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FRONTISPIECE

THRONE of the Emperor Ch‘ien Lung. In carved red
lacquer, cut through to inner layers of light
and dark olive-green, brown and yellow. The
seat in flat lacquer with brocade cushion.
Height, 3 ft. 11 in. ; width, 4 ft.14in.; depth,
3 ft. Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung),

Victoria and Albert Museum.

soumerrcnt

CHINESE LACQUER

BY EDWARD F. STRANGE

LATE KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF WOODWORK
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

1926

PRINTED AND MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN

600 copies only of this book have been printed, of
which 100 copies constitute an edition de luxe, num-
bered 1-100. Of the 500 copies which constitute
the ordinary edition 160 copies are reserved for the
United States of America.

WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LIMITED, THE MAYFLOWER PRESS, PLYMOUTH

CONTENTS

List of Plates .

Introduction
Chapter I.
Chapter II.
Chapter III.
Chapter IV.

Marks of Date

The Technique of Chinese Lacquer
The History of Lacquer in China .
Subjects of Decoration :

Descriptions of the Illustrations :—
Carved Lacquer (Ming) .
Carved Lacquer (K’ang Hsi) .
Carved Lacquer (Ch’ien Lung)
Flat Lacquer (Ming)

Flat Lacquer (K’ang Hsi)
Flat Lacquer (Ch’ten Lung)
Lacquer Inlaid with Shell

Incised Lacquer . ‘
Foo-chow Lacquer :
Coromandel Lacquer . ,

a 5 ° a

Motives of Decoration

Bibliography
Index

LiSimOro PEATES

CARVED LACQUER

Ming Dynasty

Imperial Table for a Marriage Ceremony .
Imperial Table (Upper Bees
Table Screen . :

Box in Two Tiers . : ; : ‘
Salver . ; : : : ; ,
Circular Bowl and Cover

Octagonal Bowl, on Foot :

Box for Incense, Solid Lacquer

Box for an Imperial Gift .

perav, -. : :

set of Altar Furniture .

Incense Burner from the above ‘
Circular Plaque Framed for a Table Screen

CARVED LACQUER

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hst)

Circular Covered Box for Ceremonial Gift

Box for Sweetmeats, Bat-shaped é

Box and Cover, Peach-shaped, Inlaid with ane
Table with Grape-vine Pattern :

Garden Box-seat . . : ‘
Flower-Vase for Ceremonial Use s ;

CARVED LACQUER

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)

Vase from the Summer Palace

Panel, the Taoist Paradise

Pair of Jars with Covers . :

Stand for Crystal Ball . , ;

Vase for Imperial Gift, on Porcelain .
Vil

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

eH
H O

ie
12
13
14
15
16

17
18
1Q
20
21

LIST OF PLATES

Box for Jewels Plate 22
Imperial Chair of State Plate 23
Imperial Threefold Screen 5 Plate 24
Imperial Stand for Fruit or Flowers . Plate 25
Panel, Landscape . : Plate 26
Vase : . > Plateseag
Throne of the at Chrien leer . Frontispiece
Back View of the above * Plate 28
Covered Bowl for Ceremonial Gift . Plate 29
Box for Incense . ; 4 ; : : Plate 29
Box for Incense . : ‘ Plate 29
FLAT LACQUER
Ming Dynasty
Bowl of Woven Bamboo, with Panel in Colours . : . Plate 30
Saucers (two) for Wine Cups, of Woven Bamboo,GoldonBlack Plate 31
Set of Boxes for Sweetmeats, Gold and Silver . : . Platees
FLAT LACQUER
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Screen (one panel) with Hunting Scenes, Inlaid with Stones
(Canton) . : : ; ; : Plate 33
Screen (three panels) with Eanes Ship and Fisties (Caren Plate 34
Screen (cresting and one panel) with European Figures, made
for the Emperor Leopold I (Canton) . ; : . Platemss
Cabinet, Gold and Silver on Wine-colour (Canton) . . | Plateyese
FLAT LACQUER
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Picnic Set, in Colours, with Cover of Carved Red Lacquer . Plate 37
Stand of the above . ; ; : : Plate 38
Nest of Sweetmeat Dishes, Gold on Blue : is ; . Plate 39

Vill

DiSisOr PLATES

LACQUER INLAID WITH SHELL

(Lac burgautée, etc.)

Panel for Wall Decoration, Shell in Red, Ming

Ewer for Ceremonial Use, Shell, etc., in Black on Pewter,

Ming : : : : :
Ewer for Temple Use (lac burgautée), Ming
Panel for Wall Decoration, Shell in Black, Ming .
Door of Cabinet (lac burgautée), K’ang Hsi
Vase (lac burgautée) on Porcelain, Ch’ien Lung

INCISED LACQUER

Beaker, Colour Incised on Porcelain, Ming
Circular Plaque, Colour Incised, Ming
Cups (a pair) in guri Style, Ming

Bowl, in guri Style, K’ang Hsi .

FOOCHOW LACQUER

Trays (two), Lotus Leaves and Flowers, roth Century

COROMANDEL LACQUER

Screen, twelvefold, the Taoist Paradise
Landscape from the Reverse of the above .
Flowers from the Border of the above

Screen (four panels), an Ancient Sea

Panels (four) from the Reverse of the above

Plate

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

Plate

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate

4
42
43
44
45

46
47
48
48

50
51
52
3
34

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Tae se

INTRODUCTION

Lacquer-ware is perhaps the most characteristic of the Chinese Industrial
Arts ; for, in the proper sense of its accepted name, it belongs exclusively
to that nation and to their pupils, the Japanese. Yet the study of it has been
curiously neglected in spite of the popularity of the European imitations
of two centuries and a half. This is probably due to the difficulties of an
intricate technique and the use of a material unknown, for practical pur-
poses, outside the zone of its origin. Pottery is of universal use and every-
one is familiar with it, in one form or another. Lacquer-ware, on the other
hand, is, for us, always an exotic. Had we the intimate knowledge of its
fine qualities that we possess of ceramic wares, one might safely assume
that lacquer would hardly be valued in less degree than the productions of
the Chinese potter. The purpose of this volume is, so far as may be, to
bring the story of Chinese lacquer before the public in definite form ; and,
perhaps, to lay a foundation on which other students may build.

There is room for much further research, especially in the almost unex-
plored mass of Chinese literature. Japanese experts, who have never been
lacking in respect for the source of so much that is best in the arts of their
own country, are, I believe, now devoting serious attention to this work ;
and I am indebted especially to the commentary of Mr. Imaizumi of the
Imperial Museum, Tokys, for valuable information of this sort, published
in the Kokka. The indebtedness of all students of the arts of China to the
late Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, is too great to be acknowledged adequately
in mere words. I had the privilege, in his later years, of his acquaintance ;
and I would like to pay my inadequate tribute to the generosity with which
he placed his great knowledge at the disposal of anyone who was really
interested in the subjects he made his own. I have been allowed by the
Controller of H.M. Stationery Office to quote from the excellent chapter
on lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook on Chinese Art,
written by Dr. Bushell ; and, by the Director and Secretary of the Museum,
to reproduce photographs of a number of objects in that collection—now,
perhaps, one of the best in any public institution. My thanks are also due
to Dr. Perceval Yetts, Mr. Reynolds Stephens, Mr. James Orange, Mr.
Ernest Rennie and Mrs. Cooper for permission to illustrate examples in
their collections and to Messrs, Spink and Sons, Ltd., for the same privilege
in connection with a number of fine specimens from the remarkable
exhibition held by them in June, 1925. The Trustees of the British Museum
kindly permitted me to illustrate the interesting beaker figured in Plate 46 ;
and Mr. Freeman Smith to reproduce photographs of details of the
Emperor Leopold the First’s screen (Plate 35). And particularly I must

INTRODUCTION

thank Mr. G. Koizumi for assistance in translations from Japanese
publications and for the liberal way in which he placed his great knowledge
of the technique of lacquer at my disposal; Mr. Arthur Waley for his
valuable translations of the Chinese poems; and Mr. Percy Bunt, of the
Victoria and Albert Museum Library, for help with the Bibliography.

I would only add that the attributions of date in this volume must, to some
extent, be taken as conjectural. They are based on very careful comparison
of a considerable number of examples of lacquer-ware with some thought
for style as expressed in other forms of Chinese Art. But there exists very
little absolute evidence on this point and at present only an opinion can
generally be given. After all, what matters is the artistic value of an
object ; and, as to that, one hopes the selection now made may prove to be
acceptable.

EDWARD F. STRANGE.

IQ25¢

CHAPTER I

THE TECHNIQUE OF CHINESE
LACQUER

The nature of the lacquer of the Far East, as used in China, Japan and
Korea, is by no means generally well understood on account of the con-
fusion that has arisen owing to the application of the term to a number of
substances or preparations which differ in all essentials except that, in their
final form, they present some sort of superficial polish. Indian lac is the
summy deposit of an insect, the Coccus Lacca; and, as shellac or stick lac,
has, apart from its use in the countries of its origin, been well known in
Europe ever since the earliest beginnings of trade with India. In Burma,
lacquer-ware has been made from the sap of the Melanorrhea usitatissima,
the process having some analogies with that now to be described, and
although this cannot be compared, for quality, with the Chinese or Japanese
products, it, perhaps, of all other methods, comes nearest to them in
technique. Apart from these natural products, the term is loosely applied
to various artificial imitations of the Eastern commodity, consisting of
solutions of resins or gums in turpentine, etc. This is the basis of that
European lacquer which had so great a vogue from the end of the 17th
century onwards ; and still engages the attention of collectors, as well as of
those makers of lacquered furniture who find it profitable to invest modern
reproductions with—as one of them phrased it—‘* human interest,” by
imparting to them a very clever and deceptive appearance of age. |

The lacquer with which we are concerned has (with the not very important
Burmese exception) very little in common with any of these ; and one must
regret that no distinctive term has yet been agreed upon to differentiate it
from its imitations. Chinese and Japanese lacquer is the sap of a tree, the
Rhus vernicifera (ch’i shu), which is indigenous to China and is cultivated
throughout the Central and Southern provinces. Paléologue! mentions
also Angia Sinensis as producing equally good lacquer and states that a
lower grade is obtained from Dryandria Cordata and Rhus Semialata ;
but the late Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, who had both the opportunity and
the scientific knowledge necessary for accurate observations does not
mention these ; and they may be disregarded. The Rhus vernicifera seems
not to have been native to Japan ; but must have been introduced into that
country from China or Korea at a very early date, certainly not later than
the 6th century of our era.

1 L’Art Chinois, 1887.
I B

CHINESE LACQUER

The tree is tapped in summer when about ten years old, horizontal incisions
being made from the foot of the trunk upwards, and in groups, alternately,
from left to right. At this stage, the sap is a white or greyish viscous fluid
which darkens and hardens rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere. It
is collected into large wooden air-tight vessels ; and before use is strained
through hempen cloth to remove fragments of bark or other physical
impurities. In order to get rid of an excess of water and to give it an even
consistency, it is then stirred in a mild heat, or in sunshine. But for the
addition, if required, of colouring matter, or of adulteration, it is then ready
for use without further treatment; though the Jesuit Father Bonanni,
writing early in the 18th century1—a fairly accurate and conscientious
observer—says that the Chinese mix with it a vegetable oil (“ appellée
girgili ’’) pressed from seed and of the nature of linseed oil, warmed until
it becomes rather yellow and thick, in the proportion of 60 drachms of oil
to 60 ounces of sap. The mixture is stirred au soleil in a wooden vessel with
a few drachms of vitriol to make it black. The Japanese do not use any
method of this kind, but Bonanni’s account is probably founded on fact
and accounts for later stories of the mixture of oil with lacquer in order to
render the latter fit for use. In any case, it is not necessary. |

The characteristic constituent of lacquer has been given, by chemists, the
name of urushiol (from the Japanese name of lacquer, urushi), the formula
of which is said by Korschelt and Yoshida? to be C,,H,,O.. A recent
analysis by Professor K. Mijama® puts the average of urushiol in Chinese
lacquer as low as 55:84 per cent as compared with from 64:00 to 77:6 for
the Japanese. This may be due to climatic differences, to inferior methods
of cultivation of the tree, or to want of care in extracting the sap at the
proper seasons or from trees of the best growth. Indeed, Bonanni says the
Chinese do not cultivate the lacquer tree, and that they tap it at any age
or size, even when it is “ grand comme les pins et les sapins d’Europe ’—
but, again, this is probably a generalisation from incomplete information.
Lacquer for common use or for export (a great deal has for some time been
sent to Japan) is, doubtless, treated with little care and is certainly adulter-
ated. But there is no reason to suppose that, for the best work, suitable
material was not always selected. A series of the tools, etc., used in the
process of preparing Japanese lacquer, with an illustration of the actual

1 Traité de la Composition de Vernis, 1723.

2 Korschelt (O.) and Yoshida (H.). ‘‘ The Chemistry of Japanese Lacquer,” Asiatic Soc,
of Japan, Trans. XII, pp. 182, etc.

3 In Japanese Art and Handicraft, by H. L. Joly and K, Tomita, 1916, p. 50.

miele CHNTQUETOF CHINESE LACQUER

gathering of the sap, is exhibited in Museum No. 1 of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew; and will be of value to students, as the Chinese method
may be taken as identical for all practical purposes.

The basis of lacquer-ware is almost always wood; though porcelain,
brass and white metal alloys were also occasionally used. Examples of
these are described below. With such exceptions, and a few rare cases
where objects are carved out of solid lacquer, it will be assumed that all the
references in the text of this volume are to lacquer-ware of wood.

This is generally a sort of pine, of soft and even grain, worked, in the
smaller pieces to an astonishing thinness and evenness of texture. Larger
objects have, of course, sufficient substance for strength; but never an
excess. The accuracy and beauty of the curves of bowls, vases and the like
are remarkable, especially in examples of considerable size. When the
wooden fabric of the object has been finished, its surfaces are carefully
smoothed ; all knots, pin-heads or projections of any kind reduced, cracks
or other irregularities made good and luted, as well as the joins, with a
composition of rice paste and lacquer, until all is as even as possible. A
dressing of lacquer is then applied to fill up the pores of the wood and
provide a base for the processes that follow. On this is applied a priming
consisting of one or two coats of composition, made by mixing lacquer with
finely ground burnt clay or similar material, which, when hard, is ground
to a fine surface with whetstone. Some of the old writers have said that
in this composition, the Chinese occasionally used pig’s blood and powdered
quicklime. It is quite possible ; and this is probably the foundation of the
legend that inferior qualities of red lacquer are coloured with pig’s blood
instead of with cinnabar. In other cases of old Chinese flat lacquer a
priming of oil only was used, which would account for the thinness and
general inferiority of this ware as compared with that of the Japanese.

A period of at least twelve hours would be needed for the composition
to be ready to receive its next coat, a layer of hempen cloth, linen, paper
or—especially in the case of Foo-chow lacquer—silk. This is again
smoothed with a knife, to receive several more dressings of fine composition,
each being given time to harden, and to be ground to an even surface
before the next application. On this, successive applications of lacquer are
made until the required thickness is obtained ; it being clearly understood
that each must dry and be ground fine before the next is laid on. In the
case of flat lacquer the number of coats would have been, as a rule, less
than was involved by the Japanese method; but a substantial thickness
was obtained, even by the Chinese, before the decorative artist began his

CHINESE LACQUER

work. The extent of the work involved in these preliminaries will be
better realised when it is understood that each coat of lacquer, as applied,
is only of about the thickness of a thin coat of paint ; and that this is further
reduced by the repeated grinding and polishing operations.

The decoration of flat or painted lacquer, hua ch’i (as it may be conveni-
ently termed in comparison with the carved lacquer shortly to be described),
proceeds on similar lines. The design is painted on the prepared ground
with lacquer coloured as required ; is allowed to harden, and is then again
overlaid with a thin coat of clear lacquer. Gold dust may be incorporated at
this stage; though, in regard to the use of gold, the Chinese have never
developed its possibilities to anything like the extent of the Japanese.
On the other hand, they have made use of a far wider range of colours,
including turquoise and slate-blue, several greens, a red as of wine-lees and
a rose-red, white, aubergine or plum-colour and a brilliant yellow ; as well
as the vermilion, brown, etc., favoured by their rivals. At the same time
there is no doubt that the apparent neglect by the Chinese lacquerers, of
the use of gold and silver was a matter of fashion rather than of knowledge.
In Hsui-shih-lu, a manuscript on the Art of Lacquering written during the
reign of the Emperor T’ien Ch’i (A.D. 1621-1628),! it is clearly stated that
gold was used in fine powder, in coarse pieces like rice husks, filings (as
in the Japanese hirame) and gold leaf—‘ in emulation of the beauties of
Nature.” In this respect gold was to be compared with the sun, and silver
with the moon and the filings and small details adjusted with due regard to
the principle of the greater in relation to the lesser dignity. Other technical
details were suggestive of the stars and the wind ; while, in the design, the
rocks were to be as thunder. Brushes (symbolical of rain) of horse hair, wild
pig’s hair or rat’s hair, were used by the artists who did the decorative
portion of the work.

What has been said with reference to the Chinese use of gold applies
similarly to that of lacquer decoration in relief (the Japanese takamakiye
and hiramakiye). This class of ornament certainly dates back to the period
of the Ming Dynasty, and is mentioned in the Hsui-shih-lu ; which, in
allegorical vein, compares it with the ups and downs of Nature. This
relief is modelled with a putty made of lacquer, fine charcoal, white lead,
lamp-black or similar substances with a proportion of camphor ; the effect
of the latter being to facilitate the working. On this, further coats of
lacquer are applied, hardened and polished.

At this stage a curious property of lacquer may be mentioned—one that

1 Yuisaku Imaizumi, Kokka, No. 113, etc.

foe eBCHNIQUE OF CHINESE LACQUER

might seem to involve a contradiction in terms. The hardening process
which is so essential to every stage in the preparation of lacquer-ware is
expedited and perfected by the presence of moisture ; and one may say
with truth that the lacquer dries in a moist atmosphere. For this purpose
the Japanese use damp boxes, or chambers, and the Chinese employ a
similar expedient. The Ming manuscript referred to, states that the
Chinese use a “ cave ”’ in the ground and place the objects therein at night,
so as to get the benefit of the cool damp air. In this atmosphere, the lacquer
acquires a degree of hardness that enables it to be polished with whetstone,
bone-dust, etc. ; to be engraved with lines having the clean-cut precision
of copper-engraving and to be carved like ivory or box-wood. It can,
moreover, be given a polish which in brilliancy is not inferior to that of
glazed porcelain or enamels.

The engraved work may be, as stated above, as delicate in line as dry-
point; or incised in bold lines heightened with colour for decorative
purposes as in examples described below. There is no doubt that the
similar Japanese method of decoration, called by them, chinkinbori, was
directly derived from China—according to a leading Japanese authority,
in the period A.D. 1716-1735. The Victoria and Albert Museum, however,
possesses a Japanese example of this work which must be placed in the
middle of the 17th century ; and this affords good ground for assuming
that engraved or incised lacquer was made in China at least as early as the
later Ming period.

