= ' n ‘ 4 \ . ' 4 * , ba SY * a” ‘ : ’ ~ i \ ‘ ‘ ’ “ +- e AN- ROME: HRMEELE ‘FORVM: OF ‘TRA ‘GREAT {0.96 = "3h e-26 #26 Seeune——~~-, ee [ 2) 2 | ' ' : Hi Sones ak Soothe pee eT fee ey an eee ener eeavreib fmm moe me lan J0 on eh 0.96 ma hn nn ee net meee ee NG L an ee an 24 : meee 250 3 --- +------- - +2 JS awe mne mereremeseee bk. Poor tre baw me nnen aasne ne en 2 ee a nn = en I] anne en a ee oe eee ee nnn ew tem me ene ee rn wee ee ee oe eee it. VM SR ES en ee ene rere we UIaEN STEED “nies ean BRICKWORK IN TTALY A Brief Review from Ancient to Modern Times AMERICAN FACE Brick ASSOCIATION CHICAGO MCMxXXV lies 4 . “a Zz Oa ak de ae ee ab ts + » - P. , — Copyright 1925 — AMERICAN Face Brick ASSOCIATION | A AY i ; ao wees ~ Py —s cSt "pid TABLE OF CONTENTS FRONTISPIECE . INTRODUCTION AND PREFACE . Part Il. Brick In Roman ANTIQUITY Manufacture and Sizes . Brick in Construction Walls Arches . Vaults . . Brick in Decoration . Leading Examples Part Il. Brick IN THE MIDDLE AGES Manufacture and Construction The Ravenna Period Longobard and Pre-Lombard peniad: Lombard-Romanesque Period . Gothic Period PAGE Facing Title VII-XIX I-5 o-8 8-11 12-13 13-23 23-26 26-46 47-48 48-65 65-89 89-140 141-177 Part III. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE BRICKWORK Manufacture and Construction Arches, Vaults, and Cupolas Brick in Decoration . Period I of the Renaissance Period II of the Renaissance The Baroque and the XVIII Gaines Part IV. Brick IN THE MODERN PERIOD Manufacture . Examples of Modern Denies one care Sacred Architecture . Restorations MAP AND INDEX . 178-180 180-182 182-185 185-215 215-228 228-245 246-248 248-270 271-285 285-287 288-298 INTRODUCTION Vf N ART, as well as in all other forms of human effort, there always develop alongside of each other both conservative and liberal tendencies that are pretty sure at certain points to become respectively reactionary and radical. The conservative very justly appreciates the past and the liberal as justly values the present; the reactionary is as scornful of the present as the radical is of the past. Between the two extremes the Aristotelian mean ts the desideratum. We think of the course of human progress as that of an organic growth or inner development rather than of an outer mechanical construction. Its secret is that of assimilation and not of accretion. Even mutations, such as are revealed in the course of biological development, seem to be the result of stored up past tendencies. So that the history of art presents itself as a living growth out of the past, adjusting itself to the present, and moving toward the future. Both heredity, as past inheritance, and nurture, as present endeavor, must combine in the progress of art. Quite inadequate, on the one hand, ts a tenacious clinging to the past as seen in a mere repetition or slavish copy of the antique, clever and interesting in a way but at best only an indolent imitation and devoid of all originality and fitness to time and place. For, every new environment, every new period, demands and deserves its own forms of expression, which the originating genius of art is especially commissioned to create. And an art that is merely imitative of the past sells its birthright for an easily won mess of pottage. On the other hand, there is the extreme opposite tendency to break away from the past altogether as something backward, outworn, or even pernicious, and lo attempt something de novo, some original creation, resulting in all manner of strained affections or monstrous grotesqueries which may please ‘the ground- lings but make the judicious grieve and drive them back to the consolations of the past where, at any rate, there are always to be found forms at once filling and beautiful. At the same time, both the conservative and the radical render a real service if only we can hold a balance between them. The one keeps before us pas! accomplishments of real value—the priceless inheritances of experience with- out which we should simply have to do over again what our predecessors have done for us; the other shakes us, often very rudely, out of an indolent inertia, a sort of easy-going, repetitive traditionalism, and compels us not only to consider our present needs but to keep on the open road toward the future. VII At any rate, recognizing the vital significance of the past, or the immense value of the historical inheritance for the continued normal development of any art in the present, it has been thought desirable to review briefly the manu- facture and use of one of the time-honored constructive materials, the origin of which extends far beyond the earliest recorded history of man, and the application of which promises to grow with the growth of architecture. As Rome was the mother of modern Europe, from which in turn we in America have received our inheritance, the most natural beginning would seem to be a brief historical survey of the structural and artistic uses of brick, the material under consideration, in the Italian peninsula. By rare good fortune the aid of Italian authorities on the subject has been secured, as indi- cated by Professor Giovannoni, who has been kind enough to wrile an intro- ductory preface. The editor, who spent the spring and summer of 1923 in Italy, has gratefully to record not only the cordial assistance rendered by his fellow countrymen, official and other, throughout Italy, but also the charming courtesy and kindly helpfulness of the Italians to whom he applied. A list of all those deserving mention would have no meaning for the American reader, but the generous kindness of Dr. Arduino Colasanti, of Rome, Director General of Antiquities and Fine Arts, must especially be acknowledged, as his introductions opened every door from Sicily to Piedmont. The plans for the present volume were greatly furthered by the invaluable suggestions and aid of Professor Graham Phillips Stevens, under whose able direction the American Academy in Rome has won a place of marked distine- tion. With the proper support of American patrons, there is no reason why this fine institution, splendidly set on the brow of the Janiculum, should not win the same distinguished place in the world of art held by the famous Villa Medici, seal of the French Academy, on the opposite Pincian heights. That young American may consider himself indeed fortunate who has the privilege of spending a year or two on the “Hill,” where he can refresh and inform himself amid the glories of a classical past while preparing himself for the actualities of the present. | The library of the Academy afforded a happy chance meeting with Dr. Esther Boise Van Deman, whose erudite archeological researches are widely known in the learned world and who generously gave the writer numberless fruitful suggestions on the subject of ancient Roman brick construction, besides introducing him to Signorina Maria Barosso, the artist whose charming work in color is reproduced throughout this volume. Signorina Barosso’s connection with the Royal Office of the Palatine and Forum Excavations in Rome admirably fitted her not only to make accurate measured drawings but to Vill suggest here and there certain restorations that may help to visualize the orig- inal work. Very deeply appreciated is the generosity of Professor Arthur Kingsley Porter and his publishers, the Yale University Press, in kindly permitling the use of illustrations from his monumental work, Lombard Architecture. Aside from the commercial and official photographs furnished, many excellent special views were secured from Sansaini of Rome, and Cav. Umberto Orlandini of Modena. The translation of the Italian text owes much to the scholarly care of Professor Alfonso de Salvio, of the Department of Romance Languages, North- western University, Evanston, Ill. Great credit is also due to the Committee on Publications, Mr. George A. Bass, of St. Louis, Mo., and Mr. Frank W. Bulterworth, of Danvilie, Ill., for their intelligent authorization of the work and cordial support in carrying it to completion. Finally, acknowledge- ments are cordially made to the engravers and printers for their indefatigable care in cooperating to produce an artistic and craftsmanlike book. While the material here presented will prove of especial value to the young architect, it is hoped that it will have some worth also for all those who may in general be interested in every form of cultural development. The traveled reader may be disappointed in not finding here all of his favorite examples of fine Italian brickwork, but he is begged to consider the immense difficully, or rather impossibility, of doing detailed justice to so broad a subject within the limits of one modest volume. GeCc. Mans Pas D. Chicago, December 2, 1925. Antefiz on Temple Civiia Lavinia IX PREFACE HE adoption of constructive and decorative materials, es- pecially brick, in various places and times throughout the history of architecture, depends upon geological much more than artistic or historical considerations. Wherever the devel- opment of human civilization has taken place in great river valleys there has arisen an architecture in brick, made possible by the alluvial deposits. When, however, the centers of govern- ment and the consequent building activities have been in the vicinity of mountains or rocky formations, the ease of securing the natural material for construction has led to stone archi- tecture. No better example of such a principle could be given than that of the two oldest civilizations in the world, the Egyptian and the Chaldean. In Egypt the rocky borders of the Nile valley offered the material for the most monumental stone architec- ture, while clay along the river banks was made into sun-baked bricks for the humbler constructions. In Chaldea, on the other hand, that is, in the immense plains traversed by the Tigris and the Euphrates, the art and technique of burned clay was devel- oped and applied more fully, and attained gradually to a mar- velous degree of perfection, until it was used not only as con- structive material but also as a means for the transmission of human knowledge. It is interesting to apply these principles to Italy, a region which, geologically and orographically, is one of the most varied and irregular. Dante’s definition: i . ul bel paese che Appennin parte “FE il mar circonda e [Alpe . . may be rendered into exact scientific terms. That is, in the north, the Alps, a circle of granitic and calcareous mountains, * . the beautiful country which the Apennines divide and the sea and Alps surround... . XI form the vast amphitheatre of the Po valley; while the Apen- nines, dividing the peninsula, project southeastward into the Mediterranean like a great mole, forming a backbone of calca- reous mountains, through which narrow river valleys, like those of the Arno and the Tiber, find their way and, leaving fluvial deposits in shallow seas like the Tyrrhenian and the Adriatic, give rise to gently sloping shores of fine sand. This varied conformation is reflected in an alternate distri- bution of zones of brick and stone construction. Brick is widely used in the valley of the Po from Piedmont to Lower Lom- bardy and the Emilia, and also in the sea-coast regions, espe- - cially on the Adriatic. Where, however, mountains are near, as in Upper Lombardy, Upper Venetia, Umbria, and most of Li- guria, Tuscany, and Campania, stone prevails. Elsewhere, as in Rome, both methods of construction are found. To such natural and permanent causes, as Taine would name them, are to be added all those mutable influences of civilization and political administration which tend to modify and at times to efface temporarily all limitations. Thus the Roman Empire especially, with its powerful centralized government, its far-flung network of communication throughout the imperial provinces, and with its public service organized upon principles very similar to those of our day, was able at times to superimpose upon the natural conditions of local construction uniform standardized systems, characteristic of the technical and administrative or- ganization of the Empire. Just as the granite of Egypt, erther rough or dressed, was brought to Rome, and the pozzolana of Rome and Bacoli was transported everywhere for making strong hydraulic cement, so also, even in regions where stone was com- mon, brick was frequently and systematically used in wall fac- ings for enclosing the plastic concrete conglomerate, in arches and vaults as structural lines of reinforcement, or as decoration on the walls. These bricks came from the numerous yards, located in the valley zones, where the traditional methods were followed which were perfected in the preceding Etruscan period, technically godfather to Roman practice. It was not, however, in the form XII of brick that the early Etruscans developed the manufacture of burnt clays, since quadrangular blocks of limestone or tufa were the usual material for walls and vaults, but in the form of ex- ternal decorations such as antepagments and antefixes, roof tiles, and rich and varied ceremonial vessels, which show a true refine- ment in both the technical and artistic sense. When the Western Empire declined and Byzantine architec- ture advanced in northern Italy and the East, by grafting itself upon the regional schools of Roman architecture, the use of brick became even more extensive than it was at the height of the Roman power. Just as the great organic system of Byzantine construction, both in the disposition of its masses and in the bal- ancing of its static forces, grew out of the Roman vault, so also was derived the manner of employing brick in the wall struc- ture. As Ravenna, Aquileja, Thessalonica, and Constantinople, the great centers in which Byzantine architecture was elabor- ated, are all in valley or maritime zones, it is natural that brick construction in these centers took on a continually greater de- velopment, tending afterwards to spread toward the most dis- tant regions of the Eastern Empire. In like manner arose the Byzantine style of brick decoration which was applied to cornices and walls. It is easy to find this style, even in relatively late periods, being grafted upon other stylistic forms and contaminating them with foreign additions. For example, in the Roman campanile of the x1 to the x11 centuries, the type of brick cornices, projecting saw-tooth fashion on stone brackets, came to modify the composition. of the Lombard campanile with its alternate arrangement of parts, or to form the crown of ecclesiastical buildings. In the Church of San Sepolcro, of the Santo Stefano group at Bologna, the construction, which is of pure Lombard style, nevertheless shows on the exterior walls a checkered decoration of Byzantine origin with its combinations of vari-colored brick. These, however, are adaptations which are limited, if not al- together isolated, in Italy where, with the exception of a few centers like Ravenna, Milan, and localities in Venetia and Cala- bria, Byzantine architecture never exercised a dominating XIII influence. In the rest of Italy, throughout the Middle Ages, there obtained, in construction rather than in decoration, the most localized practice ever known. Moreover, this is a phe- nomenon typical of medieval architecture in all countries, as Choisy has so clearly shown. The instability of government, © the subdivision of territories, the scarcity of technical and financial means, the difficulty of communication, and the inse- curity of external relations led almost always to the use of local materials, thus giving to the geological theory the most direct and incontestable application. A few exceptions, as seen in partly completed work, constitute the best confirmation of this principle. Parma began its baptistery with marble imported from Verona, but when war hindered all trade, it continued the construction with its own local brick. Siena did the same in the x1v century when its palaces were at the height of con- struction. This phenomenon of the localization in the use of material caused brick to predominate during the Middle Ages in those regions of Italy previously indicated, and to celebrate a veritable triumph in medieval Romanesque and Gothic monuments, such as the cathedrals of Piacenza and Cremona; San Giacomo, San Francesco, the Mercanzia, and the great brick towers of Bologna; Santi Giovanni e Paolo and Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari of Venice; the churches of Verona (with alternating brick and stone courses); the campaniles of Venice, Pomposa, Parma, and Rome; Santa Maria della Rocelletta near Squillace; Sant’ Antonio of Padua; the city halls of Fano and Rimini; the Bro- letto of Milan; the castles of Ferrara, Milan, Pavia, Gradara; and many others. However, the spread of the prevailing styles in construction and decoration carried with them the new and apparently irra- tional fact that the forms and the decorations characteristic of stone were often imitated in brick, and sometimes in terra cotta, where the transportation of the more expensive materials was practically impossible. Thus we often find, for example at Parma, Piacenza, Modena, and Bologna, types of cubical capitals exe- cuted in brick, vault ribs, window and door frames with mould- XIV ings carved in brick, as if they were stone, and cornices with small pendent arches, either simple or interlaced, which might be done indifferently either in stone or brick. Real ornamental terra cotta of delicate pattern and with its own refined and appropriate ornamentation came quite late, more particularly in the x1v and xv centuries. The best ex- amples of it are found in the valley of the Po or neighboring regions, such as Pavia, Bologna, Cremona, and Ferrara. When at the height of the Renaissance, in the xv century, Italian art definitely resumed classic forms, at first regional in character and timidly ornamental then universal and fully ar- chitectural, Italian architecture did not lose the local habit in the use of building materials, so fully established in the Middle Ages. This seeming contradiction is easily explained. The architecture of the Renaissance was no longer an art of sincerity in construction, but one rather of profound aesthetic harmony based upon exact relations among the individual parts and inspired by what Luca Macioli, a writer on aesthetics, calls “the divine proportion.” It is natural, therefore, that ex- pression in terms of the materials became secondary, the more so since, because of the changed social conditions of artists and workmen, the technique of the xv and xvi centuries was on a lower average level than that of the xtv century. Therefore, during this period and also during that of the fol- lowing xvii and xvii centuries derived from it, it is always less easy to find architectural and decorative expression that may with exact consistency be called characteristic of brick architec- ture. There abound multiple geometrical squares or ornamental facings of brick to form a background of the exposed sur- faces; and still more frequent than in preceding periods are examples of stone forms executed in brick or, as one might say, the translation into brick of architectural elements meant for stone. Among the most significant examples may be cited brick door and window openings very common in the Marches, as at Ma- cerata and Jesi, in which the brick is carefully cut according to exact patterns; or the brick columns so common in the archi- tecture of Borromini in Rome; or the fagades of xvit century XV Piedmont palaces at Turin, Mondovi, Asti, etc., where brick is used in the massive projecting coigns as well as in all the win- dows with their ornate and twisted carvings of the Baroque style. There are even examples, as in the vestibule vaults of the Royal Palace at Alessandria, in which the virtuosity of the artisans carving the brick went so far as to imitate rich stucco decora- tion. But, aside from these exceptional examples, it is precisely the advance of stucco technique that marks the end of decora- tive architecture in brick, as a means of current expression. From the xvi century on, buildings entirely of brick, in which the exterior indicates the interior construction, are more easily found in modest country structures, in which also there is so much artistic vitality and such possibilities of greater aesthetic development than in the more pretentious houses, ad- ministrative buildings, or churches of the cities where often the fictitious outer forms, concealing the inner structure, are no longer treated with refinement. Coming to the xrx century and the present time, we find that there are not wanting adaptations of brick architecture to new themes, in which experiments and attempts are made at obtaining a modern organic expression, both in the ease of exe- cution on the wall surface —a positive aesthetic element which always has a high value —and in the more or less direct rela- tion between technique and form. At times, these architec- tural experiments turn to the past and seek to draw from it, either by imitation or free treatment, new elements of beauty. At other times, the designer adheres to a pure constructive simplicity or else, by the use of other ornamental means in majolica, graffito, terra cotta, and mosaic, seeks to obtain combinations of entirely new effects. However, as in the mod- ern architecture of all countries which have been disturbed by the too rapid changes and the consequent possibilities of new developments, there is wanting a true unity of direction which has the force of a real style beyond the vagaries and oscillations of a passing fashion. By adhering to the real nature of a material and the proper uses inherent in it, as may be done in brick architecture, perhaps XVI it may prove less difficult to find the clue to a rational architec- tural expression. To this end, the present time is especially favorable when the great improvement in manufacturing tech- nique, afforded by mechanical progress, makes it possible to utilize the plastic qualities of clay to the best advantage in ob- taining uniform and standardized elements for use in wall sur- faces where varied patterns may be combined in decorative effects. Besides, the developed means of communication which characterize our cinematic civilization permit, for the first time since the days of the Roman Empire and in a much more effica- cious manner, the breaking up of localization in the use of ma- terials, and further the distribution of manufactured products over an extensive territory. For this reason, therefore, it may prove interesting and useful, not only for cultural reasons but also for those of a practical ar- tistic production, to review the various stages of the path tra- versed and seek out the continuity of Italian brick architecture through successive examples from ancient to modern times. In the complex life of a civilization, as in that of an enduring and famous architecture, the study that takes into account the evo- lution of one element and relates to it its various manifestations, as to acommon denominator, is a method always productive of fruitful results. Up to the present, no such study on the subject of brick has been made in the field of Italian architectural tra- dition, a field, however, which has been the object of many in- vestigations to establish stylistic classifications, to determine regional characteristics, or to illustrate individual accomplish- ments of distinguished artists. The present work, entrusted to two young scholars, Professor Carlo Roccatelli for the Ancient and the Renaissance periods, and Professor Enrico Verdozzi for the Medieval and Modern, follows the method indicated above but does not claim to be exhaustive. Its aim is to collect a number of examples, chosen from among the most notable and significant to be found in the different epochs of Italian art, and to provide them with an illus- trative treatment, partly synthetic and partly analytic, which will set forth the peculiar characteristics of each example and XVII trace the main lines of brick technology and art during the re- spective architectural and constructive epochs. A complete treatment of the subject would require much more space and time. Yet, although limited, the present work throws light on monuments which are still imperfectly known and in some of their details completely unedited. By systematic asso- ciation of ideas and by enriching the historical with the technical and artistic conceptions, the work will perhaps make a not in- considerable contribution to the progress of our knowledge of Italian architecture in the past, as well as aid in the determina- tion of new rational affirmations which will graft upon its trunk ~ young and sturdy shoots. As to bibliography, the treatises on the subject of Italian brick architecture, both as to construction and decoration are, up to the present time, few and incomplete, all of them with different aims and only incidentally dwelling on the present theme. Among the few works which deal with the technique and the technology of Italian brick in the various regions may be mentioned: G. REvERE, / Laterizi, Milan, 1907; Enciclopedia italiana delle arti e industrie, under the word Laterizi; FoRMENTI, La pratica del fabbricare, Milan, 1893-95, which treats also of the various earths, etc.; SALMoTRAGHI, Materiali naturali da costruz- tone, Milan, 1904. Of special interest among the publications which treat of the structural and decorative application of brick, during the various periods of Italian architecture, is the treatise of RuNGE, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Bachstein-Architektur Italiens. Leipzig, 1884; special mention must also be made of GRUNER, Terra Colta Architecture of North Italy, 1867; Strack, Ziegelbauwerke des Mittelalters und der Renaissance in Italien, Berlin, 1889; STREET, Brick and Marble in the Middle Ages, 1874. Other data on the subject dealing with Italy may be found in chapters, or in sporadic treatment, in works of a more general scope; in treatises on architecture like those of Cloquet, Gaudet, and Milani; and in studies dealing with styles like ARcHINTI, Gli stilt dell’ Architettura, Milan, 1900; Cummines, A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of XVIII the Renaissance, Boston, 1901; ArTHUR KINGSLEY PoRTER, Lombard Architecture, 1912; Durm, Baukunst der Romer and Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien, 1898; PARKER, Archeology of Rome, ete. There may be consulted also VERDIER ET Catrtors, L’archi- tecture domestique au Moyen Age; GAILHABAUD, L’architecture du v-e au xvitt-e siecle et les arts qui en dependent; Melani, Manuale d’arte decorativa antica e moderna, Milan, 1907; ANDER- son, Examples of the Municipal, Commercial, and Street Architec- ture of France and Italy, 1877; etc. In the field of publications of a general character pertaining to brick from the decorative point of view, CHABAT, La brique et la terrecuite (Etude Historique) Paris, 1881-90; Lacroux ET Detain, Construction en briques, Paris, 1886; etc., will prove of interest. Fuller bibliographical particulars dealing with the subject from a stylistic and historical point of view will be found in the notes of Roccatelli and Ver- dozzi. Comm. Pror. GusTAvo GIOVANNONI Engineer and Professor of Architecture, Royal School of Applied Engineering; Professor of Restorations, Superior Royal School of Architecture; Member of the Superior Council of Fine Arts. XIX e, « _ ia; t.-16 Oo, b24 45, top 46, l. 7 in note VPPEPRVPPPDD Nn > Lo) avg Plate 19, l. 8 Plates 35 and 39 Plate 89, 1. 