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WOODWORKING
A HANDBOOK FOR BEGINNERS
IN HOME AND SCHOOL
TREATING OF
TOOLS AND OPERATIONS
BY
CHARLES G. WHEELER
AUTHOR OF ‘‘ WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS”
AND ‘‘THE A B C OF WOODWORKING ”’
WITH OVER 800 ILLUSTRATIONS
G.P. Putnam’s Sons
New York & London
Ghe Rnickerbocker Press
1924
Copyright, 1924
by
Charles G. Wheeler
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Meus Fo
Made in the United States of America
THE GETTY CENTER
LIBRARY
LO-THE
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
FROM ONE OF THE ADVISORS
TO THE
NATIONAL CouURT OF HONOUR
PREFACE
The aim has been to make this working handbook
sufficiently simple, concise, and comprehensive to be suitable
for everyone, from the young beginner to the student or
amateur of mature years—for everybody except those already
well trained in the subject, and possibly some of the latter class
may find in it something of value to them. It contains prin-
ciples and operations which a long and varied experience has
shown to be needed and used repeatedly by beginners, school
pupils, and amateurs. It is hoped that it will answer a large
proportion of the common questions about the more important
problems of general woodworking.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENT is due the following manufacturers for
permission to use illustrations of some of their products:
Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., Philadelphia; The Simonds
Manufacturing Co. (Simonds Saw and Steel Co., Successor),
Fitchburg, Mass.; The Stanley Rule and Level Plant, New
Britain, Conn.; The Millers Falls Co., Millers Falls, Mass.;
The L. 8. Starrett Co., Athol, Mass.; The North Bros. Manu-
facturing Co., Philadelphia; The Cincinnati Tool Co., Cin-
cinnati, Ohio; The Morse Twist Drill and Machine Co., New
Bedford, Mass.; The Syracuse Twist Drill Co., Syracuse, N. Y.;
The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Co., Chester, Conn.;
E. H. Sheldon and Co., Muskegon, Mich.; The Batavia Clamp
Co., Batavia, N. Y.; The Adjustable Clamp Co., Chicago;
The Pike Manufacturing Co., Pike, N. H.; The Stine Screw
Holes Co., Waterbury, Conn. Also to Hammacher, Schlem-
mer and Co. Inc., New York, for the use of illustrations from
their catalogue, and to the Forest Products Laboratory,
Madison, Wisconsin, for valuable information.
Credit is due the following manufacturers of woodworking
machinery for permission to use illustrations of some of their
products: Baxter D. Whitney and Son, Inc.; Winchendon,
Mass.; The American Wood Working Machinery Co.,
Rochester, N. Y.; The Oliver Machinery Co., Grand Rapids,
Mich.; The J. A. Fay and Egan Co., Cincinnati, Ohio; J. D.
Wallace and Co., Chicago; The Mattison Machine Works,
Rockford, Ill.; The W. F. and John Barnes Co., Rockford,
vil
viii Acknowledgment
Ill. Acknowledgment is especially due Mr. Percival White of
New York for much valuable advice and help.'
«Some of the illustrations for which acknowledgment is made above, do
not bear the names of the makers. They are therefore specified here:
The Stanley Rule and Level Plant, trammel, p. 20, smoothing plane and
router, p. 61, blind-nail tool, p. 93, dowel cutter and sharpener, pp. 333,
334; Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., and The Simonds Manufacturing Co.
for cuts of saw teeth, pp. 47-48, 51-52, 120; E. H. Sheldon and Co., bench
stops, p. 3; The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Co., screw points (bits),
p. 75; The Cincinnati Tool Co., screw and plug bit and plug cutter, p. 83,
clamp, p. 102; Batavia Clamp Co., clamps, p. 102; Hammacher, Schlemmer
and Co., Inc., corrugated fasteners, p.90; The Stines Screw Holes Co.,
screw holes, p. 100; The Adjustable Clamp Co., Jorgensen clamps, p. 108;
The Pike Manufacturing Co., whetting, pp. 114, 115; Baxter D. Whitney
and Son, Inc., circular saw bench, p. 274, planer, p. 298, cutter head, etc.,
p. 299, boring machine, p. 312, shaper, p. 333, scraper and toothing knife,
Pp. 334; The American Wood Working Machinery Co., sawing segments,
p. 288, jointer, pp. 301, 303, 305, 306, sanders, pp. 308, 309; The Oliver
Machinery Co., swing saw, pp. 290, 291, portable band saw, p. 292, jig saw,
p-. 296, mortising machine, p. 330; The Mattison Machine Works, belt
sander, p. 310; The J. A. Fay and Egan Co., trimmer, p. 74, safety guards,
PP. 275, 303, 312; The W. F. and John Barnes Co., jig saw, p. 297.
SUGGESTED BOOKS FOR READING
Among many books to which the reader might be referred
for special study, a few may be mentioned here: Carpentry,
by Griffith, Manual Arts Press; Wood and Forest, by Noyes,
Manual Arts Press; Lumber and its Uses, by Kellogg, U. P. C.
Book Co.; Glues and Glue Handling, by Teesdale and Bezeau,
Periodical Publishing Co.; Problems of the Finishing Room, by
Schmidt, Periodical Publishing Co.; Wood Turning, by Ross,
Ginn and Co.; Art and Education in Wood Turning, by Klenke,
Manual Arts Press; Wood Pattern Making by Purfield, Manual
Arts Press; Mechanical Drawing, by Ermeling, Fischer, and
Greene, Bruce Publishing Co.; Problems in Mechanical Draw-
ang, by Bennett, Manual Arts Press; Mechanical Drawing
Problems, by Berg and Kronquist, Manual Arts Press; Me-
chanical Drawing for High Schools, by French and Svenson,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.; Blue Print Reading, by
Wyatt, Bruce Publishing Co.; Furniture Upholstery, by John-
son, Manual Arts Press. Interesting and valuable inform-
ation may be found in the educational pamphlets, charts, etc.,
issued by Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., the Simonds Tool and
Steel Co., the American Wood Working Machinery Co., the
Pike Manufacturing Co., the Stanley Rule and Level Plant,
and others. Also from the catalogues issued by various
manufacturers, and those of dealers, as Hammacher, Schlem-
mer, and Co. of New York.
ix
TO TEACHERS
There is need of more concentration upon the essentials of
today. Also, as President Sills of Bowdoin said recently, “‘there
is too much teaching and not enough learning’’ nowadays.
The elementary principles of woodworking, as of other
subjects, can be re-discovered by small children, to their
advantage, whenever there are enough teachers capable of
setting the stage for such investigative and inventive work
and of seeing that the play is successfully carried out, and
whenever the means and time are provided. At present,
however, for most communities this is merely a pedagogical
theory. When we come to the sixth, seventh, eighth grades, |
secondary schools, technical schools, and mature amateurs,
it is too late to expect such pupils to re-discover for themselves
or to learn wholly by experience such simple principles as
this book contains.
The more quickly the pupil can learn these principles—as he
needs them—the better he will get along with the real work
itself, whatever it may be. He can learn these fundamentals
readily with this manual at hand and the teacher be relieved
of part of his routine work. No school workshop can be really
successful unless the teacher isfresh enoughto beon the qu vive
mentally and on the jump physically all the time. The more
he can be freed from routine duties the less likely he will be to
go stale or become narrow; and the breadth and enthusiasm
of the teacher react very powerfully upon the pupils,—for the
old adage, ‘‘as is the teacher so is the school,”’ still holds true.
If the inexperienced teacher thinks this book contains more
than his classes need, he may be reminded that he is obliged
to use no more than he requires and can leave the rest until
wanted. Also, that it is a vital part of a shop teacher’s work
x1
xii To Teachers
to be a good sport,—to have such good relations with his pupils
that they feel free to talk with him about their outside prob-
lems. The initiative, enquiring spirit, and capability of the
ambitious pupil are not bounded by any school programme.
Besides, increasing numbers of schools are reaching out after
community work, work for the schools themselves, household
work, etc. All these things, with the varied demands of
emergencies, call for many, often unexpected, operations—
whether the actual work be done in the school shop or outside.
Just as the teacher is under a handicap if he does not know
much more about his subjects than is contained in any ordinary
‘““Course’’—the pupils will quickly discover his limitations—
so the ambitious pupil also is retarded if he does not have some
readily available means of learning for himself about common
principles and operations, whether included or not included
in his regular school work. It is hoped that this book may
thus help both the inexperienced teacher and his still more
inexperienced pupils.
Looked at from the artistic or sentimental point of view
there is something about hand work—the human touch or
personal equation—which no machine can supply, as with
carving, a piece of antique furniture, a colonial house; but we
must accept the fact that we are now living in an age of auto-
matic machinery. Wemay lovea spirited horse, but we travel
by motor. With the individual, however, and with the school,
it is not yet necessary to sacrifice the advantages of hand work
merely because it is wise to use machinery for some operations.
While no one should be allowed to become an automaton from
the continued employment of self-acting inventions, a reason-
able use of the common machines calls for intelligence and is
educative.
If one spends ten hours in doing by hand routine work which
he has already learned to do reasonably well, when he can
accomplish this work with a machine in half an hour, he is
wasting valuable time. The judicious use of machinery,
To Teachers xiii
either by the pupil or by others for him, greatly enlarges his
opportunities, and machinery will not exhaust the possibilities
of desirable hand work in wood for a long time to come.
We learn to a great extent by doing, by experiences. There-
fore, for example, if one may have time to go through ten
different experiences using hand work only, he may, with the
help of machinery for common routine operations, go through
perhaps fifty different experiences. The time thus saved by
the use of machinery will allow him to advance to more difficult
problems in woodworking, or to take up other desirable sub-
jects, instead of being held back by doing over and over again
what he has once learned. His acquaintance with work can
thus be more varied and include also some of the elements of
modern industrial methods; not to speak of producing more
work, usually of better quality. Whether pupils can use, or
should use, machinery must depend upon the conditions of
each case, but all should know what the common machines do,
how they work, and how to avoid injury from them.
This book contains no pedagogical theories. It is simply a
working handbook for everyday service,—to be used according
to the methods of each teacher and the conditions of each
school. The ability to use tools properly is not the end and
aim, nor the most vital part, of manual training, but an avail-
able working knowledge of fundamental principles and oper-
ations is essential to doing work that is worthwhile. There-
fore it is hoped that whatever wasted energy this handbook
may save will be devoted to those stimulating and developing
projects of real life which are the soul of manual training—
those undertakings which are so numerous that a long waiting-
list can always be ahead of even the most wide-awake teacher
and his pupils.
The inexperienced teacher who may make use of the Questions
included in this book may be reminded that the intelligent performance
of an operation is a better test of a pupil’s mastery of the subject than
the ability to make oral or written statements about it.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE : : , : : é ; yo
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . : : : : a Ui
SUGGESTED BOOKS FOR READING : : : ix
To TEACHERS . ; ; X1
WorKSHOP, TOOLS, AND OTHER ane ; I
TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WoRK 7
Rule—Straight-edge—Square—Face-side and Joint-edge—Gauge—
Bevel—Combination Square—Compasses or Dividers—Cali-
pers—Spline—Level and Plumb—Chalk and Line—Symmetri-
cal Work—Testing Work—Laying out Work.
TOOLS FOR CUTTING, SHAPING, FITTING, ASSEMBLING,
i) oa : ; : : : } 36
Knife—Hatchet—Chisel—Gouge—Drawknife or Drawshave—Saw
—Mitre-box—Plane—Bead Cutter—Spokeshave—Trimmer—
Boring Tools—File—Rasp—Scraper—Sandpaper— Hammer,
Nailing, etc.—Nail Set—Mallet—Screwdriver, Screws, etc.—
Clamps, Handscrews, etc.—Sharpening—Saw-filing.
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ; fa jiels
The Process—A Few Elementary Principles of Construction, Often
Violated—Paring and Finishing to Shape—Squaring Stock to
Dimensions.
SOME COMMON OPERATIONS : ae
Assembling—Bending Wood—Beveling and Cilgittanae no
making—Carving—Clapboarding—Cleating and Battening—
Door-making and Paneling—Drawer-making—Finishing—
Flashing — Floor-laying — Glazing — Glueing — Grooving —
Hinge-fitting—Inlaying— Joints— Lock-fitting — Pattern-mak-
ing—Rabbeting—Repairing Furniture, etc-—Rounding Sticks
and Edges—Scribing with Compasses, etc.—Shelf-fitting—
Shingling—Splitting Wood—Upholstering—Veneering.
XV
XVi Contents
CoMMON WOODWORKING MACHINES AND THEIR USES
Circular Saw—Band Saw—Jig Saw—Planer—Jointer—Sanding
Machines—Boring Machines—Lathe—Mortising Machines—
Tenoning Machines—Moulding Machines—Scraping Machines
—Shafting, Pulleys, Belts, etc.
Woop... ; f : ‘ 2 i
INDEX . 2 : é : ¥
PAGE
272
340
355
WOODWORKING
WORKSHOP, TOOLS, AND OTHER EQUIPMENT
1. A workshop should be well lighted, dry, and have a good
wooden floor. Place the bench so that you face the light when
working, and also have light on your left if possible.
2. Benches and vises. Common form of school bench,
excellent also for home use, with vise for holding wood at the
left,’ and tail-vise at the right end with stops (pegs) for holding
t When screwing the vise very tightly to hold a piece in one end only
put a waste piece of the same thickness in the other end, to equalize the
pressure (97). There are a number of desirable ‘‘quick-action”’ vises
which can be adjusted readily to hold work in various positions.
I
2 Woodworking
work. There is a rack for tools at the back. A cabinet-
maker’s bench is similar but larger. There are many kinds
of benches. The frame should be firmly bolted together or
keyed, as shown, and the top prevented from warping by being
made of selected strips (534) of maple, beech, birch, or other
fine-grained hard wood, glued, bolted together, and sometimes
dovetailed (527). Have the bench firmly fastened to the floor.
3. Showing use of stops. The work is held between a stop
in the tail-vise and a stop in one of the holes in the bench
top.
4. Common carpenter’s bench, usually made of soft wood,
with iron vise-screw, and often an adjustable iron bench-stop
or dog (6) at the left end of the top to hold boards while planing
the sides. The holes in the front are for pegs to support long
boards when on edge in the vise. Such a bench will do for
much common work. Boards running lengthways can be used
for the top, but a thicker top of plank is better.
* The height of a bench should be such that the worker’s right elbow,
when holding the plane, will be slightly bent and his back about straight.
A bench for cabinet-making or pattern-making is usually a little higher
than one for carpentry, while a carver’s bench is a little higher still. A
nice bench top should be scraped occasionally (194), rubbed with linseed
oil, and given a coat of shellac (406).
a
Workshop, Tools, and Other Equipment 3.
6. Benchstops, There are many kinds.
4 Woodworking
7. Simple devices for holding stock on a rough bench.
8. Bench hook. Useful for holding work on the bench for
sawing, planing, etc. About 15” long by 6” wide is a good
size. The cross cleats should be square with the right hand
edge of the board. The under cross cleat can be pushed
against the front edge of the bench or fastened in the vise.
Hold the work against the upper cross cleat C (122). If
this cleat be short, it may save marring the bench when
sawing.
Workshop, Tools, and Other Equipment 5
9. Horses for sawing and for supporting work. The
height should be such that you can work conveniently,—
from 18” to a little over two feet.
10. Tools. The most important thing with edged tools,
hammers, etc., is the quality and proper tempering of the steel.
It is best not to buy cheap tools.
It is impossible to make a satisfactory list of tools for
everyone, because there is practically no limit to the variety of
work which an amateur or beginner may have good reason for
undertaking. The assortment found in school shops is usually
greater than the beginner needs at first for home work. The
wisest way is to begin with a few of the most common tools,
adding others as they are needed. Refer to the manufactur-
ers’ catalogues. A great deal of ordinary work can be done
with only a rule, a try square, a cross-cut saw, a jack plane, a
hammer, a bit brace and a few bits and drills, a screw driver, and
one or two chisels (14",14",1"). If your work is at all varied,
however, you cannot get along to good advantage without
a larger kit, including for example: a rule, a try square, a
straight-edge, a knife, two or three chisels, a hatchet, a gauge, a
plane, a spokeshave, a cross-cut saw, a hammer and nazl set, a
bit brace and several bits (twist bits and drills are good for the
smaller sizes), a countersink, a screwdriver, a rasp and half-
round file for wood, an oilstone, a glue-pot. When you feel the
need of more tools you will wish to add, perhaps, one or two
more planes, a rip saw, one or more gouges, a mallet, a back saw,
compasses, a Steel square, a drawknife, one or two more screw-
drivers, a scraper,a few hand screws or clamps, a few more bits
or some kind of automatic borer, a level, a bevel, a grinding
wheel, etc. These are merely suggestions as to the best way
6 Woodworking
to acquire a set of tools. It all depends on the work you do.
For example, you can do a great variety of work without
needing a level or plumb. On the other hand you may need
these quite often. Therefore it is well to defer buying tools
having limited uses until you need them.’ Good sets of tools
are put up by a number of reliable makers and dealers, but
avoid cheap sets of the toy class.
Keep all common everyday tools within convenient reach.
To prevent rusting, rub with sperm oil or other anti-rust
substance. Burn oily rags to prevent spontaneous combustion.
Keep bandages and a few remedies for accidents at hand.
11. Fitting handles. Where the handle goes through an
eye, as with the hammer, axe, etc., shape the handle to fit, split
or saw into the end, on the long diameter, and fit and driveina
wedge, or wedges, until the end is spread to fit very tightly.
Then smooth the end. Other wedges are often driven cross-
ways of the end. Metal wedges and other tightening devices
are also used. With a tool like a ‘‘tang’’’ chisel (83, footnote)
bore a hole in the handle slightly smaller than the tang, insert
end of tang, and strike the end of the handle until the tool and
handle are fitted. A broken handle can be removed easily
from a hammer head by placing in an oven with moderate heat.
QUESTIONS
. What conditions are essential for a good shop?
. What is the most important requirement in placing the bench?
. How should the top of a good bench be made? Why?
. Show how to hold work with a temporary or rough bench.
. Show the use of a bench hook.
. What is the most important requirement for edged tools?
. What tools would you buy first in gradually acquiring a set?
N AuNPW NHN
t Besides woodworking tools the worker in wood often has use also for
such tools as an anvil with flat top and “‘round horn” or conical point (a
heavy piece of iron is better than nothing), a vise for metal (on a separate
bench), pliers, cutting nippers, cold chisel, hack saw, snips for metal, files
for metal (flat, triangular, and round), monkey wrench, Stillson or pipe
wrench, wrecking tool, etc.
The tang is the pointed end to be driven into the handle.
TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WORK
12. Common tools are the Rule, Steel tape, Square, Knife,
Scratch-awl, Pencil, Bevel, Marking-gauge, Compasses or
Dividers, Straight-edge, Chalk and line, Level, Plumb, and
Calipers.
Measuring, marking, and testing must be accurate or the
rest of your labour may be wasted. In common work where
many pieces of the same length are to be cut, use the first piece
cut as a measure for all the rest.
13. Marking. For fine work, mark with a knife’ or sharp
pencil. For rough work, use a scratch-awl (with a sharp point)
or a carpenter’s pencil (with a wide lead). The knife should be
sharp but should not have a very thin point. Sharpen pencil
points on sandpaper or a fine file.
Rule
14. Measuring and marking dimensions. Lay the rule on
edge so that the divisions on its side touch the wood. ’* Mark
ACCURATE INACCURATE
t The corner of a chisel can be used, drawing the edge toward you, as
you would a knife, keeping the nearer corner of the chisel edge raised above
the wood. The flat side of the chisel should be against the edge by which
you are marking.
2 This does not apply to a rule with the scale on a bevelled edge.
7
8 Woodworking
with a knife or sharp pencil. Mark a series of short distances
without moving the rule, for every time you set it you are
likely to make a slight mistake, which will affect each remain-
ing measurement and the total measurement.
15. Making a short measurement. Use any divisions on
the rule rather than the end, for the end is likely to be in-
accurate and is hard to place on the line or edge.
16. For long distances mark on a stick or use a steel tape.
Marking on a stick is a good way to transfer short measure-
ments also. To make an exact long measurement you can
use two rules, placing the second at the end of the first, then
the first at the end of the second, and soon. The zigzag fold-
ing rule, from 2’ to 8’ long, is convenient. Witha sliding exten-
sion it can be used for inside measurements (17). To verify
a measurement, measure back to the starting point. For large
rough work have a 10’ or 12’ rod with feet and inches marked. —
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 9
17. Inside measurement. To find the distance between
two points where it is hard to use a common rule, take an
extension- or slide-rule, or two sticks as shown. For example,
when fitting an upright post between floor and ceiling in the
middle of aroom. See Calipers, 44.
18. Dividing the width of a board into two or more equal
parts quickly. To find the middle, set the rule so that some
inch-mark is equally distant from each edge. In the first
illustration, the inch-mark shown by the pencil point is 134”
from each edge. Or the rule can be turned slantingly, as in the
second illustration, and the distance divided into a number of
equal parts quickly. If set, for example, to measure 6”’ from
edge to edge, the width can be divided readily into halves,
thirds, quarters, sixths, twelfths, etc. See also Compasses, 42.
10 Woodworking
19. Finding the middle of the length of a board or other
long surface. Measure from one end to as near the middle as
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you can judge by eye and make a mark (A). Measure the
same distance from the other end and make another mark
(B). The distance between A and B, being short, can be
halved quickly.
Straight-edge
20. Straight-edge. This can be anything with a straight
edge, from a common ruler or the blade of a square to a long
board. Used to mark straight lines and to test edges for
straightness and broad surfaces for flatness (57, 62, etc.).
21. Marking by a straight-edge. Keep the top of the
marking tool slightly inclined away from the straight-edge,
but with the point close to it. Have one or two long straight-
edges on hand.’ For testing work, see 52, etc.
* A wooden straight-edge should be made of wood which will keep its
shape. Quarter-sawed (739), thoroughly seasoned white pine, or mahog-
any, is good.
THIN RULE-—FINE WORK
For very fine pencil or ink work, like drawing, with a thin straight-edge,
as a tee-square, ruler, or triangle, place the edge not quite on the points for
the line, and tip the marking tool the opposite way, as shown.
To test a straight-edge, mark a fine line by it, then turn it over, but not
end for end, and see whether the edge coincides with the line. Test a short
edge by placing on a surface known to be flat, like an iron saw-bench top.
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 11
Square
22. Square. Used to mark lines at right angles to an
edge or surface, and to test right-angled work. The common
forms are the Try square and the Steel square or Framing square.
STOCK
(HANDLE)
23. Squaring a line across the grain with Try square.
Select one edge from which to square all lines, for the edges
may not be parallel. For nice work this edge must be straight.
Press the stock of the square against the wood and mark along the
blade with a knife or sharp pencil. A good way is to place
the knife where the line is to be marked, and slide the square
along until it hits it. Then mark the line. To mark lines with
the grain (292, etc.), use the gauge (28). For testing work
with square, see 58, etc.
24. Steel square or Framing square. Chiefly used in
building construction, but also in shops for large work. Many
computations can be made and much laying out of work done
with it. The blade (the long arm) is 2’’ wide and the tongue
(the short arm) is 1%” wide. See also 35, 36. See The Steel
Square, Hodgson.
25. Squaring a line with Steel square.
12 Woodworking
26. Mason’s square. For large work, like squaring foun-
dations, sills, etc., make a square of narrow boards. Any
triangle with sides three, four, and five units in length (or any
multiple of these units, as six, eight, and ten) can be used as a
square. *
t This is on the mathematical principle that in a right-angled triangle the
square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
sides. 5X5 =25. 4X4 =16. 3%3 =9. 25 =16+9.
On the same principle, in an emergency, if you have only a common two-
foot rule, lay off 8’’ (AB), partially open the rule, place it so that the division
6” from the hinge on one arm of the rule and that 10” from the hinge on
the other arm touch the ends of the 8” line at Aand B. Draw line CB.
It will be at right angles to AB. For larger work, in an emergency, two
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 13
Face-Side and Joint-Edge
27. Working-face or face-side and Joint-edge or working-
edge. First select one edge (usually the better edge) of the
board or plank, mark it, and use the square from this edge
x
Working Face
only, for the edges may not be parallel. This edge is often
called the ‘“‘joint-edge”’ or ‘‘working-edge.”’ If not straight
and square, plane it until it is so (138, etc.), for you must have
at least one accurate edge from which to lay out work properly.
In the same way when squaring lines across the edges of a
board or plank, select one side (usually the better side), mark it
and square from this side only. (Often called the ‘ working-
face”’ or ‘‘face-side.’’) A mark like a V will show both joint-
edge and working-face. See also 72, 296, etc.
Gauge
28. Gauge. Used to mark lines parallel with an edge, with
the grain.
straight-edged strips can be placed approximately at right angles, by eye,
and then adjusted by measuring on the principle just shown, until the edges
are at right angles. A right angle can also be found by carefully folding a
sheet of stiff paper,—once if it has a straight edge, twice if it has not; and
the result will usually be as accurate as the work of any but a highly
skilled workman. Such methods are for emergencies only, not for use in
a well-equipped shop. No good workman would use such a method as
folding paper if a regular square were available, but much work often has to
be done in places where the proper tools are not within reach. Ifthe right
tool cannot be found the capable and resourceful workman contrives a
substitute.
14 Woodworking
29. Setting the marking gauge. Have the spur project
only from ;;”’ to #3,"... Set it at the required distance from
the head. If the tool is in good condition, set it by the scale
on the bar. If not, and for accurate work, measure with the
rule as shown. *
30. Marking with gauge. Hold the wood firmly against
some fixed object, or in the vise, or otherwise. Hold the gauge
as shown. Press the head of it against the edge of the wood.
Turn it slightly from you, so that the spur will be drawn along,
and push the tool steadily from you as far as the line is to be
marked. Keep the head pressed against the wood, for the
spur is apt to follow the grain. When gauging parallel lines,
gauge all from the same edge or side, for the edges or sides may
The spur will make a better line when slightly convex on the side
toward the head and with the front corner slightly rounded.
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 15
not be parallel. To mark across the grain, use square and
knife or pencil (23, 24, 25).
A mortise gauge has two spurs. - -I["--—>
26 Woodworking
Testing Work
52. Testing work for squareness, straightness, flatness and
symmetry. Keep testing. Test first by eye. When you can-
not tell by eye, use testing tools.
MESON II
53. A flat surface. A surface is flat or true (a plane sur-
face) when a straight-edge, in whatever position placed, will
touch it throughout.
a
54. Accurled or “ cupped ”’ surface.
eee
55. A warped and winding surface (twisted).
56. Testing straightness by eye. Face the light. Sight
along the edge lengthways.
57. Testing short piece with straight-edge (20). Face the
light. The edge can also be laid on a surface known to be flat,
as the top of an iron saw-bench.
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 27
58. Testing for squareness. First test by eye, as for
straightness (56). If you cannot tell by eye, press the try
square against the wood, face the light, and see whether the
wood fits the square. Test at several points. For large work
use the steel square (24).
"
é
For some work the wood need not be flat. Sometimes, if
warped or winding, it will be sufficiently flattened by being
fastened into place. But for much nice work the surfaces must
be flat in order that the parts may fit together properly, and
for appearance.
Flatness and smoothness are not the same. A surface may
be smooth without being flat. To test the smoothness run
your fingers lightly over the surface.
59. Testing flatness by eye. Sight across the surface
toward the light.
i
28 Woodworking
60. Testing flatness by eye. Sight lengthways toward the
light.
61. Testing flatness by sighting diagonally.
62. Testing flatness with straight-edge. When you cannot
tell by eye, use a straight-edge placed in different positions.
If it touches throughout, in all positions, the surface is flat.
Face the light. The surface shown above is flat at one diagonal
but not at the other.
63. Testing flatness of small surface lengthways with
square,
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 29
es
64. Testing flatness crossways with square.
65. Testing flatness of edge with square.
66. Winding-sticks. To test large work, take two straight-
edges (winding-sticks) each of equal width throughout, and
lay them on edge, one across each end of the surface to be
tested. Then stand back and sight across the top edge of one
straight-edge to the top edge of the other. If they are in line,
there is no winding where they are placed. Test in different
positions. *
* Making a four-legged object stand evenly. To find which leg, or legs,
to cut to make a table or other four-legged object stand evenly, turn it over
and use straight-edges on the principle just shown (66, 67, 68). Another
30 Woodworking
67. Steel squares used as winding sticks. The top edges
of these squares are not in line, which shows this surface to be
winding.
WINDING
68. Long winding-sticks are best.
69. Testing angles of 45°, or any angle other than a right
angle, can be done with the bevel used in the same way as the
square, or by the steel square, etc. See 35, 36, 37.
Laying Out Work
70. Duplicate parts should be laid out together if possible.
Use a square to get the ends in line. Mark all together. If
method. Place on a flat surface, wedge under the legs until the corners
of the top are equally distant from the flat surface on which the object
stands. Set the compasses (39) at the distance to which the shortest leg is
raised, and scribe (571) around the other legs. Then cut them off. Or
mark around the legs by using a strip or rule laid on the surface on which
the object stands.
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 31
awkward to hold, use hand screws, clamp, or vise. Also gauge
similar marks before re-setting gauge. Have the lines cross or
run by (33). On work which would be defaced by scratched
lines use a pencil.
71. Marking position of parts. Where there is chance for
mistakes in putting work together, mark the pieces and their
32 Woodworking
positions with figures, letters, or other symbols. When plan-
ning how work is to go together, it is well to mark roughly
the places for joints, etc., before finally laying them out.
72. Selection of face side and joint edge (27). In some
work the face side should be the side which shows, as the top
of a table or the front of a picture frame; but the face sides of
the legs of tables, chairs, etc., should be on the inside to ensure
accurate joints with the rails (305) and other parts. The joint-
edges of door-frames, etc., should be on the inside (372). All
working-faces and joint-edges must be planed true where
joints are formed. In some cases the joint-edge and working-
face should be the poorer edge or face because the other will be
more conspicuous.
73. Expansion and contraction cf the wood must be al-
lowed for when laying out many kinds of work (747, 326, 376,
379, 382 footnote, 387, 484, 541, etc.).
Summary. Accuracy essential. For fine work mark witha
knife or sharp pencil. Start all measurements from the same
edge, the same side, or the same point, when possible. Make
lengthways measurements from one end, after that end has
been squared. Make a single measurement when possible,
rather than several successive shorter ones. Mark successive
short measurements without moving the rule, when you can.
Mark successive duplicate lengths from the piece first cut.
Have accurate joint-edge or face-side from which to use square,
gauge, bevel, or rule. Keep square, gauge, etc., pressed firmly
against the wood. A point, or an angle, is best shown by
intersecting lines. Do similar operations at the same time.
Test repeatedly for accuracy (facing the light), first by eye,
then with other testing instruments.
QUESTIONS
1. What is most important in laying out and testing work?
2. What marking instrument should be used for fine work?—for rough work?
3. Show how to place the rule for accurate measuring or marking.
4. Why is it best to mark several short distances without moving the rule
rather than to move it for each measurement?
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 33
5. What are the most accurate ways to measure long distances, or to transfer
such measurements?
6. Show a simple way to find the exact distance from any point on a floor
to the ceiling above, and in similar cases of inside measurements.
7. Show how to quickly divide the width of a board into two or more equal
parts.
8. Show how to quickly find the middle of the length of a board or other
surface.
9. If you are cutting fifty sticks of the same length, why should you use the
stick first cut as a measure for all the rest rather than to use each stick as you
cut it?
10. Find a stratght-edge and show how to mark a line by it.
11. Show how to test the accuracy of a straight-edge.
12. What are the uses of the square?
13. Show how to square lines across the grain with the try-square—with
the steel square.
14. Why, for accurate work, should you select one edge from which to square
all lines? Why should that edge be straight?
15. Show how to make a mason’s square, and give the mathematical principle
upon which 1t is made.
16. Show how to use a common rule upon this principle.
17. Explain the terms working-face or face-side—joint-edge or working-
edge.
18. Why select a face-side or a joint-edge?
19. In what cases should these be the better sides or edges, and when should
they be the poorer ones? Why?
20. For what 1s the gauge used?
21. Show the proper projection of the spur, how to set the gauge, how to hold
it, and how to mark a line with it.
22. If you are gauging two or more parallel lines, why should you gauge
them from the same edge?
23. When 1s 1t better to use a pencil mark than the spur of a gauge?
24. Show how to ‘“‘thumb-gauge.’’ When is thumb-gauging desirable?
Show how to gauge near an edge with finger and pencil. When desirable?
25. Show what the bevel is for, how to set it, and how to use it for marking or
testing.
26. Set the bevel at 45° by the steel square.
27. Set it at 45° without the steel square.
28. Mark an angle of 45° directly on the wood with the steel square.
29. Show ways of marking at other angles.
30. Show how to set compasses or dividers by the rule, and to strike a circle
or an are.
34 Woodworking
31. How can you avoid scratching the wood?
32. How can you avoid pricking a hole at the centre?
33. Show how to ‘step off’’ a measurement several times.
34. Show how to divide a distance into a number of equal paris.
35. When would you use trammel points? Make a substitute.
36. Show how to draw a circular arc when the centre 1s out of reach.
37. Show how to find the diameter of a rod with calipers and how to read the
measurement.
38. Show how to find the inside diameter of a pipe and how to read the
measurement.
39. Show simple way to find outside diameter without calipers.
40. Show how to use a spline for drawing a curve.
41. Show how to use the spirit level—to level a long surface accurately.
42. Show how to tell whether a surface be vertical or plumb—to plumb a
long surface accurately.
43. What is the simplest way to find a vertical line?
44. Show how to level approximately, without the spirit level.
45. If there 1s a hole in the ceiling of a room and you wish to bore a hole in
the floor directly below, how can you find the point on the floor?
46. How can you make a plumb in an emergency?
47. Show how to use chalk and line.
48. Show different ways of laying out symmetrical curved work, lke a
paddle, model boat, etc.
49. What is the most important testing instrument—the one to use first?
50. From what direction should the light come?
51. Test the edge of a board for straightness: (1) by eye; (2) with straight-
edge.
52. Test an edge for squareness: (1) by eye; (2) with square.
53. Define a flat (plane or true) surface—a warped or winding surface
—a curled or cupped surface.
54. Name a piece of work for which the wood must be flat—one for which
it 1s not necessary that it be flat.
55. Lf the surface of a piece of wood be absolutely flat, mathematically speak-
ing, must it also be smooth?
56. If it be practically flat, taken as a whole, must it also be smooth?
57. Is a smooth surface necessarily flat?
58. How do you test for smoothness?
59. Show how to test a surface for flatness.
60. Show how to use winding-sticks. Why are long ones better than short
ones?
61. Show how to test the evenness of table legs and the like.
62. Show how to lay out and mark duplicate parts.
Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 35
63. Why should you gauge or square similar marks at one operation?
64. If your work consists of a number of similar parts or of parts arranged
in different ways, how can you avoid confusion and error in cutting, fitting, and
assembling?
65. Mention any cases in which the expansion and contraction of the wood
must be taken into consideration when laying out the work. Why?
TOOLS FOR CUTTING, SHAPING, FITTING,
ASSEMBLING, ETC.
74. Edged tools have a basil (bevel) on one side of the
cutting edge or on both sides.
75. When a tool like the axe, hatchet, etc., which has a
thick blade with a basil on each side of the edge, is used for
splitting, it acts like a wedge and forces the wood to split in
advance of the cutting edge. Thus the edge cuts only when it
first strikes the wood. See 578.
76. Tools like the common chisel, drawicnite: plane, etc.,
have a basil on only one side of the edge. When used ia
Z a gE,
Ss
paring and trimming, the edge cuts all the time and the basil
bends the shaving out of the way. The common knife has a
basil on each side, but as the blade is thin the shaving is bent
36
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 37
aside so that the edge cuts all the time when whittling. The
carving chisel is thin, has two basils, and works in the same
way. The edge of the axe or hatchet also cuts when used for
light trimming.
77. Ashearing cut. A cutting edge can be pushed straight
ahead into the wood, or it can be drawn sideways as it is
pushed forward. The edge of a razor can be pressed against
the inside of the thumb without cutting, but if moved length-
ways it will cut. Even a blade of grass will cut if drawn
through the hand. A powerful magnifying glass will show
that the edge of a sharp knife, for instance, is really quite
rough and ragged, somewhat like a saw, and it will, as a rule,
cut its way through the wood best if drawn lengthways, like
a saw, at the same time that it is pushed forward. This is
called a shearing cut. Usually the softer the material the
greater the advantage. Owing to the angle at which it works,
the cutting edge can also be considered as thinner, and so more
effective, with a shearing stroke.
Knife
78. Knife. This tool should have a sharp point for mark-
ing when you lay out fine work (13). Face the light when
whittling. Watch the grain carefully to prevent cutting the
wrong way. Use a shearing stroke when you can, drawing
38 Woodworking
the whole length of the blade through the wood (77). In
whittling a wide surface cut at the edges first. Keeping the
arm which holds the wood against your body helps to steady
the work. To sharpen, see 258.
a
ee
79. Wood pushed against a fixed object for steadiness.
80. Cutting toward thumb, but carrying the knife edge
past thumb and not against it.
81. Cutting a notch. Begin in the middle and work out-
ward.
Hatchet
82. Hatchet. There are various kinds. Common uses
are to trim wood roughly to shape, to remove waste wood, to
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 39
split, for shingling, etc. The hatchet, axe, etc., when used
for paring or trimming, cut on the same principle as other
cutting tools (76), but when used for splitting wood they act
chiefly on the principle of the wedge (75, 578).
Chisel
83. Chisel. The Firmer chisel (89) is usually sufficient
for the beginner and amateur.’ The secret in paring and
trimming with the chisel is to push the tool with one hand on
the handle and control the cutting with the other hand on the
1 The Firmer chisel is for paring and trimming wood to shape and for
light mortising (467). The Framing chisel is stouter, for framing, mortis-
ing, and other heavy work. The Mortise chisel is for heavy timber work.
The Paring chisel is for paring only. A chisel for heavy work has the
handle fitted into a socket on the blade. For light work a blade with a
Ml ZZ
LZ2
tang which fits into the handle is common. The common chisel has a basil
on one side only. The Carving chisel has a basil on each side. The latter
cuts straight into the wood (A) because it has a basil on each side. The
common chisel cuts ina curve (B)—cuts under, because it has a basil on one
side only.
Gaaawads
LLPLL
mae
LILI LLL ALD
2
Showing Skew chisel (at the left), with basil on each side. Used for
carving and a similar form for turning. A skew chisel sometimes has a
basil on one side only. Also (at the right) Back-bent chisel. Useful for
work in corners and angles. The Corner chisel is useful for paring inside
corners. The Butt chisel has a short blade, convenient for setting hinges,
paring mortises, etc.
40 Woodworking
blade. For most work use the flat side of the blade against
the wood. Cutting with the basil against the wood is some-
times necessary, however, and is often the best way to remove
surplus wood. If the wood cannot be firmly held by the hand
which also holds the blade, fasten it in the vise, or in some way,
for it is essential that both hands hold the chisel, and also that
the wood does not move. Watch the grain and cut so that
the chips and splitting will be in the waste wood and not in
the part you wish to keep. For paring and trimming, a large
chisel is better than a small one. One with bevelled edges is
often best. Light paring chisels for very fine work in soft
wood can have a long basil at the cutting edge, sometimes
34” or 14” long. For heavy work and hard wood the basil
must be much shorter. Sometimes you can only push the
chisel straight ahead, but a shearing cut (77) is often best for
paring. To strike the chisel, always use a mallet for heavy
work. For light work, where only gentle blows are required, it
is the common practice with skilled workmen to use the
hammer (the side of the head), because the damage to the
chisel handle on ight work is trifling compared with the waste
of time and the inconvenience of using a mallet. Test your
chisel work by eye and with other testing instruments. Much
work once done with the chisel is now done by machine. For
sharpening, see 248, etc.
84. From which end should you pare with the chisel?
85. Trimming to a line. To trim to the curve ab, work
with the grainfromatob. It often helps to saw off part of the
waste wood first, as on the lines bc and ef. Push with the
right hand and control the cutting with the left hand, which
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 41
also holds the wood firmly. Cut with the grain (292, 293)
so that the chips come in the waste.
86. Shearing cut. Begin in position shown at the left.
As you press down also push from you until the tool is upright
(85), so that the edge will make a shearing cut (77). Cut with
42 Woodworking
the grain so that the chips come in the waste wood. This
is the way to widen or trim a groove or dado (463, 464); for
example, as shown at the right, edging along with slight cuts
of 14” to 14” at a time, and keeping the flat part of the blade
bearing upon the part already cut.’ A shows position of
chisel at beginning of cut and B position at end.
87. Another position for left hand.
BEGINNING CUT END OF CUT
88. Shearing cut. Push down and edgeways at the same
time. Cut with the grain.
* The edge of a square, or other straight-edge, can sometimes be used as
a guide for long, straight cuts with the chisel.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 43
89. Shearing cut made by moving chisel handle sideways.
The left hand bears against the wood and keeps the chisel
from getting out of control and cutting too much.
90. Paring across an end. Chisel handle swung around
to one side causes a shearing cut.
44 Woodworking
oI. Suggestions for use of chisel.