But of all classes of Chinese ware, the carved lacquer, tiao ch’, is not only
the best known, but the most characteristic. In this, at least, the Chinese
have never, admittedly, been rivalled even by the Japanese—and no one
else has ventured to imitate it. This lacquer was built up in the manner
already described; but the process was continued until a much greater
thickness was obtained—even approaching, in extreme cases, nearly to
half an inch. When two or more colours were to be incorporated in the
design, the layers of each had to be placed in the order in which they would
ultimately be required ; and it was necessary that each layer should be of
exactly uniform thickness. The precision with which that preliminary
work was carried out can be seen from a cross section of a fragment ex-
hibited in Room 41 of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Not until the
whole mass was completed and of perfectly homogeneous texture could the
cutting begin; for this was done, inwards, from the surface. There was
no modelling or building-up of ornament in the manner in which Western
sculptors handle their clay.

CHINESE LACQUER

Very careful general instructions are given by the Ming writer. Knives
of various patterns were used ; and these were to be kept sharp and well
controlled, so that no slips should take place. The carving should be
V-shaped in section, with clean, direct cuts, but carried out with restraint ;
care being taken not to cut away too much lacquer at a time, so as to make
the work “ lean.”’ There must be no hesitation. The writer advises that
the sharp edges left in cutting the design should be polished down; but
this was not invariably done; later, and especially during the reign of
Ch’ien Lung, sharpness of the cutting seems to have been particularly
aimed at. We are also told that an excess of colour rendered the lacquer
brittle.

It is necessary here to correct one of the very few errors made by that great
student of Chinese Art, Dr. Bushell—whose services cannot too highly be
acknowledged. In his account of the process he says, “‘ the crust while
still warm is carved with a knife.”! As will already have been seen, the
lacquer was not only not applied warm, but the long and laborious process
of building it up made this impossible. It was carved when not only cold,
but hard ; although the ultimate degree of hardness would not be reached
until after the work had been finished. One cannot refrain from pointing
out here, even at the expense of some repetition, how wonderful was the
craftmanship which so ordered this cutting that, in the most minute and
elaborate patterns, only the exact depth and no more was reached, to bring
to the light of day the hidden layer of colour needed for the pattern, where
more than one was in question. The colour most commonly found is
vermilion (tan-sha), derived from cinnabar (red sulphuret of mercury).
It varies in different specimens from an almost claret colour to a bright
“ sealino-wax ”’ red. Other colours most frequently found in Chinese
carved lacquer, are a deep green and a lighter olive-green, buff, brown and
black ; more rarely, aubergine or plum-colour. Meyer says of cinnabar
that it is “‘ the basis of all the magic compounds prepared by the Taoist
doctors,”’ and plays a large part in Taoist alchemy. One may perhaps,
therefore, recognise an abstruse symbolism in the favour given to lacquer
of this colour.

One more detail of the technical process is worth recording, namely, that
the workshop should be so constructed as to give the greatest possible
protection from wind and dust—an obvious precaution, considering the
nature of the material and of the work.

From very early times, carved lacquer has been closely and dangerously

1 “ Chinese Art,” V. and A. Museum Handbook, ed. 1921, p. 118.
6

freer CoN TIOUEFOER CHINESE LACQUER

imitated by the Chinese themselves. In Book VIII, under the heading
Ku ch’t chi lun, of the Ko ku yao lun, a work on literary and artistic
antiquities by Tsao Ch’ao, published in the reign of the founder of the Ming
Dynasty, Hung Wu (A.D. 1387) and translated by Dr. Bushell,’ we find the
following reference to the subject :—‘‘ The imitations of carved red lacquer
are made by working the design in relief with a kind of putty made of lime
and simply lacquering it over with a coat of cinnabar lac; hence the name
of tui hung (painted red lacquer). The principal things made are sword
rings and perfume cases of floral design, which are worth very little money.
It is also called chao hung (plastered red) and is now very common at Ta-li
Fu in the province of Yunnan.” This putty would be the lacquer com-
position referred to earlier in this chapter, or something of a similar nature.
Such imitations, generally of small-sized ware were certainly made through-
out the whole period of good carved lacquer—and, although most of the
examples one meets are not earlier than the time of Ch’ien Lung, it is
advisable for the collector to be on his guard. A small chip with a knife
will generally reveal the truth ; and show whether the red lacquer is really
more than a thin coating over composition. With the latter, moreover,
stamps were often used for the diaper ground; and this can often be
detected merely by close observation.

A third class of imitations, also of considerable antiquity, consists simply
of carved wood with a heavy coat of lacquer. In appearance, this work is
more deceptive than the latter. The designs are generally bold and with
softened outlines, after the Ming style mentioned above ; and the carving
is often admirably executed. But, again, a slight cut, if one is possible,
or the examination of a break, with a strong lens, will generally reveal the
nature of the work. The Japanese Kamakura-bort is in technique practically
identical with this class of lacquer-ware, which no doubt inspired it. This
is said to have been introduced into Japan about the end of the 12th
century. The style disappeared at the end of the 16th century ; but was
revived later on. It may here be convenient to remark that there is only a
technical resemblance between Kamakura-bori and Chinese carved lacquer.
The Japanese carved lacquer in the same way, though neither with the
same skill nor to anything like the same extent, as the Chinese—the equiva-
lents in the former country being known as tsui-shu (red) and tsui-koku
(black). The method is said to have been introduced into Japan from
China during the second half of the 15th century, by a Chinese lacquerer
whose name is transliterated into Japanese characters reading Monniu.

1 Chinese Art, p. 112.

CHINESE LACQUER

It was much favoured by the makers of inrd (medicine cases) during the
17th and 18th centuries ; and both the classes of imitation described above
were freely practised in Japan. The Japanese composition was made of
lacquer, glue, and wheat-flour or similar starchy material with some
strengthening admixture. The Chinese no doubt instructed their pupils in
this respect ; and it is reasonable to suppose that the methods of imitation
were pretty much the same in both countries.

A favourite and very attractive method of decorating lacquer-ware was by
the use of inlay of shell. This must have been one of the earliest forms of
decoration used in China, for the Imperial Treasures at Nara in Japan,
include examples, beyond question, Chinese, which date back at least to
the 8th century of our era. For this purpose, various shells were employed
—mother-of-pearl for large work, the nautilus, pear-shell and especially the
sea-ear, haliotis (the Japanese awabi) and Turbo cornutus (Japanese sazaye),
etc. From the sea-ear were obtained those charming effects of iridescent
green, and blue, which, enriched with gold and silver and delicately en-
graved, form the ornament of the class of ware called by the French laque
burgautée (from burgau, another name of the shell). This decoration was
practised in the Ming period ; and to it, the Chinese gave the pretty and
appropriate name of “ misty brocade.”’ In late work, the iridescence is
artificially produced by foil and colouring matter on the inner side of the
thin lamine of shell. Shell-dust was also used ; and, occasionally, tessere
of shell cut in the style of the Japanese kirtkane. Lacquer was also inlaid
and encrusted with jade, turquoise, malachite, rose quartz, lapis lazuli and
other hard stones, as well as with coral, soapstone, glazed porcelain, ivory,
etc. In a few cases enamel was used.

Among the colours used, Dr. Bushell mentions gamboge, for colouring
the finest transparent lacquer, chao ch’i, used as a medium for metallic
gold; “ painter’s golden lacquer,’ hua chin ch’i, of amber tone, chiefly
used to mix with pallet colours and owing its tint to an addition of pig’s
gall and vegetable oil ; the vermilion lacquer already mentioned, chu ch’t,
made by grinding native cinnabar, chu sha, with pure lacquer; and an
inferior red produced by the substitution of colcothar. Black lacquer,
het ch't, is prepared, in many grades, by adding iron sulphate or iron
filings mixed with rice vinegar to lacquer and stirring in mild heat to
remove the excess of water. Chestnut brown is a mixture of cinnabar and
black lacquer ; buff is ochre ; a greenish yellow is obtained from orpiment,
the yellow sulphide of arsenic, and a deeper and fuller green by mixing orpi-
ment with indigo. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius, supplies a carmine-

ee) hCUNTOURBORT CHINESE LACQUER

red; and soot or charcoal, animal or vegetable, an opaque black. The
use of gold and silver has already been noted; these are imitated with
brass, bronze, copper or tin dust, foil or filings.

A curious statement is made by a French writer! of the 18th century, who
says that the lustre of black Chinese lacquer can be restored by exposing
it at night to frost ; or, better still, by burying it in snow for some time.
One gives this for what it is worth ; but there would be little or no risk in
making the experiment. The lacquer-ware that was shipwrecked on its
way back to Japan from the Vienna Exhibition, was none the worse, when
recovered, after immersion for eighteen months in sea water.

The so-called ‘‘ Coromandel’’ lacquer—which is purely of Chinese origin—
is much simpler in technique than any of the styles described above. A
substantial basis of wood is overlaid with lacquer composition, on a priming
of canvas, to a thickness of rather more than 34, of an inch and the surface
given a coating of polished lacquer, generally black but occasionally dark
brown or red. On this the design is boldly carved in intaglio ; the portions
hollowed out being then coloured or gilt. This work, which is of superb
decorative effect in its best forms, only seems to occur in the flat ; and was
one of the earliest kinds of Chinese lacquer to attract the attention (and
incite the emulation) of Western nations. It was being imitated in this
country before the end of the 17th century; and Stalker in the Art of
Japanning (1688) gives recipes for the counterfeit. It was used chiefly, if
not entirely for screens; but very many of these have been cut up for
cabinets and other articles of furniture. The process, as in one of the
examples described below, was sometimes used in conjunction with flat
lacquer or lacquer in relief of the ordinary kinds.

Coromandel lacquer is said to have been made chiefly in the Province
of Honan and thence to have been shipped, in Chinese boats, to the ports
on the Coromandel coast. It consisted mainly of twelvefold screens,
corresponding to the twelve months of the year and can hardly, so far as
we can judge from known examples, be given an origin earlier than the
last years of the Ming dynasty. To this period must belong a remarkable
example reproduced by Monsieur E. A. Séguy? in which Europeans, in
costume of about this period, are represented in hunting scenes, in which
a caged animal—which suggests the Indian cheetah—is being used.

John Stalker, writing in 1688* has a good deal to say about what he calls

1 Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire des Sciences, des Arts et des Meétiers, Neufchatel, 1765.
* Séguy, E. A., Les Laques du Coromandel, 1922.
3 A Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing, Oxford, 1688.

CHINESE LACQUER

“ Bantam work ’’; and gives detailed instructions for the imitation of it.
The point of interest to us, however, is that, at so early a date, he remarks
that ‘‘ since it is now almost obsolete, and out of fashion, out of use and
neglected, we thought it a thankless trouble and charge to affix a Pattern,
which could neither advantage Us, or oblige You: I think no person is
fond of it, or gives it house-room, except some who have made new
Cabinets out of old Skreens. And from that large old piece, by the help
of a Joyner, make little ones, such as Stands or Tables, but never consider
the situation of their figures ; so that in these things so torn and hacked to
joint a new fancie, you may observe the finest hodgpodg and medly of men
and Trees turned topsie turvie. . . .”’ This reference suggests an earlier
importation of this class of work than has generally been considered to be
the case ; but the eloquent Mr. Stalker’s comments must be accepted with
some reserve. Screens of the kind were certainly being imported in con-
siderable quantities by the East India Company at a later date, and con-
tinued to be a regular article of trade for some time. They were, as Stalker
says, and as we know from the survivals, remorselessly cut up for all sorts
of other furniture. The old name is no doubt derived from the fact that
the town of Bantam was the principal market and centre of distribution for
this work, the Chinese origin of which does not seem to have been known
to the few early writers who mention it. Ephraim Chambers’s Cyclopedia
(Supplement, 1753) for instance—defines Bantam work, as “a kind of
Indian painting and carving on wood resembling Japan work only more
gay ’’; and this is repeated in the 1788 edition. Bantam was the head-
quarters of the Dutch East India Company until about 1816. From 1603
to 1682 the English East India Company had a factory there, which exercised
control over the Company’s establishments on the Coromandel Coast ;
and this connection may give a hint as to the origin of the latter term as
applied to this work. But I have not been able definitely to trace the
change of nomenclature. The French would naturally use the term
Coromandel—as their chief port for Far Eastern trade was Pondicherry,
on that coast; and it seems possible that, in the revival of interest in Chinese
Art, we owe to that nation a name which has come to be adopted in this
country.

Carved lacquer was chiefly made, during the period of its best quality, at
Peking and Soochou—at the former place, under the patronage of the
Ming and Ch’ing Emperors. No doubt, a good deal of earlier ware was
produced at the old capital, Nanking ; and in the Sung period at Chia-
hsing Fu, about half-way between Hangchou and Soochou. Flat lacquer

ire reo Nt OME Or CHINESE LACQUER

and lacquer in relief seems to have been especially associated with Canton ;
and to this district belong, one may safely assume, the screens in which
European figures form part of the decoration. Nineteenth-century Canton
lacquer is thin and poor in quality and generally overloaded with ornament
—a mere commercial product.

The modern style of Foo-chow lacquer was evolved by a craftsman
named Shen Shao An, about three centuries ago ; and has been continued
by his descendants to quite recent times, lacquer-ware by the last of the
family, Shen Cheng Hao, having been exhibited in Europe within the last
twenty years. It is remarkable for its fine surface, said to be due, in part
at all events, to the use of silk instead of paper or canvas as a basis for the
priming ; and also to the care with which properly matured and otherwise
suitable wood was selected. A good effect is produced by the use of very
fine gold or silver dust ; employed so as to give a sort of lustre to the
lacquer which is very pleasing. In quite modern work a wide range of
colours appears combined occasionally with bold carving, in the form of
stands, brackets and the like.

One use of lacquer, although outside the scope of this volume, is too
interesting to be passed without notice ; namely, that method of modelling
called by the Japanese Kanshitsu. In the earliest form of this, a skeleton
of wood was covered with a mixture of lacquer, clay, fibre or lint and
modelled when still wet. Later, cloths saturated with fresh lacquer were
draped on the wooden base, quickly stiffening into the required shape.
In a later process still a clay core was used, on which lacquered cloths
were moulded. When both lacquer and clay were dry, the latter was
beaten out, leaving a tough shell, impervious to wet or the attacks of
insects and providing a good surface for the application of gold or colours.
These methods were practised during the 7th and 8th centuries and re-
vived for a short time in the early years of the Yuan Dynasty; and were
responsible for the production of some of the best statuary of the period.

CHAPTER II

THE HISTORY, OB CA COUSR SEM
CHINA

According to native writers, the use of lacquer in China goes back to the
legendary period of the history of the country. The Hsui-shih-lu has already
been mentioned, of which only an ancient manuscript copy in the Imperial
Library at Toky6 (and that since destroyed in the disastrous fire following
the recent great earthquake) was known by Mr. Imaizumi Yusaku to exist.
This was written by Seits6 YOmei between A.D. 1621 and 1628; and is our
authority for the account which follows—traditional, no doubt, to a con-
siderable extent, but by no means to be disregarded for that reason.

In this it is stated that the earliest use of lacquer was for writing on
bamboo slips—the most ancient form of book. The Emperor Shun, the
fifth of the Five Rulers whose name is one of those—says Dr. Bushell—
*“ placed by Confucius at the head of the Shu Ching, the classical annals
compiled by him,’’ made use of utensils for food, of black lacquer. His
successor, Yu, who cast the famous nine bronze tripods, carved with maps
and figures, which, after 2000 years were lost in B.c. 333, is said to have
had lacquered vessels made for ceremonial use, black outside and red within,
and with pictorial designs. In his time, also, lacquer was allowed to be
used in payment of taxes; a practice also found in the earliest (but much
later) history of the industry, in Japan. During the Chou Dynasty
(B.C. 1122-255) lacquer was used for the decoration of carriages and harness,
under official regulations, and ornamented with patterns of animal-forms.
Bows and arrows, also were adorned with it, as well as ceremonial utensils.
At this time, gold and colours came into use as well as carved lacquer ;
and the material is stated to have been put to many other purposes and
much valued for its hardness and the brilliance of its polish. The Emperor
Ch’éng (B.c. 246-221) decorated his castle with lacquer. His successor
was murdered by the eunuch Chao Kao, who lacquered his skull and used
it as a drinking-cup (B.c. 207). At this period, lacquer was applied to
armour, writing materials, utensils for banquets and musical instruments
and for the decoration of palaces. During the Han Dynasty (B.c. 206-
A.D. 25) the latter practice was further developed. It is recorded that the
central gate of one of the Empresses was lacquered red and also that the
material now began to be used for the paraphernalia of funerals. The
writer here makes a note of the poisonous qualities of lacquer, which, if
used without care, produces an eruption on the skin. The leaves, however,

HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA

have a medicinal value. At this point we are able to make some slight
contact with definite fact; for a Japanese archeologist, Mr. Rytizo Torii,
in the course of excavations of the shell-mounds near Port Arthur, found,
in 1910, remains of pot-covers of paper, lacquered red, which he definitely
attributes to the Han Dynasty. The Ming author proceeds to remark that
lacquer of the T’ang Dynasty must now be looked on as archaic. It was
during Sung (A.D. 960-1127) that the art became well developed and
modern methods practised. There had been no special class of lacquer-
workers until the Han Dynasty—any artisan used the material; but to-
wards the end of that epoch such progress was made and the demand so
increased that the industry became organised as a separate craft, and the
names of a few individual artists were first recorded.

With regard to the foregoing, it should be noted that Mr. Imaizumi
thinks that the reference to carved lacquer having been made under the
Chou Emperors is merely a fanciful way of suggesting general progress ;
and that the story of the lacquered skull only implies the old base uses of
lacquer as compared with that later development of the art which, in his
opinion, received its first stimulus from the Imperial patronage extended
to it in such early times.

At this point, it is of value to remark that in Korea, an office charged
with business relating to lacquer is recorded to have been in existence after
the three old kingdoms had been united under Sinla (about a.D. 669) and
references to the cultivation and use of lacquer occur from that time on-
wards. It was chiefly employed for domestic utensils; and a frequent
method of decoration at a later date was by means of inlaid shell, a process
said to have been introduced from Japan in the 1ath century. Recent
explorations of graves which are being systematically conducted by the
Japanese, have yielded evidence of a considerable skill in decoration of
various kinds ; and among the objects found have been lacquered incense
boxes, decorated with shell, and combs, authentically belonging to the
Koryo period (A.D. 918-1391).

Fortunately, the progress made in the art of lacquer by the 8th century
of our era, can be measured far more completely, and without room for
the shadow of a doubt, by other means than the uncertain accounts of
Chinese literati or the wreckage of ancient monuments. Buddhism was
introduced into Japan in the 6th century a.D., first from Korea. During
the reign of the Empress Saiko-Tenné (A.D. 592-628), the Regent Shotoku-
Taishi, who adopted the new religion, devoted himself not only to its
extension but to the promotion of close and friendly intercourse with China.

CHINESE LACQUER

The Horya-ji Temple, founded by him in A.D. 607, still exists; and
contains many objects of art either brought from China or Korea or
made in Japan under the influence of Buddhist priests from those countries,
by whom the foundations of Japanese Art were laid. Among them are
specimens of Chinese lacquer of the greatest historical and artistic value.?
Chinese influence, both in literature and in art, became, henceforth,
predominant in Japan for a considerable period. The Emperor Shomu-
Tenno (A.D. 724-749) adopted the mode of a Buddhist monk. Shortly
after his death, his Empress, Komyo-k6g6, deposited in the Shds6-in
(“‘ lonely building ”’) of the Todaiji at Nara, all the treasures collected by
the late Emperor, with many added by herself (a.D. 756) ; and this wonder-
ful collection remains almost inviolate to the present day.

