? Lage ie ee ee a sae i Lah rahe ‘iv i i Be i 4 4 te it Tiedt ants tint iB a Cie Aut ith Bi rity Tra th f ee At pei A, { iki i a. Hi i et “i cles se ; if ‘1 ' Hy ua pani Ng a oyu tt FHL raked ‘ 4 Je i Hay: Vleet i 5. {vat ne ae ieee me ie Lea iit il o ue is itt ne + y a! Bea tah he int iy eat 1 + f ech nse Pat Wire enaHY in , Pantie iy i H ore . ide Tae i i OL a ! aM ait ote Shey > _ i. *: 3 . oa Ss tgs tise = =< “s = eat) = Spee Fe en re Et Dre en ee SS ee sree Sas Spore eee ee oe eS = < SS. a, =o Syren tee. Sees ecco eae eMC ot ey EM te i = I=. ee Sosy tAgtz = = Sear Gnr oat a se en 4 ~ : = 3 x * S “ : Segoe a t UH te ae ute} ve a uit Tat nM aa) nib th al F it ia ci ‘ Ht 14 | i 1h i Hee ‘ie i a) —— = z > Fae) Aaah, BS. AP Boe AO BR OO He AEN GELATO sD oat an ana oe WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIO BS i AND EDUCATIONAL SERIES. ae % EX The following are the Works already published tn ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. aia (The Volumes are bound in limp cloth, except where otherwise stated.) 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Te y 5 \ ’ eh jet coat tt , ; eu? |! t shih Ar, dak RF Re Hy oe i 4 ’ a sit i Veaty ts . : an f . iui res a ch vLG) Lee LOE RDA Lea Be Tae Sot yvoNecaite oh ae y eign CU i fed 6 Ga Soe ang 4 ; tf Waly re Os aires o 8 cake Nat A RRE A OG ER DAU t. feet) SN th tf a oh Ve : SVR i} wi LL AGE ve 4 J Pe, FY iP’ ? Bye VAAN 7 ‘ ¢ TTP OTE T ryt FERGIE Moat ye : ATER ORS RT - - aN a. tawckat? Y ORFS he Geo at y- vith eV, tbs oy iy ROY wi ae a rire | ety ® 4h agnor ee WANES + 43 SG | ait PVE mt ¥ 2 ts. fi RD! Ey myth ‘y ve i tf 4 abt 8 ; | whe mk me Re ts Aes bb Es Hy ei Fi AG ‘ RD RD NuIpoN Viole £2 we RPh». dveety fe TM: oth (Ria ON OE ON ST TEN OUTNE BASHA Vaart CUGD WE PA RVIN: PLUMBING foo M BIN G A TEXT-BOOK TO THE PRAGZICH. OF THE ART OR CRAFT OF THE PLUMBER WITH SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS UPON HOUSE DRAINAGE EMBODYING THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS By WILLIAM PATON BUCHAN SANITARY ENGINEER AND PRACTICAL PLUMBER MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE SANITARY AND SOCIAL ECONOMY SECTION OF THE PHILO- SOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW ; AND FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, LONDON, AND FOUNDATION FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY OF SCIENCE, LETTERS, AND ART, OF LONDON fourth Erition, Mebised and Cnlaracd WITH ABOVE THREE HUNDRED AND THIRTY ILLUSTRATIONS LONDON Parooiy —LOCKWOOD AND .CcO. ; 7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1883 [All rights reserved | i > he - “ . ‘> — * . cy mek iF & a ON “- i = ‘Laie Ae “ a page eae PREFACE. ————_<>——__—_ Axout the end of 1871 great excitement was occasioned in the sanitary world by the severe attack of typhoid fever which his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales then had. Londesborough House—although it possibly had nothing to do with the origin of the Prince’s attack—was turned inside out, so far as its drains and sanitary fittings were concerned, while the papers were filled with all sorts of explanations and suggested improvements. I ventured to criticise some of these remarks at the time in a well-known London weekly journal, the consequence of which was that I was then engaged by the proprietors of the journal referred to—The Building News—to write a series of articles upon Plumbing for their paper. This was done, and the series of articles in question formed the basis of the present work, with, of course, considerable modifica- tions and a large quantity of additional matter. In writing these articles upon Plumbing one especial object kept in view was to afford a Handy Text-book to the apprentice-plumber, to which he could turn for an explanation of the mysteries of his craft, and so under- stand the object and uses of the various pipes used, their different sizes and positions, &., &c. I felt the want of such a treatise very much when an apprentice, but turn where I would, I could meet with none, so that I had to set to work and make my own notes the best way possible under the circumstances. Now V1 PREFACE. all this was unfair as regards the apprentice-plumber, and unfortunate considering the interests involved, especially when we consider the evil effects liable to be produced by bad Plumbing. The joiner and the mason have had their text-books and literature in abundance, to which they could at any moment turn for informa- tion, but not so the Plumber. His craft was still ene of the real mysteries, insight to which was only to be obtained by a long probation. This little work will, I hope, supply the des:deratum, and I shall feel glad should it prove the pioneer of many others of a similar prac- tical kind. In the new chapters, towards the end, upon Scien- tific and Safe Water-closets, and an Improved System of House Drainage, it is believed that, so far as the safety per se of the house and its inmates are concerned, a practical and simple solution has been found to the scientific theories and problems of such sanitary writers and authorities as Carpenter, Fergus, Gairdner, Latham, Littlejohn, Rawlinson, and Richardson, &c. ‘Although it was stated above that the principal portion of this work was written with a view to the special edification of the young apprentice-plumber, the hope is indulged that it may be found useful even to architects and medical professors, and also to all having anything to do with sanitary matters, while to many of my brethren in the trade I trust it may prove a useful vade-mecum. 21, RENFREW STREET, GLASGOW, June 1st, 1876. [N.B.—The author may be consulted upon any matters referred to tn _ thts work. ] PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ——_—_——— Ir has been very gratifying to myself as author to hear, and I have no doubt it will be equally so to the pub- lishers to be able to say, that the large edition issued of this work in 1876 is already cleared out. This shows that the work was really needed. I have found, however, so faras my knowledge goes, that it has not been the apprentice-plumbers, for whose “ special edification ”’ it was issued, who have most largely patronised it; but rather their masters, as also architects, and other gentle- men connected with building operations and sanitary work: while I have also been informed that it has been introduced into some of our universities and other seats of learning, and used there as a text-book. These circumstances and also the desire to improve the work has caused me to take the opportunity of this reprint to add considerably to it, and not only describe more of the improvements which I have been enabled to introduce since 1875, but also to mention something of what has been said or done lately to advance sanitary knowledge and practical hygiene by some of the more talented scientific specialists of the day. Some things I have only had time and space to refer to in a few words; but the professor, lecturer, or teacher, can easily enlarge upon these to his students or hearers, while the earnest student may be able to follow up the subject farther from the references given. it has been the fashion lately in some quarters to cry Vill PREFACE. down the plumber as ignorant, and as peing accountable for all the bad plumbing that turned up, but this is scarcely fair; the blame has to be shared by others as well as him, and a plumber can hardly be expected to execute work properly for ten shillings for which he ought to get twenty. There are deficiencies in the Building Regulations which ought to be rectified, and the Law should empower those in authority to take practical measures to stamp out scamping and make it easy to do well. The public are not even yet properly alive to the necessity and value of good planning as well as good workmanship, in connection with the plumber’s work and drainage of their houses. They sometimes sneer atthe physician who warns them, and try to imagine that the sanitary engineer only wants a job. In my own experience, work has at times not been allowed to be finished properly because it could not be done for no- thing. Ten pounds to the plumber will be grudged while ten times ten for a picture to hang upon the wall will be considered a bargain—only the sewage gas sometimes dims the gilding of the “‘ bargain,” and sends its owner to a premature grave. In this light what conduces to our health is of much more real value than what merely pleases our fancy or flatters our pride. The author again commends this work to the atten- tion of apprentice-plumbers, and hopes they will use it to get a better knowledge of their trade, and so enable them—the coming men—to execute their work satisfac- torily, and to do their duty to the community. Practice without theory, and theory without practice, often make mistakes ; the man therefore who knows and can do his work best, and can be trusted most, is the one his master parts with last. W. P. Bucwan. 21, RENrREW STREET, GLAsGow, 18th September, 1879. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. —_—_——>—- Tne continued popularity of the book necessitating a fourth edition, the opportunity thus afforded has been taken advantage of to revise and add to some of the latter chapters, especially those relating to house drain- age. Someremarks have also been made upon ventila- tion and ventilating appliances which may be useful. The time which has elapsed since the preface to the Second Edition was written, about three years ago, has still further proved the great necessity for close atten- tion to the style and state of the sanitary fittings of our houses, and in fact of all buildings occupied by human beings—if the health of the inmates is to be kept up. Moreover as the cure of various filth-produced diseases is often so difficult (and in fact in many cases the patients succumb, notwithstanding all the counteracting efforts of the medical attendants), the cry that “‘ Prevention is better than cure,’ has been raised —greatly to their credit—even by the doctors them- selves. ‘The work of the Sanitary engineer therefore, if well done, comes in as a preventive of discase, and so as a consequent blessing to humanity. In all work connected with building the supplying of the clean water and the carrying off of the fouled ought to receive special attention—or evil will ensue, and no necessary expense should be grudged, or the saving of a penny to-day may force the outlay of a pound to- morrow. In addition to guarding against direct poisoning x PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. from sewage pollution in our own dwellings, there is also the danger of being brought into contact with it owing to the negligence of one’s neighbours, hosts, or food purveyors. In this connection our milk supply has been proved of late to bea most virulent and exten- sive cause of disease and death. In many a house- hold throughout the kingdom there will be one or more vacant chairs at Christmas, 1882, where sat healthy adults or laughing children at Christmas, 1881 ; poisoned milk having done far more havoc amongst the community than the more sensational bullets and daggers of a neighbouring isle. Bad drainage, fouled water, and other unsanitary arrangements at farmsteads and dairies, call for far more rigid supervision from the legislature than has yet been bestowed upon them. ‘Am I my brother’s keeper?”’ must be met with the retort: ‘“ Yes; and if you injure him with your poisoned food you will be held liable in penalties both in purse and person.” Blaming providence for results caused by your selfish greed and laziness is not only mislead- ing but also mean and wicked. Purveying disease- germs will by-and-by come to be looked upon to be as bad as giving arsenic. At present no one, from the palace to the cottage, is safe from them. All this calls for renewed efforts and assistance from every one, so that Sanitary Science, Sanitary Laws, and Sanitary Practice may go hand in hand for the welfare both of the individual and the community. W. P. Bucway. 21, Renrrew STREET, GLAsGow, 11th December, 1882, CHEAP. an VIII. IX. X. a. : ; XII. Harcues, Winpows, AnD DomEs ‘ XII. ALY. aN XVI. XVII. XVIII. 2 AB XX. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION’ . . Hatr-crrcte Eaves Gutters II. III. IV. ae VI. VII. ORNAMENTAL IRON GUTTERS RmpGEs : é . Lreap GUTTERS Leap Gutters (continued) FLASHINGS AND VALLEYS Rincss AND Hips « e LEAD-COVERED Fats, or “ sane ORMS”’ ZINC-COVERED FLATS ZINC-COVERED Roors . SNOW-BOARDS RAIN-WATER PIPES WaASTE-PIPES AND SOIL-PIPES . Also see pages WATER-CLOSETS . Also sce pages . ° BaTus ° CisTERNS FOR HoT AND re tee ALSO Hot-WatTerR TANKS . * MaARBLE-BATHS AND SPRAY-BATHS Wasu-HAND Basins CABINET-STANDS . e PAGE ies ay 8— 14 L5an 16 I= 528 24— 34 Shee 87 38— 40 41— 46 47— 55 56— 69 071 72— 80 Sls 87 yah T0l . 288—291 > 102—113 . 278—285 . 114—128 129—139 . 140—144 . 145—151 . 152—160 Xil CHAP. XXI. 22. OVE XXITTI. XXIV. ».O.G 1 FOE XX VII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI, CONTENTS. PAGE KITCHEN-SINKS AND URINALS . ; : . 161—167 Guascow Locn KatTrInE WATER-SUPPLY . . 168—171 Pumpes : : : , , . . 172—181 Tue Hypravric Ram . 182—186 Tue SrpHon : : : . 187—189 Frow oF WATER THROUGH PIPES - 190—200 ScIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS ‘ « 201—213 ‘WATER-CLOSET DISINFECTANTS a . 214—216 IMPROVED SystEM OF HovusE-DRAINAGE . 217—245 GENERAL DRAINAGE, WITH REMARKS ON VEN- TILATING APPLIANCES AND THE VENTILATION oF Buitpines, &c. ° - ° : . 246—294 WatER REGULATORS OR GOVERNORS . . 295—299 INDEX . 300--307 INTRODUCTION. eee Oss THERE are few things in connection with our modern houses of greater interest or more worthy of careful consideration, so far as the comfort and health of the tenants or inmates are concerned, than the character of the plumber’s work. The ramifications of the pipes in thousands of cases are now so many and various, and the evil effects of bad work and of bad planning are so often manifested upon those exposed to their baneful influences, that it becomes a question of the highest importance to all concerned—and who is not P-—What is the character and condition of your plumber’s work ? In answer to this question, and in order to throw some little light upon the subject, it is our intention in the following pages to give such information upon th¢ matter as, we trust, may be both useful and interesting. If we allow the mind to dwell for a moment upon the subject of architecture in stone, three glorious eras rise up before us, in which the genius of the Egyptian, the Greek, and our Medieval ancestors had scope, and produced grand results, all in consonance with the wants and aspirations of their several ages, and results, too, which it is yet left for the future to excel. It is different, however, with plumbing, for in no past age have its present productions as a whole either been equalled or surpassed. Of course the mind here may revert to the vast works of the Romans in connec- tion with their water supply; but apart from other considerations, a distinction must be drawn between B 2 INTRODUCTION. engineering and plumbing. The present is the era and grand opportunity of plumbing, and in order to bring it to perfection, both the architect and the plumber must work in harmony and together do whatever in them hes to produce such a result as will be both creditable to them, and a blessing to the community at large. ‘The noble and now venerable monuments of the past before alluded to, were not produced by magic— modern science having fairly disposed of the brownies or pixies, gnomes, and fairjes of our youthful ideas !— they were produced by each individual in his own sphere, doing well the work that lay to his hand. The smith had to make and sharpen the tools, the mason had to use them, and though they were often only classed and looked upon as “laborers,” yet we see what grand results able supervision could cause both the Egyptian slave and the English labourer to produce. PLUMBING. a 7 CHAPTER LI. Haur-Crrcte Eaves Gurters. “THE roof is ready,” is generally the signal which brings the plumber upon the scene. The mason begins at the foundation or the bottom, the plumber, however, begins at the top. The masou—or bricklayer, &c., as the case may be—has carried up the walls to their des- tined height, the joiner has done his share, so far, by laying the joists and doing the woodwork of the roof, and now the plumber has to do his part at making things watertight, and conveying away the rain-water which may fall upon the roof. ‘There are many ways of doing this, just as it happens to be a large or a small roof, a simple or a complex one; a cheap job, where nothing but plain halt-circle eaves gutters are allowed, or one where tons of lead are required for the gutters, flashings or skews, valleys or flanks, skylight open- ings or dormer windows, hips or piends, ridges, and perhaps one or more flats, or “platforms” as they are sometimes styled. If it be a plain roof with two gables, we will say that only simple half-circle iron rhones—7.é., half-round eaves gutters made of cast iron —are to be putalong the eaves on the back and front of the house. In such a case gutters 4} in. wide— which is a common size—may do; although they can be had from 3 in. upwards. These 43 in. cast-iron gutters, of which Fig. 1 shows transverse section, are B 2 4. PLUMBING. generally cast in 6-ft. lengths, with a faucit at one end ; but of course, short pieces can be had to any length, or as much can be cut, filed, or chipped off a full length as to reduce it to the size desired, and a new hole for the bolt, Fig 2, has then to be drilled. Angular gutters can also be had of different shapes, to fit or turn round all sorts of corners. If one half-circle gutter is merely to go along the front of the house, and another along the back, then, according to the length of frontage, &e., so will be the number of the lengths of gutter required, e.7., if the frontage be fully 35 feet then six lengths willdo; with a ‘close-end” on each end of the gutter, and a nozzle, pap, or drop, as it is variously termed, to conduct the rain into the rain-water-pipe (or ‘ con- ductor’’), as per Fig 3. The close ends may be had either loose or cast on, but the nozzle is cast along with the gutter. Short pieces of gutter with the nozzle, called ‘“ nozzle pieces,” may also be had. In cases where the con- ductor has an ornamental rain-water-head at its top, then the nozzle and one close end are often dispensed with, and the gutter allowed to run quite openly into the rain- water-head, as per Fig. 4. =: Many prefer the nozzle, however, as it prevents the water running back the un- der side of the gutter. This may be prevented by put- ting on a small piece of sheet lead under the end of the gutter. This iron gutter is supported by malleable iron hooks about 1} in. or 13 in. broad, and from 2 in. to + in. thick. These hooks are made to fit the outside of Higt. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. HALF-CIRCLE EAVES GUTTERS. 9) the gutter, so that the gutter may lie properly in them, and while at the higher end of the gutter the hook is shallow, at the other end, owing to the declivity which the gutter requires for the proper flow of the water, the hook has to be so much deeper. Fig. 5 is a view of the shallow hook, and Fig. 6 the deep hook, with the two slate nails or 14-in. screws which fix it to the wooden roof. In some cases the hooks have to be let into the stone, when they are eee ys Fig. 5. Fig. 6. either wedged in firmly, or else, a hole being cut in the stone, the inner end of the hook is bent down, and being inserted into the hole, the hole is run full of lead, as per Fig. 7. This has to be done just as the exigencies of the case may require and the circumstances allow. To make the hooks for a 43 in. iron gutter about (say) 48 ft. long (which gives eight six-feet lengths, minus about 14 in. off for the slip, or overlap at each joint, if the lengths are cast exactly 6 ft. long), will require about 27 ft. of hoop iron, as, allowing for two hooks for each length, or one hook every 3 ft., there will be seventeen hooks, and each piece of iron of a different length. The shortest piece will be 18 in. long, which allows 11 in. to go up the roof, and 7 in. to support the gutter; every other piece is cut a little longer, say, one-eighth of an inch, which in this case, where the gutter is supposed to have a run all to one end, gives about two inches of declivity in all, or a quarter of an inch to each length. When the pieces of hoop iron which are to form the hooks are cut, they are arranged as per Fig. 8, and a mark struck across them from 4 to ©, A being 7 in. from the end zB, and 11 in. from the end z, while c is 9 in. from the end p, and 11 in. from the endr. This arrange- 6 PLUMBING. ment gives 7 + 11 = 18 in. as the length of the shortest hook, and 9 + 11 = 20 in. as the length of the longest hook; the length of the B_A___E others being all intermediate between these. The pieces at the ends B p may —s then be heated and bent square as per = Fig. 9 at the marks a—c, and being again heated to redness at the same end the points B D are, one by one, inserted into the nose or catch of an iron mould specially made for that purpose, and the hook formed Hy ne. hoop iron being bent over it as per sketch ig. 10. ‘Two or three holes having been punched for the nails as shown in Fig. 5, the hooks, when brought to a mild heat, are tarred, and after cooling are ready | for use. In place of tarring the hook, when time allows, it may be painted, first with a Fig. 9 coat of red lead, and then a coat of paint of the same colour as the gutters. When galvanized hoop-iron is used, heating and tarring and also painting are generally dispensed with. This non-protection is not to be recommended, however. Each of the above lengths of gutter has _ a faucit end and a spigot, or plain end, the plain end of the one length fitting into and lying upon the faucit of the next length. The joint is made tight with putty or red lead, the spigot of the one length and the faucit of the other being squeezed together and kept tight by means of the bolt and nut, as per Fig. 11. After these iron gutters have been put up it sometimes happens that they are blown down in a gale of wind; to prevent that, however, the gutters should either be tied to 7 the hooks with copper wire, or else pieces of hoop iron are fixed to the roof at one end, and the other end put across the top of the gutter to protect it and keep it down, as per Fig. 8. Fig. 11. HALF-CIRCLE EAVES GUTTERS. (} Fig. 12. For zinc gutters the hooks have to be made in the same style as above, but the lengths of zinc gutter, in place of being screwed together, with putty, &c., are soldered, while to keep the zinc , outter in its place an iron bolt can be CIT ATT ABA passed through the bottom of the gutter and through a hole made for sence it in the bottom of the hook, and so it is kept fast, as per Fig. 13. The iron bolts above spoken of are about 1 in. long and tin. thick. The holes in the gutters, &c., are, of course, eS of a corresponding size. Sheet lead “S used to be largely employed for these half-round eaves gutters, but it is now getting out of use in many cases, on account of the large adoption of cast iron. In some cases, malleable iron has been applied for the purpose. CHAPTER II. ORNAMENTAL [RON GUTTERS. In the foregoing chapter plain semi-circle gutters (or rhones, as they are sometimes called), which may pos- sibly be considered to partake more of the character of an excrescence and a necessary evil than an orna- ment to the building, were treated of. In this case, however, we come to treat of ornamental iron eaves gutters, which are necessary to the completion of the design, and which, as the old saying has it, ‘ kill two birds with one stone,” as at one and the same time they Fig. 16. serve either as the whole or a part of the cornice mould- ings, as well as acting as gutters for the rain-water. These ornamental iron gutters do not, generally speak- ing, require hooks, as provision is made for them being screwed to the woodwork of the roof, a board about 1 in. or 14 in. thick, and about the same depth as the back of the gutter being fixed up along the back of where ORNAMENTAL IRON GUTTERS. 9 they go for that purpose. In some cases all the weight of the gutter is borne by the screws, as per Fig. 14. In other cases a great part of the bottom of the gutter les on the wall head, as per Fig. 15. In some cases they are upheld by ornamental iron brackets, as per Fig. 16, which brackets are of various styles to suit the place. These ornamental iron gutters require to have close ends—unless in cases where they go all round the building, as in some cottages and villas—and nozzles, just as the plain half-circle ones do, only they are not put up with a declivity to the nozzle, for that would spoil their appearance ; they are fitted up quite level or horizontal, but owing to their being several times deeper than the half-circle gutters they can dispense with a declivity. The depth of a 43-in. semi-circle gutter is — Ys ——7 iu only about (or scarcely) 2 in., whereas the depth of ornamental gutters may be 3 in., 6 in., 8 in., &., with a corresponding breadth, according to circumstances, and as the size of the roof or the character of the build- ing may require. In order to keep an unbroken line of frontage, ornamental iron gutters have no faucits, the plain end of one gutter acting as the faucit, as in Fig. 17, while the end of the other length is contracted so as to slip into it, as per Fig. 18. These figures, 17 and 18, are not full lengths of gutter, but terminal ends; they serve, however, to show the mode of junction. The gutters are put together with putty or red lead, and iron bolts (as per Fig. 2), only the head of the bolt is kept outside, and the hole countersunk so as to leave BO 10 PLUMBING. as little as possible to catch or to be offensive to the eye. The iron-bolts in this case are also a little thicker, as well as longer, than for the plain semi-circular eaves gutters. : In some cases an ornamental iron gutter is put up along the front of the building, while a plain half- circle-one is put up along the back eave. This is often done where the building has two gables, and, supposing it to be done at a house in the country, or _ wherever the water is scarce, instead of merely allowing the rain to run off into the drains, provision 1s made to catch as much as possible by collecting it either in a tank, cistern, or rain- water barrel. In such a case the barrel, we shall say, is put up at one of the back corners of the house, just as may be most convenient, with therain-water, both from the back and the front, led into it, as per Fig. 19. In this case the water from the front gutter, E, 1s conveyed along the gable into the back conductor, F, by means of an iron, lead, or zinc pipe—say 3 in. in diameter, or more or less as may best suit—as shown at a, which pipe is upheld by holdfasts if iron, or if of lead it may be upheld by lead bands, of which moreanon. As will easily be understood, an overflow pipe, H, requires to be put into the barrel (or it may be done as pert), so as to make provision for carrying away the surplus rain-water when the barrel is full. The water-tap, or bib-crane, J, is for drawing off the water as required for use. Instead of adopting the plan of the rain-water barrel outside of the house, as per Fig. 19, some may prefer to fit up a large cistern or tank inside the house, as per Fig. 20, in ORNAMENTAL IRON GUTTERS. 11 which to collect and store up the rain-water. In this latter case the rain-water, in addition to serving the same purposes as in Fig. 19, may also be made to supply any water-closets or baths, &c., inside of the house. As this cistern or tank, x, Fig. 20, is fitted up within the house, care must be taken that a large overflow pipe is put in, 3 in., 4 in., or upwards, in diameter, so as to insure that after the cistern is full the overflow pipe, LN, will be able with ease to carry off more water than the incoming rain-water pipes, M M, can supply. As this overflow-pipe is sometimes led directly into the house drain, due provision must be made to keep back any bad gases from making their way through it into the house. One way to effect that is by putting in a lead siphon-trap with, say, 9 in. of water-lock, as perr, Fig. 20) In this case, owing to the large quantity, or rather depth, of water which this si- phon-trap contains when full, there Fig. 20: would be little if any danger of it ever getting emptied so far as to allow any gas to pass the tongue. Andif the least suspicion of it being empty were felt, a gallon or so of water could easily be poured in in some exceptional case. In order also to ventilate the lower or outer portion of the overflow- pipe N, Fig. 20, a 1-in. lead or zinc ventilating-pipe should be put in, and attached by a brass coupling to the top of the outlet of the siphon-trap, as per 0, Fig. 20. ‘This ventilating-pipe o also prevents any large rush of water down the pipe n from sucking the water out of the siphon-trap, tr. The top of the siphon-trap, 1, where the water enters, must be kept down, of course, fully 2 in. or so below the top of the cistern. I prefer also to have one side of the top of the pipe a little lower than the other, believing that the water, in start- ube PLUMBING. ing especially, runs off more freely thereby. Another way of putting in the overflow-pipe, N, would be to make it discharge either above an open grating, or into a ventilated fire-clay siphon-trap situated at the back of the house. As it is a fact that, giving them sufficient time, gases pass through water—although in the case of drain gas, I believe it would be largely purified by the time it got through the water in the siphon-trap, L, Fig.20—the enclosure wherein the cistern K is situated, if the least confined, should be ventilated, or if the said cistern, kK, is covered in on its top, say by boarding, &c., a 2-in. or 3-in. zine pipe should be carried up or out into the fresh air. ‘This pipe and the pipe o, Fig. 20, must be kept as far apart as con- venient. The great advantage of proper ventilation is that, in checking the collection and concentration of bad gases, it prevents them from doing the harm they might otherwise do.* In carrying out the work practically, there are often many little differences in detail that start up; but to one who understands the principle, and who thinks before he acts, as every one ought to do, these are easily mastered. In any difficulty, however, a work- man should not slubber over the work, but should ask advice. ‘Two heads ought to be better than ore. In some cases, as in that of the supposed house in Chapter I, which had only plain half-circle gutters nit | ee ——| Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. on the front eave as well as along the back, the front gutter is simply carried along the gable also, where it is upheld by iron holdfasts of the style shown by * Mr. R. Rawlinson, C.B., C.E., is of the same opinion, for at page 14 of his a.p. 1878 “Suggestions ’’ as to the working out of the Public Health Act of 1875, we read that permanent ventilation is required “to prevent stagnation or concentration of sewage gases, &c.” ORNAMENTAL IRON GUTTERS. 13 Fig. 21. The half-circle in the holdfasts is made to suit the size of the gutter, so that the gutter may fit and lie into it easily.. The water which comes along this gutter may fall into a rain-water head which receives the water both from it and the back gutter, and so down the rain-water pipe, or conductor, into the barrel. Fig. 22 shows another style of hook, often employed for zinc gutters. There are so many patterns of ornamental iron eave gutters, from the plain square one, showa in Fig. 23, to those with the most elaborate mouldings, that we can only refer to them here. What has been said above, however, will serve to show the principle upon which they are fitted up. While treating of, ornamental iron gutters, we may here state that, in order to give them a fair chance to do duty in lieu of stone cornices, they ought to be painted stone colour, so as to correspond with the rest of the front of the building. We have observed that this is often neglected, but consider that to be in great measure an oversight of the architect, for we can hardly suppose otherwise than that a word from him would not only have set that right, but also thereby have given fair play to his own design. Before concluding this chapter, allusion may be here made to iron centre gutters, which, as they are not put up for ornament, but simply for use, can be made with any declivity wanted, in which case the sole or bottom of the gutter is cast tapered, perhaps 6 in. broad where the water runs off, and 10 in. or 12 in. broad at the higher end. In other cases they are cast without any declivity, being laid level, and therefore the same breadth throughout. The two sides, however, in all cases require to be made to suit the pitch or inclination of the roof, or else the inclination of the roof is set so as to fit them if they are selected beforehand ; generally, however, the gutter is made to fit the roof as at R, Fig. 24, where the nozzle, s, is also shown for the outlet, by which the water may be conveyed away by the rain- water pipes as circumstances may require. 