THE.WEAVES OF
HAND-LOOM FABRICS
NANCY ANDREWS REATH
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THE WEAVES OF
HAND-LOOM FABRICS
A CLASSIFICATION WITH
fete b ORD Cua N Ort ES
NANCY ANDREWS REATH
THE PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM
PHILADELPHIA MCMXXVII
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COPYRIGHT, DECEMBER, 1927
BY THE PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM hee ;
AND SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART
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THE ILLUSTRATIONS ARE FROM THE TEXTILE
COLLECTIONS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM ©
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_ History or THE Twitt WEAVES...... a we 30—
SaTIN WEAVES ...... Hed Aaa ease cc pe Soe ata ne he
Pervauy OF THE SATIN WEAVES 2.006. 0. <4 2252 36
Me Evid WEAVES).. 405525. a ees, a ene we ae: B!
- History or THE VELVET WEAVES........... ede of
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History or BROCADING ........000. 000 e eee. ee
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TABLE OF HAND-LOOM WEAVES
SIMPLE WEAVES OOO. COMPOUND WEAVES_ I00.
SIMPLE CLOTH O10. COMPOUND CLOTH 110.
PLAIN CLOTH Olt. PLAIN COMPOUND CLOTH III.
Stamped OII.O1
Moire O11.03
Chiné OI1.04
Printed OII.0§
Slashed OI1.1
DOUBLE CLOTH 112.
FANCY CLOTH O13. FANCY COMPOUND CLOTH II}.
TAPESTRY O14.
Slit Tapestry O14.4
Interlocking
Tapestry 014.5
SIMPLE TWILL O20. COMPOUND TWILL 120.
PLAIN TWILL O21. PLAIN COMPOUND TWILL 121.
FANCY TWILL 023. FANCY COMPOUND TWILL 123.
TWILL TAPESTRY =—=—s 2.4.
Interlocking Twill 3
Tapestry 024.5
SIMPLE SATIN 030. COMPOUND SATIN 130.
PLAIN SATIN O31. PLAIN COMPOUND SATIN 1I3I.
DAMASK 032. COMPOUND DAMASK 132.
FANCY SATIN 033. FANCY COMPOUND SATIN 13}.
GAUZE AND KNOTTED RUG
PLAITED WEAVES 300. WEAVES 400.
KNITTED AND CRO- EMBROIDERY AND
CHETED WEAVES 600. | HOOKED RUGS 700.
VELVET WEAVES 200.
CLOTH VELVET 216,
SOLID LET,
Cut 2II.I
Stamped 211.11
Pile on Pile 211.12
Chiné 211.14
Printed 21.15
Uncut 211.2
Ciselé 211.3
VOIDED pts
Cut 212.1
Uncut he
Ciselé 2123
TWILL VELVET 220.
SOLID 221.
Cut any t
Uncut eB eo)
Ciselé 2215
VOIDED 22%,
SATIN VELVET 230.
SOLID 231.
Cut 234.2
Uncut 2335%
Ciselé 232.3
VOIDED 232.
LACE 500.
FELT 800.
THE W EAVES OF HAND-LOOM FABRICS
seum Bulletin and now revised and largely rewritten, aim to
present a definite classification of early hand-loom fabrics—
and, in many cases, of power-loom fabrics as well—on the sole
basis of the weave so that every piece may be precisely indexed,
and public collections thus become of more practical value to the
student as well as more instructive to the connoisseur.
The tendency of museums in the past has been to mark exhibited
textiles with names in most cases arbitrarily chosen: damask, bro-
catelle, brocade, lampas, and the like, are used without system and
with little understanding of the basic principles of weaving, and
these terms, furthermore, are re-distributed by the dealers so that
the descriptive value they originally possessed is lost in constant
misapplication and generalization. In addition, modern textile
manufacturers have borrowed the traditional names of certain
types of fabrics and have applied them to power-loom products
that bear only superficial resemblances to the early stuffs. Orig-
inally the old terms were in many instances truly descriptive and
so, as far as possible, these have formed the basis of the present
nomenclature; each term, however, has been narrowed by careful
definition so that it can, from the essential aspect of the weave,
apply to one type of fabric only. The primary aim throughout has
been to develop a system that would be not only definite and
reliable but also easily understood; it is obvious that anything
cumbersome or confused by a multiplication of new terms would
be entirely useless as a substitute for the irregular classifications of
the past.
Moreover, this classification should enable museums to arrange
their textile study collections according to a technical as well asa
chronological plan, and the various groups will then show the
importance of weaving as an aid in determining the provenance of
old fabrics. In the past, textiles have almost invariably been classi-
fied by their designs, and the historical development of the weaves
has too often been neglected. The design should surely be the first
)
[ve studies, originally published in the Pennsylvania Mu-
consideration, but it is not always sufhicient for accurate attribu-
tion, and scientific study must include all possible evidence. There
is no doubt that most experts have a subconscious knowledge of
weaves which they use in dating fabrics. But this is only an annoy-
ance to the serious student, who, on asking why a certain piece is
early, or why it is from one country rather than another, is told
that it ‘‘looks’’ like the work of the fourteenth century, or that it
has a Spanish ‘‘feeling.’’ More definite information must be made
available, and it has been proved that this classification of hand-
loom fabrics according to weaves brings out many essential facts.
A decimal system for numbering the different classes and their
subdivisions has also been developed. This will aid in filing the
framed textiles in museum study rooms; each frame will have its
place, and any number of additional frames may be inserted with-
out disturbing the order of the original series. The decimal system
in no way complicates the classification but rather supplies every
fabric with a simple and precise formula, which by reference to the
table on page 4 may be easily and exactly identified. Every number
before and after the decimal point has an absolute meaning: thus a
formula beginning with o represents a simple fabric, with 1, a
compound fabric, with 2, a velvet; a formula with 1 in the ten
column means a cloth weave, with 2, a twill, with 3, a satin, and
so on. The numbers on the other side of the decimal point have a
similar application: thus 1 appearing in the tenth place shows that
the fabric is cut and x in the hundredth place that it is stamped,
and so on. Since practically every fabric may be brocaded, and
since brocading is not part of the basic weave, brocading is desig-
nated by adding a B to the formula, which will immediately
show the complete character of the textile. A survey of the table
will make clear this decimal system. In order to include in the
formula the period to which each piece belongs a line may be
drawn under the numbers, as in a fraction, and below it may be
put the date of the fabric. It will then be possible to file museum
textile frames under the main division of weaves, with subdivi-
sions for periods, and with the fabrics in each period grouped by
countries.
An analysis of weaves will be first undertaken and then each
main division will be discussed in detail, both as to variations in
6
technique and as to history, and the definitions will be more fully
explained. The historical outline in each case is very general and
is only meant to suggest certain methods of dating fabrics. A com-
plete and accurate history of weaves would necessitate close ana-
lytical study of all the known examples of each period; such a
study, when it is made, will inevitably alter many of the conclu-
sions reached from this incomplete survey of a limited number of
fabrics. It is felt, however, that even this partial history will be of
value, if only as a stimulus to further study of the development of
textile technique.
ANALYSIS OF THE WEAVES
The technical possibilities of hand-loom weaving are compara-
tively limited; for all their apparent complexity of design and
colour, old textiles are reducible to a few main weaves. To develop
his pattern the weaver depended upon simple groups of warps and
wefts ingeniously handled; the complex interweaving made possi-
ble by the invention of the power-loom was quite beyond him.
With the recognition of this technical limitation the comprehen-
sion of ancient textiles becomes far easier, and this classification,
based as it is entirely upon weaves—not upon material used (silk,
cotton, linen, or wool), nor colour, nor design—is all embracing.
From the definitions that follow, technical terms have been as far
as possible eliminated. Four important words, however, it 1s neces-
sary to explain:
SELVAGES: the two parallel edges of every woven fabric, consisting of a
closely woven narrow border, or of one or more heavier threads.
WARP: all the threads that run parallel to the selvages and lengthwise in
the fabric; also called the warp ends.
wEFT: all the threads that intersect the warp and run across the fabric at
right angles to the selvages; also called the woof, filling, shoot, or pick.
FLOAT: 4 thread that runs free for a short distance either on the face or on
the back of the fabric, since it is, for a space, not interwoven with any of
the other threads.
The warp threads are stretched in parallel lines on the loom and
certain of these are alternately raised and depressed to allow the
shuttles to pass between, carrying the weft threads from side to
side; the various ways in which the two intersect form the various
WEAVES.
There are three principal weaves, cloth, twill, and satin, and
each may be simple, compound, or pile (velvet), and each may in
addition be brocaded.
000. . SIMPLE WEAVES: one set of warp threads woven with one set of
weft threads.
O10. SIMPLE CLOTH: warp threads and weft threads passing over and
under each other alternately (Figure 1).
Ribbed cloths, or cords, are woven in precisely the same
way as smooth cloths, the difference resting only upon —
inequality in the size and number of the threads. Horizon-
tal ribbing is produced by covering a heavy weft with finer
and more numerous warps. Vertical ribbing rarely occurs
in old stuffs except in tapestry.
OIl. PLAIN CLOTH: the fabric is entirely of cloth weave.
OII.OI sTAMPED: the fabric zs pressed with blocks or with chased and
heated cylinders, so that an embossed design is produced.
OI1.03 MOIRE: a watered effect produced either by passing two pieces of
the finished fabric face to face between metal cylinders, so that the
threads of one piece compress irregularly the threads of the other,
or by the use of engraved cylinders which impress a watered design
on the face.
Moiré patterns are usually found in ribbed cloths.
O11.04 CHINE: the threads, either warp or weft or both, before weaving
are printed, painted, or irregularly dyed so that, when woven, the
patterns appear in different colours all on the same threads.
OII.05 PRINTED: patterns in colour introduced by any method after the
fabric is woven.
Coloured blocks or cylinders may be used to produce printed
designs, or the patterns may be dyed, stencilled, or painted
on the cloth. This subdivision includes toile de Jouy,
chintz, and batik, as well as the Indian cloths in which all
three methods are used.
8
OII.I
O13.
O14.
O14.4
O14.5§
O20.
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SLASHED : some of the threads, or all the threads, in certain places
ave cut.
FANCY CLOTH: @ simple cloth in which the ground is woven as in
plain cloth and small patterns formed at intervals by floats of
warp and weft threads, or by irregular ribbing.
Huckaback towels are of fancy cloth weave (Figure 12).
The subdivisions listed under plain cloth may occur in
fancy cloth, but such fabrics are seldom found. Silks of
fancy cloth weave are also comparatively rare.
TAPESTRY: @ Stmple fabric of cloth weave, usually with vertical
ribbing, in which the weft threads form the pattern and do not
run the full width of the piece. Each weft 2s woven back and forth
around the warp threads only where each particular colour is
needed (Figure 13).
The tapestry weave differs from brocading in that a bro-
caded thread is always one that is added to the main weft,
while in tapestry the pattern weft is the only weft used.
SLIT TAPESTRY: @ tapestry in which the various wefts are not
interwoven with each other at their edges, and slits therefore
appear between them (Figure 2).
In most European tapestries it is necessary to sew the slits
after the tapestry is: woven; in other tapestries the design
is so planned that the colours dovetail and no long slits
occur.
INTERLOCKING TAPESTRY: 4 tapestry in which the vartous wefts,
at their edges, are looped through each other so that there are no
slits.
Certain woolen blankets, such as those made by the North
American Indians, are of this weave:
SIMPLE TWILL: serzes of regularly recurrent warp threads pass in
echelon over and under the weft threads, one after another and two
or more at a time, producing diagonal ribs or stepped patterns;
in twill adjoining warp threads always intersect adjoining weft
threads.
PLAIN TWILL: @ twill in which the diagonal ribs are regular
(Figure 4).
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Priatn CLotH, OLl. Suit TAPESTRY, 014.4
Each weft thread (stippled) passes over Weft threads, never looped together, of
three different colours (stippled, white,
and hatched) pass under one and over one
warp thread (b/ack).
one and under one warp thread (black).
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INTERLOCKING TwILu TAPESTRY, 024.5
Weft threads, looped through each other, of
two different colours (stippled and hatched ) pass
under one and over two warp threads (black).
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FANCY TWILL: a twell in which the diagonal ribbing is irregular
and forms various diamond, chevron, or herring-bone designs; or
the pattern may be in weft twill on a ground of warp twill or
vice versa.
The classification of twills rarely requires the subdivi-
sions found under cloth weaves.
TWILL TAPESTRY: @ Simple fabric of twill weave in which the
weft threads form the pattern and do not run the full width of the
pzece. Each weft 1s woven.back and forth around the warp threads
only where each particular colour is needed.
INTERLOCKING TWILL TAPESTRY: @ twill tapestry in which the
various wefts are looped through each other at their edges (Figure
a
This weave is found in Cashmere, or India, shawls.
SIMPLE SATIN: the warp threads pass under one and over more
than three—usually more than five—weft threads, concealing the
weft and producing a smooth surface on the face and the effect of a
simple weave on the back of the fabric; in satin adjoining warp
threads never intersect adjoining weft threads (Figure 5).
Satin is merely a broken twill, but in satin the warp threads
are ordinarily much finer than the weft threads and more
numerous to the square inch so that they conceal the weft.
There is also weft satin, sometimes called sateen, in which
the smooth surface is produced by the weft threads instead
of by the warp, so that the grain of the satin weave runs
at right angles to the selvages, not parallel to them as in
warp satin. In ancient textiles weft satin seems to occur
only in linen damask.
PLAIN SATIN: the face of the fabric is entirely of smooth satin,
which does not appear anywhere on the back.
DAMASK: @ reversible patterned fabric in which areas of satin
adjoin areas of simple weave on the face and on the back in
exchanged positions (Figure 21).
FANCY SATIN: @ patterned fabric in which areas of satin adjoin
areas of twill or of cloth weave on the face, but on the back there
is no satin, and the fabric is not reversible (Figure 22).
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PLaIn TwILtL, 021.
Each weft thread (stippled) passes over one and under
six warp threads (black)
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130.
131.
132.
133.
COMPOUND WEAVEs: one set of warp threads and two or more
wefts, or one set of weft threads and two or more warps, or both
multiple warps and multiple wefts.
COMPOUND CLOTH: multiple warps or wefts, or both, of which
one warp and one weft are of cloth weave.
PLAIN COMPOUND CLOTH: ove warp and one weft, interwoven as
in simple cloth, with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or retnforceng.
DOUBLE CLOTH: one warp and one weft of cloth weave interwoven
with a second warp and weft also of cloth weave (Figure 6).
A double cloth is precisely the same as two simple cloths
joined back to back, either loosely or tightly, by periodic
interchange of warp and weft; this method of weaving
makes reversible figuring possible, and at the same time
the strength of the fabric is doubled.
FANCY COMPOUND CLOTH: one warp and one weft, interwoven as
in fancy cloth, with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or retnforceng.
COMPOUND TWILL: multiple warps or wefts, or both, of which
one warp and one weft are of twill weave.