Among these treasures are a number that are certainly of Chinese origin ;
and constitute, in fact, the only reliable evidence of the state of the lacquer
industry at that early date. For instance, there are musical instruments
in which the decoration is in the method called by the Japanese heidatsu,
in which cut-out figures of gold or silver were laid on the surface, covered
with many successive coats of lacquer and then rubbed down till the metal
was again brought to light. This process has not been practised either in
Japan or China for many centuries: but it produced a very effective
decoration. One of the instruments—a koto—has the name of the Chinese
maker of the T’ang period transliterated by the Japanese as “* Shihei-i ka.”
Lacquer in this method was also applied to leather. Another process
involved the use of gold or silver dust for patterns in lacquer-ware ; and,
apart from these decorative groups, lacquer in simpler forms occurs in a
large variety of objects, boxes of all sorts, sword-sheaths, covers of bottles,
stands for Buddhistic images, mirror-backs, etc. There is no doubt that
a considerable number of these things are actually Chinese in origin ; and
that many others were, if made in Japan, done under direct Chinese in-
fluence. The authenticity of the collection is unimpeachable—and it
stands out as a solitary but inviolable record of the arts of China, Korea
and Japan in the 8th century.?

SUNG AND YUAN DYNASTIES
' The Ko ku yao lun, already mentioned, gives the following account of
the industry under the Sung (A.D. 960-1279) and Yuan (A.D. 1280-1367)

1 Japanese Temples and their Treasures, Tokys, 1910.
2 Omura Seigat, Record of the Imperial Treasury, Shosoin, Téky6, 1910, and Toyei Shuko,
Illustrated Catalogue of Ancient Imperial Treasury, called Shosoin, Tokys6, 1909.

Hist ORYeOFRPCAGCQUER IN CHINA

Dynasties. “‘ During the Sung Dynasty the utensils intended for the
imperial palace were generally made of gold and silver lacquer with plain
uncarved surface.

“ During the Yuan Dynasty a new manufactory was established at Chia-
hsing Fu, in the province of Che-kiang, at Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui, which
produced a large quantity of lacquer, carved for the most part deeply and
in high relief. But the body is generally wanting in solidity, and the yellow
ground, especially, easily chips and breaks off.

“Under the Yuan Dynasty at Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui in the prefecture of
Chia-hsing, Chang Ch’éng and Yang Mao gained a great reputation for
their carved works in red lacquer (T’i Hung), but in much of it the cinnabar
coating is too thin and does not wear well. In the countries of Japan and
Liuchiu, however, they are extremely fond of the productions of these two
craftsmen.

“In the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1280) an artist named
P’éng Chiin-pao, who lived at Hsi-t’ang, became celebrated for his paintings
in gold on lacquer (Ch’iang Chin) and his landscape and figure scenes,
pavilions and temples, flower sprays and trees, animals and birds, were all
alike cleverly designed and finely finished.

“ Cups and other specimens of pierced lacquer (Tsuan Hsi), in which
the body is strong and solid, are generally old pieces dating from the Sung
Dynasty, in which the gold decorations of figure scenes and picturesque
views have been pierced through with a drill or metal borer, so as to com-
plete the designs in open work.

“ Lacquer-ware inlaid with mother-of-pearl is a special production of the
province of Kiangsi, being made at Lu-ling Hsien, in the prefecture
Chi-an Fu. The articles specially made here for the imperial palace
during the Sung Dynasty, and the older productions generally, are all very
strongly lacquered. Some of the best are strengthened by the inlay of a
network of copper wire. Through the whole period of the Yuan Dynasty
rich families were accustomed to have lacquer made for them here, which
was solidly put on, and the figure decoration was perfectly designed and
beautifully finished.”

Dr. Bushell remarks that the foregoing notes prove that “ all branches of
lacquer work now carried on in China can be traced as far back at least as
the Sung Dynasty, and that the chief centre of manufacture at that period
was Chia-hsing Fu,’’ an important city between Hangchou, the capital
of the Southern Sung and Soochou, which also, later, was an important
centre of the industry. It is unfortunate that, so far as we know, no

CHINESE LACQUER

authentic specimen of the lacquer-ware of this great period in Chinese Art
has yet been authentically identified and described. Probably, there are
examples among the still unexplored or imperfectly catalogued treasures of
Japan; and we are more likely to get reliable information on the subject
from the keen art historians of that country than from China in its present
state. In view of the certain knowledge we possess of the fine productions
of Chinese artisans in other handicrafts, there is no reason why the
descriptions of the progress of the lacquer industry, quoted above, should
be disregarded or even discounted. We know, to some extent, what the
Japanese lacquerers of the period were doing; and it is at least reason-
able to conclude that China, as in other arts, did not then lag behind.

Dr. Perceval Yetts has indicated! an interesting use of lacquer as a pro-
tective covering of Sung bronzes; and some few domestic utensils found
in excavations are, otherwise, all we have at present to go on, so far as
concerns actual examples. The importance already attained by the
industry towards the close of the period may, however, be estimated from
the fact that in the Chao yu kua (translated by Dr. Hirth) it is stated that
in A.D. 1220 lacquer-wares were exported from China to Bruni (Borneo),
Cochin China, Java, Sumatra, Malabar, Zanzibar, Persia, Japan, Mecca,
Ceylon, India, etc., the chief market being Ch’iian-chou-fu, in Fukien.

MING DYNASTY

The Chinese accounts of the lacquer industry during the Ming Dynasty
have, at least, the virtue of having been written by contemporary historians ;
and we are now able, in some degree, to turn to the study of actual speci-
mens. The earliest description is the Ko ku yao lun, published during the
reign of the first Ming Emperor; from which the following notes are
extracted :—

“‘ Among the cups and other articles of old carved lacquer fashioned after
those of rhinoceros horn (Ku Hsi P’i), the best are reddish brown in colour,
with smooth polished surface, like fine earthenware underneath; the lacquer
is lustrous, of strong substance and thin. The variety of a lighter red tint
resembling the fruit of the cultivated Shantung jujube (Zizyphus communis)
is known commonly as jujube lacquer. There are also some in which the
carving is deeply cut and in strong relief, but these are classed lower.”

During Ming, imitations seem first to have been common ; and several
references are made to them. For instance, in the account of carved red

1 “ Chinese Art ”’ (Burlington Magazine monograph), 1925, Plate 13.
16

HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA

lacquer, we have—‘‘ In the present time at Ta-li Fu, in the province of
Yunnan, there are special factories of this lacquer, although much of
their production is a spurious imitation. Many of the noble families of
Nanking have real specimens in their houses. There is one kind in which
the lacquer is entirely cinnabar red ; another kind in which black is used
in combination with the red. Good specimens are very valuable, but there
are many later imitations and great care is required to distinguish them.”
With regard to gold lacquer, it is noted that, “‘ At Ning-kuo Fu, in the
adjoining province of Kiangnan, the lacquerers of the present day decorate
the lacquer with pictures pencilled in gold (miao chin); and in the two
capitals (Nanking and Peking) also, the workshops turn out a great deal
of lacquer decorated in the same syle.’”’ On the subject of inlay of
mother-of-pearl, we again meet evidence of fraud and decadence. ‘* The
modern work of Lu-ling is plastered with lime and pig’s blood mixed with
vegetable oil (this would be the basis on which only a thin coat of lacquer
would be overlaid) and is not strong but very easily damaged. Some use
starch made from the rhizomes of the lotus, which is still weaker and wears
off more quickly. The only good work of to-day is that made in private
houses (i.e. by individual craftsmen and not in factories) which is fairly
strong and lasting. Old houses in the several departments of Chi-an Fu
often contain beds, chairs and screens, incrusted with mother-of-pearl
figures of beautifully finished execution, which excite universal admiration.
Among the things made here at the large houses are round boxes with
covers for fruit, hanging plaques with inscriptions and chairs of Tartar
fashion, which are hardly inferior to the old work, because, no doubt, they
are of home manufacture.”

Dr. Bushell also quotes! from the Ch’ing pi ts’ang, ‘‘ Collection of Artistic
Rarities "’; a little book in two parts on various works of art, by Chang
Ying-wén, who wrote the last page on the day he died. It was published,
with a preface by his son, Chang Ch’ien-te, in 1595. Incidentally it refers
to a loan exhibition of works of art, in the province of Kiangsu, contributed
from the collections of four of the principal families of the province, in
1530. The writer states that in “ our own Ming Dynasty, the carved lacquer
made in the reign of Yung Lo (A.D. 1403-1424) in the Kuo Yuan Ch’ang
factory and that made in the reign of Hsiian Té (A.D. 1426-1435) not only
excelled in the cinnabar colouring and in the finished technique of the
body, but also in the literary style of the inscriptions which were etched
beneath the pieces. The inscription Ta Ming Yung Lo nien chih (made

1 Chinese Art, p. 113.

yy Cc

CHINESE LACQUER

in the reign of Yung Lo of the Great Ming) was etched with a needle and
filled in with black lac. The inscription Ta Ming Hstian Té nien chih (‘ made
in the reign of Hsiian Té of the Great Ming ’) was engraved with a knife
and filled in with gold. The craftsmen in their skill with the knife rivalled
their predecessors of the Sung and succeeded in establishing a new school
of glyptic art. The lacquer-ware of thin body flecked with powdered gold,
the lacquer work incrusted with mother-of-pearl, and the lacquer inlaid
with plaques of beaten gold and silver, these three kinds are especially
admired, even by the Japanese. The spurious imitations are of coarse
heavy make and easy of detection.” The statement that this work was
admired “‘ even by the Japanese ”’ is a tribute to the high standard attained
by the rival country.

The establishment of the Peking factory is also mentioned in the Hsui-
shih-lu, which refers, moreover, to the engraving of date-seals. This work
adds that the period was remarkable for a largely increased production
and the introduction of many new methods ; and that as many as thirty-six
coats of lacquer were now used on a basis of wood or white metal. Red
lacquer was much in vogue, the bases being generally lacquered black. We
are able to reproduce an illustration of specimens of the carved lacquer
produced in the reign of Hsiian-Té (Plate 3). The chaos into which the
Empire was thrown by the invasion of the Tartars, which resulted in the
downfall of the Ming Line put an end, temporarily, to the further develop-
ment of the lacquer industry as a fine art; and it was not until the new
dynasty was firmly established that a revival took place, under their imme-
diate patronage. This revival seems to have been confined mainly to a few
methods only of lacquer-working, of which carved lacquer is the chief ;
and the fashion which seems to have prescribed these limits may have been
responsible for the fact that Chinese artisans produced no developments
of other methods of working similar to those which distinguish Japanese
lacquer artists of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

It may not be without interest, here, to note the references made to the use
of lacquer by Father Alvarez Semedo, a Portuguese who spent twenty-two
years in the country during the first half of the 17th century.: In the
course of his general survey he says, ‘‘ They use much in their houses
Charam an excellent vernish and painting of an accurate diligence ”; and
** In the vessels and utensiles of their house they are both very curious and
expensive ; using much the aforesaid Charam, a sort of vernish which is

1 The History of that Great and Renowned Monarchy of China. By F. Alvarez Semedo.
Now put into English by a Person of quality, London, 1655.

HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA

taken from certain trees, proper only to that, and the neighbouring
Countries ; and in truth it is an excellent thing, as well from the perfection
of the matter (as may be seen in the workes that come from thence) as for
the easiness in working it, as well in making new things, as in retrimming
the old, and reducing them to their former beauty.” In his note on Canton,
after enumerating various industries, he adds, “‘ as also workes made with
Charam, an excellent vernish, and with guilding, some whereof are trans-
ported into Europe.”’ His early impression of the “‘ easiness ”’ of working
lacquer seems soon to have been modified, for, later, he remarks, ‘* Not-
withstanding in the generall we do much exceed them in manufactures
and mechanick Arts, except it be in that same Charam, which is indeed a
singular Artifice.” He relates that coffins, ‘‘ Funerall Chests,” are ‘‘ made
with all sorts of exquisite ornament on the outside, as of gold, Charam and
other gallantries,”” and on the inside, “‘ two weights, which they call Manos
of Bitumen, and after that, one of Charam.”’ The subjects for the examina-
tions for degrees are “‘ written in large letters on white tables (tablets) of
Charam.” At banquets where tables are provided only for from one to
four persons according to their degree, the tables “‘ have all Frontalls, or a
peice of linen hanging downe from the edges, but neither Table-cloath
nor Napkins, using only their Charam, a neate and polished varnish, with
which their Tables are covered.” The export of lacquer from Canton,
to India and Persia had already been recorded by the Arab traveller Ibn
Batuta, who was at that place in 1345 and sets forth his admiration of
lacquer.?

Few names have been preserved of Chinese artists in lacquer ; and, with
the exception of a carved lacquer tray in the Korinin Temple of Daitokuj1
at Ky6to, which is said to bear the signature of Chang Cheng (Japanese
Chosei), an artist of the Yuan Dynasty, there appears to be nothing that
can be directly identified as the work of any of them. It is reproduced
in Japanese Temples and their Treasures. Other names are mentioned
in Japanese records, transliterated in that language as follows: Yomo and
Shumin (Yuan) and Choyan, Senchin, Roho, Kinho, Oycan, Oken and
Tutsui (Ming). These occur in the Kundai Kwansayu-choki, a catalogue
of the time of Yoshimasa (1435-1490) which gives an account of the
importation of various forms of Chinese lacquer-ware especially valued
in connection with the Tea Ceremony.? These included various forms of
carved lacquer, engraved, painted (zonset) and that method known as gurt.

1 Tbn Batoutah, Voyages (trans. Defrémery).
2 Breuer, A. H., The Influence of China on Lacquer in Japan (Japan Society), 1914.

CHINESE LACQUER

According to F. Hirth, lacquer in relief (Japanese takamakiye or hiramakiye)
was first seen in China in the case of presents brought by an embassy from
Japan to the Emperor Hsiian-té (1426-1436) which excited so great
admiration that after vain attempts had been made to imitate it, Chinese
lacquerers were sent to Japan to learn the method. This is mentioned in
Japanese books on the subject and confirmed (according to Dr. Breuer)
by a note in a Chinese list of painters which relates that the artist Yang
Hiian was able “‘ to depict, in gold and coloured lacquer, scenes from life,
flowers and birds in such perfect manner as to make them appear equal
to paintings on silk.”” One must admit that this comment hardly seems to be
as conclusive as Dr. Breuer suggested. It is difficult to imagine that
successful work in relief would be alluded to in such terms, however
justifiable they might be in the case of flat lacquer.

THE GREAT CH’ING DYNASTY
(A.D. 1644 to end of the Empire)

The second Ch’ing Emperor, K’ang Hsi (A.D. 1662-1723) established,
in 1680, within the precincts of the palace at Peking, upwards of twenty-
seven workshops for the cultivation of various artistic handicrafts, in con-
nection with the Kung Pu, or Board of Works. Among these was one
devoted to lacquer; and artisans were brought from various parts of the
Empire for the purpose. To this wise act, the revival of the art of carved
lacquer is undoubtedly due; but Canton, Tongking, Soochou and Foo-
chou were also important localities of the industry. The Jesuit Father,
Louis le Compte,? who arrived in China in 1687 and spent several years
there, gives a fair general account of lacquer-ware. “‘ Vernish, which 1s
so common in China, is disperst all over; it takes all Colours, they mix
Flowers of Gold and Silver with it, they paint Men, Mountains, Palaces,
Huntings, Birds, Combats and several Figures, that make a bas-relief in
the work, and renders it extremely pleasing and delightful, so that in this
point the Chineses are Magnificent for small Charges.” He remarks that
“for Tables and ordinary chairs, it is sufficient to lay on 2 or 3 layers of
Vernish which makes it so transparent, that one may discern every Vein of
the wood through it. Now if you would hide all the matter . . . you must
do it over and over again, till at length it be nothing but Ice; but so fine
at first, that it may serve for a Mirror.’’ He mentions the use of gold,

1 Memoirs and Observations made in a late Journey through the Empire of China, Eng. trans.,
London, 1697.

fue DORY OF SEACQUER IN CHINA

silver and colours in decoration ; and gives a recipe for lacquer composition
—‘ Paper, packthread, lime and some other Substance well beaten with
which the Vernish incorporateth ”’ (a similar mixture is elsewhere stated
to consist of paper, fibre of urtica nivea, and egg-shell, beaten up with
camellia oil and lacquer). Le Comte specifies cabinets, tables and “‘ Vernisht
Skreens”’; and particularly that “‘ There are very pretty and curious
Cabinets at Tonkin ; but what is brought to us from Japan, as to that
matter, are in no way inferiour to the China work.”’ He also has a curious
suggestion as to the possibility that lacquer is used in making (what seems
to be from his description) the crackle on celadon porcelain (p. 154).
Incidentally one may note that the frontispiece of this very interesting
treatise is a portrait of K’ang Hsi, engraved on copper by M. Vander
Gucht—“ aged 41 years, Drawn when he was but 32’!

K’ang Hsi extended his favour to the Jesuit Fathers then in China in
considerable numbers, and the European influence thus introduced into
the country is reflected in the arts of the time. So far as concerns lacquer
this is seen especially in the screens decorated with European figures, and
notably in that made as a gift to the Emperor Leopold I, with the double-
eagle in the cresting (Plate 35). This was also the period of the first great
importation into Europe of Chinese lacquered furniture and, as a result,
of the establishment in Western countries of the imitation lacquer industry
and the development generally of the “‘ Chinoiserie’’ fashion. His reign
corresponds with the best period of Japanese lacquer under the Tokugawa
régime.

Ch’ien Lung (A.D. 1736-1796) was a great admirer of carved red lacquer ;
and, under his auspices, the Imperial factory made large quantities of
furniture of every kind for his palaces, ranging from great twelvefold
screens, thrones and chairs of state to small objects for toilet and other
uses. He also had a number of panels, in this material, made to com-
memorate his victories and other notable events, and often added poems
written by or for him to the decoration thereof. An interesting account
of the industry, in his reign, at Canton, appears in D’Incarville’s ‘‘ Mémoire
sur la Vernis de la Chine,” published in the Mémoires . . . presentés a
l’ Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 1760; who, however, remarks on the
inferiority of the Canton lacquer of his day to that of Japan. Under
Ch’ien Lung carved red lacquer, nevertheless, attained its highest pitch
of technical excellence, although the breadth of design and imaginative
qualities of the earlier work now give way to a more stereotyped formalism.

CHINESE LACQUER

After his death the art of lacquer, in common with other Chinese artistic
handicrafts, rapidly decayed. The Imperial factories, says Dr. Bushell,
““ were closed one by one, and what remained of the buildings was burned
down in 1869.” Carved red lacquer has continued to be produced during
the 19th century ; but it is sadly inferior to the old work. Examples of it,
at its best, can be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, in the form
of loans from His Majesty the King, of examples presented at one time or
another by the late rulers of China to those of this country.

CHAPTER III

SUBJECTS OF DECORATION

It is not too much to say that there is no Chinese ornament without a
_ meaning ; and in a number of cases, traditional patterns can be traced back
to the very beginning of the arts of the Middle Kingdom. To enter into
a full examination of this intricate subject is not within the scope of this
book ; but an indication, so far as possible, of the meaning of the principal
devices found in various forms of lacquer-ware—as, indeed, in other
Chinese art-productions—should add to the interest of students of the
subject. Dr. Perceval Yetts states the position concisely in these words :
“ From the earliest times the Chinese artist has exerted his skill with the
intention of producing not merely objects pleasing to the eye, but at the same
time emblems conveying a definite meaning.” Without at least an effort
to grasp this fact, no approach can be made toward understanding the art
of the Far East, even in its humblest branches.