92. Paring with one hand.
Summary. To pare with chisel have wood held securely.
Push tool with one hand, hold back with the other. Cut with
the grain. Short basil and stout chisel for hard wood and
rough work, long basil and lighter chisel for fine paring in soft
wood, medium basil for general work. Use shearing cut when —
you can. For heavy work, see Mortising, 467. For Carving,
see 344.
Gouge
93. Gouge. This is controlled like the chisel (83). The
common or ‘‘outside’’ gouge has the basil on the convex side,
and is useful for many odd kinds of work, like hollowing the
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 45
hull of a model boat, for pattern-making, etc. The ‘‘inside”’
gouge, with the basil on the concave side, is useful to trim holes
or other openings; for carving, etc. Cut with as long strokes
as possible.* For sharpening, see 248, 2509, etc.
94. Shearing cut. Roll the tool around as you push it
forward (77),—particularly useful with crooked grain and in
difficult places.
95. Cutting across the grain. Often the best way to
remove surplus wood and to ‘‘rough out’’ odd-shaped work.
Much done in carving.
Drawknife or Drawshave
96. Drawknife or Drawshave. For roughing out work,
cutting away waste wood, and trimming odd shapes. It is apt
to cut too deeply and to split the wood. Cut with the grain.
For sharpening, see 248, 263, etc.
*Sweep. Gouges have many different sizes and degrees of curvature
or “sweep.”
46 Woodworking
97. Trimming to shape with Drawknife. Use flat side
against the wood to make a straight cut, but often the grain of
the wood, or the shape to be cut, makes it better to have the
basil against the wood.*
98. Shearing cut. Draw the tool sideways across the
wood while pulling it toward you, or slant the tool and pull it
straight toward you.
Saw
99. Saw. The Cross-cut saw is for sawing across the grain.
The Rip saw is for sawing with the grain. There are many
: The waste piece in the right hand end of the vise is to equalize the
pressure.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 47
others for various uses, as the Back saw, Compass saw, Turn-
ing saw, Coping saw, etc.* For sharpening, see 270, etc.
100. The set. The teeth are all bent outward (called the
‘‘set’’), one tooth to one side, the next to the other side, so that
the cut (called the ‘‘kerf’’) is wider than the thickness of the
saw blade. This lets the saw slip through the wood easily.
The blade is also taper-ground,—thinner toward the back and
end.
1crt. Cross-cutsaw. The most important saw. The teeth
have sharp edges and sharp points, like little knives.
102. Enlarged view, looking directly at back of saw, to-
ward tooth edge, showing how the “‘set’’ extends the “points”
of the teeth beyond the body of blade, so the latter will not
bind or wedge in the cut.
CREEK
103. If you hold a well-filed cross-cut saw with the teeth
upward, a needle will slide the length of the blade.
* Keep saws clean with sperm oil. If rusty, clean with fine emery cloth,
wipe dry, and oil with sperm oil.
48 Woodworking
104. Showing set and cutting action. The sharp points
make parallel cuts across the wood, and the sharp edges trim
away the wood between.*
A—scoring. B—entering deeper and deeper until C—the
full bite is taken.
105. Place the work on horses, or in the bench vise, or on
somefirmsupport. Hold the forefinger of the right hand against
the side of the handle, as shown below, to steady the saw.
t The teeth are filed so that the front cutting edge is drawn across the
wood much as you would draw a knife point across. Green or wet wood
requires a coarser saw than dry, well-seasoned stock, and soft wood than
hard. But little set is required for dry hard wood. Soft wood needs a
wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the looser-
textured soft wood are bent aside by the action of the saw teeth and are
not so cleanly cut as in the hard wood.
Sizes. Eight to ten points, or seven to nine teeth, to an inch, are suitable
sizes of teeth for common work. 26” is a popular length. The smaller
sizes (24”’ or less in length) are called panel saws.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 49
106. Use the thumb of the left hand to help start the saw
on the line.t Have your eyes vertically over the line so that
you can look on both sides of the saw. This will help to keep
the saw blade at right angles with the surface of the wood.
107. When the saw is in position, draw it gently toward
you, and then push it gently from you. After one or two easy
strokes, remove the left hand from near the teeth, and saw
with light, steady, rather long strokes, guided by the lines
you have marked on the upper side and on the edge of the
wood. When near the end of the cutting hold the loosened
end of the wood with the left hand to prevent splintering.
t A notch can be cut in which to start the saw, and can even be carried
across the whole width of the surface, where extreme accuracy is required,
but such methods are to be recommended in unusual cases only. Learn
to do ordinary sawing without such help.
50 Woodworking
108. The kerf (saw cut) should come in the waste wood.
The most workmanlike way, when the end will not need to be
¥OKERF
SAWING TO
Line KNIFE LINE
planed, is to saw just on the outside of the knife-line you have
marked,—to ‘‘split the line,’ if you can. When the end must
be planed, allow perhaps ;,’’ more for planing to the line.
109. Testing forasquarecut. Learn as quickly as possible
to saw without having to test in this way. It is easier to follow
the line on the surface than to cut at right angles to the surface.
110. If not sawing squarely, bend the blade sideways as
yousaw. Use the tip of the saw when doing this.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 51
111. Twisting saw to regain the line. If you run off the
line, twist the saw to bring it back. Use tip of saw when doing
this.
112. Ripsaw. Sawing with the grain. The cross-cut saw
will saw with the grain also, but the rip saw works more
quickly. The cross-cut saw is sometimes better for ripping
through bad knots and hard, crooked-grained spots, and for
fine work in thin wood, plywood, etc. Try cutting across the
grain with the rip saw, also with the grain with the cross-
cutting saw, and see how they act.
lLr41111
113. The teeth. Properly filed rip saw teeth (shown en-
larged) are like little chisels with square, sharp ends, for
cutting lengthways of the grain only; that is with the grain. *
au pRB E SSF
Serta aaaaddd
114. The set arranges the teeth in two overlapping parallel
rows. Each tooth is pushed through the wood as you push
t Five to seven points, or from four to six teeth, to the inch are good
sizes of teeth for common work. 26’ and 28” are common lengths.
52 Woodworking
a chisel (92) and pares off a little from the ends of the fibres
of the wood; thus the rip saw cuts on the forward stroke only.
115. Enlarged view of cutting edge of rip saw.
116. To saw, use the rip saw like the cross-cut saw, as
already shown. If the edge is to be planed, saw a little (per-
haps ;,’’) outside the line.
117. Opening kerf with wedge if it binds the saw. The cut
shows also the correct slant for sawing. Therefore you can
usually rip better with the wood placed on horses than when
held upright in the vise.
118. Showing wood tipped from you in the vise in order to
use the saw with the proper slant.
119. When sawing work like tenons (467, 475), for
example, after cutting part way as shown in the last illustra-
tion (118), reverse the piece and saw from the opposite corner
as shown below, and so on. Thus you have to follow only the
lines on the surfaces toward you, and the saw is partly guided
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 53
_ by the kerf already cut. As your skill increases you can saw
farther without reversing.
CROSS CUT NEXT
120. To get out the piece D, saw lengthways (A to B), and
then crossways (C to B), because this is the way least likely to
injure or waste the stock.
121. Back saw. For nice, small work. Has fine cross-
cutting teeth. Secure the wood in the vise, on the bench-
hook (8), or otherwise,—flat pieces with the flat side up,
because you can follow the line better than with the edge up,
for the back-saw must not be bent. A 10’’ saw with 15 points
to the inch is good for common work.
122. Showing a common use of back saw. Begin at the
edge away from you with the handle raised as shown, adjust
54 Woodworking
the saw with the thumb of the left hand, and gradually lower
the handle as you saw, unti! the teeth cut the whole width of
the wood. Very small strips can sometimes be sawed best by
holding the saw in the vise, teeth upward, and passing the
wood back and forth over the teeth. See also Miire-box (128),
Joints (447).
123. Compass (and Keyhole) saw. A narrow, tapering
saw for cutting curves, and for starting a cut at a distance from
an edge for the insertion of a hand saw. To saw a hole or
inside openwork, bore a small hole in which to start the saw
as shown. If the curve becomes sharp, use the tip of the saw.
The teeth are a compromise between cross-cut and ripping
teeth. For very small holes use the smaller Keyhole saw.'
124. Turning saw (also called Bow saw and Web saw).
For sawing curves. Hold the saw at one end, not by both ends.
The teeth can point toward or away from you, according to
«When you have to make a very sharp turn, run the saw back and forth
without trying to cut ahead, at the same time slowly turning the saw until it
has worked its way around. Quick turning may bend or break the saw.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 55
the kind of work and the way it is held. Use the left hand to
start the cut in the right place, as with the hand saw (106).
Turn handles and blade sideways in the frame when necessary.
Use a light, easy, long stroke. Try to keep the saw blade at
right angles with the surface of the wood. To saw a hole or
inside openwork, bore a small hole, unfasten one end of blade,
pass blade through hole, and re-fasten.*
125. Scroll saw, Jig saw or Fret saw. Used for fine work
in thin wood. Teeth must point downward. To follow the
pattern, turn the wood, not the saw. Run the saw straight up
and down, as shown.' To saw a hole or inside openwork, bore
a small hole in which to start the saw (123).
126. Support for wood when sawing vertically. Clamp to
bench, and place the wood so that the saw can run up and
t When you have to make a very sharp turn, run the saw up and down with-
out trying to cut ahead, at the same time slowly turning the wood until the
saw has worked its way around. Quick turning may bend or break the saw.
56 Woodworking
down in the hole. By attaching a vertical piece this support
can be held in the vise.
127. Coping saw, for cutting small curves in fitting mould-
ings, and for any small scroll work, etc. Used like the scroll
saw (125). If the work be held in the vise, the teeth can point
from you. Whether the teeth should point from or toward you
depends upon which is the face side of the wood and upon how
the wood is supported or held.* See 517.
Summary. The set of the teeth should be enough for
clearance merely. Cross-cut teeth act like little knives, rip
saw teeth like little chisels. Take position with eyes in line
with saw blade. Use thumb of left hand to start saw on line.
Begin slowly. Saw with light, long strokes. Have kerf in
the waste wood. Use rip saw at about 45° when you can. If
you run off the line or are not sawing squarely, use tip of saw
and twist or bend it slightly. Use back saw for fine work only.
Place side of piece up, rather than the edge, when using back
saw; and begin, usually, at the farther edge, lowering saw to
the line as you cut. With narrow bladed saws for curves keep
saw blade at right angles to surface of wood. If the work
t Small wheels for toys, checkers, and the like can be quickly made by
taking, or making, a cylinder of wood and sawing off pieces of the desired
thickness with the circular saw (585, etc.), or by hand with a mitre-box and
stop (131). A wheel-cutter can also be used in the bit brace. This is
merely a cutting knife revolving around a spur for a centre. A cutter for
making leather washers can be used. Wheels and the like can be made by
sawing the shape a trifle too large and finishing accurately with the disk
sander (666). For producing in large numbers, the sawing can be done
with the Band saw (629) or Jig saw (642), or they can be made entirely by
turning with the lathe (672).
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 57
rests on a support, run the saw up and down, and turn the
wood, not the saw. Adapt size of saw to the work. Cut sharp
curves slowly. To saw holes, bore small hole for inserting saw.
Mitre-box
128. Mitre-box. For sawing at different angles. A metal
box is best. Much mitre-box work is now done by Trimmers
1To make an accurate mitre-box requires skill. Pine or beech is good.
Do not use spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. Square a line, m n,
across the top side of the bottom piece, before putting together; and lay off
from one end of this line a point o on the edge, at a distance equal to the
width of the bottom, thus fixing the points m,n, and o. Next fasten on the
sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point m and
on the inside of the other from the point 0. The diagonal line p q will
represent the mitre. Saw the kerf with a back saw or a panel saw. Also
58 Woodworking
(159), Sanders (664), and the Circular saw (585). See also
508, etc.
129. To saw a cylinder, use a mitre-box, or a rectangular
piece for a guide.
—
5 ~~
130. Mitre guides for light work. Be sure the surfaces
and edges are square and true. Mark the lines first on the
bottom of the upper piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the
top as shown in footnote (128). See 146, footnote 2.
131. When many pieces are to be cut of the same length,
fasten a block or stop to the inside of the mitre-box or to an
extension of it. Place one end of each piece against this stop
for each sawing, and the pieces will have the same length.
square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other, draw a line across
the tops of the sides to meet these lines, and make a kerf, as shown by the
middle line in the first illustration, for square sawing.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 59
See Circular saw (606). For planing and trimming ends, see
Mitring (510), Trimmer (159) and Sander (664).
Plane
132. Plane. Probably the plane was originally merely a
chisel stuck through or attached to a block for smoothing
surfaces.
133. The Jack plane is for general work and for roughing
off surfaces. It will do for ordinary work.’ A shorter ‘‘junior”’
Jack plane is useful for small work.
t Learn the adjustments from the plane itself. The plane-iron or “‘bit”’
does the cutting. The bottom of the plane is called the ‘‘sole,” the wedge-
shaped space above the cutting edge is the ‘‘throat,’’ and the slot in the sole
is the ‘‘mouth.”’
The cap-iron, which has a dull edge, is screwed to the back of the plane-
iron. If the cap-iron were not used when planing against the grain or for
60 Woodworking
134. Other planes. The Smoothing plane is best for
smoothing a surface and for making small pieces flat. The
Block plane (152) is small, light, and cheap. Useful for plan-
ing ends, and for work which has to be held in one hand while
the plane is used with the other hand. It has no cap-iron
(see footnote) because it is meant for planing end-grain. The
cutting-iron is set at an acute angle and has the basil on the
upper side. The Joznter is long, for straightening, flattening,
and truing long edges and surfaces (144). The Fore-pblane
cross-grained wood, the surface would be apt to be rough, because the
shavings would tend to split down into the wood ahead of the cutting edge.
\)
ff)
ey
\| AB?” © EEE
Bee Toes
tt tn ear r at L e EN Aar a
eee
The cap is added to bend the shavings up against the forward edge of the
mouth, so that they can be cut off smoothly before splitting begins.
Screw cap-iron firmly to plane-iron so that the edge is from 1/;6”’ (or
occasionally a little more) to 1/¢,’’ back from the cutting edge of the plane-
iron. It must fit tightly to the plane-iron, and be screwed to it firmly so
that shavings cannot pass between them. For fine work and hard, crooked-
grained wood the cutting edge should project beyond the cap-iron less
than for coarse work and soft wood. With a wide opening at the mouth
the shavings, when the grain is bad, will not be bent up by the cap-iron
in time, because the angle against which to bend them is not near enough;
therefore for fine work with hard, crooked-gruined, or knotty wood have
the opening at the mouth narrow, as just shown, the iron set fine, and the
cap near the cutting edge. Upon removing the cutting iron from the plane
you can see how tne ‘‘frog,”” upon which the plane iron rests, can be moved
forward or backward. For general work the cutting-edge should be
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 61
is a short Jointer. There are many planes for special uses.?
Some workmen still prefer the old-fashioned wooden planes.
There is a desirable lightness and smoothness about their
action. The wooden stocks, however, become warped or worn,
sooner or later, and then the sole has to be “‘jointed’”’ or made
sharpened either squarely across or rounding very slightly. The Jack-plane
was originally used for rough planing only and the edge was rounding, leav-
ing a series of hollows (as shown, exaggerated). It is still sometimes so used
but rough stock is now planed almost always by machine.
The Router, for smoothing the bottoms of grooves or other depressions,
the Plow, Dado-plane, Rabbet-plane, Matching-planes, Circular plane, Bull-
Y
#
a
¢
st
ROUTER
nosed plane, Universal plane, etc., are still used for special purposes; but
machinery now does most of their work, except in emergencies. Their
use is easily learned. The importance of these special planes depends
upon what kind of work you are doing and whether you can have the
advantage of machinery. The Toothing plane is used in veneering (580)
and to prepare other surfaces for gluing. See 430. This plane is also
sometimes used in smoothing very crooked-grained surfaces which are hard
to smooth witha plane. Toothing breaks up the fibres so that the surface
can be smoothed with the scraper. A finely sharpened plane iron is sup-
posed however to smooth the most refractory grain, but this requires skill in
sharpening and adjusting the tool.
62 Woodworking
flat. Iron planes are easier to adjust and to keep in order.
The iron of a wooden plane, if it has no adjustments, is raised
by tapping on top of the fore end (or on the rear end of the
smoothing plane), and fixed by tapping on top of the “‘chip”’
or wedge which holds the iron in place. The iron is lowered
by tapping on its upper end and then on the chip. If the
cutting edge projects unevenly, tap on one edge of the upper
part of the iron. For sharpening plane irons, see 248, etc.
135. Adjusting the cutting edge. Face the light, turn the
plane over, and look along the sole. The edge should project
only about */,,”’ or less, usually. Adjust by turning the round
nut in front of the handle to the right or left. For very rough
work, or where much wood has to be removed, the edge can
project a little more, drawing it back for the final planing.
Wi)
136. If one corner projects more ha the other so that the
planing will be uneven, move the lever, just under the top of
the plane-iron, to the right or left until the edge projects
si
137. ‘*Planer-marks”’ on machine-planed stock (see 651).
For nice work these must be smoothed off by hand or by
scraping or sanding machines, lest they show when the work
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 63
is finished. For some things machine-planed stock is smooth
enough.
PLANING WITH THE GRAIN
' PLANING AGAINST THE GRAIN
138. To plane the edge of a board. First fasten the wood
in the bench-vise, or otherwise, so as to plane with the grain,
if possible.
BG
pC /D
139. In which direction should you plane each edge?
140. Place the wood iow in the vise, for it is hard to plane
much higher than the top of the bench. A hand screw can be
used to support the end of a long piece or of a wide board so
that the edge can be kept low.
64 Woodworking
141. Operation of planing. The edge must be planed:
(1) straight, and (2) square with the side of the piece. Look
along the edge (56) to see where the most planing is needed.
Hold plane as shown, with fingers of left hand against the
side of the wood to help guide the plane and keep it steady.
To make the edge straight the plane must be kept fiat on the
wood for the whole stroke. Stand at the rear end (the end to
the right as you face the bench), with one foot in advance, and
begin to plane at the rear end. Plane slowly. Watch the
mouth of the plane to tell by the shavings how well you are
planing. Keep the plane lengthways of the wood.* ‘Take
long, steady strokes, the final ones the length of the wood if
possible. ?
142. To keep the plane flat on the wood, press down on the
forward part of the plane with the left hand during the first
part of the stroke, and on the rear part with the right hand
«Tt can be turned slightly, sometimes, provided the whole length of the
sole be kept on the wood. A very small piece can sometimes be planed
best by turning the plane upside down and passing the piece over the cutting
edge, using care to avoid planing the fingers.
RC
eee
2 Feathering the strokes (greatly exaggerated). [f you have to start
or end a stroke at any other point than the end of the piece, the rear end of
the plane can be lifted slightly from the wood at the beginning and end of
the stroke, thus tapering the ends of the shaving. A light, easy movement
in placing and raising the plane is all that is necessary. This is not easy to
describe but can be learned by experiment.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 65
p =o .
y, ge FUERE LY: voy
SS]
1
during the last part of the stroke, removing the left hand at
the end.
143. Result of not keeping plane flat on the wood at each
end of the edge. The plane is also apt to jump and chatter,
leaving hollows and ridges across the surface. Beginners often
plane with a rocking motion which produces the rounded edge
shown above. Therefore, if you have this tendency, plane as
if you were trying to make the edge hollowing instead of
straight.
144. A long plane (Jointer) makes a straighter edge or
surface than a short one (Smoothing-plane), because the former
planes away the high spots until the surface is straight, while
the latter can follow the irregularities of the surface. After
planing a little, test for straightness (56, 57) and for square-
ness (58). If not straight, plane the high places, test again,
and so on until straight. To test the squareness of the edge,
Square from the edge to the side or face, because any error can
66 Woodworking
be detected better by the long blade on the flat surface than if
the blade be held across the edge.
145. Planing high side of edge. If not square, move the
plane over sideways so as to plane the high side only. Try to
keep the plane flat, and steady it with the fingers of the left
hand (141) against the wood. If the edge of the plane-bit is
very slightly rounded, it will take off a shaving a little thicker
on one edge than on the other. Thus by moving the plane to
the high side the edge of the wood can be made square.
Attachable guides for planing squarely or at any other angle
can be bought.
146. Planing (jointing) edges for glue joints is now done
with the Jointer (655) or the Circular Saw (604). Before
planing, arrange the pieces so that the grain will run the same
Mice
GRAIN RUNNING THE SAME PIECES MARKED TO PREVENT
WAY MISTAKES
way in each, if you can, because the surface will plane and
finish better, after gluing, than if the grain runs in opposite
directions*; and mark the edges which are to join, to prevent
Sometimes, however, with handsomely figured wood, the pieces are
arranged with regard to appearance only, even though extra work may be
required when smoothing.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 67
mistakes when gluing. The best way is to glue the boards in the
rough, before the surfaces have been planed at all, and after the
glue is hard plane by machine or hand to the required thickness.
To plane the edges by hand, do them separately, from
opposite sides,—that is, if the edge of the first piece is placed in
the vise with the marked side of the board toward you, plane
the next piece with the marked side against the bench, or away
from you. This is to offset any unevenness in setting the
plane-iron, tipping of the plane to one side, or warped condi-
tion of the pieces. Do not use the try square to test the edge
when making glue-joints, but put one piece in the vise with the
jointed edge up, place the next piece on it, and see if the edges
touch throughout.” Strike the under board slightly to see if
the upper one shakes or tips sideways or endways. Also slide
the top board lengthways, for a sensation of adhesion or
suction can be felt when the edges fit. Press down at the
ends to see if they touch. If the edges do not touch through-
out, one or both must be planed with thin, careful strokes until
they fit, for the joint will not be good otherwise.” For gluing,
see 426, etc.
1 It is common to make the edges slightly concave lengthways, so that
they touch at the ends only, to be forced together for their whole length
with clamps (229, etc.) at the center, after applying glue. This is probably
the best way in many cases, but it is a question whether, with thoroughly
seasoned stock, particularly with short pieces, there can be anything
better than two straight edges fitting at every point and clamped for the
whole length.
2 Shooting-boards or Jack-boards can be used for jointing and planing edges
straight, and at different angles, particularly for short, thin stock. The
board is laid against a stop and the plane used on its side. Formerly shoot-
ing-boards for planing edges, mitres, etc., were in common use and can still
be obtained if machinery be unavailable; but machines are now used.
68 Woodworking
147. Testing surface for flatness, with any straight-edge.
Not only must the edges fit, as already shown, but the sides
RIGHT ; WRONG
of the boards must form a flat surface, must be in the same
plane.
148. To plane a broad surface, as the side of a board, hold
the wood firmly on the bench with bench-stops (3), or in the
vise, or in some secure way, and so that you can plane with the
grain, if possible. Plane in the way already described for
planing an edge, except that you grasp the knob of the plane
with the left hand instead of holding the fingers at the side.
Of course you have to keep moving the plane over from side
to side in order to plane the whole surface. Look across the
surface, or test with straight-edge, to see where the most
planing is needed. The edge of the straight-edge can be
chalked to show the high spots.
149. Planing a winding or warped surface. Plane the
highest places first.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 69
150. Testing surface with plane. Apply the edge of the
plane, or any other straight-edge, crossways, diagonally, and
ff \\ ~
AIS ~
Gmay
S
q
lengthways, and you can tell whether the surface is flat. If
not flat, plane the high places, test again, and so on until it is
flat throughout.
P<
151. Traversing. Planing across the grain, or diagonally,
when the wood is very rough or when much wood has to be
planed off. The finishing strokes should be with the grain.
152. Planing end-grain. Fasten the wood low in the vise.
Plane partly across from one edge, then reverse the piece and
plane partly across from the other edge. This is to prevent
chipping at the edge. Press down on the front of the plane to
70 Woodworking
keep it flat on the wood. The Block-plane (134) is best, but
the Smoothing-plane (134), or the Jack-plane (133) can be
used. After planing, test with square (58), but if planing to
a line, stop when you reach it. For fine work a knife line
Squared around the piece helps.*
t Sometimes a piece of waste wood is temporarily placed at the farther
end to prevent chipping, or the farther edge of a narrow piece can be
trimmed off before planing.
Planing end on bench-hook or jack-board, but planing by this method
should be carefully tested with the square.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 71
154. To plane the edge of a box, and in similar cases, keep
the sole of the plane on both side and end at each corner, to
prevent bruising with the end of the plane.
pe
155. To make an octagonal stick by planing. First make
it square in section. Mark an octagon on the end.* Gauge
lines, with pencil, on the four sides of the stick from the angles
* To construct an octagon within a given square.—Let ABCD be the given
square. Draw the diagonals AC and DB intersecting at E. From A, B, C,
D, as centres, with radius AE, or BE, etc., describe arcs cutting the sides of
the square in F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M. Draw LH, GK, IM, and FJ; and
LHGKIMJF will be the octagon required.
72 Woodworking
of the octagon. Plane the four angles to these lines. A jig' or
cradle to hold the piece is useful for the planing. When the
stick is square in section, by measuring one-half the diagonal
of the end, the lines on the sides can be drawn without com-
pleting the octagon on the end.
For Squaring stock to dimensions, see 296.
Summary. Learn adjustments from the plane itself. Cap-
iron bends shaving for smooth cutting. Adjust plane to
make fine shavings, except for rough work. ‘“‘Planer marks”’
must be removed for nice work. Have wood securely held.
Plane with the grain if possible. Begin at rear end of the
wood. Keep plane flat on the wood. Plane slowly, with
long, steady strokes. Watch the shavings. Keep plane
lengthways of the work. Use a long plane to secure straight-
ness. Short plane for smoothness merely. Test by eye,
square, edge of plane, etc. Plane high spots first. To reduce
wide surfaces, plane crossways or diagonally first, then length-
ways. Plane ends from both edges. Shearing cut good for
bevelling or rounding ends.
Bead Cutter
156. Bead cutter. A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and
the like, can be bought; or made by filing the reverse of the
shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel and
inserting this blade in a kerf in one end of a piece of wood like
that shown. The tool is pushed forward like a scraper. Such
« Jigs or fixtures to hold or guide either the work or the tool, or both, are
in regular use for quantity production, enabling an operation to be repeated
many times with accuracy and speed. Usually it is not worth while to
contrive a jig for doing a piece of work once. Ifa difficult operation is to be
repeated frequently, it is best to make a jig, if practicable. The use of a jig
is usually a purely mechanical or routine performance,—productive from the
point of view of efficiency, but not educative. Contriving jigs, however,
calls for much inventive effort and ingenuity, besides mechanical skill,
and is distinctively educative.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 73
work is now usually done by machine, but the principle of the
bead cutter is often applicable to problems in hand work.
Spokeshave
157. Spokeshave. For shaping and smoothing curved
or irregular surfaces but not for straight flat work, for which
the sole is too short (see plane, 144). Originally for shaping
wheel-spokes. Frequently used to follow the drawknife.
Much of the work of the spokeshave is now done by machinery,
but it is still an invaluable tool for some kinds of work. The
cutter should project very little, as with the plane (135).
For sharpening, see 248, etc.
Wh By J
158. Using spokeshave. Grasp firmly and push forward
steadily so that it will cut like a plane. It can usually be
controlled best when pushed from you, but it can be pulled
toward you if necessary. A shearing cut is often best (77).
74 Woodworking
Trimmer
159. Trimmer. Cuts accurately at a variety of angles.
The adjustments are simple. Trims with thin slicing cuts,
using a shearing stroke (77). Do not cut over %” for soft
wood or 7,” for hard. The knives must be kept sharp. Have
an extra set, so that sharp ones can always bein use. Fasten
small machines securely. If much wood is to be removed, use
a saw or other tool first, finishing with the trimmer. Large
machines stand on a base. Much of the work of trimmers
can be done with Sanders (664). See Mztre-box (128), Mitring
(508, etc.), Paring (293), Bevelling (318).
Boring tools
160. Boring tools. Common boring tools are the Brace
and bits or drills, Automatic or Push drills, Breast, and Hand
drills, Gimlets, Augers, Brad-awls, etc. See also Boring
machines (669).
=i
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 75
Bit brace and bits or drills.
PENS
161. Inserting bitin Brace. Hold the chuck
(A) in one hand, and revolve the handle (B) of
the brace with the other hand until the jaws (C)
have opened enough to put in the bit. Insert
bit and revolve brace the other way until bit
is held firmly. To take it out, reverse the pro-
cess. a
162. Principle of the auger-bit. The point SS
is a screw a (called the worm) which screws itself
into the wood, as you turn the brace, and draws
the whole bit toward the wood. When the scoring
nibs 6 touch the wood they make a circular cut.
Then the cutting-lips c pare off shavings. So pres-
sure on the bit-stock is not needed usually,—unless
the bit is dull. For sharpening, see 264.
163. Single thread
screw point for quick
boring. For common &
work in soft wood, in end- io
grain, or gummy wood."
Also standard double g
@, thread screw point, for —
fine work. Bores more
easily and leaves a smoother hole than the single thread.
164. Sizes. The number on the shank of an auger-bit is
the numerator of a fraction of which the denominator is 16,
and indicates the size. If the number be 8, the bit is 3%’’ in
diameter, that is, %’’.
165. Starting bit at exact point. For accurate work with
the auger bit, particularly in hard wood, before beginning to
ey
* There are other fast-cutting bits for common work,—the Irwin with a
“solid centre,’ the Ford with but one nib and one lip. For small sizes the
gimlet bit bores easily, but tends to split the wood if thin or near an
edge.
76 Woodworking
bore, punch a little hole to start the point or worm of the bit
at the exact point, as it sometimes works off to one side.
166. Placing point or ‘‘ worm ”’ of bit at exact spot. Then
raise brace to proper position for boring.
WATCH BIT
FROM ABOVE
~ WATCH BIT
a=. SIDE
167. To bore squarely (at right angles to the surface), it is
well to have the surface of the wood either horizontal or ver-
tical. Lines squared across the surfaces help. After beginning
to bore, sight from above or from in front and then from one
side to see whether you are boring squarely. Keep sighting
until the bit is well started. For important work have some-
one watch from one side while you watch from above or in
front.
168. The ratchet brace can bore with only partial revolu-
tions of the handle, and can thus be used where a complete
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 77
turn of the handle cannot be made. Sometimes in boring a
horizontal hole, it helps to use the ratchet brace, boring with
downward strokes only, instead of turning the brace all the
way around.
169. Boring vertically while looking down onto the work
and moving around into different positions.
170. Testing accuracy of boring with square. Learn as
quickly as possible to bore squarely by eye. See also Dowelling
_ jrg (504).
171. To withdraw the bit from a hole, give the brace a
turn backward to loosen the worm or point. Then pull the
bit straight out, at the same time turning the brace as if
boring. This brings out the chips, but use care not to tear
the wood at the mouth of the hole.
78 Woodworking
172. To bore through the wood. When the worm or
point begins to prick through, stop boring, turn the wood, and
bore back. This is to prevent splintering when the bit comes
through but use care or you may tear the wood where the bit
first entered. For rough work you can bore through into a
piece of waste instead of reversing the wood.
173. With a deep hole in hard wood, particularly in end
grain, pull the bit out once in a while to clear out the hole.
When the position of a long hole must be exact on both sides
of the wood, mark the point for the centre of the hole on both
sides, and then bore from each- side until the holes meet.”
For example, boring a tube. In such a case, draw a line
lengthways on the surface if possible.
—_— — — oo ~
Ze "~
174. To avoid splitting. Fasten a small piece tightly in
the vise, or a handscrew, while boring. Bore hole (A) before
«In order to have the hole straight and at the same time at right angles
to each side of the piece, the sides must be parallel. If the hole be long, the
two borings may not meet exactly, but can be straightened with a hot iron
rod, or some other tool. For large work of this kind use an auger with a
handle.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 79
sawing the curved side, otherwise the short grain near the hole
may split when you bore.
175. Expansive bit for large holes. For large holes in hard
wood, borea ‘‘pilot”’ hole first with 1¢” bit. When boring with
an expansive bit would be too hard, use an auger with handle.
*
*
176. For a larger hole than can be bored, use a saw (123,
etc.). If you have no saw for curved work, bore small holes
just inside the line and trim to the line with gouge, spokeshave,
or whatever tool may be adapted to the size of the opening,—
a method for emergencies only. |
177. Counterboring. Boring two holes in this way is
often done to set the head of a screw or bolt below the surface.
Bore the larger hole first. See 569, 555, 186. If you have
begun a hole with an auger bit, you can continue it with a
smaller one but not with a larger one, because in the latter
case there would be no wood for the worm or point to screw
into (162). In such a case plug the hole with wood or use a
metal plug with soft centre.
80 Woodworking
178. The twist drill is excellent, does not split the wood
readily, and will bore in metal also. It breaks easily if bent.
Ranges in size from 74’’ to 4’. The twist bit for wood cuts
SASS SA
well and is not easily broken, but is hard to start exactly at the
desired point, is liable to work off to one side, and bends easily.
Ranges in size from #5"’ to 3$’’.. For sharpening twist drills
and bits, see 264. The Gimlet bit bores easily but tends to
split thin wood or near an edge. The hand gimlet is also still
used, although nearly superseded.
179. The Forstner bit can be used to bore in end-grain, for
shallow holes in thin wood, in knotty places, to follow a smaller
bit, to make rectangular or elliptical holes, etc. Bores slowly,
as it has no worm. Makes a hole with smooth bottom.’
t The centre-bit is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The
spear-like point a acting as a centre, the point b cuts a deep ring, and the
edge c, which is bent so as to form a flat chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, ~
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 81
180. Bit-gauges, of various kinds, stop boring at a given
depth.
181. If you have no bit-gauge, measure with a rule held
beside the bit, or cut a stick. To make a tube is more accurate
if many holes are to be bored. For rough work you can tell
approximately by turning the brace the same number of times
for each hole.
= H
RG
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2
182. Countersinking hole for head of screw with a rose
countersink used in bit-brace.
and so a round and smooth hole is made. This bit does not cut very well
with the grain of the wood. It can be sharpened with a small oil-stone.
It is well to bore a trial hole in a piece of waste wood when accuracy is
required because the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the diameter
of the hole cut is a trifle greater than that of the bit.
82 Woodworking
“FLAT METAL COUNTERSINK
183. Other forms of countersinks. Reamers for enlarging
holes are useful. A countersinking gauge will stop the
countersinking at the desired depth, as is desirable if there are
many holes, for screws look best when sunk uniformly.
184. A template can be made if holes are to be bored in
many pieces in the same relative positions, so that the points
for all the holes can be found without measuring for each
separately. The bevel can be used when boring at any angle,
like the square as shown in 109. There are various angle-
boring and extension appliances for boring in places difficult to
reach.
185. Boring where two pieces join, so that one-half of the
hole will be in each piece. Mark line for centre of hole across
each piece, make a very shallow saw-kerf in each, clamp pieces
together, and bore from each side.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 83
PLUG CUTTER
186. Covering the head of a screw with a plug of wood is
easily done with these tools.t See also 177.
Breast and Hand Drills, etc.
187. Breast and hand drills. Very efficient. Can be
used often where a ratchet-brace would otherwise be needed.
Such a tool can be changed from a plain drill to a left hand
Hy
S/S YANKEE N°ISSS —"F
ratchet; to a right-hand ratchet; to a double right-hand ratchet,
when any movement of crank, forward or backward, causes the
drill to cut continuously. Small hand drills are useful for
small holes. Screw-drivers can also be used.
* Hollow augers, and spoke pointers are occasionally useful.
84 Woodworking
188. Push brace. Takes auger bits up to 4” and other
bits and drills; also screw-driver bits (222).
189. Reciprocating drill. Grasp the ‘‘driver’” in the
right hand and move it backward and forward. ‘The drill
turns continuously to the right. Holds any drill with straight
shank ;3;’’ diameter or less. Can be used for drilling metal
also.
190. Automatic push drill. Very convenient for small
holes.
RIGHT POSITION WRONG POSITION
191. Brad awl and gimlet. Superseded to a great extent
by the boring contrivances already shown, but still frequently
useful. The awl should be not quite so large as the nail to be
driven. Bore with the cutting edge across the grain, lest the
wood be split by the wedge-shaped edge. The gimlet is apt to
split the wood near an edge.
Summary. To bore squarely sight from different directions.
The worm or screw of the auger bit draws bit into the wood
while the nibs and lips score and pare the wood. To bore
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 85
through, stop when bit pricks through, and bore back from the
other side carefully. Twist. drills and bits, breast and hand
drills, and automatic borers very desirable.
File
192. File. Fasten the wood firmly. Hold file handle with
right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with left
hand, thumb uppermost, or with the fingers or palm. Push
straight forward with a long, steady stroke. Lift from the
wood, bring back, push forward again, and so on. Press on
the forward stroke only. To cut with a backward stroke dulls
the file. The file should be used only where you cannot use
the clean-cutting edged tools, not instead of them. Do not
file metal with a file for wood. Press lightly when using a new
file. To clean a file, soak in hot water and brush with file-
LOLI
cleaner or stiff brush. The half-round, ‘‘slab-sided”’ or cabinet
file is the most useful, and sometimes the round (tapering) or
*“‘rat-tailed’’ shape.* A half round combination of file and
rasp (193) is useful.
Rasp
193. Rasp. The half-round rasp for wood is studded with
points, which tear off the wood more quickly, but more roughly,
t When the teeth are cut in one direction only, a file is called single-cut,
but when there are two oblique rows crossing each other, it is double-cut.
These ridges incline toward the end or point of the tool, so that the file,
like the rip saw, plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward.
86 Woodworking
than the file (192). Useful to work irregular objects roughly
into shape, but not a tool to begin with, for the learner is apt to
prefer it to the edged-tools which he should be learning to use.
Follow with a file or other finer tool to get a smooth surface.
Scraper
194. Scraper. The cabinet scraper is a thin piece of very
hard steel and is used after the plane, for fine work, to make
the surface smoother. Scrapers are made with handles, and
are also set in stocks like planes. These are good for some
work, but the hand scraper is best for the beginner. Scrapers
with curved edges, and also pieces of glass, are good for rounded
surfaces. Smoothing on a large scale is done by Scraping
machines (721) or Sanders (664)
195. Using cabinet-scraper. Spring it slightly with the
hands, so that the middle part of the edge, but not the corners,
will touch the wood. Hold as nearly upright as will cut well,
and push steadily from you. Raise from the wood, bring back,
push again, and so on.
SURFACE TO BE SCRAPEO
196. The turned-over edge shown (exaggerated) cuts,
rather than scrapes, fine shavings. Examine the edge with a
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 87
powerful magnifying glass. It cuts only on the forward stroke.
Each edge can be used. Scrape in any direction that will give
the best result, but make the final strokes with the grain, asa
rule. Test for smoothness by passing the fingers over the
surface. When the scraper ceases to make shavings and only
scrapes dust, itis dull. To sharpen, see 265, 266, 267.
Sandpaper
197. Sandpaper and other abrasives. Do all cutting
before sanding, for the grit dulls the tools. Sand with the
grain, as arule.* Use fine sandpaper for nice work. Do not
sand joints by hand. Some joints can be sanded with sanding
machines. Most sanding is now done by machine (664, etc.).
The fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers. OO is as
fine and 1/4 as coarse as is needed for ordinary work. A sheet
can be torn into smaller pieces by a straight edge or over the
edge of the bench. Garnet paper is excellent. Steel wool is
good for rubbing off and cleaning old finish.
198. Sanding flat surface and edge with block of wood to
make surface even and to prevent rounding edges. Cork
«Sanding across the grain, except with rounded surfaces, makes satis-
factory finishing hard, because such parts absorb an excess of stain
88 Woodworking
makes a good block for fine work. A block of wood can be
faced with cork, rubber, or leather.
199. Using paper without block for flat surface and edge.
SAND PAPER
200. Sanding small end or a little piece. Rub it steadily
over a piece of sandpaper laid flat on the bench. Reverse the
piece, rub again, and so on.
201. Sanding round or curved surface. Draw paper back
and forth across the grain, around the piece. Also showing
(at the right) finishing curved edge with the grain. Thick
rubber, or leather, makes a good block for curved surfaces. *
1 Small articles such as checkers, if there are many of them, are often
smoothed and polished by revolving (“‘tumbling’’) for a few hours in a
drum together with scraps of wax. The drum is merely a cylindrical or
polygonal box kept revolving.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 89
For fine work to be nicely finished the angles of the edges
(arrises) should be very slightly rounded—a mere touch, less
than y',’’—to prevent rubbing through the sharp angles when
finishing (397, etc.). There is a cornering tool for slightly
rounding edges.
Hammer, Nailing, etc.
202. Hammer and nails. The common claw hammer has
the face, which strikes the nail, either flat or slightly rounded
(‘‘bell-faced’’). The latter is less likely to dent the wood.
—
BELL-FACED
FLAT-FACEO
Use a heavy adz-eye hammer for heavy work and a light
hammer for small, light work. There are many special ham-
mers for upholstering, tack-driving, riveting, etc.
Nails, etc. Wire nails are now used for most purposes.
Besides the common ones with flat heads, there are casing,
finishing, wrought, cut, brads, etc.*
t The old terms three-penny, eight-penny, etc., indicate the size.
