ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING KR PRHENE SPIERS, Ff. S.A. Renee ore a pa ee ty Pe Corr ft eit eG. DRAW LNG We cea ‘SUNOTON SNOIUVA NI GaLNIG SNIMVUG 9 938Id Ks ‘suadsy auayd "ey “HOUAHD WOd AGOLS NANG SAR AVIU $50, OSX] %, cS AR CPA OO eee. DIR ES ISIN, Ge. BY R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., ARCHITECT, FELLOW OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, MASTER OF THE ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOL OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY ; AND HONORARY AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETE CENTRALE DES ARCHITECTES, PARIS, AND OF THE SOCIEDAD CENTRAL DES ARQUITECTOS, MADRID, ___>—» ee =< CASSHELE & *COM PAIN Siri LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. 1887. [ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. | JE MEY lend (IG Jes T'nrs book is the outcome of a paper read by the author at a meeting of the Architectural ggestions on the various Association in 1874. Intended at first to throw out a few su types of architectural drawing at the present day, and more especially on that variety of shaded drawing which is practised in foreign schools: its scope has been extended in this work to include preliminary training in all kinds of architectural draughtsmanship, with special reference to artistic design. With this object the author has endeavoured to place himself in relation with the requirements of English office-training at the present day: and to point out how, concurrently with office work, the architectural pupil may turn to the best account the ever-increasing opportunities for private study. Tn the second part of the book the author has ventured to lay down a series of rules for the preparation of working drawings, which are, as far as he has been able to ascertain, in accordance with the customs which obtain in many of the principal London offices. Various books have appeared from time to time in England and on the Continent, giving plans, clevations, and sections of buildings or parts of buildings and structures illustrated in‘colour; but this is the first occasion, the author believes, in which an attempt has been made to reproduce the best type of working drawings of the present day, with all the various colours which are employed to indicate the several materials employed. There is, of course, some little diversity of custom; and the use of Carmine for brick walls, Prussian- blue for stonework, and Indian-yellow for wood floors, is still adhered-to in some offices ; more importance, apparently, being attached to the strong contrast which these colours give than to the harmony which should, if possible, exist in the general effect of even a working drawing. At first sight it might appear to be a matter of little moment what colours are employed, provided they have the great important result of distinguishing the materials, and are recognised or understood by the workmen; there is, however, this danger, that if the eye of the pupil or draughtsman be constantly fixed on drawings crude in their colour and inharmonious in their contrast, it may tend to a mischievous result ; and his perception of a true sense of colour may be at fault if in his subsequent life he is called upon to design and superintend the colour-decoration of a building. It may here V1 PREFACE. be noted that in the printing of Plates 7,8,and 9,it has not been found possible to obtain quite the same tone as that of the ordinary water-colour cakes used in English offices. In the third part of the book—on Outdoor Work—the author has brought together all the information which exists on the subject: from his own personal experience, from the advice of friends, and from a careful examination of drawings made by students during the last twenty-five years; and he desires here to express his obliga- tions to Mr. W. H. Bidlake, M.A., for much useful information in the paragraph dealing with measured work; and to Mr. A. Oliver for his valuable experience in the rubbing of brasses. The author desires also to express his obligation to Mr. H. H. Stannus for the useful suggestions he has received from him in the arrangement of the work, and for his valuable assistance ; as also for that of his brother, Mr. Walter L. Spiers, in the revision of MS. and proofs. His special thanks are due to Mrs. Cockerell for the valuable illustrations which he has been permitted to publish of the drawings by her husband—the late Mr. Frederick Pepys Cockerell ; and to Mr. R. Norman Shaw, R.A.; Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A.; Mr, Alfred Waterhouse, R.A.; and to other contributors whose drawings have been so kindly lent to him for the purposes of illustration. GONG Nis: INTRODUCTION Drawing Paper, Drawing Instruments. Qart STUDENTS’ WORK First Division.—DRAUGHTSMANSHIP Section A.—Elementary Projection and Copying. Section B.—Freehand Drawing from the Round. Section C.—Geometrical Drawings (Class A.—Outline Drawing. Class B.—-Tinted and Shaded Drawings). Section D.—Perspective Drawing (Its Objects, Advantages, and Disadvantages). Second Diviston.—Desicn Section A.—Copying of the Orders, and their application. Section B.—The Study of Design. Jart I1.-OFFICE WORK. First Drviston.—Conrract anp WorkinG DRAWINGS Section A.—Characteristies. Section B.—Seales to be observed (Class A.—Plans. Classes B & C.—Elevations and Sections). Section C.—Colouring of Materials. Section D.—Reproduction. Sreconp Diviston.—Compertition Drawines Section A.-Plans, Elevations, and Sections. Section B.—Perspectives. Section C.—Colour Decoration. Part III.— OUTDOOR WORK Section A.—Measured Drawings. Section B.—Perspective Drawings. Section C.—Perspective Sketches and Notes. Section D.—Water-Colour Drawings and Sketches. Section E.—Colour Decoration. Section F.—Rubbing of Brasses, ete. Conclusion Index to Paragraphs PAGE IL LS 39 46 49 PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE LIST Sern. PEAS 1.—FREEHAND DRAWING SHADED From Cast iy Royan Acapemy.—H. Needham Wilson. 2.—RULED AND FREEHAND LINE DRAWING Fireriacre, Dawroot, Cuisutre.—R. Norman Shaw, R.A. 3.—Lint DRAawine ConToURED OR MASSsED Srupy ror Town Mansion.—H. H. Stannus, F.R.ILB.A. 4.—DRAWING TINTED IN InpDIAN INK Srupy ror Cuimnnyprece.—The late Frederick Pepys Cockerell. 5.—Drawine TINTED IN THREE COLOURS Srupy ror Founrarn.—The late Frederick Pepys Cockerell. 6.—DRawine TINTED IN VARIOUS COLOURS Srupy ror Cuurcu.—R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A. 7.—Hatr-incH ScaLe DEerarn Warenotse, Ray Srre E.C.—Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I. B.A. 8.—-HALF-INCH ScALE DETAIL. : : ‘ . . ‘ ‘ , Bay oF Wooprorp ConGreGAtionaAL Cuurcu.—Rowland Plumbe, F.R.1.B.A, 9.—ONE-EIGHTH-INCH SCALE DRAWINGS, ETC. Yarrenpon Court, Hanrs.—Alfred Waterhouse, R.A. 10.—HaALr-IncH ScaLeE DETAIL: VAULTING Sr. Micuarn ann Att Ancrts, Croypon.—John Loughborough Pearson, R.A. Enenish Cuurcu, Roms.—The late George Edmund Street, R.A, 11.— PERSPECTIVE TINTED IN SEPIA . . Dnsicn-ror Liyrrroon Excuancu.—Zhe late Uhomas Allom. 12.—_ Perspective Linn Hronine ; Dyxr, near Harrow.—R. Norman Shaw, R.A. GR-zM 13._Prrsprotive Ercuep In Brown INK AND STRENGTHENED BY WASHES OF SEPIA AtmsHovusss, Gurtprorp.—Ernest George, FE.RIB,A, PAR. lee] 14 19 29 ie} loa) 100 109 132 158 x List oF PLATES. Puate 14.—MeAsurED DRAWING Sr. AuBan’s, West Porcu.—James Neale, FSA. Prats 15.—MeEasurED DRAWING Sr, Aupan’s, West Porcu.—James Neale, FSA. Puate 16.—LiIngE DRAwIiINne IN PENCIL Pauazzo Barrorint.—The late Frederick Pepys Cockerell, PLavTE 17.—FREEHAND DRAWING IN PENCIL . Crowianp Aspey Porcu.—The late Frederick Pepys Cockerell. Puate 18.—FREEHAND DRAWING IN PENCIL . Capirats at Exy anp Lincoun.—The late Frederick Pepys Cockerell. Puate 19.—FREEHAND DRAWING IN INK Sr. Grorero, Macerorr.—TZhe late Frederick Pepys Oockerell. Puate 20.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWING: PENCIL Lincotn Carueprat, Sourn Porcu.—W. H. Bidlake, M.A. PuaTe 21.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWING: PENCIL Lincozn Caruzprat, Sourn Fronr.—WV. H. Bidluke, M.A. PLATE 22.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWING: PENCIL . Souru-wrst Towrr, Cuarrrus Carneprat.—Gerald Horsley. PLATE 23.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWING: PENCIL. Tracery in Sourn Arstz, Courances Caturprau.—Gerald Horsley. PLATE 24.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWING: PENCIL . Anprizv, Tower or Cuurcu.—Tracing from Sketch by the late G. E. Street, R.A. Prare 25.—SxutcH Tinrep in Sepia AND CHINESE WHITE Prazza Duty? Annunziata, Fiorence.—Zhe late Frederick Pepys Cockerell, ISI OM OO IDC 7100S, J. CENTROLINEAD II. PERSPECTOGRAPH . II. Isomerric Drawing IV. Diagram or ARcH V. CYMAGRAPH . DIAGRAM OF SPIRE PAR, 141 14] 157 157 157 171 ARCHITEC PUP Ale =P Aayvaiare: 206 TIN GEO ID WCE ILO IN|. Tur term “Architectural Drawing” is intended to include every kind of drawing which may have to be executed by an architect at any period of his career, whether for the purposes of elementary study, professional practice, or recreation. The nature of these drawings being necessarily varied, some little difficulty presents itself at the commencement in deciding upon the order in which the different classes should be described. This difficulty would not arise were we dealing with the curriculum of architectural training abroad, owing to the existence in most countries of a complete and definite course, well established by long tradition, and under the direction of skilled masters. In England the student is expected, almost as soon as he enters an office, to take his share and assist in making working drawings for a building to be executed, which should be, and is with other work, looked upon as the end and aim of all architectural study.. Thus the thorough course of study in architectural drawing and design which is gone through in foreign schools must perforce, under the pupilage system in England, be attempted in a haphazard manner, having to be almost invariably undertaken by the pupil in his own leisure time after office hours, and being sometimes entirely neglected until the Articles are terminated. Under these circumstances it has seemed to us that in our description what is essentially students’ work should be separated from the ordinary work of the office, and accordingly the subject will be treated in three broad divisions, viz. :— I. STUDENTS’ WORK. II. OFFICE WORK. III. OUTDOOR WORK. We are thus enabled to leave undecided the difficult questions—Istly, when and where the studies enumerated in Parts I. and III. should be undertaken; and, 2ndly, to what extent the pupil should carry further his study and practice in either of them. The subject of Architectural Education and its further development to suit the needs of the time is gradually working its way to the front as the most important question with which the Profession has to deal; and such questions as we now leave undecided will eventually, it is to be hoped, by common consent and custom, be settled 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. one way or the other, to the advantage of Principal and Pupil, the Profession, and the Public. As draughtsmanship and the method of execution depend to a certain extent on the quality of the paper and of the instruments used, some mention of them may be found of value. DRAWING PAPER. ce Whatman’s “hot-pressed” and “not” (7.e., not hot-pressed) papers are those generally used. The former is much the best, on account of its smooth surface, for line drawings, whether left in pencil or inked-in; but if many corrections are made, the surface is liable to be destroyed, the lines are apt to spread and become woolly, and colour lies in patches on it; further, it is not easy to colour on it, as it is non- absorbent. For beginners, therefore, or with d rawines in which much erasure with rubber is likely to be required, as well as for all those drawings which it is intended to tint in flat or gradated colours, it is better to use Whatman’s “not.”