PLAIN COMPOUND TWILL: ove warp and one weft, interwoven as
in plain twill with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or reinforcing.
FANCY COMPOUND TWILL: one warp and one weft, interwoven
as in fancy twill, with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or reinforcing.
COMPOUND SATIN: multiple warps or wefts, or both, of which
one warp and one weft are of satin weave.
PLAIN COMPOUND SATIN: one warp and one weft, interwoven as
in plain satin, with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or reinforcing.
COMPOUND DAMASK: 4 foundation of damask with an extra
warp or weft; always reversible.
FANCY COMPOUND SATIN: one warp and one weft, interwoven as
in fancy satin, with one or more extra warps or wefts, or both,
used for figuring or reinforcing; never reversible.
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VELVET WEAVES: @ foundation fabric of simple or compound
weave with one, two, three, or four extra warps, or extra wefts,
lifted in loops above the surface (Figure 7).
The loops are formed by passing the velvet, or pile, warps
over rods which are then withdrawn, leaving the threads
standing in loops above the face of the fabric. This is un-
cut velvet; when cut velvet is desired a knife is run along
a groove in the rod, cutting the loops in half; or the loops
are sometimes cut separately by hand. It is also possible to.
use weft threads for velvet pile; these are woven loosely,
without wires, and are cut after the weaving is finished.
Velveteen is weft velvet made of cotton. Other fabrics in
which selvage-to-selvage wefts are twisted into loops may
be also classed as weft velvets.
Among ancient velvets the pile is almost always of silk.
Velvets differ from one another in respect to the founda-
tion weave, and have been classified accordingly. The pile
- warps are generally very numerous and fine, and therefore
the uncut loops or the tufts of cut thread obscure the
foundation fabric. Colour effects are produced by the in-
troduction of pile warps of different shades.
CLOTH VELVET: a velvet weave in which the foundation fabric 25
of semple or compound cloth.
SOLID CLOTH VELVET: the pile warps are lifted above the surface
to cover the entire foundation fabric.
The visible surface of the velvet is entirely of pile: an “‘all-
over’ -velvet.
CUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: all the loops of the pile warps are
cut, and the projecting ends thus formed from each loop stand
perpendicular to the face of the fabric and produce a brush-like
surface.
STAMPED CUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: the velvet, after weaving,
is pressed with blocks or with chased and heated cylinders, so
that areas of the pile surface are crushed flat.
PILE ON PILE CUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: the loops of the pile
warps are of two or more sizes, producing patterns in two or more
heights of pale.
a
Figure 6
Dous.ez Cioru, 112.
Cross-section. First warp, black; first weft, white; second
warp, hatched; second weft, stippled.
Figure 7
CisELE VELVET, 211.3
Cross-section. Pile warp, black; weft, hatched.
First pile loop shown over rod, second and third
loops uncut.
Figure 8
Process or BRocADING
Three brocading bobbins shown
2II.I4 CHINE CUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: the pile warp threads before
2I1.15
fo th Ce
211.3
BN ips Ee
230.
weaving are printed or painted so that, when woven, the patterns
appear in different colours all on the same threads.
PRINTED CUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: the velvet is painted or is
pressed with coloured or gilded blocks or cylinders.
UNCUT SOLID CLOTH VELVET: 4// the loops of the pile warp are
left uncut. |
Fabrics of this sort have not the glossy surface of cut
velvets.
CISELE SOLID CLOTH VELVET: some of the loops of the pile warps
ave cut and others left uncut, producing patterns by contrast.
VOIDED CLOTH VELVET: the pile warp is intermittently lifted in
loops above the surface and then hidden in the foundation fabric,
so that a velvet pattern (or background) appears with a back-
ground (or pattern) of the foundation fabric.
Thus in a voided velvet certain areas of the fabric are of
velvet and others of the foundation weave; it is not an
‘all-over’ velvet.
TWILL VELVET: 4 velvet weave in which the foundation fabric is
of stmple or compound twill (Figure 26).
All three classes of velvet may have the same subdivisions,
and it is not necessary to repeat the list under each head-
ing. The arrangement and numbering of the classes may
be seen in the table under Cloth Velvet.
SATIN VELVET: @ velvet weave in which the foundation fabric is
of simple or compound satin (Figure 27).
This again ts subdivided in precisely the same way as above.
BROCADED: @ pattern is woven, on a foundation fabric of semple,
compound, or velvet weave, in one or more extra wefts which do
not run straight from selvage to seluage (Figures 31-35).
Theoretically any fabric in the classification may be bro-
caded. By adding the word “‘brocaded”’ to the exact names
of the fabrics listed above, and by ending the formulas
with a ‘'B,’’ the classification is easily adapted to this
important class of stuffs. For example, there is plain com-
pound satin, 131. and plain compound satin, brocaded,
1 ga OF
16
The class of a fabric should be determined by the foundation
weave, that is, the weave found in the bulk of the piece. If there
are equal areas of different weaves, as in some striped fabrics, the
main weave shall be considered the more elaborate one: satin, in
a combination of satin and twill; and twill in twill and cloth.
Subsidiary weft threads are frequently bound down by the warp in
echelon, producing diagonal twill lines, but if the ground of the
piece is cloth or satin, the basic weave is to be so determined and
cannot be labeled twill simply because of a twill binding for the
extra wefts.
In using several terms a certain order must be followed. The
~ name of the lowest subdivision should come first and the main
heading last: chine cut solid twill velvet, for example, or pile on
pile ciselé voided satin velvet.
The classification may be extended to include all the fabrics in
museum collections that are usually listed as textiles, although
they are not all woven stuffs. The 300 division will include gauze
and textiles of plaited or twisted weave, in which the warp or weft
threads do not lie straight, although few ancient fabrics of this
type have been preserved. The knotted weaves of Oriental carpets
will be 400, and under this heading interesting subdivisions may
be made based on differences in technique. The next class, 500,
will include the various laces, both needlepoint and bobbin. Knitted
and crocheted fabrics will be 600. Embroidery and hooked rugs,
in which the pattern is worked on a previously woven stuff, will
be 700, and felt 800. In this way a place will be kept for every type
of fabric, and under each main heading the necessary subdivisions
may be made according to technique.
17
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Figure 9 Figure to
PRINTED Puan CLOTH, O11.05 Morré Pian Corts, 011.03
French, 18th century French, 19th century
: Figure 11 Figure 12
Cuinké Pian Ciotu, 011.04 Fancy CLotu, 013.
Mexican, 18th (?) century Sicilian, 18th (2) century
CLOTH WEAVES
SIMPLE CLOTH
The term cloth is here applied solely to a type of weave, and
therefore must not be confused with other uses of the word to mean
a woolen fabric or even any woven material. In a simple cloth the
warp threads and the weft threads are regularly interwoven on the
principle of “‘under one and over one’’ (Figure 1). This category
includes muslin, cheesecloth, percale, cambric, taffeta, pongee, and
the like. It is the ordinary weave found in cotton or linen sheets
and handkerchiefs. Taffeta is silk, very closely woven, and is there-
fore stiffer than other fabrics of cloth weave. In pongee the weft
threads are of uneven thickness, showing the characteristic nubs
of wild silk.
Ribbed fabrics, or cords, are of cloth weave but the warp and
weft threads differ in size, and the finer and more numerous threads
are usually so woven around the coarse ones—which lie flat—that
they conceal them.
Varied colours and designs may be introduced into simple cloths
by several methods. Changeable cloth may be made by weaving a
warp of one colour with a weft of another colour. A group of warp
threads in one colour may alternate with a group in a different
colour, forming lengthwise stripes; the same treatment of the weft
forms crosswise bars. A combination of bars and stripes results in
a pattern of checks, as in checked gingham.
Designs may be produced by stamping after the fabric is woven,
and there are also many ribbed cloths with moiré patterns—a wa-
tered effect—in addition to the woven design (Figure 10). These
patterns are pressed into the fabric after weaving, either with en-
graved cylinders or with another piece of the stuff; the latter is
sometimes called moiré antique, and differs from the other in that
its design has no regular repeat.
Then there are chiné cloths, in which the threads are printed,
dyed, or painted before they are woven (Figure 11). Chiné painting
and printing are usually done on the warp threads, but dyes may
be applied to both weft and warp.
.
For convenience all fabrics with coloured designs applied after
weaving are classed as printed, although colours may be otherwise
- added: they may be painted or stencilled by hand; they may be
printed with wood blocks, metal plates, or cylinders; or a design
may be dyed by the use of a mordant to fix the colours where
wanted, or by the use of a resist to prevent the penetration of the
dye where it is not needed (Figure 9). The important distinction
between woven and printed or chiné patterns is that in the former
each thread is the same colour throughout, while in the latter the
same thread is of different colours in different parts of the ee
as may be seen in Figure 9.
In many fancy cloths the pattern is of floated warp threads, as
in huckaback towels, Figure 12; ribbed cloths are plain when the
ribbing is regular, and fancy when it is irregular.
COMPOUND CLOTH
The second cloth weave is compound cloth, which may be plain,
double, or fancy. A plain compound cloth has a main warp and
weft and also one or more extra warps or wefts, or both, while a
double cloth has two main warps and two main wefts. Fancy com-
pound cloth, in which extra warps or wefts are interwoven with
a foundation weave of fancy cloth, rarely occurs. Figure 14 shows
a plain compound cloth of yellow linen with the pattern in an ex-
tra warp of green silk. More often, however, designs are made with
extra wefts than with extra warps. Certain compound ribbed cloths
have patterns woven in extra warps or wefts, or even both, of the
same colour as the ground; these extra threads float for short dis-
tances over the face of the fabric, making small embossed or peb-
bled patterns. This technique is illustrated in Figure 15 by a detail
from a French silk: the leaves and rosebuds in the design are of
floated weft threads which are the same yellow as the background.
In a double cloth the two main warps and two main wefts result
in two cloths, sometimes of different materials, woven together.
‘The two cloths may be so joined that it is possible to pull them
apart in certain places and to feel two distinct fabrics; or else they
may be frequently and closely interwoven, and the double cloth is
then only to be recognized by distinguishing the two warps and
two wefts. The two cloths are usually of contrasting colours and
20
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the pattern is formed by bringing first one and then the other to
the surface of the fabric (Figure 16); the design on the back of a
double cloth is usually the same as that on the face, with the
colours reversed. Modern Marseilles bedspreads are examples of the
double weave. :
HISTORY OF THE CLOTH WEAVES
The cloth weave without ribbing, sometimes known as plain
weave, or tabby, is the simplest of all weaves and has been used
always and everywhere since spun threads were first woven. This
mode of weaving no doubt developed from the primitive interlac-
ing of rushes, cane, and similar fibres, for various kinds of baskets
and mats. The cloth weave in different materials is found among
all the ancient textiles that have been preserved. The oldest are
probably the Egyptian linen cloths of about 4000 B. c. and the
textile fragments from the Swiss lake dwellers of about 3000 B. c.
There are examples of plain cloth weave in Chinese silks of the
Han Dynasty, as well as in the Coptic fabrics made 1n Egypt dur-
ing the Christian era. These patternless cloths, however, are of
archacological interest rather than artistic.
The earliest patterns were probably dyed or painted on cloth.
Pliny describes the process in use in Egypt in his time, that of
mordant dyeing. Some Chinese stuffs of the eighth century, with
dyed patterns, have been preserved, as well as Peruvian printed
cloths made before the Inca Period. Javanese batiks, Japanese
stencilled fabrics, and the various printed textiles of the Gothic
and Renaissance periods in Italy and in Germany, and of later
times throughout Europe, are almost invariably of plain cloth
weave. This is natural since there would be no object in weaving
One pattern when another was to be printed afterwards. Among
the best known of these printed cloths are the French todles de Jouy
of the eighteenth century. An examination of modern printed silks
will show how the primitive idea of painting plain cloth has
developed and yet remained in principle singularly unchanged.
Examples of chiné cloth may be found in the zkat weavings of the
Indonesian and other primitive races. The French word chzné is
from the Italian for this process, alla chinese, which suggests a
connexion with the Far East, or more likely with the East Indian
trade. | ?
22
Taffeta, or plain cloth of tightly woven silk, with designs bro-
caded in silk and metal, is found in many French stuffs of the Louis
XV period when stiff fabrics were in demand, and also in Persian
silks of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is to be noted
that simple and compound cloth weaves in silk were carried to
greater heights of perfection and elaboration in Persia and Spain
than in other weaving centres, where this technique was ordinarily
reserved for plain stuffs of linen, cotton, or wool.
An interesting variant of plain cloth is slashed taffeta, which
seems to have originated in the late sixteenth century and which
continued in use through the seventeenth century, during the same
period as the kindred slashed satins (Figure 20).
The plain compound cloth weave is found in many Egyptian
textiles of the Coptic period, in Sicilian linen covers, Sardinian
rugs, and in Perugia towels, which have been woven in much the
same way since about the twelfth century. This weave occurs in
Spanish fabrics of the thirteenth century and later, and also, but
less frequently, in other European textiles, as well as in many
peasant woven stuffs of different periods. For silk, however, the
compound cloth weave seems to have been more used in Spain than
elsewhere.
Many of the coverlets woven in America during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries are plain compound cloth, with the pat-
tern in heavy woolen weft threads on a foundation of plain cotton
cloth. There are also at the present time quantities of modern power-
loom fabrics of cloth weave that have extra wefts to form the
patterns.
Double cloth has always been an extremely useful and popular
weave. It is found, together with simple cloth, in Peru, and the
section of a poncho, illustrated in Figure 16, is a double cloth of
brown and white cotton with the typically Peruvian stair-sign
pattern. The interweaving of the two cloths may here be plainly
seen: one cloth submerges when the other colour is needed, and
the second cloth then rises to the surface. Nevertheless, while they
appear to be two separate cloths, they are of course interwoven and
form one indivisible fabric. The double weave occurs in silks of
the eleventh century attributed to Byzantium, and in those of the
twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries attributed to Sicily,
map
Italy, Spain, and Persia. Double cloth was expertly woven by the
Persians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A fabric, illus-
trating the story of Mechnoun and Leila, is of this weave: there is
a piece of it in the Cooper Union in New York and it is also illus-
trated by Errera in Catalogue d’Etoffes, No. 264. Other Persian
silks of cloth weave have floral patterns, and amazing variety of
colour and intricacy of design were achieved by the Persians with
this primitive weave.
There are Spanish double cloths of the twelfth century, and the
weave is constantly found in Spanish textiles on through the seven-
teenth century. A type of early American coverlet generally found
in Pennsylvania is of double cloth weave, and this weave is also
widely used at the present time in both hand-loom and power-loom
fabrics of many different materials. In hand-weaving, however,
the cloth weaves in silk are ordinarily found in the earlier stuffs—
usually before the Renaissance—or else in the simpler fabrics of
Spanish workmanship and in the products of primitive looms,
which are not always entirely of silk.
