PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER AND BOARDS. BY A. PROTEAUX, CIVIL ENGINEER, GRADUATE OF THE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, AND DIRECTOR OF THIERS* PAPER-MILL, PUY-DE-d6mE. WITH ADDITIONS BY L. S. LE NORMAND. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH WITH NOTES BY HORATIO PAINE, A.B., M.D. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD IN THE UNITED STATES. BY HENRY T. BROWN, OF THE "AMERICAN ARTISAN." Illiistnt^J^ bg flatus, CONTAINING DRAWINGS OF RAW MATERIALS," MACHINERY, PLANS OF PAPER MILLS, ETC. ETC. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 406 WALNUT STREET. 1866. n Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by HENRY CAREY BAIRD, in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PKILADELPHIA: COLLINS, PBINTER. PREFACE. • The volume on the Manufacture of Paper and Boards, here presented to the American public, is be- lieved to be 'the first practical treatise of the kind pub- lished in this country. It consists of a translation of the valuable work of Proteaux, which appeared in Paris about a year since, additions from the " Nouveau Man- uel" of Le Normand, notes by the translator, and a paper by Henry T. Brown, Esq., of the " American Artisan." It is hoped that it will be found an accept- able and important aid to the American manufacturer of paper, and a creditable addition to the industrial lit- erature of the United States. Wide-spread intelligence and well-nigh universal edu- cation, as they are the glory, so have they been found the bulwark of this nation in the hour of its greatest peril. They will in the future prove to be the elements which will carry it up to the highest stage of development ever known to any country, and far beyond anything which has ever been imagined by the most enthusiastic lover of free institutions. The measure of the education and intelligence of our people, as compared with those of other countries, has only to be looked for in the con- 1* * yi PREFACE. sumption of paper. In this respect, it need hardly be added, we far surpass any other nation in the world. The paper question has within a few years past as- sumed much more than ordinary importance. A scarcity of raw materials, arising out of a state of war, a short supply of cotton and cotton rags, and other causes, com- bined to place this branch of industry in a very awkward and trying position. The American paper-makers, how- ever, showed themselves quite equal to the emergency. They availed themselves of and utilized nearly every raw- material which could be used for the purpose, and -kept supplied a large and growing market, at prices lower than other commodities which were affected by the scarcity of cotton. The energy, enterprise, and success thus manifested deserved all praise and encouragement, and yet received but little. On the contrary, the most determined efforts were made to crush the authors of the great results attained, and actually to discriminate against these, our own people, who were aiding and supporting the go- vernment, and in favor of those foreigners, who, in a majority of cases, were either indifferent to us and our cause, or wholly and bitterly hostile to us. Few more selfish or indefensible attempts at legislation have dis- graced our country within the past few years. Happily, these attempts, vigorous and determined though they were, did not succeed. Had they done so, and had the American paper industry been crushed, those who were most active in inaugurating and' urging this movement PREFACE. vii would have been among the earliest and most severe sufferers by it. It would soon have been demonstrated to them, and at heavy cost, how utterly impossible it would be for this country to rely upon Europe for any considerable portion of its supplies of paper. The emer- gency has, however, passed; and in the early future, with the new raw materials, especially wood and straw, and the former quantity of rags, our own producers of this important aid to our civilization will be found fully capable cf supplying the enormous quantity of paper which we shall require. H. C. B. Philadelphia, June 15, 1866. % Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/practicalguidefoOOprou CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. A Glance at the History of Paper- Making . . .11 CH APTERAL Raw Materials 24 § 1. Rags 26 CHAPTER III. Manufacture 29 § 1. Sorting and cutting ...... 29 § 2. Dusting 34 § 3. Washing and boiling . . . . . . 36 § 4. Reduction to half-stuff 44 § 5. Drainage ........ 41 § 6. Bleaching 49 § T. Composition of the pulp ..... 66 § 8. Refining or beating ... . . .69 § 9. Sizing 11 § 10. Coloring matters ...... T6 § 11. The work of the paper-machine .... 96 § 12. Finishing 99 CHAPTER TV. Manufacture of Paper from the Yat, or by Hand .105 §1. Manufacture of paper by hand . . . .111 § 2. Sizing 119 § 3. Finishing , . .125 § 4. Manufacture of bank-note paper, and watermark paper in general . . . . . .126 §5. Comparison between machine and hand-made papers 128 § 6. Classification of paper ...... 131 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER y. Further Remarks on Sizing 133 § 1. Of the sizing-room 134 § 2. Method of extracting gelatine . . . .136 § 3. Operation of sizing 144 § 4. Drying after sizing ; the Dutch method preferable to the French 146 § 5. Some important observations upon sizing . . 150 § 6. Appendix upon sizing 158 § 7. Theories of sizing 175 § 8. Sizing in the pulp 178 § 9, M. Canson's method of sizing in the pulp . . 187 § 10. Comparison of the two methods .... 189 CHAPTER YI. Different Substances Suitable for Making Paper . .191 § 1. Straw paper 198 § 2. Wood paper 201 CHAPTER YIL Chemical Analysis of Materials employed in Paper- 204 § 1. The waters . 206 § 2. Alkalimetrical test . 208 § 3. Examination of limes .... . 211 § 4. Chlorometric tests . . ... . 213 § 5. Examination of manganese . 218 § 6. Chlorometric degree of samples of manganese . 219 § 7. Antichlorine ...... . 222 § 8. Alums ....... . 223 § 9. Kaolin . 225 § 10. Starch . 225 §11. Coloring materials . 226 § 12. Fuel . 228 §13. Examination of papers .... . 230 § 14. Materials of a laboratory .... . 238 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER YIIT. Working Stock of a Paper- Mill 241 § 1. Motive power 241 § 2. Rag cutters 243 § 3. Dusters 245 § 4. Washing apparatus 246 § 5. Boiling apparatus 24T § 6. Washing and beating-engines .... 247 § Y. Apparatus for bleaching and draining the pulp . 250 § 8. Paper-machines 251 § 9. Finishing-machines 253 § 10. General working stock of a paper-mill . . 254 § 11. General remarks upon the establishment of a paper-mill 255 § 12. General remarks in reference to building . . 257 § 13. General considerations 258 CHAPTER IX. The Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, 263 CHAPTER X. Manufacture of Boards 269 CHAPTER XI. Manufacture of Paper in China and Japan . . .273 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. Plate 1 277 Plate II 278 Plate III 279 Plate lY . 280 Plate Y 281 Plate YI 283 n PRACTICAL GUIDE TOR PAPER-MAKING. CHAPTEE I. A GLANCE AT THE HISTORY OF PAPER-MAKING. The word paper is derived from the Greek word Ttdnvqog, papyrus, an Egyptian plant, which, for a long while, served among the ancients as a material for writing. The manufacture of papyrus paper was in high repute among the Eomans. It was superseded about the fifth century of our era by the cotton paper called carta bom" hycina, ' Several manuscripts having an authentic date belong to the tenth century, and judging from the appearance of the writing, others seem to go back to a period still more remote. The great libraries of Europe, almost all of them, possess works of the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies, written on bombycian paper.^ * See the following works for a description of the processes of mak- ing papyrus and other kinds of paper among the ancients : — Pliny, lib. xiii., chap. xi. Theophrastus, lib. ix., chap. ix. Bartholinus, " Dissertatione de libris legendis." Polydorus Yirgilius, " De rerum inventione." Le Pere Hardouin, " De re diplomatica." Prideaux, " Connectione." Scaliger. Saumaise. Comte de Caylus, " Memoires de I'Academie des Sciences," tome xxvi. 2 18 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The processes employed at that time to effect the transformation of cotton into paper are not known ; but it is fair to suppose them analogous to those which were later employed in the preparation of paper from rags, and whose discovery dates from the second half of the twelfth century. Such, at least, is the opinion of most men of learning who have written on this subject. In 1762 M. Miermann offered a prize for the oldest manuscript written upon rag paper. The different minutes of the proceedings of this com- petition, printed at the Hague in 1767, unite in admit- ting that paper of this kind was used before the year 1300. It is not known to what nation 'this important discovery is due. Scaliger gives the credit to the Germans. Maffei to the Italians. We believe that Dr. Prideaux is nearer right in considering the Arabs, if not as the inventors, at least as the importers of this manufacture into Europe. Some historians admit that the crusaders brought home into France this branch of industry, which was soon to be so prodigiously developed, and contribute more than any other to the progress of modern civilization. Up to the end of the eighteenth century rag paper was made at the vat, or by' hand, through processes which are still in use in France, in some departments, as, for instance, Puy-de-D6me. The first idea of making paper by machinery is due to France. In 1798, Eohert, a workman attached to the paper-mill at Essone, took out the first patent for manu- facturing paper continuously. The machine, set up in 1799, was very imperfect; it could not be worked. M. Lejer Didot, proprietor of the HISTORY OF PAPER-MAKING. 19 paper-mill at Essone, bought the patent from Eobert, introduced some improvements upon the original model, and went over to England to have the plans executed. After many experiments, and powerfully aided by the mechanical knowledge of Mr. DonJcin, employed in the workshops of Mr. Hall, he was enabled, in 1803, at Frogmore, in Herefordshire, to work the first paper-ma- chine. In 1 804 a second machine was set up at Two Waters. MM. Berthe and Grevenich established the first French paper-machine in their paper-mill at Sorel (Eure-et-Loir) in 1811. They were the first makers who introduced into commerce paper made by machinery and sized in the vat. The labors of BerthoUet having thrown great light upon bleaching the stufi*s, chlorine soon began to be adopted as a discolorant of the pulp. In 1827 there were as yet but four paper-machines in France. In 1833 the number exceeded twelve. At that time, however, the paper-maehine was far from having received its latest improvements. The manufac- turers complained of the frequent obstruction of the wire- gauze, of too rapid destruction of the felts, &c. The paper too retained upon what is called the wrong side the impression of the wire-gauze. A system of cylindrical presses, suggested by 3Ir. Doiikin, set aside this defect. M. Firmin Didot at the same time established the first drying presses at his paper-mill at Mesnil-sur-l'Estree (Euro). French paper-making then received a new impetus. A large number of manufacturers established cylinders and engines in the place of their mortars and mallets. 20 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Everywhere the vegetable sizing, composed of a mixture of alumino-resinous soap and starch, took the place of the sizing made of gelatine. About 1840 M. de Bergue suggested the use of sand- traps, which, as their name implies, receive the gravel and other impurities, whose presence in paper would in- jure leaden type, woodcuts, copper plates, &c. M. Canson, of Annonay, applied suction-pumps to the paper-machine, which, during the formation of the paper, carry off by degrees a great portion of the water contained in the pulp from under the wire-gauze. The usefulness of this improvement was so evident that the suction-pumps were at once generally employed. The introduction of kaolin (porcelain clay) into paper, rendered it more fit to receive the impression of type and eugravings. Kags, too, growing daily more expensive, this became one means of preventing an increase in the price of paper. As the scarcity of the raw material began to be felt more and more, an attempt was made to use substances other than rags for the manufacture of inferior papers. In 1839 the paper-mill at Echargon sent to the "Ex- position Rationale" samples of paper made with sea- wrack, wood, etc. M. Cardon de Buges (Loiret) manufacture^ tarred paper for packing out of old ship ropes. These products, when they first appeared, were very much esteemed as wrappers for articles of hardware and cutlery, which they preserve from rust. At the paper-mill of the Marais, M. May makes paper of plantain leaves. M. Heryjoyen uses rye straw for common wrappers. An important improvement in paper-making was the adaptation of washing-drums to the rag-engines, which HISTORY OF PAPER-MAKING. 21 rid the pulp of the traces of chlorine it might contain at the beginning of the refining process. The first idea of this invention belongs to M3I. Breton freres. It was not generally adopted until after it had undergone the modi- fications due to il^. Blanchet, of Rives, who made the washing-drum what it is at the present day. In 1844 the machine-made' papers thrown into the market were extremely white, but unfortunately inferior in tenacity to those made by hand. The employment of chlorine in excessive quantities injuriously affected the resisting power of the fibres. In many mills the washing of the pulp was imperfect ; some kinds of paper contained free chlorine. From all this there resulted a depreciation in French paper, which it was important to remedy. So after the abuse of chlorine as a gas, liquid chlorine (a solution of the hypochlorite of lime in water) returned into use, and is more easily manipulated by manufac- turers unfamiliar with chemical preparations. In 1849 paper-making, enlightened by the errors com- mitted from 1834 to 1845, began to advance more steadily. The composition of the pulps was better studied. The common printing and writing papers were made of a mixture of gray linen rags and cotton formerly only employed in preparing coarser kinds. From that time white rags were kept for fine papers of a superior quality, whose sale became considerably greater. The World's Fair at London, in 1851, afi'orded an opportunity of appreciating the development of paper- making at the beginning of the second half of the nine- teenth century. We quote the following statistics from the report of the commission: — 22 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER MAKING. Paper-machines. Vats. Cylinders. France . 210 250 England . . 322 266 1616 Scotland . . 68 Id 286 Ireland . 33 ■ 15 86 Zolverein . . 140 , 1024 * 800 Which is subdivided thus Prussia Bavaria Saxony Grand Duchy of Hesse Electorate " " Duchy of Baden Nassau ... The statistics for Wirtemburg, Brunswick, and several other States, are wanting. Machines. Vats. 503 . 11 25t . 6 68 . I • 27 . 6 39 . 14 S3 . 6 30 OTHER EUROPEAN STATES. Machines. Austria . . . . 48 900 vats. Denmark .... . 6 20 Sweden .... . t 8 " Belgium . . . . . 28 80 paper-mills. Low Countries . 168 " • Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom . 6 Kingdom of Two Sicilies . . 12 12 vats. Boman States . 3 Kingdom of Sardinia . . 12 50 vats. Tuscany .... . 2 Spain .... . IT 250 vats. Switzerland . 26 40 " Turkey . . . ^ . . 1 Russia .... . 25 In 1860 the number of paper-mills in 24 States of the United States was 555, producing annually 113,294 tons of paper and boards, of the value of $17,148,194. HISTORY OF PAPER-MAKING. 23 Estimating the daily product of each machine at 610 kilogrammes (1,344.88 pounds avoirdupois), and of a vat at 50 kilogrammes (110.23), we should have the follow- ing yearly product for these different countries : — England , 62,900,000 kilog. (61,968.8578 tons of paper.) Scotland . 14,300,000 (14,074.8839 " Ireland . . 3,309,000 " (3,256.9062 " Trance . . 41,608,000 " (40,666.4888 " Zolverein . 37,300,000 " (31,506.8165 " Austria . 22,320,000 " (21,968.6290 " Denmark . 1,600,000 " (1,574.8120 Spain . . 5,330,000 " (5,246.0924 " " Since 1851 paper-making in France has increased, but the improvements, notwithstanding the great number of patents obtained, are unimportant. It should be observed, however, that there has been a tendency to substitute large machines for small ones, which produce from 2600 to 3000 kilogrammes (1.5774 to 2.9527 tons) in twenty- four hours. The machinery has been more carefully studied; the number of wet presses and drying cylinders increased ; and printing paper has been made by mixing with the rag-pulp a considerable proportion of wood, straw, and particularly esparto (broom), which is very generally used in England for news and common printing papers. The most elegant English papers are sized with gela- tine, which gives them a greater sonority and strength than could be imparted by vegetable or resinous sizing. The first French paper-machine furnished with the necessary apparatus for using this kind of size, was put up about 1857 by M. Outhenin Chalandre, at the paper- mill of Savoyeux (Haute-Saone). As the employment of animal sizing allows a very large proportion of cotton to be used in the paper, a considerable profit accrues to the manufacturer, which greatly compensates for the original outlay required by this system of sizing. 24 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. CHAPTEE II. RAW MATERIALS. The raw materials used in a paper mill are numerous ; they may be classified as follows : — 1. Rags. 2. Products of the vegetable kingdom taking the place of rags, entirely or in part ; the most important are: — Esparto (Spanish broom). • Acacia. Aloes. Juto. • Wood. Straws of cereal and leguminous plants.- Oats. Hops. Ferns, &c. &c. 3. Materials required in boiling : — Unslacked lime. Soda (carbonate, NaO C02) at 80° (alcalimeter). Crystals of soda at 30°. Salts of potassa. 4. Materials required in bleaching : — Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. Sulphuric acid. Manganese (peroxide, MnOg). Chloride of lime (hypochlorite of lime, CaO,C10 + CaCl). Common salt. Antichlorine (sulphites of soda, NaO, SO2). RAW MATERIALS. 25 5. Materials required for sizing : — E-esin. Carbonate of soda. Starch (fecula). Alum. Gelatine. Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol). 6. Mineral substances : — Kaolin (porcelain clay). Sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris). Sulphate of baryta. Chalk. Clays. 7. Coloring materials, or substances used to produce them ; the principal ones are : — Ultramarine (called bleu guimet). Cochineal. Brazil wood. Nftrate of lead. Acetate of lead (sugar of lead). Chromate of potassa. Sulphate of iron (green vitriol). Prussiate of potassa (ferrocyanide of potassium). Salt of tin (protochloride of tin). Safiiower (Spanish red). Logwood (Campeachy wood). Lampblack. Nutgalls. Ochre. We will examine the first group of this classification more particularly in the next chapter. The others will be taken up in connection with the processes which they characterize. 26 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The importance which the second group is daily assuming, obliges us to enter into some details, and, therefore, we will not touch upon the subject until we have completely studied the actual manufacture of rag paper, where the aggregate of the processes employed constitutes the type of all paper-making. § 1. Rags. The rags most employed in a paper-mill are of hempen, linen, or cotton thread. Woollen rags are not made use of except for common wrappers. Besides this they are now sold to the woollen factories to be un- ravelled and worked over. The rags arrive at the mill in bales weighing from 200 to 500 kilog. (440.94 to 1102.36 lbs. avoir.) either unpicked or having undergone a first sorting. In that case they bear the following denominations : — 1. Fine whites (of thread). 2. Common white. * 3. White cottons. 4. Colored cottons. 5. Gray rags and packcloths. As the commercial value of these various kinds is very different, it is of the greatest importance for a manufacturer to assure himself that each delivery really contains the rags intended. In case no preparatory sorting has been made, in order to settle the price, the relative proportion of each kind must be ascertained. To discover this, it is necessary to examine the interior of the bales, which are frequently found made up of inferior qualities. In Germany, they are satisfied with three classes : — RAW MATERIALS. 27 1. Whites. 2. Half whites. 3. Colored rags and packcloths. In Belgium, on the contrary, the great rag dealers find it an advantage to have a precise classification, which allows them to fix a more exact price for each kind. Some of them adopt as many as seventeen numbers : — 1. White linen. 2. Brown Holland. 3. Gray, brown, or blue linen. 4. White cotton. 5. Colored cotton. 6. House-cloths. 7. Coff'ee-bags. 8. Flax-wastings, 1st quality. 9. " 2d 10. Ropes and packcloths containing straw. 11. " " " 2d quality. 12. Hempen ropes. 13.. Aloes ropes. 14. Small grays. 15. White parings. 16. Half white parings. 