* Cartridge paper is frequently used on account of its less cost and of the large dimensions in which it is made, being obtainable sixty inches wide and in continuous rolls. Like hot-pressed paper, its surface will not allow of much rubbing out, but it takes colour fairly well, and is invaluable for large scale details. It gets brittle with age, and is apt to crack and tear. Thinner qualities and lining paper are occasionally employed for full-sized details and other drawings which are likely to be required only for a temporary purpose. Hudson and Kearns’ “Loan Cartridge”? is an excellent paper, of smooth surface, not easily torn, and sufficiently transparent to allow of thick line drawings and details being traced through it. The ordinary tracing paper becomes brittle with age, and is therefore mounted on linen by the builder for use on the works. The quality known as “ papier végétale”’ is less brittle, but does not lie so flat upon the drawing while the tracing is being made. Tracing linen is best for contract work ; the most useful is that which has only one surface glazed and the other surface left dead to receive the ink-line. ‘Tracing linen will not take pencil, and ink must therefore be used. When a tint of colour is laid over the ink-lines, it washes them up; and all tinting except the sectional parts should be done on the reverse side to the ink outline, 7.e., on the glazed side. Tracing linen is very sensitive to damp (and most building operations are damp at some time or other); care should be: taken therefore that the drawings are not obliterated while on the works. rae For outline and working drawings it is the custom to fix the paper on the drawing board with drawing pins; when, however, especial care and accuracy are required, as in competition and show drawings, the paper should always be strained and mounted; in the case of drawings which it is intended to tint or colour, this becomes an absolute necessity, to prevent the cockling of the paper. 5 INTRODUCTION. 12 With tracing linen, as with tracing paper, it is necessary occasionally to mix oxgall with the ink, on account of a greasiness on the surface. The use of oxgall can, however, be obviated by rubbing powdered chalk or whiting over the surface of the tracing linen with a duster, which removes all grease. DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. The instruments required, though few in number, should be of the best quality ; it is impossible to obtain the accuracy necessary in architectural drawings at the present day if the compasses and bows have legs of uneven length, or blunt points, or work stiffly in their joints. As these instruments, if well made, will last a lifetime, it is a mistake to begin, as some do, with inferior ones. The instruments required for ordinary use are— (a) Dividers: which are used for taking or noting down single dimensions, or for subdividing lines or spaces. (6) Half-set compasses with mk and pencil points and lengthening bar. (c) Pencil bows and ink bows (double-jointed): for smaller curves. (¢Z) Spring bows: which are occasionally required, but may, with the exception of the ink bow, be dispensed with. (e) Ruling pens: of two or three degrees of fineness. (/) Scales: in wood or ivory. (g) Pencils: of various degrees of hardness to suit the quality of paper used. (4) 'T squares: in pear or mahogany; the latter, with ebony edge, lasting the longest. (j) Set squares: vulcanite being the best. (4) Drawing boards, ebony edge, and clamped at back. (7) Writing pens: for freehand work, Gillott’s No. 303 is well adapted for the purpose. (m) Drawing pins: the larger size are stronger, and less likely to be lost. (n) Centres.” * A difficulty is sometimes experienced, when a number of circles have to be drawn from the same centre, in obtaining sufficient accuracy, owing to the deep hole caused by the compass-point in the paper on the board; in such eases the smaller circles should be described first. It is possible, however, to obtain at the instrument- maker’s small horn centres, about 2” in diameter, small pins underneath fastening them on the paper; the French students use small pieces of mouth-glue, which they eut off and stick on the paper where required. ered: ih SUID IN Se Wine FIRST DIVISION.—DRA UGHTSMUANSHIP. Sxcrion A.—ELEMENTARY PROJECTION AND COPYING. 1. The first question to be considered is the nature of the drawing upon which the pupil should commence his work. His preliminary training, prior to entering the office, may in some degree modify its elementary nature; as a rule, however, even those boys who are supposed at school to have shown some taste for the profession which they have selected, have probably been allowed to draw with indifferent instru- ments, from inferior models, and with insufficient instruction, so far as drawing of architectural subjects is concerned. he pupils’ work in any case, therefore, has to be commenced “de novo,” and the first object will be to train the hand to the use of proper drawing instruments, and the eye to the geometrical forms, proportions, and detail which constitute the elements of architectural design. 2. Before this latter, however, some preliminary training in geometrical drawing, including the projection in plan and elevation of solids—such as cubes, cylinders, spheres, and other forms—will be found a distinct advantage in the case of those who have never attempted such subjects; it will materially assist in the proper understanding of the projections of some of the more elaborate classic orders with their ornament if the simpler forms, their projection, formation, and development, are learnt first. 3. The customary procedure at the present day is to set the pupil to copy some of the show drawings there may be in the office, or examples of the Classic orders, such as are published in Pugin’s edition of Normand’s Parallels; Chambers; Vignola Mauch. ; and 4. The reason why the Classic orders constitute the best models for beginners is y g 9 that the column and entablature of each order are constant in their proportions, without reference to its dimensions, its execution, or, necessarily, to its surroundings ; they constitute, therefore, a better training for the eye, as regards the scale of the main * «pan:q) soos :2avu7w08d - i { j i i ‘SEINV]] ‘NOGNILLV AX —— + + ey ae —— a = ss ol 38 25 oe = a a SP oo poe jo“ Ue — k —-— - —- -- — =O040)=> = =s SS SSS SSeS] = SSS Se SSS = -——+ js S SS Sse ol — — — we -— — - eu HH ot - -+--— =) SS —+— = pANSS= =23 SS S SSS = SS SSS SS f ; 1 ; : ———— . « = ; re Sy i i i 77 State | =O) eee * ! 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Thirdly, other drawings for work, the provision for which has been made in money or material.* Secrioyn B.—_SCALES TO BE OBSERVED. 104. For the general or contract drawings it is customary to adopt a scale of 4th of an inch to the foot. They consist of—(a) Plan of every floor, and of the roof. (4) Elevations of every front and of those portions of external walls not shown in the sections. (c) Sections, taken in part or whole through all those portions of the design, which from a different treatment require elucidation, including those which show the flues or chimneys.; These sections are lettered as, cD, etc., and the lines on which they are taken should be shown on the plans, and the section letters should be so placed as to read the right way up as the spectator looks at the drawings to see which walls the sections represent. CLASS A.—PLANS. 105. In addition to plans of every floor and of the roof: in special cases it is necessary to add a plan of foundations and footings, and a block plan showing the relative position of the building to its surroundings; the latter is generally drawn to ts scale, and has the position and dimension of the drains indicated on it, otherwise these are shown on the ground floor or basement plan. It will be found an advantage to have a special plan to #” scale, made in outline, on which not only the soil drains should be shown, but also those intended to carry the rain-water (to tanks, if required), the water supply, hot and cold water services, wastes, and gas; these can all be indicated in lines of various colours: brown for soil drains, blue for rain, green and yellow for cold and hot water services (the latter with arrows to show flow and return), violet for wastes, and. red for gas. The exact position of all these pipes is not always determinable till the completion of the work, when a revised plan of the main floors should be made with the amended direction of all pipes shown. The line should be a continuous one if below the floor, and be dotted if carried over head. 106. Although a scale should always be set out on every drawing, it is better not to trust entirely to this, but to mark in figures the calculated dimensions clearly and dis- tinctly throughout, both imside and outside. All internal doors, with their width and perhaps their height, and also the width of chimney openings, should be figured on the plan. It is better not to indicate the position of every joist and trimmer, as it tends to * There is no doubt that it would be a great advantage in many cases if it were possible to include some of the last class among the contract drawings, as the obtaining further estimates after the commencement of the works invariably leads to unforeseen Extras, owing to an incorrect estimate of their original value, or to a subsequent expansion of ideas. + The position of fireplaces in the wall, behind those actually shown in elevation, should be indicated by dotted lines, as also the flues, unless there be two back to back, in which case the elevation of both sides of chimney jamb must be given. p 42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. confuse the plan, but the direction of their bearing should be shown by lines in brown ink, and their scantlings should be figured thereon, their distance apart being stated in the specification. All fittings which form part of the contract should be shown on the }" scale drawings, at all events on the plan, as also the doors, and the way they are intended to open. This is generally regulated by the position of the fireplaces in sitting-rooms, and in bed-rooms by the position of the beds; the latter, therefore, should always be shown in pencil on the plan, but not necessarily traced for the contractor, though this sometimes is an advantage for other purposes, such as position of bell-pulls, gas-brackets, ete. CLASSES B AND C.—ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS. 107. In the elevations and sections the leading heights should be figured “floor to floor; ” it is inexpedient to figure the heights “floor to ceiling,” as these vary according to the depth of the floor joists. The heights of windows or doors (external) should not be figured on small scale drawings, but should be left to the larger scale drawings, on which the jointing in brick or stone with which they would have to range is shown. Unless a skeleton roof plan is given, the scantling of the roof timbers should be indicated on the sections. 108. For buildings of small size or of simple design, a +" scale drawing will sometimes save 4” scale details. For alterations and additions to a house the same scale (2") is also better. 