Se YE arte erin eS ~~ rite rte Te ES ee € a . ot yi me ~~ X po “ STITUTE LIBRARY DELPHIA, PA. noch Pz IAW ERENCE CO Shlehner % . ' "4 a 7 be P ‘ Fs i A i 4 P ~ oe ition a hike en ee ee ee ee ee ee es ‘ a< eh - G1HI4d NOLLOO ‘1°34 srydua Wy ‘1420007 ‘0104 J aE X Ne EK HAND BOOK (Cotton Edition BY THE RESEARCH STAFF OF IE. F. Houcuton & Co. First Edition Illustrated Price $1.50 Net PHILADELPHIA E. F. HOUGHTON & COMPANY 1925 Copyricut 1925 E. F. Houcuron & Co: PHILADELPHIA FOREWORD ELIEVING that the Textile Industries would be interested in a Hand Book that would give inform- ation in detail of the many processes through which Cotton, Silk, Wool and other fibres pass during their manufacture into articles useful to mankind, the E. F. Houghton Research Staff offers this their first edition on this interesting field. This first edition is devoted to Cotton and its manu- facture into cloth. Other editions are to follow on the bleaching, finish- ing and dyeing of cotton as well as silk and wool. These works are all based on data and results accum- ulated by the Research Department. We take this opportunity to express appreciation to the many mills and individuals who thru their cooper- ation made this work possible. As further developements of our research work into textile products and processes are completed, new editions or supplements of this book will be published. pe F. HOUGHTON & CoO. PabiEE OF CONTENTS PART ONE Chapter _ -Page PEE CAM MEEPOOUCTION <6 Ai. ok Sir hee ee ie ee ba bees 3 SOM ee ee A Sk ye ae es Slee ys dea ba BS 18 imeeetassiiveation and *Gradingia. . te. es es cena lereee- 26 PART TWO MANUFACTURE OF COTTON PML esc mire Ol Y alts cae... Gok lhe ba eee bee de 25 ihe es er lec Gt es SR Sh ow on cg 50 Sk CCEA NDZ coe Se OR oe na a gC 54 WU FESS aes = (7 A a ee nae 5g Mie Gl rea ROVING, bo. G<..0lcsea kd ovis baa pees a oeas 63 SRM OLN EE Ce he ele ORES pues van 67 Rem CIRC enh ee ie ood kd cs Bist a SO RR Se 76 DNRC STTEY TSS la ei go a te 78 Pe eciasnitie Ol,Warp: YaINS:......6..05 60500 vou we aer cue 81 Pe OTN STCLON OL SEZ) gis: cians os divin detelv simone Hapenabaeeart 84 Poy emeAgiaiyses, of sized and Unsized Yatrns........./..:2.5.° 92 SIRES HI 1 Oi egal te en ean ar erent Lees 100 MM TEAL ATOM Of O1ZC2 od ii 25a) sas ctvavea See olla Wawa ay a 2 vas 113 RMR a ROIs SE ee eel eda bin tee ee eed aa es ges le? PART THREE MANUFACTURE OF CLOTH ETAL” LTTE Rec SN a a a a a ae Nf, 136 CEU 58 TS UNCON, ee nae ao ane Sahara ere ee 139 PART FOUR Pax mmecalculations- tor Cotton. Mills. 22.2... 40-05 was cans ged ee 141 . PAU LER MRM EN Prec. oie ite Surin tet ured Gaccny cats aa See pee 152 APPENDIX Photo-Microscopic Views of Cotton Yarn—Cross Sections .... 158 Plate It] IV VI VII LISTOF- PLATES Classification and Grading of Cotton........ Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... Samples Nos. 1 to 6 Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... Samples Nos. 7 to 9 Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... Samples Nos. 10 to 12 Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... Samples Nos. 2 to 6 Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... Samples Nos. 8 to 9 Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... Samples Nos. 11 to 12 Opposite Page 32 ABIES Page Length and Diameter of the Principal Cotton Fibres.... 6 Table Showing Comparison of World’s* Production of ioetconeand: United States Production::....)...<.... 10 Cotton Production in 500-Pound Gross Weight Bales by Results of Tests of Three Bobbins of Grey Yarn and Nine Pre LESEO OT ZCO IN IAL I etcceast ss San Ha weed ee aie he 05 Table of Starch Characteristics under Microscope....... 106 Figure 48 49 50 51 a2 53 54 55 56 58 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued Page Spinning Frame—Sectional View......:........-+.+--- 70 Ring Spinning.....--- ose r ra. vee oe 69 Mule Spinners. i... 39 5%) ee ee ee 7A Spooler....2. iso N20 i. 252. ee 73 Spooler—Sectional View... 34... 12) eee 74 Slasher Warper.....0.2.¢ 5 400) ou er 78 Beam Warper.....¢.00:25 03m) os oo 72 Slasher. 70.6.6 spose ced in ties « eer 83 Yarns Treated with Various Softeners) 0.00 71 Micro-Photograph of Starches: (a) Rice, (b) Wheat, (c) Tapioca, (d)"Poratou sae 107 (e) Sago Starch, (f) Arrowroot Starch, (g) Corn Starch 108 59 (a) Corn Starch Starting to Paste, (b) Corn Starch Pasted, (c) Wheat Starch Starting to Paste... = ee 110 59- (d) Wheat Starch Completely Pasted, (e) Potato Starch Starting to Paste, (f) Potato Starch Completely Pasted 111 60 Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yara) eons 1s (Showing almost perfect penetration of the size. Dark portion indicates size. Note thorough penetration of individual fibres in the center of yarn.) 60a Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yarne seen 116 (Showing a poorly sized yarn with very little pene- tration of size. Dark portion indicates size.) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued Figure Page 60b Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yarn.............. Ri (Showing poor penetration of size with a large per- centage of the size deposited on surface of yarn. Dark portion indicates size.) PR NEO a oe ee esd kes ele wo hak WG 123 63 Plain Loom—Specimen of Weaving.................0. 124 Pama ioom—sectiOhal View... 5... cs cee ae ae i oo Sei oie a ee a 126 See OFT LOOIM. 4,5 005 6c nk cuits es eee oe Wide: 7 64 Dobby Loom—Specimen of Weaving.................. 128 Bre AS ae ae 128 rata © OLCOl OOM en. coc.) ee ws bee ee ee wees 129 66 Jacquard Loom—Specimen of Weaving................ 130 Game romiinea@soecction Fis) 66... 60.6 wee a pee bos hee 130 MOET OCS S200 ba ce: sn ep sheds Bias asad Oa Ae we OAs [sal 69 Specimen of Cotton Warp and Silk Filling—Woven on a Er reen ORM Sd pre nee ehh 1 Whan.h ang 9 Pees ei ee ie Melee acured pection Pic. 69 a... 66.00. bec Pe oes eam hae eee 132 me asp automatic Stop. Motion... 6... .c.%4¢..5.00sn ee. 133 72 to 79 Cross Sections of Cotton Yarn—Appendix.. 158 to 165 | \ i rid, TEXTILE HAND BOOK fee) IN we TON March 21 March 11 FIG. 6, BOUNDARY OR LIMIT OF COTTON BELT In Southern Texas planting takes place about March Ist, Northern Texas March 15th, Georgia March 21st to April 10th, and Tennessee April 15th to May Ist. The seed is thickly sown in rows from three to four feet apart, and covered with a thin layer of earth. In about twelve days the plant makes its appearance. The plant is allowed to grow to about four inches in height when the chopping out period commences, which consists of thinning out the plants until they are about fifteen inches apart, care being taken to retain those plants which are the hardiest or which have the best estand.- TEXTILE HAND-BOOK COTTON PRODUCTION IN 500-POUND GROSS WEIGHT BALES, BY“STATESSI915.1 01922. STATE 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales Virginia 23 25 16 27 19 25 23 22 17 25 North Carolina 792 931 699 655 618 898 830 925 776 852 South Carolina 1S 7283 15:34: 1,134 932 12237 1,570 1,426 1,623 (55 530 Georgia DEST 2,718 1,909 1,821 1,884 Clee 1,660 1,415 787 725 Florida 59 81 48 4] 38 29 16 18 ial 25 Alabama 1,495 1-751 1,021 535 518 801 713 663 580 835 Mississippi Salt 1,246 954 812 905 1,226 961 895 813 1,010 Louisiana 444 449 341 443 639 588 298 388 279 357 Texas 3,945 4,592 Se 2e 3°726 3125 2,697 3,099 4,345 2,198 3,290 Arkansas 1,073 1,016 816 1,134 974 987 884 1,215 797 1,040 Tennessee 379 384 303 382 240 330 310 5) 302 400 Missouri 67 82 48 63 61 62 64 79 70 149 Oklahoma 840 1,262 640. 823 959 SET 1,016 1,336 481 635 California 23 50 29 44 58 67 56 75 34 34 Arizona 2,200 6,187 3-200 ee ae 56 60 103 45 42 All other 10 14 i 14 5 6 5 13 9 15 United States 16,356 225322 14,392 11,450 Mies O2 12,041 11,421 13,440 7,954 9,964 (U.S. De pt. of Agr.) COTTON PRODUCTION 1S The blossoms appear in seven or eight weeks after planting; survive for about two days and then drop off the plant. aeelanvia Dee seipa After the blossoms drop off the boll is dis- covered, which gradually increases in size, turning from green to dark brown, until about five weeks after its appear- ance it bursts into sect- ions, each of which dis- closes a quantity of cotton fibre and seeds. A cotton plant may contain mature bolls, buds and flowers at the same time. The greatest present day menace to the cotton crop is the damage and loss caused by the ravages of the Boll Weevil. This is a beetle like insect, which when full grown is about one-quarter of an inch long. The color ranges from light yellow to dark gray or black, depending on the age of the insect. The insect appar- ently breeds in no plants other than the cotton plant. The Boll Weevil passes the winter as an adult or beetle. Its activities commence when the buds or squares start forming on the plant and con- tinues throughout the entire season, the back COTTON BOLL WEEVIL (About four times actual size) side 14 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK insect attacking the boll when the squares have dis- appeared. It punctures and lays its eggs in the square or boll. The eggs hatch in about three days and the larve im- mediately begin to feed. U.S. Dept. of Agr. FIG, 8. WEEVIL LARVA INFECTED COTTON BOLL These infected squares or bolls become stunted in growth and dry up or rot and consequently are non- productive. COTTON PRODUCTION 15 The larva passes through its total development, from the time the eggs are deposited until it becomes a full grown beetle, in a period of twenty-five days, after which it begins the production of another generation. In the early part of the season there is usually but one larva found in an infected square or boll, but later in the season, when most of the crop is infected several larvze may be found in a single boll. The squares or buds seem to be preferred as food and as places for depositing the eggs and as long as the supply of squares exists the bolls escape serious damage. There have been instances where these pests have absolutely destroyed whole fields of cotton where left unchecked, and their presence in a field commonly cuts the production fifty to sixty per cent. The value of the annual loss caused by the Boll Weevil in the United States has been estimated at $750,000,000. The original home of the insect was in Mexico. About 1892 it crossed the Rio Grande into Brownsville, ‘Texas. It spread rapidly throughout that state and proceeded to branch out into the other states. Its range extending annually about one hundred miles, until today it has the entire cotton belt in its grip. TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 16 FIG. 9: SPREAD OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL V7 GINNING HWA LITO NID ESV Td aly ot “ LVWO LOV el Ol ‘OF) ULF) U0770/) SHUUNT CHA PLE? GINNING After the bolls have burst, and the cotton is ripe, it is picked by hand and taken to the gin. The picking season lasts about three months and 1s practically divided into two parts. The first picking is that of the bottoms FIG." 10. WHITNEY GIN of the plants, when the leaves are still green, and the second is the top of the plants. The latter may be late enough to have allowed the frost attack the plant, in which case the picking is considerably injured. The seed cotton as brought in from the field by the pickers contain about 2% seed by weight and % fibre. GINNING 19 The cotton fibre is a hairy growth upon the seeds and clings to them tenaciously. This seed must be removed before the cotton is ready for use. Continental Gin Co. FIG. 11. MODERN GIN In the early days of the cultivation of cotton in the United States, there was no mechanical means of separating the seed from the cotton. The removal! of the seed from the cotton was all done by hand, which entailed much tedious labor. Whitney’s Gin was practically the original of the modern saw gin. The saw gin is the most widely used style of gin for the production of short staple cotton. 20 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK It may be described as consisting of a series of circular saws with fine teeth, having a small part of their circum- ference projecting through a grid into a chamber con- taining the seed cotton. In revolving these saws catch hold of the cotton and tear it through the grid, the small grid openings preventing the seed from passing through. Revolving brushes then separate the cotton from the saw and it drops into a delivery hopper. ROLL BOX Continental Gin Co. BiG 2 SECTIONAL VIEW PLAIN GIN GINNING 21 In revolving, these saws impale the cotton lint upon their sharp teeth, drawing it through the narrow grid. The latter openings are so narrow as to prevent the passage of the seed while permitting the passage of the fibre. U.S. Dept. of Agr. FIG. 14, LINT OR COTTON FIBRE bo bo TEXTILE HAND-BOOK The lint passes through the gin into the delivery chute and then to the condensor, which gives it a final cleaning and forms it into a sheet. Photo, Coovert, Memphis RiGee. COTTON COMPRESS It is then dropped into a press box where it is pressed, wrapped, and tied into a bale of about 27 x 54 x 45 inches, and weighing about 500 pounds. This is known as a gin bale. The ginned seeds slide through a trough to a screw conveyor, by which they are transferred to the seed bin or seed house. ‘The farmer may desire to retain his seed GINNING 23 for future planting, or again, may sell it for manufacture into cotton seed oil or meal. In the latter case the seed is conveyed to the seed house. The linting process is very widely used, whereby the short fibres are entirely removed from the cotton seed, leaving them smooth and clean. If the cotton is to be consumed in the immediate neighborhood, there is no further packing as it leaves the gin. FIG. 16, RELATIVE SIZE OF AMERICAN BALES In cases where the cotton is to be shipped to distant points by boat or rail, in order to facilitate handling and even piling, the bales are sent to a compressor which further reduces the gin bales to dimensions of 27 x 54 x 16.” Some cotton is also put into cylindrical bales in which the lap of cotton from the gin is tightly wound and when wrapped and tied presents a cylinder of uniform length and diameter. 24 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Where long staple cotton is ginned and it is very important to preserve the entire length of the fibre, the roller gin is used. The principle of the modern Roller Gin was con- ceived by the ancient Hindoos, and was long used by them in manufacturing cotton. The Roller Gin is a machine in which the seed cotton falling from a hopper comes in contact with the rough leather covering of a cylindrical roll. The cotton fibre adheres to the rough covering of the roll, and as the latter revolves, is drawn around upon its surface. Pressing against the leather covered roll is a “doctor” or smooth steel blade, which allows the fibre to pass on but prevents the seeds following and a separation takes place. The amount of clean staple produced by the Roller Gin in a given time is much less than that of the saw gin, but this, of course, is of little importance since it 1s essential to deliver the fine staple that is ginned by the Roller without the slightest reduction of its quality. As it leaves the Gin the cotton contains some leaf, plant, sand and a small quantity of broken seed. i) Or GINNING U. S. Dept. of Agr. ELG? 17. PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL TYPES Combed lint of five important types—(1) Sea Island, (2) Egyptian, (3) upland long-staple, (4) upland short-staple, (5) Asiatic. (Sixth-sevenths natural size) CHAP TE Rasiit CLASSIFICATION and GRADING Cotton is classed according to the length of staple and source of production. American cotton may be divided into four classes: New Orleans or Gulf, Uplands, Texas and Mobile. New Orleans or Gulf Cotton. This cotton is grown in the basins of the Mississippi River in the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas and Alabama. The name Gulf or New Orleans is given from the fact that the cotton is usually shipped to ports on the Gulf of Mexico, especially New Orleans. The name Gulf is usually used in this country and New Orleans in Europe. Gulf cotton may be divided into several other classes known as Memphis, Benders, Allen Seed, Peelers, etc. ‘These names are used to denote certain styles or varieties. Memphis Cotton is shipped from Memphis and vicinity. Benders is the name given cotton grown on the bends of the Mississippi River. It is one of the best gulf cottons. Length 114’’. Suitable for yarns up to 60s and 70s. Peelers. ‘Yhis cotton is of a bluish white color; the fibres are strong and silky, length of staple 11%” to 134” Good for yarns up to 100s. Allen Seed. This is the best of the Gulf cottons, it is a little longer than peeler, it is white in color, the fibres are fine silky and strong, length of staple 1144” to 1144”. It can be spun into yarn up to 150. CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 2h Upland Cotton is grown in the states of Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia and Alabama. It is of a creamy white color, the fibres are soft, elastic and pliable, but are not so well developed as the Orleans or Gulf. Suitable for warp or filling up to 45. Texas Cotton. Texas cotton is similar to Uplands but not as reliable, since in dry seasons it 1s liable to be harsh. The length of the staple is from 7%” to 114”, and is best adapted to warp yarns. Mobile. Mobile is the lowest grade of American cotton, it usually contains considerable short fibres and is very dirty, the fibre is about 1’’ long and is good for numbers to 30s. Sea Islands is the name used to indicate the United States Sea Island cotton. This cotton is grown on the islands of St. Helena, Edisto, Port Royal, James and John, off the coast of South Carolina, St. Simeon and Cumberland off the coast of Georgia and others. Sea Island cotton is recognized as the finest cotton grown, very careful attention being given to the culti- vation and ginning, quality being considered before quantity. The first Sea Island cotton grown was in South Carolina in 1790. While the best Sea Island cotton is grown on the islands, there is considerable grown on the mainland near the coast; this is known as Florida or Georgia Sea Islands. The Florida Sea Island is considered as being next in grade to the regular sea islands although some Georgias grown from fresh seed, the first year from the islands, commands a higher price than the Floridas. 