TECH- 
 
 ILLIAM 
 DWAY 
 PARTRIDGE 
 
BOSTON 
 OIISM .NO CONIPANY 
 
 1695 
 
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Copyright, 1894 
 By WILLIAM ORDWAY PARTRIDGE 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 TMB 6SnV GEJJTHR 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ''PHE chief object in the publication of this book has been to offer 
 ■*■ a practical as well as a theoretical knowledge of sculpture. 
 Suggestions have been made that may prove useful even to advanced 
 students, although the author had in mind, mainly, the thought of 
 furnishing a guide to beginners. A brief account has. been given 
 of the history of sculpture from prehistoric times, in order that the 
 student might know how sculpture came to be, what the world has 
 produced in this art, and what principles have guided the great 
 masters. 
 
 The author has been led to undertake this work because of the 
 many questions asked him regarding the technique of his art. 
 Many still think that a sculptor, when he wishes to produce a statue, 
 obtains a block of marble and carves directly from the stone. The 
 whole process, from the working of the clay to the final execution 
 in bronze and marble, has been gone over ; sketches have been 
 made especially for this book, designed to illustrate the difficult 
 processes which it is next to impossible to describe by word alone. 
 It is believed that these sketches will be of great value to the lay 
 reader as well as to the professional student. The drawings were 
 made with great care and especially for this work by Charles M. 
 Sheldon and Vesper L. George. Much more might have been 
 written ; but brevity has been aimed at, so that the book produced 
 might be easily handled. The author has drawn from every source 
 possible. The data and facts contained have been gathered from 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 many men and books, and tested by actual experience. It is hoped 
 that the work may not only fulfill its designed mission, and be help- 
 ful to the student who may have to work alone, but that it may lead 
 to a more definite and sympathetic understanding and appreciation 
 of the great, calm, and enduring art of sculpture. 
 
 In his book " Art for America " the author has attempted to show 
 that sculpture is not declining, that so far from being a lost art, it is 
 one that we have only now thoroughly discovered, and that the 
 American people are actually on the threshold of an art era thaL 
 may, if properly evolved, prove as beautiful, expressive, and inspiring 
 as is the sublime sculpture of Greece. More nonsense is taught and 
 written to-day about sculpture than about any other of the arts. It 
 is full time -we gave to this subject the serious consideration it 
 merits. It has been the aim, in this book, to speak of the art as 
 it really is, and the work is given forth with the hope that it 
 may result in the creation, to some extent, of a fresh interest in 
 sculpture. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. I . 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 
 
 5- 
 
 No. 
 
 6. 
 
 No. 
 
 7- 
 
 No. 
 
 8. 
 
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 No. 
 
 10 
 
 No. 
 
 II. 
 
 No. 
 
 12. 
 
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 13- 
 
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 14. 
 
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 16 
 
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 17 
 
 No. 
 
 18 
 
 No. 
 
 19 
 
 No. 
 
 20 
 
 No. 
 
 21 
 
 T(^uLS FOR Modeling in Clay ok Wa.x 
 
 Tools for Plaster -Working . 
 
 Tools for Clay Work 
 
 Pumps for Moistening Clay, Compasses, and Wire Tools 
 
 for Modeling 
 Modeling-Stand. 
 Kneading the Clay . 
 A Study 
 
 Board for Relief-Work 
 Skeleton for Bust . 
 Subjects for Decorative Modeling 
 Subjects for Decorative Modeling 
 Skeleton for Full Figure 
 Sculptor at Work upon Clay Model 
 Portrait-Relief in Marble ready for Finisher 
 Piece Mould, showing Interior 
 Putting together a Piece Mould . 
 Bronze Casting — Fusing the Metal and Preparing the 
 
 Mould 
 
 Bronze Casting — Filling Mould . 
 The " Pointer " at Work 
 Tools used in Marble Cutting 
 The Carver, or Finisher, at Work 
 
 PAGE 
 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 56 
 
 58 
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 62 
 
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 97 
 
 llri£_j£ %'-- .Ui&,9:'Wfi^ 
 
TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 HE art of sculpture represents objects by a solid likeness 
 to their forms. These are carved in relief or detached 
 entirely from the background. In speaking of sculpture 
 we may include figures in bronze or other metals, as 
 well as figures in stone or marble. The desire to com- 
 memorate in some palpable form the memory of extraor- 
 dinary events and persons was doubtless the origin of 
 this art among men. 
 
 Sculpture is, literally, the process of graving or cutting hard 
 material. The word is derived from the Latin scuipo. It is com- 
 monly applied to artistic carving or cutting. In this sense processes 
 which do not, strictly speaking, involve the cutting of hard sub- 
 stances, are included in the term. Sculpture as a fine art includes, 
 then, the molding of soft materials as well. Clay, and often wax, 
 have been employed from the earliest times, either for making 
 sketches or models for reproduction in marble or bronze, or as a 
 vehicle for finished work. 
 
 Sculpture is the oldest of the arts. Long before the Scriptures 
 were written we find products of it in ancient Egypt. It is the most 
 enduring, as well as the most ancient, of all arts. The first savage 
 
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2 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 who scratched a design upon a flat surface was a sculptor, however 
 crude his work. 
 
 From the beginnings of art in Greece, where it afterward found 
 its most perfect expression, we may trace the entire history of a 
 school of sculpture. The savage races of to-day have rude carvings 
 similar to the prehistoric Greek. Among the Mojave Indians of the 
 great desert of Arizona we find specimens of a crude handiwork, 
 reminding us of the early dawn of Grecian art, which, in later years, 
 reached its zenith and afterward fell into decay. 
 
 A child, beginning to model in clay, works in the same manner 
 as did the early Greeks in the infancy of their art. The individual 
 is an epitome of the nation. From this simile we may understand 
 how sculpture arose. Not, however, until man had learned to 
 control himself and to master the stubborn material which he found 
 at his hand do we find anything worthy to be called sculpture. 
 
 The earliest statues were, in all probability, of men and not of 
 divinities. Religious feeling later led to the giving of divine attri- 
 butes to men and these forms began to appear in sculpture. The 
 first traces of sculpture in connection with worship are found among 
 the ancient Chaldeans. 
 
 Egypt. — We may pass over the sculpture of India, which is fan- 
 tastic and grotesque, and come at once to Egypt. The grand and 
 stately sphinx of Gizeh is, perhaps, the first great monument of which 
 we have any knowledge which may be called a work of art. From 
 its creation we may classify as sculpture the ideas which men have 
 sought to put into stone and bronze, expressing their feelings for 
 beauty and divinity as best they could. It is with such, rather than 
 with the fantastic and untutored barbaric carvings, that we have 
 to deal. 
 
