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AN ENCYCLOPADIA 
 IRONWORK 
 
 EXAMPLES OF HAND WROUGHT IRONWORK 
 FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END 
 OF THE 18TH CENTURY 
 WITH AN HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 
 BY OTTO HOEVER 
 
 MCMKXVII 
 E. WEYHE, 794 LEXINGTON AVE. NEW YORK 
 
 PRINTED IN GERMANY 
 
IN 1927 
 
 ) 
 
 f 
 
 LISHED 
 
 FIRST PUB 
 
 . 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION: 
 ORNAMENTAL IRONWORK 
 Page IX 
 
 GOLHFC 
 Page XIII 
 
 LARWEG OL IC 
 AND RENAISSANCE 
 Page XIX 
 
 BAROQUE 
 AND CLASSICISM 
 Page XXVI 
 
 THE PLATES 
 1-320 
 
 «(lt 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 er or Sa 
 
Ornamental Ironwork 
 
 Although the most conspicuous productions of smithcraft are rarely the outcome 
 of the ironworkers’ own designs, nevertheless, ironwork translates into material 
 many artistic conceptions, and reflects the art of various stylezepochs, and countries. 
 
 It is a wellzknown fact that the iron bar is the base of all lineal ornamental 
 ironwork, however manifold the various patterns may be. A number of bars can be 
 arranged to make a trellis, or they may be made to serve as bindings and hinges, 
 etc. The trellis, using the term in its widest sense, was the main object of technical 
 and artistic treatment by the masters of smithcraft. The iron bars, fixed by 
 rivets to the doors to protect them, constitute a complete latticeswork. We may 
 say that the use of one of the three main classes of bars: flat, round, and square 
 is a characteristic feature of a particular style. Thus, Early Gothic favoured either 
 narrow or broad iron bands, and Late Gothic, in the north, the round bar. 
 In the south; above all in Italy, the Renaissance introduces the square bar, 
 which was also preferred by Rococo smiths, particularly by the French. It was 
 during these periods that smithwork attained to its highest perfection. 
 
 Ironwork of all kinds follows the forms of the different styles, but the 
 transition from one style to another is slower than with other arts, and the 
 highly imaginative lines of Late Gothic lasted well into the Renaissance, espe- 
 cially in Germany. 
 
 Some students have maintained that there are two different phases in the 
 development of smithcraft, one of a more decorative character, the other archi- 
 tectural or tectonic. And this seems to be a correct view. But this division is 
 equally applicable to any branch of arts and crafts. These two phases are as 
 old as ornamental art itself. The decorative aims at enriching a surface, the 
 tectonic limits itself to the outline or spacing of surface. The former is more 
 dynamic and vivid, the latter more static, and gives the impression of weight 
 and solidity. Both are best represented in their diverse characters by Late Gothic 
 in the north, and by Renaissance in the south. Baroque and Rococo seem to 
 unite both phases. The vertical bars of gates, for instance, represent the static 
 and tectonic elements, whereas the frame-work, particularly the crest with its 
 interlacing scrolls, stands for the dynamic. The different artistic conceptions 
 obtaining in various countries have ample scope for expression in the treatment 
 of the frame-work. The vivid forms of the north preponderate in Late Gothic, 
 Late Baroque, and Rococo, in contradistinction to the static tectonic forms of 
 Italian and French classical art. In the latter periods the vertical and horizontal 
 bars are enclosed in a frame displaying a wealth of scroll, and other ornamental 
 work. In former periods the frame was the element of stability which enclosed 
 the richly ornamented panel in rectangular lines. Later on the reverse is the case. 
 
 IX 
 
The panel is now the tectonic element, the frame on the other hand the dynamic. 
 The overthrow of gates is surmounted by a crest of the most florid character, and 
 from it scrolls and tendrils radiate in all directions. 
 
 A later development introduces a third dimension by means of the plastic 
 treatment of the ornament, although the lineal element is never totally absent. 
 This phase of smithcraft is at its best in the railings, grilles, and balustrades 
 embellishing the great Late Baroque and Rococo French, English, and German 
 sacred and profane architectural masterpieces. The same rule applies to wroughte 
 iron, and to stucco, wood, and stone ornament; namely that the frame is an 
 essential part of the whole, but at the same time aims at enhancing the plastic 
 impression of the panels. However, we should remember that decorative smithing 
 was inspired by graphic art in its widest sense. Ornament in smithcraft depended 
 on the decorative designs invented by the draughtsman. In the Gothic period the 
 smiths chiefly drew their inspiration from illuminated manuscripts. This is evident 
 in the metal work on the western doors of Notre Dame in Paris which was 
 copied from the illuminated margins and initials embellishing manuscripts dating 
 from the period of St. Louis. The whole surface is covered with large and small 
 tendrils, flower sprays, leafage, and rosettes, the effect of which is both harmonious 
 and classically restrained; in fact the panels and frame-work are nearly inseparably 
 merged. One is almost tempted to consider the restraint of the classical ornament, 
 formed by the sequence of ever-recurring spirals, as a Romanesque motif. Indeed, 
 there can be little doubt that the inception of such designs dates back to the 
 Romanesque period. But we should not forget how deeply mature Gothic in 
 France was imbued with the classic spirit. The masters of cathedral sculptures 
 (for instance in Rheims) very often adhered closely to antique patterns of which 
 the drapery, the well-shaped heads, as well as the whole bearing of the figures, 
 are a strong proof. The sketchzbook of the French architect Villard d’Honnecoutt, 
 dating from the 13th century, has preserved various examples which lead us to 
 conclude that they are based on archaeological studies of classical statues. Probably 
 similar drawings served as models for the masteresmiths when the Gothic was 
 at its maturest period. But the majority doubtlessly took their models from 
 illuminated manuscripts. 
 