109. Although the 2’ or 2" scale general drawings, together with the specification, are sufficient to show clearly the architect’s intention with respect to the simpler classes of building, it eventually saves time and trouble if they are supplemented by 2 scale drawings. These ought to be prepared in time to form part of the contract, if there be any architectural features or special treatment in the construction: they are invaluable to the quantity-surveyor, whose task is simplified and rendered more accurate when taking off the dimensions; and they record the architect’s intentions more clearly, and lessen the chance of dispute with the builder at the close of the work. The 3° scale drawings include details of one or more bays of the work, according to the variety of the design—with sections of the same showing footings and foundations —plans of windows at every level,* and sectional lines through mouldings—the setting out of vaults,; arcades, porches, windows, and doorways, details of such features as towers and spires and generally all features of special design in stone, brick, or terra- cotta—iron roofs, girders, stanchions, and ironwork generally — the framing of the timbers in the roof (framed partitions are generally given to 2” scale)—staircases * See illustrations of Woodford Church, and Messrs. John Greenwood and Son’s warehouse, by Mr. Rowland Plumbe (Plates 7 and 8). + See Plate 10, illustrating the setting out of the vaulting in the nave of the church of St. Michael and All Angels, Croydon, J. L. Pearson, Hsq., R.A., architect ; and the vaulting of the English Church at Rome, by the late George Edmund Street, Hsq., R.A. SCALE HALF-INCH Church of S-Michael ana All Angels- Croydon. Plate 10. John L- Pearson: RA: Archt- Detail of Vaulting overNave- ] _ iE Se ee ee ee ener KO Ga lona uIeon UD ares Half Bayxé Transverse Section - ( us tes Plan - Half Bay- oi VAULTING } DETAIL : 109. LP laip as [ker AA? i LATEST, Zo oD =a } | | } } | | Orrice Work. 43 church in wood or stone—doors, windows, chimneypieces, and fittings generally furniture, ete. 110. When the joinery is of any special design it is advisable to make the drawings to 1” or 13” scale, and the same rule applies to pulpits in stone or wood, and to such features as fonts or reredoses in stone, when the scale of the detail requires more elaboration than the 4” scale drawings could give. 111. Sometimes, as in canopy or screen work, it is necessary to draw out portions of the design full-size, otherwise it will be impossible to obtain the real “ feeling” of the work; in such cases it is better to make the 1” or 14” scale detail a key drawing, with letters indicating the portions drawn out full-size ; sectional lines should be freely given, and occasionally perspective sketches of portions of the detail will assist the carver or modeller in understanding the intentions of the architect. 112. A quarter-full-size drawing is useful to judge of details of mouldings in stone or wood, in all cases to be supplemented by full-size contours, as it is unsafe to allow the workman to set these out from the smaller scale. 113. In dealing with terra-cotta it will be found better to obtain the “ Shrinkage scale,” and to draw out the details of the terra-cotta to the full-size to allow for shrinkage, otherwise the modeller will have to enlarge the ordinary full-size drawing, and in so doing may possibly lose some of the character and feeling it possesses. 114, Asa general rule it is always advisable, after the larger scale drawings have been made (if important changes have been introduced) to reduce them to the smaller scales, and work them into the general design, whether it be to §’, 4’, or 3" scale. 115. All unusual scales, as 6”, +”, or decimal scales, should be avoided, as they frequently lead to errors; and half-full-size details are to be generally condemned, as misleading. 116. Contract drawings should always be inked-in, coloured, and figured. Alterations made after the signing of contract should be on a special drawing or tracing, or on a flap; if put on the contract drawings and agreed to by the builder, they should be indicated in red lines, as evidence of the change, and initialled or more fully stated as alterations. Srctrion C.—COLOURING OF MATERIALS. 117. In the tinting of working drawings it is customary to employ various colours; in this the artistic effect should be of secondary importance, the object being simply to distinguish different materials for the instruction and guidance of the quantity surveyor, contractor, and workmen. TLS), Thi us) ie importance—Firstly, that the colours should be those found in the ordinary colour-box. Secondly, that the colours should, as far as possible, be unmixed, because it is difficult to obtain the same gradation of tone in subsequent mixing. Thirdly, that as far as possible the colour employed should be in harmony with the 44 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. colour of the material indicated (for instance, it 1s a mistake to use bright blue for stone, because it leads to contrasts of effect in the drawing which will be wanting in the executed building, and is therefore deceptive). And fourthly, that the colours used should be harmonious one with the other; the employment, for instance, of bright carmine for sections of walls, and Indian yellow for woodwork (both rather violent i Il and crude colours when used unmixed), should be avoided. WM 5 Hi | 119. The following is a list of the colours which seem to be generally accepted HN | in most architects’ offices :— Stone* sip ... Raw umber. Paving and hearth stones... Light Payne’s grey. | Terra-cotta cS, ... Burnt umber. iil : E : al Brickwork + x ... Venetian or light red. iva 5 : : ‘ : | Nilesieee sae ... Wenetian or light red, with admixture of a little yellow. Al Fir and deals (unwrought)? Yellow ochre. | Ditto (wrought)... Burnt sienna. | | Oak §... ct ... Warm sepia. 1 || | | | Mahogany ane ... Brown madder. | | Walnut te ... Ordinary sepia. HI | Slate roofs Se ... Indigo (tempered with yellow for green slates, ii | and carmine for Welsh slates). ni Plaster work (indicated in sections only) ... Payne’s grey. Tron || as ... Prussian blue. Glass 4] ae .-. Mottled cobalt. Brasstee Ne ... Indian yellow. Copper ae ... Indian yellow, with admixture of Indian red. Concrete en ... Mottled grey and raw umber. Cement ae .-- Burnt umber. It is sometimes found an advantage to be able to note on the drawings such portions of the brickwork as are intended to be built in cement, thus supplementing the * If there be more than one variety of stone employed, or if some difficulty be experienced in distinguishing ashlar and rabble work, one or the other may be left uncoloured, or light Payne’s grey employed for the occasion ; a stone of distinct colour, as red Mansfield, or some of the blue stones, may be tinted pale light red or blue grey, provided care be taken not to assimilate it too much to the tints used for briekwork and roofs. + Some architects prefer Indian red for walls, and use light red for tile roofs. { In plans it is generally found more convenient to tint the wood floors (although wrought) in- yellow ochre, so as not to interfere with the colour of the fittings in light burnt sienna (see Plate 9). § The number of woods which may be employed is so great that colours could not be depended upon to distinguish them all; we have confined our list to those most in use. || If it be necessary to distinguish between east and wrought iron, the latter may be tinted emerald green. q In elevations cobalt is of too light a colour to give the proper relative effect to the windows, and a mixture of black and Payne’s grey, gradated, if possible, is better. Orrice Work. 4 On description in the specification. This can be easily done by passing a light tint of indigo over the brickwork (already coloured), with a note on the margin of the drawing. 120. The sectional parts should all be in darker tints of the above colours, except in the case of fir and deals, which are usually tinted in burnt sienna, yellow ochre being too leht a colour. Ironwork, joists, and girders also may be tinted vermilion. Black is used to represent old work, and a pale wash of carmine will be found useful to tint over those portions of the sections the construction of which it has not been found convenient for the moment to determine, in preliminary sketches for instance. 121. It will be noticed that some exceptions have been made to the rule before suggested (par. 118) to use unmixed tints; the slight admixture in each case, however even if subsequent mixtures differed slightly in the tone produced, would not be of much importance. 122. The application of the colours here suggested is shown in the illustrations given (Plates 7, 8, 9), so far as the 4” scale drawings, and those of less dimensions, are concerned. In the larger scale drawings and full-size details it is not the custom to indicate the sectional parts of the full colour throughout; a paler wash is passed over the section, and the outlines or contours are strengthened by a darker line of colour; in the case of woodwork the sectional parts are hatched diagonally with lines of the same colour, the direction of the lines generally following the grain of the wood. ‘The grain may be shown 7 pencil, but the difference between different framings should be shown by inclination of hatching. Section D.—REPRODUCTION. 123. The reproduction of working drawings for the contractor and clerk of works is usually effected by tracing them either on tracing paper or linen. 124. When several copies of the contract drawings are required, it is customary to have them photo-lithographed, or traced on lithographic tracing paper and transferred to stone, from which a large number of copies can be taken. 125, Another method of reproduction which has of late been resorted to is the Ferro-prussiate process. The Ferro-prussiate is a chemically prepared paper which changes colour on its exposure to light. A tracing of the drawing required to be reproduced is made on either linen or paper, laid on the Ferro-prussiate paper, and exposed to the light (a sheet of glass being laid over to keep it in position); the paper changes in colour in those parts which are not protected by the lines, and assumes various tints, according to the length of exposure. The time required for exposure varies according to the amount of light; on a fairly bright day, from twenty to forty minutes will suffice; in dull weather, the whole day or more. Frames are made to hold these drawings with double-hinged backs, so that the progress of change can be ascertained without shifting the drawing, by lifting up one side. When the i] 46 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. requisite colour is arrived at, the print is fixed by washing it in water for a few minutes, when the portions exposed to the light come out a light blue, and those protected by the ink lines on the tracing wash out white, the result being a drawing with white lines on blue paper. For ordinary purposes this is considered to be sufficient; but if it be found desirable to have blue lines on a white ground, so that the colours of the materials can afterwards be laid on, it will be necessary to obtain i a negative first by the use of transparent Ferro-prussiate paper; then printing a second time through this, a drawing with blue lines on white ground can be obtained.* HI | 126. The advantage of the process lies in the fact that small drawings (imperial I) size or less) can be printed in the office, and it therefore becomes less expensive than i reproducing by photo-lithography. Ht SECOND DIVISION.—COMPETITION DRAWINGS. Sxction A.—PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS. i\| 127. Competition drawings differ from working drawings chiefly in the tinting of the plan and section. The walls in them are generally coloured in monochrome, black, il or chocolate, no attention being paid to the material, whether stone, brick, or wood. Occasionally in large plans it is the custom to separate the various departments of a building by colouring the floors of rooms in different conventional tints. Thus in a hospital the rooms devoted to administration would be tinted pale carmine, the men’s wards blue, and the women’s yellow. 128. Unless specially prohibited, the elevations may be tinted in such a manner as to emphasise the several blocks of the building, and sometimes to show the relative ultimate effect if the structure be in brick. In all these cases a less heavy effect will be given to the tinting if the colours are gradated, the upper portion being the darker. Section B.—PERSPECTIVES. 129. It is, however, in the perspective that the general effect of the building is best shown. Although, as a rule, it is found more convenient to have large perspective drawings prepared away from the office by architects and artists who have: made it their special avocation, every student should acquire the power of making these drawings, that he may be able to judge of the effect of his own designs, and occasionally to work out small perspectives in the office. 