In lacquer-ware one does not find so great a diversity of subject as in
porcelain—a fact to be accounted for by the difficulty of the material. But
the principal categories of symbols are freely used, while of animals
supernatural and natural, the dragon, phcenix, bat and crane are most often
in evidence. Clouds, the full moon, mountains, rocks and trees lend
themselves well to effective treatment in lacquer of every variety, and are of
frequent occurrence ; while the Chinese love of Nature is seen to advantage
in a beautiful and most skilful arrangement of the favourite flowers—
whether as the chief or the subordinate elements in a decorative composi-
tion. Buddhist and Taoist emblems are often employed indiscriminately ;
even when representations occur of the chief personages of one or other
of those cults. Of the latter, Shou Lao, a deification of Lao Tze, the
founder of the Taoist philosophy, is more often found with sceptre (jut) and
stag or crane; but the Eight Taoist Immortals, the Sages of the Bamboo
Grove and those of the Wine Cup are also to be seen. Children at their
games supply a pleasing theme, by way of variety; and the pavilioned
gardens offer a nice contrast to the wild and rugged landscapes in which
some of the personages are placed. The following are the most important of
the subjects used purely as ornaments.

The ErcHt BuppHIsT EmBLEems of Happy Aucury (Pa chi-hsiang) are
taken mainly from the numerous objects supposed to have figured on the
sole of Buddha’s Foot (Yetts). They are as follows: the Wheel of the
Law (Lun), in flames, heralding the coming of a Chakravarti or Universal

1 Symbolism in Chinese Art (China Society publication), 1912.

CHINESE LACQUER

Monarch ; the Conch-shell (Lo) used at religious ceremonies, an attribute
of royalty ; the State Umbrella (San), a symbol of high rank ; the Canopy
(Kai) also symbolic of royalty; the Sacred Lotus (Hua); the Vase of
relics (P’ing) ; the Pair of Fish (Yu), emblems of marriage and fertility ;
and the Endless Knot, or Entrails (Chang), an emblem of longevity which
Dr. Yetts suggests is derived from the mystic sign of Vishnu.

The E1rcut Tricrams (Pa kua) begin with three unbroken lines represent-
ing heaven and end with three broken lines representing earth: the inter-
mediate diagrams being combinations of the broken and unbroken lines
representing vapour, fire, thunder, wind, water and mountains. They are
often shown in conjunction with the sign of the Creative Principle yin
(negative) and yang (positive)—a circle divided by a spiral line, the former
black with a white dot, signifying darkness, earth, femininity, etc. ; and
the latter, white with a black dot, denoting light, heaven, masculinity, etc.

The ErcHt Mustcat INSTRUMENTS (Pa Yin).

Ch’ing. Sounding Stone, in form of a mason’s square and suspended
to be struck with ahammer. A homonym of Ch’ing “ Good Fortune.”

Chung. A metal bell also to be struck with a mallet.

Chil attc,

Ti. Bamboo flute.

Chu. Box of wood with metal hammer.

Ku. Drum covered with skin.

Shéng. Reed organ, a mouth instrument with seventeen reed pipes of
varying length and gourd wind-chamber.

Hstian. Icarina. Cone-shaped instrument of clay pierced with six
holes.

The TWELVE ORNAMENTS of Robes (Shih-érh Chang).

1. Jih. The Sun, with a three-legged cock.

2. Yueh. The Moon, with the hare, under a cassia-tree, pounding the
Elixir of Life.

3. Hsing Chén. The Stars, a triangle of three circles, the upper sides
joined with lines.

4. Shan. Mountains.

5- Lung. A pair of five-clawed dragons.

6. Hua Chung. The “ variegated ’’ animal—a pheasant—the “‘ flowery
fowl.”

SUBJECTS OF DECORATION

7. Tsung Yi. Temple vessels—a pair of cups, one with a tiger and the
other with a monkey—noted for filial piety.
8. Ts’ao. Aquatic grass.
9g. Huo. Fire.
10. Fén Mi. Grains of Rice.
11. Fu. An axe.
12. Fu. The “ symbol of distinction,” two simple frets, back to back :
known later as the brocade pattern.

The Ercut Taoist Immorrats and their attributes (pa-hsien).

Chung Li-chiian, carrying a fan with which he revives the souls of the
dead, or a branch of peach-tree. He rides upon an ox.

Li Tung-pin, with magic sword.

Li Tieh-kuai, a beggar with magic pilgrim’s iron crutch and gourd.

Ts’ao-Kuo-chiu, in official robes with hat and bamboo castanets.

Lan Ts’ai-ho carrying a spade and flower basket (perhaps a woman).

Chang Kuo, seated backwards on a mule with bamboo tube and two
rods.

Han Hsiang-tzu, a young man with flute.

Ho Hsien-ku, a maid, in leaf robe with lotus-flower.

The latter group are all illustrated on a brocade in the Victoria and
Albert Museum and fully described by Dr. Bushell in the text of his
monumental work on the Walters’ Collection of Oriental Ceramic Art
(p. 579). :

The E1cut Precious Tuincs (pa pao) of the Taoists.

The Jewel (Chu), Cash (ch’ien), Lozenge (fang-shéng) symbolical of
victory, Pair of Books (shu), Painting (hua), Musical Stone (ch’ing), Pair of
Rhinoceros-horn Cups (chuch) and Artemisia Leaf (ai-yeh).

The Four Liperat Arts, of Writing, Painting, Music and Chess, are
represented by their apparatus, such as a group of books, brushes or
paintings, a musical instrument, generally the lute, and a board for chess
or wei chi, the Chinese equivalent of the Japanese game go.

Among other favourite devices are all or some of the varied collection of
vases, bronze utensils, etc., known as the ‘‘ Hundred Antiques” (Po ku),
a fine example of which is to be found in the border of one of the great
** Coromandel ’’ screens at South Kensington (No. 130-1885), of which
four panels are reproduced herein (Plate 53).

CHINESE LACQUER

ANIMALS

The Four SUPERNATURAL ANIMALS (ssu ling) of the Chinese are :—

The Dracon (Lung) is represented generally with bearded, frowning
head, straight horns, a scaly serpentine body, four legs, the feet armed with
strong claws, bristling dorsal spines and emitting flames and smoke. The
claws were originally three on each foot ; but afterwards the number was
increased to four and five ; the use of the latter being strictly reserved for
Imperial use under the Ming and Ch’ing Dynasties. A number of varieties
of dragon are described by Dr. Bushell!. The Buddhist dragon of the
law is represented as grasping the jewel of the faith in one of its outstretched
paws. Celestial dragons chase the mystic jewels which grant every wish.
The sea-dragon appears coiled in the depths of the sea. The dragon is
(says Dr. Bushell) peculiarly symbolical of all that pertains to the Son of
Heaven, the Emperor’s throne being styled the dragon-seat, and his face
as the dragon-countenance; his banner is the dragon-flag, and after his
death he is borne aloft by dragons to the regions of the blessed.

The PHenix (Féng-huang)—feng being the name of the male and huang
that of the female; the compound being the generic name of the bird,
which, Dr. Bushell notes, has many analogies with the phcenix of the
Greeks. It is immortal, dwells in the highest regions of the air, and only
appears as an omen of the advent of virtuous rulers or an emblem of an
auspicious reign. It once ranked even above the dragon, but later became
the special emblem of the empress. In the reign of Ch’ien Lung, the
banners borne before the Empress’s chariot of ceremony displayed both
the dragon and the pheenix. It is usually represented with the beak of a
swallow, the head of a pheasant, long neck, gorgeous plumage and a flowing
tail adorned with long separate plumes from three to seven in number.
The inseparable féng-huang symbolises conjugal love. It is generally seen
flying in the midst of clouds and lightning or associated with the blossoming
tree-peony. Plate 2 affords an especially fine example of the use of the
combined dragon and phcenix in ornament.

The TorToIsE (Kuei) lives for five thousand years and after a certain age
“ bears the sign of its patriarchal dignity in the shape of a hairy tail.” “A
tortoise collaborated with the dragon-horse in revealing the Eight Trigrams
to Fu Hsi; and the shells of the tortoise were anciently employed as one of
the chief elements in the art of divination ” (Yetts). The tortoise is used
as an emblem of strength and also of longevity. In Hindu mythology it

1 Oriental Ceramic Art (Walters’ Collection), 1896, text, p. 592.

SUBJECTS OF DECORATION

supports the elephant which upholds the universe. In China i) carries
on its back P’éng Lai Shan, the island dwelling of the immortals.

The Unicorn (Ch’i-lin) is again an example of the combination of the
male (ch’t) and female (lin) of the mythical species. It has the body of a
deer, with slender legs, divided hoofs, the head of a dragon, tail of a lion
and its shoulders adorned with flames. It only appears as a good omen ;
and is said to live for a thousand years, to be the noblest of all animals and
the emblem of perfect good—to tread so lightly as to leave no footprints
and so carefully as to harm no living creature.

With the foregoing group the tiger (hu) is often associated, making a
group of the “ Five Ling ’’—It signifies military prowess.

To De Quincey, in the agony of his dreams, a Chinaman seemed “ an
antediluvian man renewed.’ That nightmare does not oppress a sane
and well-balanced European intellect, but there is something in the hint.
For it is surely not too far-fetched to see in these ancient forms a tradition
which may have been derived from the monstrous reptiles and other
beasts of prehistoric times; and recent geological research in China
would appear to lend some colour to the speculation.

The supernatural animals have a further significance of importance. One
presides over each of the Four Quadrants of the vault of Heaven, the Azure
Dragon ruling the East, the Vermilion Bird (phcenix) the South, the White
Tiger the West and the Black Warrior, the Tortoise, the North. In
harmony with the daily movement of the sun, they also represent the Four
Seasons, beginning with Spring (the Dragon). Some moral idea of this
sort underlies the advice of the Ming writer on lacquer, that decoration
should conform to the principles of Nature. Plate 53 supplies a fine illustra-
tion of a dragon-headed horse careering over the waves of an ancient sea.

The quadrant is further divided into a Zodiac of Twelve Animals—the
Twelve Earthy Branches, viz.:—the dragon, hare, tiger, fox, rat, boar,
cock, monkey, goat, horse and snake; and again into twenty-eight each
with an animal associated with one of the ancient constellations. Dr. Yetts
reproduces! a mirror of the Tang period, in which the whole system is very
legibly set out, in combination with the Eight Trigrams.

The Stac (lu) is an emblem of long life. At the age of 1000 years it
becomes blue, and black at 2000 years.

The Lion (shih-tzu) is the defender of the law and protector of Buddhist
sacred buildings. The male is represented with a ball in its paw ; the female
with a puppy. This beast is of Indo-Buddhistic origin.

1 Symbolism in Chinese Art, Fig. XIII.

CHINESE LACQUER

The ELEPHANT, the Horse and the Hare are the only animals that have
obtained admission to Nirvana on their own merit and are sometimes
shown as crossing the dark sea that leads thereto. The elephant bears on
his back the sacred jewels, as in the centre compartment of the Throne of
Ch’ien Lung (Frontispiece). The horse may carry sacred books ; and the
hare is shown living in the moon, in which a dwelling of honour was pro-
vided for it as a reward for the proffered sacrifice of its body to feed the
starving Buddha. There it sits compounding the Elixir of Life with a
pestle and mortar; sometimes in company with the toad into which
Ch’ang-ngo was changed after she had stolen the precious drug from her
husband.

The CRANE (hsien hao) or StorK is emblematic of long life and occurs
frequently in this sense. The Bat (pien-fu) is still more common in lacquer-
ware especially. It signifies happiness, the character fu (bat) being a
homonym of fu (happiness). Five bats surrounding the character Shou
(Long Life) would be read as the Five Blessings, Happiness, Wealth,
Peace, Virtue and Longevity. The BuTTERFLY (hu t’ieh) stands for length
of days ; and the Fisu (yii) for abundance, by a similar process.

Such representative symbols as the above—with others—are frequently
found in combinations of which one or two examples have already been
given. Dr. Bushell! and Dr. Yetts? supply a number of examples of this
kind of rebus. Thus, a bat, peach and two “cash” united by a fillet,
reads “ Happiness and Longevity both complete ’’; and the process can
be applied to almost every combination of symbolic ornament that is
likely to be found.

TREES AND FLOWERS

PEACH (t’ao). Among the trees, the peach, in Taoist symbolism, occupies
the first place. The peach-tree of the genii, whose fruit confers immortality,
grows on the borders of the Lake of Gems in the domain of the goddess Si
Wang Mu, who is represented in both Chinese and Japanese Art, with the
mystic fruit. The peach-tree is also a symbol of happy marriage, following
a well-known Ode by the Emperor Shih Huang Ti (B.c. 246-209).

PINE (sung), BAMBoo (chu), PRuNus (plum, mei). These three are generally
grouped as symbols of long life; the Pine and Bamboo because they are
evergreen and flourish even in winter, and the Prunus because, in extreme
old age, it still throws out flowering twigs.

1 Oriental Ceramic Art. 2 Symbolism in Chinese Art.

SUBJECTS OF DECORATION

Funcus (ling chih). The sacred branching fungus (Polyporus lucidus)
signifies long life ; but was formerly one of the emblems of Good Luck.

CoRAL 1s also symbolical of long life.

TREE PEONY (mutan-hua). Spring—symbol of wealth.

Lotus (hé-hua). Summer—the sacred flower of Buddhism—the emblem
of purity—the rain-drops sparkling on its leaves signify enlightenment.

CHRYSANTHEMUM (chi-hua). Autumn—symbolical of long duration.

Prunus or Wild Plum (mei-hua). Winter—the symbol of beauty. This
is the flower commonly but erroneously termed the hawthorn. .

The above constitute the Flowers of the Four Seasons (ssw chi hua).

The flowers of the Twelve Months as given in a screen of ‘‘ Coromandel”’
lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum (No. 163-1889) are as
follows :—

FLOWERS OF THE TWELVE MONTHS.

January. Prunus: Mei hua.
February. Peach: T’ao hua.
March. Tree Peony: Mu tan.
April. Cherry: Ying t’oa.

May. Magnolia: Yii lan.

June. Pomegranate: Shih liu.
July. Lotus: Lien hua.

August. Pear: Hai t’ang.
September. Mallow: Ch’in k’uei.
October. Chrysanthemum: Chii hua.
November. Gardenia: Chih hua.
December. Poppy: Ying su.

These vary in different provinces, but the above may be taken as a
standard series.

GRAPE-VINE (pu-t’ao) was introduced into China by Chang Ch’ien who
was sent on a mission to the Indo-Scyths on the Oxus river in B.c. 139,
by one of the Han Emperors. He reached his destination and finally
returned to China after being twice captured, bringing much information
both about trade and Buddhism. The Chinese name given above is derived
from the Greek GBorpvs ; and the vine with squirrels, as in Plate 14, is
frequently found on ancient Chinese mirrors treated in a style directly
suggestive of Greek ornament.

Of the above, in addition to those of which the significance has already

GHINESE LACQUER

been mentioned, the peach is also emblematic of spring and is of the first
importance as being the fruit of the Tree of Life of the Taoist Paradise,
which ripens only once in 3000 years and confers immortality on mortals.
The Cuerry or Cherry Apple blossom in combination with the magnolia
and tree peony forms the rebus (may you dwell in) jade halls (and enjoy)
wealth and honours (Yetts) ; and the POMEGRANATE expresses fertility—
a numerous family. The Narcissus (shui-hsien-hua) is sometimes
emblematic of winter, and is a good omen if in bloom at the New Year.
Next in rank to the peach, the Taoists place the SAcRED Funcus (ling chih)
and the grouped Pine (sung), Bamboo (Chu) and Prunus (mei) all emblem-
atic of long life; the fungus on account of its durability, the evergreen,
pine and bamboo, and the prunus because it blossoms from leafless
branches even in extreme old age. The latter group is also significant of
long-enduring friendship. Another series of flowers of the Four Seasons
includes the orchid, gardenia, pomegranate and prunus. Another group
is composed of the peach, pomegranate and Buddha-finger CiTRON—
the Three Fruits (san kuo) symbolical of the Three Abundances (san to)—
Abundance of Years, of Sons, and of Happiness.

PATTERNS

Of the characteristic patterns most frequently found on lacquer-ware, two
call for special mention. The fret known as the MEANDER or key-pattern is
seen in various forms, and is generally used as borders. It is of great
antiquity and is derived from archaic pictographs representing clouds and
thunder—hence the Chinese name “cloud and thunder pattern,’’ or,
simply “‘ thunder pattern.’’ Dr. Yetts quotes a Chinese writer’s inter-
pretation of the symbolism of this pattern used as a diaper on a bronze
cauldron of the Chou period—" the lozenge-shaped spaces are occupied by
the ‘ cloud and thunder ’ pattern surrounding a small nipple in the centre.
For the nipple nourishes mankind, while clouds and thunder fertilise
growing things. The k’uei dragon, moreover, exerts a restraining influence
against the sin of greed. Here we have but a single vessel, yet all the
eternal principles are there complete! How excellent was the philosophy
of the ancients!’’ One could hardly select a better example of the light
in which ornament appears to the Chinese philosopher.

The other symbol, very often used as a diaper, particularly on carved
lacquer, is the SVASTIKA, significant of infinity—thus in conjunction with the
character shou it would be read as “‘ a myriad ages.’’ The svastika has, of

SUBJECTS OF DECORATION

course, a distribution in the history of ornament extending far beyond its
use in China.

The character shou (longevity) frequently appears as an ornament of good
omen, often in circular form as in Plate 11. Ch’un (spring) is used in the
same manner, good examples appearing in the “ Circular Box for a Cere-
monial Gift ’’ (Plate 29) and in the incised “‘ Plaque ”’ (Plate 47); both
these are further adorned with a representation of Shou Lao in the centre
of the character. The inscription Ta Chi (great good luck) also occurs
occasionally on lacquer-ware as a decorative feature.

CHAPTER IV

DESCRIPTIONS OR THE
ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates r and 2.— IMPERIAL TABLE FOR A MARRIAGE CEREMONY

The art of the lacquerer seems to have found its highest expression in the
sumptuous furniture made for Imperial use ; and of work of this quality
we are able to illustrate several typical examples. The earliest in date is a
table of unusual shape and magnificence of ornament. The whole of its
surface is decorated with deep vermilion lacquer, cut through on its upper
surface to the depth of rather more than one-eighth of an inch so as to
expose the buff ground and form a relief for the pattern—a quite ex-
ceptional depth. The ornament on the sides and legs is less deep, but still
sufficiently so to be effective. It is interesting to note also, how it is
arranged to protect itself against ordinary wear and tear. Apart from the
cracks caused by the shrinkage of age, the lacquer is generally in good
condition. Some few damages have been sustained, as was inevitable in a
life of perhaps more than three centuries—but these cannot be regarded as
detracting from the splendour of this fine piece of furniture as it exists
to-day.