 Mediaeval illuminated manuscripts were succeeded by calligraphic ornament 
 during the Late Gothic period. The richly coloured illuminations were replaced 
 by the pen-drawing pure and simple with all its wealth of curves and flourishes. 
 The iron craftsmen now forged their rods in imitation of these calligraphic designs. 
 
 During the period of the Renaissance the calligraphic ornament attains to its 
 zenith in Diirer’s highly imaginative marginal embellishment of the Emperor 
 Maximilian’s prayerzbook. The spirit of Late Gothic still held its own by means 
 of its vivid designs long after the introduction of the Renaissance ornament 
 
 xX 
 
which seeks expression in monumental and tectonic simplicity, wide canvasses 
 and gigantic statues. The figures by Peter Visher on the tomb of St. Sebaldus, 
 Diirer’s Madonnas and Apostles, Hans Holbein the Younger’s portraits, and 
 other examples are Gothic creations, and much of the wrought-iron work of 
 this period is Gothic, and not Renaissance. The calligraphic style of iron ornament 
 still retains the vitality and vividness of Late Gothic designs. As long as the 
 round bar predominated, Late Gothic art obtained among the blacksmiths’ and 
 locksmiths’ guilds. The railings (circa 1570) enclosing Maximilian’s tomb in the 
 Hofkirche at Innsbruck are a product of the same spirit which inspired Diirer 
 and his fellow-workers in designing the marginal ornament of that emperor's 
 prayerzbook. During the course of the 17th century and of the whole of the 18th 
 century France undoubtedly led in decorative smithwork throughout Europe. 
 Patterns were widely spread by the works of ornamental engravers. Many of 
 the best examples of wrought-iron work perished during the wars, the general 
 troubles of the times, and during the Revolution; much of it was re-forged to 
 make arms. But the engravings of the period show very clearly the development 
 of designs, especially of those at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 
 18th century. ! 
 
 Here again the masterpieces of smithcraft were not designed by the craftsmen 
 themselves, but by architects and draughtsmen. It is true that the master-smiths, 
 especially the French ones, published patterns of decorative smithing, but these 
 designs were rarely their own inventions, rather were they inspired by architects 
 and engravers. Some of the pattern books were published in the first half of 
 the 17th century, such as La fidéle ouverture de l’art de Serrurier by 
 Mathurien Jousse (1627, in La Fléche). But the main impetus was given by the 
 books written about 1700. The engravings of the two Frenchmen Daniel Marot 
 and Jean Berain were of the greatest importance for the development of wroughtz 
 iron work, as well as for many other branches of arts and crafts. The French 
 call this style Régence. The German modification of the French designs of the 
 period is described as ribbonzwork. This ribbon-work motif affords opportunities 
 for the peculiar riot of lines characteristic of the German masters. It may be 
 compared with Late Gothic patterns, and with the scrolls and grotesque motifs 
 of Early Baroque before the Thirty Years’ War. Whereas the French attached 
 great value to severe surface treatment and tectonic stability of ornamentation, 
 the Germans again favoured a more lively surface treatment. The structural details 
 of panel and frame are blurred by the exuberance of detail to such an extent 
 that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other. In the same manner as 
 the bar dominated and survived the Gothic period, so too did bandziron meet 
 the requirements of decorative smithing in later times. 
 
 * * * 
 
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 Door from Durham, Beginning of 13th Century. — 2. Door from the Abbey Church,’ Radford, 
 Sietiigh ects 13th Century. — 3. Door, Notre Dame, Orcival, near Clermont, 12th, Century. —. 
 4. Door Hinge from St. Alban’s Abbey, 1160—90 (Victoria and Albert Museum). — 5. Hinge, Merton 
 College, Oxford, End of 13th Century. — 6. Door of Hormead Church, near Buntingford. — 7. Door 
 Ornament in Saff. ron Walden, Essex.—8. Knocker on the North Door of Puy Cathedral, 11th Century. 
 