17. Gray parings and old paper. We should like to see this method adopted, as it would facilitate business and put an end to the intermi- nable discussions between paper manufacturers and rag dealers. This is not a time when industry thrives by sharp practice ; on the contrary, it can only live by free competition. To increase the weight of their rags, some dealers wet them. M. Piette, formerly a paper manufacturer, tells tis that he has seen ragmen take their wares to the bank of a stream, spread them out in layers, sprinkle them 28 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. successively with water and fine sand, and then shove the whole into a bag. We mention this fact, which we desire to believe is of very rare occurrence, in order to show how far a want of good faith may be carried. Rags always contain a certain amount of natural moisture, varying according to the fineness of the tex- ture ; but the proportion should never exceed 7 or 8 per cent, for the common and coarser kinds. One needs only a certain amount of practice, to recognize by the feel whether they are in their natural condition of mois- ture. It is well, however, and important for counter- registering, to make sure by actual weighing of the number of pounds of water contained in a given quan- tity of rags, at the time of their arrival at the mill. The quality of rags varies very much according to the source from which they are obtained. Those collected from great centres of population are fine and white, but not strong. The use of concentrated lyes in bleaching the clothes has considerably injured the resisting power of the fibres. They are, so to speak, burnt, tear easily between the fingers, and sufi'er a considerable waste during their transformation into paper. Country rags, on the other hand, are coarse, of a grayer appearance, but strong, and containing many mending pieces nearly new. As we shall see later, these kinds are very valuable to give body to the paper. If the rags are moist, it is absolutely necessary to dry them before heaping, otherwise heat would be generated and in consequence fermentation occasioned which would be injurious to the toughness of the fibres and produce a still greater loss in the manufacture. The value of rags is proportional to the toughness, whiteness," cleanness, and to the character and degree of fineness of the texture. MANUFACTURE. 29 CHAPTEE III. MANUFACTURE. The work of a paper-mill in effecting the transforma- tion of rags into paper, is divided as follows : — 1. Sorting and cutting. 2. Dusting. 3. Washing and, boiling. 4'. Eeducing to half stuff. 5. Draining. . . 6. Bleaching. 7. Composition of the pulp. 8. Eefining, beating. 9. Sizing. 10. Coloring. 11. Conversion into paper. 12. Fi];iishing. We will examine in detail each one of these opera- tions successively. § 1. Sorting and Cutting. The rags are not sorted in all mills before being cut. Upon their arrival, they are weighed, unpacked, heaped, and delivered every day, to the cutters in bags contain- ing 100 kilog. (220.47 lbs. avoird.). Sorting is almost useless if the rags arrive at the mill already picked ; but, as it very often happens that whites, cottons, and grays a,re all mixed together, it seems 30 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. to US absolutely necessary that they should be divided into classes the better to appreciate the contents of the delivery, and to give the choicest rags to the best cutters. If the price by the cwt. is fixed in advance, we avoid the complaints of the working women, and any parti- ality which might be shown by giving to some of them sacks requiring less work. Such a division also allows us to surround the woman with fewer cases for the separation of the different sorts. The dimensions of the cut rags ought to*'vary from 3 to 5 inches upon each side. The tougher kinds should be shorter, those worn and soft longer, say from 4 to 5 inches. * It is essential that the rags should be cut in the direction either of the warp or the woof; if cut obliquely or bias, they will unravel and produce a considerable waste. Before cutting, which is done by means of a fixed knife, inclined at an angle to the floor in front of each work-woman, she should wash the soiled parts and care- fully pick out buttons, hooks and eyes, pins, &c. She begins by ridding the piece of seams and hems, then cuts it into bands of from two to four inches wide, which she afterwards recuts crossways in bunches differing in thickness according to the nature of the rags, the sharp- ness of the knife, and the strength of the woman. • She distributes the pieces among the boxes around her, according to their number, which she ought to be able to decide without much hesitation. We recommend the adoption of the following classifi- cation, and even that the principal headings should be subdivided into first and second qualities, which would carry the numbers we may find it useful to employ for MANUFACTURE. 31 the sorting of the rags, before using them in the mill, as high as seventy or eighty. Classification of Cut Rags, THREAD, HEMP, AND FLAXEN RAGS. 1. Fine whites. 2. Fine whites, half worn, clean. 3. Whites, half fine. 4. Coarse whites. 5. Fine whites, soiled. 6. Whites, half fine, soiled. 7. Seams and hems, clean, fine, half fine. 8. " " soiled, coarse. 9. Ticking. 10. Drilling. 11. Thirds, new and clean. 12. " worn. 13. " containing some hemp. 14. " coarse. 1 5. " con taining a large proportion of hemp. 16. White cord, twine. 17. Kope containing straw. • 18. Tarred ropes. 19. Hemp wastings, oakum. 20. Leavings of rope-walks. COTTON RAGS. 21. New whites, clean. . 22. Half worn whites, clean. 23. Soiled whites. 24. Scorched whites. 25. Seams and hems. 26. White muslins. 32 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 27. Embroidered muslins. 28. Knit stockings. 29. Unbleached cotton checks. 30. " light colored. 31. " dark " 32. " blue " 33. " pink. 34. Cord and fringes. 35. Wasting from cotton mills. 36. " " the duster. WHOLE OR MIXED WOOLLEN RAGS. 37. Yarn and wool. 38. White woollen. 39. Colored " SILKS. 40. Silk. 41. Velvet. PAPERS. 42. Clean white papers. 43. " colored " 44. Soiled papers. 45. Pasteboard parings, etc. etc. Starting with this classification at the outset, it is evi- dent that we shall not always have all the sorts enume- rated. The mill only using cottons and thirds or white rags exclusively, will adopt a nomenclature correspond- ing to its appointments. What we have desired to give is a general table of the difi*erent kinds of rags, which may be met with in a large paper-mill, working several machines, or using all the rags collected within a certain radius.' MANUFACTURE. 33 Many manufacturers reduce enormously the operation of cutting, on the ground that it is a very expensive one. This is a false principle. . Careful cutting results in great purity of the pulp, economy in the use of chemical mate- . rials employed in boiling and bleaching, less wear to the blades of the cylinders and plates, less waste in the pro- cess of opening the threads, and finally the various manipulations of the pulp before its transformation into paper will be easier and surer. When one of the cases is full, the work-woman takes its contents to the reviewing table, made of a metallic cloth of iron wire, and examines the rags to see whether they air belong to the same number. The superintendent of the cutting-room (called in France mistress or picker of the rags) should attentively examine this last operation, and address comments to the women upon the style in which each has done her work. Another plan is to havB all the women bring the same number to the reviewing table at once, so as only to make one lot, which is then taken to the store-room for cut rags. It seems well to employ this method for the rarer numbers. For the common sorts this is a bad plan. It hurries the women, and prevents them from making a thorough review and ascertaining if they may not have allowed some buttons, hooks, &c., to escape their atten- tion. Before being carried to the store-room the rags should be weighed, and the result entered upon the foreman's list for the day. This is the only way to ascertain correctly the waste caused by the presence of an excess of moisture, or im- purities of every description in the rags, or by threads 3 34 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. detached in cutting and found afterwards among the sweepings. To diminish . the expense of manual labor, or when working women are scarce, special machines are used called rag-cutters. Their work, however, is always de- fective, and should not be employed in the manufacture of fine paper. It would be better to have the buttons, hooks, seams, and hems taken off by the women who cut the rags into bands of two to four inches broad, and to employ men to recut them transversely; their greater muscular strength allowing them to cut through large bunches at one stroke. Cutting machines are of the greatest use in severing large ropes. When this material is present only by accident, or in limited quantities, this work is done with the axe. We shall return to the subject of the cutting machines when treating of the working stock of a paper-mill. The operation of cutting by hand, we cannot too often repeat, is indispensable for a mill making fine papers. This work requires a special and constant superinten- dence, both by the foreman and the director of the mill, if he wishes to preserve the superiority of his paper. § 2. Dusting. The operation of dusting consists in passing the cut rags through a cylindrical or conical drum having a rotary movement, the covering being of wire cloth, the threads of which are about one-fourth of an inch apart. The rags enter at one end, and are dragged out at the other, either by spokes arranged spirally upon the axle, MANUFACTURE. 35 or by iron points about six inches in length placed also spirally on in the inner surface of the drum. By this double motion of rotation and transmission, the rags are dusted as though with a brush, and the im- purities escape between the wires of the cage. Dusting is commonly not performed until just as the rags are about to be used, that is to say, before boiling. It would be a good plan, kowever, to pass them through the machine before depositing them in the store-room. When the rags are very impure and coarse, or full of straw or hemp, such as pack-cloths and ropes, a more powerful dusting machine is used called a devil. The principle of its movements is the same as the former, only the friction is more energetic. There is, as it were, a disintegration of the fibres which renders them more susceptible to the action of the lye. The waste occasioned by the dusting machine varies with the fineness and pureness of the rags. We should also add according to the manner in which the cutting has been done. The use of badly sharpened knives tears the rags instead of cutting them clearly. This results in a loss from ravelling, which it is important to avoid. The mean waste is : — 1.5 per cent, for clean white rags ; 2.5 to 3.6 " " hems and seams ; 4 to 5 " rags containing straw. The waste of rags from cutting, overhauling, dusting, and the moisture they contain, may be estimated as follows :— 36 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Whites, fine and half fine . . . . 6 to 9 per cent. " coarse 10 " 15 " Cottons, white . . . . .. . 6 10 " colored 10 " 13 " " Pack-cloths, and coarse threads containing straw 15 " 20 " " Ropes not of hemp 16 " 18 " " Hempen ropes containing much straw . .18 22 ** All things equal, it is very evident that old rags pro- duce more, waste than new and unbleached ones. § 3. Washing and Boiling. In some paper-mills, the rags are washed with water before going to the boiling apparatus. By this washing they are cleansed from a part of the dirt, and nearly all the gravel which may have escaped the duster. For this purpose a washing drum is used, similar to the duster, immersed in water, or, still better, a large wooden cylinder furnished with 18 or 20 blades or paddles also of wood. The water coming in at the lower part of the tub with considerable velocity, keeps the whole mass of liquid in agitation, so as to hold the rags constantly suspended in it, and takes the place of stirring by hand. The water charged with impurities runs off above through a strainer of wire gauze, preventing the passage of fibres which otherwise the current of water might carry off. This simple and cheap operation very much facilitates the boiling, and also economizes part of the alkaline sub- stances employed. The object of boiling is not merely to cleanse the rags of any fatty matter they might contain, but also to decompose a particular substance, which may be called vegetable gluten, and which renders the fibres too stiff to be readily made into paper. MANUFACTURE. 37 Formerly, boiling was done over a naked fire in stationary caldrons, but this method has been abandoned since the invention of steam rotating boilers. » This apparatus consists in a kind of caldron either spherical or cylindrical, and has a continuous rotatory motion imparted to it by a pinion or band-wheel. It may contain, according to its size, from a ton to a ton and a. half of rags. These are introduced through a manhole, which is then hermetically sealed. The alkaline matters employed are lime and soda; more rarely potash, the price of which is higher, at least .in France. The action of these last two being exactly the same, the choice depends entirely upon their com- mercial value. The amount of alkali contained in the sodas and potashes of commerce is very variable, and it is neces- sary that the manufacturer should determine the quality of these materials at each delivery. Lime should be bought in tjie stone, as the powder absorbs more or less carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and in consequence is entirely inert in the process of boiling. Some manufacturers make their own lime in a kiln of several bushels in capacity, and ^his example should be followed in localities where this material is badly prepared. The quantity of the alkali necessary for a thorough boiling depends upon the cleanliness and nature of the rags, and upon the alkalimetrical degree of the agent employed. Lime, as being the cheapest material, is generally used by the manufacturers, though a few prefer soda, while others make a mixture of both. In mills which still make use of the stationary boiler, *^ 38 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. we advise the employment of soda, which, combining with the fatty substances, produces a soluble compound easilf carried off by washing, whereas lime forms an insoluble calcareous soap, which cakes upon the rags. With the rotating apparatus, as the materials are kept constantly agitated, boiling with lime is almost as effec- tive as if soda were used altogether or in part. If a mixture is made of soda and lime, M. Planche^ recommends the following preparation : — To 500 parts of moderately soiled rags, using carbo- nate of soda at 80° (Fr. alkalimeter) take 6 parts of soda and 3 parts of unslacked lime. Dissolve the lime by sprinkling it with a little water and then mix with the soda. Boil the whole three or four hours in 60, or, still better, 100 parts of water. By boiling there is formed a precipitate of the carbo- nate -of lime, and the carbonate of soda becomes caustic soda, which increases its action on the matter contained in the rags. • Too weak a lye leaves behind a part of the substances it is proposed to eliminate; if too strong, it injures the tenacity of the fibres and the eventual waste is greater. It is better, however, to have it too strong than too weak. ^ There are two schools among manufacturers, in regard to the method of boiling. One prefers a low pressure of steam and a long duration of the process; the other admits that a high pressure and rapidity of operation offer great advantages. We, ourselves, think it would be more correct to say that steam at a high pressure will allow the amount of alkali employed to be diminished. Indeed, the organic ^ '*De I'Industrie du papier." MANUFACTURE. 39 matters contained in rags are decomposed the more readily as the temperature is raised; now every one knows that the temperature of steam increases with the pressure. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. ' 1 atmosphere " . . 100*^ . . 212° 2 "... 1210 . , 249.8^ 3 "... 1350 . T 2*750 4 " . . . 1450 . . 2930 5 "... 1530 . . 3OT.40 We ought to add that for coarse and hard rags, it is well to use a high pressure and to continue the boiling for a long time; for clean and fine rags, a moderate pressure does less harm to the fibres. A good plan for coarse and dirty rags is to boil them a second time. At first only half the lye is poured in, then at the end of six hours, and after a thorough wash- ing, which carries off the greater part of the coloring matter, the other half of the soda or lime is added. The rags thus prepared are softer and cleaner after the boiling is completed ; their disintegration is more rapid and the bleaching easier. The proportion of alkali required in boiling 100 parts of rags varies from 0.6 part to 5 and 6 parts of soda and from 2 to 10 and 12 parts of unslacked lime. The quantity of lime varies according to its composi- tion, and for the soda, its alkaline value deterniines the quantity to be employed for each kind of rag. Any excess of alkali may be recognized if after the boiling litmus paper reddened by an acid is turned blue. In former times rotting took the place of the boiling process. The rags, wet and heaped together, were allowed to remain for a longer or a shorter interval, during which a fermentation was set up which was mani- 40 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. fested by the increased temperature of the mass and the development of a cryptogamic vegetation. The rags assumed a peculiar color, reminding one of the dregs of wine. This method, unprofitable in every light, occasioned great waste, and could only be employed where paper was made by hand, and the daily consumption small. M. L. Piette^ has made some experiments which allow us to appreciate the superiority of the boiling process over that of rotting or fermentation. The experiments were conducted by the two methods concurrently with a thousand kilogrammes of rags each. ^ Manuel du fabricant de papier. MANUFACTURE. m . CO CO o CO o CO OS g 'Zl m bb5 O ^ co CO by fer tation. TO o o >o r— 1 OS U2 O o o o O o O o CO CM CM cq >o CO M< 0) a> rd ^ , M , o CM OS CO CO 1— 1 oo CO tn 1^ d oo oo ^ o oo CM 1—1 s I— 1 i-H r-t o o o O o d o CM CO o OO o a P CO »o ■ •noi^^'B; -TI9raj9J JO CO CM 1—1 D,Q cm" C£$ o CM CO d ^ CO CM CO rd . o O O o o d o D-Q -"^ cc3 § to «r o Den> o -4-3 ^ Loss. Total; acidim emplo\ W S PI Pure crystallized . . 100 176 73 1 250 German, first quality . . 95 ^ 16T 79 4 250 English 88 155 82 13 250 68 120 103 27 250 Cher 53.5 94 147 9 250 Mayenne 52 92 127 31 250 This table shows us that to obtain 52° of chlorine with manganese from Mayenne, 92 + 31 = 123 acidimetric de- grees were required, representing nearly one and a half times as much hydrochloric acid as would be needed to obtain the same quantity of chlorine by using the Ger- man manganese. 222 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. § 7. Antichlorine. We saw, while speaking of the washing of the pulp, that in order to remove the last traces of chlorine re- tained with much energy by a sort of special capillary attraction, it was advantageous to make use of alkaline sulphites, or hyposulphites, which, by combining with the chlorine, annihilate its destructive effects. Antichlorine is used in England upon a large scale. It has been calculated that the annual consumption amounts to 200,000 or 250,000 kilog. (196.85 'to 321.45 tons). To ascertain whether the pulp contains free chlorine, different reagents may be used, all, however, based upon the action of iodine upon starch when expelled by chlorine from its ioduretted compounds. The test liquid may be prepared in several manners, of which we will here give two. 1st. Carry the following mixture to the boiling point: — 1 part of iodide of potassium. 2 parts of starch 3 parts of water. This liquid, preserved in a glass-stoppered vial, will color the pulp blue, if it contains chlorine. 2d. Boil for about three-quarters of an hour. Starch .... 5 parts. Fused chloride of zinc • 20 " ♦ Water .... iqOO " When the liquid is cool, add Iodide of zinc ... 2 " To ascertain the presence of chlorine in the pulp, a bolus is made of the pulp by squeezing out the greater CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 223 part of the water. The presence of chlorine is then manifested by the violet blue color of the iodide of starch. There is a great advantage in using the hyposulphite instead of the sulphite ; indeed, 1 kilog. (2.679 lbs. troy) of sulphite of soda absorbs 281 grammes (4339 grs.) of chlorine. 1 kilog. (2.679 lbs.) of hyposulphite of soda absorbs 1.144 grammes (17.666 grs.) of chlorine, or about 360 litres (12.6903 cub. ft.). It follows from this that to counteract 315 litres (11.1244 cub. ft.), or 1 kilog. (2.679 lbs.) of chlorine it would take 3.553 kilog. (9.464 lbs.) of the sulphite of soda. 0.874 kilog. (2.341 lbs.) of the hyposulphite of soda. Since the cost is equally in favor of the hyposulphite, this compound should be considered as the practical anti- chlorine for all industrial purposes. § 8. Alums. Different kinds of alum are met with in commerce. 1st. Alum with a potassa base, of which the formula is K0,S03 + Al A3S03 + 24 HO, presents on analysis the following composition: — Potassa .... 10.82 Alumina .... 9.94 Sulphuric acid . . , 33.77 Water .... 45.47 100.00 2d. Alum with an ammonia base, of which the for- mula is (NH3HO) SO3+ Al A3SO3+ 24HO, gives the following analysis: — 224 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Ammonia . . . 3.89 Alumina .... 11.90 Sulphuric acid . . . 36.00 Water .... 48.21 100.00 Alums contain iron in variable proportions, and the presence of this metal is injurious to the color of pulps of delicate and pure shades. For such purposes it is well to use the purified material, known as refined alum, and proof against the tests of prussiate of potassa, which reveals the feeblest traces of iron. It is sufiicient to pour a few drops of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate) upon some crushed alum, to obtain a blue tinge, if the alum contains iron. This method is also employed for purifying alum.": Into a solution of alum enough of the prussiate is poured to precipitate the whole of the iron ; after allow- ing it to rest, the liquid is decanted by means of a syphon, and may be used at once or reduced to the form of crystals. The precipitate of Prussian blue may be used for coloring pulp. Instead of alum, sulphate of alumina is also used, which is generally obtained by roasting together alumi- nous schist and iron pyrites, and is apt to contain con- siderable quantities of that metal ; so that it is necessary to purify this substance with ferrocyanide of potassium, when it is to be employed in making fine-colored papers. Although alum is more costly than sulphate of alu- mina, it is preferable because less variable in composi- tion. The sulphate of alumina, which sometimes con- tains an excess of acid varying from two to six per cent. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 225 of the weight of the sulphate, gives rise, by this irregu- larity of composition, to considerable practical difficulty. § 9. Kaolin. Kaolin is a basic silicate of alumina, produced by the decomposition of feldspathic rocks. In a crude condi- tion it contains sand of various fineness, of which it must be freed before using in paper-making. This purification is effected by successive washings, which carry off the finest particles. This clay, although smooth to the touch, when dry adheres roughly to the tongue. We give the composition of washed kaolin, obtained from Saint- Yrieix: — Water . Silica Alumina Oxide of iron . Potassium and soda 12.82 48.37 34.95 1.26 2.60 100.00 To ascertain the pureness of kaolin, it is only neces- sary to wash it and then determine the quantity of quartz granules contained in the specimen. It is always prudent not to employ kaolin in the pre- paration of size, until it has been passed through the meshes of a fine sieve. § 10. Starch. Starch is a mealy substance, generally extracted from potatoes. The chemical formula for that of commerce is C12H10O10+4HO. 15 226 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Starch contains variable proportions of water. What is called dry starch, or that containing four equivalents, has 18 per cent, of its weight made up of water. Placed in a very moist atmosphere it may absorb 10 equivalents, or contain 35 per cent., while other starch which has only been drained contains 45 per cent, of its own weight of water. It is, therefore, important to make sure of the hygro- metric condition of the starch by desiccating it at a tem- perature of 20° to 30° (68° to 86° Fahr.) in a dry atmos- phere. To increase the weight of starch it is mixed with various matters, such as chalk, plaster, sulphate of baryta, &c. The adulteration is, however, easily recog- nized by incineration. Starch burns up entirely, leav- ing no residuum, whereas, the incombustible mineral matters are found at the bottom of the porcelain capsule in which the experiment is performed. § 11. Coloring Materials. Coloring materials can scarcely be otherwise tested than by directly staining a certain fixed weight of pulp. A well-supplied paper-mill ought to have a small cylin- der engine, holding about 5 kilog. (11.02 lbs. avoir.) of dry pulp. The quality of the coloring matter may then be determined, by gradually increasing the proportion and making several sheets of paper on a small mould. The results obtained in this manner are then compared. This method of experiment renders great service when a new kind of paper is to be made, and we have no very definite idea of the amount of coloring matter necessary to give the required shade. M. Liverkus, a manufacturer of ultramarine in Ger- CHEMICAL ANALYSTS OF MATERIALS. 227 many, recommends the following very practical method, applicable, however, to this substance alone. After having poured 3 grammes (46.32 grs. troy) of the ultramarine to be tried into a vessel containing 270 grammes (4168 grs.) of a concentrated solution of alum, the material is agitated so as to cause all the coloring matters to become suspended in the liquid. After resting for some time, say half an hour, the mix- ture is again stirred. The coloring power of the ultramarine will be directly proportional to the length of time required for the solution to become discolored. With some blues the discoloration takes place at the . end of three to six hours. In others, on the contrary, no perceptible change in the color can be observed until the second or third day. The aluminous solution is prepared by dissolving 80 grammes of alum (1135 grs.) in 1000 grammes (15,442 grs. or 2.679 lbs. troy) of water. Ochres have a commercial value proportional to the care with which they have been washed. It is an easy » matter to ascertain the amount of gravelly material they contain, and the same holds good in regard to clays, which are used in considerable quantities for manu- facturing common papers and boards. It is, however, important not to pour these matters into the engine, or the vat, until they have been filtered through a long- napped felt, which will retain the coarser particles. For the finer coloring matters, fine felts or flannels are used. 228 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. § 12. Fuel. The analysis of combustibles has for its object to de- termine the proportion of ash contained in them, and their calorific power; that is to say, the number of degrees of heat which may be generated by a given quantity of fuel. The weight of the ash may be obtained by calcining 2 grammes (30.88 grs. troy) of the combustible to be examined in a platinum crucible, and stirring the mate- rial several times, in order entirely to consume the carbon. The analysis may be considered perfect, when no difference can be observed between two consecutive weighings. The ash containing much carbonate of lime, which is transformed by calcination into caustic lime, a few drops of a solution of carbonate of ammonia should be added and the whole carried to a red heat. The results of this experiment are generally considered sufficient, as they allow us to form an estimate of the commercial value of the fuel. It is, however, also of the greatest importance to have correct notions of the num- ber of calorific degrees which can be obtained. The examination with litharge is the simplest method, and is based upon the following principle. The amounts of heat emitted by different combusti- bles are to each other as the respective amounts of oxygen absorbed by these combustibles in burning. It will be sufficient then to compare the amounts of oxygen required for the combustion of various specimens of fuel with that already determined for pure carbon. Take 1 gramme (15.44 grs. troy) of the pulverized fuel and mix it with 20 grammes (308.84 grs.) of lith- arge. This mixture is placed in a crucible and covered CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 229 over with 30 or 40 grammes (463.23 or 617.69 grs.) of pure litharge. The capacity of the crucible ought to be such that the volume of the material should not occupy more than one-half in order to allow for the swelling which takes place. As soon as the fusion is completed the substance is allowed to cool after having been heated briskly for ten minutes. The crucible is then broken, and the lump of lead which is found in it weighed. The calorific power of the fuel is proportional to the weight of the lead. This hypothesis, which is not mathe- matically exact, gives a sufficient approximation, how- ever, for all practical purposes. It is indispensable to use litharge free from minium (red oxide of lead). Pure carbon produces with litharge thirty-four times - its own weight of lead, and according to experiments made by M. Depretz each part of lead is equivalent to 230 degrees of heat. Pit coal is the fuel generally employed in France. The calorific power of this material is somewhat varia- ble according to its source and the proportion of ash it contains. We give, for the sake of information, the following results of analyses. 230 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. ANALYSES. Source. Ash per cent. Calorific power. Hartley (England) 1..50 6781 Anthracite (Wales) ..... 1.60 '7406 XUrsLUUlllClUA. ... 2.16 I29t l\/T/-vna IVlOuS ^jjeigiuui ) ijrranu ijuioaoii . . 3.44 t234 XldUL-J: leuu. . . . o.to 6920 JJCliC V uc • • . 3.05 •7268 X I leil Xvaaili ... . 1.55 •7377 vyuaiieroi •< , ijeduiei .... 1.48 7358 Saas-les-Moulins . 1.80 7315 Yeine Toussaint 3.10 7493 Yalenciennes - " Rosifere '* Perier . 5.t0 2.80 7278 7347 Fosse reussite 2.50 7200 ( Bully .... 3.00 7230 Pas-de-Calais - Nouix .... 2.40 7365 Courrieres 8.60 7396 Kives-de-Gier •< Henry .... 2 96 7831 Cimetiere 3.5t 7307 Oouzon .... 4.32 7441 Alais (Rochelle) ...... 1.41 7881 Blanzy 2.28 6626 Comraentry " 0.24 7236 Lignite de Dax 4.99 6225 " (Bouches-de-Rhone) . . 13.44 5395 In certain localities turf is burned, the calorific power of which varies according to its state of dryness. It is generally estimated at half that of coal. § 13. Examination or Papers. Gelatine-sized papers are usually recognizable by their odor; this characteristic is not, however, sufficient for some of those sized in this manner but made by machi- nery. By incineration they are found to burn badly, leaving a very black carbonaceous deposit; whereas paper sized CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 231 with resin in the pulp yields rather a grayish residuum. If the results obtained are uncertain, we must then have recourse to an elementary analysis. Gelatine will be indicated by the amount of nitrogen collected. As resinous-sized papers always contain starch in greater or less quantities, a blue color is obtained when they are subjected to the vapor of iodine. The incombustible papers employed in gunnery being composed of intestines, emit ammoniacal vapors when subjected to calcination in a test-tube, and become crisp when boiled with acetic acid. Generally it is thought sufficient to determine the amount of mineral matters which the paper contains. All that is required, then, is to incinerate 10 grammes (154.42 grs. troy) in a porcelain capsule, and to weigh the remainder after calcination. Paper made exclusively of rags yields a residuum of a third to a half or one per cent, at most, proceeding from the ash of the textile fibres, and the small amount of mineral matters introduced by the waters. By deducting a hundredth of the weight of the resi- duum, the weight of the additional matters is obtained. The substances generally employed are — Kaolin. Chalk or carbonate of lime. Sulphate of lime. Sulphate^* of baryta. Clays. Ochres. The examination of these different substances necessi- tates a complete analysis, which is more in the line of the chemist than the manufacturer of paper. We will give, as the course to be pursued, the remark- 232 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. able report of M. Braconnot, based upon experiments made by him to determine the nature of substances com- posing the size used in pulps, or resinous sizing. Chemical Examination of Paper Sized in the Pulp. "I subjected it to the following tests: Boiled with pure water, it yielded a liquid which restored the blue color to red litmus paper, thus revealing the presence of an alkali. An infusion of nutgalls scarcely affected its transparency, so that it did not contain gelatine ; but iodine produced a very intense blue color, indicating that starch formed a part of the composition. "Twelve grammes (186.28 grs. troy) of the same pa- per were boiled. for about a quarter of an hour in w^ater acidulated with sulphuric acid. The liquid was ex- pressed through a piece of fine linen and the pulp well washed with boiling water. When dried it weighed only 11.16 grammes (172.31 grs.). The acidulated liquid was united with the water used in washing the pulp, and saturated with carbonate of lime. After being filtered it was partially evaporated, in order to remove the greater part of the resulting sulphate of lime ; when evaporated almost to dryness, a yellow residuum was obtained, hav- ing a gummy appearance, and weighing 0.67 grammes (10.33 grs.). This substance, when heated in a platinum crucible, became swollen, emitted an odor of burnt bread, and gave an ash containing sulphate pf lime with the sulphate of a fixed alkali, which I did not determine. " The solution in water of this apparently gummy substance was only feebly precipitated by an infusion of galls ; but assumed a beautiful dark violet color when treated with iodine. This material was, therefore, only slightly modified starch. "The 11.16 grammes (172.31 grs.) of paper which CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 233 had resisted the action of the boiling water acidulated with sulphuric acid, were treated with a weak solution of potassa. The expressed liquid, while boiling, was of a transparent yellowish color, but became somewhat tur- bid on cooling, and gave a lather like soapsuds. " A small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid was poured into this liquid to neutralize the potassa, when it became very milky and deposited a flaky matter, which did not redissolve by heat. This weighed about 0.2 grammes (3.08 grs.) after evaporation in a capsule smeared with grease. The capsule, as well as the flaky matter, was washed with alcohol, which assumed a brownish color, and became charged with fatty matter. " The residuum, insoluble in alcohol, was composed to a great degree of starch which had escaped the action of the boiling acidulated water. The liquid, separated from the 0.2 grammes (3.08 grs.) of flaky matter by sul- phuric acid, also contained starch ; for when evaporated in order to crystallize the greater part of the sulphate of potassa, it yielded a yellowish mother-water, which gave a deep blue color with iodine, and a brownish sediment was formed still containing starch. When distilled in a test-tube it gave an alkaline liquid which turned red litmus paper blue. " This appears to be due to the gluten contained in the flour of cereals used to size the paper under consider- ation. " I return to the brownish alcoholic solution resulting from washing the flaky matter. After evaporation there remained 0.1 gramme (1.54 grs.) of a fatty and some- what pitchy substance, of a yellowish-brown color, and having about the consistency of lard. Its combination with potassa was very highly colored and had a bitter taste, which led me to suspect the presence of a resin. 234 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. To ascertain whether my suspicion was correct, I treated it with water and a small quantity of magnesia to neutralize the fatty acids, and then subjected the residue to the action of boiling alcohol, which, on evaporation, left behind a slight coating of varnish, easily recognized as a resin. " Five grammes (77.20 grs.) of paper yielded when burnt 0.06 grammes (0.92 grs.) of a very ferruginous ash, which also contained a noticeable quantity of manganese ; for when melted with soda in the flame of a blowpipe, it gave a beautiful blue glass. This ash did not effer- vesce with acids. When heated to redness with sulphuric acid, and the residuum treated with water, it had very little taste at the time of mixture, but at the end of twenty-four hours the liquor had acquired a very distinct astringent taste, and with ammonia produced a gelatinous precipitate of alumina ; from which it follows that alum had entered into the composition of the paper pulp." The author then gives the composition of vegetable size,^ such as he deduces it from his experiments, which are remarkable when we consider that they date from the beginning of the present century. A great many machine-made papers become yellow, or present spots of a yellow rust color. These spots are due to the action of the chlorine contained in the pulp upon the iron of the drying cylinders. Indeed the felts soon become spotted with the same color at difi'erent points, and sometimes over their whole surface. It may be shown that these spots are really due to an oxide of iron, by employing the sulphocyanide of potassium, which produces a red color, growing deeper as the proportion of the peroxide of iron is increased. * See p. 180. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 235 By digesting the leaves of paper to be tested in dilute hydrochloric acid, the paper becomes white and the pre- sence of peroxide of iron is detected in the solution. MM. Fordas and Gelis have published a paper upon this subject in the Journal de Librairie, from which we extract what follows : — " On leaving the rag engines the wet pulp is conveyed into a wooden vat and thence to the various apparatus, which constitute the paper-machine, and whose objects are the formation and drying of the paper, and its divi- sion into leaves. " Perfectly washed pulp would be in no way changed during these different operations ; for the vapors gener- ated being only those of water could not, by acting on the different materials of which the apparatus is com- posed, give rise to any soluble compound, capable of becoming incorporated with the leaf during its manu- facture. " But instead of supposing such a case, which is never practically attained, an incompletely washed pulp is used ; a large part of the chlorine it contains will, it is true, be carried off by the excess of liquid during the « first stages of the operation ; but there will always re- main a portion, which will be liberated with the vapor of water at the time of drying, attack the cast-iron rollers, dissolve their surface, and form with them a minimum chloride of iron, with which the felts support- ing the leaves will become impregnated, and which from them will be introduced into the substance of the pulp itself " This impregnation of the felts with a salt of iron can- not be denied. These felts are always spotted with rust, and the yellow color begins to be perceptible during the first days they are in use. The rust actually becomes 236 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. combined with the tissue, and is the result of a maximum basic salt of iron, produced by the action of the air upon the minimum salt we have before mentioned. " This salt cannot possibly affect the paper ; it is in- soluble and combined ; but it is the free and soluble part which exists upon the surface of the cylinders, or in the substance of the felts. " We will admit that the ferruginous compound enters the paper in a soluble condition, and at the minimum of oxidation, because this fact seems to us to be proved by the absence of color in the paper at the time of manu- facture. " The complete state of dryness of the paper maintains the salt of iron for some time at a minimum, and con- sequently in a colorless condition ; but very soon the oxygen of the air, assisted by atmospheric moisture, re- acts upon this compound, and, by bringing it to a maxi- mum degree of oxidation, colors it. " This simple reaction perfectly explains the yellow, and often nankin color which these ferruginous papers assume. It also explains an observation made to us by a printer, namely, that this color is frequently produced when the paper is wetted for printing or accidentally. ^ " As for the round spots, which have more particularly engaged the attention of manufacturers, they may be quite as easily explained. We attribute them to a phe- nomenon of crystallization. "They are formed through the tendency, possessed to a certain degree by the molecules of all bodies, to arrange themselves in groups when they are disseminated through- out a permeable medium. If the spots of which we are speaking are closely observed, it will be remarked that each one of them incloses near its middle an asperity, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 237 or hard body, which seems to have served as a centre of attraction. "As a result of the condition of alternate dryness and moisture, to which the porous and hygrometric material of paper is exposed, an insensible displacement occurs. The molecules of the salt of iron arrange themselves around the most compact parts of the paper pulp, as a salt in concentrated solution is deposited around the glass rods or strings suspended in it; or, to make use of a comparison, which seems to us more exact, these ferru- ginous molecules group themselves in the sheet of paper, as we find them doing in wet soils to form those globules of oxide of iron, or radiated pyrites, so abundant in all looalities where ochrous earths are buried in organic de- posits. " Frequently when the displacement we have just ex- plained does not occur until after printing, it is the printed letters themselves which become the centres of attraction, so that the iron becomes fixed in preference upon the printed portion of the paper, which it deeply stains, while the margins appear relatively colorless." To save the reader the trouble of having to look them out in chemical works, we give an enumeration of several elementary bodies, with their combining equivalents and densities, as indispensable information in analytical cal- culations : — 238 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Names. Symbols. Equivalents. Densities. Oxygen . 0. 100. 1.10563 1 'he atmo- here take IS a unit. Hydrogen H. 12.5 0.0692 Nitrogen . " , N. n5. 0.9713 Chlorine . CI. 443.2 2.44 Sulphur . s. 200. 2.07 Iodine. . I. 1578.2 4.95 Silicium . Si. 266.7 4.95 Phosphorus P. 400. 1.83 Carbon C. 75. 1.60 to 35.0 Potassium K. 490. 0.865 Sodium . m. 287.2 0.97 Barium . Ba. 858.4 0.97 rj CS Calcium . Ca. 250. 0.97 M d Magnesium Mg. 157.3 0.97 Aluminium Al. 171. 0.97 •S Manganese Mn. 344.7 8.0 fl Iron Fe. 350. 7.7 to 7.9 a> Chromium Cr. 328. 6.0 Zinc Zn. 406. 6.86 to 7.2 Tin . Sn. 735.3 7.29 Lead PI. 1294.5 11.445 Copper . Cu. 395. 8.78 to 8.96 § 14. Materials of a Laboratory. 1st. Instruments and Apparatus, Microscope. Hand lens. Scales with stand, weighing as low as 0.01 grammes (0.154 grain troy). Blowpipe. Stationary furnace. Hand Porcelain capsules of different diameters. Platinum crucible and accessories. Porcelain mortar. Spirit lamp. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS. 239 Instrument for ascertaining the specific gravity of salts. Thermometers, graduated upon glass. Earthen crucibles. Test-tubes, with stand. Graduated burettes. Flasks. Bottles with one, two, or three necks. Glass tubes, straight. " " curved. " " S shaped, with funnel end. Glass funnels. Earthen " India-rubber pipe for joints. Wooden tongs and holders. Alkalimetric apparatus. Chlorometric " Acidimetric " Hydrotimetric " Filtering paper. 2d, Reagents, Blue test-paper. Red " Hydrochloric acid. Sulphuric " Nitric " Acetic " Ammonia. Iodine. Potassa. Soda. Lime. Oxalate of ammonia. 240 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. Carbonate of soda. Carbonate of ammonia. Phosphate of soda. Alum. Protochloride of tin. Acetate of lead. Ferrocyanide of potassium. Sulphocyanide of potassium. Sulphate of iron. Sulphate of copper. Litharge. Tannin. Starch. Alcohol. Ether. Arsenious acid test liquid. Sulphuric acid " " Hydrotimetric " " Borax. Salts of phosphorus. Chromate of potassa. Iodide of potassium. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 241 CHAPTEE VIII. woeking stock of a paper-mill. § 1. Motive Power. The motive powers employed are the water-wheel and steam-engine. We only mention, by way of reminiscence, the Dutch wind-mills which used to set in motion the beating mallets and rollers of old-fashioned paper-mills. Among water wheels we shall assign the first place to turbine wheels, which, by their great initial velocity, very much simplify the transmision of motion. Another advantage not less desirable in certain countries is, that turning under water, they are almost entirely protected from frost. M. Planche says, in speaking of the turbine wheel as the motive power of a paper-mill: — 1st. It adapts itself in the best possible manner to the use of belts for the transmission of motion to the crush- ing cylinders, thereby allowing the suppression of a great number of cog-wheels. 2d. It allows the cylinders to be placed at such a height, such a distance, and in such a position as convenience requires. 3d. It gives great facility for setting in motion and stopping at will, one or several cylinders without acting ' on the others of the engine, which is accomplished by means of two pullies on each spindle of the cylinder, one fixed and the other movable. This arrangement pro- motes economy of time. 16 242 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 4th. It is finally to be considered that the use of belts renders impossible the breakages which otherwise occur and often disable such engines as are moved by pinions. We ought to admit that the three last reasons appear to us erroneous. Does not the ordinary water-wheel or steam-engine allow the use of belts ] There is simply a suppression of one or two cog-wheels multiplying the velocity. Whatever may be the motive power employed, the movement being communicated to the main axle, no- thing prevents our attaching belts and pulleys, as in the case of turbine wheels. As far as relates to accidents, at the time we are writ- ing these lines, we learn that the main pinion of a tur- bine, acting as a fly-wheel, has just broken, and will occasion a month's stoppage in the work of a paper-mill. At another place a cylinder, moved by a belt, was nearly thrown out of the engine. In speaking of cylin- ders we shall see the advantage presented by the use of belts to transmit power ; but this question is entirely a special one and has no connection with the motive power in itself. M. Planche has confounded the different parts of all machinery, which may be classed under these heads : — 1st. The motive power. 2d. The transmission of motion. 3d. The instruments or machine-tools. The advantages of a turbine may be thus enume- rated: — 1st. Great initial velocity. ' 2d. Superior and constant returns at all seasons. 3d. Economy of space. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 243 4th. Simplified transmission of motion to machinery requiring great velocity. 5th. The employment of high water-falls with but a small supply of water. Nevertheless, in a district where there are no machine shops, in sites where the position would present serious difficulties, in localities where the falls are not high, and the supply of water is abundant, we advise the use of an ordinary water-wheel. The application of steam as the principal motive power can only be suited to countries where fuel is very abun- dant, and where the greater part of the water has to be kept for washing and other requirements of the mill. In most paper-mills, however, a steam-engine is estab- lished to supply the deficiency of water wheels in times of drought or repairs. In this case an engine of variable power should be employed, so as to use only an amount of steam propor- tional to the additional motive force required. § 2. Eag Cutters. New instruments are being invented every day for cut- ting rags. Those most in use are the following : — 1st. A cast-iron cylinder with two to four blades of steel cutting like shears, with a fixed blade solidly mounted. The velocity of this cylinder is from 80 to 125 revolutions a minute. The rags are fed to it by an endless web and grooved rollers. It is estimated that it requires a one-horse power engine to cut 800 kilog. (1763 lbs. avoird.) in a day. This return, however, is very variable, and de- pends much upon the nature of the rags. This apparatus off'ers the inconvenience of violently 244 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. shaking its foundations. We must, however, admit that this fault may be found with nearly all of them. The mounting is not sufficiently solid ; the foundations are too light to extinguish the greater part of the vibrations and deaden the effect of the shaking. 2d. Modification of the preceding : the cast iron cylin- der about 0.60 metres (23.62 in.) long by the same in diameter, carries six blades fixed in an oblique direction and only occupying the third of the length, in such a way that the six blades are only equal to two whole ones. This machine requires less power, and its vibrations are less perceptible than the former. 3d. A vertical iron plate 0.05 metres (1.96 in.) in thickness bearing four blades about 0.25 metres (9.84 in.) long and forming shears with a fixed blade set in the mounting. This machine is also fed by means of an endless web. 4th. Cylinders in form of a rolling engine, of which the upper is provided with 10 to 15 circular blades sepa- rated by iron washers. ^ 5th. A simple cutter constituted on the principle of the guillotine, the upper blade of which receives an osci- lating motion by means of an eccentric. Behind this blade is a plate of iron which regulates the length of the cut rags ; by fixing it nearer or farther off the rags may be cut long or short. This machine is low in price, and adapted to small paper-mills. Its want of velocity reduces the returns. It is advantage- ously employed for cutting ropes, pack-cloths, and coarse gray rags, which would otherwise require the work of special hands. White and fine rags in general ought not to be cut by machinery except casually; as the perfection of hand work cannot be obtained by it. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 245 § 3. Dusters. The most simple apparatus consists of a truncated cone revolving upon the axis of the great circle, and upon two rollers running in a groove round the crown of the small circle. This is covered with a network of iron. The inner sides are armed with iron teeth arranged in a spiral, which force the rags out by the end opposite that of entrance. This kind of duster will only answer for fine clean and half clean rags. To render the action of this instrument more ener- getic, a tree is placed within, bearing iron spokes ar- ranged in a spiral. These spokes force the rags against the wire-netting, which revolves in an opposite direction from that of the rotation of the tree. This contrivance for dusting, of a conical or cylindrical form, is preferable for foul and soiled rags, hems, seams, etc. It naturally requires more power than the first mentioned machine. When the duster is cylindrical, it is given an inclina- tion of from 25° to 40°; and a diameter of 0.90 to 1.10 metres (2.95 to 3.60 ft.) by 4.50 to 5.0 metres (14.76 to 16.40 ft.) in length. The wolf (loup briseur) serves to divide and clean the wastings of flax, hemp, oakum, coarse rags containing straw, or hemp and ropes. It is constructed upon the same principle as the preceding apparatus, and off'ers a resistance proportioned to the work it has to do. The iron axis armed with spokes is alone movable and the impurities fall through an iron grating. The loss of material caused by this engine is at times so considerable that it has been discontinued in some paper-mills. It nevertheless facilitates the operation of boiling, and various other manipulations by disintegrat- ing the rag filaments, and rendering them more suscep- 246 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. tible to the action of the lyes. These rags are softer and more easily reduced to pulp. The machine requires great power, which many mills are not able to bestow. Whatever may be the style of duster employed, it is indispensable that it should be covered over with a close wooden cage in order to retain the dust and other im- purities which, mixed with the rag fibres, are called wastings of the duster. It should be understood that as the quality of these wastings varies with the nature of the rags, it is important not to dust on the same day rags that differ much in quality, so that the refuse may be collected only once a day. § 4. Washing Apparatus. To wash the rags before boiling, we may use with advantage a large wooden vat analogous to the bleach- ing cisterns, furnished with a washing drum and a large sand trap.. The light parts, such as feathers, etc., are carried along with a current of water which is poured out through a strainer covered with wire gauze, and placed at the upper part of the vat. The water, running in at the lower part, produces by its pressure a constant agitation of the rags in the liquid. With a single vat of this kind we can easily cleanse from 2,000 to 2,400 kilog. (1,968 to 2,362 tons) of rags in twenty-four hours. .For the same purpose a sort of duster or washing drum is used revolving in a trough filled with water. In all cases it is well to conduct all the water, after washing, into cisterns where the filamentous parts which have been carried ofi" may be recovered. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 247 § 5. Boiling Apparatus. The old wooden vats with double bottoms and furnished with a sheet iron cover, are scarcely ever employed since the invention of steam rotating boilers. We give, how- ever, a drawing of an apparatus of that nature, easily set up, and which may in certain cases be of advantage. The water is sent up through the central pipe by the pressure of steam and runs over upon the rags. We have seen, in speaking of boiling, that soluble lyes are preferable to lime, when these boilers are used. The invention of rotating boilers belongs to an Eng- lish machinist, Mr. Bryan Donkin. Those met with in France are known under the name of Blanche and Rieder boilers ; but they only differ from the first in some modi- fications of detail. This kind of boiler is at the present day an indispen- sable apparatus in a paper-mill where common rags, thirds, ropes, etc., are used. It might possibly be dis- pensed with when exclusively fine white rags are worked ; but this would be a poor economy, as the small increase in expense necessitated by setting up the machine is largely compensated by the great advantage it procures, as much in lessening labor as by utilizing more com- pletely the alkaline principles necessary for bleaching. § 6. Washing and Beating Engines. The machines adopted are very numerous, as well as the materials employed in their construction. 1st. The cistern may be of wood. " " " cast iron. " " " sheet iron. 248 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The cistern may be of cast iron with wooden bot- toms. " " " brick and mortar. The cylinder may be of wood. " " " cast iron. " " " cast iron and wood. The blades of the cylinder may be of steel, u u u u bronze. plate " steel. " " " " bronze. There are cylinders with bronze blades and plates. There are cylinders with steel blades and bronze plates. There are cylinders with steel blades and plates. The blades are arranged either singly, doubly, or by threes. The arrangement by twos is generally adopted for the washing and by threes for the beating engine. For the manufacture of fine papers it is better to em- ploy a cistern made of cast iron, and cylinders with steel blades and bronze plates, as the rags are less briskly cut and give a richer pulp. The inconvenience of bronze plates is that they are very expensive and need frequent repairs. Cisterns of wood and cemented brick are economical. They are suitable for coarse paper or for temporary use. The cast iron cisterns, though we know of one, are very rare. They are light and therefore suitable for lo- calities where transportation is very difficult. Notwith- standing, this model should not be imitated. The cylinders are lowered by means of screws or levers. The engine is, moreover, furnished with washing-drums or strainers, or with both. The water is let in by means of common stopcocks or a sluice valve, and runs off either at the upper or lower part of the cistern. We have WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 249 dwelt for some time upon the advantages presented by the engine based upon the latter principle. The engine should be furnished with a sand-trap and hollow to collect nails, coarse gravel, etc. Yet, notwith- standing their evident usefulness, there are a great num- ber of engines in which they are not introduced. The cylinders are moved by pinions. " " " belts. " " " a small special steam en- gine, as may be seen at the paper-mill of Essonne. The principle to be attained in the transmission of power is that the cylinder should be drawn down instead of being lifted up, as is unfortunately the case when pin- ions are used. We give (PI. II., Figs. 1 and 2), a plan of transmitting motion to two cylinders, a washer and beater. The beating cylinder is raised. This is an error into which we o^ight never to fall, for with belts this inconvenience is removed by placing the axle of the transmission on the story below the cylinder-room. The belts are of leather or gutta percha. These last, though easily mended, are open to the objection of stretching from the effects of heat, principally in sum- mer. Their use should be avoided in warm climates. The pillow blocks of these cylinders are generally bronze. In a large paper-mill, they may be advantage- ously replaced by supports of hard, close-grained wood (service tree or pear tree), and lubricated by a current of water. This affords an economy of oil. The pillow blocks should be renewed as soon as they begin to show signs of wearing. The capacity of the engines varies from 40 to 110 kilog. (88.18 to 242.51 lbs. avoird ) of dry pulp. The inclined planes are more or less abrupt. The 250 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAEING. diameter of the waste pipe is variable. It should be carried as high as 0.20 or 0.25 metres (7.86 to 9.82 in.) instead of 0.12 to 0.16 metres (4.76 to 6.28 in.) as is generally adopted. All things equal, the waste pipe of the washing ought to be larger than that of the beating engines. § 7. Apparatus for Bleaching and Draining the Pulp. When liquid chlorine is used, we have seen that the stuff is bleached in the washing engine, or in special vats called bleachers. They are sometimes wooden, and sometimes of cemented brick, and contain from 200 to 600 kilog. (440 to 1322 lbs. avoird.) of dry pulp, according to their dimensions. The chambers for bleaching with chlorine gas are, at the present day, generally built of brick and cement. Formerly, they were lined, with either earthenware plates, slates, or slabs of granite. They contain between 800 and 1800 kilog. (1703 and 3968 lbs. avoird.) of dry half stuff. The pulp is drained by means of the following differ- ent contrivances : — 1st. Hydraulic press. 2d. Lamothe-Ferrand drainer. 3d. Centrifugal drainer. 4th. In the reservoir. These several drainage chests differ in the nature of the materials employed in their construction ; some are of wood with a grated bottom, and others of mason work with bottoms made of a particular kind of hollow brick. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 251 § 8. Paper-Machines. Paper-machines are classified according to the width of the paper they are intended to make. The large, 2.00 to 2.40 metres (7.56 to 8.87 ft.). The medium sized, 1.40 to 1.90 metres (4.59 to 6.23 ft.). The small, 1.00 to 1.40 metres (3.28 to 4.59 ft.). In some mills, the great circular feeding vats of the machine are replaced by large reservoirs of mason-work, where the pulp is stirred by axles with spokes arranged around them in spirals. This is a bad plan ; for when the reservoir is not full, the pulp brought up by the pad- dles is thrown against the sides of the tank, and dries into so many hard cakes. The pulp is then raised by means of a pump and poured upon the sand traps. These sand traps are very variable in dimensions and arrangement. Some are very short and simple, others, on the contrary, are arranged in a labyrinth, so as to force the pulp to make the longest possible circuit. The wooden or iron inclined blades are either bare or covered with a felt which more readily retains the sand or other impurities which may have escaped the tritu- rating process. The difi'erent systems proposed for purifying the pulp are numerous. , They may be classified into about twelve groups. The boundary straps or deckles which regulate the width of the layer of pulp upon the wire cloth, and in consequence that of the dry paper, are of dry leather or India rubber. Those of vulcanized India rubber in a single strip are preferred at the present day. The exhaustion of air is carried on by suction pum.ps, or automatically by means of a pneumatic apparatus. 252 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The rollers which stretch the web are often of too small a diameter, and wear it out unnecessarily. The number of wet presses varies from two to five. The older machines had only three. The present tendency, justified by practice, is to increase this number, and re- gard three as a minimum. The felts are kept tense by means of : — Tirettes. Broken rollers. Grooved " Cylindrical rollers bearing two strips of leather arranged in a spiral, one on the right, the other on the left, relatively to the axis of the roller. The number of drying cylinders is variable : — 3 is the minimum. 5 is the medium; and there are 8 to 10 in some machines. This last number seems to us exaggerated. Six appear to be the best number, of which four serve to dry the paper, and two the felts. These cylinders are arranged in one, two, or three tiers. In the last case, the upper cylinder serves exclu- sively to dry the felt. We think it preferable not to go beyond two tiers in order not to augment too greatly the resistance of the works. Moreover the repairs are otherwise very much more difficult ; as special scaff'olding has to be erected. The reels are of variable diameters. This variation is obtained either simultaneously with all the spokes of the same wheel at once or separately, by increasing or dimi- nishing the distance from the centre of each spoke. It seems almost unnecessary to say that we very much WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 253 prefer the first arrangement, which gives the same spread to all the spokes at once. The paper-machine needing a perfectly regular motion should have a motive power of its own, whether it be water-wheel, turbine, or steam-engine. When the motive pov/er to be disposed of is abundant, we advise the use of a small turbine, fed by a reservoir, having its water always at the same level, as the reservoir may be placed at a considerable height, say in the upper story of the mill. Generally a small high pressure engine is employed, and the steam, after being used as a motive power, serves for heating the drying cylinders. Each paper-machine should be furnished with pinions, admitting different velocities, or graduated pulleys to allow the manufacture of thin or heavy papers. Three rates of motion are considered sufficient, the high, the medium, and the low. To facilitate the management of the machine, it is well to have at each stage of transmis- sion, extensible pulleys, or those with variable diameters, as well as struts to prevent the belts from slipping. § 9. Finishing Machines. 1st. Hand and screw presses are still used for some common hand-made papers. 2d. Screw presses, which are generally used in paper- mills to facilitate the operation of packing. 3d. Hydraulic presses, with a power of 200 to 300 kilogrammes (196.85 to 295.67 tons), used for satining some of the handsomest kinds of paper, and bank-note paper, when the clearness of the watermark would be injured by the ordinary rollers. 254 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 4th. Rolling machines for satining, glazing, etc., are of several kinds. 1st. Counterpoise rollers. 2d. Rollers whose pinions allow a variable distance between the two cylinders. 3d. Spring rollers. 4th. Rollers consisting of one cylinder, revolving upon a horizontal table, generally called glazing machines, and only used for small sized paper. 5th. Rolling machines are again divided into two classes: 1st. Those having a single, and 2d, those hav- ing a double or return motion ; the cylinders revolving first from right to left, and then from left to right. This machine ought to be exclusively used in order to avoid accidents. 6th. Continuous rollers consisting of two cylinders, of which one is of metal and the other of paper. 7th. Three cylindrical rollers or calenders, the two extreme cylinders being of polished iron, the middle of paper. A well-provided paper-mill ought to contain all these machines so as to be able to deliver the different kinds of paper demanded by commerce. « § 10. General Working Stock of a Paper-Mill. We give, as a matter of information, an enumeration of the different machines and apparatus used in the Todde paper-mill at Hainsberg (Saxony), the daily pro- duction of which reaches as high as 7,500 kilogrammes (7.82 tons) of various kinds of paper. 1 paper machine, 2.33 metres (7.64 feet) broad. 2 " " 1.90 " (6.23 " ) " 4 turbines. WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 255 3 steam-engines. 11 " boilers. 12 pumps.' 5 rag-cutting machines. 2 dusting " 5 rotary boilers. 10 bleaching vats (large model). 30 rag-engines. 3 centrifugal continuous refining machines. 9 large reservoirs for liquid chlorine. 12 chambers for chlorine gas. 5 centrifugal drainers. 4 cutting machines. 4 satining " 13 iron presses. The cost of the land, hydraulic apparatus, tramways, buildings, foundations, motive power, machines, tools, etc., is estimated at 2,201,000 francs (about $440,000). We should not, for motives of ill-advised economy, run to the opposite extreme, and in order to avoid too great an original outlay, purchase defective or incomplete materials. This, however, will very much depend upon the style of paper we propose to manufacture. Eag- engine, with wooden or mason work cisterns, are suffi- cient for ordinary purposes, but would not be suitable for making the finest kinds. The essential point is to have machines well adapted to their peculiar uses. §11. General Remarks upon the Establishment of a Paper-Mill. To establish a paper-mill requires a profound study of the following questions: — 256 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 1st. Is the mill to be situated near a great city] a city of middling importance '? in a village, or at a dis- tance from any habitation '? 