The upper surface is decorated with a twelve-lobed compartment within
a border corresponding to the shape of the table. The central feature
consists of a superbly designed Imperial Dragon, ascendant, on the right
of a sacred Lotus of characteristic Buddhistic form, and balanced on the
left by a magnificent seven-tailed pheonix swooping downwards. The
whole of the remaining space within the compartment is filled with lotus
flowers in bud, full bloom, and with seed and foliage, distributed with
extreme skill and ingenuity. Each of the outer angles within the border
contains a six-tailed phcenix of simpler form, arranged with a filling of
flowers and foliage, among which one recognises the chrysanthemum,
rose, peony and magnolia. The border has, alternately, four-toed dragons
and five-tailed pheenixes, all facing to the left, and on a rich ground of lotus
flowers and foliage. The table has three drawers, each running through its
entire breadth. The front panels of the drawers again have each a four-
toed dragon and a five-tailed phcenix and lotus plants. Below the drawers
is a panelled support with four panels (two large and two small) on the
long side, and three panels of equal size on the other, with floral decora-
tion; while the lower frame has a reversing strap-work ornament with
alternating flowers. The top of the table and the lower frame are

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

supported with open-work brackets also richly carved with similar
designs.

The legs are rather remarkable. They rake slightly outwards, not only
giving an appearance of stability, but, in fact, securing it. In section, the
outer half is rounded, while the inner has straight sides meeting at an angle
—the section of the whole being kite-shaped. They are decorated with
panels of flowers protected with plain perpendicular ribs to take the wear.

The significance of the chief motive of decoration cannot be overlooked.
The five-toed Dragon (lung) as here represented is the peculiar symbol
of the Emperor as is the phcenix (feng-huang) of the Empress. This implies,
without any room for doubt, that the table was made for their personal use,
and the fact that these emblems, with the lotus (signifying purity and per-
fection), constitute almost the whole of the ornament, is definite evidence
that it was a piece of quite exceptional importance in the furniture of the
Palace. The design of the combined Imperial Dragon and pheenix sug-
gests that the table was made for use in connection with an Imperial marriage
ceremony. A similar design is found on a piece of embroidered satin in
the Victoria and Albert Museum. The attribution of it to the Ming period
must be taken as the expression of a personal opinion based on comparison
with other accepted examples, and particularly in regard to the quality
of the lacquer and treatment of the design. I am inclined to place it in the
Wan Li period (A.D. 1573-1619).

Height, 2 feet 62 inches ; table top, 2 feet 9} inches by 3 feet 11 inches.

Ming Dynasty (Wan L1)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 3.—TABLE SCREEN IN CARVED RED LACQUER

Decorated with a pavilion of three apartments, in the central one of which
is an old man, seated; and in each of those at the sides, an attendant
preparing for a meal. Two visitors with attendants are approaching. The
pavilion is in a garden on a terrace, with flowers in vases and various plants,
pine and other trees, flying cranes, etc. Below is a band of lotus flowers
and scrolls, The screen is mounted in a finely carved stand of hard wood
with bats, feng-headed scrolls and the character shou. On either side are
small enamel plaques. On the back of the screen is a realistically carved
spray of chrysanthemums in high relief.

Height, 23 inches ; width, 16 inches.

Ming Dynasty (Hsiian Te, dated)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

33 D

CHINESE LACQUER

Plate 4.—Box IN Two TIERS, WITH TRAY

The cover is decorated with a scene representing a guest, followed by his
attendant bearing an umbrella, being conducted by an old man to the
entrance of a two-storey pavilion on a terrace overhung with trees on a
rocky eminence. On the terrace, he is awaited by two ladies, one with a
fan; a third is seated in a swing. In the upper storey of the pavilion are
three female musicians. On the sides are a river with boats of various
kinds and islands on which are other buildings; on one bank, a bridge
with two arches, and on the other, a battlemented wall with bastion.

Carved in red lacquer of deep, rich colour and with great skill. The
tray, interior and base, are lacquered black.

Height, 64 inches ; width, 104 inches ; depth, 6 inches.

Ming Dynasty (probably Wan Li)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 5.—SALVER

A salver of unusual size, circular, with fluted border and gilt metal rim.
In the centre is an elaborate conventional peach-blossom, with foliage,
surrounded with eight bats and eight sprays of various flowers, in relief on a
diapered ground. Around this is a border of triangular arabesque orna-
ments from which springs the fluted rim, each compartment filled with
a spray of chrysanthemum. In carved red lacquer, the base lacquered
black. This salver affords one of several instances where lacquer-ware
may well be compared with cloisonné enamel, for general treatment. For
instance, the Ming “ Palace Salver,’’ No. 4785-1858 in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, is similar in form to the example now illustrated. |

Height, 3 inches ; diameter, 16 inches.

Ming Dynasty (late)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 6.—CrrcuLAR BowL AND COVER

A bowl of unusual character decorated with four bands of foliage and
flowers, the upper of which (on the cover) has also the Eight Emblems of
Happy Augury (pa chi-hsiang). In the centre of the latter and forming
the top of the cover is a scene representing Shou Lao, holding a sceptre
terminating in a sacred jewel, seated under a spreading tree and with four
attendant disciples seated on either side. In front of him is a dancing
stork, his familiar bird. The decoration is carried out in carved brown
lacquer, generally on a plain buff lacquer ground. The diaper forming
the groundwork of the central design is in a rich reddish-brown lacquer,

Peo orRiP TIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS

and this composition is enclosed within a circle of gold lacquer. The
interior and base are lacquered brown. The mingling of the Taoist sub-
ject with Buddhist emblems is an example of the open mind with which
these symbols of different schools of philosophy were regarded by the
Chinese ; and the colour scheme is rare and effective.
Height, 8 inches ; diameter, 10 inches.
Ming Dynasty (late)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 7,—AN OCTAGONAL CovERED BowL, ON FooT

The centre panel forming the top of the cover has a Chinese personage,
probably Shou Lao, seated in a cave, with his stag and an attendant. The
upper part of the cover is divided into eight compartments, each with
children playing various games. Below are two narrow borders of tree-
peony blossoms, forming the upper and lower rims of the bowl and cover ;
and beneath are eight sprays of flowers and foliage on a diaper ground. The
foot has a chrysanthemum flower and leaves in each compartment. The
design is in boldly carved red lacquer with softened outlines and of a fine
deep colour, the lower part on a ground of yellowish-buff. The interior
and base are lacquered black.

Height, 104 inches ; diameter, 104 inches.

Ming Dynasty (Wan Li)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 7,—Box FoR INCENSE

This box is carved out of a mass of solid brown lacquer, without sub-
structure of wood or other material. The subject of the somewhat primitive
decoration appears to be two priests, face to face, between them being a (¢)
peach. This is on a boldly cut diaper which also appears, in panels, on the
sides. Boxes of this class are illustrated in Dr. Breuer’s paper, read before
the Japan Society (Vol. XII). The date must be uncertain, but we are
inclined to place it not later than the beginning of the 16th century.

Height, 15 inches ; 12 inches, square.

Ming Dynasty (¢ Chéng Té)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 8.—Box FOR AN IMPERIAL GIFT

The decoration of this important example of Ming work is carved in black
on a ground of red diapers of three patterns, the svastika and two varieties
of florets. The design of the cover is in three compartments, the centre

CHINESE LACQUER

of which, in the opinion of Dr. Bushell, represents a visit of an Emperor to
a two-storied pavilion, on the veranda of which two officials wait to receive
him. The Emperor is in a chariot drawn by two horses, and attended by
fan-bearers and other retinue. He is preceded by state umbrella-bearers
—who are accompanied by a deer—men bearing ducks in dishes, hal-
berdiers, etc. Above, is an aged pine-tree, the full moon and clouds,
among which a phenix hovers. The upper panel shows a sage seated at
the entrance to a house, receiving a scholar with two attendants bearing
bundles of rolled pictures; the lower has an official shooting at a screen
with a bow, the arrow having transfixed the eye of a stork in the design.
His efforts are watched by two other men of his rank ; and, from within a
pavilion, by two women. Dr. Bushell considers these panels to be sym-
bolical, respectively, of the arts of Peace and War. The sides have a repeat-
ing pattern of peony flowers and birds of paradise. The interior is,
unusually, lacquered red ; and the box bound with silver mounts.
Height, 44 inches ; length, 25 inches; width, 6? inches.

Ming Dynasty (Wan Li)

Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 8.—TRAY

A shallow tray with boldly carved design of tree-peony growing from
rocks, and a butterfly, on a ground of horizontal lines, broken at intervals ;
within a border of aster-blossoms and leaves. In red lacquer of deep, rich
colour, the base black.

Height, 1 inch; length, 13% inches; width, 54 inches.

Ming Dynasty (late)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plates 9, 10.—A SET OF ALTAR FURNITURE (wu kung)

This rare set of Altar Furniture, the only complete series in carved
lacquer which has yet been noted, was obtained in Peking by the late Rt.
Hon. Sir Claude M. Macdonald, P.C., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., and
was presented to the Victoria and Albert Museum by Lady Macdonald
as a memorial to that distinguished diplomatist. It consists of an Incense
Burner, a pair of Flower Vases and a pair of Pricket Candlesticks, The
Incense Burner (hsiang-lu) is rectangular in section with two projecting
swan-neck handles ; its body rests on four columns decorated with cloud
pattern and with lion-mask capitals, rising from a base with diaper pattern,
two bands of thunder-pattern and on shaped feet with richly carved foliage.

PesCcRIPTIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS

On the body and on its domed cover, are the Eight Buddhist Emblems of
Happy Augury amid luxuriant scrolls, with borders of thunder-pattern
and arabesques. The handles are supported with discs bearing the
character shou (long life); and the whole is surmounted with a finial in
mutton-fat jade beautifully carved in open work with flowers and birds.
The Flower Vases are square in section, on bases similar to that of the
Incense Burner, and with boldly projecting knops and wide mouths. The
knops are decorated with foliated scrolls, in the centre being a rebus con-
sisting of a bat and a musical stone, signifying happiness and good fortune.
Above and below are bold leaf-shaped ornaments, with thunder-pattern
and scrolls. The Pricket Candlesticks are on similar bases, on which rise
inverted domes with the character, long life, bats, lotus blossoms, thunder-
pattern, etc. The wide drip-pan and other details are decorated with
floral scrolls and foliage. The vases and candlesticks have engraved brass
mounts. The whole is richly carved in deep red, relieved with green and
orange-vermilion.

Incense Burner : height, 18 inches ; width, 134 inches; depth, 6 inches.

Vases ; height, 15 inches by 6 inches square.

Candlesticks : height, 18} inches by 5? inches square.

Ming Dynasty (late)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 11.—CIRCULAR PLAQUE, FRAMED FOR A TABLE SCREEN

The decoration of this plaque consists mainly of a bold rendering of the
character shou (long life) filled in with flying cranes and phcenixes (feng)
alternately with tails of four feathers and floriated scrolls, and cloud-
pattern on a curious diaper of concentric circles. The rest of the circle has,
outside the character, a varied collection of emblems, including the double
coin, coral, painting and sacred jewel, with cloud-patterns and flowers on a
svastika diaper ground ; the whole enclosed within a border of conventional
blossoms. The frame is of hard wood, with inner border of thunder-
pattern, the angles incised with scrolls and inlaid with green; the outer
border with floral scrolls in relief. On the reverse is an engraved poem
entitled “‘ Eulogy on the Stars of Wealth, Prosperity and Longevity, com-
posed by the Emperor”; and consisting of passages from the Book of
Odes, the Book of Changes, and the Book of History, strung together so
as to make a semblance of continuity and signed “ Calligraphed by the
Minister, Lu Fei-ch’ih.” This gives the clue to the general symbolism of

CHINESE LACQUER

the whole composition ; and, in conjunction with the conspicuous use of
the pheenix in the design, suggests that the screen was made for the use
of an Empress. The plaque is carved in lacquer of three layers, mainly red,
and relieved with black and yellow.

ERIE Sas US Ming Dynasty (about Chia Ching)

Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 12,—CIRCULAR COVERED Box FOR CEREMONIAL GIFT

One of a pair of covered boxes of a form often occurring in lacquer-ware
and occasionally in enamels, which have often been termed rice-bowls, but
were more probably intended for gifts of fruit or cake on auspicious
occasions. The decoration of the cover consists of a closely massed
design of peony blossoms and foliage around the character shou and
within a border of thunder-pattern. Below this is a border of highly
conventionalised bats, with bands of flowers and foliage. The interior is
of gold lacquer.

Height, 74 inches ; diameter, 18 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 12.—Box FOR SWEETMEATS, BAT-SHAPED

This box would probably have been made to enclose a gift of sweetmeats
on some ceremonial occasion. In form it represents a bat, of which the
highly conventionalised details appear only on the cover, with a central
ornament consisting of the character shou in combination with the svastika,
a rebus, with the bat, signifying ten thousand years of happiness. The
perpendicular sides are decorated with elaborate designs of thunder-
pattern embodying the svastika form; and the whole of the ground is
diapered. In carved red lacquer, the interior and base black.

Height, 24 inches ; width, 9? inches ; depth, 44 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 13.—Box AND COVER, PEACH-SHAPED

A box of this unusual magnificence must have been made for some very
exceptional occasion. The design carries out the suggestion of the form ;
and consists of a peach-tree, bearing flowers and fruit, springing from a
rock, with, also, a pair of bats. The stem of the tree is of carved wood ;

Pooh rl ONS Orel HE TLLUSTRATIONS

and flowers, fruit and foliage are executed in green and yellow jade, lapis
lazuli, turquoise, amethystine quartz and carved red lacquer, on a diapered
ground of red lacquer. The interior is also of a character rarely seen in
work of this class, being sumptuously adorned with gold lacquer, having
bats, fishes and various other auspicious emblems in low relief—a rare
example of Chinese gold lacquer of high quality. The peach in combina-
tion with the bats forms a rebus symbolical of long life and happiness for
the recipient of the gift enclosed within—but, as in the case of Japanese
ceremonial presentations, the donor would expect the box itself to be re-
turned to him,
Height, 7 inches ; width, 15 inches ; depth, 14} inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 14.—TABLE WITH GRAPE-VINE PATTERN

This table, although it cannot claim to have been actually made for
Imperial use, so far as is suggested by its ornament, is yet of very high
quality and quite exceptional in design, which consists solely of an all-
Over pattern, most ingeniously and skilfully distributed—of grape vines
amid which squirrels are playing. The theme forms a refreshing contrast
to the more formal decorative motives generally used by the designers of
Chinese red lacquer. The subject alludes to a well-known Chinese poem.
The technique of the lacquer is unusual, for instead of being cut sharply
it has rather the effect of having been modelled, all sharp edges and pro-
jections being cleverly eliminated, with great advantage to the practical use
of the table. The ornament is, moreover, further protected with plain ribs
on the outer rims. In the treatment of the vine, one cannot help seeing an
echo of ornament on ancient Roman silver. The motive occurs frequently
on ancient mirrors and probably represents one of the earliest effects of
foreign influence in Chinese decorative art—in this case the source—
Greek—being that also which inspired the Roman silversmiths. Dr. F.
Hirth illustrated several of these mirrors in Fremde Einfliisse in der Chinesis-
chen Kunst (1896) of which Figs. 12 and 14 are specially worth considering
in this connection.

The legs are of interesting and characteristic form, breaking into scrolls
reminiscent of the sacred fungus, with which the jui (sceptres) are also
associated.

The table is in remarkably good condition considering its age. The colour
is admirable and the construction unimpared. Although in no way

CHINESE LACQUER

definitely suggesting European influence, it is far more in accordance with
Western taste than the usual forms of Chinese lacquer—in fact the design,
with very little more alteration than the necessary transposition into a
repeating pattern, would be excellent in a wall paper or textile fabric.
Height, width and length, 2 feet 94 inches.
) Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
Plate 15.—GARDEN BOX-SEAT
A good example of the furniture of a Chinese formal garden is supplied
by this interesting object. It is square in section, with curved sides, on
each of which is the boldly designed lion-headed dragon, the mask forming
the centre. Those on two of the sides are in bold relief. The circular
compartments containing these, are on a ground of floral diaper pattern
within richly shaped arabesque borders enclosing floral scrolls based on
the lotus and prunus blossoms amid elaborate foliage. Above and below
are borders of “ nipples,” thunder-pattern and scrolls. The seat is diapered
with svastika pattern within a border of thunder-fret. The decoration is
principally in carved red and green on buff lacquer, the band of nipples
being in red on incised buff.
Height, 18 inches ; in section, 154 inches square.
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 16.—FLOWER-VASE FOR CEREMONIAL USE

This vase is of special interest to students of ornament inasmuch as its
decoration is mainly based on themes such as are found on bronzes of the
T’ang period, and having, also, a curious flavour of Pacific and Central
American patterns. The body of the vase is divided into oblong panels,
each inclosing two or three compositions, the chief element being a
double-ended scroll, the terminals of which suggest the heads of grotesque
animals. Scrolls of this sort, one may remark, incidentally and without
straining for extreme parallels, are found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts
contemporary with T’ang. They are simply due, in all probability, to a
primitive appreciation of the interest added to decoration by a suggestion
of animal life. Within these elements are other grotesque birds and scrolls
of varied character, bordered with similar ornaments and enclosed with
thunder-pattern. Prominent among the ornaments on the base and neck
is the “‘ recumbent silk worm ” theme ; while the upper part of the neck is
patterned with boldly drawn, alternating, triangular compartments of

40 -

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

thunder-frets divided by a border of bosses of incurved scrolls. The vase
is of carved lacquer, chiefly red; the neck being on a diapered ground of
olive-green and the base of plain dark green lacquer on buff. The stand,
of hard wood, is contemporary and finely carved in similar style. The
mouth is fitted with a brass mount, engraved with a pattern of prunus-
blossoms on ice and pierced for five sprays of flowers. From the Summer
Palace, Peking.

Height, 284 inches ; width, 163 inches. Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)

Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 17.—VASE FROM THE SUMMER PALACE

This vase, one of a pair in the Victoria and Albert Museum, was brought
from the Summer Palace of Yuan Ming Yuan, which was sacked by the
Anglo-French expedition of 1860; and is a remarkably fine specimen of
the high standard of technical excellence achieved in the Imperial workshops
fostered by Ch’ien Lung. The decoration of each consists of a magnificent
composition of the Nine Dragons, a mystic number, wheeling through
masses of whirling clouds in pursuit of the Sacred Jewels of Omnipotence.
The feet have leaf patterns with modified thunder-fret ; and the mouths
are finished with gilt brass mounts, engraved with the same motive. The
vases are carved in red lacquer only of a pure coral colour and in unusual
depth. Such pieces must have taken many months to complete and would
alone justify the claims put forward to a high position in the arts for Chinese
lacquer-ware of the best quality.

Height, 373 inches ; diameter, 234 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 18.—PANEL, THE TAOIST PARADISE

On a diapered background of red lacquer is represented a scene in the
Taoist Paradise. Shou Lao stands under a tree to the left, on a terraced
island with elaborate railing. He wields the sceptre (ju-1) denoting his
high rank, and near him are two attendants, one on the bank awaiting the
approach of a boat containing offerings of flowers and jewels, described by
Dr. Bushell as offerings from Si Wang Mu, the so-called Fairy Queen.
Singly, and at intervals, other attendants approach, crossing by a foot-
bridge from another island, on which are a pavilion and trees and bearing
gifts—a staff, on which is tied a scroll, the peach of immortality, a pilgrim’s
gourd and the “‘ box of good gifts,’”’ held by two boys, the “ genii of union

CHINESE LACQUER

and harmony.’ On the near bank, to the right, is Shou Lao’s stag with
another attendant. These figures and other details are encrusted in finely
carved white and coloured jade, malachite and imitation lapis lazuli.
Height, 30? inches ; width, 43 inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 19.—A Pair OF JARS WITH COVERS

Each of these jars is decorated with four well-proportioned arabesque
compartments displaying two Sages with boy attendants in a rocky land-
scape with pavilions, trees, bridges, etc. In the angles above and below
are the Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury; the design being
completed with bands of thunder-fret in leaf-shaped panels. Around the
necks are panels of flowers. On the hat-shaped covers are smaller arabesque
compartments, also with Sages and their attendants, the whole of the back-
ground being richly diapered. In deeply cut carved red lacquer, on con-
temporary stands of hard-wood formed with incurved lotus-leaves. An
unusual feature is the weighting of the covers with lead in order to ensure
stability.