14 PLUMBING. These iron centre gutters are made with enlarged faucits, the same as semi-circle gutters, not with con- tracted ends the same as the ornamental iron eutters above alluded to. They are joined with putty and red lead, and bolts and nuts, the bolts being 15 in. long v4! mn af x f ae v7 \ y % / * / N ‘ \ 7 \ é ‘\ rd ‘\ / x , \ id Ni R 7 a3 v XN Yj NS BN 7 ¢ XN Z ‘3 Ss Fi o . D a2 fo) and about 3 in. thick. Three bolts are used for each joint, but 1 in some ver y broad gutters four bolts may be used. Each length may be had either 6 ft. or 7 ft. long, according. fo the usage of the foundry they are got from ; shorter lengths may be had to order or to make up the exact length required. GHAPTER, ILI. RwGEs. Tue plumber having put up his gutters, during the time he has been seeing after his pipes the slater has not been idle, for he has got the roof all slated, and the plumber may now put an the ridge, which may be either of lead, zinc, or iron. The least breadth, generally speaking, of cither lead or zinc ridges is one foot, which allows a cover of about 4 in., or fully that, on each side over the slates; but in many cases a greater breadth is used and found necessary, in order to give the slates sufficient cover. If it is to be lead for the ridge, then Fig. 25. Fig. 26. a ridge about 48 ft. long can be put on, say, in three pieces (or as the lead at hand will allow), an overlap of about 3 in. being given where the pieces meet. After the lead has been rolled out and beaten into its place with the usual wooden “dresser,” Fig. 25, a strong lead- headed slate-nail is driven in at a distance of, say, every two feet or so into each side of the top part of the ridge. Sheet lead for the ridging may be from, at the lowest, 5 lb. up to 7 lb. or more per square foot. When less than 5 |b., itis often torn up in a high gale of wind, and even although (as is done in some cases 16 PLUMBING, where the lead is much exposed to thieves as well as to the wind) galvanised iron ridge straps are put on every three feet or so, yet if the lead be too thin it is sometimes torn up between the straps. These ridge straps are made of hoop iron about 13 in. broad and 3 In. thick, bent into the form shown by Fig. 26, and with two 4-in. holes for the nails to go through as shown. If, however, the ridge is to be covered with zinc, then zinc ridges are generally put on in 8-ft. lengths, with three straps to each length, or one about every 23 feet. Where the straps are put on at one every 4 ft. it makes a bad job, and does not give the zine fair play. Each length of ridge is allowed to overlap the other about 2 in. Zinc ridges are made of sheet zine from Nos. 10 to 14 and upwards. No. 10, which gives about 124 oz. to the square foot, is indeed little enough; for a good job a greater weight must be used. Anything less than No. 10 should not be put on unless for some mere temporary purpose. In the neighbourhood of chemical works it is a good thing to give the zine a coat of white-lead paint. Iron ridges are put on as cast by the ironfounders ; some foundries cast them in 4-ft. lengths, but they can be made as ordered. ‘They are cast to suit the pitch or inclination of the roof. They can be had either quite plain, as per Fig. 27, or with many different styles of 4! ix {} ZN i "as eb LEYLA EET ornament to suit the character of the building, as per Fig. 28. The one length overlaps the other, and as each length is cast with a raised bead at the one end, and a corresponding raised cover, or overlap at the other end, the bead of the one length is covered by the overlapping socket of the other length, and so the junction of the two lengths is made water-tight. CHAPTER IV. LEAD GUTTERS. WE come now to treat of roofs where the material used by the plumber is lead, and shall take what may be called a plain roof first, or one with two gables, in which are the chimneys, and where the line of both the back and front gutters is uninterrupted in its whole length, of which Fig. 29 gives section, showing front Fig. 29. and back gutters. In this case m is the stone cornice on the top of the front wall, in which the valley for the gutter, N, is cut out, say, to a depth of one inch at its upper end, and getting gradually deeper towards the end or place where the water runs off, so that at the deeper end its depth may be about 3 in., while 18 PLUMBING. throughout it may have a uniform breadth of, say, 5 in. The roof comes down, as shown at o, and it becomes necessary, therefore, to lay the lead, so as both to convey away the rain-water and to do its part in keeping things water-tight at the junction of the roof with the wall-head. Tor this purpose the lead has to go across the cornice and up about 6 in. on to the roof, as shown by the dotted line. The breadth of the lead in this case will, therefore, be about 2 ft., which is made up by 1 in. bent down over the front, 5 in. from front to edge of the gutter valley, 8 in. for the gutter valley, and the other 10 in. is taken up by the 4 in. from the back edge of the gutter valley to the roof and 6 in. up the roof, as per Fig. 30. taken off. Fig. 278 shows a new plan. 150 PLUMBING. there is a round brass grating, about 24 in. in diameter. This grating is held in its place by a brass screw, which passes down through its centre and goes into a small brass bar which passes across the top of the waste- pipe, and is sol- dered at each end to top of waste- pipe. Fig. 208 shows perpen- dicular section of this brass grating bar and nail zn Fig. 211. situ, Q Q bein bottom of basin; R R is brass grating (of which Fig. 209 gives top view); sis brass-screwed nail, and v T brass bar about § in. thick (Fig. 210 gives top view of brass bar); vu vu is top of the lead waste-pipe, B, Fig. 206. Outside and around bottom of basin a strip of lead about 2 in. broad, or 1) broader if wished, is ' | soldered to safe, and being made to fit round bottom of basin it thereby helps to keep basin in its place when set. Fig. 211 shows cranes and rod- pipe arranged along- ‘side of wash - hand basin, from back to front, in place of end on to basin, as in Fig. 206. The water in this case enters basin by mouth of lion’s head, there being a horn at back of lion’s head on out- side of basin for supply-pipe to be attached to. The cranes need not necessarily be always put on as shown Figs. 212 and 212. WASH-HAND BASINS. 151 in Fig. 211, for by placing them as in Fig. 207, the pillars are brought nearer each other, while the arrange- ment is still kept up of the cranes and rod-pipe being alongside the basin. In regard to the 2-in. valve- pipes c c, Figs. 206 and 211, there are two ways of fitting them in rod-pipes: Figs. 212 and 2138 show these two ways. Fig. 212 is an enlarged view of that in Fig. 206. In Fig. 212 the valve-pipe, c, is put in close to that side of rod-pipe to which the waste-pipe, ©, from the wash-hand basin is joined. In Fig. 213 the valve- pipe, ¢, is placed in the centre of the rod-pipe, and at c? a short piece of pipe is soldered on sufficient to pass out through side of rod-pipe and be flanged back about 2in. BB, Figs. 212 and 213, are the brass sockets of the two waste-valves soldered to the bottom of the valve-pipes. Further verbal explanation is unnecessary, as the two drawings explain themselves. In wash-basins, baths, &c., with rod pipes, as in Figs. 206 and 211, when the basin is empty and whether the waste valve is open or shut, a current of air often will be found passing down the pipe c, along E, and up through the grating of the basin, so that if pipes c and & are dirty inside a slight smell may be felt by a sensitive person at the basin. To stop this, especially if in a bedroom at night, first run off a gallon or two of clean water, then put the valve down, and leave a few inches of clean water in the basin all night. Of course this would do no good against smell from the waste-pipe deyond the trap: the trap and pipe must do their duty as regards that. In the next chapter we proceed to treat upon cabinet-stands and different ways of fitting up from the above. CHAPTER xe CABINET-STANDS. Tur earthenware wash-hand basins treated upon in Chapter XIX. were all circular, with a simple rim at the top, but, as wiil be seen from the cabinet-stands we : are now to speak of, while OY the hollow in the centre forming the basin or water receptacle is the —— same, the simple 13-in. Fig. 214. rim is now transposed into a large square top, with soap and brush-holders, all together forming one piece of earthenware, as per Fig. 214. In some cases the shape of the top of the cabinet- stand, in place of being square, may be either angular or have rounded front, as shown by Figs. 215 and 216. They are also made with back and sides as per Fig. 217. o, 215. Fig. 216. Having settled upon the shape of and got his cabinet- stand, ‘which we will suppose is a square one, as shown in Fig. 214, the plumber has next to get the wooden CABINET-STANDS. 153 stool upon which it is to rest. The style of this stool, however, depends upon the way in which it is intended to finish the wood-work of the cabinct-stand. Ti eg: the wood lining were intended to be put round the front and sides of stand, just as in Fig. 206, then the stool in this case may have four legs, two at back and two at front, just as in Fig. 206. Wewill, however, suppose that the stand is not to be lined in down to the ground, or close to it, all the way round, in which case the wooden stool which is to support the cabinet-stand, as also the necessary cranes and pipes, &e., will only have two legs, one at each back corner, as per Fig. 218. In looking at Fig. 218 it will be at once seen that such a stool, with only two legs, could not stand of itself, and far less could it support such a wash basin as that of Fig. 214; conse- , quently, while “the plumber is working at it, and before the stool is fixed in its place, a tem- porary leg has to be put in at its front. When fitted up, the stool is fixed in its place by means of the top bar v, Fig. 218, which top bar is a piece of wood S33 from about 2 ft. 6 in. to about 3 ft. long, as the case may be, and 4 in. broad and I in. thick. This top bar is checked into the back of the two back legs, as shown at w w, Fig. 218—or rather as intended to be shown, for the engraving has the bar v nailed against the back legs instead of checked into them—and firmly fixed by means of screws. The stool being set up in H 3 Fig. 218. a PLUMBING. its place against the wall, this top bar v, Fig. 218, is then firmly fixed to another wooden bar of the same <~eg] size which has been firmly IV fixed to the wall, as per x, | Fig. 219. The wall in Fig. 219 being supposed to be \ either a brick or a_ stone one covered with plaster, the wooden bar x is shown flush \ with plaster, the plaster being cut out to allow it to be so. When, therefore, the bar x, WW Fig 219, is firmly fixed, and SSS then a considerable weight ea may be quite safely placed on the seat of the stool, more especially as this seat itself is supported by two iron brackets, as shown at y, Fig. 218. The length of each arm of these iron brackets may be, say from 14 in. to 18 in., one arm being firmly screwed to back leg of stool, and ‘ the other arm supporting a slip or bar of wood as long as the breadth of the top of the stool extends outwards. This slip of =>» wood may therefore be about 2 ft. long by 4 in. broad and #2 in. thick. Screws about 1} in. long, put in near y, Fig. 218, will therefore fix iron bracket, wood slip, and seat of stool all together. Around the outer top edge of the stool wood doubling wats about lin. high and 13 in. eee broad is placed for the lead safe. The height from floor to the top of the back legs will, in this case, be about 2 ft. 5 in., the top of wooden LL eT Tei TU CABINET-STANDS, 155 lee being level with the top of cabinet-stand. In some cases, however, asin Figs. 220 and 221, the height of the back legs will berabove 3 ft., extending up about 9in. or so above the top of cabinet-stand. This extra height is to suit a difference in the style of fitting up pipes and handles, and in the arrangement of the marble or mahogany. Fig. 219 shows section from back to front of a simple style of finishing either the marble or the mahogany at top, while the supply and waste for stand are regulated by three pull-up knobs, one of which, the waste, is shown at z, Fig. 219. In Fig. 220 another s« style is shown, N the knobs resting on the marble | 6F shelf which goes 7 [2 J _along at the back \\ of the standN about 9 in. above \\*4 basin, as shown \"* at a, Fig. 220. In cases where there is a strong N pressure of water © on supply-pipe N j Pele to basin this \E ae Se pressure may be ~ MACE regulated by Bigs Sal, putting on a good $-in. or 3-in. gas stop-cock, as at B, Fig. 220. This prevents the incoming watcr from rushing up over basin and wetting all and sundry near it. If, however, it is only the pressure on > cold-water pipe that is extra strong, then the small cock should be put on the pipe coming from cold cock. In fitting up the marble at Fig. 220, the front piece at c should be so fitted as to come out easily — when wished without moving the top, so that the plumber may have easy access to arrange or repair his fittings. The neglect of this (which should be provided S a. N TI Ss =| SSS SSSA bY peewee A SIS a 7 e @ SS) fi Ld Na] 4 : | A ri ISIS SHS) oy INSNb | > uf} Nat \ h\' SESS 156 PLUMBING. for as far as possible in all cases), is often the cause of unnecessary expense and annoyance afterwards. Fig. 221 gives an idea of the large square cabinet- stand shown in Fig. 214, fitted up with hot and cold water, the cranes and waste-valve being worked by means of pull-out knobs and pulleys. In this case they are arranged from left to right as hot, waste, and cold, the particular words, “ Hor,’’ ‘ WASTE,” and ‘ COLD,”’ being engraved, or otherwise marked, each on its own appropriate knob. In other cases, if wished, the arrangement may be hot, cold, and waste; the rod-pipe in this latter case being put to the one side, and the cold, if off the main with an extra strong pressure, may have its knob made to turn round, being fixed on to the spindle of a screw-down stop-cock, in the place of pull- ing out like the other two. In order to get a proper hold of it, this cold knob may in this case be also made larger than the other two, and, owing to its being in the centre, this extra size will be no objection. ‘The outer rim of all such knobs for serew-down cranes ought to be properly roughened or indented, so that a firm hold may be got of them. In place of a round knob, however, some prefer a four-pronged handle, as per Vig. 237, for the screw-down stop-cocks. In Fig. 221 we see three pieces of marble, pD being the large square horizontal top piece, with large hole in its centre, which appears to rest on cabinet-stand. £ is perpendicular breast-piece which rests on p as shown, and to which the back-check lifters are attached, and through which the pulls work. A small piece of marble is also re- quired at each end of 3, being put on at right angles thereto. ¥ is an oblong horizontal top-piece of marble, covering in space between E and the wall. This top- piece, F, should be readily movable at pleasure, so as to allow the plumber to get at fittings. The front piece, gE, Should also be movable when required. The plumber also on his part ought so to arrange his cranes, &c., in position, or with couplings, as may be necessary, so that repairs may be easily made. If the expense be no objection, a 4-in. stuffing stock-cock may be put on CABINET-STANDS. 157 underneath the basin stand, z.e. between it and the floor, upon both the hot and cold supply-pipes, so that the water could be easily turned off the basin fittings when necessary without interfering with anything else. The hole in lever handle of said stuffing stop-cock should, in this case, be of an oblong square shape, and the top of pillar, which goes into it, made to fit, and of the same shape, so that the handle could only be put on the one way—viz., to stand across when shut. If these stuffing stop-cocks were put on as described, then the 2-in. regulating stop-cock above referred to could be dispensed with, as the stuffing stop-cocks could serve both as stop-cocks and as regulating cocks. In Fig. 221, G, H, and 1, are the different parts of the mahogany lining, while 3 is the wooden bar going along be- tween the two back feos of the cabinet- stand stool, and which, being firmly fixed to the wall, } prevents it from falling forward. | Fig. 222 gives en- larged perspective view of one of the brass back-check lifters, knobs, and pulleys, shown in Fig. 221. If the knob k, Fig. 222, 1s brass, as well as the flange 1, then both may be well silver-plated, so as to correspond with the other furniture of the cabinet-stand. The end m of pull, to which the chain is attached, is swivel-jointed, so- as not to twist the chain when the knob is turned round after being pulled out, to keep either a crane running or the waste-valve up, as the case may be. And to assist in keeping the back-check lifter itself from turning round, a small projection ought to be left on it when cast, as shown at Nn, Fig. 223. It is often a great nuisance when this projection at N 1s omitted. In Fig. 228 the distance from oto Pp is fully Fig. 222. 158 PLUMBING. 12 in., while the distance from o to @ is 34in. In other cases, where » f | there is room and fi it is either desired or iS necessary, the distance from }, to Q may be made ‘longer, as wished. In Fig. 223, r is the back tighten- Hig. 223. ing-upor jam nut. Fig. 224 gives cross sectional view of the pulley s, Fig. 223. only do so to the extent of its strength. Now, as the greatest strength of this ‘‘ power,” viz. the pressure of the atmosphere, is only equal to the height of a column of water 30 to 34 ft. high, it follows that, allowing a margin for the working of the valves, about 28 ft. is the greatest depth from which the pump will work freely. Another point for consideration when fixing up the pump is the difference between the well when full and empty. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is about 14 lbs. to the square inch, so a column of water about 32 ft. high, and equal in sectional area to one square inch, will weigh about 14 lbs., and thus the pressure of the atmosphere and the column of water counterbalance each other. From this we see that if we know the number of pounds of pressure on the square inch, we may get the number of feet of water by multiplying by 24, or 2 2-7ths, thus: 14 Ibs. by 2 2-7ths = 32 ft., which comes pretty near it. Mer- cury, again, is about thirteen times heavier than water, and as was discovered by Torricelli in a.p. 1648, a column of mercury about 29 in. or 80 in. high, according to the density of the air at the time, counter- balances the pressure of the atmosphere, and so 293 in. for mercury x 13 for water again gives 32 ft, 174 PLUMBING. It must be understood that it is only at the surface of the earth that the pressure is about 14 lbs., or equal ‘ 32 ft. of water; as we ascend, the pressure gets ess. Previous to the time of Galileo, it does not appear that any philosopher considered the weight of the atmosphere had anything to do with natural pheno- mena. The inventor of the air-pump was Otto Guericke, in or about A.D. 1650. I may here explain Torricelli’s experiment :—Take a glass tube, hermetically sealed at. the one end, and say + in. in diameter internally, and 3 ft. long. Fill it quite full of mercury, then stop up the outlet firmly with the finger, then turn up the tube and insert its lower end into a vessel containing mercury, as per Trig. 2424. When the finger is removed the mercury will be seen to sink down a little in the tube, until it stands about 380 in. higher than the surface of the mercury in the vessel. This per- pendicular column of mercury 30 in. high is prevented from falling down into the vessel by the pressure or counterbalancing weight of the atmosphere. ‘The notion that FL___, ‘nature abhors a vacuum,” or that she is == {]===| always able to prevent one being formed, would therefore appear to be wrong, for a vacuum exists inside the glass tube above the 30 in. of mercury. The weight of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth is about 14 oz. to the cubic foot, while the weight of a cubic foot of water at its maximum density —about 39:1° Fahrenheit — is about 624 lbs., or 1,000 ounces; the water, in this case, is therefore 800 times heavier than the air. Mercury, again, is 10,000 times heavier than air. When a pump is newly finished, or has been some time unwrought, and no water in the chamber, it is sometimes difficult to start it at figst. By pouring a little water, however, into the e ber, it is soon all right. This water softens the leather of the valves— when they are of leather—and also prevents the air Fig. 242a, PUMPS. 175 which passes up through u from getting back again. Another style of pump with copper barrel and lead head is the square lead-headed pump in square wooden case. This style of pump is largely used, the wooden case or box in which it is placed serving to protect it. The pump is much the same as in Fig. 242, only as the head in this case is square, and is placed in a case, it is supported and held fast by wooden fillets. In the upper portion of the front of case there is a door with lock upon it to gain easy access to the interior. Fig. 243 is an enlarged view of the 3-in. working-box, or bucket, shown at c, in Fig. 242. 1, Fig. 248, is piece of good stout leather, din. thick, and 15 in. broad, put round the top of the wooden working-box, the rough, or flesh side out; it is secured by 3-in. copper tacks, as shown. The leather is pared off a little where the tacks are put in, so that when driven in the heads of the tacks may not come into contact with the inside of the chamber. ‘The two ends of the leather are made to overlap each other a little, both ends, however, being pared down, so as not to increase the paar thickness. J, Fig. 248, is the bottom of the iron pump-rod, divided into two |} prongs, the prongs passing down through ‘(f= the wooden box, and being secured at the | bottom by means of rivets or nuts. Fig. ¢ 244 is view of the wooden under-box and valve shown 7 situ at H, Fig. 242. This under-box is tapered to suit the taper in the bottom of the copper chamber. To fix it in its place, hemp dipped in melted rosin and grease is wrapped round it at the grooves shown at LL, Fig. 244. When the plumber afterwards wishes to remove the under-box, he heats up the outside of the bottom of the copper chamber by setting fire, say, to a few wood shavings, which, melting the rosin and grease, releases the box. m, Fig. 244, is the clack- Fig. 243. Fig. 244. 176 PLUMBING. valve, formed of a piece of leather about } in. thick. Above the leather, and attached to it, as shown, is a piece of cast lead ‘about 3 in. thick, and about 12 in. long, and 1? in. broad. Fig. 244 is a perpendicular sectional view. Sometimes the under-box is fitted with a bent piece of rod iron, In shape as per J’, Fig. 243, minus the upper part J, for the purpose of drawing it out. Fig. 245 is an iron pump, working upon mee same principle as Fig. 242; the chamber in it may either be its own iron, pro- perly bored, or a copper chamber may be inserted if wished. Fig. 246 is a 3-in. brass lift-and- force pump, mounted on cast-iron frame, very suitable for a country house, where it is wished to pump the water from a well under the ground up to a cistern in the garret or uppermost flat, for distribution through the house. It may be had, of course, of different sizes, either === smaller or larger than 3 in. ; but 3 in. == is agood working size. The interior diameter of the chamber of the pump being 3 in., the interior diameter of the tail-pipe n, Fig. 246, and of the rising main, 0, will be ie in. The under-box in this case may be either of the style shown in Fig. 244, orit may be made of brass, in place of wood. The working-box, however, is generally of brass, with cup leather, and may have either a clack-valve or a spindle-valve. Another valve is placed upon the rising main at p, Fig. 246, which valve at P, opening up- wards, keeps all it gets and helps to prevent the weight of water in the rising main or ascension-pipe, 0, from ‘pressing continually upon the stuffing-box a, or other parts of the pump below it. The reason why I have mentioned 1}-in. pipe for the 3-in. pump is because a larger size is unnecessary, and to put in a smaller size does not give either the pump, or the person who Fig. 246, ¢ PUMPS. 177 works it, the same fair-play. rR, Fig. 246, isa copper air-vessel, about 8 in. across. It is put on as shown (or the rising main may be led out of its top, as per 7, Hig. 247), in order to cause the work- ing of the pump to be easier, and its delivery more regular; by its aid ve the water in the rising main —1in place of being jerked along it every time the working-box 1s raised —is made to flow continu-| ously, the elasti- city of the air in the air-vessel pre- venting this jerk- ing. When the well is both deep, and the tail-pipe of the pump also goes a consider- able distance hori- zontally, an extra valve is often put in upon the tail- pipe above the water level; ano- ther plan some- times adopted is to put on an air- vessel upon the Fig. 246. tail-pipe, as close | as convenient to the under valve of the pump. As the cistern to which the water is being pumped up is generally out of sight, and at a considerable distance 13 fe \ \ G V ‘| /; NYY NW AASV VLULLUCVIVT CTU CVU UUM CPUS TUE EL 178 PLUMBING. perhaps from the pump, some means should be taken to inform the party pumping when the cistern is full. For this purpose, a 3-in. or #-In. warning-pipe is led from the cistern 4 in. below the overflow-pipe, to the vicinity of the pump, so that when the cistern is full, the water flowing out of this warning-pipe tells the person at the pump when to stop. In order to keep small stones and stuff in well from getting into the tail-pipe, the bottom of the end which goes down into the well is closed up and a few inches, more or less, as the case may be, from its bottom, the lead tail-pipe is bored full of small holes about + in. or 2 in. in diameter; a sufficient number must be made to allow the water = to fill the pipe quite freely. In place of Fic. 947, boring the pipe itself a round perforated o, (- . ° . im strainer, whose diameter will be about double or treble that of the pipe, may be put on. This strainer is what is used when the tail-pipeisiron. As the areas of circles are to one another as the squares of | their diameters, it follows that, allowing a margin for the extra friction on the smaller holes, it will take fully forty 4-in. holes, or about twenty 2-in. holes, to supply a 14-in. pipe properly. In practice it is better to err upon the safe side by putting in a few extra than too few. It is a common and often useful practice to put on a 3-in. bib-crane, say a good lever-handled stuffing nose- cock, at s, Fig. 246. By this means water can be drawn direct from the pump. In giving a partial reproduction of Fig. 246 in the June, 1875, number of the Manufacturer and Builder, published in New York, I observe the editor stating that instead of using a large cistern in the upper flat from which to draw off the water, it has of late become customary in New York for the pump to be placed in the lower flat, while the handle is situated in an upper flat, a long piston- rod, with the requisite guides, being carried up from the pump to the handle. The rising main pipe, a, being PUMPS. 179 carried up to near the pump handle, and a crane put on, the water is drawn as directly and as cool as possible from the well. As the tail-pipe of the pump may hang down perpendicularly into the well about 30 ft., it is necessary to support it properly. This can be done by fixing up two strong planks horizontally inside the well, each end of plank being thrust into a hole cut for it in each side of the well. One plank may be put in about 10 ft. down and the other about 20 ft. down. Holes are cut through the boards for the tail-pipe to pass through, and with the help of a good lead flange about 91in. in diameter, which rests on the board, and which is soldered to the lead tail-pipe, the said tail- pipe is thus supported. Regarding working down a deep well, it is sometimes dangerous to go down a well which has been some time closed up. Before doing so the plumber ought first to lower down a candle and see ifit will continue burning all the way to the bottom, or to the surface of the water in the well. If it goes out, independent of falling into the water, or adrop of water, &c., falling upon it, then the air is foul, and it would be at the risk of his life and a piece of supreme foolishness for any one to go down (unless with diving-bell appa- ratus) until the well has been left open some time and the air purified so that the candle will continue to burn properly and the man to breathe freely and safely. Dashing down several buckets of clean water helps to unprove the air in awell. Or for a dangerous well the following plan may be adopted :— Take as many feet as required of 13-in. zine or other handy pipe, and attach a wide mouthpiece at its bottom. ‘To this mouthpiece (right in centre) suspend a lighted candle. When this lighted candle is lowered with the pipe, the flame causes a current upwards of the foul air, upon which a down current of fresh air sets in to supply the place of the foul. The working-boxes or buckets of the foregoing pumps are pierced in the centre, and with valves in them. Another style of pump is that shown in Fig. 248—which gives sectional view of a plumber’s hand force-pump—where, instead of the 180 PLUMBING. working-box or bucket, a solid plunger is used. "When the plunger rises the water follows it, the under-valve opening up and allowing it to do so. When the plunger is pushed down the lower valve shuts, and the water rushes up the rising-main or outlet pipe, forcing open the rising-main valve, which keeps all it gets. The hand force-pump shown in Fig. 248 is generally used by plumbers to clear service-pipes which have got choked up. The small stop-crane, with coupling, shown on outlet pipe (which in this case is flexible, being made of india-rubber or leather) of Fig 248, is put there for a different purpose. In this case, instead of being used to pump water, it may be made to pump air, serving as a first- class testing- pump for the gas pipes in, say, a large newly- erected house. The modus . ope- randi is to close up the ends of all the pipes, and the small stock-cock shown in Fig.:248 being connected with the main di gaspipe, the pump is set agoing. If there are many large escapes in the gaspipes, then the air will rush out at the holes, and these holes, or improper connections, can be traced out. If the pipes be all right, this is proved by pump- ing air into them until a certain pressure is put on— not too much ; then the stop-cock being shut, the pamp is uncoupled from it, and in a few minutes, the stop- cock being opened, the confined air rushes out with some force and noise. If, however, there be a small Fig. 248. escape, this is shown by the air coming out with little PUMPS. 181 force, or, sufficient time being allowed, no air coming out at all. I have said that a pump will not lift the water from a greater depth than about 30 ft., yet, as many wells are several times 30 ft. deep, it is necessary to lift the water from that depth by some means or other. In this case, by lowering the pump down into the well until it comes to about 28 ft. or somewhat less from the surface of -the water, the water may be sent up to the required height. To work the pump or pumps in this situation long iron rods are required. In very deep mines a series of pumps is used. The lowest pump raises the water so far and discharges it into a small cistern ; into this cistern the tail-pipe or suction- tube of the pump next above dips, which pump raises | the water into another cistern, and so on until the sur- face of the earth is reached and the desired height for the outflow attained. One long rod, or “ spear,’’ set in motion by a steam-engine and the necessary machinery above, is sufficient to set all the various piston-rods of the different pumps working. T cannot enumerate all the various varieties of pumps and the different styles of working them, by means of levers, eccentrics, cranks, and wheels, for their name is legion; but what I have said will serve to show the principle upon which pumps work. Fig. 2484 shows vertical section of a pump invented by Mr. Laurence Jordan, of Milton-next- Sittingbourne, Kent, which can lft the water, although it has only one valve, viz. the one in the working box. This is effected by the use of the side water receptacle, which is attached on a level with the barrel of the pump. I cannot enumerate all the various varieties of pumps and the different styles of working them, by means of levers, eccentrics, cranks, and wheels, Vig. 2484. for their name is legion; hut what I have said will serve to show the prin- ciple upon which pumps work. CHAPTER XXIV. Tur Hypravuuic Ram. THERE is another interesting and useful machine for raising water which I may shortly describe, viz., the hydraulic ram. This instrument is self-acting, and when once properly set agoing it will go on working away day and night without intermission for an in- definite period. Its action is due to the inertia of a moving body of water. In Fig. 249, u is the source of the water supply, v the position of the ram, say 100 ft. vi (it may be somewhat less or much 4 Aa more, according to site, only the E distance must not be too little, or the ram refuses to work) from v, and 10 ft. lower. wis the house, 5 lf say 300 ft. or yards from ram, Bf and its uppermost flat, where the \ cistern is, about 90 ft. higher than “g. nally ram; X 1s the supply-pipe to ram, and y the rising-main from the ram tothe house. zis the pipe or drain conveying away the waste water. Fig. 249, there- fore, shows the position of the ram relative to its source of supply (which may be either a running stream or a lake, &c.) and point of delivery. In Fig. 250 an idea of the ram itself is given. At a the water enters, and rushing along, it gets exit at B; but, under B, we see the valve c; the water rushing along comes into con- tact with c, and exerting its power upon it, suddenly Fig. 249. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 183 lifts it up or closes it. This closing of c so suddenly, tends to at once arrest the motion of the water in the pipe A, which water had a certain amount of momentum in it corresponding to its height and the size of the pipe. Owing to its possessing this momentum, the water, so soon as it has shut the valve c, immediately opens or forces up the valve p, and so much of it passes through and gets above p. ‘This done, the valve D closes, keeping all it gets. The valve c now again falls, simply owing to its own weight, and the water rushes out as be- fore; but again c is carried with it, which closing causes the water to again open D, - and fill the air- vessel k, so far. From this alter- nate closing or working of c and p, it will be seen that in a short time a consider- able quantity of water will have passed bp; this water, therefore, att ars after it has filled Beas E so far, compressing the air in it—which air acts as a sort of spring—flows up the rising main F towards the receptacle for it at the house. Ifwe suppose the internal diameter of the pipe at a to be 2in., then the internal diameter of the pipe at F may be 1 in., and the quantity of water which a ram of this size will supply may be about one thousand gallons, more or less, according to circumstances, in the twenty-four hours. Rams, how- ever, can be had of various sizes, from one with 14-in. inlet and 2-in. outlet, to one with 4-in. inlet and 2-in. outlet, the latter throwing up about five thousand gallons 184 | PLUMBING. aday. Some plumbers have fitted up their rams with 3-in. inlet pipe and only 1-in. outlet ; this causes greater friction in the ascension pipe, and I also fear more noise. Many consider the proportion of the fall to the rise in rams should not exceed 1 to 10; thus if the fall of water to ram—taken perpendicularly—be 7 ft., then the height to which the water will be sent above the ram will be about 70 ft. If the fall be 20 ft., then the rise may be as much as 200 ft. and so on.