Cord, or ribbed cloth, came into general use much later than
smooth cloth, twill, or satin. It does not seem to have been used
in China, and in the West it does not occur to any extent before the
late sixteenth century. Some striped silks of a very fine cord weave
were produced in Egypt in the ninth and tenth centuries and it is
possible that cord was developed from the earlier tapestry weave,
which is almost invariably ribbed. There are a few rare examples
of patterned cords, perhaps woven in Baghdad about the tenth
century, and a group of brocaded silk cords of the fourteenth cen-
tury, attributed by Falke to Parisian looms. It is not, however,
until the seventeenth century that ribbed cloth came into general
use. At that time it was either simple, with designs brocaded in
colours, or else compound, with extra wefts forming the patterns;
designs made with extra warps occur less frequently.
In the late sixteenth century there are many examples with extra
wefts of flat metal strips so buried in the ground weave that only
the sheen is visible. Such a fabric often has a second weft of silk—
white when the metal is silver, yellow when it is gilt—woven as
a background for the metal threads; these stuffs are customarily
reversible, and some pieces are without metal, the reversible design
24
being in silk only. This weave may be Spanish or it may possibly
be German. The slashed cords of the late sixteenth and of the
seventeenth century may have an extra weft floating on the surface
which is cut, or the fabric may be slashed right through. Other
stuffs, in the same period, have patterns in brocaded threads as
well as extra wefts of very fine strips of metal which lie near the
sutface of the fabric. The extra metal weft, in other examples of
this period, consists of a silk core wound with strips of metal; it
sometimes floats free on both the face and back of the fabric, being
interwoven only where it comes through from one side to the other.
In the seventeenth century a new type of compound cord was
developed that became extremely popular in the succeeding cen-
tury. It consists in the weaving of pebbled patterns in extra weft
threads, or extra warps, of the same colour as the ground of the
fabric (Figure 15); both warps and wefts are thus woven in many
of the elaborate stuffs of the Louis XV period. These patterns may
be the sole designs, but they are more usually subordinate to a
main design in various colours, and they greatly enrich the stuffs
in which they appear.
Many Spanish fabrics, of the seventeenth century and later, are
ribbed double cloths, tightly woven and with the pattern reversed
on the back. Another Spanish weave that was used during the
eighteenth century is a very loose cord with the main design in
several extra wefts and a secondary pattern in floating warps of the
same colour as the ground. In others, which may be Spanish but
are more likely French and made in Lyons, thecord ground is tightly
woven and the extra warp of the secondary pattern—the same colour
as the ground—floats free from the main weave wherever it appears
on the back of the fabric. Such pieces are frequently brocaded in
both silk and chenille, and may be attributed to the period of
Louis XIV.
In France the cord weave reigned with Louis XV. Textiles in his
time were used chiefly for costume, since walls were no longer cov-
eted with fabrics but were paneled in wood. For pannier skirts
and flaring coats and waistcoats fashion demanded the stiffest silks,
so that the supple velvets and satins were discarded in favour of
cords and taffetas, but more especially cords. Most of these were
brocaded and many were compound as well. Fewer cords were
)
made in the late eighteenth century, when soft fabrics were again
in demand, but their popularity increased in the succeeding periods,
and at the present day innumerable ribbed fabrics are woven.
The moiré process, used in making many modern ribbons, has
been more frequently applied to cord than to smooth cloth (Figure
10). It is often said that moiré patterns were first produced in the
eighteenth century, since they were the fashion at that time, but
watered designs must have been known long before, because they
appear in paintings as early as the fifteenth or sixteenth century,
and in the Musée Historique at Berne there are some squares of
moiré linen in a dalmatic with orphreys of the thirteenth century;
it is unlikely, however, that the moiré linen is of as early a date
as the orphreys. The moiré silks of the late eighteenth and of the
nineteenth century are the most plentiful and the best known.
Some of the late eighteenth century pieces have moiré backgrounds
for patterns in brocading or in extra wefts; and in the Directoire
and Empire periods there were silks with moiré and satin stripes,
as well as plain cords with all-over moiré designs.
Chiné patterns are found in cords of both hand-loom and power-
loom weave. There are eighteenth century examples from Central
Asia—probably Bokhara, where chiné velvets were also made—
from Poland, from Japan, and from Mexico; some of the Mexican
rebozos, or silk scarves with chiné patterns, one of which is illus-
trated in Figure 11, are even attributed to the sixteenth century.
In the later nineteenth century there were French chiné silk cords,
but at present the process is less used than other methods of printing
or dyeing fabrics.
216
Been.
TWILL WEAVES
SIMPLE TWILL
Simple twill (Figures 4, 17), like simple cloth, is a fabric with
a single warp and a single weft, but the method of weaving differs
radically from the simple under-one-over-one of plain cloth.
A fabric of twill weave is one in which each weft thread passes
in echelon under one or more and over two or more warp threads, or
Over one and wnder two or more; that is, in a twill of the over one
and under six type (Figure 4), the first thread of the weft lies over
the first warp thread and under the next six, the second weft thread
over the second warp and under the next six, and so on. This pro-
gressive interweaving of the threads produces the unbroken diagonal
ribs that constitute a twill and by which it may most easily be
recognized. To those unfamiliar with technical definitions a simile
may be of use by way of further explanation. Imagine, then, a high
flight of steps, each step representing a thread of the weft. On the
bottom step, at the extreme left, the end of a rope—the first warp
thread—1s secured by a large stone; the rope is drawn up over six
steps and weighted by another stone on the seventh step, then up
Over six more steps, then another stone on the fourteenth step, and
so on to the top of the steps. A second rope lies parallel to the first
one and is similarly weighted, but its first stone is on the second
step from the bottom. The third parallel rope is weighted on the
third step from the bottom, the fourth on the fourth step, the fifth
on the fifth, the sixth on the sixth, and the seventh, which is the
last of the series, on the seventh step. The weighting of the eighth
rope begins again on the bottom step, as it did with the first rope,
and the order continues as in the first series. Thus there are six steps
in every interval between the stones, but the lowest stone for each
rope is a step higher than the preceding one, so that the stones
form diagonal lines across the flight of steps. The diagonal pattern
in twill is the same: the weighting stones mark where the weft
threads cross over the vertical warps, represented by the ropes; and
as each stone weights the next rope one step higher than the pre-
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ceding rope was weighted, so each weft thread crosses the next
warp one thread higher than the preceding warp was crossed.
One important result of this method of interweaving is that in
most cases the areas of warp and weft visible on the face of the
fabric are not equal, either warp or weft predominating. A weft
twill is one in which the weft threads pass under one and over two
or more warp threads, almost concealing the warps, while in a
watp twill more of the warp is visible, as the wefts pass over but
one warp and then under two or more. Simple twills may be either
plain or fancy: the diagonal ribs are regular in a plain twill, and
irregular in a fancy twill, as in the upper part of Figure 18. Herring-
bone stripes are effected by reversing the action of sections of the
warp, and tweed and homespun are generally fancy twills. While
the twill weave is used for patterns it also makes a stronger and
heavier fabric than simple cloth.
COMPOUND TWILL
A compound twill has a main warp and weft, which may be
interwoven either as in plain twill or as in fancy twill; in addition
to this foundation weave, it has also one or more extra warps or
One or more extra wefts, or both.
Compound twills more frequently have extra wefts than extra
warps. These wefts make the design, and an extra warp is only
introduced to bind them. Weft twills may have two wefts—one
colour for the background and one for the pattern—or they may
have several wefts and complicated designs in a great variety of
colours. Warp twills have fewer colours and the weave is less regu-
lar, the warps being sometimes woven in pairs. Few weft twills
have been preserved that contain metal, while the less colourful
warp twills often have designs in gilt thread as well as in silk.
The illustration in Figure 19 shows a plain compound warp
twill that has two warps, two wefts, and at intervals a third
weft. The main warp and weft, of green silk, form the background
of the pattern, and as it is a warp twill the warp obscures the weft.
The second weft, of linen wound with strips of gilded goldbeaters’
skin (a thin membrane), forms the main design, and at intervals
the third weft, for the centre of the flower, is introduced only where
it is needed. These extra wefts are held down by a secondary warp
ao
of extremely fine pink silk, which appears on the face of the fabric
only where it binds the extra wefts.
In classifying twills the importance of disregarding the weave
of the extra weft must be emphasized. Subsidiary weft threads are
usually bound down by the warps in echelon, producing diagonal
twill lines—the centre of the flower, for example, in Figure 19—
but the ground of the piece is not therefore necessarily twill; it
may be of quite another weave.
HISTORY OF THE TWILL WEAVES
It is probable that the twill weave originated in Egypt between
the second and fifth centuries of the Christian era. In most coun-
tries the oldest fabrics with woven patterns are of tapestry weave,
usually in wool. Many such tapestries were made in Egypt, and
from them was developed a coarse weft twill', which has been
found on grave pillows with mummies of the second and third
centuries’, although similar pieces are frequently attributed to the
fifth or sixth century. These fragments are of wool with two wefts
running from selvage to selvage. The Egyptians had always been
expert weavers, as is proved by the many examples of their cloth
and tapestry weaves that have been preserved, and they may have
developed weft twill in an attempt to imitate the weave of con-
temporary Chinese silks. In the Chinese fabrics attributed to the
Han Dynasty by Sir Aurel Stein the designs are woven in the verti-
cal warp threads, a difficult technique that was not known to
the Egyptians whose patterns are always in the horizontal weft
threads. Some of the patterns in the Egyptian weft twills suggest
Chinese influence, and in several pieces the design has been turned
sidewise, for the weaving, so that when it is right side up the weft
threads are vertical and might be mistaken for warp threads, were
there no selvage to serve as guide; this suggests an attempt to
reproduce with woolen weft threads the effect of the vertical silk
warps in Chinese stuffs.
Most of the patterned silks woven between 4oo and 1100 A. D.,
are weft twills. This weave naturally follows the tapestry weave
in which also the weft threads conceal the warp. The close relation
between tapestry and twill may be seen in the Perugia towel illus-
. F. Flanagan, The Origin of the Drawloom, Burlington Magazine, vol. XXXV, p. 167.
®A. F. Kendrick, Catalogue of Textiles from Burying-Grounds in Egypt, vol. Il, pp. 71, 72.
30
[|
trated in Figure 18: the white ground above the design is fancy
twill; the plain blue band is of tapestry weave; the pattern below
is in an extra weft of blue on a white ground of plain cloth weave;
and all three weaves are executed on the same warp threads. In
Egyptian textiles, also, cloth and tapestry, or tapestry and twill,
are often found in the same piece.
Twillisa better weave for silk fabrics than either cloth or tapestry,
since it exposes greater lengths of the glossy thread. The produc-
tion of silk textiles grew along with the perfection of twill weav-
ing, not only because of the improvement in technique, but also
because during the same period the supply of raw silk was increased.
Before the sixth century all silkworm silk had to be brought from
China, usually through Persia, and wars with the Parthian and
Sassanian Empires had frequently interrupted the Roman trade.
About the year 552, however, according to Procopius and Theo-
phanes*, silkworms’ eggs were first brought to Byzantium from
the Orient, and after centuries of laborious silk importation seri-
culture in the West had its beginning; the Mediterranean coun-
tries, therefore, were no longer entirely dependent on the East for
their raw material. Then too, the Emperor Justin II in the same
century exchanged embassies with the Tu-kiue of Central Asia,
whose subjects, the Sogdians, had been for some time chief inter-
mediaries in the silk trade*; through the Sogdians a commerce in
silk was established that was independent of the Persian middlemen.
From the sixth century forward, quantities of weft twills were
made, and many pieces, of Egyptian, Byzantine, and Persian pro-
venance, have been preserved. Knowledge of twill weaving had
quickly spread from Egypt to the Near East and Persia; it ts pos-
sible that it even reached China, although some of the so-called
T’ang silks, such as those at Horiuji in Japan, that are of twill
weave, might have been made in the West for the Chinese trade.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with the rise of silk
weaving in Sicily and Italy, the weft twill of earlier times occurred
less frequently, and numbers of patterned silks in this period were
warp twills. The pattern in some of the Gothic warp twills is made
by an extra weft of the same colour as the ground, with some bro-
8Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. I, p. 203.
4Ernest Pariset, Histoire de la Soie, vol. I, p. 187.
31
caded gilt thread; in others an extra weft of gilt thread is used for
the design, and sometimes extra silk wefts as well—Figure 19, for
example. Although warp twill was not generally woven before
the twelfth century, earlier examples do occur: one in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, with a very fine herring-bone pattern and
probably from Akhmim, is attributed to the sixth or seventh cen-
tury. The warp twill weave was either copied from Chinese satin,
or else it was independently developed on the weft twill principle;
it may possibly have been the model in Europe for satin, which
began to supersede it in the fourteenth century. After the fifteenth
century warp twills are seldom found in silk weaving in Europe,
although there are some sixteenth century Spanish pieces that look
very like satin, but which are in reality finely woven warp twills.
In the Far East the warp twill weave occurs in many Japanese bro-
caded silks of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
A revival of the weft twill weave took place in the so-called
Cologne orphreys of the fifteenth century. These are narrow bands,
sometimes only two and a half inches wide, rarely more than five
inches, with floral patterns, religious inscriptions and figures. The
weave is a fancy compound twill, with two warps entirely con-
cealed by the wefts, and the ground weft, of gilt or silvered gold-
beaters’ skin wound about a linen thread, woven to form a herring-
bone pattern. Extra wefts of coloured silks are introduced where
needed for the design, and there is also a continuous white linen
weft that does not appear on the surface. Additional details were
sometimes embroidered in the patterns after the pieces left the
looms. These narrow webs, with only acord for selvage, were woven
in imitation of embroidered orphreys and are usually attributed to
Germany or Flanders. With this exception, however, a weft twill
is as rare in patterned silks after the thirteenth century as is a
warp twill before the twelfth.
Nowadays the twill weave is usually found in woolen stuffs—
in fact, the French term for twill is tzssu sergé—and we have serge,
many kinds of blankets, certain tweeds and flannels, and Scottish
tartans, all of simple twill weave.
32
SATIN WEAVES
SIMPLE SATIN
The name, satin, is ordinarily applied to silk fabrics of a certain
weave; in this classification, however, it will be used for the weave
only and not for the material.
In satin the bulk of the warp, or the bulk of the weft, is on the
face of the fabric, and the threads that are visible are usually finer
and more numerous than those that are concealed. A warp satin
is one in which the warp threads appear on the surface, and a weft
satin is one in which only the weft threads appear. In early textiles
the weft satin weave occurs only in linen damasks.
Satin is woven on the same principle as twill, but since the two
types of fabric differ in appearance and in history it has seemed
wiser to assign them to separate divisions. In weaving satin the
weft threads may be passed regularly, but never successively, over
one and under three or more warp threads: the first weft thread
may, for example, cross over the first warp and under the next six,
the second weft over the third warp and under the next six (Figure
5). This produces a smooth surface, since the warp threads cross
the wefts in long floats and the intersections never adjoin diag-
orally, so that the weft is hardly perceptible. In a twill, on the
other hand, the warps are crossed by the wefts in sequence, one
after the other: the first weft over the first warp, the second weft
over the second warp, and the third over the third, so that the
intersections adjoin diagonally, the float of each weft being set one
warp thread to the right or left of the float of the preceding weft.