Distinguish between the nails with broad flat heads and those with
smaller round heads. The smaller sizes of the latter are brads. If the
nails are to be set (219), use round-headed ones, as the flat heads make
rough holes. Copper or galvanized nails are best for boat building, copper
being preferable, particularly for salt water. Escutcheon pins are used
tan
for keyhole escutcheons, small ornamental hinges, etc. Dogs hold parts
together, as framing timbers, the staves of a built-up column, etc. If the
points slant slightly outward (draw-dogs), they will draw the parts together.
90 Woodworking
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Corrugated fasteners are useful.
203. Nailing. Hold hammer near end of handle.* Use wrist
motion, with some elbow movement. Try to strike squarely
on top of nail. Use light blows until nail is started straight.
Nails probably hold better when driven home by light blows
than by only one or two violent strokes. For rough work,
drive the head of the nail flush with the wood. For nice work,
stop just before it is flush and drive it in with the nail set (219).
If the wood be hard, bore a hole slightly smaller than the nail
(208); also, in soft wood if there seems to be danger of splitting.
204. Position for starting nails when nailing a box and in
similar cases. Place the piece to be nailed on the bench, stand
* Occasionally it will do to hold it nearer the head, as in driving very fine
brads in delicate work.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 91
in line with the edge, and drive the nails until the points prick
through the wood. For nice work square a light pencil mark
in order to start the nails in line. Avoid nailing very near an
end or edge, particularly in thin wood, to prevent splitting.
205. Nailing the pieces together. Put one piece in the
vise and nail the other to it. By standing in line with the edge
as shown you can tell whether you are driving the nails straight,
so that the points will not come out through either side of the
‘board. If a nail is driving badly, pull it out and drive in
another place. Ifa nail becomes bent, pull it and use a straight
one. Keep face of hammer head free from glue or oil.
206. Showing nail slanting so that it will come out at the
side. Pull it, and if straight drive in another place. If bent,
92 Woodworking
use a straight one. It is natural in such a case to tap the upper
part of the nail until it is vertical or in the line you wish it to
go; but if this bends the nail, as often happens, it will be even
more likely to break through the side than before, as shown.
207. To drive a nail in a slight curve, on the principle just
shown, file the end like a common chisel and the point will tend
to work off toward the straight side (83, footnote). To drive
in a sharper curve, bend the end of the nail more or less and
it will driveinacurve. Try ona waste piece.
208. Bore holes for the nails for the best work. A nail
holds better when driven in a hole slightly smaller (.;’’ to
zs’) than its diameter than when driven without a hole. Use
longer nails for driving into end-grain than for side-grain,
because end-grain does not hold nails so strongly as side-
grain. For box work and in similar cases, the length of the
nails should be somewhat more than twice the thickness of the
board holding the heads.
RIGHT
WRONG
209. Nailing cut nails. These taper on two sides and
should be driven so that their wedge shape cannot split the
wood. You can tell how to place them by feeling, for two
sides are smooth and go with the grain of the wood. Cut
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 93
nails are best for shingling, unless you use galvanized wire
ones.
210. Cement-coated nails hold better than smooth ones.
Smooth nails hold better than barbed ones.
211. Driving slender nails in hard wood. The safest
way is to bore holes slightly smaller than the nails (208).
Touch the points to paraffine or wax, which some keep in a
hole in the end of the hammer handle. Soap will do but may
cause rust. Holding the nail between three fingers or with
pincers sometimes helps. In extraordinary cases a nail can
be driven through a waste block of soft wood first, and, when
driven as far as possible, the block can be split off and the
nail driven home.!
BLIND NAIL TOOL
212. ‘*Sliver’’ or secret nailing. Raise a shaving with
narrow gouge or chisel, or use the blind nail tool shown, which
can be attached toa 14” chisel. Drive thenail in thedepression,
apply hot glue, and rub the shaving back into place with the
face of a hammer, or with sandpaper over a block, until stuck.
tIn an emergency, if you cannot bore a hole, a wire nail or brad may be
less likely to split the wood if you cut off the end, sharpen it on two opposite
sides like a brad-awl (191), and drive with edge across the grain.
94 Woodworking
213. Staggering. In nailing cleats, or in similar cases,
‘“‘stagger’’ the nails, that is, arrange them in a zigzag way
(366). This usually distributes them to the best advantage,
enables you to use more nails, and lessens the danger of split-
ting the wood. This also applies to screws.
214. Blind-nailing leaves no holes on the surface, as in
floors of matched-boards. Each board is nailed slantingly
just above the tongue. This holds it down and also draws it
toward the adjoining board. The grooved edge of the next
board conceals the nailing. See Floor-laying (421), Sheathing
(525).
215. Toe-nailing. Driving on a slant. Sometimes there
is no other way to nail. Studs in house-building are fastened
to the sills by toe-nailing. Sometimes toe-nailing is done to
increase the strength, as in the box shown above; but experi-
ments at the Forest Products Laboratory show that, contrary
to common belief, slanting the nails does not add to the
strength in such cases, except when the wood finally becomes
considerably dryer than it was at the time of nailing. Toe-
nailing draws two pieces tightly together, as shown (at the
right), and in blind floor nailing (421, or sheathing, 525).
Sometimes the effect can be increased after the nail has been
driven part way by drawing the hammer in the direction of
the point of the nail so as to bend the upper part of the nail
toward the other piece. In boarding a building, and in similar
cases, drive the first nails in each board slanting downward,
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 95
and near the top edge, to force the board tightly against the
one below.
216. Clinching. After driving through the wood, place so
that the head of the nail rests on a piece of metal. Use light,
slanting blows to bend the point into a hook. Then bury the
hooked end in the wood. Useful in rough work, as for cleats
on a shed door. Clinching nails can be bought. For light
work, another hammer can be held against the head of the
nail, after driving the nail through the wood. For heavy
work use something heavier. It is not a good plan to drive and
clinch in one operation. Drive the nail through first, then
clinch. In such work as canoe-building, however, driving and
clinching are done in one operation over a metal-covered
borin.”
ae
217. To clinch a common wire nail neatly, bend the end
around a nail set, round spike, or other rod, with the hammer,
t A rivet, which holds on the clinching principle, is a pin of metal with a
head, especially useful in boat work. Bore a hole for the rivet, drive it
through, hold a hammer or solid piece of metal against the head, and pound
down or “‘upset’’ the other end to form a second head. A washer or
“‘burr’’ is slipped over the end of the rivet before upsetting it.
96 Woodworking
remove nail set or spike, and complete the clinching with the
hammer.
218. Drawing anail. Place a block under the head of the
hammer. Add more blocking, if necessary, as the nail comes
out. To draw nails from boxes, and in similar cases, if you
have no nail-puller, pry up a board, together with the nails, a
short distance—perhaps 14’’—and then with a quick blow of
the hammer pound the board back into place. striking between
the nails. This will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a
little above the surface, ready to be drawn. This lessens the
splitting of the boards and the bending of the nails caused by
prying and pounding. If you do not need the entire length of
the boards, saw around the box near each end. This is less
likely to split the boards. Old broken nails can sometimes be
removed by boring around them with a quill-bit. Sometimes
they can be driven through with less injury to the work than to
draw them.
Nail Set
219. Nail set. Used to sink nails below the surface before —
puttying, etc. The size should depend on the size of the nail.
Place the little finger on the wood and also press it firmly
against the nail set to keep it from slipping off the head of the
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 97
nail. A conical depression in the point of the set helps. On
rough, heavy work the head of a large nail or spike can be used
if necessary.
Summary. Hold hammer near end of handle, usually.
Try to strike head of nail squarely. Bore hole slightly smaller
than the nail for nice work, particularly with slender nails in
hard wood. Stand in line with edge of piece into which nail is
to be driven. Start nails in outer piece before placing in posi-
tion, when practicable, for nice work. Draw nails which bend
or slant when driving, and drive others. Nails hold better in
side-grain than in end-grain. Drive cut nails with points
across the grain. Stagger nails when practicable. Blind-
nailing leaves no holes and draws the parts together. Toe-
nailing draws parts together. When clinching drive through,
then clinch with light, slanting blows. Use blocking under
hammer head when drawing nails. When setting nails keep
little finger on the wood against nail set.
Mallet
220. Mallet. Used for striking wooden tool handles, etc.
(348, 469). ‘‘ Wood to wood, metal to metal,” is the rule when
much heavy work like mortising (467, etc.) is done with mallet
and chisel. Heavy mallets should have the handle put through
a tapering eye in the head (469). Rubber mallets are some-
times used in assembling work. A rounded head with the
98 Woodworking
handle on the end (348) saves effort, as there is no flat side to
keep adjusted to the tool handle. You do not gain force by
using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the softer and
more yielding blow saves the tool handle. Hickory, lignum
vitze, maple, or other dense hard wood, is suitable for a mallet.
See Chisel (83)
Screwdriver, Screws, etc.
221. Screwdriver. ‘This should end in a long bevel or it
will slip out of the slot in the head of the screw.* A long
screwdriver is better than a short one, usually.
Za
222. A screwdriver bit, to use with the bit-brace (161),
often saves time and strength. Turn the brace part way,
stop, then turn again, and so on; or use the ratchet-brace with
only partial revolutions.
223. The spiral screwdriver saves time and strength. It
drives or withdraws screws either by pushing on the handle
or by a ratchet movement. Can also be made rigid, like a
common screwdriver. A countersink can be used in place
t A short bevel is also bad when extracting screws, because it necessi-
tates pressing hard against the screw to keep the screw-driver in the slot.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 99
of the screwdriver. The ratchet screwdriver also saves time
and strength. You merely turn the handle forward and back-
ward, without having to take a new grip at each turn.
SK
224. Screws. To fasten with screws. Bore a hole in the
outer piece—the one which will come against the head of the
screw—large enough to let the smooth part of the screw slip
through easily without being loose (182). Then, when the
screw is driven into the inner piece, the head will draw the
two parts together tightly. In soft wood the hole in the outer
piece is the only one needed, unless there be danger of splitting
the inner piece. In hard wood bore a hole in the inner piece
somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw,—sometimes
even as large as the core or solid shank if the threads were
stripped off. For nice work, if several screws are to be in line,
make a light pencil mark on which to bore. Staggering is
often best (213, 366, 367). When fastening hard wood and
soft wood together, drive from the soft wood to the hard, when
possible, so that the thread of the screw is in the hard wood
and the head bears against the soft. Slender screws (particu-
larly brass ones) are likely to twist off in hard wood, unless the
holes are the right size. Countersink for the heads, except for
rough work in soft wood and for round-headed screws. Stop
turning a screw in soft wood when it is driven home, or you
may strip the threads which the screw has made in the wood.
These threads in the wood are what make the screw hold.
If they are stripped, the screw has less holding power than a
nail. Driving a screw with the hammer prevents the screw
cutting the thread in the wood, but there is no harm for com-
mon work in starting a screw with a light tap of the hammer.
Screws do not hold strongly in end-wood, because the thread
in the end-grain is easily stripped. Putting glue in the‘ hole
may help sometimes. Screws hold more strongly than nails
100 Woodworking
(except in end-grain, where nails are often better) and the
work can be taken apart more easily or tightened; but they
cost more, take more time, and sometimes they injure the
appearance of the work. To make a screw drive easily, rub
the point on paraffine or wax. Soap will do, but may cause
rusting. To replace a screw in a worn hole, or if a hole is in the
wrong place, if not to be exposed to the weather first plug the
hole with a peg tightly fitted and driven with glue. If exposed
to the weather, try waterproof glue. Winding wire around the
thread is sometimes done as a makeshift. When one-half of
the head of a screw breaks off in driving, the screw can often
be drawn out by gripping the remaining half-head in the claw
of a hammer, and turning the hammer around to the left.
225. Inserting a dowel, or other piece of hard wood, across
the grain, to give a stronger hold when a screw has to be driven
into end-grain. Use care not to split the dowel.
226. ‘Screw holes.’? When screws have to be removed
and redriven frequently in the same place, ‘‘screw holes’”’
can be used to advantage.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 1o1
227. Screws are of various kinds.'
Summary. End of screwdriver should have long bevel.
Screwdriver bit good for common work. Spiral or ratchet
screwdriver very convenient. To fasten two pieces, bore hole
in outer piece so that screw will just slip through. Small hole
in inner piece, if hard wood. Staggering often desirable.
screw soft wood to hard, rather than the reverse, when prac-
ticable. Countersink for heads of screws, except for rough
work in soft wood and for round-headed screws. Over-
driving screws, or pounding them in with a hammer, strips
the thread cut in the wood. Screws do not hold strongly in
end-wood. With slender screws in hard wood, size of hole in
inner piece must be carefully adjusted to size of screw. Touch
points to paraffine, wax, or soap. Plug a worn hole (or one
in the wrong place) with wood. For greater strength, use
bolts or rivets.
1 The size is indicated by the length in inches or fractions of an inch, and
by the size of the wire from which the screw is made, as a 114”’ screw No. 9,
meaning one and one-half inches long and made from No. 9 wire. Wood
screws are made from 4” to o” in length and of wire from I to 30. Some
screws for rough work are made to be driven with the hammer, the screw
driver being used only to finish the driving.
Lag-screws, screwed in with a wrench, are useful for frame-work, as a
bench, and for fastening metal to wood. A washer should be used some-
times next the head if against wood. Bolts hold much more strongly than
screws, and should be used when strength is the main object, as in a gate,
bob-sled, heavy horses, some kinds of boat and wagon work, etc. A bolt
should fit the hole snugly. A washer should be used under the nut when it
comes against the wood, and sometimes under the head. Bolts in outdoor
work should not be screwed up so tightly as to make depressions in which
water may settle and cause decay. The length of a bolt is measured
from the point to the underside of the head, therefore in selecting
you must allow for the thickness of the nut, and for washers if
the latter are used. Common kinds of bolts are carriage, stove, and
machine. To prevent a nut unscrewing, use a lock-nut, or deform the
thread if the nut will not be removed. Rivets are also used for some
kinds of work. To fasten wood to masonry, an expansive bolt can be
used.
102 Woodworking
Clamps, Handscrews, etc.
228. Clamps. Cabinet-clamps are important for gluing
flat pieces together and in assembling large work like furniture.
229. Type of clamp for heavy work. If mounted on horses,
or on permanent supports, two or more of such clamps are
invaluable for quick and accurate clamping of large work
like doors, table tops, etc. To make a long clamp, in an
emergency, bolt together the bars of two clamps so that there
will be a screw at each end.
230. Convenient forms of clamps for general use.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 103
231. Clamping a glued joint. The flat sides or the edges
of the clamps should touch the surface of the work, to keep
the pieces flat when the screws are tightened. Clamps are
also made with two bars, one to bear on each side of the wood.
Screw each clamp in turn a little at a time, so that the joint
may be brought together evenly.* Two persons can use
cabinet clamps to the best advantage. See 146.
232. Put pieces of waste wood between the clamps and
the work.
tUnless the pieces are firmly clamped throughout, their shape may
change before the glue becomes set. Clamping at only one or two points
may force the joint to open elsewhere. First make the best joint you can.
Then, after gluing, hold the pieces together with a good number of clamps,
firmly and evenly tightened. The old-fashioned way of rubbing the two
edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue is not so good for the
beginner as to use clamps, except with small pieces, such as corner-blocks
(450).
104 Woodworking
233. In assembling work, as the clamps are tightened and
the joints brought to a bearing, test to see that everything is
coming square and true. Test by eye, with square, etc.,
because the pressure of the clamps, unless they are in exactly
the right position, often forces the work out of shape, even
though the parts may have fitted properly before applying
pressure. By loosening a clamp a little and moving one end
upward or downward, or to the right or left, and then tighten-
ing, the work can be made true and square. Move one end
of a clamp and then test, and you will soon see how easily
the angles of the work can be altered until correct. Merely
moving the blocking, or inserting a slip of wood, is often
sufficient to change the angle. Sometimes a slight blow at
one corner will make the work square. A clamp placed diag-
onally can be used if necessary (308).
234. Moving one end, or both ends, of each clamp to the
right or left to make the angles correct.
235. Moving end of clamp up or down to make the sur-
face flat.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 105
236. Simple devices for clamping, tightened with double
wedge (247). Insert waste wood (B) if clamp is too long.
Ae
The first form shown can be made double by putting blocks
on the under side also. The second form has two strips with
corresponding holes in each and pins to fit them. It has the
advantage of preventing the pieces from springing up when
the wedges are driven.
237. A doubled rope (“ twister ’’), with stick inserted and
twisted, is very effective in some cases. Sometimes force can
be applied by springing a board. For small work a press can
easily be made, obtaining the pressure with a screw or by a
weighted lever. Pressure by a toggle-joint is very powerful.
See 422, 423.
238. For columns built up of staves there are special col-
umn clamps. In such cases a ‘‘twister’’ (2377) can sometimes
be used. A chain, wire, or strong rope can be loosely wound
106 Woodworking
around the column, and wedges driven between the column
and the wire, rope, or chain, which will force the parts together
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tightly. Draw-dogs (202, footnote) can be driven into the
ends, or corrugated fasteners (202) for small work. See 545.
239. When gluing pieces of such a shape that the clamps
will not hold readily, as in the example shown, leave pro-
jections or lugs at the ends to receive the clamps, and trim
them off after the glue is hard; or better still, glue the pieces
together before cutting the shape.
240. Suggestive of uses to which cabinet clamps may be
put.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 107
241. Handscrew. A kind of portable vise, often used for
pressing glued work, and for holding parts of work in place.
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242. Opening or closing a handscrew. First see whether
the jaws are parallel. If not, turn one of the screws until the
jaws are parallel. Then hold at arm’s length, with a handle
in each hand, as shown, and revolve. Revolving one way
opens the jaws, the opposite way closes them.
NWA)
243. Adjusting handscrew to the work. Fit the handscrew
so that the tip ends of the jaws do not quite touch the wood,
as Shown. Then give the final tightening with the outer screw
only, until the jaws bear on the wood evenly. For nice
work use blocking of waste wood, as shown, to prevent
bruising the work. Keep the jaws clean. Rub the threads
of the screws with black lead, soap, bayberry tallow, or
wax.
244. Suggestive of various uses of hand-screws for clamp-
ing in different directions at the same time. Chalk rubbed on
108 Woodworking
the jaws makes them less likely to slip when pressure is
applied by a second hand-screw. ;
246. Useful for irregular work. Jorgensen clamp.
ie <
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 109
Summary. Tighten clamps, etc., carefully to give uniform
pressure. Use blocking to save defacing the work. For edge-
joints have bars of clamps bear on the surfaces to keep them
flat. In assembling, move ends of clamps to the right or left,
or up or down, if necessary, to make the work square and true.
Keep testing by eye, with square, by diagonal measurements,
etc. Work quickly. Where a number of parts are to be glued
at once, rehearse the clamping process before applying glue.
Substitutes for clamps easily contrived. Make jaws of hand-
screws parallel, then adjust, and finally tighten with outer
screw.
247. Wedges. Tosplit, use one wedge (75, 578). To press,
hold, or move, use a double wedge; that is, two wedges point-
ing in opposite directions, so that the pressure will be uniform,
whether one or both wedges be driven. Short, flaring wedges
do the work quickly but require hard blows and are liable to
slip. Long tapering ones work more slowly, more easily, and
are less liable to slip. A single wedge may damage work
where a double one will not.
SHARPENING ©
248. Usually two operations: first, Grinding, to make the
bevel* for the edge; and second, Wheiting, to make the edge
sharp for cutting. While learning, examine the edge with a
magnifying glass, now and then.
249. Grinding. Grinding wheels of artificial quick-cutting
abrasives are in common use. They cut much faster than the
old-fashioned grindstone, though it is doubtful whether the
t This bevel is the basil of the tool.
110 Woodworking
result is better. The tool is held steadily by adjustable guides,
and the small size of the grinding wheel gives a concave or
‘‘hollow-ground”’ basil. This makes a thin and keen cutting
CONCAVE OR
"HOLLOW ~-GROUND”
e BASIL.
edge, which lasts longer without re-grinding than if the basil
were flat (253, footnote). Power-driven oilstone grinders are
in common use, and are desirable. For heavy mortising, or
rough work in hard wood, a flat basil is better, because
stronger.
250. To grind a plane-iron, chisel, spokeshave, etc., with
a grinding wheel. If a plane-iron, remove the cap-iron (133,
footnote). Have the wheel turn toward you. If the edge of
the tool is not square, first make it so by grinding the extreme
edge, testing with square. Then set the adjustable guide to
grind the basil at the angle it had at first, as nearly as you
can.* Then grind the basil. Keep the tool moving sideways,
t Guides for grinding and whetting (252) plane-irons and chisels can be
obtained.
Although the angles should be varied slightly according to the hardness of
the wood and the kind of work, where there are only a few tools to be used
for all purposes, it is not practicable to vary the angles much unless there is
considerable work of the same kind to be done. Experience will teach the
best angles for different kinds of work. An edge suitable for delicate work
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 111
all the time, for if you grind long at one point the temper of
the edge will be injured. The tool can be dipped in water.
Grind until the basil is formed evenly to the edge. It will
then be properly shaped but will not be sharp. Most common
cutting tools are ground in this way. To hold the iron of a
spokeshave, insert it in a narrow slot cut in the end of a piece
of wood.
251. To grind with a grindstone. The principle is the same
as just shown. Have stone turn toward you. Keep it wet, or
the temper of the tool will be injured and the stone glazed.
Hold tool so as to grind at the original bevel, as nearly as you
can (about 25°,—usually from 20° for light paring tools to
30° for heavy mortising tools to be used in hard wood.) Keep
the arms near the body. Hold the tool firmly and move it
slowly sideways, back and forth, across the stone, with the
fingers, or the palm, of the left hand on top of the tool. Test
squareness of the edge with square. A rest for the tool, easily
contrived, helps to keep it at the same angle. Grind until
the basil is formed evenly to the edge.
252. Whetting. After grinding, rub on an oilstone. Arti-
ficial stones of carborundum or other manufactured abrasive
are in common use, because they cut faster than natural
stones, though it is doubtful whether they give a better edge.
in white pine would be ruined quickly if used upon lignum-vitz. The fib-
rous structure of soft wood, being more yielding than that of hard wood,
offers less resistance to the tool, and therefore requires a keener edge to cut
it cleanly without tearing or crushing the wood. The firmer structure of
hard wood can be cut by an edge which would merely tear the soft wood.
112 Woodworking
For tools requiring an extremely fine edge the natural Arkansas
stone is unsurpassed, while for common tools the Washita is
still desirable for giving a very durable edge. An artificial
oilstone with one side coarse and the other fine is excellent.
Use oil with artificial stones and also with fine and medium-
grained natural stones, to prevent the pores being filled. Use
water with coarse natural stones. A worn stone can be trued
by rubbing on sand paper, with water, or on wet sand on a
board.
253. To whet. Pour a little light lubricating oil on the
stone.* Lay the basil of the tool on the stone as you had it
when grinding. Raise the rear end of the tool very slightly
until you can see the oil press up a little in front of the edge.
Then rub the edge backward and forward at the same slant
until you have ground a little basil.? The tool can be turned
t Do not use linseed, or any thick gummy oil, as it will gum the stone.
2 Flat basil made by grindstone is shown by a. Position for rubbing
on oilstone by 6. With a small grinding wheel, the ground basil will be
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concave, as already shown (249), so that the tool must be raised but very
slightly for whetting.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 113
obliquely and rubbed back and forth. Round the corners a
very little. After whetting there will be a ‘‘wire-edge”’ turned
over on the flat side. You can feel it.
254. Removing wire-edge. Lay the flat side of the tool
on the stone and draw it toward you, or sideways, once or
twice. Keep it flat on the stone, for the slightest basil on the
flat side will spoil the edge. Repeat the whetting and the
removal of wire-edge, until no roughness can be felt. Draw-
ing the edge lengthways across a piece of soft wood will often
remove a very slight wire-edge. Keep the stone clean.
255. Testing sharpness. Pass the thumb lightly along the
edge. You can feel the slightest roughness. Also test by cut-
ting across a piece of soft wood. Hold the edge toward the
light. A sharp edge is invisible to the naked eye; therefore, if
you can see a bright line at the edge, continue sharpening
until it disappears.
256. Stropping. Drawing tool over a leather strop for a
very fine edge. Draw the tool backward over strop. Raise,
114 Woodworking
and repeat the motion. Stropping is necessary only for fine
work, carving, etc. A paste of lard or sweet oil and crocus
powder or emery is spread thinly over the strop. Strops
treated with fine artificial abrasives can be bought.
257. Re-sharpening. You do not need to re-grind the
edge when it becomes only slightly dull. Whet it on the oil-
stone. After doing this several times, you will have to grind
again.
258. Knife. In grinding, tilt the blade very slightly so
that the cutting basil lies flat on the stone. Grind equally on
both sides. To whet, hold the blade obliquely on the stone,
tilt it slightly so that the basil rests on the stone, and rub it
back and forth. Do the same on the other side, and so on.
Finish with a fine stone, and with strop for a very keen edge.
Some use a circular motion near the point, and let the straight
part bear a little harder on the edge of the stone than else-
where, as it is pushed back and forth.
259. Gouge. Turn or roll the tool continually while
grinding.*
« “Hold the length of the gouge, not parallel with the face of the wheel
but at right angles so that the bevel is ground sidewise and rock the entire
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 115
260. Rub on oilstone like plane-iron or chisel, but roll con-
tinually. Can be held at right angles with the stone and rolled.
SLIP STONE
261. Whetting edge of outside gouge with slip-stone held
in the hand, using oil. The inside gouge is best ground on a
tapering, conical-shaped, artificial stone.
surface of the bevel back and forth on the face of the wheel. A shows the
result of good, accurate sharpening, while B indicates the irregular bevel-
ASS 8
angle caused by attempting to sharpen a gouge without enough of the
rocking movement.”—Pike Manufacturing Co.
116 Woodworking
262. Whetting basil of ‘‘ inside ’’ gouge with “ slip.”? The
curvature of the slip should be a little ‘‘quicker”’ (sharper)
than that of the gouge. Rest the tool on the edge of the bench
and move the stone, not the tool. Carving gouges are usually
held in the hand for rubbing. Remove wire-edge from outside
gouge in the same way, but keep the slip flat against the inside
of the gouge, to prevent making an inside basil, which would
spoil the edge.
KEEP HANOLE
STEADY W/TH
LEFT HAND
263. Drawknife. Grind like the plane or chisel. To whet,
hold on the bench, basil side up, as shown, and whet the edge
with the oilstone, rubbing lengthways of the stone.
264. Bits. File the scoring nibs (162) of the auger bit
from the inside only, or they will score a circle too small for
the rest of the bit. There are special files for auger bits. A
slip-stone can also be used. File the cutting-lips (162) from
the under side. Hold bit, with point up, against edge of bench
when filing, as shown in 262.
Twist-drills are ground on the ends, at the same angle as at
first. Do this on the side of the tool grinder.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 117
265. Cabinet scraper. Drawfiling edge. Fasten in vise,
one long edge upward. Hold file (for metal) as shown, and
move it lengthways of the edge a few times. Do this with
the opposite edge also. The edges can be ground on a grinding
wheel. The edges and sides can then be rubbed lightly on an
oilstone to remove any burr or roughness, as shown at the
right.
266. Rubbing with burnisher. Next, lay flat at edge of
bench. Take burnisher,’ place it flat on the scraper, and rub
each edge lightly back and forth a few times to make the edge
keen for turning.
267. Turning the edge. Rub the burnisher with a firm,
light, even stroke once or twice, lengthways of the edge, at
the same time giving a lengthways motion, from tip to handle.
t The burnisher is a piece of hard, smooth steel of triangular or curved
section and rounded edges. One can be made easily by grinding an old
triangular file until smooth. The edge of the blade of a chisel or the back
of a gouge can be used if necessary, but a burnisher is better.
118 Woodworking
The movement is similar to that in making a shearing cut
with an edged-tool (77). This helps turn the edge. Treat the
BEGIN IN THIS POSITION END IN THIS POSITION
four long edges in this way. When all four edges are dull they
can be re-sharpened once or twice with the burnisher. Then
they will need drawfiling again. Some grind the edges at a
bevel, using one angle instead of two, but this is of doubtful
advantage.
268. Brad-awl. Sharpen with file (for metal), or slip-stone.
269. Trimmer. A keen edge is necessary. The knife must
be sharpened entirely on the bevelled side. To remove any
wire-edge, use only the merest touch of a fine oilstone on the
flat side, giving a final touch of the stone on the side of the
basil.
Summary. Two main operations—grinding and whetting.
An artificial grinding wheel saves time, compared with a
grindstone. Use water with the latter. Have the wheel turn
toward you. Hollow-ground basil preferable, except for rough
work in hard wood or heavy mortising, etc. With plane,
chisel, etc., first grind edge square, then grind the basil. Avoid
injuring the temper of the tool. Basil of medium length for
general work, long for fine work in soft wood, short for rough
hard work. Whet to make a second small basil at edge. When
removing wire-edge, keep flat side of tool flat on the stone.
Use lubricating oil with an artificial whetstone (water with
a coarse natural stone only). Test sharpness with thumb, and
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 119
by cutting soft wood. A keen edge is invisible to the naked
eye. For very fine edge use strop. Roll outside gouge when
sharpening. Whet gouges, etc., with slip stone. File auger
bits on the inside and under side. Grind a twist drill on the
end. Drawfile scraper, and turn edge with burnisher.
SAW-FILING
270. Saw-filing. A trade in itself. Many good workmen
turn over the care of saws to professional experts. There is
usually at least one saw-filer in nearly every community."
Summary. Top-jointing, setting, filing, side jointing. ’
* The teeth are first “‘jointed,” or reduced to the same level, by lightly
passing the flat side of a file over their points, lengthways of the saw. The
saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, close to the teeth, so that it will not
shake or rattle, preferably at a north window, on account of the light.
The teeth are set by bending them outward, one tooth toward one side and
the next toward theotherside. Do this witha ‘‘saw-set.’”’ A tooth should
not be bent for more than half its length. For a cross-cutting saw the file
(a triangular saw-file) is held at an angle with the blade to fit the original
shape of the teeth.
Hold the handle of the file in the right hand and the point between the
thumb and forefinger of the left hand as shown. Push the file across with
an even, straight stroke, without any rocking motion. Press only on the
forward stroke and lift the tool on the back stroke. File from the handle
toward the point (some begin at the tip), filing only the teeth which bend
away (2. e., every alternate tooth), and carefully keeping the file at the
proper angle. Press only on the tooth being filed, but keep the file lightly
touching the adjacent tooth, and make allowance for the fact that when the
alternate set is filed the file will take off a little from the first set of teeth.
120 Woodworking
Thus care must be taken not to file too much. Then turn the saw around
and file the other teeth. On looking lengthways along the edge of a cross-
cutting or panel saw that has been properly set and filed, an angular groove
will be seen along the whole length, in which a needle will slide from one end
of the saw to the other. After setting and filing, lay the saw on a straight
board and joint the sides of the points of the teeth by running a smooth
file or oilstone along the sides of the teeth. Thus the width will be more
uniform and the cutting cleaner.
The ripping-saw is usually filed square across at right angles to the blade.
A soft saw with large, well-shaped teeth is best for practising filing, and the
beginner can try first on a piece of soft sheet metal.
HANS SAW TEETH
(“Angles. The ‘face’ of each cross-cut tooth is slightly steeper than the
back, making an angle with the line of the teeth of about 66°. The com-
pass teeth lean still further with an angle of 75°. The rip saw ‘face’ is at
right angles (90°) to the line of the teeth. Its cutting edge is at right angles
to the side of the blade. The angle of each tooth covers 60°.”’ Simonds
Manufacturing Co.)
Ane
VISE
If you cannot hold the file steadily, use a jointer, which can be bought,
or make one, as shown. If you have no saw-clamp, use two hardwood
strips and fasten in vise. The teeth of the compass saw are a compromise
between cross-cut and ripping teeth. The turning saw usually has ripping
teeth. As little set as will allow the saw to slide freely through the wood
is best. Guides for saw filing can be bought.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 121
QUESTIONS
EpGED Toots. 1. Show the difference between the action of edged-tools
when splitting and when paring.
2. Whatts a shearing cut? Why often more effective than a straight cut?
KNIFE. 3. From what direction should the light come when whittling?
4. What causes the most trouble in doing accurate whittling?
5. When whittling a wide surface to make it thinner, where would you cut
first?
6. What 1s usually the best position for the arm which holds the work?
7. Show how to make a shearing cut.
HATCHET. 8. Show the action of the hatchet or axe when splitting wood,
and when paring or trimming.
CHISEL. 9. Show how to control the chisel for paring, trimming, and
shaping.
10. How can you tell in which direction to cut?
11. When should a chisel have a long basil?—a short basil?—one of medium
length?
12. Show how to make shearing cuts—to trim the edge of a dado or groove—.
to pare across end-grain.
13. Show how a common chisel acts when held upright and driven into the
wood. Show how a carving chisel acts when driven in the same way.
GoucE. 14. When should you use an outside gouge?—an inside gouge?
15. Show how to control the gouge to make a shearing cut.
16. What ts usually the best way to cut to remove surplus wood?
17. What is a ‘‘quick”’ gouge?
DRAWENIFE. 18. What are the uses of the drawknife? Do you find it a
hard tool to use? If so, why?
19. Show how to make a shearing cut.
20. When should the basil be used against the wood, and when the flat
side?
Saw. 21. What are the two common kinds? For what is each used?
22. What 1s the set, and for what purpose?
23. Show the shape and action of the teeth of the cross-cut saw.
24. What familiar tool does each of the teeth resemble in its action?
25. Show how to place the wood for sawing, the position to take, and how to
hold the saw. |
26. Show how to start the cut in the right place, to begin the strokes, and to
continue the sawing.
27. Show how to saw with regard to the line and the waste wood.
28. Show what to do if you are not sawing squarely with the surface—also,
if the saw runs off the line.
122 Woodworking
29. Show the shape and action of the teeth of the rip saw.
30. What common tool does each of the teeth resemble in its action?
31. Can you use the cross-cut saw to saw with the grain? Is tt ever desirable
todo so? Why? Whats the result of using the rip saw across the grain?
32. Does this saw cut on the forward stroke, the backward stroke, or on both?
33. At what slant does this saw cut to the best advantage?
34. If you are ripping a thick piece, show a simple way of cutting to the
line on both sides.
35. When the kerf closes and binds the saw, what can you do?
36. When cutting a piece from the corner of a larger piece, should you first
saw lengthways or crossways? Why?
37. If you could have but one saw, which would you choose?
38. When are a slight set and fine teeth best? When a wider set and coarse
teeth?
39. When should you use the back saw? Show how to use it. What kind of
teeth has it? ;
40. Should the flat side of a piece or the edge be upward, usually, when using
the back saw? Why?
41. When should you use the compass saw?—the keyhole saw? What
kind of teeth has the compass saw?
42. When should you use the turning or bow saw? Show how to use tt.
43. When should you use the hand jig saw, the scroll saw, and the coping
saw? Show how to use them.
44. Show how to support the wood in order to saw vertically.
45. To follow the pattern, when sawing in this way, which do you turn, the
wood or the saw? Why?
46. Must the teeth point upward or downward? Why?
47. How do you saw a hole, or inside openwork, with one of these narrow-
bladed saws?
48. How do you cut a very sharp curve or angle with one of these saws?
MiTRE-Box. 49. When would you use a mitre-box?
50. Show how to lay out and make a wooden mutre-box. Also, a simpler
form with one side.
51. Show how to cut a number of pieces of the same length with the mitre-box.
PLANE. 52. If you could have but one plane, what kind would you choose?
When should you use the jack plane?—the joinier?—the fore-plane?—the
smoothing-plane?—the block-plane?
53. When should you remove the planer-marks from machine-planed stock?
When ts it not necessary?
54. Show the arrangement and adjustments of a plane. Show the purpose of
the cap-tron.
55. Show how to adjust for crooked-grained hardwood.
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 123
56. How should the cutting edge of the jack-plane be ground for general
work?—for merely roughing off the surface?
57. Show how to adjust the projection of the cutting edge.
58. Explain planing with the grain and against it.
59. Show a simple way to suppor: the end of a long piece.
60. Planing an edge. What two requirements must be met? What should
you do first?
61. Show how to hold the plane. Why musi you keep ti flat on the wood while
planing?
62. Show the process of planing an edge.
63. Why should the plane be kept lengthways of the edge? What advantage
might there be in turning it partly around? What disadvantage?
64. Why ts it best to take long strokes?
65. What ts the reason for having long planes like the jointer? What dis-
advantage has a long plane?
66. Show how to test the straightness of your planing—the squareness of
the edge.
67. If one side of the edge is higher than the other, what can you do?
68. What is the general process in planing edges to be glued to make a wide
surface, as a table-top?
69. Show how to arrange and mark the pieces.
70. Show the process of jointing the edges. Why reverse alternate pieces for
planing?
71. Instead of using the try-square to test the edges for a glue-joint, how
should you determine the accuracy of the joint? What else must you test?
72. Instead of having the edges touch throughout, what is a common practice?
73. Before beginning to plane the side of a board or a wide surface, what
should you do?
74. How should you hold the plane?
75. Show how to test the flatness of the surface with the plane or other tool.
76. With a rough surface, or when much wood has to be removed, how may
you plane at first?
77. Show how to plane end-grain. Show several ways. What plane is best
for this?
78. Is a shearing cut ever advisable with the plane? When?
79. Show how to plane the edge of a box at the corner, and in similar cases.
80. Show how to make an octagonal stick by planing.
81. Show how to make a bead cutter.
SPOKESHAVE. 82. When would you use the spokeshave? Show how to use
it.
83. Why is it not suitable for doing the ordinary work of a plane?
TRIMMER. 8&4. Show the principle of the trimmer, and how to cut with 4.
124 Woodworking
BorinG Toots. 85. What advaniage has the ratchet brace?
86. What is the function of the worm or point of the auger bit?—of the
scoring nibs?—of the cutting lips?
87.’ Why should pressure be unnecessary when boring with the auger-bit?
88. When would you prefer a single thread screw point, and when a double |
thread?
89. How can you tell the size of an auger bit?
90. Show how to insert the bit in the brace and how to take tt out.
91. Show how to bore, and how to test the accuracy of the boring.
92. Show how to withdraw a bit from the hole.
93. Show how to prevent splintering when boring through a piece.
94. When boring a deep hole in hard wood 1s difficult, what is 1t well to do?
95. How can you be sure that the position of a through hole will be exact on
both sides of the piece?
96. Show how to bore at a given angle.
97. When should you use a bit gauge? If you have no bit gauge, what can
you do?
98. Shaw how to adjust and use the expansive bit. If the work is too hard
for thts bit, what can you use?
99. To cut a hole too large for an expansive bit, or 1f you have no expansive
bit, what can you do?
100. What is counterboring? When should you do 1t?
101. If you have bored a hole with an auger bit, can you continue it with a
smaller bit? Can you continue it with a larger one? Why? What can you
do tn the latter case?
102. What advantage has the twist drill? What disadvantage?
103. What advantage has the twist bit for wood? What disadvantage?
104. How can you tell the size of a twist drill?
105. What advantage and disadvantage has the gimlet bit?
106. When can you use the Forstner But?
107. What advantage has the center bit? What disadvantage?
108. When should you use a countersink?—a countersink gauge?
109. What are the uses and advantages of the breast and hand drill, the push
brace, the small hand drill, the reciprocating drill, the automatic push drill?
110. When would you use a reamer?—a screw and plug lit and plug cutter?
111. What disadvantage has the gimlet?
112. What ts the use of the brad awl? Show how to use it. How should the
size of the awl compare with that of the nail to be driven?
FILE AND Rasp. 113. When should you use the file? Show how to hold i
and how to use it.
114. Why should you press on the forward stroke, but not on the return
stroke? Why press lightly when using a new file?
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 125
115. Why should you not use a file for wood on metal?
116. How do you clean a file for wood?
117. What shapes are the most generally useful for woodworking?
118. How does the rasp differ from the file? When should you use the rasp?
SCRAPER. 119. When should the scraper be used?
120. Show the principle upon which it works, and how to use it.
121. Make sketch showing the shape of the cutting edge.
122. Why spring the scraper at the centre? Why hold it as nearly vertical
as it will cut well?
123. Is the name scraper strictly correct? How do you test the surface for
smoothness?
SANDPAPER, ETC. 124. What is the function of sandpaper in hand work?
125. Why defer using sandpaper until you are through using cutting tools?
126. When should you use a block for sanding?
127. Show how to sand surfaces and edges with a block—without a block.
128. How can you sand a small end? —a round or curved surface?
129. What makes a good block for fine work?—for curved surfaces? Show
how to tear sandpaper?
130. For what 1s steel wool useful?
131. For fine cabinet work why is it well to round the edges just enough to
remove the sharpness?
HAMMER AND NAILS. 132. Name two common kinds of claw hammers?
How do they differ?
133. Show how to hold the hammer, and how to strike the most effective blow.
134. What is the secret of good nailing?
135. How can you avoid denting the wood?
136. When should you bore a hole for a nail? What should be the size of the
hole compared with that of the nail?
137. Show the position to take when nailing a box, and in similar cases.
Show the process of nailing.
