific continent, the rest having sunk like the Atlantis Island of old into the midst of the sea. It is evi- dent, however, that the Islands are entirely of volcanic origin, thrust up out of the bottom of the ocean,—a veritable group of great land areas in the making. Scientists say that this action has consumed twenty thousand years, but this seems rather a low estimate. These early Hawaiians had some of the religious customs of the Jews of ancient Palestine, as for instance, temples of refuge, circumcision, purifications, and much the same method for the burial of the dead. ‘This has given rise in some quarters to the belief that they are the descendants of those who knew the Jewish religion, perhaps harking back to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Others seem to find evidence of Persian ancestry, but, as a whole, they seem rather to be of Malay origin. ‘Spanish Visitors. It seems almost certain that these Islands were discovered by the Spaniards, and that a navi- gator by the name of Don Juan Gaetano landed here in 1555 A.D. It also seems probable that in view of the fact , 59 60 HAWAII that Spain dominated the Pacific Ocean in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, that Captain Cook possessed a chart of the ocean prepared for Spanish navigators, in which these Islands were indicated. At any rate, there is evidence that people of light complexion and even of fair hair settled there about this time and helped to give the lighter colour and sometimes reddish hair, which were noticeable even in Captain Cook’s time in some of the Hawaiians. Captain Cook. When Captain Cook in 1778 on his third “Round the World” voyage in his ship Discovery found the “Sandwich” islands, as he called them (a name now obsolete), he was received by a very hospitable people. He and other foreigners: who followed brought some curses as well as blessings to the inhabitants, largely because they introduced sex diseases and the evils of drink among these simple-minded natives. Captain Cook estimated that there were 432,000 natives in the Islands when he arrived (a grossly exaggerated number), but the census of 1832 showed only 130,000, and at present there are less than 22,000 natives of unmixed Hawaiian race. Although at first worshipped as a god, and under the pro- tection of the priests, Captain Cook, on account of his high- handed methods, and the heavy levies he made on the people, and because his brutal and boisterous sailors abused the hos- — pitality of the natives, was pierced by a spear and killed a year after his arrival, whereupon his sailors withdrew to their ship. He and his crew went on the assumption that no laws of God or man were valid west of Cape Horn. The story that his body was eaten has no warrant whatever, as there is nothing to show that the Hawaiians had cannibalis- tic habits. LATER His" King Kamehameha I. While for centuries these Islands were the scene of constant warring feuds between the various kings and chiefs, they were finally unified under . 7 i. . a a: - * ; ; . 7 iF net tm Nene AS oo : a 7 : ; ie i + ‘e ‘ + : a i ia ‘ | is t » ; g ¥ te PS mee a a EO A I SE ts Os OE TO OO ea age 678, inkebiies ; : Se 86 weiss. Acin 4565 cocere wiiet Ge gin: ee. Wighest deme a dee Pettitog al givke te of eben thes 22.300 feet . DI, Bos : preeleion be fae lori ey gee” aha ‘ ig * Dhisetet- 2 @ wece tee 82 pepe $3.052 fon pee ite and cups, 24 odie m of Seq Toepeiete oy } . os Tare Baud w& locet Fe { Oe. ce veted tee test ieiend Bere grew eetea we Ct prince. carte etn mt og 85 —t A BA tg ek TS beg he ere wert, G54 Srgf tt Son wht PA ie enti eerie en tee iy teil a aN eng atl “lita a. NONOPA, NITHAU Te AUSTRALIA ee eee Manica (Ob Sy a0710 QQ 0 tage Son Francisco ita defphia Los Ae ~ Sen Brego a ; eas” A SOUTH HAWAIIAN ISLANDS Map Compiled for the Hawan Promotion Committee By RDKwe GH E Newron Scale in Miles = 3, J Med re, 12 MIKE fA Uarsipsierr td Phe Slarseun” Prosar etre PEIN 5: MOLOKAI WALAUPAPA KALAWAO ag mteKUNy” ; e xa NaKAKA KOO e U <3 KAHOOLAWE N e KAWAPHAE WHIMEA hi AUPANOE HOE yw PAPAHALOA LMLAMILY oe WHYZ won oute Wi ! WZ PEPEEKEO ee ye) =~ MoLUALoA We UALOA wEAUHOUY WWE YZ "GLENWOOD WEMLEKEKU. % @ MAUNA LOA pAHOA® °° XAPOWO N4POOPOO rete Ul We Chases WOOPULOA PAHALA ® THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS The group lies between 18 deg. 54 min and 22 deg 14 min north, 154 deg 43 min and 160 deg. 13 min, west. Eight islands are inhabited. HAWAII is the largest, 75 by 90 miles. Area 4015 square miles On it are the highest mountains in the Pacific, two peaks reaching an altitude of more than 13,000 feet Hilo, the chief city, is second in population in the territory MAUI contains 728 square miles. Haleakala is a mountain of more than 10,000 feet. . OAHU, with Honolulu, principal city and capital, 2180 miles west of San Francisco, con- tains 598 square miles. Pearl Harbor naval station is located here KAUAT, ‘‘The Garden Isle.’’ is rated the oldest island in the group Intensive cultivation is conducted on all principal islands pane alae ret ~ ee ee Boy Fay = as. ers pe ee tal 9 aS ny ¥ pen BRI EMSS exh ~MN5 ae Sas ° HST ht mt 3 eave ‘nage * oe BH, ee ie r UI t ‘. o> IP “tie i at Sos 1A Mons’ SZ Soe as ees A LEI IND, A OA TI RT ITIL ET PENNY cee ma mee Pee AL oh ~~ ye ae Hy re Bie 5 of a a ee" _— ase iat ~*~ ~ , ieee 9 tn * Wide diag Re a ee eee te RR cere eT ne EM epee Sol ae ae < 4 4 * tee Fane ee poeeanenest mets 7 n ro - is * tet i > 2 Pe id ee Laeeaiia® thet: "> - ay _" a ; 7 a ye ; * cya"; ya Vtteor. PSs le a i ‘ t a aur ‘bee. aad as’ Bd 024 Aad tet Ad eo te. bane fetid ats ore i ot). enlier svaeeps Sf00" perry, Bet ol syst O46 pi wee IO fe obese an ae ae BS OOO.8F andl: —-. hee acrtenalh neat we Peek UTS TORY 61 King Kamehameha I (born 1737), by his victories over all antagonists. He was a man of extraordinary personality and leadership and proved himself not only a warrior, but a law giver and ruler and a man of ideals for his nation. Kamehameha I was called the Napoleon of the Pacific, and yet he was so ignorant that he deemed the following incident sheer magic. An Englishman wrote a message on a paper requesting a handkerchief and sent it to the ship in the harbour. When the handkerchief was actually brought, the King could not understand any con- nection between the paper and the handkerchief. ‘This, of course, was before the Hawaiian language was put into writing. The first of the Christian rulers was Queen Kaahumanu, the widow of Kamehameha I, and the Queen Regent during the reign of Kamehameha II, who showed himself to be incapable and vicious. Kamehameha III. King Kamehameha III proved to have Christian ideals above those of any other Hawaiian ruler. He gave two-thirds of all his possessions to the people, and tried to bring about a land reform by which every householder should own some land. He drew up a Magna Charta, or Bill of Rights, in 1839, and a Consti- tution in 1840, which gave the people the power to elect representatives for the Parliament which he instituted, and he appointed judiciary departments with district, circuit and supreme courts. King Kamehameha III tried to learn to read under the tutelage of the missionaries, but he soon wearied of it, and yet compelled his family to learn, even making a rule that no man could marry who could not read. While he was the most broadminded and wise of all the Hawaiian Kings, he was in his later years given to intemperance. Evidently the rule of King Kamehameha III was gentle and considerate. ‘The story goes that the prisoners in the Oahu prison in his time were permitted to go out and do household work during the day, as there was a great demand 62 HAWAII for domestic servants. Someone asked the warden, “Sup- pose a prisoner fails to come back, what do you do?” “We lock him out,” was the triumphant reply. The most important work which the early missionaries did was to emphasise education, and the King appointed the Rev. R. B. Armstrong, D.D., the father of the late General Samuel C. Armstrong, of Hampton Institute, Virginia, as the Minister of Education. General Armstrong learned some of his revolutionary methods of manual and industrial training for backward races from his father in Hawaii. In the Island of Maui, where General Armstrong was born, his father had established this manual work in the Lahaina Luna Seminary, founded in 1831. : English Occupancy. In 1843 when a Mr. Simpson was Acting Consul of Great Britain at Honolulu, he forced the cession of Hawaii to Great Britain on his own responsi- bility, having notified Admiral Thomas, in charge of the Pacific fleet, to send a warship to Hawaii because British lives were in danger. When the warship arrived, the King immediately surrendered. ‘The Government of Great Brit- ain, however, on reviewing the case, sent this message: “Her Majesty (Queen Victoria) sincerely desires King Kame- hameha III to be treated as an independent sovereign, leay- ing the administration of justice in his own hands,” after which the British flag came down and the Hawaiian flag was restored. “The Hawaiian flag consisted of eight alter- nate stripes of red, white and blue, each representing one of the eight inhabited islands, with an English Jack in the upper left hand corner. In 1849, France made an attempt to conquer and occupy Hawaii, but failed. The Provisional Republic. After several other inter- vening reigns and two years of rule under Queen Liliuo- kalani, the Hawaiians, with the assistance of Americans, abolished the monarchy in January, 1893 and a provisional government was established. ‘This was precipitated by the fact that Queen Liliuokalani tried to set aside the Constitu- tion so as to get complete autocratic control of the Govern- ANNEXATION 63 ment. This act was not only unpopular with American business men, but also with the Hawaiian people. Liliuokalani made an attempt to regain her throne in 1895, her friends having planned a revolution, but the effort failed completely. She appealed to the United States to restore her throne and crown lands, but nothing was done. In the last years of her life she regained her popu- larity because of her genial and democratic attitude. The Provisional Government took the side of the United States in the American war with Spain, and, as a military necessity because Hawaii was the “Crossroads of the Pa- cific,’ the United States Congress passed a resolution of annexation, THE AMERICAN ADMINIGS- RAL TON The Senate of the Provisional Government of Hawaii, on September 8, 1897, unanimously ratified the Treaty of Annexation, and on August 12, 1898, President S. B. Dole ceded the jurisdiction and property of the Hawaiian Re- public to the United States. It was an impressive occasion, opened by prayer. The address of acceptance was made by United States Minister Sewell, followed by the formal lower- ing of the Hawaiian flag, and the raising of the Star Span- gled Banner. Queen Liliuokalani lived and (in November. 1917) died in Washington Place, a mansion which has since been bought and made the residence of the Governor, who has his office in what was the stately bed chamber of royalty. The last titular descendant of the Hawaiian monarchy was Prince Kalanianaole, called the ‘‘Prince of the People,” who was Hawaii’s Delegate to the United States Congress for twenty years and died January, 1922. ‘This is the finale of Hawaiian royalty. When the present Prince of Wales visited Hawaii in 1920 he was received with great acclaim. 64 } HAWAII HAWAIIAN DEFENCES The United States Government has taken great precau- tions to make Hawaii an impregnable Naval Station. Pearl Harbour, seven miles from Honolulu, was opened in June, 1918, having been supposedly made invincible with very complete fortifications. Since Hawaii is called the “Key to the Pacific,’ Pearl Harbour and other defences should constitute a great central stronghold in protecting not only Hawaii, but our whole western coast. ‘This harbour was once very shallow, but now its coral bottom has been dredged and excavated. The recent manceuvres of the United States fleet of 127 vessels in May, 1925, revealed many weaknesses. “The harbour is too shallow for the largest ves- sels. There-is a shortage of 16-inch guns, of airplanes and of general defensive construction and equipment. Naval experts agree that safety requires improved defences, which will cost about $32,000,000. An immense dry dock that scarcely has an equal anywhere, 1,039 feet in‘length, and 148 feet wide, has been opened. It is also a Naval Station, the headquarters for naval forces and a station for coal and oil supplies, and has extensive wireless, as well as cable, communications. Diamond Head, 761 feet high, is a fortress just at the entrance to Honolulu, and is unusual in that its sloping terraces, as well as its crest, which is an extinct crater, are heavily fortified. It is known as Fort Ruger. There is a fortress at Waikiki Beach called Fort de Russey with one 14-inch gun and other modern defences. The Honolulu harbour at its entrance has Fort Arm- strong on the western end. Schofield Barracks are seven miles from Honolulu, and constitute the strongest military post in Hawaii, having quarters for cavalry, artillery, and infantry, with a total of 15,000 soldiers, mostly natives. Fort Shafter is three miles from Honolulu, and is the headquarters for the infantry, engineering and signal corps. HAWAIIAN PROBLEMS 65 In August, 1923, the United States Navy Department approved a twenty year program appropriating a total dur- ing this period of $42,528,000 for Honolulu defences. Se PPE OF Pk There is a very mixed population of 307,109 (1925) in Hawaii, with 21,271 of native stock, there being, in 1925, 125,368 Japanese (or 42 per cent. of the whole), 34,272 Americans, British, Germans, etc., 26,791 Portuguese, 22,000 Chinese, and 5,000 Koreans. ‘The Koreans are good labourers, but very exclusive and extremely bitter against the Japanese. “The Portuguese are of small physique, but are excellent labourers and are thrifty and progressive. ‘The Porto Ricans and the Filipinos (there being 39,608 of the latter) have been the least satisfactory class of labourers. The children of all these races are well behaved. Only seven per cent. of the population is American. The Japanese Problem. ‘The Japanese were not con- sidered a menace until Hawaii was made a territory, but the fact that all children of the large Japanese families be- come citizens automatically at the age of twenty-one makes the future control of Hawaii by its Japanese citizens prac- tically certain. The Japanese are mentally a superior race, ranking with the Anglo-Saxon, but they have a race pride and a national loyalty that make it impossible to amalga- mate them into the body politic. At the present ratio of increase, however, the Japanese will absolutely control the electorate before the year 1940. This makes a political crisis that will become increasingly disturbing, as it will be a serious menace to have a part of the United States controlled by an electorate of an alien race. In July, 1921, the House Immigration Committee reported that the industries of Hawaii must inevitably pass into the hands of the Japanese under present conditions, and that such a transfer of economic control in the western outpost of America would practically destroy American influence ?n 66 HAWAII Hawaii. The Japanese do not as a rule give up allegiance to Japan, even when by birth they become American citizens. In case of war, they would favor Japan. Some whites in Hawaii do not favor statehood because it might give Hawaii a Japanese governor. Of course, Japanese citizens in Hawaii can freely enter and live in the United States, as they are United States citizens. Perhaps the surest way to avoid “Japanisation” would be to withhold citizenship from Hawaiian-born Japanese beyond a certain percentage. The best of the Orientals, taken as a whole, and the ones most popular with the Americans, are the Chinese, who are of a superior type mentally, physically, and morally. ‘They, however, represent the small shop-keeping and rice-field working class. Hawaiian Characteristics. ‘The native Hawaiians are hospitable, cheerful, loyal, and law-abiding, although light- hearted and rather irresponsible. “They are born fishermen and seamen and expert swimmers, excelling also in the sports of boxing, wrestling, bowling and running. Music with them is a passion. “They are well educated and are born orators. “They tend to extreme corpulency after middle life, owing largely to their fondness for “poi,” which is a paste slightly fermented, made of the root of the taro (or kalo) plant (which is a tuber, raised in flooded patches of soil), and tastes like ‘oatmeal mixed with sour apple sauce.” In the Bishop Museum there is a portrait of Princess Ruth, who weighed 300 pounds, and many of the Hawaiians then and now, especially the women, seem to be trying to keep up to that royal standard. Although the majority of the people of the highest social and business standing are pure Caucasians, there is a mixture of race among some of the best people. The Hawaiians have been very susceptible to the diseases of the white man, which were unknown to the natives before his advent. Smallpox, scarlet fever, and diphtheria have taken a large toll in the earlier days, and measles, which we consider a mild children’s disease, has proved very fatal. CHRISTIAN INFLUENCES 67 The same thing has been true on many islands of the Pacific and also among the Alaskan Indians. H.G. Wells, in one of his earlier fanciful tales, “The War of the Worlds,” pictures the army from Mars, after apparently sweeping everything before them in victorious conquest, suddenly suc- cumbing to the germs of earth-born diseases, to which they were not immune. Mosk y WORK IN “HAWATI In October, 1819, Rev. Asa Thurston and Rev. Hiram Bingham, witn their wives, together with some lay workers, started from New England in a sailing vessel,—the brig ‘Thaddeus,—and after 157 days’ voyage around Cape Horn, landed at the Island of Hawaii. Everything seemed to have been providentially prepared for them. Kamehameha I had died less than a year before, and although he had associated with some English-speaking people and knew somewhat of the Christian religion, he himself never embraced Chris- tianity. His successor, Kamehameha II, however, influenced by Queen Kaahumanu, the widow of Kamehameha I, who was associated with him as Queen Regent, immediately abolished the Hawaiian religion and worship, the high priest Hewa- hewa himself being the first to apply the torch to the tem- ples and idols. This was the end of the cruel “tabu” (often spelled ‘‘taboo”) which had been used by the priests as such a powerful means of controlling the people. “Tabu at the will of these religious tyrants meant death. Death, if a man broke a religious rule. Death, to eat certain kinds of food. Death, if a man or woman took food first before a priest had partaken of it. Death, for a woman to use fire kindled by a man. Death, if a woman ate the same food with a man,—together with many other similar horrible rules. ‘This made conditions ripe for the bringing in of the Christian religion. The crushing of the powers of the priesthood and the Be ele HAWAII abolishing of the tabu led to a civil war and the battle of Kona, but the despotic priestly power soon was absolutely destroyed. Some Hawaiian Queens. Queen Keopuolani, the older wife of Kamehameha I, was the first convert of the early missionaries. (Queen Kaahumanu, the younger wife, at first was very cold and haughty but later became a most loyal convert and was the most remarkable among all the Ha- Waiian queens. She made extensive tours through the Islands with the missionaries, trying to persuade the people to adopt the new religion. The Christian Queen Kapiolani, the Hawaiian “Joan of Arc,” visited the crater of Kilauea in December, 1824, for the express purpose of overthrowing the superstitious faith of the people in the crater goddess, “Pele.” Although no native previously had ever dared even to come near to the mouth of the crater, she ate of the berries growing on the edge, which were supposed to be for the use of the goddess only, and actually descended to the brink of the lake of molten lava and uttered an open defiance to the goddess of terror. ‘This had a powerful influence in turning the people away from their superstitions. The Success of Christianity. Within ten years after the arrival of the missionaries, all the inhabitants were nomi- nally converted to Christianity, and in the first few decades thereafter the moral and religious standards were well sus- tained. ‘The people have always been very loyal to their missionaries. and appreciative of their good work. Only once was a missionary endangered, and that was a woman who was unsuccessfully attacked. “The King ordered her assailant to be instantly executed, but the intercession of the missionaries saved the wretch from this fate. There was no written or printed language before the missionaries came, but they soon put the Bible and other literature into print in the vernacular. ‘The native language being very simple in structure, having only twelve letters in its alphabet, they had but a limited vocabulary, which MISSIONARY WORK 69 has since been duly supplemented by English words in the common patois. English at the present time is the current language. ‘There can be no question about the immense value of American missions in the social, moral and intellectual trans- formation in these Islands. Even though the native Ha- waiians do not measure up to the highest Christian ideals, one need only compare them with any other non-Christian Malay race in the Pacific to realise what a noble result has been achieved. The criticism is sometimes made that the missionaries took advantage of their opportunities to amass wealth. None of the early missionaries, however, became wealthy. It was only their children and children’s children who, as educated Americans, naturally had opportunities for developing the resources of the Islands, who became rich. ‘The fact that in so doing they helped immensely to develop the Islands in an agricultural, industrial, and commercial way, and at the same time have maintained high standards of American Christianity, would make this criticism rather unjust. Hawaii has increased its producing power more than forty- fold since the days of the Empire. If Hawaiians have not kept up to their former religious standard, it is not so much because they have proved them- selves especially weak and inconstant, although they are much like impressionable but forgetful children, but because they have been despoiled by Christian Powers, including the United States, who debauched the people for the sake of gain, by introducing rum and opium. ‘The vicious influence of dissolute sailors and other foreigners in their personal relations with the natives also helped largely to undo the good work of the missionaries, tae BIG ISLAND” The Hawaiian or “Big Island,” with 4,015 square miles (about the area of Connecticut), being larger than all other 70 HAWAII Islands of this group put together, has as its tourist climax the most active volcano in the world, Kilauea (4,000 feet), resting on the shoulder of the active but quiescent Mauna Loa, 13,675 feet. Plans are projected to make a good auto road to the very top of Mauna Loa (or Great Mountain). There is a changing panorama with surpassing views as one ascends to the top of this lofty peak. The highest mountain, not only in Hawaii but in the Pacific, namely, Mauna Kea, 13,825 feet, is also on this Island. Hilo. As one enters the crescent shaped harbour (the name Hilo means “new moon’’), one gets the picture of its emerald background and its lofty mountains in the distance, including smoky Kilauea. ‘This Bay has also been called “Byron Bay” after Lord Byron (a cousin of the Lord Byron of literary fame), who arrived in 1824 in command of the frigate Blonde, bringing back the bodies of King Kamehameha II and his Queen, who had both succumbed to measles in London. Hilo itself has about 10,000 people, with several hotels, a public library, and some creditable mercantile buildings, and also a Boys’ School, patterned after Hampton Institute, Va. As the ship approaches the Hilo wharf, it is greeted (as at Honolulu) by music from boats filled with native singers as well as boats carrying boys who dive for coins. They do not like copper coins, as they claim that it is diff- cult to see them under the water. The Kilauea Volcano. ‘There are two methods of going to the top of Kilauea; one by an excellent motor road of thirty-one miles, straight to the crater, or by train as far as Glenwood and then taking a nine-mile motor car ride from the station. In both cases the way goes through extensive plantations of sugar cane in all stages of development, showing the factories, the interesting native villages, and the system of sluices of running water by which the cane is floated down to the sugar mill. Reeth AY OLCANO. 71 Then as one climbs higher, passing through gorgeous forests containing tree ferns of gigantic size, together with brilliant flowers and a wealth of intense verdure, there is revealed a picture of tropical luxuriance that is hardly sur- passed anywhere. ‘This extraordinary vegetation is caused by the fact that there is an annual rainfall of 150 inches, with very few days in the year in which there is not some rain. Motor cars can drive to the very edge of the great crater, which is 7.85 miles in circumference, looking down four hundred feet upon the lava plateau. It contains 2,650 acres of black or glowing lava. The Fire Pit inside the crater is called ‘“Halemaumau,” or “House of Everlasting Fire.” This inner pit is one thousand feet in diameter, six hundred feet deep, and covers about twenty acres. Looking into it, one usually can see the seething and sputtering lava spouting up in fountains and cascades, together with fiery chasms revealing a tur- bulent lake of fire that is one of the rare sights of the world. Frequently, this lava from the fire pit overflows into the main part of the crater, sometimes actually filling it and flowing half-way down the mountain. During the great eruption of 1855 and 1856, a stream of lava two miles wide flowed for fifteen months, coming within eight miles of Hilo. While it seems rather excitingly dangerous to the spectator on the brink of the crater, there has been only one fatality. Sometimes, however, the fire pit is so quiescent as to be extremely disappointing to the visitor. The Volcano House is within four miles of the crater by motor road and within two miles by trail. This trail from the Volcano House passes by Pele’s Bathroom, the Picture Frame, and the Devil’s Kitchen,—at which postal cards can be “toasted” by holding them over the crevices. “The motor road goes through a fine forest and passes several extinct craters. The Volcano House makes a charge of from $6.00 to $7.50 per day, and has running water (which is stored in great tanks), electric lights, and open wood-fires. It is an attrac- 72 ; HAWATI tive and well-conducted hotel, having a golf course of eighteen holes near the Kilauea crater, some of the steaming fissures being covered with wire netting to save the balls. The Crater Hotel is also comfortable and charges some- what lower rates. Tourists should remember that at this elevation of four thousand feet the nights are quite cold, so that overcoats and wraps are essential, especially in motoring. THE ISLAND OF aie This Island has some remarkably fine scenery, together with the spectacular extinct volcano, Haleakala, or ‘House of the Sun,” 10,000 feet high, having the largest crater in the world. ‘This crater is twenty-four miles in circum- ference and its inner walls rise twenty-five hundred feet. As one looks down from the rim, the floor of the crater seems dotted with great ant-hills, but in reality they are lava cones several hundred feet high. A motor road goes within eight miles of the summit, the-rest of the distance being reached on horse-back, A rest house on top gives food and lodging, if desired. THE LEPER SET PLease The Island of Molokai is well known because of its Leper Settlement, and it was here that Father Damien gave up his life in his ministry to the unfortunate. He has been im- mortalised by the famous scathing letter of Robert Louis Stevenson to Dr. Hyde of Australia, who had written rather a deprecative article about Father Damien’s personality and habits. Of his single-hearted devotion and self-sacrifice to this work among the lepers there can, however, be no uncer- tainty. Another worker, known as Brother Dutton, who came to the colony in July, 1886, is called “the Saint of Molokai.” He represents a very high standard of Christian idealism and service. WORKERS IN A RICE FIELD AN HAWAIIAN JUNGLE PEPER SETTLEMENT -73 Hope for Lepers. While Father Damien went to Molokai and contracted leprosy in his ministry to these un- fortunates, and gave up his life as a martyr to the cause, modern medical science is doing a vastly more noble work in finding a means of curing these exiles. Chaulmoogra oil, as a cure for leprosy, has been used for some time in the Molokai settlement. It has, however, been recently modified so that it can be taken internally without distress and nausea, and a special preparation makes it pos- sible to inject it directly into the arteries of the patient. The tree from which the oil is extracted originally came from Indo-China, but it has been transplanted and is now grown in the Hawaiian Islands. While the medical authori- ties are a little slow to pronounce the oil an absolute cure, many patients have been discharged on parole apparently cured. Lepers who apply at the Kalihi Hospital in Hono- lulu are no longer sent to Molokai, but are treated at home. It begins to look as if in the next generation the leper colony at Molokai will be only a memory of the past. At present it has about eight hundred patients, living in very comfortable homes situated on a peninsula jutting out into the sea, entirely apart from the rest of the Island. This colony has a large tract of land which is about one-twentieth of the Island’s area, together with a well-equipped hospital, beautiful gardens and a playground for athletic games. A well-trained band of musicians, themselves lepers, furnish music on all festive occasions. The atmosphere is most cheerful, and the patients seem to enjoy their comfortable and well-ordered life. ‘They apparently are so happy that Jack London when he visited them said he would sooner live there than on the congested East Side of New York City. HONOLULU The Island of Oahu is the third island in size but the most important, both because of the presence of Honolulu, te 74 HAWAII the capital of the Islands, a city of about 100,000 people, and because of the Pearl Harbour Naval Station. Oahu is forty-six by twenty-six miles, containing 598 square miles. ‘The highest mountain is Kaala, which is 4,030 feet high. The Island is largely surrounded by coral reefs. It has a population of 160,000, exclusive of naval and military forces. Oahu has 120 miles of railway, be- sides 667 miles of plantation railway, together with about 15,000 motor vehicles, of which 2,500 are trucks. The Island of Oahu constitutes the City and County of Honolulu, and is entirely independent of the other Islands in its local government. A mayor and seven supervisors, elected every two years, have charge of the entire business of the administration. A Hospitable Welcome. MHonolulu’s harbour, land- locked on the leeward side with mountain ranges, and with little or no tide, is one of the safest in the world. ‘The welcome, which is extended to all important passenger ves- sels as they arrive, is something long to be remembered. Airplanes sometimes give a buzzing welcome overhead and drop a bundle of the latest newspapers on the ship’s deck. The Hawaiian band comes out in a launch with a greeting of sweet music, sometimes accompanied by a vocal chorus of men and with men and women soloists, all seeming to be imbued with the spirit of genuine welcome. Armfuls of the floral Jeis are on hand in abundance and as the passengers land a Jez is thrown like a necklace around the shoulders of each person. Originally, the Jez was used only for royalty. The so-called “Aloha” song, really the “Aloha Oe,” com- posed by Queen Liliuokalani, and another favourite called “A Song to Hawaii,” composed by an American from San Francisco who has never visited the Islands, are the two famous songs among others that usually welcome the travel- lers. ‘The word ‘‘aloha” means love, but expresses all the emotions of love, such as welcome, joy, farewell, etc. The Hawaiians are natural musicians, although limited to the so-called “Hawaiian” style of music. Within this range they HONOLULU 75 play instruments and do four-part singing in a most effective way. A moonlight serenade by such a group of musicians and singers in the charming palm-crowned parks or by the open sea has a most bewitching effect. Concerts by well-known American and European artists are frequently given in the Hawaiian Opera House, and there are numerous moving picture theatres, as well as vaude- villes, where a rather sensual and notorious native Hawaiian dance, called the hula dance, is usually featured, SIGHTSEEING Waikiki Beach is four miles from Young’s Hotel, and is a charming seaside resort with a lovely beach for sea bathing, the water being of a comfortable temperature all the year round. Here there is also an exceptional oppor- tunity to see and enjoy surf-board and outrigger canoe riding. The surf-riding is characteristic of Hawaii and the practice goes back to ancient times, having originally had a religious significance. The word Waikiki means “shooting water.” A magnificent Honolulu War Memorial is being erected on Waikiki Beach. A part of it will consist of a huge natatorium three hundred and thirty feet long and one hun- dred and fifty feet wide, built out into the sea, the water thus being constantly renewed. It will have starting plat- forms and diving towers to be used in aquatic races, and many dressing rooms for men and women. ‘There will also be a Temple of Music with seats for 6,500 persons. Special provision will be made in connection with the Memorial for athletic and Olympic games. The Aquarium is in Kapiolani Park, not far from Wai- kiki Beach, and furnishes an exhibition of unusually bril liant and fantastic fish,—moon-shaped and rainbow-hued. There are altogether 447 species of native Hawaiian fish. Kapiolani Park covers one hundred and fifty acres and is verdant with floral beauty. It is the largest and finest of 76 HAWAII all the Honolulu parks, and has enclosures for baseball games and polo tournaments. The Pali (the word means “cliff’’), six miles from Hono- lulu, which has a sheer drop of one thousand feet, offers the finest single scenic view in Honolulu. ‘The approach is by the road through Nuuana Valley, showing an opening be- tween two peaks which are 1,207 and 3,105 feet high. The view from Pali includes the ocean with its white surf, together with precipitous mountains, tinted sugar cane and pineapple fields, rich colourings of black lava rock and newly turned red earth mingling with the emerald clusters of trees,—all shading into the blue of the opalescent sea,— making altogether a very dazzling panorama. Here in April, 1795, Kamehameha I drove the king of Oahu with thou- sands of his soldiers to their death over the edge of the precipice. The particulars are recorded on a tablet in a niche near by. The Punch Bowl near the city, 498 feet high, is the crater of an extinct volcano. It has many suburban homes on its terraces, and gives a somewhat extensive view. Here human sacrifices were offered in the pre-missionary days. The Tantalus, a higher mountain, 2,013 feet, is back of the Punch Bowl, and may be reached by a good road going nearly to the top. A short climb to the summit gives a surpassing vista, embracing the encircling horizon of earth and sky and sea. The Bishop Museum is on the border of the town, and was founded by Charles R. Bishop in 1889 in memory of his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop (the last of the line of Kamehameha I), who refused the throne in order to marry him. It is a remarkable collection of Hawaiian antiquities, together with objects illustrating botany, geology, zoology, and ethnology. Among the latter are included cloaks and helmets made in the most artistic fashion from the feathers of the mamo, a small bird now almost extinct, each bird contributing only a few choice feathers. It took a hundred years to make the famous Orange Cloak of feathers, owing SIGHTSEEING yi to the scarcity of birds, and it is priceless. Other exhibits are necklaces, weapons, implements, tappa cloth, relics, idols and Kahilis (the feathered staff, the emblem of royalty). The Kamehameha Schools for native Hawaiian boys and girls were founded by the will of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, who was the wealthiest land owner in the Island. ‘These are the best endowed and equipped schools in Honolulu, with industrial, manual and military features. The Oahu College was founded in 1841 for the purpose of providing instruction for the children of missionaries. It is now a well-established college with 758 students in 1923, and has a beautiful campus of eighty acres. ‘The Cooke Memorial Library and the Art Gallery are con- nected with the college. The Capitol, built in an architectural style of rather questionable taste, is situated in a spacious park. It was originally the palace of King Kalakaua and his sister, Queen Liliuokalani, and it was here that the latter was tried and imprisoned for attempting to overthrow the Constitution. It now houses the Executive departments of the Govern- ment. In the Throne Room, the House of Representatives has its sessions, the Speaker of the House using the royal throne platform. The Judiciary Building, formerly the old government building, which houses the Territorial Circuit Court, is just opposite the Capitol on King Street, in front of which is the statue of Kamehameha I. The Library, completed in 1913, has over 40,000 volumes. The new United States Federal Building, in the Cal- ifornia ‘‘mission” type of architecture, costing over $1,000,- 000, was first occupied in April, 1922, and is used by the federal departments. The Moanalua Gardens are three and a half miles out of the city, and consist of over nine thousand acres of land owned by the Hon. S. M. Damon, the first banker in Hawaii and later the Minister of Finance under the Ha- waiian Republic, by whose courtesy it is open to the public. 78 HAWAII Much of this is in the natural state. Some parts have choice landscape gardening, making an ensemble that gives a rare setting for a charming drive. Here one can see the method of growing rice, taro, bananas, alligator pears, oranges, and grapefruit, and there are native trees of every description. [he conspicuous house on a knoll is Mr. Damon’s residence. The fruits, trees and flowers that are not native but have been brought in from other lands are pines, candle nut, pomarind, rubber tree, China-rose tree, the lichee nut, the mango, the breadfruit, and the cocoanut; besides flowering — shrubs like the oleander, the hibiscus, and among other fruits the guava, orange, citron, fig, papaia, alligator Beats and various kinds of berries. Missionaries introduced and encouraged the growing at cotton, coffee, sugar, etc., furnishing the seed and giving object lessons in their culture. Rice was introduced in 1850, and its cultivation has become almost negligible. Sandal wood, which is so highly prized by the Chinese, was carried off to China in such large quantities to exchange for tea and silk that the sandal wood trees were nearly exterminated. In 1920 the coffee crop was valued at $1,500,000. The maximum output of sugar was 600,000 tons, valued at $100,000,000. In 1902 two thousand cases of pineapples were exported, while in 1923 there were 6,000,000 cases, and 70,000 acres of land were given to pineapple culture, the export trade amounting to $30,000,000. The Salt Lake, half a mile beyond the gardens, is an extinct crater. A stick thrown into the water is quickly encrusted with salt. SUBURBAN TRIPS Wahiawa, twenty-five miles from Honolulu by rail, is in the heart of the pineapple district, and people, interested in its culture and canning, will find it well worth a visit. The Kaneche Coral Gardens are twelve miles from SHHSAG HHALTOO ONOWV LYOOAYHAUNVA “AC YayAOM ATHIA ATddVANId V Meth b AN. TRIPS 79 Honolulu, and give opportunities not only for a charming shore drive by way of the Pali, but also an opportunity to study the fascinating coral castles and groves and a thousand forms of aquatic life through glass-bottomed boats. At Aiea, the whole process of sugar making with modern methods will be shown to interested visitors. An eighty-five-mile automobile drive on good roads en- circles a considerable part of the Island, and makes a most enjoyable trip, as it includes the various places above men- tioned. A railway trip of seventy-one miles to the west of the Island gives a changing panorama of sea and mountain, passing the Submarine Garden, Pearl Harbour, and many sugar plantations, stopping off for lunch at Haleiwa Hotel, which is fifty-six miles distant, and then proceeding to the terminus seventy-one miles, the return is made by way of Laie. ‘There is a large Mormon settlement at Laie, and it has the largest temple outside of Salt Lake City. For such a round trip on Sunday, Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, allowing two and a half hours at Haleiwa, where the coral gardens can be visited, a charge of $5.00 is made, including lunch at the Haleiwa Hotel. HONOLULU CHURCHES OF TODAY The Central Union Church (Congregational) is the most conspicuous Church in Honolulu. It is a new struc- ture, built in the Georgian style, and was designed by a Boston architect and built on a new site in a charming tropical garden of eight acres, and hence is called “the Church in the Garden.” ‘The immense open windows and doors give the effect of sitting in an open-air service, and its great organ, costing $28,000, is so arranged that it can be used for either an indoor or an outdoor service. “The whole - plant, including a parsonage, a community house and four Sunday School buildings, cost $550,000. It has forty-eight denominations represented in its large membership. Dr. 80 HAWAII A. R. Palmer, its pastor, has just published a book of unusual interest entitled ““The Human Side of Hawaii.” The Kawaiahao Church, built of blocks of coral, is the historic Church of Honolulu, erected in 1836 under the Christian king, Kamahameha III. It seats one thousand people. It is built on the spot where the Rev. Hiram Bingham, a member of the earliest group of American mis- sionaries, preached his first sermon. It was the Church of Hawaiian royalty for many years. One of the interesting facts about this Church is that an American missionary, himself a son of one of the earliest missionaries, recently completed a consecutive pastorate of fifty years there. Many early American missionaries are buried in its Churchyard. The First Mission Building, built October, 1921, as © the original structure, was erected from materials brought from Boston. It housed the seventeen original missionary workers, besides the printing press, the carpenter’s shop, the surgery. Its souvenir collections have a fascinating interest. The Roman Catholic Cathedral on Fourth Street is the next oldest Church, being opened in 1843. St. An- drew’s Cathedral (Episcopal) on Emma Street, was es- tablished in 1862. The Methodist Episcopal Church on Berelania Street was built in 1911. A Chinese Christian Church was built in 1888 and in 1888 the first Japanese Church was organised. The Queen’s Hospital is near the centre of the city and has interesting grounds and an avenue of date palms. EDUCA TT Ga People interested in social betterment should visit some of the settlements, the normal schools, the Mid-Pacific Insti- tute for training Hawaiian leaders, the Kamehameha schools, and the Punahoe school, which prepares for American col- leges, and especially the public schools from the kindergarten up to the State University. To show how far education is permeating the life of the EDUCATION SI people, one need merely mention the fact that a Japanese boy of thirteen in a school connected with a sugar plantation, in competition with all the public school children of the United States on the subject, “How Best to Serve America,” won the first prize of $250 offered. A Japanese boy in the McKinley High School also took the prize in a contest on “My Ideal of Character,” in which he represented Jesus Christ as his supreme ideal. There is now no illiteracy, except among recent immi- grants, as school attendance is compulsory between the ages of six and fifteen. The Roman Catholic Church maintains the St. Louis College for Boys and a Convent for girls. The Episcopal Church conducts Iolani College for Boys and the Priory for girls. The Y. W. C. A. conducts a boarding home for white girls called Fernhurst, GENERAL INFORMATION It is interesting to visit what was formerly a foreign country and find American money, American postage, the American flag, and, what is even more important, charming American people. The Moana Hotel, which is located here, furnishes very modern and comfortable hotel accommodations, costing about $7.00 a day upward. It has a beautiful setting and is the cen- tre of much social activity and gaiety. here is always sing- ing by the glee club and a native orchestra furnishes music for dancing. Here one can enjoy sea bathing, fishing, motoring, surf-riding, yachting, shark-hunting, and mountain climbing, and by securing temporary membership in the Oahu Country Club one can have the further advantages of tennis, golf, and polo. Young’s Hotel in the City itself, under the same management as the Moana, is a large modern hostelry. ‘Tourists are the third largest crop (next to sugar and pine- apples), and a new $2,000,000 hotel is planned at Waikiki, to be completed by 1927. “The Oahu Golf Club has bought 600 more acres for additional golf courses. Honolulu’s standards of living and of social life are little 82 HAW ATI different from those of any other progressive American city. Army officers and their families add much to the social life and to the pleasure of visitors in the Islands. Military dances, public drills and parades give spice to the general activities. The climate is very equable. ‘There are no typhoons or hurricanes, no intense heat, no fog, no raw disagreeable weather, and little humidity. In January, 1921, the highest temperature in Honolulu was 80° F. and the lowest 58° F. In June the figures were 84° F. and 69° F. The heavier rains come from November to February, inclusive. Travel is safe; railways and hotels are comfortable. ‘There are, however, few distinctively Hawaiian products in the shops and the prices of goods are higher than in the United States. A great fire in Honolulu in January, 1900, proved a blessing in disguise, as it wiped out the wretched slums which had been the source of various diseases, and, besides, prepared the way for a cleaner city and the establishment of better building laws. Even after a brief stay the visitor is inclined to echo the words of Mark Twain: “No other land could so longingly and beseechingly haunt me sleeping and waking through half a lifetime as this one has done.” SUPPLEMENTARY FAS FIGURES Hawaii is 2,020 miles southwest of San Francisco. It was an independent kingdom until 1893, at which time Queen Liliuokalani was deposed and a Republic with a Pro- visional Government was proclaimed. On August 12, 1898, the Islands were annexed to the United States, and it be- came the Territory of Hawaii in 1900. The Governor and Secretary of the Islands, who must be citizens of Hawaii, are appointed for four years by the President of the United States. “The present Governor, SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 83 W. R. Farrington, is paid a salary of $10,000 and his term expires in 1929. “The Governor has a right to veto any bill passed by the Legislature, but a vote of two-thirds by both Houses will pass any measure over his veto. There are numerous Federal departments such as War, Navy, Customs, Public Health, etc., all chief appointments being made from Washington, acting under the advice of the Governor and of the Hawaiian Senate. The former Royal Palace now has offices accommodating the Governor of Hawaii, the Attorney General, and other officials. ‘The old Throne Room is the Governor’s reception room. The House of Representatives with thirty members, and the Sen- ate with fifteen members, also occupy portions of the palace, the Senate using the royal state dining room. Hawaii is self-governing to a greater extent than any other Territory. It is represented by one delegate to Congress, with the privi- lege of the floor, but no vote. The Islands have a total area of 6,449 square miles and a total population (1924) of 307,100. The Hawaiian National Parks consist of three sections: the Haleakala Park, on the island of Maui, with 21,150 acres; the Mauna Loa Park on the island of Hawaii, with 17,380 acres; and the Kilauea Volcano Park, with 79,265 acres inclusive of the Kau (lava) Desert. “These Parks not only have high mountains and active and inactive craters with great lava beds, but wonderful tropical forests and a wealth of floral colour. The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, four Circuit Courts and many District Courts. “The names of candidates for Judges are usually suggested by the Governor and the Bar Association, but the appointments are made by the Presi- dent of the United States, with the concurrence of the United States Senate. English is the language in common use. In 1922, 51,557 scholars were enrolled in the public schools, and 9,557 in private schools. Of this number only 1,668 are Anglo- Saxon. 84 HAWAII The total Government receipts in 1924 were $15,440,493, and the expenditures $14,607,373, the total assessed value of the property being $357,002,080. Imports for 1924 were $78,665,312, and exports $110,726,476. Of this amount, $105,000,000 was in sugar and pineapples. ‘There are 1,028 domestic corporations with a total capital of $249,452,798. Americans and Europeans own 1,250,000 acres of tillable land, while the native Hawaiians and other races Own 257,000 acres. Commerce is mostly with the United States. In 1924, 966 vessels entered its ports, and there are 969 miles of railroad, “’welve lines of steamers stop in Hawaii. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Human Side of Hawaii, Rev. Dr. A. R. Palmer. ’24, Pilgrim Press. Dear Hawaii, M. L. Restarick. ’22, Honolulu. The Pacific Triangle, S. Greenbie. ’21, Century. Our Hawaii, C. London. ’22, Macmillan. Under Hawaiian Skies, A. P. Taylor. ’22, Advertiser Pub- lishing Co. Real Japanese Questions (In Hawaii), K. K. Kawakami. 21, Macmillan. Song of Hawaii, L. E. Capps. ’21, Honolulu. Pilgrims of Hawaii, O. H. Gulick. 718, Revell. Kamehameha the Great, H. H. Gowen. 719, Revell. Geography of Hawaiian Islands, C. N. Baldwin. Hawaiian Mission Centennial Book, 574 King Street. Honolulu. Reminiscences of Old Hawaii, 8. E. Bishop. ’16, Honolulu. Hawaii, Past and Present, W. R. Castle. ’17, Dodd. Coming Hawaii, J. K. Goodrich. ’14, McClurg. Spell of the Hawaiian Islands, 1. Anderson. ’16, Page. Hawaii, Scenes and Impressions, K. F. Gerould. ’16, Scribner. Hawaiian Historical Legends, W. D. Westervelt. Revell. JAPAN “Japan’s sun has risen and her century aloe flowers today.” APAN consists of five major islands together with hundreds of smaller ones. It has some majestic moun- tains, the Fujiyama, famed in Japanese art, song, and story, being the highest. It has fully a thousand hot springs, many with valuable medicinal properties, some lovely lakes and seashore resorts, besides temples, palaces, pagodas, shrines, parks, gardens,—all the products of the art genius of the Japanese. ‘Their art also reveals itself in charming colour prints, decorative wood-carving, superb metal designs, and rich lacquer work. ‘The great earthquake calamity that befell Japan on Sept. I, 1923, in the destruction of Yokohama, and the partial destruction of Tokyo and adjacent towns, was a terrific blow, but Japan is meeting the situation with her accus- tomed energy. Fortunately, at the time of the disaster, Japan had balances in America and Europe of half a billion dollars, and had another half billion in gold in her great banks. ful. ORY Japan was originally inhabited by the Ainu, once a very numerous people, low in the scale of civilisation, who were unable to resist the migrations of the Japanese, when they began to overrun the country. Authorities do not agree as to the origin of the Japanese people, but undoubtedly they were of the Mongolian race, with possibly some Malay inter- mixture. “They drove the original Ainu so completely out of the country, that almost no impression of its civilisation 85 86 YP Bel bbs Loe was made upon the conquerors, and today there are only a few thousand surviving, mostly in the Kurali Islands. According to Japanese chronology, the Empire was founded by Jimmu Tenno in 660 B. c., but the first authentic date is 461 A. D., when we find the Mikado ruling over all of Japan except the northern section, where the Ainu aborigines still held the power. ‘The Japanese royal: family has reigned in unbroken line from that ancient time until the present, thus being the longest continuous dynasty in the world’s history, though it must be added that, when a legitimate heir was lacking, a son of an influential concubine became the successor to the throne. The civilisation of China began to filter into the country, by means of Buddhist priests from Korea who introduced the Buddhist religion and the Chinese classics. In the sixth and seventh centuries the nation was converted to Buddhism, which afterward had such a powerful literary, artistic, and philosophic influence upon the people. At Nara, the capital of that period, art and culture began to develop rapidly, and the first Japanese book, the Kojiki, appeared at this time. The capital of the country was removed from Nara and established at Kyoto in 795. A strange dual system of gov- ernment arose, the Mikado (dwelling in isolated splendour at Kyoto) being regarded as having divine authority, but the Shoguns with their hosts of armed retainers were the real rulers. | There have been many famous Japanese Shoguns, among them the family of Hojo, who repulsed the fleet sent by Kublai Khan to demand the submission of Japan. From that day till this, no foreign foe has ever touched on her shores. Under the Shoguns were the chieftains of the various clans who were called daimyos, who were much like the feudal robber barons in Medizval Europe, in that they ex- ploited the peasants (who were somewhat similar to their serfs), and became rich and powerful, each having a consid- erable army for his own defence, although continually stand- ing ready to respond to the call of the Shogun. THE SHOGUNS 87 Under the jurisdiction of these daimyos, were the samuri, who were the warrior class, similar to the knights of medizval Europe, and who were entitled to wear two swords. These were subject to the code known as the Bushido, or “Ways of the Fighting Man.” ‘The two powerful rival clans during this period were the Satsuma and the Chosu. In the fifteenth century the tea ceremonial, the No lyric drama, and various other cultural arts were originated. ‘Trade opened with China and priests and artists passed back and forth. ‘The first Portuguese ship touched Japanese shores in 1541, and Francis Xavier, the famous Jesuit mis- sionary, arrived in 1549. The Shogun, Hideyoshi, about this time brought the whole country under his sway by checking the constant inter- necine feuds. He built his castle at Osaka, and a palatial palace in Kyoto, and under a unified Japan, painting, archi- tecture, and a love of display developed. He routed the Koreans and their Chinese allies in many engagements, and planned to subjugate China, but his death ended the ambi- tious programme. Iyeyasu was the founder of the famous Tokugawa fam- ily of Shoguns. Although he was one of the generals of Hideyoshi, he provoked war with his master and, after a speedy triumph, became the acknowledged ruler of the nation. His family held the Shogunate for two and a half centuries, during which period Japan enjoyed peace and prosperity. It was during this time that the policy of Japanese isolation was developed. ‘The Catholic missionaries who had become influential were driven out, the land was closed to foreign trade, except that Dutch and Chinese traders, in a restricted way, were allowed to land at Nagasaki. It was during these centuries that Japanese feudalism was brought to its perfec- tion, and the Japanese arts were most extensively cultivated. The “hermit” nation had during all this time been so dominated by the desire for isolation, that there naturally was stubborn resistance to the demand for the ‘“‘open door” that came from Western countries, sometimes actually em- 88 PAB YMAAN phasised by the presence of warships in the harbour. But after emphatic demands at various times by British, French and Dutch warships, it was an American, Commodore Perry, who thrust the door open. A period of civil dissension fol- lowed, together with riots among the people, and the Shogun- ate, which had already been weakened, fell, and with it dragged down the whole fabric of medizval civilisation. The Shogun and his daimyos, recognising the futility of their position, gave their resignation in 1868, to the fifteen- year-old emperor, Mutsuhito, thus relinquishing the vica- rious control which the Shogunate had maintained for a thou- sand years. ‘This emperor asserted his own right to rule, moved his capital from Kyoto to Tokyo, and promptly ap- pointed the Shogun and his daimyos as ministers and execu- tives of the new order. But as these still represented the military classes, Japan has been permeated by the militaristic spirit even to this day. Since 1868, Japan’s development has been incredibly rapid. The Japanese have been as friendly to new ideas and cus- toms, as they formerly were hostile. “They have adopted all Occidental inventions and machinery,—telegraphs, mints, railroads, newspapers, mercantile marine, and military meth- ods and organisation. In 1870, feudalism was abolished in the laconic decree, “the clans are..abolished, and prefectures are established in their places.” ‘The Japanese adopted our calendar, discarding their extremely difficult and compli- cated way of reckoning time by dynasties. ‘The Bank of Japan has since been an important agent in maintaining economic stability and encouraging economic development. There has been a general internal reconstruction, new civil codes have been adopted, a constitution was granted in 1889, and Japan has been received on terms of equality and alliance with Western nations. EARTHQUAKES Japan is a centre of seismic activity largely caused by the gradual subsiding of areas of land in the bottom of the sea, BORE OUAKES 89 sometimes followed by destructive tidal waves, although fortunately these were of small proportions in the recent Japan disaster. During twenty-one years, Japan had 30,680 earthquakes recorded, or a daily average of four, mostly unimportant, but during the 450 years previously, 224 earthquakes of a more serious character occurred, averaging one in every six and a half years. Kyoto has had a real calamity about once every fifty years,—while Tokyo had only one calamitous visitation during the last three hundred years, namely, in 1855 (when Tokyo was still called Yedo), at which time 50,000 houses were destroyed and 6,700 people perished. In 1891, in the Nino and Owari districts, 222,501 houses were destroyed and 7,273 deaths were recorded, and in 1896, in the Sanriku districts, there were 27,122 deaths, largely from tidal waves. The earthquake of September 1, 1923, which, together with fire, practically destroyed Yokohama, and destroyed two- fifths of Tokyo, is the greatest disaster of its kind in history. The official figures have stated that there were 99,331 killed, 103,733 wounded, and 43,476 missing. ‘The total money loss is computed at $4,586,000,000. Several other earth- quakes in the Spring of 1925 caused hundreds of deaths and destroyed property worth millions of yen. It is officially estimated that within five years $375,000,000 will be spent in reconstructing Tokyo, and $150,000,000 in Yokohama. The whole world expressed its sympathy with Japan in its terrible calamity, and food was sent in such quantities, that some of the perishable kind was actually wasted. The United States raised a fund quite exceeding $10,000,000, besides sending large amounts of grain and other food. This has done a great deal to counteract the prejudice, which to a certain extent has been growing in Japan, against Amer- ica. It should be remembered that Japan, in 1906, con- tributed half a million dollars towards the relief fund for stricken San Francisco. The United States also is helping Japan in securing lum- 90 JAPAN ber and other building materials by getting anti-profiteering pledges from shippers. ‘The ships of the American Navy anchored in Yokohama did a very remarkable work in res- cuing people who were in imminent danger of their lives. The American Japanese Society gave a luncheon to the American Ambassador, Cyrus E. Woods, in which Baron Ijuin, the Foreign Minister, expressed the gratitude of the Japanese people for “the greatest act of philanthropy in the world’s history,” GOVERNMENT AND IMPERIAL PSP TC Pav Aree There are two forces at work in Japanese Government. There is, first of all, a constitutional Government which is modern, democratic and pacifistic. “Then there is an invisible Government, mysterious, militaristic, imperialistic. Hereto- fore, the latter has been the dominant spirit of Japan, and even yet it seems the more authoritative. General Staff. While the Emperor is the autocrat of the State, this absolutism is never exercised, as he is chiefly a majestic figure-head, being largely dominated by the Gen- eral Staff. Formerly this autocratic power was in the hands of the Elder Statesmen, but these have recently died. It resides, however, in the Chief of the General Staff and the little oligarchy of naval and military leaders associated with him. ‘Through their influence with the Emperor they prac- tically exercise an absolute confirmation or veto. “The fact that the sentiment of the country is largely against war has comparatively little bearing, as the Emperor’s decision is absolute. The General Staff are quite apt to dominate national politics. ‘They make and overthrow Cabinets. ‘They ap- point or dismiss generals, admirals and officials at large. ‘The Chief of the General Staff, who is executive head of the Army and Navy, as well as of colonial and all foreign affairs, is really the executive head of this invisible Govern- THE ELDER STATESMEN 91 ment. He wields a larger influence than does the actual Premier of the constitutional Government. The General Staff. While the Emperor is the autocrat of the State, this absolutism is never exercised, as he is chiefly a majestic figurehead, being largely dominated by the “Elder Statesmen.” ‘These men, who have been four in number (although two, namely Prince Yamagata and Count Okuma, have recently died), are neither elected nor appointed, and they have no official status whatever, but through their influence with the Emperor, they practically exercise an absolute confirmation or veto. They are men who _ formerly were ministers, who have nominally retired, but in reality have retained and enlarged their powers. “They make and overthrow cabinets. “They appoint or dismiss generals, admirals, and officials at large. “They usually work in close conjunction with the Chief of the General Staff, who is ex- ecutive head of the Army and Navy, as well as of colonial and foreign affairs, and is really the executive head of this invisible Government. He wields a larger influence than does the actual Premier of the constitutional Government. The Invisible Government. This unseen empire is made up of Army and Navy officers, politicians with militar- istic and imperialistic sympathies, some of the leaders of finance and big business, the military attachés, the aristocrats, and a host of unknown spies, representing the bureaucrats,— all dominated by the General Staff. They largely under- mine and nullify the policies of the constitutional Govern- ment whenever they are not in accord with it, because of their influence with the Emperor. Their power is strengthened by the fact that many who are actively, even though secretly, identified with the invis- ible Government, hold responsible positions in the constitu- tional Government. As the Emperor, and not the Premier, appoints the members of the cabinet, it goes without saying that the cabinet can always be influenced by the Chief of the General Staff, though often an appointment less desirable is accepted by them, for the sake of conciliating public 92 JAPAN opinion. They can, however, checkmate the Premier’s plans. Even so progressive a Premier as the late Mr. Hara was unable to carry out many of his cherished pacifistic policies, although the “‘Elder Statesmen” then in control did not seek to force him out of office. The evident inconsistencies of Japan, in not carrying out her promises, are due less to the insincerity of the constitu- tional Government, than to the opposition and intrigue of the invisible Government. For instance, when Premier Hara was actually promising the Powers in 1920, that Japan would immediately withdraw from Siberia, the General Staff was rushing reinforcements into Siberia without the Premier’s knowledge, until the number of Japanese soldiers (which by agreement with the Allies was limited to 7,000), was fully 70,000 at its maximum. Hence the protestation of the Japanese delegation at the Disarmament Conference in Washington, that Japan had no military ambitions, must not be accepted too literally, in view of the uncertainty as to whether the militaristic in- visible Government will confirm the statement. Japan’s International Policy. For several decades past Japan has publicly declared that her “future lies over- seas.” She has annexed Formosa, Korea and Sakhalin, has occupied Manchuria and has been awarded the Marshall and Caroline Islands, which were formerly German possessions. While she has nominally withdrawn from Siberia and Shantung, her commercial and industrial interests are still dominant there. The real reason why Japan, which during the time of the Russo-Japanese War had the sympathy and admiration of the whole world, has since that time come under such uni- versal suspicion, is because. her attempted leadership in Asia and her international relations have been upon a purely sel- fish and materialistic basis. “This is not only true of the Government, but has increasingly become true in the case of individuals. While apparently suave and conciliatory in their relations PY LERNATIONAL POLICY 93 with foreign representatives, their course, in the conquest of countries like Korea and Formosa, has been marked by cruelty and craftiness. Count Terauchi, who ruled with such an iron hand as dictator in Korea, afterwards became Premier of Japan. Japan has seemed to be saturated with the spirit of German imperialism. Whether she has taken the lesson of Germany’s collapse to heart, and is abandoning her overweening world ambitions, is a question concerning which there still seems to be world-wide doubt. Almost all the nations of the world are viewing Japan with a tacit suspicion: The Russians still resent Japan’s military invasion of Siberia and Sakhalin, and are not reconciled to the loss of Manchuria. Although by the Treaty with Russia in Jan- uary, 1925, she has evacuated northern Sakhalin, she retains the valuable oil concessions. The Koreans are in a fever heat of antagonism and revolt and the reports that the Koreans, who were living in Tokyo at the time of the earthquake disaster, immediately took ad- vantage of the occasion to loot, and to defy law, indicate the deep-seated hatred that is in the heart of every Korean. The similar statement that the Japanese attacked unoffend- ing Koreans indicates a reciprocity of hate. China, in spite of race similarity and perhaps partly be- cause of it, distrusts her island neighbour. It will take her more than a generation to forgive and forget the twenty-one demands which were presented by Japan in 1916. The Philippines, Australia and all of southern Asia in- cluding India, maintain an open distrust of Japan’s motives, even though the iron hand is usually clothed in a velvet glove. Hawaii has 125,000 Japanese, fully two-fifths of her en- tire population, and the Japanese issue is the burning prob- lem there. Our own western states and western Canada are up in arms against the Japanese economic and industrial invasion. So the story goes. Holland has fears for Java; England, for her Asiatic possessions; France begrudges Japan’s com- 94 J APA IV mercial success in China; Germany resents Japan’s seizure of Tsing-tau. AMERICAN AND JAPANESE RELATIONS The United States has to a lesser degree shared in this spirit of distrust, except on our Pacific coast, where it is quite acute. Japan, on the other hand, has had a chronic griev- ance that the American people, and especially those on our Western coast, have shown racial discrimination, and the Japanese claim that their national self-respect gives them rea- son for resentment. Japan points with pride to the fact, that within sixty-five years she has emerged from a hermit nation, steeped in medizval traditions, into one of the world’s first-class Powers. ‘This according to Japan’s view, should be a sufficient reason, why she should be placed on a basis of equality with Occidental races. The problem of Japan in California, however, is not racial, but political and economic. ‘There are only 111,000 Japanese in the United States, or one in one thousand of our popula- tion. It is also true that the Japanese in California own only one and eight-tenths per cent. of her soil, and constitute two per cent. of her population. But the fact should not be lost sight of, that this two per cent. of her soil represents the very choicest valley land most valuable in gardening and fruit culture. As probably not over twenty per cent. of the land in California is cultivable, and as much of the other cultivated land is very inferior to that owned by the Jap- anese, it is clear that they already have as much cultivable land in proportion to their population, as have the other inhabitants, and even more. The recent vote in California excluding the Japanese from the right to own or lease land stood 668,000 to 220,000 in favour of this restriction. On November 12, 1923, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the right of California in this matter, stating that the action conflicted neither with the Fourteenth Amendment nor with the JAPANESE RESTRICTIONS 95 American-Japanese treaty. Japan has bitterly resented this new State law, and continues to demand an equal property status as a right from America, even though she herself does not pretend to give this to us or to any other foreigners. Japan does not permit the purchase of land by Americans, but asks such a right of purchase for her people. “There are only 19,500 foreigners in all Japan, of whom 12,000 are Chinese, 2,400 are British, and 1,800 are Americans. Japan will not allow these Americans, or any other foreigners, to own land for business, agricultural, or residence purposes. Even such an altruistic organisation as the Y. M. C. A. carried on by Americans, must erect its buildings on leased land and on a very precarious basis. “The House of Peers has again taken up the question of land ownership by for- eigners, recognising that Japan is in an inconsistent position. If such a Bill passes and is sanctioned by the Emperor, it will probably be on a basis of reciprocity, the privilege being granted only to such nations as grant Japanese citizens in foreign lands similar rights. Japan does not permit the free entrance of alien labour into her domain, but resents the exclusion of her people in this country. Japan also makes the naturalisation of aliens in her country almost impossible, in nearly all cases being men who had married Japanese wives. Banks, steamship companies and government railways do not accept foreigners even as shareholders. Yet Japan demands that her people be admitted to citizenship in the United States. It is a question whether the laws giving to all Japanese born in this country, Hawaii or elsewhere on American soil, the full rights of citizenship automatically on reaching the age of twenty-one, is not an excessive altruistic concession. It is making a disturbing and perhaps dangerous crisis in Hawaii. The Exclusion Act passed by our Congress in the Spring of 1925 has aroused intense resentment in Japan. Mr. Matsudaira warned this country that “grave consequences would result.” Congressman Britten made the ill-timed proposal to Congress, which of course was not acted upon, 96 JAPAN that a union of the white races on the Pacific be formed to forestall any aggression by Japan. Imperialistic Programme. Japan certainly has dreamed of the naval and commercial control in Asia and the Pacific. How far the hostile attitude of European nations and the resentful spirit of China, to say nothing of the earthquake disaster (from which it will take her several years fully to recover), may cause her to abandon this imperialistic scheme can only be surmised. There are certain arguments that might indicate a change of heart. “The Japanese militarist party must be aware from the collapse of Germany, that imperialism will no longer be tolerated by the world at large. Any designs that she may have had of acquiring the Philippines, Guam and Samoa by forcible means, may have been somewhat affected by the fact that the United States during the World War (although before that time having been utterly unprepared), was able to place more than four million men in the field, and to transport nearly two million of them across three thousand miles of the Atlantic. “This must have opened the eyes of Japan to the fact that ‘Uncle Sam” when fully aroused would be a formidable antagonist. Japan also accepted the findings of the Washington con- ference in reducing her navy to a proportion of five to three, apparently carrying out to the letter all the agreements ar- ranged for in that conference. It is also argued in support of this view that any aggres- sion which would lead to war with the United States, would be almost suicidal, in that it would largely cripple her com- merce. More than one-third of all the products of her Em- pire are exported to the United States, together with seventy per cent. of her raw and manufactured silk, and practically all of her tea. While this, of course, seems a valid argument, similar conditions did not deter Germany in an aggressive war upon the Allied Powers. The Japanese also claim it would be folly for Japan to make war on any western Power, because if China and Brit- JAPANESE PREPAREDNESS 97 ain would turn against her, she could get no steel or oil to carry on warfare, and that war is not only a question of ships, guns and naval stations, but of economic and financial factors, in which Japan is very inferior to the United States or Great Britain, which would probably side against her. Mr. K. K. Kawakami in the monthly magazine “Japan” (which is sheer propaganda in the interests of Japan), and in such books as “Japan’s Pacific Policy” makes a strong and quite plausible case in favour of Japan’s change of heart as regards her militaristic designs upon Asia and the world. He states that Japan has withdrawn entirely from Siberia where she had 70,000 troops (but only after a strong pro- test from the Powers), has reduced the number of soldiers in Manchuria, as well as her army and navy personnel in general, has abolished her post offices in China, and has sur- rendered Shantung entirely to the Chinese authorities, and even yielded her claim on the Shantung railway. He denies that the Bonin Islands have been fortified to any sufficient extent to make them of any value as naval bases, especially in view of the fact that in none of these islands would there be a harbour deep enough to admit large ocean steamers, much less capital ships. He also denies that Japan has any designs upon Guam and the Philippines. Imperialistic Preparation. ‘There is, however, an- other side to this entire argument. ‘Terry’s able guide-book on Japan, published in 1914, states that the Bonin Islands, 550 miles southeast of Yokohama, are high, rocky and of volcanic origin. Chichijima, or “Father Island,” has a bay called Futami Minato, which is about one and one-half miles long and one mile broad, having a coral bottom and a depth of from 120 to 150 feet. “The harbour is shut in on three sides, so protecting it from typhoons. It is admirably adapted for a stronghold. ‘The highest point on these islands is 1,471 feet. Such a fortified base would not only make a great naval station, but the harbour would accommodate the largest of 98 MASP OAIN' fleets, and from this point of vantage, the seizure of the Philippines would become doubly easy. Some able writers, like Sidney Greenbie, in his “Pacific Triangle,” have asserted that this Island was hastily forti- fied before and during the time of the Washington Con- ference. Japan, with a Navy of five to three capital ships, in favour of the United States, could hardly cross the 5,500 miles to San Francisco, especially in view of powerful fortifications at Hawaii. But Japan would never dream of aggressive warfare against the United States itself. She is, however, resuming a feverish activity in building naval vessels not under the ban of the Washington Conference. During the last five years, she has built twenty-three light cruisers as against sixteen built by Great Britain and the United States together. On January 1, 1925, Japan had twenty- one cruisers under construction, England six, and the United States none. In regard to submarines, Japan had fourteen, England three, and the United States nine. Japan’s argu- ment is that work must be provided for her 157,000 ship- building employés. This has given rise to a widespread suspicion that Japan, while literally carrying out all the provisions of the Wash- ington Conference, is continuing her naval preparation, so that eventually she may become mistress of Asia. It is diffi- cult to understand what other reason she would have for building more combatant auxiliary tonnage than all other Powers combined. When the present Japanese programme is complete, she will have twenty-five modern cruisers, and seventy submarines, the majority of which could cross and recross the Pacific without a new supply of fuel. This seems to be introducing a new era of naval rivalry and distrust. The United States is already discussing a new programme of building similar ships to counterbalance Japan, and there seems to be a widespread view, that it is because of these growing building activities on the part of Japan, that Great Britain has about decided to fortify Singapore and eevee hE PAREDNESS «99 thus make it impregnable to naval assault. While the United States had really made Hawaii a great fortification and naval base, she had done comparatively little to put the Philippines, Guam and Samoa into a state of preparedness, and, by the terms of the Washington Conference agreement, is now prevented from fortifying them. It is as Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy said: “No fortifications now existing in the Philippines and Guam can be, in the light of the last war, seriously considered.” As a result, Japan is in a position to cut off all communi- cations between the United States and the Philippines at her will, and could make an overnight conquest of the Philippines, Guam and Samoa. ‘The northern point of the Philippines is only two hundred miles from the Japanese territory of Formosa. With Hawaii 3,300 miles away, the United States, if she lost her western Pacific naval bases, would be unable to use her capital ships, either to regain her lost territory, or to wage a naval battle with Japan. It is no wonder that Japan showed herself entirely willing, at the Washington Conference, to make an agreement with the United States, that she would not increase her coast defences except on her own shores, on condition that the United States would not add to her coast defences in the Pacific, except on the Pacific coast and at Hawaii. The fact is that we have locked the doors of the Far East upon ourselves and put the key into the hands of Japan. From this time on, we hold the Philippines merely by her grace and tolerance. This agreement is on a ten year basis, and it may be hoped that the tragic results of the earthquake of September, 1923, may tend to discourage Japan from making any effort to eliminate the United States from the western Pacific during the coming decade. As matters stand, the United States has only ten battle cruisers built and building. “This would mean that, in case of war, if the Philippines were taken, American shipping would instantly be wiped out in the Pacific west of Hawaii. 100 LAPAN It may, therefore, be assumed that the United States naval authorities will begin to consider plans to be prepared against even the possibility of war. Having surrendered the right to build safe defences in the Philippines, she should, as a matter of precaution, be properly equipped with cruisers, submarines and other “auxiliary combatant” vessels, which would put her upon a safe basis, in case war should be precipitated in the Pacific. It is also important that the United States be supplied with a great air fleet, especially in view of the fact, that a thousand military airplanes could be built for the cost of one battleship. ‘The world has some very definite basis for the widespread suspicion that Japan has held, and perhaps still holds, her imperialistic designs. For instance, Prince Yamagata, who until his recent death was one of the four Genro, is reported to have said, “Japan wants a weak and incapable China. A weak emperor subject to Japan’s influence would be the ideal state.” Count Okuma, a former Premier and until his recent death, one of the ‘Big Four” Elder Statesmen, used these words in an address to the Chamber of Commerce at Kobe. “There are 300,000,000 natives of India looking to us to rescue them from the thraldom of Great Britain.” Baron Makino said: “Japan views with great alarm the moral awakening of the 400,000,000 Chinese.” The following is a Japanese Imperial Pronouncement issued in the Autumn of 1916: “Fifty million of our race are to conquer and possess the earth. ‘To begin with, we now have China [this was written when Japan expected, under the 21 Demands, to control China], so that our fifty millions will become 500,000,000 strong. “Our first goal must be the sea, but the sea means the western Americas [the Philippines, Guam, &c.], and with this must soon come Australia, India, and then the battling for the balance of world power for the rest of North America. Once that is ours we own and con- meow elRIALIS M IOI trol the whole, a domination worthy of our race.” It is interesting to note that Premier Yamamoto, even since the earthquate, is apparently looking ahead to possible war complications. “These are his words spoken in October, 1923: “With the Washington agreements available only for a limited period, and with growing possibilities of clashes of interests among Powers in general, it is advisable for Japan to direct its efforts at reorganisation in such a manner as to consolidate the national foundation.” On the other hand, Mr. Matsudaira, the new Japanese Ambassador to the United States, recently said: “War be- tween our two countries is a physical impossibility, and we are destined to live at peace for all time.” It certainly seems strange, however, that the Japanese should embark upon a naval-building campaign far beyond that of any other nation, and at the same time bitterly resent as “provocative of war” our naval manceuvres at Hawaii 3,300 miles away, as well as the proposed plan of England to fortify Singapore, which is over 2,300 miles away. It was also a singular fact that Japan had one of her naval vessels, with experts from her naval staff, trailing all our naval activities at Hawaii, which no other nation had the effrontery to do. It is also strange that Japan is apparently hostile to the proposed Second Disarmament Conference, basing her objection on Great Britain’s plans for Singapore and the United States fleet manceuvres at Hawaii. It is only fair to state, however, that this antagonism represents the Japanese press and has not been in the form of an official protest from the Japanese Government. This whole subject has been discussed by the author, not in the desire to be a militarist or an alarmist, but merely to emphasise the ordinary sane and wise precaution in protect- ing the Philippine Islands, which we have taken under our jurisdiction, and to safeguard our Asiatic commerce, which would be almost destroyed, in case of war, if the Philippines were lost to us. Proper preparedness would also tend to safeguard the peace and security of the whole world. TO2 Jere EAN President Coolidge, in his message of December 6, 1923, has well said: ‘“We want no more war. But we want no weakness that invites imposition. A people who neglect their national defense are putting in jeopardy their national honor.” Industrialism versus Militarism. ‘The real cure for Japan’s troubles is industrialism. Germany, in 1870, was losing tens of thousands of immigrants to the United States. But after her era of industrialism began, she herself actually attracted immigrants, and her population grew from less than 50,000,000 to 68,000,000, with an enormous increase of gen- eral prosperity, which would have continued, if her impe- rialistic designs had not plunged the world into war. Japan has now an area five times as large as that which she possessed in 1894, and already governs 67,000,000 of non-Japanese, and has abundant room into which her surplus population can overflow. Japan itself has about 56,000,000 inhabitants. During 1923 there was a net increase of 733,362. Its birth rate is 34.96 per thousand, the highest of any country keeping vital statistics. Its death rate is also the highest, being 22.78. Japan, however, has not availed herself of the opportuni- ties to send surplus population to some of her newly acquired territory. Manchuria has only 122,000 Japanese, and is very sparsely populated. China has in recent years sent a hundred emigrants there to Japan’s one. ‘The difficulty is, that Japan is really a very poor coloniser, from the fact that the Japanese do not care to settle in a country that is un- developed. They are perfectly willing to migrate to Hawaii or California, where markets are already established and where tempting wages are immediately paid. The result is that Japan’s plea regarding the necessity of making provision for surplus population does not seem to be justified by the result. During the last ten years, in spite of her large recently-acquired territory, not a quarter of a million of emigrants have left Japanese shores. In other words, ten years of emigration have not taken care of one- half year’s increase in population. SHINTOISM 103 JAPANESE RELIGIONS Shintoism. This is the earliest religion of Japan. The name means the “way of the gods” or “the divine way.” Its basis is Animism, giving divine personality to sun, moon, stars, thunder, lightning, and other forces of nature. Shintoism has ceased to be the nature worship of primi- tive times, but it still has basic conceptions of the divinity of natural forces. It has found its larger development, how- ever, in Mikado worship, ancestor worship and Japan wor- ship. Every emperor is regarded as divine while living, and at his death he takes his place in the Pantheon of the Japanese deities, all of whom are objects of special worship, and the objects of some delightful legends. Americans have some- thing akin to this feeling when they stand at the tombs of Washington and Lincoln, except that we do not ascribe divinity to them. the Roman Catholic Church comes still nearer to this conception in its prayers to the saints for their intercessory offices. Amaterasu, the sun goddess, whose shrine at Yamada is the principal objective for sacred pil- _ grimage, is the chief divinity. Scholars are not permitted to raise scientific questions regarding her. “She,” in some mys- terious way, is the ancestress of the Imperial house of Japan. The Imperial leader of the New Japan, Mutsuhito, who died in 1912, having reigned forty-four years, is especially held in worshipful reverence. General Nogi, the military hero of the Russo-Japanese war, and his wife who together committed harikiri (suicide) at the death of the Emperor, also have a high place and are held in worshipful honour. The belief is that the spirits of emperors and ancestors are not only living, but are guiding the mundane people in all the affairs of daily life. ‘They must, however, be honoured, and hence, the first morning rite is to set food before their shrines in every home, whether it be palace or hut. With ancestor worship goes a close association between the past and the present, and between the dead and the living. 104 JAPAN It expresses itself in the Buddhist Festival of departed spir- its; in the worship at Shinto shrines as a memorial of the departed; in the care of family altars and ancestral tablets; in the conscientious observances of the anniversary of deaths; in the painstaking care of graves; and in the widespread be- lief that the departed are present and share in all family and national festivals. In other words, the Shinto religion has become an abso- lutely nationalistic ideal. It is a revived form of the Bush- ido, the loyalties of the old-time code of the samurai, which, however, was the ideal of a class in which the common people had no part. Even today all Imperial and state rites are performed according to the time-honoured rules of this na- tionalistic Shintoism. Perhaps this is the reason why Japan’s ideal is so purely national, and why the rights of other nations receive so little consideration. The moral teaching of Shintoism is “Be pure in heart and body,” but this means merely acting out one’s natural im- pulses. It inculcates industry and bodily cleanliness. “There is, however, no sense of sin, no consciousness of striving for ideals. It regards people as naturally virtuous, in view of their descent from the gods and makes every one’s conscience his only guide. It has no founder, no theology (although the idea of the immortality of the soul is fundamental), no theory of the universe, no sacred writings, and no authority upon which to base any system of morality. It is a modi- fied Confucianism without the ethical element. ‘The spirit- ual element, which it lacks, was supplied by Buddhism. ‘The temples are always of wood, their distinguishing ar- chitectural feature being the immense curved gable roofs, supported by great columns. ‘The torii is the outer gateway entrance to a Shinto temple, although it has also been adopted by Buddhists in a modified form. It is a distinctively national structure with its two columns and two Upward-carvine cross-pieces. Next comes a large inner gate usually painted red, gata by two figures spoken of as Ni-o, or Deva kings, whose hid- ah MINIATURE SHRINE CARRIED BY A BEGGAR GRAVE WITH TABLETS AND FOOD OFFERINGS BUDDHISM 10s eous grimacing faces and threatening gestures are supposed to drive away demons. As the worshipper enters, he throws little spitballs of paper at the kings, at the same time mak- ing a wish. If the paper goes through the meshes of wire that surround the figure, the wish will come true. In some parts of Japan, little pieces of paper with incan- tations written upon them, are hung from the roofs of houses to exorcise evil spirits. “Two guardian Fu dogs with curly tails, the one with his mouth open and the other having it shut, are distinguishing features of these temples. ‘Then come a flight of stairs, a balcony and then the large inner temple with matting on the floor and an altar, in the middle of which is a large bronze vase containing pieces of gold paper, supposed to be a means of purification. A mirror, which is always a feature of the Temple, is believed to reflect the face of the worshipper to the deity. But the mirror is never visible except to the priest, and the whole conception is symbolical of purity and truth. In addition to the mirror, there is an ancient sword whose silken wrap- pings are removed only by the most august personages, the one at the Ise Shrine at Yamada being uncovered only by the Emperor himself. Shintoism is a religion without art, doctrines or morality. In reality it is a “religion without religion.” Shintoism has, however, had some interpreters from whose writings one can glean excellent precepts, such as “Learn to stand in awe of the Unseen, and that will prevent you from doing wrong.” “Cultivate the conscience implanted in you, then you will never wander from the Way.” Buddhism. Buddhism has elaborate temple structures, a varied ritual and a rather extensive moral code, and it em- phasises mercy and the sparing of life. It has enriched Japan with the art of India, Korea and China. All Buddhists believe in reincarnation. Life is a struggle until souls merge into the divine. ‘The great ideal is to be absorbed into Nirvana, ‘‘as a dewdrop sinks into the shining sea.’ ‘The summary of Buddhism under the later caption 106 JAPAN of Religions of China and also of Ceylon, will give a fuller statement of its teachings. Buddhism in Japan has absorbed the Shinto gods, and has become pessimistic and degenerate, thereby fast losing its hold upon the educated classes. It still has an esthetic claim, as the Buddhist temples are so rich in marvellous carvings, artistic decorations and lacquer work. Worshippers entering a temple draw near to the shrine, on which is shown the image of the special deity which the tem- ple features, first throwing a coin into the treasury,—some- times the smallest of copper coins, worth about one-twentieth of an American cent. He then rings a bell or strikes a gong and clasps his hands to attract the attention of the divinity. Then he clasps his palms together, bows his head, expresses his prayerful wish and his worship is concluded. Buddhism, however, has developed many new modern features since coming into competition with Christianity, evi- denced by a spirit of service and a desire to give spiritual and material help, by the establishing of educational and philanthropic work, and by the educating of its priesthood. It has a vastly higher standard of intellectual and religious life, than Buddhism has in China or Ceylon, but it never- theless still uses terrorism and devil images. The strange contrast is evident between the practical mind of the Japanese and their swift grasp of the essence of scien- tific industrial methods, and their mystical adherence to the primitive conceptions of religion. While Japan has had a very intense nationalistic spirit and has clung tenaciously to all its old forms and traditions, the Buddhist and Shinto religions, which are largely unified, have lost much of their influence over the people. European books, literature, schools, hospitals, science, commerce and even ideals have rapidly taken the place of the old methods, in spite of the desire of the Japanese to maintain the in- tegrity of their national customs and ideals. All religion, except ancestor worship, is going into “in- nocuous desuetude” in modern Japan, and this makes its ap- Gaek STAN LT Y: 107 peal to the national consciousness, rather than to a sense of religious need. Although Buddhism is the state religion (the Shinto temples also being recognised), they are as a whole much reduced in revenues and consequently have a diminishing number of priests and nuns and daily worshippers. Shintoism, after all, is scarcely a religion, but a mere mix- ture of the primitive ideas of nature and ancestor worship. Buddhism is negative and pessimistic, and is not in accord with the buoyant and progressive spirit which the Japanese have developed. ‘The Japanese mind is intensely efficient and is attracted to things that are positive, constructive and optimistic. While the Buddhist priests have endeavoured to take up the methods of the Christian missionaries, and have adopted the ideas of Sunday schools, young people’s societies and methods for social betterment, they have scarcely known how to make these effective. Christianity. ‘There has recently been a new interest in Christianity aroused in Japan. ‘The Bible Societies there have not been able to print Bibles fast enough. ‘They are in demand not only by the 200,000 Christians, but by the thinking people of Japan, who are becoming interested in the simple and ethical character of the Christian religion. In 1920, there were 133,000 Protestant Church members and 76,000 Roman Catholics, and the Japanese contributed $750,000 for general religious purposes. “The fact that a Christian is now the civil Governor of Korea indicates the trend of religious thought. Although twenty Protestant denominations are active in Japan, they work together in great harmony, ignoring any credal differences, setting the pace for all Japan in educa- tional and medical work. The Japanese Constitution guarantees religious freedom, so long as the activities of any religion do not interfere with the public peace and order. Japan herself assumes no relig- ious responsibility, all government education being strictly secular. 108 JAPAN Still, Christianity suffers certain handicaps. Shintoism and Buddhism are backed by the gifts and endowments of the “vested interests.” Shinto shrines are built and repaired, and its priests largely supported, by the Government. ‘The Church property of Christians gets no such recognition, in fact, while Shinto and Buddhist Church property is not taxed, Christian Churches and institutions are charged taxes just as are private houses and estates. Although officially recognised as a religion, Christianity has no financial or legal status, JAPANESE CHARACTER IS Cite AND CUB T.OiNES The Japanese are thrifty, law abiding, industrious, pa- tient, polite end cheerful, devoted to their families, lovers of education, capable of scientific training, and having an alert mentality. Many Americans have gotten a very unfortu- nate impression of the Japanese, due to the problem that he constitutes in the West among the labourers, farmers and fruit growers, and also due to the Imperialist political ideals of his Government. One needs to see the native Japanese in his own environment; picturesquely garbed; toiling cheer- fully over his few acres; merrymaking in the open on one of his holidays or feast days, or at one of the flower festi- vals; spoiling his round-faced, almond-eyed little boys and girls whom he adores;—and thus get an entirely different picture of him, and one perhaps much nearer to the truth. The Oriental is always a little mysterious to the Occiden- tal. We feel a certain inscrutability about him. He has none of our bluff heartiness. His very politeness seems a bit dan- gerous to us. But the Japanese is really and truly polite, consistently so, polite to his friends, to his enemies, even polite to his own family! Good manners are assiduously cultivated ; there is a code of etiquette for every possible occa- sion, which it is a part of his education to know. Adaptability. It has been said of the Japanese that they are “great in little things and little in great things.” moat FESTIVITIES 109 Everything in Japan is on a small scale; the people themselves are small, they live in little houses, cultivate little farms, engage in little enterprises, write little poems, have a sense for the exquisite and dainty in art and architecture, rather than for the great and magnificent. But in recent years, they have shown a real capacity for handling things on a big scale in business and in national life, for they are very imitative, and quick to learn from example and training. Perhaps they are more imitative than original, for in ancient times they derived their religion, literature and arts from China, through Korea, and in mod- ern times they have absorbed the civilisation of the West, without making any great contributions to it. ‘They are, however, clever in adapting alien things to their own uses, and are not mere slavish imitators. Their minds seem weaker in abstract logic, and reasoning, and stronger in observation and assimilation, so that they turn readily and successfully to scientific pursuits. “They lack mechanical initiative, but are able to copy the most technical machinery, even constructing and equipping great battleships in the im- mense Osaka shipyards. Simple Joys. Their simplicity is charming; they de- light in simple forms of natural beauty, such as going to see the plum trees in blossom, or romancing about the moon. Those who live with them say, that they get more solid joy out of life than do any other people, due in part to the fact that they are care-free, even to excess. “They never worry, are excessively fatalistic, stoical in the face of joy or sorrow, the expression ‘‘Shikata gana’”—‘“There is no help” being the stereotyped form of expression in the face of ca- lamity. ‘They seem to have no nerves. Festivals. ‘There never was a nation with so many fes- tivals on its calendar, and never were there people any more merry, vivacious and pleasure loving. ‘They have festivals for every possible occasion,—in honour of the accession of the old Emperor, the establishment of the New Empire, the deaths of Imperial ancestors and various important people, 110 JAPAN fruit festivals, flower festivals, a festival of the star Vega, a dolls’ festival for the little girls, and a kite festival for the little boys. Sometimes they reckon their holidays on both the old and the new calendars, thus doubling the number. There are, in addition, the religious holidays, both Shinto and Buddhist; numerous local shrines must be duly cele- brated, and the people flock to the temples, to “worship” for a few minutes, and then they frolic and picnic the rest of the day. ‘There are now the Christian Sundays and holidays to be observed as well! Contradictory Elements. ‘They are an unselfish and generous people, even yet little spoiled by modern material- ism and industry. Oddly enough, with all their devotion to the new economic life of their country, they are not es- sentially a good business people. In olden times, the business man stood lowest in the social scale, below the soldier, the farmer and the artisan, and perhaps the reason why the Jap- anese is often accused of being dishonest in business, is that according to the old code of ethics, the business men were held in lowest esteem by the community. “They are also accused of fickleness, in that they can adopt, and then aban- don, ideas and systems so readily, but this is really a part of their alertness and curiosity. A growing steadfastness of pur- pose, however, is evident in the nation. Two Types. ‘There are two distinct types of Japanese, the oval-faced, narrow-eyed, aristocratic class, who are com- paratively few in number, and the full-faced, full-eyed, flat- nosed people, who make up the great mass of the population. But if these people are not so aristocratic as their superiors, they have the advantage of rugged, strong constitutions, due to their active lives in the open, while the upper class has inherited weak constitutions, due to the inactive lives of their ancestors. On the whole, the people are subject to early maturity and early decay. The moral and social ideals of the Japanese are still quite low, although in these matters they may be said to be unmoral rather than immoral. Every city has its extensive PpaepOUR PROBLEMS 111 Yoshiwara quarters. In the Korean capital of Seoul, five per cent. of the entire Japanese population are women who live in its 134 brothels. The Japanese who leave Japan do not become farmers or even workers, but they are, to a large extent, small traders and shop keepers and very often para- sites of the brothel business. In every form of farming, manual labour or trade, the Chinese are vastly superior to the Japanese. The Ainu are the indigenous population, somewhat as the American Indians are in our country. ‘They are often called the “hairy Ainu,” their bodies being covered almost as with fur. ‘They have no Mongolian characteristics what- ever, having good features and a dignified manner, but ap- parently they have little initiative and rather a dull men- tality, and they avoid even the most casual association with their Japanese conquerors. The Eta are a despised and outcast class, who are the butchers, leather workers, the menders of clogs and the gen- -eral scavengers. “They are compelled to live in separate com- munities and dare not enter the homes even of the poorest Japanese. ‘There are fully 1,200,000 of these, mostly in the section of Kobe and Kyoto, about 80,000 being within im- mediate reach of Kyoto. ‘Their isolation and lack of educa- tional opportunities, together with their social ostracism, have made them a degenerate type. The beggars and crim- inals are largely recruited from them. BDABOUR CONDITIONS In the last decade, there has been a powerful democratic upheaval, which the Government is trying in vain to sup- press. ‘There is a law involving a penalty of imprisonment for organising unions and engaging in strikes, but this has ceased to be enforced, and strikes have become quite frequent. There are three hundred organisations with 365,700 mem- bers, one federation alone having fifty thousand. ‘They have, however, no funds and no legal status or redress. “The legal working day is twelve hours. 112 PA Peay: The Imperial Diet in March, 1925, removed property restrictions, and this enlarged the manhood suffrage to eleven million. At the same time they raised the voting age to thirty years, so as to check the power of the radical young student element. ‘This, however, puts a strong weapon into the hands of labour. In 1883, there were 125 modern factories, but by 1923 there were over 30,000, employing more than two million men and women, besides 1,400,000 children, nearly half of them girls, Altogether in Japan there are 1,600,000 women in domes- tic service, 1,250,000 in factories, and 1,200,000 in business. Women do a very considerable part of the heavy farm and general labouring work, for which they get 75 sen (about 38 cents) a day. Men labourers get considerably higher wages, and plasterers earn two yen, or a dollar a day. Women do not have the same legal status and privileges as do the men, and there is much agitation for women suffrage. The rikisha, literally a pull-man car, was invented by a missionary, in order that he might take around with him his invalid wife. There were before the earthquake about 35,000 in Tokyo alone, each with its kurumaya, or human horse. One-fifth of the farm lands are devoted to the culture of rice, the crops having been practically doubled in the last thirty-five years. Japan, in her industrial life, is repeating all the mistakes of the Occident, which we have gradually and painfully been unlearning,—cheap labour, the twelve and fourteen hour day, child labour, slums, and sweat shops. Between 1909 and 1919 wages increased 227 per cent., while the cost of living increased 320 per cent., so that while the rich have become vastly richer, especially those who were engaged in the recent manufacture of war materials, the poor have become poorer. There is much complaint about the high cost of living | and the wretched conditions of the city sewers and the poor POSIT NESS METHODS 1123 postal, telegraph and telephone systems, which are due, ac- cording to report, to graft and bureaucratic red tape. The sudden display of the nouveau riche since the war has begun to awaken wide discontent among the masses. In Tokyo in 1914, there were only twenty-two people who declared annual incomes as high as 100,000 yen. In 1918, there were 336, even though the tax appraisals have been conspicuously lax. Yet it must be said that the great mass of the people of Japan are farmers, who are less affected by these movements, and it is hard for the city workers to arouse sentiment in these matters, BUSINESS METHODS It should be remembered that the Japanese manufacturer always has the advantage in world trade. Government- owned railroads and a subsidised merchant marine are always behind him, and the Government usually stands ready, espe- cially when foreign trade is the objective or when foreign competition must be met, to advance money at nominal in- terest. “The American manufacturer is really competing with the Japanese Government, which recognises that by such subsidising, it not only encourages commerce, but makes every Japanese trader and merchant, both at home and in other lands, a centre of almost fanatical co-operation with his government, giving information along political, as well as industrial, lines. As a matter of mutual advantage, there- fore, the Government will favour Japanese manufacturers by subsidies and rebates, and by quick railroad and steam- ship service, while at the same time foreign goods are suf- fering a ruinous delay. On this account the trade in build- ing materials, cotton goods, silk manufacture and steel prod- ucts, are almost monopolised by Japan in her Asiatic trade. The Nippon Yusen Kaisha in November, 1919, paid a dividend of 100 per cent. on its stock for the preceding six months. This enables the Government to make large levies in the way of taxes upon this “infant industry” which it T14 Da ey generously subsidised in its early ventures. ‘The ship sub- sidy game is played better in Japan than it is in the United States. Japan, in 1921, had 6,094 merchant steamers ag- gregating 3,206,125 tons gross. Unfortunately for himself and his customers, the Japanese manufacturer does not concern himself so much with fur- nishing goods, that are up to the sample, as he does in get- ting the business. He does not hesitate to refuse to fill an order which has been agreed upon, if a change of value means loss or negligible profits. He does not hesitate to ignore patents and trade marks (even going so far as to issue goods stamped with the American name and maker), nor in substituting inferior goods and giving short weight. The story that Chinese are used in banks. because the Japanese employés are too dishonest, has little foundation in fact. The Japanese are very slow with complicated figures and hence the Chinese, who have almost an uncanny men- tality for mathematics, are in great demand. Dishonesty is not a national characteristic. “Travellers, stopping in Japa- nese hotels or in general travel, rarely have anything stolen. THE JAPANESE LOVE SOR 425.T HE Do Flowers. ‘The Japanese have a passion for flowers and bring them to a high degree of perfection. ‘There are 3,200 species of flowering plants in Japan. First come the white plum blossoms, the harbinger of spring, often appearing so early, that occasionally they are covered by an ephemeral snow. ‘They are specially admired for being so hardy, symbolising a righteous life under ad- versity. Then follow in seasonal order, cherry, wistaria, azalea, iris, peony, lotus, chrysanthemum and the camelia. The cherry is the king of flowers, symbol of vitality and exuberance, suggestive of the fecundity of the Japanese peo- ple. During cherry blossom time, the Japanese are at their STAIRS IN A JAPANESE GARDEN PRIVATE GARDEN JAPANESE GARDENS 115 gayest, Riciratteathe event with processions and feasts and pleasure boats. As a Japanese has put it, ““When the trees flower, it is as if fleeciest masses of cloud, faintly tinged by the sunset, had floated down from the highest sky to fold themselves about the branches.” | For that matter, we have introduced the cherry blossom time, in part, into our own country. ‘Through the kindness of the Mayor of Tokyo, three or four miles of cherry trees have been planted along the speedway in Washington, D. C., and a considerable number are planted along Riverside Drive in New York, one of which, presented by Li Hung Chang, was planted, at his request, near General Grant’s tomb, as a memorial. ‘There are three hundred varieties in Japan, and twenty-five have been transplanted to Wash- ington and Maryland, and it has been proved that they flower as well there as in Japan itself. Wistaria of rare length and profusion abounds, such as is seen in no other country, the Japanese often enriching its roots with rice wine. The iris, whose bulbs are shipped all over the world, is also one of the favourite flowers. ' The peony, sometimes nine inches in diameter, is called the plant of “twenty days” because by care it can be kept fresh for that period. ‘There are eighty varieties of peonies grown. It is supposed to have medicinal properties. The lotus is the flower reserved for funerals and sacred ceremonies. It is distinctively the Buddhist symbol. It grows profusely on the castle moats at Tokyo and in all pools and lakes. The chrysanthemum, next to the cherry blossom, is the delight of the Japanese, and appeals strongly to their artistic and zsthetic sense. It is the flower on the crest of the Em- peror. It is the “long-lasting” plant and the Japanese make chrysanthemum time a festive season. It is mentioned by Confucius and has been cultivated in China for 2,500 years, and in Egypt a thousand years earlier. It is a natural emblem of the sun and is most significant, as the Emperor is supposedly descended from the sun goddess, and, in a 116 JAPAN lesser way, all Japanese are children of the sun. It is a favourite name for Japanese maidens. A single plant some- times grows a thousand flowers. Dwarf trees are produced by an annual cutting of the roots, leaving just enough to sustain life. “They are grown in boxes with removable sides, so that the tree will be dis- turbed as little as possible. ‘The Japanese gardeners prac- tise both root and branch pruning, changing the character of the earth from time to time. If branches grow too much on one side the roots are trimmed on that same side. “They can dwarf every kind of tree, as well as vines and plants. ‘They can make tiny trees, an inch high, on miniature land- scapes two inches long which are perfectly exquisite, and gnarled plum trees, several hundred years old, only a few inches tall. The Geisha Girl is merely a waitress of an artistic de- sign, combining dancing and singing functions with the serving of tea, appearing in showy silks and marvellous coronets of hair. Usually, her coiffure is her principal ad- junct, as much in evidence in dancing as is a fan and her ravishing obi. She belongs to a class that dates back seven centuries, when they were first introduced by the Shoguns to lend grace and piquancy to banquets. ‘They represent a combination of youth, beauty, song, wit and colour, as well as the poetry of motion in the chaste forms of dancing, but unfortunately they have sometimes, although not always, degenerated into immorality. “The Spider Dance, the Har- vest Dance, the Lion Dance, and many others, represent a story set symbolically, the dances carrying out the idea in pantomime. “The dance includes advancing, retiring, wheel- ing, rising, kneeling, posturing, and graceful gliding, the group acting together with marvellous precision. Solos and choruses are meanwhile sung with rather shrill, metallic voices. A few marry, and the rest are lost to view, as ex- pressed in the Japanese saying, ‘““Ask as well whither goes the autumn leaf or last year’s fans.” The No Plays and the No Dances are the classic product KAMAKURA 117 of Japan, given on great patriotic occasions and celebrations or during a classic revival, somewhat as the Shakespearean drama or Miracle Play is given in this country. ‘The mod- ern theatre has little in common with this ancient classi- cism, which holds an important place in the education of the young Japanese, who are supposed to be saturated with the poetry and song, as college students in the days of classic studies were supposed to be imbued with the spirit of the plays of Sophocles and Euripides. Two hundred and thirty-five lyric and dramatic episodes, some of them distinctly humorous in their motif, comprise the No collection, and they go back to the beginning of the fifteenth century, a hundred years before the time of Shake- speare and the Elizabethan playwrights. “They were largely written by Buddhist monks, and are based on ancient fables and traditions, in which warriors and heroic deeds have a signal place, with didactic moralising strongly emphasised. ‘There are no women actors in Japanese theatres, as their acting is forbidden by law, men being accustomed to imper- sonate women in plays calling for women characters. KAMAKURA Kamakura, fourteen miles southwest of Yokohama, was once a capital of Japan, with nearly a million souls. It is now only a little summer resort, which has a world-famous Daibutsu, several good beach hotels, some cosy villas, several shrines, and beautiful mountain top views. "The town was badly shaken by the earthquake, but has been rapidly recon- structed. The Daibutsu, or Big Buddha, set in a flower-embowered park of plum trees overlooking the lovely Sagami Bay, was twisted and cracked. It will cost $10,000 to repair. ‘Tidal waves, centuries ago, destroyed the two temples which have housed it, but the statue itself has stood since 1252. It isa mammoth figure of Amida, or Buddha, and is the largest bronze casting in existence, its outer plates being one inch 118 3 JAPAN in thickness. It has a distinctly Hindu type of face, and the expression is majestic, calm and peaceful, and suggests absorbed meditation. This announcement is posted at the gate: “Stranger, whosoever thou art and whatsoever be thy creed, when thou enterest this sanctuary, remember that thou treadest upon ground hallowed by the worship of ages. “This is the “Tem- ple of Buddha and the Gate of the Eternal, and should be entered with reverence.” Buddha, sitting in state upon a lotus flower, reaches a height of forty-nine feet, seven inches, the circumference being ninety-seven feet. Its eyes are of pure gold, and the embossed circle on its forehead, measuring fifteen inches in diameter, contains thirty pounds of pure silver. The 830 curls on its head, each nine inches high, represent the snails which, according to the legend, crawled on his head to shelter the bald surface from the sun’s rays. ‘The statue weighs 450 tons. ‘There are two bronze lotus plants, each fifteen feet high, on either side of the statue. The visitor can enter the interior through an orifice in the right side of the lotus blossom pedestal, and can climb up an inside ladder to its shoulders, where two small win- dows are placed. “Iwo diminutive Amidas are found in the interior. The Hachiman Shrine, dedicated to the God of War, and the Temple of Hase-no-Kwannon, the Goddess of Mercy, have attraction and were favourite haunts of religious pilgrims before the earthquake. She figures largely in Jap- anese art, sometimes being represented as having eleven faces and a thousand hands, and is always smiling with tenderness. The Japanese idealise her, much as Christians do the Virgin Mary, YOKOHAMA Yokohama was almost entirely destroyed by earthquake and fire, only a few scattered houses in the outskirts remain-. TOKYO 119 ing intact, and it ceased to be Kobe’s closest competitor as a commercial port. The harbour is, however, so large and the proximity to Tokyo so important, that the city is grad- ually being rebuilt, and in the course of a decade will largely resume its former commercial importance. Naturally, the former places of sightseeing interest have all disappeared, and Yokohama in the future will merely serve as a gateway to Tokyo, MeO Kay.O Tokyo began its influential history in 1603, when the greatest of shoguns, Iyeyasu, with a following of 80,000, made Yedo,—as it was then called, his residential quarters. ‘That was seventeen years before the Pilgrim Fathers landed in Plymouth. When Admiral Perry made his historic visit in 1853, Yedo was still the city of power in Japan. In 1869, the Shogunate came to an end, and the Emperor now being for the first time in control after having been a figure-head for centuries, moved his capital from Kyoto to Yedo, its name at that time being changed to Tokyo, the word meaning the “Eastern Capital.” Since then western scientific and financial methods, com- mercial developments, industrial activities and modern im- provements generally, have been growing at a crescendo rate. During the World War immense fortunes were made, and new processes and buildings for manufacturing were in- troduced, fashioned after western models. ‘Tokyo has be- come the social, intellectual and financial centre of Japan, while Osaka is the great manufacturing “Pittsburgh.” Most buildings, however, at the time of the earthquake, were still of wood, less than 10,000 in Tokyo being of con- crete, stone or brick, with a very limited number of steel structures. ‘I‘wo-thirds of Tokyo (366,262 structures) was burned at the time of the earthquake. It should be remembered that Tokyo, at the time of the 120 TPA earthquake, was still quite primitive, it being largely sewer- less and its roads during rains becoming a quagmire of mud. Much improvement has been under way, and the lesson of the destruction will doubtless tend to the construction, as far as possible, of fireproof and quakeproof buildings. The new street plan provides for twelve main avenues, centring around the Imperial Palace, having a width of from 135 to 270 feet. Under the new plan the city has decided to take as much as IO per cent. of privately owned lands, giving compensation for that taken in excess of this proportion. The buildings in the business section will be restricted to a height of one hundred feet, and to three stories in residential quarters. Most of the Government office buildings and University centres will be located in the suburbs. “The park acreage will be doubled, and many new canals will facilitate transportation and provide an unlimited water supply in case of fires. Already 272 new school buildings have re- placed the 281 destroyed. Results of the Earthquake. About two-thirds of Tokyo was destroyed by earthquake and fire, and naturally some of the places of exceptional interest were included in the obliterated section. “Those who had visited Tokyo in recent years will feel that the loss is almost irreparable. Among the places which used to charm the visitors is the famous Okura Museum, one of the finest collections in Japan; also the temple of Kwannon, the goddess of human kindness, in the large park with its numerous gardens and lakes and the surrounding ‘‘Coney Island,” filled with toy shops, tea houses, moving picture theatres and holiday attrac- tions. “The Theatre Street as well as the Ginza, which was the main shopping street; the Imperial ‘Theatre, which cov- ered two acres and was one of the fine theatre structures of the world; the Government Buildings that made such an imposing array near the entrance to the Imperial Palace and the University of Tokyo, with the finest collection of educational buildings in Japan, have all disappeared. PORYO SIGHTSEEING t21 Peres N lt -DAY SIGHTSEEING The Imperial Palace. The Palace of the Emperor has fortunately largely escaped the disaster, although fire de- stroyed some of its buildings. ‘This is at the very heart of Tokyo and is surrounded by a great wall which in turn is encompassed by a deep moat, one of several, the main one measuring five miles. On the walls are guard houses, their curved roofs making them look somewhat like small pagodas. After crossing a bridge over the outside moat, the way leads to a huge gateway which opens into a broad park lead- ing to another moat and wall. Crossing the second bridge, one enters the Imperial Palace grounds through an impos- ing gate, driving through extensive avenues of trees, to the entrance of the Palace itself. A large part of the enclosure is a private park with stately trees and lovely gardens. ‘The Palace and all the auxiliary buildings make a distinctive setting, because of their strictly Japanese architecture. A very large veranda at the Palace entrance opens into a great reception hall, on each side of which are broad wings in the old Japanese style. All the buildings are one story, designed in rather a simple style and decorated in wood col- our and white. Just beyond are corridors with glimpses of rooms more gorgeously decorated. The Emperor limits his reception to men, his guests being nearly always the official representatives of foreign govern- ments, who are received by him in a rather unpretentious square room. He remains standing during the visit of cere- mony, as does his interpreter, and his guests also make their official speeches standing. “The Empress, in the meantime, is receiving both men and women visitors in a very cordial way elsewhere in the Palace. All conversation with the Emperor or Empress must be carried on in whispers, as this is supposed to show special reverence. It should be added that it is quite impossible for travellers to have access to the Palace, or to gain an audience with the 122 JAPAN Emperor, unless they are sent by their governments in a special official capacity. Shiba Park. ‘This is one of the largest and most popu- lar parks in Tokyo, where the temples and mausolea of the sixth, seventh and ninth Shoguns are erected. In the old days, a Shogun came to worship the spirits of his ancestors in these temples. He approached the altar alone, the daimyos being seated in the corridor below, while the lesser nobles remained in the oratory. In this park, covering 140 acres, a very old pagoda, a popular Bazaar, the famous Maple Club Restaurant and a charming lotus pond, are attractive features. “The mortuary temples of the Shoguns are entered through the gate of the two Deva Kings, and consist of a main temple, an oratory and the Shogun tomb in the background. ‘There are also memorial tablets of the mothers, wives and daughters of some of the Shoguns. The “Octagonal Hall,” in the Temple of the Second Shogun, is believed to contain the finest specimens of gold lacquer in existence, and the sculptures, carvings and paint- ings represent the choicest products of Japanese art. Here is also the largest bell in Tokyo, ten feet high, weighing fifteen tons. The Crown Prince’s Palace is an imposing structure, forming one of the landmarks of the city, and is surrounded by large wooded lawns. ‘This was given over to the Prince of Wales and his retinue, during his visit several years ago, and he was royally entertained. The public is not admitted. Ueno Park, the chief pleasure resort of the city, covers 210 acres. Here stand various temples, as well as the Im- perial Museum, the Imperial Library, a very old pagoda, the largest lantern in Japan, the Tokyo Academy of Fine . Arts, the Academy of Music and other places of interest. These were shaken, and the large bronze Buddha, 21 feet high, was decapitated. ‘The statue will be recast at a cost of $50,000. The park is the scene of the great Cherry Blossom festival. DAIBUTSU AT KAMAKURA APPROACH TO TEMPLE—TORII AND LANTERNS ca Mea UO HyliGHT SEBRING, 123 The Imperial Museum, founded in 1881, contains a superb collection of exhibits connected with history, fine arts, industrial arts and natural history. It is one of three museums maintained by the Imperial Household, the others being at Kyoto and Nara. Here may be seen the choicest specimens of pottery, precious stones, fabrics, embroideries, silks, prints, gold lacquer, wood carving, ivory articles, tor- toise shell carvings, architectural models, statues, masks, swords, vases, bells, Buddhist instruments of worship, palanquins, ship models, rugs, coins, ancient furniture, ar- mour, musical instruments, paintings, toys and ethnological exhibits. All these are reported as saved, and make an exhi- bition too important to be missed. The Imperial: Library has altogether 343,755 books, which seem to have escaped the conflagration, but the library of the University of ‘Tokyo, which was completely destroyed, had 674,122 volumes, and was one of the notable world libraries. Such was the appreciation by the people of Tokyo of the value of this great library, that in the midst of the terror of earthquakes and fire, hundreds of volunteers car- ried these books to what was regarded as a safe place, but this also was later devoured by the flames, and the library was totally destroyed. The Asano Mansion. Mr. Asano, President of the Toyo Kisen Kisha Line to Vancouver and San Francisco, has a beautiful home surrounded by spacious grounds, in which are also located a sumptuous reception house and museum, which he frequently opens to tourists. On the occasion of a Cruise, or some exceptionally large group of people, he himself, with Mrs. Asano, and his two charming granddaughters, give a reception of welcome, on which occa- sions tea and Japanese sweets are served, and a souvenir book of views and a quaint fan are presented. Mr. Asano is a self-made man, having been made many times a million- — aire as a result of the American seamen’s law, which made American competition impossible, and of the high freight rates during the World War. 124 JAPAN It is well not to presume upon the ignorance of the Eng- lish language, in the case of Japanese people of distinction. One of the American guests recently said in a very audible voice to his companion, in the presence of one of Mr. Asano’s granddaughters, that she was the prettiest girl he had ever seen in Japan. As this charming young lady is a graduate of Vassar, it goes without saying that she may have been rather embarrassed by such a public compliment. The famous Gardens of Count Matsura, which were laid out in the seventeenth century, may be visited only by special invitation. “The Arsenal Garden is also mentioned as being one of the finest parks in Japan. The Imperial Hotel was fortunate enough to escape, largely from the fact that it was a modern fireproof build- ing, although the plaster and some of the decorations suf- fered injury. It is a unique and artistic building, designed by Mr. Wright, a Chicago architect. It is in the semi-Aztec style, altogether un-Japanese, but quite original, the hotel being regarded as one of the best in Asia. Churches. There were 118 Christian churches and missionary stations in Tokyo before the earthquake, includ- ing fourteen Roman and Greek Catholic, with a full total of about 25,000 members. Many of these were destroyed, but with few exceptions have been rebuilt, the Protestant churches largely by funds raised in America. The Waseda Government University, founded \ Count Okuma in 1882, escaped the disaster. It is the largest in Japan, with over 10,000 students. Shopping. As the main shopping streets in Tokyo were obliterated, it may be less desirable to do shopping here. At the same time, many shops have been rebuilt, and they natu- rally need the patronage of tourists, See also page 143. NIKKO Nikko, a town of 10,000 people, is ninety-one miles north of Tokyo, with an altitude of 1,714 feet above the sea, and NIKKO 125 is on 4 small rushing stream called Daiya. The very name of Nikko means “sunny splendour.” The Japanese speak of it as “The climax of Japanese wonders set among moun- tains of the sun’s brightness.” A proverb is current in Japan, “Do not use the word ‘magnificent’ till you have seen Nikko.” ‘There is here a combination of nature and art, that is unique even for picturesque Japan. In the early Spring, the snow covering the mountain tops gives a crown- _ ing beauty to the picture, and by April and May there is a vivid verdure and a wealth of floral adornment. While Nikko is an unimportant town, as far as its people and business interests are concerned, it represents the crys- tallised civilisation of Japan during the last 300 years. Here in this hillside glory are set Nikko’s famous tem- ples, as well as the mausoleum of the greatest of Shoguns, Iyeyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa Dynasty three hun- dred years ago,—all encircled with the radiant corona of history, art, architecture, philosophy, and religion, making Nikko seem almost like another world. The whole mountain side is clustered with temples, pagodas, lanterns, shrines, torii, and mausolea, all being re- splendent with the highest development of Japanese art, rising higher and higher until at the very summit is the simple tomb of the Napoleon of Japan. Over 6,000 men, who represented the best artists and craftsmen of Japan during a period of twelve years, were required to carry out this stupendous plan. ‘The cost was over ten millions of dollars, and it is a question whether it could be now reproduced, if at all, for $50,000,000. The whole sweep of the horizon, one of the most charm- ing views in Japan, may be had from a tea house on top of the hill behind the Kanaya Hotel. Crossing the river Daiya is a sacred red lacquer bridge, eighty-three feet long and twenty-two feet wide, which is re- served for the exclusive use of the Emperor or great dig- nitaries, on the rare occasions of their going up to Nikko to worship at the temples. No foreigners, even the most dis- 126 Pwo PoA tinguished royal visitors of Japan, have ever crossed this bridge. ‘The privilege was officially accorded to General Grant, but he had the good taste to decline the honour, thereby raising himself in the estimation of the Japanese, especially as the populace might have resented it as a profanation. ‘The original bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1902, and was rebuilt in 1906. After passing the Sacred Bridge, and following the road along the bank of the river one sees a number of stone images, representing Amida, or Buddha. A larger number were swept away by various floods, especially that of 1902, the largest of all being washed down to Imaichi, five miles below, arriving there in perfect condition. ‘The temples are a blaze of colour and gold, with many overtones of colour shades which lend depth and richness, the heavy shadows under the enormous eaves giving softness to the whole effect. ‘The Pagoda, which is 105 feet high and 42 feet square,—one of the finest in Japan,—helps to give a striking setting to the group of temple structures. The temples are partly Shinto and partly Buddhist, hav- ing the torii which are distinctively Shinto, while the tem- ples are themselves gorgeously decorated and furnished in the Buddhist style. Most Japanese, indeed, combine the two religions in their ideas of worship. Since 1905, a great deal of work has been done by the Japanese Government in restoring these buildings, over $200,000 having been spent. The Iyeyasu shrines and accessory buildings, the superb temple giving the supreme note, rise one above another in graduated terraces, each with its distinctive torii, all finally leading up to the Tomb of the greatest of Shoguns. ‘The blending of park and temples makes a masterpiece of har- monious beauty. ‘The details of the carvings, art objects and architectural beauties of the Nikko temples have been the subject of entire volumes, and are profoundly interesting to students of art, casting much light upon the history and civilisation of Japan. The strange mingling of exquisite wsthetic feeling, and NIKKO SIGHTSEEING 127 the richness and range of the artistic ideas represented in the architecture and decorations, are in strange contrast with the threatening dragons and grotesque Deva devils. The cryptomeria trees, called sugi in Japanese, are a spe- cies of giant cedar, often measuring eighteen to twenty-five feet in circumference, and rise fully 125 feet into the air with straight and slender grace. “They appear like solemn sentinels above the gorgeous temples, and have a profound religious significance to the Japanese. The story of how the trees of this templed mountainside, as well as the cryptomeria avenue extending for forty miles on the way to Nikko, came to be planted, is a most fascinat- ing one. During the erection of these temples, various chieftains, or daimyos, of Japan made generous contribu- tions,—generous, because the levies were enforced by the Shogun,—in the way of special shrines, or temple decora- tions. Some daimyos, however, living in the mountainous parts of Japan, had no money with which they could pay the levy, but instead brought tens of thousands of young trees, which their workmen planted in Nikko and its approaches, the work requiring twenty years. At the time, these seemed rather a meagre and almost contemptible gift as compared with the large money contributions that came from more opulent daimyos, but now it is evident that they presented the greatest largess of all. The deep green of the Japanese cypresses and of the cryptomeria, or “trees of the sun,” against the gilded bronze roofs of the temples, and the vivid polychrome effects of the pagoda, torii and shrines, make quite a ravishing picture. The various structures which otherwise might be somewhat garish, are toned down by the tall pyramidal forests. There are two sets of temples,—the Iyeyasu shrines, under the jurisdiction of a Shinto abbot, being the first ones reached by taking the road to the right, after leaving the sacred red bridge, and the series of Iyemitsu temples, under the jurisdiction of a Buddhist abbot, which are on the left side of the mountain slope. ‘The entrance fee of a yen admits 128 JAPAN to both series of temples and the grounds are open from 8 A. M. to 4 P. M. The purpose of the Shoguns in building these temples was not’ only to dazzle the daimyos by the evidences of their power and wealth, but also to impoverish the daimyos by making large financial demands upon them, so as to prevent them from financing rebellions. Iyemitsu, the son of Iyeyasu, built the first temple and tomb in honour of his father, and his son in turn, erected an almost exact duplicate for him. On these are lavished the rather florid artistry of this period of Japanese art, with its bold and vivid colouring. The trees seem to be loftier as the visitor ascends the broad, majestic avenue up the mountainside to the Iyeyasu shrines, and passes through the famous Yomeimon, the grey stately torii admitting to the successive terraces. ‘To the left is a five story pagoda, its black projecting roofs trimmed with red and gold, and the eaves with a pale verdigris green. In front are ascending broad stone steps and balustrades, leading to the Niomon gate, or gate of the two Deva Kings, which has dark crimson pillars and highly involved carvings lacquered with multitudinous colourings. Above the Niomon to the left, the dark grey roofs of the temple appear with its edges ablaze with red and gold. Near by are the Treasury and other secondary buildings, riotous with carvings and colours. In one of these are carved the famous monkeys of left-handed Jingoro, the greatest wood carver of Japan, with their hands in certain positions showing the safeguarding of speech, sight, and hear- ing. Carvings of peacocks, pheasants, and the “sleeping cat,”—also the work of Jingoro,—add to the decorative piquancy. The place for ablutions, where pilgrims wash lips and hands before entering the temple itself, is an artistic gem with its large granite basin, its twelve white monolith col- umns supporting the baldachin above, which is ornamented > NIKKO TEMPLES 129 in white and black, and decorated with carved and tinted dragons under the eaves of its graceful roof. Then the visitor passes the Library of the sacred books, with its revolving bookcase twenty feet high, which is not open to visitors, and rising once more twenty-two steps, with crouching lions on either side, comes to the House of the Bell, given by Koreans, as well as the House of the Drums, overshadowed with cryptomerias fully twenty-five feet in circumference. “The Yahushi-do, having great gilded col- umns in arabesque carvings and colourings and the picture of the weeping dragon on its ceiling, is also one of the strik- ing features of interest. On the third Terrace above is the “Morning till Night gate,” so rarely lovely as to warrant careful study, and the Kazuraden (a dainty structure where a priestess gives a sacred dance), containing a palanquin weighing 800 pounds, as well as an incense hall and a storage house for religious accessories. Climbing higher still, the various stops having proved sufficiently restful, one comes to the Chinese Gate on the fourth terrace, which is the most artistic and exquisitely carved of all the various portals. On this terrace is the golden hondon or oratory, with its exquisite polychrome interior carvings and decorations and the glory of its artistic designs. Here are welcoming priestly attendants, and after the shoes are removed (sometimes also a green mantle is thrown over the shoulders of visitors) they lead the way through the outer golden hall with the rooms on either side reserved for the Shoguns, through the middle stone hall to the sanctum sanctorum, where visitors are not admitted. Priests, clad in striking vestments of white and pale blue, are intoning prayers, to the accompaniment of chanting choristers. In one of its rooms, the decorations and art objects are said to have cost a million dollars. The beautiful surroundings and the religious atmosphere create an irresistible solemnity, that 130 JAPAN easily accounts for the profound effect upon the devout Japanese mind. Here at Nikko the religious soul of Japan becomes atune with the rhythmic pulsating of religious emotions. The Tomb of Iyeyasu, near the top of the mountain, is on a small terrace heavily timbered with noble trees, and is reached by a final climb of two hundred steps. ‘The tomb, containing the remains of the greatest of Shoguns, is eight feet high and four feet in diameter, and is guarded by two fierce-looking lion images. ‘The interior is richly decorated with more than 8,000 polychromatic flowers. Certain precepts of Iyeyasu are still quoted in Japan: “Life is a long journey with a heavy load; let thy steps be slow and steady that thou stumble not.” “Look upon wealth as thine enemy; find fault with thyself rather than with others.” | On June 2nd of each year there is a spectacular pro- cession commemorating the birthday of Iyeyasu, with palan- quins, ancient samurai costumes and armour, the festivities being brought to a close by a sacred dance. Among the accessory Iyeyasu structures are the Hall of the Three Buddhas, with the three immense images twenty- seven feet high; the “Evil-averting Pillar,’—the mystic Buddhist symbols whose crest is alleged to have the power to dispel demons; the heavily hooded pavilion with its bronze bell, six feet high and four feet wide, which no one is allowed to touch except the man who sounds the hours by it; the Abbot’s quaint house and lovely garden; the Museum of relics, rich in art and war specimens, and many other strik- ingly interesting objects. The Iyemitsu series of buildings, which occupy the left part of the mountainside are scarcely less attractive than the Iyeyasu structures, but receive less attention because the visitor who may spend only a day or two in Nikko be- comes too sated with temple splendours to fully appreciate them. Lake Chuzenji, 4,460 feet above the sea, is eleven miles CRYPTOMERIA AVENUE LEADING TO NIKKO SACRED BRIDGE AT NIKKO MIYANOSHITA,HAKONE 3131 from Nikko crossing a summit 3,000 feet and descending 500 feet. The Lake, which measures three by seven miles, with a maximum depth of 560 feet, is in the crater of an extinct volcano. ‘The tourist making this trip passes the Kegan Fall which has a sheer drop of 250 feet and has been a favourite spot for suicides, five having occurred in one week. The mountain Nantai San, 8,400 feet high, rises four thousand feet above the lake and at its summit is a shrine for pilgrims. “This Lake is a favourite summer col- ony for foreign legations, as the scenery is superb, the sum- mer climate delightful, the trout fishing excellent, and the Lakeside Hotel extremely comfortable. Motor launches, as well as sail and rowboats, are available. The town of Nikko extends for a long distance along a main thoroughfare, there being few side streets. “The shops have a considerable stock of Japanese goods but they are apt to maintain high prices. Furs, jewellery, carved wood- work and ivory, lacquer articles, and especially souvenir hand-painted photos and prints of Nikko scenes, are dis- tinctive. Visitors on leaving Nikko, should, if possible, take a rikisha or auto ride four miles down the cryptomeria avenue to the station called Imaichi, planning to catch the train there, instead of taking it at Nikko. ‘This ride will prove one of the memorable experiences of Japan. mre OVERLAND TRIP IN JAPAN Miyanoshita, one of the favourite places for stopping on an overland trip from ‘Tokyo to Kyoto (a distance of 340 miles), was reached by taking the train to Odawara, and from there going by auto to Miyanoshita. It was a favour- ite summer resort before its sad and desolating visit by earthquake and fire, and a number of foreigners had their summer residence there. It is set on a bluff 1,223 feet above the sea, and has a sweep of superb mountainous scenery in almost every direction. One American who happened to be 132 JAPAN in a shop in this town at the time of the earthquake, was instantly killed by the beams of the falling building. ‘The convulsion was so violent that part of the town slid down the precipice. The hotel here was particularly attractive and charm- ingly located, and it has been rebuilt on a more pretentious scale. From here there were charming automobile trips revealing a variety of scenic settings, including that to Lake Ashi, Nagas Pass and Sengkuhara, where there was a nine- hole golf course. Hakone is within an hour’s automobile ride from Miyanoshita and before the earthquake was one of the love- liest spots in Japan. The Emperor had a summer palace here, and the place was further made attractive by a charm- ing hotel and tea house, projecting over the lake, as well as by numerous homes of foreigners and wealthy Japanese. The lake in the foreground, the dark and green slopes be- yond, the darker volcanic rock on the slopes of Fujiyama, and then the white crested cone of the mountain make a surpassing view, although the proud goddess sometimes mod- estly draws her fleecy lace veil over her face. On a clear, quiet day, Fuji is perfectly mirrored in the placid bosom of the waters, making one of the most exquisite pictures to be found in Japan. ‘The earthquake, however, was particularly severe in and around Hakone, diverting the streams and partially empty- ing the lake, so that it will be somewhat problematical as to whether it can be restored to its former prestige as a summer resort. It may be hoped, however, that it will again become a favourite place for the visitation of tourists, as its bracing mountain air, health-giving hot springs, de- lightful scenery, excellent trout fishing, with the glory of Fuji crowning the scene, constitute one of Japan’s greatest attractions. Fujiyama. ‘The highest mountain in Japan is Fujiyama, usually spoken of as “Fuji.” It is 12,387 feet high, and is only surpassed in altitude in Japan territory by Mount NOGOYA. 133 Morrison in Formosa. It has an extraordinarily graceful conical shape, and appears the same from almost every point of the compass, and unless it should be hidden by fog or other mountains, is visible from any point within a radius of sixty miles. Its summit, which is snow-covered all the year, has thin wreaths of steam which are the only sign of its former volcanic activity. The mountain is held in a quasi-sacred regard. It is called by the Japanese the “supreme altar of the sun.” It is regarded a never-dying mountain, possessing the secret of immortality. Its springs of water are supposed to have healing powers, and the mere fact of climbing the mountain is supposed to give health and rejuvenation. ‘The fire god- dess ‘‘Sergen”’ is the local deity. It is accessible to climb- ers from five different directions and the ascent is one of the ambitions of progressive Japanese young people who make the ascent in large numbers from late July to early Sep- tember. “The young Crown Prince, now Regent, was one of the climbers in 1923. It is possible to see Fuji as the steamer approaches Yoko- hama, and at various points on the ocean route from Yokohama to Kobe, and it is one of the sights that always wins the profound admiration of travellers. The Japanese take every opportunity of looking at it, and they make it an object of reverence that is akin to worship. Nogoya. ‘This bustling commercial city of 429,990 in- habitants (1920), is specially famous for its feudal castle, built in 1610, which is one of the best preserved examples of old Japanese architecture and art. It is surrounded by great walls and a large deep moat. ‘The central building is one hundred and fifty feet high and is built in five great stories, averaging thirty feet in height, each floor having a deep inset until the top story, which is only one hundred and eight feet square, is reached. “The view well repays the ascent of the rather rude massive stairs, as it gives the entire sweep of the horizon, including the whole city of Nogoya and its surroundings. ‘The mural decorations are 134 JAPAN unusually attractive, and are doubly interesting to students of Japanese art. There is little else in Nogoya that would attract special attention. ‘The city is famous for its fine potteries and its manufacture of articles for household furnishing. KYOTO Kyoto, with a population (1921) of 670,000, is three hun- dred and thirty miles from Tokyo and forty-seven miles from Kobe. It is the Rome of Japan, and its most charac- teristic and fascinating city. It has a scenic setting in a beautiful natural environment, with mountain ranges on three sides. Here the grand ceremonies of the Emperor’s coronation take place, as well as the spectacular Daijosi or Shinto festival. Its Buddhist and Shinto temples are among the most imposing and impressive in Japan. It is situated at a junction of several rivers, which are more or less joined by a series of intersecting canals. Its suburbs have excep- tionally attractive villas and resorts, together with a wealth of artistic landscape gardening. For a thousand years, until 1868, Kyoto was the capital of Japan and the centre of its art, literature and religion, and it still remains the artistic and ecclesiastical metropolis. The charm of Kyoto is subtle and irresistible, the atmos- phere being still touched with medizvalism, although the spirit of its business activities is very modern. From the splendid heights where the Miyako Hotel is situ- ated, one has a fine view of Kyoto, with mountains and hills girt about in impressive solicitude. ‘The places of interest outnumber those of all other Japanese cities. Here are the Temple Higashi Hongwanji, the Temple Nishi Honganji, the Chion-in or Temple of Gratitude, all of which are un- equalled in their mystery and worshipful atmosphere, al- though surpassed in multiplied carvings and polychrome lac- quer work by the Nikko temples. The pilgrims come to the temples, offering their momen-: KYOTO SIGHTSEEING 135 tary worship, and the priests pray and chant and strike the immense ancient bells, giving one blow at a time and waiting for all echoes to cease, unless in a special emergency they wish to warn the populace by strokes following in rapid suc- cession. Outside are singing waterfalls, descending into great stone basins, in gardens that have been famous for centuries. “The temples of Japan usually cling to the hill- sides, and are always embowered among trees and flowering gardens, which are in themselves a triumph of artistic con- ception, having lanterns, stone bridges, small lotus lakes, waterfalls, fountains and mammoth trees, and are cared for with the greatest solicitude. Such monastic retreats as the Myoshin-jo and Ginkaki-ji are superb representations and are quite accessible. In many private house gardens, as well, there may be seen a shrine, a lantern and a bell, giving a religious setting and significance. In the gardens of the rich, there is often a small temple or a tiny structure for the sacred tea ceremony, or a small building covering the distinctive family shrine. SIGHTSEEING The Gosho Imperial Palace is in the centre of the Im- perial Park of 220 acres, the entire area being surrounded by a low stone wall having a tiled roof throughout its en- tire circumference, punctuated by nine gates. "The Palace itself covers twenty-six acres which in turn is encircled by a high wall, which indicated that it was reserved for the Imperial family. “The Palace was erected in 1856, several previous ones having been destroyed by fire. Visitors should remember here and elsewhere that levity is not acceptable in Japan, when it relates to the Emperor or the Imperial family. The same is true of temples and temple worship. Inside the Palace, a visitor is shown to the Honourable ‘Three Rooms formerly used for the reception of dignitaries, the walls and sliding screens of which are decorated with sepia drawings. 136 JAPAN The Emperor’s special quarters have ten rooms, only the Ceremonial Hall (Shishin-den), 100 by 72 feet, being ac- cessible to visitors. In this mysterious Purple Hall, the Em- peror on special occasions was accustomed to sit on the large throne chair, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, having a canopy of red, purple and pale fawn colours. Just outside the rooms usually occupied by the Emperor, there is an alarm board made expressly to creak whenever one steps on it, this being done as a matter of precaution. Among the other portions of the Palace are the ‘Serene Chamber” (Seiryoden), so-called from the small brook un- der the entering steps; the Imperial Study (Ogakumon-jo), used by small gatherings for the cultivation of poetry and music; the Hall of Sacred Treasures (Kashiko-dokoro), and the Palace of the Empress which is much like that of the Emperor. The Garden of the Sento Gosho has magnificent trees, a serene lake with a stone bridge and several islands,—all giv- ing a charming ensemble. The whole effect of this Palace savours of simplicity, and yet of stately solemnity. Even in olden times, it was mod- estly furnished as compared with the Nijo Shogun Castle, as the emperors have always lived a simple, almost monastic, life. The Shogun Castle, or Detached Palace (Nijo-Rikyu), built by Iyeyasu, was the treasure house of the Shoguns from 1602, and is the greatest surviving monument of Old Japan. During its use from 1871 to 1884 by the Kyoto Prefecture, however, many of its priceless art objects and decorations were removed or destroyed, because the new western meth- ods of art and furnishings came into vogue, and the old, for the time, was despised. Since 1884, however, an effort has been made to preserve, and as far as possible, restore the former glory, although the Imperial crest of the chrys- anthemum, with sixteen petals, has been largely substituted for the Takugawa Shogunate crest of three asarum leaves. a Peers HT SEE IN G 137 The interior of the Castle is still radiant with golden and artistic ornamentation. The Castle grounds, which are surrounded by a moat and by walls with four gates, occupy seventy acres. All visitors enter by the East gate, an iron-bound artistic structure, then through another gate elaborately carved in wood, and crossing a great courtyard, finally pass through the august entrance. The Castle consists of five main buildings. The first is the principal Palace, the largest of all, richly decorated throughout with paintings, the artists being the most famous of the Kano school. ‘The mural paintings on the sliding doors have large and striking designs, sketched upon a gold background. Each room has its own motif of design, some- times consisting of special species of trees,—pine, plum and cherry trees being the favourite,—sometimes flowers like the peony and the Japanese globe-flower, and sometimes animals such as tigers, sheep, hares and geese. The second building has a series of rooms with somewhat similar decorations, although a room of water scenes with white herons among the reeds, a room with a majestic lion whose eyes follow the visitor everywhere, and a room with a wild bear in a winter forest, give variety and distinctive interest. The third building has a Great Hall, where the Shogun was enthroned on a raised platform, while the daimyos sat on low stools in awed humility in the presence of their liege- lord. Here the decorations are pines, bamboos, peonies, chrysanthemums and narcissi. Another room is distinctive in its superb peacock perched on a pine tree, and still another room, among others, has eagles perched on large pine trees, and another has a setting of herons and geese among the reeds. ‘The fourth building, while smaller, has a brilliantly dec- orated reception room, and it, together with three other rooms, are rich in fishing scenes, melons, flowers, and a variety of birds. 138 JAPAN The fifth building was the private apartment of the Shoguns and the decorations, while less gorgeous, are very refined in taste. One room represents sleeping sparrows in a snowy bamboo grove. The whole Palace is much more extensive and beautiful than the former Gosho Palace of the Mikado, giving evidence of the superior wealth and power of the Shoguns. It was in this Palace that the last of the Shoguns surrendered his authority to the Mikado. The garden now has trees, although originally it con- sisted only of rocks and shrubbery, as trees, with their falling leaves, were supposed to typify too vividly the changes and decay of human life. ‘The garden has a tiny cascade and a lotus pond with an islet connected by a bridge, and lesser buildings which make a romantic picture. The Chion-in is a magnificent temple, 167 by 138 feet, and 95 feet high, which belongs to the influential Jodo sect. The temple site affords a comprehensive view of the city. The two storied gateway entrance, a remarkable struc- ture, eighty-one by twenty-seven feet, and eighty feet in height, opens on a long avenue lined with stone lanterns of varied design. ‘The chief sight is an impressive and ar- tistically decorated temple, the huge Buddha in the rear being only dimly seen. In the corridor as one goes into the Dai-Hojo, or Palace of the Abbot, is a nightingale pave- ment, so named because the sounds produced by persons walking over it suggest the song of birds. ‘The palace has many rooms decorated with splendid paintings,—in fact, the whole monastery is very rich in art treasures. A huge bell, eighteen feet in height and weighing seventy-five tons, is only heard on special anniversary occasions. The Higashi Hongwan-ji, or Eastern Temple of the Ikko sect, has the purest type of Japanese Buddhism, is per- haps the greatest triumph of modern Japanese temple build- ing. It is 230 feet, with a height of 126 feet, its peaked tiled roof being upheld by ninety-six huge pillars. It is called Hongwan-Ji, or Monastery of the “Real Vow,” be- a Peer O S1GHTSEEIN G (139 cause Amida is supposed to have made a vow that he would not become Buddha, unless salvation should be free to all who would signify their desire by calling on his name ten times. The chief tenet of Ikko Buddhism is that ‘man is to be saved, not by works or by vain repetition of prayers, but by . faith in the mercy of Amida,” a Buddha who resembles the Christ ideal. As this belief is similar to the Christian doc- trine and as their priests are permitted to marry, it is some- times called the “Protestantism of Japan.” The huge bare pillars and other interior portions of the _colossal temple are constructed of keyaki wood, having a fine close grain that lasts for centuries without paint or other protection. “The temple’s marvellous carvings, its sheen of gold, its fragrant incense, its significant symbolism, and the chanting of the priests with the reiteration of “Hail to the eternal splendour of Buddha,’’—all combine to make a pro- found religious impression. On the altar are the words, “See Truth,” said to have been painted by the Emperor’s own hand. The most remarkable object, which may be seen in the corridor, is a large rope of human hair, ninety feet long and nine inches in circumference. It was one of the cables used to lift the timbers into place, when the temple was being built, and was the gift of 30,000 devoted women of the Kyoto province. “There are twenty-nine other great cables preserved in a storehouse, all made of human hair, one of them two hundred and twenty feet long and four inches in diameter. It is said that not one was broken, in spite of the constant and strenuous service during the entire period of building. A very charming garden with a nine-story pagoda is immediately to the east. “This temple cost seven million yen and took sixteen years to build, being completed in 1895. ‘Travellers should not miss seeing it. The Nishi Hongwan-ji, or Western Temple, also near the Shichiso station, has fine state apartments, not ordinarily open, but are usually shown to foreigners on application. 140 JAPAN They are among the finest in Japan and there is a great variety of unusual carvings and decorations. In the sacer- dotal apartments are the sparrow room, and the rooms of the chrysanthemum, the peacock, the tiger and the stork, all with elaborate pictorial panels and wall decorations. ‘The Amida-do, or Buddha Hall, is especially rich in gold and lacquer, as well as pictures of polychrome angels in the Buddhist paradise. The Sanji Usangendo, or Hall of the 33,000 Buddhas, is a curious place, more like a warehouse of images than a temple. The Shin Kyogoku, the principal theatre street, is full of moving pictures, restaurants, and all kinds of shows, including a marionette theatre with revolving stage. It represents a gay scene, especially by night. The Gionmachi, which lies between Shijo Bridge and Maruyama Park, includes the most fashionable section of the city, the side streets having many tea houses, that special- ise geisha dancing girls. “The Miyako dance and the Odori, or cherry, dance, are supposed to have special artistic at- tractiveness. The Kyoto Imperial Art Museum, open nine to four, has a score of exhibition rooms and is one of the three largest museums in the country. Its three main divisions are his- torical objects, fine arts and art industries. It has a re- markable collection of religious and archzological objects, together with gold lacquer work, bronzes, swords, embroid- eries, ceramics, armour, weapons, musical instruments, palan- quins, illuminated screens, ivory carvings, paintings, sculp- tures and rare kakemonas and makemonas, and should by all means be visited. The Toji, near the Shicijo station, is a great Buddhist temple in a large walled enclosure, and is famous for its five story pagoda, 216 feet high, as well as for its rare col- lection of paintings and sculptures, such as are rarely seen in any other temples. The Imperial Villa (popularly called Ochaya) consists a KYOTO SIGHTSEEING 141 of three buildings erected for the Ex-Emperor Gomizuno in a large park of sixty-nine acres. It has the advantage of an elevated location, affording a fine view of the city. ‘The buildings are decorated in a somewhat similar manner as are the other palaces. ‘The garden, with its lotus covered ponds, bridges and islands, is very charming, and over the tablet of one of the buildings is the name ‘‘House of Bliss.” (Rakushi-ken) written by the ex-Emperor himself. The Katsura Summer Palace is a suburban structure in a garden of eleven acres, consisting of the Palace itself and seven other houses, together with sixteen bridges, twenty-five lanterns, and eight water basins. ‘The Palace does not seem fresh and ornate, because it is purposely pre- served in its ancient condition, but it contains some of the best paintings and art objects in Japan. The Arashiyama, eight miles from the city, is the Coney Island of Kyoto and is one of the most beautiful places in Japan. The Gold Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji) was originally the villa of a court noble, and was afterward used by a Shogun as a place of retirement, being finally turned into a Buddhist Temple. The pavilion, built five hundred years ago, is a well-preserved example of the artistic refinements of that period. ‘There are some rare treasures in connection with the temple, consisting of statues, images, paintings and por- traits. Although the buildings have lost some of their bril- liant colour and sheen of gold, one can go through rooms without number, including an audience chamber of a thou- sand mats, each room having its distinctive decorations. Kyoto has a thousand variations of interest. Here are historical monuments and legends; a precipice called “‘lovers’ leap” with its Japanese setting of a world-familiar tragedy; temple bells and strange forms of worship; shops and facto- ries with alert and skilful workmen; theatres with geisha girl dancers; fortune tellers; street processions with various floats, waving banners, and gaily garbed retinues; brilliantly 142 JAPAN lighted restaurants, and life in the streets, seething with spectacular interest. In this city of nearly 700,000 inhabitants there are said to be practically no police, and one is told that they are not needed. Kyoto people call residents of Tokyo “ruffians” while Tokyo retaliates by calling them “monkeys in bro- cade,” because Kyoto specialises figured silks. The Doshisha University. ‘The real founder of the Doshisha (the name means “like-minded”’) University is a native by the name of Neesima, who left Japan by stealth in 1864, as it would have meant death had his purpose been known. He wanted very much to get an education, based on occidental methods and ideals. He was helped by a Mr. Hardy of Boston during his entire preparatory and college education. He interested several American teachers in his project to go back with him and establish an educational institution along American lines. From the small beginning it has grown to an institution with 130 professors and instructors, 2,000 young men and 1,000 girls, including preparatory collegiate students, and is crowded almost beyond capacity, turning hundreds away every year. It is the mother of all the later universities, and has sent many of its graduates to them to serve as teachers. ‘The endowment is only $300,000, the Japanese giving a full third of all the amount necessary to supple- ment the small income. The Japanese are also largely helping in the erection of buildings. A recent science building, for instance, costing $35,000, was entirely subscribed for by the Japanese. The Congregational Board of Missions (A. B. C. F. M.), invested more than a million dollars in the enterprise, and then turned it over to a Japanese Board of Christian trus- tees. ‘These have had such pressure brought upon them by the Japanese Government, that they relinquished its control — to the Government, although no refund was made to the Mission Board. CHILDREN ON TEMPLE STAIRS PUBLIC SCHOOL PLAYGROUND Pere O SIGHTSEEING '43 GENERAL INFORMATION Hotels. Kyoto Hotel, near the centre of the city, is comfortable, and the new Miyako Hotel on a slope at the city’s outer edge, which opened June, 1924, accommodates 200 guests, every room being provided with a bath. It has a fine terrace with a charming view, and a perfect garden, whose charm at night is enhanced with an imported supply of fireflies. Churches. The Episcopal, Presbyterian, Methodist, Congregational and Baptist Mission Boards carry on regu- lar Church and Mission work, there being twenty-five Chris- tian Churches, with a dozen foreign missionaries and forty Japanese ministers, the total membership being upwards of three thousand. Hotel proprietors will furnish addresses and instructions about finding any of these places. Shopping. Kyoto, one of the greatest shopping centres in Japan, employs over 125,000 men and women artisans, who produce goods to the value of 100,000,000 yen a year. Among the best dealers are Yamanaka, with the largest art collection in Japan; S. Nishimura, who specialises in fine silks; Namikawa, in cioisonné; S. Komai, in Damascene ware; Kuroda, in bronze; Hyashi, in gold lacquer. Yama- toya is reliable and has a variety of wares. Among other objects of special interest to buy are cloisonné, porcelains, bronzes, sword guards, netsukes, inros, koros, tea jars, tea bowls, sake bowls, nightingale bottles, pearl, crystal, car- nelian and ‘“‘Fuji’” beads, silks, komonos, haori coats, fukusas (gift cloths), and Japanese prints. Cloisonné, the oldest form of enamelling, is found in all grades and qualities, on gold, silver and copper, the price depending on the material used as well as the time, skill and care given to its production. Cheap pieces break easily because of the wires not being soldered and of defects in the enamelling. The most famous cloisonné artist in the world is Nammakawa of Kyoto, excelling in beauty of design, perfect fusing of enamels and wonderful polish. 144 TAPAS Satsuma. One needs to beware in buying porcelains and potteries. Many cheap, garish, six-months’-old pieces are passed off as “old Satsuma.” ‘The different wares were named originally for the districts, towns or provinces where they were produced; but now cheap Satsuma is made in various places outside of the Province of Satsuma, and Kaga ware almost anywhere except in Kaga. If one does not know values, safety lies in a written guaranty. Banko ware teapots are unglazed and very pleasing. Seto porcelain is famous, much of it being pale grey-green. Both old Imari and old Kutami ware are scarce and choice. In buying bronze, it is important that each piece be tested on the under side with a knife to see if it can be cut, as it is a common trick to make lead figures, coat them with a bronze finish and sell them to unsuspecting foreigners for the price of real bronze. Damascene Ware is available in great variety, and abun- dant opportunity is given to see its manufacture. Sword guards are still to be found, though the best ones have been absorbed by museums. ‘They are much sought after and are used as paper weights. Netsukes are doubtless the most characteristic ivory carving, ancient or modern, though many are made of bone or horn. ‘They are the universal carrier handle for Inros (the little trays strung together on cords in which cosmetics are carried). An incense shop is truly Japanese. Here one finds the koros or incense burners of all sizes and shapes and values. Nightingale bottles emit a musical sound like birds twittering as liquid is poured out of them. Rock Crystal. Japan produces the best quality of rock crystal, and it is secured from the ocean bottom. It is the Japanese symbol of purity, and in old times was thought to be ice that had been so long congealed it could not be melted. The Japanese make it into balls by hand, carefully chipped with small steel hammers with great patience and skill. These balls were thought to have magic properties and used to be placed in tombs. SHOPPING 144A Beads have been used for adornment since the earliest days of which we have record, and rock crystal beads are preferably purchased here because of their cheapness as well as superior quality. Beautiful Carnelian beads of the rich tomato red colour, their value depending on the evenness of colour and the brilliance of the hand polish. ‘The carnelian was one of the first stones used for ornament. ‘The Children of Israel are said to have engraved it. Fuyri beads are opalescent and peculiar to Japan, and are sold as low as one dollar a string. Here, too, are found ArTiIFIcCIAL PEAarL Beans of many grades. “The cheapest ones are the kind that dissolve with moisture and heat, and crush with slight pressure. Others are made of glass, poorly lacquered. Still another kind is made of ground fish scales, well lacquered, and of better quality. The best are made of ground-up mother-of-pearl, beautifully lacquered and very durable. But in Japan one may buy at factories where they are made fine beads, wash- ‘able, brilliant, and coated exactly as are the best pearls, for a very low price. Culture Pearls are a specialty here. The oyster shell is opened and a tiny piece of mother-of-pearl inserted. ‘This becomes an irritant, causing the oyster to protect itself by building up a wall of pearl. A sizable pearl develops in three or four years. Not being completely rounded, they cannot be used as beads, but they are used in settings for jewellery. “The pink and blue ones are made so by inject- ing chemicals. The divers for these bivalves are mostly women who stay under water two or three minutes. During one day a woman will bring up more than a thousand pearl-bearing oysters. Silks and Embroideries. Japan raises thirty per cent. of all the silk in the world. Of this whole supply sixty per cent. comes to the United States. It was one of the misfortunes of the earthquake that so many thousands of 144B JSAP AWN. tons of raw silk were destroyed. Short lengths of very beautiful “trial weaves” in exquisite designs and in a great variety of colours may be purchased at reasonable prices and are very useful for bags, pillows and small runners. Painted crépes are works of art and are used for the better grade of kimonos and obis. Sometimes these painted de- signs are further decorated and shaded with stitches of silk or gold thread embroidery. “These crépes were used for . kimonos back in the time of the daimios, and these ancient garments may be purchased to-day with the colours and gold thread as bright and beautiful as though made yesterday. Of course, they are by no means cheap, even in Japan. The ordinary highly coloured cheap embroidered kimono that is sold to Americans for boudoir use is not worn by the Japanese. But even prominent silk houses put out these cheap, tasteless and inferior articles for tourists, because the latter are familiar with this grade of work and are willing to pay for it. Although the Japanese learned the art of embroidery from China, they surpass the Chinese in the artistic quality of their work and in colour and design, attaining every colour effect of the painter. Choice silks, crépes, temple handings, and embroideries may be purchased by the alert and experienced buyer. Sometimes they are found in the pawn shops, having been sold from the go-downs of nobles, actors, priests and commoners who needed ready money. Bargains in silk by the yard may be found in the designs of the previous seasons, where colour and quality are of the best but the style is old. Haori Coats. A garment coming more into favour each year and worn by both men and women is the haori coat. It is short, reaching only to about the knee, usually of black, with its only decoration the mon or family seal on back and sleeves, and lined with a gay silk and tied with a knotted silk cord in front. ‘These vary in price from $12 to $25. Kimonos. Kimonos of gay-coloured silk, heavily em- broidered with floral and animal designs, are made up espe- SHOPPING 144C cially for tourists, being never worn by Japanese women. One can also buy cotton kimonos generally of blue and white, such as are used by both men and women for night- wear, and for lounging inside the house. ‘Then there is the gay blue linen ‘“‘fisherman’s” kimono printed with bright- coloured border and huge mon that is worn by the fishermen in a parade at the end of a successful season’s catch. These are interesting to buy for fancy dress costume, as they are never sold in America. Coolie coats may be had for a dollar, desirable for the same purpose. Fukusas, or gift cloths, are a most useful purchase for table covers, pillows and various other purposes. Japanese etiquette requires that gifts be wrapped or covered with these squares of satin, crépe, or even cotton, which vary in price and elegance of design with the wealth of the owner. The fukusa is admired and returned to the sender. Cele- brated artists have made designs for them and intricate and beautiful was the needlework on the choice ones. "These are yearly growing scarcer, as the best ones find their way into museums and private collections. Popular designs are the symbols of long life, the pine, the plum, the bamboo, the tortoise, the seven household gods of luck, Daikoku the god of riches, fat old Hotei the spirit of goodness, and the Swastika that has been the symbol of good luck even from the time it was used in the frescoes of the Pyramids, down through all countries and by all peoples. Prints. Except to the very few, Japanese pictorial art is comparatively unknown. ‘Those collectors who have a proper understanding of Japanese and Chinese pictures need no guide in collecting prints. While a great signature does not necessarily imply a remarkable picture, any prints signed by certain of the better-known artists are sure to be a good investment. Hiroshige ranks high among landscape artists. ‘Torii Chobei drew with great vigour and boldness. Hokusai, who died in 1849, was as widely known as any artist in Japan; his work was brilliant and original in design. Harunobu figured in the middle of the 18th century as a 144D JAPAN master with a peculiar charm. Buncho was distinguished for his colour composition. Shunsho was famous for por- traits of actors. Moronobu illustrated many books. Shige- masa’s prints are of much distinction. Shigenobu’s are extremely rare. Masanobu, Kyosai, Hokkei, Yeizau, ‘Toyo- nobu, Sadahide are all famous artists, and Kwaigetsudo prints are the rarest of all. Curios that are really genuine are getting rather scarce, as Japan has been nearly stripped of her genuine old art treasures. Sometimes, however, Buddhist temples, that are in need of money, will auction off some of their relics. It is well to get curios from absolutely reputable dealers, and they should be accompanied by signed guaranties of their genuineness, NARA Nara, a city of 53,882 (1920), is the ancient capital of Japan, and is easily reached by rail or motor from Osaka, Kobe or Kyoto. It is famous for its temples founded in the 7th and 8th centuries (the first Buddhist sanctuaries in Japan), contain- ing rare wood-carvings; its museums with their invaluable treasures; its ancient forests of venerable cryptomeria, oak and maple, overrun with masses of thick, gnarled wistaria vines; its thousands of bronze and tsone lanterns; its Deer Park of 1,325 acres; and the gentleness and serenity of its religious environment. Here was the Imperial seat through seven consecutive reigns of four empresses and three emperors. One emperor was propped upon the throne on the day of his birth, 201 A. D., and ruled during the 109 years of his life. The Deer Park. It is related that the founder of Nara rode up to the mountain on a deer, to choose a place for his home, and that, on this account, the deer has been a pro- tected and petted animal ever since. © ‘The Deer Park is the largest in Japan. Here are nearly a thousand dappled fallow deer, some of which are so ex- Naas SIGHTS 145 tremely tame, that they fellow people about, ‘“‘nosing” them for food. At the sound of a bugle, they come running from all directions to be fed, and will eat out of the hands of tourists, who have provided themselves with their favourite cakes. So great is the consideration of the Japanese for these sacred deer that, some years ago, a priest was put to death by extreme torture, because he accidentally killed one. About the middle of October, great crowds gather to watch the annual cutting of their horns, which is done to prevent their injuring people and one another. ‘These horns are made into canes (sections of the horn being joined together, giving the effect of bamboo) and other curios, which find a ready sale among tourists. Nara is a beautiful rest place, where little streams among the hills make music that sings away anxious thoughts and cares. It is not magnificent like Nikko, nor resplendent like Kyoto, but it is rich in historical associations and in ancient temples, around which its life centres. Temples. The Shinto rules formerly required that its — temples be rebuilt every twenty years, the original building being duplicated at each reconstruction, but now only the Ise Temple of the Sun goddess at Yamada undergoes this change. Every twenty years, trees are planted at Yamada by the priests, to furnish timber for future building. Some of the Buddhist shrines have been destroyed by fire and rebuilt; some have suffered seriously at times when their revenues have been withheld or their lands taken from them. But these Buddhist temples contain historic master- pieces, the existence of which many of the Japanese them- selves were hardly aware of until 1897, when national treasures came under government protection. The temple containing the bronze Daibutsu is unat- tractive. It is so insecure that it has had to be reinforced by huge beams and bracings. It was built in 1709, there having been two previous structures, the earliest one dat- 146 JAPAN ing from 752. For one hundred and forty years previous to that time, the Buddha image was not enclosed. The great two-storied torii, leading to this temple, is a weather-beaten but picturesque gateway having stood there for eleven centuries, and apparently being able to with- stand time’s natural decay for hundreds of years to come. A huge bronze lantern near by is said to have long con- tained the sacred fire brought from Ceylon. The Daibutsu was designed and made by Korean artists in 749 A.D., after eight failures in casting the metal. The material used in the construction of the bronze included five hundred pounds of gold and a million pounds of copper, together with corresponding amounts of tin, lead and other alloys, and two years were required to complete the casting. The statue is fifty-three and a half feet high, and its weight is estimated at five hundred tons. ‘The present head is the third one to have been constructed, the previous ones having been destroyed by fires. ‘The statue is very inferior, having negroid features, a rather sullen expression, the eyes being half closed, and lacks the dignity and benignity of the Kama- kura Daibutsu. He is seated on a lotus pedestal and has one hand raised in benediction, the other resting upor his knee. ‘Two lesser, but very large, Buddhas have a position on either side. From the material, which was left from the image, a casting was made of the big bell, nine feet in diameter, thirteen and a half feet high, weighing forty-eight tons, whose tones can be heard to the furthermost parts of Nara. ‘Tourists are allowed to swing the heavy tongue of this bell, on payment of a few sen. On a hill above the Daibutsu are other Buddhist temples, one devoted to Kwannon (the goddess of mercy), another to the god of war. ‘Terraces of stone, mossy lanterns and drinking fountains make these old places picturesque. - from this height, there are magnificent views looking across to the mountains, that separate Nara from Osaka’s rice plains. The group of buildings of Horyuji temple is unique in being the oldest wooden structures in existence, having been Peaiae po hG ATS 147 built twelve hundred years ago. They are of Chinese and Korean design, and are especially important because no struc- tures of that period are found elsewhere. A cluster of tea-houses and shops lie between these Bud- dhist sanctuaries on one side and the Shinto temples beyond. Quaint stone steps lead down to a path, lined with stone and bronze lanterns, leading to the ancient Shinto temple of Kasuga. There are more than three thousand of these lanterns along the Kasuga approaches, all being the gifts from daimyos, nobles and rich believers. When the temples were prosperous in the early days, they were lighted each night, but now it is only at an annual festival held February 2nd, that they are all illuminated, giving the Park an en- trancing and fairy-like appearance. From the Kasuga gateway, the upper avenue of lanterns leads to the Wakamiya shrine dedicated to the Shinto gods. Here the sacred dance of the olden days is still continued. One may see as many dancers, and as many dances, as he will pay for. After collecting the money, the priests play on creaky flutes and beat tom-toms as a melancholy accom- - paniment. The dancers wear the old costume of the Im- perial court—a divided skirt of bright red silk under a thin white kimono. ‘Their faces are made expressionless by the plastering of white paint, heavily rouged lips, shaved eye- brows and the two tiny black dots on the middle of the forehead. The sacred dance consists of short slow rhythmic steps forward and backward, each dancer waving a fan and a cluster of tinkling bells, from which hang long strips of bright coloured silk. ‘The dance repeats the same figures and movements with little change in the measure. Near this temple is a live white horse, regarded as sacred, which is pampered with delicacies. The Nara Museum, housed in a modern structure, is a collection of antique carvings in wood of deities and war- riors, that has no equal in Japan. Nara possessed a school of sculpture in wood as early as the eleventh century. The 148 JAPAN nude figure in art has never appealed to them, as they have always considered the draped one as far more beautiful. The Shoso-in is a collection (housed in a dingy build- ing) of valuable objects associated with former Imperial palaces, such as metal mirrors, cloisonné, lacquered art specimens, musical instruments, masks, books, sandalwood- carvings, ivory and tortoise shell ornaments, weapons, vest- ments, incense burners and temple utensils, screens, bronze statues, bells, toys, Buddhist images, ancient pottery and semi-precious stones. Here in Nara are the Golden and Silver Pavilions (which are the summer palaces of the retired princes), set in entrancing gardens, having little pools filled with goldfish, and a ‘“‘Wash the Moon” cascade, where the moon is re- flected upon the perpendicular fall of waters, which in the old days was believed to keep the moon bright and shiny. At the edge of the town is the large Sarusawa Pond, stocked with carp and tortoises. On one side of it is a shrine erected in memory of a lady of the court, who in the eighth century drowned herself, because she had lost favour with the emperor. Nearby is the “‘coat-hanging willow tree” where she hung her outer garments before her fatal plunge. On a hill near this historic pond is the fine old five-storied pagoda, 165 feet high, dating from 1462. The Nara Hotel is built on the site of an Imperial palace, and has the same architectural motif. It is a modern struc- ture having seventy rooms, giving good service, and its elevated location commands a fine view of the city. By special arrangement with the hotel proprietor, a perform- ance of the classic No plays will be shown. YAMADA Yamada lies about eighty miles southeast of Nara, and can be reached in four hours by train. Both Yamada and Nara lie in the province, which saw the beginnings of the Japanese nation. In Yamada was buried the first emperor, OSAKA 149 Jimmu Tenno, who is alleged to have descended from the sun goddess. A long line of his Mikado descendants are buried here, and the Japanese people regard a pilgrimage to the Ise temple of the sun goddess almost as a religious duty. It is the supreme Shinto temple of Japan, and according to tradition contains three great treasures, a sword, a jewel and a mirror, which belonged to the sun goddess. At Yamada, the Emperor himself occasionally goes in order to engage in ancestor worship at the Ise shrine, and a million religious pilgrims come every year for worship and sight-seeing. “The town itself makes a living by the manu- facture and sale of religious symbols and souvenirs. Here everything is regarded so sacred by the ultra-religious, that a prominent Cabinet minister, who unintentionally touched some sacred objects with his cane in pointing them out, was shot down by a young zealot, and public opinion largely approved the rash act, although the loss of a valued minister was regretted. Yet strangely enough, there are more Yoshi- wara women here than in any city in Japan, averaging one for every fifty of the inhabitants, OSAKA Osaka, with 1,395,000 inhabitants (1920), is the second largest city in Japan, covering nine square miles, the busiest, but the least picturesque and attractive of all Japanese cities. Lying at the edge of the plain, where the Yodogawa River empties into Osaka Bay, the shallow waters prevent the entrance of large steamships, so that Kobe twenty miles across the Bay is its seaport. “The many branches of the river, and the innumerable canals and eight hundred bridges, have given the city the name of the “Venice of Japan.” In the Sixteenth Century William Adams, the first Eng- lishman to reach Japan, was driven on its shores in a storm. Because of his knowledge of ships and ship-building, he was summoned to Osaka by Tokugawa, the Shogun, and was not allowed to return home. Later he was presented with an 150 JAPAN estate, was married to a Japanese wife, and was known and beloved as Anjin Sama, his name being still preserved by an annual festival held June 15th. _ Osaka, although without a factory chimney a quarter of a century ago, is now the great manufacturing centre of the Japanese Empire, and an observer from the top of its show- place.