Gothic 
 
 Smithcraft attained to its highest forms in France during the 13th century. 
 The craftsman felt it incumbent on him to produce decorative smithing worthy 
 of the great works of architecture, especially of the Gothic cathedrals. French 
 style in its characteristic traits, whether in the Middle Ages or during the epoch 
 of Le Grand Style, always betrays a rationalistic tendency both in archi- 
 tecture and arts and crafts. There seems to be a metaphysical idea hidden behind 
 the vertical order of typical French cathedrals. Everything is carefully planned 
 according to mathematical rules. Although the French, as northerners, had 
 abandoned the tectonics of classical edifices, yet there is a certain similarity 
 between the French cathedral and the Doric temple due to the harmonious 
 arrangement of structural members, particularly in the interior. Indeed, we may 
 venture to say that the Cathedral Gothic of northern France, where it origin- 
 ated and held sway for so long, is imbued with a classic spirit. French Gothic 
 did not originate so much from the play of an enthusiastic imagination as from 
 a very clear esprit technique. It was this spirit that enabled Gustav Eiffel 
 to build his gigantic iron tower in the Champ de Mars for the International 
 Exhibition in 1889. 
 
 Clarity and symmetry are the prevailing characteristics of the metalzwork 
 on the doors of Notre Dame in Paris, in spite of the exuberance of the or-z 
 namental spirals, leafage and tendrils. The main constructional wrought-iron 
 bands, whose component parts are easily traced, are patterned very much along 
 the lines of the composite pillar. From these composite parts the volutes spring, 
 and form definite patterns above and below the bands extending over the 
 panels, and in spite of their manifold curves are yet as restrained as the band 
 ornament on antique vases with their spiral, ondoyant, and meander motifs. 
 In spite of the wealth of rich ornament the total impression is distinctly that 
 of unity and stability. Beautiful as the doors of Notre Dame Cathedral are, 
 those wonderful specimens of smithcraft, the grille panels of Ourcamp Abbey, 
 are still more beautiful (PI. 4). 
 
 The lively and dynamic character of the Gothic ornament was developed 
 in the latter part of the Middle Ages beyond the Rhine where more northern 
 conceptions of art prevailed. They had once found expression in involved and 
 fantastic grouping of animal motifs; a trait which is also met with in Irish 
 illuminated manuscripts. The French tendency was to restrain that proneness 
 towards the irregularity of motif inherent in northern art which is so absoz 
 lutely opposed to the ordered character of classic art. Doubtlessly the Latin char 
 acter of the French race was seeking expression in this tendency towards rez 
 straint of form. The French had already verged towards the Latin cultural sphere. 
 
 XIII 
 
We may say that the decorative ironwork of the French master-smiths rez 
 produced in this volume is Romanic in character, and it is typical of French 
 smiths that, although they employ old and lively motifs, they are yet able to 
 produce the effect of restraint and order. They adhered to the oldest motifs, 
 namely the metal spirals springing from bundled flat bars and terminating in 
 rosettes and leafage, from which the scroll was evolved, and thus established the 
 connection with the antique. In these ornaments, that part of the bar forming 
 the curves is rounded, and then hammered at its ends into leaves and rosettes. 
 The most varied manners of forging are employed, but are kept strictly within 
 the limits prescribed by the requirements of style and material. The most beaus 
 tiful manifestations of form thus developed from employing genuine material 
 are skilfully fashioned and eminently adapted to their purpose. Herein lies the 
 great difference between them and the methods employed by the materialistic and 
 mechanicallyzminded 19th century. The sane mattercof-fact spirit of these master- 
 craftsmen saved them from overstepping the limits set by the material, in contraz 
 distinction to their inferior imitators who neither possess the vitality nor the 
 genius of the old masters. 
 
 When the French employed and enriched the old spiral ironwork patterns 
 in the 13th and 14th centuries the effect was always one of restraint, even when 
 they had not begun to imitate the antique by the employment of scrolls, leafage, 
 grapes, and rosettes. This pronouncedly restrained treatment may be seen in 
 _ some of the window-grilles in Rouen, in a northern French fender (Rouen 
 Museum), or in the cathedral gate of Puy en Velai dating as far back as the 
 end of the 12th century’. 
 
 Beyond the spirals springing from the bundled flat bars and leafage scrolls, 
 there are other variations such as Securves and those similar to the curve in a 
 note of interrogation. These motifs, when enclosed in a frameework of square 
 bars and connected to the frame by means of square links, are of a very charming 
 appearance. The apertures are extremely narrow, and thus the purpose of enclosure 
 and security is well served and emphasized. The continual repetition of ever-return- 
 ing motifs betrays a decline in inventiveness, although the technical skill is as 
 good as it ever was. Many of the gates, railings, and grilles with narrow 
 apertures terminate in square rods with spearcheads which look like a row of 
 armed men. 
 