The simile, used in the study of twill, of a series of parallel ropes
laid vertically on a flight of steps and held down at intervals by
stones, is also applicable to satin: the first weighting stone for
the rope on the left should be put on the bottom step, and the sec-
ond stone for the same rope on the eighth step; the first stone for
the next rope is on the fifth step (instead of on the second, as in
twill); and the weighting of the third rope is on the second and
ninth steps. Thus, between the stones there will be six steps in the
vertical intervals and six ropes in the horizontal intervals; the low-
he
est stone for each successive rope will be four steps higher than the
preceding one. The important difference between satin and twill,
therefore, is that in twill the threads intersect on the principle of
one step up, while in satin it is two steps up or more. Since satin 1s
woven like twill and sometimes even has diagonal lines, though
never unbroken as in twill, classification is not always easy; some
of the doubtful pieces, indeed, have been called “‘satin twills;”’ yet
the distinction should always be plain under a glass. In ordinary
cases, however, itis simple enough torecognizea satin by the smooth
surface and the lack of conspicuous unbroken diagonal ribs. Satin
weave on the face of a fabric produces the effect of a simple weave
on the back. The long stretches of uninterrupted thread make satin
the ideal weave for silk, and in satin, as M. Algoud so well expresses
it, ‘‘la soie peut déployer le plus complétement peut-etre les qualités
qui lui appartiennent en propre et joindre un €clat miroitant sans
rival a une moelleuse et riche épaisseur.
A plain satin is one without any woven design, along it may
have stripes in different colours, and may of course be stamped,
printed, or even slashed. Figure 20 shows a fragment of green satin,
that has been both stamped and slashed; the design is of the
seventeenth century, and the piece was more than likely part of a
costume. , if
In the classification under the heading simple satin, the next
subdivision after plain satin is damask (Figure 21). This is a revers-
ible fabric in which the design, on both the face and the back, is
formed by a contrast between satin and the effect of a simple weave
—either cloth, twill, or weft satin; the areas of satin on the face
are areas of simple weave on the back, and the areas of simple weave
on the face are areas of satin on the back. The entire fabric is satin,
which appears in some places on the face and in others on the back
of the stuff. This effect is produced by reversing the action of the
warp so that the satin periodically executes an about face, as it
were, and turns first its face and then its back to the onlooker.
The essential characteristic of damask, therefore, is that it is rever-
sible. In linen damask tablecloths and napkins the pattern usually
appears in weft satin with a background of warp satin. In modern
silk damasks either the design or the background may be of satin,
but the early examples usually have a satin ground with the design
34
SS eee
Sere
rary
aman even Tet tre tren *
Figure 20
STAMPED SLASHED PLAIN SaTIN, 031.11
Italian, 17th century
Taos
Figure 22
Fancy SATIN, 033.
Italian, 17th century
SS
Figure 21
Damask, 032.
Italian, 17th century
Figure 23
Pian CoMPOuUND SATIN, 131.
Italian, 17th century
in the contrasting weave. Most damasks are of one colour only;
they may, however, have two colours, one for the warp and con-
sequently for the satin, and one for the weft and contrasting weave.
Fancy satin, on the face, looks like damask but it is not abso-
lutely reversible: it may have a background of satin with a design
in twill or in ribbed cloth, but in neither case is there any satin on
the back, the back of the twill being twill and the back of the rib-
bed areas being ribbed. Fancy satin, with the design in ribbed
weave on a satin background, is illustrated in Figure 22.
COMPOUND SATIN
Compound satin includes all fabrics that have areas of satin
weave and extra warps or extra wefts. Plain compound satins usu-
ally have designs in one or more extra wefts on a ground of satin,
sometimes with a second warp to bind the subsidiary wefts. The
compound satin illustrated in Figure 23 is white with a pattern in
red, green, purple, and yellow wefts. In a compound damask, the
extra thread, usually a weft of silver or gilt metal, does not affect
the reversible character of the damask foundation, while a fancy
compound satin, on the other hand, also with extra wefts, is not
reversible. oa ake:
HISTORY OF THE SATIN WEAVES ~ |
The origin of satin is unknown. There is even no certainty as to
the derivation of the name, which has been the subject of much
controversy. It may come from the late Latin seta, silk, or setznus,
silken, or from the mediaeval pronunciation of the Chinese word -
for satin, ssw tuwan. On the other hand there is also good reason
to believe that it was derived from Zaitun, mentioned by Marco
Polo, which was the great port of China in the middle ages and is
probably the modern Ch’uang chou’. Ibn Batuta, who traveled in
the first half of the fourteenth century, writes that a rich silk
fabric was made in Zaitun which was called Zaituniya, and the
Arabic word that he used to describe it is atlas; this word, in later
yeats, means satin but it is impossible to know whether Batuta
’Ch’uang chou was called T’zu T’ung and Jui T’ung from the names of the trees that were planted
around the city some time after the middle of the tenth century. Cf. Greg. Arnaiz, Les Antiquités Musul-
manes de Ts’iuan-Tcheou, T’oung Pao, 2nd series, No. 12, 1911, pp. 678, 683.
36
an
used it in that sense or not. It has been said that in mediaeval
Italian satin was zetani raso, and in mediaeval Spanish azeztunz;
in England the word is used by Chaucer,
“I will give hym a feder bedde
Rayed with golde, and ryght wel cledde
In fyne blak satyn de outer mere.”’
—The Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse.
and it also appears in France in the fourteenth century, but again
one cannot be sure what kind of fabric was meant by these terms.
It is possible that both the name and the weave are of Chinese
origin—the weave could certainly have been developed in China
from the Han silks, in which a smooth glossy surface is produced
by the warp threads that form both design and background—but
as yet nothing can be proved.
Fabrics of satin weave are not found in the West before the four-
teenth century, or perhaps the late thirteenth, although there are
many warp twills of earlier date that are constantly called satins.
Satin may have been developed in the West from the earlier herring-
bone or other irregular warp twills, in some of which the warps
are woven in pairs as in the early satins, or it may have been brought
from the Far East. It is interesting to find that both the name and
the weave appear in Europe during the period of Chinese influence
in textile designing. No Chinese patterned silks that are earlier
than the fourteenth century seem to have been preserved in Europe.
After 1300, however, Chinese designs came to Europe both in Far
Eastern fabrics, many of which still exist in various European
countries, and also indirectly through Persian designs. The infil-
tration of Chinese motives at this time was the result of the con-
quests of the Mongols; in the thirteenth century, under Genghis
Khan and his descendants, the Mongols spread their dominion all
across Asia from China into Europe, and we are therefore not sur-
prised to find that Italian and German vestments were made of
Chinese brocaded silks, and that the textile designs of this period
in Italy were revolutionized by the influence of Chinese patterns.
The satins of the fourteenth century are either simple, with a
design of brocading, or else compound, with the pattern in an extra
weft of gilt thread or coloured silk or both, and a second warp to
bind the extra weft. Orphreys of silk and linen compound satin,
37
with religious scenes and symbols, were produced in considerable
quantities during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. These pieces
are Italian or Spanish; they have two or more wefts, one of linen,
which does not appear on the face: of the fabric, one of silk, and
perhaps one of gilt thread, as well as two warps, one for the satin
and one to bind the pattern wefts. This weave was adopted for
secular designs in the sixteenth century, and was also widely used
in the seventeenth, but after that time it is rare. In these fabrics,
to which the name brocatelle is usually given, the background
mav be of satin weave, or the design may be satin.
Many silk and linen compound satins are known in the trade as
brocatelles, but there are good reasons for omitting this word from
a system of classification by weaves. In the first place, its meaning
varies to such an extent that it is difficult to determine what type
of fabric it denotes. There are various definitions in the textile
dictionaries, but they do not supply any definite information, nor
do they agree as to the meaning of the word. In the second place,
brocatelle usually implies a combination of silk with some other
material, which precludes its use in classifying by weaves only,
although it may well serve in other connexions to designate a cer-
tain type of fabric. The word lampas has been abandoned for the
same reasons. It does not seem to have been used before the eight-
eenth century, and it then probably referred to a type of fancy com-
pound satin that was produced in quantities during the Louis XVI
period; these compound satins give the effect of a two-coloured dam-
ask, but they have two warps and two wefts and are not reversible.
Silk damasks began to be plentiful in Italy in the fifteenth cen-
tury, although they also occurred in the fourteenth; in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries the damask weave was extremely
popular, and damasks were then frequently brocaded. The weave
is comparatively rare in the eighteenth century. Linen damasks
did not appear until the sixteenth century, and they were not woven
in any quantity before the seventeenth. The word damask is taken
from the name of Damascus where rich fabrics were made in the
early days; it is quite unlikely, however, that they were of the
same weave as the textiles known today by that name. There are
apparently no Persian damasks and very few from Asia Minor, but
there are many late Chinese examples.
38
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is
_—
The all silk compound satins of the sixteenth and earlier seven-
teenth centuries usually have designs in two or three wefts, some-
what loosely woven, on a satin ground (Figure 23). In the late
sixteenth and in the seventeenth century many compound satins,
both Spanish and Italian, have two warps and two or three wefts,
all of silk, and in addition, a third weft of fine flat metal strips. The
use of metal increased in the later satins, and the weave, as in other
late fabrics, is closer and tighter. Most satins in the later seven-
teenth and in the eighteenth century are brocaded with either silk
or metal or both.
In European weaving of the seventeenth century, particularly
in Italian fabrics, we find, in addition to the richly brocaded Italian
damasks of the same period, a fancy satin weave that imitates
damask but is not reversible (Figure 22). The most elaborate ex-
amples are compound satins with large symmetrical designs of
fantastic, luxuriant foliage—although not all of these are in the
same weave—which are attributed to the seventeenth century.
These silks may be distinguished from the earlier compound satins
by the fact that only one of the wefts is loosely woven and appears
on the surface, while the other is tightly woven and suggests the
contrasting weave of damask. A type of satin that originated in
the time of Louis XIV has a satin warp backed with a second
invisible warp that is interwoven with the main weft. These
fabrics seem to be in two layers, and when the satin layer is worn
away the foundation or strengthening layer appears beneath it
The popularity of satin and damask waned in the Louis XV
period when taffeta and ribbed silk prevailed, but the softer fabrics
returned to favour in the reign of Louis XVI. Since that time satins
have steadily increased in number and variety, and the weave has
been used more and more for materials other than silk.
39
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Uncut Vorpep Crotu VELVET, 212.2
Spanish, 17th century
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Figure 26
CiszLé Vorpep Twitt VELvET, 222.3
Italian, late 16th century
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Figure 25
STAMPED
Uncut Soxip Satin VELVET, 231.21
Italian, late 16th century
Figure 27
PILE on PILE
Cur Vorpep Satin VELVET, 232.12
Italian, 15th century
VeLVET WEAVES
In connexion with velvet it is necessary to repeat what has al-
ready been said about the names for other weaves. Velvet is usually
of silk, but it may be of cotton, wool, or linen. The word is here
used for the weave alone and not for the material. Velvet ordinarily
consists of a foundation weave with an extra warp that is woven
Over wires; when the wires are withdrawn, tiny loops of thread
remain. In old fabrics, pile formed by the weft threads, or weft
velvet, seldom occurs except in those pieces that have a few of the
wefts twisted into loops to form a pattern.
Velvets are classified according to the foundation weave, that
is, the pile mayrise from a foundation weave of plain cloth, making
cloth velvet (Figure 24), or from a foundation of twill, making
twill velvet (Figure 26), or of satin, making satin velvet (Figure
27). Under each main heading the subdivisions are those of solid
and of voided velvets. If the entire surface of the fabric is covered
by the pile, as in ordinary patternless velvet (material for hats,
dresses, curtains, and so forth), it is a solid velvet (Figures 25, 28,
29); if, on the other hand, there are areas where no pile appears it
is a voided velvet (Figures 24, 26, 27), the heraldic term, voided,
being adopted from its meaning of ‘‘pierced through, so as to show
the field.’’ In a voided velvet either the background is of the foun-
dation weave with the pattern in velvet, or else the background is
velvet and the design is in the foundation weave. In every case the
foundation weave may also be brocaded. The term ‘‘cut velvet’
only means that all the velvet loops are cut; it has frequently been
misunderstood and incorrectly applied to voided velvets, because
it is thought that where there is no pile and the foundation weave
appears, as in Figures 24, 26, 27, the velvet pile of the fabric must
have been cut away. On the contrary, in those parts of the design
where no pile is needed and the satin or cloth weave is used to
form the background, the velvet warp lies flat and is concealed in
the foundation weave.
Velvet pile is of three kinds: cut, uncut, and ciselé. In a cut vel-
vet all the pile loops are cut (Figures 27, 29); in an uncut velvet
AI
none of the loops are cut (Figures 24, 25); and in a ciselé velvet,
cut and uncut loops are combined (Figures 26, 28)—the French
word ciselé, meaning chased or chiseled, is here used as descriptive
of the effect produced. When a velvet, usually a solid velvet, is
stamped, the pattern appears in those parts of the pile that have
been pressed flat by hot irons. A stamped uncut velvet, illustrated
in Figure 25, has a design of an acorn and leaves, framed by inter-
locking bands, pressed into the ground of uncut velvet loops.
Designs may also be printed on velvet; or they may be woven in
two heights of pile, called pile on pile: in these fabrics the pile
warps are woven over wires of different diameters so that the size
of the loops varies accordingly, and the pile when cut is of two
different heights; the pattern is thus brought into relief, as in
Figure 27.
Colours may be introduced in pile fabrics by successive changes
of the warp threads, in stripes, or by the use of two, three, or even
four sets of velvet warps in the same place. In such velvets each
thread is of one colour throughout its length. In chiné velvets,
however, different colours appear in the same thread. Chiné velvets
may be recognized by the ill-defined outlines of the patterns—
which also appear indistinctly on the back of the fabric—as opposed
to the clear cut designs, not visible from the back, that are pro-
duced by multiple pile warps. Designs printed on the warp of chiné
velvets are many times longer than they are required to be in the
finished fabrics, to allow for the take-up in weaving.
HISTORY OF THE VELVET WEAVES
The beginnings of velvet are hard to discover. The word velluto,
from the Latin villus, the hair of an animal, appears in Italy in the
thirteenth century, and forms of velours in French and velvet in
English are found in the early years of the fourteenth century.
Heiden’ states that a velvet-like stuff—a long-haired, patternless
silk of a violet colour from an Egyptian tomb—has been attributed
to the twelfth or thirteenth century a. p.; and according to Michel’
fragments of twill velvet, dated ninth to twelfth century, are found
in the Manuscript of Theodulf, which is preserved at Le Puy,
France.
SHeiden, Handworterbuch der Textilkunde, p. 454.