138. Why is it best to stand in line with the edge being nailed?
139. If a nail bends, what should you do?
140. If a nail slants so that tt will come out at the side, what should you do?
141. If you tap the upper part of a slanting nail until rt 1s in line with the
direction in which you wish to drive it, what 1s likely to happen?
142. Why use longer nails for driving into end-grain than into side-grain?
143. Show how to drive cut nails and why.
144. Compare the holding power of cement-coated, smooth, and barbed nails.
145. Show how to drive slender nails into hard wood.
146. What are the advantages of staggering natls?—of blind nailing?
147. Show how to do “‘ sliver”’ or secret nailing.
148. When would you do ‘‘toe-natling’’?
126 Woodworking
149. How can you draw two pieces together by nailing?
150. When should you clinch nails? Show how to do it? Show how to
clinch a common wire nat neatly.
151. Explain the terms three-penny, four-penny, etc.
152. What kind of nails should you use if they are to be set?
153. What kind for natling a board fence?
154. What kind for boat building or exposure to the water?
155. For what are corrugated fasteners useful?
156. When should you use rivets? How do you drive them? When should
you use draw-dogs?
157. Show how to draw a nail—how to prevent tts bending. Show how to
draw nails from boxes, and in similar cases.
NAIL SET. 158. When should you use the natl set? Show how to use tt, and
how to keep it from slipping off the head of the nail?
159. How can you set nails in rough work, if necessary?
MatietT. 160. When should you use the mallet? How are the handles of
heavy mallets fitied?
161. What shape of head 1s usually the most convenient?
SCREWDRIVER AND SCREWS. 162. What 1s the correct shape for the end of a
screwdriver? Why?
163. When is a screwdriver bit desirable? How can you prevent its slipping
out of the slot in the head of the screw?
164. What advantages have the ratchet and the spiral screwdrivers?
165. How does a screw fasten two pieces together?
166. What should be the size of the hole in the outer piece—the one next the
head of the screw—compared with the size of the screw?
167. With soft wood, when may a hole be needed in the inner piece also?
168. With hard wood, how large should the hole in the inner piece be com-
pared with the size of the screw?
169. When is it unnecessary, usually, to countersink the heads?
170. What are the advantages of staggering screws?
171. Why should you stop turning a screw in soft wood when the head is
driven to a bearing?
172. Why 1s tt a bad plan to drive screws with a hammer?
173. Why do not screws hold strongly in end-grain?
174. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of nails and screws.
175. If driving a screw in hard wood 1s difficult, what can you do?
176. How can you increase the holding power of a screw in end wood?
177. When screws must be replaced in a worn hole, what can you do?
178. Is it stronger to screw through soft wood into hard wood, or vice
versa?
179. How can you tell the sizes of screws?
Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 127
180. When should you use lag screws? When should washers be used with
them?
181. When you wish more strength than can be given with screws, what can
you use? When should you use washers?
182. What objection, in outdoor work, 1s there to screwing bolts so tightly
as to make depressions in the wood?
183. Name some kinds of screws in common use.
184. When should you use an expansive bolt?
CLAMPS, HANDSCREWS, ETC. 185. When should you use cabinet clamps?
Show how to use them for a glued joint.
186. Show how to readjust clamps to correct errors in assembling.
187. Show some common substitutes for the regular clamps.
188. When should you use handscrews? Show how to adjust them.
189. When should you use carriage clamps or other metal clamps?
190. Explain the use of the wedge, and when to use a double wedge.
Jics. 191. What are jigs? When ts it worth while to make them?
SHARPENING. 192. What are the two chief operations in sharpening edged
tools?
193. Compare the grindstone and the modern grinding wheel.
194. What ts a hollow-ground basil? What are its advantages? When is it
not desirable?
195. Show the process of grinding a chisel, plane-iron, spokeshave, etc., on a
modern grinding wheel—on a grindstone.
196. How can you prevent injuring the temper of the tool?
197. How can you determine the proper angle at which to grind the tool?
198. How can you determine when you have ground enough?
199. Compare the old-fashioned oilstone made of natural stone with that
made of modern abrasives.
200. Show how to whet a chisel, plane-iron, spokeshave, etc., on an oilstone.
201. How can you remove the wire edge? What is essential to bear in mind
when removing 1t?
202. How can you know when to stop whetting?
203. How can you test the keenness of the edge? Which requires a keener
edge, soft or hard wood?
204. Describe a strop. When should you use it? Show how to use it.
205. When the edge of a tool becomes slightly dull what should you do?
206. How do you know when to re-grind the basil?
207. Show how to sharpen a knife.
208. Show how to sharpen a common (outside) gouge. What ts important
in case of the gouge?
209. Show the use of the slip stone, and how to sharpen the inside gouge.
210. How should the curve of the slip stone compare with that of the gouge?
128
211.
212.
only?
si:
214.
215.
Woodworking
Show how to whet the drawknife.
Why must the scoring nibs of the auger bit be sharpened from the inside
Show the process of sharpening the scraper.
Show the process of saw-filing, for both cross-cut and rip saws.
What are the four main operations in sharpening a saw?
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The most important thing for the beginner is to have sharp
tools of the best quality, and clear, thoroughly-seasoned wood of
a kind suitable for the work.
THE PROCESS
271. How to go to work. What do you wish to make,—a
sled, bookcase, doll’s bed, step-ladder, poultry-house, boat?
Do you know how to make it? What is the first thing to do?
What comes next? What is the general process?
A Working-drawing or Plan. ‘This is the starting point, asa
rule. It shows the shape and dimensions of the whole object,
and of each part, and how the parts are put together. A blue-
print is often used.
Bill of Materials. Often attached to published drawings.
From the working-drawings make a list of the number of pieces
of each kind and their dimensions, including items of hardware
and other materials. From these data the cost can be
estimated.
Selecting the Stock. For all nice work use clear, well-
seasoned stock of a suitable kind.
Laying out the Work. Mark the shape of each part accu-
rately on the wood, ready to be cut. Sometimes all of this can
be done at first, but in many cases a good deal of the laying
out is done as the work goes on.
Getting out the parts. With saws or other tools cut them as
marked. For nice work they are usually got out a little too
large, to allow for dressing and smoothing to the exact size.
Dressing and fitting the parts. With planes or other tools
129
130 Woodworking
fit the pieces to the exact dimensions given on the working-
drawing, and smooth them. Also, lay out and cut any special
joints, openings, etc. Test all parts and see that they fit
together accurately.
Assembling. Put the parts together permanently with
nails, screws, glue, or in whatever way may be required.
Finishing. Repair any defects on the surface and see that
it is clean. Then give the necessary coats of stain, filler,
shellac, varnish, wax, paint, or other finishing materials.
Frequently some or all of the parts can be finished better
before permanently assembling, but this depends upon the
construction of the object.
With machinery the general process is the same, but much
time and labour are saved. In most cases, the parts can be
got out, planed, fitted, and smoothed by machine. Much of
the laying out is done by the adjustments of the machines.
Finishing is also done by spraying machines and rubbing
machines, as well as by dipping.
<— .24"
mo
FRONT VIEW END VIEW
<—/6"—>
LL
PICTURE — pBf
(PERSPECTIVE VIEW) :
< SIDES AND ENDS
| ‘ASSEMBLED
TOP ViEW
272. Itlustration of Process. Making a common box. Sup-
pose you wish it to be twenty-four inches long, twelve inches
high, and sixteen inches wide. Take the exact dimensions
as marked on the working-drawing (273), and make a Bill of
Materials or Stock Bill (278). If it is to be a good box,
select clear, well-seasoned stock, straight and not curled or
twisted (730, etc.).
To make by hand only. Select the better edge of the board
you are to use, mark the lengths of the pieces, using square
Some Fundamental Principles 131
(22, etc.), and allowing a little extra length for each piece.
Dress the pieces for the sides and ends to the finished dimen-
sions, using square, plane (132, etc.), saw (99, etc.). After
the pieces are of the right dimensions, and square and smooth,
nail sides to ends (202, etc.), as shown above, and set the
nails (219). Next, dress bottom piece almost to finished
dimensions, leaving it a trifle large to allow for trimming
after being nailed in place. Nail bottom to sides and ends,
adjusting the sides and ends to fit the bottom, and testing
with square. As the angles of the bottom are square, this
will make the angles of the box square. Dress, fit, and nail
top in the same way. Gauge line AB around box where it is
to open (28, etc.). Saw in two by this line. Smooth these
sawed edges. Fit hinges (442), and lock (562). Remove hinges
and lock, see that the whole surface of box is smooth, and
repair any defects (394). Finally finish (3094, etc.), and
permanently replace hinges and lock.
To make with machinery. Cut the pieces a little too long
with the swing-saw (626), or on the circular saw bench (585,
etc.). Joint (plane) one edge of each piece with jointer (654).
Saw to width (allowing a trifle) with circular saw. Joint the
edge just sawed. Cut one end of each piece square on circular
saw bench, then the other end at the required distance. [Make
one broad surface of each piece flat or true on the jointer.
Then run through surfacer (646) to plane the other side, or
over jointer. Sand each piece with sander (664). Assemble
by hand. The outside can be sanded after assembling. Saw
box in two with circular saw. Joint the sawed edges if neces-
sary. Fit hinges and lock. Remove hinges and lock, and finish
by spraying with spraying machine; or finish by hand.
Common sense must be used. Some things are so simple
that you can carry the whole plan in your mind without
any drawing at all, and when you copy an object you may
need no plan. Also, with such work as a chicken-coop, some
of the processes given above may be omitted; but, as a rule,
132 Woodworking
for all good and important work, from a footstool to a sail-
boat or a house, there is nothing gained by skipping any of
the operations practiced by skilled workmen. You will soon
find however that these operations sometimes overlap or come
in slightly different order. You may have to do some sawing,
planing, etc., before you can do all the laying out, some
assembling before all the parts are fitted, some finishing before
assembling. Summary. With a working-drawing as a guide,
select the stock, lay out the work, get out the parts, fit and
smooth them, assemble, and finish.
273. A Working-drawing, unlike a picture, gives the exact
shape and size of an object, and of each part of it, and shows
how the parts are put together. It is drawn to scale, that is,
either the full size of the object or in the same proportion.
In plans for a house, for example, 4%’’ or 44’ may represent
1’ of the actual house.! The symbol ’’ means inches and ’ means
feet. |
If you can make working-drawings, you can carry out your
own ideas satisfactorily. The appearance of the object, its
strength, the proper materials, how they are to be put to-
gether, and all matters relating to the construction, have to be
considered in making a working-drawing or in selecting one
already made. What you would see if you were looking down
on the object from directly above is called the top view or plan.
What you would see if in front is the front view or front elevation;
if opposite the side, the szde view or side elevation.” If the
other side or the rear are different, there will be another side
view or a rear view. Details within an object, or parts you
cannot see, are often shown by dotted lines (523). Sometimes
a ‘‘section’’3 drawing is made to show what would be seen if
t Such a drawing is on a scale of 4%" = 1'or 4” =1'. ITf6” = 1’, the
drawing is called half-sized. If 3’’ = 1’, it is quarter-sized.
2 This is merely a rough explanation. The top, front, or side views are,
strictly speaking, the way each would appear if you could look at it from an
infinite distance.
3 Latin, sectto, from secare, to cut.
Some Fundamental Principles —_133
the object, or some part of it, were cut through (483, 494).
With complicated objects separate drawings of the details are
made. Sometimes, for a simple object, a plan and one eleva-
tion are enough. Sometimes many views, sections, and detail
drawings are needed. Dimensions are shown between arrows,
and various kinds of lines are used for different purposes.
Use the dimensions stated instead of measuring the drawing,
for the dimensions are more likely to be accurate.’ References:
Problems in Mechanical Drawing, BENNETT. Mechanical
Drawing, ERMELING, FISCHER, and GREENE. Mechanical
Drawing, FRENCH and SVENSON.
274. A Blue print is a copy of a working-drawing, made by
placing sensitized paper behind a tracing of the drawing, and
exposing to light in a photographic printing-frame. After
sufficient exposure the sensitized paper is washed and the
black lines of the drawing become white lines on the blue
print.
275. The unit of lumber measurement is represented by
a board one foot square and one inch thick.? This contains
t In factories, for some kinds of cabinet work, a full-sized drawing is made
accurately on a board. This is called a rod, and the workman uses it asa
guide.
2A board 1” thick, 12’ wide, and 12’ long contains 12 feet, board
measure. A board 1” thick, 6’ wide, and 12’ long contains 6 board feet.
134 Woodworking
144 cubic inches, and any piece containing 144 cubic inches,
as shown above, is a board foot. Most lumber is sold by the
board foot, the price being set by the M (1,000 feet). Thus, if
pine boards are selling at $100 an M, one foot will cost ten
cents. Lumber comes in the rough (not planed) or planed.
If planed on one side, the symbol S1S (surfaced one side) is
used. If planed on two sides, S28.
276. To find the number of feet in a piece of lumber
multiply the thickness (inches) by the width (inches) by the
length (feet) and divide by 12.”
277. To estimate the cost, multiply the number of board
feet by the price for one foot or for one M. Make liberal
allowance for waste. This varies with every job. Add to the
estimate for lumber any items of hardware, paint, varnish, etc.
278. Bill of Materials. This should include whatever items
are required for the work in hand. Set down the most impor-
tant parts first, giving thickness, width and length of each in
the order named,—length always being with the grain (292).
For example:
Name} No. ; Price Hard-
of of |Remarks|Thick-|width|Length Plan-|Board| 4 |Cost|ware, |Cost| Lotal
Piece |Pieces ness ing | feet | Poot etc. Cost
——<—<— | ————————_ |__| —_—_—_____._ | ——— | — | | | | | ff _ |
for use in the shop you can easily make out a simple Stock
Bill giving any details required." For example:
Thus to measure twelve-foot stock simply find the width in inches. If the
board tapers, measure at the middle. In case of a plank (more than one
inch thick), multiply the width in inches by the thickness of the plank.
One 3” thick, 7’’ wide and 12’ long contains 21 board feet. This method is
easily applied to lumber when the length or width is a convenient multiple
or divisor of 12. Stock thinner than 1” is usually measured as if 1” thick.
Tables are published for quickly obtaining lumber measurements. Lumber
is graded and priced according to quality.
*In manufacturing shops length may come first, width next, and
thickness last.
Some Fundamental Principles 135
Mes No. Finished Finished Finished
Piece Pees Sead Thickness Width Length
en, es se en
A FEW ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION, OFTEN
VIOLATED
279. Importance of diagonal members. Make a triangle
with three strips. Push or pull it sideways and it will hold
its shape, unless enough force be applied to break it. Make
a rectangle with four strips. A little pushing or pulling side-
ways will alter the shape. Add a diagonal, making two tri-
angles. Now pushing or pulling sideways will not alter the
shape, unless you apply a breaking force. ‘This principle is
applied to innumerable structures, to prevent change of shape
or destruction.
A Cc
B D
Y
280. A gate is often built as shown, for example. At first
the diagonal measurements AD and BC are equal. Such a
136 Woodworking
gate soon sags, however, even from its own weight alone.
The distance AD becomes longer and BC shorter than at
first, as A and D are pushed farther apart while B and C are
drawn nearer together.
“Thalh Vices
iene cit
281. Tie A and D together with a diagonal rod and the
gate will keep its shape, except for a slight sagging as the
joints settle to a bearing, curable by tightening the rod.
A rod is stronger for a pulling strain than a strip of wood.
Or, a wooden brace or strut will prevent B and C from being
drawn nearer together. A brace stands a pushing strain
better than a rod, which would bend. Sagging gates, cleated
doors, etc., often require a diagonal brace one way or a tie
the other. For rough work a wire twisted can sometimes
be used (237).
282. Diagonal members are often omitted in the frame-
work of light buildings, where the boarding is fastened to so
many parts of the frame with so many nails as to give a
stiffening effect more or less like that from diagonal bracing.
Some Fundamental Principles —_137
In such cases temporary diagonal boards, or ‘‘laths,”’ are
usually nailed on to keep the frame in shape while boarding.
283. Diagonal corner braces are used for a large, impor-
tant structure, so that the frame will hold its shape without
being dependent upon the boarding or nailing.
DIAGONAL BRACING
BY ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
284. Diagonal boarding is usually considered better than
horizontal or vertical in buildings of the better class, but the
frame also should be braced diagonally, or shrinkage of the
diagonal boarding may force the frame out of shape. See
also Crate-making (342, 343).
285. In case of a roof made as shown, the collar-beam
(and also the floor timber below), by completing a triangle,
holds the rafters in place and prevents the pushing out of the
sides of the building. From such examples we see that all
138 Woodworking
rectangular structures subject to strain should be diagonally
braced or tied.*
286. Cross-strain, Tension, Compression, and other
strains.? Lay a twig across two supports. Hang a weight in
*An old-fashioned wooden lattice bridge illustrates these principles.
Pupils of the writer have made little bridges of this type, 6’ or 8’ long,
and 14” high, with strips of soft pine 7/3’ thick x */,’ wide. While
any strip could be broken with two fingers, these bridges held thousands
is }
ei J
2 D SRO GE CEE SIRS REMC
{4 WAAL AN AR ARSE ASAE SS
Oe Re SEE We Ree HN ee eM EE ES SS
of pounds and required a system of long levers to break them. This
shows the strength derived from combination of individually weak mem-
bers arranged diagonally; and also that a model is much stronger propor-
tionately than a large structure. This is not a scientific construction for a
modern bridge, though when lumber was very abundant many such bridges
were built, and some are still standing.
2 A piece of wood may be strained or destroyed in several ways: by being
stretched or pulled apart,—tenston; it may be crushed or pushed together,
—compression; it may be broken across,—transverse, or cross-strain; it may
be twisted apart by torsion; or cut across by shearing. It may be broken or
injured by any or several of these strains,
Some Fundamental Principles —_139
the middle. As the twig bends, the bark will pucker on the
upper side, showing that the top is being shortened or com-
pressed. The bark will be stretched, and perhaps cracked, on
the under side, showing that the lower part is being length-
ened or pulled out (subjected to tension).
287. When a beam is used for a floor-timber in a building,
or for a bridge, it will have the same cross-strain on it as the
twig (286), shortening (compression) in the upper part and
pulling (tension) in the lower part.
»—e Compression «—«
B
<——«/eNsion »m—>
288. This applies not merely to one timber or stick, but
to structures built up of many pieces, like the trusses (sides)
The strength of a piece of wood or metal to resist crushing, tension, or
shearing is in proportion to the area of its section. A piece with a section
two square inches in area is twice as strong as one with a section one square
inch in area. The strength to resist a transverse or cross-strain is as the
width, inversely as the length, and as the square of the depth. Doubling the
width doubles the strength. Doubling the length divides the strength by
two. Doubling the depth multiplies the strength by four. That is,a beam
four inches wide will support twice as much weight as one two inches wide.
A beam ten feet long will support twice as much weight as one twenty feet
long. A beam eight inches deep will support four times as much weight as
one four inches deep.
In making splices and other joints where strength is required, it should be
borne in mind that the strength of any structure is limited by the strength
of its weakest part, therefore the aim should be to make a joint or splice as
nearly equal in strength to the parts it connects as possible. The joint best
for one strain is usually not the best for another, therefore the fewer different
strains a joint is subjected to the better. A plain butt joint fastened to
prevent movement sideways is sufficient for compression, but often requires
strengthening for cross-strain also. Joints to be subjected to tension
require careful planning to preserve so far as possible the full strength.
140 Woodworking
of a bridge, or of a roof. The whole structure is always under
cross-strain. If there is no load on it, it is under cross-strain
from its own weight, and, like the twig, the upper part is
under compression, the lower part under tension.*
289. The simplest way to bridge over a short distance is —
to lay a beam on edge. For a wider distance the beam (or
girder) can be supported by braces as shown. The weight on
the beam, bearing downward, will push or thrust on the braces
and they will be under compression, one-half the thrust being
put upon each brace, which in turn pushes against the
abutment.
290. The braces can be put on top, and the middle of the
beam hung from their apex. When the beam begins to bend
* To destroy a wooden railroad bridge, saw through the lower chords, as
they are called (A), and the bridge wili fall, for the lower part is under the
strain of tension and trying to pull apart allthe time. If you saw the upper
chord (B) instead, the bridge will still stand, for the top is under com-
pression and the saw-kerf will immediately close up like any butt joint that
is being pushed together. In fact the pressure will bind the saw unless the
kerf is forced open. The bridge will not be so strong, since an unsecured
butt-joint might work out of place, but it will not fall unless the sawed
chord be moved.
A beam will bear twice as much weight equally distributed over its
length as when applied at the centre. In such structures a good deal of the
material is arranged at the top and bottom to resist the compression and
tension to the best advantage, as in the truss just shown, or in a common 1
beam of iron.
Some Fundamental Principles = 141
with the weight applied, it pulls on the rod at the middle.
This rod, hanging from the apex, pushes the braces, and the
braces, being fastened to the beam, in turn put the beam
under tension.
Comp ression
291. A beam is often strengthened or stiffened as shown.
The weight at W bending the beam, pushes the strut or block
A, and this pulls on the rod, which applies compression to
the beam.
These illustrations show the general principles which, often
carried much farther, apply to the construction of many
comparatively simple pieces of work, as well as complicated
roofs, bridges, and the like.
PARING AND FINISHING TO SHAPE
292. Grain. Piece of wood magnified, showing fibres run-
ning lengthways.
142 Woodworking
ee
ee
———$
Se ESS
STRAIGHT GRAIN CROOKED GRAIN
These show as lines on the surface, and are called the
‘‘erain.”’ While you can generally tell by these markings on
the surface, you can not always rely on them, for the direc-
tion of the grain is often complex and not readily detected.
293. Trimming to a line. Whether using hatchet, chisel,
drawknife, knife, or other tool, cut with the grain if possible.
You can often score the waste wood with cuts nearly to the
line. This breaks up the grain of the wood and, with crooked-
grained stock, makes the paring easier. Then trim carefully,
with the grain if possible, to the line with hatchet, chisel,
Some Fundamental Principles 143
draw-knife, or other tool. See 159. Use a shearing cut when
you can (77). See Chisel (83, etc.).
294. When you cannot saw a curve, make saw-kerfs nearly
to the line. Remove the waste wood with chisel, draw-knife,
or other tool, cutting with the grain. Then trim to the line.
Cutting against the grain is harder, and usually leaves the
surface rough, or splits off what you wish to keep. See also
Plane (132, etc.), and Chisel (83, etc.).
295. Toshape objects like hammer or axe handles, paddles,
spoons, curved table-legs, etc., first cut to the outline on two
opposite sides and then to the outline on the other sides. See
637. Then the rounding or modelling can be done with
shave, gouge, chisel, rasp, file, etc. Such work, as well as the
simpler forms of shaping, is now usually done with machinery,
special machinery often being used.
SQUARING STOCK TO DIMENSIONS
296. Squaring to dimensions may involve measuring and
marking (13), squaring (22), gauging (28), sawing (99), and
planing (132).
First get out the piece a little larger than the required or
final dimensions; perhaps */,’’ thicker, '/,’’ wider, and 1/,”
longer. If it be curled, warped or winding, allow more thick-
ness than if the surface be flat.
297. Working-face or Face-side. See 27, 72. Select the
better side. Plane it flat. Call it the working-face or face-side,
144. Woodworking
and mark it at the edge as shown, or in any way to distinguish
it. Joint-edge. Select the better edge. Plane it straight, and
also square with the working-face. Call it the joint-edge or
working-edge, and mark it as shown, or in any way to dis-
tinguish it.
298. Mark required width with the gauge on both sides,
gauging from the joint-edge already made, as shown by lines
ab and cd. Cut away the wood to the gauge lines just marked.
299. Mark thickness on both edges with the gauge,
gauging from the working-face or face-side, already made flat.
Plane to the gauge lines just made.
300. Mark one end square, unless it be so already. Saw or
plane (or both saw and plane) the end just marked, until it
is square, using the block-plane or smoothing plane if you
have one.
301. Measure and mark the required length from the end
just squared, using rule and square. Saw or plane (or saw and
Some Fundamental Principles —145
plane) to the lines just marked. If you have done the work
accurately, the piece is now ‘“‘squared up,’’ or squared to
dimensions. *
nee et ek
ae
)4. JOINT/EDGE \2
302. Summary.
True side I.
True edge 2, square with I.
True edge 3, parallel with 2, and at the required
distance from it.
True side 4, parallel with 1 and at the required
distance from it.
True end 5, square with I and 2.
True end 6, square with I and 2 and at the required
distance from end 5.
t The squaring-up process is one of the fundamental operations of wood-
working, but stock is now trued and squared so much more quickly, easily,
and better by machinery than by hand that going through the whole oper
ation by hand is not necessary for ordinary work. Parts of the process
are often required, because of lack of available machinery, and there are
occasional cases in which the whole operation must be done by hand.
Therefore the beginner should be able to do it, for the principle on which
it is based has many applications in both hand and machine work. ‘There
are other processes than the one given above, but the distinctions are not
important for the beginner.
Theoretically, if the working-face, joint-edge, and one end are made true
and square with one another, planing to the marks on the opposite side,
edge, and end is all that is necessary, without testing to see that the surface
is straight and true. But, practically, no part of the work will be perfect;
therefore if dimensions are more important than accuracy of shape, there is
no object in testing after the work has been cut to the lines, for any alter-
ation would change the dimensions. On the contrary, if accuracy of shape
is more important than exact dimensions, the surfaces and angles should be
tested and corrected, even though this makes a slight change in the
dimensions.
146 Woodworking
QUESTIONS
1. What does a working-drawing show?
2. What ts a blue-print?
3. In what order ts it customary to give the three dimensions of a ptece of
lumber?
4. What does S2S mean?
5. What ts the unit of measurement for lumber?
6. What ts a board foot?
7. How do you find the number of board feet in a piece of lumber?
8. Whatts a plank?
9. How do you find the width of a tapering board?
10. Show how to make out a Bill of Materials—a Stock Bull for shop use.
11. Show the importance of diagonal members. Give illustrations.
12. What is the object of a collar beam in a roof? To what stress is it sub-
jected?
13. Define tension, compression, cross-strain, torsion, and show how these
stresses are developed in large and small structures.
14. How do the dimensions of a piece of timber affect its strength when under
cross strain?
15. What is the most important thing when paring or trimming to line?
16. Show simple ways to remove waste wood.
17. In shaping odd-shaped forms, like a wooden spoon, a paddle, a model
boat, what ts the process?
18. Show the process of squaring a piece of stock to given dimensions by
hand.
SOME COMMON OPERATIONS
ASSEMBLING
303. Assembling. How to put work together depends on
what you are making. Look over all the parts to see that
they are ready to put together. Before using glue, see that the
parts fit.
Each type of construction has its own problems. Therefore
study the working-drawings to see which are the most impor-
tant parts. Assemble these first, as a rule. You cannot assume,
because all the different parts are of the right size and shape,
that the whole object will have the right shape when the parts
are put together. |
While assembling, keep testing by eye and with testing
tools, particularly while putting the main structural’ parts
together, for mistakes in the general shape are worse than in
the details. Small work can usually be tested accurately by
eye, with squares, etc. Have horses for assembling. They
can be padded for nice work.
304. Typical examples: A common box. Nail sides to
ends. Then nail bottom, fitting sides and ends to it. If the
parts have all been cut accurately, this will make the angles of
147
148 Woodworking
the box correct. Test however with square, as you nail. Add
the top.
305. A common four-legged table or stool. Assemble two
end legs and the rail which connects them. Also, the two
Anat
opposite legs and rail. After these are dry, join with the two
connecting rails. Then add the top. In general, the ends of
tables, sideboards, settles, bureaus, bookcases, and the like
are assembled first; then the lengthways or connecting parts,
rails, shelves, seats, etc., finally adding the top, if there be
one. Do not use glue in attaching table tops, the tops of large
seats, or similar broad surfaces (747). Panels must not be
glued in place (376).
Hees
{Sarna Tif
306. A mitred picture frame. Put one corner together.
Also the opposite corner. When these are dry, fasten the
remaining corners. See 508.
307. Frame of a one-storied building. Put the sills in
place, then the corner-posts, the studding, the plates. The
floor beams and first floor are often laid at first, for convenience.
Boarding of the sides is usually done as soon as possible.
Then the rafters, ridgepole, if there be one, collar beams, and
the boarding of the roof. Then door and window frames,
Some Common Operations 149
corner boards, clapboarding or shingling, and various other
details.
CORNER POST
308. Case work. Suppose ABCDEFGH represents the
outline or general shape of a bookcase, cabinet, wardrobe,
bureau, or other large rectangular object. Before assembling
the whole, test the side ACEG until it is rectangular and flat.
Do the same with the opposite side BDFH, the top ABEF,
and the bottom CDGH. When you put these parts together,
besides using the eye and the square, measure the diagonals
of the front, AD and BC, with an extension rule or with two
sticks (17). If not equal, make them so by hand, or with
clamps, or by inserting a temporary brace. Do the same with
the diagonals EH and FG at the back. Still, the front edges
150 Woodworking
ABCD and the back edges EFGH may be out of line (winding);
therefore measure the remaining diagonals AH and BG, ED
and FC, and correct any error in the same way. Of course
all bracing sticks must be left in place, like the clamps, until
the glue is hard. Two persons can do such work better than
one.
309. Test the sills of a building with the level and test the
diagonals from corner to corner with the steel tape or with
sticks. Plumb the corner posts.
310. For work spaced at regular intervals, like lattice work,
fence pickets, etc., take a piece of wood of the same width
as the space between the pieces, and hold it beside each
piece to measure the distance at which to nail the next
one.
311. Nails, screws, glue, bolts, strap-irons, corner-irons,
draw-dogs, and many other fasteners are used in different
kinds of assembling. See 450. Hardware fittings, hinges, locks,
escutcheons, etc., are fitted before the finishing process. For
nice work these fittings are then removed and put on again
after the finishing. Paint the joints of unprotected outdoor
work, like swing-frames, wagon-bodies, etc., with lead paint
before assembling; and do not force bolt heads into the wood,
as the depressions retain water and hasten decay.
Summary. Study the construction. Put main parts to-
gether first. For cabinet work and the like, first rehearse the
process. Have parts marked, clamps and glue at hand. Keep
testing. Test diagonally.
BENDING WOOD
312. Bending wood. Essentials: moisture and heat. Some
woods, like oak, bend better than others, for their fibres are
better able to adjust themselves to a change of shape. Use
straight-grained stock. Dry stock needs moisture. Steam it
in a steam-chest,—a wooden or metal box connected with a
steam-pipe. Bend at once after steaming. If you cannot do
Some Common Operations 151
that, soak in boiling water or even cold water; or pour
boiling water over pieces wrapped in cloth or buried in sawdust
or sand, well covered, and leave to soak in the steam. Long
boiling weakens the wood, as does very great heat. Steamed
wood stays bent well, but boiled wood often straightens more
or less after it is dry, so bend it too much, unless it is to be
fastened.
Slender pieces of dry wood can be bent by soaking in hot
water and then applying a high degree of heat. Contrive a
“‘form’’ for bending. Try to fit some kind of a strap (sheet
metal or even a thin strip of wood) to prevent splintering on
the outside of a sharp bend. Some pieces can be bound to the
form with canvas or adhesive tape. Keep bent until thorough-
ly dry. Bending is often done by end pressure, with a strap
outside.
313. Steam-chest of wood, easily made. The pipe shown
can be connected with any steam pipe, or even with a tightly
covered kettle. One end of the box is tight. The stock to be
steamed is inserted through the open end, which is then
stuffed with burlap or rags, or can have a hinged door.
152 Woodworking
314. Suggestions for forms for bending.
315. Where only one side will show, and strength is not
important, make saw-kerfs across the back side. After bend-
——
=
106° =
ing, wedges can be fitted and glued in the kerfs, if they are
on the convex side, to increase the strength.
316. Where appearance is not important, two or more thin
strips can sometimes be used, or a piece can be split and then
bent. Thin pieces can be glued together after bending by using
forms or cauls. To bend a moulding it sometimes can be sawed
Some Common Operations 153
into strips lengthways, preferably where the sawing will show
the least, then bent and nailed, or glued in place.
317. Bent wood is strongest and least likely to splinter
when bent at right angles to the medullary rays (731) and in
the direction of the annual rings (731), as at A; but is more
easily split by nails than if bent in the direction of the medul-
lary rays, as at B.
BEVELING AND CHAMFERING
318. Beveling and Chamfering. A bevel extends across
the whole edge or surface. A chamfer does not, but makes an
additional surface,—cuts away the angle formed by two
surfaces. For nice work mark with a pencil, for the gauge
may deface the work. Plane to the line, or pare with chisel
or other tool, with the grain if possible. When chamfering or
beveling an edge with the wood in the vise hold the fingers of
the left hand against the wood to steady the plane (141).
Guides to attach to the plane, for planing at any angle, with
the wood in the vise, can be bought. Test chamfers and bevels
by eye and with the bevel (34), etc. Chamfering and beveling
are best done with the Jointer (654), the Circular saw (585),.
the Sander (664).
154 Woodworking
320. If the end also is to be chamfered, do it first, with a
shearing cut (153). Some cut the end last.
with the chisel. Trim the ends carefully or cuts will be left
to deface the work.
322. A chamfer at the edge of a board can be cut with
the board flat on the bench, tipping the plane and sliding it
along with the edge of the sole resting on the bench.
BOX-MAKING
323. Box-making requires accuracy,—making every piece
rectangular, every edge square. Best done by machine.
Some Common Operations 155
324. A common type. Nail sides to ends. Put bottom in
place. Adjust sides and ends to bottom, and nail. Test with
Square when nailing. Then add top. In boxes like this, have
the grain of the sides and ends run in the same direction—
around the box, as shown. Nails fasten the sides to the ends
fully as strongly as screws, because screws do not hold well
in end-grain. Glue has not much value with end butt joints,
usually. Screws hold the top and bottom more strongly than
nails, because they are driven into side-grain. Glue should
not be used for the top and bottom, except for very small
boxes.
325. Fora box like this have the grain run the other way
(lengthways). For the four long joints, screws and glue can
be used if you wish, because these joints are all side-grain,
and the grain runs in the same direction in all the pieces.
Therefore, expansion or contraction of the width of the pieces
will not affect the joint. The four pieces can all be of the
same width, and can lap as in the second illustration, if you
wish.
326. Result of fitting the bottom tightly between the sides.
Swelling of the bottom has forced the joints open. Shrinking
156 Woodworking
would have left a crack. Fitting a bottom in this way is only
suitable for quite small boxes, because swelling and shrinking
of wood cannot be prevented (747).
327. Another box shown bottom up. For nice work fit
bottom loosely into a rabbet (567) cut in the lower edge of
the sides and ends, or into a groove cut just above the bottom,
as in a drawer (387).
328. A rabbeted joint is good for a box, is neat and incon-
spicuous. The corner can be nailed both ways and can be
rounded. In a case like that shown, the bottom can be fitted
in a groove on the inside. Glue can be used also, because of
the shoulder. Dovetailing (519, 520) is the most workmanlike
way to fit box corners for the best work, but requires much
Some Common Operations 157
skill and is now done by hand much less often than formerly.
Mitred joints (508) are sometimes used but are seldom very
strong, unless reinforced by splines or keys, or combined with
a rabbet, dovetail, or other joint. Such joints require much
skill to make by hand, but are suitable for very small boxes of
valuable wood, and in other special cases. Corner blocks
(450) glued, nailed, or screwed can sometimes be used for
strengthening some parts of boxes.
329. Sides and ends grooved into corner-posts. Sometimes
used for elaborate chests. Each side and end is often framed
with a panel (372), and then set in grooves in the corner-posts.
Sometimes a rabbeted post is used to cover the joint.
330. Other simple forms. When a box is to open below
the top, fasten top in place, and then cut the box in two at
158 Woodworking
the desired place with a fine circular saw or by hand. Drive
no nails near the line to be sawed. If necessary to saw by
hand, gauge two parallel lines around the box, the width of
a saw-kerf apart, and saw between them carefully. Saw from
each corner in turn. Trim the edges with a long plane (154).
331. Lids or covers, except for rough boxes, should be
strengthened and kept from warping by cleats at the ends,
or on the under side (365), or by framing or paneling (372).
If the top and bottom of a large box are boarded lengthways
there will be fewer cracks, but less strength, than if boarded
332. Sliding lid for small boxes. The lid must have some
play sideways, as with panels (376). See Grooving (441). To
prevent the grooves showing at the back end of the sides,
stop them before reaching the end, and finish with a chisel,
333. Overhanging top and bottom sometimes used for a
chest to avoid paneling. 3
Some Common Operations 159
ED
LIAL of
GOOD CONSTRUCTION
FOR LID
: i]
334. Common form for chest. Lid is framed and panelled.
See 372.
335. Box construction used for seats. Cushion can be
added. Lid can be hinged.
160 Woodworking
|
ODRAWER OQ.
tea a a
336. Box or chest with drawer.
337. Dado or grooved joint common for tanks, cisterns,
etc. The liquid swells the wood and helps to make the joint
tight. The bottom can be grooved into the sides and ends (441).
For tanks, apply white lead freely in the joints. See Dado, 463.
338. Simple form for feet. A great variety of feet are
sometimes used, as claw feet, etc.
339. Packing boxes. Common packing boxes are often
weak at the ends, to overcome which various styles of re-
inforcement are used. Corrugated fasteners (202) are often
used to strengthen edge-joints. Using hardwood for the ends
and cleats, into which the nails are driven, increases the strength
of the box. Cement-coated nails hold more strongly than
smooth ones; smooth ones better than barbed. See 208.
Metal straps also add much to the strength.
Some Common Operations 161
340. Re-inforcing ends of Packing boxes.
341. Packing crates. The weakness of crates, as often
made, is largely due to lack of strength at the corners, to
lack of diagonal bracing, and to insufficient nailing.
342. ‘‘ Three-way ” corner or lock-joint for packing-crate.
The best way when the crate is shaped like a common box.
A strong corner, because each piece is nailed in two directions,
and the nails are all driven into side-grain. A nail driven into
side-grain holds from one-third to one-half more than if driven
into end-grain. This corner helps toward diagonal bracing,
and also cannot come apart, or be taken apart, without
drawing the nails or splitting the wood. If the crate has an
odd shape and requires unusual bracing or crosspieces to keep
the contents in place, some other form may sometimes be
better.
162 Woodworking
STRONG CRATE—DIAGONAL BRACING THIS CRATE IS MUCH WEAKER ©
343. Experiments at the Forest Products Laboratory, and
by others, have shown by tests how much stronger diagonally
braced crates are than when the slats are all parallel with the
edges. Less material is required also. The omission of a
diagonal on even one of the six sides lessens the strength to
a considerable degree.
CARVING
344. A Few Elementary Operations in Simple Carved
Work. The true carver can not get his inspiration from
a book, nor even from a master, but must have in him
that artistic feeling, and power of execution, without which
his work will not rise above the level of manual dexterity.
No attempt can be made to teach the art of carving in a few
pages, but it is well, however, to have some understanding of
the methods by which the simpler forms are shaped, for the
general woodworker often has occasion to work wood into
odd shapes.
Elementary practise in carving can well precede the more
mechanical forms of woodwork, for the training of hand and
eye and mind given by it are of great value, not merely in the
Some Common Operations 163
way of general development, but as increasing one’s ability
to handle the more mechanical processes later.
It is common to advocate beginning with soft wood, but
there are some advantages in starting with good, clear-grained
oak, not very hard. Pine, black walnut, mahogany, cherry,
gum, and other woods can also he used, if straight-grained.
345. The simplest tools are similar to other chisels and
gouges, but are sharpened on both sides, and are of a great
variety of sizes and degrees of curvature. The edges must be
ground and whetted to be very keen, and must be kept so by
frequent stropping. They should not be used for other work.
A carver’s bench is usually a little higher than a cabinet-
maker’s or a carpenter’s, but a special bench is not necessary
unless much carving is to be done, as it is easy to block up
the work. The bench should face the light, which should come
down on the work if possible. Carving should be done stand-
ing, for it is hard to get the proper freedom of movement while
sitting. A variety of holdfasts and clamping devices to keep
the work in place are in use, but simple work can usually be
held by the vises, clamps, wedges, etc., used in ordinary
woodwork.
The variety of odd-shaped carving tools occasionally used
by carvers is very great, but for the work of the beginner or
the general woodworker only a few of the simplest kinds are
needed. A couple of skew-chisels, half a dozen gouges, a
V-tool, veining-tool, and a couple of straight chisels are enough
to do a great deal of simple work. More can be added when
needed. It is well to have the handles of carving tools of
different pattern from those of the other tools. The outside
of a carving gouge or parting tool is sharpened much the same
as other tools, but the inside bevel is made by rubbing with
a slip shaped to fit the tool (262). Lay the tools on bench
before you but behind the work, with the handles away from
you, as it is quicker to pick the tools up by the blades and to
select the tool required.
164 Woodworking
346. Clamp the wood firmly, so that both hands can be free.
Push with the hand which grasps the handle, check and
control with the hand which governs the blade. (See Chisel,
83, etc., 93). When the pushing force of the hand is not
sufficient, a slight blow can be given the tool handle with the
hand, but it is usually better.to use the mallet. The direction
of the lines of the design and of the grain require continual
change in the direction of the cutting, and it is not practicable
to keep turning the work, therefore one must become ambi-
dextrous in using the tools. Learn at the start to work either
right or left handed and to cut in any direction. In all cases
remember to remove the wood by cutting, and never pry or
tear it away. The picture of what is to be carved should be
clear and definite in the mind, lest the work become mere
mechanical copying of a pattern.