 Compared with French Gothic smithcraft of the 13th century, German iron 
 work appears to be more primitive during the same and immediately following 
 period. The work is coarser and more powerful, and the material is utilized to 
 the limits of its technical possibilities. We may say that the difference between 
 
 1 cf. C. Uhde, ,,Die Konstruktionen und die Kunstformen der Architektur“, Berlin, E. Wass 
 muth, 1911, p.83 et seq. 
 
 XIV 
 
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French and German Gothic smithcraft resembles that existing between the graceful 
 French cathedral statue and the massive figures in the German cathedrals; for 
 instance those of the princes and knights in the choir of Naumburg Cathedral. 
 The classic traits are wanting in German art, on the other hand it is extremely 
 vigorous. French art is more urbane and refined, German more rustic. French 
 smithcraft was highly developed at a period when that of Germany was in its 
 initial stages. But some conspicuous works already indicate promise of a high 
 development in the future. German artists were destined to develop the Gothic 
 along original lines, both in architecture and all branches of arts and crafts, hence 
 also in decorative smithing. 
 
 The metal-work on doors, chests, etc., consisted chiefly of hoopziron. Wherez 
 as in France bundled rods terminating in spirals and scroll motifs were already 
 employed, German metal fittings still consisted of separate pieces rivetted to the 
 wood: lattice and trellis patterns with ornamental flattened ends of a more geomez 
 trical than florid design. The C-scroll was also much favoured in Germany. 
 Beautiful examples may be seen on a door (beginning of the 14th century) in 
 the transept of the Abbey Church of Maulbron. Still more beautiful examples 
 (beginning of the 13th century) are on another door of the same church. On 
 the latter the rivets are a special feature. The general character is determined by the 
 composition of Czscrolls, and horizontal or crossed bands arranged thus (—) (+). 
 
 In England this Czscroll is also often met with in connection with a horizontal 
 bar, as for instance on the door of St. Margret’s, Leicester. The horizontal bar 
 is rivetted over two Cescrolls in the following manner: @G-€ (13th century). 
 In addition, small double C-scrolls placed back to back are also frequently employed. 
 
 Door mountings attained to their greatest perfection on both sides of the Rhine 
 during the Gothic period. The further development of decorative smithing was 
 devoted to railings, gates, and grilles, etc., which call for other view-points and 
 ideas. The railings are ornamented with motifs borrowed from architecture, espez 
 cially from the tracery of the cathedral and church clustered and rose-windows. 
 From now on the round is preferred to the flat bar, but the square is employed 
 particularly for defensive purposes. The spirals, Sz and Cescrolls are replaced by 
 the quatrefoil forged in square and round bars. Thus the favourite motif of the 
 stone-mason is adopted by the blacksmith. The development of tracery-work 
 brought about by the inventiveness of the stone-masons is copied by the decoraz 
 tive smiths when ornamenting their gate and door panels. The flamboyant 
 tracery which became popular during the Late Gothic period is also transferred 
 to ironwork, and usually framed in a circle. The earlier severity is replaced by 
 lively motifs. This rayonnant and flamboyant style, which is chiefly found 
 in the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century in French cathedral rosez 
 windows, is also transferred to ironswork. The motifs are often as delicate 
 
 XVI 
 
as lace or fretesaw work. In many cases the ornament has been sawn or filed 
 into the iron. The details often appear coarse and carelessly executed. The chief 
 aim seems to have been to create a general impression, and this results in a hazy, 
 restless composition. In such cases the bars are hardly distinguishable. Hence 
 ironwork treated in this manner could not continue along the same line of 
 development. Round or square bars placed horizontally or vertically, or com: 
 bined to form a trellis, supplied the first patterns and form the base for all 
 further modifications. 
 
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 Italian and French Railings, 13th and 14th Centuries 
 1. Langeac Church, Chapel Railings, Upper Part, About 1400. — 2. St. Mark's, Venice (gilded), 
 13th Century. — 3 and 4. Verona, Tombs of the Scaligers, 1300—1380 (Total Height About 2,6 metres. — 
 5 and 6. Town Hall, Siena, 14th Century. — 7. French Tabernacle Railings (gilded), 14th Century. — 
 8. French, 13th Century (?), in the Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris. — 9.From Brescia, 14th Century. 
 
 ae 
 
Late Gothic and Renaissance 
 
 The predominance of the linear pattern in decorative smithing among the 
 transalpine peoples is particularly conspicuous when we regard the more plastic- 
 ally conceived ironwork of the Italians. It is true that the influence of the 
 purely Gothic conception lingered on in Italy till well into the 15th century 
 (Quattrocento). The Italians were also appreciative of the Late Gothic linear 
 pattern for which the employment of iron was so well adapted. But the Italians 
 introduced the architectural element to a much greater extent than did the northern 
 craftsmen. The southern architects had begun to develop a more perfect sense of 
 proportion. And in doing so the great masters, such as Brunelleschi, Leonbattista 
 Alberti, Bramante, and many others, harked back to classical architecture. 
 