7Francisque Michel, Recherches sur le Commerce, la Fabrication, et I’ Usage des Etoffes de Soie.
42
Figure 30
Back of Figure 29
Figure 29
Cur Sorip Twitt VeLvet, 222.1
Chinese, 18th century
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Figure 28
CisELE Sotip SATIN VELVET, 231.3
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Chinese, 18th century
It is likely that velvet weaving was invented either in Persia or
in Italy. In Persia it might have been introduced to imitate hand-
knotted carpets, even as modern processes of reproducing knotted
rugs follow the technique of velvet weaving. No Persian velvets
prior to the sixteenth century have been preserved and the designs
of the older Italian examples show no trace of Persian influence,
yet the perfection of technique in the finest Persian velvets pre-
supposes considerable experience in velvet weaving before the six-
teenth century. Ina Papal inventory of 1295 there isan item ‘‘Panno
tartarico velluto iallo, longum de tribus brachiis et amplum de
uno pede,’’ which may have come from Persia or some Tatar
dependency. Velvet certainly did not originate in China in spite
of its prevalence there in later centuries; this is proved by the
etymology of the Chinese term for velvet, hud tse jung. Jung means
nap, and Auz huz or hui tse, since T'ang times, has been the Chinese
name for the peoples of Central Asia’. It is possibly derived from
the Semitic khwez, meaning brother, that was so constantly used
by the Mohammedans that the Chinese perhaps adopted it as a
name for the people themselves. The Central Asians may well have
carried Persian velvet to China.
Von Falke® says that plain velvet, that is, solid and without a
pattern—undoubtedly the first kind of velvet made—was known
in Italy before 1400. A few examples of plain solid velvet, with
designs in English embroidery of about 1300, have been preserved,
and patterned velvet is mentioned in English records of the year
1327; these patterns, however, were probably also embroidered.
Velvet seems to. have been made in Constantinople, Messina,
Venice, and Genoa, at least as early as 1340. In the records of the
fifteenth century we find that the Venetian guilds in 1421 divided
the weavers of plain velvet from the weavers of patterned velvet.
The earliest known velvets with patterns are Italian of the fifteenth
century, and may very possibly have been woven in Venice.
A foundation of satin weave is found in some of the oldest pat-
terned velvets, and has been in use ever since (Figure 27). Asia
Minor velvets, with a few rare exceptions, and many Persian ex-
amples, are on satin ground, as are most Chinese pieces. In Europe
8Herbert A. Giles, Chinese-English Dictionary, und ed., p- 640.
*Von Falke, Kunstgeschichte der Seidenweberei, vol. Il, p. 101.
44
the satin foundation weave was never entirely discarded, even dur-
ing the periods when the cloth ground was more used, but it was
always especially popular when other satin weaves were in demand.
In Europe some of the earliest plain solid velvets had a founda-
tion of cloth weave, and later we find velvets with a ribbed cloth
foundation as well. Of the fifteenth century those with smooth
cloth grounds are not numerous and are most often of the elaborate
type of design illustrated by Errera in Catalogue d’ Etoffes Anciennes,
No. 128 (Figure 35); there are also a few of Asia Minor origin, but
the weave is unusual and does not seem to occur again until the
nineteenth century. The fifteenth century ribbed cloth velvets have
a wide and rather loose rib, and they have, for the most part,
designs of large curving stems or bands interrupted by medallions
with sprouted cones (Errera, Nos. 138 to 148), although not all
velvets with this type of pattern are on cloth ground. In the six-
teenth century there were many fewer cloth velvets than satin,
but toward the end of the century a new ribbed cloth velvet was
developed, with very fine ribbing. It is closely related to the other
ribbed weaves that were so popular in the seventeenth century
and it, too, often has an extra weft of flat gilt metal.
Twill velvets were never woven in any great quantity. Certain
Persian velvets of the sixteenth century, with designs of figures on
a very large scale, are twill, and in Europe in the late sixteenth and
early seventeenth centuries a rather open twill weave was used for
velvet, usually with an extra weft of flat gilt metal. In Figure 26
the twill ground is yellow, the pattern is in red ciselé pile, and
there are traces of the gilt metal. Other seventeenth century twill
velvets have a tight foundation weave, similar to the corded silks
of the same period, and the designs are also not unlike. This weave
again appears in the late eighteenth century.
Pile on pile is one of the oldest techniques in European velvet
weaving and does not occur in Asia Minor, Persia, or China. The
records show that pile on pile velvet was sold in Bruges by mer-
chants from Lucca in 1416, so that it may possibly have been the
earliest type of Italian patterned velvet. There were pile on pile
fabrics in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (Figure 27) and then
again in the late eighteenth, but they do not seem to occur between
these two periods.
45
Ciselé pile (Figures 26, 28) is later than cut velvet, and the use
of uncut loops alone (Figures 24,25) is the most recent of all. In
Europe, until the middle of the sixteenth century, almost all vel-
vets had cut pile; then ciselé took its place and cut velvet was only
used for stamped, printed, or chiné designs. Stamped velvets (Figure
25) began in the later sixteenth century and were a specialty of the
seventeenth century. Velvets were printed in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, and there is an eighteenth century red velvet,
printed with a design in gold, in the collection of the Cooper Union.
The chiné process was applied to velvets in the eighteenth century
both in Central Asia and in Europe, and it may have been practised
even earlier in the weaving centres of Bokhara and Samarkand.
The most famous recent examples of chiné velvets are the portraits,
painted on the velvet warp and then woven, by Gaspard Grégoire
in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 7
It is difficult to determine when ciselé velvet was first used. It
is not found in any quantity before the late sixteenth century; it
then became so popular that in the seventeenth century there are
practically no European patterned velvets, except those with
stamped designs mentioned abové, that are not ciselé. In the Bar-
gello in Florence, and also in Brussels (Errera, No. 98), there is a
velvet with an early fifteenth century design that has ciselé pile,
and a few brocaded velvets of the late fifteenth century are also
ciselé. It would therefore seem that the method of weaving ciselé
velvet was known for about a century before it came into general
use, although of course these pieces may have been made in the
sixteenth century after earlier designs. The pile of Asia Minor and
Persian velvets is always cut and never ciselé, but quantities of
Chinese velvets are ciselé; in all probability, however, these date
from the beginning of the last dynasty. Apparently the earliest —
Chinese examples are cut voided satin velvets; these may be of the
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and it is possible that velvet weaving
was introduced into China from the West in that period. Many
velvets of Ch’ien Lung’s time (1728-1789) are ciselé; one is illus-
trated in Figure 28: it is a solid velvet of royal blue with the design
in cut pile and the background of uncut loops. The ground weave
is satin, the weft is blue and the foundation warp of fine black silk.
Ciselé pile continued in use in Europe, following the fashion for
46
Jot, See ee
een 2
other pile weaves, and numerous examples appear in the Louis XVI
period (1774-1792) when uncut voided velvets were also popular,
although uncut velvet does occur as early as the sixteenth century
(Figure 25 ). Ciselé solid velvet is found today in the upholstery of
American railway carriages.
Solid velvets are used for designs in many coloured pile warps,
or for ciselé, chiné, printed, or pile on pile designs, and are there-
fore found in the periods when such patterns were in demand. The
designs of voided velvets consist of contrasts between the velvet
pile and a plain or brocaded foundation weave. The early fifteenth
century velvets, with many coloured pile warps, are found both
solid and voided. The period when voided velvets predominated
was during the Renaissance, from the middle of the fifteenth to the
end of the sixteenth century, although there were also at that time
a number of solid velvets with patterns in pile on pile. In the late
sixteenth and in the seventeenth century there were both solid and
voided velvets with either ciselé or stamped designs. The solid
velvets of the Louis XVI period are frequently chiné, and in the
early nineteenth century there were painted and printed solid vel-
vets as well. Many Persian velvets are solid, as are most of the
Chinese ciselé pieces.
In Europe, about the middle of the fifteenth century, the use of
bright colours and two or three velvet warps gave way to designs
in pile of a single colour, on a ground of the same tone or of yel-
low, grey, or ivory, frequently brocaded with metal thread. Asia
Minor and Persian velvets of the sixteenth century frequently have
several pile warps and a ground of some brilliant colour, but this
use of colours rarely occurred in Europe from the middle of the fif-
teenth century to the middle of the sixteenth; in seventeenth cen-
tury French and Italian ‘“‘jardiniére’’ velvets we again find two or
three velvet warps. The Persians specialized in the weaving of
velvets with multiple pile warps, sometimes even using four con-
tinuous warps in one place, each of a different colour. The number
of colours—it may be as many as ten—would suggest that there
were more than four sets of warp threads, but the back of a Chinese
velvet, illustrated in Figure 30, shows that extra pile warps may
be introduced for short intervals and then cut away, so that they
do not run the whole length of the piece. In the illustration it may
47
be seen that the pale blue threads are cut above and below the
flowet.
Loops formed by selvage-to-selvage weft threads are found in
some Sicilian linen covers, in certain Spanish rugs, and in American
bedspreads of the first half of the nineteenth century. A long shaggy
cut pile, made of linen weft threads, occurs in many Coptic tunics
and coverings, and weft threads are also looped in other Coptic
fabrics, but these loops are more often brocaded than woven in
selvage-to-selvage wefts.
Countless velvets were made in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies, and the number produced in Europe during the seventeenth
century was still considerable. Comparatively few, however, were
woven in the time of Louis XV (1715-1774) when soft silks were
not in fashion, and thus there is a gap, in tracing the history of
European velvet weaves, between the beginning and the end of
the eighteenth century. Later, in the velvet revival of the Louis
XVI period, almost every kind of velvet weave previously devel-
oped was again brought into use and new weaves were added,
many of which are still found in modern power-loom fabrics.
48
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BROCADING
Brocading is a process of weaving by which a simple, compound,
or pile fabric may be further enriched. Since, therefore, cloth, twill,
satin, or velvet, may be brocaded, the term brocade is not specific
enough for a classification by weaves, as it conveys no definite idea
of the kind of fabric, but only of its incidental decoration; and,
furthermore, since patterned textiles may be woven in many ways,
the common use of brocade for any elaborately patterned silk is
manifestly inexact. The noun brocade has therefore been discarded,
and in its place the verb form brocaded is attached to the name of
the main weave, such as brocaded twill, brocaded satin, brocaded
velvet.
In French, to brocade 1s brocher, derived from broche, the iron rod,
like a spit, on which the bobbin is threaded, which is also the
_word for a tapestry bobbin. By some authorities brocading is de-
rived from Italian and Spanish words meaning to emboss, but a
careful study of its etymology confirms Littré’s statement” that
all the definitions of brocher invariably mean piercing or stabbing
with a point or a sharp instrument: the original Latin brochus
means projecting or pointed. Hence it seems certain that the name
refers to the penetration of the warp threads by a pointed bobbin.
By brocading is meant the introduction by means of a broche,
at intervals during the weaving of the fabric, of additional weft
threads—never of warp threads—which are only used where needed
and do not run straight from selvage to selvage. These threads,
although interwoven, do not form a constituent part of the fabric,
but bear the same relation to it as does embroidery to the material
that is embroidered. The difference is, however, that brocaded
threads are woven with bobbins on a loon# while the fabric itself
is being made (Figure 8), and that embroidery is worked with a
needle on a material previously woven.
Brocaded weft threads differ from ordinary selvage-to-selvage
weft threads in that they are woven back and forth for short dis-
tances only, to form certain parts of the design, and are not found
elsewhere in the fabric. It is therefore necessary to examine the
MLittré, Dictionnaire de la Langue Francaise.
49
back of a fabric in order to determine whether or not it is brocaded.
Figure 31 shows the back and face of a brocaded damask. In this
piece it may be seen that the brocaded threads are carried back and
forth to weave the flower and do not extend beyond its limits.
Ordinary selvage-to-selvage weft threads, on the contrary, whether
main or subsidiary, are shot across the full width of the piece with
the shuttle that carries them. Sometimes, however, a subsidiary
weft is used solely for detached motives of the design and, although
continuous in the weaving, is afterwards cut at the edges of these
motives, producing the effect of brocading, but in such cases the
clipped ends of the threads that outline the pattern are always
apparent on the back of the piece; these are not found in brocading.
A word of explanation is perhaps necessary in regard to brocaded
velvets. It is sometimes said that a fabric is brocaded with velvet
pile. This is not possible, and such a piece is in reality a voided
velvet, already described under that head as a fabric with only part
of the design in velvet and the rest in the pileless ground weave.
Another type of velvet that might be mistaken for brocading has
extra velvet warps, to change the colours or to introduce additional
colours, which run for short distances only and not the full length
of the piece (Figures 29, 30). This description suggests brocading
but the difference is that brocading, as defined above, is always of
weft threads, and therefore no fabric can be brocaded with velvet
warps, although a piece of velvet may itself be brocaded with silk
or gilt weft threads as readily as cloth, twill, or satin.
Brocading is better adapted for weaving detached motives or
scattered details in metal or in colours than for weaving all-over
designs. The advantages are that frequent changes of colour may
easily be made; more colours may be introduced in the same place
than would ever be possible with ordinary extra wefts; economy
of thread is achieved by interweaving the brocaded thread only
where it is needed for the design, and not across the whole fabric;
and finally, the use of such special threads as chenille or twisted
metal is made feasible when, owing to their thickness or stiffness,
it would not be practical to carry them the full width of the piece.
Precious metals and silk threads are therefore those most commonly
found in brocading, although a brocaded thread may equally well
be of cotton, linen, or wool.
ie
Ta nF aL yyy peal
8 Seah Wi i
Ay
Figure 31
Damask, BrocaDED, 032.3
Face and Back
Italian, 17th century
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ot atte
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arth finh Bad
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ee
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Figure 32 Figure 33 :
PLain Compounp TwILL, 121. PLAIN CioTH, BrocaDED, OII.
Japanese, 17th century Peruvian, before 1200
According to many writers it is because gilt and silver threads
were so generally used for brocading during the Renaissance period
that all later fabrics with metallic threads came to be called “‘bro-
cades.’’ If, however, the term brocading be used for a manner of
weaving it cannot apply only to textiles with metallic threads,
since silk is frequently brocaded, while silver or gilt thread may
be and often is woven as an extra weft running from selvage to
selvage, and is therefore not brocaded, according to the use of the ~
word in this classification. }
HISTORY OF BROCADING
Brocading is such a simple and natural way to decorate hand-
loom fabrics that examples of it may be found in many different
periods and in widely separated countries. It very likely developed
soon after the invention of plain cloth weaving, and may have
been an attempt to produce, by means of the loom, the effect of
embroidery. An example of brocaded plain cloth is illustrated in
Figure 33; the ground is brown cotton, and the design in brocading
of brown wool. It was woven in Peru, where fine woolen tapestries
were also made as early as the pre-Inca period—before the twelfth
century—and during the reign of the Incas, as well as after the
Spanish Conquest in 1533. This piece is probably pre-Inca, but no
more definite date can be assigned to it. There is also brocading in
some of the Coptic textiles of the fifth and sixth centuries a. D.