28 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK. Sea Island cotton has a rich creamy appearance, the staple is long, fine, strong and very silky with com- paratively regular convolutions. Length of staple 1s from 13%” to 2144”... This cotton is regularly spun into yarn up to 400s and for special purposes to 600s, and is claimed to have been spun into 2150s in London in 1851. Florida Sea Islands. This cotton is a lighter cream in color than the regular sea islands and is not quite so long or silky; it also has considerable more of the short fibre. Length of staple is 114” to 134”. It can be spun into yarn up to 200. Georgia Sea Islands. ‘This cotton is rather lighter cream than Floridas and is not so bright nor silky. Length of staple 114” to 134’, good for numbers up to 160s. Grade names used for Sea Island cotton: No. 1 Fancy No. 4 Extra Fine No. 2. Extra Choice No. 5 Fine No. 3. Choice No. 6 Medium Fine Anything lower is called Below No. 6. Grading Sea Island Cotton. The principal points upon which the price of Sea Island cotton is based are as follows: | Length and strength of staple Fineness of fibre Appearance as to brightness and color Cleanliness Freedom from injury by weather Good ginning Freedum from seeds Cracked seeds Leaf, crimp or gin cut, gin hammered Amount of waste Short fibre CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 29 There is considerable Sea Island cotton grown outside of the U. S. A. The principal places are the Bahama Islands, Fiji Islands, Tahiti Islands, Polynesia Islands, Australia and Queensland. These cottons are not im- ported into the ‘United States. The total crop of Sea Island cotton was formerly from 90,000 to 100,000 bales. This cotton takes a long time to mature and due to the boll weevil the crop has practically been exterminated falling from 117,000 bales in 1917 to 1868 bales in 1922. Meade Cotton. ‘This variety of cotton was originated in 1912 at Clarksville, Texas, by Rowland M. Meade, the purpose of which was to find a cotton that was suitable to replace the Sea Island cotton. It may be described as an early maturing, long staple, heavy cropping cotton attaining a length of about 15%” It usually matures in from 3 to 4 weeks less time than Sea Island, thus gaining this advantage in time over the boll weevil. The crop was practically allowed to be destroyed in the past years by some of the ginners who allowed the feed to become mixed at the gins generally upsetting the painstaking efforts of the plant bureau, the growing 1s now however, being taken up seriously, although the supply of pure seed remains small. The seeds are large and a brownish black and nearly smooth. Consequently it can be handled on the regular Sea Island gins. It will be noted that while Meade cotton is not on a par with Sea Island it is a fairly good substitute. 30 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK EGYPTIAN-COTTOM From the earliest time there has been a fine quality of cotton grown in the upper regions of the Nile, particu- larly in Abyssinia. Seed from this variety was brought into Lower Egypt about 1820 and from this time Egypt has been a regular exporter of cotton. Macc Jumel was the name given the first variety of cotton cultivated, this has experienced many changes gradually, changing its color to a yellowish brown. This new variety was known as Ashmouni from the valley of Ashmount where the change was first noticed. The principal varieties of Egyptian are Ashmouni, Mitafii, Zagora, Abassi, Nubarre, Sakel laridis and Pillion. For many years Ashmouni formed the bulk of the Egyptian crop, but at present it is composed mostly of Ashmouni, Zagora, Mitafifi, Nubarre and Sakellaridis. Mitafifi was discovered by a Greek merchant in the vil- lage of Mitafifi. A bluish green tuff at the end of the seed attracted his attention and upon planting it he found it to have decided advantages over Ashmouni. It is much hardier, yields a greater amount of lint to the seed, is of a darker brown, and the fibre is long, strong and fine to the touch. - Length 1 3/16” to 1 3/8’’. Suitable for yarns to 120s. Zagora is similar to Ashmouni or Uppers. Abbassi is of recent introduction and as yet is not very extensively grown. It was derived from Mitafifi. It is of a beautiful white color, is fine, silky and long though not as strong as Mitafif. The first two pickings command the highest price in the market. Length of staple 1 5/16” to 1144” CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 1 Sakellarridies 1s a new variety of Egyptian cotton. It is very soft, smooth and silky, staples from 138” to 156”, good for yarns to 120s. It is being used to replace Sea Island. Grade names of Egyptian cotton. Extra Fine, Fine Good, Fully Good Fair, Good Fair, Fair, Middling Fair, Middling. The quality or grade of cotton is influenced by: 1. Quantity of foreign or mechanical impurities present. 2, Colo. 3. Quality of ginning. In this country cotton is graded according to the following standards: Middling Fair Strict Good Middling Good Middling Strict Middling Middling Strict Low Middling Low Middling Strict Good Ordinary Good Ordinary ae et en es These grades cover all the white cotton grown in an average season. Cotton is often graded by comparison with standards prepared by the government. ‘This is particularly ad- visable where one has only occasional need for grading cotton and where practice and extensive experience in grading is lacking, as a reliable grader is one of consider- able experience, training and application. The grades above middling, therefore, bring a higher price than the current market prices and those below must accept a lower price. This may run as much as TEXTILE HAND-BOOK a2 GRADING OF STANDARDS als FIG TEXTILE HAND-BOOK & Seen ta AIRNE SRS. chins cas ge CR SSS Se lh, CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING OF COTTON bd, IR ACISU MRL 100! OOOO iE i hilt i BAERS REE scooontinesape eae ie , SSS ea SURRRES I NERten naomi a a pte tit Pits 19: MIDDLING FAIR FIG. 21. GOOD MIDDLING : Fig. 19, Middling Fair, the highest, and Fig. 20, Good Ordinary, the lowest, of the official cotton standards of the United States. Fig. 21, Good Middling, Fig. 22, Middling, and Fig. 23, Low Middling grades cover the bulk of the white cotton grown in an average season (U.S. Dept. of Agr.) Pits, 20. GOOD ORDINARY y FIGs 23: LOW MIDDLING CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 33 9/10 to 1 cent higher for middling fair and 1 8/10 to 2 cents lower for good ordinary. Where the cotton is tinged, addition is made to the names of the above grades such as, Middling Off Color, Middling Yellowish or Blue Stained, etc. The coloring naturally reducing the value. The amount of mechanical impurities such as leaf, sand and dust influence considerably its value. The amount of leaf present usually depends upon the time of picking. If it is late in the season, when the foliage has been killed by the frost, it will contain much of the dried leaves and vegetation. A limited quantity of dust or sand is permissible. However, this limit is often exceeded which fact con- demns the cotton to a lower grade. Very often by means of a cleaning operation, before ginning, the normal amount of mechanical impurities are reduced. This naturally makes for cleaner and better looking cotton and hence improves its grade. Motes, which are immature seeds or cut seeds are found to a greater or less extent in cotton. Their presence tends to lower the grade of cotton. Neps or cut and broken fibres and gin cut cotton are caused by feeding the cotton to the gin too fast or by the gin being in bad order. Then, too, noils, consisting of short and generally immature fibres very often kink in the process of ginning. ‘They seriously affect the cotton and reduce its value materially. Cotton that averages 1%" in staple or above, with the exception of Sea Island and Egyptian cotton, is usually called “staple” cotton, while that which averages below 1%” is called “short staple” cotton. 3 34 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK There is no fixed length of staple used as a basis in the markets for short staple. There is practically no difference in price between different lengths of cotton ranging between 34” to 1” if the other qualities are equal. However, cotton longer than 1” usually obtains a premium over the current prices, all other qualities being equal. These premiums may run from 11 cents on 1%” staple to 9 cents on 114” staple. TEXTILE HAND BOOK PART TWO MANUFACTURE of COTTON ~ act GEAP EER LV: MANUFACTURE of YARN HE processes of the manufacture of cotton fibre into yarns beginning at the point of delivery of the com- pressed bale at the mill, can be grouped into nine stages, as follows: 1. Preparation a. Opening b. Mixing c. Cleaning 2. Carding a. Parallelizing fibre 3. Combing a. Removing short fibre b. Cleaning c. Parallelizing fibre 4, Drawing a. Parallelizing fibre b. Drawing out collected strands of silver 5. Slubbing a. Further drawing out of collected strands b. Production of slight twist 6. Secondary slubbing or intermediate a. Further drawing out of collected strands b. Further production of twist 7. Roving frame a. Roving 8. Spinning a. Final twist and draft in yarn 9. Doubling or Twisting Twisting yarns together producing plied yarns 38 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK PREPARATION—OPENING The cotton comes to the mill in the form of a highly compressed and tightly packed bale. It is contaminated with a number of mechanical im- purities such as sand, leaf, and a small amount of seed. The first process in the manufacture of cotton is the preparatory process, which subjects the cotton to the action of machines known as: Opener or Bale Breaker Picker Finishing Picker Whitin Machine Works FIG. 25 BALE BREAKER When the bale is opened the cotton is found to ell in a hard and matted state, due to the high pressure under which it was packed. MANUFACTURE of YARN 39 The purpose of the preparatory process is to pull apart or break the hard lumps of cotton, produce a fluffy mass and also to free it from all mechanical impurities. The machines used in this process are all similar in construction and operation, each succeeding machine, of course, producing a better product. BiG: 26. BALE BREAKER—SECTIONAL VIEW The first of these machines is called the opener or bale breaker, which takes the hard lumps of cotton from the bale, pulls them apart or opens them and delivers a more or less fluffy mass of cotton. Fig. 26 shows in section a popular type of breaker known as the comber breaker. The hard lumps of cotton are fed to the machine either by hand or a mechanical device such as a moving lattice feed apron. It is dropped into a hopper A, the inclined floor of which is a grid through which any loose dirt falls. It slides down the incline and is engaged by the spiked traveling apron B. The cotton is carried by B up to C which acts as a doffer comb and throws back into hopper 40 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK A the excess cotton. The remainder passes around and is knocked off the spiked apron by flap roller D. This action throws the cotton against grid FE with such force that considerable dirt is removed which drops through into chamber F. The cotton then drops onto traveling apron G which delivers the fluffed up cotton to either the picker or mixing room. H is an exhaust vent which carries off the light dirt and dust that is shaken out of the cotton by the evener roller C. A large number of mills practice mixing numerous bales of cotton together. One bale of cotton may differ very much from another in staple, color and impurities. These are influenced by the particular locality in which the cotton is raised and method of ginning. Mixing is essential where uniform yarn is desired. The mixing 1s often done in the breaker. A number of bales are opened and a small quantity is taken suc- cessively from each bale and fed to the breakers. The action of this machine thoroughly mixes the mass and delivers cotton of an average character of the original bales. It is then conveyed to the mixing room where it is evenly spread in bins and is usually left there for two or three days. These mixings are then dropped into a stack which guides it into the hopper of the picker. In cutting out portions of the pile of cotton to be fed to the picker a straight cut from top to bottom should be made, all of which should be fed to the stack before another cut is made. ‘This procedure further mixes the layers that are formed in piling the mixing bins. The treatment up to this point has opened the cotton to a considerable degree and loosened a large quantity of dirt. It is, however, in no condition yet for spinning and must be subjected to other machines to continue the work of opening and cleaning the cotton. Many mills subject the cotton to another machine similar to the breaker in design and purpose, which is MANUFACTURE of YARN 41 known as the hopper feeder shown in section in Fig. 27. This particular machine is very similar to the breaker shown in Fig. 26, and is in fact used for the same general purpose as was the breaker. A is the chute or stack which conveys the mixed cotton from the mixing room and drops it into the traveling apron B. H is a feed roller which throws the cotton over into the apron as it drops from the chute. ‘The cotton is carried over and is engaged by the spiked FIG. 27. HOPPER FEEDER traveling apron C, which carries the cotton up to the evener roller D. This returns the excessive cotton to the receiving chamber. E is a stripper roller which strips the cotton from the apron and throws it against grid F with such force as to loosen a considerable portion of dirt and sand which drops through the grid into a dust box. The cotton passes down onto the traveling delivery apron I, which carries it out of the machine usually direct to the picker. _G acts as an evener roller. 42 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK These machines usually have an automatic attach- ment which controls the flow of cotton into the receiving chamber. This is a feeler, an arrangement which, if the accumulation of cotton passes a certain depth, throws off the power operating B and H and thus stops the inflow of cotton until the surplus is used up. H. &3 B. American Machine Co. FIG. 28. SELF-FEEDING OPENER FIG. 29. SELF-FEEDING OPENER—SECTIONAL VIEW The next operation is that of the picker and is generally combined with the hopper feeder so that the fluffed or opened cotton passes direct to the picker. MANUFACTURE of YARN 43 Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 29, and is known as a combined picker and hopper feed. The cotton is deposited in chamber A from the mixing room. It then passes by means of the spiked apron B and stripper roller C through the passage D and on to the cage roller E which acts as a carrier and also separates some of the sand and dirt from the cotton. F is a stripper roller which strips the sheet of cotton from the cage and leads it between the feed rollers G and H. As the sheet of cotton is delivered by the rollers G and H it is engaged by the rapidly revolving blades of the picker beater I and is thrown with considerable force against the grid where more dirt and sand is knocked out of the cotton, while the good cotton passes out of the machine through the pipe K. H. & B. American Machine Co. FIG, 30 VERTICAL “‘CRIGHTON” OPENER 44 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Another type of picker is that shown in Figs. 30 and 31, which is known as Crighton Opener and in which the cotton is conveyed by the mixing stack to the receiving flue A. It is then drawn by suction produced by fan G into the chamber B where it comes in contact with the H.&5 B. American Machine Co. FIG. 31. VERTICAL OPENER—SECTIONAL VIEW rapidly revolving blades of the conical shaped beater. The high speed of the discs loosens up the cotton and the air suction, combined with the centrifugal force of the mass of cotton draws the entire mass up through the set of discs to the passage D. C is the beater casing perforated in order to allow the dirt that is loosened by the beater to pass out of the chamber. From the passage D the cotton passes over grid E which allows more of the loose dirt and sand to drop out of the cotton and it then passes on to the revolving cage F. More dust and dirt 1s sucked out of the cotton MANUFACTURE of YARN 45 while it is on this cage. As the cage revolves the cotton is brought in contact with stripper roller H which strips the cotton from the cage and deposits it on traveling apron J. This carries it out of the machine either direct to the breaker picker or drops it on the floor. Whitin Machine Works FIG. 32. BREAKER LAPPER The cotton is fed to the breaker picker and lapper or breaker lapper usually direct from the picker. Fig. 32, shows a common type of this machine connected direct to the picker. When it is at a distance from the picker the cotton is conveyed by means of suction chutes to the breaker lapper. As the name of the machine imphes, its purpose is to further break or open the cotton and form it into a lap. 46 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK In Fig. 33, A represents the porcupine picker beater. From the picker the cotton passes over grid B, where some of the remaining impurities drop out, and on to the screen dust cages C and D. There is a suction draft on the inside of these cages produced by fan E, the purpose of which is to draw the dust and dirt out of the sheet of cotton that 1s deposited on the outside. ‘These dust cages produce a uniform thickness of cotton lap. the purpose of which is to draw the dust and dirt out of the cotton and at the same time secure an even layer on the outside. They also act as condensers and form the @,) © O+ AYU Wks bi swe 23333 FEG.233: BREAKER LAPPER—SECTIONAL VIEW cotton into a sheet or lap. ‘This lap is removed by the stripper roller F and guided to the feed roller G which pass it into the chamber where it is engaged by beater H and thrown against grid J, which removes more of the impurities. It then passes over dust grid K and on to a second pair of screen dust cages L and M suction in which is produced by fan N. The lap as formed on the cages L and M is removed by the stripper rollers O and consolidated by means of the rollers P, Q, R and S. It is then engaged by the fluted rollers T and U, where it is rolled up as shown into what is known as breaker laps. 47 MANUFACTURE of YARN wad dVT ONIH Ss INI GNV ALVIGAWNAYALNI 4 Ole °OT) aULYIDIY UDILLaWP “g 48 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Up to this point the cotton has passed through machines that have opened it up and extracted many of the im- purities from it.. It is however by no means clean and it is further subjected to machines which free the cotton from practically all the remaining impurities. These machines are known as the intermediate lapper and finishing lapper. These two machines are identical in construction and operation and are similar to the breaker lapper. Fig. 35 shows the intermediate picker or lapper in detail. 