Height, 154 inches ; diameter, 9} inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 20.—STAND FOR CRYSTAL BALL

Although small objects, chiefly boxes, were occasionally made in solid
lacquer, elaborate compositions which can fairly be described as sculpture
in the proper sense of the term, are seldom seen. The stand now repro-
duced is, in part, on a basis of carved wood; but, to a considerable extent
is actually cut in lacquer and with remarkable dexterity and vigour. It
represents a group of Imperial sea-dragons rising from waves beating on
rocks to grasp the Sacred Jewel represented by the crystal globe which
surmounts the composition. In carved and pierced red lacquer.

Height, 18 inches ; diameter, 6 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 21.— VASE FOR IMPERIAL GIFT, ON PORCELAIN

The possibilities of porcelain as a basis for lacquer are demonstrated in this
vase, of which both the base and the interior are well glazed. The principal

Pointy TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

theme of the decoration is a scene in which T’an-mo (Bodhidharma, Jap.
Daruma) is seated on a rock, his shoes lying in front of him and with a
halo round his head, interviewing a standing sage holding a vajra (the
thunderbolt emblem), in his right, and a bowl in his left hand. In the
landscape are a pine and other trees, a waterfall and large rocks, on two of
which are the inscriptions given below, the lettering touched with gold.
Around the neck are two dragons in waves; and the vase is finished with
a finely engraved brass rim. The whole is in well-executed and deeply
carved red lacquer which shows no signs of deterioration. It should
probably be placed in the later period of Ch’ien Lung’s reign.

We are indebted to Mr. Arthur Waley for the translations following. He
notes that the design does not entirely correspond with the words of the
poems and suggests that the carver misunderstood some of the terms.

1. Eulogy of the Lohan, composed by the Emperor.

In his left hand he holds his Indian scroll-bag,

In his right, a set of food-bowls.

At home or abroad, sitting up or lying down

He will never be separated from them, or put them aside.
Long ago when Buddha was in the world

He saved this hoary old man

By preaching the law in a voice as powerful

As the roaring of an angry lion.

2. Eulogy of the Lohan, composed by the Emperor.

His tense posture and clasped hands
What secret power do they imply ¢

He who has signs and he who lacks signs,
Which is the true patriarch ¢

Behind his head is the round disc

Like the moon just at its full.

The service of his feet he needs no more
And has kicked off his straw shoes.

The Lohan (saint), T’an-mo, the first of the Chinese Patriarchs, was an
Indian prince who came to China about A.D. 520 and remained in medita-
tion for nine years in a temple at Lo Yang; at the end of which time, he

CHINESE LACQUER

had lost the use of his feet—hence the allusion in the two last lines of the
second poem.
Height, 134 inches ; diameter, 64 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
Plate 22.—Box FOR JEWELS

An oval box ; carved above and below with a continuous design of lions
sporting amid foaming waves. Unusual also is the colour of the lacquer
in this instance—a pure olive-green. The interior is lacquered black. On
the base is an inscription justifying the identification of the animal—which
otherwise might well be a tiger—the translation being ‘‘ Ch’ien Lung
period, Lion Treasure-box.”’

Height, 2? inches ; length, 8 inches ; width, 5? inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 23.— IMPERIAL CHAIR OF STATE

This chair, one of a set of three from the Summer Palace, Peking, supplies
another good example of the sumptuous furniture in which the Emperor
Ch’ien Lung took delight. The handsome scrolled back is deeply carved
with a noble sea-dragon, five-clawed and full-face, rising from the waves and
holding above his head the circular character shou, in red lacquer. The
border of this panel, the arms, thunder-pattern in form, and the seat are
carved with a running pattern of lotus flowers and scrolls in red on a green
svastika-diapered ground. The frame, legs and rails have a pattern of
bats in clouds, with the musical stone in the centre of the front, forming
a rebus which may be interpreted ‘‘ Good Fortune and Happiness.’”’ Both
the seat and the back of the centre panel are incised with a representation
of an Imperial dragon in clouds, grasping the Sacred Jewel. The front foot-
rail has a protective ornament, dictated by sound common sense—a covering
plate of bronze engraved with the lotus.

Height, 37 inches ; depth, 21} inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 24.— IMPERIAL THREEFOLD SCREEN

Behind an Imperial throne, such as 1s illustrated in the Frontispiece, stood
a massive screen (feng-p’ing) which might, according to Dr. Bushell, have
as many as twelve folds. The notorious Empress Dowager of China is

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

represented, in a photograph illustrating a paper? by Sir Claude Macdonald,
on the Defence of the Legations in 1900, as seated on a throne of this
character, placed in front of a massive threefold screen. On either. side
are stands, on which are dishes of fruit, of the same sort as those reproduced
in Plate 25. With the screen now to be described, we are therefore able to
illustrate a complete set of the Imperial equipment in this respect. This
screen is of a quite unusual character. In the first place, its extraordinarily
effective decoration consists of lettering only—but lettering so beautifully
executed and spaced as to make it possible even for Western critics to
understand why Calligraphy takes its place in China as one of the Four
Liberal Arts; and fine writing or well-executed inscriptions have, for
centuries, taken equal rank with painting and sculpture. In this case, the
characters are superbly drawn ; and yet, without in the least detracting from
their general effect, every stroke is enriched with minute but most
delicately executed diaper patterns—chiefly hexagonal with a conventional
flower in the centre. The inscriptions are in red on a brown diaper ground ;
and from the admirable translation by Mr. Arthur Waley of the British
Museum, which we are permitted to quote, we gather that the screen was
made to commemorate the long lives and domestic virtues of two worthy
citizens.
The inscriptions, as translated by Mr. Arthur Waley, read :—

Left-hand panel.

Poem made by the Emperor and bestowed upon the centenarian Ku
Ch’ao-chio of the district of Lung-ch’iian, province of Kiangsi; and
upon Chang Tzii-hui, allowed to use the title of the ‘ veteran of
Ssechuan,” in whose house five generations dwell together.

“ The Dispenser of Good according to his wisdom sends

down a hundred blessings.

He has favoured in Kiangsi the family Ku and in
Ssechuan the family Chang.

In one case the head of a family has reached the
stadium of a hundred ;

In the other case a happy household is composed of five
generations.

By abstemious eating and well-mixed drinking the
life of each has been multiplied by three ;

1 Japan Society, Transactions XII, p. 4, 1913.
45

CHINESE LACQUER

The husband ploughing, the wife weaving, the
whole household has prospered.
In the new Spring may they often sing stanzas
of plenty and joy ;
May what they pray for be given them and what
they have be fulfilled and their record not broken.”

Centre panel.

Poem made by the Emperor to celebrate the old age of Chang Tzii-hui
of Ta-chou in Ssechuan, in whose house five generations dwell to-
gether.

“ To the West of the River have been specially recorded

omens of happiness and prosperity ;

Old age extended to unwonted years of joy
has been accorded to a certain Chang.

He who reaches the stadium of a hundred has
a right to the title ‘ shou ’ (veteran) ;

How much the more he whose five generations live
in one home ¢ ”’

Right-hand panel.

*“* Each province was requested to report cases of centenarians and those
who had five generations living in one house. Four additional cases
were reported and copies of the poem composed by the Emperor in
honour of the centenarian Chang Tzti-hui were sent to these other
veterans.

In Chihli, Shantung and Kwangtung provinces four such families
were found—those of Chang, Kuo, Liu and Chung. These are cases
of rare preservation and we trust that nothing will happen to spoil their
record.

Written by the minister Ts’ao Wén-t’an.

The reverse side of the screen furnishes us with an almost dramatic con-
trast. It is decorated with an all-over design, drawn with great spirit, of
bats and clouds in flat gold or black. The frame and stand, of polished
hard wood, are also singularly effective ; especially in regard to the bold
dragon-headed scroll-work which forms the cresting.

Height, 9 feet 104 inches ; width, 9 feet 6 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
46

Poor iIPLIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate 25.— IMPERIAL STAND FOR FRUIT OR FLOWERS

As stated in the description of the Imperial Screen reproduced (Plate 24)
in this volume, the Imperial Throne was flanked with a pair of stands, on
which were placed bowls of fruit or flowers or, perhaps, incense burners.
The stand now illustrated is one of such a pair. It is of rare and striking
form. The table is five-lobed, its edges decorated with three principal
bands of ornament; the upper and lower with lotus flowers and foliage,
while in that of the centre band, somewhat withdrawn, the foliage is varied
with the svastika and thunder-pattern alternately. This is supported by a
group of five boldly carved figures, the upper parts of which are shaped
as highly conventionalised phcenix heads, from which rise slender balusters ;
while they terminate downwards each in a single leg and scrolled foot, orna-
mented also with thunder-frets. The five-lobed double base is richly
decorated with foliage and flowers. The work is chiefly in carved red
lacquer of fine colour ; with underlayers of green and buff.

Height, 364 inches ; diameter, 163 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
Plate 26.—PANEL, LANDSCAPE

The panel here illustrated is one of a pair made for wall decoration ; and
representing a class of work which, during the reign of the Emperor Ch’ien
Lung, and, apparently, at his own behest, was carried to a very high pitch
of technical perfection. Those best known were made to commemorate
the victories of his army in Eastern Turkestan, in 1766, and the suppression
of the Formosa Rebellion about twenty years later ; and show the move-
ments of troops, with eulogistic poems, etc., carved generally in red and
brown lacquer. The examples of this pictorial treatment of lacquer-work
now under consideration, give us pure landscape, which loses nothing in
decorative value by reason of its characteristic conventions. The actual
subjects have not, so far, been identified. That reproduced has for its
centre of interest, a rocky island, mainly occupied by a group of buildings
evidently of some importance, having a two-storied pavilion overlooking
the lake or river and various subsidiary edifices, with willow and other trees.
The near shore is fringed with water-lilies; and, near by, three fishing-
boats are seen, one of them working with trained cormorants. The pro-
jection of another island or of the near shore is seen in the right foreground ;
while the distance is occupied with a range of curiously contorted moun-
tains beyond the water and a wooded promontory to the left. The second

CHINESE LACQUER

of the pair is similar in treatment, but less successful as a composition.
The design deals almost entirely with a mass of well-wooded and rocky
country, overlooking a river. Near the summit, on the right is a group of
imposing buildings from which a steep path leads to a quay on which is an
elaborate gate-house, fronted with a ceremonial arch. Various small boats
are in the river, and part of a building can be seen in the left foreground,
on the near bank. These panels have their designs carved with extra-
ordinary vigour and unusual depth in red lacquer. The water is of a
greenish-black, which in the subject of our illustration, breaks into definite
green for the crests of the little waves in the foreground. In both, the
sky is simply left to a brown diaper pattern.
Height, 5 feet 3 inches; width, 3 feet 2 inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)

Plate 27.—VASE Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

One of a pair of vases, of which the ovoid bodies are decorated with rec-
tangular compartments in which are represented vases of flowers, the
emblems of the Four Liberal Arts and similar objects, within a border of
thunder-fret and on a trellis enclosing svastika. Between these panels is a
filling of foliated scrolls and the necks and feet have leaf ornaments with
thunder-pattern and borders of the latter pattern. In carved lacquer of
three layers, red, green and yellowish-buff—the red being the chief.

Height, 153 inches ; diameter, 84 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Frontispiece (front view), Plate 28 (back)—THRONE OF THE EMPEROR
CH’IEN LuNG

One of the principal treasures of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and
certainly the finest example of carved lacquer yet seen in this country, is the
Throne of the Emperor Ch’ien Lung, presented to the Victoria and Albert
Museum by Mr. George Swift, J.P.,in 1922. It is said to have come from
the Hunting Palace of Nan-hai-tze, near Peking, and to be one of a pair, the
other being still, one hopes, preserved in the capital. There appears to be
absolutely no doubt as to its authenticity ; while, as a work of art, its merits
speak for themselves; and it may be taken as representing the standard
of highest achievement of the craftsmen of the Imperial workshop—and
of the period of its origin.

The throne forms a broad, low seat, with four boldly incurved legs,

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

shaped like elephants’ trunks, and resting on a double stand, with low-
shaped supports. The back and side-pieces are shaped, and in three
separate pieces, fitting into slots. The shallow curves of these three portions
of the composition, are emphasised by bold scrolls in high relief, placed
well within the outer edges. In each of these, is a pictorial composition,
that in the centre consisting of an elephant, the sacred animal of the Budd-
hist Law, bearing on his back the Vase of Jewels ; a rebus which has been
interpreted as “‘ Peace reigns in the North.” If that is an allusion to the
victories in Eastern Turkestan, it suggests 1766 as a possible date for the
work. The elephant is accompanied by attendants, one with a banner and
others with various symbolical objects; and the scene is laid in a rocky
landscape with diapered background. The remainder of the space is filled
with conventional cloud-pattern forming a background on which are
five-clawed dragons hunting sacred jewels, one of which is grasped by the
full-face dragon over the centre panel. Among the clouds, also, are bats—
emblems of Happiness.

The panels in the side-wings represent foreigners bearing gifts, in similar
landscapes. On each side are three—those on the right of distinctly Indo-
Buddhistic type of face and dress, carrying the vajra or thunderbolt em-
blem, what looks like an ape, and a bowl of peaches respectively. On the
left, the man in front is turbaned, has ear-rings and bears a vase with a large
branch of coral ; on his right is one with a banner with long feather-shaped
pennon and surmounted with three plumes. In the rear, to the right is a
bare-footed soldier, with high conical hat and, apparently, a long-sheathed
straight-bladed sword with large pommel. Within and without the scrolls
of these wings are bats in clouds ; and each is surmounted with an Imperial
dragon. The reverse of the wings is similarly decorated. That of the back
has a rich design of bats, lotus flowers and foliated scrolls, with a central
rebus consisting of five bats, a musical stone, a pair of fishes and a lotus
flower, signifying the Five Blessings, Good Fortune, Conjugal Felicity and
Fertility and Purity. The seat itself is of flat lacquer, with peony scrolls,
peaches, bats and svastika in olive-green and flat gold on a vermilion ground,
and within a border of black thunder-fret. It is provided with a beautiful
cushion of contemporary brocade patterned on a ground of peach-blossom
colour, The carved lacquer is chiefly red, cut through to inner layers of
light and dark olive-green, brown and yellow.

Height, 3 feet 11 inches ; width, 4 feet 14 inches; depth, 3 feet.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
49 E

CHINESE LACQUER

Plate 29.—CovERED BOWL FOR CEREMONIAL GIFT

This is a large bowl of a type by no means uncommon but unusually well
executed. Its cover is decorated with a circular compartment containing
a richly ornamented bowl, in which are various emblems of good portent,
conspicuous among them being the Endless Knot, Coral, etc. From this
rises a rainbow-hued emanation surmounted with the character Ch’un
(spring), in the centre of which is Shou Lao seated with an attendant and
his familiar stag. On either side is an Imperial dragon in clouds. Around
the bowl are compartments, with the Eight Sages and their boy attendants,
and also the Eight Precious Things, on a ground of lattice-work, enclosing
a floral diaper. In carved lacquer of four layers, red, green, buff and
aubergine—a rare example of the use of the latter. The carving is very deep
—not less than a quarter of an inch in places. A similar bowl in three
colours is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, No. 655-1872.

Height, 5 inches ; diameter, 21 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
Plate 29.—Box FOR INCENSE

A four-lobed incense box of solid red lacquer, the lid carved with a sage
bearing a staff, and boy attendant carrying a manuscript box, in a landscape
with tree and rocks, within a border of leaf ornament ; the sides decorated
with flowers in four compartments on diapered ground. The interior is
lacquered black, inscribed ‘‘ Treasure Incense Box.”

Height, 2 inches; diameter, 34 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (dated, Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 29.—Box FOR INCENSE

A five-lobed incense box, the lid with a group of three peaches, flowers
and foliage, the latter lacquered in colours, the peaches diapered. In
carved lacquer of two layers, red and brown, the interior black.

Height, 2 inches; width, 43 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 30.—BowL oF WovEN BAMBOO, WITH PANEL IN COLOURS

A circular box and cover, the upper part of which is of finely woven
bamboo with a circular compartment of flat lacquer in gold and various

Meow PLIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS

colours. Within the circle is an arabesque compartment with a richly
decorated pavilion, at the entrance to which a lady of high rank, attended by
a female fan-bearer is receiving a distinguished visitor, also with a fan-
bearer, whose white horse is held by a servant. Within the pavilion, a
woman can be seen with a bowl and ewer on a table. The colours used are
gold, red, green, slate-blue and white on a ground of rich crimson. Around
the base are chrysanthemum blossoms and svastika diaper in gold on red,
with a mark in gold which has not been identified. It is suggested that the
subject represents the visit of the Emperor Muh Wang (B.c. 1001-947) to
Si Wang Mu, the Western Royal Mother, at the Lake of Gems in the West,
where the Peach-tree of Immortality grew. The painting is of high quality
and shows a wider range of colour than was used by the Japanese until
quite modern times. It may certainly be placed in the Ming period,
probably in the reign of Wan Li.
Height, 5g inches ; diameter, 114 inches.
Ming Dynasty (Wan L1)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

Plate 31.—Saucers (Two) FOR WINE Cups

The modern Chinese lacquer in gold on black is well known by reason
of the large quantities brought to this country from Canton, by the tea
merchants of the 19th century. Although, at its best, it is by no means
without merit, it can only be looked on as a commercial product, made
especially for export and for the benefit of Europeans. The examples now
reproduced are in quite another category. They are chosen from a com-
plete set of five—the usual number—and are most delicately lacquered on
woven bamboo of extraordinary fineness. In this respect they may be
compared with the bowl illustrated on Plate 30 ; and with a pair of saucers
decorated in red, blue and other colours on flat gold, in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, No. W. 182-1923. Those under notice have designs
in fine gold and red on a black ground, the subjects represented being
sages with disciples and attendants in moonlit gardens with buildings and
various trees. The borders are of flowers and butterflies, and thunder-
fret respectively. In the opinion of Mr. Imaizumi, the Japanese expert
of the Imperial Museum, Tokyo, this work especially influenced the
Japanese School of Shiomi Masanari.

Height, inch ; diameter, 43 inches.

Ming Dynasty (late)
From the Collection of James Orange, Esq.

CHINESE LACQUER

Plate 32.—SET OF BoxES FOR SWEETMEATS

Examples of Chinese gold or silver lacquer in relief, in any degree compara-
able with the Japanese ware of this kind, are of quite exceptional rarity.
With a character quite of their own, the set of boxes now reproduced will,
however, hold their place in any company. They are delicately shaped, and
yet the designs are boldly conceived and executed. These are all sym-
bolical of good fortune of one sort or another; the subjects represented
being a Mandarin Duck, Water Buffalo, Peony and Aster, a pair of Peaches
and of Bats, and two fans of different shapes, one with Peonies and thunder-
pattern on the handle and the other with homing Geese. The relief is,
for work of this kind, considerable ; and the lacquer of gold and silver,
tinted with red, is of high quality.