130. We have already observed that. the purpose of the perspective drawing. is to convey to a Committee or the Public some idea of the effect of the building when * In both these cases the value of the result is increased by the firmness and blackness of the lines. Were it not for the difficulty of laying flat washes on tracing paper or linen, it might be possible to obtain two or three different degrees of tone by colouring the tracing with Indian ink or Payne’s grey of various shades ; pencil lines come out less strongly than ink, so that sectional parts could be hatched, and would show sufficiently in the print; short exposure or indifferent light might, however, defeat the object in view. Plates ue PERSPECTIVE TI DESIGN FOR LIVERPOOL EXCHANGE, NITED IN SEPIA. Par. 131. * Ss aod r vias Sc a a Nin The late Thomas Allom. i | \ iH | } | | i | | i Plate 12. PERSPECTIVE | mn Uf ANN LULL ITEM A oe eee AOC FBS SO OCOC WeraYareXare VO) Naiplarararalels | NWI =r (dé STNG AWA Grame’s DYKE, NEAR Harrow. ) Pair 133; LINE ETCHING. UNNDNANLUINNG Wy NYRUATAUVARLNALE ——— LESS Le RNOYS R. Norman Shaw, R.A, IK CAs er a fire, "DB MODE SAULT, : FETA GOL 0a) 4 LD - HOACITAY) ‘SHSHOHSWTV | ESI AY ‘VIddS JO STHSVM AC GANTHLONAWLS GXV “MNI NMOUM NI GUHOTA TATLOAdSaad "SL B¥ld Orrick Wore. completed. In Competitions or for Exhibition, however, the desire is more than this; i+ is to set off the design im an attractive manner. The finish of. the drawing and the method by which this is attained, whether in pen and ink or tinting in monochrome or colours, is consequently of some importance. 131. Attempts are sometimes made, in framing the conditions of Competitions, to restrict the use of colour or even of etching, but they are generally futile, for it is evident that the skilful artist who makes the drawing will attract a favourable verdict, whatever may be the medium he employs, or however simple. It might be a question for consideration how far competitors are justified in going to the expense of having elaborate water-colour or pen and ink drawings made only for a temporary purpose ; but this consideration is one for themselves alone. It is difficult to lay down any law (except, perhaps, as regards size) which should draw the line between a simple or an elaborately-finished drawing. 132. There can be no doubt that the first object of the perspective drawing (viz., the representation of the building in perspective) would be sufficiently attained by leaving it in pencil or washing with a few tones of sepia; and the same drawing which, if etched in pen and ink, would take a month or six weeks to execute, could be tinted in sepia with far truer effect in a couple of days. We publish an illustration [see Plate 11] of part of a drawing executed by the late Mr. Thomas Allom, in competition for the Liverpool Exchange. The drawing measures 36” x 18”, and the whole of it was drawn in and tinted in less than two days, the detail being all indicated with the brush. 133. The principal value to be attached to pen-and-ink drawings lies in the facility of their reproduction. We have already referred to the admirable series of illustrations which for many years have appeared in the professional papers, and if we take exception to them, it is more in the sense of the great expense involved in their preparation than in any want of appreciation of their dexterity and admirable draughtsmanship. The various processes for the reproduction of tinted drawings brought out during the last few years has overcome the difficulty of their illustration, so that for the purposes of publication, they are now placed more on the same level with pen-and-ink drawings. It is a great advantage when the architect is able to finish his perspectives himself, and much more interest 1s attached to the drawings when thus done. The late Mr. George Edmund Street, R.A., was accustomed always to ink-in his own perspectives, giving them an imereased value; and the drawings of Mr. R. Norman Shaw, R.A. (who has contributed more than any other to the present high standard of pen-and-ink draughtsmanship), and of Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., will always command the admiration of the Profession and the Public.* * The illustration given in Plate 12 of a house at Greeme’s Dyke, near Harrow, is an excellent example of Mr. R. Norman Shaw’s draughtsmanship. In Plate 12, representing a portion of a drawing of some almshouses by Mr. Ernest George, the effect of the employment of a few washes of sepia is shown in the accentuation of the shadows and the bringing out of the high lights. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Srcrion C.—COLOUR DECORATION. 134. It is a matter for regret that the internal decoration of rooms, such as the subdivision of the walls, and the scheme of colour and ornament to be applied thereon, is only rarely attempted in architect’s designs; Prof. George Aitchison, A.R.A., being one of the few who has ever made a point of completing his architectural conceptions in this way. Both in France and Germany the decoration of rooms is considered to be part of the architect’s work; and it is always shown in the sketch designs submitted to a client. 135. The student should not fail to sezie the opportunity of studying colour- decoration and its application to his design; for it is only when the three arts of architecture, painting, and sculpture are combined that a really fine work of art can be produced; and the manner in which, in France, the painter and sculptor are called in to co-operate in the work with their brother-artist, the architect, might more often be imitated in this country. It is, we believe, the want of confidence in the architect’s power, and the entire absence of even an attempt to introduce the drawing of ornament, sculpture, or a scheme of colour-decoration, which leads the client frequently to consult a sculptor, painter, cabinet-maker, or decorator, to complete a work which from begin- ning to end ought to be subject to the individual control of the artist who first conceived the whole. Mart il. OW TD OO Wein The various classes of drawing described in this section have been grouped together because they are included, as a rule, in the student’s outdoor work. 136. The practice of measuring is one of the best methods of acquiring a knowledge of the features of former architectural styles, and of impressing them on the memory. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind that to be able to design well it is not sufficient to have travelled far and drawn much. The forms which have been drawn must be applied to the student’s design in accordance with the principles he has learnt from them. For this reason more is often learnt by measuring the whole of one important building than a number of fragments of different ones. On the other hand, the measuring of some one leading feature [such as one bay of a nave], as it is modified in several buildings, is of very great benefit. 137. It is necessary that the student should have some distinct object of study in view beyond the mere filling of his sketch-book, and even measuring may become after a time mechanical, unless the student combines with it the study of the construction and proportion of the building in question. 138. This mechanical tendeney may also be counteracted by varying the work, and making either perspective drawings or sketches of the building as a whole or in detail. ‘There are many cases when the object being that of recreation as well as study, the student may elect to take up some class of work other than measuring, involving less expenditure of time and money (as is the case when ladders or scaffolds have to be obtained), and the following list is suggested as constituting some of these classes of work :— Ii), (A) MEASURED DRAWINGS OF BUILDINGS OR PORTIONS OF SAME. (B) PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS. (C) SKETCHES OF DETAIL AND GENERAL NOTES. (D) WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. (4) STUDIES OF COLOUR DECORATION. (#) RUBBINGS OF BRAS PAVEMENTS, ETC. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. Section AA—MEASURED DRAWINGS. 140. “Measure and plot on the spot” is an invariable rule which cannot be too strongly impressed on the student. Before commencing the measuring of any important work no pains should be spared to become thoroughly acquainted with the leading principles of its setting out, such as may be ascertained from a careful examination first; this becomes the more important where (as is the case with many ancient buildings) there are irregularities arising from settlements of any kind, or in the setting out of the plan. 141. In these cases it may be necessary to pursue the method employed by Mr. Neale in the measuring of St. Alban’s Abbey,* and described by him in a paper read before the Architectural Association in 1879. Mr. Neale’s method was to establish a good system of lines inside and outside the Abbey, with station-points at intervals, which could be used as starting-points for a detailed survey of each portion. To effect this he carried his principal skeleton line from east to west through the north doorway of screen. The length of the Abbey being so great, laths were fixed vertically at intervals on lumps of kneaded clay, and a telescope was used in ranging them from end to end. The position of the line was marked, and parallel lines inside the building were obtained by the use of a square 16 feet long in the arm. External lines were similarly laid down by the help of measurements taken through the windows, and diagonal lines were taken frequently to test the correctness of the setting out. Having once taken the general dimensions of these skeleton lines with Chesterfield’s patent ribbon steel measuring tape, the building was measured in sections. Special scaffolds were erected to measure the various bays of the church, the stages in the interior being fixed at the levels of the caps of the ground story arcade, the triforium, and the clerestory. Special precautions were necessary in measuring the vertical heights, etc., on account of settlement. 142. As a general rule, all running measurements should be taken with tape. Diagonal dimensions should be obtained to check and tie in as much as possible, so as to reduce the skeleton lines to a system of triangulation, as is done in the Ordnance Survey. Any irregularities in the faces of walls (interior or exterior) should be checked from a straight lime marked on the ground in front. 143. Before commencing to take the vertical dimensions a datum line, where practicable, should be run in chalk on the walls, etc., with a level, inside and outside the building, at a height of about four feet above the ground. If the latter be sloped, then auxiliary datum lines above or below may be drawn. The measurements must be taken from the lines upwards and downwards, and not from the ground or floor. Gables, porches, and other projections should be set out from a central plumb-line. 144. In the measurement of arches, the soffit or some leading moulding should first be selected, and then the following dimensions taken (see woodcut No. IV.): the * Two plates (14 and 15) from Mr. Neale’s drawings of the north-west porch of St. Alban’s are here reproduced as types of good draughtsmanship. > i | i | t we z [Sze TFL ME Ty SDNIMVEC GHYNSVEW "YI 33810 TUT) MARBLE SiLL SOTO 7 RS Ht James Neale, FSA. | Hee | ieee , i Tiny Tony MN Nay & || ALBAN’s, WEST PorcH. Sr, } } “VM HHBCOW 30 SOWy | ~ S \ \ \ \, \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Ni % i \ \ \ \ \ ys 4 \ \ eh \ & \ N \ \ nh \ Y %h \ \ Vi \ Wy Sy \ \ U |} ESSERE SN aOR 7077, : A WY Nid Asay SS iN a ay Ny X / 4 NY S Va \ Ss / XY \ 7 '¢980Q Quorn Sf celoo aggsous osyor y >. ygVyeapg¢mur yoogenel << 72 200 ah YY e7fOYs YL rypoteey oy) fo suon1od Qehosges79 F472 Boor. SEMETY) P2729P QOOYL, ~. ‘ “WUOp, ig lr 997g | LP YL Usp OUL fp oof! ‘ONIMVUC CAUOSVAM AG Akl "GI 9381 d VSL ‘vay sawn vl 3 HLNOG ONIYOO" NOILOAG ' saps ng K ers S a ant g ; ae 5 | é we jm [hr ES NR ee eee ‘HOUOd ISOM ‘SNVATY “LS TO sane mebvl s i aera Sal = a: ce ‘ : | LL eee ») ' | tl SS | Ss ' | [| ! 