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent laps as taken from the breaker lapper. These are doubled, that is, fed four at once, in order to reduce the possibility of thin places occurring in the finished lap. FIG. 35. INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER LAPPER—SECTIONAL VIEW These four-ply laps are led between the roller A and the points B of a series of levers C. It is the purpose of these levers to regulate the flow of cotton to the picker so that it will be always equal and uniform. ‘They are connected mechanically so that if a thin section passes through them the feeding apron D and feed rollers E increase their speed thereby allowing a greater quantity MANUFACTURE of YARN 49 to pass through to compensate for the thin spot. If a heavy or thick spot passes through the reverse action takes place and the feed is slowed down. As the cotton passes through the feed rollers E it is struck by the rapidly revolving beater F which again opens the cotton into small pieces and throws it against grid A, where more of the sand and dirt drops out. The cotton passes over grid Hand on to the screen dust cages J where the remainder of the dirt is removed by suction. The cotton is condensed into a sheet and these cages are then removed by the stripping rollers K. It is then led to the calender rollers L which consolidate the sheet and pass it to rollers M, thus forming it into lap N. These laps then are taken to the finisher picker or scutcher where the above operation is repeated. The laps produced by the scutcher are no heavier or thicker than any of the single laps fed to the machine. Since there are usually four laps fed this means that the cotton must be drawn out four times during the process of picking. The lap as formed at the finishing scutcher is practically free of gross impurities. A card has a dirt box in its base with grids by means of which bushels of dirt are removed. As a matter of fact, the total waste in the picker system here outlined is about 8% of the raw cotton by weight. The card produces a further loss of 7%. The cotton is now ready for the first step toward the yarn formation and is next passed through the revolving flat card. CHA Pelvis CARDING The production of yarn or thread 1s the oldest manu- facturing process known. Long before the dawn of civilization the prehistoric man found use for thread and had mastered the problem of spinning. Wherever prehistoric relics are found there are generally dis- covered evidences of the manufacture of cloth or some other article made from spun yarns. While the present methods of manufacture and produc- tion are so vastly different from the original methods that it could almost be called a different art, still, the product of our modern spinning frames 1s ‘deneaaen construction with the first twisted yarn produced. The theory today of spinning is the same as it was ages ago, the consolidation of small fibres by twisting them around each other causing a clinging action and producing a longer thread. Of course, the yarns produced by our modern machines are of a quality that prohibits comparison with ancient yarns. The evenness of twist, the symmetry and the strength and fineness of modern yarns could only be produced by our modern machinery. As mentioned above, yarn is produced by the consoli- dation of various fibres caused by the twisting of the fibres around each other so that a clinging action is produced. In the first process of the formation of the yarn it is very important to place the fibres in a uniform position or parallelize them. CARDING 51 In the preparatory process no attempt is made to parallelize the fibre and as the cotton laps leave the scutcher or picker, the fibre does not lie in a very uniform manner. The first attempt then to place the fibres in parallel position is in the revolving flat card. This is a machine that takes the lap from the picker and delivers a fine sheet or web of cotton that is free Whitin Machine Works FIG. 36. REVOLVING FLAT CARD from nearly all mechanical impurities and in which ‘the fibres are arranged with a good degree of parallelism. The sheet or web is reduced to a sliver in the last operation of the card. While there were originally numerous different styles of Cards, the Revolving Flat Top Card, because of its all-around efficiency is practically the only survivor today. 52 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 37 is a sectional view of a revolving flat top card. A represents the lap of cotton as taken from the finisher scutcher or picker. B is a slowly revolving roller which unwinds A by friction and conveys the unwound sheet to the feed roller C. D is a rapidly revolving cylinder whose surface is covered with saw teeth and which is known as the lickerin roller. It takes the cotton from C and carries it past the mote knives E which re- move the motes, leaf and any seed that may be left in the fibre. My 2 eee a ae FIG. 37. REVOLVING FLAT CARD—SECTIONAL VIEW The cotton is then carried around and engaged by the teeth covering the surface of the cylinder F. ‘This is traveling in the same direction as D at the point of contact but it is traveling at a much higher speed hence the stripping action takes place in which all the fibre is transferred to F. The cotton is then carried up and engaged by the revolving flats G. The latter are made up of a number of narrow bars known as flats, and formed into an endless belt or chain. The surface of CARDING 53 one side of each of these flats is covered with fine teeth or card clothing. The flats G are moving in the same direction as the cylinder F but at a speed so slow as to be hardly discernible. Hence as the cotton is drawn through the clothing of these practically stationary flats by the clothing upon the rapidly revolving cylinder a combing action takes place removing the remainder of the seed, leaf and motes and at the same time placing the fibres in more nearly parallel order. H is a revolving brush which removes any adhering lint or dirt from the slowly revolving chain of flats. After leaving the flats the cotton is engaged by the doffer cylinder [. This is moving at a slower surface speed than F but its teeth are pointing in the opposite direction of F. Hence the cotton is stripped from F and condensed in the form of a fine sheet or web on J. The cotton is then carried around until it is stripped from the doffer cylinder by the doffer comb J. This is a very rapidly vibrating comb which strips the cotton off in the form of a fine sheet of gauze like cotton. ‘This is condensed into a rope-like form called a sliver and by means of rollers K and coiler head L it is conveyed and coiled into sliver roving can M. The average number of wire points per square foot on cylinder I equals 65,000. CHAP TERI COMBING In mills producing yarns that run up to about number seventy only one carding operation is used. Those above seventy are subjected to the action of another machine called the comber. In various mechanical fabrics, where strength 1s of the utmost importance, the process of combing is frequently employed to produce a strong even product, free from short fibres. Tire fabric and tire cords are made of No. 23s. Very generally this is combed yarn for the purpose of securing the maximum strength and eliminating short fibre. Coarse hosiery yarns are generally combed. Combed yarn is frequently found as coarse as 7s in shoe threads and other strong cords. As the can of sliver is produced at the revolving flat carding engine the fibres are in a more or less disarranged condition due to the natural tendency of the fibres, to twist around each other. The fibres also are not very uniform in length. In producing the finer yarns such as numbers 100 and above it is very essential to have the fibres of the sliver absolutely uniform in length and also to have them perfectly straight and parallel. To produce this effect a comber is used in addition to the revolving flat card. COMBING a The action of the comber removes all the short fibres, combs or straightens out each individual fibre and delivers a form of slivers in which the fibres are in close contact with each other which holds them in an absolutely uniform and parallel order. The combing process involves three sets of machines; first, the “Sliver Lap Machine,” which draws generally the eas from 20 to 40 card cans and winds them back into a lap of sliver; second, the “‘Ribbon Lap Machine.” Whitin Machine Works FIG. 38. RIBBON LAP MACHINE which doubles from 4 to 8 sliver laps and draws them out from 4 to 8 times, thus securing evenness, and third, the “Comber” proper, which eliminates fibres below a certain length. Because of the delicate construction of the comber the sheet of sliver from the cards must be prepared somewhat before being fed to the comber in order to prevent damage to it. 56 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK To accomplish this the product of the cards is first run through a drawing frame or through machines known as the sliver lap machine and ribbon lap machine. These machines practically parallelize the fibres and form them into a fleecy lap of uniform thickness. 16 to 20 ends of card sliver used in sliver lap machine; 4 to 6 on ribbon lap machine. Whitin Machine Works RIG 29, COMBER Combers are usually built to accommodate from six to eight laps, that is, there are six or eight combing operations going on at once, and producing six or eight strands of combed sliver. As was stated before the comber takes a lap of cotton the fibres of which may vary considerably in length and produce a sliver in which all the fibres are of uniform length. The machine is adjusted to deliver fibre of a certain staple and during the operation all fibres that are below that standard are removed or combed out. COMBING ci SZ FIG. 40. COMBER—SECTIONAL VIEW Fig. 40 shows the detail of the comber. The lap is shown resting on wooden feed rollers A. Lap B is shown being fed to rollers C and D. When the proper length of sliver is fed bevond the nippers E and F. E clamps down on the sliver and the rollers C reverse and break the sheet of sliver as shown. ‘The comb cylinder G revolves and the needles H pass through the projecting end of the lap which is held by nippers E and F. This action combs out all the short fibres. The comb cylinder continues to revolve and the fluted segment I engages the tuft of cotton still held by the nippers E and F, at this instant E and F release the tuft of cotton and roll 58 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK J descends and bears on the fluted segment which action causes the released tuft of cotton to be conveyed to rolls K where it ts laid on and consolidated with the preceding sheets. Nippers L and M then descend and hold the tuft of cotton with the back or uncombed end projecting. he needles H revolving then pass through it and comb out the short fibres. Rolls N convey the sheet to a doubler where it is doubled into a rope and coiled into a sliver can. ‘The brush O removes the short fibres from the needles of the comb which is in turn cleaned by doffer cylinder P. The vibrating doffer comb O then separates the lint from the doffer cylinder. CEP PER VEL DRAWING As the doffer roll takes the sheet of cotton from the cylinder in the card, it has a tendency to cause a dis- arrangement of the fibres because the doffer is running at a much less surface speed than the cylinder and has to take much more of cotton on its unit surface area. This condensing action causes some of the fibres to be- come crossed. As was pointed out above, it is important to have the fibres parallel before spinning, so this sliver as delivered from the cards is subjected to the action of a drawing machine. The operation of the drawing frame consists of passing the strands of sliver through a series of four pairs of rollers. ‘The lower roller of each pair of which is fluted. A more even and uniform sliver is produced by the system of doubling the sliver at the back of the drawing frame. Usually from four to eight strands of sliver are fed into the same set of rollers which draws and condenses them into the size and weight of one sliver and delivers it to the sliver can. ‘This action is known as a delivery and a drawing frame may have eight deliveries. ‘This means that if eight ends of sliver are being drawn and condensed by each set of draw rollers, there are sixty-four strands of sliver being fed to that machine which pro- duces eight strands of drawn sliver. As the sliver is fed into the machine, it is engaged by a pair of rollers running at a certain speed. It passes thence to a second set running at a slightly higher speed 60 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK and which produces a slight draw or draft in the sliver. It is then engaged by the third set that is running still faster and which puts more draft in the sliver until finally the fourth set which is running faster than the third produces the final draft. H. &3 B. American Machine Co. FIG. 41. DRAWING FRAME The sliver produced at the front of the draw frame is about the same weight and size as a single strand that is fed at the back end. This means that if eight strands are fed to the draw frame there is a draft of eight, or, the consolidated eight strands are drawn out to eight times their length. Where four strands of sliver are used the draft is four, etc. On emerging from the last set of draw rollers the sliver is coiled into the sliver or roving can. DRAWING 61 It can be readily seen that by this action of drawing or pulling the sliver lengthwise any crossed or tangled fibres will be laid uniform and parallel. It is common practice to take the sliver from the first draw frame and runit through a second drawing operation. Card sliver has three processes of drawing carded yarn. Comber sliver has two processes for combed yarn. If too many processes of drawing are used, the fibres are too parallel and will not hold together; or will break when being drawn out of the can at the next process, Slubbing. FIG, 42. DRAWING FRAME—SECTIONAL VIEW Fig. 42, is a general view of the drawing operation. A denotes the strands of sliver which in this case are six being drawn through the comb at B, and the sliver spoons C. They pass through the series of draw rollers D, where they are consolidated and given a draft of six. The calender rolls F draw the sliver through the trumpet EF, and deposit it in coiler F, which revolving coils the sliver in the can G. Mechanical stop motion is shown, but electrical stop motion is very popular. 62 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 43, represents the action of drawing the card sliver. A is the sliver as received from the cards. It shows a marked derangement of the fibres. As it pro- gresses through the draw rollers these fibres are pulled or drawn to a more uniform position until they are all in an even and parallel order as shown at B. This also evens the weight. FIG. 43. DRAWING ROLLERS—SECTIONAL VIEW CHAPEER VIII SLUBBING and ROVING As the cotton leaves the drawing frames it is in the form of a fluffy rope known as sliver. The fibres have been cleaned of all mechanical impurities, also straightened out and laid in parallel order. This sliver is too bulky for spinning and must be further drawn out. The next three stages of the process have for their object the drawing and reduction of this sliver. These operations all employ the same type and design of machine which 1s known as a fly frame. The machines are so named because the principal part revolves at a high rate of speed and is known as a flyer. The first of these operations is known as slubbing. The machine used in this operation is practically the same as the other fly frames. The only difference being in the method of feeding. The slubber taking the sliver out of cans as delivered from the drawing frames while the other fly frames take the sliver or roving as it is then called from bobbins. The sliver is fed into the slubber from the rear and passes through three pairs of drawing rollers. It then passes to a revolving flyer operating on a vertical spindle which produces some twist and it is then wound upon a bobbin revolving upon a bolster, as the bobbin must decrease in speed, as it grows in diameter. i. 64 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK These full bobbins as produced at the slubber are then placed in the second slubber known as an inter- mediate fly frame. The roving is doubled and fed to the machine in which it passes through a series of draw rollers where the two strands are consolidated and drawn to a finer strand. It then passes through a flyer where it is twisted and wound on to bobbins for the next machine called the roving frame. tf B. American Machine Co. FIG. 44. SLUBBER MACHINE The roving frame is sometimes referred to as the speeder because it operates at a much higher speed than the other fly frames. It is practically a repetition of the first slubber except that the machine is of finer con- struction and the roving produced is much finer. The roving frame is operated in the same manner as the preceding frames, the roving produced, of course, being finer. SLUBBING and ROVING Fig. 45, is a sectional view fl of a roving frame. LEN ‘ A represents the bobbins be of roving, B shows the HY i strands of roving being doub- } led at guiding eye C. Dis Sv = the series of draw rollers XZ WZ which draw out the doubled Econ penne strand of roving, E is the a on hich prod th Wags yer which produces the twist in the roving and G is the bobbin of roving. pi: Se oC \ FIG. 45, ROVING{|MACHINE—SECTIONAL VIEW 65 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 66 ‘BUIAOI Jouy & Soyeuw Ayjauanbasuos pue SUOTSUIUIIP Jo][[e us uo 4yiIng ST 4] “SQUIB IT ots eIpotwtayUl pue SUIAO] AB YIM [esuopl SI duet yore le 94} fo uor}e19d0 IU L QUILL] SUIAOI OES Seesue paonpoid SI SUIAOI Jauy [[9s e@ uo0j05 uevidA3sy JO puv]sy vag WoIJ paonpoid oie sured asuy AIOA d194 MA ANIHOVW ONIAOY ‘oF Dia ‘OF aulyIo py UDITAIMP “F GH CHAPTER IX SPINNING Yarn