Height, 14 inches ; width, about 34 inches.

Ming Dynasty (late)
From the Collection of Dr. W. Perceval Yetts.

Plate 33.—PANEL FROM A FOURFOLD SCREEN

We reproduce one panel from a fourfold screen of unusual technical
interest, inasmuch as a good deal of the decoration is in bold relief, of the
kind called by the Japanese takamakiye ; a process not much used by
Chinese lacquerers and rarely with the skill shown in this example. It
represents a hunting-scene set in a landscape which has points of resem-
blance with that illustrated in Plate 34, particularly in regard to the plank-
roads and bridges over which the huntsmen fearlessly gallop. In this case,
however, there is no trace of European influence; and the costume and
other accessories are essentially native. The decoration is chiefly in gold, red
and brown, but other colours are used ; and the effect is enhanced by the
use of incrusted ivory, shell and hard stones. The work may be ascribed
to the Canton district, and in the treatment of details, particularly of the
foliage, there are many similarities with that illustrated in Plate 35.

Height, 3 feet 24 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 9 inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 34S.—CREEN (THREE PANELS)

The screen was one of the first articles of Chinese furniture to appeal to
European taste ; and towards the end of the 17th century became perhaps
the most important of the exports from that country to Europe, where
it was not only popular in its original form but was cut up to be remade

PesomiP TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

into many other articles. Canton seems to have been the leading market for
this work, and the close touch with Europeans existing at this port is
frequently reflected in the designs of lacquered screens made there or in the
neighbourhood. Among them, the hunting scene seems to have been a
great favourite ; and we reproduce a portion of a screen giving a typical
example of this class, and notable also as being, in all other respects, an
unusually good specimen of flat lacquer of its period. The scene represents
a fort on a rocky shore, defended by a battlemented tower on the left,
appearing above clouds. Near it is a European ship of war, with broad-
side of eight guns and lateral tricolor flag of orange, green and red. On the
shore, to the left, is what may be a church with cross outside. To the right,
near the top of the screen is a tent with decorated roof, near which men are
cutting up a deer ; and in various parts of the landscape are Europeans of
various degree, one cloaked and mounted and with an escort of three
matchlock-men, others with guns and cross-bows, greyhounds, etc.
Above and below is a border with a portion of the Hundred Antiques. It
seems possible that the scene is intended to represent Macao, which was
occupied by the Portuguese early in the 17th century. Semedo gives a good
account of its fortifications and general condition at the time he was in
China; and the bulk of the Chinese trade done there was naturally with
Canton, from dues on which an income of from 40,000 to 50,000 crowns
was then derived. This suggestion is supported by J. Nieuhoff’s en-
graving of 1655 (reproduced in “‘ The Chater Collection ” by James Orange,
1925, Pp. 301), which shows a circular fort on the left and a Dutch ship
entering the harbour.’ The whole treatment of the subject is characteristic-
ally Chinese ; and it is curious to note how well the artist, without incon-
gruity, brings into his decorative scheme the European costumes—full-
bottomed wigs and all. The lacquer is of good quality and the colours
particularly brilliant, including vermilion, blue, green, orange, brown,
black and white.
Height, 7 feet 3 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 84 inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hs1)
From the Collection of Ernest Rennie, Esq.

Plate 35.—SCREEN (PORTIONS OF CRESTING AND OF ONE PANEL) MADE FOR
THE EMPEROR LEOPOLD I
About the year 1700, the Jesuit Fathers in China sent to Europe a pair
of sixfold screens, made to the order of, or as a gift to the Emperor
Leopold I of Austria. One was presented by his son, the Emperor Charles

CHINESE LACQUER

VI (1711-1740) to a Sicilian noble during the Austrian occupation of that
country, 1720-1734. The other is now in the collection of Earl Spencer, in
whose family it has been for many years. These screens, of which we repro-
duce the cresting and the upper part of the decoration of one panel, are of
particular interest and historical value. The finely carved cresting includes
in its design the Austrian double-headed eagle; and the screen itself,
of flat lacquer, is executed in gold of various shades on a warm red ground.
The back has floral ornament in black-and-white on dull red. The design
represents a hunting scene, in which only Europeans, in the costume of
the late 17th century, are taking part. An interesting detail is the intro-
duction of women in European costume on the veranda of a pavilion. In
some respects, one seems to recognise details of the buildings which appear
in the screen illustrated in Plate 34—-whether this is due merely to a con-
vention popular with Cantonese artists, or that it actually pretends to give
a view of Macao, one cannot say with certainty. The foliage of the trees is
treated almost exactly, so far as regards the style of drawing, as in Plate 33.
Height, 6 feet 7 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 9 inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
Reproduced by permission of R. Freeman Smith, Esq.

Plate 36.— CABINET

This cabinet is of unusual and characteristic form, in no way resembling
the well-known Japanese articles of a similar kind. It is rectangular, with
folding doors; divided, within, into two compartments, each providing
two open recesses separated by a drawer. On the top are two shallow,
box-shaped erections, each with adrawer. The fret-shaped handle, elabor-
ate fastening and mounts are of chased bronze, with remains of gilding. With
the exception of the fronts of the two interval drawers, which are of gold
lacquer, the whole of the decoration is of raised gold and silver (similar
to the Japanese takamakiye) on rich dark wine-coloured lacquer flecked
with gold in:the manner of nashiji. On the doors is represented a rocky
landscape, with pavilions, a terrace on which is a tall vase with a pair of
rods, aged pine-trees and a pair of cranes. On each side is a vase of flowers
with four of the Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury. On the top
of each of the upper boxes is an elephant bearing the sacred treasures ; and
on the lower part of the cover, are peaches, chrysanthemums, bats and the
longevity character shou. The inside of the doors has a rebus of the bat
and musical stone, with lotus blossom and chrysanthemum scrolls, within a
border of bats, flowers and shou characters. The fronts of the inner drawers

PEeroRIPTIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS

have flowers and fret pattern in relief, in gold on gold ground. This is an
unusually good example of what the Chinese could do in that art of lacquer
in relief which their Japanese rivals carried to technical perfection. It
almost certainly derives from the South—probably Canton, and may be
dated early in the second half of the 17th century.
Height, 102 inches ; width, 133 inches; depth, 7} inches.
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi, early)
From the Collection of James Orange, Esq.

Plates 37, 38.—Picnic SET WITH OVERHANGING COVER

This is a brilliant example of the Chinese use of flat colours, combined
with carved red lacquer ; and both in the perfected technique of the Ch’ien
Lung period. It is octagonal in plan; and consists of a stand, on which
are three receptacles, the lower two being empty and the upper fitted with
a nest of one large and eight smaller boxes. Over these is a cover of carved
red lacquer, with open sides permitting the decoration of the receptacles
to be seen. With the exception of this cover, the ornament is in painted
lacquer and in three bands ; that in the middle consisting of lotus blossoms
in coral red, picked out with cream and with dark green foliage ; while
above and below is a diaper of formal chrysanthemum flowers in white.
The angles have svastika diaper pattern, in red, with lotus flowers above
and below, and strapwork. The smaller boxes have lotus flowers in red
and warm cream colour with borders of fret pattern. The surface of the
stand has lotus and other flowers in cream, red and purple starred amid
interlacing foliage of a rich green—a remarkably beautiful and effective
design. At its sides are panels with highly conventionalised feng birds ;
and the eight shaped feet are decorated with lotus and scrolls. The cover
is in deeply carved (,%;-inch) red lacquer. On its upper surface is a garden
near a lake with plank bridge, willow and maple trees and distant moun-
tains; with two sages and their boy attendants. The ribs have floral
scrolls. This piece is remarkable, not only for the excellence of its design,
but for the range of colours used—the white or cream colour, purple and
fine green being very unusual in Chinese and still more rare in Japanese
lacquer. A similar, but less elaborate piece is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, the colours of which cannot compare, for brilliancy, with the
specimen under review.

Height, 92 inches ; stand, 82 inches; square.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
35

CHINESE LACQUER

Plate 39.—NEsT OF SWEETMEAT DISHES

Sets of dishes of this kind are not infrequently found in Canton painted
enamels; but the specimen now reproduced is a rare example of its pro-
duction in lacquer-ware, and remarkable also for its colour—the decoration
being in flat gold on a fine, deep blue. It consists of a circular tray and
central dish ; around the latter eight segmental dishes being neatly fitted,
each decorated with one of the symbols, set in cloud pattern, of the Eight
Taoist Immortal Genii—of which it thus supplies a clear and easily in-
telligible representation. In the centre is a rebus for Happiness and Long
Life, a spray of peaches, with bats and asters. The borders are of thunder-
fret and the bases lacquered black.

Height, 1 inch ; diameter, 13? inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 40.—PANEL FOR WALL DECORATION

In this panel, the decoration consists entirely of a magnolia tree in blossom,
on the branches of which are seated a pair of pheasants, within a border of
thunder-fret, varied with eight arabesque compartments enclosing con-
ventional lotus sprays. This design is carried out entirely in inlaid shell, on
which lines completing the fine drawing of the flowers and foliage are en-
sraved and filled in with colour ; the ground being a brilliant red.

91ze, 40+ inches square.

Ming Dynasty (late)
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.
Plate 41.—EWER FOR CEREMONIAL USE

This ewer, but for its characteristically Chinese handle, is strongly remin-
iscent of Persian forms. Its body is four-sided and pear-shaped, with long,
graceful neck and spout. The basic material is pewter, lacquered black
and decorated with sprays of flowers with birds, insects, etc., in compart-
ments on either side, encrusted in shell, ivory, carved red lacquer and lacquer
composition, within borders of thickly placed tessere of shell, reminding
one of the Japanese kirikane. The foot has a diaper pattern in shell.

Height, 14 inches ; width, 7 inches; depth, 4+ inches.

Ming Dynasty (Wan Li), the panels restored in the Ch’ien Lung period.
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Posen itP TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate 42.—EWER FOR TEMPLE USE

An early and remarkable example of lac burgautée work, of wood, lined and
bound with silver, cylindrical in form with projecting spout, chain and ball
handle, and shaped mouth. The decoration, in inlay of gold, silver and
shell on black lacquer, is in three lateral bands. The upper of these has
four-clawed dragons in clouds ; those below represent garden scenes with
sages and boy attendants. The silver-gilt bands are chased with dragons,
birds and various animals and diaper patterns, and the spout is well
modelled in form of a dragon’s head. The mount of the mouth has a run-
ning pattern of lotus flowers and leaves, and on the lid is a conventional
flower.

Height, 20 inches ; diameter, 54 inches.

Ming Dynasty (late)
Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 43.—PANEL FOR WALL DECORATION

In this panel, the use of inlaid shell is carried to its utmost limits; the
black lacquer in which it is embedded, only coming to the surface as the
ground of the various diapers and of the clouds. The scene represents
Shou Lao seated in a pavilion on the shore of a lake. Towards him, pre-
ceded by his stork, is a small procession of two acolytes, one bearing a pot
and another with a peach and spray of flowers. They are followed by two
attendants carrying a ceremonial fan and sword respectively. Near the
pavilion is a palm-tree and, overhead, an aged pine. Above is the full moon
and clouds. The whole is within a broad diaper of intersecting circles and
florets. The shell is engraved and is all iridescent, producing an extraordin-
arily rich effect of colour in which peacock green and blue predominate.

Height, 13 inches ; width, 18 inches. Ming Dynasty (ate)

Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 44.—Door oF CABINET

The period of K’ang Hsi is distinguished by a freedom of design, especially
in the treatment of subjects derived from Nature, such as flowers, which
is altogether superior to the formalism that succeeded it during the reign
of Ch’ien Lung. The “‘ Door of a Cabinet,’”’ of which this illustration
gives a reproduction, gives a typical instance of this quality. The decora-
tion consists of a pair of Imperial Birds (feng huang), the emblems of the
Empress, wheeling amid blossoming branches of the tree peony, typical
of spring. Above is the full moon and a strip of cloud and, below, rocks

CHINESE LACQUER

and a bank of soil formed with shell-dust. The whole is within a border of
fret-pattern. All the design is carried out in iridescent shell, the prevailing
colours being green, gold and reddish-purple; the flowers and bodies
of the birds being lightly, but skilfully engraved. The door is in two
sections. It has a good hasp of bronze chased with foliated scrolls. The
interior of the cabinet is of the usual type and without special features of
interest.
Height, 134 inches ; width, 9? inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi)
From the Collection of W. Reynolds Stephens, Esq.

Plate 45.—VASE, LAC burgautée ON PORCELAIN

Lac burgautée was occasionally applied to porcelain. Dr. Stephen
Bushell describes a vase, then in his own collection, which is an example
of this development; and is placed by him in the K’ang Hsi period
(Chinese Art, II, Fig. 53). This is twenty-eight inches in height ; and on
white porcelain ; the rims and interior being glazed and the exterior (left
unglazed for the purpose) decorated with scenes of agricultural and village —
life in shell, partly tinted, gold and silver on black.

The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses three examples of lac bur-
gautée on porcelain. A piece (807-1883) which is important on account
of its size, though a little smaller than that formerly in the Bushell Col-
lection, is a large vase, two feet one inch in height and circular in section,
decorated with four sages, each with a boy attendant, in a bamboo grove
near a lake, with bridge, pavilions, pagoda, etc. ; and background of moun-
tains under afullmoon. This has the mark of Ch’eng-hua (A.D. 1465-1487);
but is certainly Ch’ien Lung. The basis is white porcelain and the black
lacquer ground, which is not of very good quality, is carried deeply into
the interior. Another piece (118-1883) is a cap stand, height 10? inches,
with boys playing in a garden near a lake, with pines, bamboo, lotus flowers,
etc., also in black ground but on a basis of rough unglazed porcelain. The
third (118-1883) is notable for its colour, which is that of light bronze
shaded below into a good imitation of copper. This is a globular jar, with
cover, 72 inches high and 9g inches in diameter with three sages and a boy
on the bank of a lake, under the full moon. The basis is, again, white
porcelain, with glazed foot and interior. The period is unquestionably
Ch’ien Lung; and the lacquer is of quite good quality—its colour is very
rare.

Dee GRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

The subject of our illustration is later in date and may with some cer-
tainty be ascribed to the Ch’ien Lung period of about the year 1760—when
vases of this form were already being made at Liverpool. It is, at the base
and neck, an oval, quatrefoil in section, forming a slightly shaped flattened
oval at the shoulders. On either side are almost identical garden scenes
in shaped compartments, each with a pavilion, pine and maple-trees
springing from a slightly engraved rock, tree-peony, bamboo, a rustic
bridge and lake on which is a boat. On the neck and sides are conventional
flowers. The lacquer is on white porcelain, the base, rims and interior
having a good glaze. The details are simple but effective ; and an excellent
colour-scheme has been secured without the use of metals—the shell giving
iridescent lights mainly of green and reddish-purple. The cover has only
a band of flowers, etc., and plain knob.

Height, 12? inches.

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung)
From the Collection of W. Reynolds Stephens, Esq.

Plate 46.—BEAKER, COLOUR INCISED ON PORCELAIN

This interesting example of lacquer on porcelain was recently acquired for
the British Museum, and has been fully described by Mr. R. L. Hobson
in the Burlington Magazine, Vol. XL, page 297. Itaffords an early specimen
of a combination which is always rare ; and, in this instance, is remarkable
from one particular point of view, namely, the treatment of the lacquer.
The beaker consists of white porcelain with a minimum of blue, the latter
occurring only in the written six-character mark of Wan Li (A.D. 1573-1620)
in a reserved compartment on the rim and on the four-line mask handles
on the sides. Otherwise, Mr. Hobson describes it as ‘“* a strong solid body
of clean white grain and smooth to the touch ; the interior has a thick glaze
of rather impure white colour.’”’ In his opinion, the rest of the surface was
left not only unglazed, but rough “‘ to give a hold to the lacquer with which
it is entirely covered to the thickness of about a twentieth of an inch.”” No
doubt this is so, as regards the absence of glaze ; but it may be pointed out
that no especial roughness is needed to hold the lacquer, which would
adhere very closely to a fine biscuit surface corresponding to the highly
finished and polished surface of lacquer composition on fine wood which
forms its ordinary basis. When the lacquer used was pure and well applied
—in the case of Chinese lacquer, even in the Ming era, this was by no
means a matter of course—there is no reason why it should have scaled.

CHINESE LACQUER

The other examples of lacquer on porcelain described herein, are both quite
free from this defect.

The decoration is incised and in brown, green, red and dull yellow touched
with gold. In this respect, as well as in the drawing of the decorative
details, it offers an interesting comparison with the subject of Plate 47.
Another example of incised lacquer occurs in the seat of the Imperial
Chair (Plate 23) and we have seen a whole set of furniture decorated
almost entirely in this manner and with a more or less similar colour-
scheme. The fronts of the neck have each an Imperial dragon encircling
the Sacred Jewel ; above is a ribbon forming the character Shou (Longevity),
and, below, green waves with yellow crests and rocks. Mr. Hobson points
out that these are the “‘ jewel mountains in sea waves,’ mentioned in the
list of designs used on porcelain of the Wan Li period. On either side are
more dragons emerging from waves; and, lower, in pairs, contending for
the Jewel ; while the stem has the typical rock, wave and cloud pattern with
lucky emblems.

Height, 133 inches. Ming Dynasty

British Museum.
Plate 47.—CIRCULAR PLAQUE

This plaque is of interest as providing an earlier version of the design
executed in carved lacquer on the bowl illustrated in Plate 29, with which it
is practically identical except that the Sacred Jewel now occupies the place
of honour in the centre of the bowl of treasures, given in the other object,
to the Endless Knot. This plaque, moreover, supplies an excellent example
of incised lacquer—the chinkinbori of the Japanese—who adopted the
method from China. The engraved lines are coloured with vermilion,
crimson, purple, brown and yellow. The reverse is black. An earlier
attribution of date is given to it, not only in respect of the technical
execution, but also on account of the far greater breadth and vigour of
the design.

Diameter, 17} inches. Ming Dynasty (late)

Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 48.—Cups (A PAIR) AND A Bow.

One of the technical processes derived from China by the Japanese is that
called by the latter guri (crook ring)—a word now said by Japanese philolo-
gists to be of uncertain but definitely foreign origin. It consists of alternate
layers of lacquer of various colours, having a considerable depth, and

a ae

Pio GRIPTIONS. OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

carved in scroll or diaper patterns in a V-shaped section from the outer
surface. The pair of cups and the bowl now illustrated are good examples
of this method as practised in China, In each case, the layers of lacquer are,
alternately, of black and red only. The pattern of the former is of bold
scrolls, in the arrangement of which a little imagination enables one to
identify grotesque masks which are suggestive of the ‘ glutton ’’ ogre
t’ao-t’ieh, well described by Dr. Yetts in Symbolism in Chinese Art. The
bowl has a geometrical pattern of a kind not occurring, so far as we are
aware, in Japanese guri. A Pacific origin for this ornament seems within
the bounds of possibility. In each case, the interior is lined with silver.
Cups : height, 33 inches ; diameter, 33 inches.
Bowl : height, 3? inches ; diameter, 8} inches.
Ming Dynasty (late)
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hs1)
Victoria and Albert Museum.
Plate 49.— Trays (Two)

As examples of modern Foochou lacquer, we reproduce two specimens
by no means without technical merit of a fairly high order. Each is boldly
carved, in form of a lotus leaf supporting a blossom, the support consisting
of a cleverly designed arrangement of the rest of the spray. The lacquer
is of fine quality and surface, in delicately shaded green and brown, pow-
dered with gold and silver dust.