1 1 mn \ (| es Seay ee F 1 t oe ; i | I q ae ie Wr | | | 4 Y i eg LX (| 1 : Vig ; TH epee \ leet eae 7 I 1 ' | a ns ! 1 ' Ip i | = HHH | t hala Is aan i] ' t , | 1 ' | r | y | | | ! i | | | . Pri Hit — | | Nae ! G5 ase i\ r 1 ak (Jae | Se ee | Ha | ee | 1 = | i ape MWO)) 22 2007 / guacyel BJOOG. Ourpoor Work. 51 Ss? height from ground to apex, 4B; height from ground to springing, cp; and the width i | across the arch, p u, taken between the same mouldings. To obtain the curve of arch, a ; | JAG 5 ft. rod, pr, should be set up (or straight-edge of less length as required) from the springing of arch, and measurements made from the top, r, to the springing on t|| opposite side, B, care being taken to note if the springing of arch-mould is above or i below the top of cap, or if any settlement has taken place. For the measurement of i) tracery, the general dimensions should be taken first, and then, if possible, rubbings of the tracery obtained on white lining paper. t=) 145. Projecting courses, cornices, and capitals are best measured by holding up a plumb-line at greatest projection, and taking offsets therefrom, to the various members, and to wall or face of column. The vertical heights can be obtained by holding a | spirit-level under lowest member and taking the perpendicular measurement, or by a set square if the column or wall face be vertical. The same process should be gone through in measuring’ bases. 146. For measuring shafts and small projections, calipers should be used, and if the joints of the two-foot rule are fairly stiff, it can be used to obtain dimensions | under 12”. For larger shafts a thick copper wire can be bent and used as calipers. \! The exact dimension of detached circular columns can be measured by taking the | circumference with a tape and dividing by 3:14; if there are two or more columns of Hi i the same size this dimension can be checked by sighting through on both sides of the | column. | 147. Mouldings are measured by various methods. If they lie in several planes | I or orders, they are most easily measured with the help of a set square; in “ Perpen- } dicular” mouldings, where they frequently all lie on a chamfered plane, a straight- edge should be held across the profile, and the depths and widths measured; it is sometimes easier in these cases to stretch a piece of thread across the mouldings, I {Il tying it to pins, needlepoints, or small bradawls, and this system can sometimes be adopted in measuring doorways and arch-mouldings. 148. However numerous the measurements may be, it is often difficult to obtain a i 52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. the exact curve of a moulding, especially if it be much undercut; in such cases narrow strips of thin sheet lead are sometimes used, being bent to take the form of the moulding, and then transferred to fit the position set out on the full-size drawing. These lead strips are not always easy, however, to remove from an undercut moulding. 149. To obtain greater accuracy, the Cymagraph (an instrument invented by the late Prof. Willis, and illustrated and described by him in the Civil Engineer and Architect's Ne : The Cymagraph. we Z Pointer | | Spring Clips 7 tohold paperel cl <<) Wooden revolving handle. Journal of July, 1842) should be used. The Cymagraph (as modified by the late Mr. Edmund Sharpe) (see woodcut No. V.) consists of a rod (one half of which is curved like a caliper) which can be turned by a handle to the right or left, to allow of the point of the rod or caliper following an undercut moulding. ‘This rod is fixed to bar, and near the handle is a pencil, fixed vertically downwards, the relative position of the end of the pointer and the pencil-point always remaining the same. The instrument is screwed to a small board on which paper is held by clips. In order to use it the board must be-held at right angles to the main plane of the moulding, and, by means of parallel bars, whilst the pointer follows the curve Outpoor Work. 53 of the moulding, the pencil marks the corresponding curve on the paper. Some practice is required to keep the board at right angles to the moulding, and it is better to trust to the drawing made by the instrument, fo correct only the curves, all the main dimensions having. been taken and set out first. In the case of large mouldings the contour has to be traced bit by bit; the same piece of paper, however, can be used for several contours, a small sketch of the whole moulding being drawn as a key and marked with letters to show the manner in which the whole fit together. 150. It occasionally happens that certain portions of a building are too far removed to allow of their dimensions being taken from ladders or scaffolds, unless the latter be of a costly nature; towers and spires are amongst the most difficult to measure, especially when there is no parapet to the former. In such cases it becomes necessary to use a theodolite telescope or other surveying instruments. There are, besides these methods, other means of obtaining an approximation, which will be useful when the above instruments are not at hand. (a) Measure the length of shadow and also the shadow of some known object, such as a 5 ft. rod held vertically on similar ground, and a sum in simple proportion will give the approximate height. (4) From photographs taken from a distance, the ratio of height of spire bemg compared with the known dimension of the perpendicular part of tower. (c) If the spire should have been restored, a record may have been kept. (d@) If there be a parapet, and a ladder can be raised on it, take the girth of spire at the greatest practicable height. (e) Check the above by holding a plumb- line suspended from a 5 ft. rod, and measuring the projection when the plumb-bob A EVE touches the spire at its base. (See woodcut No. VL.) (f) Methods (@) and (e) do not allow for any entasis; to obtain this at the same height, get an assistant to hold a piece of string horizontally and parallel to one of the sides of the spire, then sight it through so as to get it in the same line as summit of spire at apex, measure distance of string where held from spire and position of eye at base. (g) Count the courses of stone, if regular. (4) Count the crockets. (2) Use the approximate methods described in par. 154. 54. ARCHITECTURAL LDRAIVING. 151. In measuring the height of the vault of a church, dimensions can sometimes be obtained by a person standing in the clerestory and holding a light rod, from the end of which a plumb-line is suspended to the floor of the church. If the vaulting be of. a complicated character, with intermediary or lierne ribs, then a plan should be drawn in chalk on the floor of the church, holding the plumb-line at each point where ribs meet, marking them on the floor, and joining them by lines which will represent the plan of the various ribs. The height of meeting-point of ribs m each case must be measured subsequently. The measuring may be rendered easier by tying pieces of coloured ribbon to the plumb-line at distances of five feet, counting the number of the five feet divisions and measuring the odd length, viz., the distance from the last ribbon on plumb-lne to the floor by a 5 ft. rod.* 152. It is sometimes convenient when drawing work in which absolute accuracy ce is not necessary, to use . squared paper” (paper ruled with lines $’ apart), and if every eighth or twelfth line be darker in tone, it will facilitate the work. This paper is very useful in the measuring of flowing ornament in panels, or of furniture, church fittings, ete., when it may be inconvenient to draw them out on the spot with T and set square on a drawing board. It should not be used when there is much geometrical pattern [as in perpendicular work], and the general dimensions of height and width should always be figured, in order that the accidental missing out of a square may be detected and rectified. 153. There is a method of making approximately measured drawings which may occasionally be undertaken with advantage by those who have not the time or oppor- tunity to pursue the accurate kind of work which we have just described, and which occasionally may be deemed sufficiently accurate to enable a student to obtain collections of plans or elevations for the purpose of comparison. The lectures given by the late Mr. George Edmund Street, R.A., at the Royal Academy, on the apsidal termination of cathedrals and churches, were the outcome of a series of “parallels of plans” which he had made of almost every important church in Europe. To have measured these all accurately would have been impracticable ; by contenting himself, however, with measuring the piers and pacing their distances, centre to centre, he was able to plot approximately the plan of the east end of each, and this he supplemented by a large freehand perspective sketch of the choir as seen from its north or south transept. 154. The travelling students of an earlier date not only measured plans by pacing, but, before photography came in, the geometrical elevations (see Plate 16) and sections in a special manner which deserves notice. The student first measured a height of eight or ten feet from the base of the building up to some string-course or joint; he then retired to such a distance, that when he held up his two-foot rule perpendicularly. at arm’s length, the number of feet he had measured coincided with an equal number of half or quarter inches on the rule. He then raised his eye to some other well marked or * This system was adopted by the author in measuring the cupola of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, the plan of a sectional part of which was mapped out on the floor, with approximate dimensions of the ornament on the panels. Capirats ar ELy AND LINCOLN, FREEHAND Par, 157. DRAWING IN PENCIL. Gapitafs af Eby GathRedraf. (1) Berth side, T >) 7] 1 Wouw/er 6 reade. Igincofn Gathedraf. (3) Borth-West ’ Perch. (4) Presbytery isle. (5) Chor ee Phe late Frederick Pepys Cockereil, “)JAHIYIOD shidaq YOMIDAMT 970) AUT “AMOLDOV I ‘oInuoay “LS Miz LET “a '6I SeId = = - ————————— Se —————————————————— ——— = es 2 = SS PECTT\ = = —_—— Se | t | { = | | | | | = | | i | | | q Ourpoor Worx. 5 on conspicuous horizontal feature [eg., a cornice or string-course | Ingher up on the wall, and noted the increased number of half or quarter inches, as so many feet, to be added to the original eight or ten, giving the height of the second string-course from the ground. Then retiring further off until each foot of the building coincided with Ath of an inch of his rule, it was possible to obtain with fair accuracy the total height of a building of three or four floors. It is of the utmost importance that the rule shoald be held absolutely vertical, which can be done by holding it parallel to a plumb-line. These approximate measurements can sometimes be supplemented or replaced by counting the joints of brick or stone and taking an average of the dimensions of those within reach. On the same principle it is possible to obtain the height of a tower or spire. 155. This approximate method should not be adopted if the student have time and the means of obtaining a ladder or scaffolds at his disposal, unless he has some other object in view. Sometimes he may find a scaffold erected for the purpose of repairs, and this opportunity should not be lost to take at least the leading dimensions. Section b.—PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS. 156. The drawings to which we refer in this section are those made on paper, mounted on a board or in a block, and in the execution of which both T’ square and set square are used. These drawings are set out with more care and accuracy than if they were intended only to practise the student’s hand for the purposes of record or of study. 