8 Plates 120, 122, 127 Plate 142 Plate 146 ERRATA for 2.2 for 25 for MIDDLE AGES for parapetted for Fig. for size for Imole for San for 1.8 for delle Erbe for Borbini for Paletine for Peranesi for Giovannie for Sepulcre for Gaete for Cappocci read 3.2 read 26 read ANCIENT TIMES read parapeted read Figs. read length read Imola read Sant’ read 1.6 read dell’ Erbe read Borboni read Palatine read Piranesi read Giovanni read Sepulchre read Gaeta read Capocci SO CALLED: Rosso. VIA -AP Ancient Etruscan Frieze in Natural Terra Cotta BRICK IN ROMAN ANTIQUITY MANUFACTURE AND SIZES HE very serious deficiencies in the study of ancient art and technique, and still more the prejudices and false premises which have guided scholars up to the present, do not permit of obtaining clear and reliable information regarding brick manu- facture in antiquity. The numerous, though unfortunately ill- preserved, remains of Etruscan, Latin, and Campanian con- structions prove that brick and especially architectural terra cotta were in use before the vi century B. C. The discovery of ancient dies used in preparing the orna- mental terra cotta of the ancient Italic temples (di Vignale, det Sasst Cadutt, etc.),! and the examination of the material itself, lead us to believe that brick, tiles, and terra cotta were made by means of moulds and dies, and dried and burned by a process differing little from that of today, leaving out of consider- ation, of course, the use of modern machinery and kilns. An important observation, made by Della Seta,” and easily verified by a direct examination of the materials, is that, as far back as these times as well as later throughout the entire Roman period, pozzolana* was used with clays as a reducing material for burned bricks and, according to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, chopped straw for bonding in sun-baked bricks. *A siliceous volcanic dust containing ferric oxide, alum, chalk, and magnesia, deriving its name from Pozzuoli, near Naples, where it was first utilized; afterwards found in great beds on the Roman Campagna. Vitruvius gives an interestingly curious account of it in II, 6 of his treatise. Mixed with lime and water it makes a strong, enduring cement. [Ed.] 1. WesGE: Fuhrer durch die Sim. Klass. Alterttimer in Roma, II, p. 341. Dexa Seta: Museo di Villa Giulia, pp. 182-187. 2. DELLA SETA: op. cit., p. 128. 2 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Vitruvius, who flourished in the days of Julius Caesar and Octavianus (Agustus, to whom he dedicated his work, De Archi- tectura), does not give us much information concerning the manufacture of brick. He says only! that there were in use lateres, that is, sun-baked bricks, and lateres cocti or testacet which were burned. He does give us, however, a list of the various types of brick then in use, and also their dimensions. They are the so-called Greek Lydium, one by one and a half feet* (Fig. 1); the Tetradoron, a brick four palms square; and the Pentadoron, five palms squarey. I[t is evident from these names that the practice in brickmaking among the Romans was at first greatly influenced by the Greeks, although their own practi- cal genius subsequently introduced many other sizes and forms. Aside from the three types of brick just mentioned, Vitru- vius further speaks of half-bricks*? in a passage much dis- cussed by scholars up to the present day, since it may be inferred that the bricks were cut into halves, either along a line parallel to one side, thus obtaining two rectangular bricks, or along a diagonal line, giving two triangular bricks. The latter might easily be inferred from the immense quantities of triangular brick found in Roman construction. But the question of Vitruvius’ meaning may be con- sidered as solved when we call to mind that the use of triangular brick first appeared in Rome with the con- structions of Claudius (41-54 a. D.) and hence at a period later than Vitruvius. Besides, Ortiz y Sanz*® observes that if Vitru- vius had had in mind triangular bricks, he would have called 0.296 0.296 Fic. 1. Roman Brick, the Lydium, after Rivoira. *The Roman foot usually given as 29.6 cm. or 11.6 inches. The Lydium, according to Vitruvius, was commonly used by the Romans. The Greeks used the Pentadoron for public and the Tetradoron for private buildings. [Ed.] }Rivoira gives the dimensions of the Pentadoron as one and a quarter feet, the foot taken as 30.9 cm. [12.17 in.]. This makes the ‘“‘palm”’ 7.7 cm. [3.03 in.] and consequently the Tetradoron 30.9 in. or a fraction more than the Roman foot as previously given. Vitruv- ius does not indicate the thickness of the brick but Rivoira refers to a Pentadoron used at ancient Medma in the Campagna that measured in thickness 9 cm. or 3.54 in. He also refers to Roman brick one foot long, a half foot wide, and a quarter foot thick as surmised by certain writers on the subject (Architettura Romana p. 21). [Ed.] 1. Vitruvius: I, 5; II, 3-8; V, 10; VII, 4; VIII, 3° 2. Vrenuvivsooen te 3. Ornitz y Sanz: Los diez libros de Architettura de M. Vitruvio Pollion. p. 33. ANCIENT TIMES 3 them lateres trigones and not semilateres.* In addition to the above mentioned bricks, Vitruvius refers also to the laterculi besales, bricks about eight inches square, or two-thirds of a foot. But, aside from the data fur- nished by Vitruvius, we may be sure that brick dimensions were variously modified : Fic. 2. Vitruvian Bond, after Reb throughout the long centuries a Moteantn Viteeide fae of Roman civilization.t Besides brick, very naturally, tiles were manufactured for roofing, both curved and flat, the dimensions of which varied from 38-77 cm. [15-30 in.] in length and from 28-56 cm. [11- 22 in.] in breadth (Fig. 3). Especially in the 1 and 11 cen- turies A. D., not infrequently, brick were used which had been originally manufactured as flat roof tiles and afterwards trans- formed into bricks by cutting off their edges and smoothing Fie. 3. Roofing Tile. them on slabs of stone. The *In Book II, Cap. III, 4, Vitruvius tells us clearly how the whole and half brick (semi- lateres) were used in bonding. In the same course, the whole brick are laid on one face of the wall and the half brick on the other. In the next course this order is reversed and so on alternately, at the same time breaking the vertical joints as in modern brickwork. “This lends strength,”’ he adds, ‘and a not unattractive appearance to both sides of the wall” (Fig 2). In the following paragraph he commends the Greek practice in stone work which is similar to the well-known method of bricklaying, and that is “‘to bind the upright joints by interchanging the direction of the stones as they lie in the courses. Thus they attain to a perfection that will endure to eternity.” [Ed.] tAs illustrating the great variety of brick sizes used by the Romans, may be cited the following examples, the dimensions being given in centimeters (cm. = 0.3937 in.): Forum at Pompeii, 2.5 x 26 x 12 (1 x 10.3 x 4.7 in.) with arch brick 38 long (15 in.); Museum at Palermo, 10.5 x 34.5 x 18 (4 x 13.6 x 7 in.); Greek Theatre at Taormina, 5-10 x 28-49 x 14-35 (2-4 x 11-19 x 5.5-13.8 in.); Greek Theatre at Catania, 5-8.5 x 48-52 x 35 (2-3.4 x 18.9- 20.5 x 13.8 in.). At Girgenti the fragment of an old pavement is seen laid herringbone fashion with very small brick 2 x 15 x 7 (0.8 x 5.9 x 2.8 in.) antedating, it is thought, the same sort of work in the Roman Forum. In Rome, every size is found from the very small brick just mentioned to the enormous 60 cm. bipedales (two feet). The thickness, however, does not average much over an inch and a half, running from 2.5 cm., hardly an inch, as found in the beautiful red brick of the Columbaria on the Latin Way, to 6 cm., something over two and a third inches, as found in Hadrian’s Villa. The thick brick of the Greek Theatre at Taormina are again found at Ravenna in the tomb of Galla Placidia of the V century, where they measure from 9 to 10 cm. in thickness (3.9 in.), as well as later in some examples of the Middle Ages. See foot note, page 47. [Ed.] 1. Virruvius: op. cit., V, 10. ‘4 BRICKWORK IN ITALY use of these fegulae fractae [broken tiles] is supposed to have originated from the convenience of utilizing the material gathered from the ruins of great fires from which Rome suffered not a little.* From the times of Claudius, and during the following cen- turies, triangular bricks were much used. They were obtained by cutting the above-mentioned latercult besales, before burning, along a diagonal line, thus producing bricks approximately 20 x 20 x 30 cm. [7.9 x 11.8 in.] and then bisecting these last, giving a size of about 15 x 15 x 20 cm. [5.9 x 7.9 in.] as shown in Fig. 4. On the dimensions and uses of brick in antiquity, we have today much information and detailed classification; but attempts to give this a strictly chronological value must be regarded with great reserve.’ An interesting peculiarity found in Roman brick and tile, from the middle of the 1 century on, and which undoubtedly originated in the Orient, is the seals or trade-marks impressed upon them (Fig. 5). These marks, besides possessing a very 039 Ziff. eg Vs’ 27> Lili. Lif e) fil Byer — 020 a Fic. 4. The Laterculi Besali, cut into triangular bricks, after Rivoira. great chronological and topographical interest, often reveal the source from which the clay was taken, and the place and date *Although kiln burnt brick at Rome began to be made in the Sullan period (138-78 B. C.) they did not gain wide and exclusive use until the days of the early Emperors. But though up to this time vast quantities of sun-baked or adobe brick were used for building, the roof tiles were necessarily kiln burned to endure the weather, in consequence of which floods or conflagrations left them still usable as building material. Vitruvius made the test of well burned brick, their use on a roof where they are ‘‘exposed to bad weather and time”’ (Book II, Cap. VIII, 19). In view of their durability it was natural that roof tile should be utilized in reconstructions, for the entire surface of the wall, instead of adobe brick. It was natural also that, aside from safety in drying and burning, the thinness of the tiles used for facing walls should establish a practice for the subsequent manufacture of the long thin Roman brick. Perhaps it was the structural use of the salvaged flat tile that led to the man- ufacture of the large standardized square brick known as sesquipedales (45 x 45 cm., a foot and a half) and bipedales (60 x 60 cm., two feet), the latter used extensively for bond- ing the wall and for arches. [Ed.] 1. Van Denman: ‘Methods of Determining the Date of Roman Concrete Monu- ments” in the American Journal of Archaeology, second series, 1912, Vol. 16. J.T. Parker: De variis structurae generibus praelectio. ¥ ANCIENT TIMES 5 of manufacture, etc.* They were of various forms — circular, semi-circular, crescent-shaped, or rectangular—and testify by their great variety how numerous the brick factories must have been.! Brick IN CONSTRUCTION The use of brick construction in Roman antiquity, con- trary to what a superficial observer might believe, was very widespread, indeed one might say almost general (Plates 2-6). Passing by the well known, venerable monuments of Roman art, the notable character of which demanded in their exterior forms the use of stone and marble, let us seek rather to obtain a close view of the familiar life of Rome by turning our attention to those elements which, up to our day, have been so much neglected | 4 as to seem foreign to the class- ee" sical world as known to us. In fact, by observing the | SNS humbler class of buildings, a 229 those in which the activities of oS oes every-day life were carried on, those quarters of the ancient city inhabited by the middle class, by merchants and work- | ee eee ee men with their houses, shops, Nation’ Muscum of Fine Arisand Aniiguies, and taverns, where in short Fis), eee on Brick. E ulsed the real life of antig- uity, we experience a complete transformation of the idea we had formed of ancient architecture by our observation of stately temples and sumptuous .public edifices. Dize cox o2.9 X 16. cm. (2.2 x 12.8 x 6:3 in.) : sy re *M. Ch. Descemet—Jnscriptions Doliares Latines, Paris 1880—shows brick stamps with consular dates from 76 B. C. to as late as 554 A. D., although nearly half of them belong to Hadrian’s time. Marini’s list, contains 5000 inscriptions and yet is not exhaustive. This practice was found in Italy outside of Rome as early as 75 B. C. but not in Rome itself before the days of Trajan. These stamps are very diverse and variously indicate: the owner of the clay pit; the factory where made, perhaps its owner; the date; the merchant that sold them; the destination; the construction served; or a claim of quality. Sometimes the center of the stamp bore a head of Mercury, an ox skull, the figure of an animal, a bird, an insect, or a palm leaf. See Dennie, Rome of Today and Yesterday, Put- nam’s, New York, 1910, p. 281 ff. [Ed.] 1. A collection of these stamps, showing great erudition, is that of Gaetano Marini, Iscrizioni antiche dolari, published under the direction of G. B. De Rossi, Rome, 1884. Cf. also the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, Vol. XV. ParkERr, op. cit. 6 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Puatre 3. Great Arch of Theatre Entrance, Ostia. ANCIENT TIMES 7 Puate 4. Fluted Brick Columns, Puate 5. Round Brick Column, Forum, Great Basilica, Pompeii. Pompeii. : : ‘ = aes ae P See. . 3 ses : Courtesy of Comm. Prof. Vittorio Spinazzola, Naples, Supt. of Monuments, etc., for Southern Italy. Puate 6. Elliptical Brick Columns, Porticus Tullianus, Pompeii. 8 BRICKWORK IN ITALY The excavations at Ostia, even more than those at the less commercial and more tranquil Pompeu, shed great light upon the subject. We see in fact how general was the use of brick and how it afforded many solutions in construction and admirable decorative effects, while the use of cut stone was, as today, only an exception. And if the evidence of ancient constructions themselves is not sufficient, Vitruvius reminds us of their value,’ by praising the structures of brick as worthy of being the dwellings of kings. While burned brick were used in buildings within the city of Rome, he tells us why sun-baked brick should not be used and then gives rules for their use in construction outside the city. Dion Cassius? informs us of the disastrous effects of the inun- dations of the Tiber upon the many buildings of sun-baked brick, and finally Suetonius* relates how Augustus was able to boast that he had received a Rome of brick but had left it one of marble. | Going back to origins, we find, as one of the very first known examples of brick construction, the Etruscan walls of Arezzo, mentioned by Vitruvius (in Italia Arretio vetustum egregie factum murum), built of burned brick with the facing so well executed as to cause Caporali* of Perugia to write in 1536, nearly two thousand years after its construction: “Arezzo pos- sesses a wall of brick so excellently worked by hammer and laid that one can hardly see the mortar joints between them; more- over the brick are so well burned that the color is absolutely uniform.’ All this proves, at least indirectly, how widespread was the use of brick before the days of the Empire, and suggests how important had been both Greek and Tuscan influence. W ALLS Without going into a too minute chronological analysis, let us examine the use of brick in the various types of wall structure. In the construction of bearing walls,®> the Romans certainly did not have a uniform type either at a given period or in a given locality. If up to the close of the 1 century s. c. Hellenistic 1. Virruvius: op, cit. II, 8. 2. Dion Cassrus: Storia Romana, XXXIX, 61. 3. Sueronuts: II, 28. 4. Rivorra: Architetlura Romana, p. 3. 5. G. GIOVANNONI: Costruzione ed ingegneria presso i Romani. ANCIENT TIMES 9 and Etruscan tradition led to the frequent adoption of wall con- struction in squared stone, nevertheless, the peculiar methods adopted by the building crafts soon caused the widespread use of walls built of a conglomerate enclosed between facings of other material, a type which became characteristic of Roman construction. ‘The great thickness of these walls made possible the rapid execution of the work and a marked economy. While the master masons, with care and skill, built the exterior surfaces of brick so as to form a sort of encasement, the common laborers carried on the work of filling in the caementum, a conglomerate formed of successive courses of mortar and rough unshaped stones which were tamped down as the work progressed.* _ This type of construction, however widespread its use, is not to be regarded as the only one known. In fact, there are not wanting examples of walls, of no great thickness, built entirely of brick; and walls of mixed masonry, as well, consisting of brick and dressed stone. The remains of pre-Augustan constructions, unfortunately not very noteworthy, are the first examples of the caementum wall construction.’ At first, we see appear the so-called structura testacea, a wall faced on both sides with broken tiles, smoothed on the outer edge after chipping off the flanges, and filled in with caementum between the two facings, without transverse brick bonding courses (Fig. 6). The bonding of the interior nucleus to the exterior brick facing was entrusted to the good quality of the mortar and to the rough irregular inner surface of the broken *This opus caementum so called, was rough work of broken stones, pieces of brick and tile, and later even fragments of marble, laid more or less irregularly in a plentiful supply of pozzolana mortar. Vitruvius, who did not know its complete development, con- demned its use in his day, as compared with the sounder Greek practice (Book II, Cap. VIII, 7). It is not difficult to conjecture that the practical Roman builders, recognizing the durable solidity of the caementum work, soon learned to economize both in material and time by saving the stone for the outer surface of podium or wall which in the mass could be done more quickly and cheaply in the caementum work, and done enduringly, in spite of the Vitruvian dictum. In a sense, the extensive pozzolana beds of the Roman Campagna made imperial Rome possible. This opus caementum, bonded through its thickness and protected at angles and around openings by brick, needed surfacing or a cortina (curtain) either for appearance or for a better surface to take the plaster. Hence marble, stone, small tufo blocks (in case of incertum or reticulatum work) or, most extensively of all, brick were used for facing. While the stone facing was sometimes plastered, it was in the main to the tufo and brick surfaces that stucco was applied, though many examples of fine brickwork are found which the original builders meant to be exposed because of its finished beauty. [Ed.] 1. G. GIOVANNONI: op. cit. 10 BRICKWORK IN ITALY brick or tile. We have an example of this type of construction in the tomb of the Platorini’ of the Republican period, recon- structed in the National Museum at Rome. The borders of openings, and angles of walls, however, were built entirely of brick. Under Tiberius (14-37 A.D.) this construction appeared in an im- proved form; the two faces of the wall were bonded together, depend- ing on the building or the builder, all the way from every fifth up to every seventeenth course by large square bricks, the tetradoron or pen- eee Sata Seay or Opus tadoron. Examples of this work may be found at Rome in the Domus Tiberiana on the Palatine (Fig. 7), and in the walls of the Castro Pretorio in which latter we have also a first example, although a very simple one, of face brickwork with decorative cornices, loopholes, and battlements (F lieu): The external facing, however, was much more commonly built of triangular bricks with the apex laid inward, thus making an excellent bond with the internal caementum nucleus, which was then crossed at regular intervals by horizontal courses of NOUN . large bonding bricks : ae Saat Fatt \\ e vA i Rye NS ats Ve s fis eo “9 rT erin or tiles through the yoy SO NEA Shur ri iY kX TLL CI, OE 0 \ oun uN \ oo Te - +74 x corantowayepnubi nud ro Yo 7%. ; aoe Wes ch Tivpelinaw ess meet! Ne ei T8 . eras mee OX, Taneroane ycoseaninanantes Cote Bs om pene 8 0) entire thickness of ; the wall (Fig. 9). ~~ \ The use of these triangular bricks, \ eee beginning in theo shia Opus Testaceum, from the ‘Domus Tiberiana”’ tim es of Glan ARIE on the Palatine, Rome, after Rivoira. as already noted, spread widely; for, besides offering a better bond with the nucleus and a more uniform appearance on the wall face, it obviously afforded greater economy of material. Ia PARIBENI E Berretti: Bollettino d’Arte del Minestero della Pubblica Istruzione, 1911, folio X. LanctANI; Notizie Scavt, 1880, p. 127; 1883, p. 372. Oy oar ree = * art es SE Pate ANCIENT TIMES 11 Another type of wall structure was the opus reticulatum* in which, however, brick played only a small part. Here the facing on the caementum nucleus was made up of little cubical blocks of tufo laid with the sides at 45° to the perpendicular. At intervals there were framing squares of brick, and brick pro- jections, corners, architraves, arches, and the like. This type of construc- tion was in use from the time of Sulla (138-78 B. Cc.) to that of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) after which it quickly disappeared. Although this type of wall was almost always covered with architectural decoration in cut stone or stucco, it presented nevertheless when exposed, quite a pleasing and decorative appearance (Plates 7-8). Many very beautiful examples of it are in existence, among which are several tombs of the time of Claudius at Ostia. Passing over other related types of wall, which have no direct bearing _ Fie. 9. Triangular Brick and Structural Bonding. Italy. Fic. 8. Loophole and Cornice, Castro Pretorio, Rome. on our subject, we finally men- tion however the opus mizxtum. This form of construction is composed either of alternate courses of brick and squared stone (Fig. 10), a type which appeared after Hadrian and developed very ereatly in the age of Constan- tine, or of brick and cobble stones laid herringbone fashion, opus spicatum (Fig. 11), a type quite common in Northern *This reticulatum manner doubtless was a development, on aesthetic grounds, of the opus incertum, irregular work (or inseritum, inserted work), of the late Republic, in which the small tufo pieces were introduced irregularly after the fashion of rubble work. The latter, Vitruvius regarded more durable than the reticulatum, though not as attractive. Book II, Cap. VIII, 1. [Ed.] 12 BRICKWORK IN ITALY ARCHES Not entering into a discussion of the form of arches, almost al- ways semi-circular or segmental, we note first of all that their construction was directly connected with that of the wall and took on rather an external organic expression. Brick arches were generally built of bipedales, the larger tile-like brick two feet square, and show more or less careful workmanship. At times, in order to obtain perfect exe- cution and to make the mortar joints uniformly thin throughout the entire face of the arch, cunei- form or wedge-shaped bricks were SSS used, as in the Colosseum. In Ese arches of considerable size or sub- ono OneM unten ject to heavy weight, it was cus- tomary to adopt the double con- centric type of arch which permitted a better and more regular adjustment of the wall mass. Characteristic examples of these arches are found in the Pantheon, in the Basilica of Maxentius,* ° and elsewhere (Plates 9-14). More often arches were of a mixed construction, brick upon the faces and concrete in the interior. ‘Then almost always the nucleus of concrete had at intervals bipedales or sesquipedales in horizontal courses set radially, which bonded together the two external arch faces; or perhaps, in addition, there were other arches in the interior of the nucleus, always bonded together by large tiles, thus forming a network of brick compartments into which the caementum was placed (Fig. 12). In this manner the interior forces were distributed and the curve of pressure fixed. One of the first examples of this type of construction is that of the Claudian archesf on the Caelian Hill at Rome? (Fig. 13). *This structure was modified and completed by Constantine, the victorious rival of Maxentius, and hence is generally known as the Basilica of Constantine. [Ed.j tAs Nero completed and extended the Claudian aquaduct for his Golden House, these arches are frequently named the Neronian Arches. 1. Lancrani: I commentari di Frontino,—atti della R. Accademia dei Lincet, Series 3, Vol. 4. pp. 364-374. Cuorsy: L’art de batir chez les Romains. ANCIENT TIMES 113) pei EOE SE: Puate 7. Corners of Opus Mixtum with Puate 8. Brickwork Ornamented with Reticulatum Wall, Pompeii. Reticulatum, Pompeii. Another use of brick may be mentioned as a typically Ro- man architectural motive and that is string courses or archi- traves combined with semi-circular relieving arches, and also relieving arches incorporated in the wall structure, either to concentrate the stresses at determined points of the foundations or to obtain a better and more uniform adjustment of the wall mass. Of these we have any number of examples (Plates 15-18). TowQu Wen cages (B20 GOCOLIEVOYIO ‘ SOIOUSILOOGS The vault, a typical element of Roman Saas ee architecture, of which it forms the princi- WWWIAOIHAVS pal characteristic, was always the object of DOAULYOOLI@SO assiduous care and study on the part of Be Sea the ancient builders. In it we see brick SS SSS] assume a great and special importance be- cause of its varied and ingenious appli- 3 cations. The typical construction of the Roman vault was of the nature of the caementum work, already described', which suited admirably the organization 1. GIOVANNONT: op. cit. Fic. 11. Opus Spicatum 14 BRICKWORK IN ITALY of Roman labor and in which we may easily recog- nize the archetype of our modern concrete construction. Fig. 12. Arch Faces Bonded with Bipedales due to even the slightest settling of the would cause immediate and very serious builders strove constantly to eliminate these disadvantages, and the history of this con- struction offers numerous exped-: ients devised for this purpose. One of the most common of these aimed at the elimination of the complicated wooden centering which necessarily had to form a continuous and complete sup- port, held up by very strong braces. It consisted of a vault or casing of brick laid flat, alter- nating from time to time with brick laid on edge, and bonded with quick-setting mortar so as to form a sort of template which, besides giving the form of the vault, supported the layer To the unques- tionable advan- tages of this sys- tem —economy and rapidity of construction — were opposed the inconveniences which arose from the necessity of using strong sup- ports during con- struction and from the dangers foundation which injury. However, As aN aN Ss AY pom As — ———_—— =.= ———S= ———— Fic. 13. Double Ring Brick Arch, Claudian Acqueduct, Rome, of concrete with which it at once bonded. (Fig. 14.) The first examples of the kind known, we have in the Colos- se See SS ee Tasks ans a ae Y i a! ms os Via ee roan 3 hy ANCIENT TIMES 15 we < Piate 10. A Great Arch at Base of Pantheon, Rome. Puate 11. Central Bay of North Aisle, Basilica of Constantine, Rome. 16 Pa BRICKWORK IN ITALY Forum side, Rome. ine, on Wall and Arches of Palat ining . PLATE 12. Reta *yseq] SULYOO'T ‘oWOY "489 AA SULYOO'T ‘oWIOYy ‘gurye[e@q 94} JO JOON ‘eAON] BIA 94} JO SOWDIY YOU “pl ALVIg ‘ouryeeq oY} JO WOOT “BAOKN] RIA VY} JO SoyITY YOU “E[ ALVIG 8 ‘ AEE mt t~ 4 ANCIENT TIMES 18 seum. Later imposing ex- amples are such as those in Hadrian’s Villa near Tivoli, in the Baths of Caracalla, etc. Others of particular interest may be found in the houses at Ostia, which, though more modest, were some- times built of a double layer of brick as if to af- ford greater assurance of their resistance to the on N AN \\ 11 R \y on VEE WN \ rt NY \ \\ NN \\ K \ if Awe “ AN i YS SNS ea a 9 IM, oe : Yi 13 lly. SIN mle i ipl {OD POW ee — im Pn ae ae SA es SS iil Fic. 15. Rudenentare Groining, Colosseum, Rome. BRICKWORK IN ITALY Fic. 14. Brick Centering for Arch heavy weight of concrete put upon them. An expedient devised to lighten the concrete mass of the vault and consequent- ly to diminish the weight upon the piers was the in-, sertion of terra cotta amphor- ae or wine jars, especially in the groins, sometimes set irregularly, as in the Stabian Baths at Pompeii, in the Villa det Gordiant at Rome, etc.; at other times with a more definite constructive method, as those at Pompeii,’ and especially later in the constructions of the mr and Iv centuries. “lo be histori- cally correct, however, we must remember that the first use of earthenware jars in the interior of wall masses, although fol- lowing different principles, was made at Aosta in the Augustan age.” Another improvement, in connection, with the use of brick 1. OvERBECK: Pompei und seine Bauten. 