* The quantity saved of the water passing through the ram may be taken at about one-tenth; thus for every ten gallons that enter the ram, one gallon is sent on to the cistern or reservoir, in or near the house. G, Fig. 250, is the snifle valve, a section of which is shown in Fig. 251. This Fig. 251 is a brass bolt with hole drilled up its centre as shown, for the * In the Engineer for January 7th, 1876, a correspondent states that with a fall of 20 ft. the water was sent up 160 ft. above the ram, the quantity lifted being 20 gallons per minute. The length of the discharge pipe was 700 ft. In the same journal again, but under date January 28th, 1876, Mr. William W. Fyfe, of Aberdeen, gives the following table of results, as obtained by rams made and fitted up by his firm:— 42 | 42 es es os &o 5 & o4 4 ° & aa Pye i Eb ys Ee a Bud | Bef | SE os =9 ie i SS lt ic 3 3 3 a BS soles) a od ae Ba Ba a & | OSs Og | ) | 1 8 0949 0°669 66 0°927 8:25 2 7 9°47 0°27 200 0°81 28°57 3 5°95 Lee, 0°214 24°2 0°78 44 4 4 42 1 96 0°625 24 3) 1:16 : oO 34 bras 29°14 6 0:75 . 1é 34 45°33 7 6 49 1:2 120 0:57 20 8 10°d 9:297 537 96 0'537 9:14 The falls were so low, in cases 5 and 6, that the waste could not be measured, and 7 and 8 are pumping rams, lifting pure spring water while being driven by impure streams, which, of course, require a greater expense of power. THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 185 valve to work forwards and backwards in. ui is the end towards the interior of the ram, 1 the outlet, which, as will be seen, is very small, just large enough to admit the point of a pin. The use of this small valve to the ram may be said to be somewhat analogous to the use of a man’s nostrils to him. The man may speak, although his nostrils are stopped up, as when he has a cold, but he will speak all the better when they are clear. After having been sometime in use it has often hap- pened that the air-vessel of a pump, or ram, becomes useless on account of the air at first contained in it having somehow vanished, cither the water having absorbed it, or else the air has slowly passed through the water as does sewage gas through the water in the Fig. 251. syphon-trap of a water-closet. Or, again, @ small hole somewhere may be the cause. To provide for this some parties attach a small stop-cock to the air-vessel near the top, by means of which air can be admitted when necessary. Professor I’. E. Sweet suggests another remedy, viz., to place in the air-vessel some sperm oil, the floating of which on the surface of the water prevents contact between the air and the water, and thereby acts as a sort of check-valve to keep the air imprisoned. I have as yet had no experience of the working of this, and merely mention it. Mr. MecTear, of St. Rollox Chemical Works, made some ex- periments for me as to how this oil would act in keeping back gases from passing through water-locked syphon- traps, but it was found to be useless for that purpose. 186 PLUMBING. A mineral oil such as heavy paraffine, non-inflammable at less than about 400 degrees, would be more suitable where it could be applied. Mr. Townsend has long used this latter in keeping down bad smell at the urinals ; the parafiine being made to float on the top of the urine. CHAPTER XXYV. THE SIpHon. SrPHONS are used to transfer various liquids from one vessel or cistern to another, and, on a large scale, to empty lochs or pits of water wherever the water at the — outflow end can be discharged at a sufficiently lower level than the water to be emptied. The power or force which causes a siphon to work is the pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the water on the inlet side, combined with the greater weight of water at the outlet. Hence the greatest height over which a siphon will lft the water will be about thirty feet. By a simple experiment it is easy to show the action of the siphon. k, Fig. 252, 1s the vessel to be emptied, t the vessel to be filled. m is the siphon, and wn the tube to charge the siphon by. 0 isa ee. short pipe through which 1g liquids or air may be admitted into the close vessel kK. K being full and 1 empty, the lower end of the siphon is either closed up with the hand or by shutting the stop- cock—if one be on upon the end next t—and the mouth being applied to the small pipe at nN, the air is all sucked out of the siphon m until the water begins to come 188 PLUMBING, into the mouth, the hand and mouth are then with- drawn and the water from K passes up and down m into t. During the rush-off of the water the flow can be stopped at will by simply pressing the finger or hand closely upon the mouth of the pipe at o. In Fig. 252, the top of the round vessel x is shown as arched; were it made quite flat on top, and of sheet tin not extra strong, then upon the rush-off of the water being suddenly suspended by stopping up 0, the top of the ‘vessel would collapse or fall in so far owing to the pressure of the atmosphere upon it. In Fig. 252, the pipe n is shown as long as the siphon, but it may be used much shorter, and with a small stop-cock upon it at its junction with the lower end of the siphon. The discharge would be greater with n shut. Another way to charge and start a siphon where the pipe is asp ore is to fix a stop-cock or sluice-valve on 3 each end, and a 2-in. (or larger) brass trap-screw at the highest part of the siphon. The two cocks being shut, the cover of the trap-screw is taken off and | water poured in until the siphon is YY 7 quite full and all the air out. The trap- Hig. 253. screw cover being put on again, and screwed up tightly, the two cocks are opened simul- taneously and the water flows. In other cases, again, siphons are charged with a force-pump. Fig. 253 is known as the Wirtemberg siphon; when once filled with the liquid it remains filled so long as it is held perpendicularly. When one end of this siphon is immersed in water or wine, &c., then the balance is disturbed, and the liquid in the end not immersed being heavier relatively to the air than the liquid in the immersed end is to the liquid in the vessel, the effect is that the liquid to be drawn off flows out at the end pot immersed. In regard to Fig. 252, it must be understood that the pipe N does not necessarily form a part of the siphon, for without the pipe n the siphon m can be charged by sucking the lower end of m. THE SIPHON. 189 Certain natural phenomena and also some curious tricks are produced by the action of the siphon. Intermittent springs are examples of the former, and the ‘“‘ vase of Tantalus” is a specimen of the latter. I observed in opening that the greatest height over _ which a siphon will lft the water is about thirty feet. That refers, of course, to the height above the surface of the water to be lifted. If, however, for some parti- cular reason the siphon has to dip down, or traverse a » valley before rising over the hill, then the perpendi- cular height from the bottom of the valley to the top of the hill might be much more than thirty feet. CHAPTER XXYVI. Fiow oF WATER THROUGH PIPxs. Ir sometimes happens that after a plumber has put in his water supply-pipes, say from one cistern to another, asin Fig. 254, or from a cistern to a kitchen-sink or bath, that the water refuses to flow from the one cistern to the other, or from the cistern to the water-tap. Of course this may occur owing to the pipe having got choked up with some foreign substance, such as rags, paper, wood, or lime, &c., or owing to the worthy plumber having made a “solid joint,’ but that is not what I wish to refer to here. In the cases I wish to speak of we shall suppose that no water has yet Fig. 254, . been put into the cisterns whatever, and that the connecting-pipe between the two cisterns is so Clear that it can be blown through quite easily. The water being let on to the cistern p, Fig. 254, and P filled, it is expected that upon looking into the other cistern Q that it will also be filled, or at least be filling up as quickly as possible, instead of that, however, the cistern Q is perhaps found to be empty. The reason for this is that the pipe R connecting the two cisterns has FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 191 not been put in properly. Instead of that portion of it which goes horizontally being put in quite level, or, if off the level, put in as per dotted line s, Fig. 254, with a valley in the centre, so that no air could lodge in it, the pipe has been put in with a rise in the centre, as shown at R, Fig. 254, and the consequence is that when the water runs down from P a portion of it gets over the ridge at R and fills up the pipe beyond so far ; this, however, imprisons the air at r which to the extent of a glassful or a tumblerful or so (according to the size of the pipe) cannot get away, being jammed in betwixt the water upon each side of it, upon which it floats. if the cistern P were a considerable height above the cistern Q, then the pressure of the water from p might force the air before it. In this case, however, both cisterns are on the same level, and the pressure at rR only a few feet—about 5 or 7 as the case may be. To get the water to run the plumber may adopt either of the following three courses most suitable in the cir- cumstances :—T'irst, if the position of the pipe will allow of it, he may press down the pipe at R, doing away with the ridge or rise there, whereupon the air will of its own accord rise up through the interior of the pipe and the water begin to flow into a. Second, he may apply a hand force-pump (see Fig. 248) to the mouth of the pipe in Pp, and by pumping in water force the air out at the end of the pipe at a, and theair being once out the water soon rises up into Q and fills it. Third, he may pierce the pipe at the highest part of the rise at R with a nail, and through the small hole thus made the imprisoned air will come blowing out; so soon as that air is out the water immediately flows onwards and upwards into q@ until the water in the cistern @ stands at the same level as the water in p. This would be the case supposing the distance between the two cisterns P and Q was several hundred yards and the internal diameter of the pipe only lin. or even less; but, of course, the greater the distance and the smaller the pipe the slower the flow, as the friction of water in motion through pipes is very considerable. This friction 192 PLUMBING. takes place against the sides of the pipes, the friction of the particles of water amongst themselves being very little. I have said that the plumber’s “ third ”’ plan would be to pierce the pipe with a nail; this is a very common thing for plumbers to do with leaden pipes when they wish to let out either air or water, and after the hole— which is only sent through one side of the pipe—has served its purpose it is plugged up with a small picce of good wood, say pine, and the plug being cut off flush the lead is riveted over it to keep it in. _ It occasionally happens that the plumber has to pro- vide for the continual gathering of air in a pipe when- ever the cistern hap- pens to get empty. + In this latter case | he may either put on a small stop-cock (a 3-in. gas stop-cock often serves the pur- pose), to open and shut with the hand whenever necessary, as at T, Fig. 255, or instead of the stop- cock an air-pipe may be put on, as at v, Bigg rbh, Fig. 255, the top of said air-pipe being carried up higher than the top of the cistern so that no water may come out when the draw-off cock is shut suddenly. The reason why a small stop-cock or an air-pipe is spoken of as being put on at T, Fig. 255, is because the pipe at Tis higher than at v, and conse- quently air lodges at tT; were tT lower than v and the pipe between T and v straight, no air would lodge. It was mentioned above that the friction of water in motion through pipes was very considerable, and in consequence the fiow of the water was retarded very much thereby. ‘This effect of the friction is known as the “loss of head.” In connection with this, and FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 193 before proceeding farther with my own remarks, I may here quote the following interesting observations which formed part of a leading article in the Building News of date December 4th, 1874 :— ‘When water is conveyed from one tank or reservoir to another, by means of a long pipe, there is a certain amount of resistance offered to it by the surface of the pipe; this resistance is proportional to the surface of the pipe, and will, therefore, be greater for a small than a large pipe; it is also very nearly proportional to the square of the velocity at which the water is moving. ‘The retardation caused by this resistance prevents water from rising to the same height again after passing through a long pipe,* and occasions what is termed a loss of head, the head of water being the height of the surface of the reservoirs above the orifice of discharge at the lower end of the pipe. To find the velocity of discharge from a pipe, multiply the head by the diameter of the pipe, and divide by its length (all in feet), then multiply the square root of this quantity by the constant number 50, and the result is the velocity in feet per second; if this velocity is multi- plied by the area of section of the pipe (also in feet), we obtain the number of cubic feet discharged in a second of time; and this multiplied by 61, gives the number of gallons. For example, if the head is 32 ft., the diameter of the pipe 4ft., and its length 100 ft., the velocity of discharge will be 20 ft. per second, and the area of section being one-fifth of a foot, the dis- charge will be 4 cubic feet, or 25 gals. per second. We have here supposed the pipe to be quite straight, without curves or bends, but as these are usually of frequent occurrence in pipes of considerable length, a much greater amount of retardation takes place, and the velocity of discharge decreased thereby. If the change of direction of a pipe is made with a sharp elbow, the retardation is much greater than with a rounded turn; when the angle of deviation is 40°, with a sharp elbow, the loss of head due to the turn * Tn connection with this point, see remarks on Fig. 257. K 194 PLUMBING. is one-seventh of the head of water due to the velocity at that point. For an angle of 60°, the loss is rather more than one-third; and for 90° the loss is nearly equal to the head itself, or the water is momentarily brought nearly to a standstill. In general, however, the change of direction is made with a circular bend, and the larger the radius of the bend the less the resistance caused by it: thus, if the radius of the bend is five times that of the pipe, the loss of head in a deviation of 40° is only one thirty-second ;-where the angle is 60° it is one twenty-first, and for 90° it is one-fourteenth.” In’ order to afford some further explanation of the practical working of this, I proceed to explain some experiments I made. I took a lead pipe 2 in. in diameter internally and 50 ft. long. The end at which the water was poured in was bent up 6 ft. high, and ah the outlet end ===} 4 , only 1 ft. high; | 22 the height of i 4 the inlet above _SJ** < the outlet being * thus 5 ft. When the water flowed full bore out of the lower end it only rose up into the air about 3in. high, thus showing a loss of head of about 4ft. 9 in.; when, however, the orifice was contracted to +in. in diameter, then the water spouted up into the air about 3 ft. high above the orifice. The explanation of this latter result is that for the amount of water emitted from the contracted orifice there was a proportionately less retardation by friction than when the water spouted out full bore from the uncontracted ipe. : is another experiment I took a small gas pipe of only +in. bore and 72ft. long. I joined it at the one end to a small cistern, as per w, Fig. 256. The top of this cistern was 3ft. 6in. higher than the orifice of the other end of the pipe, which other end was bent up as shown at x, Fig. 256, about 6 in. above Fig. 256. FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 195 the ground. The length of the horizontal portion of the pipe lying along the ground was, therefore, about 68 ft. Water was poured into the cistern at w, and at first it ran away very freely ; but latterly more slowly. I considered the outflow too little, and believed air in the pipe to be the impeding cause. I therefore put my mouth to the orifice at x, and blew in as hard as possible, trying to blow the air out at the other end; but it was no use, the 3ft. 6in. of pressure at the cistern end being too much, it seemed, to blow against. I therefore temporarily raised the end of the pipe at x as high as the cistern w, and waited a little, when the water at the end x rose up as high asin w. I then blew into the end x again, when several bubbles of air came up through the waterin w. The end of the pipe at x was then lowered down again to its original position, Gin. above the ground, when, so long as the supply continued at w, the water poured out freely from the orifice at x, coming with such force as to rise up full bore into the air about 4 in. high, as per y, Fig. 256. This 4in. rise of the water while coming out full borewas no great height, yet seeing that the pipe was only +in. bore and 72 ft. long, and the pressure or head of water above the orifice only 38 ft. 6in., 1t was pretty ood. ; I tried how much water came in a given time, and found that it took six minutes to run off one gallon, which was at the rate of 240 gals. aday. From this it will be seen, therefore, that in a }-in. pipe, 72 ft. long, with a head in the cistern, above the orifice, of 3 ft. 6 in., the loss of head when the water flowed out full bore was 3ft. 54in. It must not be supposed, however (and this is a point I wish to draw particular attention to), that this 3 ft. 53in. of loss of head at the orifice, as per y, Fig. 256, means that the water will rise no higher. If any one thinks so, then he thinks wrongly ; for, in reality, this 3 ft. 53 in. of loss of head simply means that when coming out full bore out of the orifice the water, in this case, though with a head of 3ft. 6in., after passing through a }-in. pipe K 196 PLUMBING. 72 ft. long, comes so slowly that the strength of the current is only able to cause the water to spout up into the air Jin. high. If, however, the orifice of this }-in, pipe be contracted, which I did by squeezing it together with a pair of nippers, then the water spouts up at once to nearly 2 ft. above the orifice, as per z, Fig. 256. Further, as showing the loss of head does not mean that water, if properly guided, refuses to rise up to its level after passing through a long pipe, I put another small cistern upon the outlet end of my 72 ft. of }-in. pipe, and set it up as per A, Fig. 257, at the same level as the cistern w, Fig. 257. I then poured water into w, and it soon rose up in A to the same height as in w. At least, if there was any slight difference in favour of w, it was so slight that I was unable to detect it. If, however, I had either put on a small bib-crane, as at B, tse 207, or instead pierced a hole there, then so -—4 long as either was open the water e would be pre- vented from rising up into the cistern Fig. 267. A. This is one thing that engineers have to consider when drawing out their plans for the water-supply of towns. They must put in pipes of such sufficient size as that, when the near or low end of a street, &c., is drawing off water, sufficient water will be left to supply the other end. From the foregoing it is apparent that friction retards the flow of water very much, yet, even although the distance between two cisterns be ereat, if sufficient time be allowed, versus friction, the water will ulti- mately stand at the same level in both cisterns, unless, indeed, where the connecting pipe is so small as to allow evaporation to show a fraction of difference in favour of the first cistern. Of course, evaporation may affect the first cistern also; but said first cistern being nearer the fountain-head, or having a larger and quicker supply, evaporation need not be taken into account regarding it. FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 197 As an example of the distance which water can flow between cisterns upon the same level I shall quote the following, kindly given by a correspondent of the Building News (p. 189, January 29th, 1875). “ At Ely station on the G.E.R. is a tank which supplies the engines with water; at Ely Junction is a smaller tank built for the same purpose. The tanks are on a level, are 13 miles apart, and are connected by a 38-in. pipe laid under ground descending from the larger tank, and ascending to the bottom of the smaller one. The water is pumped into the larger tank at the station, and flows into the smaller one at the junction without causing any A. Figs. 258 and 259. trouble whatever. . . . Atleast 20,000 gallons of water per day are taken from the smaller tank.” In another case water was supplied by gravitation through a pipe a mile long, and which, in its course, dipped down to the bottom of an intervening glen. The cistern receiving the water was not much below the level of the fountain-head, and the pipe was not more than an inch bore, and no difficulty was experienced in getting the cistern filled. ie 1 shall close this article upon the Flow of Water with a quotation from a paper read before the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, December 2nd, 1874, by Mr. Alexander Morton, relative to experiments made by 198 PLUMBING. him upon fluid jets and induced currents. Mr. Morton has kindly permitted me to do so :— Beep “The apparatus shown in section by Fig. 258, consists of a simple conoidal nozzle screwed into the body of the inlet or supply-tube, which nozzle, when supplied with a head pressure of water of from 8 to 10 ft., discharged a jet vertically to within 1 ft. of the height of the supply level, when there was little or no rotary motion in the jet on leaving the nozzle. To prevent this revolving motion I used a cross piece, shown in plan, Fig. 259, in the wide end of the nozzle, as I found it almost impossible to get steady results without it. Water falling freely through a tube, although per- fectly straight and free from any knees or bends, has always an inclination to revolve in some direction in its onward course, and often leaves the nozzle with such a velocity that the jet becomes broken into spray at a short distance from it. Certain knees and bends so increase the revolving motion, that the cen- trifugal force on issuing from the nozzle may nearly equal the impelling forward force of the jet; hence the necessity of a ‘cross piece’ in every experi- ment, as steadiness and accuracy are of the greatest importance in obtaining definite results. With the apparatus, Fig. 258, suspended by a flexible india-rubber tube, as shown by Fig. 260, the reaction of the jet may be approximately obtained by measuring the angle to which it has been deflected; but in my experiments, to obtain the greatest deflection with a given area of nozzle was my sole aim. To define the FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPES. 199 exact reaction of a given jet formed no part of these experiments ; but when the ‘cross piece’ was in place, the simple conoidal nozzle, delivering freely into the atmosphere, gave the greatest reaction, and the impelled jet rose to the greatest height. “The apparatus shown by Fig. 261 has a trumpet- mouthed discharge-tube, the narrow end or throat of which is of exactly the same form and size as the simple ~ nozzle, Fig. 258; and when supplied from the same head of water it will deliver more than double the quantity of water ina given time of that issuing from the simple nozzle ; therefore the velocity of the jet at the throat must be also more than double, as the areas of both are UNA PW Z ZawW eS, ‘ ore Lhed WE = Se ee NN == WWI ggg Fig. 261. exactly equal. It may be asked, why such an increase in quantity ? In answer, I can only say that I account for it through some unknown or not yet satisfactorily explained action of the enlarging jet. This action we can see going on within the tube, and can prevent it by greasing the internal surface when water is the fluid passing through it; but within such a tube there lies a secret, which may be explained hereafter. I had newly finished a gun-metal tube which I considered of a better form than any I had previously tried, and having polished the inside of it first with fine emery and oil, and then with crocus and oil, it was therefore, although smooth, very greasy, and on experimenting 200 PLUMBING. with it I became bewildered at the inferior and unsteady results; but on substituting an old tube not greasy, immediately the delivery increased and the results became steady as usual, thus proving the fault to lie in the greasy tube. ““T have said that with about 9 ft. head more than double the quantity of water would be delivered ; but, on lowering the head, thereby reducing the water pres- sure, a still greater quantity will issue, even as much as three to four times that delivered through Fig. 258, with the same head. Near the throat of the discharge tube there is a constant vacuum, so that the jet of water tushing through the throat attains the velocity due to the head plus the vacuum; whereas with the simple nozzle, Fig. 258, the greatest velocity through it can only be that due to the head alone minus the friction.” In a discussion which followed Mr. Jas. R. Napier obsorved that he had seen the conoidal nozzle and widening discharge tube very usefully applied in the city of New York. The town lots were, he believed, rated for water according to their area, and the proprie- tors thereby became entitled to a certain area of pipe from the main. The citizens, in order, apparently, to make the most of this right, have manufactured conoidal nozzles with widening discharge tubes beautifully polished internally. The small end (inserted in the main) has the legal area, while from the other a pipe of three or four times the diameter may lead to the premises. On page 197 reference is made to water coming through a l-in. pipe a mile long. I may state that at the residence of Mr. R. B. Robertson-Glasgow, of Montgreenan, Scotland, I took out a #-in. lead pipe above a mile long which had been supplying the house with water by gravitation from a well higher than the house for a number of years back. The pipe being eaten and leaking in a number of places, and a larger supply wanted, I got orders to take it out and put in a 2-in. cast-iron pipe instead, and also build a larger additional tank. The water is on through the iron pipe, the new tank being finished as I am revising this edition, July, 1882. CHAPTER XXVIII. ScIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. Many people of late have been troubling their minds very much as to whether or not their water-closets were safe, and it was amusing to hear some of the observations made. One gentleman, c.g., made the remark that he felt bound to believe in the truth of the statement that gases come through water, ‘‘ for,’ con- tinued he, “when I sit down upon our w.c., I often feel a cold draught of air coming up, which is anything but agreeable!” Now this “cold draught” here spoken of is a common complaint, but it has nothing eames wwe ——s Fig. 262. Fig. 263. to do with gas coming through the water, for if it were gas that caused the draught in the case above referred to, the water in the pan would be bubbling up as if it were boiling. Generally speaking, the “cold draught ”’ here referred to is a current of fresh air coming up between the flooring and the wall, and which, taking any opening it can get, blows out between the top of the water-closet basin and the bottom of the seat.* ‘This * There is room for improvement as to stopping these air passages, as while they can admit cold air sometimes into the closet apartment, they at other times allow stinking air to pass out of it. Even in water-closet enclosures provided with special fresh-air inlet and foul- air outlet ventilation, the passage of personal smell when the closet is kK 3 202 PLUMBING. can be easily cured by simply fixing on with 4-in. tacks to that portion of the under side of the wooden seat, all round, right above the rim of the water-closet: basin, a piece of 4-in. or 8-in. thin india-rubber tube about 4 ft. long, as shown under kK k, Fig. 264. Small holes are cut out on the under side of the tube (as per Fig. 262, which shows cross-section of it), 2 in. apart, as per Fig. 263, which shows longitudinal section. Of course the distance between the top of the basin and the under side of the seat must be made to suit the tube, say about, or less, than 4 in. all round. In putting on the wood-work, the joiner should see that the top and front of the water-closet seat are so fitted that they can be taken off and put on quite easily, just like a glove. I have of late adopted brass slip-bolts for the front. They are sunk flush. In regard to putting up a water-closet in the interior of a house from which, so far as it and its pipes are concerned, all danger from sewer or drain gases may be practically debarred, the adjoined sketch, Fig. 264, will easily show. The water-closet in the sketch is supposed to be situated in the upper floor of a two-story house ; but, supposing it were a three or a four-story — house, the arrangement of the pipes would be the same. A, Fig. 264, is the surface of the ground outside, B is one of my patent 6-inch vitrified fire-clay ventilating siphon-traps, cis a strong cast-iron grating, 10 in. square, and perforated with sixty-four 3-in. holes.* It is let into a stone; through the centre of this stone an 8-in. round hole is cut. A second grating made of tinned or galvanised wire, or perforated zinc, may also be put in, as shown, to keep out rats or stones when the top grating c is off. By taking off these gratings at c, in use into other apartments near—perhaps bedrooms—is often not properly guarded against, even although the position marked off for the closet should have caused special precautions to be taken when the house was being built. Up to this date we are a disgustingly un- civilised nation as to this, the general practice being a disgrace both to rulers and to people. * The grating may be larger and have more holes init according to taste. I use the gratings 8, 10, 12, and 18 inches square, with 86, 64, 100, and 196 holes, as best suits the case. Also see Fig. 293. SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 203 the hand can be easily got in to clean out the siphon- trap B, should such ever be necessary. Tor extra _ precaution against frost, a lead disc may be suspended from the iron Wire grating, as shown at u, Fig. 274.* In regard to the drain into which the siphon- trap B is led, it must be seen that due provision is made for its venti- lation quite apart from anything in Vig. 264. pb is the soil-pipe from the water-closet, the perpendicular por- tion of which is supposed to be composed of 4- inch cast-iron pipes, with a 4- j in. iron elbow at j the junction with Ree Seat | // Poors ROMA Ee Wo the fire-clay si- \e Y ... AY 7 \ vhon-trap. (if it == ~ S were for Bramah water -closets, I pipes to be 44 AG GV in. internally.) At Ya i the top of the 4- in. iron pipe, a 4-in. lead bend is put in, as shown * The long frost of 1878-79 has passed, and I have not heard of a single case of one of these traps freezing, and 99 per cent. have no lead disc. ‘The trap fitted as in Fig. 293 is still less liable to freeze. 204 PLUMBING. at E; it goes through the wall, and is soldered to the lead siphon-trap Fr. G is the 4-in. cast-iron or zine ventilating pipe.* Upon its top a self-acting Induced- Current Fixed Ventilator may be placed if wished ; the cold or fresh air entering at c rises up through D, £, and Gc, and goes out at H, carrying with it whatever gaseous exhalations may arise from off the interior of the pipe, thereby lessening any danger from the soil-pipe by preventing the accumulation of any bad gas or foul air within it. J is the safe pipe: it must be joined 2 in. below the surface of the water in the trap, as shown.t Underneath x x, the two small circles show the position of the india-rubber tube put in’ to stop the cold air draught as above referred to. Lis the water-closet trunk, made of cast iron, it being a common pan water-closet that is shown. In connection with 1, a new feature is here shown, viz. the two 3-in. venti- lating pipes, M and n, leading upwards to the outer air from off the top of L; they are put in to carry off any foul air which might, from any cause, arise in the interior of the trunk x. It will be seen that they act upon the same principle as the hot and cold water revolymg pipes in connection with a kitchen boiler. The cold fresh air comes in down through m, while the warmer and lighter air in the trunk rises up through n. The lower portion of m projects down into the trunk about 5 in., while N goes right off the top. As the action of the pipes m and n, Fig. 264 (also of A and B, Fig. 265), is continuous, they must be of great value for water-closets put up in confined situa- tions, or put up in or near bedrooms. I must here again observe that these ventilating pipes mM and n— whether carried up through the roof, as shown in Fig. 264, or led out through the wall—must always go up or out per se to the fresh air, and upon no account can either of them be allowed to be joined either to * The iron is best. The soil-pipe in Fig 264 is shown owtside the wall, which is a safeguard against sewage gas, and is so ordered in the by-laws of the Local Government Board. t Orit may be carried through the wall from back of safe, with a hinged valve on its outlet end. SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 205 the soil-pipe or to the ventilating pipe of the soil-pipe. Any plumber wilfully acting in defiance of this warn- ing may find that he may, perhaps, leave the way open for a charge of manslaughter. Pos- sibly a mistake upon this point has been the = cause of the illness of many people, as ex plained at Tig. 160, Chapter XIV. 0, Fig. 264, is a ventilator for the space or enclosure in which the water-closet is situated; a simple hinged valve is attached to the bottom, by which it may be opened and shut as desired. When opened, an upward current is assisted by my Induced-Current Fixed Ventilator upon the top. Iam glad to be able to state that Dr. J. B. Russell, Medical Officer of the Sanitary Depart- ment, Glasgow, and Mr. Kenneth Macleod, Sanitary Inspector, express their warm approval of the style of trapping and ventilation shown by Fig. 264, and con- sider it a decided advance as regards safety upon any system of water-closet fitting yet brought before the public.