is identified by its “count” or number. The count or number of the yarn represents the number of hanks of 840 yds. each necessary to make one pound. While the final count is produced at the spinning frame all the machines, from the card to the spinning frame, play an important part in the production of the proper weight of the finished yarn. All these machines make use of the drawing or ‘‘draft”’ principle to reduce the lap of cotton, as produced at the finishing lapper, to a yarn of definite weight. As an example, the lap of cotton as produced in the picker room may weigh 5000 grains per yard. The card takes this lap and draws it out into a sheet weighing about 60 grains per yard, producing a draft of about 85. The drawing frames double these strands of sliver and produce a draft equal to the number of strands fed, in the case of six doublings the draft would be six. This drawing process is continued through the various ma- chines, the draft produced by each machine directly affecting the weight of the finished yarn. The spinning frame takes the roving and produces the final draw, delivering the thread of yarn of required number. Up to this point in the manufacture of cotton yarn the processes have for their objects the cleaning, parallel- ism and uniformity of the product. XTILE HAND-BOOK x 4 Tk 68 ANVAL ONINNIdS Zy¥ Ola SYLO Mf AULYIDPY UlILY YY SPINNING 69 The process of spinning still further draws out the yarn, and produces the final twist. There are two methods employed known as ring spin- ning and mule spinning. RING SPINNING The operation of ring spinning may be compared with that of the roving frame. In this machine the combi- nation of the revolving flyer and the winding of the roving on the bobbin, produces a twist in the roving, which consolidates the fibres. In the production of ‘the yarn by the ring spinning frame the same general process takes place. In the spinning frame the bobbins are revolving at a much higher rate of speed and instead of the flyer we have what is called a ring traveler. ‘This is a small ring through which the yarn passes while being wound on to the bobbin. It is dragged around the bobbin by the pull on the yarn, being guided by flanged rings called traveler rings. This revolution of the bobbin and traveler pro- duces the twist in the yarn. Traveler ‘| ——. “ nat —_ + gs Fig. 48, shows a section of a spin- ning frame. A 1s the bobbins of roving in the creel. B ts the series of draw rollers that produces the final draw in the roving. C is the revolving bobbin, the pull of which causes the traveler D to travel in the same direction, guided by the FIG. 49 ring E. Ring 70 FIG. 48. TEXTILE HAND-BOOK SPINNING FRAME—SECTIONAL VIEW SPINNING 71 Fig. 49, gives a close view of the traveler and its guide. Yarn that is to be used as filling in the weave room is wound directly on the bobbins or quills, which are in- serted into the shuttle. The warp yarns after being wound on bobbins in the spinning frame are re-wound from these bobbins, to spools, which are of sufficient size to hold the yarn from a number of bob- bins. ‘The yarn from these spools is in turn wound carefully and evenly on to what is known as a Warper Beam. 2527" ss \ if thecn: BSS OF TSU ; FIG. 50. MULE SPINNER MULE SPINNING Where very fine and high count numbers of yarn are spun the mule is used quite extensively. As shown in Fig. 50, it consists of a frame equipped with a creel for holding the bobbins of roving, and which also contains a set of draw rollers. The spindles, however, are not fixed in a stationary rail as in the ring frame, but are mounted on a carriage which moves back and forth for a distance of about five feet. ee TEXTILE HAND-BOOK A shows the position of the carriage as the operation starts. As the yarn is delivered from the draw rollers the carriage moves out and the spindle C revolves. The spindle C is at an angle so that as it revolves the yarn slips off the top, and instead of winding it, produces a twisting effect. Just before the carriage reaches the end of its outward movement the roving bobbins and draw rollers stop, causing the delivery of the yarn to stop. The Carriage continues on its way which action puts more draw and twist into the yarn. When the carriage reaches the end of its outward movement it stops, and the spindle reverses its motion fora moment. The rods D then drop, and carry the yarn from the point of the spindle down to the point at which it is to be wound. The carriage then begins its return movement, and at the same time the spindle starts revolving in its original direction. This causes the thread of spun yarn to be taken up and wound on the spindle. When the carriage returns to the position A the rollers again start delivery of the roving, and the operation repeats itself. Mule spinning is the oldest mechanical method of spinning cotton. ‘The advantages of mule spinning over ring spinning is that it produces a more even thread, and a much finer yarn can be produced than by the ring method. It is generally employed where very fine grades of yarn are spun, and has been known to spin yarns numbering as high as 21,500, which was spun in England for exhibition purposes. 400’s are regularly spun for lace making. Fig. 52, shows a spooler in which the yarn from bobbin Ais being wound on to the spool B. Cis the rack in which the full spools are placed, and D is the bobbin box. The traverse rod E moves up and down, as the spool is wound, and guides the yarn so that it is evenly wound. SPINNING (te: SPOOLER FIG. S51. Whitin Machine Works 74 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK FIGs. SPOOLER—SECTIONAL VIEW SPINDLES The size of a cotton mill is determined by the number of spindles it contains, as the output is dependent upon the spindle capacity. While the U. S. leads the world in cotton production, Great Britain leads the world in cotton manufacture. The following statistics will prove interesting. ACTIVE SPINDLES=1928 Mule Ring Total World 56,000,000 74,000,000 130,000,000 Great Britain 39,000,000 10,500,000 49,500,000 United States 3,000,000 33,000,000 36,000,000 All other Countries | 44,500,000 SPINNING 75 Alay eeCOLlON SPINDLES IN THE UNITED STATES Cotton States Virginia 585,650 Ne Carolina 551252121 S. Carolina 5,006,258 Georgia 2,640,800 Alabama 1,281,444 Mississippi SRS Tennessee 413,589 Kentucky 95,288 Missouri 31,648 Louisiana 103,128 Texas 166,468 Others (32222 15,708,988 INeI921 New England Maine 1,114,020 New Hampshire 1,428,415 Vermont 144,808 Massachusetts 11,582,691 Rhode Jsland 2,766,426 Connecticut 1,351,429 18,387,789 Other States New York 990, 252 New Jersey 421,699 Pennsylvania 221,311 Maryland 142,792 Indiana 80,256 Illinois 51,640 All others 42,640 1,950,590 CHAP TERGX WEAVING PREPARATION FOR WEAVING Weaving is the process of interlacing threads of warp and filling to produce cloth of various designs. In a piece of cloth the warp threads are those running length- wise, while the filling threads run crosswise. As the yarn that is to be used for the filling thread is taken from the spinning frame it 1s ready for the loom, but before the warp threads can go to the loom they must be subjected to preparatory processes, the first of which is spooling. ‘This is necessary because the length of yarn on the spinning frame bobbin is too short, so seven or eight of these bobbins are wound upon the one spool, making a length of 21,000 to 30,000 yards (seven to ten wraps—a wrap is 3000 yards). When filled, the spools are placed in the creel of the warper, as described in another chapter. The warp threads are placed in the loom very evenly spaced, and uniformly wound on a large spool called a loom beam. The number of ends or threads wound on the beam depends upon the construction of the cloth. Assume cloth of 48x48 construction, which means 48 ends or threads of warp per inch and 48 ends of filling per inch. The cloth is to be 39” wide. If there are 48 ends of warp to the inch, the number of warp yarns in the width of the cloth are 1872 ends. In addition there are used from 9 to 32 threads on each edge for the selvage, or a total of about 1900 ends of warp yarn per beam. WEAVING 77 During the process of weaving these warp yarns are subjected to heavy frictional and tensile strains, and in order to strengthen them, and enable them to resist these strains they are subjected to a sizing or slashing operation which is explained in detail under “‘Slashing.” The prepared or sized yarn is taken off the front of this slasher and wound on the loom beam. It is fed to the slasher, however, from a series of of large beams called section or warper beams. The number of section beams is dependent upon the number of ends on the loom beam. Usually four or more section beams are used, containing an equal number of threads, the total of all the section beam ends equalling the number of ends on the loom beam. The operation of winding the yarn to the section or warper beam is accomplished in a machine called a warper. GHA PE | I Raexek WARPING The operation of warping consists of unwinding the yarn, that is to be used for the warp thread, from a number of spools and re-winding them on a large spool called a warper beam. Fales & Jenks Machine Co. FIG, 53. SLASHER WARPER The spools are arranged on skewers in a creel so they may revolve freely. The creel is made of two upright frames which are joined at one end and open on the other, presenting a ground plan like the letter V, as shown in Fig. 54. WARPING ee The number of spools in the creel is the same as the number of ends of yarn to be wound on the beam. This number is dependent upon the number of ends of yarn that are to be finally wound on to the loom beams from the slasher. As an example, we will take a style of cloth requiring 2,826 ends of number 30s yarn for the warp, or 2,826 per loom beam. If it is decided to take this yarn in the slasher from 6 warp beams, each beam would require 471 ends of yarn. | The yarn is taken from each of these spools as shown in Fig. 54, under the guide A, through.the comb B, and the various rollers shown, and is finally placed very evenly in the barrel of the beam G. The creel then would have 471 spools. FIG. 54. BEAM WARPER 80 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK This rests on the driving cylinder H, which revolves the beam by friction. F is an arrangement which auto- matically stops the cylinder H, if the thread breaks, and C is a take-up roller which rises when G 1s stopped and thus takes up the slack yarn caused by the spool un- winding due to momentum. D is a measuring roller, and F is a comb which holds the yarn to even spacing on the beam. GHAPTER: XII SLASHING of WARP YARNS The slashing or sizing of warp yarns 1s one of the most important operations in a cotton mill. The results produced by the slasher room seriously affect the product and output of the mill. The feel, weight, general appearance and performance of the cloth during the processes of bleaching and finish- ing, are dependent upon the methods and materials used in the slasher room. The most important feature in the preparation of the yarn however, 1s the conditioning of the yarn for the looms. It has been mentioned that warp yarns are subjected to heavy tensile and frictional strains during the process of weaving. These operations subject the warp threads to quite a frictional strain, due to the rubbing of the threads to- gether during the shedding process, and also the rubbing of the heddles and reed against the thread. The pull exerted on the threads by the action of the heddles reversing, and also by the take-up arrangement, produces a heavy tensile strain on the yarn, and these strains are too great for the yarn as produced at the spinning frame to resist. If yarn as it comes from the spinning frame were to be woven on the modern loom it would soon chafe and pull apart, due to the lack of proper body and strength to resist these strains. It is necessary then to improve the weaving quality of the raw yarn by subjecting it to an operation called 6 82 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK slashing or sizing. This impregnates the yarn with an adhesive mixture, which is usually a starch size. The adhesive nature of the size consolidates the fibres that make the thread, causing them to adhere and thereby strengthen the yarn proper to a considerable degree, and producing the necessary firmness and body in the yarn, to enable it to withstand the friction caused by the harness and reed. The various steps of the slashing operation are:— Feeding the yarn from a number of section beams. Impregnating the yarn with the size. Drying the yarn. Leasing or separating the yarn. Me WN eS Winding the consolidated sheet of yarn on a loom beam. Having determined the number of warper beams necessary they are weighed and placed in the frame as shown in the Fig. 55, and by means of a hand adjustment are placed with the heads all in line. The sheet of warp from the first beam is unwound by hand from the rear beam and carried over, where it is united with the sheet of warp from the next beam, and so on with the other beams. The whole sheet is then drawn through the starch box A. B, is the immersion roller that carries the yarn through the size mixture and C and D are squeeze rolls. The yarn is then carried around the steam heated drying cylinders, E ‘and F as shown and finally wound on loom beam H. Under the letter G, is a series of lease rods that divide the sheet of yarn up into as many parts as there are beams in the front. G, is a comb through which the yarn passes, and which further separates the ends. 83 SLASHING of WARP YARNS *paoejd oie survog mou [un paddojs st suryseur 94} Aqyduia o1v sueaq UOT}DaS ay} UIYM nq ‘uoNeIado ay SuUINUT}UOD goed s}1 ut ynd 9u0 MoU & pUe “pal[y UayM oO usye} SI Wesq WOO] FY], “39S & pal[ed a1e UNI & IOJ paqayas suivoq jo Joquinu oy} pue ‘survaq UOol}D9s se UMOUY Os]e aie suieaqg Jodiem oy], “uIeA 94} WIOl] pazaanbs sulaq dZIS YONUT 00} JUdAIId pue ‘aovjins a]qe -11d B ysIuIn} 0} 31 punoie paddeim JoyxUL]|q UsjoOoM ve sey .‘q,, “1a][o1 azaanbs doy 6eé 99397 9ZIS 94} OF 4yIeq peduind sulaq MOPIIAO Ae B *JaAd] wuzojiun JE 9ZIS IY ‘ daaq Oj JUDUTYOR IIL MO}PYIIAO ue uleJUOD pynoys SIXOq IZIS$ "AWALIS Aq Pp9ef URS 31 OS TIYSeIS oy jo [942] ayy dAO0ge Spues Ayjensn Yorum 9[3394 e wort P2T[Y4 SI x0q 9ZIS FUL ‘uIeaqg UOC] 94} UO A]UaA9a pue yey or Aew Aayy ye Yi Os ‘spevaryi ay} o3eIed~as Ajysnos0y3 0} SI qUIOD pue spol asva] ay? Jo Walqo sy] UdHSVIS $$ “Old CHAPTER XIII COMPOSITION of SIZE The composition of size may be divided into three elements, 1.e.: 1. The adhesive (starch) 2. The softener or emollient (commonly called sizing compound, sizing assistant, etc.) 3. The vehicle or solvent (water) The sizing operation has been used for more experi- ments, hocus-pocus, and as an outlet for more mysterious concoctions than any other operation in a cotton mill. There have been many so-called sizing compounds introduced composed of cheap substances, which could not possibly produce any valuable results in the size. The composition of these sizing compounds are as a rule not based upon any knowledge of the materials neces- sary for a good size, and the production of a perfect cloth. The most effective substance with which to treat the soft yarn in order to enable it to pass through the loom without breaking is a size mixture made up of starch. The properly prepared size penetrates the individual fibres and on drying produces a cement that holds the fibres together. This makes the yarn stronger, inasmuch as in the soft yarn the fibres are held together by their clinging action around each other or their twist, while the dry size of the sized yarn actually consolidates the individual fibres into one mass, so that in addition to the strength produced by the twist of the fibres there is additional strength from the dried starch. COMPOSITION of SIZE 85 However, it is necessary to temper or soften this starch with an agent that prevents it from drying to a hard, stiff and brittle mass, and to produce instead a pliable and flexible substance. The purpose also of this material is to impart a smoothness to the surface of this sized thread so that the friction caused by the thread movement is reduced to a minimum. The softener or sizing assistant is a very important element of the size and should be selected with extreme care, It should have perfect penetrating properties, and should blend with the starch, and produce the necessary softening, without in any way affecting the body or strength producing property of the starch. The only essential ingredients necessary in a sizing mixture are the adhesive elements, which include the starches or starch combinations, and a softening agent to keep the starch in proper condition. Tallow, fats and oils have very valuable softening properties. Research has revealed, however, that certain combinations of fats and oils produce a better quality of work than those selected at random, and that by subject- ing these combinations to certain preparatory or chemical action considerable improvement in results is obtained. This latter product in fact borders on the ideal as a softening agent for warp yarns. Commercial Sizing Assistants are composed of various ingredients. We give below an analysis of several types: A B c D E F G Water DMG | IRS GA. MOOI RYN OSU SSMU AL QUA Starch and Dextrine 20 50 14 10 ii Call oh Zinc Chlorides i 2 2 1 af Pia Magnesium Chlorides 10 tee A uf Calcium Chlorides 2 oy, 4 3 ft $4 3 Fatty matter 44 22 4 9 13 PAP o2 Mineral Oil de “ne 10 5 ae £4 33 Carbolic Acid Je “4 Wn baie a ag * re ood ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 95 Section IT. Photographs of each specimen illustrating surface characteristics. Multiplication of 4 diameters. Section ITT. Photo-micrographs of a cross section of each specimen of sized yarn to illustrate size absorption or penetration. These analyses are described at length on the following pages. No attempt has been made to interpret the meaning of the various values obtained in the tests or the character- istics featured in the photographs. Opinions vary to such an extent that it is thought desirable to leave this to the individual reader. In examining the photo-micrographs it is well to bear in mind that sizing materials in the dressed yarn appear in the picture of the cross section as black blotches. Presumably therefore, a sample which shows the indi- vidual fibres surrounded by such blotches is coated with sizing, and a sample which shows such blotches