347. Regard the grain of the pattern and not that of the
background. Thus to cut around the outline of the narrow
band shown, cut in different directions as shown by the
arrows.
348. A simple flat outlined design can be done by lightly
cutting the outline with such tools as will fit (as shown at the
left), cutting only deeply enough to clearly mark the outline.
Try to use gouges of such curvature that the successive cuts
will run together in smooth and flowing lines. Or the design
can be outlined with a very light cut made with the V- or
parting-tool (as shown at the right) or the veining-tool, which
Some Common Operations 165
is a very small gouge. Then stamp the background with a
catver’s punch. For small places and corners use a nail filed
from four sides to a point.
349. Tocutasimple scroll (shown at the left), first roughly
sketch the design with chalk or pencil, and then go over it
166 | Woodworking
carefully with pencil. It is well at first to mark over the
background, as the beginner is apt not to distinguish the
design clearly. With a small gouge run a groove around the
pattern, just outside of the line (shown at the right), cutting
in different directions when the grain requires. In all cases
when cutting angles or corners, whether to cut toward, or
from, the corner or angle depends upon the grain of the wood.
Of course you cannot cut cleanly from an inside angle with a
gouge, but must finish by cutting toward the angle, or with
some other tool.
RESULT OF
NOT CUTTING
IS=GROOVE CLOSE
1—— TO OUTLINE
350. After thus roughly outlining the design, carefully cut
on the line down to the level of the background, as shown at
the left. The mallet can be used for this. It is not necessary
to have a gouge to fit every curve exactly. For an outside
curve a gouge flatter than the curve can be used, and for an
inside curve one ‘‘quicker’”’ than the curve. As the groove
first cut has removed most of the wood near the outline, the
chips will readily break off in the waste wood, without dam-
aging the part to be kept. If the grooving were omitted the
slender parts might be broken, as shown at the right.
351. The rest of the background can now be cut away,
using as large a gouge as may be convenient, and finally
smoothed with a flat gouge. The angles and corners must be
Some Common Operations 167
I yi”
{na iN
cut with whatever tool will best do the ath but the wood
should in all cases be removed by clean cutting and not by
prying. Do not try to make the background absolutely true,
as if done by machine. The slight irregularity or waviness
which naturally results from freehand work is proper in carved
work. The background can be stamped as before, or, as is
more commonly done, smoothed as nicely as may be with
short cuts of a flat ‘gouge.
352. Little hollowing cuts make a good background for
many designs.
353. After a design has thus been outlined and the back-
ground cut the raised parts require to be shaped. In a design
like that shown in 348 at the right, there is little to do but to
cut down where the parts overlap. Sometimes the outline
is undercut by sloping the handle of the tool outwards.
168 Woodworking
354. When the design is to be molded as shown in the
illustration, for example, gouges of somewhat flatter curvature
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than those of the design are used. The cutting should be done
with the grain, stopping and cutting the other way when the
grain requires, on the principle shown (347).
The general process with work in high relief and odd-shaped
or projecting forms is first to remove the superfluous wood,
“rough out”’ the shape with such gouges as may be required,
and then cut the details. Sometimes much of the waste wood
can be removed by sawing. In roughing off the wood, begin
at points distant from the final shape and work toward it, so
that the waste wood only will break off, without danger of
damaging the part to be saved. Sometimes waste wood can
be quickly and safely removed by the use of the bits and
bit-stock. When some part projects much above the general
surface, a piece, or pieces, can be glued on and carved after-
wards, but gluing is not to be recommended unless necessary.
When the work is very thick and heavy, or one part much
higher than the rest, building-up by gluing is sometimes the
only practicable way.
355. To shape the end of the arm of a chair, first round
the end with the band-saw or by hand, and then cut down
Some Common Operations 169
between the divisions of the design, as shown, thus removing
the waste wood before trying to work the wood exactly to
shape.
epee ee
356. In cutting a clawfoot as shown at the left, much of
the waste wood can be removed by sawing as shown in the
middle illustration. The removal of the waste wood and
roughing out can be begun as shown at the right, and the rest
of the shaping done on the general principles already described.
357- In modeling with the gouge much effective work can
often be done by giving a rotary turn or twist to the tool,
causing a shearing cut (77, 94). Making a model first in clay
or other plastic material is often a help.
In all cases try to have a sharp, crisp, clean-cut effect.
The work should stand out boldly and clearly and not appear
to have been laboriously scrubbed into shape.
170 Woodworking
358. With designs like tracery, on a background, the design
can first be sawed out, glued to the background, and then
carved. This saves cutting away the waste wood. Although
often done, this process is not to be advised, as a rule. Carvers
usually prefer to cut away the background. This also avoids
depending upon a glued joint. Open work patterns are sawed
of course before modeling the surfaces. Simply sawing open-
ings, as is often done, is in no sense carving, but merely scroll-
sawing or jig-sawing. |
359. Do not try to scrub carved work smooth with sand-
paper. Leave it as the tool leaves it. A touch with sandpaper
is sometimes permissible to remove a too sharp edge. Finish
carved work either with wax or very thin shellac, never with
varnish or a thick coating of shellac. A brush is the best thing
for cleaning, rubbing over, and polishing carving.
360. Norse or Scandinavian patterns are excellent for the
learner. They cultivate freedom and boldness of execution,
desirable for the beginner.
361. Chip-carving, or the cutting of incised patterns of a
geometric character, is a mechanical and routine process com-
pared with regular wood carving. While lacking the artistic
possibilities and educating influence of true carving, it culti-
vates accuracy of eye and hand, and is suitable for borders
or other decorations for a certain class of objects. The simple
forms can be done with a chip-carving knife, or even a pocket
knife. A little of this work is good training, but one can easily
spend too much time on processes of this kind.
Chamfering. See 318.
Some Common Operations 171
CLAPBOARDING
362. Clapboarding. First put on door and window casings,
corner-boards, and other outside finish. Begin clapboarding
at the top. Lay the upper row by a line, marked with a
straight-edge (20, 21), or chalk and line (49-50), using a few
nails in the upper part only. Mark the ends accurately, using
try square, and saw them carefully with a fine saw. Then slip
the next row up under the first row until only the desired width
is exposed. The width of the courses can be marked on a
stick, on the outside finish of the building, or a clapboarding-
gauge can be used.
363. Break joints, that is, do not have the joints of one
row in line with, or very near, those of the next row or of the
one above that, to prevent leaking, and penetration of cold.
Nail the first row near the lower edge with clapboard nails.
This will hold the second row in position while the third row
is put in place, and so on. The thin edge of the upper row
can be covered with a strip of board or moulding.
SS
Ga
364. Ifa water table is used at the bottom, as shown, bevel
the lower edge of the last row of clapboards to fit. Sometimes
172 Woodworking
the clapboarding is continued to the bottom of the building.
Siding is sometimes used. See also Flashing (418).
CLEATING AND BATTENING
365. Cleats or battens are used to fasten two or more
pieces together, for stiffness or strength, to cover cracks, etc.
366. Side cleats, as for a door or wide board. Stagger the
nails or screws (213, 367). Do not glue, because the boards
will expand and contract and thus may break the glued
joints (74'77). Nails or screws give some play to the pieces.
Nails can be clinched (216).
367. Ifaboard is very wide, as a large drawing board, the
screws can go through slotted holes in the cleats to allow for
expansion and contraction of the wide board (366). These
slots are sometimes bushed (lined) with metal.
368. End cleat, to be nailed. Screws do not hold well in
end-grain (224). End cleats help to keep one board from
warping, and will also hold two or more pieces together. For
heavy work, side cleats are stronger, but not always desirable.
An end cleat can be grooved to fit a tongue on the end of the
Some Common Operations i
board, or both cleat and end of board can be grooved and a
spline inserted (526). A dovetail can be used (527). Such work
370. Dovetailed cleat, on underside or back side, for nice
work. Also tapered slightly lengthways, so that it can be
tightened. Metal cleats are sometimes inserted in kerfs or
grooves on a similar principle.
Sa ee
371. Battens for covering cracks. Used for buildings which
are boarded vertically. Also for making surface panels and
other inside finish. See 524, etc.
“174 Woodworking
Coping. See Joznis (517, 518).
Crate-making. See 341.
Dadoing, see 463.
DOOR-MAKING AND PANELING
372. Doors and Panels are now made almost always by
machinery.’ In making: the frame lay out duplicate parts
together (70) and do all squaring and gauging from the
joint-edges and face-sides (27, 72). The joint-edges should
be the inside edges, the ones to come next the panel—so as
to have the best edges at the joints.
RAIL
PANEL 8 fpaner
>
~
PANEL | 4,
BE
ft | i
PANEL
| MUNTIN |
STALE
STILE
| MUNTIN |
PANEL
373+
374. Mark joints to prevent mistakes when assembling(71).
Leave the stiles a little too long (for convenience in working)
* For the simplest and cheapest way to make a rough door for a shed or
a camp, see 366. Adding a diagonal brace makes such a door much stronger.
Some Common Operations 175
until after the frame is finally put together, when the project-
ing ends (lugs) can be cut off.
375. Mortise and tenon: is the best joint for door- and
panel-frames (see 467). Dowelling (500) and even mitring
(508) are used, but are less strong, usually (see 500, footnote).
Light doors and panel-frames often have tongued and grooved
joints (shown below), made with the circular saw, or if neces-
sary with hand tools, and fastened with glue.
A
GES
PANEL
RIGHT
>
1
Gx a Ly
LSS Dy
|
(
| |
ae ae
376. A panel must have room in the groove to swell and
shrink (747), therefore the grooves in the stiles must be deeper
than required to receive the panel. A panel must not be glued,
but must be free to expand and contract across the grain.
For nice work rub wax, paraffine, or tallow around the edge of
the panel before gluing to prevent its becoming stuck. After
all the parts are fitted, put the whole together, to be sure that
everything fits, before applying glue. Then take apart.
377. To put together permanently, first fit the panel in the
grooves of the rails, without glue. A drop of glue is sometimes
176 Woodworking
placed at the middle of the end of the panel or a brad driven
later to keep the panel from working to one side.
378. Next fit ends of rails to one stile with glue. See
(426, etc.). Put the other stile in place temporarily, in order
to clamp the glued joints properly. See 228, etc.
SS
UY
—————
:
LOMO APIO UASD RAD LLICANNUN\UAR
LUA
!
it
== cosas S
After the glue is hard, glue and clamp the other stile. When
the glue of this joint is hard, saw off the projecting ends (lugs)
of the stiles, and smooth the surfaces. Both stiles can be
glued at once under favorable conditions.
SS eae
379. Common types of panels. The third form with flush
surface will not fit perfectly at all times, because of shrinking
and swelling. The last form is often used for the lid of a chest
or desk, where strength is required. Unless the surface of the
frame can be finished before putting together, shrinkage of
the panel will show an unfinished strip. Panels are often
bordered by a moulding, nailed to the frame, or, better, worked
on the frame. Plywood can be used for plain panels.
380. Built-up doors, without panels, veneered in one
smooth surface over a core of pine, chestnut, or other suitable
wood, are now common. If done in the best way, such doors
are satisfactory for as long a time as any glued-up construction
Some Common Operations 177
can be expected to last, but with inferior work or materials
the result is soon very unsatisfactory. If you are building a
house for your grandchildren, it will be safer to use the old-
fashioned paneled doors.
381. Simple paneling for the back of a bookcase and in
similar cases. Plywood (758), or even wallboard, can often
be used for such work. If fitted loosely in a rabbet, plywood
TANT
|
LE gp
and wallboard are often very satisfactory without any frame-
work. Such panels should not be exposed to excessive damp-
ness, and should be finished equally on both sides to prevent
warping, etc., from atmospheric changes.
382. Door hanging. Fitting and hinging. Saw off the pro-
jecting stiles (lugs, 378). Plane one upright edge (the one to
be hinged) to fit the jamb. Then hold door in position, tight
against the top, mark where it is too large, and plane or saw
to fit. Make the width (for a house door) about 7/3’’ less than
that of the opening, and the height perhaps 14” less than that
of the opening. Put door in place, fitting snugly against the
frame on the hinge side and at the top, for a door is apt to
settle a little. Slip something under the bottom to keep it in
place. Mark with knife the places for the hinges on both door
and jamb, or these can be marked first on a stick and trans-
ferred from stick to door and jamb. For house doors the upper
hinge is usually about 6’ from the top and the lower one 8”
or 10” from the bottom,—generally just below the upper rail
and just above the lower one. Do not hinge opposite the end
178 Woodworking
of a rail, because of the mortise and tenon. Heavy doors
should have three hinges or butts. Mark the outline of the
hinges on both door and frame, cut the gains (recesses for the
leaves of the hinges), and screw on the hinges. The screws
should have at least 1%4” of wood to screw into on the
jamb, for house doors. If the door and frame are not flush,
allowance for this must be made when gauging for one leaf
of each hinge. The leaf on the door can be set a trifle deeper
at the back side than at the front, to prevent striking the other
leaf when closed. Each half of a ‘“‘loose-pin”’ hinge can be
fitted and screwed on separately and the pin put in or with-
drawn at will. There are butt-gauges for hinge fitting. The
lock edge of a door is sometimes slightly beveled to make a
good fit and to allow the door to swing freely, but no door
should fit very tightly.”
Dovetailing, see 519.
Doweling, see 500.
DRAWER-MAKING
383. Drawer-making. The more accurately the case which
holds the drawers is made the easier itis to fit the drawers so
that they will run smoothly. Rub bayberry tallow on the run-
ning parts. The dovetail is the best joint for a drawer, but
requires much skill (519, 520).
t Doors are framed, with panels, to prevent the swelling, shrinking,
warping, and twisting which would take place if one or more wide boards
were used, whether glued into one unbroken surface or not. The framing
and paneling is also a decorative feature of course. The covering of other
wide surfaces, walls, etc., with paneled work doubtless originated from the
same reasons. As wood shrinks and swells a good deal in width, and but
Some Common Operations 179
384. Showing rabbeted joint at the front corners. Only
suited for inferior work. See 461, 612, 613.
385. Showing combination of rabbet and dado. A good
joint and much used. Inferior to dovetailing, but quickly
See 465.
386. Showing dado (at the right) for the joint at the back.
Also groove for the bottom. This can be cut with the plow or
the circular saw (609). Dado extends only to the groove for
the bottom. See 463, 464.
387. Showing how the parts fit. The back does not reach
quite to the top. The grain of the bottom runs from side to
side of the drawer, parallel with the front. Smooth the inside
little in length, the frame of the door will alter its shape but little, because
it is made of comparatively narrow pieces. The thinner panels, fitting
loosely in grooves in the frame, can change their size without changing
the size or shape of the thicker door frame itself. Whether there be one
panel or many the principle is the same. _
180 Woodworking
of the parts before putting together. The bottom is slipped in
after the rest of the drawer is put together. Glue or nail
bottom at the front edge only. This allows for swelling and
shrinking of the bottom. Small corner blocks can be glued
underneath at the front edge only.*
388. Showing top of drawer-front striking against a stop
fastened to the framing above, to keep the drawer from being
pushed in too far. The back being lower than the front, as
just shown, allows the drawer to be removed entirely without
hitting the stop. Also showing groove for bottom, a little
narrower than the thickness of the bottom board, the under
side of which is bevelled to fit the groove.
t Every part of a drawer, as well as of the whole case, should be flat. The
front and sides should be got out to fit very snugly. The front pieceis nearly
always thicker than the sides, back, and bottom. Ifthe front is 7/8”, thesides
are usually about 1%” or 3/s’’, but the dimensions are governed by the size of
the drawer. The front should be of the same kind of wood as the outside
of the article, but the sides, back, and bottom are often made of whitewood,
pine, maple, etc., though sometimes the same wood is used throughout.
The order of the process is: Ist, to get out the pieces to the required
dimensions; 2d, to make the joints for the sides, front and back; 3d, to cut
the grooves for the bottom in the sides and front; 4th, to fit the parts
together. Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom
will assist in this) and free from winding. Test with the framing square.
A little trimming with the plane may be required to make a drawer run
freely, but care should be taken not to plane away too much. It is easier
to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from front to back) run
smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but short from front to
back. Ifitisa trifle larger at the back than at the front it will run best, as
it will be less likely to bind or catch.
Some Common Operations 181
389. Showing frame on which drawer slides. This frame
can be grooved (441), into the upright sides and for very nice
work can be dovetailed (466).
390. Showing guide adjusted so that the lower part of
the side of the drawer will slide against it. Another guide is
fitted at the other side and the drawer slides between them.
Drawers are more dust proof and more inaccessible if the
openings in the frames on which they slide are filled with
panels. Drawers sometimes run in slides at the sides, and
sometimes a slide is made from front to back under the centre
of the bottom, to promote smooth running.
391. A dovetailed joint is the best way to fasten the cross
stretcher above the drawer, if there is only one drawer, or
above the top drawer if there are several.
182 Woodworking
392. The front of a drawer can project beyond the sides
and bottom or top in a lip, which shuts against the front of
the case,—a good way in some cases.
393. Simple ways to attach a drawer under a shelf, table,
or bench. The way shown at the right is only suitable for a
small, light drawer.
Filling, see 405.
FINISHING
394. Finishing is a trade in itself. Essentials for good work:
seasoned wood; very smooth surfaces; freedom from stains,
hardened glue, grease, finger or pencil marks, and dust; a
warm temperature, free from draughts and dust; and good
materials.
395. To fill holes or cracks. Small holes, etc. Puta daub
of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same
kind as the article. With a sharp chisel, held nearly at right
angles, scrape off enough fine wood-dust to make a paste.
Some Common Operations 183
Fill with this, and when thoroughly dry scrape off the surplus.
For dark work, hold a hot iron close to a piece of stick shellac,
of the same color as the work, over the hole, until it is filled
to overflowing. Press with a hot knife. When hard, pare off
the surplus and sand. Sticks of shellac of different colors can
be bought.
White lead putty can be used,—tinted a little darker than
the work,—white lead mixed to a stiff paste with linseed
oil and a little varnish. Before puttying, apply one thin coat
of finish to stop the pores of the wood so that they will not
draw the oil from the putty. Plaster of Paris mixed with
shellac or thin hot glue, and colored if desired, can be used;
also, colored wax, but the latter is not suited for large holes
because it never becomes very hard. Large holes, etc., should
be plugged with wood (569).
396. To remove a dent or bruise when the wood has been
compressed but not cut away, try wetting the bruise and
placing a hot iron over it, with paper between. Sometimes
wetting, allowing the wood to swell, and sandpapering, re-
peated several times, is sufficient.
397. General principles. For nice work, remove locks,
hinges, and other hardware fittings before finishing. Erase
pencil marks with rubber, and remove grease with benzine.
Sand with No. % sandpaper, dust, sponge with luke-warm
water, leave about two hours, sand with No. 0 or oo sand-
paper, and dust thoroughly. Very sharp angles at the edges are
not desirable for finishing.
Place the surface to be finished in a horizontal position
when you can. Face the light,—have the work between you
and the light. Finish the least prominent parts first. Turn
tables, chairs, etc., bottom up and do the under parts first,
the upper surfaces last. Do edges first, then adjacent wider
surfaces. Finish each part of the work separately. Stop where
there is some natural break or line; never in the middle of
a surface. Do two or three boards of a floor for the whole
184 Woodworking
length, then the next two or three. Pour part of the finishing
material into a small vessel with a wire across the top over
which to draw the brush, to remove the excess of liquid.
In factories, finishing is done by dipping in vats, by spraying
machines and rubbing machines. *
398. Work quickly. Begin near the end of the surface
but not at the end. Start each succeeding stroke on the bare
wood (or on the hardened coat previously laid) and brush
toward the part already covered, to avoid ‘“‘laps.’’ After each
stroke, brush back the other way to make the coating uniform.
Make the final strokes with the grain of the wood. Give each
coat of shellac, varnish, paint, etc., time to harden, before
applying another. Haste is the cause of many failures in
finishing. ?
399. Staining. If you wish to color your work, the simplest -
way is to use a ready-made stain according to the directions
of the makers. Common stains are usually mixed with water,
linseed oil, turpentine, or alcohol. See general directions
1 Padded saw horses ate useful to hold the work. A turn-table, easily
contrived, is good to secure the best light on the work. In finishing doors or
panel-work, first do the panels (373), then the muntins, if there are any,
then the rails, and finally the stiles, because in this way you wipe out or
cover any daubs or “runs.’’
2 Applying a second coat before the first is fully hard excludes the air
from the under layer, and prevents its drying asit should. This also often
leads to cracking of the outer layer. You can find an extreme illustration
of this principle in some old shop where a convenient place on the wall
has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. You may find
daubs of old varnish or paint, perhaps an inch thick, made up of hundreds
of layers s!apped on before the previous ones were dry, the inside remaining
soft after twenty years or more.
Some Common Operations 185
(397-8). Stir stain thoroughly. Wipe the brush a little but
have it quite full, and apply quickly to avoid laps and streaks.
For nice work, try the stain on a piece of waste wood of the
same kind as the article, because stains act differently on
different woods; and leave for a day, to allow for any chemical
changes, for there is a good deal of chemistry about some kinds
of staining. Earthen or glass vessels are usually best for hold-
ing stains.
400. Water stains. For most work, these are the best for
the ordinary user, if properly prepared. They are cheap, easy
to apply, penetrate the wood more than oil stains, do not
obscure the grain of the wood, and usually give good results.
The water raises the grain of the wood, however, therefore you
must sand the work carefully after staining, or dampen it and
rub down the raised grain with fine sandpaper before staining.
A good way is to stain, then give a coat of thin shellac,‘ dry,
and then sand lightly with fine sandpaper.
Water stain penetrates best if wood and stain are warm.
If part of the surface is sapwood, sponge that part with water
before staining. Use a thin coat of shellac after staining and
before filling. A wide brush is best. Sponge with water ahead
of the stain if it is absorbed so fast as to lap. Rubbing with
fine sandpaper while the work is wet will sometimes remove
a dark lap. If end-grain stains too dark, thin stain and do
end-grain first. ?
401. Oil stains are easily mixed (or bought prepared) and
easily applied, but they do not penetrate the wood so well
as water stains, sometimes obscure the grain and give a daubed
and muddy appearance, and frequently fade. They should
be thoroughly rubbed in and the surplus rubbed off. If a
filler (405) is to be used, use it before the oil stain, for rubbing
* One part common shellac thinned with six or eight parts of alcohol.
2In place of the regular prepared water stains, any pigment or coloring
substance which can be dissolved in water, or even mechanically mixed
with it, can be used; but prepared stains are cheap and reliable.
186 Woodworking
off the filler may injure the staining. Common paint (without
gloss), thinned with turpentine, applied with a brush, and
thoroughly rubbed off with a cloth, makes a simple, cheap
stain for common work. Stains made with naphtha, turpen-
tine, etc., penetrate deeper, and are more transparent when
wiped off, than if made with linseed oil alone.
If a thick oil or water stain leaves laps, try going over the
surface again with the same stain thinned one-half, or even
merely dampening near the edge of the laps. Oil stains are
good for the insides of cabinets, bookcases, etc., and should
be a little lighter in color than the outside. Apply oil stains,
like water stains, quickly. If the end absorbs too much color,
thin with turpentine, and do end-grain first. If part of the
surface is sapwood, sponge the sapwood with turpentine or
naphtha before staining. Do not sand after an oil stain. Oil
stains should be thoroughly protected by shellac, which can
be followed by varnish, for the color to last.
402. Alcohol stains can be applied quickly, but are more
expensive, less simple to apply, and should be thoroughly
protected by shellac, which can be followed by varnish, to
preserve the color.
403. Varnish stains are easily applied, but are not desirable
for nice work. The color does not penetrate the wood, which
is easily exposed by bruising, and the grain is obscured.
404. Stains due to chemical action. The rich darkening
and mellowing given by age can be easily secured with some
woods. Articles made of oak or chestnut and cherry can be
kept for some time in a tight box or closet with a dish of strong
ammonia on the floor (‘‘fuming’’),’ or can be washed with
* Oak and other woods contain tannic acid in varying quantities, there-
fore it is well (for this is a chemical process) to apply a solution of tannic
acid and pyrogallic acid before fuming. Schmidt recommends using “‘one-
half ounce of the former, and one ounce of the latter to the gallon of water.”
After fuming, apply hot linseed oil. Rub in thoroughly and repeat the
process. After some time, give a thin coat of shellac, and finally wax, or
varnish, can be used.
Some Common Operations 187
ammonia, The washing raises the grain, which must be rubbed
down with fine sandpaper. Mahogany and cherry can be
washed with lime water (solution of common slaked lime in
water), or with a solution of bichromate of potash in water.
When dry thoroughly clean the work in all corners or crevices,
and sand carefully. Bichromate of potash gives oak a brown
color. Such methods do not obscure but bring out the beauty
of the wood.*
Dipping. Small articles can well be stained by dipping (416).
405. Filling. If the wood be coarse-grained, like oak,
chestnut, ash, mahogany, walnut, etc., brush it thoroughly
and fill the pores with a paste filler of suitable color and of
the consistency of varnish. Keep well stirred and rub thor-
oughly, with the grain, into the wood with a stiff brush. After
it begins to set, rub off the surplus thoroughly across the grain
with burlap or some coarse material. Let dry for two or three
days. Clean all interior corners and angles thoroughly with a
t The variety of stains is almost endless. For a common grade of work,
asphaltum varnish, thinned with a large proportion of turpentine, gives
varying shades of brown according to the proportion of turpentine. Adda
very little linseed oil. Extract of logwood in hot water also gives a
brown color. Walnut crystals can be used for cheap work. Schmidt recom-
mends using about six ounces of crystals to one gallon of hot water, and if
the wood be hard, adding an ounce of sal-soda. In case of dipping, the tank
must be kept filled with stain of uniform strength.
For black, the simplest way, for common work, is to use paint, ivory
black, or bone black thinned with turpentine. Even lampblack can be
used. Black shellac (colored with lampblack) can be applied, but this
does not penetrate the wood, however, and bruising will show the lighter
color underneath. For nice work ebonizing is the proper way. Cherry,
birch, maple, beech, apple, pear, ebonize well. Apply solution of logwood,
and wash with vinegar in which iron filings have been soaked, or a black
analine dye can be used. Schmidt recommends: ‘Boil one pound of log-
wood chips in two quarts of water, or one ounce of logwood extract (solid).
Brush the hot solution over the work, giving it a second coat when dry.
Allow this to stand at least twenty-four hours, and then coat with a solu-
tion of one ounce of green copperas (sulphate of iron) to one quart of water.
Let this dry in a warm, well-lighted place.’
188 Woodworking
pointed stick or some tool without rubbing through the edges.
When hard, sand the surface carefully. Liquid fillers can be
used, but are not so good as paste, as a rule. To prevent
end-grain being too dark, thin filler and fill end grain first.
Close-grained woods like pine, whitewood, basswood, poplar,
maple, beech, birch, sycamore, cypress, cherry, gumwood,
etc., do not require filling. If one should be needed, shellac is
good. You can buy prepared fillers of the desired color.
Those made with silex are the best. To thin fillers add turpen-
tine or naphtha a little at a time, stirring thoroughly.
406. Shellac (solution of lac in alcohol) is probably the
best varnish’ for the beginner to use at first, for furniture and
other indoor work. There is no nicer finish, unless perhaps
wax. Water is injurious to it. Keep shellac in glass or earthen-
ware. Where the orange color is unsuitable, white shellac
can be used. For black work, black shellac. Shellac must not
be used over varnish for the alcohol will injure the varnish, —
but varnish can usually be used over shellac. Shellac should
be quite thin and flow freely from the brush. See general
directions (397-8). Use a flat bristle brush. ‘Three or four
thin coats are better than two thick ones. Thin with alcohol
only. Denatured or wood alcohol can be used if necessary.
Shellac dries very quickly because it is cut with alcohol,
therefore work rapidly and carefully without going back over
the work to patch spots. Lay it on as well as you can and
leave it. Giveit at least twenty-four hours to harden. Lightly
skim over the surface with fine sandpaper. Curled hair can
be used. When rubbing down with sandpaper, use the paper
with the fingers because you are smoothing the finish and not
flattening the surface. For fine work split the sandpaper? by
t Shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so different
from many kinds of varnish in common use, that it is usually spoken of as
shellac, in distinction from what is popularly known as varnish.
2 Special finishing sandpaper for rubbing shellac and varnish is very fine
grained. Some is double surfaced, ready to be split. o00000 garnet paper
Some Common Operations 189
removing the outer layer of paper so that it will be more
flexible, and dampen with oil. Wipe thoroughly, apply a second
coat, and so on. When you have a sufficient body of shellac
on the wood, rub it down with a bit of felt on which is a little
powdered pumice wet with thin oil. Rub with the grain evenly
and carefully lest you rub through the finish. Wipe off with
a soft cloth. Use a toothbrush or something similar for rub-
bing carved work, or places where a felt pad cannot be used.!
407. Varnish. See general directions (397-8). Varnish
dries more slowly than shellac, so more time can be taken.
Keep the room warm and free from dust, because varnish will
be spoiled by a shower of dust long after shellac would be
dry, and have the varnish slightly warm. There are many
kinds of varnish, for many purposes. Only the best grades are
satisfactory for good work. For work to be exposed to the
weather or to water, use spar varnish. A coat of thin shellac
is often used before varnishing. The temperature of the room,
of the wood, and of the varnish, should be not less than 70°
for the best results.
To thin varnish, mix separately a small quantity of varnish
with twice the quantity of turpentine. Leave for a day. Add
to the main body of varnish until it works freely.
is good for fine work. The flexibility of the split paper prevents glazing and
scratching.
t French polishing. A wad or pad of woollen cloth or cotton wool is made,
and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol may be neces-
sary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, a drop of
linseed oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, and the
pad quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with longer
strokes in the form of the figure 8. After doing this for a while a very thin
coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short time,
when the process is repeated, until a sufficient body of the polished finish
has been formed. The details vary with different finishers. It is quite
easy to polish a small flat surface, the arm of a chair, for example; but it is
hard for a beginner successfully to polish a large flat surface, like a table-
top. A coating of shellac is usually put on in the ordinary way first and
skimmed over with sandpaper, to save labor in the polishing process.
190 Woodworking
Use a flat brush (fitch, or badger, is good) fairly full of
varnish. Apply freely and quickly, without working over the
surface. If too much varnish collects at any spot, wipe most
of the varnish from the brush, and take up the surplus with a
light stroke. For rubbing, water or oil can be used. With
water, wet a felt pad and dip in pumice or tripoli (or sprinkle
the powder on the surface). After rubbing, sponge surface
with water and wipe clean. With oil, use pad or felt, burlap,
or webbing, pumice, and rubbing oil. Wipe clean. Rotten
stone with oil gives a soft polish. You may rub down or polish
the extreme ends of large surfaces across the grain first, then
lengthways. Clean corners carefully. Use a toothbrush, or
something similar, for rubbing and cleaning carved work, or
where a pad cannot be used. The palm of the hand is often
used for the final smoothing, after rubbing down. The general
principle of rubbing is that, as the surface becomes finer,
finer materials should be used.
Cork linoleum and rubber make good facings for blocks
for sanding or rubbing. Thick felt also makes a soft block.
For a fine dull-rubbed finish for nice work, use.a light-bodied
transparent varnish.
Cover varnish pot when through, and keep brush hanging
in varnish or in turpentine so as to cover the hairs, but with-
out resting on the end; or wash brushes thoroughly in tur-
pentine (gasoline can be used), or with soap and water, rinse
and dry. Vessels can be bought arranged to protect both
varnish and brush. Keep brush and varnish dish clean, so
that there will be no particles of hardened varnish to be
deposited on the surface, which is a frequent cause of poor
work.
Dipping. Small articles of some kinds, toys for example,
can often be dipped to advantage. See 416.
The air-brush (spraying-machine) is the last word in finish-
ing. It applies the coating not only much more rapidly, but
more uniformly, more smoothly, and more cheaply than hand
Some Common Operations 191
brushing. These machines should be used according to the
directions for each machine. Rubbing machines are also
efficient.
408. Wax gives a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It
shows spots, however, and for articles in constant use requires
renewing often, but this is easily done. The surface must be
very smooth and free from defects. A thin coat of shellac,
lightly rubbed down with fine sandpaper, makes a good under
coat on new work, before applying the wax. Use prepared
wax. Put a little on a piece of doubled cheesecloth. Fold
like a bag and pass over the surface to distribute the wax
evenly. Leave for a short time and then polish with brush,
soft cloth, felt, or carpeting; but follow the directions on the
can. Colored wax can be used. To polish floors, rub with a
weighted brush or a heavy weight covered with carpeting,
pushed back and forth like a carpet-sweeper. Wax can be
colored with aniline colors soluble in oil, which can be bought
of the dealers, dissolved in heated turpentine and mixed with
the wax by melting the latter.
409. Oil finish. An excellent soft finish for some close-
grained hard woods, but involves more repeated rubbings than
most people are willing to give. Unless thoroughly done, it
is apt to be greasy. It darkens the wood in all cases. Use
linseed oil thinned with turpentine and rub repeatedly at
intervals until a good finish is obtained—a good finish for
kitchen-floors, if renewed at intervals. Paraffine melted into
the wood with a hot iron is used for kitchen floors, but involves
more work to apply.
A good polish for small objects like handles, etc., is made
by adding a small proportion of boiled linseed oil, perhaps 1
part to 5 or 6 of shellac. Shake, rub on, and polish with cloth.
410. Woodlacquer.* Towhat extent wood lacquer, which
may be called, roughly speaking, wood fibre (nitro-cotton or
*Modern wood lacquer should not be confused with the well-known
lacquers used by the Orientals. Professor Morse, speaking of the best
192 Woodworking
cellulose) in liquid form, may take the place of varnish cannot
be foretold, but its use is increasing to a marked degree.
Among the advantages claimed for it are durability, hardness,
flexibility; resistance to heat, cold, and moisture (thus hinder-
ing warping, expansion, and contraction), to scratching,
cracking, etc. Also, repeated coats can be applied in the same
day, at intervals of two hours. Rubbing can be done after
twenty-four hours or even less. But little rubbing is required.
The wood is prepared, stained (water stain is prefer-
able), filled (a silex filler is best), as for a shellac or varnish
finish. The wood lacquer is then applied with a sprayer.
Articles of suitable size and shape (toys, for example) can be
dipped. Wax can be used for a final finish. You are advised
to procure some wood lacquer and experiment with it, following
the directions of the manufacturer, and you will be likely to
find many uses for it. It can be thinned and applied with a
brush, but the best results have been obtained with sprayers
or by dipping.
Reference for finishing: Problems of the Finishing Room,
WALTER K. SCHMIDT.
Summary. Seasoned wood, clean, smooth, dry, and free
from dust. Remedy defects. Room and wood warm and free
from dust. Water stains, and those due to chemical action,
usually best. Silex filler for coarse-grained woods, well worked
in and thoroughly cleaned off. Thin coats of shellac or varnish
better than thick ones. Apply quickly and evenly. Allow
abundant time for hardening. Rub down carefully with sand-
paper or pad and pumice, lubricated,etc. Rub waxthoroughly.
Wood lacquer durable. See also 397, 308.
411. Refinishing old work. If the surface is in bad condi-
tion, scrape to the wood with cabinet-scraper, and sand thor-
oughly. A chisel, or a plane-bit, used as a scraper, often helps
lacquer work of the Japanese, tells of an article being given one coat a year,
the finest work having twenty-one coats, and the artist rowing out to sea
for miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided.
Some Common Operations 193
in awkward spots. Varnish remover can be used according to
the directions on the can, but all traces of it must be removed
by washing or with scraper and sandpaper, lest the finish be
ruined. If removal of the old finish is not necessary, clean
with soapsuds, and rub with fine sandpaper, split, using oil.
Pumice can be used. Use a stiff brush (nail- or tooth-brush)
for cleaning out angles and carved work. Finally, thoroughly
clean and wipe the surface, and apply the desired finishing
coats.
Cleaning and brightening old finish. Mix equal parts of
linseed oil and turpentine with a very small quantity of Japan.
Rub well with flannel and rub off. This makes scratches less
conspicuous and freshens the finish for some time, but is not a
substitute for refinishing a badly defaced surface. Wax,
rubbed to a polish, is often a good reviver.
412. Painting. See also 397-8. Be sure that the wood is
both seasoned and dry, else it may decay, or the paint peel,
or both. Use only the best grade of paint for good work.
Give knots, or streaks of resinous matter, a coat of shellac,
before painting, to ‘“‘kill’”’ them and prevent colored spots
showing later. Remove grease with benzine. Also remove all
dirt and dust. It is a bad plan to paint in damp or frosty
weather. On new work the first coat (which is the most impor-
tant) should be thin, for the oil in the paint will be drawn into
the wood quickly.
If the paint be thick, the oil will soak into the wood leaving
the pigment on the outside too dry. Work the first coat well
into the wood. Take but little paint on the brush. Stretch a
wire across the top of the paint pot to draw the brush over to
remove any excess of paint. Begin at the highest point, or
the end farthest from you, to prevent dripping on the freshly
painted surface. Draw the brush back and forth to spread the
paint as evenly as possible, and work it in. Paint with the
grain of the wood or the long way of the work. Use a large
brush for large surfaces; finishing corners, mouldings, and
194 Woodworking
edges with a small brush. Try not to leave any part of a
surface until another time, or it will be likely to show a “‘lap.”’
Stop where there is some natural line or break in the work.
Paint door and panel work in the order shown in 397, foot-
note. In work to be exposed to the weather, paint joints,
tenons, mortises, shoulders, etc., with white lead, before put-
ting the work together, for the wood quickly decays if the
dampness can enter the joints. Old weather beaten wood and
a rough surface take more paint than new wood and a smooth
surface. Thin paint more in cold weather than in warm. Warm
canvas before painting and when it is laid for a floor, roof or
deck, lay it in a heavy coating of white lead.
Cracking, checking, and peeling are often due to not allowing
time enough for drying between coats. Give the first coat
plenty of time to dry,—several days at least, a week is better.
Then putty the holes and cracks. Never use putty before the
first coat is hard, for the pores of the wood will absorb the oil
from the putty and leave it dry and crumbly.
Many experienced painters consider it better to mix white
lead and linseed oil, with whatever coloring may be required,
than to use ready-mixed paints, but the latter are commonly
used for convenience and to save time. Follow the directions
on the can. Thin paint with linseed oil or turpentine. An
excess of turpentine injures the durability. Use oil only, or
chiefly, in thinning for outside work. In some cases for some
woods (as cypress, hemlock, hard pine, and other hard resinous
woods) turpentine is used for outside work. Turpentine
causes the paint to work freely and smoothly from the brush
and gives the soft, ‘‘flat’’ appearance often desired in inside
work. Shiny inside paint, while often in vogue, is more liable
to check and crack than a flat or dull finish. Use very little
dryer, and add it only to the quantity to be used at the time.
Zinc paints are usually considered inferior to lead, but the
addition of a proper proportion of zinc oxide to lead paint is
thought best by many.
Some Common Operations 195
To mix paint, stir very thoroughly. In mixing or in stirring
prepared paint, stir the lead or the heavy deposit in the can
very thoroughly with but little of the oil. Then add any color
required for tinting and finally a little dryer, if needed, then
the rest of the oil, and sometimes a little turpentine. Pour
back and forth from one can to another. It is improved by
straining through cheesecloth.
Red lead is good to paint iron. Black Japan varnish and
asphalt are also used. The iron must be dry and it is better
to have it warm.
_ 413. When leaving paint, pour a thin layer of linseed oil
over the top to exclude the air. Clean brushes with kerosene
or turpentine. For fine inside work sandpaper between coats.
Keep a rag with you while painting to wipe up any spattering
at once. Old paint, if loose, can be scraped with knife or
scraper, or sandpapered off and steel wool can be used; but
if in very bad condition, is usually burned off with a blow-
torch. In repainting old work, first touch-up the worn and
bare spots, before painting the whole surface. Flat brushes are
better than round except for coarse work.
Brushes which are to be laid away should be washed in
strong soapsuds, rinsed, and smoothed into shape. Tempo-
rarily, they can be kept in oil or even water. Clean hands with
kerosene, paint oil, or lubricating oil. Fine softwood sawdust
makes an excellent towel.
414. Enameling. For the best results apply successive
coats of paint of the desired color, carefully rubbing down each
coat with fine sandpaper or even pumice and water until a
sufficient body of rubbed down paint has been formed on
the surface. Then finish with enamel, applying it like
paint or varnish, as already shown. For very nice work
many under coats are applied to give a solid and durable
body.
415. Water colors. Toys and the like are often colored
with water colors, of which various kinds are for sale. These
196 Woodworking
should have one or more coats of varnish or shellac, also, over
the water colors, for protection. ,
416. Spraying and dipping. Much painting is now done
by spraying the paint on the surface with spraying machines,
and by dipping in vats of paint. Dipping is very convenient
for small articles. Very small objects can be held in a wire
basket while being slowly dipped. Larger articles can be held
by wire. All can be drained upon a mesh or wire screen, with
a trough beneath to return to the dipping vat whatever paint
may drip from the articles. The proper consistency of the
paint for dipping can be learned by experiment.