2. C. Promis: Le antichitd di Aosta. ANCIENT TIMES 19 PuatE 16. Temple of the Divus Augustus, Western Side of the Palatine, Rome. BRICKWORK IN ITALY -aUIOY ‘UINESsojOTD Ut Uses Se ‘YOIY SULAoIPOY VY “ST aALVIg “guioy ‘ourepeg oy} 0} wnJO 24} wo dwey “2. ALVIg paid ANCIENT TIMES 21 Fic. 17. Brick Groin at Crossings, as in Baths of Diocletian, after Durm. in vaulting, introduced on constructive principles of a different nature, was that of subdividing vaults and cupolas into bearing arches of brick with intermediate fillings. The bearing skele- a eae Be eas ton was compose dof brick Fic. 16. ae eas in Basilica ribs set along the transverse lines of the vault, along the diagonals of the crossing, or along the meridians of the cupola, thus directing the thrusts and concentrating them at the more resistant points of the pliers. The disposition of these ribs in vaults was extremely varied and improved gradu- ally with the prog- ress of the static concept in construc- tion. From simple brick semi-circles in mas PRES: barrel vaults and PuaTtE 20. A Ribbed Crossing, Villa Sette Bassi, Via * Latina, after Rivoira. from rudimentary 22 BRICKWORK IN ITALY groinings, of which one of the first examples is found in the Colosseum! (Fig. 15), we see the gradual development of this principle in the diagonal ribs of intersecting vaults with ingenious a disposition of the bricks pee oN. as, for example, in the a Seis a Arch of Janus Quadri- S eS > ee 2 oe ° RL SS FSF ee \ frons, in the palace of W SS SSE? * ‘ea SS Ss s FF 222 A Septimius Severus on va Bas F- S$ Ss32-2 “the Palatine, in the SeaS Sa = 2 Z ae \ e e ° aE Sot. ae Sn SO rag et A ee \ Baths of Diocletian (Fig. Se eS ee i : — Reece Soe eee : 17), etc.2 At times these Wp ESOS SOLES SES ° © 9 (6) 0 Q 0 ) AN} ribs project, as in Villa det Sette Bassi (Plate 20),°> as if to anticipate the classical type of crossings in Lombard architecture, until they ; «develop into the ribs of Fic. 18. Brick Ribs in Dome of Sibylline Temple, cupolas as in the Sepul- Tivoli. sie chre of the Calventii, in the Temple of Portunno at Porto,‘ etc. These groinings, in which we may perhaps see the germ of that conception which found full development and — perfect application in the marvelous cupolas of our Renaissance and successive epochs, had their stylistic ex- pression in the coffer- ing or paneling at the time when the cupola was introduced (Fig. 18). At times these ribs do not mark the meridians of the cu- pola but are interlaced Fic.19. Herringbone Paving with Small Brick, Roman Forum. 1. Rivorra: op. cit. 2. GIOvANNONI: op. cit. 3. Nipsy: Analisi della carta dei dintorni di Roma, III, pp. 734-737. LANcIANI: Quatre dessins inedits de la collec- tion Destailleur relatifs aux ruins de Rome. Asupy: The Villa Called Sette Bassi. 4. Montano: Disegni di vari tempietti ricavati dall’ antico. ANCIENT TIMES 23 as in the apse of the Temple of Venus and Roma at Rome (Plate 19) and as appears from some drawings of Renaissance artists. Finally, we may note among many others, two particular uses of brick. Pave- ments which were gen- erally made either of large flat tiles or of very small bricks set on edge in herringbone fashion (Fig. 19), and ===7—9f =i the wall surfaces of = al LP yi baths (laconicum and —~ calidarium) were con- structed of one-celled hollow bricks, generally fete 33 cm. [2.2 x 5x 13 1n.] in size, which afforded passage for the circulation of smoke and hot air (Fig. 20). This ingenious and widespread system of heating which is found at Pompeii was first extens- ively applied in Hadrian’s Villa near Tivoli and later in the Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian at Rome. Fic. 20. ee in Pompeiian Bathe BRICK IN DECORATION As already indicat- ed, brick was used ee) oe ee ) aoe most ancient times, — ‘<5 Saal not only in construct- , : ion but also for ex- OSU IU fete eevee cca es \ pecially in buildings * Fig. 21. Moulded and Cut Brick, as at Ostia. of the modest arch- 1. Il libro di Giuliano da Sangallo, Codice Barberiniano, Vat. Lat. No. 4424. Disegni della Galleria degli Uffizi, No. 1330. 24 BRICKWORK IN ITALY itectural type where the real life of the common people and of , the middle classes was unfolded in all its manifestations. Un- fortunately, there exist only rare and gow remains of these buildings which, just because they lacked public or monumental character, were not only more or less neglected but suffered greatly during frequent periods of reconstruction, as well as from the trying vicissitudes of the centuries, and hence more readily disappeared in the course of time. However, the remains of widely scat- tered tombs in the environs of Rome, the edifices brought to light at Pompeii and preserved (at least in their essential parts) through the terrible caprices of nature, and still more the excavations at Ostia, prove to us that brick and terra cotta were widely used for purposes of decoration. In fact, along with the monumental architecture of imposing temples and sumptuous public edifices, covered with rich decorations in stone and marble, we see developed a real architecture in — brick and terra cotta. In_ houses, shops, taverns, and sepulchral edifices, brick was used for wall surfaces artistically done, for simple and re- fined cornices, for panels, and the like. And often with special bricks (Fig. 21), cut in ovoli, dentils, palm-leaves, scales, etc., cleverly adapted, there were formed brackets, elaborate cornices, lonic, Corinthian, and Com- posite capitals (Figs. 22, Fic. 23. Bases of Brick Columns, as at Ostia. 23), and in general all the Fic. 22. Brick Entablature, as at Ostia. ia ANCIENT TIMES i) qn aS takes Pompeii. ESE PuavE 21. Temple of Augustus, motives and varied compositions of classical architecture which showed that the use of brick held no secret for those accom- plished builders of ancient Rome. Sometimes, alongside of this richer decoration, we see walls adorned with simple panelings, cornices, etc., which give them a very pleasing relief and a harmonious aspect (Plate 21). Often the effect of polychromy was cleverly exploited chiefly by the use of yellow, red, and brown bricks, which were at times intermingled without any definite aim, as in the Anfiteatro Castrense (Plate 25). More frequently, however, by following an exact decorative method, the color scheme was attained by building the projections of the wall, generally the architectural orders, of light-colored bricks and the background of darker ones or vice versa. Often the frieze stood out, because of the yellow color of its bricks, in contrast with the reddish browns of the architrave and cornice. Quite frequent also was the use of decorative terra cotta, moulded with rare skill and ex- quisite artistic sense, which gave a peculiar beauty and vivacity to the entire architectural organism. Speaking generally, and judging from the remains, it may 26 BRICKWORK IN ITALY be said that the use of burned brick began to spread rapidly toward the close of the Republic. At that time, and gener- ally throughout the period of the first emperors, brickwork was characterized by regularity and great care in execution; the mortar joints were very thin, so thin that, especially on the face of the wall, they did not exceed two or three millimeters in thickness [1/12 or 1/9 in.]; the bricks were of excellent clay and manufacture, well burned, and very hard. In the m and 11 centuries, there began at first to appear various defects in the brickwork which later became gradually more marked. The mortar joints increased in thickness so as to exceed more than three or four centimeters [1.2 or 1.6 in.]; the courses were less regular and in the end came to be laid with bricks of all dimensions. Not infrequently, there were used, during the last years of the Empire, bricks taken from ruins, and construction in general betrayed a very care- less execution. The bricks to begin with were of a lower grade and coarser texture, made of poorly pugged clay, and the work- manship in laying showed signs of deterioration. Decoration followed the general course of Roman art. Sober, elegant, and of the purest lines in the last days of the Republic and the first years of the Empire, it became richer and richer and invaded every exposed surface on the wall up to the point of becoming exuberant, though it preserved great correctness of form. Later, with the decline of art, we find it becoming commonplace, poor, misshapen, and showing clearly in what a short period of time that art declined which has left to the world so many wonderful monuments. LEADING EXAMPLES Far indeed from pretending to give a description of all Roman constructions in brick, for which a much more extensive treatment than the present would be necessary, we shall limit ourselves to mentioning a few of those best preserved or pos- sessing special characteristics, and to giving as far as possible an idea of brick construction in which, as in all other fields, the spirit of Rome reveals its greatness. One of the first and most distinguished monuments in brick we have to note is the Porta Palatina (Plate 22) at Turin PLATE 22. ANCIENT TIMES Porta Palatina, Turin, Restored. 28 BRICKWORK IN ITALY which perhaps may be ascribed to the age of Augustus. It is flanked by two sixteen-sided towers of five stories each, be- tween which on the ground level are four arches of sober and severe aspect, two major and two minor. Two orders of arcades, as in the Porta Nigra of Treves and the Porta del Paradiso at Susa, surmount the basement zone and give lightness and elegance to the whole structure. These arcades are framed by two architectural orders of the purest line and executed, like the entire edifice, with great care. They were not intended merely as decoration but were indeed necessary for the defense of the gate and could be reached safely from within the city wall. ° Another notable example of face brick construction is found in the before mentioned Castro Pretorio at Rome, constructed by Sejanus, the terrible favorite of Tiberius (Plate 23). Al- though not possessing any special decorative interest, perhaps on account of their particular purpose, we must, however, note in these constructions of the Pretorian Guard, not only the beauti- ful reddish brown color of the carefully smoothed bricks, but also the gates flanked by battlemented towers and adorned with loopholes and cornices (Fig. 8). Of this first period, we again recall the Anfiteatro Castrense (Plate 25), which is more interesting than the Castro from the standpoint of decoration, consisting as it does of an inferior order of arcades resting upon piers and framed by a Corinthian order of engaged columns and a superior arcuation, glimpsed at the left, in which pilasters are substituted for the columns. In this monument there are two things of especial interest: the’ substitution of square blocks of travertine for the usual bases of the columns, and the exquisite workmanship of the Corinthian capitals, executed wholly in brick, constituting one of the first examples of this sort. Worthy of mention are the varied combinations which brick construction assumed in the opus reliculatum in the first century. Anexample of this is the tomb at Ostia (Plate 24), be- fore alluded to, of the time of Claudius.? It is most carefully executed and very beautiful because of the geometric decora- 1. Rivorra: op. cit. pp. 62-75. 2. PascHETTO: Ostia, Colonia Romana, storia e monumenti, pp. 441 ff. Vaciiert: Notizie degli scavi di antichila, ecc. 1912, p. 23. 29 ANCIENT TIMES “BI}SQ ‘shipneyy Jo sully, ‘quioy, jo [lejoq “py ALVIg ‘oumloy ‘dure uell0je1g JO [[B&AA JO [leloq “¢7 ALVIg BRICKWORK IN ITALY Plate 25. Castrensian Amphitheatre, Rome ANCIENT TIMES 31 tions, secured by a well chosen combination of tufo and brick. Well worthy of remark also are the bases of the pilasters, obtained by combining moulded bricks of which we shall see other varied applications later. We may note incidentally a motive, both constructive and decorative, which appeared very early and became quite com- mon in Roman architecture. It consisted of little arcades of brick supported by brackets of stone, or of brick vaults pro- jecting from the external walls of buildings and serving to support the balconies. These balconies are found not only in the drawings of ancient monuments left by artists of the Renais- sance (as the Nymphaeum in the Gardens of Sallust at Rome,! and the Temple of Portunno at Porto’) but also in the Domus Gaiana on the Palatine. These characteristics are also seen in a few houses at Ostia (Plates 26, 27) in the Via Della Fortuna,’ and in the vicinity of the Temple of Vulcan‘, where perhaps they were embellished by terra cotta and vari-colored stucco. We present an interesting reconstruction of such houses’ made by the distinguished architect Gismondi (Plate 28). Continuing our examination, we find that brick was exten- sively used for decorative purposes in the group of edifices constituting the Forum of Trajan at Rome, especially in the so-called Baths of Paolo Emilio (Frontispiece). Here it was that the celebrated Apollodorus, Hadrian’s Graeco-Syrian archi- tect, displayed his eminently artistic qualities and exquisite sense of architectural refinement. These decorations followed motives similar to those which are found also in the entrance to the Baths at Ostia, in the office of the Grain Market® and in the Horrea E’pagathiana, also at Ostia (Plate 29). These decorations, consisting of tympanum, cornice, pillars or half col- umns, capitals and bases, all executed wholly in brick, became _very frequent in Roman architecture. Other important buildings of the kind might also be mentioned, such as the structure sur- mounting the Praetorium of Hadrian’s Villa near Tivoli, which is decorated with elegant pilasters; the external portico of the 1. Biblioteca Vaticana, Codice Vat. Lat., No. 3439, folio 30. 2. Il libro di Guiliano da Sangallo, Codice Barberiniano, Vat. Lat. No. 4424. 3. PAascHETTo: op. cit. p. 316. Carcoptno: Melange d’archeologie XXX, p. 417. 4. Notizie degli scavi, ecc. Series V., Vol. 12, p. 324 ff. 5. Rwista di Architettura e d’arti decorative, Rome, 1923. 6. PASCHETTO: op. cit. p. 314. CARcOPINO: op. cit. p. 424. 32 BRICKWORK IN ITALY theatre at Ostia, of which there are the very beautiful remains of an elaborate entablature in brick; and the like. But we ought rather to turn our attention to certain edi- fices of a more modest architectural type which have come down to us less damaged than those thus far considered, inas-- much as few things can give us so lofty a conception of ancient art as these buildings. We should think of them not as the work of great artists, but rather of modest, though very skill- ful artisans and that the material employed did not lend itself to decorative refinement. However, the grace and at times the reserve in composition and form, effects here obtained by the use of very simple means, ought to fill us with admiration, and readily afford an idea of what the architecture of our ancestors was like. These buildings, for the most part sepul- chral, either because of their number, traditional regularity in form, construction, detail, and prevalence through several centuries, or because of the different localities in which they are found, lead us to consider how widely diffused and applied brick: architecture must have ial ee wees PANS == O24 => kK ' ee ae 2-== | beeninsuch well-defined types | | of buildings. He ee One of the first in chreno- logical order is the so-called Sepulchre of the poet Persius (Plates 1 and 30, Fig. 24), re- cently restored,’ situated on the ancient Appian Way, a few kilometers from Rome. This monument is attributed perhaps with more reason to Quintius Verannius, frequent- ly mentioned by Tacitus, who died in Britain in 62 A. D. where Nero had sent him as imperial legate;? or perhaps, as claimed by Canina,’ to another person of the same name but of later date. This sepulchre presents a beautiful fagade decorated above and 1. Relaztone dei lavori eseg. dall’ Uff. Reg. dei, Monumenti, 1899 and 1902. Asusy: op. cit. 2. NrBBy: op. cit. Vol. 3. pp. 553-4. 3. Canina: Architettura Romana p. 182. 2+ 665 = sees uae pre meriy: F 1G. 24. Plan and Detail, Tomb of Persius. ANCIENT TIMES 33 PLATE 27. Houses with Projecting Arched Cornices, Ostia. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 34 "elsQ ‘Yolig Ul [e1JOg poyYeIODA(] “67 ALWIg pointe EOE pss 2 age va a XN St3 Y Vill 2 eee N\A LTE, pay We yfyf fe Ay Zz ltt 4 My, 3 N oh ~ EAS WN SS BR Bee M.BARO 550 SS wX aN WN OOH YARRA SY eee BAAR Aw WW “VACA Qy Yj Uy ty fi \ \ QQ GGGGG|Qq QQ NV SNA WX BDCO{™’ QQ YS‘; ET SN WV Se SLETLEUITATTN EFTTA ATFTULUUVITTULLTTA NNN SN Nes ace RAS £0.23 UM HO, 2B — 2 oon ABZ Q3E9 m. 5.03 ee ooh ee aeanaae m. 8.50 ae Le eey «| Fic. 32. Profile, Section, and Plan, Tomb of Annia Regilla. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 44 ‘auoYy ‘a7}e+) ueloUulg oq, ‘Cp ALVId ‘OWIOY ‘|[EAA UeloOINY Ul JOMOT, ‘Lp ALVIG 45 MIDDLE AGES ‘ODIOY ‘TTA UBIPoINY oY} Ul BLIBUISY &V10g otf, ° Ep ALVIg 46 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Because of the nature and brevity of the present treatise we do not deem it fitting to cite here other edifices of brick con- struction, since, especially in the tr and tv centuries, they pre- sent no particular merit. Art, and consequently brick architec- ture, followed the rapid decline of the Roman Empire. The Station House of the VII Cohort of the Watch, in the Trastevere indicates to what point has fallen the art of brickwork which once had attained in Rome so distinguished a height. We mention only as a last and imposing construction with brick facing the Aurelian Walls of Rome,* noted for their towers and galleries for the patrol (Plates 41-43). Pror. Inc. GARLO ROCCATELLI * *These walls are built of the usual caementum core faced with brick. Although bat- tered down and rebuilt in various sections during the centuries, so that they represent all dates from the time of Aurelian (270-275) on, they are, as we see them today, substan- tially the walls as built by that Emperor in the III century. Originally, they were twelve miles long, but only eight miles, or the portion on the left bank of the Tiber, remain. Very little of this mighty work is to be seen on the Vatican side. As the wall is about 12 feet thick, its parapetted top, 60 feet above the outside ground level, afforded a broad walk for the garrison, and allowed for an interior passage, 10 feet above the inside ground level, for the guard. This passage opened out toward the city in frequent high arched openings. There were some 300 great square towers projecting from the wall, and spaced every forty-five or fifty feet. While these towers are assigned to the days of Hon- orius (395-423) the imposing round towers of the Porta Asinaria, near St. John’s Lateran, are said to belong to Aurelian’s time. In building the wall, Aurelian took advantage of exist- ing structures in the line of circumvalation, such as great villas, aqueduct arches, the Pretorian Camp, the Castrensian Amphitheatre, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the like by making them integral parts of the fortifications.—|Ed.| 1. G. B. DE Rosst: Annali dell’ Istit. di corrispond. archeolog., 1858, pp. 278 ff. BRICK IN THE MIDDLE AGES MANUFACTURE OF BRICK The entire Medieval period affords no bibliographical sources from which to draw definite information on the manufacture of brick, but we may assume that the methods were doubtless much the same as in the preceding period and would differ little from that employed today for hand made brick. In dimensions, there was seldom found standardized brick in which length and breadth were approximately multiples of thickness. On the con- trary, there was much variation due both to tradition and to the localization in manufacturing and building practice to which Professor Giovannoni in his Preface has alluded.* Thus at Ravenna, some of the old brick found in San Giovanni Evangelista and in the Tomb of Galla Placidia are 8.5, 9, and even 10 cm. in thickness [3.4, 3.5, 3.9 in.] while in San Vitale they do not run over 4.5 cm. [1.8 in.]. Later in the period, the usual thickness of the Roman brick, 3-4 cm. [1.2-1.6 in.], is found; at Bologna, in the xvi and xvi centuries, the brick are from 5 to 7 cm. thick [1.9-2.8 in.]. We no longer find the wedge-shaped brick which had already disappeared in the last period of Roman civilization and which was so prized in the construction of arches. We do find, however, bricks with one face in the form of an arc for use in columns, as seen very frequently at Bologna. There were also bricks curved flatwise to serve on the extrados of arches. These were employed a little everywhere after the x century. Roofing tiles, both curved and flat, were also manufactured as in the Roman period, but of much smaller dimensions, ap- *In length and breadth the dimensions ran all the way from 27-51 x 12-34, cm. the breadth not always being one half the length, as the making of regular bond patterns by the use of headers and stretchers, as known to us, was not generally practiced. In the main the prevailing dimensions were 3.5-4.5 x 30-32 x 15-16 cm. (1.4-1.8 x 11.8-12.6 x 5.9- 6.3 in.); although, as Professor Porter points out, much larger brick are frequently found, as at Vigolo Marchese, Stradella, Milan, and Montechiarugolo, in the first half of the x1 century and occasionally in the x1 century. Brick now being used in restorations at Chiaravalle, Milanese, measure 9 x 55 x 27 cm. (3.5 x 21.7 x 10.6 in). Toaccount for the great variety of sizes and shapes used during this period, Porter regards it to have been a common practice throughout the Romanesque times to cut and not mould the green clay into the desired forms before drying and burning. He also calls attention to a practice originating in the x1 century of cross hatching the brick, to aid bonding, either when green or after being burned and laid in the wall, a practice which continued to the close of the x11 century and then disappeared (Lombard Architecture, Vol. I, pp. 36, 38). Where later restorations have removed the gesso covering, the scoring on these brick presents a not unpleasing texture effect. [Ed.] A? 48 BRICKWORK IN ITALY proaching an average of 30x45 cm. [11.8x17.7 in.] and often even smaller. At a later period the flat tile disappeared almost entirely, as may be seen in the roofs of nearly all the construc- tions from the x1 century on. BrICcK IN CONSTRUCTION The use of brick extended to religious and municipal build- ings, and to monumental work of various kinds. ‘There were no longer great numbers of laborers for concrete work, or great financial resources to lavish on the splendors of stone. We have, instead, above all in the first period of the Middle Ages, works constructed almost entirely of brick: brick walls, brick pave- ments, and brick vaults. Economy was necessary; imposing thermal edifices and huge basilicas were out of the question after the fall of the Empire. There was no longer a powerful state . which could exploit the labor of slaves, skillful both in construc- tion and decoration. Hence, economy was sought both in the use of the raw material and in the employment of labor. The mason, however, will become more skillful, while the architect will have at his disposal very modest means for the work to be accom- plished, and will attain a lightness of construction hitherto unknown, as we shall see in the examples to be examined which have remained intact in spite of the succession of various states of culture in the same regions. We shall find vaults covering limited spaces with clever solu- tions hitherto unknown, because not required of the Roman architect. We shall see cornices, at first and for a long time after- ward, as artificial arrangements of brick; then to evolve slowly into a very pure feeling which will become the constant charac- teristic of brick construction. THE RAVENNA PERIOD Both in the v century when Honorius, the first Emperor of the West after the final division of the Empire, removed his ' residence from Rome to Ravenna (403), and in the follow- ing century when Justinian, Emperor of the East, having re- covered Sicily and Italy, also chose that city as the seat of his Exarch (539), it was natural that the little city should rise to great importance and that, in the consequent building MIDDLE AGES 49 activities, the Byzantine influence should be marked. It was during this disturbed epoch that there arose a new form of art which developed no longer at Rome as its center, but at Ravenna. Here we find famous architectural monuments which, by reason of certain elements, are connected with forms peculiar to the last Roman period, but with an altogether new feeling. In construction, the simple brickwork of the exterior walls, with varying mortar joints, was no longer so carefully done, as if the artisans had hastened in order to devote themselves with the utmost zeal to interior decoration. As a decorative motive in cornices, there prevailed a prac- tice of setting the bricks corner to corner in saw-tooth fashion, often between regular courses. Wall surfaces were frequently embellished with blind arches and pilasters resting upon a base which ran around the entire edifice, but which today is for the most part sunk in the earth, chiefly because of the settlement to which the structures have been subjected. We mention a few of the more characteristic monuments in chronological order. ee O_O : S aus S es enews Vinx YM wae Sea4Giy domed edifice, built in 526-537 Bf ene by Julianus Argentarius, was “~_ B wa begun under Theodoric and i completed under -Justinian (Plates 48, 49, and Fig. 38, 39). In his ‘‘History of Architecture” (p. 235), Fletcher states that it was modeled after the so- called Minerva Medica of Rome (Plate 50), a decagonal Nymph- aeum of the Imperial epoch. The bricks vary in thickness from 3.5 to 4.5 em. | 14s in.], with the other dimensions conforming to no standard, the size 34x51cm. [13.4x20.1 in.] however predominating. Where new brick have been required for restorations, they have been brought from Imole to meet the requirements of quality. The mortar joints vary from 2 to 5 cm. [0.8 to 1.9 in.], that is, sometimes wider than the thickness of the- brick. ‘The crown cornice is com- posed of five courses of brick, two of which are set saw-tooth fashion in alternation with the other courses. The lower cornice, which is interrupted by the lunette of the xv century portal and marks the division the two stories on the interior, consists simply of three brick courses the center one of which is saw-tooth. The buttresses at the angles of the main octagon which measure 1.58 m. in width by 1.25 m. in projection [5 ft. 2 in. : x 4ft. 1 in.], are worthy of note. They eae sae she bee ATRIUM STAIR TOWER /7 bet i AND PRESENT, 5 L/ CAMPANILE Pen PRESENT | i, ENTRANCE Warm: i Lig Fic. 38. Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna. ==) ane = see Ss 3 A ue A Oe, “ ‘ $ \%) 4 “a a es) my ‘) ¢ . nee Gay, ag tide 5, 0%, 7 ‘ies Ona A — NN 3 oe Way = = pee ees 5 ees Os te [a i LW TR Q CC "-F.HC—_ €C.eFEBE. 