 The Old Testament contains the earliest known names of sculptors. 
 They were the artists employed upon the Tabernacle. They date 
 
FITSTORY. 3 
 
 from about 1500 years before the Christian era. Of art in Egypt we 
 have more certain traces. A molten calf and a brazen serpent, of 
 which we read in the Scriptures as objects of worship or reverence, 
 are evidences of art traceable to Egypt. 
 
 Assyria. — Sculpture is found among the Assyrians, and recent 
 interesting discoveries have given the world much knowledge con- 
 cerning the art of sculpture among this people. Especially in and 
 about Nineveh, the ruins of which have been of late years uncovered, 
 are evidences of it found. Assyrian sculpture was chiefly decorative 
 and was used to record remarkable incidents in the history of the 
 nation, or the valor of its kings. Many colossal figures have been 
 found, combining the human with the brute, typifying the union of 
 intelligence with force. 
 
 Assyrian sculpture exhibits an intimate knowledge of animal 
 character and action. The reliefs with which the walls of apart- 
 ments were often decorated, represented battles, sieges, lion-hunting, 
 the crossing of rivers, and many details of everyday occupations. 
 Every circumstance is noted. The vegetation of the country is 
 shown ; the animals in common use, and even the tools of the 
 sculptors are represented. 
 
 Assyrian sculpture was evolved from the rude arts of the Chal- 
 deans, although remaining undeveloped. We may say it dated from 
 the twelfth century, B.C. It is conventional, in the main, but yet has 
 distinct realistic elements. The action is fervid and spontaneous. 
 This sculpture shows a remarkable knowledge of animal life and 
 habit, as is evinced in the relief of the Wounded Lion, so familiar to 
 art students. 
 
 That the Assyrians were skilful is readily seen by their clever 
 execution. There was a prescribed form for treating the human 
 figure. The same outline, as of one family, or even of one individual, 
 is found in all the faces. There is in all the same square-cut, braided 
 
4 TECHNIQUE OF SCULJ'TURE. 
 
 beard. There is one expression throughout, a complaisant smile, 
 which lights the countenance, no matter how serious the occupation. 
 This is a curious characteristic of all prehistoric sculpture. 
 
 In considering the sculpture of Nineveh, it must be remembered 
 that we are discussing the art of a city destroyed in the year 606 B.C., 
 hence the relievi which we see in the museums, taken from the ruins 
 of this city, are certainly upwards of 2500 years old. 
 
 In the later Assyrian sculpture one traces clearly the influence of 
 the Egyptian. Indeed the sculpture and art of each people was 
 largely influenced by their mutual intercourse. Assyrian sculpture 
 cannot be classified among successful works of fine art. Though of 
 clever execution, it is of a conventional type, and belongs to a fixed, 
 not a progressive, school. It is chiefly interesting to us from an 
 historical standpoint. 
 
 Persia. — Persian sculpture can easily be traced to an Assyrian 
 origin. It was never developed into an art of beauty. National 
 prejudice was against it and led the Persians to destroy the works 
 of art of other countries. Xerxes was induced to destroy the temples 
 in Greece, regarding them as impious, and statues were defaced 
 under the same feeling of religious prejudice. The sculpture of 
 Persia cannot be said to have a distinctive character. 
 
 China and Japan. ^ — The sculpture of China and Japan need 
 scarcely be considered. It is mostly of a mythological char- 
 acter, with monstrous combinations of human and brute forms, 
 repulsive in their ugliness and in outrageous defiance of rule and 
 possibility. The subjects are remarkable chiefly for their colossal 
 dimensions and elaborate ornamentation. In fact, the striking 
 feature of all eastern monuments is the vastness of scale and a 
 certain tranquillity of expression.^ In the art of bronze-casting 
 
 ^ With few exceptions it may be noted that the ruling sentiment of all early 
 sculpture was repose. 
 
HISTORY. 5 
 
 China, however, has made great advances, some of the Chinese 
 bronzes being the most wonderful in the world. 
 
 Neither China nor Japan has derived its knowledge of art from 
 Europe. It is peculiar to them, and most interesting on this account. 
 Chinese art was evidently the parent of Japanese art. It is less 
 original, but has greater technical completeness and method. 
 Chinese art is more restricted. The Japanese work bronze in a 
 wonderful manner, inlaying it with other metals. Detail is most 
 carefully and ingeniously wrought out, and shows spirit and freedom. 
 Motion is cleverly represented, without destroying the artistic balance 
 of the whole work. This art is chiefly decorative in idea and treat- 
 ment. It is said that their creed and customs forbid the study of 
 anatomy, which accounts for the bad modeling and drawing of the 
 human figure, while other forms are cleverly given. In fantastic art 
 they have no equals, and show peculiar talent for caricature. Their 
 feeling for beauty is lofty, as their landscapes and bronzes of animals 
 and birds well show. Dragons and weird monsters are shown, and 
 water is imitated in bronze with marvelous fidelity. 
 
 What has been observed of the Chinese and the very odd Japanese 
 sculpture is equally applicable to recent discoveries in some parts of 
 South America. The interest in these subjects is chiefly for the 
 scholar and the antiquarian, and has little or no connection with 
 the progress of art. While the facility of execution shows long 
 practice, no conjecture can be formed as to the date of these works. 
 
 Greece. — Having thus briefly considered the beginnings of the 
 art of sculpture, let us pass on to Greece, where it reached its 
 highest and noblest development. However original Greek genius 
 may have been, its art was not indigenous. If one studies the lions 
 of the gates at Mycenae, he recognizes Greek indebtedness to 
 Assyrian influence. Greece absorbed, slowly and surely, all that 
 was monumental, calm, and beautiful in Egyptian art, and in the 
 
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TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 arts of the peoples along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is 
 not difficult to trace back the Apollo of the Belvedere to the stiff 
 Egyptian figure, with its arms locked closely at its side, and its body 
 knit together in all the possible conventionalities of a tyrant-ridden 
 people. 
 