2d. Shall water be used as the motive power ? 3d. Does not the water to be used for washing the pulp contain, in suspension, any matters which may impair the quality of the paper we desire to make 1 4th. The water being more or less impure, and the soil allowing the use of artesian wells, should we incur the expense of boring'? 5th. Will not the use of a water-filter be more advan- tageous ] 6th. Is the fall of water sufficient to move the entire apparatus for transmitting the power 7th. Is the water. course subject to freshets or droughts ] and if so, how many days' delay may it cause in the course of the year '? 8th. What hydraulic motive power shall we adopt] the turbine or the ordinary water-wheel 1 9th. The fall of water being insufficient for the entire transmission, will it be more advantageous to purchase a neighboring fall and there establish our rag-engines, than to set up a permanent steam-engine in the mill itself] 10th. What are the means of communication at our disposal for transmitting and receiving goods ] roads, canals, railroads'? Comparative study of the different freightage by each of these methods of transportation. What sort of goods shall be conveyed by each'? 11th. What will be the freightage by the hundred weight of each raw material, and for transmitting the paper, when made, to the warehouse '? 12th. Shall we employ the rags of the neighborhood, or shall we import them from distant centres of supply '? "WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 257 13th. Cost of labor in the locality, estimate of its value after a certain length of time 1 14:th. Would there be an advantage in having an establishment for cutting rags in a neighboring city, rather than in the mill itself] 15 th. Shall we bleach with liquid chlorine, or chlorine gas] § 12. General Remarks in Eeference to Building. 1st. Cost of building materials. 1st. Stone, brick, slates, tiles. 2d. Lime, sand, cement. 3d. Wood, iron, zinc, lead. ^ 4th. Painting, glazing. 2d. What kind of material shall we choose for the different parts of the building ] 3d. Estimate of the expense of building. 4th. Purchase of the material. 5th. Cost of transportation. 6th. Will the plan of the building allow the subse- quent addition of a second and third machine ] 7th. Is the general arrangement of rooms for the different operations methodical ] Do the materials have to be carried over the least possible space, or will a longer route, necessitated by a fixed position, be com- pensated by peculiar advantage ] 8th. What must be the profit on each scale of prices, to compensate for the cost of building and the material employed ] 9th. Estimate of the outlay to be made during the first two years following the opening of the mill. 10th. What spare apparatus or parts of apparatus must we have on hand to prevent delay ] 17 258 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 11th. Are we limited by a fixed capital wliich we cannot go beyond 1 12th. Would it not be advantageous to lay at the outset certain foundations or water-works in view of a future enlargement of the milU « § 13. General Considerations. The engineer employed to make the plan of a paper- mill cannot bestow too much care in studying the gene- ral arrangement of the buildings. Although it is impossible to give any fixed rule for works of this nature which vary for each locality, we shall try to throw some light upon the subject by grouping together the different observations we have been able to collect, and by investi- gating the qualities and defects of the most approved plans. The buildings of a paper-mill may be divided into two classes. 1st. Main buildings containing the motive power, the machinery for transmitting it, pumps, rag-engines, appa- ratus for cutting, dusting, and boiling ; store-rooms for crude and cut rags, the paper machine, and the finishing- room. 2d. The secondary building for bleaching-rooms, boiler-rooms, store-rooms for the pulp, work-shops, offices, &c. The buildings of the first class are sometimes com- bined in one rectangular edifice of a size proportional to the extent of the proposed works. We prefer, however, a second building annexed to the first at right angles to contain the paper-machine and finishing-room. Starting with this plan, the subdivisions of the build- ing would be as follows : — WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 259 1st. Main Building. On the ground floor: motive power (in the case of steam engines) pumps, and store-chests for the pulp. A basement might indeed be made a store-room for pulp, if the topographical position of the mill would allow the water to drain off. On the second floor: washing and beating engines, bleaching vats, boiling apparatus, the preparation of size, store-room for pulp, &c. On the third floor : the cutting and sorting room, store-room for cut rags, duster, reservoir of water, &c. Loft : the store-room for crude rags. 2d. Annealed Building. Ground floor : the paper machine ; parallel with it or in suit, the finishing-room for coarse and wrapping paper. On the second floor: the satining machine, calenders for finishing fine papers. This story is not carried over that containing the paper machine. In the case of a paper-mill where two machines are used, the two rooms at right angles to the building may- be connected by another serving as the finishing-room on the second floor, and below as a general store-room for the uses of the mill. There are several mills where both machines are in the same room and placed opposite to each other. This arrangement does not seem to us to be well de- vised. As each machine ought to have its distinct set of workmen, there is no economy in labor, and this as- sociation of the two may be fatal to the work of the mill in case of accidents or repairs. It is indispensable, in order to insure regularity in 260 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. manufacturing, that each machine should have a motive power of its own, whether it be a turbine wheel or steam engine, so that a change in the rate of motion of one may not influence that of the other, and conversely. It would, therefore, be wrong to derive the motive power of the paper-machine from the same machinery which works the rag-engines and the boiling or other apparatus, all of them subject to constant variations of velocity. The window sashes of the room containing the paper machine should be of iron, covered with a double coat of paint composed of red and white lead. Wood is too much affected by the succession of dryness and warm moisture to which it is exposed. It soon rots and exudes a blackish liquid, produced by the action of steam upon the coloring matter of the wood, which soils the window panes. The room ought to be light and provided with a ventilator to carry off the vapor arising from the dry- ing cylinders. The floor ought to have an inclination sufficient to carry off rapidly the water used in washing. Almost all the older machine-rooms are too limited in size, but especially in length. Many even will not allow a cutting-machine to be set up beyond the reels. For large machines a room 45 metres (147.64 ft.) in length may be considered as a good medium. To give greater solidity to the main building, the thickness of the walls may be increased at certain in- tervals. This kind of buttress serves to give the building an ornamental appearance, and, the points bearing the principal weights being thus supported, the intervals may be built comparatively thin. In localities where mason work is costly, it may be advantageous to use iron supports for the machinery, the floors of the rag-engines, boiling apparatus, &c. Gene- WORKING STOCK OF A PAPER-MILL. 261 rally it is proper to adopt very heavy arches in order that the continual shaking may not affect the solidity of the building. The steam boilers are placed either within or without the main building. The latter place is very much the best. At the present day, when we are better informed in regard to the facility of conveying steam to a distance by surrounding the pipes with non-conducting substances, the boilers and chimney are placed at a considerable dis- tance, in order to avoid the chances of fire or explosion. A simple precautionary measure to diminish the dan- ger of fire is to conduct steam pipes into all rooms con- taining inflammable or combustible substances, as it has been found from experience that steam, in a confined place, will extinguish fire almost instantaneously. As the market value of drawn out iron tubing has for the last few years been quite low, this kind of apparatus would not require much outlay. We very much prefer rag-rooms situated in the upper part of the building, as the air will be more readily re- newed, and the light better. Nevertheless we know of mills where they are placed on the ground floor, but this arrangement necessitates an increase in the area of the building, which in many cases could not be afforded. As the rags become quickly heated from being piled together in great heaps, especially if damp, their posi- tion has frequently to be changed. In order to avoid the labor of this operation, the depth of the chests should be diminished, and if necessary they should be provided with sheet-iron chimneys pierced with holes, serving to establish a sort of ventilation. The quarters of the superintendent and employees 262 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. ought to be at a distance from the mill. (See the dis- cussion of the general plan of paper-mills.) A paper-mill at a distance from any city ought to be provided with a workshop, and all necessary tools for repairs. Near the centres of population, on the contrary, where machine shops are well supplied, this expense is less necessary. Th^ intelligence of the engineer or the h^ad of the establishment should, therefore, determine this question, by taking into consideration the necessity of economy in the original outlay, and the probable cost of repairs dur- ing the working of the mill. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD. 263 CHAPTEE IX. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD IN THE UNITED STATES. The most successful process of manufacturing paper pulp from wood, ever used in the United States, is the subject of a patent granted July 18, 1864, to Charles Watt and Hugh Burgess, and reissued to Wm. F. Ladd and Morris L. Keen as assignees, April 7, 1863, and now owned by the American Wood Paper Company. This process is now in very extensive operation at the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works, situated at Manayunk, Pa., between the Schuylkill E-iver and the canal. These works are the largest establishment for the manufacture of wood pulp in the world, covering ten acres of land. They were commenced in August, 1864, and completed in April, 1866, at a cost of about $500,000, and there is over $1,000,000 invested in them, and the paper-mills run in connection with them. Their capacity of production is twenty-four thousand to thirty thousand pounds of pulp per day. The whole establishment has been leased by Messrs. Jessup and Moore and Martin Nixon, of Philadelphia. To bring the process of Messrs. Watt and Burgess to perfection, it has been necessary to devise much appa- ratus and machinery of a novel character, which is pro- tected by other patents, and the most important of which will be explained in the progress of the description which is hereinafter given of the details of the process. Messrs. Watt and Burgess' process, as described in 264 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. the specification of their patent, consists in boiling the wood, after it has been cut into fine chips or shavings, in a solution of caustic alkali, in a closed boiler, under a high pressure of steam, and consequently at a high tem- perature. After having been boiled to a pulp, the pulp is washed with water, and if the wood used be of a resi- nous character, the pulp, after having been washed, is subjected to the action of chlorine, or its compounds with oxygen ; but in the Manayunk works, only the non- resinous woods, such as poplar, hemlock, and white wood are used, these being plentiful and of comparatively little value for other purposes. The wood is brought to the works in the condition of cord wood, by teams, railroads, and a fleet of wood barges. It is cut obliquely to the grain, into fine chips, by means of machines having cutters attached to rotary disks, and resembling gigantic straw or fodder cutters, the logs being fed to the cutters through slanting troughs down which they slide to the cutters. The chips fall from the cutters through openings in the floor on which the machines are situated, and are received in wagons running on railways in the basement, for the purpose of conveying them to mechanical elevators, by which they are raised up to a floor above the boilers in which the pulping process is performed. The boilers above mentioned are of peculiar con- struction, which is the subject of patents to Morris L. Keen, dated September 13, 1859, and June 16, 1863. They are of the form of upright cylinders with semi- spheroidal ends, and are fed through man-holes at the top, provided with suitable lids which are closed when the boilers have been charged. At some distance below the mouths or upper man-holes, there are horizontal perforated diaphragms, through which the caustic alka- MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD. 265 line solution may rise above the chips, which are fed in to the space below through central openings of suitable size. Between the central openings in the diaphragms and the upper man-holes, there are perforated upright connecting cylinders or wells, with man-lids at the bot- tom to confine the chips below the diaphragm when the boiler is full, and so keep them covered with the caustic alkaline solution which is allowed to rise above the dia- •phragm. When the boilers have been charged with chips, they are closed up, and filled to a suitable height with the alkaline solution, and the boiling process is commenced. This is continued imder a pressure of about seventy pounds per square inch for a sufficient time, according to the nature of the wood, to reduce the chips to pulp, which is then discharged through valves or gates at the bottom, by the pressure of steam above, into closed vessels of larger capacity than the boilers. In these vessels, after it has been allowed to expand, the pulp is drained through strainers in the bottom of the vessels, and after it has been drained the pulp is discharged into wagons in which it is taken away for further treatment. The alkaline solution which is drained from the pulp is collected in underground drains, whence it is conveyed by pipes to the furnaces in which the water is evaporated and the alkali calcined to be used over again on new stock. Some idea may be formed of the immense scale on which the process is carried on, when it is stated that the boilers with the expanding tanks and receiving wagons occupy a building 132 feet long and 75 feet wide. Before describing the calcining or alkali-recovering furnaces, we will follow the pulp till it arrives at the condition to be worked into paper. The pulp, when it is received in the wagons, is of a dark grayish-brown 266 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. color, but after having been drained for some time through the bottoms of the wagons, which are suitably constructed for the purpose, it assumes a lighter color. It is then washed by sprinkling it with clean water, which percolates through it and escapes through the bottoms of the wagons before they are removed from the boiling house. By means of railway turn-tables ar- ranged in front of the boilers and expanding vessels, the wagons are run on to railways on which they travel to a building in which there are large pulp engines, like those employed for the reduction of rags. In these en- gines, the pulp is worked for some time preparatory to being run through cleaning machines, substantially like what are known as cylinder paper-machines, but having no dryers. From these engines the pulp is run off in the form of a web, from which any specks or bad parts are removed by attendants. The pulp delivered from these cleaning machines is taken to the bleach house, where the bleaching is performed in vats in substantially the same manner as other paper stock is bleached ; and after bleaching it is ready to be worked into' paper by the machines commonly employed. One of the most important features of the establish- ment, if not the most important in a commercial sense, is the evaporating and calcining house in which the waste alkaline solution, which is drained from the pulp, has all its water evaporated and its alkali recalcined for use on new stock. Without this or some equally suc- cessful means of recovering the greater proportion of the alkali, the process would be commercially a failure, owing to the great expense involved in the consumption of alkali. The amount of alkali saved every time the process of reduction of the wood to pulp is performed is no less than 85 per cent, of the whole quantity used. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD. 267 The alkali thus recovered has 15 per cent, of fresh alkali mixed with it for every repetition of the pulping pro- cess. The evaporating and calcining house is a large circu- lar building, 200 feet in diameter, and reminds us of the locomotive sheds at some of the largest railway de- pots. The furnaces, which are of great length, radiate from the centre of the building, and all communicate with one enormous central chimney. They are so con- structed according to a patent granted to Morris L. Keen and Hugh Burgess, February 7, 1865, that the flame and hot gases of combustion from the fire, urged by a strong draft, are first caused to pass over the sur- face of the liquor to be evaporated on the sole or hearth of the furnace, and afterwards caused to circulate both over and under a series of pans through which the liquid flows in its transit to the hearth. The liquor is con- ducted from the pulp-boiling house to the evaporating house, by the underground drains before mentioned, into a suitable reservoir whence it is pumped up into the evaporating furnaces. The alkali from which the water has been evaporated in these furnaces is transferred to the calcining furnaces, and after calcination is taken to the mixing house, where it has the proper proportion of fresh alkali mixed with it preparatory to its being used over again. The solution is made in immense tanks fitted with revolving stirrers, and from these tanks it is conveyed to the pulp-boiling bouse, to be fed into the boilers. It is found in practice advantageous to mix with the wood pulp about one-fourth of the same quantity of straw pulp. Adjacent to the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works are the Flat Rock Paper Mills, owned by Martin Nixon, and in connection with these mills, the manufac- 268 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. ture of straw pulp at the rate of from seven thousand to eight thousand pounds daily is carried on for mixture with the wood pulp. The paper made in these mills from the above-mentioned proportions of wood and straw pulp, without any rags, is of excellent quality and color, and far superior to what is used for many news- papers. A large quantity of the stock made at the Manayunk Wood Pulp Works is worked up into thick paper, to be transported to the E-ockland Paper Mills of Jessup and .Moore, on the Brandy wine, Delaware, and there re- worked into printing paper. The daily production of paper of which these mills and the Flat Rock Paper Mills are jointly capable is equal to thirty thousand pounds. • MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS. 269 CHAPTER X. MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS. Boards are made in different ways. 1st. By superposing several leaves of paper, and unit- ing them by some agglutinating substance. 2d. By superposing several wet leaves at the time of couching. 3d. By means of moulds provided with very thick deckels. 4th. By special machines, analogous to those used for the manufacture of continuous paper. The first method, strictly speaking, is more the art of the manufacturer of binder's boards than of the paper- maker. Playing-cards come under this head. They are composed of three leaves: the first being destined to receive the impression of the figures or designs, which constitute the different suits of a pack. The interme- diate one, formed of a more solid material, gives the firmness, and is sometimes colored black or dark blue to render the card opaque. The third receives the spotted or geometrical designs which ornament the backs. A gummy solution, containing a large proportion of talc, is lastly applied to the cards in order to give them a more elegant gloss. Before entering into the details of manufacture we wish to establish the following classification : — 270 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. 1st. White superfine boards. 2d. " half fine " 3d. Colored boards. 4th. Common gray boards. 5th. Boards for satining with watermark. 6th. Boards made of wood or straw. 7th. Boards of several colors. The majority of boards are made of all kinds of waste paper, and other refuse material of a paper-mill. The first step is sorting, in order to separate the white and clean parts, which are reserved for fine boards. The material afterwards is triturated and mixed with various proportions of rag pulp, kaolin, chalk, white clays, &c. The boards are then made either by machine or by hand. The moulds have high deckels, so as to retain an ^ amount of pulp proportional to the required thickness of the boards. Beyond a certain limit, however, as the drainage would be long and difficult, it is preferable to couch several leaves one upon the other. The work is performed exactly in the same manner as we have described for making paper by hand. Between each pair of boards is placed a felt, and when a post is finished it is pressed. It is necessary to resort to the exchange to soften the grain. The boards are rapidly dried in a horizontal posi- tion, and in a well-ventilated room. In damp weather, and especially in winter, the boards lack firmness ; their manufacture should, therefore, be reserved for fine days. A little before they are completely dry the boards un- dergo the process of rolling, in order to remove asperities and render the surfaces smooth and soft to the touch. If the boards were too dry, this operation would be difficult, and however often they might be pressed under the rollers the surfaces would never be as even. MANUFACTURE OF BOARDS. 