—the ruined Castle——can count hundreds of high smokestacks, giving almost the impression of a city like Man- chester or Pittsburgh. It has a rice stock exchange, sug- gestive of the Chicago wheatpit. In recent years, Japan has made tremendous advances in making factory products. It has set out to capture the markets of the world with a com- petitive fierceness, that suggests a tiger equipped with wings. Japan’s main markets, namely China and India, are at her door, and her low labour cost, and the abundant raw materials from China and Korea, give her an immense ad- vantage. She is now building entire dreadnoughts and is making all imaginable forms of steel products (one steel plant alone covering 350 acres). One-third of these steel employés are women, many of them doing heavy manual work. Japan is running several million spindles and con- sumes nearly two million bales of cotton, many of its fac- tories making a profit of twenty to thirty per cent. The slums of Osaka are the filthiest in the world, without plumbing or sewers,—not at all in accord with the fastidious cleanliness sometimes associated with the Japanese. Hun- dreds of thousands of factory workers who labour for wages, are perilously close to the starvation line, in many cases actu- ally living on garbage. ‘The congestion of its population far exceeds that of any Occidental city, its submerged tenth, being actually wedged into narrow quarters where they sleep promiscuously on the floor, with only rags for covering. All this tends to form a community problem, which the Japanese Government should meet in a large and generous way, if it would conserve the health and welfare of its working people- Hours of labour in Osaka,—varying from eleven to sixteenm—low wages, and the employers’ lack of SYUIVLS WIdNAL NO ONIAVaAd NAYXATIHO LAGaLS AALVAHL OSAKA SIGHTS ISI care for their workmen, have caused strikes and sabotage, and although strikes are prohibited by law, they are not suppressed by the Government. All the evils of child labour, long hours, unsanitary factories, and congested slums,—are very glaring, but Japan is beginning to see and correct the unfortunate tendencies, and it is doubtful if the ranks of labour will precipitate a reaction of blood and chaos. Most of the houses in the city are built of wooden ma- terials and face narrow streets, and as a result fire has been a destructive enemy. In 1910, 11,000 houses were burned and in 1912, 4,830 shared a similar fate. There are practically no characteristic sights in Osaka save as the crowded, busy streets present a constant shifting scene of Japanese life. “The temples do not compare with those of Nikko or Kyoto. At the same time, the city has its impressive side. | The Osaka Castle, with an immense area of 274 acres, was built by Hideyoshi in 1584. Its high walls, one of them having 120 towers, were two and a half miles in circum- ference and its deep moats were from 250 to 500 feet wide. It was supposed to be absolutely invulnerable. The Osaka Castle has largely an historic interest, as the main structure was destroyed by fire in 1868, leaving only the moat, the castle foundation and the massive walls. It is impressive in showing the great size and stability of the old Shogun feudal castles. “There are single stones forty-six feet in length and ten or twelve feet square to be found on each side of the main gate. Other stones, twenty feet high, are in the foundation, many being known by special names and having their own legends. Here is revealed a mastery of engineering skill in handling and placing such enormous materials without the aid of modern appliances, which is all the more remarkable, in view of its having been built about three hundred years ago. Three years were spent in its con- struction, 50,000 workmen being employed. Here in 1615, Iyeyasu, the chief general of Hideyoshi, with 270,000 men, besieged the castle of his Shogun lord, who defended it with 152 JAPAN his 90,000 ronins, and when the castle and its defenders were captured, Hideyoshi committed harikari. From the top of Osaka castle, a very interesting view of smoky Osaka and its environs can be had, and it is well worth the effort of the climb. It is now the headquarters of the fourth Army division. Outside its walls are the gun foundry and arsenal. The Bronze Bell in the Tenno-ji Temple (founded in 600 A.D.) is the largest hanging bell in the world, being twenty-six feet high and thirty-four in circumference. It weighs 155 tons, and requires the trunk of a tree to make it boom. ‘The Kremlin bell in Moscow, which is nineteen feet high, is the next in size. In the temple grounds is the Turtle Court, with the sacred turtles, estimated at half a million in number. ‘This temple also has a famous five- storied pagoda. Osaka takes great pride in its Mint, where there is a complete collection of Japanese and Chinese coins from the earliest days as well as coins and medals from other coun- tries. . Another place of interest is the Bazaar for the exhibi- tion and sale of articles manufactured at Osaka. A small admission fee is charged which, with a slight percentage on all sales, supports the institution. One may spend hours of interest among lacquers, teakwood carvings, porcelains, gold and silverware, crépes, brocades, straw goods, stamped leather, kairos, netsukes, kimonos, etc. Osaka has Curio Shops in abundance which are veritable museums of the choicest industrial art and metal work of old Japan. ‘The names of Muramasa, Masamune and the Miochins are as familiar to connoisseurs of metal work, as is that of Benvenuto Cellini. There is also a Private Collection of Bronzes, the finest in Japan, owned by Baron Sumitomo. Osaka owns a newspaper with the largest circulation in the world (larger than the number of its inhabitants), guaranteed in Summer of 1922 to be 1,755,000. ‘This paper KOBE 153 does a large social service work by maintaining an ambulance accompanied by three trained physicians, the use of which is free to the poorest, and it not only takes them to a hos- pital, but pays their expenses while there if they are unable to do so. Shinshabashi, the main street, usually has a very gay and animated crowd of people. Theatre (Solombori) Street, decorated with varied banners and festooned with flowers, and with the picture display of theatres and movies on every side, makes a very interesting place for observing Japanese life, especially at night, when there is a Broadway glare of electric light. “The exhibitions in which marionettes are used are extraordinarily clever, but as plays sometimes last seven hours or more, the foreigner finds the impressions gained in a visit of a few minutes quite sufficient. Osaka has only one small park of seven acres situated in the main part of the city. “The Osaka Hotel is the principal one. Churches. ‘There are three Roman Catholic and twenty-seven Protestant churches, the latter having eight foreign missionaries and twenty-one Japanese pastors. ’ ‘The American Board (Congregational) carries on the “Plum Blossom” school with 800 girl pupils. Six hundred girls last year applied for admission into the high school de- partment, but unfortunately there was room for only 280. KOBE Kobe, while now the most important commercial port of Japan, had no trade in 1868, and was only a little fishermen community with less than 10,000 inhabitants, while now it is a city of 608,628 (1920). British interests, however, were gradually established there, and it has rapidly become an extensive trade centre, having outranked Yokohama even before the earthquake, its total exports and imports exceed- ing $800,000,000. Here are found dockyards and cotton mills suggestive of Osaka. It has assumed somewhat of the character of a European city from the beginning, hav- ing wide tree-shaded streets and substantial buildings. 154 JAPAN Hyogo, the old city on the opposite side of a small river, is more distinctively Japanese. Kobe means ‘‘Gate of God” probably in reference to its location at the head of the Inland Sea. ' Behind the city are the Rokko Mountains, which are some- times spoken of as “Kobe Alps.’’ ‘The streets of the city slope steeply to the water’s edge where, on the long Bund, the pride of Kobe, are found consulates, banks, and other important buildings. As Kobe is a very modern city, there are few distinctive sights, although the bustling shops and the street life of the people have a perennial attraction. The Twin Waterfalls (Nunobiki-no-Taki) | are within a short rikisha ride and consist of a double fall, the ‘“‘Fe- male Fall” being forty-three feet high, which although the smaller is the more attractive, as would naturally be ex- pected from its name. Crossing the bridge one reaches after a short climb the ‘“Male Fall” eighty-two feet high. The walks are illuminated at night with thousands of electric lights, creating an effect of fairyland, and it is a favourite resort for the people in summer weather. ‘The great reser- voir, supplying the city’s water, is on the top of this hill. Suwayama Park is situated on a hillside, giving a com- prehensive view of the city, bay and the encircling moun- tains. ‘Tea-houses and mineral baths add to the attractions. A Fencing Hall, where exhibitions of fencing and jiu- jitsu are given almost daily, will interest people who are fond of witnessing athletic sports. The Nanko Shrine, near the Kobe Station, is erected in honour of a warrior of the first half of the fourteenth cen- tury, renowned for his heroism and his devotion to the emperor. Minatogawa Park, usually spoken of as Theatre Street, is in the bed of a former deflected stream, and is now an amusement centre with theatres, moving pictures and res- taurants. One of its attractive features is a promenade skirted with fine trees. MODES .GH TS 155 The Okura Recreation Ground is a popular resort, oc- cupying the entire hill of Anyoje, and commands the pan- oramic sweep westward over the city and bay. Here on a hill is found the statue of Prince Ito, who was assassinated while at the head of the Japanese Government in Korea. The Daibutsu is a bronze image of Buddha, twenty- eight feet high which, while having an attractive environ- ment, is inferior to the Kamakura statue, both in size and artistic quality. It is located at the Nofukuji Temple in the Hyogo part of Kobe, within a half hour’s ride of the hotel. Temples. At the Raiko-ji Temple may be seen the tomb of Matsuo, a servant of a former ruler, who, as the story goes, offered himself up as a victim to be buried alive under the embankment, so as to appease the sea-gods, and get their favour in permitting the erection of the harbour works. A Shinto Temple (Ikuta-jinga) is within a few minutes’ ride from the Oriental Hotel, whose special temple deity is believed to have taught the value of the loom and of clothing. The only temple of special interest is the Maya-san, al- though it is in no way comparable to the temples of Kyoto or Nikko. There are ninety Buddhist temples and seventy- four Shinto shrines in Kobe. The Suburban Seaside Resorts of Suma, Maiko, and Akashi are all within a ride of an hour or less by electric tram, with lovely views of the islands and shores of the Inland Sea. Here are parks, beaches, restaurants, and gay holiday multitudes in the bathing season. Rokkosan, a foreign suburb, is reached partly by rail- road, the last five miles being made by sedan chair with four men carriers. Here is a fine British community of over fifty villas, together with an eighteen-hole golf course of twenty-five acres, said to be the largest and best in the Far East. Hotels. The Oriental Hotel is a well-located hotel with all modern improvements, including a theatre for mo- 156 JAPAN tion pictures and private theatricals. ‘The Tor Hotel is delightfully situated and is also popular among foreigners. Churches. In Kobe there are three Roman Catholic Churches as well as twenty-four Protestant Churches and ‘Missions carried on by the Methodist, Baptist, Episcopal and Presbyterian denominations. ‘The Kobe College of the Southern Methodist Church has one thousand boys en- rolled, and the American Board (Congregational) has a school of eight hundred girls. Shopping. ‘The principal shops are on Motomachi Street, where there is an excellent display of silk goods, curios, embroideries, porcelains, bronzes, cloisonné, gold lac- quer, damascene ware and pottery, with a large assortment of characteristic Japanese souvenirs. Kobe is the great centre for tea export. According to tradition, tea was brought into Japan from China in the ninth century. About 120,000 acres of land are under tea cultivation and 1,000,000 natives are employed in raising it. The best quality is grown around Kyoto, but this grade is consumed in Japan. THE INLAND |S bee The Inland Sea of Japan extends 240 miles from Kobe to Shimonoseki, being from three to thirty miles wide, and having an area of 1,325 square miles, its coast lines aggre- gating seven hundred miles. While it is rather shallow, its maximum depth being sixty-eight fathoms, it is safe for ocean steamers, although fogs are very common and cause vexatious delays. “The entrance and exit of the Inland Sea are very narrow, and hence its interior shores are practically safe from hostile attacks. The Inland Sea is an enthralling waterway, with deeply indented coasts, lovely reaches of beach, and myriads of wooded islands and islets, great fleets of junks, sampans, yachts, passenger steamers and warships—the whole pre- senting a fairy-book picture of exquisite charm. NAGASAKI 157 At its entrance there are Palisades, looking somewhat like those on the Hudson River opposite New York. Every- where a gemmed archipelago of green and golden islands greets the eye, some of them terraced to the top with rice fields. Part of the time, the passenger steamer creeps through narrow straits under the shadow of island promono- tories. “The vista of mountains in the background, the purple shores, the pine-crowned islands and the quaint vil- lages make a continually changing panorama. Fishermen’s boats are everywhere, as the Inland Sea has over a hundred species of fish, being the best fishing region of Japan. One of the most picturesque Islands is Miyajima, nine- teen miles in circumference, which has a distinctive temple and shrine built on an eminence jutting out over the beach, causing the charming cluster of buildings to look like air castles. “This is one of the famous scenic Trio of Islands of Japan. When its hundreds of lanterns are lighted on a dark night, the effect is like an oriental fairyland. This “Temple Island” is conspicuous for its immense crimson torii rising out of the waters at high tide near the _shore. The Hall of the Thousand Mats here, set beside a fine five-story pagoda, is hung with 50,000 rice spoons, suspended by soldiers as a pledge of their loyalty to their country. NAGASAKI Nagasaki is a city of 176,554 inhabitants, 541 miles by railway from Kyoto. It has a fine natural harbour, en- tered by a rather narrow inlet three miles long, and is pro- tected on three sides by beautifully wooded hills. It is the most attractive harbour in Japan, and the encircling views from an anchored ship make a lovely panorama, suggesting Hong-Kong. Nagasaki is a favourite coaling place for Pacific steamers. It is an engrossing sight to watch the hundreds of men and women, mostly women,—some of whom have babies on 158 JAPAN their backs,—handling the baskets of coal which are emptied — into the steamer-hold. ‘There are usually a series of coal barges, each one having a row of workers, the person near- est the coal taking the basket just filled and passing it along the row until it reaches the man on the raised platform, who empties it into the coal chute of the steamer. They usually pass these baskets (each of which, when filled, weighs close to forty pounds), at the rate of about forty a minute from each barge. The story of the Japanese persecution of the early Chris- tians, in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, is a tragic one. The Portuguese were blown ashore here in 1542, and began to trade with the natives. Francis Xavier, the great Roman Catholic missionary, came in 1549, and made about eight hundred converts within two years. Other missionaries fol- lowed, and conversions increased, until there were nearly a million adherents. The Jesuits, however, began to denounce the native re- ligions, inciting the populace to destroy the temples and idols, and even encouraged the breaking of objectionable Japanese laws. Strife also arose between the Portuguese and Spanish religious orders. It was reported to the Shogun, Hideyoshi, that certain Spaniards in the Island boasted that Spain sent missionaries in advance, as a means of gaining political power. ‘This so incensed the Shogun, that he ordered twenty-six of the Franciscan friars to be crucified, others to have their ears and noses cut off, and all were ordered to leave the country without delay. “They soon, however, began to return, and new troubles arose. Iyeyasu, the successor of Hideyoshi, was even more intolerant, and he ordered all Christians to be driven out of the country, and beheaded sixty special Portu- guese envoys from Macao. ‘These were the terrible words of his final proclamation: ‘So long as the sun warms the earth let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan.” It is estimated that about 280,000 Christians were exe- cuted in Japan, during this terrible and extended persecution. COALING AT NAGASAKT COAL MERCHANT DRAWING ONE AND A HALF TONS * NAGASAKI SIGHTS 159 After the expulsion of the Portuguese and Spanish mis- sionaries, only the Chinese and the Dutch were allowed to bring their trade,—the latter because they said they were not Catholics, which to the Japanese meant they were not Christians. From 1637 to 1859, this was the only Japanese port (and that only in this limited way), which was open to the world. The Suwa Park, which formerly was a part of the Suwa temple grounds, is on the side of a hill overlooking the city, and has a charming setting of camphor, pine, and cherry trees, including a rather notable banyan tree, which was planted by General and Mrs. Grant in 1879. The Suwa Shinto Temple, just adjacent to the Park, has a great bronze torii, thirty-three feet high at its entrance, a series of stairs leading to the temple at the top. The temple is attractive because of its environment rather than its intrinsic beauty. Early in October, there is a Suwa Temple Festival, with a spectacular parade of hosts of chil- dren, musicians and dancers, all in striking costumes, to- gether with floats and banners. ‘The so-called “Bronze Horse,” which is a conspicuous feature of this temple, is a ‘large but crude figure of a horse, which is placed in the temple courtyard. “There are some other Buddhist temples and monasteries of lesser importance among the surrounding hills. ‘There are also twelve Protestant churches and one Roman Catholic, together with five mission schools. The Japan Hotel for Europeans is reasonably com- fortable. An auto or rikisha ride to Mogi, a town about four miles across the Peninsula, makes an attractive inland trip, the roads being lined with cherry trees and monster bam- boos, and the coast nearby has specimens of fossil trees. Unzen, a popular summer resort for Europeans, is a jour- ney of several hours by rail, and an additional trip by motor. It is 2,400 feet above the sea and has numerous hot springs and a sanitarium, and makes an excellent winter resort. 160 PAPA, SHIMONOSEKI Shimonoseki is 376 miles from Kyoto, and is located at the extreme end of the Main (Hondo) Island. It has the double distinction of commanding the entrance to the Inland Sea, and being the port from which the Japanese steamers cross the Tsushima Straits, one hundred and twenty miles wide, to Fusan, the nearest port in Korea. ‘The ships, which are quite comfortable, connect with all through trains twice a day. The Sanyo Hotel, managed by the Imperial Government Railways is near the station and is modern and comfortable. There are no sights of more than passing interest. ‘The city has about 70,000 inhabitants, and is a flourishing shipping centre. Moji, a similar shipping and coaling port one and one-half miles across the Bay, is about the same size. In 1863, Shimonoseki was the scene of a miniature war, in that the Daimyo of the Province made a determined at- tempt to prevent all foreigners from landing in Japan, and emphasised his hostility by playing his coast guns on any foreign ship that came too near. Although American and French war-ships retaliated by inflicting much damage on the Daimyo’s gunboats and land batteries, he did not waver from his purpose. Finally, a fleet of English, American, French and Dutch ships to the number of seventeen, landed marines and stormed the batteries, and put an end to the guerilla naval warfare. As the Daimyo seemed unable to pay the indemnities demanded, the Shogun finally agreed to pay the Powers $3,000,000 in full settlement. ‘The United States received $785,000 as her share, which, however, she voluntarily returned in full to Japan in 1883. PRACTICAL Galvan Money. Japan has notes of one yen (equal to fifty cents), five yen, ten yen, etc., with gold pieces of five yen, ten yen, and twenty yen. ‘The silver pieces are one yen, fifty sen (there are a hundred sen in a yen), twenty sen, and ten : Perr Pe MENTARY FACTS ‘161 sen. In nickel there are ten sen, and five sen, also smaller coins in copper. ‘There are ten rin to a sen or 2,000 to an American dollar, but tourists rarely handle these, except as souvenirs. The yen on July 1, 1925, was worth 40.25 cents. Shopping. For full statement see page 142. Clothing. In February and March, the weather is still raw and cold, often even when the plum-blossoms are ap- pearing on the trees, and hence warm wraps are necessary, especially in auto and rikisha riding. At Nikko, it is even quite wintry, snow being evident on the mountain side near the town. In summer it is warm, and light clothing is needed. Expenses. ‘Travellers can tour Japan at an average ex- pense of about $15 a day, stopping at the best hotels. Passports and a Japanese visé are necessary. “Tobacco has a duty of 355 per cent., except on fifty cigars and one hundred cigarettes to each person. No merchandise is ad- mitted into Japan without duty, but personal baggage is not examined. All photographing is prohibited in certain zones, espe- cially in military or naval environments. Hotels. ‘There are comfortable, and in a few cases, luxurious hotels, that especially cater to foreigners. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES Japan claims that the Empire was founded 660 B.c., and that her present Emperor Joshihito (born in 1879) is the 122nd in line of an unbroken dynasty that has ruled since — the accession of the first Emperor Jimmu Tenno. ‘The crown is hereditary through the male members of the fam- ily, though in ancient times several emperors seem to have reigned in their own right. The word Mikado (meaning “Honourable Gate”) is used only by foreigners, his own sub- jects calling him Tenno (Son of Heaven). On November 25, 1921, owing to the mental infirmities of the Emperor, 162 JAPAN the Crown Prince Hirohito was constituted Regent. Japan has had its present constitution since 1889. The Emperor sovereignty is absolute, but he is assisted by cabinet ministers appointed by him and responsible to him. A Privy Council is purely advisory. The Emperor is em- powered to declare war and make peace, to regulate treaties, to sanction laws, to convoke the Imperial Diet and to open, close or dissolve the House of Representatives. The Imperial Diet consists of two bodies,—the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. Every law re- quires the approval of the Imperial Diet. The House of Peers has 370 members, including the male members of the Imperial family (sixteen in number), fourteen Princes, thirty-four Marquises, one-fifth of the orders of Counts and Viscounts, forty-five of the largest tax-payers (nominated by their own class) and a limited number of distinguished men appointed by the Emperor. The House of Representatives has 463 members, or one to every 120,610 of the population. By the new law of 1925, I1,000,000 males may vote. A general election oc- curs every four years for the Lower House, and every seven years for the Upper House. ‘The president of each House receives 7,500 yen annually, and members 3,000 yen each. The Prime Minister is Count Yamamoto. Japan is divided into seven Prefectures or Provinces, which are sub-divided into municipalities and townships. The 518 islands of Japan extend for about 2,100 miles with a width of 200 miles at the widest part, altogether having an area of 260,738 square miles if Korea and Formosa are included; only three of these islands are of considerable size, the main one, Hondo, being four-sevenths of the whole in area, or about the size of England and Scotland combined. Formosa was ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895; Sakhalin by the treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 and Korea was annexed in 1910. Japan is often called Nippon, the “Land of the Rising_ SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS 163 ”? Sun.” ‘The density of its population is 333 per square mile. The population (1920) is 55,963,054; Chosen (Korea), 17,264,119; Formosa (Taiwan), 3,654,398. During about fifty years, up to October, 1920, 581,421 Japanese had emigrated and of these, 202,360 went to Hawaii and the United States. In December, 1922, there were 25,799 for- eigners in Japan, of whom 16,979 were Chinese; 2,258 Eng- lish, and 2,187 Americans. Absolute religious freedom prevails. Shintoism has thir- teen sects, Buddhism twelve sects and fifty-six denominations. There is no state religion or state support. ‘There are 49,346 Shinto shrines and 14,759 priests; 71,681 Buddhist temples, with 50,250 priests and priestesses; 1,493 Protestant and Catholic churches with 2,566 ministers and priests. Elementary education is compulsory for boys and girls between the ages of six and fourteen. “There are 9,961,921 pupils (1920). ‘There are five government universities and eleven others. Tokyo University has 417 teachers and 5,233 students ; Kyoto University 191 teachers with 2,052 students. Eighty thousand pupils are training in 250 technical schools. The Government expends 44,000,000 yen annually in higher education. “The country has 1,359 libraries, and 3,123 periodicals are published. ‘There are four courts of various ranks. Juries are not employed and judgeships are obtained on examination. In 1921, Japan had 46,395 criminals in her prisons. The revenues (1924) were 1,376,172,969 yen, with the same amount for expenditures, while the public debt was 4,525,202,044 yen. Army service is universal and compulsory between the ages of seventeen and forty, the war strength being 700,000 men, and about 250,000 men on a peace footing. War ex- penditures (1924) were 178,149,000 yen. The Navy (1924) has ten dreadnoughts, eight armoured cruisers, twenty-one light cruisers, one hundred and twenty-five de- stroyers, nineteen torpedo boats, and eighty-four submarines. The displacement of the dreadnoughts varies from 27,500 164 JAPAN tons to 33,800 tons each. ‘The naval budget was 272,629,- 082 yen. Imports (1923) were 1,890,308,202 and exports 1,637,- 451,818 yen. ‘Total exports to America (1921) amounted to 732,376,607, and imports from America to 596,169,490 yen. ‘The total value of exported raw silk was 418,080,000 yen. Ships entering (1923) numbered 13,625. ‘There are 6,728 miles of state railroads and 2,150 of private railroads. In 1880, there were only seventy-three miles of railway in all Japan, the first line having been opened in 1872 between Yokohama and Tokyo. ‘Telegraphic communication began in 1867, causing much disquietude among ignorant people, who believed it to be a demoniacal thing. Japan has in her merchant marine 6,094 steamers, and 45,970 sailing ves- sels. She has 8,280 post offices, two-thirds of the employés being women. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Japanese Civilization, K. Satomi. ’24, Dutton. Japan, H. H. Powers. ’23, Macmillan. Creative Forces in Japan, G. M. Fisher. ’23, Missionary Education Movement. In Lotus Land Japan, H. G. Pointing. ’22, Dutton. Japanese Impressions, P. A. Couchoud. ’21, Lane. Making of Modern Japan, J. H. Gubbins. ’22, Lippincott. Mysterious Japan, J. L. Street. °21, Doubleday. W hat Shall I Think of Japan, G. Gleason. ’21, Macmillan. Foundations of Japan, J. W. Robertson Scott. ’22, Appleton. What Japan Wants, F. S. Kuno. ’21, Crowell. New Japanese Peril, S. Osborne. ’21, Macmillan. Sea Power in the Pacific, H. C. Bywater. ’21, Houghton. China, Japan and Korea, J. O. P. Bland. ’21, Scribner. Japan, Real and Imaginary, S. Greenbie. ’20, Harper. Letters from China and Japan, J. Dewey. ’20, Putnam. Modern Japan, W. M. Govern. ’20, Scribner. Japanese Impressions, P. L. Couchard. ’22, Dodd. Japan and the United States, P. J. Treat. ’21, Houghton. KOREA THE JAPANESE ADMINISTRATION “The Land of the Morning Calm” OREA, which the Japanese call “Chosen,” is a little larger than the State of Kansas, comprising one- third of all the land area of the Japanese Empire, and has a population of 18,313,800 (1923). It is essentially mountainous, and is rich in both anthracite and bituminous coal, as well as iron, gold and all the metals. It has a fine climate, unusual agricultural opportunities, abundant rainfall and exceptional fisheries. All these are now being rapidly developed by Japan. Japanese Efficiency. Under the Japanese, the Chosen railway system of 1,500 miles is one of the best equipped and managed railroads in Asia. Comfortable Japanese -steamers also ply between Shimonoseki in Japan, to Fusan in Korea, from which point the railroad crosses Korea to Antong, passing through Seoul. The railroads now connect Korea with Europe, via Mukden and the Trans-Siberian Railway, as well as with all the important centres of China, such as Peking, Shanghai and Canton, thus giving Japan opportunity to get her raw materials and to supply the market of China and Northern Asia. Japan has established seventy-four agricultural centres, eight commercial and four technical schools, in all of which the Japanese language is used. It has also organised rural banks, the number of Korean depositors having multiplied several times. Korea, under Japanese control, has made a greater advance in industrial methods within the last decade than any other country in Asia. In its work of re-forestration, it has pianted half a billion 165 166 KORE AS trees in areas which the Koreans previously had denuded. It has doubled Korea’s foreign trade; doubled the railway mileage; made Seoul one of the best paved and modernised cities in the Far East; has trebled the fruit trees; multiplied the cotton crop by fifty; established sanitary and hygienic conditions, and introduced a system of schools. This would have been impossible under Chinese or Korean rule. Certainly. the average traveller would say that Japan had made a great success of her colonising, and that the only grievance which the Koreans have is their “‘loss of liberty,” when in reality they never had any. Japanese Oppression. With this pleasant picture of Japan’s successful colonisation comes the darker one in con- nection with the ruthless methods of her administration. The Japanese have apparently sought to gain their ends by denationalising the Koreans and destroying their language, literature, customs and individual rights. ‘This has given rise to a world scandal concerning Japan’s injustice and brutality, from which her reputation has not yet recovered. From a hundred sources has come the tragic indictment of the savage repression and the brutal methods of the Japanese Government in Korea. Such a book, for instance, as “Korea’s Fight for Free- dom,” by F. A. McKenzie, draws a very unhappy picture of the inhuman treatment of thousands of untried prisoners made in wholesale arrests on political charges; the floggings of women and children; the practical suppression of the Korean press in the native language, and the denial of public assembly; the enforcing of the Japanese language in all schools and business enterprises; the forbidding of the teach- ing of Korean history; as well as the burning of villages accompanied by the slaughter of innocent men, women and children. Religious teaching was almost interdicted, and even the singing of such hymns as “Onward, Christian Soldiers,” was forbidden. Since their occupation the Japanese have so managed the reorganisation of land laws, and have hedged the Koreans Peeve SE CONTROL 167 about with so many restrictions in connection with their property, that most of the wealth of Korea is rapidly pass- ing into Japanese hands. ‘The economic status of the Koreans is worse than before the Japanese occupation, and as a consequence more than a million and a half of them have emigrated to China and Siberia. About eight million out of ten million yen in the Postal Savings Bank belong to the Japanese, and apparently there is little ahead for Koreans except economic exploitation unless there might possibly be a change of Japanese policy, or perhaps the almost unthink- able outcome of a successful rebellion. Japan has begun to recognise that her cruelties and tyran- nical methods have been a woeful blunder and has given assurance of reform in the Imperial Rescript of August 20, 1919, although the Koreans and many foreigners doubt its sincerity. The fact that Japan has tremendously improved general conditions does not answer, from the Korean point of view, the charge that Japan is still ruling with an iron hand, and forcing her methods upon an unreconciled people. Beneath the passive resistance of the Koreans, there seems to be a ' quiet determination to bring about a new era of independ- ence, although to the average observer the prospect appears hopeless. The story of the Japanese annexation of Korea is an interesting one. Lest there should be a too sweeping criti- cism of Japan’s seizure of Korea, it should be remembered, as a matter of justice to Japan, that the Treaty of Ports- mouth, in August, 1905, recognised Japan’s “paramount political, military and economic interest” in Korea. Imme- diately thereafter Japan proclaimed a protectorate over Korea and the King and his ministers were forced to sign away the independence of the Korean nation. In 1908 the Emperor Yi, having secretly sought interven- tion at The Hague, temporarily handed over the throne to his half-witted son, Yi Kon, called “his Imperial Highness Prince Kon.” Then followed a series of retaliations and 168 KOREA assassinations by the Koreans, including among the victims the Japanese Governor, Prince Ito, Korea’s best friend. A little later Japan formally annexed Korea. ‘There is no doubt but that Japan regards this annexation as a political necessity in view of Russia’s former aggressive designs upon Korea, which, if successful, would have threatened the very existence of Japan. ‘The Japanese think the Koreans weak, deceitful and despicable, but there is really much spiritual understanding among them. ‘They have moral courage and an unswerving devotion to a great religious or patriotic ideal. ‘The very meekness of the Koreans is really their moral strength. They have been brought up on the idea of a monotheistic religion, and the work of the Christian missionaries has on that account been much more easy and rapid. Missionary work began among them only about forty years ago, but there are now nearly five hundred foreign missionaries, three- fourths of whom are Americans, and more than 100,000 Protestant Church members, with a rapidly growing con- stituency. ‘These missionaries are really the educators, physi- cians, and even the agricultural experts of Korea, and it must be said that while the provocation to denounce Japan in her brutal methods must have been almost irresistible, the missionaries have remained neutral in all political matters. THE)» PEOPiaE The dress of Korean men seems extremely grotesque, and at first glance suggests the queer make-up of a travelling circus clown. ‘They wear a long white “Mother Hubbard” robe, tied by strings under the arms, and at times a blue ribbon about their ankles and waist, and their hair is put up in queer top-knots, which is a sign of legal manhood. ‘They usually have very long, thin whiskers, great horn-rimmed goggles, small transparent “plug” hats, perched on top of their heads and tied under the chin, which in wet weather look even more ridiculous by being covered with a conical oiled paper protection. White baggy trousers tied around KOREAN PEOPLE 169 their ankles and over-large shoes help to complete their opera-bouffe costume. “The men in mourning for a father or near male relative wear for three years an immense straw hat shaped like a toadstool, but there is no symbol of mourn- ing for a mother or female relative. They smoke tobacco with a pipe having a stem a yard long and a bowl the size of a thimble. The men pay little attention to their wives, and spend their evenings at theatres and “‘sing-song’”’ houses. The Kisang girls and other women of low degree have been recognised by law under the Japanese Government, and are segregated, as in Japan. The women are short, fat, and coarse-haired, wearing fantastic white balloon cotton skirts, with very short jackets which frequently leave their bosoms entirely nude, although the missionaries and the Japanese authorities are trying to modify this custom. ‘The better classes wear silk of the most diverse colours. Koreans warm their homes by fires built under the house, giving an evenly warmed floor on which they sit. The women use open public wash houses and cold water for their laundry work. Long white padded coats worn by the men are ripped apart to be ee and are sewed together again after laundering. It is rather appealing to see this white-robed race of passive resistants, wending their way in silence and sadness, refusing to be assimilated, and conscious of a growing spirit of nationalisation. “They seem ambitionless and dejected, but there is an underlying steadfastness which must be taken into account. In the old days of the monarchy, many thou- sands sat night and day immovable for fourteen days when their rights were invaded. It seems to be a case of Ireland over again except that the Koreans are passive rather than belligerent, with the women even more intensely patriotic than the men. ‘The Koreans are almond-eyed, with rather marked negroid features, having an unusually good mentality, some foreign residents claiming that it is equal to that of the Japanese. 170 KOREA Their condition of servitude and suppression, however, both under the previous Korean monarchy and under the new Japanese rule, has produced a sloth and servility that are hard to overcome. ‘The lower orders are prone to drink, gambling and debauchery, and they are satisfied to live under conditions of indescribable filth, so that it is difficult for foreigners even to enter their wretched huts. But it should be remembered that there are growing num- bers of students in the schools and colleges, largely under Christian auspices, who are very apt and studious, being specially proficient in mathematics, and who are setting standards of morality and idealism that augur hopefully for the future, SEOUL Seoul, now named “Keijo” by the Japanese, is in a valley enclosed by conical hills and surrounded by a ruined wall built six centuries ago, overgrown with vegetation, and so imposing that it suggests the great Wall of China. The wall is fourteen miles in circumference and from twenty- five to forty feet high and has eight gates. Seoul is the very “‘soul’”’ of Korea and is a progressive city with a population of 271,414 (1923), of whom 73,344 are Japanese. ‘There are several decayed but picturesque pal- aces, an excellent museum, the usual zoological and botanical gardens, some government buildings, and one of the finest hotels in Asia. It has wide streets lined with small tinsel- like shops. ‘The Chon-No, or “Big Bell” street, going from the east gate to the west, divides the city. “This street is so named because a large bell, ten feet high, hanging in a handsome kiosk, is located there. “The booming of the bell can be heard over the city, and for five hundred years it sounded the signal for the closing of the city gates. The deserted garden, rank with weeds, at the back of the North Palace, is the spot where in 1895 the Korean Queen was assassinated at the instigation of Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister in Korea, although the Japanese Govern- SEOUL SIGHTS 171 ment claims that the crime was committed without its authority. The North Palace (a permit from the traveller’s con- sulate may be necessary for inspection), consisting of a num- ber of structures with much intricate carving, is now un- occupied and is rapidly decaying. In a fine Lotus Pond is a large Summer Pavilion, the roof of which is supported by eight rows of granite columns, the general effect being that of a floating pavilion. In the palace is a large Audience Hall which is unroofed and untenanted. ‘Lhere is also a commodious Throne Room with high ceilings and with gorgeous multi-coloured decora- tions, in the centre of which is a throne cushioned in im- perial yellow. The East Palace, which is quite apart from the North Palace, was the residence of the King and Queen. Its vacant throne room and wretched furnishings hardly suggest royalty. It is surrounded by a wall with an entrance through an Oriental gate. The former Emperor, Yi Kon, called Prince Yi after his retirement, has recently died, but his son, Prince Heir, the last of the royal line, receives a certain official recognition, in view of his having been the Crown Prince. He was made a lieutenant in the Japanese army, with a large income as- sured, and has just married a Japanese princess. Of course Japan arranged that he should be educated there,—in fact, no Korean students have been allowed to go to any foreign country except Japan to be educated. The South Ward under the slopes of the South Mountain is the “slum” of Korea, where degradation and starvation rule unhampered. The Legation Quarter is in one of the suburbs where the European residences are framed in ornamental gardens. A Fine View of the City may be had from Cock’s Comb, a commanding hill-top which can be reached by conveyance. Here a fine new Shinto temple has been constructed. Shopping. Brass articles, candlesticks, teapots, rosewood 172 KOREA chests and unique furniture and exceptionally fine cloudy amber are among the purchases having local characteristics. The Koreans have little of the artistic sense of the Japan- ese. Curiously wrought silver and gold articles, silver finger rings with symbols engraved representing good luck, long life, etc.; Korean brass candlesticks, teapots, finger bowls, fans of Korean translucent vellum paper extremely durable, are decidedly characteristic. Prince Yi’s Museum of Fine Arts has all sorts of jewellery, curios and useful articles for sale. The Chosen Hotel is one of the finest in the Far East, and is conducted by the Chosen (Korean) Railway Com- pany. It will compare favourably, both in cuisine and serv- ice, with our best American hotels, there being private baths having hot and cold water in connection with every sleeping room. Railways. It is 274 miles from Fusan to Seoul in excel- lent trains, with comfortable sleeper compartments and ex- cellent dining car meals. ‘There are no important places except Seoul, but the primitive, even the degraded life of the natives in the villages and hamlets, has a characteristic interest. It is 309 miles to Antung (Shingishu) where the railway crosses the swift Yalu river over to Manchurian territory. Sanitation. Purely native dishes should not be eaten nor water or milk be drunk unless it has been boiled. ‘The Japanese hotels, however, use every precaution. ‘Hot dog’ is to be taken literally as dog meat is a staple. The Korean language is akin to the Japanese, both being of Turanean origin. ‘The Korean literature is limited in quantity and on the whole of inferior quality. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Americans in Eastern Asia, T. Dennett. ’22, Macmillan. Case of Korea, H. Chung. ’21, Revell. Official Guide to Eastern Asia. °16, Putnam. CHINA “The Rip Van Winkle among the nations” foe tomy AND GOVERNMENT HINA has five major divisions: Manchuria in the C Northeast, Mongolia in the North, Sinkiang in the West, Tibet in the Southwest, and China Proper in the Southeast. “The new Chinese Republic flag has five stripes, red, yellow, blue, white, black, to signify the five great Chinese races: Mongol, Manchu, Turki, Tibetan and Chinese. ‘There is little cohesion among these people, as they differ in origin, language, characteristics and re- ligion. The three outlying districts, Mongolia, Sinkiang, and Tibet, have a combined area of 2,500,000 square miles, or two-thirds of the entire area of the Republic, but have only seven per cent. of the population. Manchuria is very sparsely populated, although rich in resources, and seems to have unlimited room for colonial expansion. Japan, how- ever, which controls Manchuria, and claims to be in des- perate need of an outlet for her surplus population, sends less than one-hundredth of the immigrants there that China does. China proper has eighteen provinces. Although it only has one-third of the area of the Greater China, it has nine- tenths of the population. The Manchus have been the rulers of China for nearly three centuries. “They were invited at the beginning of the sixteenth century to help the Ming Emperor put down a local rebellion, after which they remained and in 1644 seized the throne. ‘They compelled the Chinese, whom they re- : 173 174 CRT Na garded as their inferiors, to have the front of the head shaved and wear a queue as a sign of submission. But with the coming of modern influences, the Manchus, who slowly had been degenerating, proved themselves un- equal to the new conditions. The last emperor, Kuang-hsi, who was emperor only in name and rather feeble-minded, died in 1908, on the same day as the notorious but masterful Empress Dowager, popularly known as “Old Buddha,” who kept him a prisoner and who timed his death with hers. Prince Chun, as Regent for the Boy Emperor who suc- ceeded him, helped to hasten the inevitable. A Republic was proclaimed late in 1911, with Dr. Sun Yat-sen as Pro- visional President. For the sake of harmony he resigned the following February and was succeeded by Yuan Shih- kai. Yuan Shih-kai had a powerful personality, but was over-ambitious and treacherous, and China soon found her- self in troubled waters. A Senate, the members of which were to serve six years, and a House of Representatives, whose members were to serve three years, were elected under the new Constitution. In the Spring of 1913 these representatives met in Peking in the most formal and dignified manner, mostly wearing silk hats and frock coats. Yuan Shih-kai, however, soon began to override the Parliament and when he met with protest, he denounced the members of the People’s Party as rebels and ordered them to resign. As they constituted the majority in the Parliament, it ceased to function, and Yuan Shih-kai was left in complete autocratic possession. Dr. Sun Yat-sen and his followers withdrew to Canton, and they have since concentrated their efforts upon trying to restore the Chinese Republic to its former status. ‘Their activities, however, have necessarily been confined to the region south of the Yangtze River. Since that time there has been an intermittent civil war between the North and the South. Yuan Shih-kai appointed the Tuchuns as his military Peete IVGI AIS TORY 175 leaders in the various provinces, arming them with dicta- torial powers. ‘The remnant of Parliament was dissolved, and an Assembly supposed to be elected by popular vote, and a Council of State appointed by himself, were to constitute the new Government. ‘The Assembly was never elected, and even the Council was short-lived, and Yuan became the absolute dictator of China’s destiny. Even as President he was a despot. He hated Christians and held fast to his native superstitions. He had enough children by his various wives to fill most of the government offices, and made many millions of taels by ‘‘squeeze.”’ During his entire administration Yuan was fostering a movement to restore the monarchy with himself as Emperor, and on December 12, 1915, the monarchy was announced and Yuan had a special crown and signet ring prepared and was to have been crowned on the following February. But the astute Yuan found that he had overreached himself. South China revolted, his own army deserted to the rebels; even the people of the North resented his presumption, and as a result the monarchy was abandoned. In June, 1916, Yuan Shih-kai died, perhaps largely from “‘loss of face.” At the time of his funeral procession great hampers of slips of paper, punctured with holes, were scattered as money for evil spirits, the superstitious belief being that they had to pass through every hole before getting possession of his soul. His death seemed to augur well for a reunion of the North and South factions, and an effort was made to restore the single Parliament at Peking. Friction, however, soon arose and plots and counterplots raged furiously. One of these put the former boy-Emperor on the throne, but this régime lasted only a week. Tsao Kun and his subordinate, Marshal Wu Pei-fu, join- ing forces with Marshal Chang Tso-lin, together forced the leaders of the Anfu Party, which was under the domination of Japan, to take refuge with the Japanese Legation. ‘Then 176 CHINA friction arose between T’sao Kun and Chang ‘Tso-lin and Chang was forced to withdraw his army beyond the Great Wall. ‘The President, Li Yuan-lung, was compelled to resign and there was no President of China in 1923 from the middle of June to early October, when Tsao Kun was elected to that office, largely through colossal briberies. Hostilities also began between the North and the South, but continued only in a sporadic way. In reality it has been a struggle for place and pelf, both in the North and South,— a sordid mercenary struggle, with little suggestion of pa- triotism and solicitude for the public welfare. The Tuchuns. Each ‘Tuchun or Governor, of the eighteen provinces, while in name responsible to Peking, is an autocrat within the bounds of his own province, raising his own revenues, and disposing of them with but little regard for the wishes or best interests of Peking. Each maintains his own army, although about ten per cent. of its cost in each case is paid by the Peking Government. Chang Tso-lin, once a bandit but now the Tuchun of Mukden, has a personal army of 200,000 men. ‘The fact is, that most of these “ITuchuns are ready to espouse the cause of the highest bidder, and as they have aggregate forces of over a million men, they hold the balance of power. ‘The great and burning problem in China is how to con- trol the rapacity and arrogance of the Tuchuns and make them amenable to the Government at Peking. Foreign Jurisdiction. While China is in name an in- dependent Republic, large parts of her territory are occupied by foreign Powers, and the Chinese Government, as a whole, is under the dictation of these Powers in such matters as tariff, revenues, foreign loans and jurisdiction over for- eigners. The Portuguese have Macao; Great Britain holds Hong-Kong; Russia occupies the Chinese territory north of the Amur River; France controls Indo-China; and Japan has taken over Formosa, the Liaotung Peninsula and Man- churia. In 1904, Great Britain, represented by Colonel Sir Francis Younghusband, also seized ‘Tibet, and secured RECENT. HISTORY 17 practical governmental control, although ‘Tibet is. still nominally entitled to five representatives in the Chinese Parliament. China cannot, as matters now stand, change her tariff on any single article of commerce without the consent of thir- teen nations. As a result, she has only a nominal tariff of five per cent., ad valorem, a duty on salt, and receipts from post offices, which are proving entirely inadequate to her needs. The International Conference has, however, con- sented to an additional two and a half per cent. increase in the Chinese customs duties. Owing to the greed of the Tuchuns of the various prov- inces, only a negligible proportion of the taxes raised reaches Peking, and sometimes these Tuchuns, although rolling in ill-gotten gains, make insistent inroads on the Peking treas- ury, which Peking dares not refuse. In 1899 the United States, represented by Secretary of State John Hay, announced the policy of the “Open Door,” which stayed the tide that would inevitably have resulted in the swallowing up of the whole of China. Great Britain, and later the other Powers, accepted this policy, though somewhat reluctantly. | The relation of the United States to China has consist- ently been of an altruistic character, and she has steadily striven to sustain China’s sovereignty and integrity. Li Hung-chang, after the Boxer Rebellion, used these words: “T tremble to think what might have been China’s fate but for the stand taken by the American Government.” The Boxer Rebellion. ‘These inroads on Chinese ter- ritory finally created a widespread resentment that resulted in the Boxer Movement, during which many hundreds of foreigners, including traders and missionaries,—a few of them Americans, were murdered. ‘The story of how Europeans in Peking were besieged in the legations until rescued by the Allied Relief Expedition is a thrilling one. Immense reparations amounting to $333,000,000, as well 178 CHINA as humiliating restrictions, were forced upon China as 4 re- sult. The United States was the only power that refused to accept the indemnity assigned as her share, which was $25,000,000. The United States arranged with China to use this fund for college education in China and America. The Tsing Hua College (known also as the Indemnity College) was established in 1909 seven miles from Peking, and 460 boys were enrolled. In the first eleven years, 656 students were sent to America. “They have five fine build- ings including a ‘‘Roosevelt’’ gymnasium. ‘This college is one of the proofs of America’s just and altruistic attitude toward China. In May, 1924, Congress remitted the balance of the in- demnity of $13,655,473, and a Board of Trustees was ap- pointed, composed equally of Americans and Chinese, to administer it in the interests of higher education. Although this magnanimous action has not dispelled the hostility of the Chinese, as expressed in strikes and riots against foreigners in the early summer of 1925, Americans all over China have been treated with unusual consideration, JAPAN’S RELATION POs tia Japan in its relation to China has been moved by the fol- lowing four principles and purposes: economic exploitation, territorial expansion, political control and her domination of an Asiatic Monroe Doctrine. In relation to China, Japan proposed ‘‘a Defensive Alli- ance wherein Japan will assume the responsibility of safe- guarding China’s territory and maintaining the peace and order of China. China will absolutely have nothing to fear in the future of having pressure brought against her by the Foreign Powers. It is only thus that permanent peace can be secured in the Far East.” Viscount Ishii at that time was quoted as saying, “Japan could not regard with equanimity the organisation of an efficient Chinese army, nor could Japan fail to regard with CHINA AND JAPAN 179 uneasiness a liberation of the economic activities of a nation of 400,000,000 people.” The Twenty-one Demands. Considering the opportu- nity afforded by the World War, Japan, on January 18, 1915, because such an opportunity “would not occur again for hundreds of years to come” presented the famous, or rather infamous, TI‘wenty-one Demands. ‘These Demands had been made an issue in the general election held in Japan a short time before, in which the vote overwhelmingly sup- ported Count Okuma, who was their sponsor. Among them was Group V, which Japan afterwards withdrew because of the stubborn resistance by China, and because of the strong opposition of the World Powers. Japan, however, had declared solemnly to the Powers be- fore her ‘I'wenty-one Demands were published, that she had only eleven instead of twenty-one, and when they were first presented to the Powers she entirely omitted the fifth group, long before she withdrew them because of the opposition of the Powers and the protest of the Chinese. The first article of Group V reads: ‘“The Chinese Gov- ernment shall employ influential Japanese as overseers in political, financial and military affairs.” In short, it was a seizure of the reins of political and financial power. In withdrawing Group V, Japan distinctly stated that she did not give up her policy of political control, but merely agreed that this Group should be postponed for “later negotia- tions.” ‘These I'wenty-one Points constituted the most outrageous and sinister demands ever made on a helpless country. “They proved, however, to be a boomerang, in that they alienated China, produced a boycott against Japanese commerce among the Chinese several years later, and at the same time lost the confidence of the world in Japan’s honourable inten- tions. ‘These Demands, had they been accepted as originally phrased, would have established a Japanese Protectorate over China. As a result, mass meetings of protest were held in all 180 CHINA parts of China. Japan finally agreed to withdraw the fifth Group of Demands, but Peking remained obdurate, and on May 7, 1915, Japan announced an ultimatum. Peking, having vainly waited for help from the Allied Powers, was obliged to yield. The unfortunate Lansing-Ishii Agree- ment of November 15, 1917, did not help the cause of pros- trate China, but this was repudiated by Secretary of State Hughes early in 1921, when he insisted on restoring the “Open Door” policy and thus won back the alienated friend- ship of China. Japan Modifies Her Purpose. With the return of the Powers to the Far East stage of action at the close of the War, and the forming of the new International Banking Consortium, the efforts of Japan to strengthen her hold on China were largely neutralised. It is possible that Japan is realising her untenable posi- tion. The Versailles Treaty gave Shantung to Japan, largely through the desire of President Wilson to win Japan’s support of his proposed League of Nations. China at this Treaty conference, represented by the Young China leaders, resisted this to the last, as naturally they saw no reason why they should lose a valuable province as a back- handed payment for joining the Allies. ‘The Senate of the United States also refused to ratify the Treaty. Japan later at the Washington Conference finally gave way and agreed to withdraw from Shantung entirely within five years, even giving up the control of the Shantung railway which was bought back by China. There can be no fair criticism, however, of Japan’s policy of the commercial exploitation of China. All the Powers are interested in its commercial development, and Japan sorely needs the iron, coal and steel which China can fur- nish her to their mutual advantage. Since the fiasco of the “Twenty-one Demands and the losses in commerce due to the widespread boycott against Japanese goods, Japan has sought to be conciliatory, as yet with only negligible success. It must not be assumed, how- Senet tN DI JAPAN 181 ever, that the anti-foreign uprisings in China will not be used by Japan in making an appeal to unite the forces of the yellow race against the white, Japan agreeing fully to recognise China’s automony. Is Japan Superior to China? Japan fails to realise that the Chinese, disorganised and undeveloped as they seem to be, are the equal of the Japanese in intellectual and moral calibre and are superior to them in physical power, as well as far surpassing them in industry and in adaptation to commerce. Under these circumstances it would seem utter folly to imagine that Japan could subjugate a population of this kind six times larger than her own, and that they would submit, as the Koreans have, to her sovereign control. It is practically a certainty that China will become a great nation within the next four or five decades, and her attitude towards Japan and the Western Powers, when she finds herself, will depend on their attitude toward her in her present helplessness and lack of organisation. Unless Japan disavows her purpose to dominate China, there will come a day of reckoning that forebodes disaster. The question fifty years from now will not be whether Ja- pan will control China, but whether China will absorb Japan. Sir Robert Hart, who was financial adviser to the Chi- nese Government for nearly half a century, said in 1900, “In fifty years’ time there will be millions in serried ranks and war’s panoply to answer the call of the Chinese Gov- ernment.” ‘This would indicate his belief that China would rapidly become unified and have a formidable war organisa- tion to maintain her national rights. PN Se erie China at present is in a worse condition than at any time since the Republic was inaugurated. She is politically and financially bankrupt. China, in order to get the Powers to 182 CHINA relinquish territories, or give whole-hearted co-operation, must unite the North and the South, must establish a stable Government, must shake off the strangle-hold of the Tuchuns, must reorganise her finances and pay her debts, and must rise above the inefficiency and graft with which her gov- ernment is now honeycombed. The Powers were committed by the Washington Con- ference to “maintain the sovereignty, independence and the commercial and economic integrity of China” and help her in developing her resources. Yet conditions have never been so threatening as now. Here is an industrious population, here are fabulous resources among the richest in the world, here are racial abilities of a high order, and yet a state of anarchy exists that threatens not only the integrity of China, but the peace of the world. The main difficulty is that China scrapped the monarchy, and with it all the national administrative machinery, and suddenly changed her Government without any preparedness whatever. At best it will take decades for so large a coun- try to be prepared for democratic institutions that will make for national stability. China is beginning to see that a real democracy requires widespread education, and this means a simplifying of the written language and the printing of publications in a single vernacular understood by all. She needs a new culture movement, as well as a new social structure of marriage and the family. She needs above all a new ethical conception of Government as being a sacred trust. ‘The intelligentsia are seeking to bring about such improved conditions, and the Students’ Movement and the Christian missionaries are giv- ing a tremendous impetus in this direction. Whether the Republic will be permanent is an open ques- tion. At present the government at Peking is merely a sham. It continues to be the foot ball of selfish and con- tending Tuchuns. Many people believe that China will gravitate back to a monarchy, the nation’s mental habit of 4,000 years asserting itself. In that case it is possible that NOTABLE MEN 183 the former Boy Emperor may again be called to assume the purple. ‘The recent internal upheavals can be expressed in a few words. ‘The two great war lords, Chang T’so-lin and Wu-Pai-fu, have been at sword’s point for several years. Late in 1924, Feng-Yu-hsiang, the “Christian general’? who had been associated with Wu-Pai-fu, suddenly deserted him, on the basis that Chang would give him a free hand at Peking. He suddenly descended upon Peking, captured the city, banished the young emperor, and undertook to re- organise the Republic. But after Wu was overwhelmed, Chang marched upon the city, assumed control, and made Tuan Chi-jui provisional President, Feng in the meantime withdrawing but holding all adjacent territories. There is now a possibility (July, 1925) of a civil war between Feng and the forceful but unscrupulous Chang. Feng has about 175,000 men, well organised but somewhat lacking in munitions, and is said to be backed by the Russian Soviet. Chang has about 200,000 men well equipped and is supported by Japan. It is reported that Wu is apt to take sides with his former subordinate Feng, who proved insubordinate. Feng is in possession of the Northeast section of China (Chang holding Manchuria and the Northwest). He has restored law and order in his entire district, suppressed banditry, collected taxes equably, and wiped out the opium evils. ‘There is no doubt at all that he is intent on unifying China under an administration of reform and justice, and will co-operate with men only so far as he thinks they are working to that end. How far he will seek to co-operate with foreigners, remains to be seen. Feng became a Christian under the teaching of John R. Mott in 1912 at Peking, and in 1922 he proclaimed Chris- tianity as the State religion of the province of Honan, and has enforced its principles with an iron hand. He estab- lished night schools and industrial schools, including some for women where weaving, dressmaking, tailoring, domestic science and other practical branches are taught. ‘Theatres 184 CHINA are closed, liquor and opium forbidden, and the wearing of silk is discouraged as a useless extravagance. He carries a big, worn Bible, of which he is a constant student, and he himself conducts regular Bible classes among his officers and provides religious instruction for his troops. His five main articles of life are religion, work, education, discipline and cleanliness. He is a man over six feet tall, very mas- terful, and maintains a high standard of order and discipline. Sun Yat-sen, who died in May, 1925, was regarded as an idealist, but was much more of an egotist and adventurer. Nevertheless, he was a commanding figure, and if he had lived, he might have gained supreme control. He was hand-in-glove with the Russian Soviet. ‘There is almost no doubt that he would have sought to present an ulti- matum to the Powers abrogating all extra-territorial treaties, and taken steps to banish all foreigners. BRIGANDAGE The brigands at Lincheng in Shantung, in May, 1923, captured and held for ransom thirty foreigners, twelve of them Americans. Fortunately they were all released with- out having suffered personal injury. ‘The Powers have made a three-fold demand upon the Government of China,—first, damages; second, future security; and third, the dismissal of all responsible officials. “The Chinese reply states that the Military Governor of Shantung and other responsible officials have been dismissed, and that all the provincial au- thorities have been notified to redouble their vigilance. In February, 1925, the Peking Government paid $300,000 (Chinese) as a full settlement of claims, the American vic- tims receiving $144,000. Of course such things happen in almost every country, and too much emphasis should not be laid upon this episode. Probably travel in China will be all the safer because of the warning which the Chinese Government has had. The Shantung brigand episode is due to the fact that the rer rOAL CORRUPTION 185 Mandarin control has ceased and the awe of foreigners has gone, and this, together with the fact that these bands of brigands, who are largely deserters from the Chinese army, had become reckless and desperate, because they had not had their wages paid for months together, is respon- sible. GENERAL PARALYSIS The political disorder is reflected in a breaking down of the industrial and economic life. amines in districts have recently prevailed with almost no government relief. The construction and improvement of railroads are in abeyance, and transportation and irrigation are partially paralysed. Factories and mines in some cases have been commandeered by impecunious generals. The Government has no capital with which to develop industries or to build railroads, and foreign capital, in view of the government collapse, is too timid, outside of the ter- ritory of the few foreign concessions, to enter the field. Schools are in a deplorable condition, with insufficient and ‘unpaid teachers. ‘The mission schools and institutions, to- gether with a few government colleges, are the only ones functioning normally. “The moral life of the people is visibly deteriorating and even great centres like Shang- hai are abandoning the moral conservatism of the past and rushing headlong into the grossest materialism and licence. Official corruption or ‘“‘squeeze” which is on so colossal a scale, has been the rule through many centuries. Political graft is due to the Chinese standard of ethics, which lays stress on a man’s duty to his immediate family and appar- ently has no concern for the public at large. ‘This is a strange “Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde” dualism, in view of the fact that personal honesty and trustworthiness are a marked feature of the life of individual Chinese. “The Chinese mer- (a9 chants need only a “yes” or ‘“‘no” for large business transac- 186 CHINA tions, a little slip of paper commonly answering for a legal deed in the transfer of property. The degeneracy of the Chinese Government has been well illustrated by the fact that on October 5, 1923, Mar- shal Tsao Kun, the northern military chief, was elected President of China by a Parliamentary majority of fifty more votes than the Constitutional number requires. It is an open secret that most of these votes were purchased on the basis of a payment of five thousand dollars (Mex.) to a majority of the 480 senators and members of Parliament who voted favourably to elect him. Such wholesale bribery, even for China, furnishes a weapon for the enemies of the newly elected President, which will tend to continue the strife among Chinese political factions. The strikes which had their beginnings at Shanghai in May have spread all over China, and the situation is fraught with danger and disaster. At one time nearly 250,000 la- bourers were on strike in Shanghai. The strikes originally broke out in the Japanese-owned mills employing 40,000 workers, eighty per cent. of whom are women and children. ‘There is no question that there was no regard for the workers in the way of sanitation and the safeguarding of the rights of employés. Of the forty- nine cotton mills in Shanghai, twenty were owned outright by the Japanese and they dominated many of the others. Only four are British. The Soviet influence has become strong all over China and it has capitalised the discontent and unrest in creating hatred of foreigners. “The constructive influences of the Washington Conference were, unfortunately, largely thwarted because France refused to sign the Nine Power ‘Treaty, which was to rehabilitate China. There has been a growing national consciousness under the leadership of students, expressing itself in anti-foreign riots especially directed against Great Britain, Americans apparently escaping most of the ill-will. There is a wide- THE CONSORTIUM 187 spread desire to unite the antagonistic armies of China in presenting a solid front against the Powers and driving all foreigners out of the country. CONSERVING FORCES One of the conserving forces toward Chinese unity is the present national resentment toward Japan, which found ex- pression in the boycott of 1919, and still widely manifests itself. Transportation, postal and telegraphic systems, steamboats, the new education, a tendency toward a uniform Mandarin language, together with a new development in industrialism, are also beginning to awaken China. After all, China has survived through the thousands of years under much the same conditions, and has actually “Chinafied” its conquerors. Fundamentally, the Chinese have moral ideals, based on Confucianism and the precepts of Christianity recently introduced. ‘The Chinese will listen to an appeal to reason and justice, and their qualities of industry, thrift, trade capacity and adaptation to new con- ditions will be a saving factor. The Banking Consortium is perhaps the most hopeful of the conserving forces. It had its rise in June, 1918, when the State Department at Washington called together representatives of the six greatest banking corporations in the United States. ‘This led to the inviting of Great Britain, France and Japan to join the Consortium. Representatives of these countries met in New York City in October, 1920, at which time the desire of Belgium and China to be in- cluded was favourably considered. The Consortium means harmonious co-operation of the great Powers in solving the financial problems of China, the reassertion of the validity of the Open Door policy, the internationalisation of Chinese railways and financial affairs, and the checking of Japan’s purpose to dominate China through finance. It is to be hoped that it may lead to an international supervision of China, much as the relation 188 CHINA of the United States to Cuba, until such time as China can set her house in order and assume complete charge of her own affairs. _ Foreign Intervention. Foreigners are demanding in- tervention in order to stabilise conditions and correct the colossal evils arising from political graft. Mr. Bland esti- mated in 1921 that during eight previous years, twenty-two Tuchuns and their officials “squeezed” enough money out of the public funds to pay four-fifths of China’s national debt, and yet she is continually borrowing and giving fabu- lously rich concessions as securities. It is claimed that out of the revenue paid in to Peking, less than five per cent. is actually used for administrative purposes. It should be remembered, however, that China’s debt, even if her poverty is considered, is small, in view of the fact that her national obligations of $1,900,000,000 mean only $4.75 per person, while the debt of Japan is $50, the United States $433 (federal debt only), France $1,310, and Great Britain $1,440 per person. China has recently made an application to the Powers for a new loan of $1,204,000,000. INDUSTRIAL ANDY CUi PAC T Orns Commercial Possibilities. China has great commercial possibilities. “The late Dr. Sun Yat-sen in his recent book “The International Development of China,” has given a very statesmanlike statement of China’s needs, claiming that she required a hundred thousand miles of railroad and a million miles of macadam highways as well as improved harbours, canals and systems of irrigation. Of course such development would take capital running into many billions of dollars and must necessarily be slow. The Chinese people are comparatively poor, having a total income of about $12,000,000,000, or less than one-fifth of that of the people of the United States, although China has SOCIAL FACTORS 189 more than three times its population. Chinese resources, however, are still sufficient and her credit is still sound enough to warrant a loan of $5,000,000,000 to be grad- ually issued to her, after her Government is unified and stabilised. Resources. Sometimes the resources of China are rather exaggerated. It has been estimated that her total potential supply of coal would amount to nearly fifty billions of tons, but this is only one-eighth of that of the United States, and one-third of that of Great Britain, although her proportion of anthracite is extremely large. China has perhaps one-fourth of the iron resources of the United States, one-third of that of France and Germany, and four-fifths of that of Great Britain. Some authorities make estimates of coal and iron double or treble the amounts here indicated. In silver, copper, lead, zinc, gold, etc., her resources are rather meagre and what forests she has left are not very accessible. The strong point in China’s prospects is in her agriculture, in which eighty-five per cent. of her people are engaged. She is the largest tea producing country of the world and her production of cotton is exceeded only by the United States and India. Although her coal and iron resources are not as great as several other countries named, there is no question but that China promises to be one of the great nations of the earth when her resources have become developed, and that Shang- hai and Hong-Kong will be world ports that may equal New York and London. From the fact of her resources and her cheap labour, she seems destined to be a big factor in supplying the markets of the world, and eventu- ally may threaten the commercial supremacy of western nations. Western Influences. Receptions are given by the President of the Republic of China to foreigners quite after the western fashion, there being greetings by handshaking, 190 CHINA the partaking of extremely elaborate refreshments, and Chi- nese theatricals of “all star’ casts. Foreign cooking, clothes, games, furniture, architecture and interior decora- tions are becoming common among the more intelligent Chi- nese. Women, however, keep more to their national costume than do the men, but fur coats, the matching of colours, together with foreign ribbons and ornaments, are coming into vogue. The Chinese are also taking up our games and athletics. Five million sets of playing cards were imported in a single year. Foreign music is being introduced and the opportunity for the social mingling of sexes which was for- merly prohibited, is becoming common. Foreign medicine, hygiene and sanitation are coming into use and foreign hos- pitals, which formerly were dreaded, are now eagerly patronised. Chinese versions of western plays like “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” are very popular and American moving pictures have become the rage. ‘The students in colleges write their own plays and give dramatic performances, sometimes on special occasions presenting Shakesperean dramas. The Inscrutable Chinese. The Chinese are silent and inscrutable but soon win the confidence and affection of for- eigners. ‘They are very patient and philosophical and know how to wait. They have “a saving sense of humour” but they like to “‘save their face,” and will not easily endure humiliation. One must use polite and extravagant phrases even in administering rebuke. ‘They are usually willing to compromise, but when they make a stand, it is almost im- possible to move them. ‘Their chief faults are a foolish egotism and a sense of national superiority, a most lamentable proneness to political corruption and a seeming lack of capac- ity for organised action, especially in politics. Homes. ‘The houses of the poor, except in large cities, are usually made of mud or broken brick mixed with mud, the roofs being covered with tiles or sometimes merely with lime and coke spread on rude mats. ‘They are usually of STVIGHLIVW ONIGTING ONIAYYVO NVINOM ASHNITHOD CHINESE WOMEN IgT one story and often contain only one room. ‘They have no chimney, as little fire is used except for cooking, which is done in small charcoal braziers. A raised platform with a coarse mat of reeds serves as bed, and a rude table, a stool or two and a primitive wardrobe form the furniture. ‘The very poor make their homes in sampans and junks, as well as in caves. The homes of the rich, on the other hand, are quite elaborate, richly furnished with embroidered hangings and carved teak-wood furniture, and give evidence of a highly developed oriental culture. WOMEN The history of China shows many influential women as having been leaders in her activities. In the Chinese bio- graphical dictionary of 1628 volumes, 376 were given over to Chinese women. Confucius taught the equality of women, the Chinese word wife literally meaning “equal.’”’ One of the maxims that is current is “Love your bride as you would your brother.” That a woman in theory (though not in prac- tice) is regarded as man’s equal is indicated by the fact that a woman preserves her own name after her marriage. The dominating principle which underlies Chinese mar- riage is the perpetuation of the family, and the people do not need to be warned of the danger of “‘race suicide.” In 189 A.D. a law was passed which had only temporary en- forcement, making the poll tax of single women between fifteen and thirty years of age five times greater than that of married women. By tradition and custom parents see to it even now that their daughters are married, and arrange- ments are usually made either between the parents of the prospective bride and groom or by go-betweens, the young people very often never having seen each other before the day of marriage. While this seems an arbitrary method, the fact remains that divorce is much less common than it is: 192 CHINA among Western people who have the privilege of social intercourse and of making their own matrimonial choices. This is due largely to the fact of the inbred habit of sub- mission among Chinese women. Under the Chinese custom a man might put away his wife for seven reasons, among which were barrenness, disre- gard for the husband’s parents, a suspicious temper and talkativeness. Divorce, however, is infrequent, the Chinese being scandalised by our American divorce system. At the same time there is widespread concubinage, a man’s finances determining whether he may have one or many concubines. The Women’s Patriotic Association in ‘Tientsin, repre- senting many hundreds of the highest class of Chinese women, refused to admit concubines, although some of them were wealthy and might be generous and influential mem- bers. ‘The objection was based upon the grounds that unless concubinage were abolished the family system and even- tually the nation would be destroyed. The old custom of domestic slavery is gradually going out of practice. “This meant the buying of a girl between five and ten years of age from her parents and making her a houtehold drudge, with the prospect of later becoming her master’s concubine, or being resold into a life of shame by her mistress. The infanticide of girls, formerly so com- mon, is also getting to be exceptional. Footbinding is still common and begins at the age of four. The foot is bound very tightly after doubling the four smaller toes under the foot. It means intense pain for sev- eral years, and as a result the Chinese woman must always hobble about her tasks. It is supposed to represent the acme of aristocratic refinement. “There is a strong move- ment against this custom by the missionaries, aided by the growing fondness even of young girls for athletics. ‘The Government has also discouraged footbinding as well as the wearing of the queue, and both are passing out of fashion. The women of China are slowly coming to the front, already CHINESE LANGUAGE 193 having special publications like the Chinese Ladies’ Journal, and the Peking Woman’s Paper, a daily periodical which is edited and published by women. About 2000 B.c. a law was passed forbidding women to gather in public assemblies lest they should talk politics. Now women students have formed great organisations hay- ing largely a political purpose. Women are beginning to insist upon the franchise and in March, 1921, 700 women forced their way into the Canton Assembly demanding the right to vote. Women have better co-educational recognition in China than in England, or even New England. In the Peking Government University, for instance, women are admitted to examinations and degrees on the same basis as men, and there are women professors and teachers. There is natu- rally a strong movement for co-education because there are so few schools; otherwise the girls would naturally be crowded out. The new position of women is indicated in many specific ways as the following examples will show: The wife of the former president of the Republic and the wife of the ex-Premier were honorary chairman and president of the Chinese Red Cross Society. In Canton over forty factories making articles of clothing are owned and managed by women, having from ten to fifty women employés each. A Women’s Savings Bank with a capital of $2,000,000 has been opened recently by the women of Peking. There are over 200 Chinese girl students in the United States. Basu CATION Language. A Commission of over a hundred men from various sections of China is endeavouring to unify both the spoken and written languages so as to make one national lan- 194 CHINA guage. At present there are over a hundred languages and dialects, which are so distinctive that a Chinaman can under- stand only his own and none of the others. As the Chinese language is monosyllabic, the new Man- darin language system which has been proposed, using thirty- nine phonetic symbols or letters with a system of dots,— the position of which will determine the pronunciation,— will tend to unify and simplify the language. The new National Phonetic Dictionary is to be the standard which determines pronunciations. ‘The Mandarin language, while largely used by the educated class, is the one most widely understood and hence has been adopted in its new and simplified form by the Commission as the national lan- guage and a course in Mandarin is compulsory in most schools. There is no grammatical structure in the Chinese lan- guage, the same word being used as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. Modes, tenses, persons and numbers, as well as declensions, conjugations and auxiliary verbs are all lacking. ‘The difficulty of the language lies in the fact that so many words with different meanings sound so much alike that the foreign ear can scarcely detect the difference and the foreign tongue can with difficulty make the distinctions. The Chinaman has just as much difficulty with the English language. “Pidgin” English is really ‘‘business’ English, the word “pidgin” being the nearest approach the China- ‘man can make to the pronunciation of the word “busi- ness.’ English is being widely studied, all intelligent Chinese being very eager to learn and to display their attainments. Letters are still to be found similar to the following: “We are much sorrowful to announcement you the butter you have order have expiered and the Cheese more three days gone before is finished.” A tailor’s sign in Peking reads, “Sing Zung Kee—Ladies and Gentle-Men’s Tailor—Ladies have Fits Upstairs—All Can Do It.” EDUCATION 196 Periodicals. China began to make paper in 75 A.D. and had printing with movable type a thousand years before the time of Gutenberg. The Peking Gazette, the first newspaper in the world, was published in the fourteenth century. Now there are over one thousand daily, weekly and monthly periodicals published in China. The Students’ Movement. On May 4, 19109, the stu- dents of thirty-three colleges and schools in Peking num- bering 15,000 men, together with some women, made a public demonstration against the Shantung decision at the Versailles Treaty Conference and against the three ruling officials under Japanese influence whom they branded as “traitors,” and whom they were soon afterwards instru- mental in driving from office. A few of these students were arrested, which caused 30,000 others to come forward and volunteer to become pris- oners as a protest. Seeing the trend of things, the Peking Government released the students who were under arrest. Some of them, however, died of the brutalities inflicted upon them at the time of their arrest or during their imprison- ment. The students’ organisation then appealed to the Chinese merchants to establish a boycott against all Japanese goods and there was a widespread response. Japan immediately lost forty per cent. of her previous trade with China, and this proportion still continues, that which remains consisting largely of raw materials. The next effort on the part of the students was to dis- courage Chinese delegates at Paris from signing the Treaty. The delegates received over a thousand telegrams from vari- ous Chinese organisations in protest against their signing the Treaty, which helped them to maintain an absolute refusal to accept it. The students’ movement also issued nationalistic propa- ganda, not only in opposition to Japan, but in order to create a new spirit of patriotism and unity in China. 196 CHINA They further inaugurated a system of free schools and in Peking alone they enrolled 50,000 children for which they themselves raised the funds and organised the teaching force. This has done more than any other single influence to en- courage the widespread education of Chinese children. In Shanghai alone the Students’ union has a membership of 15,000 men and 5,000 women, representing eighty-three institutions. It has formed the National Students’ Union, with over thirty branches in various parts of China. ‘Their leadership in the strikes and anti-foreign demon- strations in 1925 shows, however, that the impetuous zeal of young and enthusiastic idealists may become dan- gerous. The number of other popular organisations has increased twenty-fold in the last five or eight years. ‘The “Union of All Classes” built up an organisation of over 300,000 mem- bers within a single year. PRACTICAL HINTS Money. While there is a nominal gold standard, whose value in theory is unchanged, in actual practice the value of the tael and other silver coins varies with the price of silver. _ In addition to this it changes greatly according to the various provinces. For instance, in the district of Shansi there is an actual discount of about sixty per cent. The usual basis of money in Northern China is the tael, worth about seventy-six cents in Shanghai and seventy-eight cents in Peking. Of course, it is constantly fluctuating. In Southern China the standard is the Chinese silver dollar, worth about fifty-six cents. This dollar is divided into cents, which make the Chinese cent worth about half the American. Half dollars, quarters, ten cent pieces, etc., are in use. English money is also current. American money had better be exchanged at a reputable bank as money chang- ers and shopkeepers do not give full value. SHOPPING 197 Rikishas cost forty cents an hour, eighty cents for half a day, and a dollar and a half for a full day, although when the demand is great, higher rates are charged. Carriages are one dollar an hour, three dollars for a half day, and five dollars for a whole day. Autos cost about eight dollars an hour with a reduction for a half day, and five dollars for a whole day. ‘The above figures have reference to Chi- nese silver dollars. Hotels. ‘There are several good hotels in all the prin- cipal cities of China, well adapted to the comforts required by foreigners, the charge being from ten Chinese dollars a day and up,—principally up. Guides. Guides charge four or five dollars a day and more. Many are simply runners for particular shops to which tourists are always brought sooner or later. ‘This usually means a small extra percentage added to the charge for purchases. Calendar. ‘The calendar is now the same as our western one. When Dr. Sun Yat-sen took oath as provisional presi- dent of the Chinese Republic on January Ist, 1912, it was _ officially designated as the “first day of the first year of the Chinese Republic.” The Laws for Foreigners. Foreigners do not come under the provisions of the Chinese law, but are subject only to the laws of their own country. Application in any emer- gency should always be made by a foreigner to his own consul. SHOPS AND SHOPPING Nearly all articles can be bought in China at a fraction of the cost in America, although it must be remembered that careful bargaining is necessary. Articles can some- times be bought for a third, or even less than a third, of the first price asked. American tourists are especially apt to be very much overcharged, as prices usually double and treble when the American makes his appearance. 197A CHINA Silk Products are the most conspicuous, as about $200,000,000 worth of silks are manufactured every year, of which one-third is exported. ‘The mulberry tree silk is finer than the pongee silk, which is produced by worms that are fed on oak leaves. ‘The best silk is probably to be found in Shanghai and Peking. Jade is the name commonly given to various kinds of ornamental stones of compact and tough texture, in colour varying from white to very dark green. Greyish, greenish, bluish and even yellowish tones occur frequently. A pale lavender colour is rare. One variety is so dark a green as to be almost black. Emerald green is the most highly prized. Chinese merchants for trade purposes classify seven kinds of jade, and their value is in a diminishing progres- sion. 1. Best quality bright emerald green. 2. Less vivid green. 3. Dull clouded green. 4. Dark opaque green. 5. Red. 6. Dull white. 