* As it is possible some may ask how to connect the venti- lating pipes M and nN to the iron top or cover-plate of the water- closet trunk, so that they may be firmly attached, and also readily detached when required, I may say, take a 3-in. brass screwed ferrule p, Fig. 266, and fit on a brass nut @ upon its screwed end. To the plain end solder a $-in.brass gas coupling R, then to the other end of the coupling r the ventilating pipe M or N 1s soldered. By means of the coupling 8 the cover-plate —s shows a portion thereof—can be easily got away or Q SoH Fig. 266. * This is independent of the particular closet shown, as there are better closets than the pan one. 206 PLUMBING. detached when wished, For a Bramah water-closet a straight ferrule may sometimes be more suitable than the bent one P, as the ferrule in the case of the Bramah will be let into the side of its small trunk. Instead of soldering a gas coupling and ferrule together, the coup- ling and ferrule may be got complete from any proper brassfounder. In putting on the iron cover of the pan water-closet trunk, it should be seen to that it is made all tight with putty, especially at the journal. The brass bush should rest on the edge of the iron trunk when properly done. I may here observe, in reference to the pan water- closet shown at 1, Fig. 264, that two objections have often been made against it, viz. the puff-up of bad smell that would often come when the handle was hfted (but which the ventilating pipes mM and wn will cure), and the copper pan often giving way and getting holed in a short time. This latter objection is a com- mon fault, as I have seen new pans holed in a few days, and often in a few weeks or months, whereas they should last for years. So far as the pan was to blame, the fault lay in the copper being only coated or pro- tected on the one side; for in the cases I refer to the pans were not holed from the inside, but from the out- side, owing to the urine or medicine overflowing and running down the outside of the pan, and where it did run down, it eat into the wnprotected copper. It has been supposed that the hand-made or hammered pan was much better than the spun one, but I consider that to be a mere fanciful notion, as those that were eaten, as above stated, were hammered pans. A 1}-lb. spun pan, while as good as a 14-lb. hammered one— 1i lb. is the least weight that ought to be used—is also a good deal cheaper. To put a stop, therefore, to this corrosion of the pans from the outside, and give the pan closet fair play, I had manufactured “ double- coated’ copper pans, and pans coated on both sides are the only ones I have been using for some time back. The extra price is not much, while the dura- bility has turned out to be considerably greater. The SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 207 particular coating I wished to introduce was lead, but tin being more easily applied has been that generally used. Notwithstanding these improvements which I made upon it, because it isin such general use, yet upon the whole I cannot recommend the pan closet as a good sanitary appliance. It has far too much dirt- collecting surface about it, the greater part out of sight, and all upon the house side of the watcr-trap, too. For these reasons its use ought to be discontinued, and water-closets upon the ‘“ wash-down” principle em- ployed instead, which have nothing out of sight upon YMU MW, E70 Vi WWMM. the house side of the trap, but in which the water in the trap is always open to view, the whole closet being above the floor. ‘The closets in Fig. 269 are in this style. In regard to Fig. 264, it will be seen that the water- closet is placed next to one of the outer walls of the house; but supposing the water-closet were situated on an upper flat in the centre of the house, the same prin- ciple could be adopted, either by having the soil-pipe the same as in Fig. 264, with, instead of the water- 208 PLUMBING. closet siphon-trap being attached near to the top of the perpendicular portion of the soil-pipe, a long piece of horizontal, or rather slightly inclined, soil~pipe of the requisite length inserted between the 43-in. lead siphon-trap and the perpendicular soil-pipe. In this latter case the ventilating pipe, in place of being put in perpendicularly above the soil-pipe, as per 4G, Fig. 264, would be carried up from close to wherever the lead siphon-trap was situated, so as to ventilate both the perpendicular and horizontal portions of the soil-pipe at one and the same time. Or, in place of’ adopting this plan, circumstances might cause the plan shown in Fig. 267 to be adopted, the soil-pipe at once dropping down perpendicularly from the outlet of the siphon-trap, and a 2 or 23-in. lead or iron venti: Vi fy YL Yj . YL Yip le “yy Wes, ss OY “ff 4 Nfs yy ti, ae Ui YY q Wy tf , lating pipe being inserted as at T, and carried out through the wall, an iron grating being put on as at v, and the pipe where it passes through the wall built round with cement. v, Fig. 267, is a 44-in. lead siphon-trap, with a brass cleansing screw put in wher- ever it can be most handily got at afterwards.* Instead of the lead siphon-trap v, Fig. 267, which is put in above the ground, a 6-in. disconnecting trap, with an iron hinged lid and cleansing eye, may be put in as per Fig. 268, below the ground. By the simple inser- tion of this fire-clay trap, Fig. 268, at the bottom of a perpendicular soil-pipe, into which several water- closets were branched, complaints from the tenants * In May, 1866,I used this style of trapping and ventilation, but it would be an improvement to add a ventilating-pipe from the top of the outgo of the trap to the outer air, and carried up high enough. SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 209 above (as in flatted houses) of bad smells and rats have often at once ceased. These bad smells were generally worse when chemical refuse was discharged into the sewer. Had the drains put in been of good vitrified fire- clay pipe, properly and solidly laid, and securely jointed with good cement, especially in the bottom, and a fire- clay siphon-trap put in to stop the sewer gas from getting into the house-drain, these sewer smells might have been pretty effectually kept out. But bad smells are often generated in houses from the common but very annoying masonic practice of touching up the joints most artistically upon the top, while at the bottom they are left quite open. I have not said anything about the overflow of the water-closet cistern, but instead of connecting it anywhere to the soil-pipe, one plan used is to make the air-pipe of the water- closet service-box act both as air-pipe and overflow- pipe. A better plan is to discharge the overflow to the outside, when the water is used for drinking purposes. Other styles may befoundin Chapter XV. In Glasgow the rule for new work (which came into force Ist January, 1876) is that the overflows of cisterns must dis- charge at a conspicuous place above ground, outside or else overhead, within the premises. In connection with Fig. 264, it has been shown that, by the insertion of the ventilating siphon-trap 8, direct communication with the water-closet soil-pipe and the drain has been cut off, thus rendering the water-closet safe. How much more, therefore, would fixed wash- hand basins in dressing-rooms and bedrooms be made practically safe if they were properly fitted up upon the same principle? viz. a 2-in. deep-locked lead siphon-trap at the basin, with a 24-in. waste-pipe leading down therefrom and discharging above the surface of the water in a ventilated siphon-trap ; the 24-in. waste- pipe being ventilated at its top out to the outer air.* Fig. 269 will help to give an idea of a wash-hand basin situated on the upper floor of a two-story house, * The open air-channel style, shown in Fig. 284, may be used. 210 PLUMBING. and the waste-pipe leading down into a ventilating siphon-trap under the ground. In this case the waste- , pipe does not gene- rally require to have a ventilating pipe carried up to the roof, _ as did the soil-pipe in Fig. 264, but in- stead, the top of the waste-pipe may have a number of 3-in. holes bored near its top for ventilation, as shown at B, Fig. 269. An air-pipe, as ~ \ at p, Fig. 206, is \N derstood to be put \ \\ : un p KK inandled outthrough Fig. 269, the wall. The size of ventilating drain- trap at Fig. 269, is 4 in. For full particulars as to the basin fittings themselves, see Chapter XIX. I have observed of late some persons asserting that by putting on a ventilating trap at the bottom, and a certain rotating ventilating cowl upon the top, of a main soil-pipe having water-closets, baths, basins, and sink all branched into it, that thereby the use of a lead siphon-trap may be dispensed with, not only for the closets but also for the baths, basins, and sink! I con- sider such an idea a highly dangerous mistake, for the cowl would be of little use when there was no wind, especially if the action of the fires in the house could have any effect upon the soil-pipe, or, as I have seen, it might be stuck fast and its tail to the wind. Then every time a closet was used a stinking puff-out would take place at each basin, bath, or sink. This is the reason, I suppose, why siphon-traps have been put on for the bath and sink at Guy’s Hospital,* notwithstand- * See Plate VII. in Mr. E. G. Banner’s pamphlet on “ Wholesome Tlouses,” published by Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Co., or Fig. 17 SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 211 ing the trap and cowl above referred to are upon the soiul-pipe. Without the siphon-traps the soil-pipe would be apt to act as a disagreeable speaking tube, as well as a stinking inlet ventilating-pipe. Above twenty years ago I saw sinks that had been fitted up without siphon-traps, had afterwards to get them put in, even although the waste-pipe discharged above the ground. It was found that dirty water put down one sink caused a rush of stinking air to come out at the other sinks. The putting on of the siphon-traps stopped this and tended to isolate each sink or house by itself, and so not only remedied a nuisance but also acted as a barrier to disease germs entering the house through the waste-pipe. Before closing this chapter upon scientific and safe water-closets, I here show a diagram of one of my patent “ Carmichael” wash-down “closets fitted up and its soil-pipe trapped and ventilated in a way in which I have executed the work at many places lately, especially for houses and schools. B is one of my disconnecting traps, as per Fig. 272. In this case, instead of the fresh air coming in through a perforated iron grating right over the trap, said fresh air comes down inside the rain-water pipe, through the trap, and up the soil- pipe and out at the Induced-Current Fixed Ventilator, c, which causes the current of air to move through the pipes. This plan is very useful where the trap is quite close to a door, or where the open grating, as at a school, would be a temptation tothe boys to be peering down in a newer edition, which proves that the remarks of mine referred to at page 49 of said pamphlet, and at page 1065 of newer edition, published elsewhere, were right after all. At page 487 of Building News for October 22nd, 1880, the Architect, Mr. Arthur Billing, admits the waste- pipes were dent, so as to serve the purpose of a siphon trap. Sce also page 63 of the Plumber and Decorator for April, 1881. Further, at pp. 376, 377, of the Sanitary Record for June 15th, 1877, Mr. Ernest Turner, F.R.LB.A. -, gives an account of certain experiments made by him and also by me, in which the danger in practice of the above idea was clearly demonstrated; and now Mr. John P. Seddon, F.R.I.B.A., on pp. 831—832 of the Building News for June 30th, 1882, states that the attempt to do without the lead trap on the waste- -pipe of his own bath had ended in failure, owing to the bad smell that came up the pipe. 212 PLUMBING. through the holes, or dropping small stones or sticks if =f a. Cc \Z = yr : Fig. 2694. into the trap through the apertures to see the effect. SCIENTIFIC AND SAFE WATER-CLOSETS. 213 Fig. 293 style of filling in the trap is sometimes used to guard against this latter trick. Fig. 293 belongs to the low level inlet and high level outlet style of venti- lation, while Fig. 2694, which I am here describing, shows both inlet and outlet at a /egh level. The closet H here shown has no working parts about it to get out of order, while the water in the trap is above the floor and in sight. So there are no out-of-view dirt-collecting corners about it to stink. The water-flush is effected and the closet cleaned out by simply pulling down the handle or cord 1, the water being supplied from the cistern K. Of course several closets may branch into this same soil-pipe, although I only show one here to illustrate the principle. Where it is wished to ventilate the drain s beyond the trap, a special up-cast ventilating pipe may be put up and surmounted with one of my Induced-Current Fixed Ventilators a, as shown, ég., at D, Fig. 301. I may here again condemn the dangerous unhygienic pseudo-water-saving policy of restricting the water- flush of a closet to only two gallons. Four gallons a flush would be more sensible. I am glad to find a number of practical sanitarians join in disapproving of this foolish curtailment of the water-supply for closets, There is a happy mean in everything, but the two- gallons flush is a long way below it, and the sooner the law is altered, wherever it is in force, upon this point so much the better for the proper working of closet and drains. In connection with this many civil engi- neers are very poor sanitary engineers. CHAPTER XXVIII. Water-Croset DIsINFECTANTS. Tue simplest disinfectant for general use is the atmo- sphere. Proper ventilation should therefore be seen to in connection with all water-closets and their sites. What I have termed the oxvygenous disinfectant (which is supplied gratis by its universal dispenser Mr. Atmo- sphere upon proper application), has been already referred to in explaining the action of the two pipes, m and Nn, Fig. 264, the simple effect of the circulation of the air through the interior of the w.c. trunk consti- tuting said pretty good, although so cheap, oxygenous disinfectant. When sickness is in a house, it is often desirable to supplement the action of the atmosphere, hence certain manufactured disinfectants, like medicines, require to be used. One that has been highly recom- mended is chloralum. It may be applied automatically by means of apparatus fitted in near the water-closet for that purpose. Mr. Jennings, of London, supplies an ‘“ Automatic Disinfector”’ for 42s., which, after it is fitted up, discharges so much chloralum intothe pan each time the water-closet handle is pulled. Mr. John Baker, 5, Dover Terrace, Southsea, and Mr. C. Nicholas, plumber, Cheltenham, claim to have invented and patented appa- ratus for this purpose. The worst of these disinfectors is, that unless the supply of the disinfectant is kept up, which costs both money and time, the apparatus is then useless, people getting tired of the trouble, unless during the prevalence of fever either in or near the house. Instead of using these “Automatic Disin- WATER-CLOSET DISINFECTANTS. 215 fectors,’ many persons content themselves with pour- ing the disinfectant down the closet by hand. The following extract from ‘ Healthy Houses,” by Mr. William Kassie, C.E.,* will be found both useful and interesting :—“ The disinfectant used in a household ought certainly to be a non-poisonous one. Fortu- nately, or unfortunately, there is not any choice, for the only one of this description is chloralum, now adopted by the Board of Trade. This is the popular name bestowed upon it by its inventor, Professor Gamgee. It contains 1,500 grains of hydrated chloride of aluminum to the pint, or about 75 grains to the ounce, and is sold in a fluid and solid state. Slightly diluted, the former will disinfect secretions in the utensils of a sick-room; and exposed in a saucer in its concentrated form, I have found it to remove even the smell which is given off by a newly painted room. In its powdered state it may be sprinkled in cellars, larders, dust-bins, ash-pits, stables, piggeries, poultry houses, and wherever a smell is continually arising. In the deodorization of sewage, whilst being pumped over the garden, one gallon of the fluid, or three pounds of the powder, will suffice for 150 gallons of sewage.” As regards the disinfection of clothing in the laundry, Mrs. Meredith, the patroness of the Discharged Female Prisoners’ Aid Society, lately wrote to the Standard newspaper as under :— “The articles taken in for the wash are fairly sprinkled with chloralum powder ; they are then packed in sacks, in which they remain for about two hours, when they arrive at the wash-house. They are then unpacked, and shaken singly. After this they are put in a large tank, where a great quantity of water flows over and through them. In this way they rest for at least twelve hours. They are then wrung out, and undergo the ordinary process of washing. It is highly * For some time back Mr. Eassie has been engaged upon a new Dictionary of Sanitary Appliances, which seemed likely to be a valuable contribution to sanitary literature. The articles have been appearing in the Sanitary Recerd (London). 216 PLUMBING. satisfactory to add that not the least deterioration of texture or colour results.” According to Dr. John Dougall, Glasgow, who has studied this subject closely, the best aerial disinfectant is the fumes of burning sulphur.* The use of carbolic acid is, however, condemned as illusory. As to sulphur, wefind Homer, in the Odyssey, bk. xxil., saying of Ulysses, that— ‘‘ With fire and sulphur, cure of noxious fumes, He purged the walls and blood-polluted rooms.” * The disinfectant he uses for typhoid excreta is hydrochloric acid or ‘‘spirits of salts,” diluted in twenty times its bulk of water. CHAPTER XXIX. Improvep System or Houszt DraAtinace. Untit lately the style of the fire-clay siphon-trap that was generally put upon house-drains isthat shown in Fig. 270, but, as will be easily seen, while this provides for the locking off of the gas from the common sewer, no provision is made by it for the ventilation of the house- drain.* A slight but highly-important alteration, how- ever, made in its shape, as per Fig. 271 (which shows perpendicular section, just as does Fig. 270), not only shuts off the gas from the common sewer, but also Fig. 271. allows the drain leading down from the house to be ventilated. One great objection, however, I make to the style of trap in Fig. 271 is that the surface of water exposed at x is far too great, while no provision is made to prevent the lodgment and accumulation of floating faeces, Kc., at x, Fig. 271. On this latter pomt Fig. 271 is no worse than many other traps; that is no reason, how- ever, why the objection should continue to exist. Upon thinking over the matter, therefore, a new form of * Neither is any provision made for cleansing the house side of the trap, as the cleansing eye, A, only provides for clearing out the feces and sediment which accumulate in the middle of the trap. In fact this Fig. 270 style of trap is a very dirty and unsanitary appliance. L 218 PLUMBING, siphon-trap came into my mind, and ag it not only removed all the above objections, but was also quite simple, and capable of being easily adapted to existing Fig. 272. No. 1 Trap. FOR JOINTING. CLEANSING OF EXIT OF SEWAGE GAS \V—¥zz \ S KS Hig 2724. No, 2. Trap. drains, and to Many various purposes in connection with house-drainage in general, I, in April, 1875, applied for Letters Patent for it, and made arrangements IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 219 with Messrs. J. & M. Craig, Kilmarnock, Scotland, for its manufacture,” and its wide and increasing popularity shows that it supplied a public want ; it combines simpli- city and cheapness with thorough efficiency and ready adaptability in a manner that is not found in any other trap.t This is partly due to the “‘cascade-action,” as Professor James ‘Thomson, of the University of Glasgow, termed it, of the water when flowing into the well y of the trap, and to its simple siphon form. Figs. 272 and 272 show vertical sections of Nos. 1 and 2 forms of this new patent disconnecting ventilating siphon-trap. They can be had with seat. In the 6-in. size, which is very suitable for either single water-closets or the main drain of small houses or single tenements, the surface of water exposed at y, Fig. 272, is under one-fifth of a square foot. Owing to this and the drop of 2 in. or so which the water gets in falling from the drain branch, w, into the well of the trap at y, the objections made above against Fig. 271 are removed in Fig. 272, and instead of the flow-down of the water merely running away underneath the floating feeces as at x, Fig. 271, the fall of the water at y, Fig. 272, breaks up and carries away the feces, &c., thus leaving comparatively pure water always at y, Fig. 272, in place of the usual accumulations of filth. In setting these traps the best plan is to fill them with water, which shows the exact amount of both the drop and water-lock.t The No. 2 form is the better one to use. * They have agents and depdts in many cities and towns. + In regard to the value of the vertical drop Mr. Baldwin Latham states that he tried such a trap at his own house, where.it “ has been in operation for over two years, and has so far answered perfectly.” While Mr. John Honeyman, F.R.I.B.A., Architect, Glasgow, the inventor of the Somerset trap, wrote to me, that he considered the vertical drop a distinct improvement upon his own trap, and that he would use my trap in preference. If the drains are tight, Fig. 272 trap will show leakage of the water supply. All the drain traps with round edge on the house side of the trap are much inferior in action to this patent one of mine, with its sharp square edge at w. + At the Philosophical Society’s Exhibition, Glasgow, 1880, the only first class award with medal granted in the Sanitary Section to any exhibit in fire-clay was awarded to this trap ; while at the International Medical and Sanitary Exhibition, London, 1881, it received two first class awards; also first clays award at Exeter. payee 220 PLUMBING. The amount of water-lock or dip of the tongue 2, Fig. 272, into the water is to be as near as possible 14 in.: more is unnecessary and does more harm than good. Dr. Fergus agrees with me upon this point. In the case of the lead siphon-traps, especially for basins and baths zuside the house, I recommended a greater water-lock, but the circumstances are quite different. At page 70 of ‘Reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council and Local Government Board,” New Series, No. VII. a.p. 1876, Dr. George Buchanan, in his report upon the outbreak of enteric fever at Croydon, recommends the use of a trap upon a similar principle to mine to be placed between the house and the sewer; while Mr. Baldwin Latham, at page 408 of the new 1878 edition of his elaborate work on ‘Sanitary Engineering,” after describing the recent Model By-Laws issued by the Local Govern- ment Board in reference to House Drainage, says :— “This is, in fact, the system patented in April, 1875, by - Mr. W. P. Buchan,” &c. The portion of my patent which agrees with the Model By-Laws is Fig. 53, but Fig. 5a (see Fig. 264) of said patent, where it can be applied, and I have often done it in conjunction with Fig. 5n, is better. Fig. 273, with. the soil-pipe going up outside of the wall, shows the plan ordered in the Model By-Laws, while Fig. 264 agrees with clause 15, page 9, of the “Suggestions” as to drainage, &c., drawn up by Mr. Rawlinson, C.B., C.H., for the Local Government Board, and published at the end of 1878. I have said that the surface of the water exposed at y, Fig. 272, is, for the 6-in. trap, under one-fifth of a square foot. This amount for that size, however, is equal to the full area of the pipe. For sizes say at. 9 in. and upwards, I think the surface of the water exposed at y, Fig. 272, might sometimes be less than the full area of the pipe. This will be arrived at by contract- ing the well on something the same principle that the key-hole of a stop-cock or water-valve is contracted. Fig. 274 gives an idea of a 9-in. trap so contracted at the well, the diameter being about 7 in. at the surface IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. Pade of the water in place of 9 in. Whether therefore the area of the water in the well of my trap be less than the area of the drain-pipe, or just the same, as is generally the case, it will be at once seen that the principle involved in the construction and _ practical operation of said trap is quite different from the siphon- traps used so much hitherto in England, where the area of the surface of water exposed in the trap will be about six times the areaof the pipe. This is absurd, as its effect is to allow a larger evaporating surface for foul air, while the rush of water into the trap is unable to keep it clean. Fig. 150, page 488 of Mr. Latham’s “Sanitary Engineering,” shows such a form of trap, but unless where used as a grease interceptor and sand-pot, the sooner its use is discontinued the better for the credit of sanitary science. Atu, Fig. 274, a movable lead frost-protecting disc is shown suspended by four brass chains made of tinned brass wire. ‘These chains hang from the wire grating. I do not suppose half-a-dozen of these discs have been used, and although many thousands of these traps are now on drains, I did not hear of even one freezing during the prolonged frost of 1878-79, nor since. By the insertion, therefore, of such a simple yet efficient style of ventilating trap as Fig. 272 or Fig. 2724, which is better (fig. 273 shows one mode of application), the foul gas from the sewer is not only kept back as formerly, but also, in addition, the inner side of the siphon-trap at w, in conjunction with the opening at A, serves as a ventilator for the house-drain, preventing that accumulation and concentration of drain-gas, the horrid smell from which I have so often felt proceeding from an opening newly made into that portion of the house-drain just behind the old form of siphon-trap. It follows, therefore, that supposing the drain inside of the house to be leaking, the fresh air coming in through a, Fig. 273, dilutes any bad gas in the drain greatly, and makes it less dangerous. Greater safety to the inmates is, however, derived from the use of the Sectional System of drainage, Py ape PLUMBING. where a special shaft is put up to ventilate the drain, WL Lb VF Fh. yt tid “Php, MN UY YY 9 ppp, 4 M4, “DY, g , ty WLLL Yy ys aN : WN LEAL GL nor Zz ——s SSS A A LS Ui ify, Wy 5 ee eer WA ..—.\V7 Wud 3 WY wn nn nn He -- 5 nn ee eB ee ene - Se Q VENTILATING PIPE FOR SEWER N (IF WISHED) Fig. ‘273. and the soil-pipe trapped off from the drain at the IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 223 bottom and ventilated per se. I explain this else- where.* In cases where there is danger of a pressure of sewer- gas forcing itself past the dip or tongue of the siphon- trap, or where it is wished to ventilate the sewer, this may be guarded against, or accomplished, by either putting in a ventilating iron pipe up from, or leading one of the rain-water pipes of sufficient size down to £, Fig. 273. In many cases the pure ventilating-pipe would be the proper thing to put in, as during rain the action of the rain-water pipe, as a ventilator for the sewer, would be interfered with, while the mouth of the rain-water pipe might often be badly situated for the sewer gas blowing into the garret under the slates. The top of this pipe, 8, Fig. 273, ought always to be grated, to prevent any rats getting out. Sewer rats can climb up a 3-in. pipe to a great height. With iron gratings in the middle of the street above the sewer, the fresh air might enter down through these gratings and the diluted foul air come out above the roof at c, Fig. 273, where the oxygen of the atmosphere would deodorize it. I designate this the high-level system of outlets for sewer air in contradistinction to the low-level system, which, by using the gratings in the streets both as inlets and outlets, allows the sewer air to blow off under our noses, and what is worse our mouths, in place of high above our heads. Gratings for sewers should be in the middle of the street, and at the centre of crossings, never in the line of or close to the footpath or pavement, as often very badly put in. * As, ¢.g., in Figs. 277, 281, and 301. + See Fig. 283 for the proper way to connect the ventilating-pipe for sewer beyond the trap, viz., up pipe p and along the side pipe H. { Disinfecting the sewage air by means of gas burning in the out- let shaft may sometimes be useful in ventilating sewers and hospital drains, but burning gas means expense and requires attention. 224 PLUMBING. The proper position of the siphon-trap a, Fig. 273, where there is sufficient open space, would be from 8 ft. to 12 ft. out—as found most suitable—from the house, so as to give full and free scope to the admission of the Jresh aw (in various cases the grating is only 1 ft. from the house, yet the traps work satisfactorily, especially when not right opposite and close to a door),* which entering down through the two perforated gratings at A, proceeds along the drain, carrying any foul air in the drain along with it, up through the soil-pipe and out above the roof at r. When the soil-pipe goes up outside of the wall, it is of considerable advantage to the ventilation and the insuring of a constant current of air up through the pipe, to place one of my 4-in. Induced-Current Fixed Ventilators upon the top of the soil-pipe. I tried the Archimedian screw ventilatorst for this purpose, but have given them up, as I find the fixed ventilators act much better, and are not liable to get out of order as they have no moving parts. I have found the foregoing 4-in. fixed ventilators (9 in. dia. in body) draw up at the rate of about one thousand lineal feet per minute during a high wind, while even when there was little wind I have found a good current of air immediately set in through the drain or pipe when the ventilator was put on, where without it there was no movement of air through the pipe. For greater safety so far as the health of the inmates is concerned, the sewer ventilating-pipe when put in should always go up the outside of the house. It should be of iron, so that rats could not eat it, and their passage up it from the sewer must be guarded against. * In cases where the ventilating-trap had to be put in quite close to andin front of the door, I have put an iron close lidimmediately above the trap, and putin a branch at the side with pipe led toa convenient distance back from the door where the fresh air entrance grating was placed, see Fig. 293. Sometimes a rain pipe, as at Fig. 2694, may act as the fresh air inlet. t+ I do not consider the Archimedian screw ventilator a proper appliance for soil-pipes at all, as when it is moving the screw blades prevent the quick admission of air to the soil-pipe when a Closet is discharged, and when not moving, in calm weather, the screw blades choke up the pipe. Some again make a very disagreeable noise when revolving, IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 925 In gentlemen’s houses which have a sunk area at the front of the house, said area is often a good site for a ventilating fire-clay siphon-trap. I have, however, fitted them in all sorts of positions with the most satis- factory results. In cases where they have supplanted the old built cesspools the improvement has been most marked, Some of the very first alterations in this way were done at the instance of Dr. Andrew Fergus of Glasgow, ¢.g., at one place where there was a large built cesspool at the place before, the smell that arose and lasted for a long time after the cover was removed was very bad. A portion of this smell got into the house through the rat-holes. The cesspool was emptied and disinfected with Condy’s fluid and afterwards filled up, while the rat-holes were built up with Roman cement and broken bottles. Why so many of these sewage gas retorts have been set down within a few feet of the front of many of our best west-end houses I cannot understand, as with the help of the rats they are bound a to manufacture head-aches, fevers, &c., for the inmates, more or less, according as the circumstances happen to be favourable. If there were large gardens attached to the houses, and these sewage tanks put in at the bottom of the gardens, to save and utilise sewage, then one might see some object to be gained, but there is nothing of that in the cases referred to. I have said that at a, Fie. 273, there are two grat- ings, the under one—whici: may be made of iron, or brass wire tinned—is put in to prevent stones or rats getting into the drain if the topmost grating were off. Another use of the under grating, Fig. 275, is to serve as a support for charcoal, should it be wished to turn the ventilating-trap into a deodorizing ventilating-trap. I prefer, however, to dispense with the charcval in this gaps: Fig. 275. ~ 226 _ PLUMBING. case, as it stops the draught, and I have considerable faith in the virtues of a good draught of fresh air when judiciously applied. In regard to the question:—And what about the frost? I would mention in reply, that so far as I am aware no particular provision is made to keep off the frost from the water in any other ventilating-trap, reliance being put upon the trap being buried so far in the ground. In the case of a, Fig. 273, however, extra protection is gained from the frost owing to the fact of the surface of the water in the trap being 2 in. or so lower than the bottom of the drain. And in addition - a disc made of 5 lb. sheet-lead or other metal may be suspended by three or four short chains made of tinned brass wire, the insertion of which disc prevents the downward draught of cold air from touching the water in the trap.* At the residence of Dr. W. T. Gairdner (Professor of the Practice of Physic in the University of Glasgow) three of these new ventilating traps were put in in 1875, viz., two 6-in. (one of these 6-in. was for the w.c. off his study, to lock it off from the other drains, as shown in Fig. 264), and one 9-in., and a lead disc put inside each, as shown in the trap at H, Fig. 274. At 24, St. Vincent Crescent, the residence of Mr. Kenneth M. Macleod, Sanitary Inspector for Glasgow, one of these new traps, a 9-in. one, was put in on the main drain leading out to the street, the perforated iron grating or ventilating opening being near the outer edge of the pavement and level with its surface. Various theorists prophesied that the thing would never work, as the bad smell, so they said, would come out at the surface grating. It so happens, how- ever, that no complaint has yet been made upon that score, although the trap has been in some years. Nay, more, at the meeting of the Sanitary and Social Kconomy section of the Philosophical Society of Glas- gow, on 6th March, 1876, Mr. Macleod stated that * Fourteen thousand of these improved traps have now been put in, and not half a dozen have discs, yet 1 have heard of no case of freezing. IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 227 what had been done to his water-closet and the drain had not only cured his own house but also benefited the whole tenement. . These theorists seemed not to be aware that the house-drain is a furnace on a small scale, with the soil- pipe as its shaft, which shaft has also its own little fires so far up it. When therefore a ventilating-trap or opening is put in, as at a, Fig. 2738, a draught up the ventilating-pipe of the soil-pipe is caused by the weight of the fresh air above the grating a, Fig. 2738, being greater than that of the foul gas or warm air within the drain and soil-pipe.