The process of brocading varies so little everywhere that it is
necessary, in determining dates, to consider carefully the materials
used in the weaving. A study of the different gilt threads is there-
fore pertinent, although, as has been explained above, gilt thread
may be woven as a selvage-to-selvage weft and not brocaded at all.
It is possible that brocading in the early silk fabrics may have
been with threads of pure gold and that these stuffs may all, with
a very few exceptions, have been destroyed to extract the precious
metal". However, if brocading in the classical and early mediaeval
periods was always of pure gold, brocaded fabrics would hardly
have been woven in great quantities, and it is probable that gold
was more used for embroidery than for weaving. The extant Alex-
andrian and other silk twills of the sixth to tenth centuries are not
"Von Falke, Kunstgeschichte der Setdenweberei, vol. Il, p. 22.
§2
brocaded, nor are the Chinese silks of the Han Dynasty excavated
at Lou lan by Sir Aurel Stein and near Urga by Colonel Kozloff.
In the West, about the eleventh century, a new kind of metallic
thread appeared”: it isa thin leather membrane called gold-beaters’
skin because it is laid between the sheets of that metal when it is
beaten into leaves. This membrane, when used for gold thread, is
gilded on one side and then wound in narrow strips about a core
of linen or of silk thread. In two brocaded silks of the twelfth or
thirteenth century” , from the tomb of St. Bernardo Calvo, Bishop
of Vich, Spain, 1229-1243, the details of the pattern are brocaded
with gilded gold-beaters’ skin wound ona silk core. The same kind
of thread seems to have been used in the so-called Sicilian or
Hispano-Moresque silk tapestries of the twelfth century. In the
thirteenth century, in the West, only this gilt gold-beaters’ skin
was used for weaving, although pure gold and silver strips still
occurred in embroidery. The core of these threads in Italian fabrics
is usually linen, while in Spanish brocading it is more often silk.
From the same period there are also a few silks of simple ribbed cloth
with scattered fleurs-de-lys and birds brocaded in gilded gold-
beaters’ skin, but brocaded silks do not occur to any appreciable.
extent before the fourteenth century. At that time coloured silk
began to be more used for brocading, and many Italian fabrics of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have incidental brocading of
coloured silks and an extra selvage-to-selvage weft of gilt thread.
In others the details of the design were brocaded with gilt thread,
but at that time both silk and gilt threads were seldom found
brocaded in the same piece.
In Europe, during the early years of the fifteenth century, gold-
beaters’ skin fell into disuse, and metal strips, usually silver gilt,
took its place. At first the metal was wound on a linen core; later
it was wound on silk, and after the fifteenth century the core is
always silk. If the silver is gilt the core is yellow silk, if not it is
__ white. Until the end of the Renaissance most of the thread was
gilt, but in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries plain silver
thread greatly increased in popularity. Virtually no metallic thread
other than strips of silver wound on silk was used until the late
sixteenth century when metal strips woven flat without a core
Von Falke, Kunstgeschichte der Seidenweberei (oc. cit).
18Y Badia Collection, 47, 47 bis, now in the Cooper Union.
53
wete introduced; these, however, are almost invariably selvage-
to-selvage wefts and are not brocaded. A new kind of metal thread
appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century; in it the metal is
not wound on a silk core but is twisted with the silk thread, so
that the surface is rough and more silk shows than in the wound
threads. Tinsel, or wide flat strips of metal (in French, clénquant)
was also popular in the Louis XVI period.
Metal threads twisted into loops that stand up from the fabric
are found brocaded in many European stuffs of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, and in a few Persian velvets of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. These loops are sometimes of different
sizes in the same piece and suggest pile on pile velvet. When velvet
is brocaded with loops of metal thread these loops may be scattered
through the pile, or they may be woven all together in a solid
block. This looped brocading is illustrated by a section of Italian
velvet of the late fifteenth century (Figure 35): the silk pile is
crimson, and the brocading is silver gilt, wound on yellow silk and
woven both flat and in loops. In Italy these loops are commonly
found in velvets, but in Spain they were used for other fabrics too,
and in greater profusion. They do not occur in Asia Minor or Far
Eastern weaves.
Velvet was brocaded with both silk and metal threads in Asia
Minor in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, but in Italy and
Persia at that time brocading on velvet was in metal only. Other
Persian fabrics are usually brocaded with silk threads, the metal
being woven as an extra selvage-to-selvage weft to form the back-
ground of the design, but some Persian silks have a pattern bro-
caded in metal.
Asia Minor and Persian metal thread is usually pure silver, or
silver gilt, wound on a silk core—never on linen—although there
are a few Persian fabrics in which flat strips of metal appear. Gold-
beaters’ skin does not seem to have been used in Persia or Asia
Minor; it never occurred in the Far East but was a specialty of Euro-
pean weaving.
The provenance of European and Asia Minor brocaded velvets
of the Renaissance period may ordinarily be determined by an
examination of the metal thread“. In Asia Minor satin velvets,
MN. A. Reath, Velvets of the Renaissance, Burlington Magazine, June, 1927.
54
*
oy
when the fabric is worn the metal disappears, leaving the silk core
on which it was wound still in place, bound down by the warp
threads in the conspicuous diagonals of twill weaving (Figure 34).
In European textiles, on the contrary, the whole brocading thread
—both the metal and the core—is loosened when worn, and the
entire thread, breaking through its warp binding, comes free from
the fabric with the metal strips still wound on the silk core (Figure
36). It is essential, however, to consider the piece as a whole and
not base conclusions on small areas only, where a little of the
metal may be rubbed off the silk core in European textiles, or
where, in Asia Minor fabrics, the core as well as the metal strips
may be worn away with hard use.
The European metal in this period was silver largely alloyed
with copper; it is frequently gilded but is never pure gold. The
Asia Minor and Persian metal 1s also silver, but it is almost entirely
free from copper and is therefore softer than the European alloys.
In most Turkish velvets, the soft metal in some places has been
rubbed from its silk core without affecting the warp threads that
bind it, while in European fabrics the hard metal offers more
resistance and breaks and cuts through the warp threads without
quitting the silk core. Hence, in a worn European velvet the bro-
caded thread, its core still covered with the metal strips, will often
float free from all warp binding. In Spain an alloy of copper and
zinc was occasionally used, but as it wears in the same way as the
[talian silver and copper it is classed with it. The same kind of
metal was used in Asia Minor and Persian brocaded silks as in the
velvets, and it wears in the same way, and the metal brocading in
European silks is also identical with that in the European velvets.
Another difference between European and Near Eastern velvets
is in the interweaving of the metal thread. In European velvets of
this period, the velvet warp is used to bind the brocaded metal
thread wherever it runs through the velvet pile, and also irregu-
larly in the areas of brocaded thread where there is no pile. This
may most easily be seen with the aid of a glass where the pile ts
worn away, usually along the edges of the velvet pattern (Figure
36). In Asia Minor velvets, on the other hand, the metal thread is
bound by the foundation warp alone and is not crossed by the
velvet warp at any point.
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In early Chinese silks, the effect of gold was produced by flat
strips of gilded paper, or it may occasionally have been leather. In
the eighteenth century the gilt paper was sometimes wound on a
silk core, but it is not easy to determine when sucha core was intro-
duced. Flat gilt paper is also found in Japanese kinran (Figure 32),
and modern Japanese gilt thread is made of paper wound on silk.
Apparently no thread of pure metal was used in Chinese or in
Japanese textiles, nor do the flat strips of gilded paper seem to
occur outside the Far East.
In the eighteenth century almost every elaborately patterned
silk fabric of European workmanship had at least some part of the
design in brocaded threads. Some of these have uneven surfaces,
like the rough metal threads of the same period, obtained by
twisting together fine and heavy silk. Many varieties of thread
were combined in the later European silks, particularly in French
fabrics. In the late seventeenth century stuffs we begin to find, all
in one fabric, silk and metal brocading in addition to patterns in
extra selvage-to-selvage wefts, and at about the same time, or
somewhat earlier, chenille brocading appeared. Numbers of French
silks were brocaded with chenille, and it was also popular in
Russia, Spain, and Portugal. In eighteenth century fabrics every
kind of brocaded thread may be found: coloured silks, chenille,
spangles, and gilt and silver thread of half-a-dozen varieties.
In tracing the history of weaves it is of course impossible to set
fixed limits of time within which each weave must appear, yet one
usually dominates one period, any new technique to a certain ex-
tent replacing older processes. The more primitive weaves, how-
ever, persisted for coarser fabrics such as linen and wool, and for
all weaving in Northern Europe. In Spain even silks continued to
be of twill and cloth weave long after more complicated methods
of weaving had been perfected in Italy and France. It is interesting
to find that when the textile centres shifted from one country to
another, there was usually a change in technique as well as in
design. In general it may be said that the early fabrics are of an
open and loose weave, while the later ones are of a tight weave,
although naturally there are exceptions. From the sixth century
to the eleventh, in Western silk weaving, the weft twill weave was
in the ascendant; in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the impor-
7
tant weave was double cloth, in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, warp twill, in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth,
satin, and in the eighteenth, ribbed cloth, but since then no one
weave has been predominant.
The development of hand-loom weaves, starting with the sim-
plest primitive cloth, progressing by constant improvements in
technique and material, finally reached the sumptuous fabrics of
the eighteenth century. With the introduction of the power-loom
in the following century, however, the industry of hand-loom
weaving in the West came to an end, and it is unfortunately true
that modern conditions preclude its revival for the quantity pro-
duction of silk fabrics elaborate in design and technique.
INDEX
AKHMiM, herring-bone warp twill from, 32.
ALEXANDRIAN weft twill not brocaded, 52
ALLOY in metal thread, copper and zinc, 55
AMERICAN BEDSPREADS AND COVERLETS,
weave of, 23, 24; with weft loops, 48
ANALYSIS of the weaves, 7-18
ARNAIZ, G.., cited, 36
ASIA MINOR, and European metal thread, differ-
ence between, 5 4; and Persian velvet distinguished
from European, 54; brocading, 54, 55; brocading
ill., 56; brocading on velvet,-55; damask, 38;
velvet, 44, 45, 46, 47
AZEITUNI, satin called, 37
BAGHDAD, patterned cord from, 24
BARGELLO, ciselé velvet in the, 46
BATIK, classification of, 8; Javanese, 22
BEDSPREADS, American, with loops, 48; Mar-
seilles, classification, 22
- BERNE, Musée Historique, moiré linen in the, 26
BOKHARA, chiné fabrics from, 26
BROCHER, see brocading, 49
_ BROCADE, disadvantages of the term, 49
BROCADED, cloth, Louis XV period, 23; cut
voided velvet, z//., 56: damask, 50; damask, i/I.,
51; Gothic warp twill, 31; in silk and chenille,
ribbed cloth of the Louis XIV period, 25; metal
threads, 39, 54; Peruvian, ¢//., 51; Peruvian
cloth, 52; plain cloth, 2//., 51; silks of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, 57;silks, twelfth
century, in the Cooper Union, 53; taffeta, Louis
XV period, 23; thread in Hispano-Moresque
tapestry, 53; velvet, 46, 50, 54; velvet, difference
between Asia Minor and European, 54; velvet,
metal threads in, 47; velvet, Near Eastern, 55
BROCADING, 49-59; Asia Minor, 54, 55; Asia
Minor, é//., 56; chenille, popular in Portugal,
Russia, and Spain, 57; Coptic, 52; definition, 16;
description, 49-52; European, 55; formula for,
16; gold in, 52; history of, 52-59; in Gothic warp
twills, 31; in the eighteenth century, 39; in the
seventeenth century, 25, 39; on velvet, Asia
Minor, 55; on velvet, European, 55; on voided
velvet, 50; Italian, 53, 54; Italian, core of thread
in, 53; Italian, ¢//., 56; Italian, loops in, 54; of
gilt goldbeaters’ skin on velvet, 54; Persian,
metal thread used in, 54, 55; process of, ¢//., 15;
Spanish, type of thread used in, 53; with coloured
silks, 53; with silver thread, 53, 55
BROCATELLE, classification, 38
BRUGES, pile on pile velvets sold in, 45
BRUSSELS, Musées Royaux du Cinquantenaire,
early ciselé velvet in the, 46
BURLINGTON MAGAZINE, cited, 54
BYZANTINE, double cloth, 23; twill, 31
CAMBRIC, classification, 19
CARPET WEAVE, formula for, 17
CASHMERE SHAWLS, weave of, 11; i//., 10
CENTRAL ASIA, chiné cloth from, 26; chiné vel-
vet from, 46
CHANGEABLE CLOTH, weave of, 19
CHECKS, weave of, 19
CHEESECLOTH, weave of, 19
CHENILLE, and silk, Louis XIV period, ribbed
cloth brocaded in, 25; brocading popular in
Portugal, Russia, and Spain, 57; thread, brocad-
ing of, 50
CH’IEN LUNG, velvet woven during reign of, 46
CHINE, cloth, ikat examples of Indonesian, 22;
cloth, baa, cea 22; definition, 8; description,
19, 20; fabrics from Bokhara, Central Asia, Japan,
Mexico, Poland, 26; plain cloth, z//., 18; scarves
from Mexico, 26; silk, French, 26; solid velvet,
47; velvet, definition, 16; velvet from Central
Asia, 26; velvet, historical note, 46; velvet, how
to distinguish, 42; velvet portraits by Gaspard
Grégoire, 46
_ CHINESE, cut velvet, 46; cut velvet, #//., 43; dam-
ask, 38; designs brought to Europe by the Mon-
gols, 37; influence in Egyptian twills, 30; plain
cloth woven during the Han Dynasty, 22; satin,
warp twill possibly developed from, 32; silk ex-
cavated at Lou lan, 53; silk, gilt thread in, 57;
solid ciselé velvet, 47; solid ciselé velvet, é//., 43;
velvet, historical note, 46; velvet, origin of, 44
CHINTZ, classification, 8