inter- spersed among the fibres is a sample which has been penetrated by the sizing. RESULTS OF TESTS OF THREE BOBBINS OF GREY YARN AND NINE SAMPLES OF SIZED YARN Hygroscopic Yarn Per Cent. Test After Per Single Variation overnight | Cent. Sample Sample Strength from Elasticity| exposure at | Sizing No. Marked (Pounds) Average T295 on (64% Per Cent. Relative Sized Regain) Strength Humidity | Yarn Per Cent. | Weight Regain 1 23s Grey 45 14 10 - 7.15 2 “H” 78 10 6 8.17 6.58 3 le 1.04 12 7 Sil 4.80 4 ee ake) 10 6 8.08 HSM 5 Prime Tallow ol 10 6 8.49 7.87 6 Hel .81 12 6 8.71 7.89 7 19s Grey .73 9 10 7.19 8 sedi? .86 14 6 8.62 11.47 9 FL? 78 13 6 8.46 9.44 10 30s Grey 46 12 9 7.56 11 eat a6) 18 6 8.83 10.36 12 Sale kee 45 16 7 8.48 10.34 96 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK METHOD I. PHYSICAL TBSa5 (a) Yarn Single Strength: Figures representing the strength of single yarns as shown in column No. 3 of the section entitled “Results of Physical Tests’ were obtained as follows: Specimens were exposed approximately 18 hours to an atmospheric condition of 70° Fahr., and 72% Relative Humidity. Fifty single yarns were then selected at random from each sample and were broken separately on a Scott Single Yarn Testing Machine of 5 pounds capacity, the speed of jaw separation being 13 inches per minute and the space between jaws 12 inches. ‘The values obtained at the point of rupture were then corrected to a condition of 644% moisture regain, accord- ing to the Cotton Research Company standard basis for expressing yarn strength and count, and an average taken. (b) Per Cent. Variation from Average Strength: Figures representing the per cent. variation from average strength, as shown in the fourth column of the same section were obtained as follows: The difference between each individual strength value as found in (a) and the average of these values was measured. ‘These differences were then averaged, and the resulting figure divided by the average strength value and multiplied by 100, thus being converted to a per- centage basis. In interpreting these figures it should be noted that they represent an arbitrary scale of value for the purpose of recording differences in evenness, and that the larger the figure the less even the yarn. TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED PLATE V. CHAPTER XIV SAMPLE No.2. “H” COMPOUND ¢ «py o SAMPLE NO. 3. “I” COMPOUND SAMPLE NO.4. “J” COMPOUND SAMPLE NO.5. PRIME BEEF TALLOW SAMPLE NO.6. “K” COMPOUND is ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 97 (c) Per Cent. Elasticity: Figures representing “‘Per Cent. Elasticity’”’ as shown in the fifth column of the section were obtained as follows: When obtaining strength values as described in (a), a value is also obtained indicating the elongation of the specimen at the time of rupture. The individual values for elongation are divided by the length of specimen (12 inches in this case) and multiplied by 100. The resulting figures represent the percentage of elongation or elasticity. (d) Hygroscopic Test: Figures appearing in the sixth column entitled “Hygro- scopic test—after over-night exposure at 72% relative humidity—per cent. regain,” represent the percentage of moisture regained by the several specimens after the exposure described. It will be noted that the amount of regain varies considerably with differences in size compound and amount of size. (e) Per Cent. Sizing on Sized Vee Weight: Figures appearing in the seventh column indicate the amount of size acquired by the specimen during the sizing process, as represented by a percentage figure based on the weight of the sized yarn. These figures were obtained as follows: 1. The specimen was reduced to a bone dry condition and then weighed. 2. Size was extracted by boiling the specimen for 15 minutes in a 1% solution of hydrochloric acid. 3. Traces of acid and size were removed by washing for 10 minutes three times in boiling water. 4. The specimen was again reduced to a bone dry condition and weighed. 7 98 . TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 5. The difference between figures obtained in (1) and (4) was divided by the figure obtained in (1). From the resulting percentage the figure of 244%. was sub- tracted to allow for cotton loss during the processes, the remainder representing the percentage of size extracted. _II]. PHOTOGRAPHIC TREAT The photographic treatment, the results of which are seen in Section II. of the Analysis is as follows: A three-inch sample of the specimen is cemented to a glass slide. This is placed in the photographic apparatus and a picture taken at a magnification of 4 diameters. III. PHOTO-MICROGRAPHIC PROCEDURE Photo-micrographs appearing in the last section were the result of the following procedure. (a) A small specimen of the sample is arranged on a specially constructed wire rack and is then reduced to a bone dry condition in the conditioning oven. (b) The specimen, still on its rack, is immersed for six hours in a bath of melted paraffin at a temperature of 135° to 140° Fahr. (c) At the end of six hours the parafhin is poured off and replaced with new parafhn in which the specimen remains for another six hours. (d) The second paraffin bath is replaced by a third, in which the specimen remains for one hour, at the end of which time it is chilled rapidly with ice water. (¢) A small block of hard paraffin, containing the speci- men, is cut away and soaked in cold water for twelve hours. (f) This block is placed in the microtome and slices are cut approximately .001 inch in thickness. (g) These slices are floated in an iodine solution which stains whatever starch may be contained in the specimen. CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED TEXTILE HAND-BOOK PLATE Vio (CHAR Ee heeahy, SAMPLE NO. 8. “J” COMPOUND SAMPLE NO.9. ‘“H’ COMPOUND ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS oh, (h) The slices are taken from the iodine solution and afhxed to a microscope slide by means of an albuminous adhesive mixture. (1) The slide is heated gently for a few minutes, and then the parafhin is dissolved away in a preparation of Xylol, leaving the specimen of yarn affixed to the slide. (7) The specimens are coated with Canada Balsam and a cover glass is applied. (k) The slide is placed in the photographic apparatus, the lens is adjusted and a picture is taken at a magnifi- cation of 250 diameters. CHAP LE Raia STARCH Starch in one form or other is commonly used in size as the adhesive agent because of low cost and general efficiency. In the United States the most commonly used starches are those obtained from corn and potato. Corn starch is used for the coarser counts of yarn, while potato starch is better adapted for the finer yarns. For sizing very fine yarns tapioca and sago starches are often used. Wheat starch is occasionally used for sizing, but its use is more general in England than in the United States. Other starches of more or less commercial value are those obtained from barley, rye, oats, rice and arrowroot. Starch as produced from the grain or root, generally speaking, is in the form of white shiny granules, con- sisting of an outer shell-like material which is composed of a substance called starch cellulose, and an inside body which is known as granulose. It is this body of granulose that gives starch the adhesive property. Starch in this form is known as Pearl Starch. Pearl starch is insoluble in cold water. This is because the outside coating of cellulose resists the action of cold water and hence does not allow it to penetrate into the granulose body. When heated with water these granules swell to many times their original size and finally the granulose bursts through the shell or outer coating of cellulose and forms TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED PLATE VIL CHAR TE heen ie SAMPLE No. 11. ‘J’ COMPOUND SAMPLE NO. 1253? COMPOUND See Additional Photo-Microscopic Reproductions in Appendix Page 157 i > ee STARCH 101 with the water a thick and heavy mass or jelly. This jelly-like mass is not a true solution, but is known as a colloid solution. A colloid may be denfied as a substance incapable of penetrating membranes. If this colloid solution were subjected to a filtering operation, it would be found that the water would pass through the filter, leaving the mass of colloidal starch lying on the surface of the filter. However, if this colloidal solution were heated for a long enough period, it would be converted over to a true solution and if thrown upon a filter it would be found to pass entirely through without breaking up or leaving any deposit on the surface of the paper. ‘This action is chemically known as hydrolysis, in which the semi- soluble granulose is changed over to a substance known as dextrine, which is entirely soluble in water. The yarn is prepared for weaving by sizing the thread with a starch mixture, the purpose of which is to cement the fibres together, which would naturally strengthen the yarn. It is obvious that this will be more efficiently effected if the size is prepared and the materials are selected so that a thorough penetration is produced instead of forming a film on the surface of the thread. When size is made up with Pearl starch, care must be taken to boil it for a long enough period after the starch has “‘jelled,” in order to thoroughly convert the granulose over to the soluble dextrine. If a complete conversion over to dextrine is not ac- complished, the cotton fibres will act as filters when the size 1s applied and will prevent the colloidal starch from passing into the inside. Thus the size is deposited on the outside of the yarn instead of penetrating into the interior, and does not 102 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK give the strength to the yarn that is desired, and will, in addition, shed or drop off the yarn in excess quantity while being woven. The reason for this is that the shell of starch cellulose prevents the water from coming in contact with the starchy matter or granulose, so that it cannot react with or take up the water necessary for its conversion over to dextrine or soluble starch. Excessive and prolonged boiling converts this granu- lose over into dextrine, which is absolutely soluble and possesses high power of penetration. The length of time necessary to effect this change, however, 1s not within limits to permit of its being practised. There is another class of starches, called modified starches, which have been chemically treated, and have had the shell of starch cellulose removed to a greater or less extent. This starch is sold under different grade names termed degrees of fluidity, such as 20, 40, etc., the degree of fluidity of the starch indicating the extent of which this starch cellulose shell has been removed, and the length of time necessary to produce a solution from it and its degree of penetration. The terms “modified” and “fluidity” as applied to starch are sometimes confusing because the various manufacturers use their own systems or methods in determining the different grades. The terms 20, 40, etc. degree fluidity is a comparison of the rate of flow of a starch paste through a fixed orifice and the flow of water. There is no standard method among starch manu- facturers for determining starch fluidities. While the basic principal of all methods is the same, each have their own refinements, such as preparation of sample, quality of the paste, temperatures, apparatus eee: STARCH 103 40 degree starch from one company should not be expected to give the same results as 40 degree from another company. In considering two or more starches from a fluidity point of view, the following method an be used and will give very accurate results. It must be remembered that this method is only a comparison of the rates of flow of different starch pastes and has no relation to any standards of fluidity. Therefore, to get the most valuable results, a starch, of which the characteristics and results produced at slasher are known, should be tested and this test taken as standard. Then run all the other starches in exactly the same manner, which will show a greater or less fluidity than the sample. RELATIVE FLOW TESTS ON STARCHES Weigh out exactly 2 grams of the starch and place in a flask with 60 c.c. of cold water; add exactly 6 c.c. of 10% solution of caustic soda and shake until completely gelatinized; now add enough water to make just 100 c.c., shake well and allow to stand for a half-hour at least; shake well and take temperature, pour through a short neck two-inch funnel and collect 50 c.c., noting the exact time that it takes to collect the 50 c.c. Now repeat in order to check the work. Do this with all the other starches that are to be examined and a very good com- parison of relative penetrating powers is easily shown. The temperature in each case must be exactly the same. This same test can be made on modified starches by making them up 5 grams to the hundred and heating to form the paste instead of using the caustic soda; when running through funnel, be sure that same temperature is used in each case or test is worthless, due to the fact that when these liquids are hot they flow much quicker than when cold. It is a good idea to try modified starches at two different temperatures. 104 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK The advantages of using modified starch over pearl starch are: 1. They are more soluble and, therefore, take less time to produce the necessary size. 2. Modified starch produces a size having higher penetrating properties. 3. Modified starch boils thinner than pearl starch and, therefore, can be used to take the place of more expensive starches. As an example, modified corn starch is rapidly displacing pearl potato starch as a sizing agent. All the starches do not require the same amount of heat to paste or gelatinize, so in preparing size from the various starches, care must be taken to select the proper quantity of starch for a given volume of size liquor and boil the size the proper length of time. It must be remembered that while it is very necessary to boil long enough to convert all the starch to dextrine, size should not be over boiled. The dextrine is what is desired in the size, as it has the maximum penetrating power, producing a firm body in the yarn and the maximum strength. If, after the dextrine is produced in the size bath, the mixture is allowed to boil longer, hydrolysis continues to take place and changes the dextrine over to dextrose, which is a very thin body and produces no strengthening effect in the yarn. So then if size is allowed to boil for too long a period, it converts the desirable dextrine, which is ideal for sizing, over to the weak dextrose which would produce soft, sticky, and in general, a very unsatisfactory yarn. So it is very important that the size be boiled for the proper length of time, which in the case of modified starches, is from 45 minutes to one hour and for pearl starches, three or four hours. STARCH 105 Where readily prepared, dextrines or thin _ boiling starches, as they are often called, are used, they are boiled just long enough to produce a solution, usually 15 to 30 minutes. The high price of dextrine, however, prohibits its use as a sizing agent. Dextrine is produced commercially by allowing diluted mineral acids to act on the starch granules. This process is carefully watched, and must be stopped at a certain time, otherwise the action continues until glucose 1s formed. This produces the same product that boiling with water does, except that in the case of acid the action is faster. All starches do not start to paste or gelatinize at the same temperature, so all do not require the same amount of ae The gelatinizing temperature of potato starch foe ero Bahr.); corn’ /5°.C. (168° Fahr.); wheat BOset?. (176° Fahr.); rice 80° C. (176° Fahr.); arrowroot poe ec. staat); and tapioca 65° C. (150°. Fahr.). At these temperatures the granules have been completely ruptured and the jelly-like substance has been fully formed. By sustaining a temperature about 5° C. (10° Fahr.) above these temperatures, the best results can be obtained with plain starch size; but of course, prolonged heating will form dextrose. Potato and tapioca form pastes quickly, whereas corn, wheat, rice and arrowroot require more time. The characteristics of the various starch pastes are: Wheat forms a white opaque paste which thickens quickly upon cooling; rice forms an opaque paste and requires some time to paste; corn forms a semi-opaque and thick paste; potato quickly forms a thick semi-transparent paste which becomes thinner upon boiling a short time; tapioca acts like potato; sago forms a thin paste, which penetrates easily. The only reliable method of testing starches for identity is by using the microscope, due to the fact that the 106 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK granules of the various starches vary in size and shape. The test is simple and easy to perform. Place a small amount of the sample in a dish and add a couple of drops of alcohol or water, then put or spread a small amount of the mixture on the glass slide. TABLE OF STARCH CHARACTERISTICS AOR MICROSCOPE TABLE OF STARCH CHARACTERISTICS UNDER MICROSCOPE Starch Diameter Appearance Potato 60-100 microns Arrowroot 10-70 Sago 25-65 Tapioca 8-25 Rice 5-8 Corn 7-20 Wheat 2-52 ee Small granules are circular; larger granules oyster shape, with hilum near one end. Mussel like, some triangular with nipple like pro- jection on end near hilum which is sometimes cracked. Rings are also visible. Cut off oval or urn shape. Hilum is circular spot. Kettle drum or circular. Hilum is dot or short line in center. 5 or 6 sided. Sharp angles. Usually in bunches. Smallest granules of all these. Circular with dented appearance, hilum is star or crack. Circular. Always two sizes, very small and large. STARCH 107 (A) RICE STARCH (B) WHEAT STARCH (C) TAPIOCA STARCH (D) POTATO STARCH FIG. 58 A, B, C, D (Magnified approximately 150x) 108 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK (E) SAGO STARCH (F) ARROWROOT STARCH (G) CORN STARCH FIG. 58 E, F, G—continued (Magnified approximately 150x) STARCH 109 IODINE TESTS WITH STARCHES Make up sample as follows: mix 5 grams with 500 c.c. of water and boil for 30 minutes; then add 1 c.c. of a solution of iodine made up 1 to 500 in water. Blue color with starches; rice quickly fades to a pink then dis- appears; wheat also fades to pink, but not so quickly; corn has red tinge; tapioca has violet tinge; potato, sago and arrowroot are deep blue. Another test is to make up pastes 5 parts to 100 and allow to stand; good starches will dry up, but poor starches will become moldy. TO GET PASTING POINTS Heat gradually 5 grams of sample in 100 c.c. of water; dip a glass slide in the solution frequently and examine to see if all the granules have been ruptured. Do not confuse air bubbles with granules. Note temperature at which pasting starts and when complete. Allow paste to cool and note color and thickness. 