157. The various prizes offered by the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Royal Academy, and the Architectural Association, have called for the production of careful drawings of this class,* which are invariably drawn on Whatman’s “ hot- pressed,” cartridge, or other smooth paper. It is necessary that there should be as little rubbing out as possible; the general proportions should therefore be carefully blocked in first, measuring by the pencil held at arm’s length to determine the relative width of a bay or tower in comparison with its height, and subsequently the several horizontal and vertical lines; it may take a long time at first, but im the end will save trouble and rubbing out as well. The drawing will sometimes gain when the student draws in the vertical or inclined lines freehand, instead of using the edge of the square, as a too great regularity in the lines produces a hard mechanical effect. 158. In Part I. of this work we have laid stress on the great importance to be attached to the constant practice in freehand drawing of ornament as an elementary * We are enabled to publish illustrations of some of the best drawings which have been made in the com- petitions for the Pugin and other Travelling Studentships, as also of some admirable examples executed by the late Mr. Frederick Cockerell, the most accomplished artist of his day, and these show better than we could explain in words the quality of draughtsmanship which should be sought for in this class of work. See Plates 17 alts}, is), from drawings by the late Mr. F. P. Cockerell; 20, 21, from drawings by Mr. W. H. Bidlake; and 22, 28, from drawings by Mr. Gerald Horsley. 56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. means of study; its further development should be sought for by the student, when drawing from ancient buildings, in occasionally delineating (to as large a scale as his sketch block will admit of) the exquisite foliage which is found in early English work, and this of course should be drawn in perspective as it is seen. In the drawing of Ttalian and other detail in panels, the ornament should be drawn geometrically, and although in this case it is advisable to take the general dimensions, it is better not to trust too much: to these, but as far as possible to draw with a free hand. The work originally was probably either carved direct or copied from a model in clay, it certainly was not designed on paper first, and therefore if every leaf be measured and plotted down, unless it is for the purpose of illustration (when extreme accuracy is desirable), the feeling of the subtle curves of the foliage and ornament will be lost, and one of the chief advantages in drawing it will be frustrated. 159. Our account of drawing in Perspective would not be complete without reference to the Camera Imcida, the use of which is much more prevalent among French than English architects. The instrument consists of a small prism of glass fitted in a metal case attached to a vertical rod, which is screwed to a table or small drawing board, on which the drawing paper is mounted. Looking vertically downwards through a small uncovered portion of this prism (which, by the way, is not triangular but four-sided, two of the sides being at right angles to one another, the other two enclosing an obtuse angle), the building or object to be drawn is reflected or transmitted on to the table, and the eye (the left eye, as the instrument is fixed on the left side of the table so as not to interfere with the movement of the right hand when drawing) not only sees the object reflected, but the point of the pencil when on the paper, and consequently with it the draughtsman is able to follow and draw the main lines of the reflected object. The instrument requires some practice at first in its use, and considerable experience in the fixing and in the arranging of the table horizontally. The vertical rod consists of three hollow tubes fitting one in the other; Istly, to reduce the instrument to a portable size, and 2ndly, to allow of a small or large drawing being made. The position of the prism with reference to the table determines the station-point of the perspective view which is about to be made; with a small drawing it may be close to the table, with a large one farther off. About 30 inches is the greatest length of the vertical rod of an ordinary instrument. At this length the visual rays of the prism cover an area of about 20” square, but a much larger drawing could be made with special contrivances. 160. Monsieur Viollet-le-Duc extended the value of the Camera Lucida by using it to obtain the relative dimensions of any large ch&teau or church he was about to restore. Having measured the plan and certain leading heights of the elevation, he was enabled by a series of outline sketches made with the camera to obtain the height of other features by calculation of the stone jointing, or by relative proportions ; the approximate measurement of all the jointing, both horizontal and vertical, he also obtained from the camera drawing. Plate 24. PENCIG. DRAWING, PERSPECTIVE ng trom Sketch hy the Geo. ein Ty TOWER OF CHURCH. ANDRIEV, Ovurpoor Worr. 57 161. In England the Camera Lucida is frequently used by painters to obtain the exact proportion of certain prominent features in their subjects, the details being filled in afterwards. In cases where it is intended to make a water-colour drawing, ‘or where great accuracy or celerity is required, the instrument will be found to be of great value for sketching in the main features of a building. If too exclusively used, however, it tends to enslave the draughtsman, and therefore its employment cannot aly yays be recommended. 162. As a rule, for the ordinary perspective drawing, a quarter imperial size sketch block is the most useful. Blocks with Whatman’s “hot-pressed” or cartridge paper offer the best surface for drawing on in pencil, and the former is excellent for ink. The quality of hardness or softness of the pencil depends on the practice of the student and on the kind of paper used; and the rapidity with which paper imbibes moisture on a wet day requires sometimes a softer pencil to be used. Section C.—PHRSPECTIVE SKETCHES AND NOTES. 163. The great majority of students rarely go beyond the class of work cited in this section; their drawings are generally made in a note or sketch-book, the size of which varies according to the individuality of the student: some prefer a book measuring 6 or 7 by 4 inches (which can easily be placed in the pocket), or a note-book of even smaller dimensions; others are accustomed to use a quarto album, which admits of a drawing being made across both pages. 164. The most indefatigable sketcher of recent times (the late Mr. George Edmund Street, R.A.) used a book measuring 8 in. by 64 in., and invariably extended his drawing across the two pages; long experience, possibly, enabled him to so place his drawing that the fold in the middle did not materially interfere either with the effect of the As he always drawing as a whole, or the proper vanishing of his perspective lines. drew freehand when sketching out of doors, ¢.e., without the use of rule or compass, he contented himself with drawing only the leading lines, whether straight or curved, in such features as cornices, string-courses, vertical shafts, or arch mouldings ; simply indicating the starting points of the others, and leaving it to the eye to supply their continuation ; the result being that the sketch is not overlaid; there is nota line in his drawings which could be spared, and no more is indicated than absolutely neces- sary to convey a full idea of the feature portrayed. Mr. Street not only discarded the use of instruments, but of india-rubber as well; the greatest care, therefore, had to be taken in the setting out of his sketch, and long practice and accuracy of eye enabled him to preserve the scale throughout in his drawings ; his great knowledge of detail of every kind of Gothic work allowed him to grasp at once the characteristics of any feature, and to delineate it in the fewest possible lines. In all cases when easily * We publish a reproduction of a tracing (Plate 24) made of one of his sketches, by kind permission of his son, Mr, Arthur Street, which may be taken as an admirable example of a useful drawing. H 58 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. obtainable Mr. Street noted the principal dimensions of the features he drew, whether sketched in perspective or geometrically. 165. There are not many students who can hope to dispense altogether with india-rubber, nor should we be inclined to recommend it; but on the other hand, when it is intended that the drawing should be left in pencil, the fewer the lines which have to be rubbed out the better, and if instead of covering the paper with a series of lines hastily sketched in, the student accustoms himself to suggest their direction by points only, short practice will enable him, when he has once placed these points correctly on the paper, to join them together with carefully drawn lines. Such a system of setting out requires more time than sketching in, the eye being raised two or three times to be sure that the point about to be indicated is correctly placed with reference to those already drawn, but in the end greater accuracy will be obtained, and the drawing will be more clear and sharp in its lines where the surface of the paper has not been destroyed. 166. Besides the block or sketching album, it is sometimes convenient to make use of a small note-book, which will be found of value to make a hasty note of features when there is no time to make a more careful sketch, or when (as in Holland and some Continental towns) the production of a larger sketch-book attracts a crowd of well- meaning, though inquisitive, people.* 167. When drawings are made on hot-pressed, cartridge, or other smooth papers, with a fairly hard pencil, and without shading, it is rarely necessary to fix the pencil lines, but with Whatman’s “not” and rough qualities the drawing will be apt to rub, and some fixing solution should be employed ; the material known as tragacanth gum (obtainable at a chemist’s) is perhaps the best to use; there is not that unpleasant glaze which ordinary gum gives, and the drawing can be worked upon afterwards and even coloured, which, with ordinary gum or milk fixing, would be impossible. Section D.—WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES. 168. If one may judge by the portfolios of drawings brought home by those students who make tours either on their own account or as the holders of Travelling Studentships, the execution of water-colour drawings or even sketches is not considered now to be requisite ; and although, on the one hand, the tendency to develop the powers of a water- colour artist is somewhat dangerous, on the other, to spend six months or a year in countries where colour is predominant, when the whole effect of a building is dependent * The author of this book has been in the habit of using a small note-book stitched in paper cover, measuring 5 x 3% inches, which is held by an india-rubber band in a leather case, and can be replaced when full of notes. The leather case has two pockets; in one of them is kept the plan of the route, with names of hotels or important buildings to be seen in each town; in the other is a piece of cardboard with the centre cut away, leaving a margin about half an inch on each side, the opening being proportional to the shape of the sketching block. By holding up this cardboard frame and looking through it, the student is enabled sometimes easier to judge how much of the view it is possible to include in any large drawing, and also whether it is advisable to make it upright or oblong. Ourpoor Worr. 59 on its relation to the sky and landscape, and to return without making even a note on the same, runs to the opposite extreme. In many cases, no doubt, this abstention is not voluntary, and is the result of an absence of training in the use of the brush, which, causing a failure in two or three attempts, leads to the colour-box being put aside altogether. If the province of the architect were limited to the designing and superintendence of a block of buildings subsequently to be handed over to the decorators, this neglect of colour might be understood. ‘The work of an architect, however, can never be completed till he has not only conceived but superintended generally its colour decoration. If this be so, it is requisite to go through some training, by studies of colour decoration or by some other means. There is no doubt that to arrive at a highly cultivated standard something more than mere training, 7.