Height, 3} inches ; width, 11 inches ; depth, 9? inches.

tgth century (middle)
From the Collection of Mrs. Cooper and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 50.—TWELVEFOLD SCREEN, “‘ COROMANDEL ’’ LACQUER

Our illustrations of ‘‘ Coromandel ’’ work are taken from the two superb
screens at South Kensington, which represent, perhaps, the highest
standard of quality attained by the unknown but extraordinarily skilful
artists who practised it. The first represents ‘‘ The Taoist Genit paying
homage to Shou Lao ”—the God of Longevity (Chu Hsien Ching Shou)—
a deification of Lao Tzti, the founder of the Taoist philosophy.

The scene is laid in the Taoist Paradise, in the centre of which Shou Lao
is seated, with sceptre and sacred jewel. In front of him are his deer and
storks, the “‘ Twin Genii of Union and Harmony,” and, to the right, the
“ Eight Taoist Immortals ’’ (Pa Hsien) with their attributes. Other Taoist
personages and symbols are distributed throughout the composition, which

CHINESE LACQUER

is framed with a border of trellis ornament in which the shou character
alternates with circular medallions with displayed birds. The latter
Dr. Bushell described as phcenixes and based thereon the suggestion that
they furnished an indication of the screen having been made for an Empress.
With all deference to so distinguished an authority, we think they are to be
recognised as storks, the emblem entirely appropriate to the subject as
being symbolical of long life. At the foot of each panel is one of the
“ Flowers of the Twelve Months,’ while the remainder of the border is
occupied with vases and baskets of flowers and ancient bronze utensils.
Outside all is a double band of a running pattern of lotus and scrolls and
of thunder-fret alternately. The reverse of this screen is decorated with
rectangular compartments with representations of figure subjects; land-
scapes; birds, flowers and fruit; the symbols of the Four Liberal Arts
(writing, painting, music and Wei Chi—the game known to the Japanese
as Go and generally, but inaccurately described as chess); and sacred
relics and emblems both of the Buddhist and Taoist cults. The colouring
of this remarkable work is very fine, the prevailing hues being red, blue,
bright green and white on a rich brown-black ground. The landscapes,
of which Plate 51 reproduces an example, are particularly effective, relying
mainly on strong line and mass with a masterly reticence and elimination
of unnecessary detail. Dr. Bushell attributes this screen and also that next
to be dealt with in this volume to the period of Ch’ien Lung ; but the free
and vigorous treatment of the principal themes of decoration inclines us
to give both a somewhat earlier date.
Height, 8 feet 24 inches ; width, 19 feet 3 inches. ©
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi).
Plate 51
Landscape from the reverse of the above screen, Plate 50.

Plate 52

Two vases of flowers and two “ Flowers of the Months ”—(Lotus, July,
and Chrysanthemum, October) from the border of Plate 50.

Victoria and Albert Museum.

Plate 53.— SCREEN, ‘‘ COROMANDEL ”’ LACQUER (FOUR PANELS)

The second of the two screens at Kensington is of importance at least
equal to that of the first and, in artistic merit, its superior. Here we have
a coherent composition executed with breadth and simplicity in detail,

PeGRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

and yet astonishingly rich in its general decorative effect. In the centre of
the main picture is a group of old pine-trees with many flowers. On its
right is an ancient sea from the waves of which rises, on banks of cloud,
a two-storied pavilion representing the Taoist Paradise, T’ien T’ang. Over
the crest of the waves gambols the dragon-headed horse (lung ma) while
the divine tortoise (shén kuei) rises amid them—on each are magical
arithmetical squares. The sacred jewel, artemisia leaf, double cash and
coral are also seen, while a stork wheels in the air above. On the left, a
pair of dappled deer recline near a rock covered with flowers on the bank
of a gentle stream near which are pairs of pheasants, mandarin ducks and
other birds. Around this is a broad border on which is represented the
whole of the “* Hundred Antiques ”’ (po ku) within narrow bands of dragons
and of lotus and scrolls respectively. On the reverse are two rows of
rectangular and fan-shaped compartments, alternately, with landscapes and
poems written in various kinds of script, also within a border of emblems
and antiques, with bands of phcenixes and dragons with scrolled tails and
the shou character. In this screen a liberal use has been made of gold, and
the ornament is in relief as well as incised. The ground is a rich black, and
the chief colours are a brilliant turquoise blue, wine-colour, several shades
of green, rose-pink and white. The decoration might almost be said to go
far towards providing a compendium of Chinese ornament.
Height, 8 feet 10 inches; width (whole screen), 21 feet.

Plate 54
Four panels from the reverse of the above screen, Plate 53.
Victoria and Albert Museum.

NoTE.—The objects to which the name of Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd., is appended
were selected from the Exhibition held by that firm in June, 1925.

MARKS OF DATE

These marks are read from right to left and from above downwards. In
the 6-character marks the two first characters, beginning at the top right
hand corner, are those of the dynasty; then come two giving the name
of the Emperor; and, lastly, two reading “ period” and “ made.’”’ In
the case of the 4-character marks, those signifying the dynasty are omitted.
The marks now reproduced are those of most importance in the case of
lacquer,

MING DYNASTY
Hung Wu (1368-1398).
Yung Lo (1403-1424).
Dai Ming Hsiian Te (1426-1435).
Dai Ming Ch’éng Hua (1465-1487).
Dai Ming Hung Chih (1488-1505).
Dai Ming Chéng Té (1506-1521).
Dai Ming Chia Ching (1522-1566).
Dai Ming Lung Ch’ing (1567-1572).
Dai Ming Wan Li (1573-1619).
Dai Ming T’ien Ch’i (1621-1627).
Ch’ung Chén (1628-1643).

peek ch 5) bind 2 eh ala

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4 9 ©

CH’ING (OR MANCHU) DYNASTY

12. Dai Ch’ing Shun Chih (1644-1661).
13. Dai Ch’ing K’ang Hsi (1662-1722).
14. Dai Ch’ing Yung Chéng (1723-1735).
15. Dai Ch’ing Ch’ien Lung (1736-1795).
16. Chia Ch’ing (1796-1820).

65 F

CHINESE LACQUER

DATE MARKS

MOTIVES OF DECORATION

PA PAO. THE EIGHT PRECIOUS THINGS

CuHu. | CH’IEN. FANG-SHENG.
A Jewel. Ae Cash. . A Lozenge.

SHU. Hua.
A Pair of Books, A Painting.

Cu’ ING. CHUiEH. AI-YEH.
A Musical Stone. A Pair of Rhinoceros-hora Cups. An Artemisia Keaf.

PA CHI-HSIANG
THE EIGHT BUDDHIST EMBLEMS OF HAPPY AUGURY

Lun. Lo. SAN.

The Wheel in Flames. A Conch-Shell. The State Umbrella.

AZ
Kal, Hua,
A Canopy. Lotus Flower.
P’ING. CHANG.
Vase. A Pair of Fish. Entrails or Endless Knot.
SUNDRY
SVASTIKA. Linc CHIH. Fu.
In a Lozenge. Sacred Fungus. One of the 12 Ancient
Embroidery Patterns.
68

ee =

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B., C.—Traité de mignature, . . . le secret de faire . . . le vernis de la Chine. 1 cut. La
Haye, 1688.

B., C.—Traité de mignature, etc. Nouvelle édition augmentée. 1 cut. Rouen, 1694.

Bonannl, Filippo, Jesuit.—Traité de la composition des vernis en général, employés dans la
peinture, etc. 4 pen drawings. Paris, 1780. (Licence to print, dated 1723.)

Bonannl, Filippo, Jesuit——Trattato sopra la vernice detta comunemente Cinese. Nuova ed.
4engr. Bologna, 1786.

BREUER, A. A.—Chinese inlaid lacquer. Chinese incised lacquer. 4 plates. In Burlington
Magazine, XXV, 1914.

Breuer, A. A.—The influence of China on Lacquer in Japan. Illus. In Japan Society’s
Trans., XII, pp. 158-176, 1914.

BURLINGTON Magazine Monographs.—Chinese Art. An introductory review of painting,

. . etc. Illus. London, 1925. (Lacquer by W. W. Winkworth.)

BUSHELL, Stephen W.—L’Art Chinois. Illus. Paris, 1910. (Chapter VI, Les Laques.)

BUSHELL, S. W.—Chinese Art. Illus. 2 vols. 2 ed. London, 1921. One of the Victoria
and Albert Museum Handbooks. (Chapter VI, Vol. I, Lacquer.)

BUSHELL, S. W.—The Walters’ Collection of Oriental Ceramic Art.

CEscINsSKY, Herbert.—Chinese Furniture.

Crscinsky, Herbert.—Lacquer work in England. Illus. In Burlington Magazine, XIX,
Iglr.

D’ARDENNE DE T1zAc, H.—Animals in Chinese Art.

DEBENHAM AND FREEBODY, Ltd.—The famous ‘‘ Shen Shao An” gold lacquer of Foochou,
China. Illus. 1914.

Du Hatpe, J. B.—Description . . . de la Chine. 4 vols. Paris, 1735. (Vol. II, p. 173,
lacquer.)

DumovutiER, G.—Etude sur les produits du Tonkin: La laque et les huiles 4 laquer en
Tonquin, a la Chine et au Japon. Hanoi, 1892.

ENCYCLOPEDIE ou Dictionnaire des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers. Neufchatel, 1765.

GEIEN SHINSHO, or selected masterpieces of paintings, sculptures and industrial art of the
Orient. JIilus. . Toky6, 1915.

GrosiEr, Abbé.—A general description of China. 2vols. 1788. (Vol. I, lacquer.)

Hackmack, A.—Chinese Carpets and Rugs. 1924.

Havarp, Henry.—Dictionnaire de l’ameublement. 4 vols. Jllus. Paris, 1887-1890.
Vol. ITI, article Lacque, p. 255.

HirtH, Friedrich.—Ueber fremde Einfliisse in der Chinesischen Kunst. Illus. Munich,

1896.

INCARVILLE, P. d’—Mémoire sur le Vernis de la Chine. In Mémoires . . . Acad. Royale

des Sciences, XV. Paris, 1760.

INCARVILLE, P. d’.—W. Watkin’s Kunst des Staffirmalers . . . Nebsteinem Anhang mit des
Missionaires P. d’I. Denkschrift tiber Zubereitung des Chinesischen Lacks, etc. [Vol.
10 of : Neuer Schauplatz der Kunst, etc.] 1834, etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jacquemart, Albert.—Les Laques. In Gazette des Beaux Arts, IV and VI. 1859-1860.

JACQUEMART, Albert.—A History of Furniture. 1878.

Japan.—Nihon Kokuhs Zenshi. (Complete collection of Japan’s “national treasures.”’)
Illus. 1923-1924.

JapAN: Dept. of the Interior.—Japanese temples and their treasures. 3 vols. JIlus.
Toky6, 1910.

KircHer, Athenasius.x—China Monumentis, etc. Amsterdam, 1667. (Lacquer, pp. 220-
222.)

Koxxa.—The Kokka: a monthly journal of Oriental art. [Vols. I-XI, Koku-kwa.] 1889.

KUEMMEL, Otto.—Bernalte Chinesische Lacke. Jllus. In Amtliche Berichte aus den
K6nigl. Kunstsamlungen, XXXI, pp. 270-275. IgI0.

KUEMMEL, O,—Ostasiatisches Gerat. Illus. Berlin, 1925.

KUEMMEL, Otto.—Die Kunstgeerbe Chinas. Illus. (Vol. II, p. 748, lacquer.)

LE Comte, Louis, Jesuit —Memoirs and observations . . . made in a late journey through
the Empire of China... particularly upon Chinese pottery and varnishing, etc.
Trans. from the Parised. 5 engr. London, 1697.

MANCHESTER : City Art Gallery.—Catalogue of an exhibition of Chinese applied art. Man-
chester, 1913.

MUENSTERBERG, Oskar.—Chinesische Kunstgeschichte. JIllus. 2 vols. Esslingen a. N.,
1g10-1912. (Vol. II for Lacquer.)

Nara: Shosdin.—Toyei shuko. An illustrated catalogue of ancient Imperial Treasury
called Shosdin. 3 vols. Illus. Toky6, 1909.

New York: American Art Galleries—Art treasures from the Imperial Palace, Pekin.
Illus. New York, 1917. (Items 195-238 lacquer.)

PALEOLOGUE, Georges Maurice.—L’Art Chinois. Illus. Paris, 1887.

RocHE, O.—Les Meubles de la Chine. 1924.

Secuy, E. A.—Les laques du Coromandel. Jilus. Paris, n.d.

SPINK AND Son, Ltd.—Old Chinese lacquers, on view at. Illus. 1913.

SPINK AND SONS.—A selection of Oriental works of art on view at. Illus. London (1924).
(Six pp. of illus. only.)

SPINK AND SON, Ltd.—Chinese carved lacquer, 15th to 18th century. (Introd. and notes
by Lt.-Col. E. F. Strange, C.B.E.) London, 1925.

STRANGE, E. F.—Catalogue of Chinese Lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 1925.

STRANGE, E. F.—Chinese carved red lacquer. See Illustrated London News, CXVI, 72.
Illus. 1922.

STRANGE, Edward F.—An exhibition of Chinese lacquer. Jilus. In Burlington Magazine.
June, 1925.

Weser, V. F.—*‘ Ko-ji Hé-ten.”” Dictionnaire a l’usage des amateurs, etc. Illus. Paris,
1923. (Article Laques chinois, I, p. 494.)

YeTtTs, W. Perceval.—Symbolism in Chinese Art (China Society). 1912.

INDEX

Abundances, the Three, 30
Antiques, the Hundred, 25
Artemisia Leaf, 25

Arts, Four Liberal, 25

Bamboo, 28, 30

Bantam, 10

Bat, 28

Blessings, Five, 28

Bonanni, 9. J., 2

Books, Pair of, 25

Breuer, A. A., 20, 35
Buddhism, 13

Buddhist Emblems, Eight, 23
Bushell; Dr. S$. W., 1, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 17, 28, 36
Butterfly, 28

Canopy, 24

Canton, 11, 19, 20, 21
Cash, 25

Chambers, E., 10
Chang Ch’éng, 15, 19
Chao Kao, 12

Ch’éng, Emperor, 12
Cherry, 29, 30
Chia-hsing Fu, 10, 14
Chi’en Lung, Emperor, 7, 21
Choyan, 19
Chrysanthemum, 29
Citron, 30
Conch-shell, 24
Confucius, 12

Coral, 29

Coromandel lacquer, 9
Crane, 28

Creative Principle, 24

Dragon, 26

East India Company, 10
Elephant, 28

Elixir of Life, 24, 28
Entrails, 24

Fish, 24, 28
Foo-chow, 3, 20
Fruits, the Three, 30
Fungus, 29, 30

Gardenia, 29
Grape-vine, 29

Hangchou, 10, 15
Hare, 28

Hobson, R. L., 59
Horse, 28

Horyii-ji Temple, 14
Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui, 15

Hsiian Té, 17, 20
Hsui-shih-lu MS., 4

Ibn Batuta, 19
Imaizumi, Y., 12, 13, 51
Immortals, Eight Taoist, 24

Jewel, 25

K’ang Hsi, Emperor, 20, 21
Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, 3
Key-pattern, 30

Kinho, 19

Knot, Endless, 24

Ko ku yao lun, 7, 14, 16
Komyo-kogo, 14

Korea, I, 13, 14

Korschelt and Yoshida, 2

Lacquer, brushes, 4
Lacquer, burgautée, 8
Lacquer, Burmese, I
Lacquer, carved, 5—7, 15, 16, 21
Lacquer, chemical analysis, 2
Lacquer, colours, 8
Lacquer, European, I
Lacquer, export, 16
Lacquer, gold, 4, 14, 18, 20
Lacquer, imitations, 6, 7, 16
Lacquer, Indian, 1

Lacquer, inscriptions, 17
Lacquer, nature of, 1
Lacquer, relief, 4

Lacquer, shell, 8, 14, 18
Lacquer tree, I, 2

Lao Tze, 23

Le Compte, L., 20

Leopold I, 21

Lion, 27

Lotus, 24, 29

Lozenge, 25

Lu-ling, 17

Macao, 54

Macdonald, Sir C., 36
Magnolia, 29

Mallow, 29

Meander, 30

Monniu, 7

Months, the, 12, 29

Musical Instruments, Eight, 24
Musical Stone, 25

Nanking, I0, 17

Nara, Imperial Treasury, 8, 14
Narcissus, 30

Ning-kuo Fu, 17

Oken, 19
Orange, J., 53

INDEX

Orchid, 30 Shun, Emperor, 12
Ornaments of Robes, Twelve, 24 Sinla, 13
Oycan, 19 Si Wang Mu, 28

Soochou, 10, 14, 20
Squirrels, 29

Painting, 25 Stag, 27

Peach, 28, 29 Stalker, John, 9

Pear, 29 Stork, 28

Peking, 10, 17, 18 Svastika, 30

P’éng Chiin-pao, 15 Swift, G., 48

P’éng Lai Shan, 27

Peony, 29

Pheenix, 26 Ta-li Fu, 17

Pine, 28, 30 Tea Ceremony, lacquer utensils, 19
Pomegranate, 29, 30 Thunder-pattern, 30

Poppy, 29 T’ien Ch’i, Emperor, 2

Port Arthur, 13 Tiger, 27

Precious Things, Eight, 25 Toad, 28

Prunus, 28, 29 Toky6, Imperial Library, 12

Tongking, 20
Tortoise, 26

Quadrants of Heaven, 27 Trigrams, Eight, 24
Tutsui, 19

Rhinoceros-horn cups, 25

Roho, 19 Umbrella, 24

Ryiizo Torii, 13 Unicorn, 27

Vase of Relics, 24

Saiko-Tenn6, 1
oa Victoria and Albert Museum, 5, 21, 25, 29

Seasons, Four, 27, 29
Séguy, E. A., 9

Seit6 Yomei, 12 Waley, A., 43, 45

Semedo, A., 18 Wheel of the Law, 23

Senchin, 19

Shen Cheng Hao, 11

Shen Shao An, 11 Yang Mao, 15

Shih Huang Ti, Emperor, 28 Yetts, Dr. P., 16, 24, 27, 28, 30
Shomu-Tenné, 14 Yomo, 19

Shétoku-Taishi, 13
Shou Lao, 23
Shumin, 19 Zodiac, 27

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PLATE XXIX

(Upper.) Covered BOWL for Ceremonial Gift. In
carved lacquer of red, green, buff, and
aubergine. Height, 5 in.; diameter, 21 in.
Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung).

Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd.

(Lower, left.) BOX for Incense. In carved red solid
lacquer. Height, 14 in.; width, 2} in.;
length, 2f in. Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien
Lung).
Victoria and Albert Museum.

(Lower, right.) BOX for Incense. In carved red and
brown lacquer. Height, 2in.; width, 4% in.
Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung). .

Victoria and Albert Museum.

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