110 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK (A) CORN STARCH STARTING (B) CORN STARCH COMPLETELY TO PASTE PASTED (C) WHEAT STARCH STARTING TO PASTE FIG. 59 A, B,C. (Magnified approximately 150x) STARCH . 111 (D) WHEAT STARCH COMPLETELY (E) POTATO STARCH STARTING PASTED TO PASTE (F) POTATO STARCH COMPLETELY PASTED FIG. 59 D, E, F—continued (Magnified approximately 150x) jak TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Test starch for soluble impurities by shaking 5 grams with cold water and filtering; evaporate the filtrate and examine for foreign matter. For inorganic impurities: heat the starch sample to high enough temperature to remove the carbon, and examine ash which should not be more than one per cent. Place sample on piece of glass and rub with knife; gritty particles will show presence of impurities. CHAPTER XVI PREPARATION of SIZE There is coming into general use a method of circu- lating the size through the slasher. By this method the size is made up, and then pumped to a circulating tank which is placed higher than the size box of the slasher machine, so that it feeds by gravity from this storage tank. An overflow arrangement is lo- cated at the size box of the slasher and the overflow is pumped back into the circulating tank. This overflow attachment keeps the size at a constant level and elimi- nates the possibility of soft spots in the yarn. A steam coil is built into the circulating tank so that the liquor can be kept at a uniform temperature. The size is made up in another tank called the mixing tank. This should contain an open steam coil for boiling, and be fitted with a mechanical stirrer. This tank should have a total capacity of about 200 gals., and each batch of size should be 175 gals. This arrangement leaves ample space for the mixture to boil. The volume of size, as made, should be based on its final volume rather than on the amount of water used. If 917> gals. of size are to be made, about 150 gals. of cold water should be run into the tank. ‘The starch 1s weighed out and placed in the tank, and this mixture of starch and water agitated for 15 minutes in order to break up lumps. ‘The softener is then added, and the steam is turned on. After the mixture comes to a boil, the agitation should be continued from 30 to 75 minutes, depending upon the kind and grade of starch, and then discontinued. 8 114 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Upon examination it will be found that the volume of size has increased, due to the condensed steam. A stick, on which a notch has been cut, indicating the 175-gal. depth, is then inserted in the mass and water is run in until the level reaches the notch. Steam is then turned on gently for about 5 minutes, in order to compensate for any loss in temperature caused by the final addition of cold water, and the mass is then pumped to the circulating tank. The important points to consider in connection with the preparation of size are: L Selection of the proper starch. (Should be a modified corn starch of about 40° fluidity for medium and heavy yarns. Potato starch or dextrine for fine yarns.) ve Selection of softener or sizing assistant. (Should be a pure softener containing no loading agents, and possessing the property of perfectly blending with the starch, and having the highest penetrating powers.) 3. Time of boiling. (For 40° corn starch the boiling time should be about one hour. Potato starch 30 to 45 minutes.) 4, Quantity of size to prepare at one time. (The quantity of size prepared should be the quantity that can be used by the slasher in about two hours, inasmuch as the starch continues to hydrolyze or thin out while standing at a high temperature. If the size is kept too long the warps which are sized with the last portion of the batch will be much softer than those sized with the fresh mixture.) APPLICATION OFssiZE The keynote of proper sizing is perfect penetration. If the size does not penetrate the yarn and is deposited on the surface, there will be excessive slufhng and PREPARATION of SIZE tS FIG. 60. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN (Magnified 250x) Showing almost perfect penetration of the size. Dark portion indicates size. Note thorough penetration of individual fibres in the center of yarn, shedding. This condition can be overcome by the selection of the proper starch and softener, and the preparation of the size. The maintenance of the correct temperature in the slasher box is of great importance, and should not be overlooked. 116 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK FIG. 69-A. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN (Magnified 250x) Showing a poorly sized yarn with very little penetration of size. Dark portion indicates size, If the temperature of the size liquor is allowed to drop the size becomes thicker or more viscous. This reduces the penetrating properties of the size, inasmuch as a thin fluid is always more penetrating than a viscous, or thick mixture. The starch has a tendency to cling to the surface of the yarn. It has been found by exhaustive experiments that a temperature of from 190° to 250° Fahr. is the ideal temperature for the slasher box. PREPARATION of SIZE 117 FIG. 60-B. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN (Magnified 250x) Showing poor penetration of size with a large percentage of the size deposited on surface of yarn. Dark portion indicates size. Below 195° Fahr. the starch approaches the “cold” state and lacks perfect penetration. Keeping the temperature above 200° Fahr. tends to accelerate the thinning action of the size, so that the end of the mixture is much thinner than at the start. After the yarn leaves the size box it passes over two large steam-heated cylinders or drying cans, the purpose of which is to dry the yarn. 118 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK It is a mistake to drive all moisture from the yarn, as this produces harsh yarn,.and consequently bad running work. ‘The natural moisture content of sized yarn is from 8 to 10%, and the heat of the cans should be so regulated as to allow this natural moisture to remain in the yarn as it leaves the slasher. A common practice is to drive all moisture from the yarn or “bake” it, and then attempt to replace the moisture by maintaining a high humidity in the weave shed. This method is liable to overcharge the cloth with moisture, which tends to increase mildew in the cloth. Yarns that have been baked on the drying cans cannot be brought back to that soft and flexible condition which proper drying produces, but will remain harsh no matter what the degree of humidity in the weave shed. It is a better practice to dry the yarns at the slasher, so they contain a moisture content of 8 to 10%, and retain enough humidity to maintain this condition, rather than bake the yarns and then attempt to secure the soft, flexible effect that natural moisture produces, than to overcharge the atmosphere with moisture. PURPOSE OF SIZING Sizing of warp yarns should be carried on with the primary purpose of preparing them for the loom. They should contain only enough size to sustain the warp during the weaving operation. In some instances, it is desirable to obtain a large increase in weight. This is accomplished, of course, by using a heavy size mixture. However, due to the large amount of size, present the yarn is more liable to be harsh, and careful attention should be paid to the softener in order to overcome this harshness. PREPARATION of SIZE 119 Increase in weight or load is due to the dry size on the slashed yarns, and when determining this load the amount of moisture present should be given consideration. It is common practice to calculate the load of sized yarn by comparing the net weight of the sized yarn, as delivered on the loom beam at the slasher, with the weight of the yarn before slashing. The increase in weight shown by this comparison is accepted as the actual increase. If the moisture content of the soft yarn and sized yarn were the same this method would be accurate enough. However, sized yarn is never the same as the soft in moisture content and, therefore, due to this discrepancy in moisture the load is not correct when calculated by the above method. It has been ascertained by running comparative tests on different batches of cotton of the same construction and count, and by using the same size formula and slasher, vastly different results were obtained. During a series of five tests made with the same yarn, under the same conditions, it was found that no two were alike and that the results ran from an increase of 8% for the lowest to 15% for the highest. It has been found by using the above method that where one mill was obtaining an increase of 11% on a certain yarn, another mill, running the same kind of yarn and using the same size formula, was obtaining 20 and #217: The only accurate method to determine the load on warp yarns is by a chemical analysis. However, a fairly accurate method which is rapidly coming into general use 1s as follows: Eight bobbins, which represent the yarn under test, are selected, and skeins are reeled off each bobbin and set aside. These bobbins are then taken to the slasher, and the remaining yarn is run through the slasher and wound 120 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK upon the spools. Enough of this sized yarn should be collected so that eight more skeins can be produced, equal in length to the skeins of soft yarn. ‘These sixteen ekelne are then hung in the weave shed for ten or twelve ours This allows each of the skeins to absorb the same amount of moisture from the air. The skeins are then weighed, and the increase of the sized skeins over the ae anaes the increase in weight produced by the slasher. The relation of the softener in the size to the increase in weight of the slashed yarn is not as a rule clearly understood. The general belief is that the softener or sizing assist- ant actually adds considerable weight to the yarn, where in reality the only weight added to the yarn by the softener is the weight of its own body. The real function of the softener in connection with weight increase is to keep the starch, which is the real weighting agent, in a condition that allows of its excessive use to produce excessive weight. As the weight of the load increases the harshness of the yarn also increases. Harshness is a detriment in the weave room, and, although it is desirable to put a certain load on the yarn the harsh- ness produced may be too great at that load and so pre- vent its use. The proper softener however, should be capable of conditioning the sized yarn so that any reason- able amount of load could be obtained, and still maintain the proper weaving ability of the yarn. There is no fixed standard of increase in weight of slashed yarns. Best running work is produced when the strength of the sized yarn shows an increase of 11 to 15% over the soft. Tests were made to ascertain what effect upon the strength of yarn was due to the preparation of the size, and the results obtained were very interesting. PREPARATION of SIZE 121 Size cooked for thirty minutes showed an increase in tensile strength of 6%, proving conclusively that the starch was not converted to a soluble condition, and as a result very little, if any, penetrated the fibre. Con- siderable starch was deposited upon the surface. Size cooked for one hour showed an increase of 14% strength. The starch was converted to a soluble state and good penetration followed. Size cooked two hours, showed an increase of 10% strength in the yarn. This loss, as compared with size cooked one hour was due to over-boiling of the starch. Size kept at a high temperature for six hours showed an increase of but 3% strength, due to the fact that all of the dextrine was broken up and changed over to dextrose, the latter possessing very little strengthening properties. These tests merely emphasize the necessity of watching closely the boiling time in the preparation of the size. The same grade of starch was used in making these strength tests. CHAR DE Rex it WEAVING During the weaving process the warp yarns are drawn through a series of two or more sets of heddles which constitute the harness of the loom. The action of the harness in pulling the warp yarns into different positions produces the various designs or styles in the woven cloth. The yarns also pass through the reed. This makes necessary the operation of “‘drawing in.” “Drawing in” consists of threading the yarn through the heddle eyes or dents in the reed. During weaving, the warp yarns as taken from the loom beam are first run through a series of lease rods, which separates any threads that may be adhering to other threads. They then pass through a series of two or more vertical cords or wires called heddles, and which forms the harness. Each of these heddles has a loop in the middle to receive a warp thread. The method of draw- ing the threads in the harness produces the design of the cloth, and there are two or more sets of harness used, depending on the character of the cloth to be woven. For a cloth of plain weave the heddles are so threaded or drawn in, that every second thread of the warp passes through the loop of one set of heddles, other yarns are passed through the loops of the second set. This produces a cloth on the surface of which appears each alternate warp thread for each pick of filling. When the loom is set in motion these heddles alternately rise and fall, causing alternative warp threads to be pulled up and down. This action of separating the threads forms an opening between the layers of yarn called the shed, through which theshuttle carrying the filling thread is shot. WEAVING 123 The warp yarns are further threaded through a comb- like structure called a reed, which comes forward, after the shuttle passes through the shed, and carries the filling thread up to the point where the warp threads come together. The heddles then reverse causing the warp threads to be pulled into opposite positions, and forming another shed, through which the shuttle again passes. This action continues and rapidly builds up the cloth, which is automaticaily rolled up as it is produced. Crompton F Knowles Loom Works FIG. 57. PLAIN LOOM Although the harness and reed are considered parts of the loom they are detachable, and must be removed for the purpose of drawing in the yarn. 124 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK FIG. 63. PLAIN LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING WEAVING 125 FIG, 57-A. PLAIN LOOM—SECTIONAL VIEW Fig. 57-A, is a section of a plain loom. It shows the loom beam A, on which is wound the sized warp yarns; harnesses C and D, and reed F in place. The action is that immediately following the passage of the shuttle through the shed, and shows the reed F push- ing the filling thread up to woven part of the cloth. This action is known as “beating up’. B-B are the lease rods 126 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK for the purpose of keeping the yarn separated. E shows the shed formed by the harnesses C and D pulling the alternate warp threads into opposite positions. G is the lay or sley on which the shuttle rests before being driven through the shed by the picker stick (not shown). At the instant that the shuttle is passing through the shed the position of Gis at the shed E with the reed F standing close to front harness D. Immediately following the passage of the shuttle through the shed the reed moves forward, carrying the filling yarn up to the point of the woven cloth, as shown. H is the shuttle guard, and J is the reed cap which holds the reed in place. K is the cloth roll, and shows the woven cloth being batched or rolled up. FIG, 61. SHUTTLES U.S. Bobbin S Shutile Co. The shuttle (Fig. 61) is a hollow boat-shaped object in which the bobbin of yarn as produced at the spinning frame is inserted. -One end of the shuttle contains an eye through which the yarn passes, as the shuttle traverses back and forth between the warp threads. The bobbin is inserted in the shuttle so that it is held tight and stationery. The yarn is unwound by slipping over the top of the bobbin. WEAVING 127 here it is desired to produce a cloth with a design on its surface, three or more harnesses are used. Crompton &F Knewles Loom Works FIG. 62. DOBBY COTTON LOOM These designs are produced by the harness pulling a certain set of warp threads up for two or three picks of the shuttle, so that these warp yarns appear on the surface of the cloth for that number of picks, or it may be re- versed and show the filling thread on the surface. At the same time another set of warps may be held up for 128 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK FIG. 64 DOBBY LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING Courtesy, - Crompton &F Knowles one or two picks. Loom Works By this method of manipulating the harnesses, a cloth is woven on the sur- face of which ap- pears a certam design, due to the arrangement of the various threads. The limited size of the dobby, to- gether with the cor- responding harn- esses, restricts the use of this mech- anism to the pro- duction of certain designs. Because of the large number of warp threads it is necessary to draw in a considerable number in each FIG. 65. DOBBY HEAD WEAVING 129 harness, hence the nature of the design is limited by the combinations available from drawing 10 or 20 warp threads to a harness. If there were a harness for each warp thread the designs Crompton F Knowles Loom Works FIG, 65. JACQUARD COTTON LOOM available would be unlimited, due to the different com- binations that could be obtained by changing one warp thread at a time. Such an arrange- ment however, is produced in what is known as a Jac- quard loom and which has a sepa- rate harness (200 to 2600) for each thread of the warp. The number of de- signs capable of production on the Jacquard is unlim- ited, by reason of the fact that any one of total num- ber of the warp