417. Putty. Commonly made of whiting and linseed oil.
A large proportion of white lead worked in makes it much
better. To color putty, stir the coloring matter in a little oil
and then knead it into the putty until the whole is colored.
Keep putty under water, not in paper. If too soft wrap in
paper and the surplus oil will soon be absorbed. Use a square
bladed putty knife for flat surfaces. For nice work, not
painted, see 395, 569.
FLASHING
418. Flashing. Protect the tops of window and door-
casings, and similar joints, by strips of sheet lead, slipped up
under the clapboards, or the shingles, to cover the crack where
the window casing joins the side of the building. ‘This will shed
the water. Tonguing and grooving can be used. Flashin a
similar way where roofs or other attachmentsjoin a building. To
flash a brick chimney, separate pieces of lead areinserted in joints
of the brickwork so as to overlap each other as shown above.
The pieces of lead are overlapped by the rows of shingles.
Lay the flashing between the rows of shingles so that the water
will run off on the outside without getting under the shingles.
Flash valleys, where two roofs meet, on the same principle;
or with one strip of metal running the whole length of the
valley, in which case the shingling does not begin for some
Some Common Operations 197
distance from the angle of the valley, the metal acting as a
gutter. Zinc and even tin can be used for flashing, but are
OSS
= uM SS ~
inferior to lead. Copper is good but expensive. In snowy
climates the eaves also are often covered with metal to prevent
' snow water “‘ backing up”’ from alternate thawing and freezing.
The lower row of shingles begins just below the upper edge of
the metal.
419. Showing flashing for camp, or temporary structure,
slipped under shingles at the top and sides and over them at
the bottom, to shed the water. Smoke pipe and flashing are
soldered together. For board or fabric-covered roof, the
198 Woodworking
flashing can be slipped under the saddle board at the top,
or under a strip of the fabric.
FLOOR-LAYING
420. Floor-laying. Hardwood floor-laying is a trade in
itself, but the amateur can lay a good floor with care. The
under floor of soft wood must be even, without high or low
spots, and be firmly nailed. It is best laid diagonally or at
right angles to the upper hard wood floor. An old floor often
has to be leveled with an adze or other tools, or have the low
spots built up or ‘“‘shimmed.’’ Sometimes furring-strips are
laid and carefully lined up to give an even and springy surface.
Lay sheathing-paper over the lower floor if it is cold under-
neath. Hard wood floorboards are matched (tongued and
grooved) on the edges and ends, are hollowed or ‘‘backed-out”’
on the under sides, and holes are bored for the nails. They are
slightly narrower on the under side than on the upper, and the
ends are slightly undercut (535-6), to ensure tight joints on the
upper side. Lay the upper floor lengthways of the room when
the construction and the arrangement of the building will allow.
Line the first row as straight as you can, but do not nail it
against the wall. Nail at the edge near the wall, and cover
the nailing with quarter-round moulding.
421. Draw each row tightly against the one last laid with a
chisel, as shown, and hold in position while nailing. Use a
Some Common Operations 199
waste piece of flooring for blocking if necessary to pound the
edge, as shown for sheathing (525). Drive nails at an angle
of 45° to 55° and about 16” apart, for boards *3/16’’ thick, and
not nearer than 6” to the ends, unless necessary. Drive the
first nail or two in each piece slanting toward the end where it
butts against the piece just laid, to draw the end joint together
(536). Eight-penny cut flooring nails are excellent (209),
though steel wire ones are often used. For 3%” flooring
smaller wire nails are used, about 9”’ apart.
422. The principle of the toggle-joint used to force a
crooked piece into place.
423. Another way to make tight joints. The boards at the
sides are nailed, and the key-boards (A) placed as shown.
A plank is laid to extend over the joint, which is closed by
jumping on the plank.
424. Have end joints come at different parts of the floor.
Saw ends as squarely as possible, using try square.
=.
556. Other methods. Strips of wood with holes can be
screwed to the rails and also to the top. For wide tops slotted
holes will allow for expansion and contraction of the top (747).
Wooden buttons grooved into the rails and screwed to the top,
as shown, are also used. To make these get out a wide piece
as shown, and then saw into narrow pieces. Common corner-
irons can be used and there are special metal devices. See
Counterboring (177).
254 Woodworking
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557. Joint for fastening shelf to a round leg. Can be
glued; or a dowel can be used.
558. Showing tenon for cross bars of a sled and in similar
cases. Also corner-iron for cross bar of a sled, and screw put
through runner and tenon where cross bar is mortised into
runner.
559. Rabbeted joint for boat stem. Also other joints
for bow of boat.
A
560. Hopper joint. Easily made by machine, but hard
to make by hand. For plain butt joints as shown at A, lay out
slant for the sides with the bevel, or by measuring from a
Some Common Operations 255
centre line. Saw the joints and nail together. For a mitred
joint, as at B, the simplest way for the beginner is to saw
the edges squarely as for butt joints, and then bevel them with
the plane. See Circular saw (622).
LOCK-FITTING
561. Lock-fitting. There are so many varieties of locks,—
rim-locks, locks to be screwed on the outside of the wood,
others to be sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood, mor-
tise-locks to be let into mortises, chest-locks, door-locks, pad-
locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc., that it will be wise
to examine a well-fitted lock like the one you have to fit.
562. To fit a chest or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place
it in position. Determine the place for the keyhole, and bore
it. Mark around the part to be sunk in the wood, and cut it
out with gouge and chisel. Trim the keyhole to a neat outline
like the shape of the key. When the lock has been screwed in
place, put the “‘hasp,” or part to be fastened to the lid, into
its place in the lock, where it will be when the chest is closed.
Then shut the lid, and press slightly to make a mark to help
show where to put the hasp, or transfer-paper can be put be-
tween the hasp and the wood, or blackened grease rubbed on
the plate of the hasp. Sometimes the hasp has points to prick
the wood. Outline the place for it with knife, square, and
gauge, sink the plate into the lid flush with the surface, and
screw itin place. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but
let into a mortise.
563. To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for
the keyhole and bore it. Hold the lock in position on the
inside and with a pencil mark the outline of the box-part of the
lock, which bears against the wood, and cut the recess for it.
Put the lock into place and mark the outline of the outer plate
on the inside of the drawer front and on the top edge. The
thickness of the metal must be allowed for, both on the inside
256 Woodworking
and on the edge, that the surface of the plate may be flush with
the wood. Pare away the wood carefully with the chisel to let
the plate sink flush. When the keyhole is shaped, see whether
the lock works before screwing it on. Close the drawer and
turn the key hard to raise the bolt (the top of which has been
previously rubbed with blackened grease, such as can be
scraped from an oilstone), which will mark the place for the
mortise into which it is to slide. Cut this mortise and the
drawer can be locked.
564. Rim-lock for door. Hold in position. The keyhole
for a common house door is usually about 2’ 11”’ from the floor,
unless it conflicts with a mortise. Mark places for holes, cut
the holes, and screw lock in place. Add knob-plates, knobs,
and escutcheons, and set the striking-plate on the jamb.
565. Mortise door lock. Cut mortise in edge of door to fit
body of lock (469, etc.), and sink face plate of lock flush with
edge of door. Remove lock, place on outside of door, mark
places for holes for knob and key, cut holes, screw lock in place,
put on knob-plates, knobs, and escutcheons. ‘Then mark place
for striking plate on jamb and set it flush with the wood.
Mitring, see 508.
Mortising, see 467.
Painting, see 412.
Paneling, see 372.
PATTERN MAKING
566. Pattern making. A distinct and important branch of
woodworking, calling for a high degree of skill and technical
Some Common Operations 257
knowledge. It is not treated here for lack of space, and
because it is not considered as coming within the scope of the
beginner or the amateur general woodworker. When the
beginner reaches the point where he wishes to make patterns
for castings, he should seek a competent instructor or some of
the numerous books on the subject.
RABBETING
567. Rabbeting. A rabbet isa rectangular recess cut along
the edge of a piece of material. Best made by machine (612).
To make by hand, use a rabbet plane. If you have no such
plane, mark out the rabbet carefully with gauge or square and
knife. In some cases a rabbet can be sawed. The chisel can
be used to remove the wood. For the final trimming, hold
flat side of chisel toward the line (86). fp
t Where much grooving is to be done, if you have no special cutter, the
common circular saw can be ‘“‘wabbled.’’ Use a thick saw. Make a pair
of thin wedge-shaped collars of wood and place one on each side of the saw,
pointing in opposite directions. This will throw the saw out of its usual
vertical position on the arbor, asshown. Thus the cutting edge will wabble
from side to side, as the saw revolves, and will make a wide kerf. The width of
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 283
must be pressed tightly against the table as well as against
the gauge. A spring attachment is sometimes used to do this.
~ SAW
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610. A wooden spring board can be used to keep stock
against the splitting gauge.
611. Using dado head. A ‘‘push-block’’ can be used to
prevent tearing the wood at the edge nearer you. Be sure
the knives of the cutter head are tightly bolted in place.
RIPPING
GAUGE
612. Cutting a rabbet with circular saw. Adjust the saw
to project above the table the depth of the rabbet, and set
ripping-gauge at width of rabbet. Start the machine, and test
both adjustments by sawing into a waste piece. When cor-
the cut depends upon the slant of the collars, and can be adjusted by turning
one of them to alter their relative positions. Test with a piece of waste wood.
A simple way is to fold the necessary thickness of cardboard or some
similar substance (A), and insert equal thicknesses above and below.
This ensures tightness and stiffness of the saw, as the hardest cutting is
done with the teeth which are on top and beneath when the saw is being
adjusted. After the saw is fastened in place, a little tightening with the
wrench will compress the pasteboard wedges more, and thus alter the
width of the cut.
284 Woodworking
rect, saw a kerf for one side of rabbet, as shown. Stop the
machine, adjust saw and gauge to cut the other side of the
rabbet, with the wood on edge, as shown, and cut in the same
way. If the rabbet is to be cut across the end of the wood, use
a cross-cutting saw. Special cutters can be used.
613. A rabbet can be cut from one side only, and the
roughness trimmed with the chisel.
SSF,
614. To cut a stop-rabbet, or a stop-groove, or a slot—not
extending to the ends of the piece, have the saw project above
the table the depth of the rabbet or groove or slot. Start the
saw, and test the depth of cut by sawing into a waste piece.
Stop the machine, and clamp ‘‘stop-blocks’’ to the table (as
shown below) so that the wood cannot be pushed further for-
ward or backward than is necessary to make the rabbet.
615. Start the machine. Hold the piece firmly, place
the nearer end against the nearer stop, the edge against the
gauge, and carefully lower the piece onto the saw, until the
wood lies flat upon the table. Push the piece along against
the gauge until it reaches the further stop. Then carefully
raise the nearer end and remove the piece. ‘Trim ends of the
cuts to shape with chisel. This operation, requiring at least
partial removal of the safety guard, must be done with care, to
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 285
prevent the hands being caught by the saw or the wood being
thrown back.*
616. Cutting a tenon. Adjust the saw and ripping gauge
to cut the side of the tenon. Test with a waste piece. Place
the face side of the piece against the gauge, and saw as shown.
Then adjust the gauge for the other side, and saw with the
face-side against the gauge.” Then set the ripping gauge and
saw, for cutting the shoulders (stop can be used), and saw them.
If several tenons are to be cut, saw all the sides, shoulders, etc.,
y :
cs . XN s
~ “. N ;
t Such work can be done by marking on the upper surface of the wood
opposite the ends of the projected rabbet, and also on the gauge, or on the
bench-top, opposite the points where the edge of the saw rises above the
. bench-top when adjusted to cut the required depth. Then place the piece
so that the further marks agree, lower it carefully upon the saw and push it
along until the nearer marks are opposite one another. But it is safer
to use a block at each end. Such rabbets or grooves, etc., can be cut with
a moulding-machine, and also on the circular-saw bench with a special
cutter of the required shape.
2 If the stock is accurately sized to thickness, it may not be necessary to
keep the face side against the gauge to saw the second side, but simply turn
the other side to the gauge.
286 Woodworking
at the same time to save resetting the gauges. Two saws with
a collar between can be used."
617. Cutting tapers or wedges. Cut a notch of the shape
required in a straight-edged piece, fit each piece into this
notch, and push the two through together. If the tapering
should come to a point, reverse the arrangement.
618. Jigs for cutting off corners and cutting fillets.
t A tenon can be cut with a series of cross-kerfs only, and the rough-
ness trimmed with chisel.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 287
619. Roughing out mouldings with the circular saw by a
series of parallel kerfs. Cutter-heads for such work, to use in
place of the saw, are made in various shapes and leave the
surface smooth, which the saw does not.
620. Partially roughing out circular hollow groove by
setting the ripping gauge at an angle, as shown. Hollow
grooves of circular section cannot be cut exactly to the line by
this method, but much of the wood can be removed. Staves
may be hollowed in this way with a stiff, sharp saw by passing
them over the saw at the proper angles. A board can be
TOP OF SAW TABLE
clamped across the table for a guide. The shape cut in these
ways will never be a part of a circle but part of an ellipse,
288 Woodworking
because a circle when revolved ever so slightly becomes an
ellipse. A circular groove can be cut to the line, but leaving
a rough surface, by a series of parallel kerfs, as shown in 619.
A hand plane (core-box plane) is made for such work.
621. Convex curves can be cut approximately, if necessary,
by making a series of straight cuts. This requires care, and
should be done only by an experienced operator.
622. Circular segments can be fitted by gauges for the
purpose.
623. By turning the gauges or tilting the saw as may be
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 289
required, compound angles can be sawed, and many machines
are equipped with graduated scales and adjustments by which
almost any desired shape can be cut. Hopper joints (560),
and similar angular shapes, can be cut by making the proper
adjustments of the gauges and saw or table-top. Operations
of this kind should be learned from the saw which is in use,
under the direction of a competent operator. Ifa machine has
no graduated adjustments, a great variety of angles can be cut
by contriving forms or jigs to hold or control the wood so that
the desired shape can be cut.
624. Small portable machines, of various designs, to be run
by the electric lighting current, are in successful use. While
large and heavy sawing should be done with large machines, a
great part of the work of the beginner, amateur, and general
student can be handled satisfactorily at comparatively slight
expense with little machines of this type. They are in no
sense toys, but will do small work economically, even where
large machines are installed.
625. Avoidance of danger. Always use safety guard and
splitter, except for the few operations which require their
removal. A small cross-cut saw is safest for the beginner.
The saw should be sharp. Many accidents are caused by dull
saws. Roll up shirt sleeves. Start the saw yourself, to avoid
its being started before you are ready. Keep mind and eyes
wholly on the sawing. If you cannot do this, stop the machine
290 Woodworking
and wait until you can concentrate on the work. Push stock
clear past the saw and off the bench, and keep the saw-table
clear. Bring stock back at one side, never above the saw.
Never reach over the saw while it is in motion. Form the
habit of standing out of line when there is a possibility of
pieces being thrown. Never lower the face to sight along the
work while sawing. Have some one help you when ripping
or cross-cutting very long stock. The rear of the saw is fully
as dangerous as the front unless protected. Sawing stock free-
hand, without fence or gauge, is dangerous and should be
done only by an experienced operator. Use extra care with
warped or winding stock. See that the floor is not slippery
around the saw-bench. For narrow splitting, use a push-stick.
In case of trouble, immediately shut off the power.”
626. Swing saw. Used to cut off long stock before dressing
to exact dimensions. It is so balanced that the saw, when not
in use, is behind the rear edge of the table, leaving the table
clear. Always use a good safety-guard, and see that there is
a device to prevent the saw from swinging out beyond the
* The avoidance of danger can be taught by the use of adummy. For
example, erect a wide board in front of the saw. Stand safely to one side
or behind the saw (as the case may require), allow a board to be caught
by the teeth of the saw and projected toward the dummy operator. In
the same way, allow small pieces to be caught at the rear of the saw, etc.
The result of such demonstrations is more impressive than warnings.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 2091
front edge of the table. If equipment be limited, the work
of this saw must be done with the bench-saw or by hand.
There are various forms of swing-saws. The details of con-
struction, adjustments, etc., should be learned from the ma-
chine you are to use.
627. To saw, place the lumber on the long table, move it
to the right or left to the desired point, using the scale on the
table. To make the cut, pull the saw toward you. Because
the saw revolves toward you, pull it steadily, but not quickly
nor with a jerk, or it may cut into the wood so fast as to become
stuck. The machine shown has the handle on the left side.
In this case, stand so as to grasp the handle firmly with the
right hand. If the handle be on the right side of the saw, grasp
it with the left hand.
With a little ingenuity all the accidents likely to occur can be actually
shown. For example, a rag hanging from a dummy arm and caught by
the saw teeth will show that no human reaction can be quick enough to
avoid injury. Safety guards may be painted red.
‘The most usual accidents are caused by pieces being thrown back by
the saw while ripping stock, strains in the lumber, resulting in the stock
warping itself against the saw; knots or loose slivers being jarred against
the saw by the vibration of the saw table or otherwise, and thrown against
the operator; by the operator reaching over the revolving saw for stock
and dropping or dragging the stock on the saw; sawing small pieces without
292 Woodworking
628. Small portable machines, operating from a light
socket, for various fine operations like mitring, but based on
the principle of the common swing-saw, are in use.
BAND SAW
629. Band saw. Used for both straight and curved work.
The blade is an endless steel ribbon, with teeth on the edge,
passing around two wheels, which are revolved rapidly. Large
saws cut logs into lumber economically. The thin blade makes
a narrower kerf than the circular saw, and saves lumber, time,
and power.
PORTABLE BAND SAW
630. With the band saw used in shops the wood is fed by
hand, and rests upon a table through the centre of which
a guide and getting the fingers in contact with the saw; by slipping and
falling on to the saw; by defective balancing arrangements on circular
swing saws (626); lack of a device to prevent saw swinging beyond front edge
of the table; by an occasional saw breaking while in use, due to same being
defective; by the saw striking metal; using cracked saws, etc.’—Sizmonds
Manufacturing Co.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 293
the saw passes. The power is applied to the lower wheel. If
the wheels revolve at perhaps 500 or 600 R.P.M., with the thin
blade cutting easily and continuously and making a narrow
kerf, it is evident that it is a very efficient and economical
machine.
631. Always use safety-guards, although the band saw is
a comparatively safe machine.* The table can be tilted for
sawing at an angle. The wheels must be properly aligned. The
upper one can be raised or lowered to fit the length of the saw
and to give it the right tension, and can also be tilted by a
tracking device so that the saw, as it passes over the wheels,
will ‘“‘track”’ properly. Such adjustments are best learned
from the machine you are to use. When not in use slacken
the saw.
632. The teeth point downward and, with the small saws
for shop use, are set (100, etc.) to give clearance, as with the
circular and common hand saws. The blades for such machines
range from 7/3’ to 13/,’’ wide. The width must be adapted
to the work. A 3/,,’’ blade is as wide as should be used for
sharp curves, but for sweeping curves or for straight work a
wider blade is better. A wide set makes a rougher cut than a
t “ Accidents most common on band saws are those resulting where the
stock is not securely held, with a consequent kinking and breaking of the
-saw. Severe injury often results from accidents brought about by the
operator trying to remove waste pieces near the saw with the hand, or
attempting to stop the wheel with hand, foot or stick when the power is
shut off; attempting to adjust the gauge when the saw is running
or the band flying off unprotected wheels in case of breakage.
Other accidents are due to workmen’s clothing becoming caught in the
spokes or on the band of an unprotected wheel. Accidents are frequent
through the carelessness of the operator getting his hand against the saw
at the rear of the table, or sometimes getting the hands and head above
the portion of the saw over the gauge. ... Safety engineers agree that
practically all of these accidents can be prevented by enclosing the upper
and lower wheels with either a wire mesh guard or a solid enclosure; also
the cutting edge of the saw above the table at the rear, as well as that part
above the guide.’’—Simonds Manufacturing Co.
204 Woodworking
slight set, but cuts a sharper curve. The teeth are filed, set,
etc., on the same principles as other saws already described.
Filing, setting, brazing, etc., of band saws is best learned
from a competent instructor.
633. Showing saw and its adjustable guide just above the
table. The guide must neither bind the saw nor cause it to
become twisted. If the saw bears against the guide it is likely
to cause case hardening.*
634. Before beginning to saw, look the machine over.
Lower the upper guide close to the work. Turn the wheels
over by hand to see that the saw ‘“‘tracks’”’ properly on the
circumference of the wheels, and runs easily between the
guides.
635. To saw, start the machine, wait until it has picked
up speed, hold the wood lightly (not rigidly but securely), and
guide it gently and easily against the teeth. Feed the wood to
the saw only so fast as the teeth will cut it easily and freely.
t ‘ The back guide should never be so close that the saw will come in con-
tact with it. It isonly placed there as a matter of precaution.’’—Simonds
Manufacturing Co.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 295
Avoid reaching around the saw while it is in motion. Do not
try to turn the wood very quickly so as to twist the blade,
nor to cut curves too sharp for the saw. To remove the wood
while the saw is in the kerf, stop the machine, or saw out
through the waste wood. Pulling toward you may pull the
saw off the wheels.
636. Use a wide saw for a sweeping curve (A) and for
straight work. When the edge must be left as smooth as
possible, saw with the grain of the part to be kept. Use a
narrow saw for a sharp curve (B). To cut a sharp curve
with a saw too wide (C), as is sometimes unavoidable, first run
past the sharp curve, and then work by short cuts up to the
line; but it is better to use a narrow saw for sharp curves.
637. Shapes like the leg shown are best sawed from a
solid square post. First mark the pattern and saw from one
side (A). Then turn half over, mark the pattern again, and
206 Woodworking
saw to final shape. The second marking will be on a curved
surface, therefore the pattern must be drawn directly on the
wood or projected from the pattern first used. That is, a
flexible pattern cannot be bent to fit the curved surface, for
it would give a different curve from that already sawed.
ee
638. The waste pieces can often be used to block up the
piece for the second sawing (B), and sometimes can be used
as blocking when the work is assembled with clamps. Such
forms are often built up by gluing on pieces (C). This takes
more time but less wood, and is usually the cheapest way.
A solid piece is better in most cases, certainly for the beginner. —
See 439, 540, 541, 754.
639. Using a dull saw, so that you have to force the wood
against it, is working the saw beyond its proper capacity and
is apt to cause trouble.
640. Re-sawing lumber into thinner stock is done with
band saws arranged for the purpose. Attempting to re-saw
wide stock with a common band saw is not to be recommended.
One way to re-saw stock, if not too wide, is to split it from each
edge with the circular saw (602) as deeply as the saw will cut,
and then saw the part in the middle with the band saw (or by
hand if necessary), the circular-saw kerfs helping to make
the band saw cut accurately.
641. Small portable band saws are made, to run by the
lighting circuit.
JIG SAW
642. Jig saw or scroll saw. Although superseded by the
band saw for most work, the jig saw is necessary for cutting
inside open work, ‘“‘coring work’’—which cannot be done with
the band saw. The table can tilt for beveled sawing. As the
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 207
jig saw has a reciprocating, up-and-down, motion and cuts on
the down stroke only, it is not so efficient as the band saw,
which runs so rapidly and cuts continuously. A jig saw will,
however, do most of the curved work of the beginner or ama-
teur easily, cheaply, and well. It is easy to keep in order,
uses but little power, and is safe. The teeth must point down-
ward. The tension should be such that the saw is tightly
strained, but not over strained. Relieve the tension when not
in use. If the tension is not automatically adjusted, test by
hand, The size of the saw, etc., must depend upon the work,
as with the band saw (632).
643. To saw, lower the guide near the wood. The sawing
is done as with the band saw (635) or the hand scroll saw.
Feed the work only so fast as the saw will cut easily and
freely and without being bent or twisted. Avoid trying to
turn very quickly when cutting sharp curves (636). A blower
can be used to keep sawdust away from the line.
Excessively high speed is not an advantage with a jig saw.
298 Woodworking
The old-fashioned form with no upright post, the upper part
being fastened to the ceiling, is sometimes desirable, because
large work can be swung around and sawed in any direction,
which cannot always be done with the band saw or jig-saw
having an upright post.
644. Sawing inside openwork. First bore a hole, unfasten
saw, pass through hole, re-fasten, and saw to the line.
645. A foot-power scroll saw is excellent for the beginner or
the amateur, is safe, comparatively cheap, and very efficient.
PLANER
646. Planer, Essential to a completely equipped shop,
but can be omitted from a limited outfit much better than the
circular saw, band saw, or jointer; and is of minor importance
to the beginner or amateur because stock can be planed
(or bought already planed) of any desired thickness almost
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 299
anywhere. After learning the adjustments from the machine
itself, it is not hard to operate.
647. Direct motor-driven single surfacer.
CUTTER HEAD ». CHIPS
Le CHIPBREAKER
wl
PRESSURE BAR
oO
Ss
TOCHK BEING PLANEO
Vin
648. Diagram showing action of single surfacer. You push
the wood between the two feed rolls (A) and (B), which revolve
in the directions shown. The corrugations of the upper roll (A)
move the wood over the bed of the machine, under the chip-
breaker, to the knives of the cutter-head, which plane little
chips from the surface. These are discharged above the cutter-
head as shown, and can be removed by a blower. The board
next passes under an adjustable pressure-bar which presses
it down upon the bed. Then the two smooth rolls (C) and (D),
carry it through. The single surfacer planes the upper side of
the wood, therefore if one side has been planed, or is flatter
than the other, that side is placed down. This type of planer
smoothes the wood, but does not make it flat. A warped
300 Woodworking
board will still be warped after planing, although slight irregu-
larities will be straightened. To produce flat surfaces, one side
must be made flat before planing. It can be made so with the
Jointer (654) or by hand, if necessary.” With a double surfacer
both sides are planed at once, and some machines plane all
four surfaces.
649. The close setting of the knives in the cutter-head and ~
the nearness of the chip-breaker produce a similar result to
that caused by the cap-iron and the front edge of the mouth
of a hand plane (133, footnote).
650. The thickness of the planing is regulated by raising
or lowering the table on which the wood is carried. If stock is
to be made much thinner, pass it through the machine several
times, planing equal amounts from each side to lessen sub-
sequent warping (747). If stock is of uneven thickness, the
first planing must be gauged by the thickest part. If several
pieces differ in thickness, plane the thickest first. Take very
light cuts at first, until you have learned by experience how
to handle the different kinds of wood, rates of speed, etc.
Feed the wood on a diagonal when you can.
651. Adjustments, planer-marks, etc. The adjustments
and details of different machines vary, therefore they are best
learned from the machine which you are to use, under the
t The rolls should bear on the wood only enough to carry it along.
The machine shown will plane material from 1/16” to 734" thick. Single
pieces 13’’ long, or pieces 3’’ long, fed one after another, can be planed.
The rates of speed range from 20 to 60 feet per minute. H.P., 10 to 20.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 301
direction of a competent operator.’ The revolving knives
make little waves or undulations on the surface. These planer-
marks (137) must be removed, for nice work, by hand planing
or by sanding or scraping. Ascertain how short stock can be
planed by the machine you are to use.? The planer is probably
not more dangerous than most machinery, but it is well not
to stand behind the wood being planed.
652. A piece can be planed to taper lengthways by placing
it on top of another piece of the required taper and running
both through together, making a series of light cuts; or by
attaching the piece to a form so that one end will be higher
than the other. To plane tapering crossways, or from edge
to edge, make a form or taper-board, by attaching a strip of
the thickness of the desired taper to the underside of a board
at the edge, and then planing the top surface down, as shown.
When turned over this makes a form to hold the wood for
t The machine should be free from vibration, the feed should be steady,
and the knives must describe a small circle at high speed to ensure the best
work. Soft woods can be fed faster than hard. Smoothness of surface, asa
general principle, is in proportion to slowness of feed and lightness of cut.
The in-feed roll is made up of sections 1’’ wide which yield to the vari-
ations in the stock being planed, and adapt themselves to irregularities of
glued-up work and to narrow pieces. This tends to prevent pieces being
thrown toward the operator.
2 A short piece can be pushed through with another piece so that the
rolls can carry it along.
302 Woodworking
planing, which should be done with light cuts. A stick can
be made octagonal by placing it in a cradle or form (155) and
running both through together.
653. Grinding, setting, and truing the knives are now done
by motor-driven devices. With old-fashioned machines, the
edges of the knives are adjusted to be parallel by placing
blocks of wood of equal thickness upon the bed below the
knives.
JOINTER
654. Jointer. Very important for planing and squaring
edges and truing flat surfaces. Automatic safety guards should
always be used.
655. The wood is held against the gauge and passed along
the table or bed of the machine by hand, over the rapidly
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 303
revolving knives, which are similar to those of the surfacer
(649). The jointer does much of the work formerly done with
hand planes. Also used to plane joints for gluing (see also 604)
and for other operations. A true joint-edge and working-face
(27) are quickly made. It is not a hard machine to use after
learning the adjustments, but these must be skilfully made.
The bed or table is in two parts. These can be raised or
lowered independently.
GAUGE OR FENCE
REAR OR OUTFEED TABLE FRONT OR INFEED TABLE
cu
TTER
HEAD
656. The rear or out-feed table supports the wood after it
has been planed and should be on a level with the edges of
the cutting knives when they are at the highest point. This
is essential.
oS ee EES eee
——— =
OUTFEED TABLE // (>
INFEED TABLE
. TRAIGHT- EDGE OF WOOD
OUTFEED TABLE
(eo)
657. To test this, lay a wooden straight-edge on the rear
or out-feed table so as to project over the knives, and revolve
the latter slowly by hand. If they do not just touch the
straight-edge without cutting it, raise or lower the rear table
until they do. Another way is to plane from the end of a piece
for a short distance, and see whether the planed surface fits
exactly upon the rear table.
658. To use the machine, after seeing that the rear or
out-feed table and knives are adjusted, as just shown, lower
the front or in-feed table to the depth you wish to cut. Ifa
square cut is wanted, test position of fence with try-square.
See that the safety guard is in position, stand at the side of
the in-feed table, with the left foot in advance, hold face-side
or -edge of the wood firmly against the gauge, and begin to
304 Woodworking
push the stock over the knives. The adjustments can first be
tested by running a waste piece over the tables. Push with the
fingers, not with the whole hand, and keep them on top of
the wood, not over the sides or ends, except when necessary.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 305
In planing flat surfaces, feed diagonally when you can. As
soon as you have passed the wood well by the cutters, keep the
planed part pushed down flat on the rear (out-feed) table,
which is necessary in order that the surface planed may be
straight or flat throughout. Care must be taken in planing
stock so narrow that there is danger in holding it down with
al
the hand. You can use a push-stick. Use different parts of
the cutters for edge planing to avoid dulling one portion of
the knives more than the rest.
659. To true stock which is not flat. If warped or crooked,
place hollow side down. By holding the piece down with the
palms of the hands on the rear table and rocking it slightly,
you can tell where the highest parts are and can plane these
off first as you pass the piece over the knives. If thin or flexible
stock is not flat, press down lightly while planing, to avoid
flattening with the hand, which would result in the surface
being warped or winding after planing. Short pieces should
be planed in some other way, as there is danger in passing
them over the cutters.
REAR TABLE Co ) FRONT TABLE
SREAR TABLE _/,
co}
AN
660. To plane tapering, as in case of table legs, the rear
table can be raised so that the depth of cut will gradually
diminish. Clamp a stop on the in-feed table at the right
distance for the taper; or, if you wish to taper part way only,
support the rear end of the wood by a piece of waste. Repeat
the planing until enough has been cut.
306 Woodworking
SY Em
661. To taper wide stock crossways (from edge to edge),
set the gauge one-half the width of the taper from the edge
of the table, and set the in-feed table to cut one-half the depth
of the desired taper. When cut a wide shallow rabbet is the
result. Finally, move gauge back, and plane the piece in the
position shown until the taper is formed.
662. The fence can tip. Chamfering, beveling, rabbeting, 3
tonguing, grooving, beading, tenoning, and moulding, in
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 307
various forms, can be done with different attachments and
cutters.’
t The edges of the knives must be parallel to the axis of the cylinder to
which they are attached, as well as in line with the rear table; and the
plane (flat surface) of the front table must be parallel with that of the rear
table. Setting the knives requires care and should be learned from an
experienced operator. Be sure that all set-screws, bolts, or other fasten-
ings are tight, for serious injury can result from loose parts. Cylindrical
cutter heads are used for safety. Modern jointers, like planers, have
attachments by which the knives can be properly ground, set, etc.
A rabbet of moderate depth can be cut by moving the gauge to a dis-
tance from the edge equal to the width of the desired rabbet, as
shown.
Tenons can also be made by fastening a stop to the out-feed table to
308 Woodworking
663. Small portable jointers to connect with an electric
light socket will do most of the work of the beginner and
amateur at comparatively slight expense. They also save
much time, labour, and expense, where large machines are
installed.
SANDING MACHINES
664. Sanding machines. The large drum sander is used
for smoothing large flat surfaces. The drums are covered with
sandpaper, and the wood is passed through the machine as
through the planer. With a triple drum sander, the first drum
carries coarse sandpaper; the second, a medium grade; and
the third, fine paper for the final finish. With coarse paper
only, glue-joints in hard, fine-grained woods can be made.
665. With small drum sanders the wood is passed over
the table by hand, and sanded by a revolving sand-covered
. |
=. ae
REAR TABLE *
FRONT TABLE
limit the length cut, and then planing successive cuts until the tenon is
reduced to the desired thickness, as shown.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 309
drum underneath. Such machines are comparatively cheap
and do effective work. Even home-made ones do good service.
310 Woodworking
666. Showing principle of the disk sander. The disk is
faced with sandpaper. When worn out, this is replaced by a
new disk of sandpaper, easily glued on.’ With some machines
the paper is held by a band around the rim. The table tilts
Angular
Sanding
Dimension
Work
Circular
Sanding
tIn sticking a disk to the disk wheel, rotate the disk to spread the
cement evenly. Water-glass is sometimes used. Leave under pressure
for some hours, to set firmly. Soak off old disks in hot water.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 311
and the gauge can be set at a bevel. Angular and curved
surfaces, as well as flat, can be sanded.‘ Small stock for built-
up work can be prepared quickly for gluing, and many shaping
and fitting operations done. Disk machines are made in
numerous sizes. Large disks are advantageous, because the
sandpaper near the circumference does the most work, there-
fore you can do more with a large disk than with a small one.
Many small objects can be prepared for gluing economically
by disk grinders, using waste scraps; and, after gluing, can
be shaped by the grinders.
667. Spindle sanders are used for curved and irregular, and
even flat surfaces. They oscillate up and down, and are made
to tilt also. See 666.
SAS
668. Hand-block belt sander. This type of machine is
very useful, handles a great variety of work, and has many
1 Jigs for sanding special shapes can easily be contrived. For example, a
jig for a curve, as shown.
312 Woodworking
advantages. The operation is simple. The band-covered belt
is brought into contact with the work by means of a hand-
block or pad. This block-pad can be shaped to fit irregular
forms. The table beneath, which supports the work, can be
moved, as may be required. The sanding is done with the
grain of the wood. Machines of this type are very versatile,
because of the flexibility of the belt, and the various methods
by which both uniform and odd-shaped work can be handled.
Small shapes can be sanded at the ends of the machine. Such
machines may require from 1%4 to 3 H. P. Belt machines are
made in different forms and with varying details, which can
be readily learned from the machine you are to use.*
BORING MACHINES
669. Boring machines. In the industries boring is chiefly
done by a great variety of machines which bore vertically or
horizontally, by boring attachments to other machines, and
by the use of jigs for special purposes. Power borers should
have safety guards. The tables which hold the work are
adjustable, and the boring is controlled by hand or foot. The
face side or joint-edge of the work is kept against the gauge
or fence.
670. In the vertical machines, the motor can be mounted
directly on the boring spindle and both be raised and lowered
together, according to the requirements of the work. The
table, which supports the wood, can be raised or lowered
according to the thickness of the stock to be bored, and can
be tilted. It can have slots through which various kinds of
fixtures or gauges can be clamped. The head carrying the
t For the ordinary work, belts of paper are used; about 6” being a good
width. For irregular shapes, cloth belts can be used of a width to suit the
work, The length of the belts gives great flexibility, and also keeps the belt
from heating. To join the ends of a belt, remove the sand for a short
distance from one end, glue, lap, and clamp until dry. A belt-splicing
contrivance can also be used.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 313
motor slides up and down in ways. Adjustable stops regulate
the depth of hole and the height to which the head returns.
The bit is brought down to the work by foot pressure on the
treadle. By releasing the foot pressure the head is raised and
the bit withdrawn from the hole.
671. To bore, insert and tighten bit, adjust table vertically
according to the thickness of the wood to be bored, and see
that the spur of the bit centres on the right point for the hole.
Start the power, and by using the foot-control lower the bit
steadily until the hole is bored. If the hole is to go only part
way through, a stop can be set to bore only to the required
depth. Lower the bit, when not in motion, at the edge of
the wood and then set the stop. If exact depth is important,
test by boring into a waste piece.
While the general principle is similar in all boring machines,
they differ in arrangement, adjustments, and the various
details. You should learn these from the machine you are to
use. A horizontal boring machine works on the same general
principle as a vertical machine. Horizontal boring attach-
314 Woodworking
ments for circular saw benches are in common use. Cutters
for routing, core-box work, etc., can also be used with boring
machines. A post borer, or a bench drill, is useful within the
limits of its capacity. Portable boring machines driven by
electricity are made to hold in the hand, so as to bore in any
position or direction. A safety guard for the bit is desirable.
LATHE
672. Lathe. Most woodworking machines are of recent
invention, but the lathe in its primitive forms dates from
antiquity. Woodturning is a trade in itself, and is much
better learned from a practical and experienced turner than
from a book. All woodworkers should, however, understand
the general principles of turning and the elementary operations,
which are all that can be included in a general handbook.
Turning requires concentrated attention and freedom from
interruption, both on account of the work and to avoid
accident.
FRONT ELEVATION OF AMERICAN SPEED LATHE
MOTOR DRIVEN "
673. A typical illustration of a lathe. Although the details
of different machines vary, the general principle is the same
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 315
in all. For the common forms of turning, the wood is held
between two points or centres, and is rapidly revolved toward
the turner, who holds the edge of a tool against it, and thus
cuts it into the desired shape.
CONE FULLEY
TIGHT ANO LOOSE FULLEVS
COUNTER SHAFT
LIVE CENTAE
:
* Cone FULLEY
'
TEE (TEST
QEAO CENTAE
674. Diagram showing general arrangement of a common
lathe driven by belt from a countershaft.’
675. One of the centres (the one on the left) between which
the stick is held, has spurs which enter the wood, so that when
this centre is revolved the wood is also revolved. This is some-
t When the belt is on the smallest step of the cone-pulley of the lathe it will
be on the largest step of the driving-pulley on the counter-shaft above.
This gives the highest speed, for when a belt runs from a large wheel to a
smaller the speed is increased in proportion to the sizes of the wheels. For
the slowest speed put the belt on the smallest step of the countershaft
pulley and the largest of the lathe pulley, for the speed is decreased when a
~ small wheel is connected with a large one. Small work requires a higher
speed than large. The ‘‘swing”’ of a lathe means the diameter of work
which can be turned with it.
316 Woodworking
times called the “‘live’”’ centre. The other centre is merely
to hold the other end of the wood in place, and does not turn
LIVE CENTRE DEAD CENTRE
with it. This is sometimes called the ‘“‘dead”’ centre. A mov-
able tee-rest for the tool is fastened in front of the wood, so
that the tool may be held securely and steadily (673).
676. Clear pine is the best wood to begin with, though
whitewood or other similar wood will do. Select pieces free
from cracks, checks, or shakes, which might cause the wood to
split while being turned. The operator should face the light,
and it is well to have it from the right also. Different turners
frequently have different ways of doing work and there is
much opportunity for thought in so handling the tools as to
do the cleanest and best work in the least time. Therefore
carefully observe the effect of holding the cutting edges in
different positions so as to learn to do as much clean cutting,
and as little scraping, as possible. Handle the tools lightly
and freely. Do not press hard and long at any one spot, on
account of the friction.
677. To turn acylinder. The tools needed are the turning
gouge and the turning chisel. The gouge is usually ground
with the edge rounded to correspond with the degree of curva-
ture of the tool. For roughing out, however, it is sometimes
ground squarely across. The chisel is ground on both sides
and is usually a skew-chisel also. Experienced turners, how-
ever, are apt to grind with very little skew or squarely across.
First, get out a piece of wood with the circular saw about
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 317
2” by 2”’ by 10’’.? Find the centre of each end by drawing
diagonals, or as shown below.? With hardwood a small hole
can be started for the spur. Put a few drops of oil on the end
of the piece where the dead centre will be inserted. Move the
tail-stock (674) up toward the head-stock until the wood is
held between the two, centring it by the marks just made upon
the ends. Screw up the tail-stock until the spurs of the live
centre are firmly fixed in the wood and the dead centre also
forced well into the end. The wood must revolve freely and
at the same time be securely held. Test this by first revolving
by hand. Adjust the top of the tee-rest to be about level with
the centres (673).3 Fasten it as close to the wood as you can
without danger of striking, before starting the lathe. Do not
change it while the lathe is moving.
t The exact size is immaterial,—134’’ square will do—but for the follow-
ing elementary exercises this is a suitable size and can be economically cut
from a 2” plank.