 Greece was not limited to the little country which bore the name. 
 We must think of her only as an influence, something like England 
 of to-day, only higher in her civilization and broader in her culture. 
 Her territory was largely mountainous, as is Switzerland. The 
 small plains or valleys naturally brought men together and led to 
 the building of cities, that, from their isolation, became different one 
 from the other. While Greek life and language were alike through- 
 out Hellas, the manifestations of that life and thought in sculpture 
 and architecture were as different as French art to-day is different 
 from that of Italy or Spain ; yet each people was upon, or in 
 easy access to, the sea, which was and is a great educator. They 
 were in communication with all peoples and civilizations, more shut 
 off from themselves than from the outside world, of which Greece 
 was the centre. The Greek, as we learn from Homer, was an 
 extensive traveler, and brought back whatever was worthy from 
 foreign countries, to make it a part of his own dearly beloved land 
 and her institutions. 
 
 The language was the language of Homer, as we find it in the 
 Iliad. While thus one in thought and language, Hellas was still 
 separated politically into about twenty different states, and was as 
 much akin to Switzerland politically as it was geographically. Each 
 state, however small, was perfect in its government, having its own 
 customs, gods, creeds, and ideas. Historians tell us that such 
 political and geographical conditions were most favorable to the 
 development of genius in arts and letters. Active competition 
 ripened all that was manly and progressive, through state pride. 
 At certain great festivals men came together from all parts of 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 Greece, and a cosmopolitan idea was developed. A Greek not only 
 knew the customs, politics, and arts of the state from which he 
 came, but he learned, by this intercourse, to have a sympathetic 
 respect for all. 
 
 The climate of Greece is most favorable to the development of 
 art. One may sleep in the open air for more than one-third of the 
 year. Excessive cold is as rare as enervating heat. Thus did the 
 Greek escape the phlegmatic nature of the northern barbarian and 
 the intemperate and sluggish nature of the south. The gymnasiums 
 provided for the body, as did the groves of Plato for the soul and 
 mind. To the Greeks the nude figure was the most perfect symbol 
 of beauty which sculpture could embody. At the Olympic games the 
 sculptors had an opportunity of studying the human form, under the 
 most favorable conditions. These games of the Greeks were full of 
 joy, and in preparing for them, men grew strong unconsciously. It 
 is this joy of unconscious strength that makes Greek sculpture 
 preeminently beautiful. In these games, both men and women 
 were wont to exercise entirely nude ; at least this was the case 
 in Sparta. The passion for pure beauty seems to have dominated 
 all other passions. 
 
 The Greek demanded not only perfect form and complete tech- 
 nical knowledge, but asked, moreover, that the subject be at once 
 agreeable and noble. In action, pose, drapery, and idea, in the 
 rendering of force and passion, he was required, by public feeling, 
 to avoid the ugly, extravagant, and ignoble. At Thebes there was a 
 law to this effect. The one thought and aim was to uplift humanity, 
 by keeping before it the most perfect physical form. Indeed, prizes 
 were offered at public competition for the most perfectly developed 
 forms, both of men and women. 
 
 The Greek not only detested the ugly, but he avoided, from 
 instinct, all exaggeration and caricature. Artifice and trickery had 
 no place in an art where beauty was the sole aim. Impiety was 
 
8 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 thought to be impossible in a beautiful man or woman. The educa- 
 tion of the Greek was as many-sided as was the beautiful land he 
 inhabited. It included in its curriculum the intellectual, physical, 
 moral, political, social, and aesthetic. Every side of the man was 
 rounded out, and he came forth from the schools, and remained, 
 a cultured being. Imagination grew naturally, as a tree grows, 
 under benignant skies. 
 
 From these conditions it is readily seen that sculpture rose 
 spontaneously, and could not help reaching its highest possible 
 development. Spiritual beauty, expressed in the most perfect 
 physical form, was what the Greek nation demanded, and what the 
 Greek sculptor gave. 
 
 In the -^ginetan marbles, produced fifty years before Phidias, is 
 struck the first sublime note of Greek sculpture. Myron, who 
 preceded Phidias and was his elder, is known to us through his 
 Discobolus. Among the Greeks he was held in high esteem for his 
 animal sculpture. 
 
 Fifth Century, B.C.^ — The art of sculpture culminated in Phidias, 
 a contemporary of Socrates and Sophocles. No fragment has ever 
 been discovered of that wonderful statue of his creation, the Athena 
 Promachos, which stood upon the Acropolis, terrifying the invader. 
 The frieze and two fragmentary pediment groups, together with tlie 
 metopes, are all that remain of the sculpture of the Parthenon, 
 probably the most perfect building in proportion and rhythmic 
 beauty that the world has ever known. These fragments indicate 
 the handiwork of a symmetrical, firmly poised mind, and a hand 
 thoroughly trained to execute its dictation. The handling, while 
 broad and simple, exhibits a subtlety of finish, in the relation and 
 value of plane to plane, that would fascinate one with its details, 
 were one not impressed at once with the beauty of the whole. Art, 
 here, is free from all conventional restriction, although it is evident 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 I 
 
 that the work was carefully planned before chisel was put to marble. 
 This is shown by the adaptation of each figure to the place it fills. 
 All this, too, shows a consummate knowledge of composition and 
 a mastery of its principles. The pediment groups represent inci- 
 dents in the life of Athena. The stately march of the processions 
 in the frieze charms us without wearying. What calm joy pervaded 
 these pagan festivals ! 
 
 One cannot leave Greek art without glancing at the stately 
 female figures, known as the Caryatides of the Erechtheum, bearing 
 so lightly and so elegantly, and with such unconscious grace, the 
 weight of the entablature. The chief attracticn and characteristic 
 of the Phidian epoch is the sublime dignity and calm serenity that 
 invests all sculpture and architecture. It was an age of great men, 
 — of Phidias, ^schylus, Sophocles, and Pericles. 
 
 The Neo- Attic school shows Greek art in its decadence, although 
 charm and beauty have not forsaken it. The works of Praxiteles and 
 of his contemporary, Scopas (400-350 B.C.), are full of an undulating 
 loveliness. Art has now lost much of its sublime quality, but 
 gained in sensuous beauty. The famous Hermes, found among 
 the ruins of the temple of Hera at Olympia, in 1877, and per- 
 haps the Venus of Melos, discovered much earlier, belong to this 
 epoch. 
 
 The. name of Praxiteles is the second among the great names of 
 Greek sculptors. His work was less grand and noble than that of 
 Phidias, but more sensuously beautiful. Although many of his 
 statues are wholly nude, they bear no trace of licentiousness. The 
 famous Hermes, mentioned above, although considerably mutilated, 
 is regarded as one of the most beautiful pieces of sculpture in the 
 world. At the date of its creation, art had still its canons of 
 modesty. Good taste was not yet degraded by the sensuality that 
 followed upon the death of that great sculptor, which occurred soon 
 after the year 350 n.c. 
 