1234 5 6 7.8 9. META —$—$—$———— rs ud MIDDLE AGES *pelojsoy ‘eUUdARY ‘OTBIIA UBS “Bp 56 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PMS SBS ed, Puate 50. An Ancient Nymphaeum, the “‘Minerva Medica’’, Rome. are joined by means of brick arches, concealed by the roof, to the pilasters of the cupola. The intermediate pilasters, having a pro- jection of 32 cm. and a width of about 94 cm. [12.6x37 in.], form other vertical lines which rise far enough to intersect the crown cornice. Moreover, a ™ new motive in the architecture of Ravenna may be seen in the two corbeled brackets at the extremities of the apse gable. The cupola is con- structed of terra cotta wine jars which form a true spiral coming to a close at the sum- mit. The drum and its struc- tural connections with the octagonal base are in brick and offer AL and vey a teresting Fia. 40. Concave Squinch Arch in San Vitale, solutions of architectural Ravenna. ss : ase ~ MIDDLE AGES 57 PLATE 51. Facade of Sant’ Appollinare in Classe, near Ravenna, Restored. problems, as may be seen in Fig. 40. The passage from the wall angle to the curve of the dome is cleverly managed by a squinch arch over a recess. San Apollinare in Classe (Plates 51, 52)is another very impor- tant monument of the vi century, also constructed by Julianus Argentarius, and on the basilican plan. The brick of a light red tone are 3.5-4x50x34 cm. [1.4-1.8x19.7x13.4 in.] with mortar joints running from 2 to 5 cm. [0.8-2 in.] in thickness.* Here also the sides are decorated with a blind arcade of small round arches corresponding to the interior round-arched arcades, but without any indication of capitals, except in the central nave, on the exterior walls of which may be seen at the impost three projec- tions in as many rows of brick (Plate 53). The apse has the usual brick cornice in saw-tooth between regular courses. _ The campaniles at Ravenna are later than the 1x century, with the exception of the circular towers of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe and Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, which belong to that period. *The brickwork of this period had fallen far below that of the early Empire, but was far better. than that of the following centuries, well up into the x1 century. In the x1 century, however, bricklaying in Lombardy reached the highest excellence, as at Pavia, Modena, Milan, etc. [Ed. 58 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 53. Sant’ Apollinare in Classe, Aisle and Nave Wall, near Ravenna. 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RAN 2 fi an Le ARETE TENNENT Pe ll creer | nina il i iia ay ence! fir) MR = fi AT OR Me Doda TANTTLATATAAT f {pcan anes a ae TE RGN OT < f fn " cul a iy 1 |) hy iy iv i | | Hh | r | "a en ee Ai ee and A AA BTM hth A i ; [ i | aL it | (i alist | \ \ el lr Hel wa \ { x | i | te ! ly, il : “ Bi dhe fe ap i H m ae he Bae bts [the aah eM : \ Gt an il } AA id Hi: if ‘ih ‘ | | : ( t \ aE cite ry ase in, (hiyiti nu will rn 1 | Thi Halli TT. f Za CRV RGM OF SAR-FRANCE SCO: RAVERMA MBAROS $0 POET AG. SEPVLCRVCJe»’. Re 61 Fic. 41. Drawing of Facade and Tower, San Francesco, Ravenna. 62 BRICKWORK IN ITALY In origin, the campanile of Sant’ Agata (Plate 54), goes back to the earlier period, but as seen today represents a reconstruction of the xv century. The bell tower of Santt Giovanni e Paolo (Plate 55), is perhaps the earliest of all, dating as far back as the vi or vii century. The square campaniles of San Giovanni Evangelista (Plate 56) and of San Francesco (Plate 58, Fig. 41) belong to the x1 century. Somewhat later is the campanile of Santa Maria in Porto Fuort (Plate 57), which rises from a massive base said to have belonged to an ancient light-house. The tower of Sant’ Apollinare in Classe (Plate 52), about 40 meters high [131 ft.] with walls 1.5 m. thick [5 ft.] is built of bricks of very different dimensions, some of which probably came from demolished buildings. A few traces of horizontal cornices are preserved and each story has open- ings of one-, two- or three-arched lights. The campanile of Sant’ Apol- linare Nuovo (Plate 59), likethe preceed- ing, has cornice lines at Puate 59. Campanile of Sant?’ e ach Apollinare Nuovo. Eas] | a ar a Cm 4 GO t O = “ith 4 ix LN oe i, [ creeeet! {ff Mh uika ih S CN we either saw-tooth or simple bands of projecting brick. The crown cornice is made up of two saw-tooth courses which alternate with regular courses. Another characteristic decoration, which has partly disappeared, is =e= . a here composed of bowl-like orna- @=—=-S— c= : 0 SSeS Ser SS ments of glazed terra cotta, of which wis. Fic. 42. Window in Campanile of two may be seen over thelast three- Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Mit | i i ht WD fel Fe Go TET a te { nH Lilil it ie MIDDLE AGES 63 PuaTE 60. Abbey Church of Santa Maria in Pomposa, near Codigaro. 64 BRICKWORK IN ITALY eRe PLATE 61. Old Parish Church, Bagnacavallo. light opening, with reliefs in green, red, and old gold at the centers (Fig. 42). The varied treatment of the same motives in the campanile of Sant’ Agata is worthy of note (Plate 54). __}In other localities contiguous to the Romagna, we find the same forms established at this time. At Pomposa, in the province of Ferrara, the Church of Santa Maria (Plate 60) was built in a manner absolutely similar to the monuments mentioned thus far, with the two characteristic bracket-shaped projections at the extremes of the gable, as we see in San Vitale and Sant’ A polli- nare in Classe. The portico, added in 1026, is also in brick of the prevailing type, and bears upon its face detailed symbolical bas- reliefs which form a beautiful decoration. Ofspecial interest is the campanile 50 meters [164 ft.] in height, built in 1063. It follows faithfully the forms of the past with the exception of some details of the cornices and the round majolica ornaments which are found in great profusion. ; The Pieve (Parish Church) of Bagnacavallo, between Faenza and Imola, belongs to the v or the vi century at the latest (Plate 61). This church was also built in the same manner and with the same materials as the churches of Ravenna. It MIDDLE AGES 65 reminds us forcibly of the Basilica of Sant? Apollinare in Classe both because of the two projections at the extremities of the gable and the elevation of the walls of its facades above the roof, meant to give greater elegance and slenderness to the edifice. The well-preserved sides are decorated on the exterior of the central nave with the usual series of small blind arches, hav- ing alternate pendent supports while the pilasters rise from a band a little above the roof of the side aisles. Above the small arches is the usual cornice of a saw-tooth course between two flat courses. The round campa- nile of the 1x century was de- 3 stroyed at an early date. area 7 San Lorenzo Maggiore’ at Milan also goes back to the vi century. On the exterior of the original wall is a brick facing Fic. 43. Detail of Aisle Wall, Santa Maria ornamented at the sides with ea elie aero Ek pilasters corresponding to the interior arcades as in San Vitale. The edifice as it appears today is due to a reconstruction of the xvi century, following the forms of the original, upon the same foundations. With an octagonal plan, it is reinforced at the corners by sturdy buttresses. Many other edifices, originally built of brick, have almost totally lost their real physiognomy, as has happened, to cite one of the greatest examples, in case of St. Mark’s at Venice. a i Sane aan Waumametaease ee : an : ‘ 5 Lo RW 3 “y in 5 = UY Sat\. 4 i 4 LONGOBARD AND PRE-LOMBARD PERIOD? Alongside of the Byzantine, and interacting with it, there was being developed a type of architecture which naturally came to 1. De DarTEIN: Etude. sur l’architecture lombarde et sur les origines de l’ architecture romano-bizantine. CorpbeErO: Dell’architettura ttaliana durante la dominazione longobarda. TROJA: Codioe diplomatico longobardo. Marzario: I maestri comacini. 66 BRICKWORK IN ITALY be known generally as the Romanesque, based as it was on the early Christian adaptation of the Roman basilican or, as others say, house plan, and which especially in Northern Italy fell under a powerful Lombard influence. The beginning of the period may be assigned to the time of the Longobard king Authari (584-591), and, continuing under his successors Theo- delinda and Agilulf (592-615) down to the days of the Carlo- vingian, Charlemagne (768-814), may be said to have extended as a pre-Lombard influence to the beginning of the x1 century.* The center of this art was Milan, which had enjoyed an artistic preparation from the time when the Roman Emperor, Maximianus (286-305), chose it as his residence. Later, with similar forms, we see the center of this art shifted to the vicinity of Rome, especially showing fine examples around Viterbo. During this early Longobardic period of development, brick seems to have been little used, and then generally in combination with stone. The historical and religious documents of the time’ have been searched in vain to find any information on the manufacture of brick which, however, could not have been entirely abandoned as attested by the material of various monu- ments, especially those of the time of Charlemagne, such as the — exterior of the small nave of Santa Maria delle Caccie at Pavia (Fig. 43), the construction of which preceded by perhaps thirty years the conquest of Charlemagne over the Longobards. Due to the scarcity of both monumental and literary remains on the subject, it is very difficult to form an idea of primitive Longobardic brick architecture. The authoritative writings of *The invasion of the barbarian Longobards into northern Italy, in the vi century, at first had a disastrous effect on all forms of art, already in a sad state of decay. Their con- version to Christianity, however, led to a renewed interest in art, especially in ecclesiastical building which, during their two centuries of control, showed under such rulers as Theodo- linda and Luitprand a commendable advance, based as it was upon forms already found in the conquered territory. The able and vigorous administration of Charlemagne gave an impetus to further development in building practice, but the decay of his un- wieldy empire, under his sons, and the consequent general confusion and strife, together perhaps with the growing apprehension of the coming end of the world, reduced archi- tecture in the latter half of the rx and the whole of the x centuries to the lowest condition. With the x1 century, however, there was an evident awakening to human interests, as seen in the rise and growth of the Communes, the expansion and development of the trades, the general betterment in social and economic conditions which, together with the tremen- dous stirrings of the x11 century Crusades, resulted in a period of decided advance during which the Lombard-Romanesque manner attained its majority and not only profoundly affected, for two hundred years, the ecclesiastical and civic constructions of Italy and the rest of Europe, but made possible the pointed architecture of the x11 century. [Ed.] 1. ANASTASIO, THE LIBRARIAN: De vitis romanorum pontificum. MIDDLE AGES PLATE 62. Santa Maria in Cosmedin, Rome. 67 68 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Paulus Diaconus' is of little value here as he limits him- self rather to, expressions of admiration than to exact infor- mation. In pre-Lombard times we find at Rome, artistic tendencies still bound to past forms, as in the Church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin (Plate 62) said to have been originally built by a Byzantine colony in 775 upon the ruins of a Temple of Ceres- Bacchus and Proserpine. The Church as we see it today has undergone various changes and restorations. The campanile goes back to the beginning of the x1 century. Much the same may be said of the neighboring Church of San Giorgio in Velabro (Plate 63), the portico of which, however, probably belongs to the xm century. In the campaniles of these two churches we have admirable examples of that form of construction in the detached bell tower which peculiarly belongs to this period and which, as a marked characteristic of the Romanesque, is said to have originated as early as the vi century. In these tall, graceful campaniles of Rome, illustrated in Plates 64-67, the work strikingly simulates the old Roman methods both in the brick facings and in the very perfect round arches. New forms at Rome are found in the cloisters of Santa Francesca Romana, originally Sancta Maria Nova, of the x1 cen- tury, some features of which are surely related to motives found in the campaniles. The cloisters are especially worthy of study as examples of fine brickwork of the period (Plates 68, 69; Figs. 44-46). A curious example of a very prevalent practice of the times is found in the House of Niccolo di Crescenzio (Plate 70), of the XII century, erroneously known as the House of Rienzi, or more plausibly called the House of Pilate, as it was used as one of the Stations of the Cross in medieval processional ceremonies. It is constructed of odds and ends gathered from the ruins of older buildings and shows considerable ingenuity, but the whole is bizarre and reveals careless workmanship, as seen in the wide joints of crude unseasoned mortar (Plate 71). Santa Fosca on the island of Torcello near Venice, consecra- ted in the year 1011, shows certain features of the Ravenna apses with its graceful arcades (Plate 72). It may well be con- 1. Paoto Dracono: De gestibus Longobardorum—a writer of the early vir century. . rotates 2F. no a ol , @ ; : ae At 69 MIDDLE AGES “OULOY ‘orqosnyy] .yUes Jo ojluedurey) “Sg ALVIgG ‘Q1OIS Se [A eel eyueg jo otueduiey) “yg ALVIg BRICKWORK IN ITALY 70 -QUIOY ‘OUTUTATESNIIx) ULIIOIT “BIG JO optued ure’) *19 TLV 1d -guIOY ‘euRIzuepng *e1g jo oftueduer) 99 ALVIg SoReal + ae =) ~ 5 - wal iach Berea ey ge e =p STS plein 2 Oieeauies ST ane cmos spacing ene MO apo rinet ade, rae : A sa Sant ae Sah pare As CHIOSTRO-DI-S: MARIA -ROVA -AL- FORO-ROMALO- hATO-ORIERTALE MIDDLE AGES MSG WAS SS Wwe WOU S CX AN Wy VY WY . . i N' ‘ i : WN i \ INS | a ee 25 WY | New | WOK \ Wz = a Ra V UI! lx — i 7 x at Aa "! Tg {ah i le, e ae ifsin MA AULTAC IOUS ORACRATNT RTBU OORT AeeO EI ! ‘sia i un bom aan Va ae é Ss : ie o) Gen ; tel x a : | p ii a Oo} ef F al i a an hy il irre ai Ss isl i NTE TG y Lo EL jit SG l)axanmmmarenisunaei ioe if ie a i yt i) ont, He ili ll an ith H i md Hae ttilt, J See eer BAL m= 3,BO or 7 ee a Bs ra ia ee +++ MMr---- ' © 1 we) ha oan +) ot Oe iO ace es ne a) ii 1M O80%--1.15~-26°-1.30--40---+ ° ww “~y fe} x a ies Sie Fic. 44. East Elevation of Cloister of Sancta Maria Nova, Rome. qe BRICKWORK IN ITALY TaN Roma if “ Yi \\ Y 1 lh Hye L) LS RK \ DERE Si : Wily Se Ta ET Le St BU | Horereeeece ca EHH Ae nN % MARIA BaRosso ) i | (l | | Hila TL Paes Te py Thal Pama tye rio hes i il HEH et ee Ee Sor aah | nh fH ht pure PN te 24 ©: nl a WS alll J) Ce ale Cie 3M ‘| ‘oe Bil: ls ii Mair eal mol | he FSi fi Wear MA | Se —— ea Se ie pil zee “BARS | m4 Vee Sa Bes Mee e: 2 eas es a BEND eg RS — f al } mG L ie 4 , iH an, Sar gS TT mR il ag : 2 S ak ZZ a petiridglilat ee] te jtoady : ae } Seo oy DSAY, Go j ij ee ot Ls \ of ages Le } fae ' oa myst IW: iz eg 1 { peat nin i} ft WETEE ACoA als BAe Ze TCE SUR STD OL GiG i labels belt hy € VE UAT EAT Cea 8 TUMTA TET ml re AKL : mS . linn WM => Vili \ i “4 nw ~ OE (aes | if hia, rh Samus ct u 7 7AM Seo I eee | 7/777 7 eae we Ye =a Ye S\N 3m SN NS nK ly G 470 8 8 oe ' ’ 46 2 SQ BAEHO NGG NN SANGS YG Y ae 3 : AZ VOLO AEDT. b. Original Arcading Fig. 45. Details in Cloister of Sancta Maria Nova, Rome. a. Detail of North Side 73 MIDDLE AGES “OUIOY “BAON] BLUR], BJOUBS JO JoISIOTD UI s[lejeq ‘OP ‘DIY *ssald 1anoyq °q "suunjo‘) saddy) ‘ssaig: 4amoyT “D up QMMTUTNIT _- : je ee S| ee} pe es he Se ee ee eee AdvIAV AOOTL ANNOY JO DINYOD pire eee} BRICKWORK IN ITALY ‘QUIOY *OSNOFT OLZUBOSAIT) 9Y} JO [leq “TL ALVId “oULOYY 6é ‘Izuo nm 2 IY JO OsnoT],, 10 ‘asnoP] O1ZUBOSAID) OYJ, “OL ALVIg teense OXF yrs BE seeh eri eg eae IETF [MEAL AAA AD ALE “BUUDARY ‘e1SIISUBAT LUUBAOLD URg Jo osdy “¢) ALVIg ‘O[[9010,J, ‘BoOsOy eyURS Jo osdy °*Z) ALVIg wn tr MIDDLE AGES BRICK WORK IN ITALY ~] SN PuatTE 75. Abbey Cloister, Vezzolano. 7 MIDDLE AGES PLaTE 76. Apse and Campanile of Abbey Church, Vezzolano. 78 BRICKWORK IN ITALY TEE TA 3 yg eit me nada WER, PLATE 77. Rear View of Cathedral, Parma. 79 MIDDLE AGES ‘01Q,P [PID UI ONVIg ues ‘8L ALVIdg 80 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 79. San Teodoro, Pavia. sidered as a development of the apsidal architecture of San Giovanni Evangelista (Plate 73). Of special note is the Badia (Abbey Church) of Vezzolano (Plate 74) in Piedmont which, with its fine red brick vividly con- trasting with the surrounding verdure, has been beautifully pre- served for nearly a thousand years. Erected at the beginning of the x1 century upon the foundations of an old Longobard church,’ belonging perhaps to the times of Charlemagne, its brick fac- ing in part variegated by sandstone courses and adorned by three slender columned galleries, it clearly betrays French in- fluence. The facing is very carefully executed and, as will be seen, rises above the roof of the nave to the great advantage of the architectural ensemble. Worthy of note is the difference in the treatment of the cornices on the front and sides. With the buttresses and columniation, the facade gable bears a restrained cornice made up of saw-tooth and plain brick courses on simple brackets, while on the exterior of nave and aisles the cornices are elaborated into a graceful line of interlacing pendent arches, 1. Bosto: Storia dell’ antica Abbazzia di Vezzolano. 2. Rivorra: Le origini dell’ architettura lombarda. MIDDLE AGES 81 PLATE 80. General View of Sant’ Ambrogio, Milan. 82 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuaTeE 81. Atrium and Fagade of Sant’ Ambrogio, Milan. resting on brick corbels or stone consoles which themselves are also joined by little sub-arches. The same treatment is seen in part on the apse (Plate 76). Here gable, apse, and tower form a picture of exquisite composition. The charming little x1 cen- tury cloister reveals a touch of later Gothic influence (Plate 75). At Parma, we find in the oldest part of the Cathedral (1058- 74), the choir and apse, forms remarkably developed in their ensemble and still connected in detail with the preceding period. Here very carefully wrought out decorations in terra cotta, for the most part made in terra cotta moulds, vivify the whole. The apse (Plate 77) has a cornice of simple moulding under which there is a saw-tooth course of brick between two other courses set even; immediately below is a series of arches with terra cotta animals and leaves in the background. Then comes a light, accessible, arcaded gallery with colonettes resting on a slender base, below which there is still another saw-tooth course of brick, surmounting a series of gracefully intersecting arches. Finally, there is a very tall blind arcade, a detail of its archivolts being repeated in other parts of the building. 7 We come now to Pavia with its sumptuous Basilica of MIDDLE AGES 83 2 PuaTE 82. Atrium and Canon’s Tower, Sant’ Ambrogio, Milan. 84 BRICKWORK IN ITALY poe ‘ ‘ A es d Yale University Press. Courtesy of oon Porter an PLATE 83. East End and Apse of Sant’ Ambrogio. MIDDLE AGES 85 Courtesy of Prof. Porter and Yale University Press. 3 PLaTE 84. Apse of Sant’ Eustorgio, Milan. San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro as reconstructed! in 1132 and restored at the end of the last century by Angelo Savoldi (Plate 78). The facing, of a beautiful clear red brick, is here worked out with a care that would be impossible to find in preceding monu- ments. The three great arches, supporting a light projection on the lower part of the facade; the decoration under the slope of the roof, secured by the stepped arcade with its delicate play of interlaced pendent arches and cornice above; and the crowns of the unequal buttresses which mark the divisions of nave e and aisles, are features that arrest attention. The brick are of a beautiful clear red and of smooth surface, something not observed hitherto; and the artisan has given attention to every detail, carefully setting small round terra cotta ornaments in the spandrels of the arches as well as at the top of the larger buttress. Everything about this fagade indi- cates such progress in the workmanship of brick wall construc- tion as to suggest that there were new and specialized guilds of master masons and a revival of brick manufacture. In fact, | 1. According to some historians. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 86 “enpegd “Byog equRg jo osdy Jo ]lejoq 9°98 ALVIg “eT Pelg ‘[erpeyiey jo Asoysydeg “cg aLvig “SSald Apssanuy) 92K PuY 4940q s0ssaforg fo Ksainop recess Nera ecnaee Benen 87 MIDDLE AGES ‘g01U9 A “OUBINI, ‘OJeEUOG, 9 Ble, MURS Jo JOMOT, pue osdy ‘2g ALVIg BRICKWORK IN ITALY 88 ‘a0tud A ‘OUBIN|, ‘OPBUOG] 2 BIIe]A nueg ‘asdy jo sjrejeq “88 ALVIg MIDDLE AGES 89 Courtesy of ; PiaTE 90. Apse of San Pietro Vecchio, Brusasco, Piedmont, Restored. it was a time when brick masonry reached its highest develop- ment in the Middle Ages. Another Lombard church of the same period at Pavia is that of San Teodoro (Plate 79). Of very ancient foundation, it represents in its present form, as restored by Zuradelli and Moiraghi (1887-1909), a simple and restrained original of the early x11 century. Less ornate than San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, it reveals an obvious similarity of form. THE LOMBARD-ROMANESQUE PERIOD In Italy during this period, covering the x1, xu, and in part the x1m centuries, not only religious edifices but munici- pal buildings or communal palaces assert themselves by reason of their distinguished artistic forms. A really famous monument of brick construction is the Basilica of Sant?Ambrogio at Milan (Plate 80), mother and queen of Lombard churches,' perhaps originally founded about 386 by St. Ambrose himself. It was rebuilt in sections, according to Cattaneo, the apses and the side chapels in the 1x century 1. DE DarTEIN: op. cit. 90 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Courtesy of Prof. Porter and Yale Unwwersity Press. PLATE 91. Detail of Apse, Santa Maria, Calvenzano. ae "4 ee a S Courtesy of Prof. Porter and Yale Uiniseraity Press. PuiaTE 92. Detail of Cornice, San Sepolcro, Milan. = “eZUOJ ‘[[PH UMOT, JO ‘OlresUaIY 94} JO [le19q “f6 ALVIg ‘epreyeys jo Aoqqy ‘T[BAA VnoyP Joydeyy jo [leg “6 ALVIg MIDDLE AGES BRICKWORK IN ITALY 92 “enque] ‘ozueIO'T UBS jo [19d “96 ALVIgG MIDDLE AGES 93 and the nave, aisles; and narthex in the second half of the x1 century. The facade, with the characteristic upper gallery (Plate 81), is certainly of the x1 century; the atrium is later, probably belonging to the beginning of the xm century. The left campanile (Plate 82), dei Canonici, was built between 1128 and 1144, while that on the right, dei Monaci, seen in Plates 80, 81, belongs to the rx century. The facing of the older campanile, so devoid of decoration and done with such little care, proves its difference in date from the rest of the monument, in which we find new forms, and in which the slopes of the roof are defined by a brick cornice. This cornice begins with a saw-tooth course and is supported by a row of small pendent arches such as we find in the cornice of the lower story, and also in the cornices of the various stories of the later campanile, on the left. The apse is also very interesting (Plate 83). Above, it is embellished by an order of deep arched niches, supported every third niche by pilasters of 30x10 cm. [11.8x3.9 in.], which de- scend to rest on a single base and divide the wall into five sections. This is a wholly new method of decoration which appeared later in many other brick edifices, such as San Vincenzo in Prato; Sant Eustorgio (Plate 84), and San Celso, at Milan; and in the Baptistery of the Cathedral of Biella (Plate 85). An advance is made in the apse of Santa Sofia (Plate 86), said to be the oldest church in Padua, while still later it developed with more elegance into a series of accessible galleries, as in the apses of Santi Maria e Donato on the island of Murano, Venice (Plates 87, 88); Santt Giovanni e Paolo (1099-1118) on Mount Caelius at Rome (Plate 89); San Pietro Vecchio, Brusasco, Piedmont (Plate 90); in the side of the Cathedral of Borgo San Donnino (Plate 114); and in many others. The bonding of the brick was not utilized generally for decorative pattern work, though in the walls of Sant’ Ambrogio there appears a crude arrangement of bricks in herringbone fashion (opus spicalum) which is rather a whim of the builder than a need of construction. Some time later, however, we find this arrangement used with a definite decorative aim as in the apse of the desecrated priory church of Santa Maria at Calven- zano (Plate 91), the side aisle of San Sepolcro, Milan (Plate 92), 94 BRICKWORK IN ITALY or in the lunettes of windows at Staffarda and Monza (Plates 93, 94), and quite frequently at Venice. A most interesting example of a small circular church, after the manner of the enormous Santo Stefano at Rome, is San Lorenzo of Mantua (Plates 95, 96). Tradition of the xvim century made it a pagan temple converted to Christian uses by Constan- tine. It perhaps goes back to the x1 century and may have been rebuilt or restored at the beginning of the x1 by the famous Countess Matilda (1040-1115). After the parish was transferred to Sant’ Andrea in the xvi century and the church desecrated, the cite was gradually built over and the church forgotten for centuries, until the Commune of Mantua in 1907, deciding to enlarge the piazza, discovered the hidden church and undertook its restoration as seen at present. It is a very picturesque re- minder of the old days as it nestles beneath the great clock tower upon the busy Piazza delle Erbe. Among the older churches, we note also the Cathedral of Modena, begun in 1099 under the direction of Lanfranco da Modena, and solemnly consecrated in 1184. It is covered on the exterior with stone and is the work of the Gampionese mas- PiaTeE 97. From Right Aisle toward Choir and Crypt of the Cathedral, Modena. MIDDLE AGES 95 PLaTE 98. Detail of Nave and Triforium Arches, Cathedral, Modena. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 96 Modena. ATE 99. Left Aisle of the Cathedral, PL MIDDLE AGES 97 ters who from 1200 to 1322 carried on the work from father to son.