 A palace or the dome of a church over a central plan was always regarded 
 by the Italians from a purely plastic point of view, and the beautiful proportions 
 of Italian buildings still charm us tozday as do the Doric columns of a Greek 
 temple. It is therefore by no means a matter of surprise that the Italians should 
 treat ornamental details more plastically than the craftsmen of northern countries. 
 The effect of the pondrous windowzgrilles in the ground-floors of the palaces 
 is essentially plastic. They consist of crossed square interpenetrated bars of conz 
 siderable dimensions, and are very picturesque in their massive strength. Hence 
 the effect is not produced by the simple line itself, but by the bulkiness of the 
 material employed. In the Gothic period, the chief stress then was laid on linear 
 effects, whereas in the Italian Renaissance decorative smithing had become distinctly 
 plastic, and this is still more the case with Baroque and Rococo ironwork. 
 
 Besides the windowsgrilles, it was above all the finely smithed lamp-holders 
 supporting a cradle and ring, torchzholders, and lanterns that provided considerable 
 scope for plastic treatment of Italian ironwork. For instance the celebrated lanz 
 terns on the Palazzo Guadagni in Florence look like small tabernacles, and are 
 minute replicas of the great centrally-planned octagonal edifices. Indeed, as is 
 well-known, the centrally-planned building was the most favoured during the 
 Italian Renaissance, and the superstructure on the dome is actually called a 
 lantern. The lamps on the Italian palace facades are not different in shape to 
 the lanterns crowning the circular and octagonal centrallyzplanned buildings. 
 Pillars and pilasters, all of minute dimensions, were also the main tectonic elez 
 ments of these ornamental lanterns. Each of the eight openings are arcaded, 
 and there is also a miniature balustrade of pillars with a richly ornamented rail 
 on top, and small breaks at the corners. The whole is crowned by large spikes, 
 of which the middle ones are straight and the corner ones curved outwards. 
 
 In the case of torchzholders, doorzknockers, and other similar pieces of metal 
 furniture, casting was often resorted to in order to secure the desired plastic 
 
 XIX 
 
Details of German Renaissance Railings. 
 
 eS ee ee ae eee 
 
effect. And there can be no doubt that the masterpieces of cast bronze and 
 embossed work, as perfected by the sculptors of the quattrocento, such as 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, and Verrocchio supplied the necessary and natural 
 patterns for smithcraft. Verrocchio himself produced his finest work on the 
 bronze screen in the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo in Florence. This screen is 
 made in imitation of coiled ropes, and the acanthus ornament on the sarcophagus 
 (also by Verrocchio) near the screen may have served as a model for later 
 smithcraft work. 
 
 Many examples of ironwork show how the Italian blacksmiths aimed at 
 highly plastic effects. The curves and spirals north of the Alps during the 15th 
 and 16th centuries contrast greatly with this plastic Renaissance ironwork. And 
 they can only be explained by the fact that the Gothic spirit with its preference 
 for linear motifs still prevailed there. Whereas in Italy the architects and sculptors 
 influenced decorative smithing, it was the graphic artists Martin Schongauer 
 and Albrecht Diirer who exercised the main influence north of the Alps during 
 this period. There is every indication that the handicrafts guilds were influenced 
 almost too long by Albrecht Diirer’s spirit and Late Gothic examples. 
 
 The peculiar alternating influence exercised by Late Gothic and Renaissance, 
 which is so conspicuous in all Diirer’s works, may be traced more or less in 
 German art during the 16th century. Maximilian’s tomb in the Hofkirche 
 in Innsbruck is an example of the influence of two style epochs. Now the 
 figures by Peter Vischer are Renaissance masterpieces, and hardly less plastic 
 than Italian Renaissance sculptures, but the railings round the tomb, which were 
 completed in 1570, are absolutely the product of the Late Gothic spirit obtaining 
 in the north. This may readily be seen by the linear motifs. The curved motifs 
 developed from the figure eight, formed by means of interpenetrated round 
 bars which fill the panels of the railings, are reminiscent of calligraphic flourishes. 
 But although Gothic vivacity still prevails, there is a suggestion of Renaissance 
 restraint. The scroll motif with foliage, vine, and other leaves betrays supreme 
 artistic skill. The railing with its round bars enriched by crocket ornament is 
 a masterpiece of Gothic ironwork. Other prominent examples of Gothic ironz- 
 work favour drawnsout spindlecshaped spirals tapering at the ends; they may 
 be compared with the twists of a corkscrew, and were shaped on a wooden 
 peg which was afterwards burnt out. This method was employed in producing 
 various other patterns in wroughtsiron, especially in Spain, where bars were 
 hammered onto a wooden background which was then burnt, leaving a trellis 
 or lattice. This is again a proof of how closely mountings, trellis, and lattice- 
 work are connected in their technical origins. The spindlezshaped spirals may 
 be regarded as an attempt to treat the linear round bars plastically. But com- 
 pared with Italian Renaissance wrought ironwork the attempt is but feeble. 
 