threads may be pulled up or down at will. 130 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK F1G., "66. JACQUARD LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING It is also possible to produce a design which requires a change in the color of the filling. The “Box Loom” is used for this purpose. It con- sists of a number of shuttle boxes on each side of the loom containing shuttles holding different col- ored yarn. When the color of the filling is to be changed a me- gE chanical device pla- J gee er ces the shuttle con- pase sae ape Oe taining the required ope eon colored yarn in place for the picker to drive across the loom. It can readily be seen that during the FIG. 67. MAGNIFIED SECTION FIG. 66 Weaving process WEAVING 131 on the modern loom the liability of a warp thread break- ing is always present. This often occurs and it 1s neces- sary to stop the loom as soon after the break as possible. Practically all modern looms are equipped with an auto- matic stop, which acts promptly, in case a warp ee breaks, and brings the machine to rest, . ‘ If the filling yarn breaks, or the shuttle bobbin becomes empty, a “‘weft-fork”’ detects the fact and stops the loom. There are other looms in use where the breakage or exhaustion of the filling thread automatically ejects the empty bobbin from the shuttle and replaces it with a full one. {See Fig. 71 on Page 133.) Crompton &F Knowles Loom Works FIG. 68.. BOX LOOM TEXTILE HAND-BOOK FIG, 69, SPECIMEN OF COTTON WARP AND SILK FILLING— WOVEN ON A BOX LOOM The latter device requires a special attachment to the loom, but its advantage is in the automatic replacement of empty bobbins, and the elim:nation of stops in case of filling breakage. So that a weaver may take care of more looms than was formerly possible, it is necessary that the filling be EEG XS wf ged oS Ville GPSE: ae, GLEE GEOL oC NOE: SBR ELEN ERE EOS °. - wet OF (ASRS RC STO GERD EROS EN AR SORE POY Won % Pes BO LL6, geek COLES. (RLS ip WY, WRU NY One As: Ge Sere. \° aS Kes Re FSSA UN a we ans See: Vay WV, Zi Y, yyy, ies wae Ge C/ ASS! YY irr Up “aK SY///, i COS ty SSO LEG COLE IE® / ny , Sa ASS: CLANS pony Fi) NS 1S, LEEDS SOR Vuh SCE! eS Rae (Hy > Ray ep LY , Ih AI FIG. 70. MAGNIFIED SECTION FIG. 69 replenished either when it breaks or just before the bobbin becomes empty. The method to em- ploy depends upon the grade of cloth de- sired. If a perfect grade of cloth, then the bobbin must be replaced by a full one just before it is empty. WEAVING 133 To do this, a feeler is attached to the loom, the “feeler” device is placed on one end of the loom, and is so set that it will operate by coming in contact with the yarn on the filling bobbin. Just before the filling has run off the bobbin, this de- vice will operate the transferring motion, and a new filled bobbin will be placed in the shuttle without stop- ping the loom. Crompton & Knowles Loom Works FIG. 71. WARP AUTOMATIC STOP MOTION To eliminate bad spots in the cloth, due to breakage of the warps, it 1s necessary to stop the loom when a break occurs. A device called the warp stop motion is used for this purpose. Each warp thread passes through a very fine piece of steel called a “Drop Wire.” When a warp thread breaks the wire drops down and the warp stop motion stops the loom, and so prevents the weaving of imperfect cloth. TEXTILE HAND BOOK PART THREE MANUFACTURE of CLOTH CHAPTER XVIII CEO i LOTH is usually woven on the basis of a certain construction and weight. By construction is meant the number of warp threads per inch and the number of filling threads per inch. Thus a cloth may have a construction of 46 x 48 which means 46 ends of warp per inch and 48 ends of filling per inch. Again the construction may be 48 x 48 which means 48 ends per inch each way or 48 square. The first figure always indicates warp threads per inch, while the second refers to the filling threads per inch. The weight of cloth is usually expressed as so many yards per pound, or as in the case of heavy goods so many ounces per yard. Having decided on a cloth of certain construction and weight the next thing necessary is to figure the count of the yarn to produce the weight desired. The calculation consists of finding the number of yards of yarn in a yard of the cloth, and calculating the count of the yarn that will produce the required weight. Assume a cloth of 48 x 48 construction, 39’ wide and to have a weight of 5 yards per pound. There are 48 threads of warp for each inch of the width of the cloth. In 39” there would be 48 x 39 or 1872 threads of warp. Each selvage contains 8 threads which would add 16 to the above number making a total of 1888 warp threads. One yard of cloth would, therefore, contain 1888 yards of warp thread. There are also 48 threads of filling per inch. Multi- plying 48 x 36 gives the number of filling threads in a CLO es IY, yard of cloth or 1728. Each of these threads are 39” long which would make 67,392” or 1872 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 1888 + 1872 =3760 apparent yards of warp and filling per yard of cloth. Due to the half bend of the warp, and filling around each other, an allowance of about 5% should be made and added to the above figure. This would give a total yardage of warp and filling of 395 -varus. Multiplying this figure by 5 gives us the yardage of warp and filling in 5 yards, or one pound of the cloth. The count of yarn is the number of hanks of 840 yards each contained in one pound. Therefore, dividing the above by 840 gives the count of the yarn necessary for thegoods. This figure would be 23.5. In other words, the average count of warp and filling at the loom should be 23.5. The filling is usually lighter than the warp so we can make the filler 24s, and the warp 23s, and still maintain the same average. It has been mentioned that this is the count of the yarn at theloom. The filling requires no treatment after leaving the spinning frame so it is spun the same count as it is used in the loom. However, the warp has to be slashed or sized and in so treating it gains, we will say, 10% in weight. If this 10% in weight were added to 23s yarn their count at the loom would be about 21 and consequently produce a heavier cloth than was desired. In order to eliminate this discrepancy the spinning frame should deliver lighter or higher count yarns to the slasher, so that the weight as produced at the slasher will bring the yarns up to the required weight for the loom. 138 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK These 23s warp yarns will include the 10% weight added by the slasher. In other words, 90% is due to the actual cotton in the yarn. ‘Therefore, 23 divided by 0.9 would give us the theoretical count to be spun by the spinning frame or 25.5s. The figures above would be slightly changed by the individual mill practices, due to variation in the tension of the cloth in the loom, and usually a constant or factor is used to convert the theoretical figure over to the practically correct figure. The cloth as it is taken off the looms is in the form of aroll. At intervals of a certain distance, usually 60 yards, there is printed a small mark called a cut mark. This mark is produced on the warp by an automatic measuring device attached to the slasher. When the cloth roll of the loom is about full it is watched until the next cut mark appears. The cloth is cut at this mark and sent to the cloth room. By this arrangement all the cloth in the roll can be divided into 60 yard pieces, or full cuts. Usually there are no further operations at the mill except folding and baling. In some instances the cloth is passed cet: a machine and then calendered. te The cloth is then folded evenly into folds of 1 yard and cut into pieces 60 yards or 12U yards in length. The 120 yard cuts are known as double cuts. They are then baled, and these “gray” goods, that are to be used for dyed or bleached material, are sent to the converter or finisher. ae CHAPTER XIX BUMED LLY An important feature in the efficient operation of a cotton mill is the quantity of moisture in the air. The moisture condition of the air is known as humidity. Every cotton mill man realizes that moisture is neces- sary in order to obtain the best results. Dry cotton is hard to handle as it loses its strength when dry, and because of static electricity. All operations in manufacturing cloth require a certain amount of moisture in the air, and this fact was recog- nized years ago, in fact the old method was to wet down the floors or use steam “vapor pots.’ Mills were built near the water, or in some locality which was sub- jected to more than the usual amount of humidity. This was why New Bedford and Fall River, Mass., were considered ideal mill cities. But sprinkling the floors or locating in a moist section are not the only requirements. The moisture should be regulated so that the cotton will possess the necessary percentage at varying temperatures. [oo much moisture is as objectionable as too little moisture. When cotton fibres are dried they have the property of taking up moisture, or regain moisture up to 12 to 14% under certain conditions; but the regain percent. accepted as a standard by the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers is 8.5%. Many manufacturers of humidifying apparatus have a force of trained engineers to investigate the particular requirements of each individual mill, and recommend the best places to install humidifiers to meet the neces- sary requirements of each mill. 140 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Humidifiers work on the principal of spraying moisture into the room by having the water atomized, and then blown out with a current of air. As the moisture necessary for the different operations varies, the humidifiers are automatically controlled, and stop spraying when the air absorbs the proper amount of moisture. Cotton absorbs moisture readily, and humidification must be carefully planned to prevent an excess of moisture. Humidity deserves serious consideration and attention as it effects production and quality. In the opening and carding room only a small amount of moisture is needed. For combing, the relative humidity should be 60 to 65%; for the roving room, 45 to 60%; spinning, 50 to 65%; warping, twisting, etc., 60 to 70%; while the weave shed should have a relative humidity of 70 to 80%. CEA PCE Re 20x CALCULATIONS for the COTTON MILL RULES FOR FINDING SPEEDS, ETC. NOTE: The rules below relating to belting give results that are close enough for most practical purposes. Where greater refinement 1s destred, to the diameter of the pulley in each instance, add the thickness of the belt in inches. And if there 15 belt slippage it may be deducted whether 1%, 2%, 3%, etc. Usually this added refinement is considered of no great importance, consequently we have not embodied it in every rule. You may use it or not, just as you prefer. |. To find the R.P.M. of the driven shaft from the R.P.M. of the driver and the diameters of the pulleys. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the diameter of the driving pulley in inches and divide by the diameter of the driven pulley in inches. 2. To find the R.P.M. of the driven shaft from the R.P.M. of the driver and the number of teeth in the respective gears. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the number of teeth in the driving gear and divide by the number of teeth in the driven gear. 3. To find the diameter of driven pulley required to give the desired speed to the driven shaft. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the diameter of the driving pulley in inches and divide the R.P.M. of the driven pulley. 4. To find the number of teeth in a driven gear required to give the desired speed to the driven shaft. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the number of teeth in the driving gear and divide by the R.P.M. of the driven gear. 142 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 5. To find the diameter of the driving pulley in inches required to give a desired speed to the driven shaft. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. required of the driven pulley by the diameter of the driven pulley in inches and divide by the R.P.M. of the driving pulley. 6. To find the number of teeth in the driving gear required to give a desired spfoeed to the driven shaft. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. required of the driven gear by the number of teeth in the driven gear and divide by the R.P.M. of the driving gear. 7. To find the diameter of pulley in inches required in changing speeds, if the pulley to be changed is the driver. Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches of the pulley being removed by the R.P.M. desired of the driven shaft and divide by the R.P.M. of the driven shaft before the change. 8. To find the number of teeth in a gear required in changing speeds if the gear to be changed is the driver. Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the gear being removed by the R.P.M. desired of the driven gear, and divide by the R.P.M. of the driven gear before the change. 9. To find the diameter of pulley in inches required in changing speeds, if the pulley to be changed is the driven pulley. Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches of the pulley being removed by the R.P.M. of the driven pulley before removal and divide by the R.P.M: of the driven pulley required after the change. CALCULATIONS 143 10.. To find the number of teeth in a gear required in changing speeds if the gear to be changed is the driven gear. Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the gear being removed by the R.P.M. of the driven gear before removal and divide by the R.P.M. of the driven gear required after the change. 11. To find the R.P.M. of the driven pulley when both driving and driven pulleys are changed. Rule: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley before the change by the diameter of the driven pulley after the change (both in inches), and call this result “A.’’ Then multiply the diameter of the driving pulley after the change by the diameter of the driven pulley before the change (both in inches) and that by the R.P.M. of the driven pulley before the change. Divide this result by “A.” 12. To find the R.P.M. of the driven gear when both driving and driven gears are changed. Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the driving gear before the change by the number of teeth in the driven gear after the change and call this result “A.”’ Then multiply the number of teeth in the driving gear after the change by the number of teeth in the driven gear before the change, and that by the R.P.M. of the driven gear before the change. Divide this result by “A.” 13. To find the diameter of pulleys in inches to give a required speed of driven pulley, where the sum of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys must always remain the same. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driving pulley by the sum of the two pulley diameters in inches and divide by the sum of the R.P.M. of the driving pulley and the R.P.M. required of the 144 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK driven pulley. The result is the diameter in inches of the driven pulley. Subtract from the sum of the two pulley diameters and the remainder is the diameter of the driving pulley in inches. 14. To find the number of teeth in gears to give a required speed of driven gear, where the sum of teeth in the driving and driven gears must always remain the same. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driving gear by the sum of teeth in the two gears and divide by the sum of the R.P.M. of the driving gear and the R.P.M. required of the driven gear. The result 1s the number of teeth in the driven gear. Subtract from the sum of teeth in the two gears and the remainder is the number of teeth in the driving gear. 15. To find the surface speed in feet per minute of a cylinder © or pulley. Rule: Multiply the circumference in inches by the R.P.M. and divide by 12. 16. To find the circumference in inches of a cylinder or pulley. Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches by 3.1416. 17. To find the percentage of slippage in a belt drive. Rule: Subtract the actual R.P.M. of the driven pulley from its calculated R.P-M. Multiply the remainder by 100. Divide by the calculated speed of the driven pulley. 18. To find the production of a Drawing Frame. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the front roll by its circumference, by the time run in minutes and by the weight of the sliver in grains per yard, and divide by the inches per yard and the grains per pound. It is customary to allow 20% for stoppage. 1: (a) From the speed of spindles, hank roving and twist. CALCULATIONS To find the production of a Roving Frame. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the spindles by the time run in minutes and divide by the turns per inch, the inches per yard, the yards per hank, and hanks per pound. The answer will be the production at 100%. (6b) From the speed of the front roll. Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the front roll by its circumference, by the time run in minutes, and by the spindles per frame for a dividend, and multiply the inches per yard by the yards per hank and the hanks per pound for a divisor. (c) From the hank indicator, or clock. 20. ZN. Rule: Multiply the number of hanks produced on a frame by the number of spindles in the frame and divide by the hank roving being made. The answer will be the actual production. Allowance for stoppage. Rule: No standard for stoppage can be made on roving frames. The amount will vary with the hank roving being made, the length of the frame, the size of the bobbin, and the twist put in. Many machine makes allow 15 minutes per doff for stoppage, when making their production tables. This is not practical. It may work on one class of work, or one size frame, but will not answer for all classes of work or all sizes of frames. The allowance may vary from 30% on slubbers to 5% on fine jacks. Twist is put in roving to give it strength. Rule: In deciding the amount of twist to put into roving, the length of the staple, the character of the cotton and the fineness of the roving should be considered. Only enough 145 146 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK twist should be put in to make the roving run well in the frame on which it is made, and draw off the next frame. Any twist over this amount will cause a loss in production, and will also make a weaker yarn. The following tables of twist multipliers may be used as a standard in calculating the amount of twist required in roving: Cotton Slubber | Inter. .