* The interior is wholly of brick, restored in 1897. Its har- mony with the exterior architecture is truly beautiful. The brickwork of? the walls and columns is treated with a feeling of dignity worthy of such a noble interior (Plates 97-100); the arches are executed with, ,anew,attention to detail. For example, when the bricks are not long,enough for the arch face, they are cleverly toothed (Plate 98) and dovetailed in a way that perfectly meets both constructive and. decorative requirements. The cross ribs of the splendid vaulting. (Plate 100) consist of single courses of brick chamfered to avoid an otherwise harsh effect. The neighboring Abbey Ghurch of Nonantola, San Silvestro (Plate 101), is another distinguished example of this period. Un- like Modena, the exterior of San Silvestro is entirely of brick. Like all such churches of ancient foundation, it has been rebuilt and restored many times; but the striking apse, rebuilt in the xv century and restored in recent years, retains its fine Roman- esque feeling of the xm century, although the brick or the brick- * Lanfranco of Modena is regarded by Porter as ranking “among the foremost archi- tects of all times,’’ and to him must be attributed the great importance in the xi century of the Modena type of ecclesiastical building. It is to him we owe the peculiarly striking canopies or open vestibules before the main portals of Lombard churches, consisting of columns resting upon caryatids in the form of couchant lions. The high standing which Lanfranco had in his day is clearly indicated by the records. On miniatures found in the archives of the Chapter House he is depicted in the robes of his profession as architector, or magister, authoritatively directing his operarii, laborers, and artifices, skilled artisans. The present edifice is a reconstruction of the old cathedral of San Geminiano, the patron saint of the municipality, about whose shrine had grown up the then new Modena, “the city we know today. The rebuilding had reached such a point by 1106 that, amid the most solemn rites, at which the great Lanfranco and the illustrious Countess Matilda assisted and in which even Pope Pascal II with a great throng of cardinals and higher clergy took part, the sacred relics of the saint were deposited beneath the altar in the crypt of the new church, which was “dedicated,’’ according to an old document in the archives, ‘in honor of Mary, the blessed Mother of God.” At the time of its solemn consecration in 1184, the main body of the church and the lower part of the campanile were finished. However, much was still to be done, so that with additions and improvements, the entire edifice was not completed until 1319 when, it is recorded, a golden apple was placed on the pinnacle of the campanile, known subsequently as the Torre Ghirlandina. But as in all such monumental edifices of the Middle Ages there was ample field for finishing touches, additions, changes, not always happy or in accord with the original work, running through succeeding centuries. The fact is that such structures seem to have been begun and carried through without any definite preliminary plan or working drawings, except such as might be safely locked in the brain of some such great builder as Lanfranco. Tradition, through building guilds, would carry the work on as occasion permitted. Thus the great cathedrals grew, much as an epic grows, with a nucleus due to some great originat- ing mind, and an outer changing form, sometimes incongruous enough, which in the main organically expressed the original and in time became the finished work we know. See Porter, Lombard Architecture, Vol. 111, pp. 2-47. The part the great mason guilds of the Middle Ages played in this work is evident, but Professor Porter’s chapter on ‘“‘Master Builders’’ in Vol. I of his Lombard Architecture should be consulted on this subject. [£d.] BRICKWORK IN ITALY 98 Modena. ng of the Cathedral ick Vaulti Br PuLaTE 100 MIDDLE AGES 99 eA % seek: ae Pxiate 101. Abbey Church of San Silvestro, Nonantola. 100 BRICKWORK IN ITALY work does not have the same excellence as that of the Cathedral interior at Modena. San Mercuriale, Forli (Plate 102), belonging to the end of the xi century, has retained very little of its original lines. It is disfigured by baroque additions such as the lateral scrolls and the other crowning lines. On the other hand, the campanile (1180), 75 meters in height [246 feet], has remained almost intact. Its top cornice, unfortunately obscured in shadow, is enriched by a light gallery, with marked aesthetic effect. At the beginning of the xm century, we still find a pure Lombard architecture as in Santa Croce at Parma; San Michele at Cremona (Plates 103-104), founded in 618 by Queen Theode- linda and reconstructed in unusually fine brickwork toward the close of the xm century; and San Marco at Jesi (Plate 105), which has a splendid rose window in terra cotta, probably imported from the nearby Chiaravalle. With the spread of the Franciscan and Dominican religious orders, there began a slight invasion of foreign forms which we first note in the Cistercian Abbey Church of Chiaravalle (Plate 106) near Milan. With the exception of some ogival openings, probably of a later date than the original construction (1172- 1221), and the lantern, characteristic of French Cistercian churches, the exterior of this abbey adheres closely to traditional Italian forms, a splendid monument in which the beautiful clear red of the brick is not disturbed by elements in stone, as the columns, pilasters, and cornices are all in the original burned clay. In a section of a window of the lantern, we notice indica- tions of an altogether new iS decorative movement which was ae Seana beginning to invade Italian con- SSSR OE struction (Fig. 47). Itis interest- ing to note the evident influence of this noble lantern on Pecorari when, acentury or more later, he built the strikingly graceful brick tower of San Gottardo, once the chapel of the Visconti, and now part of the xvim century Royal Y/ o, DS &. ry Fic. 47. Detail of Tower Window: : Chiaravalle. Palace of Milan (Plates 107, 108). 101 MIDDLE AGES “BUOUIIT) ‘OJOWIJ, UPS “EOL ALVIG “IPO ‘eLMIJeyAy UeG JO JOMOT, “COL ALVId BRICKWORK IN ITALY 102 "Iser “OOTeP, US “COL ALVIg “BUOUAI") ‘afaqOIfA, Ue Jo asdy “FOL aLV Ig ssaid ApissanUuy) 27D X puD 1910d *foid fo Asajinoy MIDDLE AGES "asouel apeaeseryy) Jo younyy) Aoqqy “90 ALVIg 104 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 108. Tower of San Gottardo, Milan. Pxiate 107. Apse of San Gottardo, Milan. MIDDLE AGE 105 PLatTeE 110. Detail in Portico of Cloister, Chiaravalle Milanese. BRICKWORK IN ITALY *yUOUIPsig ‘eYV Bial[sjng ‘Auoyqjuy “49 Jo [eyidsoyy “ZL. ALVIg aTTPABIEIY) ‘TEA J0ySIO[) ‘asoue]I yA UI gpeUJeqey, JO [e9q “LIL ALVIg MIDDLE AGES 107 queens: of Prof. Porter and Yale University Press Puate 113. Abbey Church of Chiaravalle della Colomba. The Cloister of Chiaravalle (Plates 109, 110) very clearly suggests an idea of the beauty of the cornices, enriched as they are by a rope decoration above a graceful interplay of small pendent arches. Here new expression in brick decoration may be found in the band above this arcading in which small square bricks are set corner to corner, seen also in the beautiful chapel (Plate 111) where these same small square bricks are set with beautiful decorative effect in the form of crosses. Equally worthy of note is the splendid Abbey Church of Chiaravalle della Colomba, Santa Maria, somewhat earlier in the xm century than the Milanese example. The narthex be- longs to the end of the century. The modern restoration has left the original lines substantially intact (Plate 113). The pointed arch entered but gradually into Lombard archi- tecture. Up to this time it had found its way only into some local constructions not far from the French frontier, as at Buttigliera where it existed as far back as the xm century (Plate 112). In the magnificent Cathedral of Borgo San Donnino, begun in 1207, pointed arches between the buttresses support the projecting masonry of the upper story along which runs BRICKWORK IN ITALY 108 ‘ouTUUOG Ueg OS10g ‘feIpey}eD Jo yueLY YING “PTT ALVIg ee. wT MIDDLE AGES 109 an open arcaded gallery (Plate 114). We find the ogival also in Central Italy, about the middle of the x1 century, in the campanile of the Cathedral at San Severino (Plate 115). In fact, these architectural forms, varying slightly with the location, may be found in Italian churches throughout the entire x11 century. ? At Cremona, the Cathedral (Plate 116), constructed in 1109, was rebuilt on a grander scale in 1124 of beautiful yellowish red brick, excepting the stone facade, with later additions in the xi and xtv centuries. To this later period belong the very beau- tiful rose windows of the transepts, in brick and terra cotta of local manufacture (Plates 117, 118). At Crema, the Cathedral (Plate 119), built of a yellowish orange brick, has an unusual profusion of terra cotta around the various openings. In the different details here given (Figs. 48, 49), we may see altogether new mouldings, which pave the way for the development of the Lombard - Gothic style. At Bologna, we have a most remark- able example of brick decoration in the group of churches known generally un- der the name of Santo Stefano (Fig. 50c).' This group is compos- ed of seven churches, the three most impor- tant of which are seen in Plate 121. At the left, is the Basilica of Santi Pietro e Paolo, the exterior restored in 1880-85 after the PLATE 115. The Old Cathedral, San Severino. BRICKWORK IN ITALY Cremona. 9 istery of the Cathedral The Torrazzo and Bapt PLATE 116 LE MIDDLE AGES PuatE 117. North Transept of the Cathedral, Cremona. 112 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 118. South Transept of the Cathedral, Cremona. MIDDLE AGES PxiaTe 119. Cathedral, Crema. 114 BRICKWORK IN ITALY medieval type, the portal of which is worthy of study (Plate 124). In the center, is the octagonal San Sepolcro; and on the right, the simplest in its external decoration, is the Chiesa del Crocifisso with its xu century vaulted brick pulpit on the left corner. The cornices of these three churches are worthy of note as showing varied treat- ments of the same sim- ple motives (Fig. 505). We enter first the Church of the Crucifix. The presbytery is dis- figured by constructions of 1637 but the nave has preserved its origi- nal character (Plate .125). The brick, Fic. 48. Detail of Facade Window, Crema. of a light-red color, are of the large size 8x32x16 cm. [3.2x12.6x6.3 in.] with mortar joints from 1.5 to 2 cm. [0.6 to 0.8 in.]. On the wall left of the choir en ff may be seen a band of herringbone po fF pattern with a wider one above, where i there is a resumption of the motive found on the exterior of the polygonal cupola of San Sepolcro (Plate 121), an edifice which is probably an x1 - century reconstruction of an ancient baptistery with a characteristic base. === The exterior wall of the cupola is also eg hen AR a orc a characteristic; its surface is decorated Crema. with simple patterns of red and yellow Lal h "| q q] By Ath eer | |, ey e ‘oes Ener, lx ‘J \ hs Ya MIDDLE AGES | 115 (Sos ee Pa pe Se MARIA BARS es re ae aes ibe 5 = ee = (3 5 a ge = : ae ah ae i : Zy 1%), Uys ae aie Mdipps: : ! iy xy Q a cme aat : / ‘ ! i a as Mp yx, \ iva 5 yea SCF ON ES Se = b ZL Mg eM x ‘ \ pf ¢ ail = Q A] x \ \ poner 5 eee ee tr - | = S Fi AW \\VF ey VY, nN \ x78 y VE “yon A $ \\y / .. — Wy TARA easy i ae UD} iy wR 1, WS fon Os ah = Mp 7, o> an ius a SE ES BZ note ed Sait pe Seen BS ee Sa yes Sp, ec ees \ a, git : Hie a. Window in San Sepolcro. i chiesa gy Ip 5. SEPUKCRO an ! Wa, DEL SOLA 1h SS PIETRO ZS LW YL ‘ a} hy {Pr 2 RSS {| cRociFissoY Uy ip /E € PAOLO mon aN “er A a YY, on ey ia? ey aul Ke py ”, a) Chua, ¥ TING) es UM ey & A WghN CAPPELLA eae Pee) PM MONI: DELLA x x wa CON SOL- ‘ . A TRIO oat MS AZIONE. a : as Se { tae Pi PILATO ei oo 2 fur IN é tot G a a aa Yo He ta CAPPELLA DELLA STA ijyjy FACIGLIA ST GGG pp yyw Hi CAPPELLA DEGLI 55. QVARANTA a8 hf bay: a 5 ig R Oi. —— —s XXX? fe es beat TRUD nA: Gi, Zs YY OCYLTETEEEEEE pe ech 5 Nema VL, Z Te he WS Fre. 50. Plans and Details of St. Stephen’s, Bologna. 116 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Jygeytrp eb t tes O» ~\ QO St SWS MLYQ.VB 5 WN WS WS 4 ~ SS ™ Baroy 3M ee. Fic. 51. Gallery Plan of San Sepolcro, Inner Pilaster and Section. Mana BAResyo her Fic. 52. Typanum in San Sepolcro, and Rosettes in Portico of Pilate. ——— a MIDDLE AGES Ee; e Pat rier TF é 14 ereRbSC O10 SEES Eh emme vase! ban gape roe anid ya A UT, SELMSTAISES TT ES es i 2 Coa z 4 Sry ge ei, Ciglin. 2 Yin, Diyyp ttt th tty Wty ttn, 614th nla Vth tty “ny Wl frp, M,%t, AH iti be OA OEE EEE EEE of 4 y VLG V4 bo of LY le Uf ts is Tiygd, GALGELMAGIG ly Fy, a Z OL. MMO IISETEEEEEL EK: Fie. 53. Detail of Interior and Plan of San Sepolcro, Bologna. Sen Sy a ee ne et er F 117 BRICKWORK IN ITALY 118 ‘eusojog ‘dno ouejoyg Ueg 94} Ul SeyoINY,) voIG, “TZ1 ALVId ie : oe E, an iss Sa 4 Seckeasioespianvid ~ ilies aaa ie d Ana e=--- EN 1----9 ©----€'I----5 gabe Sn ( ay eis H¢ re ee ; . ' Ste cts “0s seooo--===------¢6'¢ ae ae == Oe le e——E———— MIDDLE AGES 119 bricks. Likewise the tympana of the arches in the first story are decorated with pretty rosettes, the designs of which are accentuated by the contrast of the brick colors (Figs. 50d, 52). PuatTE 124. Main Portal of Santi Pietro e Paolo, Bologna. A pleasant sur- prise, however, is afforded by the decoration of the opposite side of this church in the socalled Alrio di Pilato (Court of Pilate, Plates 120, 123). Here we find an unbridled suc- cession of the strangest combi- nations, of motives intermingled with the most pleasing effects. From top to bottom of the wall, we see numb- ers of rosettes worked outin great detail. At the top thereisa band made up of small crosses, in which the arms are com- mon to two consec- utive crosses, producing a double decorative motive as the ele- ments of the crosses are cut out of yellow brick while the back- ground is of red brick. Intermingled with all are six-pointed stars which produce a beautiful decorative effect. Further down there appears herringbone designs interspersed with star-shaped ro- settes and checkerboard motives among which, here and there, pieces of limestone are substituted for the yellow brick and porphyry fragments for the red brick. There are also small square bricks set corner to corner asin the Abbey Church of Chiaravalle. 120 BRICKWORK IN [ITALY PLATE 126. Interior of San Sepolcro. P 5 e - oF se MIDDLE AGES 12] The combinations in the portico are curious (Plate 123). The rosettes originally had bowl-like ornaments in the center, one of which, of a violet-red color, has been recently discovered. The motives are most varied, as may be seen in our illustrations (Fig. 52). The bases of the best-preserved columns are also in brick from 6 to 6.5 cm. [2.4-2.6 in] in. thickness, cut with the hammer. The interior of San Sepolcro (Plates 126, 127, Figs. 51, 53) in red brick with its mellowed patina of age inspires a sen- timent of wrapt mysticism through the austerity of line and color. At the opposite end of the Court of Pilate from San Sepolcro is Santissima Trinita with chapel beyond, (Plates 128, 129, 130) restored in beautiful creamy yellow brickwork by Edoardo Collamarini, Professor in the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Bologna. On the interior of Sts. Peter and Paul (Plate 131) a rich varied red brick has been used in piers and walls with a very pleasing effect. The great Cloister, adjoining the Court of Pilate and in the rear of the Church of the Crucifix, is impressive in the harmony of its colors which age has softened into a misty gold (Plate 132). Its lower story goes back to the rx century while the upper belongs to the early years of the x1. Here also we find the most varied combinations in the spandrels of the upper arches. The latter are constructed of curved brick which in length are the full width of the intrados, or 40 cm. [15.8 in.]; they are 5 cm. [1.9 in.] thick, recessed 6 cm. [2.4 in.] from both the interior and exterior faces of the extrados brick, which are also 5 cm. thick. There are two cornices, the profiles of which are given in Fig. 50,e and g. In Fig. 50e, under the line of the brackets is seen an inclined band of bricks cut in a geometrical design. The frieze consists of three brick courses, each 6 cm. [2.4 in.] wide, the middle one of which is carved in two _ prevailing motives—a line of small diagonally set squares and a triangu- lar fret (Fig. 50g). Then comes the row of brackets above, each cut on a single brick in the most varied forms, of which we give in outline the simplest and most characteristic (Fig. 50f). The Basilica of Sant’ Andrea at Vercelli (Plates 133, 134), built between 1219 and 1224, should also be included in our review ESTE beds See eee sob eo idea: BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuiaTe 129. Entrance to Holy Trinity, St. Stephen’s, Bologna. PLATE 130. Sanctuary of Holy Trinity, St. Stephen’s, Bologna. . ] MIDDLE AGES ‘eusojog ‘s,uaqda}s S . [neg pue Jojeq ‘81S jo JOlIoyUT Tél 5 aALVIg BRICKWORK IN ITALY 124 “eusojog ‘s usydatg “1G JO JoySIO[D “JET ALWIg MIDDLE AGES 125 as one of the finest brick churches of this time, very remarkable both for the beauty of its lines and for its skillful construction. Though erected by canons from Paris, Romanesque lines are preserved on the exterior, but the interior is modeled after the early Gothic of Northern France. During this period, civil architecture was fully established in the form of towers, public palaces, municipal buildings, and city halls. At Treviso, we still find very pure forms in the Palazzo det Trecento, built in 1184 (Plate 135) but recently restored by Giulio Nivi. Much in the same spirit is the restoration of the Palazzo Provinciale, or Prefecture, to the left, done by Camillo Boito. At Cremona, the Palazzo Comunale and the Torrazzo are very remarkable for their profusion of terra cotta of exquisite work- manship. The former (Plate 136), erected between 1206 and 1245, possesses altogether new decorative elements; the pointed arch has already been introduced in the portico. The tower belongs to an earlier period, while the tribune on the center pier belongs to the xvi century. The Torrazzo (Plate 116), erected between 1250 and 1267 has two- and four-light openings beautifully framed in pointed arches. To the right is seen the large octagonal brick Baptistery belonging to the x1 century. At Piacenza, the Palazzo del Comune (Plate 137), begun in 1281, which stands out prominently among other buildings of the town, has three- and four-light openings of unparalleled beauty which are adorned with friezes of the greatest variety, done with the hammer. The east end (Plate 139) is gabled and has above the two three-light openings a graceful rose window in terra cotta. The west end (Plate 138) presents a still finer effect in a very beautiful opening of many lights with slender binate columns, the whole finely framed above two three-light openings. At Monza, the Palazzo Arengario, or Town Hall (Plate 140), was erected in 1293 with another tower than the present one. Herringbone decoration is seen in some of the window spandrels. At Fano the Palazzo della Ragione, or Court of Justice (Plate 141), preserves very pure lines. The spandrels show characteristic arrangements altogether new and of great variety. The Cloister of San Niccold at Tolentino (Plate 153), with its square, 126 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 133. Sant’ Andrea, Vercelli, Piedmont. 127 E AGES MIDDL PLATE 134. Apse of Sant’ Andrea, Vercelli. BRICKWORK IN ITALY “(VWep ounuULuO’) 94} JO JOMOT, pue voeled [ePlouIAOIG ‘(qS11) OJUDI0IT, 9G} JO OB[eg “CE, ALVIg MIDDLE AGES "BUOUaI) ‘QORTeg [PEUNUIUIOT) “9E]T ALVIG 130 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 138. West End of Communal Palace, Piacenza. MIDDLE AGES 131 Puate 139. East End of Communal Palace, Piacenza. 132 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Cite ye) ei ee . 4 x PLATE 140. Palace of the Commune, or Arengario, Monza. MIDDLE AGES PuaTE 142 Campanile of Cathedral, Gaeta. PLATE 141 Palace of Justice, now a Theatre, Fano. 134 BRICKWORK IN ITALY round, and grouped brick columns, also reveals the purest lines. A peculiar form of construction of the period were immense brick towers, built originally for defense and meant to show the power and wealth of the builder. The Torre degli Anguillara in the Trastevere at Rome (Plate 143), built by a member of the powerful Orsini family, is characteristic of the times, as is the tower at Ravenna built by the commune (Plate 144). At Bologna the towers of the Garisendi and the Asinelli, erected at the — beginning of the xir century, survive out of the 180 which are said to have belonged to the city’s nobility at that time. The first which remained unfinished on account of settlement in the ground is only 47.5 meters [155.8 ft.] in height, the second, seen in Plate 145, rises 97.6 meters [320.2ft.] with abreadthof 12 meters|39.4ft. | Such characteristic towers of the period are found everywhere. At Rome the Torre de’ Capocci (Plate 146), at one time in the possession of Vanozza de’ Catanei, mother of Lucretia and Caesar Borgia; the Torre delle Milizie, or di Nerone because that wicked emperor was in popular tradition supposed to have watched from its summit the burning of Rome (Plate 147); and the Torre de’ Conti (Plate 148), built during the pontificate of Innocent III (1198-1216), a member of the Conti family, were constructed in those troublous social and political times of the x1 and xu centuries. We also see at this epoch the beginnings of fortress construc- tion, well-preserved examples of which may be found in the xm1 century, as the Rocca Sanvitale, at Fontanellato near Parma, and the Rocca di Caterina Sforzaat Forli(Plates 149, 150). TheCastello di Ostia, near Ostia, and the Castello delle Quattro Torri, near Siena (Plates 151, 152), although of later construction, illustrate the same general type. As a part of the necessary civic protection of the day were the fine xiv century city gates of Siena, of which the Porta Romana is a striking example (Plate 154). Southern Italy is poorly represented in brick architecture; clay is scarce and stone is very common. But a good idea of the forms in this region, varying between Moorish and the Roman- esque influences, may be had at Gaeta in the campanile of the Cathedral which rises in very harmonious proportions (Plate 142). 4 MIDDLE AGES "BUUDARY JO JOMOT, [PUNUIUIO') “Ppl ALVIg Pree ® POLORELEIDLPLELILD LE HISD AGEL ED AD "pai07sey] ‘oULOY ‘eIeyNsuy sO], “EPL ALVIg MIDDLE AGES 136 euoy ‘Koodde") ay} JO JaMOT, ‘OP[ ALVIgG euso[og ‘JoUIsy JO JaMOy, “Spl ALVIg 137 MIDDLE AGES UO, oP JO, 8V [ SLV1g ‘QUIOY ‘VUOIO\] JO ‘VIZI[IA, e]Jep e1IO], LVL SLVId 138 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 149. Rocca Sanvitale, Fontanellato. PLATE 150. Rocca di Caterina Sforza, Forli. MIDDLE AGES 139 Pirate 151. The Castle near Ostia. 140 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuLaTE 154. Porta Romana, Siena. MIDDLE AGES 141 PLATE 155. Windows in the Borgheresi Palace, San Gimignano. THe Goruic PERIOD During this period,' there was in Italy an architecture which, though adopting a few elements from the new style, remained on the whole purely Italian. The pointed arch, which indeed is often associated with the semicircular arch, usually has the centers of its two curves at the ends of the span; at times, when the arch is less slender, the two centers divide the span into three parts; while, in very pointed arches, the centers fall outside the span altogether. The meeting of the bricks at the apex of the arch resulted in an imperfect keying, if it was desired to keep the joints normal to the line of the intrados. But this difficulty was overcome by using a stone key block; or, as in Tuscany (Plates 155, 156), the exact keying of the brick might be secured by making the joints converge toward a single center. Flying buttresses grew more slender and presented a less robust appearance than in the preceding period. Decorative 1. G. GIovANNONI: Gli stili architetlonict. Borro: L’architettura nel Medio Evo in Italia. VERDIER ET Catrots: Architecture civile et domestique en Moyen Age. 142 BRICKWORK IN ITALY cornices, though often approaching classical outlines, are com- paratively small, show little projection, and are often supported by a series of small arches, as in the Mercanzia at Bologna (Plate 157). These small arches in gabled fronts are frequently set out of plumb, or normal to the slope of the roof as, for example, in the facade of San Francesco at Bologna, where we also see a return to decoration in enameled bowl-like ornaments forming a line below the small crowning arches (Plate 158). On interiors, brick piers upon which the groin arches are gathered often have mouldings executed on the brick with very delicate hammer work, made possible by the excellent quality of the brick. These mouldings are sometimes rather complex, especially when the brick are laid in regular zones in connection with stone, the moulding of which they follow with great pre- cision. The groins of the vaults have the brick either simply chamfered or cut in semi-circular or more elaborate forms, as shown in Fig. 54. The architecture of this period. still retains local character, so much so that writers on the subject like Giovannoni find it necessary to make distinction among various Gothic styles, as Lombard, Venetian, Tuscan, Sienese, Lucchese, etc. It is inter- esting to note that in order to manufacture terra cotta for the decoration of brick buildings, gener- ally of a little lighter tone than the brick, special equipment was now added to almost all kilns and many excellent artists devoted themselves to its manufacture. At Bologna, the Church of San Francesco, built between 1236 and 1263, belongs to this period, especially because of its characteristic apse (Plate 159). The lofty bell tower and the tombs of two great jurists at the rear, of which only that of Messer : Accursio is seen in the illustration, are Yj more than a century and half later. J 7 Z J, The pointed tops of the tombs are in ; enameled green brick. The vestibule he. $4. 143 MIDDLE AGES “eusolog ‘g0J0UIUIOT) JO Joqurey’) JO eIZURdJEIA LST SLVIg ‘OUBUSIUILD URg ‘Q0RTeg TOOeUL], UL SMOPUT AA 9ST ALVIg 144 BRICKWORK IN ITALY San Francesco, Bologna. PuaTE 158. A i cf noes Ss PC ys (2h ae aN Fol a ee Ti Ps Rages as il ui pea eee iu MIDDLE AGES 145 entrance to the South Transept, with its splendid Romanesque arch (restored) and columns of banded brick and stone, is worthy of note (Plate 160). We find in Bologna a whole group of monuments similar to San Francesco, with their rose windows, their long, symmetrical light openings, and their facades outlined along the slopes of the roof with cornices such as previously described. Thus San Giacomo Maggiore (Plate 161), which shows a little progress in Gothic feeling, is closely related to San Francesco. The great rectangular window may have better lighted the new xvi century interior but it was no substitute for the original rose window. The arches and the tombs flanking the entrance should be noted. At Verona the fine Benedictine Church of San Fermo Mag- giore (Plate 162), though belonging to the Romanesque period of the x1 and x11 centuries, shows in its reconstruction of the early xiv century the Gothic influence of the times. Its brick and marble courses of the facade characterize much Veronese work of the Middle Ages. Cremona remains more than ever bound to traditional forms and the pointed arch as seen in Sant Agostino seems to follow with difficulty the invading new style (Plate 163). At Venice, the Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo (Plates 164, 165, 167, Fig. 55) begun in 1246, with elements in its facade of a later epoch; and Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari or simply I Frart, of which is shown a detail of the apse (Plate 168, Fig. 56), rep- resent here the most famous examples of this epoch. The accompanying drawings somewhat indicate the high degree of skill which craftsmanship in brickwork had attained during this period (Figs. 57, 58). At Vicenza, the beautiful San Lorenzo of 1280 (Plate 169) has a sumptuous facade in which the recesses under the pointed arches accommodate the characteristic tombs. The portal which was added in 1344 and the cornices, it will be observed, preserve a purely Lombard feeling. In the church of San Niccolo at Treviso (Plate 166), built in the early x1v and restored during the last century, we have the characteristic apse rising into great long windows between lofty pilasters in which the Gothic feeling has well nigh-disappeared. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 146 147 MIDDLE AGES Pe pak Rew oon. SETS SRK “BUOIOA ‘OIOISSEIA, OULIO UBS *ZO[ ALVIG 148 BRICKWORK IN ITALY ssp 3 PLATE 163. Sant’ Agostino, Cremona. In the Piedmontese churches, as in the Cathedral of Saluzzo and in San Domenico at Turin (Plate 170), originally of the XIV century, we frequently find the motive of a very acute triangular pediment above the door, reaching as in San Domenico the rose window which gives light to the nave from the facade. This motive was later corrupted in its striving for lobated lines as in the Cathedral at Asti (Plate 171). The interior of San Domenico is beautifully finished in brick piers and nave arches and groins (Plate 172). This treatment is frequent, although at times the brick in blended tones of red are so skillfully painted on a thin coating of plaster, covering the common brick core, as to deceive the very elect, as in Santa Maria del Carmine, Milan, Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, ete. Central Italy is more completely bound to the traditions of the preceding period. Thus in the Cloister of San Giuliano at Perugia (Plate 173), which belongs to the second half of the xt century, the arches are just barely pointed, having been toned down by a slight chamfer on the intrados, done with a few strokes of the hammer on the finished masonry. In the campa-- 149 Ss ~ 4 4 ‘ I AC a 4 4 MIDDLI ‘Q01U9 A “O[ORd 9 BE errr HO IUUBAOLY) UBS “POL ALWId — BRICKWORK IN ITALY 150 “OSIADL], ‘QTOOOIN] Ue jo osdy “99, ALVIg ‘OjOeg 9 TUUBAOTY) TUBS Jo osdy “SOT ALVIG in sdibld ii} (ype Thane Su? SSeS es anes y ; ed as te ey NN i ¥ eo a seuteghes “ena 7 x ee #6 "i vit i Ws 2 = ; aes ata rt 4AM. ard cartes TT MIDDLE AGES c TTT Se ee iS naa Q s = me Sakc> ak aR ll ak as ak : STO SalIZA WA NI 2 as} oan |Ssael aga ie ! eae Geese ig fad ren 2 ; | Eee 4 ae = epg ee a ale sla raaieale HEU a} Ha o Elche Wetec t petty pet rd rH AL FA | PTET TTT TET] ob LT Ee » MIDDLE AGES 153 QAM ‘aa | = Se ae 1 J Re Wa cease 1 aircon —— 7. i nD aa ee i a \ mM ne UA i W yy Ne oe as 2) Ti NE LOREM nent. = . SS AS a hme — =~ y & py VW = yr ee r ay ty Vy Drsk Ai, Ar (il) Aue Ing wi Ins f 4 Lil) : SK a =J- es Ow C se ayers Yvoes popes rece GMM M0 U \ MARIA BAKO SSO 58. Detail of the Frari Campanile, Santo anne Venice. Venice. niles of the x1v century the cornices are to be seen as saw-tooth courses supported on brick set as brackets, much as we have seen in similar structures of the x1 and xi centuries. Among the constructions of this period, Sant’Antonio at Padua (Plate 174), which evidently emulates the domical design of St. Mark’s at Venice, reveals somewhat independent lines, due to certain hybrid forms which however are fused into a harmoni- ous whole. In the facade, we find horizontal members which indicate a relation to preceding monuments; at the base of the pediment we have an elaborate horizontal arcade which is not found on the sides. On the other hand, the Chapel of the Scro- vegni, or Madonna dell’ Arena, built of beautiful red brick, is very simple and of the purest lines (Plate 175), getting its dis- tinction from the glories of Giotto, housed within. Another church of Padua deserving mention is the Hremitani, an old Augustinian church built about 1350 but, as seen today, a restoration of the last century (Plate 176). The Certosa of Pavia (Plate 225) is late Gothic, already srowing weary of the pointed arch. On account of the period of 154 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 169. San Lorenzo, Vicenza. PuaTE 170. San Domenico, Turin. 155 MIDDLE AGES ‘ULIN |, ‘OOTUIUIOG, UG JO JOMIOJUT “ZL ALWIg ey: 6 Jerpoyqyey) PUL TILT SLV1g 156 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuLatTe 173. Cloister of San Giuliano, Perugia. its construction (1396-1499), it shows traces of the new inspi- ration which was invading Italy, but because of its pin- nacle-crowned buttresses and the lantern which recalls those of the Cistercian churches of France, it may be men- tioned here. Civil construction developed, in the main, along the lines of the preceding period, with the exception of the pointed arch which from now on especially appeared in the upper stories. Cornices were almost always of terra cotta in which the modeling of real masters produced a fine play of light and shade for the eye of the art-lover. Thus at Cremona, in the Palazzo det Giureconsultt (Plate 177) the brick and terra cotta are finely blended in bands, archivolts, and labels by the patient work of the hammer. Fig. 61. Brick Moulds. 180 BRICKWORK IN ITALY work which added to a rigid concept of constructive practice, caus- ed no little neglect of solidity and bearing strength in the building. Thus much premised, we shall be able to see what employment brick had in the various parts of construction during this period. The masonry of piers in general was thinned down and no longer presented tenacity and cohesion, or those qualities of especial solidity which were the chief merits of the old Roman construction. In every region, rather in every locality, those par- ticular forms of construction were adopted which best corre- sponded to the economic use of the materials and methods of work for that particular place. Thus, besides walls exclusively of brick, we often see masonry combined of stone and brick as in the preceding period, and we have examples, especially at Rome, of the so-called tegolozza or walls built entirely or in part of burnt clay materials from the ruins of ancient monuments. Sometimes we find walls of great thickness with facings of brick, connected by transverse partitions in a way to form so many caissons which were meant to be filled with gravel and lime, but sometimes left empty either by the fraud of the builders or by the negligence of those directing the work, as for example in the Castello Sforzesco at Milan.' ARCHES, VAULTS, AND CUPOLAS If, in the period of the Renaissance, we encounter a return to the Greek and Roman decorative forms, we find in the wall structure, as has been said, the continuance of the Latin tradition. There was abandoned, in the main, the characteristic groining of the Gothic period, although there did not disappear the practice of providing with ribs some types of these vaults in which brick largely entered. The arches are for the most part of brick, and sometimes we see very striking examples of them, as in the four great arches supporting the cupola of Saint Peter’s at Rome. 7 In vaults, almost always of brick, there still remained, how- Fig. 62. Pavilion Vault. | ever, some groining. Besides, the 1. Luca Bettramt: II Castello di Milano sotto il dominio dei Visconti e degli Sforza, 1369-1535. Matacuzzi-VALERI: op. cit. p. 68-69. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 181 special form of vaulting known as pavilion, which covered square, rectangular, or polygonal compartments, came into vogue (Fig. 62); and the brick vault in foglio, where the brick were set flat, as Shown in Fig. 14, page 18, was also much used. Often this type of vault had a purely decorative function and was separate from the roof or the ceiling above. In these cases, the reinforcement of the cement is not used in the entire vault, but is limited to the groins. We have very important examples of this, and that too with arches of wide span, in such structures as the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the Farnese Palace, and the loggias of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome. In the construction of cupolas, the old Roman idea of the single solid dome was abandoned not only because it gave rise to various disadvantages, due especially to humidity, but because it required very heavy masonry both in the cupola itself and in the piers. However, we have some modest exam- ples of it, as the cupola of the Rotunda at Vicenza, a famous building of Palladio (1550-53) but not completed until 1606 by Vicenzo Scamozzi. In general, the cupola was always in a double form, that is, had some sort of covering or shell above it, and occurred in two distinct types, the roofed and the doubled cupola, that is, either the dome was within the walls, covered by a roof, as already adopted in the Middle Ages, or the dome was simply doubled. From Rome the idea of groining was again taken up and carried to perfection. This gradually developed into true ribs which assumed the chief static function of support, forming a bearing skeleton, and thus leaving to the sections of the cupola, which rested upon the ribs, almost solely the function of a cov- ering. In cupolas, brick was almost always the sole material adopt- ed, except sometimes when stone was used in the ribs, in the rings of the lantern, or in the parts subjected to heavy thrusts. In particular, the characteristic brick construction of the two great cupolas, those of the Duomo at Florence, and of Saint Peter’s at Rome, merit citation.? In the first, Brunelleschi, with the chief aim of avoiding as far as possible the employment of a centering or an immense template, adopted for the con- 1. Strack: Central und Kuppelkirchen der Renaissance in Italien. Srrack: Der Kirckenschmuck. 2. Miuanr: Ossature murali Vol. 3, p. 42 ff. 182 BRICKWORK IN ITALY struction of his marvelous cupola a most ingenious system in setting the brick. He had them set vertically, following naturally the curvature of the cupola as construction proceeded, and at the same time horizontally, thus forming a herringbone effect, no supports being necessary as the adhesion of the mortar was sufficient to hold each brick as it was successively set in place (Fig. 63). A similar procedure with some variation was adopt- ed in the construction of the cupola of Saint Peter’s(Fig. 64). Most beautiful examples of static construction are to be found in the cupolas of the ' Baroque period, and in the fol- lowing xvi century. Giovan Battista Guarini especially ex- celled in this daring construction. His constructive virtuosity, as seen in the cupola of San Lorenzo at Turin (1686), with its intersecting groins on a planimetric star-like pattern, makes one think almost of a miracle in static equilibrium. Wis i al Fia. 63. Brick Vaulting, Duomo, Florence. Brick IN DECORATION During this period, the ae use of brick in the decora- , tion of buildings lost in part its importance, inas- much as the seeking for and adoption of new forms, to- gether with the very consid- erable development of deco- rative sculpture, necessar- | ; ily required the employment NY | A of stone and marble. How- NV employed in the facing of pea | external walls, the work be- | ever, brick was still widely ing VCLY carefully done with Fic. 64. Brick Vaulting, St. Peter’s, Rome. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 183 PLATE 202. Door of Baglioni Palace, Citta della Pieve. tl HH" : i trea {{ ‘Wat Lf 1ceno. e PuatTe 201. Court of House at Ascoli 184 BRICKWORK IN ITALY seme : Sees PxLatE 203. Court of the Ducal Palace, Urbino. thin brick and very thin mortar joints. Often this facing was put on after the internal nucleus of the building was already up, and done in such a way as to procure a good bond between the two. Examples of very beautiful facings of this kind are found from the xv to the xvi centuries. _ Sometimes brick was used for pilasters, columns, and in general for all those architectural elements which, by reason of the simplicity of their form, lent themselves to an easy and natural employment of this material. On the other hand, for cornices, capitals, door and window architraves, and for all other decorative parts, almost without exception, cut stone was em- ployed from the xv century on. However, in Lombardy and the Emilia, as well as in other regions, the widespread employment of brick in its most varied applications continued. We often see, especially in houses of the more modest type, admirable and ingenious examples of decorative brickwork, of which we may cite in passing a little court of a house at Ascoli Piceno (Plate 201); the small Baglioni palace at Citta della Pieve (Plate 202), the little Umbrian town in which Perugino was born; and the house of Ariosto at Ferrara RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 185 (Plate 212). For essentially decorative work, in case cut stone was lacking, terra cotta was used of which we see a great variety of examples offering strikingly beautiful effects. Besides decorative terra cotta, there was also a great de- velopment in polychrome decoration, obtained by means of an intelligent and happy combination of cut stone and brick, as seen in the eastern part of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan, con- structed by Bramante, the Cerlosa of Pavia, etc., or by means of plaster and graffito, limited however to small, wisely selected sections. Brick was also largely used in pavements, of which characteristic examples survive, such as found in the Castel Sant’ Angelo, in the Church of the Filippini at Rome, or in San Sepolcro at Bologna. RENAISSANCE, PERtop [| Pointed architecture having been abandoned, there began about the year 1400, after a period of transition, the application on a wide scale of classical forms. These were not reproduced coldly or with pedantic imitation but in a new, broad spirit of freedom and artistic élan. The movement which was initiated by Brunelleschi, with a harshness that impelled him to con- quer all difficulties at a blow, without artifice or meretricious adornments and almost as if in scorn of decoration, was at once followed in every part of Italy by a great number of most capable artists, taking on in every locality its own proper characteristics. Indeed, this was one of the principal features of this first period. Every one followed it according to his individual ideas, always with the greatest refinement and with a_ profound artistic feeling, adding that clever and original form of decoration which, taking its cue from clas- sical elements, was essentially inspired by the flora and fauna of the region, and which formed another characteris- tic of this period. At Florence and in Tuscany generally, where the movement was initiated; we do not have particularly important buildings in brick. There stone bore sway and only terra cotta decoration found splendid application. At Siena, we have some brick con- struction of this period in which there was a mixture of tradi- 186 BRICKWORK IN ITALY tional Gothic motives with others taken from classical art, as seen in various palaces of the time. The new art was propagated from Tuscany throughout con- tiguous provinces. In Umbria and in the Marches, we find brick construction widespread, especially in buildings of minor architectural value, in which door and window frames, com- posed entirely of carved brick, are characteristic. Many are the monuments that one might cite. One of exceptional value is the Ducal Palace at Urbino of which we see an angle of the fine court in Plate 203, a sumptuous residence completed about 1467, in which, however, the principal decorative parts are in cut stone. In the Marches, the Communal Palace at Jesi (1481) with its rustic brick facing,! is a striking example. In the Emilia, burnt clay products found, as has been said, a very wide vogue and innumerable applications. In this region, architecture ran more to richness of decoration than to purity of line. In the Bovi-Silvestri palace at Bologna we find one of the first ex- amples in which motives of the Renaissance are seen mixed with Gothic elements such as windows with pointed arches in a transition style that has produced not a few monuments. Where, however, the Renaissance triumphed was in the Church of Santa Caterina, also at Bologna, constructed in 1478 by Niccolo Marchionne da. Firenze and Francesco di Dozza. The splendid facade, framed in with four great pilasters sup- porting the rich entablature, terminates in arches forming a line at the crown, something very rare in the Emilia (Plate 204). In 1480 the goldsmith Sperandio of Mantua lavished on the door, the round windows, now closed, and on the lateral squares a rich and inexhaustible decoration in terra cotta. Also the Church of Spirito Santo, recently restored, owes its importance more to its elaborate terra cotta embellishments than to its architectural lines. These edifices show us how greatly the archi- tecture of this region differs from the elegant and sober style of the neighboring Tuscany. — Among domestic edifices, we find at Bologna, as in the Palazzo Fava and the Casa Gioanetti (Plates 205, 206), constructed toward the end of the xv century, very conspicuous characters of Bolognese architecture. The porticos with their round arches 1. ANTONIO GIANANDREA: I1 palazzo del Comune di Jesi. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 187 Pate 204. Facade of Santa Caterina, Bologna. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 188 "euso[Og ‘IWJoUeOLD ese) “90S ALVIG ‘eusopog ‘aoeyeg ‘Ipodjuepy A[IoULIOj ‘BABY *GOZ ALVIg RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE “eusO[Og ‘ooelier) lop eser “80% ALVIg “eusojog ‘soured nseey, oq], L0G LVI &, e ps aA EA zZ 4 a zZ 2 BRICKWORK IN ITALY 190 TT. San Pietro, Modena. PLATE 209 *BIBII0 +] “ORV Iqe sor) Vy} JO JNO) “LLS ALV Td “BUDpPO [A] “BAONN] Bsolq’) “OL? ALV Td _— nN La serncespaess tanner nensoeee RENAISSANCE AND BAROQU BRICKWORK IN ITALY 192 "ele119 J ‘O10JO SII) Ue Jo Koqqy *€1G SLVTd "BIeL19,J ‘OJSOLLY 10g 94} JO WNOF]T “Z[Z ALVIg RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 193 Stents ee, ae PuaTE 214. An Angle of the Castello Estense, Showing Moat, Ferrara BRICKWORK IN ITALY $e ROE FS Banceitoomrenenen 2 SAORI RETR rersecett x PLaTE 216. San Bernardino dei Zoccolanti, Urbino. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 195 resting upon columns, having very elegant diversified capitals, constitute one of the characteristics of the place, due to the necessity of protection from winter snows and summer heat. Here also beautiful decoration in terra cotta triumphs. A fre- quent motive found in the Bolognese palaces of this period, as a last reminiscence of the Gothic, may be glimpsed in their singularly grouped ornamental parapets or battlements, as seen in the Palazzo Malaguti (Plate 207). Another palace in which we find a very widespread architectural motive is that of the so-called Casa dei Carracci (Plate 208). The projecting arches, which are built in place of the portico and sustain the upper floor, offer a most notable example; its decoration in terra cotta and pictorial polychromy are of exceptional importance. At Modena, we find the Church of San Pietro (Plate 209), built in 1476 by Pietro Barabani, showing an admirable brick facade of the early Renaissance, with which it is interesting to contrast and compare the Baroque facade of the neighboring Chiesa Nuova of the early xvi century, built by Alverna (Plate 210). Ferrara is very rich in brick architecture and ornamental terra cotta. The court of the Palazzo Costabili (Plate 211), which is distinguished by reason of its composition and the harmonious combination of stone and brick, is by Biagio Rosetti (1502). The house of Ludovici Ariosto (Plate 212), although very simple, is pleasing in its well balanced composition. The handsome Carthusian Abbey Church of San Cristoforo belongs to the first half of the xvi century and is now a part of the Campo Santo (Plate 213). The Castello Estense, seat of the famous Este family, was originally built by Bartolino Ploti for Niccolo I, in 1385, and restored after the earthquake in 1570, during the times of Alphonse II, by Alberto Schiatti (Plate 214). At Carpi, La Sagra, the old cathedral, altered at the beginning of the xvi century, has a very interesting fagade by Baldessaro Peruzzi. The ancient Romanesque portal has been retained (Plate 215). In the Marches a fine composition in brick is the monastery church of San Bernardino dei Zoccolanti near Urbino (Plate 216), interesting because of its connection with the name of Bramante who is said to have worked as pupil and assistant with the architect Luciano da Laurana. 196 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLaTE 217. Entrance, Castello Sforzesco, Milan. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 197 PLATE 218. Castello Sforzesco, Torre Umberto Primo, from Piazza d’Armi, Milan. 198 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 220. Castello Sforzesco, Milan. Northwest Angle. 199 RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE PLATE 221. The Ospedale Maggiore, Milan. ss ilan. M ie, ia delle Graz . Santa Mar PLATE 222 200 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 223. Apse of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 201 PLATE 224. Panels in Apse of Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan. In Lombardy, throughout almost the entire Valley of the Po, there is a widespread use of brick. The want of cut stone and the abundance of the best clays, for the manufacture of either constructive or decorative products, led the builders to employ brick and terra cotta extensively. In order to relieve the mo- notony of the plain brick wall surface, polychromy was introduced by the use of modest bands of plaster along the lower edge of cornices in a way to accentuate their distinction from the walls. The plaster was then gradually widened and to it was added eraffito and polychrome embellishment to moderate the sharp contrast between the red brick and the white plaster. Finally, the plaster extended over the entire wall leaving exposed only the terra cotta. That was also done to conceal the hasty and negligent work which was not slow to show itself in building operations.' Commencing with Milan, we cite among various examples of brick architecture the Castello Sforzesco (Plates 217-220) originally built as a Rocca Viscontea for Galeazzo Visconti IT, the latter half 1. C. Fumacauur: Di Sant’ Ambrogio. L. Bettrami: Reminiscenze di storia e d’arte nel suburbie e nella citta di Milano, 1899. BRICKWORK IN ITALY a 0) 2 "BIAB JO BSO}J97) BY} JO MIA IBaY “CZZ ALWIg RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 203 CBRE OPe: : err, ny oe PuaTE 226. Detail of Church and Little Cloister of the Certosa of Pavia. 204 BRICKWORK IN ITALY FI STE Puate 227. Terra Cotta Decorations in the Great Cloister of the Certosa of Pavia. of the x1v century. Destroyed during the Ambrosian Republic (1447-1450), which marked the extinction of the Visconti family, the Castello, which was ordered rebuilt by the famous Condot- tiere, Francesco Sforza, who had made himself Duke of Milan, was begun by one, Giovanni da Milano, about 1450, who was strongly influenced by Antonio Averulino, known as il Filarete. Under the Austrian occupation, it was converted into barracks and the building had suffered much from the usage of time. But from 1893-1911 1t underwent extensive restorations, in the Xv century style, from the plans of Luca Beltrami so that, as it stands today, it is a solemn and impressive work, one of the most interesting and imposing monuments of Milan.’ The Ospedale Maggiore (Plate 221), which was begun by Filarete before a. D. 1457, modified at first by Guiniforte Solari and subsequently by others is, except for the basement and columns, entirely of brick and terra cotta. Filarete who perhaps was not able, or perhaps did not know how, to overcome the very firmly rooted Gothic tradition, adhered to a transitional style. However, even in the Gothic elements and especially in 1. L. Bettramri: II Castello di Milano. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 205 the windows of the lower story he lavished so much ability in marvelously modeled decorations as to make of it something veritably notable. Another original example of the transitional style at Milan is Santa Maria delle Grazie (Plate 222) where, along with the traditional forms of Medieval art, are seen those of the Renais- sance. In 1465 it was enlarged in the apsidal parts, a work at- tributed not without plausible reasons to Bramante (Plate 223).+ It is almost completely of brick and has in addition rich decora- tions in terra cotta such as medallions, architraves of windows, etc. (Plate 224). In Lombardy, outside of Milan, we also find scatterd monu- ments of very great importance in which the persistent charac- ters are the fusion of Gothic forms with secondary elements of the new style, such as cornices, bands, decorations, dentils, ovoli, leaves, etc., an exuberance of embellishments, especially in terra cotta, the framing of brick windows in white plaster, and the use of graffito decorations. Among many others, we cite one of the best known, the Certosa of Pavia (Plate 225). Begun in 1396 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, son and successor of the founder of the Castello, the work on it lasted many years and was done by a multitude of distinguished artists. Its sides and rear are entirely. of brick, with the facing so carefully laid in extremely thin mortar joints that from a certain distance one seems to be in the presence of a red monolith, vivified by marble colonnettes and occasional spots of white plaster. The cloisters have their cornices and arcade spandrels beautifully decorated with natural terra cotta (Plates 226-227). The sumptuous marble facade, not seen in the illustrations, is a product of the high Renaissance. The monastery was ‘suppressed by the Austrians in 1782 but restored to the Carthusians from 1843 to 1881. It is now a national monument. In Piedmont also, brick architecture was very widespread. We find more outstanding the persistence of old Gothic ele- ments that here blended more: slowly with the new forms of the Renaissance, especially in the small centers. Limited space per- mits us to cite only the priory of Sant’ Orso in Aosta (Plate 228). 1. L. Bettramt: Chiesa di Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milano (Archivio storico dell’arte, VI, p. 229.) BRICKWORK IN ITALY 206 Pate 228. Priory of Sant’ Orso, Aosta. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 207 PLATE 230. Court in House of Saint Catherine, Siena. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 208 "BuaIC ‘TYOIN J, lop OZZe]eq 9Y} JO IOMOT, *ZET ALVIg “eudIg ‘1yoIN J, lap Ozzeyeg jo joadeyy “TES LVI RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE "BOAT ‘1IIOT, 0119eNYK) VIP op[eIseD “ESS TLVIG BRICKWORK IN ITALY 210 e iedmont Ozegna, P PuatTe 234. The Castello, a . liveto Maggiore, near Siena, PLATE 235. Tower and Entrance of Monte O RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 211 PLATE 237. Campanile of Santo Spirito, Rome. PLATE 236. Tower of the Castello, Torrechiara, near Parma. 212 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Poses $ » Rome. piri PLATE 238. Portico of the Hospital of Santo S RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 213 Here, to the windows, that timidly show themselves alongside of medieval motives, is joined an exuberant and splendid decora- tion in terra cotta (Plate 229). At Siena in Tuscany, the charming little court in the House of Saint Catherine (Plate 230), attributed to Peruzzi, shows the restrained feeling of the earlier Renaissance period. The same influence is felt in the Palazzo det Turchi, known popularly as the Palazzo dei Diavoli, of which are shown the chapel and tower (Plates 231, 232, Fig. 65). The Chapel by Ant. Federighi is regarded by Burckhardt as ‘‘a jewel of the early renaissance.” As examples of the castellated type, moving through a period of transition, may be cited the Castello delle Quattro Torri (Plate 233), founded by the famous Savoyard Count Ama- deus VI (Conte Verde), at Ivrea, Piedmont, about the middle of the xiv century; of the following century, the Castello at Ozegna (Plate 234), also in Piedmont, and the Castello at Tor- rechiara (Plate 236), near Parma; and, of the same type but earlier, the tower of the great Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliweto Maggiore, now a national monument, in the Sienese territory (Plate 235). In Latium and Southern Italy, stone was almost always em- ployed which, because of _#70:35- > its abundance, was the bani ic nil iia Py nil ee =i ji ° ° i i a | iy itt more economic material. = = “Oy” Zain | = iy Sain : TOK OMG: ee a Alls ate At Rome, especially, there TTL bh TTT TTT. if ry PLY e : sh NWS Tn NON SOGtEE LSS ASSASSIN --2-° was made an extensive | <= ae use Of materials of every <---042-> 3 sort, secured unfortun- — ee ; ately by the demolition of an- cient monuments, a fact really extraordinary when it is remem- bered with how much devotion these monuments were drawn and studied by the very same artists who were not ashamed afterwards to turn them into quarries of stone and marble, something for which this and following periods were sadly Palazzo dei Tur = =N ——— aa Fic. 65. Detail of eae Entablature, Siena. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 214 "eusO]Og ‘ooR[Teg TUIUsO][Og OUT, “OFZ ILVIg “euso[og ‘a0eyeg ‘TUIDIABTeg MOU CAG OL “68S ALVIG RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 215 notorious. However, we may find completely built of brick the church and companile of Santo Spirito (Plate 237) and the portico of the hospital of like name, sober, elegant, and of excellent workmanship (Plate 238). Their construction goes back to the pontificate of Sixtus IV (1471-84). We close these brief notes on the First Period by recalling how the application of brick was not limited solely to the con- struction and decoration of edifices but was extended to all their parts, even to the most minute particulars. Of much im- portance were the pavements in geometrical designs, laid with brick of various colors, for the most part red and yellow, and roof ridges, which assumed a rather considerable artistic im- portance, especially as seen in Venetia and the Emilia. RENAISSANCE, PERiop II This period is characterized, as is well known, by a constant- ly increasing approach of architecture to the ancient models of classic art. The artists, attracted by the singular fascination of the Roman monuments, devoted themselves with loving care to their study and to the reproduction of their forms. Such approach, initiated in the xv century and at first con- nected with local traditions, was not only widely extended but, in all parts of Italy, gradually focused itself in a body of uniform principles. Having become a true style, it was afterwards re- duced to formulas—which often enough in the beginning artists disregarded—until, at a time when there was less inspiration and originality, it hardened into various treatises on the sub- ject, so that only a few architects of merit were able to with- draw from its deadening influence. The economic and social con- ditions, the elevation of the various forms of civic life, and in fact all the conditions peculiar to this period! permitted and encouraged the employment of the most opulent resources in building. A sort of grandiosity is substituted for the refine- ment and harmony of the preceding period; and in the end the forms of the new style caused chiefly the use of stone and marble in the embellishment of buildings, also enriched. by 1. BurcxHarpT: Die Renaissance in Italien. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 216 *JUOUIPeIg ‘WolpeouoJT JO VISE) “ZPF ALVIG Ye fA AG t 5 *BUOUIIIT) ‘OJIOSTY OFSTIT) JO O110281Q *[PZ ALVIg RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE Hl be PuatTE 243. Church of the Beata Vergine del Soccorso, Rovigo. PLATE 244. The Ponte Romano, Cesena. 218 BRICKWORK IN ITALY NESSIE RAR RASSASO AS eee RRR eR NS ES te ee -PxiatE 245. School of Santa Maria della Carita, now Institute of Fine Arts, Venice. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 219 PiaTE 246. Santa Maria degli Angeli, near Assisi. 220 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 247. Santa Maria delle Vergini, Macerata. RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 221 the use of stucco which was to take on so great a development in the subsequent Baroque manner. In consequence of all this, brick as a decorative material, was reduced to a very low estate and lost its importance. The real organic expressions of brick architecture became constantly rarer, to the point of disappearing altogether, and finally when it was employed at all, it was almost exclusively used to imitate forms characteristic of stone. However, a logical use of it was made in wall facings, pilasters, and piers, which are found al- most everywhere. It was also largely employed in minor eleva- tions of buildings and in general in all those parts of less impor- tance, such as belvederes, gables, small campaniles, and the like. In numerous and excellent monuments of this period, brick, as already said, lost its predominance. Even at Bologna, a very important center of brick architecture, stone entered to a large degree into construction. The Fibbia Palace, now Pal- lavicini (Plate 239), which still felt the influence of the xv century, presented forms suitable for marble but were executed in brick, especially in the cornices of the crown. More character- istic is the Bolognini Palace (Plate 240) which, although conserving the Bolognese type, 1s distinguished in its forms 1) Dice anim from the preceding period. I a tt te ue ee ears i UU Un —— i ieee ent | \4 | Begun alam | lan ni ——— — ————s ry . =H Si = ica J 1 in 1526 . a : —— ——— and con- tinued Wm OTT niin LilsPiamm iy oi AEAUAMESLSTLRIRIATAI yl! eA al i et sa a) t | | = mo ml meee. ——— ==s = — rip a moot ee ie ; SS —— ee ' MN) eee Cree ee es Z lun M} pe ‘ <= \\ = b y < = = aS = — y — " —= zy —— a M, q] ——<—<————— _——<——————— =| —= : —— == > ~All Val a= ———— — —— RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE 245 tect could reach so far and where undoubtedly, at the same time, something singularly harmonious rises before us. It is the genius of Borromini, his method of construction, his absolute mastery of all the resources of art and technique which forces the material to obey his extravagances and infinite caprices. We find the strangeness of his style also in the Oratory of the Seven Sorrows (Plate 268) and in the campanile of Sant’ Andrea delle Fratte (Plate 270) where the brick is compelled to follow every sort of line, straight, concave, convex, twisted, and broken, resulting in a daring construction which is veritably admirable and imposing. If terra cotta properly belonged to our theme, here would be the place to introduce an account of its marvelous develop- ment and application during this period. Facility in technique and manufacture resulted in bringing it, at this time, into great favor throughout Italy. The most capable artists did not shrink from applying themselves to this branch of art and dedicated to it their genius. Throughout an entire century the celebrated Della Robbia family reigned supreme in this art, leaving behind masterpieces never before seen and never since surpassed. Of many such possible examples we give in Plate 271 two pieces by Luca and Andrea della Robbia, and the detail of a portal in the Casa Zanirati at Ferrara. In the Baroque period, terra cotta rapidly fell into decline until it disappeared altogether. Stucco, the technique of which had made rapid progress, supplanted it and invaded every space, lending itself better to the exigencies of the new style and the taste of the new age. In closing our brief review of the Renaissance, Baroque, and XVIII Century periods, we cite a very interesting appli- cation of brick to pavements in which it was generally em- ployed, attaining a refinement and elegance never seen in earlier periods. For this purpose, brick were manufactured of every type and form in buff and red tones which, skilfully combined and set, produced motives almost always geometrical and of surprising effects. Examples are numberless, and very beautiful (Fig. 68). We present only a few to give an idea of their form and variety. _Pror. Inc. CARLO ROCCATELLI BRICK IN MODERN ITALY MANUFACTURE It may be said that wherever good deposits of clay are found in Italy, brick are made. ‘These clays differ all the way from the purest, white burning clays, fusing at 1500° Centigrade [2732° F.], used for refractories and pottery, to those burning the most varied colors by reason of ferruginous, calcareous, or organic impurities contained in them. The iron oxide in clays imparts a yellow or red color in burning, which becomes deeper with the extent of the burn, while lime in the clays produces the lighter buff and cream shades in the finished product. The best clay banks abound in Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, and the Emilia, the quality of the material being excep- tional for purity and plasticity in the valley of the Po. Sand is the most widely used material for reducing the clays, if neces- sary, to the proper consistency, the sand nearly always being found in convenient deposits near the clay pits. In Latium the clay and sand are sometimes found in alternate strata. Crushed brick is also used for reduction, rarely sawdust and coal screen- ings. The clay is never mined but won from the surface after stripping, or dug from open pits. The old practice of winter tempering is not so extensive as formerly, its place being taken in certain plants of Southern Italy by exposing the clay to the sun during the summer. Some brick factories have tried the dry process method of manufacture but found it too expensive. Where machinery is used, the soft or stiff mud process is well nigh universal. The most widespread method of manufacture, however, is by hand. Not over 30 per cent of all the plants use machinery, most of the latter working the entire year, some of them producing as many as 5,000,000 pieces of brick and tile during that time. There are Italian manufacturers of clayworking machinery that successfully compete with the best foreign makes. This machin- ery 1s used for the most part in the industrial centers of Central and Northern Italy. The hand made process is quite general throughout the innumerable small plants in Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, and Sicily, where brick factories using machinery are rare. 246 MODERN TIMES 247 The six months from April to September, depending some- what on the region, are employed in working the clay and moulding the brick. In plants working throughout the year, double the kiln quota is made during the open season to provide for winter burning. In most Italian plants, drying is natural, as the climate is favorable for such a method; it is only in special cases where artificial drying is resorted to. Aside from the very general use of temporary or scove kilns in the smaller plants, the continuous Hoffman kiln is the only one used, provided with tall chimneys to secure a natural draught, except in seismic zones where the Prat chimney is adopted. The fuel used is powdered coal to which, for economy, lignite is added, and in Central Italy, the residue of olive presses. Dimensions of brick in Italy vary with the locality and al- most with the manufacturer, as there are no recognized standard sizes. But by custom and tradition the sizes of brick, both face and common run about 4-6 cm. [1.6-2.4 in.] in thickness, 22-28 cm. [8.7-11. in.] in length, and 11-13 cm. [4.3-5.2 in.] in width.* Various shapes are made such as radial brick for columns, especially in the Emilia, but brick are often tooled to simple forms on the job. Plants making natural decorative terra cotta are rare, perhaps because of the enormous demand for the ordinary forms in the exceptional revival of building activity the last few years, the decadence in the minor arts, or the disinclination of industry to prepare the clay specially re- *The Italians have a word laterizio which is applied to all burnt clay products such as brick, tile, and terra cotta, which they also refer to simply as cotta. The word mattone is “brick” as used by us. These mattoni are made solid or hollow, and are known as comune, common, or facia vista, face. This latter expression, heard in Rome, is not universally em- ployed but instead some such term as mattone a giorno (to the day) da paramano (as adorn- ment), etc. The old Latin word cortina (curtain) is much used to designate wall “facing.” The word for tile is fegolo. There is a great variety of names for different sizes and forms of this material. Of the use of face brick in Italy, Professor Adolfo Carena of the Royal Polytechnic School of Turin, author of L’Industria dei Laterizt, and many technical brochures on ceramics, says: ‘““There is a marked tendency to extend the use of facing brick (paramano) in Italy at the present time (1923), a fact due not only to a recognition of better aesthetic and architectural effects, as may be seen now in many distinguished monuments of the past, but also to the not inconsiderable economic advantages derived from this form of construction which eliminates completely the cost of maintenance and repairs for plastered walls. By reason of the great alternating changes of heat and cold in our country, ex- terior plastered surfaces are in the average building, very liable to deteriorate and fall in fragments within a brief period of time.”’ It is to be noted in the restorations which are now being made throughout Italy that, where the underlying brick and brickwork are of good quality, the removal of the soiled and damaged plaster or intonaco, so extensively used in baroccoizing old buildings, leaves a clean, dignified, and strikingly fine effect in the wall surface. [Ed.| 248 BRICKWORK IN ITALY quired for terra cotta. On the other hand, almost all clay working plants produce hollow brick and tile of every type, flat or arched. used for partitions, ceilings, floors, wall coverings, base boards, gutter projections, roofing, etc. At Cremona a flat perforated tile of high quality is made running from 6-10 cm. [2.4-3.9 in.] in thickness and from 50 centimeters or 19.7 inches to 1.7 meters or 5 feet, 6.9 inches in length. The old clay decorative floor tile have fallen into disuse and are made only for restorations of the antique, naturally at a high price; but small floor tile of conventional square, rectangular, or polygonal form and of natural color are quite generally made and used throughout the country. The square tile, 12-25 cm. [4.7-9.8 in.] is widely used. EXAMPLES OF MODERN ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE The modern period may be dated from the middle of the Xvil1 century when there was a very strong reaction against the Baroque, and when attempts were being made to revive the old Greek and Roman forms. There were, however, want- ing artists capable of such a restoration, and with the artists there was wanting also the milieu. Cold forms were used in which the brick bore little part or were used only in the field of the walls, as in the Palazzo Braschi (Plate 272) designed by Cosimo Morelli, and more recently and happily in the Palazzo Margherita, formerly the Palazzo Boncompagni-Piombino and now the residence of the Queen Mother, Margherita, by Architect G. Kock (Plate 273), both in Rome. In consequence, the most diverse ways were tried out; some would remain faithful, especially at Rome, to the classical traditions, with a limited use of brick on the score of color; sometimes they undertook to imitate medieval constructions and those of the xv century, in which brick was largely em- ployed but in. which the spirit of the builder was not always faithful to the purity of feeling dominant in those times. Along with these imitations were found independent at- tempts, not always happy and rarely inspired. These attempts constantly pursued an eclecticism in which it was hardly pos- sible to perceive an idea really corresponding to the spiritual 249 MODERN TIMES Rome. Palace, Piazza Navona, Braschi PLATE 272 oo) @ 3 z 2 Rome. Veneto, la ita, V Palazzo Margher PLATE 273 250 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuaATE 275. Villino Ferrari, Rome. MODERN TIMES 251 : pereiesee perc ieee estes tego es PLATE 276. Villa Salvadori, Porto San Giorgio. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 292 BS tizomcosenoncncteny up SY crs a ea Ts ‘OIZIOLD) UBS 0}IOg ‘IOPeATeS eT]IA Ul S[reJop MOPUT A eee Be tee mon nce ms eee eon “LLG BSLV Id MODERN TIMES 293 and material conditions of our times and in which the idea of national independence was not always present. Others sought to draw new elements of beauty from the free interpretation of past forms. Among these, Arturo Pazzi has obtained definite results in the Villino Vitale* at Rome (Plate 274), in which brick and travertine are combined with excellent effects, while he secures still greater simplicity and harmony of material in the Villino Ferrari (Plate 275). But where Pazzi has attained the most satisfactory expression in brick architecture is in the Villa Salvadori at Porto San Giorgio in Abruzzo (Plate 276), where the brick pattern is carefully worked out in every detail. In it we see the most varied and carefully studied themes, recalling the charm of Bolognese mo- tives in which, among the most graceful decorative schemes, are ingrafted forms of glazed terra cotta, as we see in the details here reproduced (Plate 277). Frequent in all this construction is the hammer stroke which also gives a touch of life to this minor work in a great variety of bonds and courses, here pro- fusely elaborate. Every detail is studied with constant care. Of this work two chimneys (Fig. 69) afford lively expres- f sion, one of which, in an effective distribution of solids and voids, light and shade, would sim- ulate a great masque with a large mouth pour- ing out smoke. Another careful brick construction of the same architect is the Vullino Roberti at Rome (Plate 278) in which is admir- ably solved the prob- lem of the enlargement of the chimney flues | at the corners of the Fic. 69. Chimney Tops, Villa Salvadori. building . ry bjpua— i= | Pe 1 Ne fA 1 4 y ) i / ae pune mn rll 1h AND = wy } oe ALI r TA ZY | ] |= Z a ' h ii a 4 . lt YY Py rimalaomnrynnreny 7 Z g Z *The word “‘villino”’ means a small villa as distinguished from the country estate with its pretentious mansion. [Ed.] BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 279. Detail of Villa. Lungo Tevere Michelangelo, Rome. PLaTE 278. Villino Roberti, Rome. MODERN TIMES 259 Plate 280. Rear of the Villa Arco Scuro, Rome Plate 281. Front of the Villa Arco Scuro, Rome 256 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 282. Villino Salandra, Rome. 297 MODERN TIMES “oulOY “Tueryseqes ounyiA "€8C ALVId BRICKWORK IN ITALY 258 “OWIOY ‘OfasuLpEYyOIA, SIVAVT, OFuN'] oY} UO TIA “F9Z TLVIg aeonnenna) 5 Skeskak ee MODERN TIMES 259 We have in other constructions at Rome a greater freedom from the forms of the past. Thus the Villa Arco Scuro (Plates 280, 281) attains by simple means a noble and vivacious expression, found throughout the entire construction. To be especially noted are the staggered saw-tooth courses above the windows, the treads of the outside steps laid in brick set obliquely, and the coping of the stair guards and fountain wall fronting the principal en- trance. One of the most beautiful constructions, along lines both individual and harmonious, is the Villino Salandra by Archi- tect Cirili (Platé 282), a little architectural jewel, in which natural terra cotta combined with moulded brick is used to frame the window openings with an artistic touch. Another work, which succeeds in freeing itself from the old_ lines, designed as an organic modern expression of notable effect, is Villino Sabastiani by Architect Arnaldo Foschini, repro- duced in Plate 283. Some reminiscence of fragmentary Roman work is found in a house on the Lungo Tevere Michelangelo designed by Cav. Umberto Bottazzi, in association with the Roman painter Vittorio Grassi, in which a strikingly effective result has been secured by the use of very simple means (Plates 279, 284). Other typical examples of modern brickwork at Rome that may be mentioned in passing as worthy of note are the Villino Scialoia (Plate 285); the Villino Popert, by Architect, annizzaro (Plate 286); two villint in Via Alessandro Farnese,, and in Via Pompeo Magno (Plates 287, 288); a Conventual School in Via Po by Architect Passarelli (Plate 289); Church and Convent of Corpus Domini in Via Sardegna (Plate 290); and the Palazzo delle Assicurazioni Generali Venezia in the Piazza Venezia (Plate 291). ) In other places, we sometimes see the local traditions followed — with an excessive fidelity, as at Venice, where the major part of. recent architectural composition in brick cannot be distinguished from work of the xiv century, as for example the Pescheria, or Fish Market, by Architect Laurenti (Plate 292); the little palace Stern (Plate 293), designed by Architect Giuseppe Berti in 1910-11, and many other similar buildings both‘at Venice;and in its surroundings. With a pleasing pictorial feeling Marius de 260 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 286. Villino Popert, Rome. ath cist tg ‘ $ Sctee ecb BSE a ty ke if? 7 ra4 ee 7 Sibel: Sarokauely, ait alts 3 MODERN TIMES 261 PLATE 288. Villino in Via Pompeo Magno, Rome. 262 BRICKWORK IN ITALY pete 289. Conventual School in Via Po, Home lee Bei : oS ESRC O tts ene case PLATE 290. Church and Convent of Corpus Domini, Rome. 263 MODERN TIMES “oWOY ‘eIZoU9A Ip eZzeIg ‘elzZoUaA T[eJIU9r) 1UOIZeINOISSY 9Y} JO Dee “[6Z ALVIG 264 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Lara PLATE 293. The Stern Palace, Venice. MODERN TIMES 265 ‘ PiLatTE 294. Palazzina alla Giudecca, Venice. BRICKWORK IN ITALY 266 Casa Zucchini, Bologna. a PLATE 29 MODERN TIMES 267 Ash LL. we % a Rt, eG PLATE 296. Country House near Modena. Maria frees himself from this sort of work, which has almost the fidelity of tracings over medieval) forms, in a sprightly little palace on the Giudecca in which the field of the wall is done in a beautiful facing of yellow and red brick of a purely local char- acter (Plate 294). Bologna at times scrupulously respects the environment by reconstructing xv century houses in brick of an intense red color, with beautiful terra cotta decorations, such as the Casa Zucchini (Plate 295) and innumerable others. Frequently, however, in most recent years, there is a detach- ment from the traditional architecture, but not always with happy effects. Near Modena, we see a beautiful small villa in which the xv century architecture is interpreted in a freer manner (Plate 296). The architect, Pietro Carini, has been able to draw a great variety of effects from hints and suggestions found in Tuscan motives, by adapting the resources of modern technique to decorations in artificial granite dressed by the hammer. The pleasing little house with a communal school at Cisano near Brescia, seen in Plate 297, shows simple lines and a sprightly 268 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 297. Communal School, Cisano. movement. Of the attractive group of small country houses, shown in Plates 298 to 300, the first is at Imola, near Bologna. Built of a beautiful pinkish cream brick, it is an example of the small suburban residence frequently found in central and northern Italy. The three other charming little houses are at Ferrara, the last of which shows a decidedly English influence. | Before concluding these hints on modern domestic brick architecture, we recall the expression of a decadent romantic : sentiment which loved to loiter amid the verdure of Tuscan and Lombard fields, exemplified by a small pavilion and tower (Plate 301) in the Royal Villa at Monza, now used as a library and museum. 269 MODERN TIMES “BICIIOY 7e ISNOF, Tews "660 SLVIg “B[OU] JB BSNOF] [TUG “g6z ALVIgG a BRICKWORK IN ITALY 270 "BB119,J Ye SoSNOP] [[eUls Jo sojduexy wYIQ “OVE ALVIg MODERN TIMES 271 a: ae. yal Villa at Monza. Puate 301. Library and Museum in Ro SACRED ARCHITECTURE Sacred architecture is expressed in brick by often turning back to medieval forms. After this manner, Architect Tullio Passarelli built in Rome the charming little Chiesa del Divino Cuore (Church of the Sacred Heart), with an annexed monastery (Plates 302, 303), and shortly afterwards, in the year 1900, the more ambitious church of Santa Teresa in the Corso d'Italia (Plate 304). Here we have the simplest Romanesque motive in a facade, worked out almost to the point of bareness but broken and enlivened by a pleasing line of pendent arches in the gable and an open arcaded gallery above the portal. The brickwork which is of a delicate pinkish red is admirably done. Still later Passarelli designed the Church of San Camillo in the Via Pie- monte (Plates 305, 306), a notable red mass in the midst of mod- ern Roman construction, the exterior of which clearly reveals the organic structure of the nave and aisles. Upon piers extend- ing from side aisles, the buttresses meet the thrust of the vault of the central nave. The flying buttresses consist of three small arches resting upon columns. The lines of the eaves are followed Ake BRICKWORK IN ITALY PLATE 303. Side and Rear of the Church of the Sacred Heart, Rome. 273 MODERN TIMES “QUIOY ‘esolay, eyUeS Jo YoY’) “FOE ALVIG ie Rize ae * ep Ge ert ¥ * j is F H g | ba § el BRICKWORK IN ITALY 274 PLATE 305. San Camillo, Rome. MODERN TIMES | 279 PxLaTeE 307. Church of the Holy Family, Ancona. Piate 306. Side and Tower of San Camillo, Rome. 276 PLATE 308. BRICKWORK IN English Church of All Saints, Rome. ITALY by brick cornices in saw- tooth and small brack- ets of cut stone. Archi- tect Mario Ceradini was inspired by the same Romanesque sources in designing the Chiesa della Santa Famiglia at Ancona (Plate 307), in the fagade of which there is imposed a greater decorative task upon the brick. Though not by an Italian archi- tect, the English Church of All Saints in the Via Babuino, Rome, as a pleasing example of the Gothic revival, design- ed by the eminent Eng- lish architect, George Edmund Street, is worthy of note (Plate 308). The interior es- pecially illustrates the admirable way in which brick may be used in ecclesiastical work (Plate 309). But the most beauti- ful brick design ex- ecuted in recent years in ecclesiastical archi- tecture is the Church of the Sacred Heart at Bol- ogna (Plate 310), due to Edoardo Collamarini. oa MODERN TIMES BEE ST SECO A SOE SE 277 PLATE 399. Interior of All Saints, Rome. 278 BRICKWORK IN ITALY Lem PLATE 310. Church of the Sacred Heart, Bologna. MODERN TIMES 279 eect aa PLATE 311. Interior of the Church of the Sacred Heart, Bologna. 280 BRICKWORK IN ITALY ee gun : | i PLATE 312. San Martino Maggiore, Bologna. MODERN TIMES 281 : Puate 314. Side View and Tower of Sant’ Eustorgio, Milan. 282 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PuaTE 315. San Babila, Milan. . MODERN TIMES PLATE 316. Palazzo Salimbeni, ‘“‘La Rocca’’, Siena. Piate 317. Hadrian’s Tomb, after 537 A. D. the Castel Sant’ Angelo, Rome. 283 284 BRICKWORK IN ITALY PxiaTE 318. Palazzo Medici, now Banca d’Italia, Asti. MODERN TIMES 285 The interior (Plate 311) affords a most impressive religious feeling in the quiet reflections of the red brick, which soften the liveliness of the light, at times is a little bold. RESTORATIONS In restorations, a form of art which has attained in these last years, above all through the work persistently prosecuted by Prof. Gustavo Giovannoni, a perfection up to the present unknown, we have work in which brick has often taken a pre- dominant part, as in the facade of San Martino Maggiore in Bologna (Plate 312). Here we have an evident progress beyond the work done by Architect Brocca, in 1863-65, in restoring Sant Eustorgio at Milan (Plates 313, 314). Among the more recent restorations in which brick have had a large use is the reconstruction of the fagade of Santo Stefano at Bologna (Plates 121, 319) with not too much respect for the most probable lines, due to Collamarini. PLATE 319. Court of Pilate and San Sepolcro, Bologna. 286 BRICKWORK IN ITALY The new pseudo-Romanesque front of San Babila, a frequently restored little Romanesque church of the x11 century, makes a bright and interesting spot, amid the busy scenes along the great Corso Venezia at Milan (Plate 315). At Siena, the rear of the Salimbeni Palace, known as the Rocca, on the Via dei Rossi (Plate 316), shows an excellent Gothic restoration done by Partini in 1879. The modern brickwork on the ancient and famous Castel Sant’ Angelo, Rome, originally the tomb of Hadrian, under the direction of Gen. Mariano Borgatti, re- presents, as seen in Plate 317, a restoration of the outworks added to the famous monument by the Popes inthe xvicentury. A very excellent reproduction of late Gothic in beautiful brick- work is found in the Palazzo Medici at Asti, used as the Bank of Italy (Plate 318). Finally, we place among the notable recon- structions, most carefully done by Piacentini, that of the Cam- panile at Venice, completed in 1912 (Plate 320). In concluding so brief a collection of recent examples in brickwork, we do not believe that we are able to reflect always the most vital expression of our modern activity which refines more and more into a persistent effort to free from all insincerity the real path to the attainment of pure and living forms of art. _ Among the vast number of possible productions from which to choose, we have taken the more striking examples such as readily claim attention without pretending that our selections are always the most significant. Pror. Inc. Enrico VERDOZZI PL, 2 eee eee ee MODERN TIMES PLATE 320. Campanile of St. Mark’s, Venice. 