* I lately noticed a pro- Beets. position that the upward draught of the air in the soil- pipe would be improved by side air-openings, but that is a mistake, although such when properly put in may help to freshen the soil-pipe. At the West of Scotland Home for Incurables, Broomhill, Kirkintilloch, where, in A.D. 1875, two 9-in. traps were put on about forty feet back from the house, I adopted a different style from those above mentioned, putting a close iron hinged cover directly abovethe eye of each trap merely for cleans- ing; then, for ventilation, the first pipe put in on the inner side of the trap had a square eye in it, which was set to look right up, and it did duty as the ventilating opening. The distance between the centre of the square grating and the centre of the iron hinged cover would be about one foot six inches. This style was more expensive than that at a, Fig. 273; but the place would be much exposed in winter, and as the number _ of inmates would be great it was wished to run no risk. Fig. 276 is an enlarged perpendicular section of the ' upper iron grating shown at a, Fig. 273. The same grating is also intended to be used atc, Fig. 264. 3, Fig. 276, is the iron grating, in this case 10 in. * Tispecially when the pipes are inside of the house ; but when the soil-pipe is put up outside of the house it is of advantage to place an Induced-Current Fixed Ventilator upon it—size to suit situation, &c. 228 PLUMBING. square and perforated with 64 round holes 3 in. in diameter, but, when wished, the size may be 12 in. square with 100 holes, or 18 in. square with 196 holes. For 4-in. traps, 8 in. square willdo. cc isa block of Arbroath pavement or of good firm freestone, * from 5 in. to 7 in. broader than the grating all round, and into which the grating is neatly fitted as shown. The iron grating B, Fig. 276, is fully $ in. thick. pb, Vig. 278, is the surface grating for the water off the back court. A small trapped fire-clay or cast-iron cess- pool is shown below it, to prevent the sand getting into the drain. No air is to be allowed to enter at p. In Fig. 278, which gives perpendicular section, the house drain is shown as running right through the house ; this is a very common style in buildings erected in cities, where the houses or buildings are packed close together, with only the gables intervening. It is not a plan to be recommended, however. If. the sewer were in the lane at the back of the houses it would be better, as then, all the sanitary fittings being at the back of the house, no drain with foul gas in it need go through the house, but only a drain-pipe or conductor for the rain water, which could easily be locked off from the soil-pipe drains by means of a ventilating trap. In country or suburban residences, however, where the houses are more isolated, the drain in many cases does not require to be led into the interior of the house. The annexed rough sketch (Fig. 277) of the ground- plan of Shaftesbury Lodge, Wemyss Bay, the residence of Mr. John P. Paton, will give an idea of how the house was locked off, or disconnected, so far as the passage back of sewage gas into it was concerned, not only from the main drain or sewer, but also from its own private drains. I had nothing to do with the original work, being called in (in February, 1876) owing to bad smells being complained of. The large main * The masons charged so high for these that I got patent fire- clay blocks made at half the cost, of which a great many are used. Lately, however, for grass, earth, cement or asphalte, and-for neat- ness, I mostly use special cast-iron frames for the gratings or plates. 229 AINAGE. f Me IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DR ing through the In runn Id square-built dra 1n 1S an oO dra WLLL STET AEE 4 LLL MAIN DRAIN. 135079 YBLYM LLL VALLE YM MM VU RESSss&a_0, HL. MMU Ul ULL Vile Ws YM —<—S==— S00 RP UNIS N3HOLIY WOoYSs Nivug Yh ff “MNIS (Il Z ee dVYl'd “S3dlg NIVUQ'NI'9 Wy, MMM ANA The pipes. ww grounds; the branches off are fire-clay 230 PLUMBING. idea of leading in the fresh water is the gentleman’s own, a long distance being laid with 6-in. fire-clay pipes to bring the water from the higher grounds. At page 174 it was stated that the weight of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth is about 14 oz. to the cubic foot. The sewage gas in the vertical soil-pipes, especially in the interior of the house, is generally lighter, about 14 oz. to the cubic foot, hence the upward current in a ventilated drain or soil-pipe. According to Dr. Fergus, “the gases given off by the decomposition of sewage are carbonic acid, carboretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ammonium sul- phide, and a putrid organic vapour, which is carbo- ammoniacal, giving rise in all probability to the offen- sive smell, and possibly also an active agent in produc- ing disease.” That sewage gas can produce various diseases has been amply proved of late years. Dr. Fergus has referred to several cases in his own expe- rience. Dr. J. B. Russell, Medical Officer of Health for Glasgow, had seven cases of enteric fever in one family, the father and one child dying, caused by holes in a waste-pipe which was too long of being repaired. Dr. J. A. Russell of Edinburgh, in a very valuable contribution to Sanitary literature, entitled “ Sanitary Houses,”’ refers very pointedly to this subject, and describes its evil effects. In “ Parkes’ Hygiene,” new edition, 1878,* the bad effects of breathing impure air and sewage gases are largely dwelt upon. I am glad also to read the following words at pp. 145-46. ‘‘ The products of gas combustion should never be allowed to escape into the air of the room.” From my own expe- rience I feel inclined to assert that bad air with its accompaniments has often acted as a slow poisoner and been at the root of many diseases, when the blame was placed elsewhere. It poisons the blood, has a bad effect upon the heart, and lowers the system, and in the case of invalids and fever-stricken patients, the want of fresh air—especially when life is trembling in the balance—has sent thousands toa premature grave. * Edited by Professor F’. de Chaumont, M.D., F.R.S. IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. OSL In large cities the best and purest air is at night— when, too, we need it most—yet how absurdly do people act! Doors and windows are closed and gas is burned, the foul air thereby produced rising from the lower to the higher flats, and so it is allowed to accumu- late, and the inmates breathe it for hours after going to bed.* If fresh air is let into a house, &c., in such a way that the current or currents do not strike the occu- pants, then a large amount of air may be let in.t Sitting in a direct line between a window and a fire is dangerous for many people; while colds, lung disease, and even death may often all be prevented by simply breathing through the nose instead of through the mouth, especially when pass- ing quickly from a heated to a cold atmosphere. Disease germs may also be thereby kept out of the stomach.t Fig. 278 shows vertical section of a new form of siphon trap, lately patented by me, for use where extra safety against the passage into the house of sewage gas through the trap is desired. It may be used for various purposes, but especially for basins or baths, &c., in or near bedrooms and dressing-rooms. A Is a ball (or it may be a half-ball with guide-pin) of india- rubber, wood, or other substance, resting upon the outlet end of the trap. When water is let off down the Fig. 278. . * Should electric lighting supersede coal gas in houses, the air of lighted rooms may be as pure by night as by day. See page 274. — + At Glasgow, when the wind is in a particular north-east direction, the fumes from the chemical and other works pollute the air westwards very badly. This was especially the case in May and June, 1879, and now in May, 1882. A revival of the old curfew bell regulations may yet be found useful for cities. + I observe Dr. Fergus lately stating that “ ozone is not to be found in the centre of towns.’”’ I am not aware, however, if experiments have been made to show whether or not it may exist in the centre of towns between 2 a.m. and 4.80 a.m. I should like to hear of such. Dr. Day says that ozone passed through putrescent blood changes it as if by magic.—Sanitary Record, October 11th, 1878, p. 237. But how about difficulty to cure diphtheria? Is the prevention of or non- encouragement to proper experimentation to blame for this ? 232 PLUMBING. side Fr of the trap, it rushes through the trap, and pushing the ball a up, runs off by the outlet p, and upon the water ceasing to run off, the ball a falls back into its seat and prevents any bad air in the waste-pipe from getting access to the water in the trap, let alone passing through it; and should anything happen ‘to the trap, as in frost, &e., to cause the water in the trap to run off, still the ball-valve a is left to do duty in keeping back any bad air that might be in the waste-pipe from blowing into the house. c is a cleansing screw; B is a trap screw for getting access to the ball ; G is an air or ventilating-pipe. When wished the air-pipe may be led from off othe top of B. In order to test what difference of effect if any was produced by placing the ball at the outside of the water, as in Fig. 278, or in the middle of the water as in the Bower patent trap, Fig. 279, I sent one of each to Dr. Wallace, City Analyst, Glasgow, to experiment with as to the passage of gases through them, and the following is his report :— “City Analyst’s Laboratory, 138, Bath Street, “ Giascow, 18th March, 1879. “Mr. W. P. Bucwan, ‘ Drar Sir,—In accordance with your request I have made a series of experiments with your patent trap, and now beg to state the results obtained. I first tried the trap without the valve, and found that the gases passed through the water so that they could be detected by appropriate tests at the other side in the following times :— Ammonia in 1 hour 80 minutes. Sulphuretted Hydrogen in 20 minutes. Chlorine in 10 minutes. These observations amply confirm the statement of IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 233 Dr. Fergus that soluble gases pass freely through the water of an ordinary trap.* “T next tried the apparatus with the valve placed in position, and in no case could any of the gases be detected in 20 hours. The effect of the valve, there- fore, is to arrest completely the passage of gases through the trap.t “T have also made a series of experiments with the Bower’s patent trap which you sent me, and have found, much to my surprise, that it does not arrest the passage of soluble gases, all of those I tried being found at the opposite side within half an hour. The principle of the trap appears to be correct, and I expected that if would have acted efficiently. “ Yours truly, “W. WALLACE.” I was not astonished at this result myself, as I con- sidered it was a mistake to allow the gases to get free access to and so saturate the water in the trap. As the bottom part, c, of the Bower trap is made of glass, I wished to see how it would stand hot water, and caused * In reference to Dr. Fergus’s experiments in December, 1873, Dr. Wallace remarked then that the experiments were satisfactory as regards soluble gases such as those employed by Dr. Fergus, but gave it as his opinion that it was by no means proved that the germs of disease, or sewage gases in appreciable quantity, would pass through water in a trap. His own impression was that they would not, espe- cially if the trap were efficiently ventilated. My own opinion expressed also at the time was in favour of the real value of water in a properly sealed trap, and especially if aided by ventilation of the outer side of the trap. In the last edition of his “Sanitary Engineering,’? Mr. Baldwin Latham says :—‘‘ When no displacement of the water in the trap takes place it is a good security against sewage gas.”’ In connec- tion with this a distinction must be drawn between water in a siphon trap and water ina large cesspool. The grease box or cesspool in connection with some scullery sinks, ¢.g., throws off a most offensive smell, especially if the water is disturbed, quite independently of any gases diffused through the water. The value of Dr. Fergus’s experi- ments and statements regarding danger from sewage gases, consists in his having been able to draw public attention to the liability of disease arising where sewage gases got free access into inhabited houses, c., through corroded holes or leaking joints, &c., of water-closet soil-pipes. ¢ This “ valve”’ was a half ball with a spindle. 234 PLUMBING. one of my men to pour cold water into it first, then leaving said cold water in the trap, hot water was poured down from the top, A, when the bottom cracked and fell away, and the water falling out, nothing was left to keep the ball valve, p, in position, and so the trap was useless. I therefore feel justified in saying that instead of this, Fig. 279, trap being “the only Fig. 280. Fig. 281. Ground Plan. Ground Plan. perfect trap,” it is somewhat imperfect. The title ‘perfect’ is a dangerous term to apply to sanitary fittings in this sublunary sphere; more than one appliance having come to grief to which it was attached.* I may now proceed to explain what I have termed the Sectional or Detached System of House Drainage, * A valve trap will do no good for a holed pipe beyond the trap. IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE., 235 to which reference was made some pages back. Figs. 280, 281, and 282 show plans of locking off, not only the sewer gas, but also the drain and soil-pipe gas, and other water-closet smells from the house. In this case extra precaution exists by having the water-closets erected in a special wing, say at the back of the house, and in the spaces marked cc. A covered or enclosed passage, with a door and window (or windows—one on each side), intervenes between the body of the house and the water-closets as shown at k kK. While due provision is made for necessary ventilation of the pas- sage or lobby k k, the inmates must, at the same time, be protected from cold, hence I object to the lobby «x k being quite open or exposed to the weather. The joists of this lobby ought to be laid across it, and not with their ends to the wall of the main building, in order to prevent gases or impure air passing between the joists to main building. In cases where this extra precaution cannot be had owing to the house being already built, some such arrangement of the pipes as shown above ought at all events to be adopted. a, Fig. 282—or w, Fig. 281 —is the patent 6-inch Fire-Clay Disconnecting Siphon- Trap, which locks off the drain and sewer gas, and at the same time allows a continuous current of fresh air to blow through the soil-pipe. It has also a peculiar drop, giving the cascade-like action specially recom- mended by Dr. George Buchanan of the Local Govern- ment Board. It is due to Dr. Fergus to state that the importance of making the water fall over a sharp edge —a special feature in my trap when patenting it in April, 1875—was firmly impressed upon my mind by a remark made by him bearing aguinst the drain traps hitherto in use, in which the water was allowed to glide quietly into the trap and so leave the feces stag- nating for a long time on the surface. When begin- ning to manufacture the trap, Dr. Fergus particularly approved of only a slight or shallow dip being given to the “tongue” or dipping air-barrier. Some use revolving cowls upon the top of the soil-pipe to assist the up-current. In my own practice I prefer the 236 PLUMBING. fixed ventilator, 8. c is a ventilator for ventilating the enclosure in which the water-closet is situated. The erection of this has given great satisfaction where done, and where considered necessary a fresh-air inlet may be made in the floor, or where most suitable. p, Fig. 282, shows position of one of my No. 2 Fixed Exhaust Ventilators upon the ridge of the house. It ‘f ——/ \ 7) i ile YAXN\N\\ SISSSTI WS yy VENTILATING - PIPE NS WY \ SS WS SOIL PIPE WS \N xX SS Ne SSVI BS Acai al SG SQ ae Wi Y YY, = =e SSS Ww, - A WN WH) y/ bj GY 4 Fig. 282.—Hlevation. may ventilate the staircase. G G show different styles of the ‘‘ Carmichael”? Wash-down Closets, erected in special apartments projecting beyond the house, and with an intervening lobby. The house is supposed to have no drains inside of its outer walls. The branch air-pipe from the top of the out-go of the trap is shown branched directly into the soil-pipe for the lower closet IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 237 as well as for the upper one; but in many cases it is better to carry up, say, a 2-inch lead pipe from the lower closet trap up past the upper closet and then branch it into soil-pipe as here shown in Fig. 282a, and also shown in Fig. 301, or else carry the ventilat- ing pipe up through the roof by itself on the principle shown ata, Fig. 159. This, Fig. 282a, style of connect- ing the air-pipe has been in use in Glasgow, especially where the soil-pipe was inside and of iron, for twelve or more years back. I show «a it in illustration, Fig. 69, of my patent of July 9th, 1878, but I was rather as- tonished to read some time ago of a person in the United States trying to patent it at the end of 1878 as a new idea of his own, his claim causing some sensation and annoyance there. An attempt was afterwards made to patent it in this coun- try, but it was money wasted, I suppose, as I have never as yet heard any attempt to claim it here. Possibly the patentee, seeing it illustrated in my patent and published elsewhere long before his time, saw there was no use to try to claim it. Other ventilating-traps are put on at the foot of the other pipes, as at a’, Fig. 282, and vu and v, Fig. 281. By thus dividing the house drainage, as it were, into séc- tions, only the minimum amount of sewage gasis allowed access to any particularpipe, P18. 2524. viz.—what is bred in said pipe itself; hence I consider the plan shown in Fig. 281 much safer than the plan advocated by the Local Government Board.* x, Fig. 281, marks where the sewer may be ventilated from, i desired, by means of a special pipe carried up to above the roof, but many persons object to ventilate the public sewer up their private pipes. | * According to Clause 15, page 9 of the “Suggestions” by Mx. Rawlinson, C.B., Chief Engineering Inspector to the Local Govern- ment Board, lately published (1878), the style in Fig. 281 it seems ’ may now be used. PIPE SOIL 2038 PLUMBING, When either the soil-pipes or other pipes , with branches leading into the house are allowed to ventilate the common sewer, then the mavimum amount of sewage gas and danger included is let on to the house. When the soil-pipe is allowed to ventilate the drain—and the Local Government Board appears to say that it should ventilate as long a portion of the drain as possible— then a mediuwn amount of sewage gas and of danger included is let on to the house. But when even the drain is locked off from the house, as in Fig. 281, then supposing something went wrong, only a minimum amount of sewage gas can get access to the house, and so the maximum of safety exists within it. Fig. 283 shows vertical section of one of my No. 2 traps (Fig. 272) in situ, ‘with the air-opening carried up to the surface to admit fresh air to the ak drain, soil, or waste- “pipe, through the iron erating £, as also shown at Gc, Fig. 284. pv, Fig. 288, is a plain 4-in. or 6-in.—according to size of trap, &c.—common 47K 26S) fire-clay pipe with a K branch, as at H. This side branch, H, is for a ventilating-pipe for the sewer to be attached when wished. By this arrange- ment, which is patented, but open to be freely used by all parties using my traps, the vertical opening, D, remains clear to be used for ready examination or cleansing of the outer side of the trap at a moment’s notice and without disturbing the ground, by simply lifting the iron plate F and then the fire-clay lid «, beneath, the latter being made air-tight with a little lime or cement which is easily removed. In some cases a ring of india-rubber pipe has been used under G. A is a soil-pipe or drain-pipe on the house side of IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 239 the trap, K may be a rain-pipe or fresh air inlet if & be a solid plate, as in Fig. 2694. So far as I am aware the arrangement on the outer side of the trap is unique for combined efficiency and simplicity, while the arrangement and practical working as a whole seems much better than where more cumbersome and very much more expensive appliances have been used, and with which the ground has to be opened before getting access to and seeing the outer side of the trap. If wished, a movable metal grating, perforated or ribbed, or like Fig. 275, may be placed at the bottom of the pipe D, if any fear is entertained of rats from the sewer getting access to the pipe H. Instead of setting the trap in the ground as in Fig. 283, it is often, espe- = cially where it 1s extra deep, placed inside a manhole, as shown in Fig. 283a. In this case the outer opening of the trap in the man- holeis generally closed by having the lid ce- mented down under m; but if it is wished a Dae NVIIINW shortbranchdrain-pipe “WZ INS QC Y/N may be put in as per =f yes epee dotted lines at m, to a ventilate the outer side of the trap by a strong iron pipe led up from the side of m. Many, however, may prefer to ventilate the drain beyond the trap from the point R on the outer side of the wall of the manhole. x in this sketch is the drain from the house, @ is the house side of the trap shown open, the arrow at q indicating the direction of the fresh air which enters down through the iron grating t. In some cases it is not desired to have a grating at L, so a close iron plate may be put on at L, which is easily lifted when wished, and fresh air may be admitted into the manhole by a side air pipe at Ss or T, or as found most suitable. 240 PLUMBING, Fig. 284 is another contribution towards a scientific Fig. 284. practical solution of the sewage-gas problem. Itshows _a style of fitting up a water-closet, either with or with- IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE*DRAINAGE. 241 out a lead siphon-trap,* which for combined efficiency and simplicity is, some think, in advance of any plan yet published. The novelty or speciality in it—the open pipe A in the sketch—was suggested to me by a perusal, about two years ago, of the article on “ Sanitary Science,” in Blackie’s Encyclopedia, by Dr. Robert Bell, F.F.P.S., Glasgow. I never, however, worked the idea out thoroughly until January, 1879; but hav- ing once done so, I believe the plan to be not only very good but easily carried out in practice, and espe- cially in new houses. My intention in 1874 was to lock off the drain from the soil-pipe and water-closet ; but the intention now is to keep out, as far as possible, any gas that may be bred in even the soil-pipe itself from the water-closet. This is effected as shown in sketch.t oc is one of my cascade-action ventilating drain traps. » is the fresh air entrance channel to the trap and soil-pipe Z. This soil-pipe = being sur- mounted by one of my 4-in. induced-current ventilators K, a constant current of air is expected, and will generally be found to be passing up the soil-pipe. This up current will tend to draw in air from the open channel at a, at the end nearest the soil-pipe; while, if an opening existed in the branch soil-pipe ¥’, no bad air from the upright soil-pipe would get access to the house, but only through the short portion of branch soil-pipe, about 2 feet long or so, fresh air * T have still a strong fancy for retaining the inside siphon-trap, and Mr. James Mactear, managing partner of St. Rollox Chemical Works, who experimented with water-traps, told me that he easily got the gases to pass through the water, but failed in all his attempts to get ferment germs to pass through. He hopes yet to manage the latter, but his failures hitherto show the value of water in keeping back germs and disease-breeders irom the house or inner side of the water trap. The molecules of the gases may pass freely through between the molecules of the water, and the more readily in imperfectly ventilated pipes, but the gefms, being many times larger, cannot get through in the same way. Experiments made by Dr. Neil Carmichael, and described to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, in February, 1880, prove this, and see paper by Professor Tyndall, at page 99, vol, xxvii. of the Proceedings of the Royal Society (London), which he kindly drew my own attention to. See also page 243 of this book. + This plan is best for closets where there are no room windows near or close above the open channel. Compare it with Fig. 264. M 242 PLUMBING. pouring in from the end of a nearest the water-closet. Again, owing to the ventilating-pipe H, no bad air could gather in the branch soil-pipe. 8B is a swinging valve that might be put in if wished of tinned copper, but I consider it unnecessary. M is a Bramah valve closet, but Fig. 801 closet would be better. Nis the lead safe, with safe pipe T, carried outside and with hinged valve at its outlet end. ris the level of the floor; @ is the water-closet window; s is a ventilating- shaft for the water-closet enclosure, which may be sur- mounted by a ventilator. The gas globe w and ven- tilating-pipe u are more necessary for rooms than w.-c.’s, but put in here merely to illustrate an idea. In some cases the pipe v might be allowed to blow off, as shown; in other cases it would be better to go out as a small tube by itself in order to keep up the heat, and so prevent tendency to down-draught.* Only one water- closet is shown leading into the upright soil-pipe, but several may be led into it, asin flatted houses or large private houses, and by carrying each branch soil-pipe, say, 3 feet or so along the wall, and leaving about 2 feet of it open at the top, as shown in section a of the sketch, then each water-closet is locked off from the soil-pipe, so far as the passage back of sewage gas into it is concerned, without interfering with the free passage outwards of the water and soil. J is the soil-pipe continued upwards above the roof, full diameter; 1 is a rain-water pipe, which in some cases may with perfect propriety be led into it, especially if no windows are near. Its worst effect is to tend to supply the venti- Jator with air, instead of the air being forced to come from lower down. It is only ticked in as a suggestion, however, and people can please themselves. The top of the open channel pipe at A is covered with a perforated lead, zinc, or iron grating, as shown at ‘‘ Section at A,” * In the house I occupied in 1878 Iused tubes to carry off the products of gas combustion at the sliding gasalier in the dining-room ; the tubes working up and down with the gasalier. ‘This kept the air of the room pure when the gas was lighted. A fixed tube served for the kitchen. Electric lighting may by-and-by obviate all this. I intend to refer to the ventilation of rooms, &c., more fully elsewhere. IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 243 which, while providing for perfectly free ventilation, at same time prevents snow or anything falling into and choking the channel. This grating also prevents the passage of soil down the pipe being seen by any person from a window upon a higher level. Dr. J. B. Russell, the able Medical Officer of Health for Glasgow, to whom Ihave shown this drawing, considers this new plan ‘as near perfection as can be.” Some time ago, in conversing upon sanitary matters, he observed to me that what he wished with water-closets was that the soil should go slick down the soil-pipe, and as far off as possible, with one pull of the w.-c. handle; the difficulty with me, however, was to at the same time prevent the sewage gas from coming “slick up,” but that objection is now removed.* The system, which can also be used for waste pipes, but with a siphon-trap at each sink, bath, or basin, &c., is open to the public to be freely used without any charge for royalty, and I shall be glad to hear of its adoption anywhere. It is likely to prove especially serviceable for flatted tene- ments, such as we have in Glasgow, as it tends to isolate each house. 7 At page 882 of the Sanitary Record (London) for June 15th, 1877, reference is made to a paper com- municated by Professor EH. Frankland to the Royal Society, ‘‘ On the Transport of Solid and Liquid Particles in Sewer Gases.” In his paper Professor Frankland says, “It is, therefore, extremely improbable that the mere flow of foul liquid through sewers can impregnate the cireumambient air with suspended particles;” but after explaining certain experiments he goes on to say, “Here, then, in the breaking up of minute gas bubbles on the surface of a liquid consequent upon the genera- tion of gas within the body of the liquid, is a cause of the suspension of particles in the air. If, therefore, * Fig. 284 is probably nearly perfect, as against mere sewage gas ; but as against dry infected particles, the open channel, if on a soil pipe and near a window especially, looks to have an element of imperfec- tion about it, hence many will prefer Fig. 282 style. It’s awfully difficult to attain absolute perfection in this sublunary sphere ; some have boasted of having managed it, but I could never see it as yet. M 2 244 PLUMBING. through the stagnation ot sewage or constructive defects which allow of the retention. of excrementitious matters for several days in a sewer, putrefaction sets in, then gases are generated, and the dispersion into the air of zymotic matters is very probable. It is of the greatest importance that foul liquids:should pass rapidly and freely through drain-pipes and sewers, so as to secure their discharge from the system before putrefaction sets in.” See pages 542—645 of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, for February 8th, 1877. One lesson to be drawn in practice from these ex- periments is that a siphon water trap with a small body of water in it, which can be often easily renewed, is safer upon a drain or at the bottom of a soil-pipe than a large pit cesspool, the influx of even clean water into - which often merely dilutes the foul staghant water, and stirs it up, causing it to throw off even more sewage gas bubbles than in the quiescent state. “Flushing” drain-pipes with jfoud water has an element of evil in it, as said foul water leaves a dirty deposit upon the inside of the pipe, which after drying may allow disease particles to get loose. In this con- nection when a drain which has been choked is cleared, it should not only be well flushed with clean water and disinfecting liquid, say muriatic acid, but its interior should also be fumigated with the fumes of burning sulphur blown into it, as the flushing liquid may only cleanse the lower half of the pipe, and leave the top half still dirty. The neglect of proper flushing and ~ fumigation may, in some instances, lead to development of cases of diphtheria, especially should children come under the influence of the atmosphere from the drying and stinking drain. Amongst the pseudo-improvements in house drainage suggested within the last few years by non-practical men, I here give sketch of one that was highly puffed up in the professional journals about the beginning of A.D. 1880. In this case a disconnecting trap is put on at the bottom of the soil-pipe to lock off the sewer gases, rats, &c., but any good it could do in that respect IMPROVED SYSTEM OF HOUSE*DRAINAGE. 245 is completely stultified by the air-pipe put in from the outer side of the trap and connected to the air-pipe of the soil-pipe inside of the house! How A the genius of the author of this grand Wiyi"* —— design managed to throw such a glamour over the brains of the critics as to cause them to praise up such an absurdity is a curious problem in our nineteenth-cen- tury journalism. It is only one, how- ever, amongst various foolish plans that have been promulgated and extolled through the press, and it should serve as a lesson to the public not to take as gospel all that appears in print. It also suggests the question: Supposing the author of such a design were really entrusted with some large job where more elaborate combinations of pipes were used, how many dangerous mis- takes might really be made? ‘The aa ae only chance of good work from an amateur plumber is where the work is sublet by him toa properly qualified practical man, to whom, however, it might be better to go direct. ‘There is not much to be gained by incom- petent or nominal supervision, although really good and honest superintendence or inspection is worth pay- ing for when required, as it often is. \ | WN KQINSN CHAPTER XXX. GENERAL DRAINAGE. I must now bring my remarks to a close; but before doing so I would beg leave to add a few words relative to the proper laying down of drains within and around houses. If the drains are well laid, securely jointed, and properly trapped and ventilated, it is a great benefit to the house and also a great boon to the in- mates; but if otherwise the house is damaged, and, in the lower flat, the plaster on the walls may often be A, XY \ Fig. 285. seen damp and bulged out in a very unsightly manner for several feet up,* a signal that the house in that part at least is in anything but a healthy condition. To prevent dampness in the lower flat and the damp * In country houses, with the water supply derived from wells, disease and death are often produced owing to leakage from bad drains or dirty slops, &c. thrown on the ground getting into the wells. ‘The water moving in a circle—well, cistern, stomach, drain; and well, cistern, stomach, drain, again, for so much of the same. In such cir- cumstances people should be careful whom they invite to the house, for a Gtseased visitor might damage the whole family! Then, again, it is anything but a friendly act to invite a friend to stay at one’s house where either the interior atmosphere or the water supply is polluted by the sewage. Town dungsteads used as manure on fields sometimes pollute the water supply. Dr. Ebenezer Duncan of Glasgow gives a very interesting and instructive example of this in the ‘“ Transac- tions of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow,’’ March, 1881. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 247 rising up the walls, the following plan ought to be strictly enforced by all authorities, viz. when the walls are being built to lay down a layer, a little broader than the wall, either of 4 lb. sheet lead, or of slates bedded in cement, or, especially for the outer walls, of Caithness pavement, said layer being put in either at the same level as the asphalt, as per Fig. 285, or otherwise as may be most suitable. In Fig. 285, HH is the asphalt, and 3 3 3 the layer of lead.* Above the asphalt a layer of Caithness pavement may be put down if wished, especially for the kitchen and lobbies : but where pavement is not wanted small wooden joists may be put in on the top of the asphalt, and then wooden flooring laid down, while the space between the underside of the flooring and the asphalt could easily be ventilated by holes cut through the outer walls and perforated iron gratings put in.t If the ground is very damp, or aspring exists about it, drain-tiles should be put in or other provision made to carry off the water, and the work so executed as that neither bad air nor rats can get into the house. For general house use the spigot and faucet style of vitrified fire-clay drain pipe shown in Fig. 286, if good, makes a very service- able pipe for ordinary pur- poses, if it is properly laid and securely and smoothly jointed. They are made in lengths about 3 ft. long or under, and may be had of various sizes, say from 4 in. * Pettenkofer’s experiments as to the permeability of walls, or the ~ passage of air and gases through bricks, sandstone, concrete, &c., are worth remembering here. See p. 410 of the Sanitary Record (London) for December 28th, 1877. See also remarks on Ground Air and Damp- ness, by Dr. B. W. Richardson, in the Introduction to ‘‘ Our Homes, and How to make them Healthy,” a capital book just being published by Messrs. Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., London. + Through and through ventilation, with a sufficient number of openings (more smaller openings are better than few large ones) is a great preventive of “dry rot;”’ currents of fresh air playing around wood being unfavourable to the growth of such fungias the Merulius lacrymans, 248 PLUMBING. in diameter upwards. The smallest size I would have for the main drain of a house is 6 in., which size, with a fall of 1 in. in 40, or more, will run off a great deal of ordinary house sewage and rain water. Nine inch diameter pipes are often used where 6-in. or at most 7-in. would serve far better and also be cheaper. One mode of jointing the pipes is to pack the joints well with clay. This often does pretty well, if properly done, where the ground is not very firm, as it allows the joints to yield a little without breaking;* but where the ground is solid, and the pipes can be laid down without fear of sinking then I prefer the joints made with either Roman or Portland cement, and plenty of it used.t JI have sometimes used gascon or hemp to stuff the joints before cementing. For all side con- nections I generally prefer branch pipes to be used, the branches being inclined to suit the run of the pipe, as per £, Fig. 273; the angular branch not being so apt to cause a chokage as the square one. In practice 1 often found the plain round pipe, Fig. 286, wanted something to enable a first-class job to be easily made, and also to prevent liability of dis- turbance of the pipes and breakage of the joints before they were set, from rolling of the pipe owing to its being round. To rectify this I lately invented and patented (in December, 1879) an improved fire-clay pipe with a flat sole, which flat sole prevents the pipe from rolling. Then in order to enable the bottom of the joint to be more easily and securely made, this flat sole is about one inch deeper than the faucet and a little back from its front edge, which allows the hand or tool to be got * An objection to soft material for jointing is that it is boreable by worms or the roots of trees; in some cases the latter have completely filled up the pipe. + If at all possible no drain-pipes should be laid down in the interior ofa house. Where drain-pipes must pass through a house, some sup- port the use of sufficiently strong iron pipes, the joints of which may be run with lead, while special eyes could be put in, say every eight feet or so, to serve as access openings; but for those who prefer the fire-clay pipe the improved pipe with longitudinal access-opening and rest shown in Fig. 286a, may be used, and the pipes laid upon and surrounded by concrete. GENERAL DRAINAGE, 249 in under the joint and front of faucet, and so while easily putting in the necessary cement at the bottom to also wipe off the surplus properly to the edge of the faucet and so make a tight joint. This is found especially useful when the drain-pipes are laid upon either a stone, cement, or concrete bed. Further, where the drain- pipe is to be cemented or concreted either half-way up or all over, the style of the flat sole or rest allows this to be easily and well done. Again in laying down drain-pipes I often wished to be able to look along the inside of the pipes before they were covered in to see if they were all clear inside, but with the ordinary pipes below 9 in. diameter, although the usual round eyes the full size of the pipe might be put in, they were too small to let the head in, conse- quently to get over this objection, while patenting the above improved pipe with the flat raised sole, I at the same time introduced and patented a longitudinal access opening, with longitudinal movable lid, which open- ing, while being the full breadth of the pipe at least, is made two or more times as long, and so allows the head to be got easily in to look along the inside of the pipe; a lighted candle being held down at another opening or down the cleansing eye of my disconnecting trap, the state of the interior of the pipe can be easily seen. Should it be necessary to put in arod or long cane to clear the pipe at any time, such can be far more easily put in into a longitudinal opening 18 inches or more long than into a round hole only about 6 inches diameter. Fig. 286a gives longitudinal and cross vertical sections of these improved pipes, which are supplied by Messrs. J. and M. Craig, of Kilmarnock, the makers of my traps, who are the sole manufacturers, but they have a number of agents and depéts throughout the king- dom so as to supply them readily. They received award of merit at the International Medical and Sani- tary Exhibition, London, 1881.” * These pipes have been used inter alia by myself in work done for Messrs. Campbell Douglas and aia Architects, Glasgow, as at M 250 PLUMBING. A, B, and D are views of the attached flat sole, which may extend along the pipe anylength. c is a movable flat sole block, which may be used when the attached block is short, as shown at A. F is the long lid for the opening which, in its place, may be made tight either Ec ces < tan \ - NY Yrs). 40) lh Fig. 286. with lime or cement, according to circumstances. When the pipe is not to be concreted below it, the earth is simply packed in under and around the pipe. At some houses the foundation is only a foot or so below the surface, in such cases the pipes may have to be laid some feet lower than the foundation, especially at their lowest part. In this case the pipe, if running parallel to the house, should if possible be kept several feet back, and the cutting while open should have its sides firmly supported by wooden uprights and struts, to prevent the ground falling im—in fact this is use- ful in all deep cuttings. Then as soon as possible after the pipes are laid, the ground should befilled in and firmly beaten down (but so as not to hurt the pipes) at least as high as to the bottom of the foundation, or a little above it, unless when the outer walls of the house are resting on therock. I thinkit bad practice to have the founda- tion only one foot or thereby below the surface, espe- cially where drains will pass near and at a lower level. Ach-na-Cloich on Lock Etive,and for Mr. John Honeyman, F.R.I.B.A., at Craigton Castle, Stirlingshire; likewise for Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S., Glasgow. They are also put in by Messrs. Watt and Wilson, with consent of the Architect, at the new Central Railway Station, Glasgow. Mr. Thomas Watson, Architect, Glasgow, is using them for the drainage of new Board Schools, and so at many other places. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 951 Figs. 287 and 288 are vertical sections of square Fig. 287. Fig. 288. fire-clay blocks suitable for either iron gratings or plates to besetinto. The former is intended for level ground, or for either asphalt or cement; the latter where there is gravel or grass. Fig. 2884 is vertical section of square zon box frame which I often use in place of the fire-clay blocks; the margin outside of the grating being much less, Fig. 289 is one of my square slop TTS < L&E 7 = Fig. 288a. stones made of fire-clay, 1 ft. 6 in. across. It has a pro- jection or pap at the bottom, to fit into the pipe, so as to prevent soakage of the ground. Fig. 290 is horizontal plan of one of the strong cast-iron gratings referred to at page 202 (and also shown in Figs. 287 to 293), the size in this case being supposed to be 10 in. A very common practice exists regarding the drain- @=020=6= Er ef eS E CECE EO CECECEL = = yee =eze=e Z@=¢ Od ie Sie OO ez @=t | = @Et C=CEC EO) yet Fig. 290. Fig. 291. age of wash-houses—which I beg to condemn very strongly, especially where the wash-house is within the walls of the building. I allude to the use of those iron “bell traps” with the movable covers. They readily choke up, and so the cover is taken off, or lifted, to 252 PLUMBING. cleanse them out, when up comes a rush of sewage gas from the drain and passes up through the house. ‘The covers are also often left off. None such should be put in, but, instead, a 4-in. fire-clay siphon-trap (the same shape as the plumber’s lead one), with an iron grating, and slop-stone above it, as shown in Fig. 291, which combination I have termed “ The Anti-Bell Trap.” Fig. 283A shows vertical section of a No. 2 Buchan’s disconnecting trap placed inside a single manhole. I have done so as occasion required since the summer of 1875. Recently I have used two manholes, as shown in Fig. 292, viz. one on the house side of the main trap and one on the sewer side of the trap. In this case the new access pipe shown in Fig. 2864 was also introduced, the pipe on house side of trap having the access opening without the lid as seen at B, Fig. 292, so that in this case the access opening acts as the fresh air inlet to the drain as per the arrow. The access opening beyond the trap has the lid on and cemented down as shown at H, but when desired the lid may be K GRATING K J sCIRON PLATE J + LD M Ze Yi WW, LLY Yj, Uy WU, Wi: MAN HOLE Uy MANHOLE WK Next HOUSE GIZA, NEXT SEWER WHLN P oT N LT WY), LLL FRESH AIR EY Ta y WY, WMD Lt Bea o(Apce_ pos a7 @ ee BIZ Nn , eV ZAR Tenn (ES Za = LS Zl — ak “— Hla « Fig. 292. lifted to examine or clear the drain. The lids as sent out are made of fire-clay, but people who choose maymake an iron one to suit in any special case. If it is wished to ventilate the sewer side of the drain this may be done * GENERAL DRAINAGE. 208 at the branch or eye D; and as stated at Fig. 283, if it is not wished to have an inlet grating right over man- hole as at L, it may be placed at any convenient distance and an air pipe led tos on a similar principle to Fig. 293. At one large mansion-house in Stirlingshire (“ Craig- ton,”’ near Fintry), where Fig. 292 style of fitting in the main trap has been adopted (in this case the trap is a nine-inch one), there are other fifty disconnecting ventilating traps on the branch drains, viz. 4 in. and 6 in., No. 2, so that supposing the trap c from any cause failed to lock off the sewer gas from the drain a, each branch trap would still act as a barrier to it get- ting into the house pipes. The air which enters at L and B after traversing the drain a goes up a special strong iron ventilating shaft carried above the roof and surmounted by one of my 10-in. Induced-Current Fixed Ventilators. The pipes were laid on a bed of concrete and after being jointed with cement were con- creted half-way up, but any portion of drain passing inside any enclosure was concreted all over. All the traps were concreted to prevent leakage. The holes in walls through which either drain-pipes, or soil or waste-pipes, &c., passed were all made good with cement.* The work was done to order of Mr. John Honeyman, F.R.1.B.A., Glasgow. | Fig. 293 shows a modification of the fresh-air inlet to the ventilating trap when said trap is too near a door. It is also useful in pre- venting children dropping pieces of wood, &c., into the trap. In this case a branch pipe, c, is put in above the trap, and a pipe, D, joined Fig. 293. to it and turned in any direction as most suitable. Bis the iron grating for admitting fresh air, while the top of the trap is in this * This is an important point not only in order to prevent any gases or badair getting into the houses along the outside of the pipes, but also to keep out rats or other vermin, should such visit the neighbourhood. 254. PLUMBING. case covered by an iron plate, a. The grating, B, may also be set in plumb in face of a wall. In laying down drains it is well to be able to give them sufficient fall; an inclination of 1 inch to the yard serves pretty well, especially if the pipes are smooth inside and laid regularly, and all the joints well cleaned out in the inside with a scraper. This scraper—which may only be a half-circled piece of wood, about 1 in. thick, with a handle attached about 3 ft. long or so to suit the length of the pipe—must be so made as that its edge will not sink into the joint when being drawn across it. In some cases the sewer is so high that only a fall of 1 in. to the three yards or so can be given; in this latter case there is all the more necessity for first- class workmanship. It is a good thing for the drains to flush them occa- sionally. Even where there is plenty of water many people who use water-closets, young females especially, are either so thoughtless—I will not say lazy—or afraid of the noise of the water running, that the soil is often several days in its passage from the water-closet to a few yards along the drain. Ihave often had to find fault with house servants and warehouse girls about this, as it does not give the water-closets fair play, while it turns the drain into a dangerous manufactory of sewage-gas, In examining the drainage of houses the smoke-test —which I have used for years back with smoke-blow- ing machine—when properly applied is very useful, and saves much time. In his 1880 Report upon the Sani- tary Department, Glasgow, Mr. McLeod, Sanitary In- spector, refers to the great value of this test.* It is a very useful thing for the proprietors of houses and buildings to possess a plan of the drains. Many a pound would often be saved if a correct plan were forthcoming when wanted. Even when the work has been well done at first, inspection of the drains, &c., at intervals—say once a year—is to be highly recom- mended as a precautionary measure. When the work * Prof. James Thomson burnt brown paper as a smoke test in 1868. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 255 has been executed upon some of the improved plans herein described this inspection will be more easy.* Between the house and the sewer a trap should always be put in when the drain is being laid, in order to keep back rats and sewer gas.t When this is not done at first, and the rats once get a footing in the house, it is often a difficult matter to get rid of them. Some try poisoning, but the stench that arises from off the dead carcases hid away under the flooring or at the back of the plaster, is rather a dear price to pay for that experiment. I was perfectly astonished to be told lately—end of 1878—that in a certain institution where the drainage was newly altered, there was no trap put on between the building and the sewer in street, but instead the drain was carried right through the building and a trap or traps put on at the back of the building! I have no hesitation in asserting that the inhabitants of our large towns and cities suffer far more from the evil effects of sewage and other gases and impurities polluting the air, both inside and outside of their houses, than is generally understood.t * Some of my own customers are now having this done; e.g., Mr. Fraser, of 2, Crown Gardens, has had his drains tested this year and last, before coming home from the coast. If anything wrong it is sorted ; if nothing, it is satisfactory to know that. ¢ This has often been omitted even in cases where it would hardly be believed such was the case ; ¢.g., at the new University of Glasgow, built about eight years ago, no traps existed on the drains between the houses and the sewer until November, 1877, when I put in between thirty and forty of my disconnecting ventilating drain-traps. One of the inmates of Professor Gairdner’s house felt the effects of the sewer air blowing into the house for several nights—the family having newly come to reside there—which led to an examination. The immediate cause of complaint was siphon action, a closet near by when let off emptying the siphon-trap of the bath owing to improper ventilation. { A most important paper in connection with this subject was read before the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, in December, 1877, by Dr. James B. Russell, Medical Officer of Health, Glasgow, entitled “On the Comparative Prevalence of Filth-diseases in Town and Country,” from which we draw the welcome intelligence for dwellers in towns that if the drainage and water supply of towns are properly carried out, and as with proper intelligent supervision they easily might be, then the disease and death-rate would fall very much. Even with all its drawbacks, Dr. Russell says, ‘ that in regard to diphtheria, 256 PLUMBING. In the opening lecture of a series of “ Lectures on Public Health,’’* delivered in Glasgow in November and December, 1878, under the auspices of the Lord Provost and Magistrates, by Drs. J. B. Russell and Wm. Wallace, the former, when describing the effects of “ Density of Population in relation to Death-rate”’ (see pp. 23 to 82 of lecture as published), shows that in a large and densely populated city such as Glasgow, three people die from pulmonary diseases for every single death from the same cause in the rural and less densely populated districts; this great difference in the death-rate being due to the bad effect of breathing impure air.t Bad air has also, whether directly or in- directly, a deleterious effect upon the digestive organs. In a very interesting paper upon “ Air and Water in relation to Public Health,” read before the Philo- sophical Society of Glasgow, in Feb. 1875, Dr. Wil- ham Wallace, F'.R.S.E., F.C.S., says :— The evil effects of breathing impure air—that is, air containing an abnormal quantity of carbonic acid, attended with a diminished quantity of oxygen {—are due primarily to an imperfect oxidation of the blood. This if con- tinued long enough, produces a congested condition of the lungs, and often gives rise to various forms of disease of the respiratory organs.” See also “ Parkes’ Hygiene,” fifth ed. 1878, in connection with this sub- ject, likewise the writings of Dr. Angus Smith. Imay enteric fever, and cholera, a citizen of Glasgow runs much less risk of dying of these diseases than an inhabitant of Caithness or Aberdeen- shire, or almost any other rural district in Scotland you choose to name !’”’ It seems from this that Nature will have it so that filth, even although mixed up and flavoured with the most stolid sanctimoniousness, will yet produce disease and premature death. Fast-days and prayers —with work undone and duties disregarded—being as much “ vain oblations’’ now as they were two thousand years ago. | * Tam glad to be able to state that the Glasgow authorities have published these important lectures in book form, including large diagrams, at the low price of one shilling. They may be had from Mr. James Maclehose, 61, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow. ¢ Is this our nineteenth-century tribute to the worship of Mammon or Moloch ?. { The Black Hole at Calcutta proved how quickly in some cases under these conditions impure air could even kill, GENERAL DRAINAGE. ONT here hint at the value of personal cleanliness—especially the frequent washing of the hands—as a health pro- moter, and also as a safeguard against contagion, espe- cially to plumbers, and to nurses, or to any or all who handle the sick or what comes from them. Among the many evils produced by bad sanitary arrangements, a sewage-polluted water supply is a very dangerous and far too common cause of disease, and is to be held accountable for a considerable proportion of the deaths from preventible diseases. At pp. 350 and 801 of the Sanitary Record (London) for May 30th, 1879, will be found a summary compiled by Mr. Ernest Hart from government official documents, which gives valuable information upon this point. * The evil effects therefore producible from imperfect drainage should make it imperative upon our municipal authorities, and all concerned, to see that when the house is building the house-drains are in all cases properly laid. Instead of this being done, however, it would appear to be the rule that “what is everybody’s business is no- body’s;” t+ for not only in the commoner order of houses, but even in those of the higher class, so far as my experience goes, the character of the house-drainage is often most disgraceful, and the workmanship ex- tremely slovenly—joints improperly fitted and only half made, pipes with a fall the wrong way, old pipes stuck in without faucets, &c., so that free exit into the house is allowed to both sewage water and sewage gas. A great point, therefore, in this business 1s to see that * Learning has been summed up in the three R’s, so may Hygiene in the three P’s—Pure Air, Pure Food, Pure Person. + Since these words were written, in 1876, alittle progress has been made, and the study of hygiene—practical as well as theoretical—is now becoming very popular, museums of sanitary appliances begin- ning to be got up in various parts of the country. Parkes’ Museum of Hygiene, London, lately opened under influential patronage, is likely to do good. The plumbers have also now got a monthly lite- rary organ, the Plumber and_ Decorator, published at 41, Tavistock Street, Strand, London, devoted to the interests and information of the craft. The various sanitary associations now instituted in various parts of the country have done much’good. Professor Fleeming Jenkin, of Edin- burgh, took an active part in inaugurating these in Edinburgh, Lon- don, &c. 258 PLUMBING. there is proper supervision, so that good results may be secured.* A gentleman, ¢.g., may be looking out for a house for himself and family. He espies one newly erected, with a fine frontage, garden before the door, &c., and in a fashionable locality. Everything is nice and fresh-looking about it, so far as the eye can perceive, so he secures it and settles down. All goes well for a time; but by-and-by he begins to get fidgety, sus- picious odours are occasionally felt,t some of the family too complain now and then of headaches, list- lessness, &c.; the kitchen-maid comes in for a share of the blame and is told that she surely doesn’t keep her portion of the house quite as clean as it might be; so that altogether our friend is not so comfortable in his new quarters as he expected. The summer is coming on, however, and off they all go to the coast ; and if they have been fortunate in their choice of a residence there, all goes well. The season ends, how- ever, and back they come; but after a time disease makes its appearance, and, happening to have a phy- sician who likes to know the reason why, an examina- tion is made as to its cause, when the gentleman discovers that his fine-looking mansion was in a fair way of proving to be a regular whited sepulchre, or rather a pest-house for himself and family, owing to the bad manner in which the drains had been laid. The fault being discovered, things are put right, how- ever, by the floors being torn up and the drains relaid, &c., after which the house feels more comfortable and the general tone of health of the inmates is improved. But who was to blame for the purgatory that had to be * In connection with this the classification and registration of houses, as of ships at Lloyd’s, is an idea which might be advanta- geously taken up either by the Government or by municipal autho- rities. I threw out some hints upon the subject in the Building News for February 7th, 1879, which have been commented upon in the public press. _t The stages of sewage-gas poisoning may be designated as four, viz. :—first, the odorous, or warning stage; second, the narcotic, or dangerous stage; third, the disease stage; fourth and last, death. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 259 gone through before this took place? Hach reader may answer that from his own point of view ; but for my part—in a matter of such general and public import- ance as this, where the health of the community suffers, and where pounds have to be paid out to-day to repair what the shillings that ought to have been expended yesterday would have prevented—I think the law and the authorities are both at fault, when they allow such a state of matters to exist and such things to be done. The Government of the country has managed to pre- vent the selling of adulterated coffee; but why cannot it do something more important still by preventing the erection of badly built houses, the putting in of fever- breeding drains, and the poisoning of the atmosphere of our towns? Good houses are as great a desideratum as good ships, while bad houses, leaky drains, and impure air cause far more deaths than rotten ships, only the work is done in a quieter sort of way. Perhaps I am doing wrong in thus expressing my- self, seeing that a great deal of work is got through, things having to be done twice over; but surely the great problem of the “struggle for existence” is cap- able of being solved in a better and nobler manner than this. Fig. 294 is sketch of my Patent No. 1 Induced Current Fixed Ventilator, suitable for ventilating soil- pipes, drains, sewers, ships, workshops, mills, houses, &c., and for any air-exhaust purposes, where the top of the ventilating pipe stands up exposed. Fig. 294a shows a more ornamental and consequently more expen- sive style, marked as No. 1a on my list. Other stiles may also be had, but the one ordinarily used in No. 1] style, is Fig. 294. Fig. 295 shows the No. 2 style, with flat and generally square base, it is principally used for the larger sizes ; it is applicable to houses, halls, hospitals, churches, schools, mills, barracks, prisons, billiard-rooms, wash-houses, stables, &c., and is intended to be placed upon a square wooden frame or seat erected either over the ridge as in Figs. 295a or 295r, or to one side of the ridge, but its dase 260 PLUMBING. upon a level with the top of the ridge, as shown in Fig. 295c, so that the whole of the body of the ventilator may stand up above the ridge. The frame or seat when placed to one side of the ridge is generally so set to prevent its being seen; but to keep the seat so far below the ridge as that the ventilator would be lower Sarath ———— me TT \ AUNQUE TELAT ANU A VUAIIIMTIMI Fig. 294. Vio, 295a, Fig. 294, than the ridge would prevent the wind getting full scope to blow past the ventilator freely, and so hinder the ventilator from working as well as it would do if placed higher than the ridge. ‘ee Fig. 2954 shows a No. 2 ventilator seated upon a rather more elaborate frame or seat than ordinary. Fig. 295r shows a No. 9 ventilator seated upon the GENERAL DRAINAGE, 961 rir ne Fig. 295. HI LM Tig. 2958. 262 PLUMBING. ordinary style of wooden frame suitable for any of the flat-soled ventilators, from No. 2 to No. 9 inclusive. In Fig. 295F, A is the base of the ventilator, from 4 to 6 inches deep according to size. This base slips down over and sits upon the wooden frame B, the part B being protected by lead or zinc; cis the lead or zinc n flashings below and round the frame; D is the lead, zine, or iron, &e., ridging. Fig. 2958 is one of my No. 3 ventilators in situ; the ornamental work at A A is extra to the ventilator and is added on in position. Figs. 295c and 295D _ show some of my other styles, as does Fig. 295. The latter is here shown with a round base; the round wood seat standing up inside of the base at —~ AA from 4 to 6 inches = or so higher than the : top of the cornice B. \ The style mostly in use u u ~~ as yet with flat base Le en eee = 1s Fig. 295, the other —————"_ styles being more ex- pensive and no better as regards working power. A demand is beginning to be made for the more ornamental styles, however.* I had better give here a sketch explaining how the No. 2 and other styles of flat-bottomed ventilators are placed in position. In Fig. 296 we have therefore first an ordinary slated roof G G, up through the ridge of which the ventilating pipe has to pass say 7 inches * While some architects add their own outer casings. Fig. 290n. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 263 above the ridge at mM. This allows the pipe to stand up 3 inches higher than the top E E of the square wooden frame, of which F F are two of the sides (top and sides being made of wood 1 inch thick for a 2 feet diameter ventilator and less or more according to size for other ventilators). This pipe H is supported, where it passes up through the board E E, by a metal flange + in. or so_ broader than the pipe, soldered onbelowp. Thewooden frame E F being fixed in position and the lead or zinc flashings put round it, the ventilator A A is lifted up (in Fig. 296 it is shown suspended over its seat) and lowered down over E £, F F, the width of the base B’B being a little more than that of the frame or seat EE overall. The pipe c is also a little wider than the pipe H, so that H may slip up into ¢, the joint being made tight with red lead and hemp. The top of the base from c to B slopes a little down in order to Fig. 2956. allow the rain to run off easily, and so it is better to make the top of the wood at E & to slope a little too to suit.* L 1 is the ceiling line. At x, especially when the outlet ventilating pipe is metal, I recommend provision to be made to catch any drops of condensed vapour which in certain states of the atmosphere may be formed in tube. At J again, or where most suitable, a * Mr. F. Botting, 29, Mount St., London, W., supplies these cowls. 264 PLUMBING. valve may be placed to be worked say by a cord and pulleys, as sometimes too much air goes out when not wanted, as ¢.g., when heating up an empty church, &c. Besides this hand-worked valve sy, another self-acting or self-closing valve may also be placed inside the pipe H, which will allow passage to all air upwards or out- wards but shuts against the passage of air downwards. This self-acting valve is most useful where the action of chimneys in cold calm weather, or where a certain direction of the wind, tends to produce an inclination to down-draughts. From entire liability to down- draught in unfavourable conditions there is no ventila- tor that I yet know of free. One kind will allow down-draught, even where there is wind, more readily than another. In some that I tested against my own, and which were asserted to be entirely free from donn- draught, I found this not to be true; but, instead, they allowed down-draughts far more than mine, which latter were not warranted. It is very amusing to think of the vast amount of nonsense that has been promulgated about “ self- acting,’ or more correctly wind-acting, ventilators. Even scientific men certified to the wonders that could be worked in the ventilating way by merely clapping So-and-so’s ventilator upon the roofs of the people’s houses or halls, &e. The people believed and bought, but from this quarter and the other quarter murmurs arose that the public had been deluded, for Tom swore he had got cold from down-draught in the theatre— possibly he shouldn’t have been there! Dick said he had got the same at the concert; but, worse than all, his wife got headache and rheumatism at the church from the persistent down-draught* of the ventilator on the roof. In these cases there were no self-closing valves or other such provision made, the patent ven- tilator was supposed to act as a charm and in fact to be a “perfect cure!” By-and-by people began to think and to experiment, when it was discovered that * There are two kinds of down-draught to be guarded against, viz. the blow-down and the suck-down. GENERAL DRAINAGE. _ 265 a wind-acting ventilator without wind to work it was something equivalent to a steam-engine with the fire out, and the coals done.* Generally speaking in this country it seldom happens but that there is some wind to act upon a ventilator if it is so placed as to feel what there is. Where there are fresh-air inlets upon the windward side of a build- ing the entrance of fresh air at these will help to cause the foul air to go out at the roof ventilator, and all the more easily in halls or churches, &c., where there are no fires. ‘‘ Tobin’s tubes” are largely used for fresh air inlets and work well, especially when the air is not too cold. Attempts have been made to heat the incoming air through these by gas and by hot water, without harming the air. I published some plans myself in and since 1878; but I have never had time and opportunity as yet-to try them properly, my business hitherto having been more connected with what appertains to the water supply and liquid drainage of buildings than to the best (7.e. the most economical and most comfort- able) way of replenishing the air while providing for the | aerial drainage of the apartment. Rome was not built in a day, so [ intend to give more information yet on this subject in addition to what I have published elsewhere. Reference has been made to the complaints that had been made about the exhaust ventilators in the market not acting up to the pretensions of their vendors. In 1878 the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain offered the Medal of the Institute to the best acting ventilator sent in to be tested. To this invitation Messrs. Boyle, Lloyd, and Scott-Dunn responded,t but after testing their ventilators against plain pipes, the committee, con- sisting of Captain Galton, Mr. William Kassie, C.E., and Mr. Rogers Field, C.E., reported that they were unable to recommend the Medal to be given to either, * A ventilator on a steamer when sailing might work well suppos- ing no wind, owing to the motion of the vessel; but we can’t send a house through the air like a ship through the water. _ + Messrs. Boyle sent in their “ Air-Pump” Fixed Ventilator; Lloyd’s was also a fixed one. while Scott-Dunn’s was a veering cowl. N 266 PLUMBING. as the experiments made by them at the Royal Obser- vatory appeared to show that the only use of the cowls tested was to keep out the rain. The chairman, Dr. B. W. Richardson, in alluding to the experiments conducted at this time, said—‘It turned out that many of the instruments and apparatus exhibited, and which had previously borne a high reputation for excel- lence, were found by the Council not to be able to stand the test.”