CH’UANG CHOU, 36
CISELE solid satin velvet, z//., 43; velvet, defini-
tion, 16; velvet, description, 41, 42; velvet, his-
torical notes, 46, 47; velvet, é//., 15; velvet in the
Bargello, 46; velvet of the Louis XVI period, 47;
voided twill velvet, z//., 40
CLASSIFYING, by weaves, 6; order of terms to be
followed in, 17; textiles, decimal system for, 6;
weave, 17, 30
CLOTH, brocaded, Louis XV period, 23; brocaded,
Peruvian, 52; changeable, 19; chiné, description,
19, 20; chiné, Indonesian ikat examples of, 22;
chiné plain, z//., 18; chiné, provenance, 22; com-
pound,.Coptic, 23; compound, definition, 13;
compound, description, 20-22; definition, 8, 9,
13; description, 19, double, attributed to Byzan-
tium, 23; double, definition, 13; double, descrip-
tion, 20; double, historical notes, 23, 24; double,
i/l., 15, 21; double, of the thirteenth and four-
teenthcenturies, 23 ; double, Persian, inthe Cooper
Union, 24; double, Peruvian, #//., 21; double,
Spanish, 24, 25; fancy compound, definition, 13;
fancy compound, description, 20; fancy, defini-
tion, 9; fancy, description, 20; fancy, ¢//., 18;
linen, Egyptian, 22; moiré plain, #//., 18; painted,
20; Peruvian, 22, 23, 52; plain compound, #//.,
21, 28; plain, #/., 10; Sek brocaded, #//., 51;
plain, Chinese, woven during the Han Dynasty,
22; plain compound, definition, 13; plain com-
pound, description, 20; plain compound, Egyp-
tian, 23; plain compound, historical note, 23;
+d
plain compound, Spanish, 23; lain Coptic, 22;
plain, definition, 8; plain dyed patterns in, 22,
plain, historical notes, 22, 23; plain, stripes in,
19; printed, description, 20; printed Indian, clas-
sification, 8; printed plain, z//., 18; ribbed, bro-
caded in silk and chenille, Louis XIV period, 25;
ribbed, chiné, 26; ribbed, classification, 8; ribbed,
description, 19; ribbed, historical notes, 24, 25,
26; ribbed, important in the eighteenth century,
58; ribbed, patterned, from Baghdad, 24; ribbed,
possibly developed from tapestry, 24; ribbed
slashed, historical note, 25; ribbed, with pebbled
patterns, Louis XV period, 25; simple, definition,
8;simple, description, 19;simple, historical notes,
22, 23; slashed, historical note, 23; stencilled, 20;
tapestry, interlocking, definition, 9; tapestry,
slit, definition, 9; velvet, brocaded cut voided,
ill., 56; velvet, definition, 14; velvet, description,
41; velvet, historical note, 45; velvet, ribbed,
historical note, 45; velvet, uncut voided, é//., 40;
weave, definition, 8; weave, double, in Pennsyl-
vania coverlets, 23; weave in Persian silks, 23,
24; weaves, 19-27; weaves, history of the, 22-27
COLOGNE ORPHREYS, linen core for thread in,
32; weave of, 32
COLOURED SILKS, brocading with, 53
COMPOUND CLOTH, Coptic, 23; definition, 13;
description, 20; fancy, definition, 13; fancy, de-
scription, 20; historical note, 23; plain, definition,
13; plain, description, 20; plain, Egyptian, 23;
plain, #//., 21, 28; plain, Spanish, 23
COMPOUND DAMASK, definition, 13; descrip-
tion, 36
COMPOUND SATIN, definition, 13; description,
36; fancy, definition, 13; fancy, description, 36;
fancy, Italian, 39; historical notes, 37, 38, 39; of
Louis XIV period, 39; plain, definition, 13; plain,
description, 36; plain, 7//., 35; silk and linen, 38;
Spanish, 39
COMPOUND TWILL, definition, 13;description,
29, 30; fancy, definition, 13; fancy, description,
29; plain, definition, 13; plain, aL rae 29;
plain, z//., 28, 51; with extra weft of goldbeaters’
skin, 29, 32
CONSTANTINOPLE, velvet made in, 44
COOPER UNION, Persian double cloth in the, 24;
printed velvetin the, 46; twelfth century brocaded
silks of the Y Badia Collection in the, 53
COPPER ALLOY in metal thread, $5
COPTIC, brocading, 52; plain cloth, 22; compound
cloth, 23; tapestry weave, 31; weft loops, 48
CORD, see ribbed cloth, 8, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26
CORE, linen, for metallic thread, 53; linen, for
metallic thread in Cologne orphreys, 32; of thread
in Italian brocading, 53; silk, for gilt paper
thread, 57; silk, for metallic thread, 25, 53, 54
COVERLETS, American, weave of, 23, 24; Penn-
sylvania, double cloth weave in, 24
COVERS, SICILIAN, weave of, 23; with weft loops,
48
CROCHETED FABRICS, formula for, 17
CUT, solid twill velvet, z//., 43; velvet, Chinese,
46; velvet, definition, 14; velvet, description, 41,
42; velvet, historical note, 46; voided cloth vel-
vet, brocaded, #//., 56; voided satin velvet, bro-
caded, é//., 56; voided satin velvet, pile on pile,
ill., 40 |
DAMASK, Asia Minor, 38; brocaded, 50; brocaded,
ill., 51; Chinese, 38; compound, definition, 13;
compound, description, 36; definition, 11; de-
scription, 34; historical notes, 38, 39; #//., 35; in
the Louis XVI period, 39; linen, weft satin in,
Il, 33, 34
DECIMAL SYSTEM for classifying textiles, 6
DIFFERENCE between European and Asia Minor
metal thread, 54; #//., 56
DOUBLE CLOTH, attributed to Byzantium, 23;
definition, 13; description, 20; historical notes,
23,24; 2l.,15,21; ofthe thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, 23; Persian, in the Cooper Union, 24;
Peruvian, #//., 21; Spanish, 24, 25; weave in
Pennsylvania coverlets, 24
DYED, fabrics, classification, 8; patterns in plain
cloth, 22
DYEING, mordant, 20, 22; resist, 20
EGYPTIAN; linen cloth, 22; origin of twill, 30;
plain compound cloth, 23; ribbed silks of the
ninth and tenth centuries, 24; twill, Chinese in-
fluence in, 30; weft twill, 31
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, brocading in the, 57;
fabrics, spangles in, 57
ELEVENTH CENTURY, sixth to, weft twill im-
portant, 57 .
EMBROIDERED VELVET, early English, 44
EMBROIDERY, formula for, 17
ENGLISH embroidered velvet, early, 44
ERRERA, Isabelle, cited, 24, 45
EUROPE, Northern, primitive weaves in, 57
EUROPEAN, and Asia Minor metal thread, differ-
ence between, 54; brocading, 55; brocading on
velvet, 55; fabrics with looped metal threads, 54;
tapestry, weave of, 9; velvet distinguished from
Asia Minor and Persian, 54
FALKE, Otto von, cited, 24, 44, 52, 53
FANCY, cloth, definition, 9; cloth, description, 20;
cloth, z//., 18; compound cloth, definition, 13;
compound cloth, description, 20;compound satin,
definition, 13; compound satin, description, 36;
compound satin, Italian, 39; compound twill,
definition, 13; compound twill, description, 29;
satin, definition, 11; satin, description, 36; satin,
historical note, 39; satin, z//., 35; twill, defini-
tion, 11; description, 29; twill, z//., 28
FAR EASTERN TEXTILES, flat strips of gilt paper
in, 57
FELT, formula for, 17
FIFTEENTH CENTURY, Italian velvet in the, 44
FILLING, see weft, 7
FLANAGAN, J. F., cited, 30
60
FLANNEL, classification, 32
FLOAT, definition, 7
FOUNDATION WEAVE in velvet, 41
FOURTEENTH CENTURY, double cloth of the,
23; warp twill important in the, 58
FRENCH, brocaded cloth, 23; chiné silk, 26; bro-
caded silks of the seventeenth and cighteenth
centuries, 57
GAUZE, formula for, 17
GENOA, velvet made in, 44
GERMANY, orphreys attributed to, 32
GILES, Herbert, cited, 44
GILT, goldbeaters’ skin used for metallic thread,
-§3; goldbeaters’ skin used in Sicilian tapestry,
$3; paper in kinran, 57; paper wound about a silk
core, $7; papers strips of, in Far Eastern textiles,
57; thread, 29, 32, 38, 52, 55; thread, historical
note, 52; thread in Chinese silks, 57; thread made
of paper, Japanese, 57
GINGHAM, classification, 19
SOPCOLD in brocading, 53
GOLDBEATERS’ SKIN, extra weft of, in com-
pound twill, 29, 32; gilt, used in Sicilian tapes-
try, 53
GREGOIRE, Gaspard, chiné velvet portraits by, 46
HAN DYNASTY, patterned silks of the, 30, 37,
53; plain cloth woven during the, 22
HAND-LOOM WEAVES, table of, 4
HEIDEN, Max, cited, 42
HERRING-BONE, designs, classification, 11; de-
signs in warp twill from Akhmim, 32; designs,
weave of, 29; twill resembling satin, 37
HISPANO-MORESQUE tapestry, brocaded thread
ees 33
HISTORY OF, brocading, 52-59; the cloth weaves,
22-27; the satin weaves, 36-40; the twill weaves,
30-33; the velvet weaves, 42-49
HOMESPUN, classification, 29
HOOKED RUGS, formula for, 17
Ee _ HORIUJI, silks of the T’ang Dynasty at, 31
HUCKABACK TOWELS, classification, 9, 20
IBN BATUTA, quoted, 36
a, IKAT examples of chiné cloth, 22
4 __ INDIA SHAWLS, weave of, 11; é/., 10
_ INDIAN, blankets, American, weave of, 9; cloths
_ printed, classification, 8
INDONESIAN chiné cloth, 22
INTERLOCKING, tapestry, definition, 9; twill
tapestry, definition, 11; twill tapestry, é//., 10
_ ITALIAN, brocading, 53, 54; brocading, core of
thread in, 53; brocading, #/., 56; brocading,
loops in, 54; fancy compound satin, 39; metal
thread, 55; velvet distinguished from Persian and
Asia Minor, 54; velvet, ¢//., 40, 56; velvet in the
fifteenth century, 44
JAPANESE, chiné velvet, 26; gilt thread made of
paper, 57; silk fabrics, warp twill in, 32; textiles,
gilt paper in, 57; warp twill, #/., 51
JARDINIERE VELVET with extra pile warps, 47
JOUY, toiles de, classification, 8
KINRAN, gilt paper in, 57
KNOTTED RUG WEAVES, formula for, 17
KNITTED FABRICS, formula for, 17
KOZLOFF, P. K., fabrics excavated by, 53
LACE, formula for, 17
LAKE DWELLERS, Swiss, textile fragments of
fea
LAMPAS, disadvantages of the term, 38
LINEN, and silk compound satin, 38; and silk orph-
reys, 38; cloth, Egyptian, 22; core for metallic
thread, 53; core for metallic thread in Cologne
orphreys, 32; covers, Sicilian, 48; damask, weft
satin in, 11, 33,34; moiré, in the Musée Historique
at Berne, 26
LITTRE, quoted, 49
LOOPS, in Italian brocading, 54; in American bed-
spreads, Coptic fabrics, Sicilian covers, and Span-
ish rugs, 48; of metal thread in European fabrics,
54; weft, classification, 14
LOUIS XIV PERIOD, compound satin, 39; ribbed
cloth brocaded in silk and chenille, 25
LOUIS XV PERIOD, brocaded cloth, 23; brocaded
taffeta, 23; few velvets woven in the, 48; pebbled
patterns in ribbed cloth, 25; taffeta ee ribbed
silk, 25 .
LOUIS XVI PERIOD, ciselé velvet, 47; satin and
damask, 39; tinsel used in the, 54;’velvet revival
in the, 48
LOU LAN, Chinese silks excavated at, 30, 53
LUCCA, velvet sold by merchants from, 45
MARCO POLO, Zaitun mentioned by, 36
MARSEILLES BEDSPREADS, weave of, 22
MEMBRANE, see goldbeaters’ skin, 29, 32, 53, 54
MESSINA, velvet made in, 44
METAL, flat strips of, 24, 45, 53, 54; flat strips of,
in twill velvet, 45; thread bound by velvet warp
in Italian velvet, 55; thread, brocaded, 39, 50;
thread, copper alloy in, 55; thread, difference be-
tween European and Asia Minor, 54; thread in
brocaded velvet, 54; thread, Italian, 55; thread,
looped, in European fabrics, 54; thread, Spanish,
composition of, 55; thread used in Persian bro-
cading, 54, 55; thread, zinc alloy in, 55
METALLIC THREAD, gilt goldbeaters’ skin in,
53; linen core in, 53; silk core in, 25, 53, 54
MEXICO, chiné silk scarves from, 26
MICHEL, Francisque, quoted, 42
MING DYNASTY satin velvet, 46
MOIRE, antique 19; definition, 8; description, 19;
historical note, 26; linen in the Musée Historique
at Berne, 26; plain cloth, #//., 18
61
MONGOLS, Chinese designs brought to Europe by
fhe, 37
MORDANT DYEING, 20, 22
MUSLIN, classification, 19
NEAR EASTERN brocaded velvet distinguished
from European, 54
NINETEENTH CENTURY painted velvet, men-
tioned, 47
NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES, Egyptian
ribbed silks of the, 24
NORTHERN EUROPE, primitive weaves in, 57
ORDER OF TERMS to be followed in classifica-
tion, 17
ORIGIN OF, Chinese velvet, 44; ribbed cloth pos-
sibly tapestry weave, 24; the name velvet, 42;
twill, Egyptian, 30; velvet, 44; warp twill pos-
sibly Chinese satin, 32
ORPHREYS, attributed to Germany, 32; Cologne,
linen core for thread in, and weave of, 32; silk
and linen, 37
PAINTED, cloth, 20; fabrics, classification, 8; fab-
rics, description, 20; velvet in the nineteenth
century, mentioned, 47
PAPAL INVENTORY of 1295, quoted, 44
PAPER, gilt, in kénran, 57; thread, gilt, silk core
for, 57; in Far Eastern textiles, flat gilt strips of,
57; Japanese gilt thread made of, 57
PARISET, Ernest, cited, 31
PATTERNED, cords from Baghdad, 24; silks of the
Han Dynasty, 30, 37, 53; velvet, early mention
of, 44
PEBBLED PATTERNS in ribbed cloth, Louis XV
period, 25
PENNSYLVANIA, coverlets, double cloth weave
in, 24; Museum Bulletin, cited, 5
PERCALE, classification, 19
PERSIAN, and Asia Minor velvet distinguished
from European, 54; brocading, metal thread used
in, 54, §5; double cloth in the Cooper Union, 24;
silks, cloth weaves in, 23, 24; velvet, historical
. notes and characteristics, 44, 45, 46, 47
PERUGIA TOWELS, tapestry weave in, 30; com-
pound cloth weave in, 23, 30; #/., 28
PERUVIAN CLOTH, 22, 23; brocaded, 52; bro-
caded, #//., 51; double, 2//., 21
PICK, see weft, 7
PILE ON PILE, cut voided satin velvet, z//., 40;
velvet, definition, 14; velvet, description, 42;
velvet, historical notes, 45, 47; velvet sold in
Bruges, 45
PILE, warps, definition, 14; warps, extra in Jardi-
niére velvet, 47; weaves, definition, 14
PLAIN, cloth, Chinese, woven during the Han
Dynasty, 22; cloth, Coptic, 22; cloth, definition,
8; cloth, dyed patterns in, 22; cloth, historical
notes, 22, 23; cloth, z//., 10; cloth, brocaded, 2//.,
51; cloth, chiné, 2//., 18; cloth, moiré, 7//., 18;
cloth, printed, ¢//., 18; stripes in, 19; compound
62
cloth, definition, 13; compound cloth, descrip-
tion, 20; compound cloth, Egyptian, 23; com-
pound cloth, historical note, 23; compound cloth,
all., 21, 28; compound cloth, Spanish, 23; com-
pound satin, definition, 13; compound satin, de-
ah ope 36; compound satin, é//., 35 ; compound
twill, definition, 13; compound twill, descrip-
tion, 29; compound twill, z//., 28, 51; satin,
definition, 11; satin, description, 33; satin, 2//.,
12; satin, stamped slashed, 2//., 35; twill, defini-
tion, 9; twill, description, 27; twill, 2//., 12, 28
PLAITED WEAVE, formula for, 17
POLAND, chiné silks from, 26
POLO, Marco, Zaitun mentioned by, 36
PONGEE, classification, 19
PORTRAITS, chiné velvet, by Gaspard Grégoire,
46
PORTUGAL, chenille brocading popular in, 57
PRIMITIVE WEAVES in Northern Europe, 57
PRINTED, cloths, historical note, 22; cloths, In-
dian, classification, 8; fabrics, definition, 8;
fabrics, description, 20; plain cloth, z//., 18;
velvet, definition, 16; velvet, historical notes,
46, 47; velvet in the Cooper Union, 46
REATH, N..A., Velvets of the Renaissance, 54
REBOZOS, or Mexican scarves, 26
RENAISSANCE, voided velvet predominated dur-
ing the, 47
RESIST DYEING, 20
RIBBED, cloth brocaded in silk and chenille, Louis
XIV period, 25; chiné cloth, 26; cloth, classifi-
cation, 8;cloth, description, 19,20; cloth, histori-
cal note, 24; cloth, important in the eighteenth
century, 58; cloth, patterned, from Baghdad,
24; cloth possibly developed from tapestry, 24;
cloth velvet, historical note, 45; cloth with peb-
bled patterns, Louis XV period, 25; double cloth,
Spanish, 25; silk and taffeta in the Louis XV
period, 25; silks of the ninth and tenth centuries,
Egyptian, 24; slashed cloth, historical note, 25
RISE OF SILK WEAVING in Sicily, 31
ROMAN SILK TRADE before the sixth century, 31
RUGS, hooked, formula for, 17; knotted, formula
for, 17; Sardinian, weave of, 23; Spanish, weft.