10 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 The love of Praxiteles for pure beauty must have amounted to a 
 passion. His art was beautiful in its symmetrical grace and refine- 
 ment of contour. It represented the tender emotions of mankind. 
 Cicero speaks of the wonderful expression with which his faces were 
 endowed. His Venus of Cnidos was held by the ancients to be his 
 masterpiece, and second only to the Jupiter of Phidias. Love was 
 still spiritual as well as physical. Grecian civilization, giving way 
 slowly before the advancing Roman, allowed art also to lose its 
 divine calling and to become a pander to the lusts and ambitions 
 of men. 
 
 Lysippus, adjuring all conventionalities, strove manfully to uphold 
 its dignity ; but one man could not stay the fell tides of decadence. 
 It was he who created the fine athlete, called the Apoxyomenos, 
 now to be seen in the Vatican. 
 
 To be a great artist, in Greece, was to be the equal of the greatest 
 in the land. How diflFerent with the Roman, who affected all that the 
 Greek actually was ! To practice the fine arts in Rome was con- 
 sidered trivial and effeminate. The gross, sensual nature of the 
 later Roman could not grasp the calm pleasures of pure form. 
 
 The decadence from Praxiteles is rapid, until the lovely art of 
 Greece is entirely debased by the conquering, domineering Roman. 
 The history of Hellenic art, its rise, palmy period, and decadence, 
 which we can intelligently follow through the writings of the his- 
 torians of Greece and Rome, in the light of modern research, we may 
 take as an exemplar of all schools of art. In each the same sequence 
 is shown. 
 
 Rome. — It was from Greece that Rome inherited almost all that 
 she knew of sculpture. Something, undoubtedly, she possessed in 
 Etruria. Etruscan sculpture, although lacking in creative genius, 
 must not be wholly overlooked. We know very little of these early 
 inhabitants of this part of Italy. Their architectural remains are of 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 11 
 
 great antiquity. We do not know whether the early colonists came 
 from Egypt or Phoenicia, or Asia Minor. The colossal way in 
 which the Etruscan ruins are constructed points, perhaps, as much to 
 Egypt as elsewhere. Greek influence is plainly seen in whatever of 
 Etruscan sculpture has come down to us, although the style is some- 
 times original. Some tombs have been lately discovered in Vol- 
 terra and adjacent Etruscan cities, representing figures reposing 
 upon sarcophagi. These figures form the covers of the sarcophagi, 
 the dead having been placed in the receptacle below. Their forms 
 lack elegance and are clumsily draped. The faces are believed to 
 be portraits. Some approach beauty and are often pleasing in 
 expression. From their appearance they might easily be attributed 
 to the debased Roman school. 
 
 Of special interest in Etruria is the undoubted fact that all the art 
 Italy had before she began to borrow from Greece was found in this 
 province and is now called Etruscan. From Etruria Rome received 
 many of her religious and political institutions as well as the greatest, 
 perhaps, of her kings. The majority of the statues of Etruscan 
 deities discovered are winged, as were those of Assyria. The 
 greater portion of this work is done in terra-cotta ; marble seems to 
 have been little known or used. P'rom the East, probably from 
 Phoenicia, the Etruscans learned the art of working metals and 
 practiced it with great success. Etruria was filled with bronze 
 statues, most of them statuettes, some colossal. A portion of a 
 chariot, found at Perugia (now at Munich) shows crude monsters, 
 which resemble Assyrian work. The Etruscans were a race of 
 imitators. Having taken their art beginnings from the East, as did 
 Greece, they advanced but little and clung to archaic forms, which 
 the Greeks soon threw off. Etruscan art lacks ideality ; it is, for the 
 most part, materialistic art and realistic portraiture. The Etruscans 
 were ingenious and industrious, and developed technical skill suf- 
 ficient to make them known at Athens and popular at Rome. We 
 
12 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 know them to have been an opulent people, but lacking in refinement 
 and given over to sensual enjoyments. 
 
 Both the British Museum and that of the Vatican possess many 
 fine examples of their work in metals. The mountings of their orna- 
 ments and jewels were peculiarly beautiful, elaborate in design, and 
 delicate in workmanship. Lacking in the fine physical development 
 of the Greeks, they were accustomed to give to their work an extreme 
 realism, thus widely varying from the Greek idea. We find among 
 the names of Etrurian sculptors those of Volcanus of Veii (b.c. 6i6- 
 578), who was employed by Tarquinius Priscus to make an image of 
 Jupiter for the Capitol ; Mamurius Veturius (b.c. 716-673), employed 
 by Numa Pompilius to make a certain shield, like the sacred one 
 which he thought had fallen from heaven. 
 
 In the toreutic art (metal-working) Etruria seems to have been 
 especially successful. In the best days of Grecian art Etrurian 
 goblets of gold, silver, and bronze were eagerly sought. Among the 
 most beautiful of this work are the cistae mystiaxe, or cylindrical 
 caskets of bronze, richly ornamented with graphite figures. The 
 finest of these yet found is attributed to Novius Plautius. It was 
 discovered near Palestrina in 1743. The date of its execution is 
 probably about 250 i?.c. 
 
 Historians do not mention a single native Roman sculptor. In 
 arts, as in letters, the Romans borrowed from the Greeks. They 
 were a people to whom the real was the most important thing in the 
 world. Their sculptures are chiefly images of the Caesars and their 
 unscrupulous wives, and of favorites of the day. Their statues were 
 manufactured before they were needed, and heads were added to 
 suit the reigning sovereign. The most complete collections of 
 effigies of the Roman emperors extant is to be found in the Uffizi 
 gallery at Florence, and the museum of the Capitol at Rome. The 
 busts of Caligula and others are modeled with a vigor and technical 
 power not unworthy of the modern French school. They are dis- 
 
HISTOR Y. 
 
 13 
 
 tinctly portraits. Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian are favorite sub- 
 jects. The Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol in Rome is one of 
 the most famous equestrian statues in existence. 
 
 The Emperor Augustus boasted that he found Rome of brick and 
 left it of marble. A taste arose among the Romans for collecting 
 ancient works of art, a taste akin to the eagerness with which col- 
 lectors search for old masters in our times. Cicero arraigned Verres 
 for the base and ignoble manner in which that robber took from 
 Sicily her finest w'orks of art. Caesar encouraged the fine arts and 
 planned many improvements which Agrippa afterward carried out. 
 The noble temple called the Pantheon of Agrippa still remains intact. 
 This was filled with statues of the gods. It was this building in 
 which the Roman achieved his greatest architectural triumph. 
 