271 The quality of boards naturally depends upon that of the material employed in their manufacture. Those which do not require any particular resonance contain an enormous amount of earthy matters. Common boards are made of all sorts of refuse mate- rial, such as damaged pulp, wasting of the duster, resi- duum left in purifying the pulp, fibrous materials ob- tained in cleansing the rag-engines, &c. Colored boards are rarely ever dyed in the pulp, the only exception being in the case of fine and very high-priced qualities. Generally speaking, it is considered sufiicient to cover common boards with a thin sheet of colored pa- per, and submit the whole to the action of a rolling press. Considerable quantities of boards, made of wood or straw, are employed at the present day for packing and binding purposes. To facilitate the disintegration of straw it is sprinkled with milk of lime, and after a fortnight's fermentation the softened material crushes more or less readily between the fingers. The trituration of this substance presents no difiiculty, and the washing and beating operations are generally carried on in the same engine. The pulp is turned into great elliptically shaped vats of wood, or mason work, and is converted into boards by means of a great mould, handled by two men, who unite in doing the work of the vatman and coucher successively. In order to give cohesion to this pulp, which is difiicult of drainage, it is compressed between two moulds deprived of their deckels. These boards acquire in drying a certain hardness due in part to their great thickness. They are delivered for sale after having been rolled and pared. The dimen- sions of some are as great as 1.30 metre in length by 1.00 metre in breadth (4.26 by 3.28 ft.) 272 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The working stock of a mill of this kind is always of the simplest nature, and if the least motive power can be obtained, may be established at a small expense. Within a few years past it has been proposed to manufacture boards by interposing thin laminae of wood, shaved off by a plane, between leaves of paper. The product obtained is economical, as we substitute for paper a material of lower price, of greater hardness, and scarcely if at all hygrometric. In weaving, the appli- cation which has been made of this invention to the Jacquard loom has rendered some service to that branch of industry. As an extension of this idea, even leaves of metal have been interposed between wet boards, so as to give great solidity combined with comparative lightness. Double colored boards are made by a machine with two webs or by hand, using two vats and couching a leaf of one color upon that of another. It seems to us useless to dwell longer upon this sub- ject, which is entirely comprised in all we have said of the manufacture of paper. Sorting the raw materials. Boiling and bleaching. Sizing and coloring the pulp. Manufacture proper and l&nishing. For some time, in France and Germany, the manu- facture of boards served as a means of evading the law prohibiting the exportation of rags. Half triturated white linen rags were made into boards and exported as a manufactured product. England made use of this artifice to supply her paper- mills with the raw materials they lacked; but since a free exchange has been permitted this state of things is no longer in existence, at least in France. We have thought it useful, however, to record the fact. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN CHINA AND JAPAN. 273 CHAPTER XI. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN CHINA AND JAPAN. The Chinese make their paper of different kinds of bamboo and the bark of several trees, of which the most celebrated is the Kochu. The leaves of this tree bear much resemblance to those of the mulberry, but the fruit is more allied to the fig. The method they employ is t)ased upon the same principles as those we have set forth in speaking of the manufacture of rag paper. For boiling, maceration in pure water and immersiom in a milk of lime is substituted. The bark is then washed with pure water and dried in the sun, which bleaches it. After being soaked in boiling water to remove the gelatinous matter, which- unites the fibres, the bark is triturated in a great mortar with mallets, moved by hand or by treadles. It is easily understood that this primitive method of trituration preserves the fibres of a greater length, and produces a different kind of pulp from that which we see in European paper-mills. To give adhesiveness to these fibrillee there is poured into the vat a mucilaginous material, obtained by macerating in water a peculiar plant called Koteng. The paper is made by hand with very light moulds, in which wire cloth is replaced by thin sticks of bam- boo, passed through a drawplate in order to make them of uniform size, and boiled in oil to insure their pre- servation and render them impermeable. 18 274 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PAPER-MAKING. The operation of couching does not require felts, a small piece of bamboo only being interposed between each of the wet leaves. The large leaves which sometimes attain several metres in length, are manufactured by means of moulds, sup- ported by counter-weights, and handled with great dex- terity by several workmen. These large leaves are dried by applying them to the surface of a wall, which during the winter is heated from within. As the Chinese write with a brush, it is not necessary that their ;^aper should be as much sized as ours, and it is, therefore, merely dipped in a solution of alum. Sometimes a size is prepared by dissolving isin- glass in water, and adding a certain proportion of a solution of alum. The leaves are plunged one by one into the tub and dried separately, and to facilitate trans- portation are fixed in the end of a split stick. To soften the surface of the paper, the Chinese spread over it with a brush a clear solution of alum and talc, and by then rubbing the surfaces with a wad of cotton, they are rendered smooth and very soft to the touch. Some kinds of oiled papers acquire greater suppleness, and resemble satin or some woven material so closely that they might be mistaken for them, and are used by tailors for trimming clothes. Japanese paper is principally made from the bark of the Morus papifera sativa. The branches are cut into lengths of about one metre (3.28 feet), made into bundles and boiled in water with the addition of alum. After this boiling the bark peels off easily from the wood, and is then sorted very carefully into MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN CHINA AND JAPAN. 275 No. 1. Shoots of one year old. " 2. " " less than one year old. " 3. " " more " " " " The mixture of these barks would very much impair the whiteness and quality. The bark is again subjected to the action of a slight lye ; after which the material is soft, and only presents to the touch the feel of a very fibrous substance. This operation demands considerable care. After an abun- dant washing the pulp is triturated upon a table by beating it with round billets of very hard wood. When the trituration is accomplished, an extract of rice and the root of the Oreni is poured into the vat. The paper is then made by hand in a manner analo- gous to that of the Chinese. What distinguishes the Chinese and Japanese papers from those of Europe, is their greater softness, smooth- ness, and tenacity, which make them resemble silk cloths. It may easily be proved, however, by igniting ~ them, that they are entirely composed of vegetable mate- rial, which burns with a clear flame, whereas all animal substances crisp, curl up, and emit abundant ammoniacai vapors. These processes are very rational, and there is no doubt that by subjecting certain European plants to the same treatment we might be enabled to make paper similar to that of the Celestial Empire ; but let us hasten to add that such could only be manufactured as fancy papers, more curious than of any regular commercial utility. DESCEIPTION OF THE PLATES, PLATE I. Microscopic Representations of Fibres of Hemp, Flax, Cotton, Wool, and Silk. Fig. 1. — The fibres of hemp and of flax are formed of straight, elon- gated, cylindrical cells; those of flax can be distinguished only by their relatively smaller size.* Fig. 2. — Cotton, fibres resemble tubes flattened in the direction of their length, and generally twisted several times upon themselves. Their diameters vary from to -^q of a millimetre (yo^^oo T^Jfw inches.) Fig. 3. — Filaments of wool, formed by a series of rings articulated with each other, diminishing in diameter from root to point, and thus producing a row of teeth, similar to those of a saw. This conformation explains the peculiar property of felting possessed by wool. Fig. 4. — Silk fibre, formed of two juxtaposed tubes united by a longi- tudinal partition. Figs. 6, t, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.— Different apparatus for alkalimetric, chlorometric, and hydrotiraetric tests. We have explained the use of these various instruments in detail, Chap. YII., §§ 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6. ' The diameter of hemp fibres varies from to of a millimetre (joVo o to joVoo inch) ; those of flax from to of a millimetre (jodooo To^o inch). The cells of flax are not, like those of hemp, provided with a small appendage. 278 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE II. Cylmders used in Paper- Making for Triturating the Pulp. (Different Systems.) Figs. 1, 2. — General disposition of the machinery for two cylinders, moved by a water-wheel ; velocity of the wheel, 8 revolutions a minute ; velocity of the cylinder, from 180 to 200 revolutions. This transmission of power by means of pinions presents the defect of jarring, as the wooden teeth of the great wheel R become worn. The arrangement of the engines is not to be imitated. The heater should be put in place of the washer, as the direction of the motion tends to raise the cylinder of the beating engine. This might result in a breakage of the teeth or blades of the plate, and it would also be difficult to obtain a thorough commi- nution of the pulp. a. Machinery, with pinions for two cylinders. h. Washing engine. c. Beating or refining engine. d. Water-wheel. Fig. 3. — Washing engine constructed entirely of cast iron. (In the case of a beating engine, the only difference is in the arrange- ment of the blades of the cylinder and plate.) The cistern is entirely of cast iron, and furnished with washing drums. The cylinder is lowered upon the plate by means of levers, worked by a perpendicular screw, revolving through a fixed nut, furnished with cogs (a screw-jack). The blades of the cylinder are steel, arranged by twos for the washing, and threes for the beating engine. Fig. 5. — Bronze plate of the washer. Fig. 6. — Bronze plate of the heater. Fig. 7. — Mixed engine with cistern of cast iron and wood, steel plate, and furnished with strainers and washing drums. This arrange- ment is well suited to soiled rags requiring abundant washing. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 279 Fig. 8. — (Old System.) Old-fashioned rag-engine with wooden cis- tern and flat plate. The blades are serrated. We give this arrangement in order to show the progress made since the begin- ning of this century. The power was transmitted by lantern wheels. Sand traps and washing drums were not then known. At the present day when wooden cisterns are adopted, the staves are arranged in an elliptic curve as with cast-iron engines, and these are tightened with iron hoops held by screw bolts. Fig. 10.— Scale of Figs. 1 and 2, O.OOT metre to the metre (3.28 ft.). Fig. 11.— Scale of Figs. 3 to 9, 0.03 metre to the metre (3.28 ft.). PL A TE III. Representation of an Improved Paper- Machine. (Large Model.) 2.10 metres (6.88 ft.) broad. Scale of 0.025 metre to 1 metre (3.28 ft.). Four wet presses and eight drying cylinders with disconnected felts. The only fault to be found with this machine, the very finest we know of, is that of having too long a web. The drying apparatus may be considered as a model. The drying taking place gradually renders the paper softer and smoother, and even gives it a somewhat velvety appearance, an indication of incipient satining. The suction boxes are exhausted by means of air pumps. a. Paper. I. Felt. c. Paper. d. Paper. 280 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE lY. Paper-3Iahing hy Hand — Vats and Accessories — Differ en\^ Apparatus serving for the Manufacture of Paper hy Hand. Fig. 1. — General plan of two vats. Fig. 2. — Wooden vats heated directly by steam. Fig. 3 — Arrangement of two .wooden vats heated directly by steam. The posts of paper may be pressed either by a screw or hydraulic press. a. Position of the vatraan. h. Position of the coucher. c. Position of the layman. d. Position of the assistant. e. Couching table. f. Stand for the felts. g. Bench for holding the posts on leaving the press. h. Tray for carrying the wet posts to the press. Fig. 3. — Drainage stay. a. Mould. Fig. 4. — Representation of an easel or inclined bench. Fig. 5. — Bridge over the vat. a. Bracket serving to support the mould when shoved along the bridge. Fig. 6. — Disposition of the support for the coucher. Two iron up- rights, let into the floor, support the screen, which serves as a rest for the coucher. Fig. T. — Rod for stirring the material in the vat. Fig. 8. — Yats for making bank-note paper, heated by a water bath. A pair of copper vats, heated by a water bath for making bank- note paper. This arrangement is indispensable for preserving tne pureness of this paper, as steam used in heating introduces dirt proceeding from the pipes, joints, &c. These are square vats, lined on the inside with zinc, and fur- nished at the lower part with stopcocks for washing. Their size and that of the copper basins depends entirely upon that of the paper to be made. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 281 Fig. 9. — Angles of the wooden vat, showing the manner of joining. Pig. 10. — Cast-iron support, serving to sustain the vertical copper pipes, pierced with holes at their lower extremities. Fig. 11. — Junction of the pipes and stopcocks, allowing the vats to be heated separately. Fig. 12, — Lifters for hanging the wet leaves on the tribbles in the drying-room. Fig. 13.— Scale of 0.03 metre to the metre (3.28 ft.). PLATE Y. Moulds and Watermarks. Figs. 1, 2, 3. — Mould for making paper. Representation of a mould of laid wire. Fig. 1. — Upper surface. Fig. 3. — Under surface of the mould, showing the arrangement of the ribs. The size of the mould naturally varies with that of the paper. The thickness of the deckel varies very little, and it should be as light as possible to lessen the labor of the workman. Figs. 4, 5, 6, 1, 8. — Details of the method of joining the stock of the frame, and the ribs with the stock. Fig. 8 shows the wire cloth fastened to the frame by means of very fine brass wires. The laid wire moulds have either a single or a double cloth ; this last is best suited to strong papers. Fig. 9. — Joints of the deckel made with double rabbets. To be well done they require a skilful workman. Figs. 10, 11, 12. — Different kinds of watermark. Fig. 10. — Simple watermark made by cutting out a sheet of brass. This watermark is that adopted by the French Government for the paper of playing cards. Fig. 11. — Another simple but more difficult watermark than the pre- ceding. The couching of the lower part of the talons and thunderbolt presents difficulties. To compensate for this, how- ever, the effect is handsomer. 282 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. r>G. 12. — Design reproducing the watermark of a Turkish bank-note. All the dark lines are depressed and the paper shows the design when looked at by transmitted light. In this respect it is a shaded watermark. It could equally well be light by cutting out a copper leaf according to the outline. Fig. 13. — Isolated light letters, very generally used for bank note paper, letters of credit, &c. Fig. 14. — Letter of the actual size. The striated edges represented facilitate the operation of couching. Fig. 15. — Shaded watermark formed by a rectangular depression in the wire cloth. The letters, isolated and simple, are sewed to the bottom and appear in light upon the paper. Fig. 16. — Section of fig. 15 in the direction c d. Fig. 1Y. — Light watermark with joined letters. In this manner a regularity in the words is obtained, which it is difiicult to arrive at by means of isolated lel:ters, requiring to be delicately fastened. This kind of watermark may also be placed in the depression of fig. 15. Fig. 18. — Shaded letters obtained by means of undulations in the wire cloth. These kinds of watermarks, the richest in use, are reserved for the paper of bank notes of high value. The impres- sion on the wire cloth is effected by means of two dies analogous to those employed for stamping metals; other shaded letters are also made. The watermarked parts are therefore only moulds in which the pulp is deposited and produce their effect upon the paper by the difference in the thickness of the pulp at different points. Fig. 19. — Section of fig. 18 in the direction a h. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 283 PLATE YI. General Plan of a Paper-3I{ll. Figs. 1, 2, 3. — Plan of a paper-mill according to M. Planche. A. Entrance for receiving crude rags, weighing-room. B. Elevator for crude rags. G. Store-room. D. Hatchway for lowering crude rags to the sorting and cutting-room. E. Gratings for sorting and cutting. F. Hatchway for lowering cut rags to the store-room of sorted rags. G. Store-room for sorted rags. H. Dusting-machine and rag-cutter. I. Washing and boiling apparatus. J. Turbine room. K. Reservoir of water. L. Machinery of the rag-engines. M. Washing engines. N. Bleaching apparatus for liquid chlorine. 0. Bleaching room for chlorine gas. P. Retorts for the preparation of chlorine gas. Q, Store cases for the pulp. R. Beating engines. aS'. Room of the paper-machine. T. Finishing-room. U. Office. V. Store-room. X. Quarters of the superintendent and employes. a, Sizing-room. h. Caldrons for melting over broken leaves, parings, &c. c. Ventilator for the paper-machine. d. Store-room for felts, wire, cloth, straps, colors, &c. e. Steam-boilers. /. Work-shop for repairs, forge, joiner's shop, &c. g. Baths. h. Water-closets. 1. Sheds, stables, and quarters for the workmen. m. Bridge. 284 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. We shall criticize this plan as follows : The store-room for cut rags is too small and badly placed on the ground floor ; it, as well as the boiling apparatus, should have been on the second. The room for the paper machine is in the main building. The quarters for the superintendent and employes are in the mill itself. The steam boilers and chimney contiguous to the main building would be better placed at a distance. It seems to us preferable to adopt a shorter building with an addi- tional story, and a parallel or perpendicular wing for the accommoda- tion of the paper-machine. Figs. 4, 5. — Plan of a mill with three paper-machines, by the same author. The arrangements are the same as in the previous plan, only on a larger scale. There are 12 washing and 12 beating engines, with 6 bleach- ing vats. One of the machines is provided with an apparatus using animal size. » Fig. 6. — General plan of a paper-mill with two machines at Kraut- hausen : — A. First paper-machine. B. Second paper-machine. C. Water wheel. D. Turbine wheel. ^. Machinery. M Steam engine. G. Caldrons. H. Bleaching-chest and store-room for pulp. /. Satining machine. J. Packing-room and warehouse. K. Office. L. Superintendent's room. M. Stair-drum. Store-room. The building H E is thus subdivided : On the ground floor, machinery ; on the floor above, rag engines ; and on the third floor under the roof, store-room for rags. Building B : on the ground floor, paper-machine ; on the second, finishing room ; on the third floor under the roof, store-room for rags and reservoir. We have in figs. 7, 8, 14, different combinations convenient for adoption in the case of a mill with one or two machines. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 285 Fig. T. — Building parallel with the water-conrse. On the ground floor, machinery and store chests ; on the second, rag-engines, boiling, bleaching, and sizing apparatus ; on the third floor, rag-room, store-room for cut rags and duster ; under the roof, store-room for crude rags. The two perpendicular lines represent, one the room for the paper-machine, the other the finishing-room. This arrangement allows us to add another machine symmetri- cally placed in regard to the first. The arrangement of fig. 8 may be equally well adopted. The finishing-rooms form opposite sides of the hollow square. As each machine often makes different qualities of paper, there is no objection to having these two rooms separate. Fig. 9. — Modification of the preceding. The finishing-room opposite the paper-machine ; on the second floor satining machine, presses and calenders. This arrangement is open to the objection of necessitating the transportation of the paper across the court- yard after leaving the machine. Fig. 10. — Machinery and finishing-rooms parallel with the main building. This arrangement is convenient when our available space is limited. Fig. 11. — Main building perpendicular to the current ; machine and finishing-rooms at opposite sides of the square. For two ma- chines. Fig. 12. — Modification of the preceding for one or two machines. Fig. 13 — Arrangement for a single machine. The finishing-room may be continuous with that of the machine. Too costly work in the foundation for the water wheel may result from this plan, unless the banks are sufficiently high. Fig. 14. — The two machine-rooms parallel with the main building ; the finishing-rooms on opposite sides of a square. This arrange- ment is only suitable when space is wanting. Mills built across water-courses are more rare than those established upon one shore. The different out-buildings for bleaching with chlorine gas, workshops, steam-boilers, office and quarters of the superinten- dent, who should command a view of the entire mill, must be grouped as convenience and the site of the mill may require. I PI 6. INDEX. Acid bath, 52 Ackerman's fluid for rendering papers and stuffs impermeable, 175 Action of the atmosphere in sizing,. 