* The publication of this statement (the Report will be found published inter alia in the Sani- tary Record, London, June 7th, 1878) fell like a thunderclap upon the ears not only of the prize-seekers, but also upon many of the general public. Although two months or so previously I had in the Sanitary Record published that in my opinion various ventilators were puffed up far above their real merits, I was not prepared to read that the only good they served upon the tops of pipes was to act as umbrellas, yet that virtu- ally seems to have been the opinion enunciated by the judges of the Sanitary Institute. I consider this opinion has done a great deal of good, and has helped to bring out improved systems of ventilation as well as shown there was room for better working appliances. At same time, however, it has also done some harm by making many persons imagine that wind-acting ventilators were useless because the wind as the motive power was inconstant ; but if that were really so, what, é.g., would be the use of sailing vessels? How did they get on making the circuit of the earth, long before steam- engines were invented? And even now, it is found in practice that sailing vessels are still serviceable— getting along pretty well, and sometimes paying better * Dr. Richardson himself had previously stated, that the intro- duction of Boyle’s Ventilators had given us “perfect methods of ventilation.”” His candour under the circumstances is therefore all the more honourable to him. Real “ perfection” to be got from an appliance with such a variable motive power as the wind is rather difficult. Good planning in the arrangement of both inlets and outlets is a great matter, so that each may help the other. Tobin’s or other inlets without providing also good outlets is only half doing the work. By attention to both inlets and outlets Messrs. Boyle appear to wave been pretty successful lately. - GENERAL DRAINAGE, 267 than steamers; the extra cost of the machinery and coals of the latter sometimes counteracting their bene- fits otherwise. Which is the same with the water- power or otherwise mechanically-worked ventilating engines or appliances; people grudging the expense and attention required. Under these circumstances _ therefore wind-acting exhaust ventilators will continue to be used, and the great question for the public is— which one, at a reasonable price, utilises the wind- power best, while at same fins having a good or at least passable appearance? ‘The ignoring or acting upon some such ideas as these might have been one cause of the different action of the judges at a number of the late exhibitions where ventilating appliances were shown. /.g., at Glasgow in 1880, at the Inter- national at London, 1881, and the Newcastle one in 1882, the wind-acting ventilators seem to have been rather pooh-poohed. What’s the use of them when there is no wind ? These were the only exhibitions at which I have been present as yet, and in neither of the catalogues, so far as I remember, is a definite award given to any wind-acting exhaust ventilator. At Glas- gow both Messrs. Boyle and myself were present, but to neither of us nor to any other exhibitor was any award given for ventilators. At the 1881 International Exhibition at London, the only definite first-class award for ventilators I can see in the catalogues is given to Verity Bros., water-power air-propeller.* At Eastbourne, Brighton, Tynemouth, and other London exhibitions, at none of which I was present, the judges did give awards to the wind-acting ventilators. So that it may be said that, ‘‘ Judges differ,”’ just as do doctors ! As to whether or not a good ventilator is better than a plain open pipe I think the experiments made by Mr. 8. 8. Hellyer of London, and myself at Glasgow, settled that in favour of the ventilator. (Vzde Mr. Hellyer’s work already referred to, and the “Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow,” April, 1879, p. 442.' * Messrs. Boyle got a “General Excellence” award; asalso did Verity Bros., in addition to above special one, N2 268 PLUMBING. Experimenting in August, 1878, with ventilators versus a plain pipe, the following shows the compara- tive amount of up and down draughts in each in one minute :— Boyle’s 3-in. han’s 4-in, y Eye ag Banner’s aid Pind! re ere Up? Both 160 250 100 Down 40 ft. 10 None, but i) wavered. In March, 1879, it was stated that the Committee of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain were to make a new series of experiments with ventilators, but as yet I have not heard of any results being published. Like Royal Charlie they seem to be “lang o’ comin’.” I wish them better success when they do come. Only experiments with full-sized ventilators zn posi- tion can give fair play in judging as to their exhaust power and protection of the pipe they are on from down-draught, yet the following experiments with model will help to explain how a pipe surmounted with a ventilator may be better than a plain open pipe. In Fig. 2964 we have a plain U-shaped pipe open at both ends, while in Fig. 2968 we have the same pipe surmounted by a ventilator on one end. In this case by blowing upon one end of Fig. 2964 as per either of the arrows A or B, the air comes out of the end B, as indicated by the piece of cotton lying in the bottom at F rising up in or out of the end B; but if we blow in the direction of the arrows c or D, down-draught takes place and the cotton is sent out at the end £. Now try Fig. 2968 with the ventilator on, and we find that, no matter in what direction the wind strikes the ventilator, there is always an up-current of air in the pipe towards it. This shows that a good ventila- tor may be made to serve the purpose of both an umbrella and a protection so far against down-draught as well as increasing the up-current.* As toa suck- * T hada good proof of this about three years ago at Dalmuir, where I was executing some improvements in the drainage on account of an outbreak of oastric fever. At the manager’s house the soil-pipe went up outside and was carried up full bore to act as a blow-off for Fig. 2963. Fig. 296n. 7|O 270 PLUMBING. down action in the pipe, especially when there is no wind, I have referred to that already. Mention has been made of various experiments carried out with venti- = lators,* but so far as I know the most elabo- rately detailed published set of experiments were those conducted at great expense by Mr. &. 5S. Hellyer, of London, and fully explained and a large amount of data given in his work, “ The Plumber and Sanitary Houses,” published by B. T. Batsford, 52, High Holborn, london. As the result of all the various trials he made with the principal ventilators or cowls in the market, he says :— “Taking all the tests into consideration the palm of victory must Fig 295¢. be given to Mr. Bu- chan’s.” In two series of testing matches his tables show that in twenty-one hours my new Induced-Current Fixed TMD WH LLL ACC TE 9 the drain, but without any ventilator at first. Instead of acting then as an outlet it acted as an inlet, to the annoyance of the manager when he passed the intended air-inlet grating on the ground. I then put on one of my 9-inch Induced Carrent Fixed Ventilators upon the top of the soil-pipe and the air current went as desired and the manager’s complaint ceased. Several months after Mr. James Deas, C.E., engineer to the Clyde Trust, examined the work, and certified that all was satisfactory ; while a few days ago he was telling me that everything was still in good working order and they had had no fever in any of their houses since I had sorted the drainage in 1879. * To see which had the strongest exhaust power and was least hable to down-draught. GENERAL DRAINAGE. Al. Ventilator excelled all the others—whether fixed, veer- ing, or rotating—by about 94,000 feet. To certain interested parties who affected to disbelieve his data as published, Mr. Hellyer offered to repeat his experiments in their presence, but, although the proof o’ the pud- din’ is said to be the preein’ o’t, they did not care to taste. Some of those tested were larger and much. more expensive than mine. Fig. 297 is horizontal section of Figs. 294 and 295. There were a number of various styles of fixed venti- lators in use long before this, as eg., Kite’s with vertical angular plates in 1846, Wilson’s and Finlay’s OAALIIT: jil| ; 44) vt il NL Fig. 297. Fig, 2974. Fig. 2978. a few years after that, and Boyle’s in 1872, formed of a series of vertical plates. Hach has its own peculiarities, Boyle’s to my mind being the most expensive and 272 PLUMBING. elaborate, although not the best working, so far as I can judge by experiments and data published. The late Mr. Robert Boyle, the inventor of the “ air- pump ” ventilator, took great interest in the subject of ventilation. J had a visit from him in my own house in 1878, to see some experiments made with his own ventilator, in regard to its lability to down-draught. These experiments were published and explained at the time in the Sanitary Record (London) for April 5th, 1878, but as Mr. Boyle’s experiments with me were made, so the firm said, ‘without our knowledge and sanction,’ and when he was not “an acting member of the firm,’’* the experiments did not lead, as I wished them, to further experiments with if possible improved construction of this ventilator. I was therefore forced, in order to get the style and improvements I aimed at, to go on with my own “Induced-Current” Fixed Ventilator as an advance upon all that had preceded it. Inter alia, | wished Messrs. Boyle to supply me with their “air-pump” ventilator only 9-inch diameter in the body in place of 12-inch, for a 4-inch pipe, as in many cases I judged the 12- inch to be too large, and therefore an eyesore as well as an unnecessary expense. I could not get this from them, and therefore designed a ventilator to suit my own ideas with the result that Mr. 8. 8. Hellyer published that my 9-inch one at 25s. upon a 4-inch pipe excelled Boyle’s 12-inch 42s. one by 11,772 feet in two hours, and again by 976 feet in twenty minutes. And with both on a U-shaped pipe pulling against each other, my small one in two hours pulled 2,468 feet down through the 12-inch “air- pump!” I observed it stated lately that Boyle’s was the first round fixed ventilator. I think that statement a mis- take, as Finlay’s, about ten years before Boyle’s, * At the time I failed to see what it mattered to scientific or prac- tical experimentation whether or not Mr. Boyle had the “sanction ” of his old firm to experiment. Had the experiments turned out suc- cessful no doubt the jim would then have been glad enough to hear all about them, and appropriate the honours. I think the “ firm” made a mistake in objecting. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 273 was round in section. I here show sections of Wilson’s hexagonal one about 1856, Finlay’s round one about 1860, and Boyle’s 1872. I think the round ones allow the wind to embrace them too much, and so in my own one, as per Fig. 297, I have striven to give rather a Rea: Fig, 297c. Fig. 297p. Fig. 2975. square character to its section in order to allow the wind to flow readily past each side, and so discourage the encircling tendency.* Figs. 297a and 2978 are vertical sections of my patent glycerine-jointed veering cowl; but as my fixed ventilator has turned out so well, I do not care about anes or any other movable wind-acting exhaust venti- ator. So much for ventilating appliances—patented or otherwise—and as to entering upon the subject ‘of systemst of ventilation I cannot do so fully here, but I may refer to the successful ventilation of apartments without any special exhaust appliance by utilising the chimney already there as the outlet. The plan I refer to was first shown tome by Councillor W. R. W. Smith, of Glasgow, some years ago, but whether he or Lord Kinnaird first suggested it I do not know. It was * Boyle’s is shown with four divisions in centre. I experimented with these in mine and considered them a useless waste of metal and money, at least for exhaust purposes. t+ A good system with inferior appliances may be made to give a more satisfactory result than a bad system with better appliances; but the best result, of course, is attained by having both the system and the appliances as good as possible, and this does not necessarily mean the most expensive. I have come across some very expensive and pretentious failures where the best working appliance was the tongue of the vendor. NO 274 PLUMBING. published from the latter in the Building News for November 8th, 1872.* It consisted in his plan of bringing down a pipe from near the ceiling to above the chimney-piece, where the pipe bent inwards to the vent. Mr. Smith’s plan was to bring it down below the chimney-piece and then in; but as in both these cases, if there was a down-draught and a register grate in use there, the smoke could get up the ventilating-pipe and mark the ceiling, I, therefore, in those fitted up by me, carry the pipe down to within a foot or so of the floor, so as to prevent any smoke getting into the pipe. I have used this plan for rooms, which it ventilates very well, especially if a fire is on,f carrying off the heated air from the gas, &c. I have also used it for laundries with stoves, &c., the effect being that the laundry is made much more comfortable and healthy for the servant to work in, while the clothes dry in half the time and better than before the pipe went in. I here, in Fig. 297F, give a sketch of one end of the apartment, showing position of fireplace and the outlet ventilating-pipe c. This pipe c is generally flat—say 7 inch x 2 inch, or thereby. Sometimes it is put in out- side the plaster, again out of sight at the back of the plaster. It is useful to have a Crossley’s, Arnot’s, McDowall’s, or other balanced or self-closing valve put in at p.t Fresh air may be admitted into the room * Messrs. Jas. Combe & Sons, Glasgow, claim it for twenty years back. Mr. Hoey, Glasgow, is another claimant. + The plan is not suitable for open fireplaces. An interesting paper, with diagrams, upon this subject was read to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, on March 31st, 1880, by Mr. H. K. Bromhead, A.R.I.B.A., and published in the “ Transactions.’”’ Some of my own remarks upon House Drainage and Ventilation will be found in the ‘“ Transactions,” under dates March and April, 1879. { This plan will work all the better, and more air may be carried off by the pipe c if there is a valve-damper, or door, upon the smoke outlet of the grate, which can be opened or closed as far as necessary to permit the smoke to get free exit and no more. Finlay’s sliding- valve upon register grates is a good one for this purpose, while a screw handle, like a water crane, with suitable attachment at top of grate, would be a great improvement upon the present common style of smoke-door, which opens or shuts by jumps of a couple of inches at a time, or perhaps only stands at the shut or open, and to regulate which the hand or arm has to be put up the chimney. Jam arranging GENERAL DRAINAGE. 275 either at window between the sashes as at F,* which is often termed Dr. Hinckes Bird’s style, a slip of wood as at G, about 3 inches deep, being put in along top of window to prevent air getting in there, or it may come in through one or more Tobin’s tubes as at zr. Again, instead of the fresh air coming in directly from the outside into the room or apartment, it may come in WEEE EXELL CL Fig. 297F. from the lobby through Tobin’s tubes. A Tobin’s tube fixed up at the back of the door makes a good fresh-air inlet. When Tobin’s tubes communicate directly with the outer air complaints are often made in cold weather of the incoming air being too cold. During the present year, 1882, plans have been proposed to heat the in- coming air as it passes up the tube. In some of my patents, A.p. 1878 and 1879, I have referred to and shown. various modes of doing so, exter alia, by gas- heated and also by hot-water-heated tubes—or steam- heated pipes might be used. One of my plans was to heat the incoming air by means of a worm-shaped or other form of tube or tubes, or tank, &c., in connec- tion with the boiler of the kitchen or a special boiler, with Messrs. John Finlay & Co., Renfield Street, Glasgow, as to supplying such a valve-regulator on the grate as I refer to. * A muslin or wire gauze screen to keep out smoke and dust would be useful here. jes 276 PLUMBING. &e., as might be most suitable, the fresh-air tube, or air-warmer, being so far heated by the water in the hot-water tube. I intended to have been able to pub- lish a list of experiments showing the difference of temperature of the fresh air as it entered and passed out of the heated Tobin’s tube, but other engagements have prevented me at present. J hope to be able to do so shortly, however. In regard to air-supply to rooms over doors, Professor See RSs. iQ ws EISSN SNAND RNS MISSA ARAAAN SS NAQNXX* | NS Siw Ni James Thomson, of the University of Glasgow, designed various plans of doing so, and has had some of them in use for twenty years or more. I show in Fig. 297¢ one style of which he has kindly lent me the drawing, but the idea can be worked out in various ways, either simple or ornamental, as best suits the circumstances of the case. vp, Fig. 297, is on the outside of the room, GENERAL DRAINAGE, Sad B is the vertical sliding valve above which the air enters the room, ¢ is a metal eye by which the valve B can be raised and lowered, A is a balance weight. In front of E is shown the groove in which the valve works. F is wooden fixture. Fig. 297 is another style, L being outside of the room and J wooden board placed at an angle above the door inside of the room. This style at g may also be used in place of the louvre boards at 1 out- side. The breadth of board s may be 18 inches or more, and height about 18 inches; each end of J is closed in. H is the valve on top, which may be regulated by a cord and pulley x. Instead of the back of valve being as high as top of J, it may be fixed or hinged down at 1 as per dotted line. The Fig. 2976 style was used about thirty years ago, and any one is free to use the styles. In admitting fresh air to any apartment care must be taken that it is so admitted as not to give the occupants cold. ‘Too much of even a good thing may doevil. There isa sensible Spanish proverb which says, ‘“‘ Beware of a cold draught and an angry donkey.” In the case of schools and churches, short but large flushings between the lessons and sermons when the scholars and hearers are out is very good, especially if done quickly, so as to renew the air without giving time for the walls, &., to cool. Amongst my dis- agreeable experiences has been that of hearing the ““ Word of God” preached in a stinking, or badly, or non-ventilated church. Few things are more incon- gruous or inappropriate. H, Fig. 297¥, is an outlet-pipe with valve, sometimes put in in place of the pipe c (but it may be put in and c too), to work when there is no fire on. It may deliver into outer air, lobby, or vent. To lessen the current of air towards the fireplace and help to keep the room and people sitting in front of the fire warmer—especially on off-side from fire—it is a good plan to put in a large pipe from the outer air to front of fire, up through hearthstone say, and have a sliding or hit-and-miss valve on. This pipe must be put in so as to prevent any danger from red-hot 278 PLUMBING. cinders. I have this and the pipe, Fig. 297F, also the wood slip G, in several of the rooms of my own house. As I write this, two gas lights have been burning in my dining-room for the last two or three hours, yet I find that, owing to the fire being on and the pipe c working, the atmosphere of the room feels quite good even upon going out to the fresh air and coming in again, whereas, with the valve p shut and the pipe c not working, the air of the room feels stuffy to me in half an hour or so after the gas is lighted. The style of outlet-ventilation shown in Fig. 297¥ may be termed the aerial-siphon system of ventilation, the vent being the long leg of the siphon and c the short leg; the motive power is got by the weight or pres- sure of the atmosphere upon the top of c being greater than the weight of the warm air in the vent from the - level of the top of c to the top of the chimney. In addition to having the rooms of a house ventilated per sé, the lobby and staircase should also be ventilated by a large special pipe surmounted by a ventilator as high as the ridge (or some other plan), which venti- lating-pipe should have either a self-closing valve in it or one which can be closed and opened when wished. I have other combined styles of ventilation suitable for ships, halls, &c., but have not time to show them here. They have been already partly published, but to do justice to this ventilation subject would require a pamphlet at least for itself. If fortune favours I may publish such with illustrations by-and-by. At page 111 reference was made to certain water- closets not there described; the following diagrams give an idea of some of the styles referred to. ‘The first three shown belong to the “ Wash-out” style, and with a plentiful supply of water they may do well. Fig. 298 is a vertical section of Jennings’ “ Monkey ”’ closet ; the horn at 8 is intended to ventilate the soil- pipe to the outer air, of course. This closet, in one or two pieces, was patented by Mr. Jennings in August, A.D. 1852, but the horn B is a late addition. Fig. 299 is Woodward’s “‘ Wash-out”’ closet. Fig. 300, a newer GENERAL DRAINAGE. 279 design, is Bostel’s closet brought out as an improvement upon Jennings’. It seems to me that the ventilating- horn c is in the wrong place. Fig. 298. Dig. 200, Fig. 300. Another closet lately introduced, which reminds me of Fig. 170 minus the trap, is “ Pearson’s Patent Trapless Twin-basin Water-closet.” I consider it very dear and little improvement upon Shank’s closet in use long before it. J also consider the want of the trap a great source of danger, for if a piece of paper, &c., gets under the valve, especially when the water is off, there is nothing to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere of the house from the soil-pipe. I consider this “ trap- less’’ closet much inferior to the old cheese-closet in use thirty or more years ago, and which also had two water receptacles, but, in addition, a lead water-trap underneath. Mr. 5.8. Hellyer writes very strongly ‘Ser against the use of “= === == SS trapless closets. Hig. 300a. Figs. 300a and 3008 show vertical sections of two patterns of the wash-down (as distinguished from the wash-out) style of closet, invented by myself and patented in 1879. 280 PLUMBING. It is known and registered as the ‘“ Carmichael Wash- down Accessible Closet.” Fig. 300a is sold as No. 100 2a aeate is in one piece, and in the P-trap style. Fig. 3008 is) No, l006,7 in two pieces, and in the S-trap style. The flush- Fig. 300s.” ing water enters the basin through my patent adjustable metallic jet-fan 1, which, while allowing the water to flow all round the interior of the basin, also at same time produces a special water-jet, as shown in diagrams, which jet sub- merges and sends off the paper, &c. At first I tried a hollow-rim basin partly perforated instead of the metallic jet-fan, but, finding it required more water and was much more difficult to regulate for flush- ing, I have allowed it to drop, and the makers now only supply the metallic jet-fan with turn-down-rim style of basin or closet, as shown in diagrams. ‘The closet may be had in four different styles, as ordered, viz., Nos. 1001 and 1003 in the §-trap style, and Nos. 1002 and 1004 in the P-trap style. Nos. 1001 and 1002 are each in one piece of earthenware, Nos. 1008 and 1004 in two pieces of earthenware. The latter style allows the basin considerable freedom to be turned round in the direction most suitable for the service or flushing pipe; but on account of the joint— which, however, is above the water, as seen in Fig. 300B —many prefer the closet in one piece. In many cases, as being more handy to use, I have a liking for the style in two pieces, and have it fitted up in my own house, for, when the basin and trap are well joined with either red lead putty, stucco, or cement, the two are virtually one. Then again if basin or trap gets broken of GENERAL DRAINAGE. 281 either Nos. 1003 or 1004, only a half-closet is needed to put things right, whereas, if either Nos. 1001 or 1002 are broken, a whole-closet would be needed. In setting the basin of either No. 1003 or No. 1004 the inlet-horn of the basin should not be placed right above or over the outlet of the trap, but somewhere opposite to it, as in Fig. 3008, or to one side (either right or left), as at cin Fig. 300c. Attention to this in setting allows the water-jet to submerge and send off the paper, &c., better. This closet is supplied best, I think, from a cistern overhead, and with a 24-inch or 2-inch valve and 2-inch, 14-inch, or l-inch vertical down-pipe according to height of the cistern. The pipe next the valve should not be less than 2 inches diameter, and should have a very small air- pipe, +-inch diameter enough, and no service-box. Some architects prefer a simple pull-down bell-pull cord and handle for letting on the water, as per F in Fig. 300c. I use this plan myself, and have fitted up many of these closets so.* In other cases the lifting handle at seat is pre- ferred. As various me- dical gentle- men consi- der that the usual closets Tha stand too Fig. 3000. high above | the floor, the height of this one is only 154 inches. aoe iret D * A check for the outer end of the lever to strike against is useful, to prevent it being pulled down too far. India-rubber or felt for deafen- ing sound may also be placed under the closet if wished. 282 PLUMBING. If wanted up to the usual height it can easily be set upon a small block of wood slightly larger than the earthenware sole of the closet. This wood may be placed under the lead safe, where a lead safe is used. It is recommended to use this closet with the follow- ing sizes of valves and service-pipe from cistern, accord- ing to the height of the cistern above the water-closet, viz., about 6 feet or less above closet, a 24-inch valve and 2-inch service-pipe ; about 8 feet above closet, 24- inch valve and 13-inch service-pipe; about 9 feet 6 inches above closet, 2-inch valve and 14-inch service- pipe; about 11 feet above closet, 2-inch valve and l-inch service-pipe, with short tapered piece of pipe between valve and l-inch, &c., down-pipe. A good size of small wood cistern, lined with sheet-lead, is 21 inches long by 11 inches broad and 15 inches deep all inside, or as much larger as desired. In towns, &c., where limited closet water-supply regulations are in force, either Ross’s or other regulating valve of suffi- cient size may be used, or cistern with division and two common valves, or Ross’s special zon cistern and valve, or some of the siphon-action cisterns with 2-inch or 14-inch down-pipe. It is necessary that the water- flush of this closet should come quickly and with force, so that there be no waste of water. Two or three gallons coming quick/y and with a good force will do more good than ten times as much coming slowly, while two short flushes are better than one long one. Nothwithstanding the foregoing directions as to fitting up, the mistakes that various parties have made in fitting them are rather curious; e.g. one party had a 34-inch valve and 2-inch down-pipe from a small 2-gallon iron cistern, but only a l-inch coupling be- tween the valve and 2-inch pipe. Of course the flush- ing of the closet was a failure. I was appealed to to explain this, and desired the parties to take out the, in this case, stupidly small 1l-inch coupling and use a 2-inch coupling. This was done, a 3-gallon cistern at same time being put in in place of the 2-gallon one, whereupon word came back that ‘now the closet works first-rate.” GENERAL DRAINAGE. 283 Anything new is sure to take a little time before the generality of workmen will properly master it, or get out of the old groove into a new one. In other cases eat tradesmen take a pleasure in mastering anything novel. A great many old pan closets especially—in some cases even Bramahs—have been taken out and replaced by these “Carmichael ” wash-down closets. In some gentlemen’s houses all the closets are ‘“ Carmichaels ”’ in other cases only some of them. For their new premises,* the London Sanitary Protection Association (of which Professor Huxley, F.R.S., &c., is President), have adopted the “‘ Carmichael”’ closet. It was fitted up by the North British Plumber and Sanitary Engineering Company, 4, Upper Baker Street, N.W., and Mr. W. K. Burton, engineer (colleague with Mr. Cosmo Innes, Secretary of the L.S.P.A.), writes me that its working ‘is thoroughly satisfactory.” It has been fitted up with a small siphon-action service- cistern and 14-inch service-pipe, the height being 6 feet above the closet. The cistern at one flush delivers 24 gallons of water in four seconds. ‘“ With these conditions the closet cleanses itself most tho- roughly.” Mr. Burton goes on to say very truly, “Much more care is necessary in fixing a wash-down closet than in fixing a valve one; but given the necessary care in fixing I must say I prefer the wash- down, and on the whole I have found none so satis- factory as your ‘Carmichael.’”’ He also adds that in any case where he had come across a Carmichael closet not working satisfactorily, the fault lay in the flushing and not in the closet. With the adjustable metallic jet-fans there is no good reason why an ordinary plumber with the slightest gimption should not fit up the wash-down closets to work satisfactorily if he do so as directed, and makes the water-jet strike the centre. Ifin any case the plumber thinks the pipe he has put in is too large and allows too much water to come into the basin, he can easily sort that by cutting * 1, Adam Street, Adelphi (second floor), London, W.C. 284 PLUMBING. off 6 inches or so off the end of the pipe next the basin, and putting in a short piece of pipe 4 inch or so less in diameter. In a number of cases I have a few inches of l-inch pipe next the basin with a larger pipe behind and above it, and the flushing first-rate. It is easier contracting a too large pipe than putting in a larger pipe where too small a one has been put in at first. A broad but shallow cistern, only a few inches deep, is not so good for flushing as a narrower but deeper one; e.g. a depth of water of 12 inches above the valve will give a good flush when only 6 inches would give an insufficient one, and even with twice the quantity of water. The title ‘‘wash-down”’ is used to distinguish this style of closet from the ‘‘ wash-out” styles shown in Figs. 298, 299, and 300. In the latter the water flows out sideways into the trap, the water in which is out of sight, while the pipe between the basin p and the top of the water in the trap at £, Fig. 298, is apt to get foul and furred where not seen. For this reason some prefer the “ wash-down”’ to the ‘‘ wash-out”’ style of closet. Dr. Neil Carmichael, in the important paper read by him to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, in Feb- ruary, 1880, on *‘ The Trap and Water-Closet System,’ says, ‘‘ A basin with its outlet so curved as to form a siphon-trap, the deepest part of which is seen from the’ basin, the whole formed of one piece of glazed earthen- ware, fulfils all the conditions of a simple, clean, safe, and cheap water-closet.”” These principles, including the necessary flushing arrangement, will be found em- bodied in Figs. 3004 and 300B. There is a “partial resemblance between Figs. 300 a 3018, in that both have access openings and lids with vena e horns beneath, as at B and xk, but in Fig. 300 both are upon the house side of the trap, while in Fig. 300a and B both are upon the outer side of the trap. At the Philosophical Society’s Exhibition, Glasgow, October, 1880, one of the only two first-class certificates GENERAL DRAINAGE. 285 with medals awarded in the Sanitary Section was given to the ‘‘ Carmichael”’ Closet, the other being awarded to my Patent Ventilating Trap for drains shown on page 218 ante. In the new premises recently erected for the Philo- sophical Society and the Institute of Engineers in Glasgow, the closets selected and in use are the ‘“‘Carmichael”’ closets. I have observed some people advertising that by the use of their particular closet absolute freedom from sewage gas is guaranteed ; but that is all nonsense, and highly misleading, for although a closet may be war- ranted, per sé, to guarantee freedom from sewage, or sewer gas—which latter it may do all the more easily if the sewer gas is already locked off independent of it by a ventilating siphon-trap—zts guarantee against sewage gas from the soil-pipe belonging to it is worth- less, hence the proper fitting in and ventilation of the pipes and drains are of more importance than the use of a particular water-closet. I cannot do better, there- fore, than close this chapter with a description of Fig. 301, which shows in vertical section the general arrange- ments for providing, in a satisfactory, safe, and simple manner, for the water supply and drainage of a house. This diagram may be studied in connection with Figs. 212A, 281, 282, 282a, 2838, 288A, 286a, 292, and 298, &e. The trap marked a? B? shows how I have been in the habit of trapping off the soil-pipe from the drain, while at the same time providing for the proper venti- lation of both soil-pipe and drain. ‘This trap is the same as that shown at Fig. 272a. The size in this position is generally 6 inches, which size costs about ten shillings, 4-inch size less, and 9-inch more. c and p are two of my Induced-Current Fixed Ventilators.* Eis the overflow pipe of the clean water cistern, with one of my self-acting block-tin bell traps in the cistern. K is one of my blow-in glycerine jointed cowls, shown here upon the supposed high-level inlet ventilating- * Cost of these, according to size, from twenty shillings upwards. (anise) ,O3u1Nb3Y 41 YSMAaS BOI Bdld “SNILWULNIA ——— = ~<~——eer Ne a5 on he obs Rees ee ok» at CG ee ey TS HS F ee Bion TOSS" NIVEO UOd Adid ONIVIILNSA 7437 HOIH Lal sem VENTILATING TRAP FOR DRAIN 5 ~ itt AI z 2 All 2% : | 215 z = a ! z : 5 |! — & J|| ; . = Ay = ing tee ‘ AG & : a 2 | <——«<« = (yo); 7 ») AlddNS YSLVM HS3u4 Y) “A ae eS ears 1 >> a s i] »»—> MK ZS) 2 e QD Soa See: N a 3 a = Sdid wiv NA > rns ee aie WS OPA jig Wy OMIA G FRESH WATER §SUPFLY 301. Tig. ipe for drain. I have never as yet, however, required pipe GENERAL DRAINAGE. 