 Caligula and Nero, each in his time, aided in the spoliation of 
 Greece. Not in time of war, but in time of peace, Caligula sent out 
 an expedition under Mummius Regulus (consul, 31 a.d.) to bring 
 away, by downright robbery, all the best statues from the Greek 
 towns to adorn his villa. The Eros of Praxiteles is said to have 
 been stolen by this expedition. 
 
 Thus Rome became the treasure house of Greek sculpture. It 
 must have produced a refining influence upon the cultivated Romans ; 
 and, indeed, Roman literature tells of the rage for the possession of 
 fine statues that became fashionable in Rome. It is recorded, to 
 their glory, that the populace showed signs of mutiny when the 
 statue of the Apoxyomenos was taken from the Baths of Agrippa 
 to the chamber of Tiberius. A certain taste for the fine arts was 
 developed, no doubt, in the Augustine age ; but creative genius was 
 scarcely alive. 
 
 The popular taste for fine arts in Rome finally resulted in the 
 development of a school which may be called Graeco-Roman. To 
 this school belongs the famous statue known as the Venus de 
 Medici, now in the Tribiina at Florence. This statue was found in 
 
14 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 fragments in the ruins of the Portico of Octavia at Rome. It was 
 the work of Cleomenes, son of Apollodorus, a Greek artist living in 
 Rome in the first or second century a.d. This statue cannot be 
 said to be distinguished for its modesty, although the subject affects 
 a modesty that makes the lack of it only the more apparent. The 
 ruins of the Baths of Caracalla have yielded some good statues, 
 among them the Farnese Hercules. 
 
 The rise of Christianity marked the decadence of sculpture. The 
 early Christians regarded it as idolatrous to copy the human form, 
 and many fine specimens of Greek and Roman sculpture were by 
 them defaced or destroyed. In the sixth century art showed signs 
 of awakening at Byzantium. Its inhabitants were noted for their 
 skill in the cutting of precious stones and the working of metals. 
 The influence of these people and of their art was widespread, and 
 continued until the twelfth century. In this period Germany threw 
 off Byzantine influence ; but her Gothic period is scarce worth study- 
 ing in sculpture. In the fifteenth century, Albert Diirer produced 
 wood carving, and art again advanced. The notable names of this 
 period are Adam Krafft (1430-1507) and the Vischer family (1435- 
 1529). Their best work followed a Gothic ideal. Their figures 
 were flat and square, and were clothed in drapery which hung in 
 stiff, wood-like folds. 
 
 The Gothic Period. — The Gothic period lends its virility to sculp- 
 ture as well as to architecture, and infuses into it a stern realism, 
 unlovely but interesting. In the fifteenth century the figures that 
 are found upon the Cathedrals of Chartres and Rheims, though 
 Gothic in style, betray the classical influence. Here again, how- 
 ever, sculpture declined, and the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 
 produced little of merit. It must be borne in mind that this result 
 was chiefly the effect of the invasion of F.urope by Attila and other 
 barbarian leaders. A merciless horde had swept from east to west, 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 IS 
 
 crushing and destroying civilization, mutilating and breaking to 
 fragments all monuments of art which it encountered. Before this 
 invasion the empire of Rome fell, and for many years European 
 civilization was plunged in darkness. It was the age of utter human 
 degradation. There was nothing worthy of artistic representation, 
 and art lay fettered and dormant. Out of this darkness the first 
 glimmer of artistic feeling is seen among the Goths, the most 
 intelligent of the invading nations. 
 
 The Italian Renaissance. — The first sculptor who dared to 
 awaken art from her long and profound slumber, and to stamp 
 upon her the vivid imaginings of his own genius, was Niccolb Pisano. 
 He has been fitly called the father of modern sculpture. We hear 
 of him first in the early part of the thirteenth centurj^, and he was, 
 as his name implies, a native of Pisa. He practiced, as was 
 common with the early artists of this period, three arts — painting, 
 architecture, and sculpture. 
 
 The revival of sculpture in Italy preceded that of painting. What 
 sculpture we have, before Niccolb, is awkward indeed, and burdened 
 with trivial detail. We know little of the history of this wonderful 
 man; we are told he did his best work between the years 1260 
 and 1278. It is his sculpture in relief that is especially worthy 
 of being studied. His reliefs are scattered through the towns of 
 northern Italy, especially Pisa and Siena. One seems to trace 
 clearly in his work the influence of Greek sculpture, and yet the 
 design and sentiment have characteristics which may certainly be 
 called original. No doubt the ancient sculpture which had been pre- 
 served in the Campo Santo of Pisa had its effect upon his style and 
 technical execution. W^e know that, together with his son Giovanni 
 (born 1245 ; died 132 1), he was a close student of this Greek work. 
 His son, although less great, may be called a true artist. He 
 too often sacrificed harmony and charm to expression and action. 
 
 ^-iPa . >M ^^ 
 
 >*'.«** 
 
 .jt^-M -m: 
 
 iik-:-^ (^:='ii<'"i-i\»-i. '^ M 
 
16 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Following him comes the wonderful Giotto (Angiolotto, born 1276; 
 died 1336), pupil of Cimabue. He modeled the reliefs upon his 
 beautiful campanile in Florence. He was greater as a painter and 
 architect, however, than as a sculptor. He was a friend of Dante, a 
 copy of whose portrait, painted by him, may be seen upon the walls 
 of the Bargello, in Florence, to this day. His influence upon Italian 
 art was unbounded. 
 
 Andrea Pisano (1305-1359) did work in sculpture similar to that 
 of Giotto, but worse rather than better. He was one of the first to 
 abandon the Gothic style and adopt the models of ancient Greece. 
 Now comes Orcagna (Andrea di Cione — born about 1325; died 
 1376), who, with his marvelous creative genius, and his chaste and 
 simple style, surpassed all his predecessors. His masterpiece is a 
 shrine, in Or' San Michele, in Florence, to the Madonna, — comprising 
 reliefs depicting her life, cut out of white marble. He reestablished 
 the laws of perspective, and was great as an architect and fresco 
 painter as well as a sculptor. He was the author of the famous 
 frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa. 
 