7. Vitreous white. “The Chinese make a good imitation of jade with soapstone, but this may be detected as it slivers when cut. Artificial jade, made in Germany, as well as ‘Siberian Chrysoprase” is fre- quently sold as jade. ‘The surest test of jade is its great tenacity. Its hardness is about the same as that of quartz. Prehistoric man used jade for implements and weapons as well as for ornaments, amulets, pendants, beads, etc. China is pre-eminently the country of jade. ‘The Chinese regard it as more precious than gold or silver or jewels. Their early classical books make frequent references to it. They put pieces of it in the mouths of their dead to insure immortality. As far back as we go in the history of China, we find it used for religious purposes and for ceremonial life 4,000 years before it was known by Englishmen. Em- perors stored wine in large jade jars. Modern Chinese hold a piece of it in the hand when discussing important matters and wear charms of jade to protect them from evil and misfortune. The alert shopper can find snuff bottles, girdle clasps, SHOPPING 197B rings, vases, boxes, dagger handles, bottles, bowls, mirror frames, wine cups, armlets, pipe mouthpieces, beads, trays, screens, brush holders, incense burners, paperweights and pendants,—all in jade. A creation in jade peculiar to China represents flowers and fruit modelled in other hard stones mingled with jade. Small jade trees in cloisonné jars with fruit or blossoms in coloured stones may be purchased from twenty-five or thirty dollars up into the hundreds. The leaves and flowers are of jade, coral, quartz, amber, ivory, lapis lazuli, turquoise, malachite, etc. Amulets are very popular. Jade carved in the form of a phoenix is given to girls when they come of age. A but- terfly is a symbol of requited love and is given by a bride- groom to his fiancée. Hard working women invest their savings in jade which they wear on all occasions. Even women with no home but a sampan on the river wear jade braclets and other ornaments while at their most menial tasks. _ Amber is a fossil resin derived from extinct varieties of pine. Similar resins frequently substituted for it are quickly affected by alcohol but true amber is not except after long immersion. When rubbed on cloth amber will attract bits of thin paper, although resin imitations do the same. When rubbed very vigorously, it will give a very delicate aro- matic odour; when cut with a knife, it powders and does not give parings. When a flame is applied, it burns slowly. Clear amber is more valuable than cloudy. Amber dark- ens with age, especially when worn next to the skin, and often takes on a red colour tone. It has a peculiar velvety feeling, is very light and contains small air bubbles and occasionally a waste particle of animal life or twig caught in the resin as it exudes. The poorest imitation is yellow glass, harder, heavier than the real, and cold to the touch, sometimes even show-_ 197C CHINA ing splinters at the edges. A better imitation is of celluloid which develops very little electricity when rubbed and gives off a smell of camphor, and, of course, explodes when touched by a flame. A common imitation is pressed amber or ambroid. ‘This is made of small bits of waste amber that are softened by heat and subjected to high pressure. ‘This product has many characteristics of real amber but shows differences under the microscope. Even in clear por- tions it shows small brownish veins and is never glassy clear. Many of the cheaper beads are made from this pressed amber which can be shaped in the same way as the natural amber. So great has been the demand for good old amber that the price has doubled within the last few years, and even a short string of real amber beads can hardly be purchased for less than twenty-five dollars and anything sold for less than this amount is almost sure to be imitation. Ivory. Much cheap carving that is sold for ivory is only bone soaked in tea to give it the color of old ivory. Real ivory has a full close grain with concentric lines like the lines in wood known as growth lines. It requires sea- soning just as wood does. In a dry climate it will crack, especially with sudden changes of temperature. Beware of a cheap product that is made from ivory dust made into a jelly, hardened and used commercially as though it were real ivory. ‘This lacks the growth lines. Ivory is employed for many useful and ornamental arti- cles in common usage, such as napkin rings, cigarette cases, boxes, cigar holders, pipes, umbrella and cane handles, brace- lets, ornamental combs both plain and carved, toilet sets, paper cutters and innumerable ornamental figures of idols, grotesque forms of animals, elaborately carved chessmen and mah jong sets. The last named can be bought very cheaply at Canton. Jewellery. Many forms of hand-made jewellery con- taining jade, amber and semi-precious stones can be had at SHOPPING 197D very low prices, but care must be taken to avoid fraud. In reputable stores a jeweller will stamp his name on any article of gold, and this binds him, if the purchaser so de- sires, to repurchase the article at any time by weight. Such stores also give written guaranties, which furnish some as- surance that the articles are genuine. Cloisonné can be had to best advantage in Peking, although the Shanghai shops are quite satisfactory. Some- times the wires framing the designs are only gilded, and as the gilt wears off, the article becomes duller. Lace can be purchased to special advantage in China, although sometimes the material of even fine work is very cheap, especially where cotton is used instead of linen. Embroidery is China’s strongest point, both in work- manship and design, although sometimes it is over-coloured, the Chinese not having as good an eye for delicate colour- blending as have the Japanese, but their work is finer and better than that of any other country. They use pure colour rather than pastel shades. Sometimes actual figures of trees, houses and people are embroidered within a square - of a quarter of an inch with marvellous fineness and pre- cision. Old Mandarin skirts beautifully embroidered in panels can be bought for a low price and will furnish ma- terial for lamp shades, hat bands, trimming for gowns, purses, bags, table runners, cushions and various other forms of decoration, even though much worn. Pottery is of exceptionally high quality in China, partly because of the skillful workmanship and partly because of the higher temperature at which the pottery is fired. There is much enamelling done on fine quality of silver. The Chinese are experts in glass blowing, and in the making of fancy bottles, vases, anklets, bracelets, rings and even tiny hair ornaments. It takes six months to make a fine piece of lacquer work on account of the need of thorough drying between the many coats applied. The Chinese lacquer work is finer than even 198 CMi Na that of Japan. It can be bought in Canton to the best ad- vantage. Mandarin Coats have been worn very little since the advent of the Republic, and consequently old garments are sold at low figures. The Chinese are natural artisans and the nation has a great future in all textile work. ‘There are at present 2,000 students in France studying the textile arts. A Chinese Dinner. An elaborate dinner in China has a menu somewhat similar to the following and somewhat in the order here suggested: hors d’ceuvre, fruit. duck eggs, chicken with cucumber salad, birds’ nest soup, shark’s fins, roast duck, soup of sugared lotus seed, toast with bamboo sprouts and chicken, soup of lobster, asparagus and milk, and cake. ‘Chop Suey,” with which we are familiar in Chinese restaurants in our country, is unknown in China. CHINESE RELIGIONS The Chinese religion has as its basis a belief in Animism, or the religion of Nature, in which good and evil spirits contend for the mastery. This leads to the endeavour on. the part of the Chinese people to engage in acts of pro- pitiation to the good spirits and the exorcism of evil ones. The main developments of religion are as follows: I, Confucianism. ‘This is, strictly speaking, a moral and political code rather than a religion, as it has no creed or religious tenets. It was put into systematic form by the philosopher Confucius (born 551 B.c.), and gradually he has become to the Chinese people the centre of light, the model of upright living and the supreme teacher of truth. While claiming no divine prerogatives he is worshipped at special temples built in every part of China. “These tem- ples have a plain exterior and contain only the Confucian ancestral tablets, and sometimes statues of Confucius and his disciples. Confucianism is based on the five relations of man as CONFUCIANISM 199 ruler and ruled, husband and wife, father and son, elder and younger brother, as well as friend and friend. Filial loyalty and reverence for age are especially stressed. Confucius had no message concerning God or the future state. It was not until 500 years after his death that he was recognised as the great teacher of China, and the first temple to his mem- ory was built by Imperial command. While Confucianism is on the wane, the temple observances being confined to the official and educated classes, the Confucian ethics and ideals permeate the whole nation. II. Ancestral Worship. ‘This is a sort of “home” re- ligion, since many homes have a shrine with several ancestral names written on a paper or carved on wood tablets. ‘These ancestral tablets are usually one foot high and three inches wide, placed upright on a pedestal on which the name, rank, age and dates of birth and death are inscribed. It is some- what like having the family tombstones in miniature in one’s home. ‘This tablet is consecrated with great religious ceremony when it is installed and afterwards incense is burned and offerings are made night and morning by the eldest son of the family. In April a special family festival - is held with some features suggestive of our Christmas. Announcements are formally made to the tablet of births and betrothals, and when the bride first comes into the house she is formally presented to this tablet, thus invoking the paternal blessing of the departed. All this tends to establish family ties, and to teach filial obedience and reverence. ‘This worship is based on the assumption that ancestors, if properly approached, can help the surviving members of the household to secure success in worldly undertakings. A religious Chinaman of the lower order never goes to sleep without burning a stick of incense to his dead father and making offerings of mock money. So deeply is this fundamental conception inbred in the religious life of the people that many missionaries feel that it is necessary to try to Christianise it. Ancestor worship is really the very heart of the religious and social 200 CHINA life of the people, and so far as this is identified with Con- fucianism in the minds of the people, it helps to establish their loyalty to it. III. Taoism, founded by Laotze (born 604 B.c.), an immediate predecessor of Confucius, is the doctrine of the “right way, ’—the “return” to that which brings true hap- piness. Its basis is a profoundly discerning book called Tao Teh King. It preaches stoicism, democracy, simplicity, patience, humility and self-control, and is allied to Con- fucianism. It was taken over by geomancers who pretended to make an elixir of life from an herb growing in the “Fairy Islands” of the Far Eastern Sea, and an emperor in the third century B.c. actually sent an expedition to find these imaginary Islands and the immortal herb. ‘They taught that any one becoming perfected in this system might rise into heaven on the wings of a stork. ‘Taoism became increasingly corrupt and debased until it is now a polytheistic mixture of witchcraft and demonology. Laotze himself did not teach these things, these later super- stitions being foisted upon his teaching to get the benefit of his distinguished name. The Taoistic temples are dirty and malodorous and their images are of tawdry manufacture. ‘The priests are more sextons and caretakers than religious leaders, merely going through the form of calling the attention of the deities to the suppliants. “They use weird incantations and magical charms. ‘The worshippers knock their heads on the ground as a token of humility,—the priests in their slate-coloured robes meanwhile striking a huge bronze bowl to awaken the god from his slumber. ‘The temple courts resound with deafening noises of bombs and firecrackers to frighten away the evil spirits. They have devils and deities for every phase in nature from a shooting star to an earthquake, and for every human experience from toothache to “devil possession.” The Temples are usually neglected save on some local festival. Pero] SM 201 While Taoism has been gradually merged into Buddhism and has borrowed the Buddhist liturgy and temple para- phernalia, including sacrificial vases, candlesticks and incense burners, it has been a large and, on the whole, a debasing factor in the religious life of China. It formerly had many monasteries, one of them accommodating 20,000 ‘Taoist priests. The chief ecclesiastic is a “Pope,” living in the Kiangsi Province, where he keeps a collection of evil spirits, which he has captured, in glass jars. While Taoism has ceased to attract a large following, Taoist priests have a certain influence because of their supposed power in exor- cising evil spirits. IV. Buddhism was introduced into China in 67 a.p. by two Indian priests, who brought some holy writings and established the teaching of Buddha (or Shakyamuni, as he is known in China), in Honan City. The horse that carried the sacred. parchments was supposed to be buried on the spot in Honan, where the White Horse Temple now stands. “These books were translated into Chinese and the new religion made rapid progress. Buddhism had a strong appeal because it has a message regarding the future life, ‘being unlike the purely ethical teachings of Confucius. The priests use the ancient Sanscrit words in their litur- gies, without they themselves or their audiences compre- hending a single word. ‘These priests take a vow of celibacy and abstain from wine and meat. Buddhism has little re- semblance to its early pure form and is only related in name to the more vital Buddhism of Japan and Burma. It has little hold upon the populace, except in connection with the ritual of deaths and burials. It is difficult to make an esti- mate of the number of Buddhists in China, as most Chinese Buddhists are also Confucianists and Taoists. There are some evident traces of Christianity in Buddhist religions. In Peking there is an image of Kwannin (much the same as the Kwannon in Japan), who is the Goddess of Mercy interceding for mankind, which might easily be mistaken for a Madonna. ‘There are Buddhist monks and 202 CHINA nuns, rosaries, hours of chanting and service, pictures of Buddha with halos not unlike early pictures of Christ, lurid representations of hell similar to those to be seen, for in- stance, in Pisa, and prayers to the genii not unlike the Cath- olic doctrine of saints. Roman Catholic writers, in some instances, have claimed that these suggest contact with early or medieval Christianity. Unfortunately, however, Bud- dhism has kept only the husks and almost nothing of the kernel. V. Lamaism, which came from Tibet, is a degenerate form of Buddhism. It exercised an evil influence wher- ever it has gone. Some of the priests wear red robes, and hence Lamaism is often spoken of as the “Red Religion.” Later, under the influence of Indian priests, who wore yellow robes, it became known as the “Yellow Religion,” and this is the most powerful sect. “The word Lama means “a superior one” and is applied to all priests. Immense monasteries have as many as 10,000 Lamas, who are given over to sloth and degeneracy. “The Dalai Lama is the chief pontiff of Tibet and sways political, as well as religious, power. VI. Mohammedanism. The Mohammedans came as early as 755 A.D., the Chinese emperor at that time having invited the Arabs to help him put down a rebellion. After this was subdued, they remained and married Chinese wives and their descendants have kept up their Mohammedan allegiance. ‘The Koran has never been translated into the Chinese language, as the book is deemed too sacred. “They have, however, Mohammedan preachers, who expound the teaching of the Koran in their mosques every Friday. ‘There is no call to prayer from a minaret, the priest instead calling from the door of the Mosque. He wears special robes only during the religious service. “The Chinese Mohammedans are strict in their abstinence from pork, but do not pray toward Mecca and rarely make pilgrimages to it. Mohammedanism has perhaps fifteen million adherents, and these are set apart as almost of a distinct nationality, GEOMANCY 203 as they do not intermarry with other people. They have been involved in several widespread rebellions, one as late as 1905, which have collapsed, and great multitudes were massacred. VII. Geomancy. This plays a large part in Chinese superstitions, and is based on a belief in supposed evil spirits that abound in the natural world. ‘These spirits are believed to move only in a straight line, being unable to turn a corner or make a deflection. The building of high walls and the using of charms, sold by priests and charlatans, are supposed to check these evil spirits of nature in their malevo- lent purposes. “To hinder the entrance into houses and temples, outside screens are made wider than the door. ‘The roofs of houses are often ornamented with sharp points to impale any evil spirits. Lest the spirits of the dead should be dissatisfied with the site and surroundings of their tomb, and join in casting a malign influence, special care is exer- cised to place graves in the best possible surroundings. ‘This is a great hindrance to agriculture and makes it difficult to build railroads and highways, as the people resent having any graves disturbed. Pagodas are said to have been introduced into China about 300 A. D., and several thousand pagodas have since been built, usually on hill-tops. They were erected by a com- munity to attract prosperity, to ward off destruction by wind and flood and to propitiate evil spirits.. These are always five, seven, nine or thirteen stories, as the Chinese consider that odd numbers are lucky. VIII. Christianity was introduced as early as 500 A.D. by a Nestorian priest named Alopan, as is indicated on the so-called “Nestorian Monument” dating back to 635, which may be seen in the Peilin collection in Peking. Later all trace of the movement was lost. Franciscan Roman Cath- olic missionaries came as early as 1307, when John of Monte Corvino, a disciple of St. Francis of Assisi, undertook active work. Matteo Ricci, an Italian Jesuit, came to Peking and his skill with his astronomical instruments caused the Em- 204 GH TN peror to give him the site for a Church on which the ‘South Cathedral” now stands. St. Francis Xavier attempted to reach China, but died in 1552 on an island near the China coast. An unwise Philippic against ancestor worship as being idolatrous caused the ex- pulsion of all Roman Catholic missionaries about 1735. The Roman Catholics today have their Churches in all im- portant cities, and carry on many lines of work and have about two million native members. An Englishman, the Rev. Robert Morrison, the first Prot- estant missionary, landed at Canton, September 7, 1807, and although progress at first was slow, as eight years passed before he made a single convert, there has been great advance in recent years, especially since the Boxer Rebellion. With the assistance of Milne, he translated the Bible into Chinese. He soon followed this with a Chinese-English dictionary in six volumes. In 1830, two American missionaries, Bridgman and Adeel, entered the field, followed by many others, and there has been a large development of Protestant missionary work in the last century. Protestantism now has enrolled nearly 650,000 Church members, with a family constituency of 3,000,000. It has 27 colleges, 256 preparatory schools, 581 high schools, besides elementary schools with over 200,000 pupils. It also carries on 333 hospitals and 241 dispensaries. The charge that these converts are largely “rice” or pauper Christians was disproved in the Boxer Rebellion, when thousands were martyred because they would not re- nounce the foreign religion. In recent years some of the most prominent Chinese in the country have become Chris- tians. A Chinese newspaper had a voting contest as to who were the twelve most conspicuous Chinese in the land. Of the twelve receiving the highest number of votes, seven were Christians. The Y. M. C. A. has thirty associations in various cities with 41,700 members, and 174 school associations with 30,000 members. In this service there are 81 foreign and Sorts LIAN IT Y 205 320 Chinese secretaries. ‘The Y. W. C. A. also has branches in all the principal cities, with a Chinese graduate of Wel- lesley as its national head. ‘They have seven city associations and seventy-one student associations conducted by sixty-eight foreign and twenty-one Chinese secretaries. There are nearly 6,000 Protestant missionaries, mostly American, in 1,000 mission stations in China. ‘The Chinese Consul General in New York City said in 1921, “The Amer- ican people should maintain the good will of the Chinese by sending more Christian educational, medical and com- mercial missionaries to China.” ‘There should be no conflict between Christianity and Con- fucianism, as their moral standards are of the same general character, although the standards of Christianity are higher and have a broader content. Missionaries are also learning to recognise the fact that Ancestor Worship and the Roman Catholic prayers to the saints are on much the same basis and hence Ancestor Worship should not be antagonised. It is especially important that Christianity be rapidly pro- moted, as China has almost ceased to be religious. Con- fucianism has had a great moral influence and Buddhism is responsible for Chinese art and learning, but both seem to be losing their hold upon the people. “The weakness of China is in her religions, or rather the lack of a real religion. ‘The temples are deserted. Appar- ently the Chinese were quite willing to let the impressive worship at the Altar of Heaven lapse without a protest after the Emperor was deposed. Ancestor worship, how- ever, clearly indicates their acceptance of immortality. At the same time the people have kept their superstitions, insisting, for instance, on using primitive ploughs because priests say that there are devils in modern farm implements ; also that the opening of mines by foreigners will make the spirits of their ancestors angry. The greatest need of all is to develop the people along religious and moral ideals by merging the best in their own religions with a broad and comprehensive Christianity, free 206 CHINA from the dogmas and creeds of Occidental denomina- tionalism. THE’ OP TUM) Oi Opium was introduced into China in the thirteenth cen- tury by the Arabs. It has cursed China ever since and in recent years has kept the mighty giant asleep and bound by the chains of his exploiters. .A Chinese emperor in the eighteenth century made opium smokers subject to the death penalty, but the Portuguese continued the evil in a measure by smuggling in two hundred chests of opium. The British East India Company took up the trade and the number of chests in 1820 grew to 16,000. As opium was one of the chief exports of India, England insisted on forcing the trafic upon China. The Chinese resisted at various times and places, one commissioner having confiscated and de- stroyed $10,000,000 worth at one time. ‘These events led to the disgraceful Opium War ending with the Treaty of Nanking, by the terms of which China was compelled to admit opium imports, to pay England an indemnity of $21,000,000, and to cede the port of Hong-Kong. The opium trafic was further legalised by the Anglo- Chinese Treaty of 1858, which was foisted upon the Chinese by Great Britain. It is estimated that by the year 1900, 25,000,000 men and women in China were opium habitués. The edicts forbidding the use of opium and the raising of the poppy plant, made by the Queen Dowager about 1907 and later by the leaders of the Republic of China, which seemed so promising a decade or more ago, have come to be largely disregarded. ‘This has resulted partly because of the chaotic condition of the Government and partly be- cause Christian nations, especially England, continue to make the prohibition impossible. Great Britain agreed in December, 1907, that Indian opium should be withdrawn in ten years and by April, 1913, she stopped the shipping of opium from India into China EVILS OF OPIUM 207 altogether. “This, however, did not change the fact that she continued the government monopoly of making opium in India, thus making it possible for individuals to purchase it and smuggle it into China. ‘There were also tons of morphine made in the United States and Great Britain by independent manufacturers and smuggled into China, the Japanese acting as middlemen, but the United States has recently passed legislation bringing to an end, as far as pos- sible, her share of this disgraceful business. While Japan largely acts as go-between in the opium trafic in China, she will not allow the 15,000 Chinese in her own country to have access to it lest the Japanese people themselves be injured by it. She has also practically ended opium smoking in Formosa. In 1923, however, immense quantities of falsely labelled narcotics were seized on Japa- nese ships, while none were found in British and American. The thousand tons of opium produced annually in India is a monopoly by the British Government. ‘To stimulate its production, the Government advances money free of in- terest to those who wish to undertake the growing of poppy. She has increased the amount of opium manufactured in India by forty-seven per cent. in ten years. Part of the opium produced is kept in India as a “valuable household remedy” and the rest is exported to Oriental countries. This trade is carried on in the East on so colossal a scale that the Malay States use 1,779 grains of opium annually per Chinaman (the use being almost wholly by Chinese) within her borders; Dutch East Indies, 1,714 grains; Indo- China, 2,007 grains; Macao, 2,152 grains; Straits Settle- ment (British territory), 2,385 grains; and North Borneo, 3,360 grains, while in America the per capita consumption is thirty-six; in India, twenty-six; in England, three; in France, four; in Sweden, seven, and in Germany, two. The Philippine Government cannot protect itself from opium smuggling, although a law prohibiting it was passed seven- teen years ago. The World Opium Conferences held in Geneva in 1924 208 CHINA and 1925 were apparently rutile because Great Britain, France, Holland and Portugal derive important revenues from the trade, and this seems to weigh more than the wel- fare of humanity. One-ninth of the revenues of India, di- rectly or indirectly amounting to $22,000,000, one-third of Hong Kong and one-half of the Straits Settlements are thus derived. The Sultan of Johore gets sixty-five per cent. of his revenue from this source and some of the Tuchuns of China also derive large profits. It should also be added that the use of opium tends to re- duce commerce, so that the loss of trade is vastly greater than the immediate revenue received. PEKING Peking formerly was believed to be the largest city in China, with several million people. Its real population, however, is only 1,181,400 (1922), being smaller than Canton and Shanghai, although the large space used by the Imperial City palaces and the enormous courtyards and pretentious homes, give the impression of greater size. Its history is recorded from at least 1200 B.c. and it has been the national Capital for seven hundred years. ‘The Tartar rulers of China built many beautiful palaces and temples which still remain and are among the sights of greatest interest. Most of the buildings have only two stories and are not as high as the imposing walls of the city. The Tartar City has six main thoroughfares, three going north and south and three east and west. ‘The streets on the whole are wider than those of most Chinese cities, and there is more traffic, including that of camels and carts, than elsewhere. “The side streets, however, are rather narrow and crooked. “Imperial Purple Peking” is a unique city, but no longer does it enclose a Forbidden City. It is made up of a series of three cities, each surrounded by its own wall. ‘The first is the Outer or Chinese City, now the business quarter, PEKING 209 whose walls, twenty-one feet high, form a square seven miles long on each side. The second is the Tartar or Inner City, whose walls, thirty-seven feet high and fifty-two feet wide at the top, form a rectangle of four by three miles, or a total of twelve miles, the sides facing the cardinal points of the compass. The third is the innermost or Imperial City, formerly known as the Forbidden City. ‘There are square towers and guard houses built at intervals of sixty feet along some of these walls. The city has enjoyed many advantages in recent years; a street car system has been built; a new water supply has been installed; streets are paved; automobiles are racing on the highways; aéroplanes fly between the Great Wall and the Ming tombs; modern business structures have been built and wireless Marconi masts, rising from the Japanese lega- tion, make a conspicuous landmark. Peking is the most brilliant jewel of the diadem of China and the home of its statesmen, scholars and financiers. It was the scene of the utmost regal splendour during the Monarchy. Here as late as 1908 reigned Kuang-hsii, the occupant of the most ancient of earthly thrones. It has been the capital of China since the thirteenth century. Railways do not enter the city, as that would have been profanation, but the station is close to the Cheng-yang-men Gate, through which one enters immediately into the well- shaded and well-paved streets of the Foreign Concession, where the flags of all nations are waving. A fine view of the city can be had from the Chien Mem Tower on the south Wall of the Tartar City. Here glimpses can be seen of the palaces of the Innermost City and even of the tiled roof of the Temple of Heaven. On this part of the wall foreigners only are allowed. In view of the fact that from this point of vantage the foreign troops, during the Boxer Rebellion, shelled the city, it has been con- ceded to the Powers as assuring protection to the Foreign Legations. The Legation Quarter adjoins the southern wall of the 210 CHINA Tartar City, and has its own walls, protected by soldiers on all sides, separating the legations from the rest of the city. Besieged by the Boxers in 1900, the entire foreign population would have been exterminated except for the rescuing troops. Each gate is now guarded with as much solicitude as though it gave entrance to a royal palace. ‘The street to the legation is walled and curved so that shots from without cannot take effect. No Chinese are allowed to live here, but all foreigners, with the exception of mis- sionaries, are expected to make this their residence. In reality, however, many foreign business men reside outside in the new residential quarters. ‘The American legation quarters are, as usual, very unpretentious, THE FORBIDDEN Ca The Imperial or Forbidden City, with the “Purple For- bidden Palace’ at its very heart, is at the centre of the Inner or Tartar City and is enclosed by huge brick walls, with four entrances, each with triple gates, the middle gate in former days being reserved for the Emperor. ‘This is not merely a palace but a city and there are no means of getting about except by walking. ‘The entire Imperial City en- closes two square miles, or one-sixth of the entire area of the Tartar City. The famous Dragon Screen is in the Tartar City, just outside the walls of the Forbidden City, requiring quite a long walk to reach it. Here are a series of canals, a large lake, scores of build- ings of barbaric splendour crowded together, halls of im- mense proportions, several palaces for the favourite wives of former Emperors, together with residences of court officials. In the western part of the Imperial City is a lake, with an island connected by a marble bridge, where Yuan Shih-kai and his family formerly occupied a spacious villa. No foreigners except diplomats on New Year’s Day had entered the Imperial City until after the Boxer Rebellion, at which time the Foreign Legations, including ladies, were Pore roo EN CITY 211 here entertained. ‘Tourists through their respective Lega- tions are now admitted to all parts of the Imperial City. Yet the Tartar City and its enclosed Forbidden City are much as they were a decade or even a century ago. Even though the Dragon Throne has disappeared and there are new slogans and shibboleths and a brisk air of modern pros- perity, the real heart of Peking has changed but little. It is believed by many that the Dragon Throne will come back, and that the former Emperor, Hsiian Tung, who was only a boy of six when the Republic was declared, but now a young man, will again occupy the Emperor’s throne. He was married December, 1922, at seventeen years of age with all the ancient ceremonial ritual, suitable to the marriage of the “Son of Heaven.” He is said to have unusual abilities, and has been well educated by tutors. When General Feng captured Peking he “dispossessed” him and he took refuge in the Foreign Legation in Tientsin. It is reported that he desires to take a university course in this country and that our government authorities have encouraged him to do so, fore tev PLE AND ALTAR Oboe Eb AV EN These two structures are in the extreme southern end of the Chinese City and are surrounded by a special wall three and a half miles in circumference, enclosing a Park, dotted with old stunted pine and cypress trees, where the black “Angus” cattle used for sacrifice were wont to graze. Within this enclosure are a second and a third wall, each having park spaces and gates. In the enclosure of the inner wall may be seen a series of temples and structures of second- ary importance, the last being the Emperor’s former robing Temple. ‘The commanding feature overshadowing all others is the Temple of Heaven, where the Emperor went alone on New Year’s Day to pray before going to the Altar of Heaven, both being in the same enclosure. 212 CHINA When General Grant visited Peking in 1879 these temple grounds were officially thrown open for the first time to any foreigner. “The Chinese regarded this as the greatest honour that could be shown. These were the most elaborate of all religious structures in China, but they are now in a most neglected condition, and weeds and grass are growing in the cracks of the marble pavement and carved balustrades. Probably this temple area has had its last ceremonial. No bullocks now are sacrificed, no silk and rice wine are offered, no fire kindled in the green porcelain furnace. ‘The monster iron braziers, where for- merly prayers were burned, have no ashes, and neglect and desolation are apparent. ‘The general religious indifference of the Chinese is here plainly indicated. At the end of the paved avenue leading through a park- like grove rises the Altar of Heaven on a “triple circular marble terrace’ which is 210 feet wide at the bottom, 150 feet in the middle and 90 feet at the top. “The ascent is by four circular stairs at the four cardinal points. Each ter- race has beautifully carved posts and balconies, the surfaces of the marble blocks at the top terrace being in nine centric circles, the innermost nine blocks and the outermost eighty- one blocks. “The middle stone is a perfect circle and any- one striking it with a cane hears a hollow sound which, he is assured, proves that the cavity below reaches to the centre of the earth. On this stone the Emperor knelt in the most gorgeous and impressive service in the Empire. The Altar was believed to be the seat which Shang-ti, the ruler of Heaven, occupied during the ceremony. The idea of the Emperor performing the solitary act of worship is not unlike the old Hebrew High Priest entering the Holy of Holies to atone for the sins of the people. The Chinese were wont to say “the God of Heaven is too great for us to worship. None but the ‘Son of Heaven’ is worthy to lay an offering on the Altar of Heaven.” The Imperial Worship took place during many centuries” on December 22nd, annually. ‘The Emperor left his Palace fork OFT EAV EN 213 at sunset, and spent the whole night in prayer in the Temple of Abstinence near the main entrance, previous to the cere- mony itself. At dawn the next morning he donned the garments of the High Priest and ascended the marble stairs, standing on the circular stone in the centre before the Altar itself. Here some silk was brought to the worshipping Em- peror which was burned, and rice wine which he drank, while the musicians played solemn music and the dancers swayed in rhythmic motion. ‘The sacrifice of a bullock and the burning of incense accompanied the impressive ceremony. The elaborate ritual required months of training by all those who participated. Women were not allowed to take part in any feature of the solemn ceremonial at this Imperial temple, and their presence at any time on any part of the grounds was considered a pollution of the sanctuary. This worship of Heaven by the “Son of Heaven” was a form of Nature worship which ante-dated Confucianism and Taoism, and included not only Shang-ti, the supreme god, but also the gods of earth, wind, rain and lightning. ‘The sense of reverence and respect had so little place among the Allies during the Boxer Rebellion, that the Altar of Heaven grounds were used as barracks for British troops. Yuan-Shih-kai undertook, when President, to arrogate this privilege of conducting the worship at the Altar of Heaven to himself when he planned to assume the throne. The popular feeling was so hostile as to discourage his effort. A furnace of green tiles, with eight braziers in front of the altar, is in one corner of the enclosure. ‘There is a smaller altar north of the Altar of Heaven used especially for prayers for abundant harvests, and nearby is the Temple of the Happy Year, ninety-nine feet high, being the loftiest structure in the Temple of Heaven area. ‘This building was erected in 1889, the older structure having been struck by lightning caused, according to popular belief, by an im- pious centipede perching high on the golden ball above. A short rikisha ride takes one to the Temple of Agri- culture in a large park of 300 acres. It is used by natives 214 CHINA as a recreation ground, and for tea drinking. ‘The worship at this Temple was instituted by the Emperor Shun in 2200 B.C. Here the Emperor came at certain times and went through elaborate ceremonies, propitiating the gods of the mountains, rivers and valleys before starting on a journey, and offering prayers for rain as well as of thanksgiving after good har- vests. Here he removed his royal garb and put on the yellow dress of a peasant, following a royal yellow plough being drawn by an ox led by an official, both being draped in yellow. He made nine furrows from east to west, the princes meanwhile following and scattering seed while royal singers sang hymns praising husbandry. ‘This ceremony was witnessed by immense holiday crowds. ‘The custom is much like that of the Japanese Empress going through the form at specific times of feeding silk worms, thus tending to in- crease the yield by making it a popular pastime, even for the rich ladies of Japan. SIGHTSEEING PBA Tie The Summer Palace at Nan Shosi-Shan, eleven miles northwest of Peking, was constructed in the old Summer Palace grounds by the Empress Dowager, Hsi ‘Tai-hou, popularly called ‘Old Buddha,” who used the fifty millions of dollars which the Government had appropriated for a modern navy for this purpose. The Empress Dowager was one of the most extraordinary women that ever lived. ‘The secret administering of poison, or the handing of a silken cord to anyone she disliked (which was a tacit command to commit suicide), or perhaps whim- sically slapping an official, who crossed her, in the face were her usual methods of handling her adversaries. At this Summer Palace, which was her favourite residence, she had over a thousand eunuchs, one of whom had great influence over her. “The number of her other attendants made a PEKING SIGHTSEEING 215 small city. Some of these are now pensioned by the Re- public, each receiving $4.00 a month and a bag of rice. The Palace grounds enclose a large Lake nearly ten miles in circumference (which was once a marsh containing the jade fountains), where the Dowager used to sit in state in a great two-story imitation marble boat with open pavilions, —used only as a landing place. She had a favourite spot on a marble platform where she was wont to sit and fish. A wonderful white marble bridge of seventeen arches, the approach being by a long gallery with 280 pillars, extends from the Palace grounds to one of the islands in the lake. Elsewhere are other picturesque bridges, including the much- admired camel-backed structure of white marble. After her son, the young Emperor, died, she put his im- mediate successor, Kuang-hsti, on this island, and kept him under guard, as she was in no mood to relinquish her author- ity. When in 1908 she realised that she was dying she gave orders that he be executed, and his death was almost coincident with hers. The Palace is beautifully set beside the Lake amid bridges and pavilions, and lavishly decorated in colours, paintings - and porcelains. Around the Palace are many Halls with green and yellow-tiled roofs. The Hall of State is an im- posing building with pillars and beams richly carved and decorated. There is also the older Palace, which has residences for officials and quarters for servants. “This was almost de- stroyed by the English and French in 1860, when they looted the Palace of the best of its art treasures in order to make gifts to Queen Victoria and Napoleon III. Some of its former charm, however, still remains. The Great Temple, built on large and solid foundations of masonry and containing the large gilded image, is reached by two immense staircases. Higher up is the temple of the Myriad Buddha surrounded by various pavilions and me- morials. The Bronze Pavilion is a marvel of artistic workmanship. 216 CHINA Even the tiles, floor and furniture were of bronze, but much of it has been removed by pillage, including the wonderful open-work bronze windows. On the water’s edge in front of the group of temples is the great portal known as the Grand Pailau, its carved dragons and rich decorations being surmounted by three projecting yellow-tiled roofs. ‘The bronze lions just adjoining are finer than those of the Lama Temple. From Prospect Hill, one gets a fine view of the city. This Hill is artificial, having been made by piling immense quantities of coal for emergency fuel, the whole being now covered with soil on which a grove of trees is growing. “The Hill, sometimes called Coal Hill, is surrounded by a wall a mile in circumference. Nearly all of the costly and imposing structures are of wood. ‘The absolute neglect of repairs and the absence of paint are rapidly reducing them to ruins. A Marble Gate, put up by the Chinese Government, contains a penitential inscription regarding the murder of Baron Kettler, the German Ambassador at the time of the Boxer Rebellion, together with an epitaph eulogising his virtues. , The Lama or Yellow (Yung Ho Kung) Temple is near the north wall of the Tartar City, in a Mongol centre on Hetamen Street. It consists of two buildings erected about three hundred years ago for the entertainment of the Dalai Lamas and Mongol princes. Here some hundreds of filthy Mongol monks make their habitat, who are adepts at playing the role of beggars. “They are persistent in demand- ing cumsha (tips), although the admission fee is coupled with the notice that no tips should be given. ‘They are, however, treated with consideration by the Government, so as not to give offence to Mongolia. These buildings are filthy and in a state of decay, but there is an abundance of rich carvings, decorations and paraphernalia of worship. A mammoth image of the Buddhist redeemer Maitreya, over seventy feet high, is within the temple area, carved HeRING STGHTSEEING 217 from a single tree and brought from Tibet. A huge prayer wheel, nearly as high as the statue, is close by. Here also is a golden replica of paradise and statues of two hippo- potami who attacked the Emperor Ch’ien Lung unsuccess- fully, as well as a room of small groups of Buddhas and their women companions used in unspeakably obscene Phallic worship. ‘These are shown to men visitors only. Early in the morning and late in the afternoon these Mongolian priests in yellow and brick-red costumes conduct a very strange and spectacular form of worship. ‘The famous Lama devil dance is held on the thirtieth day of the first Chinese moon, at which time the Lamas in grotesque black and white costumes drive away evil spirits by mock heroics and incantations, and publicly burn a painted statue of a demon at high noon. The Temple of Confucius is in the old university grounds and has the ancestral tablet of Confucius in an alcove shrine, and in the courtyard are shrines of his dis- ciples. Some monuments give descriptions of successful Manchu wars, and there are ten boulders or ‘“‘drums,” two feet high and one foot in diameter, which give the details of a hunting expedition by the Emperor Shan in 827 B.c. The Hall of Classics is a large square building of Chi- nese architecture, adjoining the National University. It contains 300 stone steles, carved with the complete text of the nine classics. From the top of the Drum Tower here, 130 feet high, an excellent view of the Tartar City can be obtained. The Drum Bell stands between the Drum Tower and the northern wall. The story goes that after several failures in casting the bell, the bellmaker’s daughter, because her father’s life would be forfeited in case of another failure, was told in a dream that the casting would be a success if a human life was sacrificed in the molten metal, whereupon she herself became a voluntary victim. ‘The credulous still believe that they can hear moans coming from out the bell, 218 CHINA the ringing of which at 8:30 p.m. can be heard all over the city. ‘The same story, however, is sometimes told of the bell at the Buddhist Big Bell Temple, two and a half miles west of the City. This bell is fourteen feet in height, thirty-six feet in circumference and weighs sixty tons, and was cast in 1408 A.D. The Astronomical Observatory is the oldest in exist- ence, having been built by Kubla Khan in 1279 a.pD., and is equipped with ancient Chinese astronomical instruments. The first observatory in Europe was erected in Denmark fully three hundred years later. ‘The Germans carried away these ancient instruments in 1900, but by the Treaty of Versailles were forced to return them,—the only actual advantage that China secured in joining the Allies. The site of the Old Examination Hall with its thou- sands of tiny prison-like stalls can be seen from here. ‘The new building to house the Chinese Parliament will probably occupy its place. The National Art Museum, one of the most unique among world museums, is inside the Imperial City, and is open to all visitors. It displays the most elaborate and remarkable Chinese collection of art objects in existence: cloisonné, porcelains, carved ivories and jade, embroideries, paintings, images, bronzes, furniture, weapons and every conceivable object of age-old China. It represents the life and history of China in miniature. ‘The collection is esti- mated to be worth over a hundred million dollars. One hall is given over to bronzes, mostly dating back 1000 to 1500 B.c. Such a collection helps to impress the mind with the remarkably advanced civilisation which existed in China in those remote times. : The Botanical and Zodlogical Gardens, a few miles west of the city, have a modern setting and have become a popular pleasure garden. The Wu Ta-szu or Five Towered Temple, donated by a rich Hindu, is a very distinctive object, but is in rather a Ment NG HINT § 219 dilapidated condition. It is difficult of access, being reached by a walk through the rice-fields. It is in Hindu style of architecture, on a square marble terrace, fifty feet high, reached by inside stairs, and from this terrace rise the five tow- ers of the Temple, all richly carved with Hindu characters. Cart RA Le HEN DS Hotels. Peking has attractive hotels, namely the Grand Hotel de Peking, Hotel des Wagon Lits, Astor Palace, etc. The hotels make high charges, but are very comfortable. Conveyances. It costs about $5.00 (American) for half a day and $10.00 a day for a carriage. Rikishas are thirty cents an hour and $2.00 a day. Motors cost $15.00 to $20.00 for half a day. All prices, however, everywhere in Asia, are apt to go up when American tourists appear. Shopping. Peking is the finest shopping centre in China for Chinese curios (many of them spurious), porcelains, embroideries, rugs, cloisonné, lanterns, silks, brass-ware, carved jade and ivories. A general description can be found under Practical Hints on page 196, giving a detailed list of purchasable articles. As shopping centres, Canton would rank second and Shanghai third. Churches. Among Protestant Churches, the Methodist is inside the Chungwenmen gate; the A. B. C. F. M. (Con- gregational) is at the northeast of —Tung-Tan-pai-loa, and the London Missionary Society and the Presbyterian Church have mission activities at Chungwenmen. The Roman Catholic Church is at Tung-Chiao-min- hsiang. “The various American Missions have several col- leges and some schools for both sexes. Y.M.C. A. In April, 1920, the Y. M. C. A. celebrated its twenty-fifth Chinese Anniversary, at which time the President of the Republic gave one thousand delegates a reception in his own grounds and palace where formerly the Chinese Emperors resided, and made them a cordial and appreciative address of welcome. ‘There is also a successful and well-housed Y. W. C. A. 220 CHINA Peking University is one of the characteristic schools of highest college standard, carried on under missionary au- spices, in which all Americans should be profoundly inter- ested. “This University comprises the union of all the higher Christian educational institutions in and near Peking, two colleges for men, one college for women and one theological school being combined. ‘There is a large student attendance, representing almost every province of the vast Republic, although hundreds are turned away every year on account of inadequate accommodations. ‘The faculty consists of forty-one Americans and Europeans, and of thirty Chinese. Of 450 alumni, there are 71 ministers, 133 teachers, 37 doctors, 36 Y. M. C. A. secretaries, and 19 hold govern- ment positions. Forty-five former students are continuing research and graduate work which will enable them to take leadership in the great advance movement of the Chinese Republic. The National Imperial University carried on by the government has 3,000 students. ‘The new Student Movement, which is one of the largest factors in the hope of China’s regeneration, is intensely patriotic and is dominated by a high ideal. At the same time, there is danger of its being swayed by contrary forces such as Bolshevism, communism and atheism. ‘This was evidenced in their leadership of the strikes and anti-foreign riots of 1925. The government colleges are quite indiffer- ent to all religions and are usually antagonistic to Chris- tianity. Hence the Christian people of America should feel that the carrying on of such institutions as Peking Univer- sity is absolutely imperative, if China is to become imbued with the spirit of Christianity. The Rockefeller Foundation has just established the Union Medical College and Hospital at a cost of five mil- lion dollars, which it also supports. It is the most scientific institution of its kind in Asia and specialises in experimental work and research. CHINESE WALL 221 GREAT WALL OF CHINA ‘The famous Great Wall can be most easily seen on the railroad journey from Mukden to Peking. It is from twenty to fifty feet in height and has towers forty feet high at intervals of every two hundred yards. It is the only work of human hands that an astronomer with a high-powered telescope could see from the moon. In it are more materials than in all the buildings in Great Britain put together. ‘This Wall and the Egyptian Pyramids are the only ones of the seven ancient wonders of the world that remain today. It was completed after fifteen years of work in 204 B.c., prob- ably having employed an average of half a million of men. If it were built in the United States it would reach from Philadelphia to “Topeka, Kansas. It extends seventeen hundred miles (with loops and branches representing seventeen hundred additional miles), beginning at the sea shore near Tienstin and extending to the western border of China’s outer province of Kansu. It was built as a defence against the JTartars, and while it served to prevent small marauding expeditions, it did not hinder the Tartars from finally taking possession of the Chinese Capital at Peking. The Wall is still, as a whole, in fair condition, although broken and crumbling in some parts. Shan-hai-kuan, with a population of 30,200, 260 miles from Mukden, en route to Peking, is the most advantageous place to stop to see the Great Wall. MHere is the famous Barrier Gate and Castle at the eastern extremity of the Great Wall. It was a strategic position from which to repel the attacks of Manchurian and Mongolian invaders. The East Gate is thirty feet high, built with two stories, the tablet with the inscription ““The First Gate in the Realm” being in the upper story. ‘The view from the top of the East Gate is magnificent, giving the landscape on both sides of the Great Wall, revealing its irregular line climbing up and down over the various mountain ridges. 222 CHINA The Great Wall and the Ming Tombs can also be reached from Peking by a ride of four hours on the Peking- Kalgan railway,—a distance of over one hundred miles, with a further ride of some miles by sedan chairs. It is hardly feasible, however, for people spending only a couple of days in Peking, to make this trip. TERE NC Sa Tientsin, 2 city of 800,000 people, is eighty-six miles from Peking and hence the traveller often uses this port as the connecting link. In order to reach Tientsin, the tourist on the larger ocean steamers must stop at the Taku anchorage, eight miles from Taku, where a transfer is made to steam launches of 500 to 800 tons displacement. ‘These enter the shallow river at full tide, and in two hours reach Tang-Ku, where a railroad trip of 27.2 miles is usually taken to ‘Tientsin or the journey may be continued thirty-four miles by boat. Peking is also reached from Taku. At Tientsin there are two railroad stations, the East and Central, the former being near the foreigners’ quarters. The hotels are the Astor House, which is the best, and the Imperial, which is comfortable. The Old Wall of former days has been demolished and has given place to a wide, modern street with electric cars. Each important country has its own Consular Settlement, that of the British consisting of 950 acres, the others being proportionately large, but the United States has no adequate provision for its consul and its citizens. Tientsin has little of beauty in its surroundings, being situated on a large sandy plain. ‘There is also little of tourist interest in the way of distinctive Chinese temples or ancient works of art, as the city was small before it became a centre of trade and military activity. The Li-kung-tzu Temple was built in 1905 and was dedicated to Li-Hung-chang. ‘The grounds have an attrac- tive lake covered with lotus flowers. SHANGHAI 223 The Industrial Bazaar is situated in a Publi¢ Garden and exhibits the various products of the Chihli Province as well as those of other parts of China. Sun’s Floral Garden, a private garden open to the public, is owned by a wealthy Chinaman named Sun. The Botanical Garden near the Central Station has attractive tea houses and several artificial lakes, making it a popular resort, | BrtieN Cy bt AN Large ocean liners dock at Woosung (the port station thirteen miles from Shanghai), at the point where the Whangpoo and Yang-tze Rivers meet, sending passengers for that city up the river on tenders. On the Whangpoo may be seen such a variety of boats as to almost give a history of Chinese navigation. On either side of the bow of old Chinese craft, the customary eye is painted, presumably to enable the boat to see where it is going. Great modern passenger steamers; ‘““bumboats’’ rowed by means of the long yuloh; large sampans majestically spreading their brown sails, in sharp contrast to the smaller ones with their ugly huddled squalour; houseboats, gasolene launches and grace- ful private yachts; stern-wheel boats operated by “rice- power’ with twenty-four coolies on a treadmill; gaily deco- rated red flower-boats which one may rent for feasts; primi- tive foot-boats with oars operated by the feet; hundreds of cargo-boats piled high with everything from bags of sand to coffins; high-pooped junks that delight the eye of the artist, and Chinese naval cruisers luminous with white paint,— these together present a picture with a thousand variations that makes a fascinating approach to the City. The Yang-tze River takes its rise in the mountains of Central ‘Tibet, 3,000 miles away. It drains 600,000 square miles and 200,000,000 people live in this fertile territory. Sometimes called “the river of fragrant tea fields,” and also “child of the sea” in the poetical language of the Chinese, 224 CHINA it is one of the world’s largest rivers, being thirty miles wide at Shanghai. ‘Traces of its muddy waters are visible for forty miles out in the ocean. “The Yang-tze will be the central stage of China’s crisis when it comes. It forms a natural dividing line between North and South China, rais- ing the question whether, in view of the different languages and types of people, two Chinas would not be better than one. Shanghai, next to Hong-Kong, is the most important com- mercial port in China. The imports and exports each total more than $320,000,000, the principal imports being cotton cloth, steel and kerosene, and the exports being silk, skins, tea, wood, oil, etc. ‘The trade territory of Shanghai em- braces the whole northern part of China. Shanghai is the Paris of the Far East, and has 1,538,500 inhabitants (1922). It does not furnish any distinctive Chinese sights, except the usual bewildering glimpses of the characteristic Chinese streets, shops and homes. It has 20,000 foreigners, of whom 1,500 are Americans. Shanghai has had a wide reputation for festive wicked- ness regarding which the foreign residents have been some- what sensitive. ‘There has, however, been a big improve- ment in the district controlled by the International Municipal Government. Its Moral Welfare League has succeeded in driving out the numerous brothels and vice centres but, of course, most of the dissolute characters have simply moved into the French Concession or into the Chi- nese city which still continues to license dens of vice. Missionary activities with nearly 500 workers are busily engaged in their uplift work. It is hard to keep moral restraint in a city with triangular municipal governments which do not co-operate with one another. It is the fashionable rendezvous of the Far East. ‘The quality folk drive past the Bubbling Well in automobiles of the latest models, much as New Yorkers frequent Central Park in their stylish equipages. “There are handsomely gowned women everywhere displaying the most advanced Parisian fashions. SHANGHAI 226 In the Treaty of Nanking,—the first treaty between China and any foreign Power,—Shanghai was named as the most northern of the five ports which were to be opened for resi- dence and trade. At that time it was only a fishing village, and the now handsome Bund was merely a footpath along the water front. Now everywhere one sees great office buildings, hotels, warehouses, factories, and every sign of modern business life. Shanghai has from the beginning vied with Hong- Kong in being the most progressive city in China. ‘There are some landmarks that are conspicuous, including the Custom House, the Cathedral, the Lyceum Theatre, the Hotels and private Clubs, as well as some very pretentious and modern Chinese theatres. Shanghai is in part an international city governed by the Treaty Powers, but there are three municipalities,— Chinese, French and the International. “The last named is governed by a council whose members serve without salary, who are chosen by European, American and Japanese tax- payers. [he wealthy Chinese taxpayers are agitating the matter of being represented in this international municipality - in view of the fact that nine-tenths of the taxes collected in Shanghai are paid by the Chinese. ‘There are large and progressive Chinese enterprises like the Commercial Press, which employs over 2,000 skilled workers. It has ail the phases of social betterment, such as restaurants, roof garden, savings bank (giving nine per cent. interest), bonuses, pensions and death benefits, and its work is limited to nine hours a day. The International Council is responsible for the beautiful roads and parks and modern improvements, having made the city a model foreign settlement, both as regards beauty and sanitation. ‘The fact that Shanghai is in reality an international city makes a complication of judicial courts. Every foreigner is amenable only to the laws of his own country. ‘This results in the anomalous condition that the citizen of one coun- 226 GIPTP NA try may be fined or imprisoned for doing what a citizen of another country may do with impunity. There is in Shanghai a mixed court for cases between foreigners and Chinese with two magistrates,—a Chinese and a foreigner. Shanghai is dominated by foreign people and influences. Great manufacturing plants have been established, as the natives are quickly trained and prove themselves industrious workers. ‘There are many cotton mills owned largely by the Japanese and it was the inhuman conditions in these that gave rise to the strikes and riots in the early summer of 1925 which afterwards spread over the empire. Under normal conditions Shanghai is the great commer- cial centre of China. With foreign capital and the cheap and skilled Chinese labour, together with raw materials almost at the door, it will be able to undersell in certain activities all the rest of the world in a very few years. ‘The street scenes are full of colour, with every sort of national costume. ‘There are Chinese from every province in the country, natives from all parts of the Indian Empire, together with Japanese, Russians, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Americans, Malays, Parsees, Sikhs, Koreans, Cingalese, Per- sians, Turks, Javanese,—in fact, every country under heaven is represented, making a medley of picturesque humanity. While Chinese Shanghai is shabby and malodorous, Euro- pean Shanghai is as proud and pretentious as London or New York. ‘The Bund which faces the water-front might in appearance be the Michigan Boulevard of Chicago, and its great banks, legations and residences make a regal city. The highest buildings are of six stories, as the mud founda- tions make higher buildings impracticable. PRINCIPAL SiG In addition to several Chinese and Japanese parks, there are four others reserved for foreigners: the Public Garden, which contains some notable monuments, the New Garden, the Hongkew Garden and the French Public Garden. SIGHTSEEING 227 Foochow Road is a sort of “great white way” with gay theatres and elaborate restaurants making an attractive place for an evening visit. At Tibet Road begins the Bubbling Well Road, an old and famous residence street. Here is the race course which formerly was in the outskirts, but is now near the heart of the city. When great races are on, Shanghai takes a half holiday. Here are also cricket grounds, tennis courts, and a band stand where public concerts are given. “The American colony is in the French settlement, having many palatial homes on Joffre Avenue. ‘The Rubicund Road is the great motor drive, the round trip of which can be made within an hour. It includes a charming panorama of suburban and country life. In the native city is a garden with an interesting temple dedicated to the tutelary god of Shanghai. ‘The conspicuous seven-story pagoda is connected with the Loong-wha-loy temple, which makes a worth-while visit for people who are not sated with temples. The Radio Corporation of America has built a 1,000,- o0o0o-watt central radio station at Shanghai with seven steel towers one thousand feet high, the tallest structures ever designed. ‘This station will connect with radio stations in the five provinces of China and other parts of Asia. ‘The total cost is $13,000,000. Night life in Shanghai means the elbowing of one’s way through Chinese crowds which are surging in the streets, the theatres and the tea houses. In the latter places the “sing-song’ girls and noisy tom-tom musicians are giving their characteristic form of entertainment. The Chinese are devoted to the “movies” and enjoy Amer- ican films which are duly expounded by an interpreter, gesticulating like an acrobat, at the side of the stage. Charlie Chaplin is their beau ideal of a comedian. The Chinese theatres are probably the most pretentious in the country, with exceptionally imposing buildings of striking architectural design, and with stage settings of a particularly rich and elaborate character. 228 CHINA PRACTICAL "FAG Hotels. ‘The best hotel is the Astor House, with 200 rooms and elaborate modern improvements. “The Palace is also entirely comfortable. The prices run from six to ten (American) dollars a day and everything is on a corresponding scale. It costs five dollars an hour for the hire of a motor car, and twenty-five cents for a daily paper. Vast profits made in the World War trade have remained untaxed, and the high cost of living is growing apace. ‘There are evidences of luxury which are hardly surpassed in New York or London and at a higher cost. Conveyances. Cacttigest with horses are about one dollar (American) an hour; a half day, three dollars; a full day, five dollars. Rikishas can be had at more mod- erate rates. Prices are apt to vary according to the appli- cant, being noticeably higher to American tourists. Missions. ‘The various missionary societies have large activities and many workers, who together make up a colony of several hundred Americans and Europeans. ‘The prin- cipal missions are the London Missionary Society in Shan- tung Road, the American Presbyterian Mission in Peking Road, the Church Missionary Society in Range Road, the Southern Methodist in Quinshan Road, the American Prot- estant Episcopal in Jessfield Road, the China Inland Mission in Woosong Road and the Roman Catholic in Woochang Road. Churches. Among these are the Holy Trinity Cathe- dral in Kiangse Road, the Union Church in Soochow Road, the Church of Our Saviour in Broadway and St. Joseph’s Catholic Church on Rue Montauban. The Cantonese Baptist Institutional Church on the Bund has kindergartens, baths, gymnasiums, tennis courts and a hall for giving entertainments and religious plays. There are Bible Societies that sell hundreds of thousands of Bibles in the vernacular, as well as large and active PreeeCTICAL HINTS 229 organisations of the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., and other Christian philanthropies. Mission Schools. Among the mission schools are the Thomas Hanbury School for Eurasian children, the Anglo- Chinese College in Quinshan Road, and the London Mission College in Hongkew Road. There are many public and private schools both for European and for native children. St. John’s University is one of the foremost in China, set in a beautiful campus, and is under the direction of the Episcopal Church. St. Luke’s and St. Elizabeth’s Hospitals, the London Mission Hospital, the Margaret Williamson Hospital for Women, the McTyerie High School for Chinese girls and many chapels, secondary schools, orphanages, etc., are carry- ing on a large and transforming work. The Siccawei Settlement (Catholic) has some large mis- sionary activities, including a school of several thousand girls, who are taught embroidery and lace making, and nearby is a factory, where boys learn to make carved teakwood furniture and articles in metal. The large output makes this work profitable, as well as useful. Shopping. ‘The Nanking Road is the most conspicuous shopping street, with prominent foreign and native shops. Two large Chinese department stores, occupying opposite sides of the street at the Chekiang Road crossing, have roof gardens, restaurants and a great variety of merchandise. The best native shops are found in the International Settlement and silks and furs in the Honan Road. People who wish to shop in China and have no opportunity to do so in Peking or Canton had better do their buying in Shanghai. The best jewellery is to be found on Nanking Road, although on side streets the prices are lower but often the goods are not so reliable. “The best shops are sometimes one price (although even here discreet bargaining may be advantageous). In the native shops a half or a third or less of the price asked should be paid. Here are to be found Chinese jewellery, ivories, porce- 230 CHINA lains, carved chopsticks, idols, brocades, antiques, jade, man- darin coats and embroidered linens and silks, all of excellent quality and quite reasonable in price. Hu-tsen, or “the city,” is the native quarter as distinguished from the con- cessions and suburbs. It has many narrow, filthy streets which, however, contain some fine shops with silk brocades, curios, jewellery, porcelains and many forms of ivory work. In the centre of Shanghai is a small artificial lake, in the middle of which is the “Willow Pattern Tea House,” so famous in pictures sometimes seen on china plates, with its romantic story of the eloping lovers who fled from here and were turned into doves. ‘They not only serve tea in this dingy retreat, but there are booths for shoppers, curios being a specialty—Shanghai, with the exception of Peking, being the best curio centre. “There is a kaleidoscopic picture of Chinese life in all this part of the city. Many Chinese men bring their birds here with them, as it is their custom to take these pets out for an airing. The bird cages are gaily decked with tassels and have fancy cups for food and water. The members of the family are often left at home, but the bird is never forgotten. HONG-KONG The island of Hong-Kong (the word means “Fragrant Streams” because boats formerly got their water from the hillsides) is eleven miles long and from two to five miles wide, with an area of thirty square miles. Owing to the fact that British traders were not allowed to do business in Canton, they were granted permission, in 1842, to establish themselves at Hong-Kong. At the close of the Opium War, Great Britain acquired it under the terms of the Treaty of Nanking. Hong-Kong is in a very strategic position, as it controls the Straits of Malacca on the south, and the Straits of Formosa on the north, and is on the direct highway to the trade of China and India. SIKH TRAFFIC POLICEMAN AT HONGKONG CARRYING CHICKENS. NOTE BAMBOO SCAFFOLDING HONG-KONG 231 It has a commerce second only to London and New York, the total imports (1923) being 248,083,450 taels, and the exports, 175,796,249 taels (a tael is 77 American cents). Hong-Kong is becoming the great Asiatic emporium of commerce because of the new railway to Canton, connecting also with other parts of China, and of the new railways to Singapore, Calcutta, Bankok and other Asiatic centres. The Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation is financially behind many of the great enterprises, such as mines, railways, and manufacturing interests. In 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula across from Hong-Kong was acquired by Great Britain, and in 1898 another strip was added, making a total of 800 square miles. ‘The Euro- pean part of Kowloon has many attractive new buildings. Hong-Kong is a Crown Colony, the Governor General and an Executive Council of seven members having full con- trol, although there is an Advisory Legislature of thirteen members, including two Chinese. The entire group of islands, of which Hong-Kong is one, was called the Ladrones or Robbers’ Islands at a time when the entire adjoining sea coasts, and the Pearl River as well, were infested with cut-throat pirates. It is still true that some small freight steamers are occasionally attacked, and all passenger vessels have armed guards to insure safety. The Harbour is fifteen square miles in size, well pro- tected, sufficiently deep to admit the largest ocean steamers, and is surrounded by mountains on the mainland having an altitude of over 3,000 feet. “Iyphoons sometimes play havoc with shipping, but do not occur during the usual tourists’ season. In a typhoon in 1906 there was a casualty list of 10,000, and in 1874, 50,000 lost their lives along the coast in the region of Macao. A meteorological station, now giving advance warning, usually prevents any serious disaster. One can encircle the entire Island via a fine military road, in a motor ride of twenty-two miles, thus getting delightful perspectives of mountain and sea views. It is one of the really charming drives in Asia. It is usual for people who 232 CHINA motor over this course to stop for afternoon tea or dinner at the Repulse Bay Hotel, which is an idyllic spot, the superb Hotel having a picturesque setting. The name of the city itself, which extends four miles along the Bay front, is Victoria, but this name is usually ignored in the larger name of Hong-Kong. It undoubtedly is the most beautiful city in the Far East. The population (1922), including Kowloon, is 625,166, but there are less than 15,000 foreigners, including the army and navy. Although ninety-five per cent. of the people are Chinese, Hong-Kong itself is not a Chinese city. It is distinctively British, and the evidence of British control is seen in the great engineering triumphs, the superb roads, the beautiful business buildings, the splendid hotels, and in an unmis- takable air of prosperity. It is very evident that the coming of Great Britain to Hong-Kong has been a great blessing. In seventy-five years Britain has transformed a little fishing village on a bare island, in a region infested with pirates, into one of the great world-centres of trade. On every side in Hong-Kong one can see the results of British efficiency, law and permanence. One is impressed in seeing sizable hills being removed by the handwork of coolies to make way for stately buildings. The strikes of 1925 paralysed business for a time. The port is free, save for opium and liquors. The baggage of visitors is rarely examined. Opium remains a British Government monopoly, and while the Government visits heavy penalties upon smugglers, opium is freely sold by the Government and widely used, thus making the Government responsible for the continuation of a degrading vice which the Government of China has been trying in vain to extirpate. This is really a serious indictment against Great Britain’s otherwise broad and beneficent colonial programme. Hong-Kong is developing a number of manufacturing plants, including sugar refineries, rope, glass and cement factories, and ship-building docks. ‘This is all the more SIGHTSEEING 233 remarkable in view of the fact that all its raw material must be imported from long distances. Hong-Kong furnishes a most unusual night scene, whether from a ship in the harbour looking upon the ascending glory of lights to the top of the Peak, the entire city and mountain appearing to be decorated with luminous diamonds,—or whether one stands on the Peak and looks down upon a city with its unusual brilliant lighting and the harbour radiant with scores of illumined ships, including warships of many nationalities, and then beyond to the lights of Kowloon. Such a view makes one of the memorable nights of life, and is an outstanding experience in Round-the-World travel. Approaching Hong-Kong, the landing is made at Kow- loon near the ferry. One can cross this ferry to Hong-Kong, disembarking on the Esplanade or water-front with its im- pressive row of buildings given over to shipping and com- merce. A short climb up to a higher level brings one to the Government buildings, hotels, churches and shopping dis- tricts. There are three parallel business streets, on which most of the shops and commercial houses are located, each on a progressively higher level. ‘The one facing the water-front is Connaught Road, the next is Des Voeux Road, and the third is Queens Road. ‘These three embrace most of the business section, although large districts are given over to Chinese shops, many of them large and up-to-date. Still ascending, one passes through villas with charming gardens, including the small and not very important Botani- cal Garden. One governor was instrumental in planting one million trees on the Island during his administration. From this stage one can take the funicular railway to the . Peak, or, if preferred, the heights may be reached by an extraordinarily picturesque automobile road, making sweep- ing circles with striking panoramic views. The Peak is 1,828 feet above the Bay, and its slopes are clustered with the attractive homes of British residents set in exquisite little terraced gardens. ‘The Peak gives a pano- 234 CHINA rama that fairly makes the beholder gasp with its variety and beauty. From this point of vantage “the Peakites look down upon the ‘Kowlunatics.’”” At the flag-staff above the Peak, Canton itself can be seen on a clear day. Hong-Kong on account of its recent growth has few dis- tinctive sights, although the City is a constant delight, and its walks in the “Happy Valley” and its incomparable drives make most enjoyable objectives. Most of Hong-Kong and Kowloon consists of ‘“China- town, and rikishaing and walking through the kaleido- scopic streets is a source of perennial interest, especially to those who have seen little of the native life in other Chinese cities. ‘The Chinese here do not live in small shacks lining narrow alleys, as is true elsewhere in China, but in wide streets having high tenements, many dwellers being crowded together in a single room. It is not uncommon to see women coolies engaged in the heaviest kinds of manual labour, such as carrying stone and building materials in two baskets suspended cn a pole car- ried over their shoulders. “These women work for twenty- five cents a day, and the cost of male labour is only a little higher. Of course their manner of living is very primitive, and they are easily satisfied with a bowl of rice and fish and some fruit. A corner of the floor, or a stone by the wayside is often, apparently, a sufficient bed. Nearly 50,000 live in the sampans and other watercraft of the Bay and River. The Sing-song girls in the floral boats and in the restau- rants give a little artistic touch in costume and dancing to the sordid surroundings of their slavish life of shame. GENERAL FAG Es Hotels. The principal hotels are the Hong-Kong, Astor, Grand, Carleton, King Edward, and the Peak. ‘The prices are quite high but the service, as a rule, is excellent. Hong-Kong has its own currency, but its value is about GENERAL FACTS 235 the same as Chinese money elsewhere. English money is also current. Conveyances. It is difficult to give any exact rates for chairs, rikishas, or motor cars. Chairs usually may be hired for twenty cents (American) an hour, or about two dollars a day. Motor cars are about three to five dollars per hour. The Kowloon Ferry has a fare of ten cents, with poate usually running every ten minutes. Climate. ‘The climate is quite temperate, though the summers are hot. The annual average is 72°. ‘The average temperature in July is 87° and in February 62° F., rarely falling below 45°. Kowloon is cooler than the City itself, as it gets the monsoon breezes. Since 1894, when 3,000 people died from bubonic plague, mosquitoes have been destroyed and the plague practically eliminated. There is a fine system of pure water for Hong-Kong and Kowloon. Churches. St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopal), erected in 1842, located in Garden Road, St. Peter’s (for sailors), St. Stephen’s (for Chinese), a Union Protestant Church in ‘ Kennedy Road, a Wesleyan Chapel, several Roman Cath- olic Churches, including the Cathedral in Caine Road, a Jewish Synagogue, two Mosques, and a Sikh Temple (the Police are Sikhs, numbering 1,341 men), provide for the religious needs of Hong-Kong. Some of these Cathedrals and Churches make conspicuous landmarks on the ascend- ing slopes of the city. Sir John Bowring, who wrote the immortal hymn “In the Cross of Christ I Glory,” was a Governor of Hong-Kong at the time of its writing. Schools. ‘There are twelve primary and secondary gov- ernment schools, with 28,707 pupils, carried on at an annual expense of $478,583, besides several private and mission schools conducted by various denominations. Hong-Kong University, dating from 1910, with 309 students (1922), which is a conspicuous feature of the landscape, has mostly Chinese young men. In 1922 the Rockefeller Foundation 236 CHINA donated $500,000 for chairs of medicine and surgery. Queens College is also open to the Chinese. Shopping. It should be distinctly understood that Hong-Kong does not compare as a shopping centre with Canton, Shanghai or Peking, but it is the best place to buy the peacock-back chairs of reed or grass. “These should not cost more than three or four dollars gold. “There are some Chinese articles, coming largely from Canton and Swatow, that are quite characteristic. Hong-Kong is an excellent place to secure Shantung silk suits at low prices, but it is important to furnish the Chinese tailors with well-fitting suits to serve as models. It is necessary to do careful bar- gaining all over China, although a few British and Chinese shops call themselves ‘‘fixed price’ establishments. Even here, however, discounts will often be made. “The China- man is a shrewd business man and naturally gets the largest price obtainable. At the same time, a bargain once made is strictly adhered to and a Chinaman in business is always reliable. ‘There is a current saying, “Never break your word with a Chinese, for he will never break his word with you.” Restaurants. In fine restaurants tourists may get appe- tising native dinners of bamboo shoots, shark’s fins, almonds, chicken, rice, birds’ nest soup, sweets and flower tea. Birds’ nest soup is made from the glutinous nests procured in the caves of Borneo. ‘The real article is extremely valuable, a single case being worth a thousand dollars. Hence substi- tutes are frequently made to pass for the original. THE TRIP« FAB A EA : ri 7 rey ae | ah vis ral ea Fo « | . v . — < es sry “ * | 3 ~ RE, BH . — eS - ot a ok j é ; + ; } j " , He's he. 4 ‘ ; ‘ ; ce li tt ie Ai nie si Ply tt nei Dh a4n% 5 ah%, eh — = r » ag! tr ! ‘ f feted, : A ‘. : sree tee 5 a a Apo a. § cheb ter a viet ty HA rend“ tee 7 PAQAN E oh “> gy DACA we a hee rm Pkt, ree pixie Latte pee | el ‘ ‘of ts eon Peer PIN O RULE 25% is that British investments in the Philippines are nearly double those of Americans, and every other nation, except America, is reaping the results of the American sacrifice of soldiers’ lives and the expenditure of American treasure. Public Schools. ‘he Public School system has suffered in equal proportion. American teachers have been largely removed to make way for Filipinos. There are now 11,000 Filipino teachers, and less than 300 American, with such a consequent demoralisation that even in the last years of the Harrison régime an effort was made to secure additional American teachers. ‘To make matters worse, Spanish was put on an equality with English in the curricula. Bureau of Science. The Bureau of Science, which covers botany, geology, zoology, forestry, and medicine, which once was unsurpassed in scope and efficiency, has become a farce. There are left in charge only two foreigners, an American and an Austrian, from a large staff which formerly was almost wholly American. As a result, dust, neglect and disorder have prevailed, and the Bureau of Science, which had played such a large part in the scientific knowledge and development of the Philippines, has become almost useless. Health Conditions. ‘The health conditions make even a worse showing. Under the Forbes administration, the deaths from smallpox had been reduced from 10,000 a year in 1903 to less than 1,000 in 1912, which was the last year of his administration. In 1919 under the Harrison admin- istration there were 45,000 deaths from smallpox. While cholera had been entirely stamped out in 1912, without a single case having developed during that year, there were 18,000 cases in 1919. There is now only one American left in the College of Medicine in connection with the University, and but three are left in the entire Health Service, the once splendid staff having been eliminated. The Constabulary at its maximum had 375 American officers, but now only 20 remain. ‘This has seriously low- ered the standard of discipline and morale. 258 PHILIPPINE JS faa The Administration of Justice is practically paralysed. In 1912 the Courts were up to their dockets. In 1920 there were 23,836 cases pending. THE QUESTION OF WITHDRAWAL It is perfectly clear to close observers that the withdrawal of the United States would result in immediate chaos and civil war, and would, to quote the Wood-Forbes report, “leave the Islands a prey to any powerful nation coveting their rich soil and potential commercial advantages.” It would be suicidal to our position as a world-power to abandon the Philippines with their tremendous strategic value. Our Asiatic commerce would be immensely crip- pled, we would be put on the defensive and our world supremacy would be sacrificed. At present the Philippines are not a financial burden on the American people, as the American tax-payer does not pay a single penny for our control of the Philippines, assuming that the navy and army forces which are stationed there would be employed else- where. The people do not want a severance of relation, feeling their need of the protection and the financial backing of the United States. They want all of the power and profit without assuming any of the risks. Already they have practically the same control over their Government that Canada and Australia have over theirs. The fact is, as has been indicated, that they have been given too much self-gov- ernment for their own good. ‘To have the United States entirely withdraw now would make them helpless against the encroachment of foreign military and naval powers. Furthermore, national defences must be provided and there must be a unifying of races and languages in order to give any entity or unity to the Islands. Education, especially higher education, must be developed on a much larger scale than is true at present. Japan’s Attitude. It would do the Filipinos little good feet S ALTITUDE 259 to have the United States withdraw, for it is certain that in a very short time the Islands would be taken over by a less friendly and philanthropic Power, probably Japan, by which the Islands have long been coveted. One need only consider the fact of Japan’s position and preparedness in the Western Pacific to realise what a pigmy antagonist the Philippines would be if the United States withdrew. During twenty-five years Japan has acquired For- mosa, Korea, Manchuria, Vladivostok, southern Sakhalin and the Marshall, Caroline, and Mariana Islands, and dominates Mongolia and Shantung. It has a standing army of 500,000 men, and reserves of 2,500,000 men. Half of her budget is for army and navy expenditure. Even as it is, the United States is in a very precarious condition to defend the Philippines in case of war. ‘The Philippines, unfortunately, are not as well protected as is Hawaii. ‘The guns on the fortified Corregidor at the en- trance to Manila Bay command only a small range, and could not cope with the powerful long range guns of Japan’s capital ships. To wage a successful naval conflict with Japan in the Western Pacific, the United States would need a navy twice its present size. The logic of the situa- tion is that Japan, if she continues to cherish her dream for Pan-Asian control, needs the Philippines in order to give her a free hand in Southern Asia. If Guam, Samoa, and the Philippines were in Japan’s hands, she would have unchal- lenged entry into all the waters of southern Asia, and make it possible for her to threaten the security of India, the Dutch East Indies, and even of Australia. Undeveloped Resources. It would also be a misfortune at this stage to turn over the full Filipino control of the Islands, because their resources have only begun to be devel- oped. “There are great stores of copper, iron, petroleum, coal and gold, which are almost untouched; and the incom- parable hard-wood forests are still awaiting the axe. While the Filipinos are good fishermen, deep-sea fishing is almost unknown. Only ten per cent. of the total area of the Islands 260 PHILIPPINE TSGaaeee is at present tilled. If the American control which was in evidence in the pre-Harrison Administration had continued, the development of their resources would have been much more rapid. If the resources were properly developed, the Islands could support 50,000,000 people. Japan, for in- stance, which is about the same size, and limited to one crop a year, supports nearly 60,000,000 people. ‘The Di- rector of Forestry in the Philippines says that the Islands could supply all the rubber, camphor, gums, resin, hard- wood, etc., that the United States could possibly need. GENER AD Wawa General Wood, since his arrival in the Philippines and his study of conditions there, has been trying to correct some of the very evident effects of mismanagement, and has thereby aroused the antagonism of the Filipino political leaders. The fact that he reinstated a Secret Service Agent, an Ameri- _can (who had been assigned by the United States Secret Service to act with the Manila police in suppressing gam- bling, and who was dismissed by the Filipino Mayor of Manila on a false charge of bribery), caused the members of the Cabinet and of the Council of State, all of whom are Filipinos but one, to resign on July 17, 1923. ‘The objection of the Filipino politicians to the reinstatement of this American official was in reality merely an excuse to give expression to the resentment against General Wood. Quezon, the President of the Senate and leader of the Nationalist party; Osmefia, the Speaker of the House, and Roxas, one of the parliamentary leaders, in 1925 visited the United States on a parliamentary mission. “They spent money freely, averaging $112.50 a day each while in Wash- ington, besides such items as $900 in one month for clothes and $560 for a single dinner. ‘This was taken out of the $500,000 voted annually by the Legislature to promote in- dependence. ‘They charged Governor General Wood with high-handed and autocratic interference. ‘They did their GENERAL WOOD 261 best to promote the passage of the Fairfield Bill which had been presented to the House advocating immediate inde- pendence. ‘They received no encouragement from Presi- dent Coolidge and Congress and returned discomfited. General Aguinaldo, most of the Filipino press and the grow- ing Democratic party are opposed to them and to their views. They are not inclined to accept the words of Quezon, “Better a government like hell by Filipinos than one like heaven by a foreign power.” In the Wood-Forbes report on the Philippines it is recom- mended that “in case of failure to secure the necessary cor- rective action by the Philippine Legislature, we recommend that Congress declare null and void legislation which has been enacted diminishing, limiting or dividing the authority granted the Governor-General under the Jones Bill. We recommend that under no circumstances should the Ameri- can Government permit to be established in the Philippine Islands a situation, which would leave the United States in a position of responsibility without authority.” Certainly these are wise words and the situation is in strong hands. On November 15, 1923 the Manila Chamber of Commerce sent a petition to Congress to revoke the Jones Act, and to institute an “enabling act establishing the Islands as an organic territory of the United States.” ‘This is based on the ground that the Filipino leaders are in open opposition to the sovereignty of the United States and are using the Legislature in seeking to accomplish this end, to the detri- ment of governmental and business interests. Dr. Dean C. Worcester, the author of “The Philippines, Past and Present,” who is regarded as the best authority on the subject, having spent many years in Government activities, says, ‘“Philippine independence is not a present pos- sibility, nor will it be possible for at least two generations.” THE PEOPLE The people belong to the Malay race, but are distinct in genealogy, language and characteristics. ‘There are forty- 262 PHILIPPINEAS Tae three tribes and eighty-seven different dialects. The ability to read and write English or Spanish gives every Filipino twenty-three years of age the right to vote, but even with a liberal interpretation of this rule, only about 600,000 males of voting age care to exercise the right. The three main groups that figure politically are the Visayans, who compose forty per cent. of the population, among whom Sefior Osmena, the Speaker of the House, is a conspicuous representative; the Tagalogs, with twenty per cent. of the population, among whom Sefior Manuel Quezon, the President of the Senate, is leader; and the Ilocanos, also forming twenty per cent., who are among the most hopeful and reliable of all the population. ‘The Tagalogs are the most aggressive and the best educated, but the least trust- worthy. While the politicians of these three divisions for political reasons are apparently working in harmony for independence, there is basically the utmost antagonism and distrust of one another. Most of the Filipino men of the better class wear Euro- pean clothes, those of lesser degree wearing pantaloons and a coat of cotton cloth. Women of the higher social standing wear dresses with large puffed sleeves made from the pina cloth, which is woven from the fibre of the pineapple leaf, making a rather wiry but soft and delicate transparent material. “They also wear dresses made from the jusi, a native fabric beautifully embroidered. The women as a whole can scarcely be called beautiful because of their light-brown skins and high cheek bones, but many of them are delicately formed, have long hair and small feet, and show real refinement. , The houses as a rule are only from one to three stories high owing to the frequency of earthquakes, although there are some modern steel framed buildings, five or more stories high. All the native languages have a Malay origin, but there are many dialects and these are so distinct, that people of THE PEOPLE 263 one island and even of one province cannot be understood by their adjoining neighbours. Spanish was the cultured language before the American occupation, some of the higher class Filipinos being able to speak Spanish only, but now English is becoming current, and until recently was gen- erally taught in the schools. Among the native population are twenty-seven non- Christian types. Of this number 25,000 are Negritos, a black dwarf race now rapidly becoming extinct, living in the mountainous districts, who are believed to be the aborigines of the Islands. ‘Their ideas of agriculture are primitive and they live mostly by hunting and fishing. ‘They show a fondness for music, having their own primitive bamboo flutes and harps. Their religion is simple as they worship only Nature, the moon being their principal deity. The Igorotes, or Head-Hunters, conquered them and in turn were overcome by Malay invaders, now known as Fili- pinos. The Igorotes have an interesting burial custom of “smok- ing their dead,’ much as we would a ham, except that it is carried to further lengths. When the process is finished, the corpse looks not unlike an Egyptian mummy. It is then placed in a sitting posture in the mountain burial caves. Some head-hunting is still occasionally carried on by the Igorotes in the mountain fastnesses. There are 300,000 Moros, mostly in the southern Mindanao and Sulu groups of islands, who are still quite savage and often treacherous, but they represent a high grade of intelligence. Dr. Dean C. Worcester, the eminent Philippine authority and former chief of the Department of the Interior, speaks of them as having reached the highest state of civilisation that non-Christian Malays have ever attained unaided. While nominally they are Mohamme- dans, they do not follow the rule of praying five times a day facing Mecca, nor observe the Ramadan, the month of fasting which is required of Mohammedans. One thing that makes the Moro a dangerous fighter in war is his belief 264 PHILIPPINE JS Layee that if he kills a Christian he is assured of attaining Para- dise. While the United States has finally won their con- fidence, the Filipinos, if they assumed government control, could never keep them under subjection, as they are sworn to resist the Filipino rule to the death, a fact which cham- pions of complete Philippine independence would do well to remember. In October, 1923, there was a Moro revolt, and fifteen Filipino constables were killed, and continued bloody strife has followed. The modern Filipinos are so afraid of having these pagan and undeveloped tribes seem to represent them that they have withdrawn all photographs of them from sale. Even students and historians are not permitted to see the fine collection which is now in the Department of the Interior. There is, of course, much mixed blood. Some of the ablest politicians are mixtures of Spanish and Chinese, mingled with a Malay strain. ‘The political agitators are largely of mixed pedigree and form a small oligarchy bent on self-aggrandisement and the amassing of wealth. There is much leprosy in the Islands. General Wood has been given authority to raise a million dollars in the United States for the leper colony at Culion where 5,000 lepers are being cared for. Filipino Characteristics. Many of the characteristics of the Filipino people are very admirable, such as boundless hospitality, natural kindliness, personal cleanliness, with a high degree of patriotism and a desire for education. Woman is man’s full social equal. The Filipino is teachable and precocious, although apt to be superficial. He is quite artistic and very musical, every village having its own band. In Manila, grand opera is the fashion, given by Fili- pino artists (although many of these are predominantly Spanish), and Filipino composers have actually produced creditable operas. The Manila Constabulary Band took — the second prize (the first going to Sousa) at the St. Louis World’s Fair, competing with contestants from all over the United States and from other nations. ‘The Filipinos are MANILA 265 so passionately fond of music that one hears the sound of it from every direction—pianos, violins, mandolins, guitars, all being skilfully played, and pianolas and victrolas are everywhere in evidence. MANILA: “The Venice of the Orient” The approach to Manila is through Manila Bay, the scene of Admiral Dewey’s history-making victory. It has an area of 770 square miles and a circumference of 120 miles, and it is undoubtedly the finest harbour in the Far East. There is a breakwater, behind which ships can seek protec- tion in stormy weather. Manila (the name means “shrubbery’”’) is situated on both banks of the Pasig River, which flows into Manila Bay, the river being spanned by a series of bridges. ‘There are also lesser bridges crossing a large number of canals con- nected with the river. As the Islands are in the seismic belt, they have suffered many invasions by earthquakes, the severest being in 1645, 1800 and 1863. Three stages of civilisation are represented, one being Malay, in the thatched houses; another, the Spanish type, left over from the Spanish occupancy, mostly centred in the Walled City; and the third, the American type, evident in the wide streets and up-to-date buildings. As late as 1904, Manila had no drainage system and a heavy rain would flood the streets with filthy water so as to make boats necessary. It is needless to say that the yel- low fever and cholera had bountiful harvests. A short horse car line was the only means of rapid transit and a 120 mile run from Manila to the northwest coast the only railway. There was little river traffic, as the mouth of the Pasig River was choked with sand. ‘The churches were the only build- | ings of consequence. Now there, are all the conveniences and modern improve- ments of any well conducted American city. A pure water 266 PHILIPPINE Is hanes supply furnishes the city with 22,000,000 gallons a day. A complete sewer system which cost over $2,000,000 keeps the city in a sanitary condition. ‘There are 150 miles of clean macadamized streets. There are sixty-one open squares and parks, some having familiar names like McKin- ley Plaza and Harrison Park, as breathing places for the populace. ‘The Luneta and the Hehan Botanical Gardens are conspicuous examples. Much land has been reclaimed from the sea, making de- sirable locations for public buildings, including the great up-to-date hotel. A modern fire department, splendid, well- kept markets, scientific hospitals, an organised police force maintaining law and order,—are all signal evidences of progress since the American régime began. SIGHTSEEING The Intermuros or Walled City is the most character- istic phase of Manila antiquity, the walls dating back to 1590. ‘These are two and a half miles in extent and from twenty to thirty feet high. Until 1852 they had moats and drawbridges, which were closed at 11 P.M. ‘The moats have been filled up, the space now being given over to fine ~ drives and athletic quarters. Five of the old gates remain, only three of which are well preserved. Fort Santiago is the site of the old native fortress, which was already built when the Spaniards came in 1570, and is now the Headquarters of the American Army. The Span- iards used it as a prison. On August 31, 1896, there were sixty Filipinos imprisoned in a single dungeon, who had been arrested on suspicion of being insurrectionists, and in the morning all but four were dead from suffocation,—a story suggesting a modern Black Hole of Calcutta. The Plaza McKinley is a small garden encircled by some of the chief public buildings of Manila. Here is a statue of King Charles IV of Spain, erected in honour of the intro- duction of vaccination, which occurred during his reign. BeGHTSEEING 267 The City Hall was built in 1878, taking the place of the one destroyed by the earthquake of 1863, and was designed by Sefior Roxas, a famous Filipino architect. On the main landing is the statue of Elcano, who after the death of Magellan in 1521, brought the expedition back to Spain, being the first leader who fully circumnavigated the globe. In the Marble Hall just beyond, the Philippine Assembly holds its sessions. The University of Santo Thomas dates back to 1611 and was established and is still controlled by the Dominican Order. It covers the usual University curricula, and has a Museum of Natural History. The University of Manila has thirty-one buildings and a student enrollment of 3,500. The Cathedral of The Immaculate Conception faces the Plaza McKinley. It is the chief church of Manila, founded in 1581. ‘The present building was constructed after the earthquake of 1863, and is Byzantine in its archi- tecture with a fine dome that is conspicuous even to ap- proaching ships. It suggests St. Mark’s in Venice, with a succession of fine chapels on both sides of the nave, which is of imposing proportions, with many pillars with gilded capitals and a dome with interior frescoes. At the Plaza McKinley are centred many churches so that, as they say in Manila, “one can stand and throw stones from one spot and hit seven churches.”’ Most of them are little used, except on gala occasions. The Aquarium has twenty-seven exhibition tanks includ- ing large ones for sharks and crocodiles, together with the multi-coloured fish that are found in the adjacent tropical waters. The Paco Cemetery consists of two concentric circular walls eight feet thick, containing 1782 niches for burial caskets, with 500 others in a separate court for children. In the outer ring, to the left of the main entrance, is the niche where José Rizal after his execution was interred. A wooden cross with his initials reversed (so as to avoid undue 2068 PHILIPPINE 1p attention) still remains. ‘These niches, after the fashion of the Colon Cemetery at Havana, are rented for five years, and if the rental is not renewed, the remains are removed and buried elsewhere. Luneta Park is the oval shaped Park which contains the Band Stand where the famous Constabulary Band plays several evenings a week. Here the better class of people, both foreigners and Filipinos, come to spend the evening, enjoying the cool sea breezes and listening to the music. This formerly was the Execution Ground under the old Spanish rule. Here is a large monument marking the place where Dr. José Rizal was shot. Dr. José Rizal. No sketch of the Philippines would be complete without a mention of this celebrated patriot and brilliant author. He was of a pure Tagalog family and showed remarkable gifts from his youth, writing poems at the age of five. He was educated in Manila and Madrid, receiving at the University in the latter city the degree of Ph.D. While at Brussels he wrote his famous novel, “Noli me tangere’ (Touch me not), in which he unveiled all the evils of the Spanish Government in the Philippines. ‘This made him so unpopular with the Spanish authorities that he was compelled to live in Europe, where he also wrote “El - Filibusterismo.” In 1892 he was given assurance of safety in Manila, but when he returned he was immediately exiled to Mindanao for four years. On suspicion of being an insti- gator of a dangerous rebellion, he was brought to Manila and suffered a long imprisonment. In spite of his brilliant de- fence and protestations of innocence at his long delayed trial, he was shot December 30, 1896. He is today the outstand- ing hero of the whole Filipino people, and the American Government in the Philippines has made the day of his exe- cution a public holiday. Bilibid Prison covers altogether twenty acres and its buildings can house 3,000 prisoners, men and women, although usually the number is less. ‘The buildings date SWEET DREANS| CIGARETTES HERE: MANILA CITIZENESS STREET SCENE IN MANILA SIGHTSEEING 269 from the Spanish occupancy. It is a remarkable sight for the tourist who visits this institution at 4:30 P. M. any day, to see the marching and elaborate calisthenics of the criminals, and the playing of various selections and patriotic American songs by the fine band of about fifty instruments, the members of which, though prisoners, seem proudly con- scious of the dignity of their position. At the close of this programme, the flag is saluted and the prisoners have their supper served at the public canteens. ‘The inmates are allowed to receive visitors and to converse freely with one another. “The Prison has extensive shops, making silver- ware, carriages and furniture, and carries on an extensive laundry which does work for outside citizens as well as supplying prison needs. ‘The Bilibid “graduates” are said to be in demand because of their honesty and mechanical skill. Escolta Street has many American and European stores and Rosario Street is lined with busy Chinese shops. ‘There are few characteristic articles for sale except Panama hats and some native embroidery. ‘The residential quarters are in the north and the south suburban districts. The Philippine carnival, held in the Wallace Field dur- ing one week in February, is the greatest of Philippine cele- brations. The whole city wears festival garb and masks and dominoes are everywhere seen in the streets. “There are many amusement features, elaborate parades and fashion- able balls, and also an exhibit of Philippine products, sug- gesting an American county fair. i American sports such as baseball, boxing, horse racing, polo, tennis, golf, are among the amusements. Cockfighting has been such a consuming passion that Americans have not found it possible to stop it, though they have tried to reduce attendance by making other sports more popular. ‘There are several cock-pits, which are large roofed sheds, holding upwards of 5,000 people—with heavy betting accompanying the actual bouts of the cocks. ‘The fighting cocks are armed with four inch artificial spurs, so that a cock battle usually 270 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS results in a casualty in a very few minutes. Sometimes the poorer people stake the wages of several days om their favourite birds. The Churches and Schools. In less than twenty-five years a great advance has been made by the Protestant Churches, there being now nearly 200 American missiona- ries and workers and as many ordained Filipino ministers, to- gether with 1600 lay evangelists and Bible women, and a membership of over 100,000. These Protestant denominations work in the utmost har- mony and are carrying on united activities in the manage- ment and support of thirteen hospitals, twelve missionary schools, two orphanages and a Union Theological Seminary. They have invested about two million dollars in buildings and equipments in connection with educational work. ‘The Bible, or portions of it, has been translated into twenty dia- lects for the people in the various islands. The Roman Catholic Church is the dominant Church, having been the only one when the Americans came. This Church has a Cathedral and about forty churches in Manila, with their own hospitals and orphan asylums and homes for the aged. PRACTICAL HINTS The Manila Hotel, which is run by the American Goy- ernment, is near the Luneta, and has 150 rooms and 120 baths, being equipped with a roof garden, grill room, and a ball room, where music is furnished by a Filipino orchestra. The Pasig River. An interesting trip is sometimes ar- ranged by boat going up the Pasig River, giving an exhibit of native life in the interior. ‘The river is bordered by primi- tive huts with scantily clad natives and busy laundrymen, besides native river craft,—all of which is very entertaining, but it hardly confirms the theory that the natives are ready for self-government. Such views of the interior can, how- ever, be seen to better advantage by an auto trip. PRACTICAL HINTS © 271 Money. ‘The standard of money is the peso, equal to fifty cents American. ‘The coins are peso, one-half peso, a peseta, one-half peseta, five centavo (2%4 cents), and one centavo (14 cent). American money is also current. Customs. ‘The only article on which travellers are ex- pected to pay duty is tobacco, although fifty cigars and five hundred cigarettes are allowed free. Liquor and firearms are forbidden. Duty on articles bought in the Islands to be shipped or mailed to the United States can be paid in advance at the Custom House. Climate. The highest temperature on record is 103.5° F., although 100° F. is rare, but the nights are comfortable and the climate uniform throughout the year. ‘The hottest month is May. Manila’s annual rainfall is 75.46 inches. Mer eeE MENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES The Philippines were ceded to the United States by the treaty with Spain, April 11, 1899, and although Spain was completely defeated, the United States Government paid her $20,000,000 for relinquishing all claim to the Philippine Islands, Guam and Porto Rico. The Governor General is General Leonard Wood, who was appointed February, 1921, and represents the sovereign power of the United States. He has six executive departments under his direction, all of whom, except that of Education, are now headed by native Filipinos. ‘The legislative body has a Senate of twenty-four members and a House of ninety-three representatives, elected by popular vote, all Filipinos. The Council of State, an extra-legal body appointed by former Governor General Harrison at the request of the Filipino leaders, unites the executive and legislative branches, and this includes the Governor General, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House, and the Secretaries of Departments. The Archipelago is divided into forty-seven Provinces, each with a provincial Governor. 272 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS There are altogether 3,144 islands, of which 1,095 are habitable. Eleven of the largest have a total of 106,823 square miles, all others having only 8,203,—the largest, Luzon, having 40,814 square miles, and Mindanao, 36,906 square miles. ‘The total population (1918) was 10,314,310. Manila has a population of 285,306, of whom 259,437 are Filipinos, 17,760 are Chinese, and 2,916 are Americans. There is a Supreme Court with a Filipino as Chief Jus- tice and eight associates, of whom three are Filipinos. ‘There are also Judiciary Districts and Municipal Courts. The Philippine constabulary has 5,902 enlisted men and 382 officers. ‘There are 13,000 troops of the United States Army, mostly Filipinos, and 8,700 Philippine scouts. “There is a militia which consists of all able-bodied natives from eighteen to forty-five years of age. The religion is Roman Catholic, but there is an independ- ent Filipino Church, patterned after the Roman Catholic, founded by Aglipay, a sort of Filipino Luther, with 1,361,- 740 members. Protestant Churches have a membership of 123,362. ‘There are many Mohammedans in Mindanao and Sulu, and altogether about 300,000 pagans. Education is free, secular and co-educational. In 1921, 1,128,997 pupils were enrolled, and $10,850,000 was ex- pended. Private schools register 28,838 pupils, and the State supports a University, which in 1924 had 5,993 stu- dents. The Islands have twenty-eight newspapers in Eng- lish, twelve in English and Spanish, twenty-seven in Spanish, and thirty-one in native dialects. ‘The revenues in 1923 were $33,407,415, and expenditures, $34,056,878. The principal products are hemp, cocoanuts, sugar, tobacco, corn and Manila hats. ‘There are 40,000 square miles of valuable forests, mostly virgin, and as much more in grass lands. Only 10 per cent. or about 11,000 square miles is under cultivation, of which 38 per cent. is in rice, 12 per cent. in corn, 5.5 per cent. in sugar cane and 2.2 per cent. in tobacco. ‘The Islands are rich in minerals. Im- ports in 1924 were $95,376,513, and exports, $129,554,404. FACTS AND FIGURES 273 1,016 vessels, mostly ocean liners on their way to the Far East, entered the harbour. There are 881 miles of railroad. When the United States took possession, there was one single narrow-gauge railroad of 120 miles. When the Hon. W. Cameron Forbes, afterwards Gover- nor General, came to the Philippines in 1904 as Secretary of Commerce and Police, he found only 350 miles all told of indifferent highways. Now there are over 6,000 miles. Among the Filipinos he was called “the Roadman,” as a term of honour. / The Philippine Islands have a larger area than England, Scotland and Ireland combined. ‘The distance from the northern tip of Luzon to the southern-most point of the Sulu Group is a distance equal to that from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. ‘The population is chiefly composed of Malays, of whom 91.5 per cent. are Christians, and 8.5 per cent. Moros and pagans. ‘The Filipinos are the only Christian Malay race in Asia. The Islands are directly in the path of all trade routes to the Far East, within sixteen hours from Hong-Kong by a fast torpedo boat destroyer, and within fifty hours from Singa- pore and Nagasaki. ‘They are centred within an isosceles triangle six hundred miles wide, the other two sides being twelve hundred miles long. Luzon is the largest Island and is about the size of the State of Ohio, the next in size being approximately as large as Indiana. The American Government purchased the extensive lands formerly owned by the Church Friars, and divided them up for purchase and leasing by the people, making loans to the small farmers and co-operating in the planting of sugar cane, hemp, rice and other products. American capitalists have also been encouraged to make investments. ‘The tariff of 1909 gave special favourable concessions to Philippine im- ports. Abaca, or manila hemp, forms nearly forty-five per cent. of all exports. The fibre is taken from the covering of the 2744 PHILIPPINE lS stalk of the plant and made into cordage, which seems almost impervious to wet weather. It is exceptionally strong and is used in the manufacture of ropes all over the world. The plant somewhat resembles that of the banana except that its stalk is smaller and its leaves narrower. It is gathered every four or five months, and an acre produces one half ton of dry fibre annually, worth over one hundred dollars, more than half of this amount being clear profit. There are over fifty million cocoanut trees in the Philip- pines, the nuts being used by the natives as food and drink and the wood and leaves as house building material. Copra is the meat of the cocoanut which is dried in the sun or by fire, and is widely used in this country for manufacturing purposes. Sugar cane grows luxuriantly, there being large factories for the manufacture of sugar, and rice is widely cultivated. Agriculture is the chief industry of the Islands and abaca, copra, sugar, tobacco and rice (in the order named), consti- tute 95 per cent. of all exports. Manufacturing plants have been established along various lines in cocoanut oil, sugar and cement, and a large quan- tity of furniture is made from palms, bamboo and rattan. There are sixteen hundred species of fish and twenty-five hundred species of trees, about five hundred being hard wood. ‘The lack of transportation, however, makes it diffi- cult to market the lumber which will eventually become available. The “lady of the night,” is a beautiful flower which opens after nightfall and has a choice and distinctive fra- grance. ‘The flowers of the ilang-ilang make a particularly fine perfume. Richly scented flowers like the ghantaca, jasmine and tube roses, are everywhere abundant. Among fruits, mangoes and mangosteens (the latter being called “King’s fruit”) bananas, pineapples, oranges, and others are raised in abundance. The Islands are potentially rich in widely distributed economic minerals, although the deposits are as yet largely Pee lOGRAPHY Fg es undeveloped, the greatest drawback being the difficulty in securing adequate capital. “There are large coal beds, both lignite, and semi-anthracite. With the exception of the water buffalo, which is almost indispensable for agricultural work, domestic animals are few and of inferior quality. Pigs and goats are numerous but sheep are scarce. Cattle of Australian and Indian origin are raised chiefly for their beef, horns and hides. Some American horses have been introduced in an effort to im- prove the native breed. fee BIBLIOGRAPHY The Isles of Fear, Katherine Mayo. ’25, Harcourt. Independence for the Philippines, J. E. Johnsen. ’24, H. W. Wilson. Brief History of the Philippines, L. H. Fernandez. ’19, Ginn. Self Government in the Philippines, M. M. Kalaw. ’19, Century. The Head Hunters, B. L. Kershner. ’21, Powell. Outlook for the Philippines, C. E. Russell. ’22, Century. Philippines, Past and Present, D. C. Worcester. ’21, Mac- millan. Corner Stone of Philippine Independence, F. B. Harrison. 22, Century. Former Philippines Through Foreign Eyes, A. Craig. ’17, Appleton. Philippines, C. B. Elliott. ’17, Bobbs. Spell of the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines, 1. Ander- son. ’16, Page. America and the Philippines, ’14, Doubleday. Recollections of Full Years, W. H. Taft. 714, Dodd. Americans in the Philippines, J. A, LeRoy. ’14, Houghton. JAVA “The Gem of the Indian Ocean” AVA is approximately the size of the State of New York with a population of nearly 35,000,000, or about 260 inhabitants to the square mile. ‘The Island at various times was invaded by the Hindus and Moslems. Indian immigrants probably visited there about the beginning of the Christian Era. Ptolemaus, a Greek geographer living in Egypt, reported in the second century A.D. that the Island was very fertile, and stone monuments have been found which show that a Hindu kingdom existed here in the fourth or fifth century A.D. ‘The influence of its earlier history is still paramount and from an ethnological standpoint scarcely any other part of the world is more interesting. It finally came under Dutch dominion in 1520, and has been ever since, with the exception of a brief British inter-regnum under Governor Raffles, later the founder of Singapore. The Dutch Government is essentially autocratic. It con- sists of an omnipotent Governor General who represents the Crown, and he, together with his heads of departments and the governors of the provinces, rule the country. Queen Wilhelmina has the second largest colonial empire in the world in point of population. ‘The Dutch, however, do not attempt to rule by force but by keeping local princes on their thrones and loading them with honours and gifts and making the population believe that these native princes really rule. They haye all the appearance of doing so, as they have gorgeously uniformed body-guards and very elaborate courts, but it is the Dutchmen who wield the power. In 1918, however, there was established a Colonial House of Representatives (Voolksraad) which assembled in Ba- 276 DUTCH GOVERNMENT 277 tavia. Of its forty-nine members, twenty-five are ap- pointed by the Governor General, and the rest are chosen by the local councils. “Twenty-four of these are natives and twenty-four Europeans and Chinese, the Speaker being se- lected by the Crown. This body is not really a legislature, having no authority to make laws, but it is consulted about budgets, military matters and political affairs. While jus- tice is administered by European Courts, most of the local cases are given over to the native chieftains under the con- trol of European civil service officers. In many places the old customs of the natives are recognised as law. Considerable development has been made under Dutch control. Schools and libraries have been opened. ‘The Javasche Bank has a charter for the issuing of bank notes, thus strengthening the credit systems of the Islands. Com- merce has been furthered, the foreign trade of all other na- tions being on a parity with the Dutch. ‘The Government, however, is so anxious to encourage capitalists in developing the Islands, that while the individual enterprises have coined money, realising often from 25 to 80 per cent. on their in- vestments, the Government has had a total deficit of 362,000,000 guilder in the last ten years. Irrigation sys- tems have also been developed and agriculture advanced to a high degree of efficiency and railroads and highways have been built. “The fact that the population of nearly 35,000,- ooo get a sufficient food supply from their own land, shows unusual fertility and effective agricultural methods. An important agrarian law, prohibiting the sale of lands owned by natives to people of any other countries, was passed in 1870 to protect native farmers from free competition with Chinese and Europeans, but the leasing of certain lands to natives of other countries was allowed. Of the Javanese population, 90 per cent. are farmers. The Government owns and operates coal, tin, and gold mines as a source of revenue, and carries on rubber and. other plantations. Only 110,000 Frotianders live in Java, or one to every 278 PAava 325 natives. As they usually are real settlers, and plan to make Java their permanent home, they educate their children here and maintain several high schools and colleges. English is rapidly being introduced, as may be judged from the English signs seen here and there, which sometimes need some grammatical amendments. For instance, at Buiten- zorg there is this gem: “It is niceful and lusty picnic to bathe down here. You can entrance fee for 50 cents each, children 25 cent. It is preparation to furnish eating.” THE PEOPLE The Javanese are delicately built, appearing much like Filipinos. The young women are very slender and supple, and do graceful native dancing. Islam permits four wives, but this is usually found to be too expensive. Divorce is the fashion of the day, requiring only a nominal formula. Some Javanese men are divorced twenty or more times. It requires only a few cents a day to feed a native, all that is necessary being some rice, dried fish, and sweets. Banana leaves serve as plates, cocoanut shells as cups, and fingers as forks. ‘The natives live in thatched huts, usually without floors. ‘The clothing used is limited, men largely being naked from their waist up, with a so-called sarong or skirt. In addition, the women wear the abaya, a sort of waist (often adorned with gold and silver coins for but- tons), which, however, is usually too short to meet the skirt, leaving a few inches of the body exposed. ‘Taken as a whole, it is the simple life. It is a Javanese custom for an inferior always to squat down in the presence of a superior. The people are given to small thefts and are not very reliable, but are respectful to authority, although occasion- ally there have been rumours and ripples of rebellion. The men are lazy, and let the women do the hard work. It is true all over the Far East that natives want all the white man’s rights and privileges without assuming any of his JAVA GIRLS IN HOTEL GROUNDS A JAVANESE LAUNDRY ® ? THE PEOPLE 279 duties and responsibilities. ‘The Javanese are a care-free people, the men and women,—mostly women, ploughing in their fields with their carabaos, or water buffaloes, and planting and harvesting rice in different parts of the field at the same time. In the evening one may see them gathered around their doors, laughing and singing their melodious folk-songs. “The Chinese, however, are the backbone of all business. At the hotels, hundreds of tourists are provided for with efficient precision, and waited on by barefooted Malays in turban and robe. ‘The hotel music is provided by Euro- peans, although the musical selections are largely of the popular American sort. Just outside the hotel on the green, one can see native men and women dancers, keeping slow rhythmic step to the weird tom-tom music. BATAVIA Steamers land passengers for Batavia at Tanjong Priok, opened in 1886 after the building of two great breakwaters. This is the real harbour of Batavia, although the city itself, five miles distant, can easily be reached by automobile, or by half-hour electric trolleys. In this short ride one passes half-hidden villages and lone huts, bamboo groves, banana, palm, cocoanut, rubber and chinchona (quinine producing) trees, with brilliant floral colouring everywhere. ‘There are in Java over 5,000 species of trees and plants, with a pro- fusion that seems inexhaustible. Batavia is a city of 240,000 inhabitants, with a world- wide trade, banks, parks, government buildings, shaded and asphalted streets, modern residences, and an unusually fine Museum. Batavia literally means ‘fair meadows.” ‘The purchase was originally made by an agreement for enough land to be enclosed in a bullock’s hide. The unsuspicious natives imag- ined they were getting a bargain, in view of the few square feet that could be enclosed, but the wily Dutch cut the 280 be hal He | bullock’s hide into the thinnest strips possible and made a connecting rope by which they encircled a large district. They had evidently heard the story of the founding of Athens. The city is divided into two distinct parts, namely, Ba- tavia and the newer part of the city, Weltevreden. Batavia is on rather low ground, and is given over almost wholly to business, only Chinese and natives actually living there. Europeans and the better classes generally live in Weltevreden, which is on higher ground. The former Palace of the Governor General, dating from 1708, is now used as the Department of Public Works, and is very quaint, having among other features old titles illus- trating Bible stories. “The Chinese quarters are intersected by a series of canals, giving the impression of a Chinese Venice. Near the City: Church,—a structure suggesting the artistic simplicity of the seventeenth century,—is a wall on which is set the skull of Peter Eberveld, a Eurasian, who in 1722 was the leader of a menacing rebellion that sought to drive the Dutch out of Java. He and forty-six other associates were beheaded. An inscription reads, “In detested memory of the traitor, Peter Eberveld, who was executed, nobody will be allowed to build in this place, either at this time or the future,” WELTEVREDEN In Weltevreden, the upper modern town, one finds all the hotels, government offices, clubs, shops and residences. There are long spacious avenues, shaded with tamarinds, palms and gorgeous plane trees. Everywhere are seen beau- - tiful homes set in palm-crowned gardens. Many bunga- lows are also built along the canals, which are in evidence on all sides, suggesting the city of Amsterdam. The Museum, with its handsome buildings in the Gre- cian style, is celebrated all over the scientific world. In SIGHTSEEING 281 front of the main entrance is a brass elephant presented by the King of Siam in 1871. In the room surrounding the central court are Javanese antiquities, armour, implements, art works, costumes, musical instruments, and fine metal work. The Treasure Chamber contains gold, silver and jewelled articles and ornaments of the richest workmanship,—a gor- geous and royal collection, that is one of the greatest sights of Java. ‘There are also bas-reliefs and statues from tem- ples and superb specimens of the paraphernalia of Buddhist worship. Rijswijk (Rice Town) is the fashionable street, on which are located the Harmonie Club, many handsome resi- dences set in oriental gardens, several of the most impor- tant hotels and the Department of Colonial Administration. The principal shops are also found in this street and in Noordwijk Street on the other side of the Tjiliwong River. Koningsplein (King’s Square) is very large, requir- ing an hour’s walk to encircle it. It seems rater bare at first sight, but this is intentional, as the people are so sated with luxuriant foliage that they find a relief in its wide and airy spaces. “The wealth and fashion of the City walk and drive in its broad avenues and attractive thoroughfares. The finest government buildings and residences front the Park, including the Governor General’s Palace, used by him only a small part of the year,—as his official and preferred residence is located in the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg. Here also are the Dutch Athletic Club, the Museum, the recreation grounds called Deca Park, the College for Civil Servants, the Royal National Historical Society and Library, besides several consulates and many palatial homes. In the Waterlooplein (Waterloo Square), commemorat- ing the Battle of Waterloo, is a column supporting the “Lion of Waterloo” on its pedestal. On one side of the Square is the High Court of Justice, a Palace that houses various governmental departments, the Concordia Club, and the Roman Catholic Church with two distinctive slender 282 JAVA towers. On Sundays the City Band gives musical programs here. Wilhelmina Park is small but charming, and very quiet and restful. In the centre is the Fort Prins Hen- drik, now used as an arsenal. The principal Java Hotels are the Des Indes, Der Nederlangen and the Grand Hotel de Java. ‘They are of one story, the rooms being surrounded by wide verandahs, with a cool delightful garden in the centre. “They are equipped with every reasonable convenience to be found in a tropical country. BUITENZORG The railway to Buitenzorg (word means “without care’) runs through extensive rice fields and banana and cocoanut groves and jungles, making a very engrossing ride, and showing the interior of Java with its villages, scattered bamboo, straw-thatched huts and picturesque native life. The Dutch stone houses with their red tiled roofs add a novel note to the harmonious landscape. Buitenzorg is the Capital of Java, and the official resi- dence of the Governor General. ‘There are some attractive public buildings and residences here, a museum, a club house and some beautiful neighbourhood drives. The city was founded in 1745 by Governor General Imhoff, and it has since been the place of the Governor’s permanent residence. ‘The population is 46,595, of whom 4,193 are Europeans. It is exceptionally healthy, with a moderate climate, although it is sometimes hot at mid-day. Hotel Bellevue has famous “mountain rooms,” with a superlative outlook, facing Mt. Salak and the cocoanut groves through which the Tjisdane River winds. The whole Island is filled with superb mountain scenery, but one must > go to Buitenzorg and beyond to see it. The Hotel Chemin de Fer near the station and the entrance to the Botanical Garden and the Dibbets Hotel are also com- fortable. BUITENZORG 283 The temperature varies from an average of 77.9° F. in September, the hottest month, to 76.1° F. in February, the coolest month, giving a range of less than 2° F. It has quite an extensive European quarter, as it is cooler here than in Batavia, and hence more attractive. It rains between two and five o’clock 220 days out of the 365, cool- ing and refreshing the air, after which people do their walk- ing and driving. tere BOTANICAL GARDEN This was inaugurated in 1817, and has been in charge of a succession of prominent scientific botanists. It is world- famous, having the most extensive collection of trees and plants to be found in any tropical botanical garden. It is a question, however, whether it is as beautiful as the Pere- deniya Garden in Ceylon. About 200 natives are employed in keeping the place in its orderly condition. It has an Herbarium, a Library of Agriculture, a Bo- tanical Museum, a Technical Museum, and a Zoological Museum containing reptiles and insects. “These are open between 9 and 12 A.M. ‘The Garden is so large that it would take two hours to walk through its main thorough- fares, but unfortunately no conveyances, not even rikishas, are permitted. Its distinctive feature is the classified grouping by which similar and related species are placed together. “The labels give the scientific name and the original habitat of each. The front entrance is near the Chinese quarter, just oppo- site the Department of Agriculture, and leads to the cele- brated avenue of giant Canarium, or Kanary trees, whose branches are woven together in a perfect arch nearly a hun- dred feet above the drive. The trunks are embowered in a mass of climbing parasites, some of whose entwining strands would be 300 feet long if unwound. Gigantic orchids, hav- ing as many as 3,000 flowers at one time, are a distinctive feature here. Near by is the monument of the wife of Sir, 284 JAF 4 Thomas Stamford Raffles, who in his earlier career was Lieutenant Governor of Java. It has this inscription: “Sacred to the memory of Olivia Marianne, wife of ‘Thomas Stamford Raffles,’ with the following pathetic lines: “Oh thou whom ne’er my constant heart One moment hath forgot Tho’ fate severe hath bid us part Yet still—forget me not.” The poetry of this epitaph leaves much to be desired, but its genuine devotion is manifest. Here are found trees with every form of leaf,—leaves almost transparent, leaves as large as an ordinary door, and leaves of every shade and colour. Here also are trees whose fruits contain strychnine; trees whose thick air roots are in- terlaced in fantastic shapes; climbing rattans with prickly spines, palms of a hundred species, tropical pines, mahogany trees, trees producing cocaine, teakwood trees and monster bamboos. Some of the many kinds of palms found growing here are the emperor palm, banka palm, fan palm, cabbage palm, sago palm, cocoanut palm, date palm, feather palm, oil palm, the climbing palm, the exceptionally beautiful traveller’s palm, and a hundred other species. “They furnish food, shelter, clothing, timber and building materials, fibre, starch, sugar, oil, wax, dyes and wine. There are flowers of infinite variety; orchids,—mostly hanging on trees,—of several hundred sorts, one of them having a stem five or six feet long supporting flower clus- ters; blossoms of every fantastic shape,—elliptical, bell- shaped, cylindrical; spotted flowers of bewildering hues; wax-like flowers; flowers whose fragrance is overpowering; flowers growing on candelabra-shaped branches, and rare rose gardens fragrant with memories of home. There are fruit trees,—figs, jackfruit, custard apples, pinnata or sausage fruit, shaped like hanging sausages, the parmentiera with fruit like candlesticks, and the cannon ball tree, the fruit looking like black cannon balls. « ‘or 2 F a { ¢ i: i % i . ; / ? ; e * 4 ¥ % 2 he ; ee - 4 ‘ i a ; * 4 + s ’ i 5 , * , x & . " , S & F = , ’ ‘ . - . 4 . ‘ 2 a > 7 1 ‘ . v ie : ri y we , ; P > ‘ ft a ' a me : ae a+ BOTANICAL GARDEN 285 The greenhouses. in which certain plants are grown are not built to protect them from the cold, but to shelter them from the sun. In the small lake, bordered by the magnificent ficus re- ligiosa, or sacred bo tree, with its fine symmetry and its brilliant dark green foliage trembling and rustling like aspen leaves, the Governor General’s Palace is charmingly re- flected. “The lake contains scores of aquatic plants, among which are the victoria regia, a species of water lily, with its mammoth flat leaves reclining on the water, as well as lotus flowers of many colours. At one side is a small cemetery where a recent Governor General and other prominent peo- ple are interred. The Governor General’s Palace, quite suggestive of the White House at Washington, is set on a knoll surrounded by an extensive deer park. The Garden extends over the Tjilawong River, crossed by picturesque bridges, past imposing avenues and perfectly kept lawns, adorned with flower beds. A special experi- mental garden of 200 acres in this section is given over to the culture of coffee, tea, cinnamon and all sorts of spices, so that the Garden not only makes a great contribution to horticultural art and beauty, but is of real commercial and economic value. Here also is a special zoological depart- ment of tropical animals and birds. Various excursions may be taken to tea plantations, and to the crater of Mt. Salak and the geysers at Tjisolak, but these take a day or more. Characteristic Batik Work. It is in this country that one should purchase Batik if intending to buy it at all, for its manufacture is peculiar to this tropical Island. ‘The patient Javanese woman has been making it for centuries. Briefly this process consists in drawing designs in hot wax on white cotton cloth, colouring the unwaxed portions of the cloth by dipping it again and again into vats of different coloured dyes, each colour requiring a new wax process. Skilled and artistic workers produce elaborate and beautiful designs, the choicest of which are autographed by the maker, 286 JAVA and of course command much higher prices than the ordi- nary work. The batiker (nearly always a woman), will use nothing but the finest weave of English cotton. ‘This closely woven surface holds the wax, forming a firm layer of it instead of allowing it to penetrate between the threads, as it would do in a looser weave. After her material is torn to the proper size for the garment she is about to make, it is neatly hemmed, which is all the dress-making it requires. If it is to be a sarong, or skirt, for either man or woman it will be 84 by 42 inches, if a breast cloth for a woman or a binding for her baby, 84 by 21 inches. The cloth must then be made mateng, or “ripe,” for absorbing the dyes. ‘This is done by soaking and drying it six or eight times a day for a week to ten days in a mixture of either peanut or castor oil, mixed with a lye made from the ashes of burned rice stubble. In some parts of the country this ripening process continues as long as forty days, giving the goods a velvety feeling that suggests silk rather than cotton. Next the worker starches it, being careful to have the starch of just the right consistency. ‘Then she irons it and lays out her design, tracing in hot wax the outlines of the principal figures. When the drawing is complete on one side, the cloth is turned over and by letting the light shine through, the design is repeated in wax on the reverse side. ‘This is why there is no right or wrong side to a batik. A woman must squat on her mat before her easel for twenty days to do the wax painting of an intricate design, working twelve hours a day. Of course the cloth is waxed, the wax boiled out and re-waxed for each colour produced. ‘The dyeing process is as tedious as the “ripening” of the goods, but its painstaking care accounts for the everlasting- ness of the colours in a Javanese batik. ‘This is important because it must be worn in tropical sunlight and washed daily, being pounded on the stones of the river bank. ‘The process is long drawn out but a garment after five years’ wear will still be beautiful and many are used for a life- BATIK WORK 287 time when kept for festive occasions. Frequently a choice one will be handed down through three generations. In view of the antiquity of the art it is not surprising that there are almost countless standard designs,—swastika, Greek cross, a plain diagonal, plant and animal motifs, an- chors, diadems, tombstones, sedan chairs, crabs, lizards, sun, moon, stars, clouds, lightning,—but the most splendid of all and most widely used is a conventionalised wing of the sacred bird of Java, singly or paired. ‘The patterns richest in legend and symbolism are most loved by the people. While these real batiks may still be found occasionally at pawn shops or at first class shops where one insists on seeing genuine work at high prices, the scarfs and various decorative pieces which are sold to tourists are cheap prints or simply fancy dyed pieces such as any one with a little knowledge and experience can easily make. Some are “tie dyed,” such as one finds in India and China. ‘This effect is accomplished by gathering and tightly tying the fabric so that it cannot absorb the dye where this is done, SOURABAYA Some travellers go by steamer to the city of Sourabaya, near the opposite end of Java, and take the train halfway across the Island to Poerworedjo, motoring twenty-four miles to the Borobudur ruins. Borobudur can also be reached by automobile from Djokja. Sourabaya is four miles from the harbour (Tanjong Perak), and is a city of 192,190 inhabitants, of whom 17,497 are Europeans. Sourabaya is a great centre for ship- ping, especially for the sugar trade. The Wilhelmina Tower, with its fine views, the Old Fortress (Fort Prins Hendrik), the Aloon-Aloon Square, with the Public Gardens adjoining, are places of tourist in- terest. Many attractive drives allure one to the suburbs and vicinity, some showing the distant mountains and also Smeroe, the highest active volcano in Java. 288 JAVA The railway ride from Sourabaya to Poerworedjo is pic- turesque, and gives a good panorama of Javanese scenery, and of the Javanese life in town and country. BOROBUDUR The Borobudur (or Boro Boedor) temple, the name of which means “shrine of the many Buddhas,” shows in a majestic way the once commanding influence of Buddhism in Java, although the decorations of its tower and walls were never completed, because Buddhism had begun to wane before it was finished. It does not consist of one building on level ground, but of separate buildings on sev- eral terraces, six in all, encircling a hill which is crowned by a dome fifty feet in diameter. As one draws near, the temple takes the appearance of an immense crown, then on closer approach it assumes the char- acter of a majestic round pyramidal structure with nearly a hundred miniature crown-shaped towers. In each of these is an image of Buddha, seated on a pedestal shaped like a lotus flower. The temple is a gigantic stupa built around the top of a hill and enclosed by a series of four sculptured galleries, on the top of which rise three terraces. Each side of the building, which is constructed of grey volcanic stone, meas- ures 531 feet at the base. It was built during the eighth or ninth century, having been designed by Hindu architects, and is alleged to be the spot where some of the ashes of Buddha are buried. There are altogether 1504 bas-reliefs, representing scenes from the life of Buddha, which, if placed in a straight line, would measure three miles. Over half of these are in good preservation. ‘They represent incidents that have to do with agriculture, the chase, and especially with the life of Buddha, making a complete “Picture Bible” of the Buddhist teaching. In each of the 432 niches is a life-sized figure of Buddha, all facing outward. ‘The middle of the tower has Peo AND FIGURES 289 a straight stairway by which the visitor can climb to the highest gallery and enjoy the tropical beauty of the en- circling view, which includes the active volcano Merapi in the distance. It is unfortunate that this Temple is not more accessible, as it is certainly one of the most extraordinary monuments of early Buddhism to be found in Asia. Meier N TAR Yo FACTS AND FIGURES Java is the most important, though not the largest, Island of Holland’s East India possessions. ‘The Governor Gen- eral, although an autocrat, has an Advisory Council. Dr. D. Fock, appointed September, 1920, holds that office at the present time. He is paid a salary of $70,000. ‘The complete area is 50,557 square miles, and the popula- tion (1920) is 34,984,171, of whom 169,355 are Europeans. There is complete religious liberty. The Reformed Dutch Church, which is the principal Church of the Hol- landers, has 66 ministers. “The Roman Catholics have 120 priests, and there are 600 missionary workers of various denominations. Ninety per cent. of the natives are Mo- hammedan. The Dutch language is taught in the schools for Euro- peans, and the schools for natives teach Dutch as well as the vernacular. Europeans conduct their own Courts, but native chiefs have much to say in trying minor cases among their people. The revenues (1925) were 648,879,000 guilders, and the expenditures, 688,999,000. The Army is composed of Dutch officers and soldiers, but it includes 25,000 natives. ‘The expenses for Army and Navy are 120,000,000 guilders. 290 JAVA The imports (1922) were 1,310,823,000 guilders; ex- ports, 2,267,871,000 guilders. There are 1,690 miles of railroads in operation which are controlled by the Gov- ernment. In 1923, 10,009 steamers entered Java ports. The American Consulate has its location opposite Java Bank. Products. Java produces rice, sugar, coffee, tea, Peru- vian bark, cacao, pepper, nutmeg, and various spices, to- gether with rubber, ebony, teakwood and copra. Among the fruits are papaia, breadfruit, the rambulan, which is covered with pink spines and has a greenish grape-like jelly within, and especially the mangosteen, which is characteristic of Java and one of the finest of fruits, having a dark purple shell enclosing a white centre. It has a perfumed, cool, sweet, and melting-in-the-mouth taste. A large standing reward is offered to the one who can deliver this fruit in a good condition to the Queen of Holland, but up to date no one has been successful, as the fruit decays too rapidly. The Climate. ‘The climate of Java is quite hot, usually humid, and is especially trying in the middle of the day, yet the highest official temperature recorded is 97° F., while in Boston there have been official temperatures of 105° F., and in the city of Washington even higher, while the highest in Batavia was 96° F. in 1877, and the lowest 66° F. in the same year. Only once in recent years has the tempera- ture reached 95°. ‘There are from 50 to 150 inches of rain in the several parts of Java, accounting in bate for its vivid and luxuriant vegetation. Life in the tropics entails more of a fight against disease than of suffering from heat. White people live many years in this climate, apparently without serious injury to health, while on the other hand, a negro reached the North Pole with Peary. Existence is always a question of health con- ditions rather than of temperature. BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 Things American. Only a few hundred Americans live in Java, but things American are very popular,—jazz music, American dances, movies, sewing machines, Kodaks, photographs, and especially automobiles, there being ten American automobiles for every one from all other countries combined. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Java and the East Indies, F. G. Carpenter. ’23, Double- day. Tropical Holland, H. Torchiana. ’23, University of Chi- cago Press. Where the Strange Trails Go (East Indies), E. A. Powell. 21, Scribner. Letters of a Javanese Princess. Published by Knopf. Dutch East, J. M. Brown. ’14, Dutton. Java, Sumatra and Dutch East Indies, A. Cabaton. ’14, Scribner. Java, J. F. Scheltema. ’13, Macmillan. Monumental Java, J. F. Scheltema. ’13, Macmillan. Java and Her Neighbours, A. 8, Walcott. ’14, Putnam. SINGAPORE “A great international turnstile of commerce” INGAPORE is a city of 457,571 inhabitants (1923). S It is built on a flat island, the highest hill being only - 500 feet in altitude. It seems probable that this entire South Sea region was once a part of the Asiatic Continent, now broken up into the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, etc. Singapore is half-way between China and India, thus making a natural commercial centre for them both, and in addition it draws from the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and other countries of Southeastern Asia. There are beautiful views along the peninsular coast 292 SINGAPORE approaching Keppel Harbour. All the way the vegetation riots in wild tropical luxuriance down to the very edge of the water. Keppel Harbour is deep and well sheltered, and is free from the ravages of typhoons. The Tanjong Pagar Dock, four miles east of Singa- pore, is one of the largest and best equipped in the Far East. A whole series of wharfs a mile long stretch toward the city. The newly made land facing the harbour gives promise of making Singapore one of the greatest shipping centres in Asia, perhaps equalling Hong-Kong. In view of the fact that a hundred years ago Singapore Was a mangrove swamp and a dreaded lurking place for pirates, this development is all the more remarkable. In 1923, 9,354 foreign vessels entered the harbour. The Chinese constitute seventy-five per cent. of the in- habitants and are the greatest factor in merchandising. There are many Chinese millionaires, the finest show-palace in Singapore belonging to a Chinaman. They have their own Chamber of Commerce, and elect their own repre- sentatives in the city administration. “They are the domi- nant race in every respect except politically. The Malays are mentally slow and disinclined to hard work, taking up the petty occupations, such as domestic service and driving. ‘The rikisha men are strong and robust looking, far superior in physique to those that are seen in India or Ceylon, but are inclined to evade any strenuous work, SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAYiTzs In Raffles Plain is a bronze statue of Raffles erected in 1887. ‘The whole city bears tribute to his genius as a diplomat and administrator, and his name is attached to many municipal buildings and activities. He was born in 1781 on his father’s ship while it was anchored off Jamaica. At sixteen he became a clerk in the East India Company, at which time he was simply plain RAFFLES 293 Tom Raffles. He learned the Malay language and became an interpreter, soon stepping into the Acting Secretaryship. His talents were quickly recognised. He went to the Malacca East India Post which was on the point of being abandoned, and wrote the authorities such an able report regarding the hopeful outlook there, that the withdrawal was recalled. At the age of thirty, he planned the capture of Java which the French had taken from the Dutch, and when he suc- ceeded, he was made Lieutenant Governor. He remained in this position for five years, during which period he multi- plied the commerce and revenues many times. His admin- istration was brought to a sudden close because England, for diplomatic reasons, by a special treaty made with Hol- land, returned Java to the Dutch in spite of his vehement protest. He then went to England where he wrote a His- tory of Java and later was appointed Governor of Sumatra. On his arrival he found that the Dutch were trying to drive all English trade out of the Indian Ocean, and hence began casting about for a good location in which to establish a port for Great Britain which would help to extend her Far East commerce. In 1819 he planted the British flag over Singapore, having made a deal with the Sultan of Johore on the basis of a pay- ment of $600,000 by Great Britain, together with an addi- tional $24,000 annually. ‘This was a brilliant piece of diplomacy, as making an English port of Singapore put Great Britain conspicuously on the map of the Far East, and destroyed the dream of Holland of turning the Indian Ocean into a Dutch lake. In 1837, the British Govern- ment was established here and it has since gradually domi- nated the whole Peninsula. Returning to England, Raffles became involved in po- litical controversies which embittered his last years. He died in 1826 when only forty-five years of age. Lady Raffles after his death had to refund £10,000 which he had drawn from the budget for the legitimate expenses he as- 294 SINGAPORE sumed in establishing Singapore. Although he seemed to be ‘‘a prophet without honour in his own country” at that time, his remarkable service to Great Britain was later recognised by a tablet in Westminster Abbey, and his mem- ory is cherished by the whole Empire. PLACES OF INTERV aS Raffles Place is the commercial centre of Singapore, many of its largest mercantile houses and shops being located here. The Cavenagh Bridge gives a fine opportunity of see- ing the variegated Chinese junks and other interesting craft on the Singapore River. There are some imposing government buildings, among which the Supreme Court, the Public Works, the Treasury, the Audit Office, etc., will be pointed out. Nearby is the Victoria Memorial Hall with a small bronze statue of an elephant presented by a prominent visitor from India. The Botanical Garden, originally established by Raf- fles, is three miles from the city and contains 300 acres. It has 1,300 tropical plants of all descriptions, and there are delightful avenues of trees, together with floral arbours and lotus-covered lakes. While this Garden does not compare with that at Buitenzorg in Java, or with that at Kandy in Ceylon, it has a charm of its own, and makes a beautiful objective for a drive. The Raffles Library and Museum contains nearly 50,000 volumes, together with a collection consisting of zoological and Botanical specimens found in the Malay Peninsula. Almost every mammal is represented, prop- erly ‘‘taxidermed” and staged. “There are also weapons, boats, facsimile houses, musical instruments, costumes, uten- sils,—making a fine ethnological exhibit. The Connaught Drive follows the seashore and is shaded by tropical trees. It is a favourite drive because thie is usually a refreshing breeze, and a shifting series of land and sea views. SINGAPORE SIGHTS 295 The Drive Around the Gap is the most enjoyable ride in the vicinity of Singapore, passing through native villages, rubber plantations, charming suburban estates and gardens, the varied panorama being interspersed with beautiful glimpses of the ocean. A trip to the Palace of the Sultan of Johore is a pleasant outing although the Palace itself is distinctly a shabby and second class affair. A Far East Gibraltar. At the Washington Confer- ence, England agreed to a status quo for Hong-Kong, which on that account has little value as a naval base. She re- fused, however, to put Singapore in the same category, in spite of Japan’s strenuous insistence. As Singapore is 28,000 miles from Nagasaki, the purpose of making it an impreg- nable naval station is scarcely ‘“‘a violation of the principle of the Washington Conference” and “an act of hostility to Japan,” as the Japanese press almost unanimously asserted. There are world observers who believe that there are secret designs between Japan and Russia with the hope also of enlisting China which would make the position of Eng- land precarious in the Far East. England not only has great colonies which can be protected by Singapore, such as India, Burma, Australia, New Zealand, the Malay Penin- sula, Hong-Kong, etc., but an annual trade in the Far East second only to that of Liverpool, of approximately five billion dollars to conserve. Hence an impregnable Singa- pore becomes a guaranty of peace in the Western Pacific. To neglect it is simply to present Japan with the absolute control of these colonies and their adjacent waters. Eng- land expects immediately to expend $50,000,000, and in the next twenty-five years, five to ten times that amount. DUPPEE MENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES The whole of the Malay Peninsula is not technically - under the rule of Great Britain, but the British influence is 296 SINGAPORE felt over the entire area. ‘The entire population consists of 1,416,000 Malays, and 1,173,354 Chinese. Great Britain’s Straits Settlement contains 1,600 square miles, including Singapore, Penang, Cocos Islands, Labuan, and Christmas Island. The city of Singapore is on an island twenty-seven miles long by fourteen wide, embracing 217 square miles, separated from the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula itself by a strait a mile wide. The Straits Settlement is a Crown Colony. The Goy- ernor is Sir Laurence N. Guillemard, who is also Com- mander-in-Chief of the Army. The revenues of the Colony (1923) were £3,886,868, and the expenditures, £3,117,074; total imports were £90,885,142; exports, £83,206,399. The exports jumped £40,000,000 in one year, owing to an arbitrary price fixing of rubber. As most rubber comes to the United States, England can rapidly pay her war debt to us. The principal exports consist of tin (the Malay Peninsula furnishing half the tin supply of the world, averaging $100,000,000 in annual exports), rubber (half the rubber supply of the world coming from the Malay Peninsula), fruits, spices, cereals, rattans, hides, copra, rice and tapioca. Extensive beds of coal have been recently uncovered. The religion of the Malays is Mohammedan. The Chi- nese are usually Buddhists. In Singapore is the beautiful Saint Andrew’s Cathedral (Church of England) with spires 204 feet high. Here is also a Presbyterian Church. ‘The Methodist Episcopal Church has a great Publishing House in Singapore and extensive missions throughout the Malay Peninsula. Singapore is not so hot as its position, almost on the equator, would lead one to expect. ‘The climate is well adapted for the family life of foreigners. “The Europeans living under sanitary conditions have quite a low death rate. The heat is largely confined to the hours from II A.M. to SINGAPORE—OLD AND NEW LOCOMOTION BURMESE WOMEN ENJOYING A SMOKE Beit OG RAPAY 297 4. P.M. and is relieved by tempering breezes. About one hundred inches of rain fall annually. Bazaars. All kinds of purchases can be made here,— India rugs, India shawls, Malacca canes, jewels of every sort,—mostly glass, Malay sarongs (native skirts), coral, rattan ware, Swatow drawn-thread work, and Saigon lace. Prices, except for native industries, are rather high, Peon NreBIBLIOGRAPH Y Into the East, R. Curle. ’23, Macmillan. From Golden Gate to Golden Sun, H. Nordon. ’23, Small. Magic of Malaya, C. W. Harrison, ’16, Lane. BURMA Peer AND SOCIAL FACTORS THE PEOPLE P SHE Burmese people belong to the Tibetan group of the Chinese family, being short, thick-set, light brown in colour, with marked Mongolian fea- tures, high cheek bones, narrowed eyes, and noses which are narrow at the bridge and broad at the base. ‘The men average five feet two inches, and the women, five feet. They are usually Buddhists but in some parts of the coun- try are given to Animism, or the worship of Nature. ‘The people are frank and open, simple in their manner and very friendly, possessing a marked sense of humour, proud-spirited, arrogant when given authority, credulous and easily imposed upon, light-hearted to the point of improvi- dence, and so lacking in self-control that their anger fre- quently leads to brutality. They are incurable gamblers. 298 BURMA While not war-like, they have a passive courage and are very dependable in emergency. During the World War they loyally gave a generous response in men, as well as in contributions to war relief. The dress of the men consists of a silk handkerchief around the forehead, a loose jacket on the upper part of the body, and a long skirt reaching to the ankles, which is fastened around the waist, all of gorgeous colour. ‘They are so disin- clined to work that Kipling says that when the Burman wishes to work he gets a Madrassi to do it for him. Oftener he gets his women folks. The women’s dress is like that of the men, except that there is no handkerchief around the forehead and the skirt is tucked in on the sides instead of being tied in front,— making a very neat and graceful effect. ‘The scarf, petti- coat and jacket are of three lively hues. “The women are bright, cheerful and progressive, superior to the men in business ability, handling the money and caring for the house, and in some cases managing the shops, meanwhile smoking their ‘‘whacking white cheroot” which is a huge cigar made up of a compound of herbs and tobacco. Fe- male franchise to a considerable degree has been granted. Marriage is usually arranged by the parents, and some- times by go-betweens, but the tendency now is, owing to the partial emancipation of women, for the contracting parties, who are nearly always in their ’teens, to make their own selection. The Pive is the characteristic national amusement and is of different kinds, one of actors and clowns who sing and dance, another of performers with marionettes, a third of a ballet with music and song indulged in by young people, and a fourth, a theatre with professional actors. Frequently such a diverse entertainment lasts all night. All the forms mentioned are part of the Pivé, and the one who gives the entertainment pays the bills, the entire pastime being free to all. PAGODAS 299 RELIGION The Buddhist religion in a superior form has helped to make the Burmese much more intelligent and progressive than are most of the Buddhists elsewhere. ‘The fact of an absence of the caste system, together with a spirit of de- mocracy and a respect for women, has given these people a higher moral and social standard. Even though their Buddhism is somewhat permeated with superstition, it does not show the blighting effects of either Hinduism or Mo- hammedanism. ‘The pagodas, with their white or golden bodies tapering to a needle spire, resplendent with decora- tions and glittering with semi-precious stones, add very greatly to the picturesque impression of Burmese cities. The pagodas in Burma usually have a masonry terrace, a high plinth, a bell shaped body and an umbrella spire hung with rings, from which little bells are suspended, making a musical tinkling whenever the wind blows. On each pagoda terrace there are usually minor pagodas enshrining a Buddha, besides altars for making offerings, large bells, and images of strange monsters. “These pagodas make outstanding features in every village of Burma and add much to the picturesqueness of the country, one or more being rarely out of the traveller’s horizon. The man who contributes the money for a pagoda is looked upon as a “saint” and is assured of a happy hereafter. ‘The priests are treated with great respect and are addressed as “ord.” All village Burmese retain their reverence for the nats, or spirits of the forests, mountains and trees, and they think that they must be propitiated at special shrines. Each family has a mat shrine and thank offerings are made in case of the birth of a child or of a marriage. The Burmese specify thirty-seven important nats, who must be conciliated so that they will become patron saints of the family. Taken as a whole Buddhism is written large in the minds of the people who have brought their gold and jewels in 300 BURMA lavish devotion to their religion. Even many villages have gold-sheathed pagodas. MISSIONARY WORK Adoniram Judson, who started as a Congregationalist, later becoming a Baptist, is one of the first and perhaps the greatest of all Protestant American missionaries. He be- longs to the Church Universal. In his early missionary life he was engaged in work in India but as conditions be- came hostile there he went to Burma, where his great life work was done. There were incredible difficulties which he bravely sur- mounted without wavering, although he did not make a convert for the first seven years. During the war in 1824 between Burma and the East India Company, Judson was imprisoned for two years by the native king, during which time his food was brought daily by his devoted wife. Grad- ually, however, the mission stations increased in number, and churches, schools, colleges and orphanages were estab- lished. ‘There is now a great Baptist printing enterprise in Rangoon which employs 250 natives and has four re- ligious periodicals and prints publications in fourteen differ- ent languages, which not only pays for itself, but helps to support the missionary work. The Baptist Institutions at Alon are interesting to those who wish to see Mission work at first hand. Both the Anglican Cathedral and the Roman Catholic Cathedral are imposing structures. EDUCATION - Education was evolved generations ago by the native peo- ple themselves even before the advent of Great Britain. Every village has a monastery, and every monastery has a school, and every Burman boy must, in accordance with his religion, attend the school, meanwhile wearing a yellow BPUCATION 301 robe and having his head shaved. ‘Those of the boys who wish to become Buddhist priests continue the yellow robe and the shaven heads. Reading and writing, together with a native elementary system of arithmetic, are taught. There are now very few boys (and girls to a lesser degree) who cannot read and write, and over half of the male adults are literate. “This accounts, at least in part, for the marked superiority of the Burmese over the Hindus. ‘There is a Burmese University at Rangoon. RANGOON “On the road to Mandalay Where the flying fishes play”’— Rangoon is on the Rangoon River, which is connected by a waterway which will pass steamers at high tide through to the Irrawaddy, navigable for nine hundred miles. In 1852, Rangoon was a fishing village, and in 1921 it had a population of 341,962, and a commerce larger than any Indian port except Calcutta and Bombay. Large cruising steamers usually anchor at Hastings, three miles below Rangoon, and passengers are conveyed to the dock by the tenders of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. On account of the strong current and tide, tenders ordi- narily avoid carrying passengers after dark. There are some Fine Public Buildings, among which are the Post Office, Currency Buildings, Sailors’ Home, Court Houses, Secretariat, Government House, Rangoon College, the General Hospital, the Dufferin Hospital, the Bernard Library and the Phayre Museum. ‘The Jubilee Hall, erected in honour of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee, is used for public occasions and for recreative purposes. Drives through the Cantonments, Parks, Gardens, Zoo and among the Lakes, give one a most favourable idea of Rangoon’s suburban charms, which are scarcely surpassed by any other Asiatic city. One is along Godwin Road, past the Parade Ground and Race Course, then to the left past 302 BURMA the Pegu Club, proceeding to the Prome Road and the Halpin Road beyond (called the “Ladies Mile’) to the Gymkhana, past the Government House, the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, the Cantonment Gardens, and thence to the city. A drive northward through the Victoria Memorial Park around the Royal Lake in Dalhousie Park, past the Boat Club and then back to the Cantonment Garden, should not be missed. Dalhousie Park is probably the finest Park in all Asia. Some of the public squares and avenues of palatial residences are hardly surpassed in the Orient. It is an engrossing sight, in the Kipling vernacular, to see “elephants pilin’ teak,” at the Burma Trading Cor- poration sawmills and timber yards, as they perform their task with remarkable skill and intelligence. THE SHWE DAGON PAGODA The Shwe Dagon Pagoda is the most gorgeous and the most venerated place of Buddhist worship in all Indo-China. It is well described as “that colossal gilded and jewelled monument of the gorgeous East.’”’ Wherever one goes it seems always close at hand, as brilliant a mystery as when first sighted. It attracts worshippers from all over Asia. It is believed by the Burmese to be especially holy because in a subterraneous chamber under the Pagoda it is supposed to harbour relics of three mythical Buddhas who preceded Guatama Buddha,—a drinking cup of one, a robe of an- other, and a staff of the third, but these, naturally, cannot be seen. The Pagoda was erected, so the Buddhists say, in 588 B. c., the first Pagoda being only twenty-seven feet high, and one pagoda after another, seven layers in all, were built solidly upon it. Its present size dates from 1564. ‘There is no interior to the Pagoda itself. It was built by voluntary labour, and by subscriptions of money and jewels. A num- ber of bands of electric incandescent lights encircle the en- SHWE DAGON 303 tire structure from the bottom to the top, making it a re- markable spectacle by night, visible for many miles. It rests on a great terrace, which is 900 feet by 685 feet, and 166 feet above the street level. ‘This terrace can be reached only by climbing a series of four long flights of stone and brick stairs, worn by the feet of innumerable pilgrims. ‘These stairs are covered by sections of roofs of carved teakwood, the panelling and beams of which have frescoed scenes illustrating the life of Buddha. The various levels between the stairs have a series of booths owned by the Pagoda authorities and rented to shop- keepers, which are largely devoted to the objects connected with temple worship. Great quantities of heaped up flowers announce their sacred mission by their fragrance. Here pilgrims purchase gold leaf which they reverently apply to any gilded temple surface. Here also are many characteris- tic emblems that appeal to tourists as well as to wor- shippers, such as candles and tapers with the little green and gold sticks necessary to light them, odd and distinctive dolls or marionettes, as well as drums and triangular gongs by which the religious mendicants try to attract attention. All priests, no matter how high their standing, must beg their food and give the laity the opportunity of acquiring “merit” by the giving of charity. This encourages a horde of beggars, who ply their indolent trade at every turn. The Pagoda itself is undoubtedly the most magnificent temple structure in all of Asia, having a circumference of 1,355 feet, or a quarter of a mile. It rises 370 feet above the Pagoda platform (making it higher than St. Paul’s in London), and 536 feet above the street level. While it is much the finest in Burma, the one in Pegu and the one opposite Mandalay are both larger and higher. The whole surface clear to the top is overlaid with plates of gold and in the sunshine the effect is fairly dazzling. The tip of the tapering structure is crowned by a gilded iron fi, or umbrella, from which hang many gold and silver bells heavily embossed with jewels. ‘The #1, which was pre- 304 BURMA sented by the late King of Burma and cost $250,000, was thrown down by an earthquake in 1888, and the new one which replaced it, more sumptuous than the old, costing $600,000 was put up by gratuitous labour. At the corners of the basement are strange Assyrian look- ing images, half a man and half a lion,—the idea probably dating back thousands of years before Buddha,—having two bodies and one head, and monstrous ears. ‘They are evi- dently a degenerate form of the human-headed winged lions that once guarded the gates of Nineveh. Lions with grinning lips and prominent teeth are scattered all about. These figures of lions are common at the entrance to all pagodas. ‘The carvings and inlaid glass work, which are in evidence everywhere, deserve attention. There are many places where there are carvings of figures suggesting the nats, who are the imps, gnomes and wild spirits of the woods and rivers who must be propitiated to keep their favour. ‘These are contributions from the ancient Animism of the Burmese. The four largest chapels or minor pagodas, each so im- pressive that if they stood anywhere else they would elicit the admiration of tourists, have colossal figures of Buddhas, some twenty to thirty feet high. Everywhere surrounding the central Pagoda with its jewelled splendour, there are grouped pagodas and shrines, a thousand or more, each with one or several Gautamas, who are sitting, standing and re- clining, of all sizes, some white, some black, some of ala- baster and others of clay or wood, the smaller ones some- times resting on the larger, all surrounded.by thousands of lighted candles and tapers. Many of these Buddhas have been brought from China, Tibet and other Asiatic countries. There are large stone altars near the lions at the entrance for offerings of rice and flowers. Burnt offerings of paper and candles are made at the smaller niches. “The small pagodas are everywhere, each with its ¢i, or umbrella, to- gether with image houses for votive offerings, and tall posts, from which wave long banners made of bamboo and paper SHWE DAGON 305 pictures. Large bells are numerous, furnished with horn or wooden hammers, with which worshippers can call the attention of the mats and invoke their favour, every other stroke being made on the ground so as to placate the god of the earth. An enormous bell hangs at the northeast corner of the terrace, large enough for half a dozen men to stand in, weighing forty-two and a half tons, the third largest known. Its inscriptions expatiate on the merits of King ‘Thar- rawaddy who presented it in 1840. ‘The British tried to carry this away to Calcutta as a trophy but it was acci- dentally sunk in the river. As the English engineers were unable to raise it, the Burmese begged permission to do so and divers lashed enough bamboo to it to finally float it, and it was restored to its place. The marvellous towering trees which lift their crests more than a hundred feet above the terrace make a superb setting for the gorgeous spectacle of the encircling pagodas. A visit to the Pagoda terrace by moonlight is one of travel’s rarest privileges. “The rays of the moon sifting through the stately palm trees give a glamour to the entire scene. Everything is enriched and mellowed and shorn of the suggestion of any undue glare and brilliancy. ‘The hushed surroundings, because of the absence of beggars and visiting crowds, help to put a real religious environment and atmosphere to the whole setting. It is a distance of over half a mile around the Great Platform and every turn gives a new vista of turrets and spires of pagodas, silhouetted against the soft background of the sky. Sometimes there are festivals by night in the moonlight with a native orchestra of instruments of fear- ful and wonderful structure and sound, together with pic- turesque processions of priests and temple devotees. The Great Platform is never deserted. All night pil- grims sit in circles, and here and there the droning voices of worshippers may be heard. On the days of special cele- brations, thousands of Burmese in gaily coloured festival 306 BURMA dress crowd the terrace, making one of the most interesting sights the world can show. The central Pagoda rises like a golden flame looming above the whole city, radiating its dominating influence over entire Burma. It shares the honour with the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy of being the most holy place in Buddhism, having among other supernal treasures, eight hairs of Buddha hidden at the Temple’s secret sanctuary. At the foot of the Pagoda hill are several monasteries embowered in Palmyra palms and to the south is a small convent for nuns, and near by is the Sule Pagoda, of lesser interest than the Shwe Dagon: but a conspicuous city land- mark, THE PAGODA AS A POT ISSUE During the last several years the Pagoda trustees who are all native Burmese, have taken advantage of the anti- British spirit and have sought to humiliate all Englishmen and foreigners by making a rule that no visitor (which, of course, includes the Burmese and also all other Buddhist worshippers), may climb the series of stairs or visit the Pagodas on the upper platform without removing both shoes and stockings. The real purpose of this is political, as the Pagoda trustees desire to establish in the Burman mind the supremacy of their religious authority over even that of the British government officials. This sometimes reacts against themselves, as in the case some time ago of the Prince of Siam who refused to obey this rule, and consequently, although he is a Buddhist, was not permitted to worship at the Pagoda shrines. At other times, they have seemed to score a signal triumph, as in the case of the Prince of Wales who in his recent visit was unable to see the Pagoda because he would not consent to this humiliation. Naturally all foreigners, and especially the English, Peep tt BOYCOTT 307 greatly resent this effort on the part of the native Pagoda officials to make political capital out of a seeming religious rule. ‘The fact that this requirement has no religious sig- nificance is apparent in that no other Buddhist temples any- where in Asia require the removal of shoes and stockings, but only the wearing of some cloth or canvas covering over the shoes of the visitor. The British residents of Rangoon are naturally trying by every means in their power to discourage American and other foreign tourists from complying with this clever, political ruse in the guise of a religious sanctity. English residents meet visitors at every turn with warnings con- cerning the danger that attends the ascent of the long, filthy stairs and the walking over the platform area with bare feet, stating that smallpox and even leprosy may be con- tracted. Most tourists are so discouraged and even alarmed by these lurid stories, that only a limited number of the more daring ones attempt the ascent. It is rather natural that the sympathies of tourists, espe- cially Americans, should be with the British residents in this very proper grievance. At the same time it is an open question whether tourists should deny themselves one of the greatest privileges of travel in the Far East by helping the British to carry out their political boycott. While there is a real danger of getting blistered feet and possibly infection from the dust and dirt, the danger of smallpox, leprosy and other diseases is so remote as to be positively absurd. Visitors should remember, however, that the stairs and platform areas are exposed to the sun during midday and in the afternoon, and become so frightfully hot that it is absolute torture to try to walk on these oven- like expanses with bare feet. Some tourists have been clever enough to cover the whole bottom of their feet with adhesive tape which both removes the danger of possible infection and at the same time gives protection from the heat. | The best time to climb the stairs and visit the Pagoda 308 BURMA area is either in the early forenoon before the sun has heated the pavement or still better at night. Even when there is no moon the Pagoda area can be visited, as it is lighted by electricity. Not only the cool pavements and the delight- fully pleasant evening help to make such a visit even more enjoyable, but the glamour of the electric lights, combined with the mysterious shadows, tend to make a more profound impression. At any rate, the author desires to encourage tourists to take advantage of the opportunity of seeing what at least might be included among the seven modern wonders of Asia, even though it entails the discomfort of bare feet. It may be hoped that this ‘stupid restriction will soon be removed. ‘The Burmese booth proprietors on the Pagoda stairs are raising a great deal of opposition to the enforcing of this rule, as they find their sales have been greatly curtailed from the fact that it lessens the number of tourists who are usually the most generous purchasers and pay the highest prices. PRACTICAL Ra. The Strand Hotel is near the Pier and is very satisfac- tory. The Royal Hotel is also entirely comfortable, with good service, and is only a few blocks away, both being in the shopping district. ‘The Minto Mansions Hotel is in the Cantonments several miles away, and is comfortable and attractively located. Drinking water comes from a large reservoir lake seven- teen miles distant, and while it is regarded as quite safe, it is well all through the Far East to make inquiry at a Consulate or from English residents, as regards the wisdom of using the local water. Rather naturally, the hotel pro- prietors discourage drinking the local water in order to stimulate their trade in bottled waters. Of course it is foolish to put the ice, which is furnished, into bottled drinks, as the ice is manufactured from local water. Autos, carriages and gharries can be had, but the prices DETAIL OF SHWE DAGON PAGODA APPROACH TO SHWE DAGON PAGODA SHOPPING 309 are not fixed. The latter is described by Kipling as ‘an absurd little carriage built to the scale of a fat Burma pony.” Shopping. ‘The markets and bazaars are usually owned by the Municipality and rented out to shopkeepers. ‘They are the headquarters for retail trade of every description, and at the same time are the centre of social life and gossip. The principal ones are on the Strand Road, where silks and lacquer work are featured, as well as in Kemmendine and in China Street. Some good shops are also to be found in Phayre and Merchant streets. Rubies are abundant. ‘The world’s main supply comes from Upper Burma. It will scratch every mineral except diamond, being nine-tenths as hard. A fine specimen is worth three times as much as a diamond of the same weight. Hand-woven silks, with characteristic hand embroideries, are a specialty. So is lacquer work in delicate patterns of black, green and yellow upon a background of red. Fine specimens of gold, and silver work, as well as wood and ivory carving, are on sale on Godwin Road. ‘The stated charge for heavily embossed bowls, purses, and other silver articles is usually twice their weight at the price of silver. The Mandalay parasols are much admired, and teakwood elephants with white tusks and toes, as well as bronze fig- ures of all kinds, are distinctively Burmese. ‘There are also Burmese and Chinese curios and specimens of oriental art. At Kemmendine, near the railway station, may be found the kalagas, a kind of blanket, red being the favourite colour, covered with strange figures and designs in applique work. They make unique hangings. Washable native wool rugs of white ground with: chain-stitch embroidery in gay designs and colours may be purchased at low prices. Women’s hand bags which are swung from the arm by long, broad straps of the same material, are distinctive of this country, made from cloth of silver and gay silk fabrics, as well as from cotton. ‘They are sometimes plain and sometimes em- 310 BURMA broidered with native seeds about as large as a grain of rice, and arranged in artistic designs. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES Burma is a dependency or province under the British Government in India. ‘The present Governor is Sir Spen- cer H. Butler. It has an area of 233,707 square miles and a population (1921) of 13,212,192, of which 24,355 are European. ‘The people are mostly Buddhist, although there are half a million Mohammedans and 257,103 Christians. Its imports (1922) were 909,012,160 rupees and its exports 2,034,217,661 rupees. (The rupee is worth 32 American cents.) There are 1,600 miles of Burmese railroads. The Reform Act of India applies to the Province of Burma. With the Governor are associated Ministers, an Executive Council and a Legislative Council of 101 mem- bers. The electorate numbers 2,500,000 qualified voters, including women. England declared war on Burma in 1824 because the Burmese undertook to invade Bengal. Having been vic- torious, she was paid £1,000,000 as an indemnity, and an- nexed Assam, but restored Southern Burma to the Burmese. In 1878 the notorious King Thibaw began to reign and his brutal practices, together with his murder in February, 1879, of other members of the royal family, eighty in all, including queens, princes and officials, occasioned a strong British protest, especially as he interfered with the com- mercial rights of British subjects. Banditry became so common that nobody was safe, and the Government was completely disorganised. In 1885, when the British Gov- ernment invaded Burma with 10,000 men, owing to out- rages upon British citizens, King Thibaw called upon his subjects to drive the British into the sea, but the British FACTS AND FIGURES 311 army entered almost without resistance and the King was taken prisoner and carried to Bombay where he died in 1916. The Military Police are largely made up of native off- cers and men from India. It supplements the regular work of the army and provides guards for treasuries, jails, courts and for inland districts and villages. While the heat is humid, the record maximum shade temperature is 96° F. and the minimum 60° F. The rain- fall is very heavy,—in some parts reaching 200 inches an- nually. Agriculture supports three-quarters of the population. Considerable irrigation has already been put in operation by the British and extensive projects are planned. Burma products are jute, rice, teakwood, tea and hides, besides oil, tin, silver, lead, zinc, platinum, rubies, jade and amber, and there are 30,000 square miles of forest pre- serves. The money in Burma and India is based on the rupee, worth 32 American cents, each rupee being divided into 16 annas, worth two cents each. Each anna is subdivided into 12 pies, but tourists do not usually trouble themselves with these small copper coins. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Burma, H. T. White. °23, Macmillan. Afoot and Afloat in Burma, A. H. Williams. ’22. Burmese Arcady, C. M. Enriquez. ’22, Lippincott. In the Land of the Pagodas, R. 8S. Thurber. ’21, Southern Ports Ass’n. Fartherest Burma, ¥. K. Ward. ’21, Lippincott. The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma, G. H. Luce. ’23, Oxford University Press. Following the Pioneers, J. C. Robbins. ’22, Judson Press. INDIA Mysterious India with “the sunshine an’ the palm trees an’ the tinkly temple bells” HISTORY, AN.D DES CRP OB CHARNOCK, an agent of the old East India Company, boldly raised the red flag of Britain, in 1690, over the mud huts of Kali-ghat, which name has gradually been corrupted into Calcutta. The East India Charter had been granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1600, and it represented a combination of war, plunder and trade. But in a sense, Charnock was the founder of the British Empire in India, although the subsequent services of War- ren Hastings and Lord Clive put this claim into organised shape. By the end of the eighteenth century, England had driven out her Dutch and French rivals. After the Mutiny in 1857, England transferred the rule of India from the East India Company to the Crown. If it be true, as England’s critics assert, that the English Govern- ment has for its main purpose the exploitation of India in the interests of commerce, it is just as true that law, order and progress have steadily followed the British flag. If the development has been slow, it is because>England has had very rigid material upon which to work. In order to main- tain harmony and secure the good will of the people of India, England has been very chary of interfering with the social and religious customs of the people. ‘There are those who feel that she has been all too conservative on the ques- tions of child-marriage, the social ostracism of widows, the hideous religious usages, and especially the establishing of 312 ENGLISH GOVERNMENT 313 an educational system that would give all the children of India the opportunity of at least a primary school education. Americans are apt to quote the case of the Philippines where the United States has much more rapidly developed an edu- cational system for all parts of the Islands. Two things are true, however,—the one being that the Philippines have a population of a little over 10,000,000, while India has more than thirty times as many. Naturally the cost would be prohibitive to try to build and equip schools on such a scale, and it certainly would be difficult to get the millions of teachers that would be necessary to carry on so colossal a scheme. The other consideration is that with such an undeveloped people “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” The United States is finding out this fact in the Philippines where she has had difficulty in restraining the childish impatience of the natives for absolute independence when it is patent to every thoughtful observer that the Philippines are still in the kindergarten stage. The fact that education imme- diately tends to produce resentment against authority is not an argument against education, but it is proof that neces- sarily such development must be a matter of evolution, and that during that process there must be the strong hand of authority. Lord Curzon, during his brilliant administration, solved many problems, one of which was the relief of famine, which has cost the British Government over $250,000,000. Even with the immense amount of amelioration given in famine time, it is estimated that between the years 1770 and 1900 more than twenty-five million persons died of starvation. Native States. The seven hundred Native States cover 709,515 square miles, with a total population of nearly 70,000,000. At Delhi a Chamber of these Princes representing these autonomous States gather for mutual conferences, frequently asking the advice and co-operation of the British Govern- ment. While in reality they are despots and can decide on 314 INDIA any action, either singly, or in conjunction with other inde- pendent States, they are very conciliatory towards the British Government, which constantly maintains the theoretical right of interference in case of disorder. These Princes send their sons to English schools and uni- versities not only in India but in Great Britain. Prince Ranjitsinjhi, for instance, became the foremost cricket player in England during his student days and is now ruling a little Province in India. The inhabitants of these Native States naturally gravitate to British rule, and while the Ghandi Movement has made much of England’s so-called ‘‘oppression,” the fact remains that there is a greater movement of population from these Native States to the British dominions than vice versa. After all, the people of India are of the Aryan race, and have always had a measure of the Aryan civilisation. “They worship in temples or mosques, their rulers live in palaces, and they have a literature, sculpture, architecture, history and even a culture all their own. Hence they have an admiration and a cultural taste for the advantages of the modern civilisation represented by the British Government. English Influence. In twenty years, up to 1918, the population of India increased 10 per cent.; the exports, 134 per cent.; the cultivated acreage, 26 per cent.; the in- crease among female pupils, 197 per cent.; the enlargement of the expenditure for education, 277 per cent., and the in- crease of depositors in savings banks, 117 per cent. Law and order have been maintained in India to such an unusual degree that it has been a proverb that life and prop- erty were safer in India than in London or New York, and yet there has been but one British soldier for every twenty- four square miles and for every four thousand natives. “The astonishing thing is that India, which is half as large as the United States and has three times her population, with 721 distinct languages and dialects, has been successfully gov- erned by less than 200,000 English people, including women and children. ENGLISH INFLUENCE 315 Vast schemes of irrigation have been put into operation costing hundreds of millions of pounds which have redeemed nearly 25,000,000 acres, and as much more in part, thus securing great increases in food supply. This result is par- ticularly impressive when one realises that this is five times the entire cultivable acreage of the Philippine Islands. It can be imagined that if England withdrew her Govern- ment, the railroads, highways, public buildings and govern- ment administration would immediately deteriorate, as the Hindus have not, either naturally or by training, an execu- tive and administrative mind. It would soon be a bankrupt India similar to what Egypt was when England, in connec- tion with the powers of Europe, took over the affairs of Egypt in 1882. What Buddha renounced in wealth and power Mohammed seized, and it is almost certain that if England withdrew, the Mohammedans who hold the Hindus in utter contempt, would immediately assume control, and would inaugurate a reign of cruelty that would be a reminder of the Moslem conquests of a few centuries ago. Not only the financial and official class of Hindus, but also missionary converts, Parsees, merchants, bankers, and prominent leaders like Mrs. Annie Besant and ‘Tagore, rec- ognise (even as Botha and Smuts did in connection with South Africa after the Boer War) that the necessary policy for India is a British administration. ian (PEOPLE The Hindu people impress the visitor as woe-begone and melancholy. One never hears a laugh and rarely sees even a deprecating smile, while the children have not learned anything like real or make-believe play, and even a girl with a doll is rarely seen. ‘he boys in the schools, although very studious in order to get the coveted prizes which give promise of a government position, learn rather by rote than by show- ing any power of initiative or originality of thought, and 316 INDIA the college men are not usually physically capable of enter- ing into strenuous athletics. The Hindu is dull, listless, half-alive, almost hopelessly incapable of doing things in a new way, and without in- ventiveness or adaptability. It is nearly impossible to get the natives to change their customs. Efforts have been made to teach them to use modern ploughs and to help them acquire the ownership of them, but no matter how clear the demonstration may be of their greater efficiency, both in covering more ground and in producing increased crops, the Indian persists in using his plough of forked sticks and an iron point. When a certain contractor introduced wheelbarrows, the labourers filled the wheelbarrows with dirt and stone according to orders, but insisted on carrying them on their heads, together with their contents, as though they were baskets such as they were accustomed to use. The streets present a very kaleidoscopic appearance with the commingling of many races in characteristic costumes, the white robes and painted foreheads of the Hindus, and the women in their gay-coloured saris and clinking silver jewellery. Even the oxen have painted horns and wear glass or metal necklaces. ‘The men, with their gaunt bodies and incredibly thin legs, their sharp features, and their deep-set restless eyes, and also the stunted women, many of them looking like eight-year-old children, produce a most depress- ing effect upon the observer. , HINTS TO TRAVELLERS Sightseeing Hours. In order to do as much sightseeing as possible before 10:30 AM. and after 4:30 P.M., a special chota-hazri is usually served at 6:00 A.M., consisting of coffee (or tea), rolls, and fruit. Carriages are then usually taken by 6:30 a.M. for sightseeing, the regular breakfast being served on the return at 10:00 or 10:30 A.M. Lunch is served between 1:00 and 2:00 P.M., allowing an interval 3 MUZZLED OXEN TRAMPLING GRAIN CHARACTERISTIC INIVA CHILDHOOD meses hb IN INDIA R14 for rest or sleep before carriages are again provided at 3:30 or 4:00 P.M., returning at 7:30 or 8:00 P.M. for dinner. This programme gives the usual number of hours for sightseeing with the advantage of having them in the cool of the early forenoon and the late afternoon when the weather is delightful. The hours between 11 a.m. and 4 p. M. should be spent indoors, where the large “‘punka” fans and cool drinks make the traveller fairly comfortable. ‘The heat during this interval outside becomes almost unbearable. It is well to wear a topee, or cork hat, to dress in light- weight linen, or thin silk, keep out of the sun in the middle of the day, and never walk when one can ride. Carrying out these rules, visitors will find India and other tropical countries quite comfortable even in March and April, more so than Boston, New York or Washington during the heated summer spells. ‘The fact of the slight humidity and the almost invariably cool nights helps to make the tropics quite endurable. It should be added that while December and January are often mentioned as the coolest season and most desirable for travel in India, it has the disadvantage not only of heavy rains, but also of extremely cold nights, it being not unusual to find ice in the bathtubs of the unheated India hotels, making the cold less bearable than the heat which comes several months later. It is also very inadvisable to visit Darjeeling during the winter months. In crossing India all bedding and towels for sleeping cars must be provided by the passenger who travels independently, or by the Cruise management of conducted parties. The same is true of native servants, who must be hired to accom- pany the traveller, special quarters on the train being pro- vided for them by the railway company. It is the duty of the servants to make up the beds each morning and to put away each person’s bedding in a hold-all, which is tagged with the passenger’s name so as to prevent the exchange of bedding. It is also the duty of the servants to serve a chota-hazri 318 INDIA in the early morning, to help pack and unpack personal baggage, to act as porters, and to give any information de- sired. It is well for those travelling independently to try to secure servants who speak some English, and they may be obtained sometimes through the railway company. Shopping. India has some fine and characteristic work in pottery, metal, wood and ivory carving, jewellery, damas- cene and lacquer work, native weaving, silk brocade, Indian (Chican) embroidery, carpets, idols, tiger skins, hammered and inlaid brass, silver and gold filagree, and Kashmir shawls. It should be remembered that modern workman- ship is not as painstaking as that done in former years. Money. Indian money is based on the rupee, worth 32 American cents; each rupee has sixteen annas worth two cents each, and each anna is subdivided into smaller copper coins. ‘There are silver and nickel coins of one rupee, half rupees, four-anna and two-anna pieces, and a half anna and smaller coins in copper. The postage on a letter to the United States and Europe is two and a half annas for the first ounce and one and a half annas for each additional ounce. GANDHIISM Mahatma Gandhi has become such an epoch-making figure in the recent history of India that he must be taken into account in all discussions of its modern problems. He was born in October, 1869, in the native state of Porbander, where his father was the Chief Minister, and at the age of twelve was married to a child wife. Educated in a British college in India, he later went to England, where he studied law and was admitted to the bar. He came under the influence of Tolstoy, especially in his “Address to a Hindu,” which covers the whole scheme of resistance to alien rule by ‘‘non-co-operation.” He volunteered for ambulance service in the Boer War, after which an opportunity came to him as a lawyer in South Africa to make a series of legal fights to permit Hindu GIA, Doll I 319 immigrants to own their own homes, suffering four short imprisonments because of his fanatical methods. He came back to India a hero in the eyes of his people and imme- diately began his propaganda against British Government and British law. At first he was inclined to be conciliatory, hold- ing frequent conferences with government representatives, but gradually his fanatical temperament began to have full sway. Although a believer in the four essential castes, he is opposed to the degenerate aspects of modern Hinduism. He is the Tolstoy of India, satisfied with the barest sub- sistence for himself and family. His eldest son, a merchant in Calcutta, is not in sympathy with him and his movement, but a second son is co-operating as a teacher of Gandhiism. among the people. The writer had the opportunity of having a personal in- terview with Gandhi near Bombay in the Spring of 1924, and was impressed with his gentleness and evident sincerity. He speaks English with little or no accent and reveals the mental attitude of a philosopher with the ability of making the most subtle distinctions and of a poet, clothing his thought in the mantle of romance and optimism. He is, however, a dreamer who seeks to make his facts accord with his wishes, rather than the practical statesman. One cannot but admire his calm, thoughtful, unimpassioned spirit. He sat on the floor, naked except for a loin cloth, his head closely shaven except for a wisp of hair falling from the back of his head down over his shoulders. His main contention is that materialism has outstripped the higher ideals, and that the modern greed for wealth and pleasure has stifled the real values and simplicities of life. Gandhi is a man of small and emaciated figure. He is not an orator, does not indulge in flattery or special pleading with his audience. His head is disproportionately small to the rest of his body. He has a squat face with a long nose and his features are crowded into the lower part of his face. He has a melancholy expression with eyes deep set and brooding, but lighting up beautifully when he speaks. 320 INDIA PRINCIPLES OF GANDHIISM Gandhi, although the apostle of non-co-operation and non-resistance, has publicly acknowledged that his pro- gramme of principles cannot at present be carried out, and the political leadership for the time has passed into the hands of the aggressive Swarajist Party. Yet he is revered by nearly all the people of India, and the Swarajist Party is built upon the Gandhi Foundation. A clear understanding of the Indian situation should include all the Gandhi the- ories, which are hereby presented as they were promulgated politically until January, 1925, and are still held by many Indians. , Gandhi publishes his own paper, “Young India,’ and practically all his printed propaganda, sent broadcast over the country, in the English language. Less than four per cent. of the people of India are intelligent enough in any way to grasp his principles and many of these cannot read English, yet it would be impracticable to make an appeal in any other language, as otherwise it would need to be printed in scores of Indian dialects. At the same time Gandhi professes to speak for the whole of India as though it were unified in language, intelligence, and capacity. He is also opposed to British agricultural methods and the introduction or use of irrigation systems. He believes that with primitive homespun clothing and the agricultural tools and the customs of past ages, India would be happier in leading a primitive life, especially if delivered from the presence of British influence and contact with all foreigners. There are two words that serve as slogans in this propa- ganda. ‘The one is “swaraj,” or self-rule. ‘The other is “swadeshi,” or homespun clothing, as the visible emblem of Non-co-operation, although this word includes a widespread boycott against all British goods. Gandhi himself presided over great sacrificial bonfires of imported cloth at the Bom- bay seashore, his followers wearing the homespun white “Gandhi” caps, which distinguish “Non-co-operators.” In Nose ut 0 *agul = —_ Manas’; Tyan phan 9 (dja —~pstO" 0 Crumphi = seen eee 5 “T Khan-tengrj>+c. = Bai ee: Pa =o SS : Spshun Gob’ oe yun it Band” E ash ny ftkoram I x ~efang 2 ada tay . D vA =o a RWanda- 2 Los a Se pgedander —_ Samp, YBAL eran Himalaga Se Sie CNIS shag] nett Desert” Mee Be ey re 3 imalaya _|— xe vikeu Shigatsec = Karachi a, : (eurracee if Sf Ga (Ki ‘| Q lasore so Ze Mouths of the Ber); e7ipo fZ ~ ye wistane = ak A Fon J “ Oar ant, Chae / gram == Lakonats .Lak : Tergresee aS = — Vizagapatam = SSS SQ Ra “penk 0 S: DP amnanary Nel BA—y. + y h Agari © 33 = ths" pr Sulielipar Ty. Soniye — Kalpen; Bix Bee. a Ss = Copyright.c.S. Hammon H ght, C. Ss. Hammons re) z 80 Longitude D Say OTT PRINCIPLES °321 order to carry out this campaign of “‘swaraj’’ and “swadeshi’” he and his followers have sought to raise a fund of $3,000,- 000, to be used for publicity and the purchase of spinning wheels, but the result has been negligible. Gandhi asks his followers to take an absolute anti-British position. “They must pledge themselves not to eat British food or buy a British-made article. ‘They aim to abolish railroads, irrigation systems, manufacturing plants, educa- tional organisations, doctors, law courts and all the machin- ery of modern civilisation in India, so that the whole country may revert to the most primitive conditions. These disciples take eight distinct vows: truth seeking, non-killing, fearlessness, celibacy even though married, pov- erty, self-denial in food, opposition to the English Govern- ment and an effort to break down the caste regulation against the fifty million so-called “Untouchables,” or outcasts. Gandhi has inaugurated a passive civil disobedience and a non-payment of taxes to the hated “Satanic” Government, yet many of his followers continue to vote, and Hindu legis- lators have almost without exception continued their active relation to the Government. He sought to establish a boy- cott against all foreign goods and endeavoured to set everybody spinning and weaving hand-made cloth, he himself giving much of his time to spinning even when engaged in formal conferences. He is against every form of the new industrialism. According to his view it is ma- chinery that has impoverished India. Although he himself is a finished product of British education, he speaks of “the hallucinations of schools and colleges.’ His ‘‘national’’ schools which he desires to substitute have not materialised and the British schools have felt the reaction very slightly. He and his followers refuse to vote or to appeal to English courts. Scarcely any Hindu lawyers, however, have aban- doned the law courts at his request. One of his rather effective arguments for non-resistance is the high cost of militarism in India, in view of the fact that the British Government in 1920 spent £60,000,000 for 322 INDIA military purposes, out of a budget of £145,000,000, in order to carry on an army in which there are 77,500 Britishers and over 200,000 native soldiers. Considering the great size of India, its diverse problems and its irresponsible people, it does not seem, however, as though this money were use- lessly spent. One of Gandhi’s reasonable grievances is that in spite of the fact that Great Britain’s system of the administration of justice is remarkably fair to the natives (giving to the hum- blest “untouchable” the right of defence and the advan- tages of law similar to that given an Englishman), the high cost of legal redress is such as to make it impossible for poor natives to defend themselves against injustice and aggression. Gandhi’s Nationalistic Movement welcomes the co-opera- tion of women and supports prohibition. It desires to cor- rect the Punjab grievances and it insists on the punishment of the English aggressors at Amritzar, in spite of the fact that the British Government has repudiated the unfortunate outrages, and retired General Dyer, who was responsible. DANGERS ARIS ENGR GANDHIISM AND’A ““FREE Tis Lord Reading, Governor General of India, has been in- clined to take the cautious and “easy” attitude toward Gandhi and his followers. On the occasion, however, of the Prince of Wales’ arrival in Bombay, the ‘“‘non-violent’”’ Non- co-operators became violent, with the result of fifty-eight deaths and four hundred wounded (including four English- men and one American). At Chauri Chaura the mob drove native policemen into a police station, which was then set on fire and twenty-five of the police were burned alive. Gandhi himself openly disavowed his responsibility for these outbreaks of violence and reproached those of his fol- lowers who had been participants. He imposed a fast of five days upon himself for his people’s sin. | There was also in this connection an “hartal,” or “closing DANGERS 323 shop” movement which the Nationalists had arranged to take place on the arrival of the Prince of Wales in Calcutta. One hundred and fifty thousand shops were closed in the region around Calcutta and to a lesser extent elsewhere, when the Prince passed in procession. One of the menacing features is that there are, according to report, 9,000,000 industrial workers who have formed themselves into trade unions and are in a distinctly truculent mood. In view of the new attitude of violence which these sup- posedly non-resisting Gandhiists displayed, the Government began to take very stringent action. Within a few weeks after the arrival of the Prince in Calcutta, four thousand persons were arrested there. At Bombay, the leaders of the riots were also arrested, and sentences of imprisonment, vary- ing from two months to two years, were passed on all offenders. | Gandhi’s doctrine of non-violence has in reality kindled hate. It is hard to develop self-control and passion at the same time. It has led to the horrors of Malabar in the south and the horrors of Chauri Chaura in the north. The slaughter of the Hindus at Moplah was vastly more fraught with atrocity than was Amritzar, and it was instigated by Moslems. Another danger lies in the fact that the educated Hindus have too little outlet for the education they have received. Over twelve thousand students graduate from Indian col- leges every year and comparatively few can get the coveted government positions, as the Hindus who are thus placed rarely resign. Law, journalism and even medicine are all hopelessly overcrowded in view of the fact that the over- whelming mass of people have not reached the stage where such services are in demand. The difficulty is that the British Government has put too much stress upon the government colleges of Calcutta, Bom- bay, Madras, and others, and too little upon manual and industrial training. In America, the education of Indians, 324 INDIA negroes and other backward people suffered the same result, until the development of the Hampton Institute at Virginia, and of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, showed the better way. ‘The British Government in India should take steps immediately for a widespread training in agriculture, the trades, and expert factory work. Hindus, with a college education and no way of earning their living therewith, become really dangerous in the community, as their discon- tent leads them to engage in propaganda antagonistic to the Government, and to align themselves with such movements as Gandhiism. ‘The fact is, Gandhi’s largest single asset is his hold on students and college men of dreamy and idealistic temperament. Taken as a whole, conditions in India are perhaps more disturbed than at any time since the Sepoy mutiny. It should be remembered, however, that the lack of unity and the natural inertness of the Hindu people make these disturb- ing factors mentioned of less immediate menace than they would be with people in the Occident. As the climax of the new government severity, Gandhi himself was arrested in March, 1922, and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment. “The immediate effect was to idealise Gandhi in the minds of the people at large. A picture poster circulated among the Gandhi adherents makes his figure conspicuous in the centre and around him on either side are arranged six other great men of the world, including Buddha, Krishna, Lenin, Christ, ‘Tolstoy, and, strange to say, McSweeney of Ireland! In February, 1924, Gandhi was taken seriously ill with appendicitis and his life was saved by the skill of an English surgeon. The English Government immediately gave him his liberty on parole and a Bombay merchant gave him the use of a comfortable summer house on the seashore near Bombay in which to convalesce. It was here that the writer had a most impressive audience with him. The truth is, that the Gandhi movement is altogether so vague and impractical, and so entirely reactionary in its Peet ARREST + 325 reversal to primitive conditions, that it seems to have begun to lose its power, not only with the more intelligent leaders but with the people generally. Besides, the Hindus are naturally too apathetic to maintain any consistent or con- secutive adherence to any fixed purpose. Gandhi also lacked the power of developing any system of organisation that would carry on any aggressive and growing campaign. Pe rep PTES ENCOUNTERED reer Rk EVN DLA Ignorance. ‘The principal difficulty is the fact that at least ninety-five per cent. of all the population of India is illiterate, and the rather abstract principles of Nationalism can make little appeal to the limited intelligence of the people. Of course there is potency in the word “swaraj”’ or self-rule, and at times the ignorant masses are raised to a state of hysterical excitement as they hear impassioned ap- peals for self-determination, and have pictured before them the supposed Utopia which would result from the realisa- tion of self-rule. Lack of Political Unity. ‘The fact that there is no po- litical unity, except that which Britain has established among the various provinces in India, would make co-operation among Gandhi's followers extremely difficult. These provin- cial prejudices are very strong, and before Great Britain came into India there were continual strifes and wars between the various sections. “The fact also that there are several hun- dred different languages and distinct dialects to be found in India with no common ground of language in which to make a unified appeal complicates the situation tremendously. Religious Antipathies. One of the greatest single fac- tors in preventing any unification of India is that of the racial and religious antipathies which are so widespread. Although seventy per cent. of the population are Hindus, there are nearly 70,000,000 Mohammedans. The aversions between Hindus and Mohammedans are intense beyond be- 326 INDIA lief. The fact that the Mohammedans at Moplah in the South of India, after having killed seven white people, attacked and killed thousands of Hindus, has been referred to. During the summer of 1923, there were similar on- slaughts upon the Hindus by the Mohammedans because the Hindus, for instance, raised an issue that a Mohammedan procession had cut away some of the low branches of sacred bo trees which interfered with their banners. This illustrates only one of scores of trifles out of which great religious conflicts arise. Gandhi himself, cognisant of these conditions, has tried to bridge the gulf between them. He has eaten at the same table with Mohammedans (although this is against his own profession of caste alle- giance), and has succeeded in getting a measure of appar- ent harmony among several of the leaders on both sides, but the antagonisms are so deep and instinctive that an outbreak is imminent at all times. In addition to these religious hatreds, there is also the problem of the ten million Hill People who are Animists and five million Christians who do not easily get on common ground, besides Sikhs, Jains, and Parsees. In the north of India the Hindus and Mohammedans, for instance, joined together to attack the Parsees at the time of the arrival of the Prince of Wales. There is also a strife between these racial and religious groups as to who should control the councils which are directing the movement, as well as to the method to be pursued,—whether their ends can be best attained by a quiet spread of principles or whether they should seek to enforce their desired reforms by organised attacks from without. The Obstacle of Caste. ‘The main difficulty which per- haps overshadows all others is the caste system which sepa- rates the Hindus by invisible but insurmountable walls. Gandhi himself upholds the caste system, while in theory he preaches brotherly unity. Gandhi lost his own caste by eat- ing with the Ali brothers, who are leaders of the Moham- medans. “The Hindus of his own caste revere Gandhi and approved his efforts to thus unite Hindus and Mohamme- SESTACLES 327 dans, but their stern principles of caste forbade them per- sonally to associate with Gandhi. It is not necessary here to go into the intricacies and absurdities of the caste system, but it is well known that those of one caste will not in any way associate with others or allow themselves to touch persons of other castes, or eat with them, or be joined in the same group. While the English administration has sought to overcome some of the extreme rigours of this system, and the introduction of railroads and modern methods of business have helped to break down barriers somewhat, at the same time with the great mass of people it is a fetish which is held to with fanatical loyalty. ‘The worst phase of the caste system is the fact that there is a great host of outcasts lower than the lowest of the four castes, usually spoken of as the ‘‘Untouchables.” ‘There are at least 50,000,000 of these people, their children not being permitted school privileges with others. They are not allowed to draw water from public wells or even to walk upon public highways. ‘To have the shadow of one of them fall upon a Hindu, though he be of the serving class him- self, is considered contamination and requires special puri- fying ablutions. Whenever a person of any one of the four regular castes sees an ‘‘Untouchable’” he utters a peculiar warning cry that will keep him at a distance varying from twenty-four to seventy-four feet, according to the caste of the one giving warning. Think of a country trying to govern itself in which such a system is enforced almost to the nth degree, making it im- possible for any sort of unity or co-operation! Antagonistic Independent States. The independent Indian States with about 70,000,000 of people are as a whole absolutely opposed to attacks upon the British Government. These States pay taxes to the British Government, furnish armies for it when needed, and accept and even ask for British advice and co-operation. ‘They are so opposed to anything that suggests the National Movement, that Gandhi has never been allowed to cross any of their borders. Non-Support of Hindu Leaders. Another insuperable 328 INDIA objection is the fact that intelligent Hindus, except such as are seeking political aggrandisement by joining with Nationalism, are not favourable to the movement. Most of the Brahmins realise that English control is necessary both to the peace and prosperity of India, and that the with- drawal of the British Government would immediately spell chaos and civil strife. “The Hindus who are in commercial life also recognise that it would be a death blow to business in every form to adopt the Gandhi doctrines. Among them any co-operation with the Nationalist Movement is more ap- parent than real. It was difficult to be openly antagonistic when students and others, who are associated with Gandhi, act as pickets in front of shops of merchants who will not agree to boycott English goods, and shout warning to all possible purchasers not to enter. “This is a powerful method of intimidation and many merchants pledged themselves not to sell English goods, but the promise was broken as soon as the spy was out of the way. It is as Gandhi himself said, “Moneyed men among the Hindus support British rule, as their interest is bound up with its stability.” On December 24, 1924, Gandhi made a political capitu- lation before the Indian National Conference, and agreed that Non-Co-operation should for the present be suspended and that the Swarajists should be allowed to sit and act in legislative assemblies. He announced, however, that he would continue his effort to have his principles made effective in the life of the people; that he would seek to make manual work the only qualification for franchise, simplify and cheapen court procedure, curtail military expenditures, abol- ish revenue from liquor and opium, and reduce all salaries to conform to an Indian basis. He would also cancel most of the franchises given to foreigners and make all offices of the administration open to natives. Mr. George Joseph, who was one of Gandhi’s strongest supporters, and the acting editor of “Young India” during Gandhi’s imprisonment and subsequent illness, resigned. Mr. C. R. Das did not accept Non-Co-operation and GCRSTACLES 329 Non-Resistance, but instead believed that his Swarajist party should get the largest possible representation in the various legislatures and councils and thus make every effort to obstruct legislation. It made the political situation de- plorable, and for a time in Bengal the English Government could get no majority, so that even salaries could not be paid except by decree of the Central Government. By a special manifesto, however, in April, 1925, Mr. Das announced that he and his Swarajist party were ready to abandon the tactics of obstruction because they found that they are alienating other influential Indian parties. He announced that their hope in the future would be to win “Swaraj” for India by co-operating with Great Britain, in the meantime working for a full Dominion status. Das turned over his considerable personal fortune to found a girls’ school and orphanage and showed his sincerity by living in a very humble way. Unfortunately for the Indian Cause, he died at Darjeeling in June, 1925. It will be dificult for the Swarajists to find another leader so able and so constructive. After all, the Indians are children and must be taken care of. Although of the Aryan race, they have a slave psychol- ogy, owing to centuries of oppression and misrule, and have little administrative or executive ability. Although educated Indians develop a remarkably idealistic and poetic type of mind and often become experts in drawing fine metaphysical and philosophical distinctions, very few have shown the grasp and business capacity which would enable them to assume large responsibilities. Even the educated “babu” necessarily remains a subordinate, filling a small niche in official and commercial circles. Great Britain is absolutely necessary to the development of India and the welfare of her conglomerate people. fost KRUCTIVE INELUENCES It should be remembered that these revolutionary move- ments do not always represent the real feeling of India as a 330 INDIA whole toward Great Britain. ‘There were nearly a half million Indians in the World War, and they proved them- selves good and trustworthy soldiers. “Those who returned from service in Europe have become too intelligent not to realise Britain’s power and position in the world, and the hopelessness of India’s becoming a secure and stable country, if independent of Great Britain. The Liberal Federation is a new organisation under the leadership of Pandit Maladiya, which is taking the place of the gradually discarded Non-co-operative Movement and British boycott. It emphasises the need and value of Indian mills and factory looms, and is endeavouring to increase and improve the school system. It encourages irrigation, medical work, and all forms of economic efficiency. It urges con- stitutional methods for redressing grievances and a self- government which will make India an equal partner with Great Britain. In other words, it is unlike the Nationalist Movement in that it is constructive rather than destructive, and positive instead of negative. The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, which the British Government has itself inaugurated, have produced a new ‘Constitution. Under these reforms the new National Par- liament of India met February 9, 1921, and many of the local affairs of the different Provinces have been put under the direction of this Parliament, subject, of course, to the revision or veto of the British Government. ‘This general control covers nearly all of the public activities such as agriculture, education, police, prisons, courts, sanitation, water supply and similar functions. The movement which Ghandi inaugurated has had a cer- tain quickening and educative value, and has helped to give ‘self-consciousness and spiritual discernment to the people of India. All fair-minded observers will recognise, however, that Great Britain has maintained a just and humane rule in India, and that on the whole the “white man’s burden” has been nobly borne. Without Great Britain, India would have continued to be torn by internecine feuds and would. RELIGIONS 331 have remained the victim of chaos and starvation. If Great Britain should entirely withdraw, India would rapidly revert to her former distressed condition, or be taken over by a Power, that might not deal so generously with the people. Ree eGlONsS OF INDIA As the religions of India have so tended to determine the thought and character of the people and have so largely helped to shape their history, it is well to give a brief résumé of those that are most prominent, HINDUISM The first form of Hinduism was Vedism, or the worship of Nature, the chief gods being rain, fire, and the sun. The Veda consists of the four books of songs and prayers which constituted its worship. 7 Brahminism. Then came Brahminism, introducing the idea of one universal essence or spirit which pervades every- thing, all that is seen being its manifestations. ‘This is an early form of Pantheism, and was developed in the Brah- manas, or sacred books, giving the ritual of sacrifices and ceremonies to be used by the Brahmins or priests. “These go back as far as 1000 B.C. This was followed by the Code of Manu, about 300 a. D., dividing Hindus into four classes or castes, which is the beginning of the caste system that has proved such a curse to India. The priests taught that they themselves came from the mouth of the god Brahma, while the warriors came from the arms, the tradesmen and farmers from the thighs, and the sudras, or serfs, from the feet. From Brahmanism came a later development of Hinduism which made the original god Brahma to be revealed in three persons, namely: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer and reproducer. ‘This idea of a trinity is in itself so suggestive of the Christian doctrine that it would be a reasonable system of belief. 332 LAN Dad The original Vedic documents contain much that is noble and give expression to some high ethical ideals. ‘The Bhagabat Gita says, “Find full reward of doing right in right.” “Work is more excellent than idleness. ‘The body’s life proceeds not, lacking work.” The prose epics, the Mahabarata and the Ramayana, have many noble senti- ments. . The Vedic ritual has an element of Ancestor Worship and the family ceremonialism in connection with births, marriage, death and offerings to the dead, has still a con- spicuous place in Hindu life. ‘There is a minute ritual observance, even in washing, eating and dressing. In fact, religion is almost divorced from ethics and has become a punctilious attention to the minutiz of religious formulas, the complete absorption in which tends to sterilise the spir- itual and ethical life of the individual. Some of the intelligent Brahmins of the present day still hold to the ancient and purer conception of religious wor- ship, but this is true of a very small proportion. ‘The great body of Brahmin priests are teachers of the most grotesque and grovelling modern superstitions. The Brahma-Somaj Society has arisen out of the fact that the minds of Hindu students with scientific training have been unable to accept the modern form of Hinduism, and hence there was established a spiritual deism shorn of all gross and degrading features. Its members believe in one communing God, reverence Christ, although not accepting His deity, accept the ethical elements in the Christian re- ligion, and militate against polygamy, idolatry, caste, child marriage, the ostracism of widows and intemperance. ‘The celebrated Indian poet, Tagore, is one of the leaders. Many Hindus of culture and position are adherents. ‘The results of Christian education and the study of the Bible are plainly indicated. ' The so-called “swami” who visit this country and estab- lish Hindu centres of thought and modes of Hindu worship largely represent this cultured product of India. ‘They are JAIN TEMPLE AT CALCUTTA BATHING IN THE GANGES AT BENARES a HINDUISM 333 wont to cull certain passages from the sacred books express- ing the mystic poetry and idealism of India, together with the Christian ideals which they have received in their English education, and clothe them in the charming metaphors and poetic figures of speech which are native to the Indian mind. ‘They are apparently able in this way to make a strong case for the nobility and, as they often claim, the superiority of the Hindu religion. A visit to India, however, with an opportunity to see at first hand the age-long evil effects of Hinduism will tend to cure even the most enthusiastic con- vert and devotee. Modern Hinduism. ‘This is a degenerate form of the original Brahminism, with a debasing conception of mani- fold wives and children of the trinity who are also gods, some of them with the vilest attributes. This has been accompanied by a host of superstitions that have scarcely a parallel in the history of religions. The worst of all is Kali or Durga (the wife of Siva), who is the ‘Terrible One, the thirster for blood, a monster with a grotesquely horrible face, and a crimson tongue hanging to her waist, to whom formerly sacrifices of children were made until the law forbade it, goats now being used as sub- stitutes. There has also developed a degrading worship of animals, in which cows, crocodiles, tigers, peacocks, parrots, elephants, monkeys, and even rats, are accounted sacred, and get their mead of worship. ‘The most grotesque forms of superstition - are widespread. One sees so-called ‘‘holy men” undergoing the most cruel forms of self-torture, such as making their beds on a framework of spikes, holding up one arm night and day for years until it is absolutely shrivelled, or making a home on the little platform several feet square on top of a pole, and refusing to descend to the earth, any offerings of food being raised to them from below. Or one may see a Brahmin priest leading a malformed cow with a fifth leg growing out of its back, promising the faithful, whom he allows to touch it for money, all sorts of supposititious bless- 334 LN Da ings. Such a religious teacher and guide is called a guru, and no matter how ignorant and filthy he may be, orthodox Hindus submit themselves to him and make him their guide and adviser. Transmigration of Souls. ‘The doctrine of the Karma, or transmigration of souls, teaches that the penalty of evil must be suffered through a series of existences, there being eight million four hundred thousand different incarnations, mostly in the form of animals, through which a soul may pass. The individual can abbreviate the terrible purgatory of these limitless forms of being, by expiatory suffering and by the securing of “‘merit’’ in this life. The Caste System. ‘The doctrine of caste (the word is derived from the Latin “castus,’’ meaning purity of blood) is the greatest bane of Hinduism, and the most terrible curse of India. ‘The four original caste distinctions,—priestly, military, trading, and serving,—have gradually been sub- divided into 1,886 distinct castes, each Hindu and his chil- dren to the nth generation being bound to his own particular subdivision of caste, and being forbidden to associate with persons of other castes. “The most terrible phase of this unspeakable system is the fact that there are in India nearly fifty million “Untouchables” already referred to. The doctrine of caste not only differentiates Hindus them- selves but makes outcasts of all other people, even of the highest type of Europeans. It is not usually understood that to a Hindu, although he be of the lowest serving caste, the slightest touch of a foreigner means contamination, even though he should be the Governor General of India, and this defilement can be removed only by ceremonial ablutions. The effect of the caste system, in making it practically impossible for a man to rise above his caste, or to marry outside his caste, is to destroy all ambition and initiative, and to make him the utter slave of the most grovelling and degraded conception of religion which has ever entered into the heart of man. If it were not for this ghastly incubus of a religion that fosters castes and degraded conceptions of ed J INGD OS 335 life, the Hindu would respond rapidly to the most scientific forms of modern culture. “The fact of having a unique combination of Aryan mentality and Oriental mysticism makes the Hindu by nature poetical, esthetic and artistic. He loves music and is easily stirred by recitations from the great epics, and when educated shows a remarkably philo- sophic and dialectic type of mind, although the constructive and executive elements are lacking. The conspicuous mark that is outlined in colour upon the forehead of Hindus is the special symbol of different gods, each Hindu usually selecting the special one of the gods to whom he devotes his worship. The perpendicular Vishnu marks are made with clay, and the horizontal Siva marks are made with cow-dung ashes. Hindu women can obtain position in this life, and in the coming series of incarnations, only through abject obedience to father or husband. ‘They have no opportunity or hope of ever reaching Nirvana except through the relationships they have with men. The most hopeless of all Hindu women are the twenty-six million widows who are not permitted by their religious tabu to re-marry, and who become veritable derelicts and social outcasts. As a very small per cent. of women in India have any education whatever, those who have being largely the limited number who are in Christian schools, they are particularly ignorant and superstitious. Think of the degradation of a woman prostrating herself before a cow in adoration, and then touching its tail to her forehead by way of worship, thereby expecting some par- ticular blessing. “The Nautch, or dancing girls, connected with the temples, are simply the creatures of the priests. There are tens of thousands of girls as young as five or six years of age, who are simply given over to a life of shame in the name of religion. Taken as a whole, Hinduism means polytheism and the grossest superstitions, the paralysing caste system, the degra- dation of women, the social ostracism of widows, child mar- 336 INDIA riage, the worship of animals, religious mendicancy, and hopeless prejudice and mental paralysis. Every religion, as a rule, has admirable precepts and religious conceptions that deserve the respect of broad-minded people, but Hinduism as administered by the present-day Brahmin priests has scarcely one redeeming point, and is merely an unspeakable abomination of caste, filth, blood and degradation, BUDDHISM Gautama Buddha was the first conspicuous religious teacher to preach the brotherhood of man enjoining love and charity for all, militating against class distinctions, sacri- fices and penances. He enunciated self-control and the over- coming of anger, ignorance and lust, together with the attainment of perfect wisdom, and the eventual perfect peace of Nirvana. For forty-four years, Buddha taught in the so-called Deer Park at Benares, now known as Sarnath. He died 543 B.c. at the age of eighty. His teachings are embodied in certain Cingalese and Pali texts which have been translated by such great Oriental scholars as Dr. Max Miller and Dr. Rhys Davids. Although Buddha never claimed a divine origin, or the power of working miracles, he has gradually become the supreme god of Buddhism, no other god being recognised. Buddhism teaches that life is made up of suffering which is caused by desire. ‘The hope of attaining Nirvana, or the merging into the Infinite, is to renounce desire, resulting in a dimunition of suffering. A holy contemplation of Buddha, who is symbolised by the innumerable statues, tends to limit the cycle of suffering existences, which would otherwise be inevitable, and the individual thus more quickly attains to Nirvana where all suffering, together with the individual existence, ceases. Buddhism teaches charity, kindness, truth, chastity and self-denial, and in its pure form is distinctly uplifting and ennobling, although the Buddhism of India today is usually RELIGIONS 337 encrusted with Hindu or Animistic superstitions. Of the 10,721,000 Buddhists in India, all but 400,000 are in Burma. MOHAMMEDANISM About 70,000,000 inhabitants of India are Mohammedans, who represent a much more forceful and intelligent class than do the Hindus. ‘There is almost no doubt that if Great Britain should withdraw, the Mohammedans, although in the minority, would soon dominate India, if they were left undisturbed by foreign Powers. Mohammedanism (the name Mohammed means “the praised one”) has the following essential dogmas: 1. Prayers five times a day at specified hours, with the face of the worshipper turned toward Mecca. 2. The giving of alms. 3. The fast of Ramazan during one entire month when no food is eaten until sunset. 4. A pilgrimage once a lifetime, if it is humanly possible, to the holy city of Mecca. ‘These doctrines, together with the adherence to the idea of one God, with Mohammed as his prophet, embraces the whole programme of Mohammedanism. The idea of the spreading of their religion by the sword, and the assurance of paradise to the man who kills a Chris- tian or other “infidel,” pervades the whole of the Moham- medan world. The Sikhs (the word means “‘disciple’’) denounce idolatry and caste but are worshippers of Vishnu. ‘They prohibited “suttee’ or the immolation of widows (long before Great Britain made it illegal), the immurement of women, the use of intoxicants, the making of pilgrimages, the associating of sacred power with rivers or animals,—in fact, it is a re- formed Hinduism, and it is a pity that it has not helped to deliver India from its debasing shackles to a greater extent than it has done. Jainism will be summarised in connection with the Jain 338 INDIA temple at Calcutta, and the Parsee Faith under the caption of “The Towers of Silence,’ in a subsequent descriptive account of Bombay. India’s Need. ‘The great need of India is the use of the modern scientific method of education, and especially the leavening power of a broad and an unsectarian Christianity. Dr. John van Schaick, Jr., in his charming book, ‘Cruising Around a Changing World,” well says, “It is Christianity that cuts through caste, dignifies the position of women, frees childhood from child labour and child marriage, pro- motes education, introduces modern medicine, increases physical well-being, and gives a religion of faith and hope and good works and personal morality in exchange for one largely based on superstition, exhibiting itself in cere- monies,” CAL CU Calcutta is very unfortunately situated from a commercial point of view. It is eighty-two miles from the mouth of the Hooghly River and the nearest approach for ocean steamers in that river is at Diamond Harbour, forty-two miles from Calcutta. All trafic must necessarily be con- veyed by river steamers from Diamond Harbour or by the rather insignificant railway going from Diamond Harbour up to Calcutta. The fact that the river is constantly shift- . ing its channel and needs skilled pilots, and that owing to swift currents and shifting channels it admits of day traffic only, adds to the commercial disadvantages. As one approaches the city, the numerous factory chim- neys and the imposing domes, notably that of the Victoria Memorial, indicate the size and importance of the city. In spite of the commercial disadvantages, there are over 250 factories and mills (mostly engaged in the manufacture of jute) in Calcutta and vicinity, with 300,000 employes. Calcutta is hardly as much a “City of Dreadful Night” as is Benares, but it is a city of marked contrasts between CAI CUE LT A sa9 British officialdom living in luxury, and the squalid native quarters adjoining. It was the British capital of India for more than a cen- tury until 1912, at which time the seat of Government was transferred to Delhi. The population (1921) is 1,263,292. hd Um Od LA Goa Calcutta was founded in 1690 by Job Charnock and was then known as Old Fort William, named after King William III. Charnock was a unique character, which is perhaps best illustrated by the fact that he carried off a Hindu widow who was to be burned by “suttee,’’ married her and had several Eurasian children. He himself accepted the Hindu religion, and after his wife’s death made annual sacrifices of goats before the image of the goddess Kali as a memorial to his wife. The Old Fort William gave way in 1773 to the present Fort costing $10,000,000, which has an octagonal shape and encloses two square miles. It is surrounded by a deep dry ditch which in an emergency can be quickly filled with water by a sluice from the river. Warren Hastings (who made this the capital of the Hon- ourable East India Company in 1774 and became its first Governor), Sir Philip Francis (the supposed author of the celebrated Junius letters), Lord Clive, Lord Canning, and Lord Curzon, have all been historic figures in its develop- ment. The story goes that Jahanara Begum, the beautiful daugh- ter of the Mogul emperor, Shah Jahan, was very ill and that the English surgeon of the East India Company effected a cure. As a reward, the English were allowed to settle at Hooghly. leer ACK HOLE OF CALCU ITA Calcutta was attacked in 1756 by Siraj-ud-Baulah, the ruler of the Bengal province under the Delhi Government, 340 INDIA because Governor Drake had harboured one of his enemies. When an army of 70,000 men with 400 elephants approached Calcutta, Governor Drake without notice abandoned the city, followed by the commander of the garrison with his troops and some refugees, deserting two hundred and fifty men (of whom eighty were English soldiers and gunners), besides women and children. The point was easily captured within seventy hours after, and the surviving people,—one hundred and forty-six in all, were crowded into a room in the military prison in the fort. It was fourteen by eighteen feet, with two very small barred windows. ‘These prisoners were forced into this dungeon at eight o’clock in the evening, having been put there because of the stupidity of the guards, who were told to keep them in a safe place. Only twenty-three were alive the next morning, the rest having died from heat and suffocation. ‘The Holwell Monument on the corner of Dalhousie Square marks the place where the dead bodies were thrown into a ditch. ‘The site of ‘““The Black Hole” is now marked by a marble pavement at the northern end of the eastern verandah of the Post Office, where the original Old Fort stood, and is marked by a tablet. Early the next year Calcutta was recaptured and from this date has made rapid progress. IMPORTANT SoG 8a Dalhousie Square is at the centre of Calcutta, and around it are grouped most of the important government and busi- ness Offices. It was here that Job Charnock established his settlement. It takes its name from the Earl of Dalhousie, whose office as Governor General expired in 1856. In the centre of the Square is a little lake and a well-kept garden and statues of erstwhile official dignitaries. Around the Square are grouped the General Post Office, the Custom House, and the East Indian Railway House. The Government House, built in 1804 by Lord Wel- PLC HES EBING 341 lesley, then Governor General, at a cost of $1,300,000, is an imposing white structure at the northern end of the Maidan. It is situated in a large garden of six acres enclosed by a high wall punctuated with stately gates, and is accessible to visitors. It has a handsome interior, the principal apart- ments being the Throne Room, the Council Chamber, the Banqueting Hall, and a suite of Ball Rooms. It gives a commanding view of two miles across the Maidan. ‘The Treasury Buildings are on the west side of Government Place and contain the library of the Astronomical Society. The Maidan, in the centre of Calcutta, is a Park nearly two miles long and averaging nearly a mile wide bordering on the river front. The Government House and the Gov- ernor’s Palace are on the north, while Belvedere House, in which Lieutenant Governors lived (now a School for the select class of Indian boys), is near the southern end. On the west side are the several hotels, the United Service and Bengal Clubs, the Army and Navy Stores, and the Indian Museum. In the northwest corner are the Eden Gardens, together with the Race Course, which has a track two miles in circumference. ‘To the south loom the Victoria Memorial, the Cathedral and the Calcutta Club. The Victoria Memorial, costing $6,000,000, is an im- posing marble building in the style of the Italian Renais- sance, with a lofty central dome and square corner turrets. It is often spoken of as the “White Glory of Calcutta.” It was formally opened by the Prince of Wales, December 28, 1921. Its massive dome can be seen by incoming steam- ers twenty-two miles down the river. At the entrance is a fine statue of the Queen Mother, Victoria, and farther to the north a bronze statue of Lord Curzon. ‘The four alle- gorical figures at the corners of the dome represent com- merce, peace, agriculture and famine relief. The interior dome of the Memorial is rich in twin-hued marble, floral carving, embossed scupture and fine filigree work,—a treasury of allegory, symbol and history. Many incidents during the Queen’s lifetime are pictured in the 342 INDIA panels. ‘Twelve frescoes, representing scenes of the Queen’s life, decorate the walls, one of which pictures her as holding her first council at Kensington Palace, June 20, 1837. “The youthful Victoria in marble is conspicuous. A picture, twenty-four feet long, by the celebrated Rus- sian painter Vereschagin, and presented by the Maharaja of Jaipur, represents King Edward VII, while Prince of Wales in 1875, seated on an elephant with that Maharaja. In the background is the Palace of the Winds at Jaipur. Just adjoining are some fine water colour sketches of Indian scenes, painted by the Misses Eden, who presented the Eden Gardens to Calcutta. ‘Tablets affixed to the walls give the Queen’s Proclamation to the people of India. ‘The central hall is known as Queen’s Hall, from which five other cor- ridors open,—one to the left with busts and pictures of India’s great worthies, one to the right displayng large can- vases of famous scenes, together with a room containing ancient arms and trophies, and a Durbar Hall for great State occasions. The outlook from the top of the structure gives a superb view of Calcutta. A revolving figure of the Angel of Victory, weighing five tons, crowns the Central dome. The Eden Gardens are an alluring place for promenades. They have a Burmese pagoda in the centre, a statue of George Eden, Earl of Auckland, and a handsome music pavilion for band concerts on the west side of the Gardens. The principal Jain Temple, which is situated near the Upper Circular Road, is a rather showy and spectacular structure set in a captivating garden. It was the gift of Rai Buddree Dass Bahabur Makim to the Viceroy, and was erected in 1867. ‘The entrance is a triple-storied, brilliantly tiled gate-house ornamented with lively colours. In the eastern end of the garden, which is gay with tropical trees, plants and flowers, with peacocks strutting here and there, is a picturesque little lake with an artistic central fountain. _ The Shish Mahal, or Palace of Mirrors, at the north end has a lie interior, in which walls, ceiling and even the HOLY AMMAN? AT CALCUTTA STREFT BARBER SIGHTSEEING 343 floor, are of resplendent and many-coloured crystals. Just outside is a smaller garden featured by a marble pavilion erected to the memory of the donor’s mother. The temple itself is on a white marble terrace reached by thirteen steps of marble, inlaid with mosaic ornamentation. The inner sanctum sanctorum is encircled by ornamented gilt pillars and in the centre may be seen the white marble deity, always embowered in roses, placed upon an iridescent crystal altar brilliant with a hundred lights. The Jain religion is contemporaneous with the Buddhist, and its main principle is: “Regard for life is the highest virtue.’ ‘The Jainists represent the best type of intelligent merchants and dealers in cloth and jewels. ‘Their religion embodies a belief in reincarnation, with the worship of the twenty-four mortals who are the “Liberated Ones,” each of which is represented as being in a posture of repose and contemplation. The Hastings House, situated on Judges’ Court Road, was the residence of Warren Hastings, the first Governor General of Calcutta. In 1915 it was converted into a Boys’ School. The story of Warren Hastings’ brilliant career in India and of his subsequent impeachment and trial is well known. His life was full of unusual episodes, among which was his romantic attachment to Madam Imhoff, the wife of Baron Carl Imhoff, a German military officer. He paid Baron Imhoff a large sum to induce him to return to Ger- many, and after the divorce he married Madam Imhoff. The Stuart Hogg market on Lindsay Street has a char- acteristic interest all its own. It is a large brick building with a frontage of over three hundred feet and contains not only meats, fruits and vegetables, but many kinds of mer- chandise in its various bazaar booths. Here are to be found curio dealers, silversmiths, milliners, embroidery and silk vendors, and many other merchants displaying their char- acteristic wares. The Opera House on Lindsay Street has been the scene of notable fashionable gatherings. Here on New Year’s 344 DN Day, 1876, King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, attended a gala performance at which the lowest-priced single tickets were $17, and box seats sold from $165 to $335. Evidently the sudden rise in prices does not take place only at a time when American tourists arrive. The Indian Museum at 27 Chrowringhee Street is a rather impressive building, 300 by 270 feet. ‘The Bharhut sculptures, representing the sacred stories of Brahmanism, are unusually important, and here are also shown some extraordinarily fine relics such as carved gateways, bas- reliefs and images from the famous ancient buildings of India. ‘The Museum is also especially rich in Buddhist art. The Zoological Department has taxidermed examples of animal life such as birds, reptiles, and mammals, and there is a rare collection of 12,000 specimens of minerals and 112,000 fossils. Here, too, is an Ethnological section with life-like aborigines in their native setting showing their houses, weapons, musical instruments, and boats. The gold throne of King Thibaw, who ruled Burma from 1878 to 1885, is also on exhibition. The Museum is of rare quality and should not be missed. It is usually open from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M. The Commercial Museum in Council House Street has an exhibition of all kinds of articles which are entirely of Indian manufacture. The Temple of Kali, built in 1809, and reached by cross- ing the Kalighat Bridge, is a hideous structure of mud and plaster. It is built in honour of Kali, Siva’s wife. Siva, the destroyer, is one of the divine trinity of the Hindu religion, the other two being Brahma, the creator, and Vishnu, the preserver. Kali represents the creative force, but has degenerated into the conception of cruelty and blood- thirstiness. In a corner of the court is a champa tree whose branches are decorated with coloured threads and other offerings pre- sented by praying women desiring sons. Half-naked sadhus, or religious fakirs (the word “fakir”’ is the Arabic word SIGHTSEEING 345 “noor”’), are everywhere and usually in a begging attitude. Sacred cows, always sleek and fat (while humans starve), wander unmolested through the temple courtyard, as well as about the business streets, one having been seen wending her way into a bank. Priests are busy browbeating the people, especially the women, out of their last coin. Yogis sit squat on the ground encircling small fires. Singers, bells and tom-toms make a Babel of confusing noises. At the bloody altar as many as forty goats are daily sacrificed, of which the meat, such part as is not used by the priests, is given to the poor. In a place of honour is the image of Kali with four arms, three red eyes and a protruding scarlet tongue hanging down to her waist. A necklace of skulls and garlands of flowers add to her decorations, and help to complete this esthetic picture. The sight of this image of Kali arouses the crowd to a terrible religious hysteria. The Burning Ghat is not far from the Temple, the way leading through narrow streets bordered by shrines and shops, the latter being emblazoned with images of Kali and other temple souvenirs. After passing some bright-hued arcades called Chetty’s Ghat, one comes to a walled garden enclosing a Temple. Here dead bodies are cremated much after the fashion described in the chapter on Benares. ' Prinsep’s Ghat is a pier where royal personages were wont to land. A pair of lions guard the top of the stairs de- scending to the river. The Mint is beyond the Howrah Bridge and is said to be the largest in the world, covering over eighteen acres. Here silver, nickel, and copper coins are made. The Marble Palace in Muklaram Babu Street is set in a great garden filled with statues. Within the Palace is a very large figure of Queen Victoria in her coronation robes. On the floor above is a Picture Gallery which contains several copied paintings by Rubens, Joshua Reynolds, etc. In the garden are some rare animals, peacocks, and gaily- 346 INDIA coloured birds. At the north end, where the family deity is enshrined, hundreds of poor people are fed daily. The Botanical Gardens are at Sibpur, a little beyond Howrah, reached by crossing a handsome new bridge over the Hooghly River. A trip to the Gardens makes one of the pleasing drives around Calcutta, and the roads in the garden itself lead through captivating scenes. Here is the famous banyan tree, said to be the largest in India, being 1,000 feet in circumference and having 378 aerial roots. Tea plants, the quinine-producing chinchona, and many other forms of tropical vegetation are also in evidence. Alipore is on the other side of Tolly’s Nolly, a muddy tributary of the Ganges, and here are the government jail and reformatory as well as factories and storehouses. ‘This is the place where the famous duel between Warren Hast- ings and Sir Philip Francis occurred, in which Francis was severely wounded. It is interesting in this connection to dwell upon an episode in the rather checkered career of Sir Philip Francis. He was tried at Calcutta for alienating the affections of the fifteen-year-old bride of a young Swiss writer in the com- pany service named Grand, and was compelled to pay fifty thousand rupees to the injured husband. ‘Twelve months later, Madame Grand left for Europe and in 1802, when in her fortieth year, married de Talleyrand, Bere famous Minister of foreign affairs. Here in Alipore William Makepeace Thackeray, the novelist, lived when a child, his father being a government collector. The Zoological Gardens have attractive grounds and a good collection of animals, birds, and reptiles. Places of Worship. Calcutta has two Parsee “Towers of Silence,” but people who include Bombay in their itinerary can see them to much better advantage there. “The same may be said of the Parsee Fire Temple. A Portuguese Cathedral, an Armenian Church, a Greek Church, a Jewish CHURCHES 347 Synagogue, and a Mohammedan mosque are to be found in Calcutta. St. Paul’s Cathedral is on the southeast corner of the Maidan and was consecrated in 1847. It has been the cen- tre of prominent official events. St. Andrew’s Scotch Pres- byterian Church is on Dalhousie Square. St. John’s Church (formerly called the Cathedral) is a Church of England on Hastings Street, the scene of many historic happenings and memorials. At the south end of the churchyard is the mausoleum of Job Charnock, and the tombs of other promi- nent historical figures like Lady Canning, Admiral Watson and others. Among the recent churches are the Wesleyan, the Baptist, the Congregational, the Methodist Episcopal and a Roman Catholic Church. The Old Mission Church has a tablet to the Rev. Henry Martyn, so often spoken of as an illustrious example of religious consecration. ‘The steeple of this church was so injured in the earthquake of 1897, that it was necessary to rebuild it. Missions. Important religious work is carried on by the Oxford Mission High School, the St. James’ School for Eurasians, the Church Missionary Society Missions and Schools, the Baptist Mission Society, the Church of Scot- land and the Wesleyan Mission. Hotels. The principal Hotels are the Grand, Great Eastern, Spence, and Continental, the first two being the best, although the hotels of Calcutta are not commensurate with the size and importance of the City. River Landing. Passengers coming by the Hoogly River steamers usually land at Outram Ghat. Railway Stations. Travellers on the East Indian Rail- way going toward Benares cross the Howrah Bridge, 1,528 feet long, and take the train at the Howrah Station. ‘The railway time is twenty minutes behind the ordinary city time. ‘The Darjeeling passengers take the train on the Cal- cutta side of the river at the Sealdah Station. 348 INDIA Motor Trips are available and are usually at the rate of ten annas (twenty cents) a mile. THE TRIP: TO DARPE The Ramayana, the great prose epic of early Brahmanism, says, ““As the dew is dried up by the morning, so are the sins of mankind dried up at the sight of Himalchal (Himala- yas).” The word Himalayas means “snow abode.” From this source issue all the great rivers of India, the Ganges rising out of an ice cave located over 10,000 feet above the sea. Darjeeling is 367 miles north of Calcutta and is near the frontier between India, Nepaland and Tibet. It was once a deserted village in an impenetrable forest, but is now a community of 17,000 people, with modern hotels, and charming floral-embowered villas occupied by Europeans. The trip starts from the Sealdah Station in Calcutta and requires six hours by broad gauge to Santahar, then seven hours on a metre gauge to Siliguri, changing to a narrow gauge on which it takes six or seven hours more to go up to Darjeeling. The railway first passes through 300 miles of the flat plains of India, crossing the Sara Bridge over the Ganges, 124 miles north of Calcutta, the bridge being more than a mile long and costing $12,500,000. It was built in 1915 and replaced the former ferry. Siliguri Station is 328 miles from Calcutta. From here the narrow gauge goes the remaining forty miles to Dar- jeeling. The locomotives weigh ten tons and the train averages less than eight miles an hour, each hour rising over 1,000 feet. All the capital for this narrow gauge road was raised in India, and it has proved a paying investment, in spite of the fact that it cost $6,000,000 originally, and has had $15,000,000 spent on it since. In 1920, it carried 263,092 passengers, and 61,704 tons of freight. THE ASCENT 349 The temperature falls rapidly as the altitude increases, and travellers are warned to safeguard themselves with warm wraps. ‘The nights at Darjeeling are often quite cold. It was from Siliguri that the expedition in 1904 was made against Lhasa, the “Forbidden City,” 359 miles dis- tant. In going over this route one must cross over a Pass 16,800 feet high, Lhasa itself having an altitude of 12,300 feet. ‘The rule which excluded Europeans from Tibet has been somewhat relaxed,—in fact, Great Britain has assumed a practical protectorate. It was the desire of China to monopolise the tea trade, which was the main reason why the lamas excluded Europeans from ‘Tibet. Climbing the Mountain. As the train proceeds to Dar- jeeling, the ascent begins six miles beyond Siliguri, and the scenery is most majestic. “The train passes through great jungles and forests, and at one point goes around a spur which runs along the edge of a precipice one thousand feet high. The road all the way up to the Darjeeling level winds round and about through fascinating views. As Mark ‘Twain said, ‘“The road is infinitely and charmingly crooked.” One has glimpses of illimitable plains below, with their teem- ing millions of blighted lives, and views of glory-crowned peaks above, where lie the unspotted eternal snows. It takes six or seven hours to cover the forty miles up the mountain over a grade rising from three to five de- grees, the tiny trains being drawn by small engines. At Kurseong Station, 32 miles beyond Siliguri, at an ele- vation of five thousand feet are tea gardens and a European settlement and Hotel. Usually the train stops here for break- fast or lunch. The chota-hazri or six o'clock preliminary breakfast, which is the rule all over India, is usually served on the trains. There are many tea plantations to be seen that extend in terraces up to the very top of the lesser mountains approach- ing the Himalayas. ‘Tea is the prime staple here, and more than 125,000 acres are planted, an acre often yielding 240 pounds of finished tea. 350 TINIE a At Ghoom the train reaches the highest point of 7,470 feet and then gradually makes the slight descent to Dar- jeeling. DARJEELING The name Darjeeling means ‘Place of the thunderbolt.” It suffered greatly from the effects of the earthquake in 1897. It stands upon a ridge nearly seven thousand feet above the bed of the Rajit River and the terraced roads run along the knife-edged crest. From this point of vantage one looks down into this vast abyss and then the eye travels up the sloping sides of Kin- chinjanga, over twenty-eight thousand feet high, the last twelve thousand feet being covered with eternal snows. Pile Mt. Shasta on Mt. Tacoma and you exceed very little the altitude of this stupendous giant. The summit of Kin- chinjanga, with its streamers of waving light and its tinted cloud banners, is divided into two peaks, giving perhaps the | most superb view on earth, unless it be at Tiger Hill where a score of giant mountains come into the range of vision forming the very backbone of the world. ‘The first sight comes as a shock, leaving one dazed and breathless. Tiger Hill is 8,574 feet high, over fifteen hundred feet higher than Darjeeling and about six miles from Darjeel- ing by horseback, or by sedan chair. It is well to get to Tiger Hill before the first break of day, as the effect of the sun’s first rays upon the great ranges of Titan mountains, and their slow creeping down the snow-clad inclines, make a very marvellous picture. Guests at the hotels wishing to take this trip usually retire early and are called about two o'clock in the morning, served with a light breakfast and are mounted and away before three. Horseback riding is the ideal way of making the climb, but one must be provided with warm clothing, for the nights are cold at this altitude. Those who go by sedan chair are carried by four men who move in surpris-. GRO ET LT 351 ing unison to a crooning rhythmic sound in which they all join. One particularly stout gentleman took eight carriers for his chair, and afterwards stated that he quite liked his eight cylinder car. Whether one rides a pony or is carried by chair up the winding circuitous path, it is a weird and never-to-be-forgot- ten experience. [The way at times leads through stretches of deep-shadowed forests, and again comes out into a vast expanse under the light perhaps of a full moon, or of stars that appear super-brilliant in the crisp dry mountain air. After reaching the summit, hot coffee is sometimes served by the tourist management while eager eyes watch for the slow coming of the dawn. It is always a marvellous sight, this gradual change of colour from the sombre tones of the night to the glory of the morning, but nowhere else is it so impressive as from this mountain top, with its grand contours of illimitable spaces and sweeping horizons. ‘There is an “eager nipping air” on the frosty mountain top that might ordinarily chill enthu- siasm, but the vision that comes with the breaking of the day brings its glorious reward and transcends all one’s boldest imaginings. “he mountains begin to look like white phan- toms resting on hazy dark-purple mountain foundations. Then comes the first rose-flush gradually turning to gold, then the first gleam of sunshine on Kinchinjanga like the flash of a mammoth beacon signal. ‘Then it runs along the chain of peaks like a giant lamp-lighter making the pinnacles of the world aflame with light and colour. If one adds to this the incomparable view of the snowy range and even a momentary glimpse of Mount Everest, which looks like a lesser peak nearly a hundred miles away, the overpowering majesty of it all is beyond description. One is looking on the greatest mountain wall of the world, a mighty parapet overlooking the heavens and the earth. The spectator is spell-bound as in a trance, and then silently descends, cherishing the memory of an experience of scenic glory transcending all others that the earth can show. 352 TDN Dilad True it is that clouds sometimes veil the peaks and visi- tors fail to see Mt. Everest’s crest or even the unending stretches of mountain tops, but the wild beauty of the ride offers much compensation, and the tourist should take the gambler’s chance, especially as a stay of several days will almost surely give occasional glorious glimpses of the world’s crest. On the return trip from Tiger Hill one passes what was once the military station and sanatorium of Jelapahar, now deserted because the loneliness and desolation drove soldiers and invalids into insanity. Observatory Hill once had a Buddhist monastery on its crest and here Buddhists still offer prayers, ring bells, beat tom-toms and make their offerings. The Buddhist Chorten of the Red Tibetan type is down the ridge and its temple and quaint village people are inter- esting. The Victoria Falls near Rosebank and the Residence of the Maharaja of Burdwan have a distinctive charm. The Nepal Frontier can be crossed by using available conveyances, making a ride of wonderful scenery and fas- cinating pictures of native life, giving a thrilling sense of mystery and adventure. The Eden Sanatorium is a conspicuous building doing a fine work, and is carried on by English women. ‘The attractive Summer Home of the Governor of Bengal will also be pointed out. Churches. ‘The principal ones are St. Andrew’s Church, the Old Church, with some tablets of English officers; a Union Chapel, and a Scotch Kirk. Schools. Among Schools are St. Paul’s and St. Joseph’s Schools and the Diocesan Girls’ High School. Hotels. ‘The principal Hotels are the Mount Everest, which is of the highest standard, the Woodlands and the Rockville. Conveyances. At Darjeeling rikishas, sedan chairs, dandies, ponies and autos are available. NenOR PIN G 353 Bazaars. ‘The Bazaar is the principal attraction in the centre of the town, and is especially thronged with natives on Saturdays and Sundays. Sunday is the gala day when the mountaineers bring their market wares, and the tea pickers come to show their finery and to buy some additional coveted ornaments with their hard earned wages. At this Bazaar interesting things may be purchased, such as native embroideries, crude metal work, masks worn by devil dan- cers, prayer wheels, images of strange gods, tiger skins from the jungles, stone marten and other furs from the Hima- layas, together with amulets, finger rings, toe rings, and many forms of rather crude but artistic jewellery, bells, drinking cups, vases, skull bowls, and beaded and embroid- ered tobacco pouches. Married women adorn (!) their noses on the sides with flat discs of silver and gold, sometimes jewelled, varying in size from a dime to almost a quarter. “These are fastened on by a little stem which pierces the nostril and is screwed to a similar disc on the inside of the nose. “They sometimes wear two or three small ones on one side and a large one on the other. ‘These curiosities may be purchased in the shops and are sold, as is other jewellery, by weight. ‘“Turquoises set in silver are distinctive and are sold at low prices, as both are mined in this region, although imitations are very com- mon. All the Tibetans wear the turquoise ornaments in their ears using them as show cases, by which they hope to attract purchasers. Usually the hillman has only ground glass of turquoise blue, the regular dealer being more trust- worthy. Climate. ‘The temperature at Darjeeling never exceeds 80° F. in summer and does not fall below 30° in winter, with an annual average of 54° F. The People. ‘The people represent quite a strange mix- ture, combining the Mongolian flat face and high cheek bones with the Hindu caste mark, wearing queues under their turbans and loose-sleeved Chinese coats with overlap- ping fronts. There are the broad faced Lepchas and 354 INDIA Bhutianese, who stare stolidly before them, each woman being the family savings bank, laden with clusters of hoarded rupees upon her neck in overlapping circles. . They are of Tibetan stock and inclined to be sluggish and lazy. ‘The Tibetans are everywhere to be seen, largely forming the workers on the tea plantations. ‘The Gurkhas are very hardy, and the men proved themselves very good soldiers in the World War. ‘The Nepalese are the chief burden bearers. All these races are distinctly Mongolian in type, with high cheek bones and rather short heavy bodies. ‘The women’s rich materials and the striking colours in purple, red, green, orange and yellow, make the streets a pictur- esque glare of colour. Visitors are often entertained with a weird “devil dance,” given by the Bhutians, which is a very spectacular performance, perhaps more so than any other native dance in Asia. BE NA RoE Benares or Kasi (the Bright) is the Holy City par excel- lence, filled with grandiose temples and shrines, some of them facing the sacred river Ganges, from which descend the long stairs full of squares, curves and corners, making room for multitudes of smaller shrines and temples. There are nearly fifty ghats with their connecting stair- ways. It is a city of 199,993 people (in 1921), where the population largely lives on the half million and more pil- grims that come annually for the supreme visit to the city of their dreams. Some one with a mania for dealing in large mathematics has estimated that there are here 200,000 gods, 2,000 temples and 40,000 Brahmin priests, who not only dominate Benares, but send out their influence into broadcast India. Some aristocratic pilgrims come in royal state on backs of elephants, others are huddled together in fourth class railroad coaches where they scarcely have standing room, BENARES eh: expecting to redeem their loss of caste in the Holy City, but most of them come on foot, in some cases tramping hundreds of weary miles. There is such an extreme sanctity in Benares which in- cludes the soil, air and water, that all who come into its precincts are purified from sin, and thereby hope to escape at least in part the penalty of rebirth into the world in the lower forms of animal life. Those who die here are prom- ised liberation from the ‘‘wheel of life’ with its hopeless round of incarnations and deaths. To combat such incredible superstitions that are cherished with a truly fanatical zeal, the British Government has an appalling task. A hundred years of British influence have scarcely made a dent in this wall of superstition that has been built up during twenty-five centuries. Certainly, a number of generations must inevitably pass before a general enlightenment will show people their folly. It was here and at Sarnath, as well as in all the adjacent districts that Gautama Buddha preached and laboured, and for eight hundred years his doctrines had some influence. It has proved an unspeakable calamity to India that Bud- dhism, with its higher ideals and absence of caste, did not pre- vail over the degraded practices of Hinduism. Of course the pundits and educated “‘babus” say that Hin- duism even as here practised is not idolatry, but that these images of Vishnu, Siva, Krishna, Ganesha, Kali, etc., to- gether with the sacred bulls, monkeys, and wells, are only symbols of the simplest of creeds, the noblest of faiths, as well as the most satisfying philosophy to be found anywhere in the world. Perhaps half a million pious pilgrims from every part of India come annually to Benares to worship in the dingy and tawdry temples and be absolved from their sins in the purify- ing waters of the Ganges. They then rejoicingly take their departure, rather regretting that death did not overtake them within the sacred confines of the city, which would have meant a speedier entrance into coveted Nirvana. They 356 INDIA go away, however, with an abiding sense of having acquired “merit” by a visit to the Sacred City, which will enrich them for all time to come. Every pilgrim must make the thirty-six mile pilgrimage around the sacred territory of Benares, the way being lined by shrines at which they must stop and worship. Some of these fakirs have measured every inch of this circle with their prone bodies. While innumerable gods are included in the Hindu relig- ion, the prominent deity of Benares and largely in other parts of India is Siva (or Shiva). The particular symbol of this deity consists of a gilt trident and a perforated disc which gleams from the pinnacles of uncounted temples and shrines. The so-called “holy men,’ who have renounced life as “the great illusion,” infest the place and manage by one pretext or another to beguile pilgrims into making generous gifts of coins and of rice in the name of religion. ‘These are ragged, unkempt and smeared with ashes and filth, sit- ting stoically like graven images, and yet with the rigid ges- ture and posture of one appealing for alms. It is estimated that there are three million of these in India, most of them being strong men of young and middle age, who should be forced to work, as they give no service to the public, not even as the priests of the temples do, who aid the people in their worship. Blind and deformed beggars and lepers add to the cheerful and engaging scene. One should start at daylight and, securing a seat in one of the visitors’ boats, be rowed slowly along the mile or more of shore-line where most pilgrims come. This gives a won- derful sweep of the city facing the river, with its palaces, temples and gardens, either precariously perched on the sides of the slope or crowning the bluff above. by BA‘T HI NG: Giiawies Almost at any hour in the early morning, thousands of white-clad pilgrims and worshippers crowd the stairways SNAKE CHARMERS AT BENARES WOMAN PULLING “PUNKA” FAN ey, PaetHINnG,; GHATS 357 leading down to the bathing ghats, and enter the sacred waters of the Ganges. ‘They step down into the water and stoop and raise a handful of the sacred fluid to their lips and foreheads, and they then face the East and lift their arms to the sun as to a deity. Wading out to their waists or armpits in the sacred waters, they engage in their devotions with a rapt and ecstatic manner, such as a person might have when under hypnotic influence. The mechanical minutize of worship so absorbs them that they ignore the curious spec- tators, lest if they allowed their minds to wander from the exacting ritual and should omit a single word or gesture, they must begin the long routine of worship anew. Each person standing in the river tosses a handful of water three times into the air as an offering. ‘Then he im- merses the entire body, after which he recites the ancient Vedic hymns, together with the names of the gods, repeat- ing with constant droning the sacred syllable ‘‘om.” ‘These worshippers drink handfuls of holy water and let little rivu- lets course through their fingers, always facing toward the East and keeping their lips moving in prayer. "They pour the water over themselves from their water jars, which they dip into the river again and again, in order to be purified, although at the moment perhaps standing near the discharg- ing city sewers or near the burning ghat where ashes and unburned portions of human bodies are floating about. Brahmins on raised platforms on the edge of the river, apart from the “vulgar herd,” go through their morning devotions with a rigid face, dipping their fingers or wisps of grass into the water, contemplating them in trance-like, hypnotic intensity, naming the 108 manifestations of Siva and the 1008 manifestations of Vishnu, going through genu- flections and slow calisthenic movements, and touching their faces, arms, breasts and knees in rhythmic formulas. It is very fascinating to watch these devotees standing in the water, rubbing the ashes from the sacred cow dung over their bodies, shampooing their heads with river mud because they think soap impure,—all in the name of holy religion. 358 IN DTZ Multitudes of men and women and children are to be seen up to their armpits in the holy embrace of Mother Ganga, bringing offerings of white and yellow flowers. Special canopies for grandees are provided in rocky recesses. The Brahmin priests coin money rapidly by giving cer- tificates of absolution or placing holy seals on vessels filled with Ganges water to be carried as precious souvenirs to the home land. Occasionally one sees a gasping and dying invalid rushed to the stream for a final absolving baptism. Even so thousands have come down to the Ganges daily for uncounted generations. Sanitary instructions count for nothing in the face of this superstition, as they prefer this muddy and filthy water even to the system of water which the British have provided, with projecting pipes and faucets at every street corner from which pure water can be drawn. Of course this custom is not peculiar to these people alone, as there are many Chris- tian pilgrims from Russia and other lands, who have much the same feeling about the muddy waters of the Jordan river. The high caste women and the wives of potentates row off in curtained boats to bathe and worship apart from the crowd. ‘There are also separate women’s ghats at various places along the river, where especially the widows, who still believe themselves in some mysterious way responsible for the death of their husbands, are wont to gather. At these ghats the ‘“‘suttee” platforms are still to be seen, having roughly carved figures of men and women standing together with hands clasped. While certainly it was a ghastly sys- tem, there is a touch of romance in connection with such devotion, as is instanced in the story of the immolation of Brinhilde on the funeral pyre of Siegfried, BURNIN GAG The burning ghats are places of absorbing interest. Almost at any time one or several dead bodies may be seen, fei ivi ING GHATS 359 either in the last stages of preparation or actually being con- sumed on funeral pyres. The corpse, clothed in white if a male, or in red if a female, is brought down by four cremation undertakers, called domri, accompanied by the loud clash of cymbals and the shouting of the words ‘““The name of Rama is true,” and is then dipped into the water of the Ganges until the body is nearly submerged. ‘This is by way of giving the corpse the last purifying ablution in the sacred waters. For a moment the face is uncovered so that the dead eyes can have a last look upon the redemptive stream. Meanwhile the mourners are bargaining for fuel. It re- quires seven or eight sizable logs, together with smaller pieces and fragments, as 2 minimum amount to consume a corpse. “The dealer after some haggling gives the wood for a half or two thirds of the price first asked and, on further importuning, adds a piece of sandalwood upon which the head can rest. The amount of wood used is proportionate to the means of the relatives, and when only a limited amount can be paid for, the body is not always completely consumed, and in that case the ashes and rem- nants of the body are thrown indiscriminately into the Ganges. When the body is that of a wealthy Raja, only sandalwood is used and that in great abundance. ‘The fu- neral pyres are built with remarkable skill by the domri in order to effect the incineration of the entire body. The dead bodies are bedecked with flowers after being immersed in the Ganges, and some rice and a piece of gold (usually a small piece worth about forty cents) is put into the mouth of the corpse. “They are then placed upon a litter which rests upon the funeral pyre, with the feet to- ward the river. Getting the sacred fire from a special deputy of the lowest caste (who would not be allowed to touch the corpse, as that would mean eternal contamination), means another “squeeze” from the mourners. ‘Then a priest makes the last prayers for the dead, after which sandal- wood and spices are laid upon the corpse. ‘The mourners 360 INDIA encircle the pyre seven times, and then the inflammable material is ignited which is specially placed at the head and foot. It is only the poor who accompany their own dead, to the river, fearing that their supply of wood may be too scanty and that unburned portions of the body may be thrown in the river, although this often happens. The flames flare up swiftly, curling around the body, and soon conceal it from view. “The mourners meanwhile sol- emnly watch the body being consumed. The domri with long tongs keep rearranging the fuel and portions of the body so as to complete the cremation process. In an hour, or thereabouts, the flames have done their work and the ashes are strewn upon the waters of the Ganges. At the place where the ashes are thrown natives, usually the domri, can be seen with shovels and sieves hoping to recover the bits of gold and silver which may have been upon the bodies of the dead. Yogis, or “holy men” are never burned as it is believed that their holy lives have freed their bodies from all gross- ness. “The remains of these saints are garlanded and spiced, placed in a large earthen urn and consigned to the Ganges. Their virtues are supposed to have freed them from rein- carnations, and life and death shall know them no more. Those who die of smallpox and sometimes of plague, instead of being cremated at the burning ghats are hurried to the river below the bridge and unceremoniously dropped over into the water. THE TEMPLES The Golden Temple, surrounded by narrow streets, is a roofed quadrangle with a dome and a tower at each corner. ‘Three of these towers are covered with thick sheets of pure gold which time has not tarnished; the other one of black marble is covered with images of the gods. It is the holiest place in Benares, standing in its very heart and is a favourite spot for the leper, the blind and the lame, TEMPLES 361 as well as the “‘saintly” sadhu, or ascetic. No unbeliever is allowed to cross the threshold of this temple. The court- yard is thick with mud because of the holy water, brought from the sources of the Ganges in the Himalayas, which has been carried all the way by pilgrims to make this specially sacred offering. The silver door gives entrance to a plain, black marble column decorated with flowers. Within is a central shrine holding a white marble emblem of the god Siva. Above are four bells, and at the time of greatest interest just after sunset, when the service called Arati is in progress, there is a noisy combination of bells and voices. In the quadrangle is the famous ‘Well of Knowledge,” protected by a stone canopy. The worshippers are no longer allowed by the British Government to cast flowers, fruit and other offerings into it as the place became so unsanitary as to be dangerous to health. In this Well the great god Siva is supposed to dwell, and there is a fatuous red idol here, in a shrine of tinsel and coloured glass. The Durga or Monkey Temple, dedicated to the goddess Kali, is a rather dingy red sandstone structure and is entered by a flight of stairs to the gallery which surrounds it on four sides, from which the visitor can inspect the interior. It is called ‘‘the Monkey Temple” by Europeans on account of the fact that it is infested with a horde of mangy apes. A single family of them is said to have come from the forests long ago but no one dared to drive them away. Now they are everywhere, both on the terraces and various ledges above and among the trees in the courtyard. ‘They are specially sacred, and visitors are urged by the priestly at- tendants to purchase parched corn or rice cakes, of which the monkeys are very fond. ‘The shrine is regarded as the third most sacred place in Benares and is the only temple in the city where sacrifices of blood are still offered. In front of the entrance the priests beat a large drum three times a day, but most of their time is spent in impor- tuning pilgrims and visitors for gifts. In the central por- 362 INDIA tion, supported by carved pillars on a platform raised four feet from the ground, the image of the goddess may be seen through an open brass-plated door. Durga, or Kali, is the terrible wife of Siva, who can only be propitiated by blood, and hence goats are constantly being sacrificed to the number of scores daily. Her statue is frightful, somewhat similar to the one in the Kali Temple at Calcutta, and is kept constantly dripping with blood; her red tongue, hanging down to her waist, her head covered with writhing serpents, and a necklace of human skulls add to her ghoulish appearance. Everywhere in India the temples of this bloodthirsty monster must offer her a constant quota of bloody sacri- fices of goats, although in pre-British days they consisted of human beings. The priests smear their faces with the blood of the sacrifice, and then caper around the carcass with hid- eous chanting noises. It is a loathsome place. Everything in the interior of this temple is filthy, slimy and sickening with vile odours. The Blaironath Temple is the place sought by those who want to be delivered from the penalty of sins committed in holy Benares. Its special god is a thick-set figure in deep blue wearing a silver mask and holding a club in his hand. Near by is the form of his faithful watch dog. The marble porch of this temple is always filled with worshippers, and they are freed from their sins by the touch of a peacock switch in the hands of the priest. The Temple of Annapurna, goddess of Plenty, is a big domed building and is the second holiest spot in Benares. In the shrine nothing but the golden face of the goddess is seen, the rest being buried in flowers. In the courtyard, sacred cows and peacocks are in evidence. The Nepalese Temple is a two-storied pagoda with wide projecting roof and bell-shaped ornaments. Ladies are not permitted to enter the Temple on account of the obscene phallic carvings. In a small shrine sits Ganga, the deity of the hallowed Ganges, perched upon a crocodile. ‘This SIGHTSEEING 363 place reveals the lowest depths to which Hinduism has fallen. | | The Mohammedan Mosque, probably built by the Mogul Emperor Jahangir, has two octagonal minarets 232 feet high. ‘The fine columns in front of the Mosque belonged to the Siva temple on the same site, which was destroyed, Portal AL HAN TS Bazaars. Bazaars, on the whole, have rather crude and inartistic work in brass, much poorer in workmanship than that of former days. There is a pottery bazaar where lotas and idols are reproduced. A variety of strange-looking dolls may be found, rich silks, which are a specialty here, and embroideries, scarfs, and gold and silver brocaded silk cloth, but the latter have largely lost their pristine artistic beauty and durability in recent years. Hotels. ‘The two principal hotels are Clark’s and de Paris. Missions. Important work is being done by the Church Missionary Society, the London Mission, the Wesleyan, the American Baptist, and the Roman Catholic Missions, Tere AHARATA’S PALACE A little farther up stream upon the other side of the river at Ramnagar is the marble palace of the Maharaja of Benares. The Maharaja is very courteous to visitors, espe- cially to Americans, and sometimes, if he has knowledge of their approach, he will have elephants come down to the marble steps of his landing, in order that visitors may be carried up the steep banks. The palace is quite a pretentious building and visitors are often invited, after registering their names, into the state apartments, the floors of which are covered with fine rugs, though the furnishings are in a rather tawdry European style. The Maharaja’s remark- 364 INDIA able art treasures of embroideries, carved ivories, jewels, etc., are often shown to tourists. A special dispensation has been granted to those who may die at the Palace even though it is on the wrong side of the river. ‘This gives to the dying the special privileges which are supposed to be associated with the opposite or holy side of the Ganges, though usually those who are dangerously sick are frantically hurried across the river, as a matter of special precaution. The Maharaja has, a mile from the Palace, his own Durga Temple, a handsome building in a fine garden. Inside the garden are some pieces of statuary, including a seated figure of Lakshmi, the goddess of good luck. ‘The temple pin- nacle is one hundred feet high, and is adorned with a gilded pennant. A winged lion guards the shrine, as if to protect the altar on which stands Durga, the goddess greedy for blood. The Maharaja maintains the highest standard required by Hinduism. He strictly enforces the requirements of caste, as well as the purdah (exclusion of women). Hence the mortality of women is said to be fifty per cent. higher than that of men since they are so closely shut up, often in unsanitary surroundings. The Maharaja never touches food which is not prepared by one of his own caste, and he drinks only Ganges water. He eats his breakfast, after taking a bath in the Ganges in a nude condition. His wife never leaves the isolated part of the palace, which is guarded by eunuchs armed with swords. She has a garden in which she may walk, a large enclosure, with a lovely marble pavilion, where in Septem- ber a series of mystic plays are given based on the Rama- yana, both men and women parts being taken by well- trained boys; but it has high walls and she sees only the sky, and has never been allowed to cross the river to visit the sacred city of Benares. The Maharaja is an extraordinarily fine shot and is said to have killed one hundred and fifty tigers besides many De DY) Ti A 365 elephants and panthers. When he goes on his hunting expe- ditions, he takes one hundred elephants, fifty camels and three hundred servants. Usually he has on exhibition on the Palace grounds a great man-eating Bengal tiger, confined in a barred iron cage, the real rampant jungle beast, fresh from his native lair. SARNATH Sarnath, the site of old Benares, lies five miles north of Benares, and was originally called the Deer Park in the time of Buddha. His disciples to this day revere this as holy ground, because the “Enlightened One” here “turned the wheel of the law” (i. e. preached) and unfolded the doctrine of Karma (transmigration of souls) and the eight- fold path of deliverance. It is a most interesting place for the study of religious history, for here Buddha made his first five converts and here a series of Buddhist temples were built during the centuries following. Of all the different world religions, Buddhism has more adherents than any other, and in some respects it more closely resembles Chris- tianity than does any other. Buddhists still make pilgrim- ages to these ruined shrines, although there are now only about ten million Buddhists in the whole of India, all but four hundred thousand being in Burma. The main temple dates from 1100 a.D., having re- placed several earlier ones. Here Buddha is supposed to have preached his first sermon, and here the full size figure of Buddha, now in the Sarnath Museum, was discovered. Near by are the remains of the famous Asoka pillar, once standing seventy feet high, with its lion capital, now in the Museum, which is undoubtedly the finest piece of sculp- ture ever produced in India. Akbar’s Tower on the top of the small hill, which once was three hundred feet high, still bears this inscription on its ruins: ‘‘“Akbar resolved to build on this spot a lofty tower reaching to the blue sky.” 366 INDIA There is an Archxological Museum at Sarnath with a treasure trove of statuary and other remains from the resur- rected city, the British Government having spent over $500,- ooo in excavation. Here also are the remains of an old monastery with twenty-eight cloistered cells opening from a central court; also a series of thirty monasteries where in 645 A.D. there were fifteen hundred priests studying the Sacred Law. Sarnath was destroyed by the Moslem invad- ers about 1194 A.D. THE SEPOY “MU tis As a prelude to a visit to Lucknow, Cawnpore and Delhi it is well to give a brief survey to the Sepoy Mutiny, which was due to several contributing causes: The British Government several years before had made a rule, that any territory of Native Princes who died with- out leaving direct heirs, (no adopted heirs being recognised ) should lapse to British control, and five Provinces and their revenues were thus taken over. ‘The notorious Nana Sahib, the adopted heir of the ruler of Poona, was on this account refused £80,000 per annum which his foster father had enjoyed. ‘This made all the Princes of the native Provinces very much dissatisfied with the high-handed methods of the British and the wily Nana Sahib, although still pretending to be loyal, was secretly augmenting the discontent. In addition, the British Government passed an Act in 1856, making recruits drafted in Bengal liable to oversea service without increase of pay. “The fear of the sea and of the “magic” new railways and steamships, and especially the dread of losing their caste caused widespread disaffec- tion. “The new law of Lord Canning, the Governor Gen- eral, that widows might remarry, and his zeal for doing everything in the British way, were widely believed to be a covert attack on the Hindu religion. An old familiar prophecy that had foretold that British rule would terminate in 1857, also had its influence. As there were only 45,000 SePrOoyY* MUTINY 367 British soldiers and 235,000 Sepoys in India, the time seemed ripe to Nana Sahib and his fellow-conspirators to drive the British out of the country. ‘The Mutiny was precipitated, rather than caused, by the famous cartridge episode. A new rifle was given to the Sepoys, the cartridges of which had been greased by the fat of cows,—an animal which the Hindus regard as sacred. Although this was denied by the British authorities, it hastened the explosion. While there were two preliminary mutinies of several regiments in February and March, 1857, these were sup- pressed and nothing further was done. But on the 1oth of May, there was a mutiny near Delhi on a larger scale, which involved the murder of some English officers and other Europeans. But as no effort seemed to be made by the British to capture and punish the offenders, the belief be- came widespread that the British rule was confessedly draw- ing to a close. On May 30th there was a preconcerted uprising on a general scale, and the mutineers concentrated at Delhi, Cawnpore and Lucknow. Delhi was captured by them, as the British Commander had only a handful of men, but the English General, Sir H. Barnard, with 3,800 men attacked - and defeated a Sepoy army of 30,000 and gained possession of the Ridge just outside of Delhi, recapturing the city three months later. At Cawnpore, Sir H. Wheeler’s small garrison surren- dered on June 26th, under a truce that guaranteed a safe departure for all, but the British soldiers were massacred next day, and the women and children who survived were made prisoners, only to be brutally slaughtered soon after- ward. At Lucknow, a small British force held out against the great Sepoy army for four months and finally the survivors were rescued by General Havelock, who with 3,000 men defeated the rebels all along the line, and entered Lucknow in triumph on the 17th of November. 