160 Alkali, caustic, use of, in manufacture of wood pulp, 264 proportion required in boiling, 39 saving, 266 Alkalimetrical test, 208 Alkaline matters used in boiling, 37 Alum diminishes the solubility of size, 160 mixed with glue, for sizing, 160 too much not to be used in clari- fying size, 167 Alums, 223 Alumina, sulphate, 224 , Amaranth, 93 American Wood-Paper Co., 263 Ammonia, use of, 205 Analyses of various fuels, 230 Animal size, advantages of, 23 Annexed building, 259 Antichlorine, 222 use of, 53 where chlorine remains, 69 Apparatus for paper by hand, 280 Arabs inventors of paper, 18 Arsenious acid, 214 Atmosphere, action of, in sizing, 160 Bank-note paper, 126 Bark for manufacture of paper, 197 Barley straw, 200 Beating, 69 duration of, 70 • engines, 70 Beet pulp, 198 Belgian paper, 203 Belgium, classification of rags in, 27 Berthe & Grevenich establish a paper machine, 19 Berthollet, 19 Binoxide of manganese, 220 Black, 92, 94 Bleaching, 49 Bleaching — and draining the pulp, apparatus for, 250 by electricity, 57 completion of, 53 importance of study of, 66 in Holland and Flanders, 58 Le Normand on, 57 light in, 62 materials required in, 24 of cloths, 58 of paper pulp, 64 rags in the rag-engine, 46 Robiquet on, 57 tub, 52 two methods of, 50 waste from, 57 " Bleu Guimet," 77, 78 Blue, 77, 89 and red combinations, 93 Blue papers, 88 Blueing, 85, 86 Boards, manufacture of, 269 Boiled rags, table of, 42 Boilers for wood pulp, 264 Boiling apparatus, 247 materials required in, 24 rags, 36 Bombycian paper, 17 Braconnot's discovery, 183 preparation of vegetable size, 71 Brazil wood, 81, 90 Brick color, 94 Broom, Spanish, 194 Brown, 84 paper colored by oxide of iron, 161 Brunner's method, 78 Buff, 83, 94 Building, remarks in reference to, 257 Burette, alkalimetrical, 209 Calenders, 102 Callendering, 100 Canson's method for blue paper, 87 on sizing in the pulp, 187 Carbonate of lime, 38 220 288 INDEX. Carbonate — of soda, 38 Carbonic acid, 51 Carnation pink, 93 Caustic alkali, use of, in manufacture of wood pulp, 264 Centrifugal refiners, use of, in Ame- rica, 71 Cliaucliard machine, 202 Chemical analysis of materials em- ployed in paper-making, 204 of old rags, 3 92 examination of paper sized in the pulp, 232 test of cotton rags, 204 of linen rags, 204 Chestnut color, 94 China, manufacture of paper in, 273 Chloride of lime, 50, 53, 217 in bleaching, 65. preparation of, 54 of sodium, 53 Chlorides, discoloring, 49 Chlorinated liquid, 52 Chlorine bath, 51 disengagement of, 51 escape of, 56 gas, 49, 54 Bertholet's mode of prepar- ing, 54 use of, 205 in papers not well washed, 53 liquid, 50 proportion of, used, 56 use of, in excess, 21 Chlorometric tests, 213 Chlorometrical table, 216 Chocolate color, 94 Cinnamon color, 94 City rags, 28 Clarification of size, 167 Classification of cut rags, 31 of paper, 131 Cloths, bleaching of, 58 Coarse and dirty rags, boiling, 39 Colored papers, 85 Dingler's method, 90 Coloring materials, 24, 226 test of, 226 matters, 76 Combustibles, analysis of, 228 Comparison between machine and hand-made papers, 128 Commercial value of various kinds of rags, 26 Composition of pulp, 66 Copper-plate paper, 162 Coquelicot color, 94 Corn stalks, 200 Cotton, 193 fibres, 277 fibrillse of, 204 rags, chemical test of, 204 Couching, French and Swiss methods of, 113 Country rags, 28 Cut rags, classification of, 31 Cutting careful, advantage of, 33 Cutting rags, 29 Crusaders introduce paper into France, 18 Cylinders used in paper-making, 278 D'Arcet's size, 71, 72, 185 Dark Gray, 84 Deckle, 105 Didot, Leger, 18 Dingler's method with colored papers, 90 Dirty rags, boiling, 39 Discoloration of pulp, process of, 51 Disengagement of the chlorine in bleaching, 51 Donkin, 19 Drainage, 47 Drainer, Lamothe-Ferrand, 49, 55 turbine, 49 Drying after sizing, 146, 159 cylinders, 99 duration of, 118 Dusters, 245 Dusting rags, 34 Dutch and French methods of drying after sizing, 146 sizing, 174 Electricity, bleaching by, 57 Elementary bodies, table of, 238 Engine-rooms, register in, 47 English papers, the best sized with gelatine, 23 Escape of chlorine, 56 Espartero, 195 Establishment of a paper-mill, 255 Evaporating and calcining house, 266 Examination of limes, 211 of manganese, 218 of papers, 230 Extracting gelatine, 136 Fawn, 94 Felts, 109 new, soft, 114 Fermentation facilitates trituration, 163 in bleaching, 59 Fermented rags, table of, 41 Fibres, diameter of, 203 INDEX. 289 Fibres — of hemp, flax, cotton, wool, and silks, microscopic representa- tions of, 277 preservation of the strength of, 194 Finishing, 99 hand-made paper, 125 Finishing-machines, 253 Flame color, 94 " Flax, 193 fibres, 277 Fordas and Gelis on spots in paper, 235 France, paper-machines in, 19 the first to make paper by ma- chinery, 18 Fuel, 227 analysis of, 228 Fuels, table of analyses of various, 230 Further remarks on sizing, 133 Gauge, 105 Gelatine and alum size, 176 Gelatine, English papers sized with, 23 extracting, 136 Gelatinous precipitate in clarifying size, 168 General considerations, 258 General plan of a paper-mill, 283 Germany, classification of rags in, 26 Glutinous materials uniting rag fibres, 163 Gold color, 94 Grain of paper, softening, 117 Gray, 84 Green, 84, 93 Green sulphate, 161 Half stuff, reduction to, 44 Hand-made paper, finishing, 125 Hand, manufacture of paper by, 105, 111 paper-making by, 280 Hard pulp, drainage of, 48 Hay for paper, 200 Hemp, 194 Hemp fibres, 277 diameter of, 204 Herring, Richard, referred to, 96 History of paper-making, 17 Horse-dung for paper, 201 Hydrochloric' acid, 53 Hydrometer, use of, in ascertaining degree of concentration of size, 169 Hypochlorite of lime, 50 Impermeability imparted to paper by size, 161 19 Impermeable, size to render paper, 169 Important observations upon sizing, 150 Improved paper-machines, 279 Indigo blue, 91 Japan, manufacture of paper in, 273 Jessup & Moore's paper-mills, 268 Jonquil color, 94 Kaolin, 225 composition of washed, 225 in sizing, 73, 74, 76 introduction of, 20 in wood paper, 203 purification, 225 to ascertain the pureness of, 225 use of, in size, 225 Keen & Burgess' patent, 267 Knotter, the, 98 Kochu-tree, 273 Koteng-plant, 273 Laboratory, instruments and appara- tus, 238 Ladd & Keen's patent, 263 Laid or woven wire, gauze of, 105 Lamothe-Ferrand drainer, 49, 55 Leaves for manufacture of paper, 197 raising, 115 Le Normand on bleaching, 57 on sizing, 133 Lifting, 117 Light coffee color, 94 Light in bleaching, 62 Lilac, 93 Lime, hypochlorite of, 50 use of, 163 and soda in boiling, 37 Limes, examination of, 211 poor, 213 preferred in paper- making, 211 rich, 213 substances met with in, 211 Linen and cotton fibres, distinguishing of, 205 Linen rags, chemical test of, 204 Liquid chlorine, 21, 50 Lumps, 96 Lye, boiling hay in, 201 effects of too weak, 38 Lyes in bleaching, effect of, on rags, 28 Machine and hand-made papers, com- parison, 138 Madder, red, 91 Main building, 259 Maize-stalks, 200 290 INDEX. Manganese, clilorometric degrees of samples of, 219 examination of, 218 tests of samples of, 221 value of, 220 Manufacture, 29 of bank-note paper, and water- marked paper in general, 126 of boards, 269 of paper from wood in tlie United States, 263 of paper from vat or by band, 105 Marigold color, 94 Materials, chemical analysis of, 204 of a laboratory, 238 table of textile, 192 Microscopic examination of rags, 204 representations of fibres of hemp, flax, cotton, wool, and silk, 278 Mineral substances, 24 Moisture in bleaching, 63 in rags, 28 Mongolfier's experiments with size, 170 Motive power, 241 Mould, 105 Moulds and water-marks, 281 Mucosity in fermenting- vat, 162 Nasturtium color, 94 Nitric and hypouitric acids as tests of phormium tenax, 205 Olives, 93 Operation of sizing, 144 Orange, 94 Oxide of iron, brown paper colored by, 161 Oxygenated muriatic acid and potassa in bleaching, 65 Paper, bombycian, 17 by machinery, France the first to make, 18 classification of, 131 derivation of wood, 17 examination of, 230 from wood, manufacture of, 263 importance of washing, 53 impregnated with alum, 160 manufacture of, in China and Ja- pan, 273 of fermented pulp, sizing of, 171 of plantain leaves, 20 of rags, earliest, 18 tarred, 20 Paper-machine, improved, 279 Paper-machines, 251 in France, 19 the work of, 96 Paper-making by hand, 280 Paper-making, history of, 17 in France, 19 statistics of, 21 Paper-mill, general plan, 283 remarks upon the establishment of, 255 working stock of, 241, 254 Paper-pulp, bleaching of, 64 Papyrus, 17 Payen's sizing, 176 Pernambuco wood, 81 Persulphate of iron mixed with gela- tine, 161 Pink red, 80 Plates, description of, 278 Pomegranate color, 94 Post, 108 Potashes, alkalinity of several, 210 Potash, test of, 208 Potassa, analysis, 208 and oxygenated muriatic acid in bleaching, 65 as a test of linen, 205 Potato-starch size, 173 Proportions of wood and rag pulp in certain papers, 203 Prussian blue for coloring pulp, 224 Pulp, composition of, 66 papers colored in, 88 ridding of chlorine, 20 sizing in, 178 Pulp-sized paper, examination of, 232 Pulp-sizing, first, 71 Purple, 93 Quality of rags, 28 Quires, making up into, 104 Rag-cutters, 243 Rags, 24, 26 boiling and rotting, 40 chemical test and microscopic examination of, 204 city, 28 classification of, 26 commercial value of, 26 country, 28 earliest paper of, 18 maceration in small mills, 162 natural moisture in, 28 quality of, 28 rotting of, 39 sorting and cutting, 29 substitute for, 20 value of, 28 varieties of, 26 wet, 27 Raising the leaves, 115 INDEX. 291 Raw materials, 24 Reagents, 239 Reams, making up into, 104 Red, 89, 90 and yellow combinations, 93 Reduction to half stuff, 44 Refining or beating, 69 Residue, 47 Resinous soap, 72 Retting, 204 Ribs, 105 Rice, Chinese size, 172 River water, clarification of, 171 Robert the earliest patentee of ma- chine paper, 18 Robiquet on bleaching, 57 Rolling-press, 100 Roots for manufacture of paper, 198 Rose-paper, 88 Rye-straw, 200 for wrappers, 20 Saddlemakers' size, 164 Sand-boxes, 96 Sand-traps, 20 Satining the paper, 99, 100, 102 Screw and hydraulic processes of drainage, 48 Sea-wrack, paper of, 20 Seeds for manufacture of paper, 198 Silk fibres, 277 Size, Ackerman's, 169 alone, not rendering paper imper- meable to ink, 160 and its preparation, 164 best, paper not always rendered impermeable by, 164 Chinese, of rice, 172 clarification of, 167 D'Arcet's, 185 decoction never clear, 166 dried by slow evaporation, 161 impermeability which it imparts to paper, 161 methods of preparing, 165 mixed with alum, 160 of gelatine and alum, 176 saddlemakers', 164 skins of young animals produce the whitest, 164 strength of, 165 weak, 169 white, from ox-hide, 164 Sizing, 70, 71 appendix on, 158 comparison of two methods, 189 compositions for, 74, 75, 76 further remarks on, 133 hand-made paper, 119 Sizing — important observations on, 150 in pulp, 178 Canson's method, 187 materials for, 24 operation of, 144 theories of, 175 vegetable, 20 Sizing-room, 134 Smoothing or rolling press, 100 Soap with size, 169 Soda, test of, 208 and lime in boiling, 37 Sodas, alkalinity of different, 211 Sorting and cutting of rags, 29 Spanish brown, 194 •use of. in England, 196 Starch, 225 hygrometric condition of, 226 potato, size, 173 Statistics of paper-making, 21 Steam, high and low pressure, in boil- ing, 38 Straw and rag pulp, 199 Straw, bleaching, 199 Straw, bottoms of caldrons covered with, 166 maceration with lime, 199 papers, 198 pulp, use of, with wood pulp, 267 Strength of size, 165 Substances suitable for making paper, 181 Suction-pumps, 20 Sulphate of alumina, 224 of soda, 53 Sulphuric acid, 209 as a test of cotton, 205 use of, in disengagement of chlo- rine, 51 Sunlight in bleaching, 62 Tarred paper, 20 rope, 201 Tests, chlorometric, 213 Textile materials, table of, 192 Theories of sizing, 175 Tobacco color, 94 Tribbles, 118 Turbine drainer, 49 wheel, 241 Unboiled and unbleached pulp, 203 Unfermented pulp, size for paper made with, 169 United States, statistics of paper- making in, 22 Vat, manufacture of paper from, 105 292 INDEX. Vats, 108, 280 cleaning, 116 Vegetable kingdom, products of, for raw materials, 24 size, 71 sizing, 20 Vermilion, 89 Violet, 93 Voelter's macMne for' wood pulp, 202 Washing apparatus, 246 and beating engines, 247 and bleaching, difference between, 62 and cleansing, 60 of papers, importance of, 53 rags, 36 Washing-drums to rag engines, 20 Washing-machine, use of, 61 Waste from bleaching, 57 of material, 196 table of, in washing, boiling, and reduction to half stuff, 47 Water-marked paper, manufacture of, 126 Water-marks, 103, 281 Waters, purifying of, 207 test of, 206 Watt & Burgess' patent for wood pulp, 263 Weight, 97 Well water, examination of specimens of, 171 Web, endless, 97 rags, 27 Wheat-straw, 200 White limes, 213 Winter, papers dyed in the pulp should not be made in, 96 Wood fibres, force necessary to sepa- rate, 203 Fremy's experiments on, 202 in Belgian paper, 203 paper from, 263 paper of, 20 Wood paper, 201 Wood pulp, boilers for, 264 and straw pulp, 267 Wool fibres, 277 Working stock of a paper-mill, 241, 254 Work of the paper-machine, 96 Yellow, 82, 89 Yellow rust in paper, 236 THE END. CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHEI* BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, ISTo. 406 W^X.3Sr-CJT STREET, PHILADKLPHIA. Any of the Books comprised !n this Catalogue will be sent by maH, free of postage, at the publication price, My New ais'D Enlarged Catalogue, 93 pages Svc, witli full descriptions of Books, will be sent, free of postage, to any one wlio will favor me with his address. A RMENGAUD, AMOUEOUX, AND JOHNSON.—THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. 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Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00 pOWDITCH.— ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIEI- ^ CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS : By Rev. W. R. Bowditch. Illustrated with wood engrav- ings. 8vo $6 50 B OX.— PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS : A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By Thomas Box. 12mo $2 50 ■pUCKMASTER.— THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS : By J. C. BucKMASTEE, late Student in the Government School of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. , $1 50 B ULLOCK.— THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER : A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to to $20,000 for Homes for the People ; together with Warm- ing, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Garden- ing. 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Burgh, Engineer. 12mo. , . . $2 00 -pURGH.— THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : By N. P. Burgh, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," "Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc, etc. Completely illustrated. 12mo $2 00 YRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. La Fayette Byrn, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $1 25 pYR?^.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus ; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- ous and other compounds, etc. etc. ; all of which is so simpli- fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage in the art of distilling By M. La Fatettk Byrn, INI. D. With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 B HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE- 5 DYRNE.— POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGI- NEERS : Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- tings ; Embankments ; Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated, ISmo,, full bound . . . . . $1 75 DYRNE.— THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC, ^ AND ENGINEER : By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. 8vo. $5 00 TDYRNE.— THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL ME- CHANICS : For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- ings, 12mo $3 63 DYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering ; Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal ; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- AVorkers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- ring Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from the Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and improved Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B , William Clay, Wm, Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- dred and Ninety-two Engravings ; Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 ■pYRNE.— THE PRACTICAL MODEL CALCULATOR: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 •pEMROSE.— MANUAL OF WOOD CARVINU : With Practical Il- lustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected de- signs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Introduction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., cloth $3 00 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. ■DAIED.— PEOTECTION OF HOME LABOK AND HOME PRO- ^ SUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPEEITY OF THE AMERICAN FARMER : By Henry Carey Baird. 8vo., paper . . . . 10 DAIRD.— THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE ^ WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM. By Henry Carey Baird. (1870) .... 5 AIRD.— SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE HEVENUE-REFORM. Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By Henry Carey Baird. (1871.) Paper .... 5 PAIRD.—STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : B B An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio $5 00 AUERMAN.— TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON. Illustrated. 12mo $2 60 B -piCKNELLlS VILLAGE BUILDER. ^ 66 large plates. 4to. $10 00 "piSHOP.— A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES : From 1608 to 1866 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial Period to the Present Time ; By J. Leander Bishop, M. D., Ed- ward Yoraa, and Edwin T. Freedley. Three vols. 8vo., $10 00 OX.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS : For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By Thomas Box, au- thor of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, con- taining 114 figures. 12mo $4 25 QABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong $5 00 riHAPMAN.— A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING : As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a, Description of the Manufacture^ Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade ; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By Robert Chapman. 24rao > . . . $1 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 7 pRAIK.— THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND ^ MILLER. Comprising the Elementary Principles of Mechanics, Me- chanism, and Motive Power, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors, Mill-dams, Saw Mills, Grist Mills, the Oat Meal Mill, the Barley Mill, Wool Carding, and Cloth Fulling and Dress- ing, Wind Mills, Steam Power, &c. By David Craik, Mill- wright. Illustrated by numerous wood engravings, and five folding plates. 1 vol. 8vo. . . . . $5 00 riAMPIN.— A PRACTICAL. TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- ^ GINEERING: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ann- lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. Tc which are added. Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- tion ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. $6 00 pAMPlN.— THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, ^ IVORY, SHELL, ETC.; With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin , ■with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 pAPRON DE DOLE.— DUSSAUCE.— BLUES AND CARMINES OF ^ INDIGO. A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien C apron de Dole. Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. DuS' SAUCE. 12mo. 8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. QAREY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- SUMPTION ? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. Svo. paper 25 HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturi»g, and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 Do. do. cloth . . . f 1 50 LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Paper $1 00 MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's "Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1 vol. 12mo $2 25 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo England •without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review of the Decade 1857 — 'G7," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 8vo., cloth $4 50 MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- tistical Society. 8vo., paper ..... 25 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth ^10 00 REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— '67. 8vo., paper 50 RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo paper ...... . . 50 THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $1 5(? HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 9 LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (1867.) Paper 50 REVIEW OF THE FARMERS' QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25 RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT AROUT. (1869.) 8vo., paper .... 60 REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special Commissioner of the Revenue. (1869.) Svo., paper 50 SHALL WE HAVE PEACE? Peace Financial and Peace Poli- tical. Letters to the President Elect. (1868.) 8vo., paper 50 THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND THE PUBLIC DEBT. (1868.) Svo., paper . . 50 THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) Svo., paper m 00 WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST ? (1870.) Paper 25 riAMUS.— A TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS : Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Trans- lated from the French of M. Camus. By John I. Hawkins. Illustrated by 40 plates. Svo $.3 00 riOXE.— MINING LEGISLATION. A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By EcKLEY B. CoxE. Paper 20 nOLBTJRN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerah CoLBURN. 