loops in, 48
RUSSIA, chenille brocading popular in, 57
SARDINIAN RUGS, weave of, 23
SATEEN, classification, 11
SATIN, Chinese, warp twill possibly developed
from, 32; compound, definition, 13; compound,
description, 36; compound, historical notes, 37,
38, 39; compound, Louis XIV period, 39; com-
pound, silk and linen, 38; compere Spanish,
39; description, 33; distinguished from twill, 33;
early, warp twill confused with, 37; fancy com-
pound, definition, 13; fancy compound, descrip-
tion, 36; fancy, definition, 11; fancy, description,
36; fancy, historical note, 39; fancy, zl/., 35;
herring-bone twill resembling, 37; in the Louis
XVI period, 39; plain compound, definition, 13;
plain compound, description, 36; plain com-
pound, z//., 35; plain, definition, 11; plain, de-
scription, 34; plain, z//., 12; silk and linen
compound, 38; simple, definition, 11; simple,
description, 33; simple, historical note, 37;
slashed, description, 34; slashed, historical note,
23; stamped slashed plain, #//., 35; velvet, bro-
caded cut voided, #//., 56; velvet, ciselé solid,
all., 43; velvet, definition, 16; velvet, description,
41; velvet, historical note, 44; velvet of the Ming
Dynasty, 46; velvet, pile on pile cut voided, d//.,
40; velvet, stamped uncut solid, z//., 40; warp,
description, 33; weaves, 33-40; weaves, history
of the, 36-40; weft, classification, 11; weft, de-
scription, 33; weft, in linen damask, 11, 33, 34;
called azedtuni and xetani raso, 37
SCARVES, chiné silk, from Mexico, 26
SELVAGE, definition, 7
SERGE, classification, 32
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, brocading in the,
255 39> 57
SHAWLS, Cashmere and India; weave of, 11; d/l.,
P70.
SHOOT, see weft, 7
SICILIAN, covers, weave of, 23; covers with weft
out 48; silk weaving, rise of, 31; tapestry, gilt
goldbeaters’ skin used in, 53
ty SILVER THREAD, brocading with, 52, 53, 55
SIMPLE, cloth, definition, 8; cloth, description, 19;
cloth, historical notes, 22, 23; satin, definition,
II; satin, description, 33; satin, historical note,
37; twill, definition, 9; twill, description, 27
SIXTH CENTURY, Roman silk trade before the,
31; to the eleventh, weft twill important, 57
SLASHED, cloth, ribbed, historical notes, 23, 25;
definition, 9; plain satin, stamped, #//., 35; satin,
‘historical note, 23; satin, description, 34
SLIT TAPESTRY, definition, 9; 2//., 10, 21
SOLID, satin velvet, ciselé, 2//., 43; satin velvet,
stamped uncut, é//., 40; twill velvet, cut, é//., 43;
velvet, chiné, 42; velvet, definition, 14; velvet,
description, 41; velvet, historical notes, 44, 45, 47
SPAIN, chenille brocading popular in, 57
SPANGLES in eighteenth century fabrics, 57
SPANISH, brocading, De of thread used in, 53;
compound satin, 39; double cloth, 24; metal
thread, composition of, 55; plain compound
cloth, 23; ribbed double cloth, 25; rugs with weft
loops, 48
STAMPED, definition, 8; aa Ber 19; slashed
plain satin, 2//., 35; uncut solid satin velvet, é//.,
40; velvet, definition, 14; velvet, description, 42;
velvet, historical notes, 46, 47
STEIN, Sir Aurel, Chinese silks excavated by, 53
STENCILLED, classification, 8; description, 20
STRIPED EGYPTIAN SILKS of the ninth and
tenth centuries, 24
STRIPES, classification, 17; in plain cloth, 19
SWISS LAKE DWELLERS, textile fragments of
Tie, 2.2.
TABBY, classification, 22
TABLE of hand-loom weaves, 4
TAFFETA, and ribbed silk in the Louis XV period,
25; brocaded, Louis XV period, 23; classifica-
tion, 19; historical note, 23; slashed, historical
note, 23
T’ANG DYNASTY, silks of the, at Horiuji, 31
TAPESTRY, ti weave of, 9; Hispano-
Moresque, brocaded thread in, 53; 2//., 28; inter-
locking, definition, 9; interlocking twill, defini-
. Uon, 11; interlocking twill, zJ/., 10; Sicilian, gilt
goldbeaters’ skin used in, 53; slit, definition, 9;
slit, 2L., 10, 21; slit twill, definition, 11; weave
in Egyptian fabrics, 30, 31; weave in Perugia
towels, 30; weave, ribbed cloth possibly devel-
oped from, 24
TARTANS, twill weave of, 3x
TENTH CENTURY, Egyptian ribbed silks of the,
24
TERMS, order of, to be followed in classification,
17
THEODULF, fra
of, 42
THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTUR-
IES, double cloth of the, 23; warp twill impor-
tant in the, 58
TINSEL used in the Louis XVI period, 54
TOILES DE JOUY, classification, 8 .
T’OUNG PAO, cited, 36
TOWELS, huckaback, weave of, 9, 20; Perugia,
ail., 28; Perugia, tapestry and twill weaves in,
30; Perugia, plain compound cloth weave in, 23
TWEEDS, twill weave of, 29
TWELFTHCENTURY brocaded silks in the Cooper
Union, 53
TWILL, Alexandrian, not brocaded, 52; Byzan-
tine, 31; compound, definition, 13; compound,
description, 29, 30; compound, with extra weft
of goldbeaters’ skin, 29, 32; distinguished from
satin, 33; Egyptian, Chinese influence in, 30;
Egyptian origin of, 30; fancy compound, defini-
tion, 13; fancy compound, description, 29; fancy,
definition, 11; fancy, description, 29; fancy, #/J.,
28; Gothic warp, brocaded, 31; herring-bone,
resembling satin, 37; herring-bone warp, from
Akhmim, 32; Japanese, z//., 51; plain compound,
definition, 13; plain compound, description, 29;
plain compound, #//., 28, 51; plain, definition, 9;
plain, description, 27; plain, z//., 12, 28; simple,
definition, 9; simple, description, 27; tapestry,
definition, 11; tapestry, interlocking, defini-
tion, 11; tapestry, interlocking, #//., 10; velvet,
ciselé voided, z//., 40; velvet, cut solid, é//., 43;
velvet, definition, 16; velvet, description, 41;
velvet, flat strips of metal in, 45; velvet, his-
torical note, 45; warp, brocaded Gothic, 31;
warp, possibly developed from Chinese satin, 32;
warp, confused* with eatly satin, 37; warp,
description, 29; warp, historical notes, 31, 32;
warp, important in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, 58; warp, in Japanese silk fabrics, 32;
weave, description, 27; weave of tartans, 32;
gments of velvet in the manuscript
weave of tweeds, 29; weaves, 27-33; weaves,
history of the, 30-33; weft, coil re 29; weft,
Egyptian, 30, 31; weft, historical notes, 30, 31,
32; weft, important, sixth century to the elev-
enth, 57
TWISTED WEAVES, formula for, 17
UNCUT, solid satin velvet, stamped, é//., 40; velvet,
definition, 14, 16; velvet, description, 41; velvet,
historical notes, 46, 47; voided cloth velvet, z/1.,
40 ,
URGA, silk fabrics excavated near, $3
VELVET, Asia Minor, 44, 45, 46, 47; Asia Minor
brocading on, 55; Asia Minor, distinguished
from European, 54; brocaded, 50, 54; brocaded
cut voided cloth, é//., 56; brocaded cut voided
satin, é/l., 56; brocaded, metal thread in, 54;
brocaded, Near Eastern, 55; chiné, from Central
Asia, 46; chiné, definition, 16; chiné, historical
note, 46; chiné, how to distinguish, 42; chiné
solid, 47; Chinese ciselé solid, 47; Chinese, his-
torical note, 46; Chinese, origin of, 44; ciselé,
definition, 16; ciselé, description, 41, 42; ciselé,
historical notes, 46, 47; ciselé, z//., 15; ciselé, in
the Bargello, 46; ciselé, of the Louis XVI period,
47; ciselé solid satin, 2//., 43; ciselé voided twill,
ill., 40; cloth, definition, 14; cloth, description,
41; cloth, historical note, 45; cotton, linen, and
woo!, mentioned, 41; cut, Chinese, 46; cut, def-
inition, 14; cut, ses 41; cut, historical
note, 46; cut solid twill, z//., 43; definition, 14;
description, 41; early English embroidered, 44;
European brocading on, 55; European distin-
guished from Asia Minor, 54; foundation weave
in, 41; fragments of, in the Manuscript of
Theodulf, 42; Italian, distinguished from Asia
Minor and Persian, 54; Italian, in the fifteenth
century, 44; Jardiniére, with extra pile warps,
47; made in Constantinople, Genoa, Messina
and Venice, 44; materials used in, 41; Near East-
ern, distinguished from European, 54; origin of,
44; origin of the name, 42; painted, in the nine-
teenth century, 47; patterned, early mention of,
44; Persian, distinguished from European, 54;
Persian, historical notes and characteristics, 47;
54; pile on pile cut voided satin, //., 40; pile on
pile, definition, 14; pile on pile, description, 42;
pile on pile, historical notes, 45, 47; pile on pile,
sold in Bruges, 45 ; portraits by Gaspard Grégoire,
chiné, 46; printed, definition, 16; printed, his-
torical notes, 46, 47; printed, in the Cooper
Union, 46; rare in the Louis XV period, 48;
revival in the Louis XVI period, 48; ribbed
cloth, historical note, 45; satin, definition, 16;
satin, description, 41; satin, historical note, 44;
satin, of the Ming Dynasty, 46; sold by mer-
chants from Lucca, 45; solid, chiné, 47; solid,
definition, 14; solid, description, 41; solid, his-
torical notes, 44, 45, 47; stamped, definition, 14;
stamped, description, 42; stamped, historical
notes, 46, 47; stamped uncut solid satin, 2//., 40;
take-up of warp in, 42; twill, definition, 16;
twill, description, 41; twill, flat strips of metal
in, 45; twill, historical note, 45; uncut, defini-
tion, 14, 16; uncut, description, 41, 42; uncut,
historical notes, 46, 47; uncut tie he cloth, 2/.,
40; voided, brocading on, 50; voided, definition,
16; voided, description, 41; voided, historical
note, 47; voided, predominated during the Re-
naissance, 47; warp, metal thread bound by, in
European velvet, 55; weaves, 41-49; weaves,
history of the, 42-49; woven during the reign
of Ch'ien Lung, 46
VELVETEEN, classification, 14
VENICE, velvet made in, 44
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, warp twill
ithe jas
VOIDED, cloth velvet, brocaded cut, é//., 56; cloth
velvet, uncut, 2//., 40; satin velvet, brocaded
cut, z//., 56; satin velvet, pile on pile cut, #/.,
40; twill velvet, ciselé, é/., 40; velvet, brocad-
ing on, 50; velvet, definition, 16; velvet, descrip-
tion, 41; velvet, historical note, 47; velvet pre-
dominated during the Renaissance, 47
WARP, definition, 7; ends, see warp, 7; satin,
description, 33; take-up of, in velvet weaving,
42; twill, brocaded Gothic, 31; twill, Sombie
developed from Chinese satin, 32; twill, con-
fused with early satin, 37; twill, description, 29;
twill from Akhmim, herring-bone designs in,
32; twill, historical notes, 31, 32; twill impor-
tant in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
58; twill in Japanese silk fabrics, 32; twill in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, 32; velvet, metal
thread bound by, in European velvet, 55
WARPS, extra pile, in Jardiniére velvet, 47; pile,
description, 14
WATERED, or moiré, designs, 8, 19, 26
WEAVE, of European tapestry, 9; of herring-bone
designs, 29; the classifying, 17
WEAVES, analysis of the, 7-18; hand-loom, table
of, 4; classification by, 6; cloth, 19-27; cloth,
history of the, 22-27; satin, 33-40; satin, history
of the, 36-40; twill, 27-33; twill, history of the,
30-33; velvet, 41-49; velvet, history of the,
42-49
WEFT, definition, 7; loops, American bedspreads
with, 48; loops, classification, 14; loops, Coptic,
48; loops, Sicilian covers with, 48; loops, Span-
ish rugs with, 48; satin, definition, 11; satin;
description, 33; satin in linen damask, 11, 33, 34;
twill, description, 29; twill, Egyptian, 30, 31,
twill, historical notes, 30, 31, 32; twill impor-
tant, sixth century to the eleventh, 57
WOOF, see weft, 7
Y BADIA COLLECTION in the Cooper Union, 53
YULE, Henry, cited, 31
ZAITUN mentioned by Marco Polo, 36
ZETANI RASO, satin called, 37
ZINC ALLOY in metal thread, 55
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