 XXI 
 
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 Spanish Wroughtiron Railings. Details. 
 1 and 2. Cuenza Cathedral, arene of the Capilla major, Details of Lower Part. — 3, 4,5. Cuenza 
 
 Cathedral, Part of the Railings be 
 ars. — 7. Siguenza Cathedral, Chapel Railings (1530). 
 
 | 
 | 
 
 ind the High Altar, by Sanchos Munez. — 6. Toledo Cathe- 
 dral, Railings of the Holy Ghost Chapel, by Domingo Cespedes (1529); 6a. Profile of the Twisted 
 B 
 
There are a great number of examples of the different modes of smithing iron. 
 Space does not permit of giving details of all the great masterpieces. The illus- 
 trations in this volume afford a sufficiently comprehensive survey. The main 
 object of this introduction is to but touch on a few style problems. 
 
 We should remember that it was not Germany alone which laid the chief 
 stress on linear and surface effects of wrought-iron ornament. Nearly all other 
 European countries have produced masterpieces of this type. And even Italy, 
 in spite of her many examples of purely plastic ornamental smithcraft, also 
 turned out excellent work of a linear character made of round bars, or, a 
 peculiar Italian pattern, of flat ones with the thin edge turned outward. But 
 Italian ironworkers favour different decorative motifs, and as a rule dislike 
 the peculiar calligraphic flourishes of the northern countries. The S-curve takes 
 the place of the spiral. When the S-scroll motifs are employed in Germany 
 they are so closely grouped that the effect is almost netzlike (e.g. the railings 
 of Ambras Castle). And we may remark here that the impression created 
 by Italian line ornament has none of the restlessness so characteristic of the 
 northern Late Gothic with its horror vacui, which led to the filling up of 
 every available space and gap. The wide spacing of Italian ornament is an 
 important factor in the clearness and restraint of the pattern. And although 
 Italian linear railings, for instance, are not conceived as integral architectural parts 
 of the edifices they embellish, nevertheless the general impression is thoroughly 
 static and tectonic. And this is in accordance with the artistic intentions of 
 southern Renaissance ideals. 
 
 The Spaniard, like the German, also favoured a close grouping of his ornaz 
 ment. And, indeed, we may say that Spanish and German art approach very 
 near in spirit, especially during the Late Gothic and Late Baroque periods. With 
 Spanish art, of course, the tradition of the East is still very noticeable. And 
 we should remember that the filling of every available space was a peculiar 
 Oriental trait. There is something reminiscent of the Oriental carpet and rug 
 patterns in these closelyzpacked Spanish examples of ornamental iron smithing. 
 Whereas Italian wrought ironwork is classic in its simplicity, the effect of 
 Spanish smithing is almost impressionistic by reason of the hazy effect produced 
 by the peculiar grouping and crowding of the motifs. Eminent examples of the 
 peculiar Spanish treatment of metalwork are the screens in the churches that 
 surround the long narrow choirs. They project into the crossing and nave and 
 separate the clergy from the congregation. 
 
 Of course it is but natural that Italian art has its tapzroots in classic traditions, 
 and always returns to them: whereas Spanish art is strongly influenced, as 
 we have seen, by Oriental examples due to historical events, and northern art 
 perpetually betrays that peculiar restlessness which after all is the outcome of 
 
 XXIII 
 
a certain element of romanticism. Hence Spain on the one hand, and the couns 
 tries north of the Alps on the other had to overcome their inherent conceptions 
 of art before they succumbed to the alleabsorbing influence of the classic spirit 
 to which their traditions were opposed. But, nevertheless, as far as smithcraft is 
 concerned, Italy did not remain the leader of classic art. The ars nova did not 
 pass straight from Italy to Germany and the northern countries, but found its way 
 there from France who soon assumed the leadership in smithcraft and continued 
 to develop classic traditions into which she, however, projected a completely 
 new spirit by turning her main attention to the architectural effect of castle 
 gates with their imposing piers. 
 
 The French smith put his best work into the development of the grille 
 d’honneutr. The classic models imported from Italy still form the base of the 
 ornament, but undergo modifications making for a peculiar refinement of patterns 
 and motifs which were later imitated by the Germans. But there as well as in 
 France the centres of art were the courts, and the spirit of these absolutistic courts 
 of the Baroque period was naturally reflected in the smithcraft which they did so 
 much to perfect by their patronage. It is a moot question whether the Baroque 
 or the classic tradition is the most pronounced in the grille d’honneur. 
 