368 INDIA When the Sepoy rebellion had been seemingly suppressed, Lord Canning misguidedly annexed the territory of some of the Oudh Princes, who, although they had not been very loyal, had not participated in the Sepoy rebellion. ‘This again stirred up the Princes of the entire region in revolt, which was not suppressed until the close of 1858, by which time Great Britain had 100,000 English soldiers in India. Since the mutiny England’s policy has been to maintain a larger proportion of British soldiers. In 1856 it was only one sixth; at present it is about one third. In 1916, the Europeans in the Army numbered 75,000, while the Indians number 163,000. It may be added, that English rule since the Mutiny has been more just and conciliatory than before that time. LUCKNOW Lucknow is called the “Garden City” of India. It has gilded domes and stately minarets as well as pinnacles, mosques, palaces and public buildings. From a distance it looks like a dream city. It is the capital of the Oudh Province and has a population of 243,553 (1921) of whom three-fifths are Hindus. It is located on two sides of the river Gumti (or Goomty) and has six bridges giving free access from one side of the city to the other. The Great Imambara consists of a group ofseveral striking structures, including the Mosque, together forming an im- posing picture. ‘The Imambara, standing on a platform approached by eighteen steps, is a single storied building, with very large vaulted rooms, the whole being 263 by 143 feet. The splendour of its interior decoration and its 130 crystal chandeliers are far famed and it contains one of the thrones of the former King of Oudh and a royal divan for his wife. In the long central hall is the tomb of Asaf-ud- Daulah, the builder, who spent over £1,000,000 in 1784 in its construction. TUNG IND: Oe Ce ee eo t ied ame ee ee ie * oC ae LUCKNOW 369 The ‘‘Palace of Lights,’’ which is like a lesser Taj Mahal, helps to complete the imposing effect. The Rumi Darwaza is a magnificent portico near the north-west corner of the Mimbar, which has an immense amount of sculptured detail and carving. The Hosainabad Clock Tower, 220 feet high, the largest in India, has an arrangement for illumination and a chime of five bells. In the charming garden nearby is the Hosain- abad basin, which is well stocked with fish. The Jama Mosque is of pure Moslem architecture, with an imposing doorway. ‘The interior, as is usual with Mo- hammedan mosques, is quite bare. The Mosque has three domes and two minarets, and is the finest specimen of Orien- tal architecture in Lucknow. The Residency is almost a complete ruin, although a very noble one. The now peaceful lawns and handsome trees surround the old grey ruined tower and make an effec- tive picture. It is a place associated with the grim story of the Sepoy Mutiny. Here in 1857, on May 30th, 2,994 people were huddled together on the first day of the mutiny, and on September 25th, eighty-six days later, when General Havelock and General Outram came, only 979 remained. Famine, disease, and battle deaths had disseminated their ranks. Here Sir Henry Lawrence, who was in command, died at his post. A tablet in Dr. Fayrer’s house indicates the room where Lawrence died, and in the cemetery by the ruined church is the grave enclosed by an iron railing, on which is the inscription, ‘““Here lies Henry Lawrence, who tried to do his duty. May the Lord have mercy on his soul.” It is rather easy to get sated with the story of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, especially in view of the stupendous trage- dies of the recent World War. It is a tale, however, of British endurance and heroism that will live. The Martiniere is a rambling building, ‘a whimsical pile,’ with a large central tower built about 1800. It is now one of the best schools in India for the education of 370 INDIA children of European descent, especially for those whose par- ents are connected with the British governmental service. At the Alambagh (a walled enclosure five hundred yards square), three miles away, is the tomb of General Have- lock, the hero of the Relief Army, who delivered Cawnpore and Lucknow from the invading rebels. He died only a few weeks later. The tomb is surmounted by a monument thirty feet high and has an inscription stating that his death oc- curred November 24, 1857. The Provincial Museum is one of the finest in India and contains sculptures, partly Buddhist and partly Jain, with some fine Brahmin specimens. ‘There are numerous San- skrit inscriptions on stone slabs and copper plates. Its ethnological collection is extraordinarily fine, giving a re- markable exhibit of life-sized figures of men and women from every part of the country. All races and types are included. A varied display of animals and birds is here shown, besides metal work, wood and ivory carving, embroid- eries and native textile weaving. Bazaars. Here tourists may purchase, among other bits of handicraft, the native Chikan (sometimes called “chicken” ) embroidery applied to various cotton garments and household linens. Silver work, terra-cotta models and a great variety of perfumes are also specialties. “The Bazaars are not as attractive as in some other cities. Hotels. ‘The principal hotels are the Royal, the Grand, and the Carlton. Churches and Missions. There is the Church Mission- ary Society, the Roman Catholic Cathedral and a Metho- dist Episcopal Mission. One of the most important in- stitutions in India is the Isabella Thoburn College for Women which is located at Lucknow. CAWNPORE Cawnpore is 633 miles from Calcutta and 49 miles from Lucknow and has a population (1921) of 213,044. It is CAWNPORE 371 a great centre for harness, shoes and leather work, and is rapidly becoming the commercial emporium of Northern India, as new industrial enterprises are constantly being inaugurated by British manufacturers. ‘There is here an unusually large and successful Government Agricultural College and Experimental Farm. ‘There are no places of tourist interest. The events of the Mutiny loom large at Cawnpore. The Cantonment in 1857 had only thirty European and 3,000 Indian soldiers. When the Mutiny broke out they were rudely sheltered by a hasty intrenchment in which 900 per- sons were huddled, of whom over half were women and children. All around were buildings from which the muti- neers could keep up a deadly fire. Of fifty-nine artillery men only four survived at the time of the surrender and not a single square yard was without war scars. Nana Sahib, the leader of the mutineers, at a time when things inside the intrenchment seemed most desperate, pro- posed an armistice, promising safe conduct for the survivors to the Ganges with a supply of boats to take them down the river. On June 27th, 450 men, women and children, went, according to arrangement and embarked in the boats. Then a bugle was sounded and a thousand Sepoys hidden along the shore opened fire. All were killed except 125 women and children, although many of them were wounded, whom Nana spared and carried back to Cawnpore. Eight survivors were afterward captured and brought back. ‘They were all confined in a small building with two rooms. When Nana Sahib heard that General Havelock had defeated his army and was advancing, he brought out the few remaining men and ordered them killed in his presence. The Sepoys outside the windows of the two-roomed hut who were ordered to shoot the women and children aimed at the ceiling instead, but a party of assassins with long daggers entered and completed the ghastly work and all the bodies were thrown into an adjoining well. Nana Sahib went out with his army of 5,000 men to meet General Have- 372 INDIA lock, but was overwhelmingly defeated. In a Garden where 250 of the garrison were buried during the siege, is a cross with a suitable inscription which tells the mournful story. In the Memorial Gardens is a mound raised over the Well into which the bodies of the massacred victims were thrown. Here the well-known Statue has been erected of the Angel of the Resurrection and over its arch are these words, “These are they which have come out of great tribulation.” | Hotels. ‘The principal hotel is the Civil and Military. Missions. ‘There are a number of missions in Cawn- pore,—Christ Church Mission, Woman’s Union Missionary Society (American), the Methodist Episcopal Mission and those of the Roman Catholic Church. AGRA THE MOGUL EMPIRE It will be well to sketch very briefly the character of the Mogul kings who wrote such a large page into the history of India. Babar, who was the sixth descendant from Timur (known also as Tamerlane, the fourteenth century conqueror of Western Asia), made a military expedition into India, and in 1526 defeated an opposing army of 100,000 with 12,000 soldiers and made Delhi his capital. Humayun, his son, who succeeded him in 1530, was driven from his kingdom and took refuge with the Shah of Persia. Later he returned to India and was able to regain his king- dom, but was killed six months later by falling down a flight of stone steps while studying the stars, as he showed more aptitude for astronomy than for kingship. Akbar, his son, succeeded him in 1556, when only four- teen years of age. Iwo years later he moved the capital from Delhi to Agra and began to build the Fort. He was the MOGUL EMPERORS = 373 greatest figure of India and one of the outstanding charac- ters of the world’s history in the sixteenth century. He bulks largely in this survey of the several Mogul capital cities. Jahangir, his son, ascended the throne in 1605. He styled himself ‘Conqueror of the Earth,” but he could not con- quer himself, but gave himself over to a drunken and licen- tious career. His harem is said to have contained 6,000 women. Shah Jahan, his son, ascended the throne in 1628 when thirty-six years of age. He was the builder of the Taj Mahal, the Pearl Mosque, the Delhi Palace,—in fact, he was the master builder of the Moguls. He also looms up prominently in the story of Agra. Aurangzeb, his son, seized the throne in 1658, and although he spared the life of his deposed father, he put all his brothers to death so as to eliminate competitors for the throne. He inaugurated a campaign against the Hindus, obliterating some of their famous temples, burning their sacred books and closing their schools. He also revived the discriminating poll tax against non-Mohammedans. He reached the age of ninety, dying in 1707, leaving only a legacy of crime and disorder. From this time on the Empire began to fall to pieces, owing to dissensions and wars between the sons of Aurangzeb and their degenerate successors. The Empire then passed for some decades into a see-saw rule between the Jat Rajas and the Mahrattas, after which Lord Lake in 1803 captured Agra and it has since remained under British rule, AKBAR THE GREAT Abkar, the son of the Emperor Humayun, was born in 1542, and assumed the throne at the age of fourteen. He was by far the most impressive figure among the Mogul sovereigns. He lived during the reign of Elizabeth in England. He was the first master builder of India, and 374 INDIA projected a series of palaces, forts and whole cities which showed a most active mind and an indomitable will. He was strenuous in physical activity, often walking twenty to thirty miles a day, once having ridden 220 miles in two days with a relay of horses. Before he reached his majority he was already a leader of armies and a conqueror. Akbar gradually increased his empire by a series of conquests that made him ruler of a large part of India. He was, however, not only a great soldier, but a construc- tive statesman. He reorganised the courts of judgment, proclaimed religious tolerance, established an equitable sys- tem of taxes and land revenues, and built some of the great- est structures of all times. He was accustomed to gather statesmen, scholars, and religious leaders about him in order that he might get a many-sided point of view. In Fatehpur Sikri, there was a Palace of Audience where he assembled representatives of every religion,—Jesuits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, Par- sees, and Yogis, for a debate on the advantages of their respective religions,—a sort of Parliament of Religions. Akbar, himself, took the position that no one religion could be the solitary depository of divine truth. He, there- fore, made a synthetic creed of a “Divine Monotheism,” with himself as Vicegerent, that had some admirable ideals. It did not, however, survive his reign. He cultivated music, arts and letters and encouraged the most sumptuous display of dress and ornamentation. ‘To the poor he gave liberally, . and was a generous friend, but offenders and rebels were summarily dealt with, and it was not unusual for the road between Agra and Fatehpur Sikri to be decorated with the heads of his enemies. He was also catholic in his choice of wives, of whom he had seven in good and regular standing, although three were especially favoured. He built a palace at Fatehpur Sikri for his Turkish queen, Mariam Zamani, which is called the “Golden House” because of its rich frescoes in gold and colours, also one for his Hindu wife, Birbal, which Pee On hHE TAS B75 is distinctively Hindu in architecture and ornamentation, and a third one for his Portuguese Christian wife, which also has elaborate designs and geometric traceries. AGRA Agra is a well-built and attractive city of 185,964 inhabi- tants, and is one of the greatest centres of tourist interest that the world affords. Probably nowhere else are there such a wealth and variety of surpassing artistic structures, which have had lavished on them all the proverbial riches of India. Agra is 841 miles from Calcutta and 848 miles from Bom- bay, thus being almost exactly in the middle of the tour across northern India. The two great tourist attractions are the Taj Mahal,— the glorified Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan, easily the world’s greatest architectural masterpiece,—and the ‘‘Fort” with its group of royal buildings. eee a AoM AH AL. The Taj Mahal is a mile below the Fort on the same side of the Jumna river. It is a memorial to the Empress Argumand Bano Begum, or as her husband, the Emperor Jahan preferred to call her, Mumtaz-i-Mahal, the ‘Exalted of the Palace,” who died in giving birth to her eighth child. Shah Jahan’s sorrow was overwhelming, and within two years his hair was whitened, although at the time he was only thirty-eight years of age. Each Friday he was wont to read the fatiha,—or prayer for the dead at her grave. Within four years after her death the plans for the Taj were drawn and the beginning of the foundations laid. In connection with the plans all the known architects of India, Persia, Arabia and Europe were called in for consul- tation. ‘There is a difference of opinion whether the larger credit for the design of this incomparable monument should go to Ustad Isa, who is described as a Byzantine Turk, or 376 INDIA to a certain Italian, Geronimo Verronea, but the interior plans are credited in part to the French adventurer, Austin de Bordeaux. Much of the actual building was done by the master craftsmen from Bagdad, Constantinople and other world centres of the Moslem faith. It is interesting to remember that this structure was being reared at the very time our Pilgrim fathers were building their first log cabins at Plymouth. The Taj is unquestionably the most perfect creation that ever was conceived in the mind of man and actually realised in visual form. ‘To visit it is one of the supreme objects of travel, and it certainly should be classed as one of the seven modern wonders of the world. It never disappoints, and usually surpasses all expectations. It is overwhelming. ‘The sentiment it awakens is not admiration,—it is rather the dazzling effect of a sudden vision, the visualising of all that is beautiful and holy and lovable. It seems too absolutely perfect to be real, too super- latively beautiful to be true. It is as though some magical power had let a mirage down from heaven which would vanish on nearer approach. It fills the beholder with an exaltation and exultation of spirit like treading on air. Every step as one approaches adds to the wondrous vision, the half-way platform inside the garden showing the re- flected glory of the ‘I'aj in the placid water of the elongated marble basins at one’s feet. Its size is lost in its exquisite proportion, its restful purity of outline, its transcendent grace and symmetry, which quite baffle analysis and description. “The great vaulted alcoves seem fairly quivering with sensitive shadows. Although so fragile and gossamer-like, it is withal nobly dignified and queenly feminine. Certainly, no other structure on earth has had so many panegyrics expended upon it by travellers and poets, and yet the visitor feels that they have failed to do it justice. Shah Jahan had much of the genius in embellishing the Mogul Empire with nobie architectural creations, which his Poe TAS MAHAL B77 grandfather Akbar had, even though he had not his mas- tery as a conqueror. In fact, as a builder Shah Jahan stands supreme. He “built like a giant, and finished like a jeweller.” He has given Agra the royal place on the map of artistic creations. He also erected the Palace and the Jama Mosque at Delhi, the Pearl Mosque in the Agra Fort, and many other world masterpieces of architecture. The Taj was built as a glorified expression of his great sorrow in connection with the death of his favourite wife, the “Exalted of the Palace,” who had died within two years after his accession to the throne. The King announced that he would build a mausoleum to her memory that would eclipse all that the world had ever seen. Hence this peerless structure not only gives an ideal realisation of his lofty pur- pose, but the romantic sentiment that is forever associated with the building adds not a little to its piquancy and charm. The Taj is a composite representing a great art epoch. The fact that it was set in a Garden, which is in such per- fect harmony with the structure, is according to the usage and sentiment of the time. The rich vegetation with the lavishly green effect only to be found in Eastern gardens, the brilliant flowers, the tall cypresses that border the crys- tal pools on either side,—all tend to idealise the noble setting of the Taj. The garden that was the favourite haunt in life was often chosen as the spot of interment. So in this case “And she who loved her garden lieth now Lapped in a garden; And all this for love!” “The marble, spotless in purity, which makes up the building material, was brought from Jaipur, 150 miles away, on the backs of elephants and in carts. ‘The red sand- stone of the enclosing walls and secondary structures was contributed by Fatehpur Sikri, the jasper by the Punjab, and the crystal and jade by China. ‘The turquoises came from Tibet and the Red Sea; the sapphires and lapis-lazuli 378 INDIA from Ceylon; the coral and carnelian from Arabia; the onyx and amethyst from Persia, and the diamonds from Bundelkund.” It took twenty thousand men seventeen years to build the Taj, and it was done by forced and often unrequited labour. It is estimated that the cost at the time of building the structure must have been at least $20,000,000, which if it were built now would be multiplied many times. Taken as a whole, it is so perfect that nothing seems lacking, and yet nothing could be added without marring the absolute symmetry. It is ‘“‘perfectly simple” in its de- sign and treatment, but at the same time “simply perfect.” The Taj would not attract in our modern age because of its size, especially in these days of such mammoth struc- tures as the Woolworth Building in New York. ‘The fas- cination lies in the flawless and precious materials, the ex- quisite workmanship and the noble proportions of the structure. To see this combined glory of garden and tomb by sun- rise or sunset, with a glowing background colouring the divine picture, is a memorable experience, but spending a long evening until after midnight with a full silver moon casting a fairy-like glamour over the scene, becomes one of life’s supreme events. It is an enchanted garden, the air of which is charged with the fragrance of mystical flowers, enclosing a radiant ivory palace with its domed halls and turreted minarets. The second story of the great entrance Gateway gives a particularly good view of the Taj, although it is well here and elsewhere to avoid giving offence to the swarms of hor- nets that have chosen to make their nests within the sacred precincts. The Taj has been vandalised in the past by many piratical marauders. When the Jats took Agra they had a loot-fest, carrying away the solid silver entrance gates with their thousands of silver nails, each one having a silver rupee for a head. ‘These silver entrance doors and the inner door of meee Ay OM AMAL 379 the Taj, which consisted of a large monolith of agate, to- gether with the gold spire and crescent and the priceless rugs, have all disappeared. One of the early English com- manders, Lord William Dentinck, actually considered an offer from a rich Hindu of £30,000 for the Taj, who prob- ably would have torn it down and carried away the materi- als for building purposes. Champagne suppers by moonlight, including dancing to military music on the great Pavilion, have been given on a number of occasions, all of which naturally jarred upon the sensibilities of Mohammedans, who regard the Tomb and the adjoining Mosque as sacred precincts. In fact, in the old Mohammedan days it was regarded too sacred to look upon, and visitors were blindfolded until they reached the place of prayer. “Today all Mohammedans remove their shoes, and men visitors take off their hats in the Taj interior. Shah Jahan’s purpose was to construct his own mauso- leum on the other side of the Jumna river, just opposite the Taj, and make it a replica, save that it was to be built of dark coloured marble and on a much larger scale. Part of the plan was to join the two mausolea by spanning the river with a magnificent marble bridge. The foundations were actually laid and some materials gathered, but during a severe illness, his son Aurangzeb, in 1657, thirty years after the death of the “Lady of the Taj,” secured control of the army, made his father a pris- oner and assumed the throne, thus interrupting Shah Jahan’s plans of building a separate mausoleum for himself. Any sympathy, however, that might be expended upon Shah Jahan in his imprisonment by his son, will be somewhat tempered if it is known that in his early life he had mur- dered his own brother in order to make his throne secure. For nine years, until his death, he was confined in the Fort just under and perhaps in the Jasmine Tower, where, however, he was solaced by the devotion of his faithful daughter, Jahanara. The beautiful vista of the Jumna river, crowned by the vision of the Taj, so replete with 380 INDIA sacred memories of his old-time love, was ever before his eyes. He was seventy-five years old when he died and his last expressed word was the wish to look once more upon the spot where the body of his Beloved was lying. His cenotaph, instead of being in the proposed separate mauso- leum, is to the left of that of his wife, the unexpected addi- tion somewhat spoiling the proportions, but giving the mind the feeling of the fitting union in death as in life, of these two great figures of an historic love. The bodies themselves, however, are not in the visible cenotaphs but in a vault deep below the floor, reached by a descending staircase in the first hall, the positions agreeing with the cenotaphs in the mausoleum above. The echoes of the interior of the Taj are very unusual, as the same sound seems to give variations of pitch. Every musical tone yields prolonged silvery echoes with multiplied overtones, suggestive of an invisible angelic orchestra. Peo- ple who are sentimental assert that a woman’s voice will continue an echo longer and make more melodious effects than will the voice of a man. The British Government has repaired the Taj, substi- tuting pieces of coloured glass for the diamonds, emeralds, rubies and other precious stones, which were filched from their settings by Jats and Mahrattas as well as by British officers and soldiers before the time of the Mutiny. Yet as a whole, the Taj is in a state of wonderful pres- ervation, both the exterior and interior looking as pure and faultless as though it had been erected but yesterday by some bit of subtle magic. By sunrise or moonlight or even at high noon, it is an intoxicating witchery, that enthralls the beholder, and makes the memory of the Taj a romance and an inspiration. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TAJ The great battlemented wall that surrounds the garden is most imposing, being 971 feet east and west and 412 feet AVEVIN IVE dot = . » ~ * ‘ . 7 . { DESCRIPTION 381 north and south, and the red sandstone structures at the four corners increase the effect of stately proportions. The main gateway is a three-storied structure 151 by 117 feet, its height being 100 feet and that of its minarets 161 feet, the whole resting on a stone platform 211 feet square. The great entrance (Jilan Khana), framed with white and black decorations and inscriptions from the Koran, welcomes the “pure in heart” to enter “the gardens of Paradise.’ ‘The characters of this Arabic script are so graduated, that they look the same size at the top as at the bottom. The entrance has a double gate ten and a half feet wide, made from eight different metals alloyed together. ‘The original gates, carried away by the Jats, are said to have been of solid silver. The Taj Garden has four main parts subdivided te wide pathways and each of these is again subdivided into four divisions, making sixteen in all. Everywhere there are superb trees. In the northeast corner of the garden is a simal tree, eighteen and three-fourths feet in circumference, which was standing long before the Taj was built. There are several great marble basins, one of which is seventy-five feet long, each with fountains set in marble enclosures. In the middle between these basins is a large raised marble platform, from which a splendid view of the Taj and of the Garden in every direction may be had. The setting, as one looks over the complete scene with the red sandstone Mosque on the west corner of the garden, and the ‘‘Response,” a similar and complementary structure on the east corner, with the majestic Taj in the middle, and with glimpses of the winding Jumna river and the back- ground of the glowing sunset sky,—together make one of the most surpassing of pictures, and as one looks, the ad- miration of the wonderful perfection grows. As one draws nearer to the Taj, the effect actually seems heightened because the exquisite relief carving on panels and 382 INDIA borders, and the inlaid work of the ornamental designs, set in semi-precious stones, have the perfection of a jewelled casket. Forty varieties of carnelian alone are said to be used in these floral designs, and fourteen chapters of the Koran (not the whole Koran, as is sometimes asserted), are inscribed in the borders of the Taj in this perfect jewelled inlaid work. A great marble basement, 313 feet square on which the Taj is built, is eighteen and a half feet above the terrace, and rests upon a still larger red sandstone foundation. There are four minarets entirely of perfect marble, look- ing like majestic sentinels, one at each end of the octag- onally projected corner of the marble platform. One can climb to the pavilion of these minarets by going up 154 steps to the balcony, rising 141 feet above the garden level, and get a perfectly intoxicating view. The Taj itself is entirely of white marble and is 186 feet square, with a maximum height at the spike on the central dome of 243 feet above the garden. ‘The dome itself is fifty feet in diameter and has profuse floral ornamentation. As one enters the enchanted interior filled with a soft cathedral light, the eye immediately falls upon the octagonal screen which encircles the two white sarcophagi, although these are said to have been originally enclosed by a railing of gold inlaid with jewels. Nothing, however, could be more exquisite than this perforated screen of seemingly translucent alabaster with its lace-like figures and carvings, giving the impression of airy unreality. It has justly re- ceived encomiums as a very perfect artistic creation. The Mumtaz Cenotaph is profusely decorated and bor- dered with Koran inscriptions, including the ninety-nine names of God inscribed in Persian, together with tributes to the Beloved’s virtues, and giving the date as 1629 A.D. This Cenotaph was originally decorated with a wealth of pearls, but even now it is a triumph of artistic perfection and its inlaid jewelled flowers of narcissi, lilies and irises, are of exquisite workmanship. A handsome bronze lamp, DESCRIPTION 383 presented by Lord Curzon, which is inlaid with gold and silver, hangs above the Mumtaz Centopah. The Shah Jahan Cenotaph has the date of 1666 a. Dp. The Mosque. ‘The Mosque (Masjid), 186 by 52 feet, large enough to accommodate 600 worshippers, is on the west corner of the Taj wall, and is an arcaded cloister on a raised platform, with a two story octagonal tower. ‘The Jamet Khana, or “Response,” on the east is an exact replica of the Mosque. It was used as a place where people con- gregated who were invited to join in the urs, the religious ceremony on the anniversary of the death of the ‘‘Lady of the aie The staircase from the north wing descends to the river connecting with a passage that is said to have been a part of a tunnel that once joined the Taj with the Fort a mile distant. There are fourteen basement rooms on the river side of the great basement, upon which the Taj is built, reached by two staircases. “They were originally decorated with fres- coes, but are now dark and unattractive. pee AGRA FORT This is the largest group of connected buildings ever erected in India, or, for that matter, in the world. The Fort is in the shape of a crescent and its walls and some of its structures are built of red sandstone quarried at Fatehpur Sikri. It is located on the west side of the Jumna river, the same side on which the Taj stands. The Fort was originally called Akbarabad, after its royal promoter. It is still in a remarkable state of preservation and represents the accumulated building of Akbar, his son Jahangir, and of his grandson, Shah Jahan, the latter two being responsible for the marble edifices found inside the Fort. Akbar planned three courts with their associated galleries and apartments; one for the Imperial Guard, the second 384. INDIA for the Minister of State and other officials, and the third for the seraglio, or harem quarters. In the latter were also the Emperor’s apartments, and here he lavished a limitless wealth of artistic and gorgeous decorations. Delhi Gate. The Outer Wall is forty feet high and a mile and a half in circumference. Encircling this Outer Wall is a moat thirty feet wide and thirty-five feet deep, originally having had drawbridges connecting with the four great gates. The principal entrance at present is the Delhi Gate on the south side of the Wall, sometimes spoken of as the Elephant Gate, because of the two large stone ele- phants with their riders that stood on the highest platform on either side of the entrance. ‘They were mutilated and buried by the Emperor Aurangzeb, because of his fanatical zeal in the literal interpretation of the Koran’s prohibition of paintings and graven images. This Delhi, or Elephant Gate, consists of an entrance be- tween two octagonal red sandstone towers, three stories high, through which one passes into a central domed hall, enriched with white marble decorations. A staircase leads to the roof where the fine view includes the interior of the Fort, as well as the city of Agra and the entire range of the horizon. From the Delhi Gate one proceeds to a gateway of the Inner Wall, which is seventy feet high and has im- posing ramparts and gateways and also sixteen bastions. Pearl Mosque. Continuing about a fifth of a mile fur- ther and ascending two flights of stairs, the visitor comes to Shah Jahan’s Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid), having ex- ternal measurements of 234 by 187 feet, including the Court. A handsome portal opens into the courtyard, in which is an artistic sun dial placed on an octagonal marble pedestal, together with a central basin thirty-eight feet square for ablutions, having a marble fountain at the centre. The Mosque itself is 142 by 52 feet, and has three grace- ful minarets. ‘There are three rows of seven arches resting on solid pillars. Beautifully carved and fretted screens on either side protected the women worshippers from observa- Peed RAF ORT 385 tion, there being from this spot several flights of stairs and corridors which originally led to the harem. _ The building is an exquisite white throughout, save that the floor is inlaid with designs of blue and pale yellow. To the right is the Mimbar or pulpit. An inscription on the black slate extending across the facade mentions that Shah Jahan finished the Mosque in 1645. The roof affords a fine view, which includes the Taj, the mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daulah across the river, the tomb of Akbar, six miles distant at Sikandra, together with a glimpse of the towers of Fatehpur Sikri, twenty-four miles away. The Great Court is an open space 600 by 370 feet, shaded with trees, where court functions were held. It is sur- rounded by high brick walls supporting arcades where the Imperial Guard stood, while the roofs around the Court were often crowded with spectators. The Hall of Public Audience (Diwan-i-Am), 192 by 62 feet, has a series of elaborate pillars and arches which are covered with white stucco and gilt. The corners have a group of four pillars, and there are fourteen double columns along each of the open spaces. The Imperial Balcony is a marble recess in the Hall of Public Audience which originally had silver steps and was adorned with four lions of silver set with jewels. Over- head was a canopy of pure gold. On either side were fretted marble windows through which the harem ladies could see without being seen. When all the princes and nobles were assembled here on state occasions it surely was an imposing spectacle. Passing through the Inner Bazaar where the women of the royal harem could shop, and the Gem Mosque (Nagina Masjid) which was reserved for women, the visitor comes into the small apartment where the Emperor Shah Jahan, after being deposed by his son, is supposed to have been con- fined, although some writers assert that he had the use of the whole Jasmine Palace and Tower. Through the 386 INDIA screened window the prisoner could look out over the river Jumna to the Taj Mahal beyond. The Fish Palace had a central tank, originally set amid beautiful surroundings, whose decorations and marble screens were carried away by vandalising English officials. A wonderful pavilion of green marble was also sent to Eng- land and used for building materials. In this sumptuous. fishing palace the Emperor and his court were wont to in- dulge in Izaak Walton’s favourite recreation. In front of the Fish Palace was the Throne Palace which originally had a marble roof that was carried away by the Jats. It has two thrones, one of white marble and the other of black slate. ‘The white throne was occupied by the court jester, and on the black one the Emperor on special occasions was seated. “The Terrace was constructed by the Emperor Jahangir, and here he was wont to witness the animal fights in the east enclosure below. The King’s Baths are at the northern end of the Throne ‘Terrace, and are handsomely decorated with marble mosaics of bright colours and gold. Copper pipes supplied the elab- orate suite of bathrooms. The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) consists of an outer room 73 by 33 feet, and an inner room, 40 by 26 feet, which are decorated in white with arches overlaid with gold. It was used by the Emperor to receive royal or distinguished personages. Originally heavy silk hangings were suspended between the two rooms. Both rooms were richly decorated in coloured floral designs, having in the old days all manner of semi-precious stones like jade, lapis- lazuli, carnelian and others. The inner room has wonder- ful marble window screens, and is richly decorated with mosaic. Gold and silver lamps were suspended from the ceiling. The Jasmine Palace (Samman Mahal) is especially lovely. It was built by Jahangir for his favourite wife, Nurjahan, who herself made the design for the exquisite inlay work. Afterwards his son, Shah Jahan, lived here FORT STRUCTURES | 387 with the “Queen of his heart” for a brief period until her death. The Court, 44 by 33 feet, is encircled by several suites. In the quadrangle the floor was paved in a special design so that the royal circle could play parchesi with living nautch girls serving as the discs. The Jasmine Tower (Samman Burj) is one of the finest examples of the work of Shah Jahan, and its octagonal bal- cony gives a memorable view of the winding Jumna river with its vista of bridges, the Taj only a mile away being in superb perspective. ‘The elaborately inlaid walls contain several pockets for jewels and valuables in which only the slenderest hand and wrist of a woman could reach. Here the captive emperor probably spent the last nine years of his life with his favourite daughter Jahanara as his devoted attendant. Near by is the small Hall of Mirrors (Shish Mahal) with an inset of pieces of mirrors in the walls and ceiling. This was part of the group of two halls with a marble tank in the centre, the suite serving as Turkish bath and dressing - room to the harem. Passing through the courtyard, 220 by 169 feet, encircled by cloisters which were occupied by harem members, one comes to the Private Palace (Khas Mahal) consisting of three white marble pavilions, where the principal imperial ladies had their quarters. The decorations were of gold and colours and the portraits of all the Mogul emperors, beginning with Timur, were in its walled niches. The middle hall was a socia! room where Shah Jahan made after- noon conversational calls on the fair occupants. “The escape channel for the water in the basin of the chief court is a superb piece of zigzag inlay. The Jahangir Mahal or Palace, which Jahangir erected for his Hindu mother and his Hindu wife (the mother of Shah Jahan), is a very imposing structure. Every square foot of pillars, walls and ceilings was richly decorated with coloured stones and gold leaf. Its exterior dimensions are 261 by 288 feet, and it consists of halls, baths, a library and 388 INDIA a group of living rooms having a central court seventy-six feet square. Looting, neglect and a poor quality of sand- stone have robbed this palace of some of its pristine charm. In front of it was found a monolith basin of porphyry five feet high, with a circumference of twenty-five feet. There are other apartments and buildings inside the Fort, like the Palace of Shah Jahan, which are of somewhat lesser interest, although found anywhere else they would be regarded as gems of artistic construction. Underneath these palaces is a complicated labyrinth of underground passages and cool places of refuge from the summer heat, and also gloomy prisons, where those who met the disfavour of the emperor were confined, and after their execution their bodies were thrown into the river Jumna which flows at the base of the Fort. The British Government has been at considerable expense (even though imitations have been used) in replacing the inlay of carnelian, amethyst, agate, lapis-lazuli, jasper, and other semi-precious stones, which were pilfered by conscience- less soldiers and officials, as well as by tourists, and now maintains guards to try to prevent such spoliation. THE MAUSOLEUM OF ITMAD- UD-DAULAH This mausoleum was built by Nurjahan, the wife of Jahangir, in memory of her father who was a Persian ad- venturer. Jahangir made him Prime Minister and changed his name to Itmad-ud-Daulah, or ‘‘Reliance of the State.” The Tomb is situated on the opposite side of the Jumna river from the Fort. While it is small and cannot compare with the Taj, it is dignified by four dazzling towers at each corner,. the whole edifice being of the purest marble with exquisite inlays of floral and geometrical designs. ‘This is the first use in India of the pietra dura which originally came from Italy. It is made by inserting thin layers of pre- cious or semi-precious stones into white or black marble sur- SIKANDRA 389 faces, this being done with marvellous precision. The ter- race roof around the upper story of the marble reliquary presents much of this kind of work, together with some superb carving in relief. ‘This scheming Prime Minister, who was so familiar with stratagems and assassinations, hardly deserves a memorial of such artistic design and ex- quisite lace-work ornamentation. The room which has the Cenotaphs of the ‘Reliance of the State” and that of his wife is entrancingly beautiful. AKBAR’S TOMB AT SIKANDRA Sikandra, five miles from Agra, is the Arabic equivalent for Alexander, and it relates to the invasion of India by Alexander the Great. Here is found the Mausoleum of Akbar, one of the most impressive structures in India. It was begun by Akbar and finished by his son, Jahangir. ‘The whole enclosure has an area of 120 acres, having high walls which extend 2,316 feet on each of the four sides. ‘The main gateway is itself an imposing building, richly decorated, having four minarets of white marble, rising eighty-six and a half feet above the roof. Akbar died in 1605, and while he was a Mohammedan, his body was not pointed toward Mecca, but toward the ris- ing sun. The mammoth Gateway opens into a large Court re- vealing a massive pillared structure whose upper terrace, pierced with marble screen walls, shows an elaborately carved sarcophagus, which is exposed to the sky, because the proposed marble canopy was never completed by his successors. “Ihe real tomb containing the remains of Akbar, however, is very primitive, and is found at the end of a sloping passageway. It is asserted by some writers that in the carved pedestal of his Cenotaph was set the famous Kohinoor diamond, which has had so spectacular a history since it was first 390 LN Dies stolen. Over this pedestal was originally a gold and silver canopy. FATEHPUR SIKRI Fatehpur Sikri, which means ‘a city of Victory,” was built as the result of a visit by Akbar to a certain Sheik Salim Chisti, who lived in an adjoining cave. The king came to ask the intercession of this hermit “saint” for an heir, as he was childless. He expressed his gratitude when an heir was born, by building his capital by the same cave. Later on when the city was finished and the “‘saint” com- plained of the noises, and was himself unwilling to change his place of abode, the king moved his capital back to Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became a deserted city. While this story has a whimsical interest, the real reason of the re- moval was probably the superior attractions of Agra. An auto trip of twenty-four miles to this silent and de- serted city gives an excellent opportunity to study the primi- tive rural life and the agricultural methods along the way. Fatehpur Sikri is six miles in circumference, a high wall protecting it on three sides, having a number of towers and seven gateways. [he fourth side was guarded by an arti- ficial lake seven miles long and two miles wide, which has since been drained. ‘The places of special interest in this capital of Akbar may be stated in a brief outline. The Gate of Victory (Buland Darwaza) is one of the most impressive in existence, standing 176 feet above the roadway. It is studded with horseshoes from the horses of the enemy killed in the battle of Deccan. ‘The most strik- ing feature of this gateway is an inscription on the east side of the central archway, a part of which reads, “Isa [the Arabic form of Jesus] on whom be peace, said, “The world is a bridge; pass over it but build no house there. ‘The world is but an hour; spend it in devotion, ‘The rest is 999 unseen. MAN DIVING EIGHTY FEET AT FATEHPUR SICRI PEARL MOSQUE AT AGRA Author in the foreground FPaAlrEAPUOUR'SIKRI 391 Another inscription on the west side, not attributed to Jesus, but suggestive of His teaching, reads, “He that stand- eth up to pray and his heart is not in his duty, does not draw nigh to God, but remaineth far from Him. ‘Thy best possession is what thou has given in alms, thy best traffic is selling this world for the next.” The Tomb of Sheik Salim Chisti is in the court of the Jama Mosque (Jama Masjid). He is the holy man who prompted Akbar’s decision to build the city. It is quite small, but is one of the most exquisite of India’s architec- tural creations. ‘The interior is richly decorated with the finest filigree designs, and the Cenotaph itself is overlaid with the richest mother-of-pearl arranged in superb and in- tricate geometrical figures. The Mohammedan women of today attach bits of cloth to the bars of the marble screen as a mute prayer for a son, which includes a pledge to bring an offering to the shrine, if the prayer is answered. The Tomb of Islam Khan, the grandson of Salim Chisti, at one time a Governor of Bengal, adjoins the Tomb -of his grandfather and is larger, but less beautiful. It was built by the Emperor Jahangir. The Panch Mahal is a structure of five stories, each con- sisting of a pillared hall smaller than the one underneath, the fifth being a sort of spiked dome. All of the 185 pillars are profusely carved. It probably was used as an outlook and social centre for the harem ladies and as a playground ~ for the children. On the upper wall, men sometimes are waiting to make, for a few annas, the jump of eighty feet into a pool thirty feet deep, which formerly was part of a moat. Several of these are old, feeble-looking men, who nevertheless show surprising agility and daring. The Palace of Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is a unique structure with a great central pillar which is richly decorated and supports two intersecting beams, also richly carved. Here Akbar met his councillors in matters of state, and also the scholars and religious leaders, with whom he wished to discuss religion and philosophy. 392 INDIA The Palace of Mariam Zamani, Akbar’s Hindu wife, and mother of his son Jahangir, is also called ‘“The Golden House,” because all parts of the palace were in gold and colours with representations of Rama, the seventh incar- nation of Vishnu. There are many features of interest, such as the Hall of Special Audience, the Palace of Akbar’s Mohammedan wife, the House of Dreams, the Zenana Baths, the Ladies’ Mosque, and many others, GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT AGRA Bazaars. ‘The chief centre of shopping is the Johri Bazaar. Agra is especially noted for its inlay work of coloured stone and marble, and its carvings in sandstone, marble and alabaster. Ornamental carved and inlaid ink stands, jewel boxes, stone dishes and trays, and thousands of miniature marble imitations of the Taj are on sale. Agra is also distinguished for its silk and velvet embroideries in- volving the use of silk, silver and gold thread. It is one of the chief cities noted for Indian carpets and rugs, some of purely Hindu designs and some introduced from Persia. Hotels. The Cecil and Laurie’s Hotels, both excellent, are under the same management. ‘There is also the Metro- pole Hotel. ‘These are all about a mile from the Fort Railway Station. Churches. The three Anglican Churches are St. George’s, Havelock Chapel, and St. Paul’s. ‘There are also two Roman Catholic Churches,—St. Mathias and the Cathedral. Among the Missions are the Baptist and the Methodist. St. John’s College is doing a valuable work and is the most important institution of the Church Missionary Society in India, with about 400 students, not counting preparatory pupils. Hospitals. ‘The Thomason Hospital for men and the THE DELAI PALAGE 393 Dufferin for women, each have over 500 beds. There is also a Medical School with 800 students. The Agra College has 600 students and is affiliated with Allahabad University. BAe IEA bat Delhi is now the capital of India and is a city of 304,420 inhabitants (1921), situated on the banks of the Jumna river. Here Nadir Shah, the Persian, butchered a hundred thousand people, almost the entire population, and this mas- sacre was even exceeded by Timur and the Mahrattas. It is now a progressive city famous for its shops, as well as for its objects of sightseeing interest. At the great Dur- bar held here in 1877, Lord Lytton proclaimed Queen Victoria as Empress of India, and in the greater Durbar in 1903, in connection with a splendid procession, Lord Curzon proclaimed King Edward VII Emperor of India. The Government of India has its new buildings to the sout’ and _ west. A new Government House and Secretariat hav. been completed, and a residential section for officers and clerks has been constructed, together with a new Cantonment. The main thoroughfare is Chandni Chank, or “Silver Square,” over a mile long, a street of bazaars together with beautiful public buildings, which make a contrast of splen- dour with the filth and squalour of much of the city. The entrance to the street is the red sandstone gateway of Shah Jahan’s Fort. THE PALACE This is a2 remarkable monument of Shah Jahan’s vanity and selfish extravagance. No other monarch ever sat on any throne in any palace so dazzlingly sumptuous as was this in Delhi. ‘The Palace can be entered either by the Lahore Gate on the east or the Delhi Gate on the south. Passing under the grand archway of the Lahore Gate, the 394 INDIA usual entrance, and going through a vaulted archway, one comes into the Great Court, 540 by 360 feet. ‘Thirty Europeans, who had taken refuge here, were massacred by the Sepoys during the mutiny. On the farther side is the superb Hall of Public Audi- ence (Diwan-i-Am), one hundred by sixty feet, which is open on three sides, and has several rows of sandstone pil- lars and panels of Florentine mosaic on a black marble background. Its ceiling, columns and arches are perhaps the finest to be found in India. On the back was a throne on the raised platform, where the Emperor was accustomed to sit during formal public occasions. The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is a white marble pavilion on the river wall open on four sides, —the most gorgeous and royal hall not only in India but in all the world. It has massive columns ornamented with gold capitals and elaborate designs of inlaid semi-precious stones. The ceiling is a climax of golden glory. ‘The colonnades make a marvellous vista of white and gold. Under the floor of the hall ran an artificial stream of water over an alabaster bed which served to cool the terrace when the king was present. ‘The side of the pavilion facing the river is filled with exquisite lattice work in marble. The marble screen in this hall is one of the most artistic pieces of work extant, with exquisite refinement in every detail. “If there is on earth an Eden of bliss, it is this, it is this, it is this,” is the fitting inscription written in decorative inlay on the walls,—fitting that is to say, if dazzling beauty and wealth could insure happiness. The Peacock Throne received its name from the fact that its back consisted of two peacocks with spread tails, the whole so inlaid with sapphires, rubies, emeralds and pearls as to represent the colours of life. Some people say that the famous Kohinoor diamond was used for one of the eyes of the peacock, while others assert that it was filched from the Cenotaph of Akbar at Sikandra, The latter view is probably the correct one. Peo OCK, THRONE . 395 The Throne itself was a low, square platform, or dais, six by four feet, and stood on six massive feet of solid gold inlaid with rubies, emeralds and diamonds. ‘The canopy of gold above was supported by twelve pillars heavily em- blazoned with precious stones, the edges of the canopy being fringed with pearls. A figure of a parrot, said to be shaped from a single emerald, stood at the top of the throne between the peacocks. It may, however, have been only an un- usually fine piece of jade. The platform on which the throne stood is still visible. The Persian conqueror, Nadir Shah, carried off all these treasures, together with nine other lesser thrones, and other loot, the total value of which was well over a quarter of a billion of dollars, although it was scattered over Asia soon after, when Nadir Shah was murdered by the Kurds. Later some of the native kings of Delhi and their retinue helped to rob the inlay work of its precious stones. Some of the later English officials also acted as brigands, a certain Sir John Jones having taken out the platform of the throne and cut it into sections to sell for table tops in England, one of _ which brought this titled pirate the sum of $2,500. This Throne Room, together with various halls and baths which surround it, were put into a state of restoration, as far as possible, by the British Government in connection with the visit of the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, in 1876, although semi-precious and imitation stones of glass were necessarily used to replace the original jewels. The Hall is ninety by sixty-seven feet, is wholly of white marble, once inlaid with jewels. Its ceiling, originally of solid silver, was taken away by the invading Jats, and is now replaced by gilded wood. The Royal Private Apartments had three sets of rooms and an octagon tower projecting over the river. In the central palace is a screen of marble, representing the heavens encircling the scales of Justice. Nearby are the Painted Palace, where the principal Sultana lived, and the Mumtaz Mahal, now used by the Delhi Museum of Archeology. 396 INDIA The stream which flowed under the Hall of Private Audi- ence was carried across the court under a rounded arch through the Women’s Apartment. ‘The archway is hidden in part by a marble screen of trellis work decorated with gold. In the middle of the screen is a small aperture, where there were a silk curtain and, doubtless, peeping faces. ‘These apartments are very choice, but are not so refined and artistic as are the women’s quarters in the Fort Palace at Agra. ‘The walls have bright mosaic frescoes and here, as at Agra, is a Jasmine Tower crowned by a dome, its win- dows latticed by marble tracery. “The Royal Bath near the Diwan-i-Khas consists of a low room with white marble floors and a dado handsomely decorated. A stream of water in a channel of alabaster originally ran around the queen’s bath. The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) is a small, dignified three-domed structure, constructed of white and grey marble with two aisles, three arches and walls decorated with low reliefs. THE JAMT MoOSsSGGs The Jami Masjid is a noble structure, the largest Mosque in India, built on a huge platform of red sandstone with broad and impressive flights of stairs on three sides. It is effectively graded in colour from a deep red where it leaves the ground to a pure white at the top. It, however, lacks the churchly impression or atmosphere which pervades the Pearl Mosque at Agra. It has two well-proportioned minarets, 130 feet high which are lower than the Mosque, which has a maximum height of 201 feet. “The main approach is by a principal Gateway that is second in stately effect only to the Gate of Victory at Fatehpur Sikri. The Mosque often has 10,000 or more worshippers at a single time, and is also used for popular public meetings. It has a collection of richly ornamented copies of the Koran, and among its price- JAMI MOSQUE SOF less treasures is a reputed slipper of Mohammed and a red hair from his beard. The Main Gateway in the olden days was opened ex- clusively for the Mogul Emperor, and now it is reserved for the Viceroy of India and the local Administration Head, but visitors may use the smaller side entrance. Inside is a great quadrangle, 325 feet square, with the usual marble basin and fountain in the centre. Around three sides is an . open cloister fifteen feet wide with pillared arches. * * * * # % * The Mutiny. Evidences of the Sepoy Mutiny are shown by the guides from many points of view, including the Ridge, the Cashmere Gate, and other graphic memorials of the tragic story of English heroism. ‘The details of the siege can be better understood by the visitor when he is actually on the scene of action and can have all the incidents localised and visualised. The Bazaars. Delhi has some of the most skiilful artisans of India in the fashioning of jewellery, silver, and gold ornaments, brass work, embroideries, cashmere shawls, camel’s-hair materials, necklaces, girdles, head ornaments, etc. The so-called green jade, however, is almost sure to be bowenite, or chloro-melanite. It is well to warn purchasers that many of the pearls and other jewels have flaws which are apt to be detected only by the initiated. Hotels. ‘The principal hotels are the Maidens, the Cecil and the Woodlands. Churches. Besides a Roman Catholic Church, there are two Anglican Churches, the St. James’ and St. Stephen’s. Missions. The important religious activities are the English Church Cambridge Mission and a Baptist Zenana work and general mission. OLD DELHI Old Delhi is interesting, not only for the historian and antiquarian, but also for the tourist. The remains of the 398 INDIA earlier Delhi may be seen going southward from the present capital for a dozen miles or more. Among the lesser antiquities are the Column of Asoka, dating from 240 B.c., which is inscribed with Buddhist pre- cepts, denouncing the taking of life; the ruined fort at Firozabad ; the remains of the Mosque at Indrapat, together with the Tower, on whose steps Emperor Humayun (whose imposing domed tomb seems to have suggested the archi- tecture of the Taj Mahal) fell to his death while surveying the stars; the tomb of Mirza Jahangir, the son of Akbar, which is an artistic study in white; and the marble sar- cophagus of Akbar’s brother, under the marble canopied pavilion with its sixty-four delicately shaped and carved pillars. The object of supreme interest is the Kutab Minar, the great slender ornamented tower, which is one of the seven architectural wonders of India, often called the most perfect tower in the world. It consists of three stories of fluted red sandstone, each with its balcony and bands of inscriptions, together with honey-combed decorations, surmounted by two stories faced chiefly with white marble. It has stood over a thousand years, yielding to neither earthquake nor siege. It can be seen to best advantage from the roof of the ad- jacent Mosque. This pillar was erected as a Tower of Victory by Kutab- ud-Din, the Pathan ruler, who in early life was a slave. Two centuries later, Ala-ud-Din projected a tower which was to have been five hundred feet high, twice that of the Kutab, and more profusely decorated, but this was abandoned in its early building stage. The Mosque consists of some ruined arches and a hun- dred carved columns, being a part of the remains of the earlier Jain and Buddhist temples, which had been despoiled by the Pathans. In its court is a wrought iron pillar cele- brated for its size and beauty, with a Sanskrit inscription which dates back to the first century. The tradition is that those who put their backs against this column and touch ATP AGR 399 their hands on the opposite side are assured of good luck. The tomb of Altamsh, one of the most highly decorated mausoleums in India, indicates the extent of ornamentation which the entire building originally had. JAIPUR The temptation to outline the attractions of cities like Lahore, Peshawar, Amritsar, Simla, Alwar, Gwalior, and other fascinating places of lesser degree in northwest India, must be resisted in view of the fact that this volume is intended chiefly for Cruise travellers. A brief sketch, how- ever, may be made of Jaipur, which can be reached by a narrow gauge railroad either from Agra or Delhi. Jaipur is 149 miles from Agra and has a population (1921) of 121,196. According to Kipling it is “a pink city set on the border of a blue lake,—a city to see and puzzle over.” ‘The prevailing colours of its buildings are sky blue, pink and white, and there are many shades of blended colours, so that seeing Jaipur is a unique experience even in India. An early ruler, Jey Singh, who built the city, laid out streets sixty yards wide and straight as an arrow, and surrounded the city with a wall having seven gates. Its architecture, broadly speaking, is Hindu,—the many-arched type which is characteristically Indian. ‘The Maharaja of Jaipur governs an area of 15,600 square miles containing 3,000,000 people, and has an annual revenue of $7,200,000. Jaipur is a busy commercial city. The making of many kinds of jewellery, especially the cutting and setting of gar- nets, and the block printing by hand of colours on cloths and muslins in striking oriental patterns, are characteristic industries. “The best enamel and brass work is also done here. This rose-red city ‘“‘half as old as time” is glorified in Sir Edwin Arnold’s “Light of Asia,’ but his chronology is wrong, as the city is quite modern,—less than two hundred years old. It has two long thoroughfares crossing at right angles at the walls of the palace. Everything runs to colours 400 INDIA in Jaipur (which is not intimating that the colours run) ,— houses, decorations, bazaars and even the garments of the people. The skirts of the women are brilliantly hued and flare- fashioned. Bracelets often weighing in the aggregate eight or ten pounds extend from the wrist to the elbow, and the ankles are similarly adorned. Heavy rings are pendant from the nose and ears, like the popular “rings on her fingers, and bells on her toes, elephants to ride upon everywhere she goes,” as is generally apt to be the case throughout India. Every Jaipur woman carries her wealth on her person. ‘The variegated garments of the people and their brilliantly gay turbans and shawls make a street pageant of spectacular effect. From the four corners at the palace wall one sees a kaleidoscopic effect of elephant and camel trains making a startling contrast with the modern conveyances of automobile and bicycle. Rikishas and carriages go by in a strange medley of confusion, and innumerable pigeons gather around the monumented fountain. The Maharaja’s Palace occupies about one-seventh of the centre of the city’s area, and is a rather stately structure set in attractive pleasure grounds and gardens. “The Chandra Mahal, which is at the centre of the Palace, is a striking structure of seven stories. “The Hall of Private Audience has some interest, as have the modern buildings (used by the Maharaja and his zenana), rather garishly furnished and gay with painted ceilings, candelabra and gilt mirrors. The Palace of the Winds, called by Sir Edwin Arnold, “a vision of daring and dainty loveliness,” has its entire front painted pink, making quite a spectacular impression. A Temple of the Sun and a so-called “Gate of Rubies” are among the sightseeing attractions. The Public Garden outside the city wall occupies thirty- six acres and is one of the finest in India. In the centre is Albert Hall, which is a superb modern building, housing a Museum, which suggests an Oriental South Kensington SIGHTSEEING 401 Museum, as it has a fine collection of specimens of the art and industries of India, together with metal work and carv- ings. “There are 15,000 or more objects of art covering a wide field,—brass work, stone carvings, enamels, pottery ;— the native work making an interesting comparison with other lands, by placing reproductions of Persian and Russian side by side with that of the Jaipur school of art. The main object of the Museum is to show the craftsman of Jaipur the best that his predecessors and foreign artists have done. The Cenotaphs of the Maharajas are also outside the walls and are placed in a fine garden in which many grey- headed apes sport about among the trees. One of these ceno- taphs is built of white marble, and its carved pillars and platform are profusely decorated with scenes from Hindu mythology. The two principal Hotels are the Kaiser-i-Hind and the New. AMBER Amber, six or seven miles from Jaipur, reachable by a ticcaghari, or by an elephant, is a city so marred by war and neglect that nothing is left but the dead memorials of its palaces and temples and forts. Everywhere chattering apes (considered sacred) contest the right of way. A thousand years ago it was regarded as an impregnable fortress, now it is a “city that will never wake.” The battlements on the mountain-side are staircased with terraces, ornamented with elaborate grill work and artistic stone railings. In the palace are some rooms still beautiful, suggesting the interiors of the palaces at Agra and Delhi. Adjacent is a Public Audience Hall which has remarkably fine decorations, as well as a little temple, a gem of marble tracery and inlay, dedicated to Kali, the goddess who must always be appeased with blood. ‘Thousands of men must have toiled at the walls encir- cling the city, its temples, its fort and the canals that once 402 INDIA lifted water to the palace; but its present desolation is beyond that of the desert or the sea. BOMBAY The Island of Bombay is one of a group of twelve. It is eleven and a half miles long, from four to six miles wide, and has an area of 22.48 square miles. “The docks are located on the west side of the harbour. The name “Bombay” is probably from the Portuguese “‘Bom Bahia,” or “good bay,” although it might possibly be derived from the local name of a Hindu goddess. In 1626 the Portuguese settlement in Bombay was cap- tured by a combined British and Dutch force, and in 1661 Bombay was ceded to England, not on the basis of conquest, but as a part of the marriage settlement of Catherine of Portugal, when she married Charles II of England. At the time it was taken over by the East India Company there were only 10,000 inhabitants, but immediately thereafter, because of the racial and religious immunity promised, Jews, Armenians, Arabs, Jains, and especially the Parsees, flocked into the city, which by 1720 had grown to have 50,000 inhabitants and was enclosed by a wall. Some remarkable developments have been effected in Bom- bay in the reclamation of land, a square mile and a half having been added, and this is still being increased. ‘This progress is also marked in the construction of docks, in view of Bombay’s being the Western Gateway of India; in the growth of cotton mills, there being now 83 with 180,000 employés; and in the construction of very fine buildings and the growth of great philanthropies. The Corporation, or local Government of Bombay, consists of seventy-two mem- bers and the municipal income is about 140,000,000 rupees. Bombay has important commercial advantages, as it is the natural terminus of India to vessels coming from the Suez Canal. It is one of the world’s largest cotton centres, New Orleans alone excepted. It has also a natural port and BOMBAY 403 harbour, making it particularly accessible to ocean vessels, which is not the case, for instance, in other great commer- cial centres in India like Calcutta and Madras. It has been well fortified on its sea-ward side with batteries on the vari- ous islands, and with three powerful forts on the mainland. Bombay was called the “Queen City of India” by Kipling, and it has a greater number of imposing buildings than have several English cities of practically the same size. In the natural beauty of its surroundings, it is surpassed in the Far East only by Hong-Kong. THE PARSEES The Parsees are the most important single factor in Bom- bay, if British political and commercial leadership be ex- cepted. The Parsee presents a strange mingling of a rigid adherence to ancient custom and religion, united with the most modern and progressive business efficiency and method. Although there are only fifty thousand Parsees among the _million inhabitants of Bombay, they dominate the commer- cial life of Bombay as even the British do not, and the city is punctuated with hospitals, asylums, educational institu- tions, drinking fountains, parks and statues, which are the expressions of Parsee benefactions. “They have sumptuous homes and luxurious clubs, and they are largely the directors of the banks and commercial houses. Some of the really great fortunes of Bombay are in their hands. ‘They amassed great wealth from the high prices of cotton during the Amer- ican Civil War. Originally they were Persians and disciples of Zoroaster, who were driven out of Persia by the Mohammedan con- querors twelve centuries ago. “The Parsees were despised as an inferior people and for hundreds of years they were kept in the humble slavish places of toil, but when the British came and all restrictions were removed, they rapidly ad- vanced themselves until today they are the leading bankers, merchants, manufacturers and professional men of Bombay. 404 INDIA They are truthful, generous and industrious, and represent very high standards of morality and business ethics. “They have all these centuries been cultivating education, co-opera- tion, commercial methods and systematic charity, and because of their studied consideration of others they have made excel- lent neighbours and good citizens. “They are very fond of games and sports, and some famous cricket teams coming from England have suffered a Waterloo at the hands of a local Parsee Cricket Club. The ultra orthodox still wear a white girdle of three coils embodying the triple principles of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. ‘The men sometimes wear a small round hat of grey felt, but more often the shiny tall black visorless cap, starred with yellow, having the shape of a cow’s hoof, which originally they were compelled to wear as a sign of subserviency, but now regard as a distinction. Otherwise they are largely garbed in European fashion. The women are fond of the delicately shaded silk garments and em- broidered mantillas, and adhere to their characteristic Parsee costume more closely than do the men. The Parsee woman, draping her sari gracefully around her, makes a comely fig- ure, the costume being as distinctive as that of the Maltese woman with her faldette. She can always be distinguished from Hindu women, not only because of her evident superior culture, but also because the Hindu woman has one or several rings in her left nostril as the distinctive symbol of her mar- riage, and wears a gaily coloured ftchulis, or short jacket, covering her bust but leaving the middle of her waist and her arms bare. The Parsees, as a class, are highly educated and accom- plished, speak English fluently,—usually without accent, and are the conspicuous and uplifting Indian element in Bombay. Some of the humbler Parsees may be found working cn trams, railroads and similar lines of employment, but there is little poverty among them and ample relief is given, when needed, by the Parsees themselves. The syllables “jee” and ‘“‘bhoy” are often found in their THE PARSEES 405 names. ‘The greatest hospital, for instance, is the benefac- tion of Mr. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. ‘The Jeejeebhoy family is regarded as of sufficient importance to have a British baronetcy bestowed upon it, and there are other Parsee fami- lies who have had baronetcies and knighthood bestowed upon them. ‘They naturally are all very strong supporters of English rule. At a Parsee wedding the women wear gold broidered saris and are bejewelled with the wealth of India. Parsee men come in their white ceremonial garments with their weird black hats. The wedding ceremony is very elaborate, interspersed with much symbolism, and at the close the happy couple are showered with rice and flowers. ‘The bride, after receiving the gifts of the groom, is sprinkled with rosewater and made fragrant with attar of roses. An elaborate vege- tarian menu of Europeanised dishes is attractively served upon palm leaves in lieu of plates, dispensing with knives and forks. They have impressive services at the death-bed and at the time of burial. One of the old superstitions, however, among the least intelligent Parsees, is a belief that if a dog is brought and placed so that he can look upon the face of the deceased, it will drive away any evil spirit. The Parsees brought with them from Persia the religion of Zoroaster who, a thousand years before Christ, had enun- ciated the doctrine of one God manifesting himself in earth, water and fire. “They were really the early Pantheists. While they stress the sun as their chief symbol of worship and have not permitted the sacred fire which they brought with them from Persia to be extinguished, they deny that they actually are worshippers of fire, and assert that the sacred flame in their temples is merely a symbol. ‘This is evidently true, as other religions, including that of the an- cient Jews, have had lighted candlesticks and altar fires burning in their temples, which were not allowed to be extinguished. Fire represents to the Parsees the effulgence and glory of the Deity, and this is their thought when they 406 INDIA prostrate themselves before the setting sun in prayerful adoration. MALABAR HILL Malabar Hill is one hundred and eighty feet high. The drive from Malabar Point along the sea by Breach Kandy is exceptionally pleasurable. Here are the residences of British aristocrats and Parsee millionaires, set in lovely gardens. About the middle of the Hill are the Hanging Gardens, giving alluring views of the Back Bay, the harbour and the islands and mountains beyond. Here also are the charming grounds of the Ladies’ Gymkhana. At the south- east foot of the hill is a Parsee Almshouse for both sexes. THE TOWERS, OF SIUENCSE On the highest point of Malabar Hill are located the famous ‘Towers of Silence, the outer serrated wall, surround- ing the grounds, being fringed with rows of expectant buz- zards, on the watch for the next Parsee funeral procession. The Parsee method of disposing of the corpses of their dead seems naturally rather repulsive to the Occidental mind, but, next to cremation, it certainly furnishes the best sani- tary safeguards. To the criticism, made in connection with the usage of letting loathsome vultures tear the flesh from the bones of the exposed dead bodies, the Parsee replies that it is even more repulsive to him to think of worms con- suming the buried body in the churchyard. These round white towers built of stone and cement are five in number, the largest encircling 276 feet, 25 feet high and costing $250,000, and they occupy the very summit of the aristocratic Malabar Hill, with its superb panoramic view of Bombay and the Arabian sea. There is no architectural effect sought. There are low round turrets on the walls, the whole being of grey stone. The only opening in the wall is a small iron door, reached by a short flight of steps. TOWERS OF SILENCE 407 On the occasion of a funeral, the casket containing the body is carried on the shoulders of four stout bearers. Imme- diately following them are two bearded men who form a separate class, regarded as unclean because they touch dead bodies. “These are the only people who are permitted to enter the Tower itself. They receive the corpse from the bearers and carry it within the Tower, where it is placed on one of three circles, the outer being for men, the middle one for women, and the innermost for children. “The body, in every case, is placed on an iron grating and the shroud is removed, leaving the corpse bare. When the vultures, who are waiting upon the outer walls, hear the clang of the closing iron doors, they swoop down in fierce competition, and in less than half an hour only the absolutely naked skeleton is left. It is said that these birds can discern a funeral procession at a distance, and that they then give the signal among themselves to gather for their ghoulish feast. The “Carriers of the Dead” after depositing the body, go to the purifying place where they wash themselves and change their garments, leaving the clothes they have been wearing to be washed in a special tower built for that purpose. Meantime the mourners in white have followed the pro- cession, two by two, in each case holding a handkerchief between them as an evidence of their grief. When the body disappears within the gates, these mourners for a moment take their position under one of the stately palms in medi- tation and prayer, and then enter into the adjoining Place of Worship wherein the sacred fire is constantly burning. Here the last sacred offices for the dead are performed by the Parsee priest. “This House of Prayer is in a beautiful garden, in which, as the Parsees say, even the cypresses point toward heaven. It has an inspiring view over the harbour and the distant mountainous islands. Three days after the body has been put into the Tower, the relatives assemble at the Fire Temple. The son or near- est relative kneels before the Priest and pledges fidelity to the memory and dying wishes of the deceased. At this time, 408 INDIA also, gifts to charity are made by the heirs. On the anni- versary of the death, flowers are planted by the family in an iron frame in memory of the deceased, and prayers are then offered. The skeletons remain exposed in the Tower for a little time to be thoroughly seasoned, and the bearded men, to whom reference has been made, remove the bones with tongs and drop them into a deep well five feet in diameter in the middle of the Tower, where gradually they turn to dust. ‘The dust from deposited bones accumulated so slowly that it rose only five feet in forty years. ‘The most modern sani- tary devices are employed to do away with anything that suggests corruption. In the central well, where all bones are deposited, there are four drains to carry off the water of rain and the dust of the decaying bones, and all these drains are thoroughly cleansed by passing through charcoal and sandstone filters, before reaching a series of subterranean wells having sand foundations. Certainly from a sanitary point of view, this disposition of the dead is preferable to that of the Hindu burning ghats, where the body is not always consumed and where the un- burned portions are thrown into the river. We know that there is a philosophy underlying the ceremonial symbolism of this repellent system,—the triumph of Universal purity, physical and moral, over the filth of physical and moral evil. The Towers of Silence as a whole are sacred to Sraosha, the guardian angel of the dead. ‘They cover a large area containing eight thousand square yards. ‘Three of the five towers are reserved for the general Parsee public, the fourth for suicides and criminals, and the fifth, which is the oldest of all, having been erected in 1672 by Modi Hizi Wachha, is used only by his descendants. But in the well below, all classes of the Parsees of Bombay mingle as common dust. This method of disposing of the bodies of the dead goes back three thousand years. The teaching of Zoroaster is that in death the rich and poor must meet, and this has been literally interpreted. PARSEE TEMPLE 409 There are altogether fifty-three Parsee temples in India. Inside the shrine, or holy place in the temple, no one but a priest enters. A marble pedestal in the middle supports a silver brazier containing the fire, which has never through the centuries been extinguished, and which is the only light permitted. It is constantly fed with small pieces of sandal- wood giving out an incense, which pervades the entire temple. Here also are the bells, which are rung at stated Parsee periods. Weapons are available, to be used by the priest in the hypothetical case of any intruder desiring to desecrate or quench the flame. ‘There is always an attendant near the fire temple, who shows a model of the interior of the Towers, and who ex- plains the ceremonial in a very thorough and intelligent way. Arrangements for tourist parties to visit the Towers are made by the Cruise management, but those who are not with tourist parties can get tickets of admission, for which no charge is made, from the Parsee secretary at 209 Hornby Row. ‘The Towers are open from 7:30 to 9 A. M. and from 2:30 to 5 P.M. Smoking and the use of cameras inside the grounds are not permitted. THE SIGHTS OF BOMBAY The Rajabai Tower, connected with the University Li- brary, is 260 feet high and was built in 1880 and presented to the city by Mr. Rajabai. It is the first landmark visible to ships entering the harbour. The Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, known colloquially as the G. I. P., was opened in 1887 and cost $1,500,000. It is an imposing building in the Italian-Gothic style and is perhaps the finest as well as the most artistic railway station in Asia. The great dome is crowned by a figure of Progress. In the niche under the clock is a statue of Queen Victoria, said to be the best marble statue of the Queen in existence. The ‘‘Welcome Arch”’ near the Taj Mahal Hotel and 410 INDIA the Bunder Dock, is a mammoth structure built in honour of the Prince of Wales’ visit in 1921, and is said to have been paid for by the voluntary contributions of the citizens of Bombay. It can be seen for many miles and is a majestic “Gateway of Western India.” The Victoria and Albert Museum was established in 1858 to celebrate Queen Victoria’s receiving the title of Empress of India. It has a fairly valuable collection, repre- senting the economic and industrial products of Western India, and illustrates its natural history. It has also a valu- able reference library. ‘The colossal stone elephant, orig- inally found at Elephanta Island, is placed outside the Museum. The Museum is open from 7:30 to 10:30 A.M. and 1:30 to 5 P.M., but is closed on Wednesdays. The Victoria Gardens occupy forty-eight acres and are entered by a gateway facing Parel Road. Here may be seen the David Sassoon clock tower and fountain, and the Lady Frere pavilion. ‘The Park, artistically laid out with rare plants and trees, has some small artificial lakes and a zoologi- cal collection. PUBLIC BUILDINGS Among the important public buildings are the following: The Presidential Secretariat is an imposing structure and is used by the Governor and his Council, and by the Revenue department. The Courts of Justice is a mammoth building 562 feet long and has a Tower 175 feet high. The Statue of Queen Victoria is north of the Tele- graph Office. It was presented by the native ruler of Barado and cost 165,000 rupees. Her Majesty is seated under a canopy and in its centre is the Star of India, and above this the Rose of England and the Lotus of India, together with the mottoes, ‘“God and my right,” and “Heaven’s Light our Guide,” inscribed in four languages. The Town Hall is a large colonnaded building contain- SIGHTSEEING 411 ing the Grand Assembly Room, the quarters of the Bombay Asiatic Society with its Library of 100,000 volumes, and the Council Room with paintings of historical English and In- dian personages. The Prince of Wales Museum is at the southern end of Esplanade Road and includes an Art and Archeological department, a Natural History department, and a section containing specimens of Indian industries. Nearby is the Royal Institute of Science which houses a College of Sci- ence, a Science Library, a Public Hall, and some Exami- nation Schools. The Elphinstone College cost 750,000 rupees and con- sists of a High School and a College for natives. The Municipal Buildings, a mixture of Gothic and Oriental architecture, have a tower 255 feet high. The Crawford Market, costing 1,100,000 rupees, is crowned with a clock tower 128 feet high. Sir Edwin Arnold says of it, “Here fish, flesh, vegetables, flowers, fruit and general commodities are vended in separate buildings, all kept in admirable order and cleanliness and all opening on green and shady gardens.” Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital has room for 500 pa- tients, and connected with it are a Hospital for Incurables, an Obstetric Hospital and a Special Hospital for women and children. The Wilson College is one of the largest colleges for natives in Western India. The Walkeshwar Temple, which is sacred to the sand god, and the Banganga Pool, the Sunken Well, together with the miniature towers, are on Malabar Hill near the Towers of Silence. At the Walkeshwar Tank near the Shirgundi (the sacred cleft in the seashore at Malabar Point), one sees a place of pilgrimage with a cluster of temples, shrines and holy wells suggesting Benares. A Favourite Drive is along the Queens Road at the Oral and Cooperage, following the seashore and passing the polo, cricket and football fields. 