| Roving Jack American Upland 1. ie 1.1 12 ¢ Long & Egypt 90 o5 98 1.08 Sea Island She .80 85 .90 up to 12 hank 95 “ce “6 29 “ 1.00-above 20) =" The above tables may be used as a basis, and changes made to suit the cotton being used. ey yas To find the turns per inch, or twist required. Rule: Multiply the square root of the hank roving by the standard twist multiplier for the frame and kind of cotton used. To find the twist to be used on Spinning Frames, the following twist multipliers may be used: 24. Yarns Hosiery Square root of Counts multiplied by 2.5 to 3 Lisle 6é 6“ ce 79 66 ce 315 Filling ce = Se: oy 3 23" te Se Warp 6¢ ce “ec 6“ “6 ce 4.75 To find the production of a spinning frame. Rule: Multiply the speed of the spindles by the time run in minutes by the number of spindles in the frame and by the percentage of production and divide by the turns per inch, the inches per yard, the yards per hank and by the counts being made. CALCULATIONS It is customary to allow 2% for winding and 5% for slippage, etc., on spinning frames. This is 7% loss or 93% production. NUMBERING YARN AND ROVING 7000 grains would be No. 1 yarn. 25. To find the number of yarn or roving being made. 26. 2: Rule: It is customary to measure off a certain length of yarn on a reel made for that purpose. A roving reel is usually a drum, which is one yard in circumference. A yarn reel is usually 114 yards in circumference. If 840 yards weigh- ing 7000 grains be No. 1 hank roving, then 1 yard weighing 8.3333 grains would be No. 1 hank roving. To find hank roving or counts. Rule: Multiply the number of yards taken by 8.3333 and divide by the weight in grains. The usual lengths and dividends are: Slubber and Intermediate 12 yards 100 dividend Roving Frame or Second Inter.30 ‘“ 250 : Jack Frame peas 500 Spinning Frame IAG in iN 1000 cd 147 One hank of yarn or roving weighing one pound is No. 1 hank roving or No. 1 yarn. One hank is 840 yards. One pound is 7000 grains. Therefore, 840 yards weighing 28. The usual sizes of rolls used in roving and spinning frames are as follows: A roll that is %’’ in diameter is 2.748 circumference 66 “é ‘ 6 ie “cc “ 3.1416 6é “cc “ “ee 66 1 1/16” “ce “ce 3.337 66 «6 ia (x3 “cc 1h” “cc ce 3 534 6c x1 “cc 6c “é 1 3/16 6c“ 66 S708) “ce “ce 66 ce (73 yy” 66 (73 3 926 cc 148 29. 30. TEXTILE HAND-BOOK To test skeins for tensile strength. Rule: Reel off 120 yards on yarn reel, tie the ends and take the skein off carefully, avoiding all straining. See that pointer on dial is at 0, place the skein on the hooks and start the machine. If the machine is turned by hand, care must be taken to always turn at a uniform speed with- out any unevenness of motion until the yarn breaks. When this occurs, the pointer will register the breaking weight in pounds. To find the standard breaking strength for carded warp yarns. aM oP. Rule: Add the counts of the yarn to 1900 and divide the total by the counts. Example: 20s yarn. 1900-+-20=1920. 1920+ 20=96 pounds, breaking strength for 20s warp. To find the standard breaking strength for combed yarn. Rule: Multiply the counts by 4, subtract this product from 2600 and divide the remainder by the counts. Example: 60s combed yarn warp. 60*4=240. 2600 — 240=2360. 2360+60=39.3 pounds, the breaking strength for 60s combed warp yarn. To find the standard breaking strength for soft twisted or filling yarns. Rule: Multiply the counts by 13, subtract the product from 1900, divide the remainder by the counts. Example: What will be the standard breaking strength of 40s soft twist or filling yarn? 13 X40= 520. 1900 — 520 = 1380. 1380 +40 = 34.5 pounds, breaking strength for 40s soft twist. CALCULATIONS 149 33. To compare the breaks from skein and single thread testers. Rule: Take the breaking strength for skein test in pounds, divide by ten and call the result ounces, this will give the breaking strength for single thread in ounces. Example: Breaking weight of 60s yarn in skein = 39.3 pounds. 39.3+10=3.93 ounces. In reeling a skein on a yarn reel there will be 80 threads 54’” long, in placing the skeins on the breaking machine it will be doubled, making 160 threads 27” long. The breaking strength of the skein would be given in pounds, and of the single thread in ounces, so that pounds must be re- duced to ounces. 39.3X16=628.8 ounces, divided by the number of threads in the skein tested, which is 160, will give the strength of each thread. 628.8+160=3.93 ounces, break- ing strength of single thread in ounces. 34. To make a comparative break when the numbers or counts of yarn differ. Rule: First find a standard number for one of the numbers or counts of yarn, then find what that yarn should break at if changed to another number or count. The standard number will differ with different kinds of yarn. 35. To find a standard number for carded warp yarn. Rule: Multiply oneofthenumbersorcountof yarn by its breaking strength in pounds and subtract thenumber or count from the product, the remain- der will be the standard number for that yarn. 36. To find the breaking strength for any other number or count of the same. kind of yarn. Rule: Add the number or count to be com- pared to the standard and divide the result by the same number or count. 150 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Example: What should be the breaking strength of 62s carded warp yarnif 60s broke at 35 pounds? 353X.60=2100. 2100 —60=2040 — standard breaking strength for 62s carded warp. 2040+ 62 +62 =33.9 pounds. 37. To find the standard for combed warp yarn. Rule: Multiply the number of count by the breaking strength in pounds, and add four times the number or count to the product, the result will be a standard for that yarn. 38. To find the breaking strength for any other number or count of the same kind of yarn. Rule: Subtract four times the number or count from the standard and divide the remainder by the number or count. Example: What should be the breaking strength of 62s combed warp yarnif 60s broke at 40 pounds? 60x40 = 2400. 2400+ (604) =2640 standard. 2640 — (62 X4) =2392. 2392 +62 =38.58 pounds, breaking strength for 62s combed warp yarn. 39. To find the standard for soft twisted or filling carded yarn. Rule: Multiply the number or count by the breaking strength in pounds, add thirteen times the number or count to the product, the result will be a standard for that count and break. 40. To find the breaking strength for any other number or count of the same kind of yarn. Rule: Subtract thirteen times the number or count from the standard and divide the remainder by the number or count. Example: What should be the breaking strength of 42s soft twisted or filling carded yarn if 40s broke at 34.5 pounds? CALCULATIONS 151 4034.5 =1380. 1380+(13 40) =1900 standard. 1900 — (13 X42) = 1354. 1354+42 =32.2 pounds, breaking strength for 42s yarn to equal 34.5 pounds for 40s yarn. 4|. To find a standard for soft twisted or filling combed yarn. Rule: Multiply the number or count by the breaking strength in pounds, add 7.5 times the number or count to the product, the result will be the standard for that number and break. 42. To find the breaking strength for any other number or count of the same kind of yarn. Rule: Subtract 7.5 times the number or count - from the standard and divide by the count. Example: What should be the breaking strength of 65s soft twisted or filling combed yarn if 60s broke at 24.16 pounds? 60 x 24.16= 1449.6. 1449.6+(7.5 X60) = 1899.6 standard. 1899.6— (7.565) =1412.1. 1412.1+65 =21.7 pounds for 65s to equal 24.16 pounds for 60s. Page BBASSl-cotrons jee. eee 30 Allen seed cotton...... 26 Analyses of sized and unsized yarns—purpose of analy- Application of size...) ee 114 Arabia cotton—gossypium ar DOreéUiis see ee ree Arrowroot starch—photo- microscope, Fig. 58-f... .108 Ashmount cotton.” 2.5234 ALES, relative size of American, Fig. 16.2..272223 Bale breaker, fie. 25a 38 breaker—sectional view, Figei26:5 EOE De eh Beam warper, hie ee ne an To Benders Cotton. 946.7 se eee Blossomscotton=... een Boll weevil passes winter as an adult or beetle...... 13 weevil lose... ne a eee Boundary or limit of cotton pelts Figs Gcers an, woe i Box:lootiy fig aes eee eee ees Breaker lapper, Fig. 32..... 45 lapper—sectional view, Fig. 33 ALCL ATT OWN Setar cotton. millseees sae 141 Card, revolving flat, Fig. 36. 51 revolving flat—sectional View, Lio. eee eee 52 Page Carding. (ie ee Ceylon cotton—gossypium arboretum...) sae 3 China cotton—gossypium herbaceume.- ieee 3 Chlorides of calcium, used in sizing compounds...... 87 of zinc, used in sizing com- pounds... i575 58) of magnesium, zinc and calcium, used in sizing cCOMPOUNG Ss. a5. 87 Colloid, detined=.22 eae 101 Classification and grading... 26 Cloth, manufacture>.a oe .136 woven on basis of certain construction and weight. 136 Comber; Fign39) =e 56 sectional view, Fig. 40.... 57 Combing. 2224... ee 54 Commercial types, Pra Fig..d doe Composition a: SIZE, i. ee 84 of size; Hig eS6ine eee Corn starch pasted, Fig. 59b.110 starch aan to paste, Fig. 59ane error it starch— phororn microscope, Fig. 58g.. ; Corn and_ potato Teen reiee commonly used in U. S.. 100 Cotton field— Frontispiece plant, height, €tc:a= eet production, Fig. 4, chart.. 7 bolls, Fig. 5: eeeeeeees 8 INDEX Pages Cotton—Continued first used by Hindoos, as early a§ SU0"B.C........ 6 production in 500-pound gross weight bales, by states... 1913 to 1922 NEUE ie ee Pe, 12 Compress, Fig 15... 2.4... 22 spindles in the U. S. in D2 ara CtIVE a 2 viet w 75 yarn, sized, cross section WEG 12 OU totus 5. 3 115 yarn, sized, cross section Wiew. Fig. Glam. cs... 116 yarn, sized, cross section Wiew # bie? OUD: 2.5... TL7 warp and silk filling speci- men—woven on a box MOOK mtr Oa hot fe. Gs: 132 warp and silk filling speci- men—magnified section, PROM ee tet sv, LoL absorbs moOIsture......... 140 TEA) (a i 5 TLCUN ie cd etna 4 PIMOUCHON yee eke ee 3 Crighton opener—vertical, Pie ee, ks ciel an ES Count, yarnis identified by.. 67 of warp and filling—method OPdetermining.......+-137 OBBY cotton loom, Fig. CUM est po a. fy 127 Dobby head, Fig. 65........ 128 NERO oe So ps oi ee woe ess 59 frame, “Sige4les. Ss 60 frame—sectional view, Fig. Dee oo Oe ek se 5 OL rollers—sectional view, DprA gra wnt, 64053 ea lee Ta wine ln = fees. 153 Page {Bae conta of yarns: 5297 Egyptian cotton—goss- ypium barbadense...... 3 Egyptian cotton, gradenames 31 Eli Whitney, foresaw advan- tage ofaspeedier method 9 IBRES, cotton, Jength and diameter of principal 6 Hires COLtOn ey as eee es 3 Flow tests on starches...... 103 Frictional and tensile strains OtaAvaE Dey aris ets) sind, Zz IN, modern, Fig: IT)... 19 {SIN MRAWE Eee Mee lS Gin—sectional view, Fig. 12. 20 Rolletine. von oe ee, 24 Glycerine used as a softener.. 88 Gossypium arboreum—Arabia arboreum—Ceylon cotton. 3 barbadense—Peruvian CODMO Tee ee ee ae 3 barbadense—Sea Island COLEOM tea caeess ee ace 3 barbadense—Egyptian COtLOn a oa ieee eae 3 herbaceum—South Asia COLO Wee ae were ead 3 herbaceum—China cotton 3 herbaceum—India cotton. 3 hirsutum—Uplands U. 5S. Cotton, wee ee 5 peruvianum—Peruvian COCtOn ee, a | sand wichense —Sandwich Island cotton... ose 3 tahitense—Pacific Island cottons. = 2... ee ea ey: 3 tahitense—Tahiticotton.. 3 154 INDEX Pages Grading of standards, Fig. 18, 32 Growth, boll weevil, cotton... 13 Galf Cotton. eee 26 Gin outfit, automatic air blast Fives 13 2.288 eee ee Ginnings, $23.20 aoe a OLLYHOCK pee: re- lated to cotton. Hopper Feeder, Fig. 27. aie 4] Hiimiditys ae eee 1399 Hy groseopicitestaaeeneeee Hi NDIA _ cotton—gossypium herbaceum.,-as.5-c ee 3 India, outranked by U.S.... 8 Indians and Hindoos, first to recognize the importance of cotton. a4 6 Intermediate biti pristine lapper, Fig-34.4., 2-22. 47 sectional view, Fig. 35.... 48 Iodine tests with starches. . . 109 ACK roving machine..... 66 Jacquard loom, specimen, magnified section, Fig. Tice chy ee 130 cotton loom;_Figs 65... 75129 AP machine, ribbon, Fig. SD Oh de: ee er ee 55 Lap machine, shivers sc)... oie Larva, boll weevilavece cee to Length and diameter of the principal cotton fibres (tabled oe ae ere ae Lint or cotton fibre, Fig. 14.. 21 Linting process, aera oe 23 Load on warp yarns—method to determine, a chemical analysis! to0e4 puke ele Pages Loom,. box; Fig? 6S... see 131 Dobby cotton, Fig 62....127 harness and reeds........ 123 plain—specimen of weav- ing, Fig. 633% 24. 124 plain—sectional view, Fig. “A (nia Sin ee 125 Jacquard—specimen of weaving, Fig. 66....... 130 Jatquard,-lie. 656 eee 17? Dobby—specimen of weav- ing, FigsG4ice eee 128 AGNESIUM, used in sizing compounds..... 87 Manufacture of cloth.......136 of yarn sj ee 37 Macc Jumehcotton/3. eae 30 Meade cotton 2) 2. a eee Memphis cattonso. eee 26 Mitath, discovered by Greek merchant in the village of-Mitathi2 =e peas 8) Mobile cottons... 22 ee 2h Motes ::.:. 442 oe) Mule:spinnings. eee a spinner, Fig 50. eee 71 spinning, oldest mechanical methodSo55 0. =e fd EPS 723 aa eee 3 New Orleans cotton... 26 Numbering yarn and roving. 147 PENER, self-feeding— sectional view, Fig. 29 42 Opener, self-feeding, Fig. 28. 42 vertical—sectional view, Fig. 3122 io eee INDEX 155 Page ACIFIC Island cotton— gossypium tahitense. 3 Pasting points of starches. 109 Pearl starch, insoluble in cold water. i 6 eae . 100 Peelers cottons)... oe) 26 Peruvian cotton—gossypium Permvianuiie yy... ss 3 cotton—gossypium barba- emser hee is. 3 Photo-Micrographic_ pro- cedure in analysis of sized and unsized yarns 98 Physical tests—method in analysis of sized and un- SIPe ALIS Fs weet eid 96 Plapting, cates Of... .2.. 5. - iu) Pian loom, Pig. oes. e123 Potato starch—photo-micro- SEODGurig-o0d sy... 25. 107 starch starting to paste, Fig. 59e.. starch comulecely Basted) ihe) a Lt Preparation of size......... 113 Production of cotton—com- parison of World’s and U. S. production (table) 10 and quality effected by humidity. . ....140 Pupa, boll ee 13 Pmepose Of sizing... ..5.....118 ICE starch — photo- microscope, Fig. 58a. .107 AVS eSHINTING ©. oo%.s8 ses os Gos spine, Figo 49......... 69 Roving machine, Fig. 46.... 66 machine—sectional view, a ON cai oes oho OO BMUSSD DINO. wens fb. aa a OD Rules for finding speeds, etc.. 141 Page AGO starch—photo-micro- scape, fiz. 58e,. 0... 2% 108 Sandwich Island cotton— gossypium sandwichense 3 Sea Island Cotton—gossypi- Uinebarpadense see. 2 3 Bee Cotton. Che ui ee. eho Sakellarridies, used to replace DG AMSA yam we ee OL Seaarsignd cotton: . a2. 2 ccee Jay BEC eek ate eke 28 BHU CtICS MHI EAGLES og aye 126 ShOrtestaple cottons... ...e. He: Size, Preparation. coe. 11S aAppueation sie. eat ee 114 Sized and unsized yarns— AalySes swt eer Sizing assistants, commercial 85 Sizinespurpose. Of... 5. 118 or slashing of warp yarns.. 81 Slasher room results seriously affect the product and GUE UC. sod eae ee Slasher and avin reste are Cierheal testis ohne oh 90 Size, composition of.5.-.... 84 Slasher warper, Fig. 53..... 78 Dlasherekis. oe cor ee wane 83 Slashing, operations... 2.2. 82 ORWAlD iV aAlNS ie eee cad Slubber machine, Fig. 44.... 64 Slubbing and roving........ 63 South Asia cotton—gossypium heppacewnl ioe k as Spread of the Mexican cotton boll weevil, Fie, 9.27 S16 Speeds, rules for finding ....141 DS DRT ye ee eee: 67 frame—sectional view, Fig. Le Ee Rate Hen Neate eterna YAS) 156 Page frame,thipe Ay eee 68 TNS. oe ee ere eee 69 Spindles’. sy) se eee Spoolerebig 25 © ese a3 sectional view, Fig. 52.... 74 Spots in cloth, to eliminate . 133 Spools, on skewersinacreel.. 78 Starch characteristics under MICTOSCO PC ve abs ke 106 StatChin. eee eee ae 100 Staple cottons. eee on AHITI cotton—gossypi- um: tahitense.. 23 o= Tapioca starch—photo-micro- sCOpe,. lta, O8On. 2 te Téxascotton...5 2a eee ee ie PLAN Dcotton:.=. va Uplands U. S. cotton— gossypium hirsutum.... 3 ARP stop motion de- Tite +. ee ee ee 133 Warp automatic stop motion, Figs se eee eto INDEX Weaving... 3 4.52 ee 122 preparations for weaving.. 76 Weight of slashed yarns, no fixed ‘standard of INCTeaSé;. neck cee 120 Weight or load increase due to dry size on the slashed Yarns. ..<3.. cote 119 Weevil larva infected cotton boll, Fig. Si, ss 14 Wheat starch starting to paste, Pig, 590 pee eee 110 starch, completely pasted, Fig. 59d iy starch, used for sizing ....100 starch, photo- microscope, Fig. 58b Whitney sawegin: 09, gin, Fig. OY oe. ee 18 ARN, manufacture of... 37 Yarn is identified by its “count” or number3.... 67 Yarn, strength of tests ee 120 Te cotton, + ee 30 APPENDIX Containing additional PHOTO-MICROSCOPIC VIEWS geCOULTON sy ARN 158 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 72. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Showing a 15s unsized yarn This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 159 Fig. 73. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Showing a 28.5s unsized yarn This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but ”? little, if any, size; in fact this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn. 160 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 74. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Showing a 13.5 yarn with good penetration of the size This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 161 Fig. 75. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Showing a 18s yarn, with a fairly good penetration of the size This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “partly sized yarn,” 162 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 76. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN A sample of 163 yarn, showing penetration of the size This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “partly sized yarn.” ay CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 163 Fig. 77. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Representing the same yarn as Fig. 78, but showing a better penetration of the size. > Different softeners were used in sizing the yarn. Pad This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 164 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK Fig. 78. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Sample of sized 20s yarn This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 165 Fig. 79. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN Sample of sized 20s yarn This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 3 3125 00066 4751 SN TS