8vo., cloth 75 nOLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE : Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- i;ig its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A new edition. 12mo. $1 25 riOLBURN AND MAW.— THE WATER- WORKS OF LONDON: Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from ''Engineering." In one volume, Svo. . . $4 00 ■HAGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: ^ 12mo., cloth . $1 25 10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD^S CATALOGUE. -QIRCKS.— PERPETUAL MOTION : Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the ITth, 18tb, and 19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 12mo., cloth $3 50 TJIXOK.— THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S ^ GUIDE : Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. $1 50 JJUNCAN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. !12mo., cloth. ^1 25 TjUSSAUCE.— A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE OH THE ^ ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- ING : Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Ren^, De Fontenelle, Mala- peyre, etc. etc. By Prof H. Dussauce, Chemist, Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. - . . . . $10 00 TJUSSAUCE— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE ^ OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL : Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in the Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By Professor H. Dussauce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo. of over 800 pages $10 00 TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATIOI^ ^ OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- DERS. By Professor IT. -Dussauce. 12mo. . . . $3 00 HEXRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11 D S D USSAUCE.— A PEACTICAL GUIDE FOK THE PERFUMEE : Being a Kew Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the Beauty witliout being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the substances used in Perfumer}^ the Form- ulge of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- tures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, etc. Withadditions by Processor H. DussAucE, Chemist. 12mo. 00 lUSSAUCE.—A GENESAL TEEATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF YltlEcrlR, THE3SETIGAL AITD PRACTICAL. Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as wel\ as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. Dussaijce. i2mo. S.5 0n. UPLAIS.— A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATIOIT AKD MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS : From the French of M. Duplais. Translated and Edited by M. McKennie, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo. $10 00 This is a treatise of the highest scientific m«rit and of the greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English language. ,E GRAFF.— THE GEOMETRIC .\L STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE: Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel Engravings : together with the use of the most approved princi- ples of Practical Geometry. By Snio}? De Graff, Architect. 4to. $5 00 YER Ai^D COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION : Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washiug-off, and Finishing the fioods. In one vol. 12mo- . . . . . §1 25 12 HENRY Carey baird's catalogue. •pASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSE- POWER RAILWAYS : Their Location, Construction, and Management ; with General Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation ; toge- ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 plates, 8vo., cloth $2 00 pORSYTH.— BOOK OF DESIGNS FOR HEAD-STONES, MURAL, *• AND OTHER MONUMENTS : Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyth. 4to., cloth $5 00 This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental work. pAIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- ^ CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. $2 50 pAIRBAIRN.—PRIME-MOVERS : Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power; the Construc- tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. By William Fairbairn, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (la press.) niLBAET.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: ^ By .James William Gilbart. To Avhich is added: TnB Na- tional Bank, Act as now ii? force. 8vo. . . $4 50 ESNER.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM, AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. By Abraham Gesner,M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised and enlarged. By George Weltden Gesker, Consulting Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated. 8vo. . . 50 13 a G G OTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS : Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong ^3 00 RANT.— BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE BEET: By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 REGORY.— MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN ; Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates, cloth $3 00 G HRISWOLD.— RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling f:om Prelimi- nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. $1 75 UETTIER.— METALLIC ALLOYS : Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the French of A. Guettier, Engineer and Director of Founderies, author of "La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. $3 00 JJATS AND FELTING: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture, By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c., 8vo. $1 25 TTAY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. R. Hay, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. ]2mo. H UGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- SISTANT : By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volnme, 12mo .... 50 14 HENBT CAREY BATED'S CATALOGUE. gUNT— THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of tlie Photographic Society, London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 JURST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : Comprising Formulas useful in Designing Builders' work, Table of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By J. F. IIuRST, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound $2 50 ISVIS.— RAILWAY PROPERTY: A Treatise on the Construction and jManagement of Railways ; designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. One Yol. 12mo., cloth . . . . . $2 00 •OHNSON.— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS : Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 8vo., . . ... $10 00 ■OHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, LIMESTONES, AND MANURES By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo 35 pENE.— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Dis- tillation, desci'ibing the process in operation at the Custom House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. Keene, of E. M. Customs. 8vo. . . . $1 25 HESKY CAREY BATED' S CATALOGUE, 15 ^NTISH.— A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, And the Slide Kule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur-' ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thomas Kejjtish. In one volume. 12mo. . . $1 25 OBELL.—ERNI.— MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED: A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from the last German Edition of F. Vo:^ Kobell, with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one volume. 12mo. . . ' . . . $2 50 ANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL : Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work^ ing, and Use, By M. H. C. Landein, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with Not^s, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo. . . $3 00 TARKIN.— THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S GUIDE. A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improve^ ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Beany, Neafie & Co.'s Pcnn Works, Philadelphia, Fifth edition, revised, with extensive Addi- tions. In one volume, 12mo. $2 25 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGRJE. EAVITT.— EACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL: With Remarks upon its Origia and Composition, the Localities m which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable ; toge- ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte* rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By H, T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1 75 EROUX— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- TURE OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS : Translated from the French of Charles Leboux, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr H. Paine, and A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by 12 large plates. In one volume 8vo $5 00 ^ ESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- tion of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 ESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK : a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., cloth $1 25 ESLIE (MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH COOKERY. 12mo. . .• 50 lEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth $1 25 OVE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND FINISHING : On the most approved English and French methods; being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and "Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Love. Second American Edition, to which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline Colors, 8vo 6 00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 M M M M M M' M AIN AND BROWN.— QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE : And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By TnoMAS J. Maix, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth $150 AIN AND BROWN.— THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETEE 5 With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 AIN AND BROWN— THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. Authors of "Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- gine," and the '* Indicator and Dynamometer." "With numerous Illustrations. In one volume 8vo. . . . . . $5 00 ARTIN.— SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- CHANICAL ENGINEERS : Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Universal Gas-Pi^^e Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 8vo. ....... 50 ILES— A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING. With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of " The Horse's Foot" OLESWORTH.— POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULA AND MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL EN3INEERS. By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . . . $2 00 CORE.— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE : Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. By J G. Moore. 12mo., cloth $1 25 APIER.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY : Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume, Svo. . . . . . . . . $2 00 18 PIENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. IP APIER.— A SYSrEM OF CHEMISTKY APPLIED TO DYEIN?f: By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. Fesquet, -Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition of J867, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . . $5 00 WBERY. — GLEANINGS FEOM ORNAMENTAL ART OF EVERY STYLE; Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1S51 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- amples. By Robert Newbery. 4to $15 00 JJICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING: Containing full instructions in the diflferent Branches of Forward- ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- edges and Paper. By Jajies B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. cloth .... $2 25 ]n"ORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND MACHINISTS: Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth $2 00 ■pjYSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS : For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. $2 50 NEILL.— A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- ING: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics : with Prac- tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analytical Chemist ; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London ; Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which is added An Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their Application to HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Exposition of 1S67, from the Reports of the Interna, tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $6 00 QSBORK.— THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL : Theoretical and Practical : In all its Branches ; With Special Re- ference to American Materials and Processes. By II. S. Osborn, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages $10 00 QSBORN.— AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : ^ Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. Os- BORX, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. {In preparation.) pAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- tions FOR Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 50 pALLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- ^ NEER'S GUIDE.' By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 pERKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth . . . $1 25 pERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron ,• the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in Decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet- iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected by G. IL Perkins and J. G- Stowe $2 5P 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. pHILLIPS AND DAKLINGTON.— RECOEDS OF MINING AND METALLUEGY : Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter. By J. Arthur Phillips, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and John Darlington. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 pEADAL, MALEPEYEE, AND DUSSAUCE. — A COMPLETE TEEATISE ON PEEFUMEEY: Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the Best Formulae. According to the most approved Methods followed in France, England, and the United States. By M. P. Pradal, Perfumer-Chemist, and M. F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, with extensive additions, by Prof. H. DussAXJCE. 8vo. $10 pEOTEAUX.— PEACTICAL GUIDE FOE THE MANUFACTUEE ^ OF PAPEE AND BOAEDS. By A. Proteaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill, 'Puy-de- Dome. With additions, by L. S. Le Normand. Translated from the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by Henry T. Brown, of the "American Artisan." Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. $5 00 pEGNATILT.— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTEY. By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. For- rest Benton, M. B., and edited, with notes, by James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 8vo., cloth $10 00 DEID.— A PEACTICAL TEEATISE ON THE MANUFACTUEE OF ^ POETLAND CEMENT: By Henry Reib, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A. Lipowitz's Work, describing anew method adopted in Germany of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. F. Reid. Illustrated by plates and wood engravings. 8vo. . . , . . $7 00 -DIFFAXTLT, VEEGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PEACTICAL ^ TEEATISE ON THE MANUFAOTUEE OF COLOBS FOE PAINTING : . Containing the best Formulae and the Prooesse.s the N^ewest and in most General Use. By MM. Riffault, Vergnaud, andTous- SAINT. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Eirin WiNCKLER. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. 8vo. {Lt f reparation HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21 IDIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL ^ TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES : By MM. RiFFAULT, Vergnaud, and Toussaixt. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emil Winckler. Illus- trated. In one vol. 8vo. (Li preparation.) OHUNK.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES AND LOCfl.TION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. By Wm. F. Shtjnk, Civil Engineer. 12mo., tucks . . $2 00 OMEATON.— BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architec. ture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the sub- ject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo $1 60 nMITH.— THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cot- ton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods : containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Pad- ding ; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer, 12mo., cloth $3 00 OMITH.— THE PRACTICAL DYER'S GUIDE: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, ditto from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, a Treatise on the Art of Padding. By David Smith. In one vol. Svo. $25 00 S HAW.— CIVIL ARCHITECTURE : Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Archi- tecture, &c. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Hard- ing , Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to. Cloth. $10 00 LOAN.— AMERICAN HOUSES: A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By Samuel Sloan, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc. etc. Svo. $2 50 nCHINZ.— RESEARCHES ON THE ACTION OF THE BLAST- *^ FURNACE. By Chas, Schinz, Seven plates. 12mo. . . . $4 25 22 . HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. gMITH.— PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS : Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo $2 25 qiOKES.— CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPA- ^ NION: Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and ' Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet-work ; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen generally. By J. Stokes. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations $1 25 ^TRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Test- ing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In 1 vol. quarto . $10 00 nULLIVAN.— PROTECTION TO NATIVE INDUSTRY. By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet. (1870.) 8vo. . $1 50 ABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC. By Measurement. Cloth 63 rPAYLOR.— STATISTICS OF COAL: Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commer- cial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Haldeman. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engrav- ings. 8vo., cloth $6 00 rpEMPLETON.— THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM AND THE STEAM-ENGINE : AVith Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of Engi- neers, Students, and others. By Wm. Templeton, Engineer 12mo. $1 25 T HENRY CAPtEY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 irHOMAS.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth . ... 75 '■PHOMSON.— FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR. By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent . . . . $1 25 JiURNING : SPECIMENS OF FANCY TURNING EXECUTED OK THE HAND OR FOOT LATHE : With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cut- ting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Pho- tographs. 4to $3 00 SpURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- ments ; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instruc- tions for working them. A new edition in 1 vol. 12mo. $1 50 TTRBIN — BRULL. — A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING ^ IRON AND STEEL. By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of tlie School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1S05-6. To Avhich is added a Comparison of the Resistixg Properties OF Iron AND Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. •OGDES.— THE ARCHITECT'S AND BUILDER'S POCKET COM- PANION AND PRICE BOOK. By F. W, VoGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- rARN.— THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR, FOR ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORK- ERS, &c. By Reuben Henry "Warn, Practlcnl Tin Plate Worker. I'lus- trated by 32 plates and 37 wood engravings. 8vo. . . $3 CO ATSON.— A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. By Egbert P. Watson, Late of the " Scientific American," Au- thor of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engi- neers," In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . $1 60 $1 00 book form. In book form, ISmo., muslin $2 00 1 50 24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. WATSON.— THE MODEBN PRACTICE OF AMERICAN MA- CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS : Including the Construction, Application, and Us3 of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, with the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By Egbeet P. Watson, late of the "Scientific American." Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo. $2 60 WATSON.— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER : With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufixcturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 8vo. $10 00 WEATHERLY.— TREATISE ON .THE ART OF BOILING SU- GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, GUM GOODS, And other processes for Confectionery, &c. In which are ex- plained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others . . . $2 00 ILL.— TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. By Prof. Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- tion. Translated by Charles E. IIimes, Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . $1 25 w WILLIAMS.— ON HEAT AND STEAM : Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expan- sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3 50 WORSSAM.— ON MECHANICAL SAWS: From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1867. By S. W. WoRSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large folding plates. 8vo. $5 00 W OHLER.— A HAND-BOOK OF MINERAL ANALYSIS. By F. WoHLER. Edited by H. B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry, Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo $3 00