28 -_ ae Uy, tla: Ns SMG, Mller 2, Wy, ike 4 is wre r aye Ans, Hann = Yass) ‘mays vies nw vg H U N G A R Y ed SS ane hays MI Ht —_—- ane -_— a ~ . {Classe a Klasse Or. ® \Rimini Gulf oy Spexta™ Genoa % ran Remo aay Leghorn imi : B Ag.Jesi : o> q Spalato LIGURIAN SEA . top ‘ : a ap bes lB, ehtirro BR Porto. Piombino/. ust OY : te? Pa) 2 ee ST 4 oe or ~ Ragusa cf ey <= a Eb . A ee oe = , } j y C \ FRAN : ‘ : ATB ae 8 Viterbo to Termoli e / \ > ee OLISE aA SN, Catnpobass96 i 1S Foggia Y Manfredonia Barletta Bari O Gaeta coe > Monopoli ‘ CaSerte Bees ec! : ¢g Pozzuolilg lap CS' hye. v' , Brindisi O Sassari TscHrAOS Bing © a oe ° ad g oe Portotorfes as Ra Re eae GallipoliY Taranto > “en Fg ain wy 2 Oe ‘i Min ire, PANTELLERIA MopERN AND MEDIEVAL ITALY Tints show Italy in XII century INDEX ‘Abbey Churches: Arch, of Janus Quadrifrons, 22; of Money Chiaravalle Milanese, 100, 119 Changers, face 69 Chiaravalle della Colomba, 107 Arches, bearing, 21; blind, 65; in Casa Nonantola, 97 Carrucci, 195; chamfered groins in, 148; I omposa, 63-4 Claudian, 12; construction of, 12, 180; San Cristéforo, 192-5 curved brick in, 121; decorative, 170; Vezzolano, 76-7, 80 double relieving, face 71; Gothic, 141; Academy in Rome, American, VIII in Mercanzia, 142; of Minerva Médica, 56; nave, 148; Neronian, 12; ogival, 166; : 9 Academy of Fine Arts, Bologna, 121 pendent, 80, 85, 93, 107, 166, 271; Academy of Science, Turin, 227, 229 pointed, 125, 141, 145; relieving, 13; Acanthus, in decoration, 39 round, 68; in San F rancesco, 142; Acropolis, Athens, face 41 See lp a 166; squinch, 56; of Ad Calchis, Royal Palace, 54 rents ies Lac Adriatic, the, x1 Alberti, 178 Agilulf, Longobard King, 66 Aleotti d’ Argenta, 232 Aix La Chapelle, face 55 Alverna, 195 ; ; : Ammannati, 228 Alessandria, 229 Antonio di Vincenzo, face 149 Alphonse IT, 195 Apollodorus, face 21; 31 Alps, the, relation to Italy, x1 ae eapeane ulianus, 54-7 Amadeus VI, Count, 213 Averulino, il Filarete, 204 Ambrosian Republic, 204 Barabani, 195 Amphitheatre, Castrensian, 25, 28 oe 204-5 Ampbhorae, in construction, 18, 50 Berti, 259 Ancona, 276 Boito, 125 Annia Regilla, tomb of, face 41; 42 poe 222 saat Antonines, the, face 41 Bareeineees 232, 236, 245 Aosta, 18, Be Bramante, 185, 195, 205, 222 Apennines, the, x1 Brocca, 285 Appian Way, face 1; 32, 41 Hpac an a 185 ae annizzaro, Apulia, 40, 246 Carini, 267 Aquilleja, xm Ceradini, 276 Arcades, 31, 49, 57, 82, 85 Cirilli, 259 As Italian is not so familiar to the general American reader as French or German, a few suggestions may be useful. Italian pronunciation, as in German, is very rational because every letter in the word is pronounced, and pronounced uniformly in similar situations. Spelling in both German and Italian is as near phonetic as possible. But unlike German, Italian sounds are simple and easy to form. There are, however, two real difficulties in Italian pronunciation for the foreign- er. First, the distinction of letter sounds in certain situations, as hard and soft s and z, open and closed e and o, and shortened vowels in the current of speech. All such distinctions can only be learned by ear in associating with cultivated Italians who indeed differ among themselves regionally, very much as do educated people, for example, from Massachusetts and Virginia. Secondly, the accent or stressed syllable. For the most part, Italian words take the stress on the penult or second syllable from the end. This, as well as the gender of words, must be learned by experience in hearing educated Italians or in consulting the dictionary. The diaeresis is not needed in Italian as conjoined vowels are always separately pronounced. The grave accent is the only accent mark used in Italian; it either shows the stress on the final syllable or distinguishes two similarly spelled words with different meanings. In the Index, the accent of Italian words will be indicated only when it falls on the antepenult. - 290 Architects cont’d Collamarini, face 121; 121, 276, 285 Continese Dotti, 232 Federighi, 213 Filarete, il, 204 Fiorini, 232 Fornovo, 232 Foschini, 259 Francesco di Dozza, 186 Genga, 223 Giovanni da Bréscia, face 149 Giovanni da Milano, 204 Giovanni del Duca, 228 Gismondi, 31 Giuliano da Sangallo, 228 Guarini, 182, 229 Juvara, 229 Kock, 248 Lanfranco da Méddena, 94, 97 Laurenti, 259 Lombardi, face 61; 222 Longhena, 222 Longhi, il Vécchio, 228 Luciano da Laurana, 195 Macioli, xv Magnani, 232 Marchionne da Firenze, 186 Marius de Maria, 259 Moiraghi, 89 Morelli, 248 Morigia, face 61 Nivi, 125 Palladio, 181, 222 Partini, 286 Passarelli, 259, 271 Pazzi, 253 Pecorari, 100 Peruzzi, 195, 213, 232 Piacentini, 286 Pio, Alberto, 232 INDEX Architects cont'd. Ploti, 195 Ricci, face 55 Righini, 232 Rinaldi, 232 Rosetti, 195 Salari, 204 Sansovino, 222 Savoldi, 85 Scamozzi, 181 Schiatti, 195 Street, 164, 276 Vitruvius, 2 Zamberlan, 222 Zuradelli, 89 Arengario, of Monza, 125 Arezzo, 8, 178 Arians, Baptistery of, 51 Ariosto, house of, 184, 195 Arno, the, x11 Ascoli Piceno, ducal palace of, 184 Asinaria, Porta, 46 Assisi, 223 Asti, xv, 148, 155, 229, 285 Atrio di Pilato, 119 Augustan Age, 2, 18 Augustus, Octavianus, 2, 8, 179 Aurelian Walls, 46 Authari, Longobard King, 66 B _Babuino, Via, 276 Bacoli, pozzolana of, x11 Badia, Abbey Church, 80 Bagnacavallo, Pieve of, 64 Bank of Italy, Asti, 286 The following notations may aid the reader in approximating the pronunciation of Italian words: a, as in father; e, as in fete; i, as in pique; o, as in note; u, as in crude. j is little used as it is only another form of i. Consonants in Italian have the same value as in English except the following: ec, before e and i, =ch as in church ch, before e and i, =e as in cab g, before e and i, =j as in jibe gh, before e and i, =g as in gab se, before e and i,=sh sch, before e and i, =sk gn, between vowels, =ny or as ni in union, with rare exceptions gl, between vowels, =ly or as li in million, with rare exceptions gu, = goo, as gooardo (guardo), not gardo h has no sound, but is used to distinguish like words of different meanings, or to harden c and g before e or 1. k, w, x, y, disappear except as found in a few adopted foreign words. These suggestions belong merely to the mechanics of the language. The art of speak- ing it depends upon its proper intonation, or the melody of phrase and sentence, which is only acquired by long association with those who are to the manner born. Such refine- ments, however, are not needed either to understand or to be understood. INDEX Baptistery, Orthodox and Arian, 51, 53; of Parma, xiv; of St. Stephen’s, 114 Baroque, use of stucco, 228, 245 Basilica, of Maxentius or Constantine, 11-12; face, 15; Ulpian, Front. Basilicata, 246 » Baths, of Caracalla, 18; of Diocletian, 22; at Ostia, 31; of Paolo Emilio, 31; Stabian, 18 Bearing walls, 8-9 Bembo, Bernardo, face 61 Benedictine Monks, face 73, 213 Bibliography, xv11-x1x, see ft.notes passim Binate columns, Piacenza, 125 Bipedales. 3-4, 12 Bologna, x1u-xv, 109, face 117, 121, 134, 142, 145-6, 156, 164, 170, 185-9 Bolognese motives, 253; palaces, 195 Bonding, various methods, 9-10 Borgatti, Gen. Mariano, 285 Bramantesque influence, 223 Bréscia, 267 Brick, Byzantine period, xm1; capitals of various types, xIv, 24, 28, 35, 39 42; carved, xv, 24, 39, 121, 142, 186, 221, 229, 245; centering, 14, 181; in Chaldea, x1; colors, 25, 35, 201; common, 148, 247; in country and smaller houses, xvi, 166, 268-70; crossings, 21; curved, 121; cut, 121; decorative uses, XIII- XIV, xXvi-xvu1, 10, 24, 28, 31, 37, face 37; 39, 41, 47, 93, 107, 109, 119, 156, 179, 182, 184, 229, 232; in Egypt, x1, face 247; facing walls, 35, 46, 80, 85, 184, 247; hammer work, 121, 156, 229; herringbone, 22-3, 125, 164; hollow, in baths, 23; imitation of stone or stucco, xIv-xvI, 24, 28, face 37, 41; 142, 229; kiln burned, 1-4; manufacture of, 1-3, 47, 178, 246-7; moulds, 178-9; in xrx century archi- tecture, xv1, 246; painted on plaster, 148; pavements, 23, 177, 185, 215, 245; predominance in Middle Ages, xIv; quality of, face 1; 8, 26, 37, 41; sizes, 3, 47, 247; solid walls of, 9; special shapes, see DECORATIVE USES; standardized, 47, 50; steps, 259; with stone or marble courses, xiv, 11-12, 142, 145; sun-baked, x1, 1, 8; trade- marks on, 4-5; triangular half-brick, 2, 4; vaults and vaulting, 13, 18, 21, 181-2; widespread use in antiquity, 5, 8,32; yards, xm, 5 Brickwork, Baroque, xvi, 228-30, 236, 241-2; in Certosa of Pavia, 205; decline of, 26, 46, 66, 221, 228; decorative, see BRICK, DECORATIVE USES; defects in, 26, 180; high quality of, Front., 66; 291 Brickwork cont'd interior, 94-8, 276-7, 285; at Médédena, 97; pattern work, 114-15; of San Michele, 100; of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, 79, 85; skill in, 85, 145, face 151; 164, 205, 223 Brusasco, 89 Building, radical change in, 179 Burckhardt, 213, 215 Buttigliera, 106-7 Buttresses, 54, 65, 141, 271 Byzantine influence, x11, 49, 65; face 69, face 119 C Caelian Hill, 12, face 89, 93 Caementum, see Opus Caesar Bérgia, 134 Caffarella, valley of, face 41 Calabria, x11, 246 Calidérium, 23 Campagna, Roman, 9, 35, face 41 Campania, province, x11, 1, 246 Campaniles: the Beata Vérgine del Soccorso, 222 the Filippini, 236 Francesco Romana, face 21 the Frari, face 153 Gaeta, 133-4 Lombard, x11 Parma, XIV Pomposa, xIv, 64 Roman xtv, 57, 68-70 Saluzzo, 232 San Giorgio in Velabro, face 69 Sancta Maria Nova, face 21 Sant’ Ambrogio, 93 Sant’ Andrea del Fratte, 245 Santa Maria degli Angeli, 223 Santa Maria de Loreto, 228 Santa Maria dell’ Anima, 223 St. Mark’s, xu, 286-7 Campidéglio, face 21 Campionese masters, 94 Campo Santo, Ferrara, 195 Canina, 32 Canosa, tomb at, 40, 41 Capitals, of brick, xtv; Composite, 24, 35; Corinthian, face 1; (37: 24,. 28) 35; Ionic, 24, 223; Tuscan, Front. Capitoline Hill, Front., face 21 Caporali of Perugia, 8 Capua, tomb at, 40, 41 Caracalla, Baths of, 18, 23 Carena, Prof. Adolfo, 247 292 Carlovingian line, 66 Carpi, cupola of, 232, 234 Carthaginia, face 41 Carthusian Abbey Church, 195 Casa, dei Carracci, 189, 195 di Crescénzio, 68, 74 Gioanetti, 186 della Porta, 170, 183 di Rienzi, 68, 74 degli Zanirati, 243, 245 degli Zucchini, 267 Castel Sant’ Angelo, 185, 283, 286 Castellated type, 213 Castle (Castello), Estense, xiv, 166, 193, 195 Moncalieri, 216, 223 Ostia, 134, 139 Ozegna, 210, 213 Pavia, XIV delle Quattro Torri, Avrea, 209, 213; Siena, 134, 139 Sforzesco, 166, 180, 196-8, 201 Torrechiara, 211, 213 Vinovo, 232 Castrensian amphitheatre, 25, 28, 30, 46 Castro Pretorio, 10, 28-9, 46 Catania, 3 Cathedrals: Asti, 148, 155 Biella, 86, 93 Borgo San Donnino, 93, 107, 108 Carignano, 229-30 Carpi, 232, 234 Crema, 109, 113 Cremona, xiv, 109-12, 125, 129 Florence, 178, 181 Gaeta, 134 Médena, 94-7 Piacenza, XIV Parma, 78, 82 Salluzzo, 148, 232 St. Mark’s, 153, 287 St. Peter’s, 181, 182 Cattaneo, 89 Cattle Market, old Roman, face 69 Centering, method, 14 Central Italy, 148, 223 Ceres-Bacchus, Temple of, 68 Certosa of Pavia, 153, 185, 202-5 Cesena, bridge of, 217, 222 Chaldea, x1 Chapel, of the Madonna Addolorata, face 151; of the Scrovegni, 153, 158; of SS. Trinita, face 121 Charlemagne, face 55; 66 Chiaravalle, Milanese, 100, 103, 105-7, 119; della Colomba, 107 Chimney tops, 253 Choisy, xIv INDEX Churches: All Saints, 276-7 the Beata Vérgine dei Soccorso, 217, 222 Corpus Domini, 259, 262 Crocifisso, 114, 118, 120, 121 Divino Cuore, 271-2 Domine Quo Vadis, face 41 the Eremitani, 153, 158 the Filippini, 185 the Frari, 145, face 153 the Holy Sepulchre, face 121 La Sagra, 194-5 Nuova (Mantua), 191, 195 Parish of Bagnacavallo, 64 Piedmontese, 148 Sacred Heart, 276, 278-9 San Babila, 286 Bernardino dei Zoccolanti, 195 Camillo, 271 Celso, 93 Cristéforo, 195 Doménico, Bologna, 232; Turin, 148 Fermo Maggiore, 145 Francesco, x11, Ravenna face 61; 62; Bologna, 142, 145, face 149 Giacomo Maggiore, x1, 145 Gimignano, 166 Gidérgio in Velabro, 68, face 69 Giovanni, Turin, 229 Giovanni Evangelista, 47, 49, 62, 80 Giuliano, 148 Lorenzo Maggiore, 65 Lorenzo, Mantua, 94; Turin, 182; Vicenza, 145 Luca, 222 Marco, 100 Martino Maggiore, 285 Mercuriale, 100 Michele in Bosco, Bologna, 232 Michele, Cremona, 100 Niccold, 133, 135 Petrénio, face 149; 164 Pier Crisélogo, 51 Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, 85, 89 Pietro Maggiore, Ravenna, face 61 Pietro, Médena, 195 Pietro Vécchio, Brusasco, 89, 93 Sepolcro, x1, 93, 114, face 117, 121; 121, 185 Silvestro, 97 Teodoro, 80, 89 Vincenzo in Prato, 93 Vitale, 47, 54, face 55; 64-5 Sancta Maria Nova, face 21; 68 Maria Antiqua, face 73 Sanctus Martinus in Coelo Atreo, 51 Sant’ Anastasia, 236 Andrea delle Fratte, 245 Apollinare in Classe, 57, 62, 65 Apollinare Nuovo, 51 Atanasio dei Greci, 228 Eustérgio, 285 INDEX Churches cont’d Santa Croce, 100 Famiglia (Holy Family), 276 Fosca, 68 Francesca Romana, face 15; 68, face 73 Maria dell’ Anima, 223 degli Angeli, 223 della Caccie, 66 of Calvenzano, 93 in Césmedin, 51, 68 Gloriosa dei Frari, x11, 145, face 151, 153 di Loreto, 228 dell’ Orto, 236 in Porto Fuori, 62 della Rocelletta, x1 delle Vérgini, 223 Sofia, 93 Santi Giovanni e Paolo, xm, 93, 145, 149, face 151 Maria e Donato, 93 Nazario e Celso, 50 Pietro e Paolo, 109, 121 Santissima Annunziata, 232; Trinita, 121 Santo Spfrito, 215 Stéfano, Bologna, x1, 94, 109, 285; Venice, 153 Spirito Santo, 186 St. Ambrose, 89 John’s, Lateran, 41 Mark’s 65, face 151; 153 Peter’s face 15; 180, 181 Sepulchre, face 117, 119, 121 Sophia’s, face 15 Stephen’s, face 121 Trinity, face 117 Circular church, 94 Circus Maximus, face 69 Cisano, school, 267-8 Cistercian churches of France, 156 Citta della Pieve, 184 Civil architecture, 125 Claudian arches, 12 Claudius, 2, 4, 10-11, 28 Clay pipes used in vaulting, 5] Clays, 1, 178, 201, 246 Clement VI, p. xin, face 73; 223 Clivus Scauri, face 89 Clock tower of the Filippini, 236 Cloisters, 68, face 71, 73; 105-7, 124, 125, 140, 148, 156 Colasanti, Dr. Arduino, vit Collegio di Propaganda Fide, 236, 239 Collegio Romano, 225, 228 Colleoni, Statue of, face 151 Colomba, Chiaravalle della, 107 Colosseum, 12, 18, 10, face 21; 22 293 Columbaria, Latin Way, 3, 35, face 37 Communal Palace, Siena, 164-5; Jesi, 186 Communes, growth of, 66 Composite order, see CAPITALS Concrete conglomerate, x11, 9 Conécchia, tomb of, 40-1 Constantine, 11-12, face 15, 69; 94 Constantine II, face 89 Constantinople, xm Conti, Torre dei, 134, 137 Convent of the Filippini, 236, 241 Conventual School, 259, 262 Corinthian order, see CAPITALS Cornices, 39, 49, 51, 54, 62, 80, 114, 142, 150, 10G5170, 216 Corso, d’Italia, 271; Venezia, 286 Cortina, wall facing, 9, 247 Count Verde, 213 Court, of Justice, 125; of Pilate, face 117, 119; 119, 121 Crema, 109, 113-14 Cremona, 109-12, 125, 129, 145, 156, 216, 222, 248 Crisélogo, Archbishop, face 61 Cristo Risorto, chapel of, 216, 222 Cross, Stations of, 68, face 117 Crossings, of brick, 21 Crusades, 66, face 117, 121 Cupola, 22, 180-2 D Dante, describes Italy, x1; tomb of, face 61 De Architectura, by Vitruvius, 2 Decoration, decline of, 26 Della Robbia family, 245 Della Seta, 1 De Salvio, Prof. Alfonso, rx Descemet, on brick stamps, 5 Deus Rediculus, temple of, face 41 Diaconus, Paulus. 68 Dies for brick and terra cotta, 1 Diocletian, baths of, 23 Dion Cassius, on floods, 8 Domus. Gaiana, 31; Tiberiana, 10 F Egéria, vale of, face 41 Egypt, XI-xII Emilia, the, xu, 178, 184, 186, 215, 246-7 Empire, Roman, xu, 46 294 Erbe, piazza dell’, 94 Este family, 195 Etruscan influence, xu-x11, 1, 8-9 Euphrates, the, x1 Facia vista, 247 Fano, xiv, 125, 164 Farnese, palace, 181, 223; theatre, 232 Ferrara, x1v-xv, 166, 184, 195, 245, 268 Filippini, oratory and convent, 236 Fletcher, History of Architecture, 54 Florence, 178, 181, 185 Florentine windows, 166 Fontanellato, 134 Foot, Roman, 2 Forli, 100-1, 134 Fortress construction, 134 Forum Excavations, vit, Front. Forum, Roman, 3, face 15, 21; of Trajan, Front.; Boarium, face 69; of Pompeii, 3 Francesca de’ Ponziani, face 73 Francesco Maria I, Duke of Urbino, 223 Franciscan Brothers, face 153 Frari, the, see CHURCHES French Academy, Rome, vii French Cistercian influence, 100 G Gaeta, 134 Galla Placidia, 49; tomb of, 47, 50-52 Garisendi tower, 134 Génoa, 164 Geology, effect on architecture, x1-x1I Giotto, 153 Giovannoni, Prof. vii, x1x, 47, 142, 285 Girgenti, 3 Giudecca, 267 Golden House of Nero, 12; face 2] Gonzaga, Eleonora, 223 Gordiani, Villa dei, 18 Gothic, monuments, x1v; of France, 125; period, 141-177; influence, 145; Italian, face 149, 153; late, 153, 286; restoration, 286; revival, 276; Tuscan, 164; Venetian, 170, 186, 195, 204-5 Gradara, XIV Graffito, xv1, 185, 201, 205 Grain Market, Ostia, 31 Grassi, Vittorio, 259 Groin arches, 142 INDEX Groining, early, 22, 180 Gregory XIII, 228 Greek influence, 2, 8 Guido da Polenta, face 61 Guilds, face 37; 85 H Hadrian, 3, 11, 18, face 21; 23, 31, 283, 286 Half-bricks, 2, 3 Hannibal, face 41 Hellenistic tradition, 8 Hemicycle of Trajan, Front. Herodes Atticus, 40 Herringbone work, 3, 23, 93, 125, 182 Hills, Caelian, face 89; Capitoline, face 21; Velian, face 21; Palatine, face 21; Esqui- line, face 21 History of Architecture, Fletcher, 54 Honorius, 46, 48-49 Horrea Epagathiana, 31, 34 Hydraulic cement, xu I fmola, 268-9 Incertum, (insertum), opus, 9, 11 Innocent III, 134 Ionic Order, see CAPITALS Italic temples, 1 Istrian stone in decoration, J177 Italy, varied surface, x1 Ivrea, 213 Janiculum, the, vi Janus Quadrifrons, face 69 Jesi, x11, 186 Julian, the Apostate, face 89 Julius Caesar, 2 Justinian, 48, 54, face 55 K Key blocks, 141 L Laconicum, 23 Lantern, Cistercian, 100 Latérculi besales, 3-4 Lateres, 2-3 INDEX Laterizio, 247 Latin, early brick construction, 1 Latina, Via, 35-39; face 37, 41 Latin Tradition, 179-80 Latium, stone, 213; clays, 246 Liguria, x11 Localized building practice, x1v, 142 Lombard, campanile, x11; clays, Gothic, 109; influence, 66, face 89 Lombard-Romanesque, 66, 89-140 Lombardy, x11 Longobard period, 65 Lucca, 166-67 Lucretia Borgia, 134 Luitprand, 66, face 117 Lungo Tévere, Michelangelo, 259 Lydium, the, 2 201; M Macerata, xv, 220, 223 Madonna, dell’ Arena, 153, 158; Addolorata, face 151 Majolica, in ornament, xvIi, 62, 64, 142, 144 Malaguzzi-Valeri, 178, 180 Mantua, 94, 186 Marches, the, xv, 164, 178, 186, 195, 223 Margherita, Queen Mother, 248 Marini, list of stamps, 5 Matilda, Countess, 94 Mattone (brick), 247 Maxentius, 12; Basilica of, face 15 Maximianus, 66 Mechanical progress, XVII Médici, Villa, vim Medieval art, 205 Mediterranean, the, x11 Mercanzia, the, Bologna, xv, 142, 156, 164 Michelangelo, Lungo Tévere, 259 Middle Classes, buildings of, 24, 32 Milan, x11, xiv, 66, 89, 100, face 121; 166, 180, 185, 201, 204, 205, 223, 285 Milani, 179, 181 Minerva Médica, 54, 56 Mixtum, opus, 11, 13 Médena, xiv, 94-8, 178, 195, 267 Modern Italian, 248 Marini’s list, 5 Mondovi, xv1, 229 Montechiarigolo, 47 ‘Monte Oliveto Maggiore, face 73; 213 295 Monza, 94, 125, 268 Moorish influence, 134 Mortar, joints, 26; quick setting, 14 Mosaic, xv Moulds, for brick, 178, 179; terra cotta, 1 Murano, island of, 93 Museum of Natural History, 229 N Naples, 1 National Museum, Rome, 10 pene, Archbishop, face 61; Baptistery of, Nero, 12, face 21; 32 Niccolo II, 195 Nigra, Porta, 28 Nile Valley, x1 Nomentana, via, 35 Nonantola, Abbey Church of, 97 Novara, 170 Nymphaeum, Rome, 31, 56 O Oblate order, face 73 Octavianus, Augustus, 2 Odeon at Athens, face 41 Ogival openings, 100 Opus caementum, 9-14, face 15; incertum (insertum), 9, 11; reticulatum, 9, 11, 13, 28-29; mixtum, 11, 13; spicatum, 11, 93, 164, 177 Oratory, of the Filippini, 236, 240; of the Seven Sorrows, 240, 245 Orders, see CAPITALS Orient, origin of brick seals, 4 Orsini family, 134 Ortiz y Sanz, 2 Ospedale Maggiore, 199, 204 Ostia, 8, 11, 18, 24, 28, 31-34 Pp Padua, 93, 153 Palaces: Academy of Science, Turin, 229 Alessandria, xv1, 229 Ascoli Piceno, 184 Baglioni, 184 Bolognini, 214, 221 Boncompagni-Piombino, 248 Borgheresi, 170 Bovi-Silvestri, 186 Braschi, 248 296 Palaces cont'd Buonsignori, 170 Carignano, 229 Communale, Cremona, 125, 129; Bologna, 156, 161; Jesi, 186; Siena, 164-5 Collegio Romano, 225, 228 Costabili, 191, 195 Ducal, Urbino, 184, 186 Farnese, 181, 223 Fava, 186, 188 Fibbia, 214, 221 Franzesi, 170 Giordino, 222-3 Isolani, 170 Malaguti, 189, 195 Malatesta, 164 Manfredi, 188 Margherita, 248-9 Médici, 284, 286 at Milan, 100 at Mondovi, xv1, 229 Palavicini, 214, 221 Pratellesi, 170 Provinciale, Treviso, 125, 128 della Ragione, Fano, 125 Réggia ad Calchis, 52, 54 Royal, Alessandria, 229 San Giorgio, 164, 167 Salimbeni, 283, 286 Sansedoni, 170 Theodoric, 54 at Torrechiara, 211, 213 at Turin, xv1 Palatine, the, 10, 22, 31, face 69 Palatina, Porta, 26-28 Palazzetto della Propositura, 166, 168 Palermo, 3, 5 Palm, the Roman, 2 Pantheon, 12, face 21 Paolo Emilio, Baths of, Front. Paradiso, Porta, 28 Paramano, 247 Parliament, Italian, 229 Parma, xiv, 78, 82, 213, 232, 234 Pavements, 23, 177, 185, 215, 245 Pavia, xv, 79, 82, 89, 202-5 Pavilion vaults, 180 Pediments, broken, etc., Front. Pentadoron, 2, 10 Persius, Tomb of, face 1 Pertigia, 8 Perugino, 184 Pesaro, 222-3 Pescheria, 259, 264. Petrénius, St., tomb of, face 117, 121 Piacenza, x1v, 125, 130-1 INDEX Piazza dell’ Erbe, 94. del Nettuno, 156 of Trajan, Front. di Venézia, 259 Vittério Emanuele, 156 Piedmont, x11, 80, 205, 213, 223, 246 Piedmontese castles, 213; churches, 148 Pieve, Parish Church, 64 Pilate, house of, 68; court of, face 117; 121 Pincian Hill, vit Piranesi, 41-2 Po, the, valley of, x11, xv, 178, 201 Pointed arches, see ARCHES Polychromy, 25, face 119; 185, 195, 201 Pompeii, 3, 8, 18, 23, 24 Pomposa, xIv, 63-4 Ponte Romano, 217, 222 Ponziani, Francesca de’, face 73 Porter, Prof., 1x, x1x, 47, 97 Porphyry embellishments, face 119; 119 Porta Asinaria, 45, 46 Nigra, 28 Palatina, 26-8 Paradiso, 28 Romana, 134, 140 Porto, 22, 31 San Gidérgio, 253 Portunno, temple of, 22, 31 Pozzolana, xu, 1, 9 Pozzuoli, 1 Praetorium, 31 Pre-Augustan constructions, 9 Pre-Lombard period, 65 Pretorian Guard, camp of, 46 Proserpine, temple of, 68 Pyramid of Cestius, 46 Q Quirinal Hill, Front. R Ravenna, x11, 3, 47-62, face 55, 121; 134-5 Réggia ad Chalcis, 52, 54 Reliquary, face 121 Renaissance, xv, 22, 23, 31, face 55; 177; 178-228; 245 Republic, the, 11, 26 Restorations, 285 Reticulatum, see Opus Revival of Italian art, 179 INDEX Ribs in vaults, 181 Rienzi, house of, 68 Rimini, x1v Rivoira, 2 Roberti, villino, 253 Rocca, di Caterina Sforza, 134, 138; San Vitale, 134, 138; at Siena, 283, 286; Viscontea, 201 . Roccatelli, Carlo, Prof. Ing., xvi, 46, 245 ‘Rock formations and architecture, x1 Romagna, 64 Roman, architecture, x11, 31; campaniles, xi, 68-70; Empire, x1, 46; Forum, 3, face 15, 21 Romanesque, monuments, xiv, 66, 68; period, 89-141, 145, 166, face 119; portal, 194-5; 271, 276, 286 Rome, vir, xi, 4, 18, 24, 25, 31, 66, face 89, P21; 134, 180-1, 213, 223, 247, 248, 253, 259, 211,276. Rotunda at Vicenza, 181 Rovigo, 222 Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Bologna, 121 Royal Villa, Monza, 268 S Sacred architecture, modern, 271 Sallust, gardens of, 31 Salvadori, villa of, 253 Samos, 178 Sant’ Angelo, Castel, 185, 283, 286 Santa Maria della Carita, school of, 218, 222 Savio, the, 222 Scipio in Carthaginia, face 41 Seals on brick, 4, 5 Sejanus, 28 Sepulchres, see TomMBs Sesquipedales, 4, 12 Severus, Septimius, 22, face 69 Siorza, Francesco, 204 Sicily, vii, 246 Siena, xiv, 134, 164, 170, 185, 213, 286 Sistine chapel, 181 Sixtus IV, 215 Soldier Saints, face 69 Southern Italy, 134, 213, 223 Sperandio, 186 Spicatum, see Opus Squillace, x1v Squinch arch, 56-57 St. Catherine, house of, 213 Stairways, brick, face 15 297 Staffarda, 94 Stations of the Cross, 68 Stone, imitated in brick, x1v-xv, 142, 221-2 Stern, little palace of, 259, 264 Stevens, Prof., vit Stradella, 47 Straw, use in sun-baked brick, 1 Structura testacea, 9 Stucco, xvi, 9, face 15, 21, 55; 245 Suetonius, 8 Sullan Period, 4, 11 Sun-baked brick, x1, 1, 4, 8 Susa, 28 T Tacitus, 32 Taine, xt Taormina, 3, 6 Technique of 15th and 16th centuries, xv Tégolo (tile), 247 Tegolozza construction, 180 Tégulae fractae, 4 Template, of brick, 14 Temples: Bacchus, 42 Ceres-Bacchus and Proserpine, 68 Portunno, 22, 31 Sibylline, 22 Trajan, Front. Venus and Roma, face 21; 23 Vulcan, 31 Témpio, della Salute, 42 del Dio Redicolo, face 41 Terra cotta, x1v, xv1, 1, 18, 24, 31, 40, 82, 125, 142, 156, 178, 185-6, 201, 205, 213, 222, 245, 247, 253, 267 Tetradoron, 2, 10 Theatre, at Ostia, 6, 32; Farnese, 232 Theodelinda, 66, 100 Theodora, Empress, face 55 Thedédoric, Emperor, 51, face 55 Theodésius, 49 Thessalonica, X11 Tiber, the, xu, 8 Tiberius, 28 Tiépolo, Doge of Venice, face 151 Tigris, XI Tile, 1, 3, 4, 9, 47, 247-8 Tivoli, 18, 23, 30 Tombs: Annia Regilla, 40-3, face 41 Calventii, 22 at Canosa, 40-1 Conécchia, 40, 41 298 Tombs cont'd Dante, face 61 Galla Placidia, 47, 50-2 on Latin Way, 35; Messer Acctrsio, 142 at Ostia, 28-9 Persius, face 1; 32, 42 Platorini, 10 Public, face 37; Valérii, 38-9 Torcello, island of, 68 Tufa (tufo), use of, x1, 11, 31 Tolentino, cloister of San Niccold, 125, 140 Torraccio della Cecchina, 35 Torrazzo, the, Cremona, 110, 125 Tower (Torre) degli Anguillara, 134-5 of the Asinelli, 134, 136 de’ Capocci, 134, 136 of the Commune, Verona, 164, 166 de’ Conti, 134, 137 of the Garisendi, 134 delle Milfzie, 134, 137 of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, 210, 213 di Nerone, 134, 137 of Ravenna, 134-5 of Torrechiara, 211, 213 Towers, of Aurelian Wall, 46; of Bologna, xiv, 134, 136 Town Hall at Monza, 125, 132 Trademarks on brick, 4, 5 Trajan, Forum of, face 21; 31; times of, 5 Trastévere, the, 134 Travertine, base of brick columns, 28, 30 Treves, 28 Treviso, 125, 145 Tridpio, of Herodes Atticus, 40-3 Triangular brick, 2, 4, 10 Turin, xvi, 223, 229, 247 Tuscan order, Front.; —Gothic, 164; motives, 267 Tuscany, x11, 141, 166, 185-6, 213 Tympana, decorations in, 119 Tyrrhenian Sea, X11 U Ulpian Basilica, Front. Umbria, xm, 186 Upper Italy, 222 Urban VIII, 236 Urbino, 186, 195, 223 Vy Vale of Egéria, face 41 Valentinian III, 49 INDEX Valley of Caffarella, face 41 Van Deman, Dr. Esther Boise, vir Vanozza de’ Catanei, 133 Vatican, 46, 181 Vaults, xm, x1v, face 1, 15; 13, 18, 21, 180, 181 Velabrum, face 69 Velian Hill, face 21 Venetia, x11, x11, 215, 246 Venetian, brick laying, face 151; builders, 177; —Gothic, 170 Venice, xiv, face 61; 93, 145, 148, 153, 222, 259 Verannius, Quintius, 32, 42 Vercelli, 121, 126, 127 Verde, Conte, 213 Verdozzi, Prof. Ing., xvi1, 177, 286 Verona, 145, 164, 166 Verrécchio, face 151 Via Alessandro Farnese, 259 Babuino, 276 dei Rossi, 286 Latina, 35, face 37 Nomentana, 35 Pompeo Magno, 259 SS. Giovanni e Paolo, face 89 Sardegna, 259 Vicenza, 145, 154 Victor Emmanuel II, 229 Vigolo Marchese, 47 Villa Arco Scuro, 255, 259 Médici, vii Imperiale, 221, 223 Salvadori, 251, 3 dei Sette Bassi, 21-2 Villino Ferrari, 250-3 Popert, 259-60 Roberti, 253-4 Salandra, 256, 259 Scialéia, 259-60 Sebastiani, 257, 259 Vitale, 250, 253 Visconti family, 100, 201, 204, 205 Viterbo, 66 Vitruvius, 1-3, 8-9 Volta a vela, 50 W Wedge-shaped bricks, 12 Western Empire, decline of, x1 Z Zanirati, Casa, 245 Zucchini, Casa, 267 St ” e : i sl Se | ne ; Designed and Executed by 3 Columbian Colortype Company : Chicago a: * Bi ’ Ny wm so yo ? of a ETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE AWN , Se Beare, os ben at ee ee FP, hy Pe, tee vet Parke re a ie a cig ¥ we re 7; wigs : 7, Lee os a at Stalett Satyenoeiatey) #7 te ye Tee ete peers Dene Seats; 3° stefst Eva Hopate: v ay ete : eielele’ Sie a ea Pia Parsi oi ee rs % ett tateSa ley ete fe ale ee gute re etl > : +0 vals ste ates 7 k A ¢ se aacate 3 : eitafed 7» ta : i MSE tate Lt mie fem ete ls tae? 4 . ote t c ; the ’ ; . . 4 Soot te ! ; : ; : 7 tha % i 2h r + feted ey atetet te oes st . < Pity yry eat ta erates: se f Tait sf ri a bo? ey et ee aa at “ts tatatete pasa ete ole ts ine Parsi ttt, Tosh! ele th Sree lar $7 de ee its Bata tothe Matelite