 Donatello (1383-1466) adds another great name to art, a name of 
 rare and original genius, the crowning qualities that make up the 
 idealist and realist in happy fusion. He was famous for his low reliefs, 
 which are now scattered throughout the world. He was remarkable 
 for his power and truth of expression ; his character was noble and 
 generous. His best known statues are those of St. George and St. 
 Mark, on the outside of Or' San Michele, in Florence. He was a 
 lover of children, with a rare faculty for catching their illusive forms. 
 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) came now to create and execute 
 the famous gates of the Baptistery at Florence, upon which he 
 spent twenty years of his life, and which Michael Angelo declared to 
 be "fit for the gates of Paradise," but which, however beautiful, 
 tend to the degradation of sculpture into the picturesque, rather 
 than to its elevation into the purely sculpturesque. His style was 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 17 
 
 graceful, dignified, and harmonious. In his own day he was famous, 
 and his fame has lost nothing in five centuries. Ghiberti's successor 
 was Sansovino (1460-15 19), who carried on the even, harmonious, 
 serene style of his predecessor. 
 
 Now comes a change in Italian art, whose foundations are 
 splendidly shaken as Michael Angelo steps upon the scene. 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti (1474-1564), trained thoroughly in the 
 technique of his art, was a lover, all his life, of the antique. His 
 style is vigorous to the point, sometimes, of exaggeration. Into all 
 his marbles he breathed his own passionate, turbid, intellectual, 
 poetic nature. He loved devotedly his native city, Florence, and 
 fought in her defense until the downfall of her liberties. The 
 tyrant who came after him had sufficient wit to value and conserve 
 his art, although destroying all from which it arose. His sculpture 
 is tragic, terrible, never to be forgotten when once seen, not unlike 
 his lonely, ascetic life. He was greater as a man, perhaps, than as 
 an artist, full of sweet thoughts and great tenderness. His is 
 altogether the greatest and most interesting name among the ItaUan 
 sculptors. He touched life on every side. His Moses is perhaps 
 his greatest work. What lessons of tireless energy and unswerving 
 purpose are to be learned from it ! He sacrificed ideal beauty often 
 to his intense love for expression and dramatic action. The 
 " Night " and " Dawn " on the tombs of the Medici at Florence are 
 incarnations of despair, resistance, and endurance. The Lorenzo 
 de Medici is full of steady resolution and lofty thought and 
 purpose, power in repose, latent force, concentrated life. It is the 
 intensity of these conceptions, their terrible seriousness, that saves 
 them from the bane of realism. The sweet, sad resignation of the 
 Madonna della Piet^ in St. Peter's exhibits the delicate and tender 
 side of his genius, too often overridden by his desire for fervid 
 expression. His chief fault seems to have been impatience. Many 
 . of his works were ruined by his chipping off a piece too deeply in 
 
18 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 his impetuosity. His impatience led him often into exaggerations. 
 Those who studied with him copied his fauUs, but failed of his 
 genius. He had many imitators, but no worthy successors. His 
 greatest work, as a painter, is the decoration of the ceiling of the 
 Sistine Chapel in Rome. 
 
 Some of his contemporaries, however, are worthy of mention, 
 notably Benvenuto Cellini (i 500-1 570), whose autobiography is 
 well worth reading, and who made the famous Perseus. He was 
 given to affectation at times, and was over fond of detail. He 
 excelled in gold-working and engraving. 4 His medals have won 
 universal admiration. His style was graceful and charming, rather 
 than grand. 
 
 John of Bologna (15 2 4-1 608) shows more power than Cellini, 
 Many critics have pronounced him second only to Michael Angelo. 
 He was a friend of that master and one of the first members of the 
 Academy of Florence. His best known work is the " Flying 
 Mercury " in the Bargello at Florence. He received his name 
 from the famous fountain which he built at Bologna, with a colossal 
 figure of Neptune. His style was gay and spirited. 
 
 Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti, 1479-1570) has left much interesting 
 work in Venice, where he settled, although a Florentine by birth. 
 His style tended rather to exaggeration. His masterpieces are 
 the four Evangelists in the chapel of St. Mark's and colossal statues 
 of Mars and Neptune in the Doge's Palace. He displayed also 
 much talent as an architect. 
 
 The inordinate striving for expression, which now prevailed, 
 brought about a quick decadence in sculpture. Here and there are. 
 single works that show that the great style was not entirely lost. 
 The beautiful statue of St. Cecilia lying dead, at Rome, was done 
 by Stefano Maderno (i 576-1 636). This was his only fine work. 
 His contemporaries did nothing as fine, and little above the 
 commonplace. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 19 
 
 Among the famous sculptors of this era were the Delia Robbias : 
 Luca, Andrea, and the sons of the latter. Of these, Luca, born 
 1390 or 1400, was the eldest and the most famous. His bassi- 
 rilievi, adorning the campanile of the cathedral of Florence, are 
 still seen and much admired. Perhaps his most famous work is the 
 sculptures in relief designed for the front of the organ-gallery in 
 the Duomo at Florence. This work, in high relief, represents groups 
 of boys and girls, youths and maidens, singing, playing upon instru- 
 ments of music, and dancing. In every group are a charming 
 freedom of action, grace of attitude, and elegance of flowing drapery 
 that are unsurpassed. Andrea della Robbia, a nephew and pupil of 
 Luca, and scarcely less famous, was born in 1435. Simone, a 
 brother of Andrea, was also a sculptor of some note, and of the 
 seven sons of Andrea, five followed his profession. The reliefs and 
 statues of Andrea della Robbia are found all over Europe. Many 
 of hisuworks may be seen in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, 
 the convent of Vernia, and in many of the churches of Italy. Two 
 of the sons of Andrea, Paolo and Marco, became members of the 
 Dominican order of monks under Savonarola, and added to the 
 artistic fame of the order. 
 
 The work of the Della Robbias is characterized by its lofty purity 
 and almost Greek simplicity of style and treatment, to which artistic 
 virtues we may add that of a distinctively tender quality. 
 
 Spanish Art. — Spain has produced greater painters than sculptors. 
 Good work has been done in wood-carving, and much is decorative. 
 Two men have been famous, Alonzo Berruguete (1480-1561) and 
 Gasparo Becerra (15 20-1 5 70). These both were pupils of Michael 
 Angelo. The first restored the Alhambra and executed important 
 works at Madrid. His masterpiece was the choir of the cathedral 
 at Toledo. The second executed the famous statue of the Virgin at 
 Madrid. The Spanish learned their art from the Italian masters. 
 
20 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Their school is characterized by strong effects of light and shade, 
 making their art fervid and dramatic. Most of all did they care 
 for expression. One sees the effect of their religious training in 
 the severity and passion of their art. The nude is seldom met 
 with. Their madonnas and saints breathe an air of enthusiasm 
 and devotion that fascinates the beholder. 
 