412 INDIA The Apollo Bunder has been the landing pier since 1819, and tenders used by ships at anchor, disembark their pas- sengers at Ballard Pier nearby. The ships that come directly to the pier now land at the Alexandra docks. The American Consulate is at Roosevelt House, nearly opposite the I’aj Mahal Hotel. The Taj Mahal and the Hotel Majestic are the two principal hotels and are handsome buildings, and fairly com- fortable. It is safer not to drink the water which is served. Shopping. In the Native City a motley Asiatic popu- lation ebbs and flows, all in characteristic costumes and be- wildering variety of colours. Fine native Bazaars may here be found, especially in brass and copper utensils, pottery of every description, blackwood, teakwood, sandalwood and tortoise-shell carvings, lace manufactured from gold and sil- ver thread and Bombay embroidery. Abdul Rahman Street has a large number of shops owned by Indian merchants, displaying embroideries, rugs, jewelled slippers, silver clutch work, ivories, brasses, jewellery, soft India silks, cotton printed goods and black wood carvings. Churches, “The Roman Catholics have eleven churches, a college for boys, and several convent schools for girls. The American Presbyterians and the United Free Church are doing a successful Mission work. The Y. M. C. A. has a number of branches, and is car- ried on both for foreigners and for natives in a helpful and enterprising way. “The Main Building is quite near the Hotels and visitors will receive a cordial welcome. ‘The Y. W. C. A, is doing a similar work among women. ELEPHANTA ISLAND Motor launches leave the Apollo Bunder pier near the new Welcome Arch at 8:30 A. M. and 2:30 P. M., or if pre- ferred independent motor boats can be hired. This Island is six miles from Bombay, is less than five miles in circum- ference, and its highest point is 568 feet. “The name was VULTURES AT THE TOWERS OF SILENCE AUTHENTIC BIRTHPLACE OF MR. KIPLING ELEPHANTA ISLAND 413 given by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century because of the fact that a huge monolith stone elephant, seven feet, four inches high, and thirteen feet, two inches long, was found in front of the temple. After arriving at the Elephanta Pier a stone stairway of three hundred steps and a path a quarter of a mile long leads to the cave temple. If preferred, one can be carried up by coolies in a sedan chair. A city with splendid palaces and shrines flourished here for a thousand years, beginning several centuries before Christ, but in the thirteenth century A.D. it was destroyed, and almost nothing remains. The Cave Temples of Siva are three in number and the fourth is being excavated. ‘They date back almost to the Christian era, and are rich in fine rock sculptured details, some of which are preserved in a Museum established at Elephanta, which contains excavated art treasures. The largest structure erected in the interior is 133 by 130 feet and is twenty feet high. ‘The entrance is in the face of the cliff and is marked by heavy columns; here stood at one time the large stone elephant now in the Bombay Museum. As one enters the dim interior, a shadowy row of twenty-six pillars are visible, seventeen feet high, of which eight have fallen. ‘The sides of the cave corridor show an array of Hindu deities. ‘The main entrance is one hundred and thirty feet in length and the Sanctuary within is ninety-one feet square and has six rows of pillars. A triple bust of heroic proportions called the Trimurti, representing Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, is eighteen feet high. Brahma, although regarded as the chief god of this trium- virate, is now rarely recognised in Hindu worship, Siva and Vishnu sharing the honours. On the southern wall is a figure of Siva, sixteen feet high, which is half a man and half a woman to signify that Siva united both sexes in his one person. ‘Iwo of his numerous hands rest on a bull who is his constant “‘vehicle’’ or attendant. 414 TNDIA In the room, west of that in which the Trimurti is found, are the figures of Siva, sixteen feet high, and of his wife, Parvati, twelve feet high. The large cave opposite contains a carving, representing the offering of a human sacrifice. Brahma with four faces seated on his lotus throne, which is supported by five swans, can be seen to the right. Other shrines and chapels with carvings or images adjoin the main temple. There is a statue evidently representing the marriage of Siva and Parvati, the position of the latter showing she is his bride, as the privilege of standing on the right of her husband or eating with him is only vouchsafed to a woman on her wedding day. To the right of Parvati is Brahma officiating as Priest and at Siva’s left is Vishnu, presumably as witness, SOUTHERN UX MADRAS Madras is a bustling city, the third commercial port of India, but of minor interest to tourists. ‘The centre of the city is Mountain Road on which hotels, shops and principal buildings are located. The Harbour of Madras is quite small, being about 200 acres in size, artificially dug, and is protected by two large breakwaters. The Government House, open to visitors when the Governor is not in residence, has a very spacious and hand- some Banqueting Hall. The Island is between the Government House and the Fort, and contains a large recreation and parade ground and the Gymkhana Club. The Chepauk Park and buildings are on the sea front. The Palace here is in Moorish style and is now occupied by the offices of the Board of Revenue. The Marina is the fashionable promenade and drive, and MADRAS 415 extends from Napier Bridge about two miles, where it enters the European suburb known as “the Adyar.” St. Mary’s Church was the first English Church in India, dating from 1680, and is rich in historical association. The High Court Buildings cover about a hundred thousand square feet and form a very impressive group. The Museum is one of the great group of buildings which includes the Victoria Technical Institute, the Cone- mara Library, and especially the Victoria Memorial Hall. It contains a superb display of old armour, weapons and metal work trophies, together with bas-reliefs and images. There are also many specimens of natural history, botany, geology and archeology. One bit of bone displayed in a cylinder is undoubtedly (!) a part of Buddha’s body. The Horticultural Gardens occupy twenty-two acres and contain rare trees, and an ornamental setting of shrubs and flowers. The St. Thomas Mount is a military depot and canton- ment which has the finest military buildings in India. The honours as to whether St. ‘Thomas was martyred here, or at the Little Mount and Church near by, are divided. ‘Tra- dition has it that a Brahmin priest pierced him with a lance in 68 A.D. The Madras Christian College, the buildings of which cost $250,000, is regarded as one of the most successful colleges in India. Missions. ‘The Society for Propagating the Gospel has a series of Churches and Schools, and there are Missions by the Baptist, Lutheran, Wesleyan and Church of Scotland bodies. ; The Principal Hotels are the D’Angelis and the Cone- mara. fewlCnWueN O POL?) Trichinopoli is in the centre of the Indian tobacco country and is famous for its Temple of Vishnu. ‘To get a com- 416 INDIA manding view of the city one must climb 290 steps of a tun- nelled staircase (painted with the perpendicular red and white stripes of Siva), punctuated with several landings, on one of which is the black image of Ganesha, the elephant- headed god. On the open summit platform, 236 feet above the city, is a small temple dedicated to Ganesha. It is a three-mile drive to the celebrated temple of Vishnu, built on an Island in the Kaveri River. This is the largest temple in Southern India, and has fifteen gorpuras, or pyramidal structures. The temple area is entered by a gate- way forty-eight feet high, the top of which is supported by great monoliths, some of them having a height of forty feet. The Outer Court is 2,475 by 2,880 feet, enclosed by a large wall. Within the Court are the dwellings of the Brahmin priests who serve the Temple, together with a series of bazaars. “The buildings diminish in size as one approaches the innermost part, where the jewelled temple is located. The Hall of the Horse Columns is very remarkable, having monolith pillars of granite carved as delicately as though they were ivory, picturing the many incarnations of Vishnu. The Hall of a Thousand Pillars (really only goo in all) has whitewashed and rather shabby monolith columns eight- een feet high, with heavy carvings of war and hunting scenes. In the beautifully proportioned and artistic Inner ‘Temple, with its golden cupola covering the shrine containing the sacred image of Vishnu, is a treasure trove of jewels that gives one the impression that the wealth of India is gathered here,—emeralds, rubies, diamonds, sapphires and pearls in heaped-up confusion. Precious stones as large as marbles are embossed on gold helmets, crowns, necklaces, gauntlets, bowls, tridents, salvers, head ornaments, and figures of birds and idols. These are all taken out of their sealed chests and placed indiscriminately upon a filthy cotton table-cover for the visitor’s delectation. A special permit must be secured in order to see the jewels. “There are many keys and Brah- min keepers to safeguard them, but thefts are frequent, 50,000 rupees’ worth having disappeared at one time. MADURA TEMPLE ‘417 From the Rock of Trichinopoli, which is a wonderful viewpoint for all the surrounding region, one can see the lofty pagoda tower of Tanjore, thirty miles distant, MADURA In the land of the Madura Presidency are found the Tamils, with very black skins, but with many excellent traits of character. “These are also to be found in other parts of India, and especially in Ceylon, where they largely form the thrifty and reliable tea plantation workers. ‘The missionaries have done such effective work among them in Madura that one-fifth of the people are Christians. The Madura Temple is a very striking structure, deco- rated with a thousand intricate sculptural variations, a tem- ple that is larger than the Louvre. It was built in honour of Siva, the god of death, and his wife, Minakshi. Every May these idols are paraded in state in a procession of gold and silver chariots and palanquins, together with elephants in their jewelled trappings. The temple jewels compare very favourably with those spoken of in connection with the Temple at Trichinopoli, being perhaps the finest and most elaborate in Southern India. The Temple has also a Hall of a Thousand Columns, with literally acres of elaborate stone carvings covering the entire surface of walls and pillars. A very large water basin is in the centre of the temple court. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS AND FIGURES ABOUT INDIA India is a part of the British Empire, and is governed through a Viceroy, or Governor General, the present one being the Earl of Reading, who was appointed April, 1921, for a term of five years. The first Governor General, War. ren Hastings, was appointed in 1774. The Viceroy, co: 418 INDIA operating with the Secretary of State, an Executive Council, and a Council of from eight to twelve Englishmen residing in England, has supreme executive authority. There is now an Indian Legislature or Parliament having two Chambers, the Council of State with sixty members, and the Legislative Assembly with one hundred and forty- four members, of whom twenty-six are officially appointed and one hundred and three are elected. The President who presides is appointed by the Governor General. ‘The Legis- lature now has power to make laws for all persons within British India, including Englishmen, subject to the approval of the Viceroy and Council. There is also a Governor General’s Executive Council of four persons who have oversight of eleven Departments, with a Secretary at the head of each Department. ‘There are fifteen administrations or presidencies, Madras, Bombay, Bengal, Agra and Oudh, the Punjab and Burma being the most prominent. Each of these fifteen provinces has a Goy- ernor with a Legislative Council, largely elected by the peo- ple, varying from fifty-three to one hundred and eighteen members each. “This was one of the great Constitutional changes under the Government of India Act in 1919. In addition there are 675 Native Indian States, the largest being Hyderabad, as large as Italy, with 82,000 square miles and thirteen million inhabitants. Others are of lesser size, the smallest having nineteen square miles. “These Indian States are governed by Indian princes, ministers or councils, each with a limited military force. In 1920 there were 739 municipalities, controlled by municipal bodies elected by the people. They manage roads, water supply, sanitation, education, taxes, etc. “The members of these municipal bodies are nearly all Indians and are elected by the taxpayers. In some communities women are allowed to vote, and in a very few are eligible for election. MACTS AND FIGURES 419 In addition to the 709,515 square miles under the control of native Princes, Great Britain is absolute dictator over 1,093,074 square miles. ‘The entire population (1921) is 318,942,480. Of these 217,586,892 (or about 69.4%) are Hindus, 66,647,299 are Mohammedans, 10,721,453 are Buddhists, 10,295,168 are Animists, 3,876,203 are Chris- tians, 3,014,466 are Sikhs, 1,248,182 are Jains, 100,096 are Parsees, and 20,980 are Jews. Of the Christians, 1,490,863 are Roman Catholics, 492,- 752 are Anglicans, 337,226 are Baptists, 218,500 are Luth- erans, 181,130 are Presbyterians, 171,844 are Methodists, 135,205 are Congregationalists, 52,407 belong to the Sal- vation Army, and 45,894 are members of other Protestant bodies. ‘The Syrian Christians number 728,000. The number of literate males is 16,938,668, or five per cent. of the population, and there are 1,600,763 literate females, or one-half of one per cent. There are six government universities: Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, the Punjab, Allahabad and Patna. ‘There is also a Hindu University at Benares and a Moslem University at Aligarh, as well as a University in the Indian States at Mysori and Hyderabad. The University of Calcutta, founded 1857, has 17,409 students and that of Bombay has 4,152 students. All colleges together have 64,667 male and 1,249 female students. There are altogether 168,358 public schools, with 7,612,- 839 scholars, and in addition there are 34,623 private schools (mostly missionary) with 593,386 scholars. ‘The total amount spent on education (1920) was £14,889,696, while in 1914 it was but £6,696,585. In the Madras Province alone 254 periodicals are published, and 140 in the Bombay Province. There are altogether 11,418 courts, mostly presided over by native judges. 420 INDIA The revenues (1922) were £122,591,081, and the ex- penditures £127,078,153. India yielded (1924) 28,298,000 tons of rice, 16,709,000 tons of wheat, 5,075,000 bales of cotton, 6,996,000 bales of jute, and 310,599,000 pounds of tea. Of a total of 625,149,442 acres, 222,825,487 are culti- vated (of which 48,963,033 are irrigated) and 88,323,320 are forest lands. There are altogether 4,827 mills and fac- tories employing 1,238,410 hands. In 1921, 7,706 steamships entered India ports. ‘There were 37,265 miles of railways, of which 7,552 are operated by the State. “They represent a capital expenditure of £380,- 000,000, which is regarded as well invested. The imports (1922) were 2,974,960,358 rupees, and ex- ports, 2,644,367,028 rupees. The Army consists of the British Regular Army, the Native Army, the Auxiliary Force, and the Imperial Service Troops. No figures are available for political reasons. During the World War, India contributed £100,000,000 to the War Funds, and £140,000,000 in War Loans. ‘The manufactured products sent to Great Britain and her Allies during the War were worth £250,000,000. RECENT. BIBLIOGRAPHY INDIA AND CEYLON From Bangkok to Bombay, F. G. Carpenter. ’24, Double- day. Ethics of India, E. W. Hopkins. ’24, Yale Press. Among the Brahmins and Pariahs, J. A. Santes. ’24, Boni. South Indian Hours, O. J. Couldry. ’24, Houghton. India, L. J. Ronaldshay. ’24, Houghton. Defense of India, A. Vincent. ’23, Oxford. Om, T. Mundy. ’24, Bobbs. India Old and New, V. Chirol. ’21, Macmillan. Mysterious India, R. Chauvelot. ’21, Century. India at the Crossways, J. 8. Meston. ’20, Macmillan. Glimpses of Bengal, R. Tagore. ’21, Macmillan. PILBLIOGRAPHY 421 Gospel and the Plow, S. Higginbottom. ’21, Macmillan. In the Land of the Salaam, B. Wilson. ’21, Powell & White. Glimpses of the South Seas and India, T. Ketowa. ’20, Stechert. Building with India, D. J. Fleming. ’22, Missionary Edu- cation Press. Round About Calcutta, R. J. Minney. ’23, Oxford. India, P. Loti. ’20, Stokes. Topee and Turban, H. A. Newell. ’21, Lane. Intimate Glimpses of Life in India, Prof. G. T. Ladd. ’19, Badger. India, Old and New, E. W. Hopkins. Yale University Press. India’s Silent Revolution, F. B. Fisher. ’19, Macmillan. Kipling’s India, A. Munson. ’15, Doubleday. Murray’s Handbook of India. ’13, Scribner. Southern India, P. E. Penny. ’14, Macmillan. Gardens of the Great Moghuls, C. M. V. Stuart. ’13, Mac- millan. Old World Through New Eyes, M.S. Ware. 717, Putnam. Aris and Crafts in India and Ceylon, A. Coomaraswami. 14, Phillips. My Reminiscences, R, Tagore. °17, Macmillan, CEYLON “The Eden of the Eastern Wave” EYLON, which is veritably a treasure island, is €; called by old geographers “the utmost Indian isle.” It literally has “spicy breezes,” as it is the home of the cinnamon tree and all other aromatic spices. Here are also precious stones in exceptional variety and abundance, such as sapphires, rubies, chrysoberyl, garnets, cat’s-eyes, moonstones, pearls, etc. “Towering palms, waving groves of giant bamboos, and flowers flaming like Joseph’s coat of many colours, everywhere decorate the amazing world of 422 CEYLON vegetation. The beauty of the varied landscape, combined with the luxuriance of tropical verdure, which is not so lush nor so touched with decay as in Java, makes Ceylon a ver- itable dreamland. Beginning with 1815, Great Britain, which previously had only partial control of the Island, made complete con- quest. The King of Kandy was one of the most cruel mon- sters in human annals, and the numerous accounts of his brutalities stirred the English people at Colombo with indignation. When a party of native merchants from Colombo went to Kandy on a trading expedition, and only a few survivors came back with ears, noses and hands cut off, an English army was sent up, which defeated and de- throned the King, and thus the whole Island came into British hands. ‘The progress since the English occupation has been most remarkable. Slavery has been abolished, an educational system has been introduced, and railroads and macadamized highways have been constructed. ‘There is an absence of beggary and want, and absolutely no taxes are collected from the natives, except a modest poll tax. ‘The head of the English Government is the Governor General, who rules the various districts by means of agents, who in turn have under their authority native provincial officers, to whom the various heads of villages and towns are directly responsible. THE PEOPLE The Cinghalese are descendants of the Singhs and are Aryan people, but they are mixed with Arab, Portuguese and ‘Tamil stock. The Tamils can be distinguished by their black hue and their shaven heads, while genuine Cinghalese wear their hair long, the men having it put up in a sort of Psyche knot on the back of the head, which in the hill country is crowned by a grotesque tortoise shell comb, giv- ing the impression of satanical horns. Seventy-five per cent. of the inhabitants are Cinghalese, using a language allied to Sanskrit. Peeiee PEO PL E 423 The Cinghalese men have a gentle, almost deprecatory manner, intensified by the peculiar custom of wearing their hair, which adds not a little to their feminine appearance. Bishop Heber of Calcutta was quite right in praising in his missionary hymn the “spicy breezes” and the “‘pleas- ing prospects” of Ceylon. He should, however, have re- served the phrase “and only man is vile” for Calcutta, where it is more applicable, as the Cinghalese are singularly kindly, tractable, law-abiding and devoted to their families. There is a conglomeration of races, Colombo especially being a hodge-podge of Cinghalese, Hindus of every caste, Parsees, Malays, Afghans and Arabs, with almost every race in Asia and Africa represented, not to mention Europe and America. ‘The aboriginal tribe of Ceylon are the Veddahs who run wild in the mountains. COLOMBO Colombo, a city of 250,658 (1921), is like a modern European city, with a prevalence of English names, such as Victoria Park, Edinboro Crescent, Cinnamon Gardens, Ridgeway Golf Links, and the like. It is situated on a plain around the circle of one of the finest harbours in the Far East, and is an important trade port. The harbour is pro- tected by huge breakwaters, the corner stone of the south- west breakwater having been laid in 1875 by King Edward VII., who was then the Prince of Wales. The city is embowered in a wealth of brilliant green foliage, its handsome ivy-covered houses and bungalows showing their chocolate coloured roofs among the palm trees. SIGHTSEEING The Cinnamon Gardens are a series of shaded roads, fringed with attractive bungalows framed in lovely gardens. The ride around the Race Course, past Prince’s Club, the Colombo cricket grounds and the Ladies’ Golf Links, con- 424 CEYLON cluding with a drive over Flower Road, gives a delightful impression of Colombo and its wonderful suburbs. ‘The avenues of graceful palms, the glorious gardens and the hedges ablaze with the scarlet hibiscus, make a superb moving picture. Another charming drive begins by crossing the bridge behind the Galle Face Hotel to Slave Island, passing the residence of the General in Chief of the Ceylon Army, and including Victoria Park, the charming Buddhist temple op- posite the General’s house, the Cinnamon Gardens and the Museum. The Colombo Museum, built in 1877, has a fine exhibit of Ceylon architectural objects, native jewellery, “taxi- dermed”’ animals and birds, native costumes, Buddhas, devils and boat models, besides native handicraft in gold, silver, brass and ivory. It is open every day from ten to six (except Sunday, when it is open from three to six), but is closed on Friday. The Kelaniya Temple, dating from 1301, is one of the conspicuous Buddhist temples in Ceylon. Here are to be seen Hindu idols as well as Buddhas, illustrating the fusion, and, in a measure, the confusion, between Buddhism and Hinduism. Mount Lavinia is eight miles distant from Colombe: and makes an objective for a most enjoyable auto ride. It gives a very happy blending of ocean and inland views, one side showing the sinuous water front with its fringed palm trees and vistas of the azure sea, and the other giving the attract- ive suburbs of Colombo, with a setting of distant emerald mountains. ‘The Hotel Mount Lavinia is a stone building set upon an eminence. The Native Shops are sometimes in the open air, as well as in stores, and they display every variety of Cinghalese workmanship in metalwork, necklaces, and other forms of ornamental jewellery, set in pearls and all kinds of precious stones. Of course, as everywhere in the Orient, careful bar- gaining is necessary. It is also very important to get a COLOMBO A25 written guarantee from the proprietor with his signature stating that the various jewels are genuine. Genuine gar- nets, moonstones and spinels are abundant and at reasonable prices, while rubies, sapphires, amethysts, cat’s-eyes, and star stones are rather rare and are expensive. The weather in Colombo is extremely warm in the middle of the day, and yet the heat is not at other times excessive. ‘The mean annual temperature of Colombo is 81° F., while that of Kandy is but 75.5° F. There is an abundant rainfall in Ceylon, varying from fifty to one hundred and fifty inches ‘annually. At Colombo, the principal hotels are the Grand Oriental, the Galle Face, and the Bristol, with usually very high charges. Motor and carriage charges are very flexible. It is best to get definite information from the hotel manager regarding these rates, COLOMBO TO KANDY One usually goes from Colombo to Kandy by railroad, starting from the Fort Station at Colombo, travelling in very comfortable cars. Or the tourist can preferably take one of several routes by auto, passing through the multiplied charms to be seen in seventy-two miles of intervening dis- tance. ‘This trip in either case is an extraordinarily beau- tiful one, with hardly an equal in tropical lands. ‘The best views are on the right side of the car on the way to Kandy. ‘The course follows the Kelani River, where leisurely-moving, double canoes may be seen, together with native laundrymen along its banks who seem to be trying, as Mark Twain said, ‘‘to split a stone with a shirt.” On every side one can see paddy, or rice, fields, great groves of palm and plaintain trees, and evidences of inten- sive agriculture. After going fifty miles, the ascent becomes noticeably steep, and imposing peaks loom up in the distance. Among these are weird and conspicuous masses of rock, with shapes 426 GCEY LOW that suggested their names, like Castle Rock, Lion Rock, and Bible Rock. Adam’s Peak, 7,353 feet, also commands attention. If any one should take time to climb to the top of this Peak, he will be shown a huge footstep, large enough for a Cyclops, which the Hindus claim is the footstep of Siva, the Buddhists that it is the footstep of Buddha, and the Mohammedans and Portuguese that it is the footstep of Adam. Sensation Rock is the climax of mountain scen- ery on this trip. As one ascends, extensive tea fields and cacao plantations appear, the bushes of the latter having large orange-red pods. As one approaches Peradeniya, where the famous Botanical Gardens are located, one crosses the venerated Mahavali- gauga River, the largest in Ceylon, bordering the Gardens, along whose shores the train has moved. At this point the temple elephants can sometimes be seen taking their baths, and going through all kinds of spectacular antics while in the water, Kandy itself is four miles beyond Peradeniya. KANDY Kandy lies in a valley, encircled by hills, on the shores of an exquisite lake, beautifully wooded. In the centre of the Lake is a small island with a ruined arch, suggesting a Greek setting. The Lake was artificially made by the last king of Kandy, and, according to the story, the island was used by him as a place to banish troublesome wives. The Lake is not visible until one gets on the elevation, upon which the Queens Hotel is situated. This hotel is excellent and one of the largest in Asia. In going to the Hotel from the Railroad Station, one passes along Ward Street, where the Post Office, a very large market building, and the principal shops are located. “The Planters’ Associa- tion, which is organised for developing agriculture, is also situated here, as well as the Kandy Club, and other modest structures. Opposite the Hotel, one can see the raised bank which KANDY 427 encloses the waters of the Lake. Going along this lake- front road for a few hundred feet, we find the Victoria Esplanade, a small Park with several monuments. Here one faces the Temple of the Tooth. Immediately adjoin- ing the Temple is the splendid Palace of the former Kandy kings, which is now used by the British Government for ad- ministrative ofices. ‘To the right is a road which com- pletely encompasses the Lake, and this makes a ride so alto- gether lovely and flawless that it is a subject for a poet’s rhapsodies. A little beyond, on Malabar Street, are the ‘Art Museum, the Government Offices, the Court House, and some handsome residences. Among the glorious trees which fringe the Lake are the ingasamen or rain trees, with charming pink blossoms; the spathodias, with very large vivid red blossoms; the lager- stroemis, with flowers in purple pyramids, as well as royal palms and monster groups of bamboos. At the further end of the Lake is the Garden Club, where tennis, cricket and croquet are played. After winding around half of the circle of the Lake and coming back on the opposite side, one sees the Suisse Hotel and the Malwatta Temple. There are some beautiful drives in the region around Kandy, including Lady Horton’s Walk, where the peerless panoramic view of Kandy and its environments can be seen from a high bluff, the Upper Lake Road, and Lady Long- den’s Drive. ‘These all furnish enchanting scenery. If there is time, a wonderful motor trip can be taken, seventy- three miles to Nuwara Eliya, which has an altitude of 6,200 feet, and is a great health resort. As one views the whole setting of Kandy and its environ- ment, it is easily understood why the natives have a proverb that Kandy is “only forty miles from heaven,” and all visit- ors will say that it comes nearer the conception of a Garden of Eden than perhaps any other place on earth. Here at Kandy the banished Arabi Pasha lived in lonely but lovely seclusion for many years, before being permitted in his old age to return to Egypt. It is an interesting psy- 428 CEYLON chological fact that a veritable Paradise will not satisfy a person suffering from home-sickness. TEMPLE OF THE (Oya Kandy is especially famous because of its Temple, in which Buddha’s tooth is believed by his devotees to be treasured. At any rate, this Temple and its priceless relic are held in worshipful reverence by at least a quarter of the entire world’s population. It means to them what Mecca does to the Mohammedans, or Jerusalem to the Christian and the Jew. Gautama Buddha, according to tradition, made three visits to Ceylon, the last time ascending Adam’s Peak, where he is supposed to have left the sacred footprint. Buddhism was introduced into Ceylon in 307 B. Cc. Up to 1566 a.p., Kandy was an obscure village, but at _ that time, Buddha’s tooth was put for safe-keeping into what had been an insignificant temple. From that moment, its supreme importance in the Buddhist world was assured. This tooth was said to have been rescued from the ashes of Buddha’s funeral pyre 2,500 years ago. At various times it was in the possession of the Malabars and the Portuguese. The tooth, reputed to be the original, however, was publicly burned at Goa, in the presence of the Viceroy and his suite, by the Portuguese in 1560. The tooth is preposterously large, being over two inches in length and an inch in diameter, and is probably the tooth of a wild boar, although reputed to be the left eye-tooth of Buddha. A look at the replica, which may be seen at the Museum in Colombo, emphasises the fact that it could not be the tooth of a human being, unless it were from the original giant in the fairy story of “Jack the Giant Killer.” The more intelligent Buddhists recognise that it cannot pos- sibly be genuine, but it would almost undermine the founda- tion of Buddhism to make any such public declaration. When the tooth was placed in the little temple at Kandy four hundred years ago, the Temple was immediately en- larged, and the village became a great religious centre, and A CINGHALESE MADONNA TEMPLE OF THE TOOTH AT KANDY Author in the foreground mem DH A'S TOOTH 429 finally the seat of the Kandy kings. Buddhists, from that day to this, have come from all parts of the world to make their pilgrimage to Kandy, bringing not only tributes of fruits and flowers, but also of jewels, and gold and silver ornaments. ‘The tooth is carefully secluded, and can only be seen by royal visitors (especially Burmese), except at the great religious celebration, held at Kandy during two weeks in August. On such gala occasions, it is publicly shown. The priests enter the inner shrine, where the precious tooth is guarded, and the silver and ivory doors of the golden casket are opened. ‘This casket, set on a massive silver table, which contains the tooth, is then disclosed behind the gilded bars. The tooth is enclosed in five distinct receptacles of the casket, which are adorned with rubies, emeralds and dia- monds. It is set on a little pivot amid the petals of a golden lotus flower, and is exposed to view for a moment, although a very few can actually see it. It is then carried in its casket through the streets, on the back of a sacred elephant, as the crowning feature of the imposing procession. ‘The ceremony draws visitors from the whole Buddhist world. As the visitor approaches the Temple, he is beset by hordes of beggars, many of them misshapen and blind, some of whom are said to have been thus malformed in childhood in order to be more effective as beggars. Both inside and out- side the Temple, there are many celibate Buddhist priests, varying from novices to patriarchs, all with bare and shaven heads, wearing the inevitable yellow robe, which leaves one arm and shoulder bare, and usually carrying a parasol and palm-leaf fan. As a whole, they are quite intelligent and are always courteous to strangers. While cremation is ex- ceptional among the people of Ceylon, Buddhist priests are usually cremated with impressive ceremonies. In a pool of the moat outside the wall of the Temple there are hundreds of sacred turtles, which are fed by Buddhist pilgrims in order to obtain “merit.” 430 CEYLON Opposite the Temple of the Tooth is a Temple with some hideous figures of Hindu gods, although here it is associated with Buddhism, together with a great recumbent Buddha filling up most of the space inside a tiny Buddhist temple. Here there is also a sacred bo tree (ficus religiosa), a lovely shade tree, with brilliant green leaves, which rustle at every breath of wind like the patter of raindrops, flashing and flickering in the sunlight. The leaves tremble in agi- tated reverence, according to the Buddhists, because Buddha came and taught beneath its branches. It was worshipped at a much earlier date by the Brahmans, who claimed that Brahma planted it. ‘To Buddhists it is the most sacred of emblems, a living representation of Buddha himself, who is supposed to have said ‘He, who worships it, will receive the same reward, as if he worshipped me in person.” ‘They regard it profanation to rob the tree of a leaf, and wor- shippers will wait as in a trance for the wind to loosen a leaf so that it will flutter down to them as a precious pos- session to be put in a shrine and be made the object of adoration. ‘The original tree, under which Buddha is sup- posed to have sat, is in Buddha-Gaya in India, and is espe- cially venerated. THE ROYAL BOTANT GA GARDENS The Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya, four miles from Kandy, are of the same class as those at Buicenzorg and Demerara, in some ways surpassing all others. ‘The English Government began, nearly a century agu, to make this an experimental station for the cultivation and develop- ment of rubber, cacao, allspice, pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, vanilla, ginger, cocaine, camphor, tea and coffee, and all these products may be seen here under the highest culti- vation. Every spice, flavouring extract, perfume and medicinal ingredient seems to flourish in this garden. Gradu- ally the garden was enlarged, and an effort was made to MO eh GARDENS 431 get specimens of all trees and plants that grow in tropical and sub-tropical lands. The following are the important drives, which can be taken by carriage or rikisha: The Main Central drive with a wealth of tropical foliage and flowering shrubs. The Monument Drive, leading to the Gardiner Monu- ment. The Liana Drive, displaying many tropical climbers. Everyone should also visit the Orchid House, the Octagon Conservatory, and the Tank containing water plants, such as the Egyptian papyrus and the giant water-lily (Victoria regia). In these drives, one sees scores of species of palms, in- cluding the celebrated traveller palms and sealing wax palms. The talipot palm blooms once in every fifty years, present- ing a splendid climax of beauty for a brief period, and then dies. ‘The Brazil nut tree, the kola tree, and the “deadly Upsas tree” (so overworked in melodrama), which is really perfectly harmless, are among the hundreds found here. Special trees are shown, which were planted by King Ed- ward VII and King George V, in their visits, when they were the Prince of Wales. ‘These face the Great Circle, a circular lawn with a round group of palms in the middle. ‘There are mighty trees, clothed in such floral beauty, that the flowers seem to fall like red and yellow cascades from their tops. Camphor shrubs, aloe plants from which sisal is drawn, sensitive plants, plants with leaves shaped like elephants’ ears, and others like peacocks’ tails, are to be seen. Hundreds of flowering plants are here whose names would not be recognised, but hibiscus, poinsettias, salvias, orchids, and pitcher plants are in gorgeous perfection. All the fruit trees, that grow in tropical countries, are also splendidly represented, but people should remember that trop- ical fruits as such, cannot compare in flavour with the fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical zones. The cinnamon naturally grows to the size of small trees, 432 CEYLON but for commercial purposes it is kept cropped down to thick bushes, which send up long, willowy shoots, yield- ing the cinnamon of commerce. The milk of young cocoanuts is very refreshing, and is entirely free from bacteria. “The kernel, when ripe, makes the copra of commerce. ‘The flower of the cocoanut tree is sometimes tapped, and the sap made into a sweet drink called ‘‘toddy.”” When fermented, it makes “arrack,’’ which is very intoxicating and degenerating in its effects. The Garden also contains a fernery and a greenhouse with rare flowers, and outside the garden is a race course and a golf club. TEA CULDPTRE Tea, of course, is the great staple, not only in its pro- duction, but as a topic of conversation over the tea cups of Ceylon. ‘The average yearly crop is well toward a quarter of a billion pounds, over half of which goes to Great Brit- ain. ‘The fact that the coffee “blight,” which visited Cey- lon, as well as Java, in 1880, largely interfered with the former success of coffee raising, has made Ceylon turn to tea as the great magnum opus. ‘There were scarcely a thousand acres of tea under cul- tivation in 1875, now there are 385,000 acres. ‘Lhe finest tea lands are 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and choice plantations bring fabulous prices. Most of the large plantations are owned and controlled by stock companies. The labourers are largely ‘'amils from India, and get wages of less than a rupee (thirty-two cents) a day. It should be remembered, however, that they are furnished food, shel- ter, fuel, the services of a doctor, and schools for their chil- dren, free of charge. “The men do the heavy manual part of the work, and the women do the picking of the tea. The tea plant is really a tree, and left to itself would grow to a height of twenty to thirty feet, but scientific prun- ing keeps it to an average height of three feet, as the young Mal als PRODUCTS 433 leaves and shoots are more compact and accessible. The plants are perennial, and the leaves are picked every ten or twelve days throughout the year. The quality is determined by the delicacy of the part of the bush that is picked. That which is chosén from the buds and tips is called ‘‘flowery,” and if young leaves are included it is orange-pekoe. ‘Then, as subordinate in value, come pekoe, souchong, congou, and dust. With every considerable estate there is a factory, where all the processes of drying, rolling, fermenting, firing and sifting are carried on, as well as the final packing in lead-lined cartons for market. ‘The conditions are always cleanly, much more so than they are in Japan and China, due to the fact that Englishmen have supervision. Rubber has the third place in Ceylon exports, 230,000 acres and more being planted. ‘These trees need a hot, moist climate, but will thrive as far as 1,500 feet above sea level. ‘Three-quarters of a pound of rubber can be taken from a five-year-old tree, the amount increasing with age. Pearls. The Gulf of Manar, which lies in the fifty mile stretch between Ceylon and India, has furnished more pearls than all the rest of the world together. ‘The oyster, producing the pearl, is only distantly related to the oyster of America and Europe, and is never eaten. ‘The pearl is produced by the presence of a tiny parasite or grain of sand around which the oyster builds a pearly wall. Pearl fishing is not carried on during the entire year, but instead certain “fisheries” are announced by the Government, usually between February and April, when the oyster banks are in favourable condition. ‘Then there comes a flock of divers, gem buyers, etc., making sometimes a temporary city of 50,000 people. A single prince in India has pearls esti- mated at $7,500,000 in value, THE BUDDHISM OF CEYLON The Buddhism of Ceylon is debased by an admixture of Hinduism and Animism. As laid down by its founder, 434 CEYLON Gautama Buddha, this religion, while ascetic and negative, has some very exalted precepts such as pity, charity and self-abnegation, as well as high standards of family virtues. The basis of his teaching is, that desire is the occasion of suffering and sorrow, and that the suppression and annihila- tion of all desire is the supreme end of religion. Men are supposed to pass through a series of reincarnations, either in a downward progression, if an evil life is chosen, or in an upward gradation toward perfection if one lives an up- right life, in the latter case rising to the heights, on the stepping stones of a succession of dead selves. Nirvana is the merging of the perfected soul into the Infinite. Much of this idealism has been sunk in superstition and sheer idolatry. Buddha himself never claimed divine origin or divine powers. ‘The degradations of Hinduism have done much to vitiate the high moral standards of the original Buddhism. Buddhists, however, in Ceylon and elsewhere, represent a distinctly higher type of intelligence and morality than do the Hindus of India. It is a real tragedy that India, where Buddha was born, and where he laboured many years to reform Hinduism, should have repudiated his teachings. While Buddhism does not recognise caste as such, there are several outcast classes in Ceylon, who are refused all the ordinary sanctions of society. “The most conspicuous is the rodiya caste, the people of which are rather limited in numbers, but are shunned as though they were plague car- riers. Some of the squalid communities of these abhorred outcasts are within sight of Kandy. ‘They are really human pariahs, living in secluded settlements in utter exile and degradation. SUPPLEMENTARY f24 AND FIGs Ceylon is 271 by 137 miles and has an area of 25,332 square miles, being about four-fifths the size of Ireland. It Poa AND FIGURES 435 is fifty miles distant from India. The population in 1922 was 4,621,147. Ceylon is a colony under the British Government ruled by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of seven members and a Legislative Council of thirty-seven mem- bers, the Governor always presiding. Sir William H. Man- ning, appointed April, 1918, is the present Governor, with a salary of £7,000. Of the entire population, 2,770,000 are Buddhists, 982,000 are Hindus, 303,000 are Mohammedans, and 443,000 are Christians, the latter being mostly Roman Catholics, dating back to the Portuguese occupation. The Government Schools have an enrolment of 132,000 children, the teaching being mostly in the vernacular. ‘There were 520 students in the technical schools in 1921. Revenues in 1924 were £5,284,674; expenditures, £5,157,271. Imports (1921) were £26,205,000; exports £25,660,000, the latter being principally tea, rubber, copra and spices. Strange to say, the export of elephants is quite an item and the Government collects a tax of 200 rupees on each one exported. There were 731 miles of railway in 1922. The money used is the India rupee worth 32 American cents, but instead of being divided into annas, is divided into 100 cents. Fifty, twenty-five and ten cent silver pieces are current, and also smaller copper coins. THE SUEZ CANAL N the way to Suez, the regular steamers often stop () at Aden, a city with a population of 46,000, which is near the entrance to the Red Sea. Aden was captured by the British in 1839, and they have held it, in spite of numerous assaults by the various Arab tribes. ‘The 436 THE SUEZ GAN wae city is built on a promontory five by three miles in extent, the highest point being ‘“The Rock,” about 1,700 feet in altitude, which is heavily fortified. Its bazaars show the diversified life of the desert and of Southern Asia. The magnificent system of rain-collecting cisterns, built by the Turks and repaired by the British, fur- nish the chief source of water supply. About 1,650 steamers stop here every. year, and it has a considerable export and import trade. The Red Sea is thirteen hundred miles long, and its greatest width is two hundred miles. The Peninsula of Sinai divides it into two forks, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba. The shores throughout are practically sterile, having arid plains and mountains as far as the eye can reach. The Sinaitic range is a marked feature of the western landscape of the Red Sea, but the Sinai mountain, thirty- seven miles away, can be seen from the steamer only for a few minutes. The town of Suez, according to tradition, is near the spot where the Children of Israel crossed the Red Sea. In 1857, it was connected with Cairo by railway and began to assume some prominence. When the Canal was completed, it was of less importance, because steamers do not usually anchor here, ‘There is nothing of tourist interest, THE SUEZ CANAL Ferdinand de Lesseps was not the originator of the idea of a canal, which would join the Red Sea with the Mediter- ranean. Sixteen hundred years before Christ, Necho, a Per- sian king, considered the advisability of digging a canal, but was deterred by a warning from an oracle which stated that such a project would lead to a hostile invasion, which would rob him not only of the Canal but of his kingdom. Certainly this prophecy has been almost literally fulfilled in the case of Egypt. Rameses the Great and other Pha- raohs also entertained the idea. Ptolemy Philadelphus in 285_ Peat LD ESTO RY 437 B. c. dug a canal, furnished with locks, from a place near the present Suez to the Heroppolite Gulf, at the head of the Bitter Lakes which was in operation for a century or more. The Roman emperors Trojan and Hadrian began work to rescue the obliterated canal from the desert sands, but the work languished. A century before our Pilgrim Fathers landed in Plymouth, Charles V of Spain was con- sidering the feasibility of such a canal. In 1800, the engineers of Napoleon took up the matter, but owing to their absurd error in calculation, which made it appear that the Red Sea was thirty feet lower than the Mediterranean, nothing came of their discussion. M. de Lesseps was not really an engineer but rather a plausible promoter and bargain maker. He gave up his posi- tion as a subordinate in the French Consul-General’s office in Egypt, to beguile the Suez Canal concession from Khedive Said. ‘This he secured, in 1856, on the basis that Egypt need not subscribe any funds whatever, and was to be guar- anteed fifteen per cent. of the gross returns, and in ninety- nine years the entire Suez property was to revert to Egypt. But as no money was forthcoming from Europe, de Lesseps persuaded the simple-minded Khedive Said, and his suc- cessor, Ismail Pasha, to borrow money from European usurers, and this was secured, although at ruinous rates. Egypt had no debt when the Canal was begun, but by the time it was finished in 1869, the Egyptian Government was simply swamped with national obligations, and was hopelessly in the clutches of European money lenders. Egyptian bonds, mostly held in England, were worth only half of their face value. England, which had not been favourable to the Canal project, saw an opportunity to checkmate de Lesseps, and brought pressure upon the Sultan of Turkey to send the Khedive, Ismail Pasha, into exile and have the finances of Egypt turned over to a commission of European adminis- trators. ‘This was done, and England saw to it that this Commission should be dominated by herself. 438 THE SUEZ CANAL The banishment of the Khedive resulted, in 1882, in the Arabi Rebellion on the part of the tax-oppressed Egyptians, and as a result, English warships and soldiers were sent down to Egypt to put down the uprising, and there, until very recently, they have remained. England has, however, not wholly withdrawn from Egypt, as she has maintained her right to control and defend the Suez Canal, and still maintains a certain dominance over Egypt. Disraeli played a brilliant hand in securing control of the Canal. For $20,000,000, he secured a predominant control of the Canal shares, which were capitalised at 200,000,000 francs, or $40,000,000, but which are now worth $135,- 000,000. Certain French banking interests, which were ne- gotiating for the control of the Canal, found themselves out- witted by the clever Jewish Premier of England. ‘The Canal is still technically known as “La Compagnie Universale du Canal Maritine de Suez” with the principal office in Paris, but this is rather an empty compliment than otherwise. ‘The Canal is nominally international, but in reality is controlled by Great Britain. The international game of “grab” for the control of the Canal, which was being played between England and France, ended quite tragically, as far as de Lesseps was con- cerned. Withdrawing from the Suez Canal project, he organised a great Company in France to build the Panama Canal. After this project had spent $300,000,000, with only the remotest possibility of success, this French Company went into bankruptcy, and de Lesseps himself died a pauper in an insane asylum. ‘The statue of bronze on the jetty at Port Said, gives the plausible promoter some permanent honour, although the financial fiasco at Suez and the collapse of the Panama swindle, prevented his friends from getting the name of the Suez Canal changed to the de Lesseps Canal. Port Said, however, gives permanent recognition to the name of the Khedive Said, who proved such an easy mark to the lures of de Lesseps, and the Khedive Ismail, though an exile in Wis CRIP TION 439 Constantinople when the crash came, has his name perpetu- ated in the little city of Ismalia, the halfway railroad sta- tion on the Canal. The Canal has proved to be of incalculable benefit to the world’s commerce. It saves, for instance, two-fifths of the distance from Europe to Bombay and one-fourth to China. Its minimum width at the water level is 310 feet, although at some places it is quite wide, notably so where it enters Bitter Lake. ‘The depth is thirty-one feet, but dredging now in progress will increase it to thirty-six feet, making it safely navigable for very large ships. By a system of electric lighting, ships can pass by night as well as by day. Along the Canal are a series of stations with signal posts, so that traffic can be regulated by the block system. ‘The average time of passage is about twenty hours, as the maxi- mum speed permitted is five and a half nautical miles an hour. In 1916, the rate charged was 7.25 francs per ton (a ton is 100 cubic feet), although where there is ballast only, a reduction is made. For passengers there is a charge of ten francs for every person above twelve years, with a special rate for children. In 1916, the receipts were 76,119,000 francs. By a decision in 1888, the Canal cannot be blockaded against vessels of other nations, whether armed or unarmed, or whether in times of peace or of war. Yet England by means of her warships and standing army could certainly delay unfriendly war craft. Over sixty per cent. of the Canal tonnage is British. In 1871, 765 steamers passed; in 1920, 4,009, with an aggregate tonnage of 17,574,657 tons; in 1923, 22,777,000. The Suez Canal in reality presented no engineering dif- ficulties whatever. It was merely a question of digging a huge ditch through largely sandy soil along the line of least resistance. It cost $152,760,000, or about $1,500,000 a mile, although it is reported that a goodly half of this sum was used to influence Constantinople and Paris. Modern 440 THE SUEZ CAwnee methods of engineering would do this work for a quarter of the amount expended. Port Said, a city of 55,000 inhabitants, one-fifth of whom are Europeans, is so flat, and so near the sea level, that it could scarcely be distinguished at a distance either from the Canal or from the Mediterranean, were it not for the Light House, 184 feet high, a conspicuous landmark by day and visible for twenty miles at night. The only other feature is a bronze statue of de Lesseps, erected by the Suez company. While Port Said has a reputation for spectacular wickedness of the baser sort, there is nothing of distinctively tourist interest. Two immense converging breakwaters make the Port Said harbour very safe. The offices of the Canal Company are conspicuous build- ings where the measurements and tonnage of the ships, as well as the lists of passengers, going through the Canal, are noted, E.G YP “An oasis of life between two deserts of death.” [Note: Egypt is one of the major objectives in Mediter- ranean travel, and hence it receives special emphasis and ex- tended descriptions in the author’s book, “The New Mediterranean Traveller,” also published by the Fleming H. Revell Co. ’Round the world tourists usually make shorter stops, and the limits of this volume make only a brief sum- mary possible. ] Egypt, and established an independent Government with its own ministry, money, taxes, commerce, foreign relationships and administration. Egypt was taken under the guardianship of England in 1882, because, having become bankrupt, the European na- (); February 28, 1922, Fuad I was crowned King of ee \W@! “A Lis ® f* (gma ow Ke ‘alaltex, Tah MWh ane OEE ia kasi attpe d isin | Wey se pee) Convo &, wn, J Tay, nny ¥ ~ gy 3 oo v lies w r va Aboot are ET Bepbe (Praia) Tal i rn « ius % i ’ = s & a ss . a ah . rn, 9 MW i Ot\ OTT g Si % Meu gy ny , Spent : a Veet ’ 7 I ‘ * H Pies . Oe eS Se in Fe F 3 Ses 7 . . x =< So » , * rs . ikonenaiaeot tees, & ¥ Bi we Sie a ae PSgiye 2 Pen upd Enna ml Be = [3 ees an, oe gist i +. a et. Otel, ad te Fa a ed Dai tte alate oe: Scie Bah Ce nae ae ye et aa F EGYPT 441 tions feared that the Egyptian bonds which they held would become valueless. The Khedive, Ismail, had a royal contempt of debt. Verdi was commissioned to write Aida for the opening night of the new Cairo Opera House, which was built in six weeks. A five mile boulevard was constructed to the Pyramids, so that the French Empress Eugenie could go there in comfort, and the Khedive’s many extravagances, and the profligate financing of the Suez Canal, increased the debt of Egypt from $50,000,000 to $450,000,000 in twelve years. Asa result of the pressure of Europe, Ismail was banished, and his son, Mohammed Tewfik, succeeded him. The Arabi Rebellion, which was a protest against European domination, brought England into the field in 1882 to suppress it. Although Great Britain nominally withdrew from Egypt in February, 1922, she still controls the Assuan Dam and the Sudan, as well as the Suez Canal and the right to step in and assume control if the life and property of foreginers are jeopardised. Ihe assassination of Sir Lee Stack, the Sirdar of the Sudan, in November, 1924, caused Great Britain to again assume a strong hand in Egypt, without, however cancelling Egypt’s independence. Six men proved to have been participants in the crime were tried and exe- cuted. Large indemnities were demanded and paid. Zaghlul Pasha, the open antagonist of England, resigned as Prime Minister and Ziwar Pasha, who is friendly, was substituted. Sir George Lloyd, former Governor of Bombay, has taken the place of Lord Allenby as military head. ‘The change in Egypt’s attitude has been very marked, and assassinations and lawless demonstrations have ceased. American women are again reasonably safe from insulting attempts at famil- larity, CAR. ©) Cairo, known as Masr by the common people, is a city of 790,000 inhabitants, of whom about 50,000 are Euro- 442 EGTLe peans. It is a pot-pourri of medley populations, exceeded in its polyglot nationalities by no city on earth. It is eighty miles west of Suez and one hundred and thirty miles from Alexandria, and is twelve miles above the apex of the Delta of the Nile. On the one hundred mile triangle of the Nile Delta, six million people, exclusive of Cairo and Alexandria, cultivate three million acres, and produce their own food supplies, and export over $100,000,000 worth of cotton. Cairo is a cosmopolitan and polyglot city. From “The Thousand and One Nights” one might quote the following florid description: ‘‘He who hath not seen Cairo, hath not seen the world; its soil is gold; its Nile is a wonder; its women are like the black-eyed virgins of Paradise; its houses are palaces; its air is soft; its odours surpassing that of aloes-wood and cheering the heart ;—how can Cairo be other- wise, when it is the Mother of the World?” Some of this might apply to the modern city, but the odours in some of the slimy, narrow streets do not suggest attar of roses, nor do the women often suggest the houris of an oriental Paradise. The People. ‘The street scenes are particularly fascinat- ing and there is a heterogeneous population representing every country in Africa, Asia and Europe,—in fact, in the world. It is a bewildering conglomeration of races, bizarre colours and a thousand variations of costume. The colour of the turbans distinguishes the class or race. The descendants of the prophet wear white, Mecca pil- grims of a year’s standing wear green, dervishes of different sects wear blue, green and red. Scholars wear a light col- our. Coptic priests wear a black turban. ‘The turban is the length of a man’s body, being wrapped seven times around the head, and is often used as the wearer’s winding - sheet. Most modern Mohammedans wear European garb, retaining the red tarbush or fez. The women of the poorer class wear a black dress and a veil, the nose rings and nose rests for suspending a figured and very disfiguring veil being still common in Upper Egypt. CALE O 443 The women of the better class are richly dressed in gaily coloured garments, still wearing, as a rule, the thin white gauze veils, leaving their eyes uncovered. Perea PALS SIGHT § The Citadel is on a spur of the Mokattam cliffs, 250 feet high, and originally formed a bulwark of defence. It was built largely from the stones brought from the Gizeh pyramids. “The Mokattam heights to the south made it quite vulnerable to modern guns, and hence it capitulated in 1805 to Mohammed Ali. It gives a superb view of the whole city, with its oriental setting of domes and minarets; the stretches of the Nile and its network of canals; the rugged Mokattam hills and the billowy oceans of sand, in contrast with the vivid green of the fertile, irrigated fields; and the massive pyramids of Gizeh and of Memphis, giving an age-old background to the picture. The Sultan Hassan, or “superb” Mosque, near the Citadel, should not be missed, as it is one of the most im- posing Mohammedan mosques in existence. ‘The entrance is eighty-five feet high, the mausoleum has a dome 180 feet high, and the south minaret of 285 feet is the highest in Cairo. ‘The pulpit bronze door, adorned with damascene gold and silver work, the elaborate frieze, the sarcophagus of the Sultan and the fine central fountain, are all splendid specimens of Arabic work. The Mohammed Ali, or ‘Alabaster’ mosque, also near the Citadel, was built by the founder of the present Egyptian dynasty. It was begun in 1824 and finished in 1857, and is one of the conspicuous landmarks of Cairo. It has a more ornate interior than the Sultan Hassan Mosque and is particularly rich in arabesques and decorative details, but much of it is imitation marble and of inferior quality. ‘The view from the parapet outside the mosque is particularly fine. The Egyptian Museum, not far from the Nile Bridge, has the most important collection of Egyptian and Greek 444 RG antiquities in the world, and hence it should receive gener- ous attention. A small, but very useful, catalogue of ex- hibits can be purchased for a trifling sum. Open every day except Friday. Hours, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. It was founded by Mariette in 1857. It is a magnificent structure, built in the Greco-Roman style, and cost over a million dollars. The exhibits of the royal mummies are of surpassing inter- est, and the contents of the tomb of ‘Tutankhamen, most of which automatically come to the Museum, will have ab- sorbing attractiveness. At this writing, July 1, 1925, prac- tically all of the treasures of the two larger rooms of the tomb have been put into the Museum. ‘The sarcophagus, however, at Thebes has not yet been opened. The University of El-Azhar, “the Splendid,” goes back to 975, and is the largest and most important in Islam. In its various enlargements, it has maintained the old Arabian style of architecture, with admixture of the Persian. ‘The large Mosque court is enclosed by an arcade, and just ad- joining is the Sanctuary, with nine aisles and one hundred and forty marble columns. Students from different Mo- hammedan countries have their distinctive apartments, one being occupied by students from Mecca, another section being given over to blind students. In 1912, there were 15,000 students and 587 teachers, but the number has somewhat diminished, the number at this time being about 9,800. The complete curriculum lasts seventeen years. “The preparatory studies include grammar, rhetoric, logic, poetry, arithmetic and traditions. ‘Lhe pro- fessional studies are theology, jurisprudence and the minute study of the Koran. Such objects as history, geography and mathematics are optional. ‘The method is a slavish learning by rote, without developing initiative or independence of thought. The University is richly endowed, and many charity stu- dents are supported by the funds. No distinctions are made between them and the sons of rich officials and merchants. The Arabian Museum has many artistic and antiquarian SIGHTSEEING 445 exhibits, largely from old mosques and palaces, of special interest to historians and antiquarians. It includes the Khedivial Library of nearly 80,000 volumes, largely in Ori- ental languages, and there is a collection of 3,800 coins of the Mohammedan rulers of Egypt. Old Cairo is frequently visited because of the Island of Rhoda, reached by a crude ferry. ‘The Nilometre, con- structed in 715, is a unique object of interest. “The zero level is twenty-eight feet above the Mediterranean, and when it reaches a certain height, the sheikh of the Nilometre announces a wafa or general irrigation. The Abu Sirga, the old Coptic Church, goes back to 859 A. D., and was built over another church much older, the present crypt going back early in the Christian era. According to tradition, it is the place where the Holy Family stayed for a month, during their flight to Egypt. Here will be found very unusual wood and ivory carvings, but the church as a whole is very dingy. It is popularly sup- posed to have been founded by St. Mark about 37 a.p. While it still maintains a Christian type of worship, it is sadly degenerate, but monogamy has remained the family standard, and the Copts are particularly susceptible to mod- ern missionary endeavour. ‘There are twenty-three Coptic churches in Cairo alone, and in Upper Egypt whole villages are given over to them. The Tombs of the Caliphs, on the east side of Cairo, are the northernmost group of structures in the city, and while having some historical value, there is little to attract the sightseeing tourist. “The same may be said of the Tombs of the Mamelukes, south of the Citadel. The New Heliopolis is a suburban residential section and health resort, with a superb hotel, and charming sur- roundings. It has a “Luna Park,” a stadium, a race course and athletic grounds. At Matariyeh is the so-called Virgin’s Tree, a sycamore where the Holy Family is alleged to have rested in their journey, and the obelisk of red granite, sixty-six feet in 4.46 EGYPT height. Here in the ancient On, or city of the Sun, Moses met and married Asenath, the daughter of the priest of On. The Obelisk, which is a conspicuous landmark here, was erected in the time of Abraham, and is one of the finest in existence, but is scarcely worth a visit. Various church activities are carried on by the Greek Catholic, the Roman Catholic and the Armenian Churches, and by the Church Missionary Society of England. ‘The American Mission carried on by the United Presbyterian Church has 195 missionaries, ninety-three organised churches, sixty of which are entirely self-supporting and more than 16,000 communicants. ‘The headquarters of the Mission are located just opposite Shepheards, in Cairo. THE PY RA wie In going to the Pyramids, one has occasion to ride over the imposing Kasr en-Nil Bridge, 1,680 feet long, afterwards passing by the charming public gardens enclosing Ghezireh Palace,—now an apartment hotel. ‘The Aquarium, the Zoological gardens and the Khedivial Sporting Club are also along the highway. The Pyramids, which stretch from Fayoum to Gizeh, are the tombs of the Pharaohs reigning from about 3000 B. c. to 2000 B.c. ‘They form one of the seven ancient wonders of the world, which, together with the Great Wall of China, are the only two now remaining. Doubtless, they would be included among the seven modern wonders. It has been estimated that the Pyramid of Cheops has 2,300,000 blocks of stone, averaging two and a half tons in weight. Herodotus is on record that it took 100,000 men twenty years to con- struct it. The Gizeh Pyramids are erected on the edge of the Libyan desert, and are the second of the series of six groups, and the most gigantic of all. ‘They were the marvel of He- rodotus and of other Greek and Roman travellers, and have figured in ancient, as well as modern, literature. Still PYRAMID AND SPHINX MODERN INNOVATIONS Pieh PYRAMIDS 447 It is usually believed that each King planned a modest pyramid, so that in. case of a short reign, his tomb would be ready, but if his reign was extended, he would keep adding additional layers, although some long-lived kings were less ambitious to have so imposing a monument. ‘The inordinate ambition and prolonged reign of Cheops and Khefre enabled them to outbuild all competitors. The Pyramids were plundered by robbers even in the time of the early Persians and of the later Romans, and there are evidences of tunnelling and mining. With the exception, however, of the contents of the King’s Chamber and that of the Queen, and lesser remains discovered in the smaller rooms, none of the anticipated treasures were found. ‘The Pyramids have had nearly all of the outer layer of stone carried away, and consequently are slightly smaller than before the vandalism occurred. ‘The present height of the Cheops pyramid, for instance, is 450 feet, while orig- inally it was 481 feet. The Pyramid of Cheops is 746 feet long at the foot of the three sides, measures two-fifths of a mile in making the complete trip around it, and covers thirteen acres. ‘The material used is a yellowish limestone quarried near by. The ascent is very tiring, although entirely safe, and requires fifteen or twenty minutes. ‘The top is level and is thirty-six feet square. “The view gives a striking contrast between the death of the desert, and the life of the irrigated land and of the teeming city. The interior is scarcely worth visiting, as the air is hot and stifling, the passages only three and a half feet high and four feet wide, and there is little to be seen but bare walls. The Great Hall is one hundred and fifty-five feet long and twenty-eight feet high and shows extraordinarily skillful masonry. ‘The tomb chamber is one hundred and forty feet above the ground level of the pyramid and meas- ures seventeen by thirty-five feet. In the Tomb Chamber there is left only an empty and scarred sarcophagus with- out inscription. 448 EGP The Second, or Kheren, Pyramid is 447 feet high (orig- inally 471), only three feet less than Cheops, but it appears larger from certain angles, because it is built on higher ground. The Third Pyramid is 204 feet high and its granite cov- ering is in better preservation than either of the others. The Sphinx, sixty-six feet high, has been chiselled out of the natural rock and represents a crouching lion with a kingly head, wearing a royal headcloth. It represents Harmaku, the sun-god. It is badly mutilated, the original nose and beard having almost disappeared, but it still has a pose of majesty and mystery. It should be remembered that it is a male god who is represented, and hence should be spoken of as “he.” ‘The Greek sphinx, on the other hand, which according to the legend was destroyed by CEdipus, was a female monster with the body of a lion, and the breasts and head of a woman. Most of the Egyptian sphinx is covered by the shifting sands of the desert, and it has at various times from the period of Thotmes IV been uncovered, but now most of the base, and the body of the lion, including a small temple, are buried. The Granite ‘Temple is one hundred and forty-seven feet square and forty-three feet in height. It has various corridors and a main Hypostyle Hall, together with a deep well in which Mariette found the famous statue of Khefren, now placed in the Cairo Museum. The discoveries at Sakhara and Dashur by the Harvar&® Boston excavators in February, 1924, revealed a royal tomb and some extraordinary treasures, surpassing those of Tut- ankhamen, dating back to the Fourth Dynasty, about 3000 B.C, i MEMPHIS A great city once stood here, one of the largest of an- tiquity, but now there remain only some fragmentary ruins and a Necropolis, or city of the dead. ‘The original city MEMPHIS 449 was supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first ruler in Egyptian history. Several remarkable features, however, of the old period still remain. The colossal Statue of Rameses II, once at the entrance of a great temple, has a length, including the crown (now unattached), of thirty-two feet. Near by is an immense sphinx, twenty-six feet long and weighing eighty tons. A still larger Colossus, now enclosed and visible by climb- ing some wooden steps, is forty-two feet in height. Here are also a series of eleven pyramids, including the great Step-pyramid, two hundred feet high, and dating back to 4240 B.c., although some of these pyramids and burial places go back to even earlier and pre-dynastic days. The Necropolis of Sakkara includes the subterranean ‘Tombs of Apis, or sacred bulls. Here are shown a series of monster stone bulls, stretched along a corridor 1,140 feet long, where in the old days offerings were made in wor: ship. A great sphinx avenue originally led through the Necropolis, of which some traces remain. The Mastaba of Ti is a private tomb of a high court official, the mural reliefs giving a series of pictures of sac- rifices, servants bearing gifts, agricultural activities, ships, industrial objects,—all of which are among the choicest and best preserved among Egyptian specimens of art. The best way to reach Memphis is by automobile, and the trip can be made in half a day. ® POR, KBARNAK AND THEBES It is 418 miles from Cairo to Luxor. On the trip either by railroad or steamer, the whole way passes through the wonderful Nile Valley with its strange contrast of verdure fields, date palms and the sterile background desert. , Every- where there are interesting stone cities, mud villages, cara- vans of camels, and characteristic native life. Luxor is a modern town, with a population of about 20,000, having 450 EGYPT several good hotels, especially the Winter Palace Hotel, with its fine view and charming garden. The main feature of tourist interest is the Temple of Luxor, built by Amenophis III, but appropriated by Rameses II, who erased all previous names and records and substituted his own, adding a number of immense statues of himself. He has his name and his statues in a conspicuous way on sixty temples and sites, but he origi- nated very few. He seems to have been possessed with a fanatical sense of his own transcendent greatness. “The temple gives a marked evidence of the greatness of the Pharaohs, and has many interesting features, although it is not as large and imposing as the temple at Karnak. Parts of it, after Christianity was introduced, were used as a church. Karnak Temple. Karnak Temple can easily be reached by donkey or carriage, being about a mile to the north of Luxor. It had its origin in the eleventh dynasty, about 2160 B.c., although most of the buildings now in evidence only go back to about 1500 B.c. ‘The building was pro- gressive, having engaged the attention of kings for nearly five hundred years. It is a combination of temples, including that of the moon-god Kohns (the son of Amon and Mut), the temple of Mut, his mother, the temple of Amenophis II, and espe- cially the mammoth temple of Amon which is considered the greatest of all the architectural triumphs of Egypt and of antiquity. The Amon Temple is a succession of structures beginning with the twelfth dynasty. At the entrance is the first pylon, 370 feet wide, and 142 feet high, with walls 49 feet thick. The top of this pylon, which is quite accessible, is well worth climbing because of the magnificent view of the entire region. The view from the top at night, with the full moon shining over the scene, is one of the most memorable experiences of travel. Standing on the pylon, one can get a bird’s-eye view, not only of the majestic ruins of the temple which extend KARNAK 451 for more than a quarter of a mile, but of stretches of the Nile river and of the monuments of ancient Thebes on the opposite side of the Nile, with the Avenue of Sphinxes, leading down to the water. Originally, this avenue con- tinued several miles on the other side of the river to the ancient city of Thebes, and in its glory must have been an imposing spectacle. After passing the entrance to the Amon temple, one comes to a series of courts and lesser temples, leading to the great Hypostyle Hall, really one of the wonders of the world. It has sixteen rows of great columns, 134 in number, some of which are 69 feet high and 33 feet in circumference. Everywhere on pillars and walls there are inscriptions and reliefs in a variety of blended colours, which must have originally made the Hall radiant with beauty. Lesser tem- ples and several obelisks are massed to the rear of the Hall. THEBES After crossing the Nile river from Luxor in boats, the visitor, on his way to the Tomb of the Kings, has occasion to pass a number of ruins which evidence the grandeur of the ancient city of Thebes. One of these is the terraced temple of Der-el-bahri, built by the peace-loving Queen Hat- sapsut (or Hatsepsu). It consists of a four-terraced struc- ture built against the side of the cliff, the terraces being connected by stairs. Some fine bas-reliefs, including one on the third terrace, describing the expedition to the Holy Land, add to the charm of the temple. ‘The whole structure makes an artistic picture, and suggests its beauty in the pristine days when the approaches were planted with fragrant trees from Somaliland. The Ramesseum was built by Rameses II and dedicated to Amon. ‘The enormous seated statue of Rameses II is a red granite monolith sixty feet high, although now pros- trate and broken. It weighed not less than 1,000 tons, and showed an engineering skill of a high order to have trans- 452 EG Yr ported such a colossal image and raised it upon its pedestal. The mud brick barracks and temple granaries are still stand- ing behind the Ramesseum. The Colossi are monoliths about sixty feet high within a stone’s throw of each other, situated on a flat plain only a little more than a mile from the Nile, and hence during the yearly inundation, their bases stand in the water. “These attracted a great deal of attention during the time of the Roman Empire, and one of them was believed to be “vocal,” emitting a musical sound each morning at the rising of the sun. Tomb of Tut-ankh-amen. ‘Tut-ankh-amen, or Tut- ankhamen, ruled 3,300 years ago. He belongs to the close of the eighteenth dynasty, which was the Golden Age of Egypt, and was the heir to its accumulated riches, at a time when the world was paying tribute to Egypt. It was for this reason that his Tomb is especially prodigal in regal equipment and also because it has never been plundered. ‘There are altogether sixty of these tombs of the Kings in “the Necropolis of ‘Thebes, but only sixteen are accessible. ‘The Egyptians thought that a man needed all the various articles, such as are stored in the Tomb, in the hereafter life, and also that he needed a body which on that account was mummified to preserve it. Howard Carter is an Englishman, and not an American as is usually stated. He had planned for nearly thirty years to find this Tomb, as being the only one not already discovered. He had a description of it from an ancient papyrus record, which is in the Museum at Turin, Italy. With the co-operation of Lord Carnarvon, who became the financial backer of his plan, he had moved 70,000 tons of sand and stone without any result. On November 29, 1922, he came upon the royal door of Tutankhamen, and found unbroken seals which gave the welcome assurance that it had never been disturbed. He then sent for Lord Carnarvon to see and share in the glory of the discovery. It was a real calamity that the death of Lord Carnarvon TUTANKHAMEN 453 from a poisonous infection should have occurred soon after. The entrance chamber was filled with wonderful para- phernalia, such as would only be possible to the heir of Egypt’s wealth. It was not only large in quantity, but astonishingly rich in quality. “There were one hundred and fifty sizeable and important objects herein stored, such as chests, chairs and furniture, conspicuous among which is the royal chair in ebony, ivory and gold, set with precious stones, and a dismounted chaiot with a leopard skin thrown across the top. “There were also ten thousand lesser objects, such as models of royal barges, elaborate vases, embroideries, gold sandals, scarabs, trinkets, rings and other jewellery, and small pieces of furniture, many of them inlaid with lapis- lazuli, carnelian and other semi-precious stones, although the chamber is only 30 x 18 feet. One robe had 3,600 gold sequins. ‘These contents are now in the Cairo Museum. The fabrics needed to be handled with caution, lest they crumble into dust. Furniture with rich inlays were ready to fall apart, and had to be carefully put together. The inner Tomb Room, guarded by the two statues of the King was equally rich in furniture and in every conceiv- able sort of article, piled to the very roof. Here also is what appears to be the gold sarcophagus, believed to contain the mummy of Tutankhamen, although not opened at the time of this writing (July 1, 1925). It is rather strange, that although Egypt was famous for her remark- able glass work at this period, apparently specimens of this kind are entirely absent. ‘The fact is significant that even ordinary cooking utensils are beautified and decorated with lotus flowers, birds and animals, indicating that the Egyptian art of this period made contributions to the whole range of life’s activities and needs. The Egyptian Government, according to the law of Egypt, is supposed to receive only half of the contents of the tomb. It, however, sealed up the tomb for a time in an unwarranted manner, -but recently Mr. Carter has made 454 EGY Pa concessions and come to an agreement. Nearly all the con- tents are now in the Cairo Museum. Among the other tombs of great interest in the Valley of the Kings are the very elaborate chambers of Rameses III and Sethos I. The Nile. The Nile takes its rise in the mountains of equatorial Africa and is fed by the torrential rains and by the melting snows on the highest African peaks. It is one of the four longest rivers in the world, being 4,062 miles in length, and it gains such volume in its course, that it flows through the sands of the Libyan desert for one thousand miles before reaching the Mediterranean, without receiving any supply from a single tributary. Besides providing irri- gation to furnish food for more than ten million people, it pours 61,500 cubic feet of water into the Mediterranean every second. The Assuan Dam, six thousand feet long, the locks adding another six thousand feet, cost originally $25,000,000, but this cost is more than made up each year by the value of the products of the additional soil thus irrigated. As much as 54,000,000 tons of water can pass through in a single hour. The water is served gradually during the entire summer, not only irrigating large new sections, but also insuring an extra summer crop in large parts of Egypt. PRACTICAL SUGGES TIO Hotels. Shepheard’s, Continental-Savoy and Semiramis are of the highest standard. “The same is true of the Mena House, near the Pyramids, and the Heliopolis Hotel, the finest in the world. The National is also a comfortable hotel. Money. ‘The Egyptian pound (£E.), nominally worth $5, contains one hundred piastres, each piastre (worth five cents) containing ten milliemes, each worth half a cent. English and American paper money is also current, but silver money from foreign countries is usually not acceptable.. Passports and Visés. These must be shown on enter- fee PlCAL HINTS 455 ing and leaving Egypt, and are of service in establishing identity. Railways. The English compartment sleepers are of high standard, running water and toilet facilities being usually connected with each compartment accommodating four people. The railway carries fifty-five pounds of per- sonal baggage free. Carriages. Carriages cost from ten to fifteen piastres an hour for two or three people. To the Pyramids and return, including several hours’ stay, the rate is from eighty to one hundred piastres. In going to the Pyramids autos are preferable, although somewhat more expensive. Water. ‘This is usually Nile water, unsafe unless filtered and boiled. ‘The water furnished at hotels is safe. Shopping. ‘The shops beyond the Ezbekiya Garden on the Muski and the Arab shops on adjacent streets have cheaper prices, but judicious bargaining is necessary. “The shops near the large hotels are more reliable and, although they claim to have fixed prices, discounts are obtainable. Most of the ‘antiques’ are spurious and the prices high. The small Arab dealer often asks many times the actual value. The Muski is the chief street of the native Cairo, although it has become somewhat modern and displays much Euro- pean goods. ‘The Khan-el-Khahli is the centre of the bazaar region made up of the narrower side streets open- ing out on the Muski. Here are silks, carpets and rugs, beads, jewellery, slippers, ladies’ leather handbags, gold and silver ornamented shawls (sold by weight), perfumes, gold and silver filigree, and especially lapis-lazuli, supposed to be a cure for melancholia. It is well to avoid new-looking Oriental articles which are usually made in Europe, and are of very poor quality. The bazaars of Cairo are inferior to those of Damascus or Constantinople, but give a garish display of goods, much of it made in little rooms in the rear of the shops. Scarabs should be submitted for inspection at the Cairo Museum, 456 EGYPT where they also can be purchased to better advantage than in the shops. Churches. The English All Saints’ Church is located on the Sharia Bulak, St. Mary’s on the Sharia Kasr-el-Aini, the Church of Scotland (St. Andrew’s) on the Sharia Bulak; services usually at 10:30 A.M. At 6 P.M. an Eng- lish service is held at the American Mission immediately opposite Shepheard’s. Climate. From January to early May the weather is delightful, though sometimes quite hot between twelve and three, when it is desirable to keep out of the sun. ‘There are sudden changes of temperature at sundown and a light wrap is advisable. Dark glasses dim the glare of the desert sun. SUPPLEMENTARY 22 AND’ FIGs Egypt, which had been under the tutelage of the British Empire, was officially declared a British Protectorate in December, 1914, which was terminated by the elevation of King Fuad I to the throne on March 16, 1922. He is a son of the former Khedive, Ismail Pasha, and was born March 26, 1868. He married the Princess Nazli in May, 1919. The new Egyptian flag has three white crescents, each centred with a white star, the background being red. The Premier is Ziwar Pasha, and Zaghlul Pasha is the President of Parliament. Great Britain reserves the right of the control and defence of the Suez Canal, the right of way to the Sudan, the protection of the life and property of foreigners, and the rights of minorities. There are evidences of internal troubles that bode ill for the future of the new Empire. The Legislative Assembly consists of the ministers, sixty- six elected members, and seventeen members nominated by FPAGTIS AND FIGURES 457 the Government. Egypt has five governorships and four- teen provinces, subdivided into districts. The total area, including the Libyan desert, is 383,000 square miles, but the cultivated and settled region of the Nile has 12,226 square miles. “The total population (1924) is 13,885,000. In 1882, when England took possession, it was 6,831,000. In 1917, there were 11,658,000 Moslems, 107,600 Roman Catholics and 47,500 Protestants. The Coptic Church has 855,000 adherents and is ruled by the Patriarch of Alexandria. In 1897, the Government, under the direction of Great Britain, established primary and secondary schools, besides professional and special schools. In 1922 there were 241,680 scholars. The Mosque and University of El Azhar in 1914 had 405 professors and 9,749 students. Several other Mosques have universities aggregating 5,405 students. The revenues and expenditures in 1923-24 were the same, being £34,905,000. The Egyptian Army has 17,000 men, but there is no navy. The imports (1922) were £48,716,418. The prin- cipal exports were cotton, cereals, vegetables, textiles and yarns. In 1921, 6,537 steamers entered Egyptian ports. The total number passing through the Suez Canal (1922) was 4,315, of which 2,384 were British, 458 were Dutch, 223 were Japanese and 140 were American. Sir George Lloyd is the British High Commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan. RECENT BIBLIOGRAPHY Egypt, Old and New, P. F. Martin. ’23, Doran. Tutankhamen, E. A. Budge. ’23, Dodd. Egypt and the Old Testament, T. E. Peet. ’23, Small. Woman Tenderfoot in Egypt, G. Seaton. ’23, Dodd. Egypt, R. T. Kelly. ’23, Macmillan "Round About Egypt, A. B. Horsley. ’20, London. 458 EGY PRR Egypt and the Old Testament, T. Peet. ’23, Small. Tutankhamen, A. E. Weigall. ’24, Doran. Nile and Jordan, G. A. F. Knight. ’21, Pilgrims. England in Egypt, A. M. Milner. ’20, Longmans. The Egyptian Problem, V. Chirol. ’20, Macmillan. By Nile and Tigris, E. A. Budge. ’20, Dutton. Modern Sons of the Pharaohs, 8S. H. Leeder, ’19, Doran. The Spell of Egypt, A. Bell, °16, Page. AROUND THE WORLD RECENT BIBLIOGERAY The Round the World Traveller, D. E. Lorenz, Ph.D. 25, Revell. Asia at the Crossroads, E. A. Powell. ’22, Century. Pacific Triangle, S. Greenbie. ’21, Century. China, Korea and Japan, J. O. P. Bland. ‘21, Scribner. Glimpses of China, Japan and the East, T. Kawata. ’23, Stechert. Mainly East, E. B. Tweedie. ’23, Dutton. From Golden Gate to Golden Sun, H. Norden. ’23, Small. Where the Strange Trails Go Down, E. A. Powell. ’21, Scribner. Within the Gateways of the Far East, C. R. Erdman. ’23, Revell. Beachcomber in the Orient, H. L. Foster. ’23, Dodd. In the Eyes of the East, M. L. Greenbie. ’21, Dodd. East of Suez, W.S. Maugham. ’22, Doran. Sea Power in the Pacific, H. C. Bywater. ’21, Houghton. Strange Peoples and Customs, A. B. Evans. Pacific Pub- lishing Co. Roving East and Roving West, E. V. Lucas. ’21, Doran. East in the Light of the West, R. Steiner. Putnam. Cruises Along By-ways of the Pacific, W. H. Hobbs. Strat- ford. Pee 1 G Rod Po Y 459 Happy Traveller, E. Tatchell. ’23, Holt. World Today, H. H. Johnston. ’25, Putnam. Everywhere, A. H.S. Landor. ’24, Stokes. The Challenge of Asia, Shirley Rice. ’25, Murray. Life of the Ancient East, J. Blackie. ’23, Macmillan. Buddhism and Buddhist in Southern Asia, K. J. Saunders. ’23, Macmillan. Far East Unveiled, F. A. Coleman. ’19, Houghton. Twin Travelers in China and Japan, M. H. Wade. ’22, Stokes. Flashlights from the Seven Seas, W. L. Stidger. ’21, Doran. Four Pilgrims, W. Boulting, ’20, Dutton. Old World Through New Eyes, M.S. Ware. °17, Putnam. A Critic in the Orient, G. H. Fitch. 713, Elder. The Far East, A. J. Little. ’14, Oxford. Scented Isles and Coral Gardens, C. D. Mackellar. ’12, Dutton. The Color of the East, E. Washburn. ’14, Stokes, PAGES FOR PERSONAL JOTTINGS THE traveller will find the blank pages at the end of the book very convenient for adding personal experiences and incidents, notes of shipboard lectures, memoranda concern- ing prominent persons, desirable shops, hotels, etc., as well as additional information of a general character. Such notes will add greatly to the permanent value of the book to its owner. Having a guide-book and note-book under one cover will also serve as a great convenience to travellers. Those who may not plan such a trip around the world, but who are interested in the study of the countries herein described, will find these blank pages desirable for additional notes suggested by general reading, INDEX Aden, 435 Cairo, 441 Agra, 375-393 Churches, 445, 446, 456 Bazaars, 392 Hotels, 454 Fort, 383 Museum, 443 Hall of Private Audience, 391 Old Cairo, 445 History, 375 People, 442 Information, General, 392 Shopping, 455 Jasmine Palace, 386 Supplementary Facts and Fig- Pearl Mosque, 384 ures, 456 Sightseeing, 383, 384, 393 Calcutta, 339-347 Taj Mahal, 375-383 Alipore, 346 Alipore, 346 Black Hole, 339 Amber, 401 Churches, 346 : History, 339 Batavia, 279 Jain Temple, 342 Benares, 354-366 Sights, Important, 340 Bathing Ghats, 356 Victoria Memorial, 341 Burning Ghats, 358 Maharaja’s Palace, 363 Temples, 360 Bombay, 402-414 Canal Zone, 41 Sightseeing, 44 Canton, 236-246 Christian Work, 2 Churches, 412 : » 245 Hotels, oe City of the Dead, 243 Parsees, 403 Hotels, 244 Shopping, 412 Money, 244 Sightseeing, 409 Old Canton, 240 Towers of Silence, 406 Pagodas, 237, 242 Borobudur, 288 Pawnshops, 243 Buitenzorg, 282 People, 241 Batik Work, 285 Railroad Trip to, 238 Botanical Garden, 283 River trip to, 237 Hotels, 282 Burma, 297-311 Bibliography, 311 Education, 300 Missionary Work, 300 People, 297 Cawnpore, 371 Religion, 299 Sights, 372 Supplementary Facts and Fig- Ceylon, 421-435 ures, 310 Chagres River, 41 461 Sampan Life, 237 Shameen, 239 Shops and Shopping, 245 Temples, 242, 243 462 China, 173+253 Banking Consortium, 186 Bibliography, 252 Boxer Rebellion, 177 Brigandage, 183 Commercial Possibilities, 187 Education, 192 Foreign Intervention, 187 Government Degeneracy, 184 Great Wall, 221 Homes, 189 Inscrutable Chinese, 189 Japanese Relation to, 178 Language, 192 Manchus, 173 Notable Men, 182 Opium Curse, 206 Practical Hints, 195 Religions, 198 Resources, 188 Shops and Shopping, 196 Students’ Movement, 193 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 248 Tuchuns, 174, 176 Women, 190 Yuan Shih-kai, 174 Colombo, 423 Colon, 41, 43, 53, 56, 57 Cristobal, 41, 43 Cuba, 13-35 American Intervention, 14 Bibliography, 35 Houses, 18, 21 Lottery, 16 People, 19 Spanish-American War, 14 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 32 Darjeeling, Trip to, 348 Places of Interest, 352 Tiger Hill, 350 De Lesseps, 36, 50, 436, 437 Delhi, 393 Bazaars, 397 Churches, 397 Hotels, 397 Jami Mosque, 396 Palace, 393 INDEX Delhi (Continued) Peacock Throne, 394 Tower of Victory, 398 Egypt, 440-459 Assuan Dam, 454 Bibliography, 457-458 Nile, 454 Pyramids, 446 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 456 Elephanta Island, 412 Fatehpur Sikri, 374, 390 Havana, 20 Battleship Maine, 14, 21 Churches, 24, 30 Harbour Entrance, 20 Hotels, 32 Morro Castle, 20, 22, 28 Shopping, 31 Sightseeing, 21 University, 26, 34 Hawaii, 59-84 American Administration, 63 Bibliography, 84 Defences, 64 History, 59 Japanese Problem, 65 Kilauea Volcano, 70 Leper Settlement, 72 Missionary Work, 67 People, 65 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 82 Hilo, 70 Hong-Kong, 230 Churches, 235 Hotels, 234 Schools, 235 Shopping, 236 Sights, 233 Honolulu, 73 Churches, 79 Education, 80 Hospitable Welcome, 74 Information, General, 81 Sightseeing, 75, 78 INDEX 463 India, 312421 Bibliography, 420 Caste, 327, 334 Constructive Influences, 329 Gandhiism, 318-329 Hints to Travellers, 316 History, 312 Mogul Empire, 372 Need, The Great, 338 People, 315 Religions, 331 Sepoy Mutiny, 366 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 417 Inland Sea, 156 Jaipur, 399 Hotels, 401 Sights, 400 Japan, 85-164 American Relations with, 93 Bibliography, 163 Characteristics, 107 Chuzenji Lake, 130 Customs, 107 Earthquakes, 88 Fujiyama, 132 Government, 90 Hakone, 131 History, 85 Imperialistic Plans, 9o0-r1or Internationalism, 92 Labor Conditions, 111 Miyanoshita, 130 Religions, 102 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 160 Java, 276-291 Bibliography, 291 Government, 279 History, 276 People, 278 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 289 Kamakura, 116 Daibutsu, 117 Kandy, 426 Temple of the Tooth, 428 Karnak, 449, 450 Kilauea Volcano, 70 Kobe, 152 Churches, 155 Hotels, 155 Shopping, 156 Sights, 154 Korea, 165-172 Annexation, 167 Bibliography, 172 Characteristics, 169 Dress, 168 Japanese Rule, 165 Missionary Work, 168 Kyoto, 133-144 Doshisha University, 141 Information, General, 142 Shopping, 142 Sightseeing, 134 Temples, 138 Lucknow, 368 Churches, 370 Hotels, 370 Sights, 369 Luxor, 449 Macao, 246 Madras, 414 Madura, 417 Manila, 265 Churches, 270 Practical Hints, 270 Schools, 270 Sightseeing, 266 Memphis, 448 Miyajima, 157 Nagasaki, 157 Sights, 159 Nara, 144 Deer Park, 144 Temples, 145 Nikko, 124-130 Nogoya, 132 Osaka, 149 Bronze Bell, 152 Castle, 151 Churches, 152 Curio Shops, 152 464 Panama, 35-58 Balboa, 35 Bibliography, 58 Canal Facts, 40 Employés, Care of, 39 Forts, 42 Gaillard Cut, 41, 46, 49 Gatun Dam, 41, 45 Hints to Travellers, 54 Information, General, 48 Panama City, 51 Sightseeing, 44 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 56 Peking, 208-222 Art Museum, 218 Churches, 219 Forbidden City, 210 General Hints, 219 Great Wall, 221 History, 208 Sightseeing, 214 University, 220 Peradeniya, 430 Philippine Islands, 253-275 Bibliography, 275 Filipinisation, a 254 Filipino Characteristics, 264 People, 261 Resources, 259 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 271 Withdrawal, the Question of, Sweeping, 258 Port Said, 438, 440 Rangoon, 301 Pagoda as Political Issue, 306 Practical Hints, 308 Shopping, 309 Shwe Dagon Pagoda, 302 Sightseeing, 301 INDEX Red Sea, 436 ’Round the World Bibliography, 458 Sarnath, 365 Seoul, 170 Shanghai, 223 Characteristics, 224 Churches, 228 Commerce, 224 Hotels, 228 Missions, 228 Practical Hints, 228 Shopping, 229 Sights, Principal, 226 Yangtze River, 223 Shimonoseki, 159 Sikandra, 389 Akbar’s Tomb, 389 Siliguri, 348 Singapore, 291 Bazaars, 297 Bibliography, 297 Places of Interest, 294 Raffles, Sir Thomas S&., 292 Supplementary Facts and Fig- ures, 295 Sourabaya, 287 Thebes, 449, 451 Tut-ankh-amen Tomb, 452 Tientsin, 222 Tokyo, 118 Churches, 123 Earthquake, Effect of, 119 Hotels, 123 Sightseeing, 120 Trichinopoli, 415 Weltevreden, 280 Yamada, 148 Ise Temple, 149 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA T ——— ets ee Co am ko te fed aie 5 alelminskajad 0 aT ace g ouy, O°. 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