?
2 The centre can be found by using compasses as shown, or a gauge.
This way can also be used for irregular shaped pieces, as the compasses will
‘ trace a small copy of the outline. The experienced turner centres small
work by eye, gives the wood a few revolutions and, if necessary, makes a
slight cut with a tool to detect any inaccuracy in the centring. By stop-
ping the lathe and by tapping, or a slight movement of the piece, he adjusts
ittoruntrue. If the wood becomes overheated at any time, stop the lathe
and oil again or loosen the wood slightly. Do not oil while the lathe is in
motion.
3 The rest can be a little below the centres for small work, but for large
work should be somewhat above the centres. This depends somewhat
upon your own height.
318 Woodworking
678. Start the machine slowly.* Let it get up speed before
beginning to work. Take a position with the feet spread so
that you can stand firmly. It is usual to stand with the left
side somewhat turned toward the lathe, and to keep the right
hand, which holds the tool handle, against the body.
™ The highest speed is usually right for these small elementary exercises
but use the slow speed for the first roughing into cylindrical shape.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 310
lS SgceSEED
679. First rough out the shape with a gouge. The left hand
can be held as shown, or underneath as in 682. Begin some
distance from the extreme end of the wood, lest the tool
become caught. Begin with the edge of the tool so placed
that it would cut at a tangent to the upper part of the cylinder,
as shown. Then carefully raise the handle until the edge
begins to cut. After dipping down into the wood in this way,
move the tool along a little and dip down again, making a
succession of cuts as shown at the right. If the cuts are made
nearer together the bulk of the corners will be roughed off.
A
680. Then begin at the right-hand end and move the tool
sideways back and forth along the stick until it becomes
cylindrical. Stop the machine and move the tool rest to
about */s’’ from the wood. Then start again. In smoothing
with the gouge place the tool at first so that the basil and not
the cutting-edge bears on the wood and then carefully raise
the right hand a very little until the edge begins to cut. The
tool can be turned over slightly so as to cut with either side
of the edge, as shown, rather than with the extreme end, thus
making a smooth shearing cut (77).
681. Test the diameter with calipers (44), holding them
lightly as shown, and not pressing them down over the wood.
320 Woodworking
Leave the piece a little larger than required, to allow for
finishing with the chisel.
Me
PANO
682. Place the chisel as shown, so that it projects a little
over the surface. It is well to begin a little way from the end
of the piece lest the edge of the tool catch. Then draw the
tool back a little until the lower part of the basil rests on the
wood. Hold the tool on the rest with the left hand. The left
hand is sometimes laid over the chisel in the position shown
in 680. It is well to keep the forefinger of the left hand hooked
under the tee-rest, as this gives firm control of the tool. Then
raise the handle slowly a very little, and to the left, until the
edge begins to cut. Move the tool steadily to the right, making
a smooth shearing cut (77). Keep the basil bearing on the
wood, but with the upper point of the chisel clear above the
surface.’ The tool can now be turned the other way and
the cutting done in the opposite direction. You can sway
the body, but keep the feet firmly planted as at first. As
you thus trim to the exact diameter, test. with calipers.
1 If you keep the basil on the wood, as at A, a very slight raising of the
handle will cause the cutting edge to begin to cut, while a very slight
movement of the handle downward will raise the cutting edge from the
surface, when the cutting will stop. The heel of the basil acts as a kind of
pivot, so that you can control the cutting edge by a very slight movement of
the handle. If you attempt to work with the basil free from the surface, as
at B, you cannot properly control the edge, which may catch or bite or the
tool be thrown.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 321
aS
683. The hand is often held around the piece.’ After
moving the switch, or the “‘shipper,’’ to stop the machine,
lay the hand on the pulley, not on the wood, to bring it to a
standstill.
684. A tapering form is turned in a similar manner. Rough
to shape as already shown. Finish with the skew-chisel,
working from the middle toward each end. Begin to cut with
the heel of the chisel, continuing with the lower part of the
basil as already shown. If the taper is cut wholly with the
heel, there is danger of cutting too deeply.
685. To cut a cylinder with one or more steps. First turn
a cylinder. Near the middle lay off a space, 2’’ for example,
with rule and pencil.
686. Hold the chisel (skew or square-edged) with the angle
nearly touching the wood, raise the handle slightly and care-
t With long slender work a piece of leather wrapped around the hand will
prevent burning and the tool can be held against a nick cut in the leather.
A back-rest for the work to bear against is sometimes used.
322 Woodworking
fully so that the corner of the tool will dip down into the wood,
at each end of the 2’”’ space, and cut a groove about */16’ deep.
687. As there is but little wood to be removed it can be
done with the chisel as shown. In cutting with the angle of
the chisel next the shoulder, lower the handle slightly lest the
tool cut too deeply.*
689. Cut down just outside the lines with the parting tool,
held as shown to a depth of 14”.
690. Instead, a V-shaped groove can be cut with the chisel,
first cutting straight down, as shown at the left, and then
slantingly, as at the right.
t In smoothing the horizontal part where there is a shoulder, place the
chisel at an angle similar to that shown, with the heel of the tool pointing
toward the shoulder. Then raise the handle and use the tool as already
described.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 323
691. Turn to the required dimensions as before, first with
the gouge, turning it when near the shoulder so that it will
cut as shown. Finish with the chisel as before. See that the
ends of the shoulders are smoothed accurately to the lines
with the chisel, as already shown in 687. It is well to practise
with a variety of similar steps. The exact dimensions are not
important, as the object of such exercises is to get a good
working understanding of the process.
692. To cut a V-shaped groove. Place the skew-chisel as
already shown, raise the handle and make a cut with the heel
of the tool. Then cut one side of the V with the heel of the
chisel, the edge being turned from the vertical of course.
To make the cut, slide the tool a little way up on the work
and then raise the handle, which will cause the heel of the
tool to dip down and make the cut, keeping the basil bearing
on the wood as already shown, to give you control of the
cutting edge. In all these operations the entire edge must
not cut, or you may lose command of the tool.
693. To cut a half-bead. After turning a cylinder, cut in
with the chisel as shown.
694. Then, place the tool as shown at the left, turn it to
cut the half-bead, raising the handle gradually in a curve and
pushing the tool forward as is necessary. Remember to let
324 Woodworking
the basil bear on the wood as a guide. At the end try to cut one
shaving from the whole surface. To cut a half-bead in the
opposite direction, reverse the positions and movements. This
exercise can well be repeated with half-beads of different
sizes.
695. Toturn beads. Lay out the spaces for the beads on
a cylinder with compasses (as shown at the right), or with
rule and chisel, making a very slight cut.* Pencil marks can
also be made for the centres of the beads. Cut down between
the beads with the chisel as shown above. Then proceed as
in turning two half-beads. Practise with beads of different
sizes and also try to make a row of uniform size.
696. To cut off a cylinder or other shape at a given length.
Lay off the required length with rule and pencil, leaving a
little space at each end,—enough at the live end that the tools
cannot strike the spur when cutting in. Cut in carefully with
the parting tool a little outside of the line marked. Start
with edge of the tool slightly above the center. Raise the
handle very slightly as the edge nears the middle of the
cylinder, in order to keep the cut as nearly tangential as at
first; or hold a 14” scraping tool as shown in 689, with the
« Where many pieces have to be marked alike, a gauge can be made by
driving brads in the edge of a strip of wood at the required points and
sharpening the projecting ends. Holding this gauge lightly against the
revolving wood will mark the spaces.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 325
basil down. Make successive cuts lightly to make the opening
cut a little wider than the tool to avoid friction and continue
until there is only enough wood left to avoid danger of break-
ing. Or cut entirely with the turning chisel, first straight
down, and then slantingly as shown, thus making a V-shaped
cut and trimming thin shavings from the end of the part
to be kept, until the line is reached and the piece almost cut
through. In trimming an end with the chisel the basil should
be kept nearly flat on the end surface, then a slight move-
ment of the handle will control the cutting. Finally, stop
the machine and cut off the ends with knife or chisel.’
Meee) |} (eae aE)
cloc, syne reese tind 00 a |
697. To turn a tool handle, as shown at the left. First turn
a cylinder roughly. After marking spaces, cut in or ‘‘size’’
down with the parting tool or chisel where the dimensions
are naturally measured, as shown at the right.
a
698. The sizing tool is sometimes used for repeated sizings.
a
699. Use the calipers as shown, with one end close to the
cutting tool. When the calipers indicate the correct diameter
t An experienced turner, after placing one hand around the work, cuts
through at the live-centre end with the chisel in the other hand, without
stopping the lathe.
326 Woodworking
stop cutting. Do the rest of the turning with gouge and chisel
as already described. Have the basil touching the surface and
move the handle to one side to keep it so. Finally hold a
small piece of f»lded sandpaper with the forefinger and middle
finger and move it rapidly back and forth over the surface.
ALI
700. To cut concave curves or hollows. Turn a cylinder
and mark the spaces, hold a small gouge horizontally and
at right angles to the work, and remove part of the wood;
that is, rough out the curve, but keep well within the lines.
sol
701. Then hold the tool as shown at the left, with the
basil bearing on the wood, and push it carefully forward and
upward, at the same time rolling it partly around, and moving
the handle toward the right or left as the cutting proceeds,
so that the gouge will work itself up out of the wood at the
bottom of the curve. At the end of the cut the tool should be
in the position shown at the right. Next cut on the other side
of the hollow in the same way, and continue cutting first on
one side and then the other until the curve is correct. By this
process you make a shearing cut with the grain. By keeping
the basil of the tool bearing on the wood as a guide a slight
movement of the handle will cause the edge to cut all that is
required, and the tool can be controlled so as to cut cleanly
and without catching. Practise with hollows of different
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 327
dimensions and try to make a series of uniform size and
shape.*
GU eeu
702. To turn a combination of hollows and rounds, cut
the hollows first, as shown at the left, and then the convex
curves or beads. The sides of the hollows must be cut down
straight for some distance to allow for the rounding of the
beads. Round the beads with gouge or chisel. The chisel will
give a finer surface but the gouge will cut quicker. The experi-
enced turner will cut both rounds and hollows smoothly with
the gouge.
Such simple forms, of various degrees of curvature and in
an endless variety of combinations, are the elements with
which the outlines of most turned objects are formed.
SEED a pe
a ee
Bie
703. To mark spaces where there are square members,
or parts, as shown at the left, do this before setting the lathe
in motion, squaring distinct pencil lines across one side of
t To test the correctness of the curve, use the angle of the square. Ina
semi-circle chords drawn from any point in the circumference to the ends of
the diameter will form a right angle with each other. DAE, DBE, and
DCE will be right angles. In whatever position applied, the point (angle)
of the square will touch the circumference.
328 Woodworking
the piece. Cut a groove at the ends of the square members,
or make deep V-shaped cuts with the chisel as already shown.
Then round the corners of the square members, and proceed
for this design as shown at the left.
2
AO
704. Sandpaper should not be used in the earlier exer-
cises, as the pupil should learn to cut rather than scour the
wood into shape. For ordinary work cut a small piece of
worn sandpaper, double it and hold as shown in 699. Move
it quickly back and forth to prevent scratching the work.
In sandpapering sharp curves or beads care must be taken
not to injure the shape. The surface can be further smoothed
or polished with a handful of fine shavings and dust made
by the turning.
FACE PLATE
705. For many shapes, rosettes and cups, for example, the
wood must be fastened to the live spindle only. Small pieces
can be screwed (by turning the lathe) to the centre screw of
the face plate, which is substituted for the spur centre used
in the previous exercises. For large pieces screws are inserted
through holes in the face-plate. It is common to put a piece
of waste wood between the face-plate and the work, to cut
against, and care must be taken that the screws are placed so
that they will not be struck by the tools when cutting deeply.
When the wood is to be cut entirely through, this wood back-
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 329
ing is necessary to prevent striking the face-plate. The face-
plate can also be enlarged by screwing on a backing piece of
greater diameter. The backing can be screwed in various
ways to the wood, or in some cases can be glued. The tee-rest
can be placed at right angles to the position already shown
‘or at any angle required.
706. Because of the varying angles at which the grain
of the wood meets the edge of the tool in such work, it is com-
mon to instruct that such turning be done with what are
called ‘‘scraping tools’’ which are of various shapes, and have
the basil on one side only.
They can have the edge turned to form a scraping burr,
by rubbing on an oilstone. These tools are held horizontally
on the rest with the basil down. ‘The skilful, experienced
- turner, however, does the greater part of his turning with
the regular tools already mentioned and on the same general
principles of cutting that have already been described, and
uses the scraping tools only when necessary. The beginner
should learn to do his work as much by clean cutting and as
little by scraping as possible. There are, however, some
operations which can be done only by scraping."
707. To turn a disk. Cut off the corners with a hand-saw
or saw approximately to shape with the band-saw. Screw to
the screw chuck and mark with compasses. Place the tee-rest
as shown, about */s’’ from the surface and parallel to it, as
shown in the third illustration. Cut the edge with parting
tIf the work be large, use a slower speed for the roughing out and a
higher speed for the finishing.
330 Woodworking
tool. It is common to put a piece of waste wood between the
face-plate and the work, to cut against. The edge can be fin-
CO SP 230
ished, or cut entirely, with gouge and scraping chisel held in
the position shown in the last illustration, but a light cut
must be taken to prevent chipping.
\ PEG,
Si
708. Turn the face with gouge and scraping chisel, or
scraping chisel alone, or skew chisel. Work from the centre
toward you; that is, entirely between the centre and the edge
nearest you,—never beyond the centre, for the further half
of the wood is moving in the wrong direction. Test the
710. Some kinds of work have to be held in a chuck.
For example, after turning the upper side of the candlestick
base shown in the first illustration, screw a piece of wood to
the face-plate and turn a recess in it of the right size to tightly
hold the turned base as shown in the last illustration. The
depression in the bottom of the latter can now be turned.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 331
711. Spheres and rings are turned on this principle
carried farther. There are various forms of chucks for different
problems. When the beginner has acquired enough skill to
undertake work of this kind, he should seek a competent
instructor or books on turning which go thoroughly into these
more difficult problems.*
712. The general principle of finishing turning is the same
as with other work (394). The wood can be filled, if required,
and the filler cleaned off with shavings. A common way to
polish is with a pad. Put a little oil on a cloth, pour on shellac
and make a pad to hold against the work, on the same prin-
ciple as French polishing (406, footnote). Shellac can also
be applied with a brush, revolving the work by hand, and
afterwards rubbing down in the usual way. Wax can be
used.
713. Lathes are also adapted for screw-cutting, and have
various tool-holding and self-feeding attachments—also knife
attachments by which patterns can be turned automatically
at great speed, and appliances for turning a great variety of
odd shapes, as twisted or “‘rope”’ patterns,—but such matters
belong to advanced work and manufacturing purposes rather
than to the elementary principles of hand-turning.
t To turn a ball or sphere the process can be the same as with the beads
already shown, turning until the wood is nearly cut through, when the ends
are cut off in the usual way. The curvature can be tested with a templet.
Then make a form or ‘“‘chuck’’ in which the sphere will be held firmly.
With the chuck and sphere screwed to the face-plate, the sphere can be
finished accurately. This requires turning the sphere repeatedly in the
chuck to expose new parts to be finished, an operation calling for experience
and judgment. When the sphere becomes too small to be held by the
chuck, the latter must be altered.
A templet, or pattern, is sometimes used to secure accuracy in turning
some shapes. It is merely an exact reverse outline of the required form
cut in sheet metal or thin wood and applied to the work to test it. Stop
the lathe before applying the templet. It is best to learn to turn by eye as
far as possible and to resort to such tests only when necessary.
332 | Woodworking
MORTISING MACHINES
714. Mortising machines. The mortise is cut by repeated
strokes of a chisel, by borings of a bit, or by a combined ar-
rangement of bit and four-sided hollow chisel. Mortising
attachments are made for saw-benches, and there are foot-
power machines. Mortisers should have the light come from
the side. The arrangement, adjustments, and other details
should be learned directly from the machine you are to use,
for there are many kinds in use. While mortising machines
are necessary in factory work, they are not essential for the
beginner, or amateur, because a small amount of mortising
can be done well enough by hand (467).
el
pew os — hi
oy =>
715. The face-side or joint-edge of the stock is kept against
the gauge or fence.
The motor can be mounted directly on the boring spindle
and both slide back and forth together to make a mortise.
The table can be raised or lowered to suit the size of stock to
be mortised, and can have slots through which fixtures or
gauges can be clamped. The table can be moved to and from
the bit by a lever, or by power feed, and be fitted with stops
to regulate the depth of mortise.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 333
TENONING MACHINES
716. Tenoning machines. Important for factory produc-
tion, but not essential for the beginner, amateur, or general
student, because tenons can be cut with the bench saw rapidly
enough for the demands of general work. There are different
kinds of machines and the arrangement, adjustments, and
other details should be learned directly from the machine to
be used. It is considered a dangerous machine and should be
safeguarded as much as possible.
717. Some machines make the tenon wholly by saws. It
can be cut at one operation by five circular saws, each driven
by a motor mounted on its arbor. Two cross-cutting saws, one
above and one below the wood, cut the shoulders of the tenon,
one cross-cutting saw cuts off the end of the tenon, and two
splitting-saws, one above and one below, cut the sides of the
tenon. The table which supports the wood can have a mov-
able gauge and a clamping device, as well as slots through which
various fixtures can be clamped. The table can be tilted,
and be on a carriage which rolls on a track. The work can be
fed to the saws by moving the carriage along until the tenon
is cut.
718. Another type of machine cuts the tenon by knives
attached to revolving cutter-heads. Spurs score the shoulders
in advance of the cutting knives to cause clean cutting. There
can also be an arrangement for coping or making variations
in the shoulders, as is sometimes required.
MOULDING MACHINES
719. Moulding machines are either horizontal or irregular.
The former are used to get out matched boards, straight
beading, reeding, strips of moulding, and the like. The stock
is passed through the machine as through a planer, and is
cut by knives shaped to fit the pattern required. Such ma-
chines are essential to factory production, but are not impor-
334 Woodworking
tant for the beginner, amateur, or general student, because
the product of these moulders is for sale almost everywhere.
720. The Shaper or irregular moulder cuts the edge of
the wood into any desired shape for which cutters can be
fitted. A first-class shaper will mould the wood in any direc-
tion of the grain and leave the surface so smooth that no
further finishing is required. The shaper has always been
regarded as a dangerous machine—one with which the novice
should not experiment. It has two vertical spindles (or some-
times only one) with collars which hold cutting knives of
whatever shape may be required. These knives revolve rapidly
with the spindle like the cutters of the Planer or Jointer, and
cut the wood as the operator passes it by them. The form into
which the wood is cut is of course the reverse of the shape of
the cutting-knives. The two spindles revolve in opposite direc-
tions, so that the operator can cut according to the direction
of the grain. If there is but one spindle, the direction can be
reversed.’ Safety guards can be used.
t “The essential features of a successful shaper are primarily the design
and construction of the frame and table, the extent to which all vibration is
eliminated, the type and arrangement of spindle and boxes. ‘The machine
must be so made that the spindle can be run at the highest practical speeds
with perfect steadiness, as the lightest vibration or chatter will produce
imperfect work.”—Baxter D. Whitney and Son, Inc,
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 335
SCRAPING MACHINES
721. Scraping machines. Valuable where much fine finish-
ing of flat surfaces is done. The stock is run through as with
a planer, and is scraped by a knife with a turned edge, working
on the same principle as the hand scraper (194-6). This
leaves an even and satin-like surface,—a glossy finish superior
to that produced by sandpaper. Such machines are made as
wide as 64”’ and will scrape material as thin as 7/16’, and up-
wards, very economically in regard to time and upkeep. There
is removed from the surface a continuous shaving which may
be as thin as tissue, or as heavy as the thickest wrapping
paper. By substituting a toothed knife, solid or built-up work
can be toothed ready for gluing.
722. Showing scraper with turned edge and toothing
knife.
SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTS, ETC.
723. All lines of shafting and all machinery should be set
up exactly level and all connecting pulleys exactly in line.
STRAIGHT EDGE,CLAMPED
TO TABLE TO GUIDE
SOME KINDS OF WORK
(3 ee PE TS )
_SPINOLE AND
e-" GUTTERS
PIECE TO BE MOULDED
ee ey
Mortising and “‘lock cornering ’’ (539) can be done with a head consisting
of alternate grooving cutters and collars of equal thickness. By attach-
ments routing and dovetailing can be done. Small shapers are made to be
connected with a light socket.
336 Woodworking
A countershaft (674) enables a machine to be started or
stopped without affecting the running of the main shaft, and
is belted directly to the machine and also to the main shaft.
The latter belt runs on either of two pulleys, side by side, on
the countershaft—one tight, the other loose. When the belt
is shifted to the tight pulley the countershaft is turned and
the machine set in motion. When the belt is on the loose pulley
the countershaft and machine stop, while the loose pulley
continues to revolve. The belt is shifted from one pulley to
the other by one or more levers. Loose pulleys are apt to give
trouble and must not be neglected.
724. Motors connected directly with each riachee have
obvious advantages, as dispensing with the care, danger, and
expense of shafting and belting, and also avoiding the need of
running main shafting when only part of the machinery is in
use.
725. Pulleys and Beits. It is better to have large pulleys
than small, but the relative sizes must be regulated by the
speed required.*
t To find the speed of a pulley to be driven by another pulley, multiply
the diameter of the driving pulley by the number of its revolutions and
divide by the diameter of the pulley to be driven.
To find the necessary diameter of a driving pulley to give a required
number of revolutions to a driven pulley of given diameter, multiply the
diameter of the pulley to be driven by the required number of revolutions
and divide by the number of revolutions of the driving pulley or the driving
shaft.
To find the necessary diameter of a driven pulley in order that it may
revolve at a required speed, multiply the diameter of the driving pulley
by its number of revolutions, and divide by the required number of
revolutions of the driven pulley.
A speed of three thousand feet a minute is as fast as a belt should run
in ordinary cases. For small pulleys and narrow belts 15 feet between
shafting is a good distance, but for larger pulleys and belts a greater dis-
tance is better, although it is common practice to use much shorter belts.
To find the length of a belt, add the diameters of the pulleys, divide
by two, multiply by 3.1416 and add twice the distance between the centres
of the shafts. Belts are frequently too tight.
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 337
726. To make a machine run in the opposite direction
from the shaft, which is sometimes necessary, the belt must
be crossed between the pulleys.
727. Belts are of leather, rubber, etc. The hair side of a
leather belt, being the weaker side, should be in contact
with the pulley. There are various metallic fasteners for
belts, which are easily applied,—also lacing of wire, and
sewing with tough wire, using short stitches. The ends can
also be shaved tapering, to lap over one another, and glued or
riveted. Belt lacing machines are in common use.*
728. To throw a belt off a pulley, press with a stick at the
edge of the belt where it runs on to the driving pulley. To
slip a belt on, do so in the direction of the power. Fit the belt
on the driven pulley, and slide it onto the driving pulley with
a stick, at the point where it is to run on to the pulley. Large
belts are usually thrown on and off by hand, but hold the
hand straight with the fingers extended, and use it somewhat
like the stick. Do not grasp a belt when throwing it on or off,
but merely slide it on with a quick motion, keeping the fingers
stiff.
729. Oiling. With the old-fashioned boxes where there
is ee? te holes clea an oil hole, keep the holes clean and oil every morn-
me (Fx
t There are various ways of using the rawhide belt-lacing. A common
way isshown. Before lacing, cut the ends-of the belt squarely across, using
the try square. Punch holes with a belt punch. All crossing of lacings,
whether leather or wire, must be on the cutside. The lacing on the in-
side which comes against the pulley must run lengthways of the belt, as it
would soon wear through if crossed. There are two thicknesses on the
inside. To fasten the ends cut a little nick in the edge of the lacing at such
a point that, when pulled through an extra hole made for the purpose with
a knife, the nick will catch and keep the end in place.
338 Woodworking
ing before beginning work. Modern machinery is provided
with devices of various kinds, which make it necessary to oil
at long intervals only. These save much trouble and greasi-
ness, although open to the objection that as the oiling is not
a matter of daily routine it may be neglected until after the
bearings have become dry. Sliding ways and other slowly
moving adjustments, should be kept wiped and oiled.
QUESTIONS
Common MacuineEs. 1. If you could have but three machines for general
woodworking, which would you choose? In what order would you place them
in regard to importance? Why?
CIRCULAR Saw. 2. Show how to avoid the chief dangers from the circular
3. How much should the saw project above the table? Why?
4. Show the process of rip sawing.
5. How can you safely push narrow pieces past the saw?
6. If necessary to stop ripping instantly, what should you do?
7. Do you advocate making glue joints with the circular saw? Why?
8. Show the process of cross cutting.
9. How can you cut a number of pieces of the same length?
10. Show how to use a clearance block.
11. Show how to cut a groove or a dado with a common circular saw—how
to wabble a saw.
12. Show how to cut a rabbet—a stop rabbet.
13. Show how to cut a tenon.
14. Show how to cut wedges or tapering pieces.
15. Show how to make a jig for cutting octagonal sticks—for cutting
jullets.
16. Show how to rough out mouldings and the like.
17. Show how to partially rough out circular hollows.
SwING Saw. 18. For what is the swing saw used? Shaw how 1t works.
BAND Saw. 19. What are the advantages of the band saw? Has tt any
disadvantage for curved work?
20. What dangers are to be avoided?
ai. Show the process of sawing.
22. Show how to cut curved work which has to be sawed from two adjacent
sides.
Jic Saw. 23. Compare with the band saw. What one advantage has the
jig saw? What disadvantages?
Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 339
24. Show the process of sawing holes or enclosed openwork.
PLANER. 25. Make sketch showing the principle upon which the single
surfacer works.
26. To make a warped surface flat, what must you do?
27. Show the process of planing—to plane tapering.
JOINTER. 28. What are the functions of the jointer?
29. Show the principle upon which it works.
30. Show how to adjust the tables and knives.
31. Show how to avoid danger from the cutters.
32. Show how to plane warped stock.
33. Show how to plane tapers—to bevel—to cut a rabbet.
SANDERS. 34. What are the common forms of sanding machines?
35. Show the principle of the drum sander—the disk sander—the spindle
sander—how to sand curves.
36. What advantages has the hand block belt machine?
BorinG MACHINES. 37. Show the principle of boring machines, and the
process of boring.
LATHE. 38. Illustrate the principle of the lathe.
39. When a countershaft 1s used how can you regulate the speed?
40. Show the general process of turning a cylinder.
41. Show how to use the calipers.
42. Show how to lay off spaces on the work.
43. Show how to control the cutting with the basil of the tool.
44. Show how to cut beads—to cut hollows.
45. Show how to cut off the wood at the required length.
_ 46. Illustrate the general principle of face-plate turning—of turning
with chuck.
47. Show how to use sandpaper, and how to finish.
MortTIsING MacuHINEs. 48. Whatts the principle of the moritsing machine?
How ts the cutting done?
TENONING MAcHINEs. 49. In what different ways are tenons cut?
SHAPER. 50. Show the principle of the shaper and how the cutting ts done.
SCRAPING MACHINES. 51. How does the scraping machine work? What are
its advantages?
PowER. 52. Compare the application of power by countershaft and by
direct motor drive.
53. Show simple ways to lace a belt.
54. Show how to throw a belt on and off.
WwooD
730. Selecting the stock. First, the wood must be of a
kind suitable for the work. Strength, weight, cost, appearance,
hardness, ease of working, toughness, durability, elasticity,
suitability for finishing, and other qualities have to be con-
sidered in many cases. It all depends on what you are going
to make. Except for rough work, use dry, clear, straight-
grained, well-seasoned stock, flat (that is, not warped or twist-
ed), and free from knots and other defects.* Choose stock of
such dimensions that there will be as little waste as possible.
Your Stock bill (Bill of Materials) gives the number and sizes
of the parts. The rest is a matter of measurement, experience,
and common-sense. It is usually cheaper to get small parts
*Showing crookedness of grain due to the tree being crooked when
young, so that the heart frequently is not in the centre of a straight tree.
Such crooked grain increases the tendency to twist and warp, because
there is so much end-grain on the surface of the boards, which absorbs and
releases moisture more rapidly than the side-grain.
340
Wood
out of left-over pieces on hand, but
this often takes more time. For
small work you can often buy short
stock, and youcan buy ‘‘squares’’ al-
SO,i.e., Square stock of various sizes.
731. End of log, showing annual
rings, sap-wood and heartwood.
Also the pith rays (medullary rays),
radiating from the pith at the
centre. Medullary rays are found in
all wood used for woodworking, and are very conspicuous in oak.
septa 7oae 0 8 cut
lengthways, showing
annual rings forming
the lines or streaks,
commonly called the
een TAIT 1202} FOL
*, board or other piece
of lumber. Also,show-
ing the medullary rays.
733. Agreen log contains much water. In drying it shrinks
most around the log, not so much across it, and very little
lengthways.'
«The shrinkage from the green to the oven-dry condition across the
grain for a flat-sawed board is about 8 per cent. and for a quarter-sawed
342 Woodworking
734. Showing result of this unequal shrinking,—length-
ways cracks running toward middle of log.
735. Halving or quartering the log exposes the inner part,
so that drying is more uniform, and the cracking less
|
Ni
my
ie
Ff
"“S
i
736. Slash or plain sawing (the common way).
(739) board about 4% per cent., while the shrinkage parallel to the grain is
practically negligible for most species.’’— Forest Products Laboratory.
Wood 343
737. Strongly figured grain
often results from plain saw-
ing, with woods like oak, chest-
nut, ash, etc., particularly in
the outer boards.
738. Showing how boards, planks, etc., sawed from a log
have the same hala as the whole log to shrink unevenly.
The middle board does not curl.
The others curl or cup away from
the heart, because the sapwood on
the outside contains more water
than the heart and so shrinks more
in drying. Boards nearest the
middle are the best, because they
curl the least, are the widest, and
have the least sapwood, which is
usually inferior. All the boards
shrink in width, and become thinner toward the edges.
739. Quarter-sawing. The log is first quartered, and then
each quarter sawed by itself. Radial sawing gives the best
boards, but wastes more lumber than other ways. Quarter-
sawed lumber shrinks more in thickness than plain-sawed, but
this is usually of less importance than shrinkage across the
wide surface. Quarter-sawed lumber holds its shape much
344 Woodworking
RADIAL
better than plain-sawed and is therefore better for work of a
high grade. The middle board sometimes has to be divided,
because it contains the pith.
740. Showing figure formed on the surface by the medul-
lary rays, as in quartered oak.
"41. Showing shrinkage of timber sawed from different
parts of log. The centre piece holds its shape best. The best
way to cut flooring is shown by A. It will shrink the least
and wear best. A timber is stiffer if the annual rings are like
B than if like C.
Wood 345
8
?
i
2
———
thence m@eoeane2cewveese@ oo
ere e828 8 & @@ eee =a os oe
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as
9
742. Rift (or split) stock is stronger than sawed, unless
the wood is perfectly straight-grained. Four cross-grained,
weak pieces can be sawed from the block shown. One strong,
straight-grained piece can be obtained by splitting, that is by
following the grain. The split or rift piece is suitable for a
hatchet handle or a stout pin, for example. The four sawed
pieces are not.
743. Boards ‘stuck’ for seasoning, so that the air can
circulate between them. The sticks must be directly over
one another.
744. Results of carelessness in “ sticking.”
346 Woodworking
745. The old-fashioned air-dried stock (usually contain-
ing 15% or more of moisture) is hard to find. Lumber is now
dried in kilns by artificial means, and is claimed to be stronger
and less liable to decay than if air-dried.1 The amount of
moisture is usually reduced to 5% or 6% for furniture and
cabinet work, while for other work from 8% to 12% is com-
mon, but this is a matter of judgment.
746. Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green,
dryer to the touch, usually has a different odor, and cuts
differently. A piece you whittle breaks off differently. One
test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. A green
piece and a dry one will have different vibrations and give
out different sounds. Saw, plane, whittle, break the shavings.
747. All wood, no matter how thoroughly seasoned or
protected by paint or varnish,? expands and contracts in
width. Moisture (humidity) makes it expand. Dryness makes
it shrink. Heat makes it shrink, unless the humidity increases
in proportion. These changes cannot be prevented, * and must
t Lumber air-seasoned for years under cover has always been considered
the best. Since kiln-drying came into use, air-seasoning has been less and
less done, because kiln-drying saves much time, investment of capital, etc.,
but the result until recently has been much inferior to air-drying. Great
improvements have been made lately in the kiln-drying process. The
Forest Products Laboratory reports that ‘‘to all intents and purposes
lumber which has been properly kiln-dried is equivalent to that which has
been ajr-seasoned under the best conditions.’’ Whether common com-
mercial kiln-drying is yet done in the best way however may certainly be a
question, and if your work requires toughness, elasticity, and ‘‘life’’ in the
wood, it may be well to use air-dried stock if you can find it, until common
kiln-drying has been still further improved. Soaking in water first assists
in the seasoning, but long soaking may lessen the toughness. Small pieces
can be smoked.
2 The only coating which will prevent wood absorbing moisture, accord-
ing to the Forest Products Laboratory, is aluminum leaf.
3 The power developed by the expansion of wood can be seen in the
common operation of splitting rocks by drilling a row of holes, driving dry
wooden wedges into them, and then wetting the wedges, when the rock will
be split by the swelling of the wedges.
Wood 347
be allowed for, in many kinds of work, or the wood will either
be buckled or split or the work forced apart (See 326, 376,
379, 382 footnote, 387, 484, 540). Cracks, curling, warping,
winding, or twisting of wood are due to irregular and uneven
swelling or shrinking. As a rule the heart side will be less
affected by atmospheric changes than the bark side.
748. Lay a board on the ground in dry weather and you
will soon find it curled or warped, because although dry on
the upper side it has absorbed dampness on the under side.
Even laying a board flat on a bench or on the floor will cause
it to curl, because it is more exposed to the air on one side
than on the other. Therefore keep your stock of lumber so
that each piece will be equally exposed on all sides to heat and
cold, moisture and dryness, if possible. After planing or
trimming stock leave it on edge or on end, not flat on the side.
SS
749. Common result of laying a board flat. Keep your stock
carefully stuck, which tends to keep the pieces straight and
true. Never lay good boards down flat upon one another,
unless they are thoroughly seasoned. The top board will
warp. Keep short pieces, which it is not worth while to
“stick,’”’ standing on end, equally exposed on all sides to heat
and cold, moisture and dryness.*
750. Stock for nice work must be kept and used where it
is dry, or when the work is removed later to a dry place it
t Attempts to permanently flatten a warped piece of dry wood are seldom
worth while with common stock. In case of an heirloom or something
rare, remember that wetting one side tends to make that side expand;
applying heat, to make the heated side concave. Soaking in boiling water,
pressing into shape (or bending the other way), and leaving until dry can
also be tried. Butit is hard to permanently flatten warped stock.
348 Woodworking
will shrink or warp, and perhaps be ruined. Where wood has
been exposed to damp air, as in a shed or cellar, let it stand
in the warm shop for some time before using it for nice work.
751. When warping or change of shape would be partic-
ularly harmful, first get the stock out roughly to shape but
too large, and leave exposed to the air on all sides. Allow some |
time for it to warp or twist. Then you can cut to the exact
shape without much subsequent change of form.*
Se Cangas a =
ec ee et ee
en ae te age sen ane z
OM A BEE AF oa es ne ae me,
752. Boards or plank exposed to the weather are more
durable if laid heart side down, but are more apt to curl up
at the edges than if heart side up.
753. If laid heart side up they will lie flatter, but the action
of the atmosphere, water, sun, etc., will tend to separate the
layers and fibres.
754. Warping is often avoided by building up with a
number of narrower pieces so arranged that their warping
t A golf-stick, a gun stock, a bow, a billiard cue, for example, should be
roughed out, considerably too large, then hung up for further seasoning.
When reduced to shape later, it will hold its shape better than if it had been
entirely shaped at one time.
Wood 349
tendencies will counteract each other (534). Often done for
bench-tops, frames of machines, etc.’ See 365.
755. Always try to treat both sides of a board alike. If
you have an inch board planed down by machine to three-
eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as
nearly as may be, from both sides. It is common to simply
smooth off, or “‘surface’’ one side, and then plane the board
down on the other side, often making it warp badly at once.
756. Hard wood is that from broad-leaved trees, as the
oak, while soft wood comes from the coniferous or needle-
leaved trees,? as the pine. Dry wood is harder, stiffer, and
stronger than green, but more likely to break. Green wood is
tougher and will bend and resume its former shape better.
As a rule heavy wood is stronger and stiffer than light wood,
and hard woods are usually stronger than soft woods, though
there are exceptions. Heavy wood swells and shrinks more
than light, which will usually hold its shape better. Seis els
changes more quickly than heartwood.
t Where but one side of a board is seen or used, and where the full
strength is not needed, as in a drawing-board, warping and twisting can
sometimes be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts (easily made with
the circular saw) on the back or under surface, the crossways strength
required being secured by cleating or other devices. Doors and most
forms of panelled work also illustrate methods of preventing damage from
swelling and shrinking (372).
2 This distinction is based on botanical reasons and is sometimes puzzling.
For instance, whitewood of the hardwood class is softer and easier to work
than hard pine of the softwood class.
3 ‘Some hardwoods are weaker than some softwoods; and some soft-
woods, notably long leaf pine, are stronger than many hardwoods.’’—
Kellogg. Lumber and its Uses.
“Other factors being equal, the strength of wood is roughly proportional
to the dry weight.’’—Kellogg.
“Heartwood is generally heavier than sapwood, and fully as strong if
equally free from defects. Moreover, it is usually much more resistant to
decay. On the other hand, since its cells are more open, sapwood usually
absorbs wood preservatives better than hardwood.’’—Kellogg.
350 Woodworking
757. Re-sawing of dry stock is uncertain. Showing results
which sometimes occur (re-sawed mahogany—exaggerated
merely because of the short length of the drawings). Re-
sawing is often satisfactory, but it is usually safer to buy wood
of the right thickness than to split or re-saw thicker stock.
“The sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the
heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in color in most
hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, or
softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; but
exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due toa
species of mould fungi which attacks them.”’—Laslett and Ward.
There is a distinction between the elasticity needed for such purposes as a
bow or springboard, and the toughness required for the ribs of a canoe, or
the wattles of a basket. In the former case the material must not merely
bend without breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former
shape when released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter
case it must bend without breaking but is not required to spring back to its
original form, as with many green sticks which can be easily bent but have
not much elasticity. These two qualities are found combined in varying
degrees in all woods. Elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to
the breaking point, but tough wood may have but little elasticity. Asa
rule, wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best,
hardest, and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart,
while in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not
so good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. If the
tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. The
sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually inferior
in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than
heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger, more durable, and prefer-
351
758. Plywood. To save expense and to prevent warping,
winding, etc., several layers of very thin wood are glued
together under pressure, with the grain running in different
directions. This principle was often used by the Ancients.
When there are three layers, as shown, the middle one is
often thicker than the others. Frequently more than three
layers are glued together.
HEART- STAR- CUP-
SHAKES SHAKES SHAKES
759. Three common defects in lumber, due to uneven
shrinkage, swaying of the tree in the wind, decay, or other
causes.
760. Knots are merely the beginnings of limbs. A smooth
trunk often has knots inside, due to limbs which died or were
removed. For some work tight knots do no harm, but loose
knots are bad for all but the roughest work. A spike knot is
one which has been sawed through lengthways. Wood con-
taining streaks of pitch and pitch-pockets should not be used
for nice work.
761. Preservation of lumber. Thorough seasoning, pro-
tection from sun and rain, and ventilation are the essentials
for the preservation of wood. It decays fastest when alter-
nately wet and dry, as parts of the piles of a bridge, or fence
posts, etc.; or when kept in a close, moist atmosphere, as
able for many purposes. In elm, ash, and hickory, the sapwood is some-
times considered better than the heart. The growth and structure of trees
is a very complex matter, however, and the diversities almost infinite.
352 Woodworking
timbers over a damp, unventilated cellar. Wood kept under
water resists decay. When protected from atmospheric
changes it lasts very long as is illustrated by recent Egyptian
researches.
762. Decay can be much retarded by treating wood with
creosote, zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, or other preserva-
tives. The Forest Products Laboratory reports that charring
the lower ends of fence posts is not worth while.
Creosote stains, coal tar and wood tar or pitch, applied
hot, in thin coats, to dry wood are good. Much wood is now
impregnated with preservatives by various processes. Any
thick coating like paint or tar should be applied only to
thoroughly seasoned wood.
QUESTIONS
Woop. 1. Define annual rings, heart wood, sap wood, medullary rays.
2. Explain slash or plain sawing—quarter sawing.
3. Show how the different boards sawed froma log shrink and curl. Which
keep their shape best?
4. What advantages from quarter sawing?
5. How can you recognize quarter sawed lumber in case of oak and some
other woods?
6. What advantage has rift stock?
7. Why is lumber “‘ stuck” for seasoning? What is essential in sticking?
8. Compare atr seasoning and kiln drying.
9. What causes green wood to shrink? How much may it shrink in width
when it becomes very dry?