¢., an “ eye for colour,” is hecessary; but on the other hand, a student (unless afflicted by colour-blindness) may, by constantly making studies from nature, gradually train his eye to recognise harmonies of tone, and not infrequently find schemes which may suggest to him a treatment in his own designs. 169. In support of this theory, some extracts from a paper read by Mr. J. D. Crace before a meeting of the Architectural Association in June, 1877, on “Nature and the Study of Decoration,” are worth noting, coming as they do from an artist who not only seizes every opportunity of recording some of uature’s phases in his sketch-book, but in his practical decorative work avails himself of the lessons learnt. “All coloured decoration is in some sort borrowed from nature; sometimes the obligation is so direct, or so recent, that its recognition is simple, requiring no effort of thought. But this is less often the case with the general features of any decorative work than with special points of detail. The connection between some of the most valuable forms of ornament and their prototypes in nature is often to be traced with difficulty, sometimes not to be traced at all. And the scheme of colouring followed out in decorative work may often have been due to a passing impression on the artist’s mind, produced by natural objects of natural phenomena, of the utilisation of which he has himself been probably, but partly, conscious. The result was none the less due to that habit of observation which every true artist is perpetually cultivating. “ What, then, are the lessons which the decorator may learn from nature? They are, of course, endless, and they are to be derived from every visible form of nature, whether it be in the domain of vegetable life with all its wonderful resources of flowers and foliage, or in the animal kingdom with its precious teachings from the most brilliant to the most subdued combina- tions of colour, and the most subtle adaptations of form; or the very soil we tread on, the pebbles at our feet, the rocks from which we build, and the water which reflects them all; or, lastly, from the atmosphere which we breathe, and which not only supplies us with a scale of the most exquisite delicacy of ever-varying tints, but with the phenomena upon which is based whatever knowledge we have of colour itself. From all these something may be learned. “ Another lesson to be learnt from the observation of landscape scenery is that of harmony of tone, which nature teaches us on a grand scale with every season. It is almost needless to dwell at length upon the beautiful adjustment of tone in the colouring which nature assumes at various periods of the year. In winter we have the many shades of browns, dull greys, and scanty low-toned greens of the woods and fields, harmonising with the murky greys and occasional pale grey blues of the winter skies. In spring, as the sky becomes brighter, the clouds of warmer, clearer, and more lilac tones, a beautiful change comes over the trees even before they actually put forth leaves. 6c ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. “Summer advances; the foliage grows more dense, the greens darker and less bright. “The meadows also seem less green, for they are in bloom; and the delicate feathery blossom, and the flowers of the sorrel, clover, or vetch, perceptibly affect the general hue. The various grains begin to ripen, and the more rapid evaporation, and the more intense light, give the distant hills a deeper blue. “Autumn follows; on its brighter days the warm sunlight seems to touch everything with gold and crimson under the blue sky and warm grey clouds. But the skies darken, the sunlit gold is exchanged for russet brown and grey, and the cycle of harmony closes again in winter.” These quotations are sufficient to point out to the student the great value which the study of the varied phases of nature in water-colour drawing and sketching may afterwards prove, when coloured decoration is taken up. 170. Mr. Crace is of opinion that the study of coloured decoration in the works of the great masters should precede water-colour drawing, and doubtless he is right, if the immediate practical application of what the student has learnt from nature is intended. The study of colour decoration, however, is one which is rarely commenced by architec- tural students till late in their career: perhaps five or six years after they have entered an office. During all this time they have neglected to train the eye to harmonies of colour, and that is why we are inclined more especially to insist on the great importance of sketching in water-colour from nature, as a variation to other work, on the first sketching tour they may take. To say to what point an architect is justified in carrying his drawing, depends on the subject. A study of an important building, in which colour forms the chief element of its beauty, as in one of the Venetian palaces, St. Mark’s at Venice, Giotto’s tower at Florence, or a portion of the interior of the church at Assisi, may claim long expenditure of time, because these subjects are worth it, and art as well as nature (or the effect produced by age) have contributed to their beauty. Whether the same labour should be bestowed on the ruins of an abbey, the colour on which now is due chiefly to the effects of time, and was not one of the qualities originally contemplated in its design and execution, is an open question, which must be left to the student, and depends on the amount of pleasure he derives from such work. 171. The continued practice of making careful water-colour drawings gives to some a power of making shefches in colour which may take only two or three hours, and sometimes if the student tries to place on record what he sees, without any idea of making a show drawing, it will do him more good than making a highly finished work. The sketching of landscape is purely a matter of sentiment; when done during the vacation it may be looked upon as holiday recreation, and if it has enabled the student to pass a pleasant hour or two and added a memento to his collection, no great loss of time has been incurred, there being always the possible chance of its having added some additional knowledge to his use of the brush and training of the eye.* 172. Some students are accustomed to fix their pencil sketches by a slight wash of * See Plate 25, from a drawing by the late Mr. Fred. P. Cockerell; in this case the shadows were tinted in sepia, and Chinese white has been used to suggest the plastered portions of wall. | { | i | t “19.404 90,) shdag Yoruapayy 20) aut fe OTA ‘VLVIZNONNY VAZVId CS 238Id Ovrooor Work. 61 water-colour, which, whilst preventing the rubbing of the pencil lines, suggests the relative colours of the object drawn. It is not necessary that the colours indicated should be of the full strength, for this would destroy the value of the pencil lines, which would become invisible under a strong wash; this system, however, leads the way to water- colour drawing, gradually accustoming the student to the use of the brush and recognition of effects in colour. 173. For variety of work, the use of some of the hand-made tinted papers, with the shadows indicated in monochrome tints, and the high lights brought out with Chinese white, will produce results more in keeping with the actual effect of the building than sketches which are only in pencil. Drawings of ornament made in indelible brown ink on grey tinted paper, and the lights brought out in Chinese white, constitute another variety of work.” Section 2.—COLOUR DECORATION. 174. The study of colour decoration has lately occupied the attention of some of the students of the Architectural Association, and a class specially devoted to the subject was started some six or seven years ago; the establishment of a Travelling Studentship for its special study by the Royal Institute of British Architects, with funds left for that purpose by the executors of the late Mr. Owen Jones, will probably induce a number of students to devote themselves a little more to this subject, and to include amongst their other work that of making some record of the principles of the use of colour as applied to ancient buildings; we say principles, because a great deal more may be done than simply copying one or two examples; a careful study of a portion of wall decoration (such as is found at Pompeii, for instance) may take several days to make, and will be only one of many examples. It should be supplemented therefore afterwards by notes of others, showing the variations which can be obtained by the use of other grounds of colour, and by general observation of the principles which are to be observed when such variations occur. 175. In this respect a method adopted by Mr. H. W. Lonsdale, when making his tour as Travelling Student of the Royal Academy, is well worthy of record. Having designed a group of three or four draped figures, he had them reproduced by lithography and a number of copies struck off, which he took with him. When in any church or public building in Italy, either in the stained glass or wall decoration, he noticed any distinct scheme, either in the design of the ornament or the contrasts or harmonies of colour, he made a study in colour, introducmg the figures as the chief key. 176. This method of work goes far beyond the ordinary custom of simply copying, * A water-colour class was started under the auspices of the Architectural Association in 1868, the late Mr. Aaron Penley having undertaken to instruct the class; after his death it was revived under Mr. Paul Naftel, and subsequently directed by Mr. Sutton Palmer and Mr. Weedon. The class is held during the summer, there being six indoor and six cutdoor lessons; in the former, studies in colour are lent to the students to copy; the latter are given on Saturday afternoons at various picturesque places near London. ‘To thuse who desire to acquire some knuwledge of this branch of art, such a class as this is inyaluable. 62 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. and there are not many architectural students who could undertake such a work on the spot; as a rule, they would content themselves with making copies of what they saw, trusting in after life with their drawings to adapt the colouring to some design of their own. Just, however, as many artists when working from nature will (under her direct influence) produce much finer work, although they group and arrange their subjects, so Mr. Lonsdale felt he was able to adapt his design better under the immediate inspiration of the painting before him than if he had deferred his adaptation till a later period, when he would only have had his drawings before him.* 177. There are occasions when it is not convenient or when there is not sufficient time to take out the colour-box; in such cases a few coloured chalk pencils will then be found useful to suggest the colours; the use of chalk does not always give the actual effect, but it records a colour better than a note in pencil. 178. It would not be possible to enter further into the subject here, but we would refer the reader to the paper read by Mr. J. D. Crace before the Architectural Association in June, 1874 (published in the professional journals of that date), quoting some of the leading maxims which he laid down to guide the decorator in his appli- cation of colours or tints in buildings. 1. “The colour must be so used as best to express the best forms and proportions of the structure to which it is applied. 2. “It must also be so used to assist the eye in recognising the structural features of the building where such exist. Or, in the absence of such features architecturally, to compensate for their absence by some satisfactory substitute of division and arrangement Q 3. “ Where a room or building is obviously defective in proportion (at any rate for its intended purpose), colour may be so used as to assist the sense of proportion, and to some extent to correct the existing defect. 