287 to put up this high-level inlet pipe so surmounted upon any of my jobs; although I have used a plain vertical inlet pipe 6 feet or more high. H is an over- flow pipe for water-closet cistern. If the bell-trap is not used, it should have a hinged valve at its outlet end. Gis clean cold water supply off the main to sink and bedroom on lower flats. On top flat the fresh water is shown from a cistern. J is a water-closet trap, with the safe as usual adove it, and upon the floor, but under the water-closet. This trap, 3, may have a sheet-copper bottom added on it, to prevent it being holed by a lazy servant, say, poking it to get rid of something that should not have been put down. The trap A is the ventilating-trap dividing the house drain from the sewer ; the opening at A is a strong perforated or ribbed iron grating—I prefer and use the former— for the admission of fresh air. It is easily removed in order to examine or clean the trap. 8 is the examina- tion or cleansing eye on the outer side of the trap. It is covered by an iron plate, having a cemented-in fire- clay or iron lid beneath to prevent the sewer gas coming out. The ventilating-pipe for the sewer, as at 1—or for the drain as at N—is connected to and led off from the side branch attached to the vertical pipe. This plan, while allowing full and free scope for venti- lation, provides for ready examination or easy acces- sibility at a moment’s notice, without disturbance of or lifting the ground. The plan is patented by me, but is freely open to be used by all parties using my simple ventilating traps. I donot here enter into the question or propriety of ventilating the public sewers up private pipes; I only here show what I consider the best mode of attachment when itisdone. M is a clean- ing or examination opening upon the drain, with iron plate and fire-clay lid underneath, the latter being cemented down. My patent pipe,* Fig. 2864, with the longitudinal access opening and lid, is in many cases * In “L’Hygiéne dans la construction des habitations privées,”’ just published by Professor F. Putzeys, of Liége, assisted by Lieut. EH. Putzeys, these traps and pipes are illustrated and recommended, and so are my closets. My fixed ventilators are also illustrated in three styles. 288 PILUMBING, the best to use for this. The space between pipe and surface of the ground may be built with bricks and cement. Instead of the kitchen sink discharging into a dis- connecting siphon-trap, as into one of my No. 2 traps,* it may discharge into one of my patent grease-traps manufactured by Messrs. J. & M. Craig, of Kilmarnock. In regard to the position of the soil-pipe, viz., whether it is best to be placed outside of the house or carried up inside of it, there has been a good deal of correspondence lately, many advocating the placing of the soil-pipe inside so as to prevent it freezing in winter. I have supported the idea that it is best for the safety of the inmates to be outside, and pointed out that it was not the pipe itself that got frozen up but the water that was in it, but which water I pointed out had no business to be in it, as it would likely be that proceeding from some leaking crane or other fitting which had no business to be leaking. Dr. B. W. Richardson, in Good Words for November, 1881, refers to my remarks upon this subject and also supports the outside position, such being also the best position in the opinion of the Local Government Board. I also pointed out that the emanations from an outside soil-pipe were both less in quantity and less dangerous, generally speaking, than those from an inside one; but whether outside or inside I approve, as far as possible, of the soil- pipe being disconnected at its foot and surmounted with a fixed induced current ventilator upon its top. The use of soil-pipe sweepers may come in vogue by-and-by. I invented one in 1877, ‘There has also been considerable controversy as to the merits of the siphon versus the ‘‘ D”’-trap, for water- closets, &c. Some decry the D-trap altogether, on account of it being more dirty than the siphon-trap ; others, keeping in view the effect of siphon action, con- sider the D-trap the safer of the two. This effect of * Messrs. John Finch and Co., 9, Buckingham Street, Strand, W.C are Messrs. Craigs’ agents in London for the supply of the author's patent traps, pipes, and all articles in fireclay. GENERAL DRAINAGE, 289 “siphon action,’ it was asserted, could be obviated by proper ventilation on the outer side of the siphon-trap, and which ventilation not only prevented siphon action but also corrosion of the lead. These have been the ideas upon which I have all along acted myself. Fore- most amongst the supporters of the ‘‘D’”’-trap is Mr. P. J. Davies, of South Kensington, London, who has both experimented and written much in connection with Plumbing. In the front rank of the opponents of the D-trap must be placed Mr. 8. S. Hellyer, of 21, Newcastle Street, Strand, London, who has brought out an improved form of the siphon-trap, termed by him the “Anti-D-Trap,” of which Fig. 3014 shows vertical section. In regard to the question as to whether the D-trap or the ordinary siphon-trap is most Figs. 3014 and 301n. easily cleansed, I consider that of much less impurtance than the loss of the water-seal by either; and in that relation a D-trap, which would retain its water seal where a siphon-trap would lose it, is the better trap to _ use, aS @.g. in a case where proper ventilation of the outer side of said ordinary siphon-trap was not allowed. In some such cases, as on the waste-pipes of wash basins, I have used a bottle-trap. A great objection against the D-trap is that its dipping foul-air barrier being out of sight, as in a, Fig. 3018, may be corroded and holed, and so allowing foul air to pass unknown, and in a way more difficult of detection than with the siphon-trap. Of course the application of the smoke- Oo 290 PLUMBING. test,* now becoming quite popular, should soon tell if the lead at a was holed, although it would give no warning, supposing the lead there were nine-tenths eaten through. In Mr. Hellyer’s “ Anti-D-Trap” the outlet end of the trap is less in area than the inlet end. In his lectures on Sanitary Plumbing, as published in book form, Mr. Hellyer gives some very interesting tables, showing the quantity of water required to flush various closets, as also the effect of siphon action upon various forms of traps. The best one to withstand siphon Figs. 301c and 301p. action when unventilated was the full-sized D-trap, but a heavy discharge of water in that case might draw its sides together. This would not happen with the round bottle-trap, Fig. 301lc. Mr. Hellyer’s “ Anti- D-Trap ”’ stood the tests very well, but the necessity for ventilating the outer side of the trap, especially where large discharges of water go down the pipe, was amply demonstrated. Instead of contracting the outer end of the siphon-trap to make it keep its water-seal better, I * Professor James Thompson considers he was the first to apply the smoke of brown paper for testing soil-pipes, and to use the term smoke test. I have imagined I was the first to use the smoke-producing machine for testing both soil-pipes and drains, and my use of it and public references to such have tended to its present extended applica- tion.—W. P. B. GENERAL DRAINAGE. 291 had a notion that enlarging it, as per Fig. 3801), _ would tend to produce that effect, but I have not had opportunity to experimentally test the plan in a proper manner as yet, but it may be useful to record the idea here for future reference. Where the water turns over at p, the lower portion of the pipe or trap there would be flat, the section being something like the letter D on its face, so, Q. : The ordinary lead siphon-trap is generally badly made by its outer end having too much of a slope out- wards, as per Figs. 169 and 179, instead of being shaped more like Figs, 229 and 234. When it is wished to be so done, drains may be | flushed automatically at certain intervals by a siphon- pipe having its upper end placed inside a cistern, which cistern is filled either by a ball-cock, turned upside down and with a (-pipe attached to it, or in place of the ball-cock a cottage closet-cock with lever may be used, and with a loaded copper ball in place of the iron weight; there being also a small regulating stop-cock branched off the side of the supply-pipe to the ball- cock. This small stop-cock is to allow the water to dribble into and fill up the lower portion of the cistern so far at the desired rate: when the cistern is so far— say three quarters—filled by the small stop-cock, the rising ‘water gradually raises the ball of the larger cock and opens it, which after running full bore for a minute or so charges the siphon. ‘The siphon once started must be regulated to empty the cistern quicker than the supply-pipe can fill it, so as to allow the supply-cock to shut. A large regulating-cock on the supply-pipe to the cistern would therefore be useful. . A 1}-inch siphon-pipe would be a serviceable size. If the drain is flushed once a day, or only once in so many days, the best time to do it would be about 9 P.M., so as to have the drains clean during the night while sleep- ing. In some cases a rain-water flushing cistern would be useful. As these pages were being printed I observed on page 504 of the Building News tor October 27th, 1882, 0 2 292 PLUMBING. a notice with illustrations of a plan said to have been recently patented by Drs. Buxton and Ross for prevent- ing water pipes from bursting in frosty weather by simply placing a valve inside the cistern with air-pipe below it to allow the pipe to be emptied; but, as I observed on page 557 of same Journal, it seems to me that they are rather late in attempting to patent such a plan, as it has been already used for years back. It Fig. 3018. has been often in use in Glasgow upon service pipes from cisterns. The same plan was also in common use to allow the service pipes from fountain heads to be emptied when wished. I here in Fig. 301 show some styles which have been in use for a long time in Glas- glow, only whereas Messrs. Buxton and Ross use a hinged valve, it has generally been a spindle valve that I have seen and with the air-pipe a connected below the cistern as at F; the air-pipe if put in as per dotted lines 3 being merely a modification. In place of the valve a stop-cock, as per c, was used, being sometimes placed inside the cistern and at other times outside at GENERAL DRAINAGE. 293 p. Upon shutting the valve or cock at cistern and opening the cocks c and u the service pipe was emptied of water, z.e. if the pipe hada gradual fall down to nose-cock. As the plan is old no one can patent it, but all may freely use it. It is not quite perfect, for sometimes when the cord 1 is let go during frosty weather the valve B will not fall, because the top of the water has got frozen and holds the wire in its grasp. I see Messrs. Buxton and Ross use electricity to set the valve working, but how this would serve in practice requires experience to tell. The air-pipes should be small, especially the pipe p, to prevent air getting in too freely to interrupt the flow of the water; in many cases the mouth of the air-pipe is squeezed close except a small hole one-eighth inch in diameter or so. . At page 268, when referring to work done by me at Dalmuir in 1879, I omitted to mention that I there introduced then the Sectional System of trapping and ventilating Street Sewers, ¢.., upon the bottom of a branch sewer in one of the streets I put in one of my large disconnecting ventilating traps to lock off gases from the main sewer, and allow this branch sewer to be ventilated per se, the fresh air entering through my trap to lower part of the sewer, and one of my 18-inch exhaust induced-current fixed ventilators, being placed upon the top of a ventilating shaft carried up above the chimneys from the top of higher end of the sewer, caused a current of air to flow through the sewer—the foul air blowing off high up above the roofs. The branch drains from the various tenements leading into the street sewer had my traps upon them, and the gutter gratings in street had also traps placed below them. In closing this chapter I may observe that, while not forgetting the early pioneers, led on by the veteran, Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., sanitary literature within the last few years has been most abundant, and also quite popular; and what is better, the greater part of it has been useful, instructive, and very good. We have had the architect, the chemist, the engineer,* and * T must not omit to thank Mr. R. B. Austin for his writings and 294 PLUMBING. physician all vying with each other, as to who would do best. One pamphlet I especially esteem is “ The Sanitary Work of an Architect,’ by Mr. Ernest Turner, F.R.I.B.A., London. Another interesting little work by an architect is “ An Hour with a Sewer Rat,” by Mr. G. G. Hoskins, F.R.LB.A. Mr. Rogers Field, B.A., C.E.,* is well known both for his words and deeds in connection with sanitation, and in great measure in its relation to house drainage. In the body of this work I have mentioned a number of well- known names—-co-workers towards sanitary progress : to which I may add Drs. W. H. Corfield, ©. A. Cameron, Charles Cameron, M.P., Henry D. Littlejohn, HK. T. Blake, and David Page; also Mr. Ed. C. Robins, F.S.A., who has delivered various important lectures in connection with the healthy and comfortable use of buildings; and last, but not least, Dr. T. Pridgin Teale, of Leeds, with his amusing and yet highly instructive “ Pictorial Guide to Domestic Sanitary Defects.” The names of Officers of Health and Sanitary In- spectors throughout the Kingdom are so numerous that I could not pretend to name them, but they have all been helping on the good work of the day. May they all reap their reward, and their country gratefully ac- knowledge it has been the better that they have lived. In connection with sanitary improvements, I have somehow come into personal contact with very few of the clergy, although I am aware that some of them have been interesting themselves specially in this work. Chief amongst those I do know, the Rev. John Stark of Duntocher, stands out in bold relief as an apostle of sanitation. He seems never to be weary of well-doing. Both young and old—and especially the former—have much to thank him for what he has done for them. “‘Mens sana in corpore sano’”’—a sound mind in a sound body—is a good motto. To impair either has a bad effect upon both. support in relation to the principle and working of the real and sup- posed improved systems of house drainage which have been brought before the public of late years. * Inventor of Field’s flushing tank, 5, Cannon Row, London, 8.W. CHAPTER XXXII. WaATER REGULATORS OR GOVERNORS. Jusr as I was finishing overlooking the proof sheets of the second edition of “Plumbing,” my attention happened to be drawn to a new water regulator lately invented by Mr. William Foulis, Glasgow. The object of this regulator is to control the supply of water in mains so as to maintain aconstant outlet pressure, under varying conditions of inlet pressure or outlet consumption. Eg. if the reservoir were 200 feet high above a certain district, then by the insertion of this new regulator the pressure could be reduced to only 100 feet, and so on as desired. A great improvement in these valves is that even the largest sizes may be worked by weights of a few pounds. Fig. 302 is vertical section of one arrangement where F is the inlet, G the outlet from the governor, A is the valve, and 8 the piston attached to it, cis the pipe communicating with the arrangement shown in Fig. 303. The pressure on the top of the valve A balances the pressure under the piston B, and the valve adjusts itself until the balance of pressures is obtained. The inlet pressure acting on the bottom of the valve a and top of the piston B is neutralised, and has no influence on the action of the governor. The means of obtaining the necessary pressure under the piston is shown in the arrangement in Fig. 303. It consists of an elongated piston or ram, B, about 296 PLUMBING. 3 inch in diameter and 6 inches long, working in a cylinder, c. In this ram a recess is cut. C is a pipe leading to the underside of the piston of the valve, Tos.\ Mis ISSN Ng = i | Up Uy HN Fig. 302. risa communication with the inlet of the valve, and G communicates either with the outlet-or above ground. A small hole, p, through the ram communicates the pressure to its underside. The ram is continued WATER REGULATORS OR GOVERNORS. 297 through the top of the cylinder, and may be loaded to any desired extent. The regulating arrangement in Fig. 803 from its small size may be placed in any convenient position— eg. in the pillar of a lamp as shown in Fig. 3804— | on LA SECT TTECOOIOOTITTT TT it oi If i CT if 4 \ ii ai aati i ia Fig. 303. the governor itself being placed underground on the line of main, at any distance from the regulating arrangement. Such a regulator as above described should be very useful in a town or city with various levels, to prevent waste of pressure upon the low levels, and allow full pressure only for the high levels. 03 998 PLUMBING. Fig. 305 is vertical section of a small-sized regulator, the intention of which is to reduce the pressure in ser- vice pipes to houses in cases where the pressure is stronger than is either necessary or is wanted, and so help to save injury to the pipes and fittings from extra high pressure. I have not seen any of the large governors working yet, but I am told they are doing satisfactory where they have been applied. As they are new it will re- quire some time to show their real value. I saw some experiments with the small one, Fig. 305, showing its action as a reducer of the pressure. Hitherto stop- cocks have been used, as per page 156, to serve at one and the same time as shut-off cocks and as regulators to check excessive outflow while the water was running ; but these stop-cocks, although half shut, did not reduce WATER REGULATORS OR GOVERNORS. 299 the pressure in any degree, when the water ceased run- ning. If Fig. 305 would serve as stop-cock, regulator, and reducer of the pressure all in one, then its value 4 Z Zi Zz % Z ZI A 7 yea Z Z Z A | G | Z Z q g CHEE MORAISON Sc. SS SS SNAN ST Fig. 306. would be greatly enhanced. It was suggested to try one with a screw-down spindle attached, and also with an air vessel. INDEX. oe a ABERDEENSHIRE, fever in, 256 Access pipes, 250, 287 Ach-na-cloich, 250 Air, 174 Air and Water, 256 Air, bad, 100 Air currents, 151, 201 Air flushing, 277 Air, impure, 230, 256 Air in pipes, 190, 191, 192 Air pollution, 255, 256 Air-pump, 174 Air-vessel, 178 Amateur plumbing, 210, 245 Ammonia, 232 Ammonium sulphide, 230 Anti-bell-trap, 251 Anti-D-trap, 289 Apron, 24 Archimedean screw ventilators, 224 Asphalte, 247 Atmosphere, 174, 255, 256 Mr., 214 Austin, Mr. H. G., 61 Austin, Mr. R. B., 293 Authorities, 256, 257 BACK-check-lifter, 157 Baker’s preparation for tin- ning and soldering, 50 Bands (lead), 93 Banner, Mr. E. G., 210 Barge, 22 Barracks, 259 Basins, closet, 102, 103, 107 Basins, wash-hand, 144, 151, 210 Bateman, Mr. J. F., 170 Baths, 114 lead-lined, 118 iron, 126 marble, 140 site of, 134 spray, 140 wave, 143 wooden, 116 Bath-valve, 118—123 Bath waste-pipe, 94, 114, 128 Batsford, Mr. B. T., 270 Bell, Dr. Robert, 241 Bell-trap, anti-, 251 iron, 251 lead, 104 Billiard-rooms, 259 Billing, Arthur, 211 Birmingham wire gauge, 67 Black Hole, Calcutta, 256 Blackie’s Encyclopedia, 241 Blake, Dr. E. T., London, 294 Blocking-course, 29, 30 Board, Local Government, 204, 220, 235, 237, 238 Board Schools, 250 Boot (iron), 91 Bossing, 28 Bostel’s water-closet, 279 Botting, Mr. F., London, 263 Bower-trap, 232 Boyle, Robt., Senr., 272 Boyle’s ventilators, 265—273 Bramah closet, 107 Branch pipes, 85 Breeches pipes, 55 INDEX. Brighton, 267 British plan, 63 Bromhead, Mr. H. K., 274 Broomhill, Kirkintilloch, 227 Buchan’s patent access-pipes, 250 ball-trap, 231 patent closets, 279 patent trap, 202, 218, 219, 223, 229, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 252, 253 patent ventilators, 99, 203, 224, 286, 241, 259, 260, 269 Buchanan, Dr. Geo., 220, 235 Bucket, pump, 175 Building News, 54, 97, 258, 291 Burton, Mr, W. K., 283 Button, lead, 29 Buxton, Dr., 291 Bye-laws, model, 107, 204, 220, 233 CABINET-STANDS, 152 Caithness, 256 Caithness pavement, 247 Calcutta, Black Hole, 256 Cameron, Dr. Chas., M.P., 294 Canterbury Cathedral, 61 Carbolic acid, 216 Carbonate of lead, 87 Carbonic acid gas, 87, 230, 256 Carboretted hydrogen, 230 Carmichael, Dr. Neil, 241, 284 ‘‘ Carmichael”’ Closets, 211, 236, 279, 2838 Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, 96, 247 Cast-iron pipes, 85, 90, 91, 248 Cement, Portland, 248 Roman, 248 Chadwick, Mr. Edwin, C.B., 293 Chaffer-pan, 20 Chamber-pump, 173 Charcoal, 225 Chasing, 23 Check-cocks, 155, 157 Chloralum, 214 Churches, 259 Cisterns, 129 Cistern protection, 112, 113 Clamps, iron, 92, 95 Classification of houses, 258 Cleansing eye, 100. 217, 238 Cleansing-screw, 110, 162 Cleansing-stones, 251 301 Clergy, 294 Clips, 44 Closets— Bostel’s, 111, 279 Bramah, 107, 242 Buchan’s, 236, 279, 283 ‘¢ Carmichael,” 236, 279, 283 cottage, 102 Dodd’s, 111 Hellyer’s, 102, 111 Jennings’, 108, 279 pan, 104, 203, 204, 207 Pearson’s, 279 self-acting, 109 Shank’s, 107, 108, 110 Sharpe’s, 111 Tylor’s, 111 Underhay’s, 111 vortex, Hellyer’s, 102 water, 102 wash-down, 103, 236, 279, 283 water, waste-preventing, 110 ‘¢ wash-out,” 108, 279 Clyde Trust, 269 Cold air draughts, 201, 231, 277 Combe, James, & Sons, 274 Community, health of, 259 Comparative prevalence of filth diseases, 255 Conductors, 81 Condy’s Fluid, 225 Connell’s Valve, 111 Conoidal nozzle, 198, 200 Contents of tanks, 68 Copper-bit, 20 Copper-bolt, 20 Copper pans, double coated for pan water-closets, 207 Corfield, Prof. W. H., 294 Cottage-closet, 102 Country houses, drains of, 228 Cowls, ventilating, 99, 211, 224, 236, 259, 260, 266, 269, 270 Critics, journalistic, 245 Craig, J. and M., 219, 249, 2&8 - Craigton Castle, 253 Cranes, 163 Crosshill, 204 Cupola, 77 Curfew-bell, 231 ALMUIR, outbreak of fever at, 268, 293 302 Dampness, prevention of, 246, Davies, Mr. P. J., 289 Day, Dr., 231 Daylight in water-closets, 113 Deas, James, C.E., 270 Death-rate, 255 Detached system of house-drain- age, 234 Dip of traps, 99, 220, 235 Diphtheria, 231, 255 Diseases, preventible, 257 pulmonary, 256 Disinfectants, 214, 223 Disinfector, automatic, 214 Dog-earing, 28 Domes, 72 Dormer-window, 78 Double air-pipes for w.-c. trunks, 203, 206 Double-coated copper pans for water-closets, 206 Doubling, 19 Dougall, Dr. John, 216 Douglas, Campbell, & Sellars, 249 Down-draught of ventilators, 264, 268 Drainage, detached system of, 234 general, 246 imperfect, 244, 257, 258 improved system of house, 217 isolation system of, 234 plans of, 222, 229, 234, 236 ground plans, 229, 234 elevation plans, 208, 212, 222, 236, 240 sectional system of, 221, 234 Drains, flushing, 244, 254 Drain gas, 100 Drain-pipes, 247, 250 iron, 248 traps, 217, 218, 238, 251 Dresser, 15 Drip, 31 Drip-box, 86 Drop, 4 Drown, or water-lock, 99 Dry infected particles, 243, 244 Dry rot, 247 D-trap, 288 Duncan, Dr. E., Glasgow, 246 Duntocher, 294 INDEX. FARS, 84 Eassie, Wm., C.E., 215, 265 Eastbourne, 267 Eaves-gutters, 3 Ely Station, water-tank at, 197 English model bye-laws, 107, 204, 220, 233 Etive, Loch, 250 Exhibitions, 219, 249, 267, 284 Experiments on the flow of water through pipes, 194 Experiments, Petteakoffer’s, 247 Experiments with gases passing through water, 105, 106, 232, 233, 241, 243 Explosions, prevention of, 139 Eyes, 84 FAMILY HERALD, 50 Fan, 103 Fast days, 256 Fergus, Dr., 105, 106, 131, 204, 217, 225, 231, 233, 235 Ferguson, Prof. John, 106 Ferrule, brass, 168 Field, Rogers, C.H., 266, 294 Fillet, wooden, 57 Filth diseases, 255 Finch, John, & Co., 288 Finlay, John, & Co., 275 Fintry, 263 : Fire-clay blocks, 228, 251 lids, 218, 250, 252 stones, 228, 251 Fisher, J. and R., 63 Flashings, 21, 35 Flats, lead, 41 zinc, 47 Flow of water through pipes, 191 Fluid jets, 198 Flushing drains, 244, 264 Flushing rooms and halls with fresh air, 277 Flushing tank, 293 Foot ventilation, 81, 212 Force-pumps, 177, 180 Foulis, Wm., Glasgow, 295 Four-pronged handle, 156, 165 Fraser, Mr., 255 _ Frankland, Prof. E., 243,.255 French plan, 63 . Frost, 90, 203, 226, 291 INDEX. Frost-protecting dises, 221 Frozen pipes, 90, 291 nN p eroke WTS, 226, AIRDNER, Prof. W. T 255 Gale, J. M., C.E., 170 Galileo, 174 Galton, Capt., 265 Gasalier ventilation, 242 Gases, sewage, 12, 95, 100, 225, 227, 230, 233, 237, 241, 243, 258 Gauges, lead, 68, 69 metro-multiplier, 69 zinc, 66, 67, 69 General drainage, 246 Germs, disease, 231, 233, 241, 243, 246 Glasgow, Exhibition at, 219, 267, 284 Glasgow, fever in, 256 magistrates, 256 water supply, 168 Lord Provost Bain on, 171 Glycerine Cowls, 271, 273 Good Words, 288 Government, 258, 259 Board, 204, 220, 235, 237, 238 documents, 257 Governors, water, 295 Gratings, 87, 119, 148, 202, 225 227, 2651 for wash-hand basins, 148, 149 for wooden bath, 116 sewer, 220 Grease traps, 288 Ground air, 247 Ground-plan of drains, 225, 231 Guericke, Otto, 174 Guest & Chrime’s cranes, 164 Gutters, iron, 4, 8, 13 lead, 17— 24 Gutter overflows, 30 Guy’s Hospital, 210 Gwilt’s Encyclopedia, 65 HALIS, 259 Hands, washing, 257 Hart, Ernest, 257 Hatches, 72 lifting, 74 sliding, 73 r] | 303 Hatchet-bolt, 20 Hellyer, 8. 8., 102, 267, 271, 289 Hinged valve, 138 Hips, 38 Hoey, Mr., Glasgow, 274 Homer, 216 Honeyman, John, F.R.I.B.A., 219, 253 Hooks for gutters, 5, 12 Hook and eye, 83 Hopper basin, 103 Hoskins, Mr. G. G., F.R.L.B.A., 294 Hospitals, 259 Hot-water tanks, 129 House classification and registra- tion, 258 House drainage, improved system of, 21 House drainage and ventilation, 106, 217, 218, 259 Hydraulic ram, 182 Hydrochloric acid, 216 | Hydrogen, sulphuretted, 230, 232 Hygiene, 257 [MPROVED system of house drainage, 217 Index-plate, 119—123 India-rubber tubes to prevent cold air-draughts, 201 Induced currents, 198 Induced current fixed ventilators, 99, 203, 204, 205, 224, 227, 236, 253, 259—271 Infected, dry particles, 243, 244 Innes, Cosmo, C.E., 283 Inspection of drains, &c., 254, 255 International Medical and Sani- tary Exhibition, 219, 249, 267 Tron centre gutters, 13 gratings, 202, 227, 251 gutters, 4, 8 ridges, 16 clamps, 92, 95 Isolation system of house drain- age, 286 JAWBOX or sink, 161, 163 Jenning’s closets, 108, 109, 279 Jenkin, Prof. Fleeming, F.R.8., 257 304 Jet-fan, 107, &c. Joints, cement, 248 lead, 248 slipped, 92 soldered, 97 ‘Jordan, Lawrence, 181 Journals, professional, 244 Judges differ, 267 KENNEDY’S self-closing well, 165 Kinnaird, Lord, 274 Kitchen-boilers, 180—135 couplings for ditto, 138 safety-valves, 139 sinks or jawboxes, 161, 163 LAMBERTS cranes, 164 Latches, 44 Latham, Baldwin, 219, 220, 233 Lead buttons, 29 Lead-covered flats, 41 Lead-encased block-tin pipes, 167 Lead gauges, 68, 69 Lead gutters, 17 Littlejohn, Dr. H. D., Edinburgh, 294 Lloyd's, house registration, as at, 258 Local Government Board, 204, 220, 235, 237, 238 Loch Katrine, 168 London, 263, 267, 288 Loss of head, 193, 195 Lungs, congestion of, 230, 231, 256 MACLEHOSE, Mr. James, 256 Mactear, James, F.C.S., 241 Macleod, Kenneth M., 205, 226 Mammon, 256 Masonic practice, 209 Medical profession, members of the, and drain gases, 100, 293 Mercury, 174 Meredith, Mrs., 215 Merulius lacrymans, 247 Metro-multiplier gauge, 69 Milk poisoning from wells, 246 Mills, 259 Model bye-laws, 107, 204, 220, 237, 238 INDEX. Molecules, 241 Moloch, 256 Montgreenan, 200 Morton, Alex., 197 Mugdock reservoir, 170 Muriatic acid, 50 NAPIER, James R., 200 Nasal respiration, 231 Nature, 256 Nature’s laws, punishment for disregarding, 256 Newcastle, 267 New York, Manufacturer and Builder, 108 New York, 200 North British Plumber and Sani- tary Engineering Co., 283 Nozzle for iron rhones, 4 conoidal, 200 Nurses, 257 OBLIQUE ventilating holes, 113 Odyssey, 216 Officers of Health, 293 Offset, 86 Open-air channel, 209, 241 Open slit, 90 Ornamental iron gutters, 8 Overflow-gratings, 116 Oxide of zinc, 66 Oxygen, 256 Oxygenous disinfectant, 214 Ozone, Dr. Day on, 231 Pp’S, the three, 257 Page, Dr. David, 294 Pan-closet, 103, 104, 204 Pap, 4 Parkes’ Hygiene, 230, 256, 257 Museum of Hygiene, 257 Paton, John P., 228 Pavement, Caithness, 247 Pearson’s closets, 279 Perfect appliances, 234, 266 Perforated gratings, 86, 202, 227, 251 Periodical inspection, 254, 255 Permeability of walls, 247 Personal cleanliness, 257 Pettenkoffer’s experiments, 247 Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 106, 219, 246 INDEX. Pictorial Sanitary Guide, 293 Pig-lugging, 28 Pipe-mouth guards, 86 Pipes, patent access, 250, 287 Plans to be avoided, 210, 245 Plans, ground, of house drainage, 929, 234 Plans, vertical, of house drainage, 222, 236, 238, 252 Platforms, 41 Plumber and Decorator, The, 211, 257 Plumber and Sanitary Houses, The, 270 Pointed bolt, 20 Poisoning, 100, 230, 258 Prayers and Nature’s laws, 256 Praying and not doing, 256 ‘‘ Precautions”? in ventilating soil-pipes and closets, 96 Prince of Wales’s illness, 97 reply, 97 Prisons, 259 Proper ventilation, 105, 106 Pulmonary diseases, 256 Pull-out knobs for basins, 155, 157, 159 Pull-up knobs for baths, 119, 126 Pumps, 172 air, 174 force, 177 hand-force, 180 Jordan’s, 181 Putrification, 244 RAGLET, 22 Rain-water barrel, 10 cistern, 11 pipes, 81 Rams, hydraulic, 182 Rams, 182 Rats, 225, 253, 255 Rawlinson, Mr., 220, 237 Regulating cocks, 155, 157 valves, 295 Regulations, Curfew-bell, 231 Regulators, water, 295 Reservoir at Mugdock, 170 Rhones or runs, 3 Rhone-bolt, 4 Richardson, 288 oor.) 2475... 266, 305 Ridges, 15, 38 iron, 16 ornamental iron, 16 Robertson-Glasgow, Mr. R. B., 200 ; Robins, E. C., F.R.1.B.A., 294 Rod-pipe, wash-hand basin, 150 Rod-pipe, bath, 120 Roll-caps, zinc, 51, 59 Rose-grating, 119—122 Ross, Dr., 291 Royal Society, London, 241, 243 Russell, Dr. J. A., 230 Russell, Dr. J. B., 205, 230, 243, 255 GADDLE, 52 Safe-pipe, 94 Safe-trap, 94 Safety-valves on kitchen boilers, 139 Sanctimoniousness and dirt, 256 Sandringham House, 95—96 Sanitary science, 241 ‘Sanitary houses,’’ 230 Sanitary Institute, 265, 267 Sanitary Record, The, 211, 215, 243, 247, 257 Schools, 259 Scientific and safe water-closets, Screen, muslin, 275 Sectional system of house-drain- age, 234 Self-acting closet, 109 Service-box, 110 Sewage gas, 95, 100, 230, 243, 254 Sewage gas problem solved, 240 retorts, 226 stages of poisoning from, 258 Sewage tanks, 225 Sewer gas, 100, 243 rats, 224, 225 ventilation, 212, 221, 222, 238, 239 Sewerage of towns, 106 Shaftesbury Lodge, 228 Shank’s closets, 108, 110 Shave-hook or scraper, 19 Shoe, iron, 86 Shower-bath, 118 end 306 : INDEX. Sinks or jaw-boxes, 161, 163 Siphons, 187 Siphon-traps, fire-clay, 218 lead for basins, 145, 146, 290 lead for baths, 114, 118 versus cesspools, 244 versus D-traps, 289 for water-closets, 93, 94, 241 Siphon-action, 95, 241, 255, 289 Skew, 22 ‘ Skylight windows, 76 Slip joints, 89, 92 Slodge cock, 134 Slop-stones, fire-clay, 251 Smith, Dr. Angus, 256 Smith, Mr. W. R. W., 273 Smoke-test, 246, 254, 289, 290 Smoke blowing machine, 254, 290 Snifle-valve, 184, 185 Snow-boards, 70 Social Science Meeting, Glasgow, 1874, 106 Soil-pipes, 88, 94, 98, 99 untrapped, 210, 241 as speaking-tubes, 211 Soil-pipe sweepers, 288 Soil-pipe ventilators, 99, 203, 236, 259, 260 Solder, 20 Soldering-bolts, 20 cloths, 20 iron, 20 Spikes, iron, 86 Spirits of salts, 50, 216 Spouting, 81 St. Rollox chemical works, 65, 247 Stables, 259 Stark, Rev. John, 294 Stone cornice lead gutters, 17, 54 Stools for basins, 145, 153 for kitchen sinks, 164 Stop-cock, 168 on basins, 156 Stop-cock case, 168 Storm-window, 79 , Straps, 16 Struggle for existence, 259 Stuffing-cocks, 118—121 Sulphur, 216 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 232 Supervision of work, 245, 248 TANK, cold-water, 10 hot-water, 129 Tantalus, vase of, 189 Teale, Dr. 'T. Pridgin, 293 Technical Educator, 95, 96, 97 Testing drains, &c., 289, 290 Testing ventilators, 266, 268, 272 The three P’s, 257 _ Thomson, Professor James, 219, 254, 276, 290 Thumbats, or flat-headed iron spikes, 36, 84 | Tip-up basins, 103 Tobin’s tubes, 265, 266, 275 Torricelli, 173 Town dungsteads, 246 Trap, anti-D-, 289° Traps, bottle, 290 Traps, bath, &e., drying up, 141 Traps, Buchan’s patent ventilat- ing, 202, 210, 212, 218, 223, 231, 236, 238, 239, 240, 252, 253 Trap, D, 289 Traps, dirty, 100, 101, 217 Traps, drain, 100, 217 Traps, anti-bell, 251 Traps, freezing, 203 Traps, grease, 161, 288 Traps, valve, 231, 232 Trap-screws, 162 in service-boxes, 110 aa a FRG BAYT, 9 . Tyndall, Professor John, 241 Typhoid fever, 97, 216 ULYSSES, 216 Under-box (pump), 175 Underhay’s closets, 111 University of Glasgow, 106, 219, 255 Urinals, 160, 166 ALLEY, 35 Valves, basin, 146 Valves, bath, 118, 120 closet, 110 hinged, 138 safety, for boilers, 139 shower-bath, 118, 128 size of, 110 waste not, 111 INDEX, Vase of Tantalus, 189 Ventilating-couplings, brass, for water-closets, 205 Ventilating cowls, 269, 271 Ventilating experiments, 266, 269 foot, 81, 203, 207, 208, 212, 222, 236 Ventilating gratings, 86, 202, 227, 251 Ventilating water-closet trunks, 204, 205, 206 Ventilation, advantages of, 274 Ventilation of rooms, 275 Ventilation, want of, 95, 252 Ventilators, Archimedian, 224 Ventilators, Buchan’s patent, in- duced current, fixed, 99, 211, 213, 224, 259, 260, 267, 270 Boyles, 265, 266, 271, 273 Finlay’s, 271 Kite’s, 269 Lloyd’s, 265 Scott-Dunn’s, 265 Verity Bros., 267 Wilson’s, 271 warranty of, 264 Ventilators—placing them in posi- tion, 262, 269 Ventilators versus plain pipes, 267 —2 Vieille Montagne Zinc Co., 67 WALLACE, Dr. Wm., F.C.S., 87, 232, 233, 256 Wash-down closets, 103, 236, 279, 283 Wash-hand basins, 145 in bedrooms, 151, 210, 243 THE 307 Wash-houses, 251, 259 Waste pipes, 88 Waste-preventing cistern, 110 Water, 174 Water-saving unhygienic policy, 213 ° Water supply, Glasgow, 169 Water supply off main, direct, 171 polluted, 112, 113, 167, 257 Water-closets, 102—113, 279 Water-lock, 99, 220, 235 Watson, Thos., I.A., 250 Watt and Wilson, 250 Wave bath, 144 Wells, 179, 246, 257 Wemyss Bay, 228 West of Scotland Home for In- curables, 227 ‘¢ Wholesome Houses,’ 210 Windows, 72 cupola, 77 dormer, 78 skylight, 76 storm, 79 Wiped soldering, 120 Wood rolls for zinc, 49, 57, 58 Wooden baths, 115 Woodward’s clpset, 252, 253 Workshops, 259 Wurtemberg siphon, 188 INC apron, 56 Zinc-covered flats, 47 Zinc-covered roofs, 56 roll-caps, 51, 59 Zine, sheet, table of weights of, G, | Zymotic matters, 244 END. 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