 The Modern Era : German Sculpture. — Byzantine influence 
 continued to dominate German art until the twelfth century. In 
 Cologne and the Rhine provinces creditable work was done in 
 toreutic sculpture. On a font at Liege are some remarkable 
 reliefs, baptismal scenes from the New Testament, by Lambert 
 Patras of Dinant. These were executed about 1112. They dis- 
 play a certain crude beauty. 
 
 In the Merseburg Cathedral is a figure of Rudolph of Swabia 
 in bronze, interesting because of its realistic treatment, in the 
 Hildesheim Cathedral is a choir-screen executed in stucco, and 
 once gilded and colored, a series of large reliefs broadly handled, 
 noble in conception, and draped with true classic feeling. This 
 is one of the finest pieces of twelfth century sculpture. 
 
 During the thirteenth century Germany did not attain as 
 great a distinction in sculpture as France. The golden gate of 
 Freiburg cathedral, however, displays progress. The sculptured 
 figures on the jambs are cleverly executed. French influence 
 may be clearly traced in these works (1270). There are also 
 statues of the apostles upon the pillars of the nave, and one of 
 the madonna at the east end, which display singular breadth and 
 beauty. 
 
 At Bamberg, in the market-place, is an equestrian statue of 
 Conrad III, resting on a foliated corbel. This shows originality 
 and virile power, and is designed with a remarkable knowledge 
 of artistic effect. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 21 
 
 At Brunswick, of the same period as Conrad III, are to be seen 
 two fine statues, dignified and beautiful in expression, representing 
 Henry the Lion and Queen Matilda. 
 
 Some of the finest sculpture of the thirteenth century is to be 
 found in the cathedral at Strasburg. A " Death of the Virgin " (a 
 tympanum relief), surrounded by sorrowing apostles, is a work of 
 wonderful beauty, in advance of the period. Of its kind the decora- 
 tive carving is as fine as any extant. The foliage is studied with the 
 greatest love of nature, and is carved with the joy of devotion to 
 chosen work. 
 
 Nuremberg is rich in sculpture of the fourteenth century. St. 
 Sebald, the Frauenkirche, and other churches are decorated with 
 statues and reliefs that, taken as a whole, produce upon one a feel- 
 ing of richness. 
 
 The fountain of Heinrich der Balier of this epoch is richly decorated 
 with color and gold, and adorned with statuettes of noticeable beauty. 
 In the museum at Augsburg may be seen several large statues carved 
 in wood, exhibiting nobility and dignity of treatment. This town 
 produced a number of able sculptors of whom she is justly proud. 
 
 On the exterior of the choir of the church of Marienburg Castle is 
 a remarkable colossal figure of the Virgin, built of hard stucco and 
 adorned with mosaics of glass. 
 
 At Prague, in the market-place, is an equestrian group in bronze of 
 " St. George and the Dragon," which is well executed and vigorous, but 
 defective in style. In the Cologne cathedral is a fine statue in bronze 
 of Archbishop Conrad, noble in style and evidently a good portrait. 
 
 The military portrait statues in Germany, and indeed everywhere, 
 of this time, were stiff and lifeless of necessity, being disfigured with 
 plate armor. The ecclesiastical chasuble which was also much used 
 does not lend itself to plastic representation. 
 
 The fifteenth century produced many artists of marked ability. 
 Much excellent work was done in the decoration of wooden altars with 
 
22 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 statues and reliefs. The work of this century seems to have been 
 largely in the order of church decoration. The choir-stalls in Ulm 
 cathedral, dating from about 1474, were executed by one Jorg Syrlin, 
 probably the ablest sculptor of the epoch. Wohlgemuth (1434- 15 19) 
 under whom Diirer studied, was a wood-carver of no mean ability. 
 Diirer executed in boxwood many reliefs of great interest. 
 
 Another distinguished sculptor of this time was Adam Krafft 
 (1455-1507). The great Schreyer monument at Nuremberg was 
 executed by him. This monument is criticised because of its 
 mannered style and pictorial, rather than sculpturesque, effect. He 
 produced also the great tabernacle, eighty feet in height, for Ulm 
 cathedral. 
 
 We now come to the famous Vischer family of Nuremberg, which 
 produced the ablest sculptors perhaps of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries in Germany. Hermann Vischer still clung to medieval 
 traditions. Peter Vischer, the son of Hermann, was the chief artist 
 of this family. Few sculptors of bronze have ever excelled him in 
 technique ; his style, however, suffers from the mannerisms and 
 realistic tendencies of the day. He lacked moderation. The 
 splendid shrine of St. Sebald with its luxuriant decoration is by 
 him. It is a marvel of fine and delicate workmanship. Its slender, 
 graceful columns are very beautiful. He was assisted in his work 
 by his sons. The general design is Gothic. Every available 
 space upon the canopy and its supports is covered with carvings of 
 dragons, foliage, and grotesque figures. Time and labor were given 
 unstintingly. 
 
 After Nuremberg, Augsburg is perhaps the chief centre of bronze 
 sculpture. In a quaint church of Innsbruck is a series of bronze 
 statues, twenty-eight colossal figures, surrounding the tomb of the 
 Emperor Maximilian, and representing his ancestors. The finest 
 figure of the collection is undoubtedly an ideal statue of King Arthur 
 of Britain, of noble mien and excellent pose. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 23 
 
 During the latter part of the sixteenth century is clearly seen the 
 influence of the later Italian Renaissance. The sculptors are 
 biassed by the style of Giovanni di Bologna. The seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries in Germany were periods of swift decadence in 
 sculpture. Some good portrait figures were produced, but no monu- 
 ment of any artistic value. A strong revival is noticeable in the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century, and since then Germany has 
 produced much sculpture of little real value. It is great in point of 
 size, but is lifeless in conception and feeble in execution. One may 
 class it with much other pseudo-classical sculpture of the century. 
 The work of Rauch (i 777-1857) has been praised beyond its merit. 
 His recumbent statue of Queen Louise at Charlottenburg is senti- 
 mental and mannered. He seems to have been the best known 
 man of the epoch. Albert Wolff shows a more virile power. 
 Augustus Kiss (1802-1865) produced the famous "Amazon and 
 Panther " bronze-group in the court-yard of the royal palace at 
 Berlin. This sculptor wrought only in bronze and other metals. 
 The sculptor Rietschel displays more ability than any of his con- 
 temporaries. A man who has achieved more reputation than he 
 deserved was Schwanthaler (1802-1848). He is the author of 
 the colossal bronze statue of *' Bavaria," second in size only to 
 the liberty statue by Bartholdi. He was patronized by King Louis 
 of Bavaria. In our own immediate time German sculpture has 
 thrown off its weak conventionalities, and shown decided vigor 
 and individuality. 
 