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 XXIV 
 
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Baroque and Classicism 
 
 France introduces a new tectonic principle into her main gates, namely a 
 vertical order with uninterrupted rows of mighty square bars. The whole surface 
 is divided vertically. Though there is a certain amount of ornament between 
 the verticals, the ornament is gradually concentrated on the overthrow in order 
 not to mar the general impression of verticality. But the base of the overthrow 
 is usually curved. The severity of the vertical lines in the gates-proper, comz 
 bined with the lively ornamental work on the piers and overthrow, make for 
 a very decorative whole. Altogether the architectural element predominates, 
 and the ornamental details are only of secondary importance, thus following 
 the law of architecture according to which embellishment must always be sub- 
 ordinated to tectonic requirements. Where the Baroque style is fully expressed 
 in ironwork the effect of railings and gates as enclosures of the more important 
 edifices is such that the impression of seclusion is very pronounced. The gates 
 are mostly placed in such a manner as to afford charming perspectives of the 
 enclosed edifice. Owing to the semicircular overthrow the impression is created 
 that the gates constitute an outwardly projecting bay that seems almost to encircle 
 the castle or mansion to which it gives entrance. Herein lies one of the supreme 
 accomplishments of Baroque art. 
 
 The scroll and leafage ornaments are partly conventionalized, partly realistic: 
 ally treated. The ribbon-work motif is also favoured. — An example of Early 
 Baroque may be seen on Plate 126. Its effect is somewhat primitive. The 
 leading motif is presented by the square bars set rather far apart. Curved bands 
 supply the place of horizontal bars in the middle and above. The intervening 
 space is filled with vine-leaves and tendrils, these latter are an echo of the 
 spindle ornament. Nevertheless, the general impression is one of sketchiness, 
 although there is no blurring of the tectonic and decorative elements. The more 
 important examples are richer in decorative motifs, and the linear element is 
 replaced by the plastic, and this plastic feature is continually added to in the 
 course of time. A noteworthy example of perfect workmanship should be menz 
 tioned here, namely the grille d’honneur from the Chateau Maison Lafitte 
 now in the Louvre. The gates are good representative examples of the grand 
 style of the 17th century. The French railings and gates assume huge proportions, 
 especially those surrounding the great cours d’honneur of the castles and 
 hétels which they serve both to protect and embellish. It is well to remark 
 that the railings and gates were interpreted as belonging architecturally to the 
 facade, at least they harmonized to an extraordinary degree with the buildings. 
 The artistic problem which had to be solved was, that in spite of the space 
 between the edifice and the surrounding railings and gates, the effect of unity 
 
 XXVI 
 
had to be produced, and was produced. Square bars with lancezheads and tassels 
 were much favoured, and were the main features of the gates. Sometimes the 
 overthrow consisted of a richly moulded cornice with a pyramid of highly orna- 
 mental scroll-work surmounted by the royal arms and crown, or other heraldic 
 emblems, supported by pronouncedly plastic and florid foliage ornament. However 
 luxuriant these overthrows may be, they do not, as might be supposed, reduce 
 the static effect of the vertical plan. 
 
 No doubt the stately gates and railings at Versailles served as an example 
 for much of the decorative smithing at this period, just as the castles built by 
 Jules Hardouin Mansard, and the gardens laid out by André Le Notre were 
 patterns for architects and landscape gardeners throughout Europe. The influence 
 of Versailles is particularly noticeable in England, where French masters were 
 employed by the court and aristocracy, and created such masterpieces as Jean 
 Tijon’s magnificent screen of wrought-iron at Hampton court, perhaps the finest 
 piece of decorative smithing in the world. 
 
 Ironwork in France during the period of Louis XIV. was still very much 
 influenced by the traditions of the Renaissance as is quite evident by its severe 
 restraint. During the Régence, however, this trait gave way to an exuberance 
 of motifs which was increased still more during the Rococo period, i. e. the 
 time covering the reign of Louis XV. The greatest masterpieces of this style 
 epoch are the celebrated gates and railings enclosing the Place Stanislas in Nancy. 
 They were made by Jean Lamours, the court smith of King Stanislas Lescynski. 
 The main trait of the preceding period, namely the stressing of the tectonic 
 character of ironwork, especially of railings and gates, is still markedly evident 
 in Lamours’ work. Wherever architectural requirements call for pillars or other 
 supports, the bars are either closely grouped or bundled. A similar arrangement 
 is met with in the trellised gardenzhouses of the period. These too are essentially 
 architectural features in the grounds, and are in perfect harmony with the 
 surroundings; both buildings and landscape. 
 
 The iron gates and railings in the Place Stanislas in Nancy accord so beautiz 
 fully with their setting that it would be difficult to find their equal anywhere. 
 The railings are purely tectonic, the frame and overthrows mainly serve ornaz 
 mental requirements, but the whole is arranged so skilfully that the railings 
 and gates seem to be an integral part of the surrounding edifices, and this is 
 especially emphasized where there are gaps between the houses, in which case 
 the railings appear to connect them, and thus make the gaps part of the 
 rhythm of the whole. At this point we may remark that town-planning does 
 not merely mean planting houses at given intervals, and on particular spots, 
 but it means the creation of an artistic ensemble. In Nancy the iron craftsman 
 has contributed to this requirement by the beauty and utility of his work. The 
 
 XXVII 
 
modern townzplanner would do well to remember how much may be done by 
 such work as distinguishes the Place Stanislas. 
 