4. “Whichever of these purposes the colourist has chiefly in view, he must, above all, take eare that his colours are harmonised with each other, and that his ornament, in whatever style, assists his purpose.” Section F.—RUBBING OF BRASSES, ETC. 179. Though rarely undertaken at the present day (so varied are the occupations of the architectural student during his sketching tours), the custom of rubbing brasses is one which ought not to be passed over in this work. The fertility of design in ornament, the admirable conventional drawing of the folds in the drapery, and the wealth of record of ancient costumes and heraldry which are to be found in the brasses of the late medieval periods, will abundantly repay the student who may elect to take up this class of work. Its practical application has been revived of late, and therefore either for the design of modern brasses, or even for the adaptation of the figures and * There is a distinct principle in this method of work, i.e., that of trying on the spot to evolve something more than is actually seen in an ancient building, which it is worth while noting; the late Mr. E. W. Godwin was accustomed occasionally when drawing from ancient buildings to alter features of which he did not entirely approve (noting his alterations); in other words, he attempted to originate a treatment of his own, inspiring himself with the work before him. Willars de Honecourt, the medieval architect, adopted the same principle in his sketch- book, as also the late Mr. Burges in his vellum album. Ourpoor Worr. 63 ~) ornament to drawings for stained glass, a collection of a few examples will be invaluable. 180. In their production, ordinary white lining paper and heel-ball * are used. The lining paper is laid down on the brass, being kept in its place by lead weights,+ and the heel-ball is rubbed over the brass. There are two qualities of heel-ball, Zard and soft; the former is generally recommended for elaborate details, the latter yields a magnificent black rubbing. The result of the rubbing is what, photographically, would be called “a negative,” that is to say, the hollows come out white; the original surface of the brass not engraved, black. The general effect of the rubbing is improved, if the large unengraved spaces round the figure and the ornament are left white. In order to do this, and to keep the borders clean, pieces of lining paper should be cut to the shape and laid on the margin of the figures and ornament whilst rubbing. To keep the hollows white on the figure or ornament, the lining paper should be pressed into them by the hand before rubbing with the heel-ball. When brasses are fixed vertically against a wall, wafers may be used to fix up the lining paper and keep it in position; if the brasses be large, it is better to make the rubbing on separate pieces of paper and mount them afterwards. 181. Any defects in the original rubbing can be made good afterwards by taking fresh rubbings of the imperfect parts and mounting them on it; and defects in the brass itself, such as worn places or holes, should be stippled up with lampblack. If any armorial bearimgs with coloured enamels exist on the brasses, other pieces of paper should be cut out to the shape, and coloured and mounted afterwards. The colours in the letters can also be laid on the rubbing without detracting from the effect of the brass. 182. The same materials (lining paper and heel-ball) may be used with advantage in obtaining rubbings of tracery, geometrical patterns, or flat ornament of any kind, to be afterwards made use of in correcting the measured drawings when they are set out. CONCLUSION. 183. In conclusion we have only to add, that all drawings which the student makes should be capable of being arranged and re-arranged from time to time as his knowledge of his requirements becomes clearer to him. It is, therefore, always a mistake to draw on both sides of the paper, because 1t may eventually be found an tallow, and lampblack, which can be obtained at any shoemaker’s, the best * A composition of beeswax, : \ coe a ae at Ullathorne’s, Gate Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and made by him specially quality, however, being obtainable for the purpose. : 2 ; " = . $0) + For convenience of carrying, pieces of 8 lb. lead 4” by 2 should be used. 64 ARCHITECTURAL . DRAWING. advantage to be able to divide the collection of the drawings; by classing them under their destination, if they be plans; their style or period, if they consist of elevations or perspective views; and their subjects, if they be special features, as doorways, windows, balconies, ceilings, fountains, etc. Studies of detail of carving, of coloured decoration, of brickwork, woodwork, or metal-work, may all eventually be more useful if they can be separately classed, so that the student has not to search through twenty note-books or many folios of drawings in order to find the special subject he is in want of. Finally, the student when drawing should always have some special object in view beyond making a drawing; no time should be spared in delineating any form in detail that is new to him, and if beyond a mere collection of notes and drawings he has been able to develop an enthusiasm for the noble profession in which he is engaged, the holidays he has devoted to his outdoor work will, in after years, be looked back to with pleasure and delight, whilst it is to be hoped his labours will not have been entirely thrown away, but will have laid the foundation of a successful professional career. I 10, III aVie We VI. vil go to 12, 113}, 14. 15. iG: ee 18. 19) 20, . Not necessarily always full-size. . Facilities in the provinces for learning same. . Facilities in London. INDEX TO PARAGRAPHS. GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS—OUTLINE. Character of line. Thickness of line. Pe . varies according to style represented. Backlining to be avoided. Emphasising of line in parts. Stopping of same. Use of ink of varied intensity. Contouring or mass-lining. Lines in colour to represent different materials. GEOMETRICAL DRAWINGS—TINTED AND SHADED. 21 29 92 23. D4, 25, 26. Revival of this mode of “ finish.” . Necessity for, to judge of effect. Continental eustom. Projection of shadows at 45°: its meaning. Advantages of same. Shadows projected in plans and sections. I ean oe MATERIALS. 27. . Drawing paper. 98. Cartridge | 99 . Tracing 30 linen. ; | 31. » special precautions in using same. | 39. use of oxgall. | 33 ee | @B . Drawing instruments. | 34, ELEMENTARY TRAINING. ee Training in use of drawing instruments. | 36. ., in Geometrical drawing. 37. Customary procedure in offices. Copying of the ee: : 39 orders. Object of same. 40. . Variations in method of copying. 41. 42 FREEHAND DRAWING FROM THE ROUND. | 43 . Object of same. 44. . Representation of form. | Further development. | | 45 Or or OK OK o po . Laying on flat tints: method to be observed. ees Design of parquet or ceiling on plan. Projection of shadows in sections, . Gradation of tints. 0 » as affecting receding planes. Preparation of drawing for tinting. Shadows, outline made in pencil only. Precautions to be observedin preparation of Indian ink- 7 3 with colours. vequives experience. ” 5) brush to be kept full. Abrasion of paper to be avoided. . Removal of lines from drawings to be tinted. portion of tint. deposits. . Succession of washes necessary to produce eyen tints. . Gradation of tints: method to be adopted. 9 for cornices, columns, &c. PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. . Object of perspectives. . Necessity for sound knowledge of the principles of perspective. . Distortion in interiors. . Selection of station-point : interior. oF exterior. és generally. Use of auxiliary plan. Distortion with spherical objects. , circles : necessity for “cooking” the perspective. How far alterations are justified. The Centrolinead : its use. .. The Perspectograph. DESIGN—COPYING OF THE ORDERS. Object beyond training of hand to use of drawing instruments. Further development. To learn proportion. To become acquainted with the meaning of the features which constitute the order. fon} lon pat fon) a> ae NS eS OS eS es es CO CO oO @ a) 99: 100. 101. lon} PSS) ew bw Pe §2 28 SS) a os 5. Value of same. 5. Study in Royal Academy. . Reference to Plate 7. InDEX TO PARAGRAPHS. . Training adopted in the class of design of the Archi- tectural Association. Study of Gothie work. Studies confined to Classic work abroad. Necessity for extended study in England. . Advantages of commencing to design after second year of pupilage. STUDY OF DESIGN. (eaning of term. Extent of “study ” required. Absence of study in most work. . The architect’s province in design. Custom in bygone times. . Requirements of present day. Customs observed in study of design. Suggestions for same. i 9 Extent to which same may be carried. Working-out of finished drawings. Study of detail. . Material should guide the design. Value of Photographs and Illustrations. To suggest more variety of design. Indication of jointing to give seale and govern the design. Advice rarely obtained in after life. Advantages of obtaining same in Architectural Asso- ciation. . Importance of sketching in perspective as a means of study. . Isometric projection. . Importance of drawing ornamental detail on office drawings. 6 » figure drawing. . Opportunities offered in Royal Academy. OFFICE WORK—WORKING DRAWINGS. . Characteristics of working drawings. clearness and accuracy. fulness of same. Mr. Rowland Plumbe’s ware- house. . Reference to Plate 8. Mr. Rowland Plumbe’s bay of a church. Advantage of such drawings. Reference to Plate 9. residence. Figuring and writing on drawings. | Mr. Alfred Waterhouse’s | 102. Completion of drawings by colouring. 103. Classes of working drawings. 104, Seales to be observed for contract drawings. 105. Plans, and what should be indicated on them. OG ames, should be well figured. 107. Elevations and sections. 108. Use of 4” seale. 109. Contract drawings should be supplemented by 3” a seale details. 0. Inch seale details for joiners’ work. 1. Full-size for elaborate work. 2. Quarter-full-size, useful to judge of proportion of mouldings. 113. Shrinkage seale required for terra-cotta work. 4, Full-size details should be reduced to smaller scale. 115. Seales which should be avoided. 6. Finishing of contract drawings. 117. Tinting of working drawings. 118. Rules to be observed in same. 119. List of colours recommended. REPRODUCTION OF WORKING DRAWINGS. 123. Tracing. | 124. Photolithography. 125. Ferro-prussiate system. 126. Advantage of same. COMPETITION DRAWINGS. . Difference between same and working drawings. 128. Special tinting of same. 129, Perspectives. 130. Further object of same. 131. Extent to which finish should be carried. 132. Advantage of tinting in sepia. 133. Facilities for reproduction. 134, Colour decoration—Neglect of. 135. Necessity for co-operation of architect, painter, and sculptor. OUTDOOR WORK. 136. Advantage of measuring. . Necessity for some definite object for study. 188. Advantage of varying work. 139. List of variety of work to be taken up. MEASURED DRAWINGS. 140. With an important work, careful examination first. 141. Method adopted by Mr. James Neale in measuring St. Alban’s. . General dimensions. 143. Datum lines. INDEX TO PARAGRAPHS. 144. Measurement of arches. 145. » projecting features. 146. a shafts. 147, mouldings. 148. 5 with lead. 149. 3 mK ” with Cymagraph, and de- 153 154 157 162 163 164 scription of same. buildings of great height. vaults of a church, 2. Use of squared paper. . Approximate measurements. . Same applied to elevations and sections. 5. Not to be adopted if scaffold and ladder are avyail- able. PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS. . Nature of same referred-to. . Advice as to setting-out. Freehand drawing in same. . 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