10. What causes dry wood to swell?—to shrink?
11. What causes it to crack, curl, warp, and wind?
12. Why ts crooked-grained wood more subject to warping and winding than
straight grained?
13. If the expansion and contraction of wood cannot be prevented, what
should you do in good work? In which direction does wood change the least?
14. How should stock be stored? Why? Why should you not lay a board
fiat on the floor or bench?
15. Why ts tt essential for nice work, to keep stock in a dry, warm atmos-
phere? .
16. Why 1s tt best to plane equal amounts from each side of a board?
17. What reasons are there for building up stock with several pieces?
Wood 353
18. Define hard wood—soft wood.
19.
Compare heavy and light wood, dry and green wood, in regard to strength,
toughness, and other characteristics.
20.
21.
22,
2%.
24.
25.
Which usually changes shape more, light or heavy stock?
Compare heart wood and sap wood.
Which side up should you lay boards exposed to the weather? Why?
What is plywood?—when used?
Name three kinds of shakes and define them.
How can you account for knots in boards sawed from a log which was
smooth on the outside?
26.
27.
What conditions are essential for the preservation of wood?
With what can wood be treated to retard decay?
INDEX
(Numbers re‘er to pages)
Abrasives (sandpaper, etc.), 87-89
grinding wheels, 109-111
grindstones, IOQ-III
oilstones, III, 113
Accidents, avoidance of, 273, 289,
290-2, 293, 301, 304-5, 307
Adjustments of plane, 59, 60, 62
of machines. See Woodworking
machines
Adze-eye hammer, 89
Air-brush, 190, I9I
Air-dried stock, 346-348
Alcohol, 188
stains, 186, 187
Aluminum leaf, 346
Ammonia (for staining), 186, 187
Angles
of 45° and 135°, to lay out, 16, 17,
18
of edged tools, See
Basil, etc.
of saw teeth, 120
Angle-blocks. See Corner-blocks,
2I2, 21%
Annual rings, 341
Anvil, 6
Arc or circle, to strike, 19, 20
to draw when centre is out of
reach, 21
Arkansas stone, 112
Arrises, 89
Artificial abrasives, 109-112
Asphaltum, 187, 195
Assembling, 147-150
tools for, 36-109
Auger-bit, 74-79
hollow, 83
to sharpen, 116
Automatic or push drills, 74, 84
Awl, brad, 74, 84
to sharpen, 118
marking- or scratch-, 7
Axe, edge of, 36
{10, I12.
Back-bent (straight-bent) chisel, 39
Back for case work, 177, 244
Background (carving), 165-167, 170
Back saw, 53, 54
Ball, to turn, 331
Band saw, 292-296
Barbed nails, 93
Basil, 36, 39, 109-112
hollow-ground orconcave, I10, 112
Battens, 172, 173
Bayberry tallow, 178
Bead cutter, 72, 73
Beading, 306
Beads, to turn, 323, 324
Beam, collar, 137, 138
I, 140
Beam-compass (trammel), 20, 21
Beams, floor, 138-141
stresses, 138-I4I
Bearings, oiling, 337, 338
Beeswax. See Wax
Bell-faced hammer, 89
Belt-lacing, 337
Belt sanders, 311, 312
Belts, 335-337
to find length of, 336
speed of, 336
to slip on or off, 337
Bench (Workbench), I, 2
carving, 2
-hook, 4, 70
saw. See Circular saw, 273, etc.
-stops or -dogs, I, 2, 3, 4
-vise, I, 2, 3, 4
Bending wood, 150-153
Bevel, 16, 17, 18, 153
to lay out with square, 16, 17, 18
to plane, 70, 71, 154
obtaining angles, 260
cutting with circular saw, 274,
288-9
cutting with jointer, 306
cutting with sander, 309, 310
359
356 Index
Bevel—Continued
-edged chisels, 40
of edged tools. See Basil
Beveling, 153, 154
edges (boat), 260
Bichromate of potash, 187
Bill of materials, 129, 134, 135
Bill, stock, 134, 135
Binding of saws, 52
Bird’s mouth joint, 252
Bit-brace, 74-77
Bit-gauges, 81
Bit, plane-, 59
Bits, 74-83
auger-, 74-79
centre-, 80-81
expansive-, 79
Ford-, 75
Fostner-, 80
gimlet-, 75, 80
hollow auger-, 83
Irwin, 75
quill, 96
screwdriver, 98
spoke pointers, 83
screw and plug, 83
screw and plug cutters, 83
sizes of auger, 75
twist-, 80
twist-drills, 80
to sharpen, 116
to withdraw, 77
Black stain, 187
Blind dovetailing, 242
mortising, 218
nailing (sliver), 93, 94
-nail tool, 93
Blocking, 96, 103, 104
Block plane, 60, 70
Blocks, corner-, 212, 213
Blue-prints, 133
Board foot, 133, 134
measure, 133, 134
Boards, measurement of, 133, 134
Boarding, 94, 95, 136, 137
Boat stem, joint for, 254
Bolts, 101, 150
Bone black, 187
Boring, 74-84
deep holes, 78
large holes, 79
templets for, 82
through the wood, 78
without splitting, 78
machines, 312-314
tools, 74-84
Bow saw, 54, 55
Box, assembling, 147, 148
Boxes, packing, 160, 161
Box lock, to fit, 255
-making, 130, 131, 154-160
Brace, bit-, 74-77
push-, 8
(construction), 136, 212
joint for, 250, 251
ratchet-, 76, 77
Bracket (or scroll) saw, 55
Brackets for staging (shingling), 263
Brad-awl, 74, 84
to sharpen, 118
Brads, 89
Breaking joints, 17I, 261, 262
Bridge, lattice, 138
strains or stresses, 138-141
Broad surfaces, planing, 68
to make joints for, 247-248
Brown stain, 187
Bruises, to remove, 183
Brush, air-, 190
Brushes, 190, 195
“Built-up’’ constructions, 168, 206,
207, 247-250, 310, 348
doors, 176, 177
Bull-nosed plane, 61
Burnisher, 117, 118
Burr, 95
Butt chisel, 39
gauge, 178, 209
joint, 211-213, 2
Buttons, for table tops, etc., 253
Butts. See Hinge-fitting, 207-209
‘‘Buzz”’ planer (jointer), 302-308
Cabinet, assembling, 149, 150
file, 85
-maker’s bench, I, 2
rasp, 85, 86
scraper, 86, 8
Calcined ape (Plaster of Paris),
183
Caliper rule, 22
Calipers, 21
testing with, 319, 325
Canvas, to paint, 194
Cap-iron (plane), 59-61
Carborundum, III, 112
Index
Carpenter’s bench, 2
pencil, 7
square (steel square), II
Carriage bolts, Io1
clamps, 102
Carved work, elementary, 162-170
finishing, 170
sandpapering, 170
Carver’s bench, 2
punch, 165
Carving, chip, 170
chisel, 37, 39
Carving tools, 163
whetting, 116
Casein glue, 206
Case work, assembling, 149, 150
Casing nails, 89
Casings, door and window, flashing,
196
Caul, 210, 264-5
Cement-coated nails, 93, 160
Centre-bit, 80, 81
of irregular shape, to find, 317
of square or rectangle, 317
Centres for doweling, 232, 233
of lathe, 315, 316
Centring for turning, 316, 317
Chairs, leveling, 29, 30
Chalk and line, 24
Chamfer, 153
or bevel, to plane, 70, 71, 154
Chamfering, 153, 154, 306
Changing circular saws, 275
Charring posts, 352
Chattering (plane), 65
Checking. See Cracking
Chest. See Box-making
steam, 150, 151
locks, 255
Chimney flashing, 197
Chip carving, 170
Chip (wooden plane), 62 -
Chisel, 36, 39-44
back-bent, 39
bevel-edged, 40
butt, 39
carving, 36, 39
cold, 6
control of, 39, 40
corner, 39
firmer, 39
framing, 39
mortise, 39
357
paring, 39
sharpening, 110-114
skew, 39
socket, 39
tang, 39
turning, 315
to grind, I10, III
Chords (stresses), 139-141
Chuck, 330, 331
Chute-boards (shooting or jack
boards), 67
Circle or arc, to strike, 19, 21
Cork (rubbing blocks), 190
(sanding blocks), 87, 88
Circular-plane, 61
Circular saw, 273-290
segments, sawing, 288
constructions, 249
Clamping, 102-108, 237
Clamps and their uses, 102, 106
cabinet-, 102
carriage- or C-shaped, 102
column, 105, 106
filing, 119, 120
for heavy work, 102
Jorgensen, 108
Clapboarding, 171, 172
Claw foot, 169
Cleaner (for furniture), 193
Clearance (saws), 47, 278, 281,
293
-block, 281, 282
Cleating, 172, 173
Cleats, 172, 173
Cleavage, lines of, 263
Clinching, 95, 96
nails, 95
Cogged joint, 251
Cold chisel, 6
glue (liquid), 206
Collar-beams, 137, 138
Collars (for wabbling saw), 282,
283
Columns, 249
Combination machines, 272
Combination (universal) planes, 61
Saws, 275
square, 18
Compass saw, 54
teeth, 120
Compasses, 18-21, 259, 317
Compound angles, fevers, 288-9
curves, 22, 295, 296
358
Compression, 138-141
Concave basil, 110, 112
curves, to turn, 326, 327
ground saws, 275
Cone pulley, 315
Coniferous trees, 349
Construction, elementary prin-
ciples, 135-141
Contraction, expansion and, 32,
175, 178, 179, 227, 346-349
Convex curves, to saw, 28
to turn, 323, 324, 327
Coping, 239, 240
saw, 56
Copper for flashing, 97
nails for boat work, 89
Cord, clamping with, 105
Core-box plane, 288
Coring (inside) work, to saw, 54-57,
287, 288, 296, 298
Cork for sanding, 87, 88
for rubbing, 190
Corner-blocks, 212, 213, 231, 237
braces, 137, 212
chisel, 39
irons, 212, 254
posts, 148, 149, I50
Cornering tool, 89
Corrugated fasteners, 90
Counterboring, 79
Countershaft, 315, 336
Countersink, 81, 82, 99
gauge, 82
Cracking, 342, 347
Cracks, to fill, 182, 183, 258
flashing. See Flashing
Crates, packing, I6I, 162
Creosote, 352
Crooked grain, 142, 340
Cross-cutting saw and its use, 46,
47-5!
angles of teeth, 120
circular saw, 274, 275, 280, 281
Crossed belts, 337
Cross-grain. See Crooked grain
Cross-grained surface, smoothing.
See Planing
Cross-lap joint, 214-216
Cross strain, 138-141
Crushing strain. See Compression
Cupped surface, 26
Cup shakes, 351
Cup, to turn, 328
Index
Curled hair for rubbing, 188
surface, 26
Curve, circular, to test, 327
Curved forms, to sand, 88, 89
built-up, 249, 250
to cut by hand, 54-56
to cut with band saw, etc., 295-
298
to cut with chisel or gouge, 40-45
Curves, drawing irregular (with
spline), 22
drawing symmetrical, 25
saws for, 54-56, 295-298
Cut nails, using, 92
for shingling, 92, 93, 262
Cutter, dowel, 234
-heads (circular saw), 299, 300,
(jointer), 303
bead-, 72, 73
plug and screw, 83
for inlaying, 210
_Wwheel-, 56
Cutting across the grain, 45
gauge, 15
nippers, 6
Cylinder, to saw, 58
built-up, 249
to turn, 316-321
with steps, to turn, 321, 322
to cut off (lathe), 324, 325
Dado, 179, 207, 217, 218, 260
to cut with circular saw, 282-284
trimming, 41, 42
Dado and rabbet joint, 218
Dado plane, 61, 207, 217
Dead centre, 315, 316
finish. See Finishing
Decay and preservation, 351, 352
Denatured alcohol, 188
Dents, to remove, 183
Diagonal boarding, 137
members, 135-141, 161, 162, 251
Diameter, finding, 21, 22
driven pulley, 336
driving pulley, 336
Dimensions, squaring stock to, 143-
145
working drawings, 132-135
Dipping, 184, 187, 190, 196
Disk sanders, 309-311
to turn, 329, 330
Dividers, 18-21
Index
Dividing into equal parts, 9, 10, 20
Dogs, 89, 106
bench, 1-4
Door and panel making, 174-177
casings, flashing, 196
Ler 256
to hinge or “hang,’’ 177, 178
Double-cut file, 85 pe!
irons (planes), 59, 60
surfacer, 300
thread screw point, 75
wedges, 105, 109
Dovetailed cleats, 173
dado, 218
joints, 243
tenon, 226, 228
Dovetailing, 178,
241, 260
Dowel cutter, 234
marker, 233
plate, 234
sharpener, 233
with screws in end wood, 100
Doweled butt joint, 213
end joint, 246
Doweling, 175, 231-235
Dowels, 234
Draw-bolt (joint), 212
Draw boring, 230
dogs, 89, 106
Drawer dovetailing, 240-242
locks, 255, 256
making, 178-182
Draw-filing scraper, 117
Drawing nails, 96
Drawings, working, 129, 132, 133
Drawknife, 36, 45, 46
to sharpen, 116
Draw nailing, 92, 94, 95
Drawshave. See Drawknife
Dressing the parts, 129, 130
Drill-stocks, 74-84
Drills, automatic or push, 74, 83-85
breast and hand, 74, 83-85
for metal, 1, 80, 82
push-, 84
ratchet, 83, 84
reciprocating, 84
twist-, 80
sharpening, 116
Drum sanders, 308, 309
Dryer, 195
Drying wood, 345-348 ‘
IsI, 216, 240,
Spy,
Dull finish. See Finishing
Duplicate lengths, to cut, 58, 281,
282
parts, to lay out, 30, 31
Ebonizing, 187
Edge, joint-. See Joint-edge
joints, 242-245
wire, I13
Edged tools, 36, 37
Edged tools, principle, 36, 37
Edges of tools, 36, 37
Edges, planing and jointing, 63-68
grooved with spline, 243
of box, 71
matched, 243
rabbeted, 244. See Rabbeting
Eight sided stick, 71
Elasticity, 349
Elevations or views, 130, 132
Enameling, 195
End cleating, 172-173
elevation or view, 130, 132
grain, gluing, 204
planing, 69, 70
joints, 199, 245-247
pressure, I51
wood, gluing, 204
Equal parts, dividing into, 9, 10, 20
Escutcheons and pins, 89
Estimating, 134
Expansion and contraction, 32, 175,
178, 180, 227, 346-348
Expansive bit, 79
bolt, 101
Extension or slide rule, 8, 9
Face side (working face), 13, 32
Face-plate, 328, 330
surface, 13, 32
working-, 13, 32, 143, 144, 273
Facing edges of case work, 260
Fasteners, corrugated, 90
Feathering strokes with plane, 64
Feet for boxes, 160
Felt for rubbing, 189, 190
Fence. See Gauge
Fence pickets, 150
Figured grain, 340-344
File, 85
for metal, 6
rounding with, 258
Filing saws, 119, 120
360
Fillers and filling, 187, 188
Fillistered joint, 244
Fillets, jig for, 286
Finger and pencil, gauging, 15
Finishing, 130, 182-193
carved work, 170
nails, 89
turning, 331
Firmer chisel, 39
Fish plates, 249
Fitting handles, 6
Flashing, 196-198
Flat-faced hammer, 89
Flexible ruler (spline), 22
Floor-beams, 148, 149
-laying, 198-200
timbers, 149, 344
to polish, IgI
Flooring, sawing, 343, 344
Foot, board-, 133, 134
claw, 169
power scroll saw, 298
Square, 133, 134
Ford bit, 75
Fore plane, 60
Forms for bending, I51, 152
Forstner bit, 80
Forty-five degrees, to find, 16-18
Frame, braced and pinned, 137
mitred, assembling, 148
Framing (one-storied building), 148,
149
chisel, 39
square, II
French polishing, 189
Fret or scroll saw, 55, 56
Frog (plane), 60
Fuming, 186
Furniture polish or cleaner, 193
repairing, 257, 258
Gain, trimming, 41, 42
Gained joint, 241
Galvanized nails for boat work, 89
for shingling, 93, 262
Garnet sandpaper, 87, 188
Gauge, 13
for bit, 81
butt, 178
circular saw and other machines,
2737-275, euc.
countersink, 82
emergency, 16
Index
for turning, 324
for special work, 16
mortise, 15
pencil, 15
roller, 15
setting, 14
stop, for boring, 81
try square as, 15
Gauging for hinges, 178, 208, 209
thumb, 15
with finger and pencil, 15
Getting out stock, 129
Gimlet, 74, 80, 84
bit, 74, 80
Glass, cutting, 200, 201
plate, 201
setting, 200, 201
wedging, plate mirrors, 201
Glazier’s points, 200
Glazing, 200, 201
Glue and its use, 201-207, 257
joint, sawing for, 280
joint, clamping, 103-106
joint, doweling, 245
pot, 207
rubbed joint, 204
testing, 202
Gouge, 44, 45
carving, 45, 163
sharpening, 114-116
sweep of, 45
turning, 316
Grain of wood, I41, 142, 340-345
arrangement of, 66
cutting with, 37-46, 63, 142, 143,
164
planing against, 63
io across, 69
end grain, planing, 69, 70
Green wood, 341, etc.
Grinders, oilstone, 110
Grinding, I0g-III
guides, 110
wheels, I0g-I12
Grindstone, 109, III, I12
Groove, trimming, 4I, 42
turning; 32,7224
Grooving, 207, 282-285, 306
saws and cutters, 282, 306, 333
Guards for circular saw, etc.,276,277
jointer, 302, 304
band saw, 293
mortiser, 332
Index
Guides for planing, 66, 67, 70, 72
for drawers, 181
saw-filing, 120
Hack saw, 6
Half-bead, to turn, 323, 324
Half-lap and mortise, 229
round file, and rasp, 85
Halved joint, 214-216
and mitre, 239
splice, 249
Halving. See Halved joint
log, 342
Hammer and nailing, 40, 89-96
veneering, 264
Hand block belt sander, 311, 312
drills, 74, 83, 84
Handle, tool, to turn, 325, 326
Handles, fitting, 6
Hand screws, 107
Hanging a door, 177, 178
Hardware fittings, 150, 183
Hard wood, 349
Hard wood floor laying, 198-200
Hatchet, edge of, 36, 38, 39
Headstock, 315
Heart shakes, 351
wood, 341, 349, 350
Hexagonal stick, to make, 71, 72
Hinge-fitting, 207-209
Hinges, 207
Hinging a door, 177, 178, 207-209
Holes or cracks, to fill, 182, 183, 258
Hollow auger, 83
Hollow ground basil, 110-112
Hollows and rounds, to turn, 326,
327
Hopper joint, 254, 255, 288-9
Horizontal moulding machine, 333
Horse power (circular saw), 275
Horses, 5, 250
Hot glue, 202
Housing, housed joint, 213
Hypothenuse, to find, 12
I-beam, 140
Inlaying, 209, 210
Inside calipers, 21
gouge, 45
measurement, 9, 21
work, sawing, 54-57, 287, 288,
296, 298
Intersection of lines, 16
361
Iron, plane-, 59
to paint, 195
Irregular moulding machine, 334
Irwin bit, 75
Ivory black, 187
Jack board, 67, 70
plane, 59; 61, 70
Japan, 195
Jigs, 72
for doweling, 234
circular saw, 286
sander, 311
Jig saw, 55, 56, 296-298
Joint-edge, 13, 32, 143, 144, 174,
273, 277, 303
Jointer, 60, 65, 273, 302-308
for filing saws, 120
Jointing, 65-68
saw teeth, I19, 120
Joints, 139, 211-255
breaking, 171
glue, planing for, 66-68
planing, after gluing, 205
sprung, for gluing, 67
painting, 194
toggle, 199
Jorgensen clamps, 108
Keen edge, testing, 113
Kerf, saw, 47
Kerfing, 152
Keyed tenons, 227-229
Keyhole saw, 54
Keys, to make, 229
Kiln-drying, 346
Knife, 7, 36, 37, 38
point for marking, 37
grinding, 114
whetting, 114
Knives, planer, 299, 300-303, 307
*‘Knock-down”’ constructions, 228
Knots, 351
sawing through, 51
to ‘‘kill”’ with shellac, 193
Lac. See Shellac
Lacing of belts, 337
Lacquer, wood, I9I, 192
Lag-screws, IOI
Lamp black, 187
Lap (cross) joint, 214-216
362
Lap or drawer dovetailing, 240-242
Laps, to avoid, 184, 185, 186, 194
Lathe, 314-331
Laths, stay, 136, 137
Lattice bridge, 138
Lattice work, 150
Laying floors, 197-200
Laying out work, 7-32, 129
Lead for flashing, 197
red, 195
white, and oil, 194
Leg, curved, 295-6
Length of belt, to find, 336
Level, 22, 23
Leveling tables, chairs, etc., 29-30
Lid, sliding, 158
Lime water, 187
Lines, drawing, 7, 10, II, 13-16,
22-25, 30, 31
Linoleum, for rubbing, 190
Linseed oil, for darkening, I91
Lips, cutting, 75
Liquid fillers, 188
glue, 206
List of materials, lumber, etc., 134-
135
Live: centre, 314, 315
Lock corner, 246, 247, 335
joint (three-way corner), 161, 162
Locks and fitting, 255, 256
Log, methods of sawing, 242-344
Logwood, 187
Loose pulleys, 336
Lugs, 175
Lumber, care of, 345, 347, etc.
measurement, 133, 134
seasoning, 345, 346
M (lumber measurement), 134
Machines, woodworking, 272-339
Mallet, 40, 97-98
Marking across the grain, II, 12
awl, or scratch awl, 7
from rule, 7, 8
lines, 7
measurements and dimensions,
+ 7-10
positions of parts, 31, 32
short distances, 8
spaces (turning), 321, 324
with chisel, 7
with gauge, 14
with knife, 7, 8
Index
with the grain, 13-16
with straight edge, 10
Mason’s square, I2
Matched boards, 198, 243
nailing, 198, 199
to strike, 243
Matching planes, 61
Materials, bill of, 129, 134, 135
Measure, board, 133, 134
Measurements, 7, 8, 9, 10
of lumber, 133, 134
Measuring rod, 8
Medullary rays, 341
Middle, to find, 9, 10
Mirrors, plate glass, to wedge, 201
Mitre, 235
box, 57, 58
dovetailing, 242
jack (shooting) board, 67
Saws, 275
square, 16, 18
to mark, 16-18
Mitred joint, to nail, 236, 237
Mitring, 235-239
Modeling or shaping
forms, 143
carving, 167-170
Model, strength of, 138
Monkey wrench, 6
Mortise and tenon, 175, 218-231,
232, 334.
Mortise chisel, 39
gauge, 15
locks, 255, 256
Mortising machines, 332
Motors, 336
Moulding or shaping (carving) 167-
170
Moulding machines, 333, 334
Mouldings, roughing out with cir-
cular saw, 287
making with jointer, 306
Moulds for bending, 151, 152
Mouth of plane, 59, 60
Multiple slip joint, 246, 247
Muntin, 174
irregulai
Nailing, 89-96
blind, 94
clinching, 95, 96
silver, 93
toe, 94
mitred joint, 236, 237
Index 363
Nails, 89 Pickets, 150
corrugated fasteners, 90 Picture-frame, mitred, assembling,
cut nails, using, 92 148
for shingling, 92, 93 Pigeon holes, joint for, 241
to withdraw, 96 Pincers (pliers, nippers), 6
Nail-set, 96, 97 Pinned mortise and tenon, 229, 230
Narrow surfaces, planing, 63-68 Pipe wrench, 6
Nibs, scoring, 75 Pitch of saw teeth, 120
Nippers, cutting, 6 Pith rays, 341
Notch, cutting, 38 Plain sawing (lumber), 342
Notched joint, 251 Plan, 129, 132
Novelty saws, 275 Plane, 36, 59-72
adjusting cutting edge, 62
Octagon (in square), 71 adjustments, 59, 60, 62
Octagonal stick, to make, 71, 72 bead cutter, 72, 73
Oil finish, I9g1 beading, 72, 73
for darkening, 191 bit, 59
for oil stones, 112 block, 60, 70
Oiling bearings, 337, 338 bull-nosed, 61
Oilstains, 185, 186 cap iron, 59, 60, 61
Oil stone grinders, 110 circular, 61
Oil stones, III, 112 combination (universal), 61
Open work (inside), to saw, 54-56, core-box, 288
296-298 dado, 61
Orange shellac, 188, 189 double-ironed, 59, 60
Outlining carving, 165-167 fore, 60
Outside calipers, 21 frog, 60
gouge, 44, 45 iron, 59, (to grind), I10, III
iron cap, 59, 60
Packing boxes, 160, I61 jack, 59, 61, 70
crates, 161, 162 jack boards, 67
Pad for polishing, 189 jointer, 60, 65
rubbing, 190 matching, 61
sanding, 87, 88 mouth, 59, 60
Paddle, marking shape, 25 plow, 61
Painting, 193-196 projection of cutting edge, 60, 62
Panel saws, 48 rabbet, 61
Paneling and door making, 174-177 router, 61
Panels, types of, 176 sharpening, 60, 61
Paraffine (for nails and screws), 93, shooting boards, 67
100 smoothing, 60, 65, 70
Paring, 36-46, 141-143 sole, 59
chisel, 39 throat, 59
Parting tool, carving, 163, 164, 169 toothing, 61
turning, 322 universal, 61
Paste fillers, 187, 188 wooden, adjustments and use, 61,
Pattern making, 256 62
Pencil, 7 Planer, 298-302, 349
gauge, 15 jointer or ‘‘buzz,’’ 302-308
gauging with rule and, 15, 16 knives, 299-307
marks, to remove, 183 marks, 62, 301
sharpening, 7 Planing, 63-72, 298-308, 349
Penny (nails), 89 against the grain, 63
364
Planing—Continued
broad surfaces, 68, 348
edges, 63-68, 71
end grain, 69, 70
jointing edges, for glue joints, 65-
68
octagon, 7I
shearing cut, 70
traversing, 69
warped or winding surface, 68, 69
with the grain, 63
Plank, 134
Plaster of Paris, 183
Plate glass, 201
mirror, to wedge, 201
Plates, 148, 149
Pliers, 6
Plow, 61, 207
Plug cutter, 83
(screw and plug bit), 83
Plugs, to fill holes, etc., 258
Plumb, 22-24
Plumb-bob, 24
Plywood, 351
Pockets, screw, 252, 253
Points, glazier’s, 200
saw teeth, 47, 48, 51
Polishing, French, 189
floor, 191
Portable machines, 275, 289, 292,
296, 298, 308, 314
Potash, bichromate of, 187
Power saws, 273-298
Preservation of wood, 351, 352
Process, the, in woodworking, 129-
132
Processes for preserving wood, 351,
352
Pulleys, etc., 315, 335-337
and belts, 335-337
Pumice, 189, 190
Punch. See Nazl-set
Push brace, 84
drills, 74, 84
stick, 278, 282, 283, 287, 305
Putting together. See Assembling
Putty, 183, 194, 196
knife, 196
white lead, 183
Pyrogallic acid, 186
Quarter sawing, 343, 344
Quick-action vises, I
Index
Rabbet, 257
colored black, 201
and mitre, 239
plane, 61
to cut with circular saw, 283,
284
with jointer, 306, 307
Rabbeted joint, 178, 179, 216, 217,
244, 254
and Dado, 179
Rabbeting, 257, 306, 307
Radial sawing, 343-344
Rafters, 148, 149
Rails, 174
Rasp, 85, 86
Ratchet brace, 76, 77
drills, 83
screwdriver, 98, 99
Ratchets for shelves, 261
Rat-tailed file, 85
Rays, medullary or pith, 341
Reamers, 82
Rear view or elevation, 132
Reciprocating drills, 84
Rectangle, to find centre, 317
Red lead, 195
Reed scrapers, 72, 73
Refinishing old work, 192, 193
Removing dents or bruises, 183
paint from hands, 195
Repairing furniture, etc., 257, 258
Resawing, 296, 350
Resharpening, 114
Resinous matter, to kill, 193
Reviver (of finish), 193
Ridge pole or board, 148, 149
Rift stock, 345
Right angle, to find, II, 12, 13
Rim-lock, 256
Rings, annual, 341
to turn, 331
Rip saw, 46, 51-53
filing, 120
Rip sawing, 51-53, 274, 275-280,
296
Rivets, 95, 101
Rod (drawing), 133
measuring, 8
Roller gauge, 15
Roof brackets, 263
stresses, 137-I4I
Rosettes, to turn, 328
Rotten stone, 190
Index
Roughing out carving with gouge,
45, 168, 169
turning, 316-319
Rounded surfaces, to sand, 88, 89
Rounding sticks and edges, 2 58, 259
Round stick (cylinder), to saw, 58
Round tenon, 227
Rounds and hollows, to turn, 326,
327
Router, 61, 207, 333, 334
Rubbed glue joint, 102, 204
Rubber belts, 337
rubbing blocks, 190
sanding blocks, 88
Rubber headed mallet, 97
Rubbing down, 187-190, I9gI
machines, 184
Rule, 7, 8, 9, 10
caliper, 22
extension or slide, 8
and ore gauging, I5, 16
zigzag,
Ruler. See Straight edge
flexible, 22
for marking (straight edge), 10
Saddle boards, 262
Safety-guards, 273, 276, 277, 290,
291, 293, 302, 303, 307, 312,
313, 332, etc.
Sandpaper, 87-89
blocks, 87, 88
for finishing, 188, 189
splitting, 188, 189
Sanding, 87-89
carving, 170
finish, 187-189
machines, 273, 308-312
rounded surfaces, 88, 89
turned work, 325, 328
Sap wood, 341, 349, 350
Saw, 46-56
back, 53, 54
band, 292-296
bow, 54, 55
bracket or scroll, 55, 56
circular, 273-292
clamp, II9, 120
cleaning, 47
clearance, 47, 48
compass, 54
coping, 56
cross-cut, 46-51
365
filing, 119, 120
guides, 120
fret or scroll, 55, 56
for cutting curves, 54-56, 292-
298
hack, 6
horses (padded), 184
jig, 55, 56, 296-298
kerf, 47
kerfs for bending, 152
keyhole, 54
panel, 48
points of teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52
rip, 46, 51-53
scroll, 55, 56
set, 47, 48, 119, 120
sizes, 48, 51
splitting or rip, 46, 51-53
swing, 290-292
teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52, 275
teeth, rake or pitch, 120
turning, 54, 55
web, 54, 55
Sawing duplicate lengths, 58, 281,
282
holes or inside openwork, 54-57,
287, 288, 296, 298
inlaying, 210
log, 342-345
round stick, 58
to fit (end joints), 236
Scale. See Rule
(working drawings), 132
Scarfed joint, 246
Scarfing or splaying, 246
Scoring the wood, 142, 143, 209
Scraper, 86, 87
bead or reed, 72, 73
plane, 86
to sharpen, II7, 118
Scraping machines 335
old work, 192
tools, 329
Scratch-awl, 7
stock, 210
Screw and plug bit, 83
Screw driver, 98, 99
bit, 98
ratchet, 98, 99
spiral, 98
Screw holes, 100
Screw pockets, 252, 253
points (auger bit), 75
366
Screws, 99-101
hand, 107
lag, IOI
sizes, IOI
Scribing with compasses, 30, 259,
317
Scroll saw. See Jig saw, 55, 56,
296-298
Seasoning wood, 345-348
sticking, 345
tests for, 346
Secret dovetailing, nailing, mortis-
ing, etc. See Dovetatling, nazl-
ing, etc.
Section, 132, 133
Segments, sawing with circular saw,
288
Selection of stock, 129, 340
Semi-circular hollow, testing, 327
Set, nail-, 96, 97 .
Saw teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52, 119, 120,
275
Setting nails, 96, 97
Shafting, etc., 335-338
Shakes, 351
Shaper, 333, 334
Shaping, tools for, 36
irregular forms, 143
moulder, 334
Sharpening pencils, 7
tools, 109-120
Sharpness, testing, 113
Shave (drawshave), 45, 46
(spokeshave), 73
Shearing cut, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46
(stress), 138, 142, 169
Shears or snips for metal, 6
Sheathing, 243
Shellac, 188, 189
after staining, 185
as filler, 188
black, 187
for holes and cracks, 183
Shelves, fitting, 260, 261
gained joint, 241
Shingle nails, 92, 93
Shingles, 262
Shingling, 261-263
Shiplap, 244
Shooting board, 67
Shop (workshop), I
Shoulder, 213, 229, 241
Shrinkage, 341, 342, 343, 344, etc.
Index
Side view or end elevations, 132
| Side jointing (saw teeth), 120
Siding, 172
Silex, 188
Sills, 148, 149, 150
Similar parts, laying out, 30, 31
Single-cut file, 85
Single-ironed plane, 59, 60
Single-surfacer, planer, 298-302
thread screw point, 75
Sizing dowels, 234
end grain, 204
tool, 325
turning, 325
in veneering, 264
Skew chisel, 39, 163, 316
Slab-sided file, 85
Slash sawing, 342
Sled, joints for, 254
Slicing cut. See Shearing cut
Slides for drawers, 181
Slip joint, 246
Slipping on belts, 337
Slip stones, I15, 116
“‘Sliver’’ nailing, 93
Smoking wood, 346
Smoothing plane, 60, 65, 70
| Smoothness, testing for, 27
Snips or shears for metal, 6
| Soaking wood, 346
Soap for nails and screws, 93, 100
Socket chisels, 39
Soft wood, 349
Sole of plane, 59
Spar varnish, 189
Speed of belts, 336
circular saws, 275
lathe, 315
pulleys, 336
| Spheres and rings, to turn, 331
Spindle sanders, 309-311
Spiral screw driver, 98
| Spirit level, 22, 23
Splaying or scarfing, 246
Splices. See Joints, 211-255
| Splicing, 139, 248, 249
| Spline, 22, 243
Splined joint, 243
Split and wedged dowels, 234
or rift stock, 345
| Splitter (spreader), 276
Splitting gauge, 15, 274, 278
sandpaper, 188, 189
Index
Splitting —Continued
saw, 46, 51-53
with circular saw, 277, 280
wood, 36-39, 263
Spokeshave, 72
to grind, 110, III
Spraying, Ag 190, 196, 273
Spreader, 276
Spring set, 275
Sprung joint for gluing, 67
Spur of gauge, 14
Square, II, ™2
combination, 18
foot, 133, 134
framing, II
mason’s, 12
members, in turning, 327, 328
mitre-, 16
steel, II
to find centre, 317
Squaring across the grain, II
large work, 12
stock to dimensions, 143-145
Squareness, testing for, 27
Staggering, 94, 99, 172
Staging for shingling, 263
Staining, 184-187
Star shakes, 351
Starved joint, 204
Stay-laths, 136, 137
Steam chest, 150, I51
Steaming wood. See Bending
Steel square, II
wool, 87
Stem (boat), joint, 254
Stepping off with compasses, 20
Sticking stock, 345
Stick shellac, 183
Stiles, 174
Stillson wrench, 6
Stock, air dried, 346
bill, 134, 135
care of, 345, 347, etc.
scratch, 210
seasoning of, 345, 346
selection of, 129, 340
Stool, four legged, to fewel, 29, 30
Stop, bench, I, 2, 3, 4
chamfer, I 54
for circular saw, 281, 283, 284, 285
gauges for boring, 81
groove, 283, 284
rabbet, 284, 285
367
Stop for drawer, 180
Stove bolts, 101
Straight- bent chisel, 39
| Straight-edge, Io
marking by, 10
testing, 10
testing with, 26-30
Straightness, testing, 26
Straight grain, 142
Strains (stresses), 138-141
Strap for bending, 151, 152
hinges, 207
Strength of bent wood, 153
of materials, 138-141
Stretcher joint, 252
Strop, 113, 114
Stropping, 113, I14
Strut, construction, 136, 140
Stub mortise and tenon, 224
Studding, 148, 149
Surfacer (planer), 298-302
Swaged saw teeth, 275
Sweep of gouge, 45
Swelling and shrinking. See Ex-
pansion and Contraction
Swing of lathe, 315
Swing saws, 273, 290-292
Symmetrical work, laying out, 25
Table, to level, 29, 30
top, to fasten, 252, 253
turn-, 184
Tail stock, 315
vise, I, 2
Tallow, bayberry, 178
Tang, 6
chisel, 39
Tanks, 60
Tannic acid, 186
Taper, to saw, 286
ground (saws), 47
to plane, 301, 306
to turn, 321
Tee rest, 315, 317
Teeth saw, 47, 48, 51, 52, 275
cross-cut, 47, 48
compass, 54
Tip, 51, 52
Templates. See Temblets
Templets, 82, 223, 331
Tenon. See Mortise and Tenon,
218-231
to cut (circular saw), 285
368
Tenon—Continued
to cut (jointer), 306, 307, 308
to lay out, 223
to wedge, 226, 227
Tenoning machines, 333
Tension, 138-141, 293, 297
Testing angles, 16, 17, 18, 27
surfaces and edges, 22, 23, 26-30
tools for, 7
T-hinges, 207
Three points, arc through, 21
-way corner, 161, 162
Throat of plane, 59
Through mortise and tenon, 218,
224, 225
Throwing off belts, 337
Thrust joint, 250, 251
Thumb gauging, 15
Tie (construction), 136-141
Tight and loose pulleys, 336
Timbers, floor and roof, 344
Tin for flashing, 197
“Toe” nailing, 94, 211, 246
Toggle-joint, 105, 199
Tonguing, 175, 306
Tonguing and grooving (flashing),
196
with tenon, 230
Tool handle, to turn, 325
Tools, 6
edged, 36, 37
edges of, 36, 37
for boring, 74, 85
for carving, 163
for cutting, shaping, fitting, as-
sembling, etc., 36-128
for laying out and testing, 7-32
for turning. See Turning
metal, 6
selection of, 5, 6
Toothing, 203
plane, 61
knife, 335
veneers, 264
Top jointing (saw teeth), 119
view or plan, 130, 132
Torsion, 138
Toughness, 350
Toy boat (hull), 25
Tracery, 170
Trammel, 20
Transverse strain, 138, 141
habia 69
Index
T-rest, 315, 317
Treenails, 230
Trestles or horses, 5
Trimmer, 74
to sharpen, 118
Trimming. See Paring, 36-46
Tripoli, 190
True surface, to determine, 26-
30
Truing oilstone, 112
surfaces, 68, 69, 305, 346
Trusses, 139-141
Try square, II
as gauge, 15
Tumbling, 88
Turning, 314-331
chisel, 316
edge of scraper, 117, 118
finishing, 331
gouge, 316
saw, 54, 55, (teeth), 120
Turn table, 184
Turpentine, 186-189, 193-195
Twist bit, 80
drill, 80, (sharpening), 116
“Twister,” 105
Undercutting in carving, 167
end joints, 198, 199, 246
shoulders, 224, 229
Unit of lumber measurement, 133,
134
Universal planes, 61
Upholstering, 264
Upsetting rivets, 95
“V" or parting tool, 163, 169
Valleys, flashing, 196, 197
Varnish, etc., 189-191
remover, 193
stains, 186
vessels for, 190
Varnishing. See also Shellacing
Veining tool, 163
Veneered doors, 176, 177
Veneering, 264, 265
hammer, 265
Veneers, 264
gluing, 264
Vise, bench, I, 2, 3, 4
for metal, 6
for saw filing, 119, 120
Index
“‘Wabbling”’ circular saw, 282, 283
Walnut crystals, 187
Warped surface, 26
to true, 68, 69, 305, 346
Warping of boards, 340-345, 347-
359 |
twisting, etc., to avoid, 348, 349
Washita stones, I12
Waste, 134
Water colors, 195, 196
resistant glues, 206
Water stains, 185, 186
table, 171
Wax, finishing, I91, 193
filling holes, etc., 183
for nails and screws, 93, 100
Weather drying. See Seasoning
Web saw, 54, 55
Chats Beeiic (edged tools), 36,
Wedged dowels, 234, 235
tenons, 226, 229
Wedges, 105, 109
cutting with circular saw, 286
Whetting, 109, I1I-116
guides, 110
Wheel cutter, 56
Wheels, grinding, 109-112
small, 56
White lead and oil, 194
shellac, 188, 189
Whiting, 196
Whittling, 37, 38
Wide surfaces, to make, 244, 245
planing, 68, 69. See also Planer
and Jointer
369
Winding, 26. See also Warping
sticks, 28-30
surface, to plane, 68, 69, 305, 346
testing ‘for, 28-30, 69
Window and door casings, flash-
ing, 196, 199
Wing compasses, 19
Wire edge, 113, 116, 118
nails, 89
Withdrawing bit, 77
nails, 96
screws with broken heads, 100
Witness-marks, 220
Wood, 340-353. See also Lumber
Wood alcohol, 188
Wooden planes,
use, 61, 62
Wood lacquer, 191, 192
turning, 314-331
Woodworking machines, 272-339
Work, laying out, 129
Workbench, r2
Working drawings, 120,122,133
face and edge, 13, 32, 143-144,
303
Workshop, I
Worm of bit, 76
Wrecking tool, 6
Wrench, 6
Wrought nails, 89
adjustment and
Zigzag nailing, etc. See Staggering
rule 8
Zinc for flashing, 197
paints, 194
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