 The object of the railings and gates surrounding the Place Stanislas is of 
 course to enclose, but as they do not form a wall, there is no obstruction of 
 the view, and light and air are not excluded. This, of course, accords with the 
 general tendency of the Rococo period, namely to provide large windows flush 
 with the walls, and thus flood the buildings with light. Decorative plastic figures 
 are placed in the portal-like gates. The square itself is embellished with fountains 
 with bombé basins. The railings follow the outline of the square, but are rounded 
 at the corners. The ornamental details surmounting the railings are replete with 
 rocaille patterns which are so beautifully formed that they are in no way inferior 
 to the stuccos and wood:carvings of the Rococo period. Nevertheless, the general 
 impression is perfectly harmonious, in spite of the multitude of details. Similar 
 railings, but with somewhat lighter overthrows, were also smithed in Germany; 
 for instance in Wurzburg. 
 
 Gradually the exuberance of the rocaille ornament was toned down. The 
 vertical line began to dominate again, and a more classic spirit becomes evident. 
 This phase of Late Baroque is usually called Louis XVI, of which wonderful 
 examples exist in the grilles d’honneur in front of the large courtyards of 
 the great monumental French edifices. The tectonic element again comes to the 
 fore. The ornament, instead of being curved, is angular. The spiral is replaced 
 by the meander. The frame and piers are now only embellished with plain 
 circles similar to those in the heavy gates of the Chateau Maison Lafitte. The 
 grand style and the style of Louis XVI. are akin in form. With the latter the 
 piers consist of huge square rods. Heavily moulded cornices surmount the gates. 
 The railings terminate in lancesheads, with or without tassels. There is something 
 distinctly reserved in the character of these railings which is enhanced by the 
 emphatic manner in which they cut off the grounds and edifices they surround 
 from the rest of the world. Good examples are those outside the Palace of — 
 Justice and the Military School in Paris. 
 
 German examples of ironwork comparable with the railings surrounding the 
 Place Stanislas may be seen in the gates and railings in front of the castle in 
 Wirzburg. The railings are not carried along a straight line, but are curved. 
 Intervening stone piers and sentry-boxes capped by obelisks afford the necessary 
 supports. The verticality of the bars is blurred by a wealth of ornament and 
 embellishment, above all the overthrows abound in rocaille motifs. Sometimes 
 the bars are placed in such a manner as to improve the perspective, for instance in 
 the panels of the railings at Weingarten Monastery, as well as at Zwiefalten, 
 and in the shrine of Maria Einsiedeln in Switzerland. The centralepiece of © 
 the choirsscreen at Zwiefalten is constructed in such a manner that the Virgin 
 
 XXVIII 
 
and Jesus, who are completely surrounded by a golden halo, seem to be set 
 in the niche of an altar. Hence it will be seen that smithcraft was able to 
 produce the illusion of perspective on a flat surface in accordance with the style 
 requirements of the period. During the Louis XVI. period the Germans imitated 
 French models. Finally, wroughtiron was replaced by inferior castsiron work. 
 In the age of machinery ornamental smithcraft fell gradually into disuse, and it 
 has not yet been revived to any appreciable extent. 
 
 XXIX 
 
The illustrations are reproduced from photographs of the following publishing firms: 
 
 Alinari, Florence 
 Plates 22, 23, 24, 31, 43, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 86, 87, 92, 93, 97, 98, 99. 
 Brogi, Florence 
 Plates 21. 
 Giraudon, A., Paris 
 Plates 7, 18, 126, 137, 185, 216, 312. 
 Laurent y Cia, Madrid 
 Plates 2, 3, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85. 
 Moscione, Rome 
 Plates 96, 180. 
 Miller, Christof, Niirnberg 
 Plates 44, 47, 102, 108, 116, 131. 
 Austrian State Photographic Department, Vienna I 
 Plates 27, 28, 29, 34, 54, 57, 107, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 175, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 
 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 244, 245, 246, 254, 279, 280, 281, 285, 286, 304, 311, 316. 
 Poppi, Bologne 
 Plates 306. 
 Reusch, August, Munich 
 Plates 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 48, 53, 111, 150, 154, 174, 252, 253, 255, 283, 304. 
 From: H.R.d’Allemagne, Ferronnerie anciennne, Paris 1924 
 Plates 5, 6, 31, 95, 190. 
 From: Contet, F., Documents de Ferronnerie ancienne, Paris 1922 
 Plates 1. 
 
 The publishers wish to express their gratitude to the Director of the Victoria and Albert 
 Museum for kind permission to reproduce several illustrations. 
 
Meer tino ae tS iol ahs © 
 
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