 Modern Italian Sculpture. — The eighteenth century produced 
 no men of great genius in Italy. We find, at Naples, Corradini and 
 Sammartino producing many statues devoid of any sculpturesque 
 worth. Art was lost in artifice. A deceptive realism had taken the 
 place of the noble art bequeathed to Italy by Michael Angelo and 
 Donatello. The middle of the century inaugurated the classical 
 
24 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 revival which was destined to spread throughout Europe. The 
 leading figure of this movement was Canova, the most popular 
 sculptor of his time. He aimed at a classical perfection, which 
 Greece had achieved once and forever. His work had a certain 
 grace which was trivial rather than noble. His finest group is 
 that which represents "Theseus slaying the Minotaur," now pre- 
 served at Vienna. He achieved distinction for his monument to 
 Pope Clement XUI, in St. Peter's at Rome. The lions here are 
 strongly modeled, but not with the sure knowledge that Barye and 
 other French sculptors have since brought to animal sculpture. His 
 tomb to Titian at Venice is entirely pictorial. Posterity has assigned 
 to him much less fame than that given during his own time. 
 
 Certain critics have called Bastianini of Fiesole truly great. His 
 style is that of the famous Florentine sculptors of the fifteenth 
 century. Indeed, some of his work has actually been sold as 
 veritable fifteenth century production. 
 
 The leading sculptors in Italy to-day are Vela, author of the 
 "Dying Napoleon," of world-wide repute; Monti, whose technical 
 ability has gained him some distinction ; and Rossa, of rather too 
 florid style. One cannot apply the adjective great to modern sculp- 
 ture in Italy. It is a transitional period with the Italian people, and 
 their art exhibits this lack of poise. A criticism that may be made 
 upon it all is, that it is picturesque and trivial, rather than sculptur- 
 esque and dignified. 
 
 French Art. — When Gaul became France under Clovis, igno- 
 rance and bad taste were so universal that, if creative genius in 
 sculpture existed, it was not permitted to come to the surface. At 
 the beginning of the eleventh century, the dreaded year looo having 
 passed by in safety, the art of sculpture appeared in France. The 
 influence of the crusades is seen in the religious edifices, and in 
 the rude sculptures belonging to the age of St. Bernard. Little by 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 25 
 
 little French sculpture threw off the Grecian and Byzantine influences 
 in which it had originated and became Gothic. There is little use in 
 lingering long over the thin, dry, and suffering figures produced by 
 the early sculptors who were mostly monks. The early spirit was 
 hostile to the study of the nude, and indeed to beauty itself. It 
 was virtue, and not beauty, men demanded. They had not spiritual 
 insight sufficient to recognize that true beauty is one with virtue. 
 Shoulders and hips were forbidden to be represented, and the 
 hands must be always folded in meditation or prayer. Expression 
 was sought through grimace or contortion. The Christian of that 
 day evidently attempted to supply the interdicted beauty by strained 
 expression. Early French art is utterly devoid of that calm modera- 
 tion and sweet beauty which made the Greek art so lovely and 
 enduring. The sculptors were in accord with the prevalent ideas of 
 their time. Art reflected the state of society. 
 
 Through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find sculpture 
 becoming more secular. It has passed from the hands of the monks 
 to the care of the bishops, and these bishops were less subject to the 
 Pope than the monks, strange as it may seem, and permitted a 
 greater variety of subjects to be represented in sculpture. Old 
 legends were abandoned for New and Old Testament subjects. 
 
 Some groups of great interest were now produced, and an actual 
 Renaissance was dawning for France. The artist's liberty became 
 more and more wide. The work of the time shows not only a demo- 
 cratic tendency, but a true classic feeling in choice of attitude 
 and arrangement of line. 'J'he artists of this time seem to have 
 known the laws of sculpture. 'i'heir statues and reliefs are well 
 adapted to the positions they occupy. The sculpture of this 
 epoch is entirely decorative and cannot be separated from archi- 
 tecture. The Christian cathedral was a representation, in a way, 
 of the world, and as artists freed themselves from priestly inter- 
 ference, the cathedral became a picture of the universe. Anything 
 
 /isl^eiitiu.ii.i's^ift 
 
26 
 
 TECHNJQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 may find representation in it — men, demons, angels, gods, plants, 
 symbolical subjects, dragons, and anything that the fancy may 
 conceive or the eye actually see. The cathedrals of Rheims, 
 Chartres, Amiens, and Paris, are decorated according to this idea. 
 In the fourteenth century we have the names of Jean Ravi and 
 his nephew Jean Bouteiller, sculptors who worked together upon 
 a life of the Virgin in relief about the cloister of Notre Dame 
 in Paris. 
 
 Michael Colomb (i 431-15 14) executed many notable works. One 
 of the rooms in the Louvre bears his name. He is the author of a 
 famous bas-relief representing the struggle between St. George and 
 the dragon. It is spoken of as a work of great delicacy of handling 
 and boldness of conception, and quite worthy of Italy at that fine 
 period of her Renaissance. 
 
 Jean Juste of Tours executed a tomb of Louis XII that has made 
 his name known to us, and Jean Texier, by his forty-one groups in 
 the Chartres cathedral, has become famous. David said, " It is 
 Raphael himself, as seen in the loggia of the Vatican." Two 
 famous tombs in the same room as the alabaster statue of Louis 
 XII, which show careful chiseling and fine feeling, are the work of 
 unknown men. They are preserved in the museum of the Louvre 
 because of their native simplicity, and show the state of French art 
 before it was changed by Italian influence. 
 
 We come now to the famous name of Benvenuto Cellini, invited to 
 France by Francis I. It was now that the French imbibed the 
 grand style of that masterful Italian school ; and a French sculptor, 
 John of Bologna, was destined to become famous among Italian 
 sculptors. His work has been described elsewhere. 
 
 And this brings us to Jean Goujon (1530-1572). This name is 
 famous in the annals of French sculpture ; he has been called the 
 French Phidias. His " Deposition from the Cross " is now in the 
 Louvre. Upon the " Fountain of the Innocents," a most beautiful 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 27 
 
 conception, which was designed by Lescot in 1550, are nymphs of 
 ideal beauty, with long and subtle figures. These nymphs, with 
 their water-jars, have been often reproduced and sent over the 
 known world. Jean Goujon has been called the restorer of sculpture 
 in France. Others, again, have given him the title of creator of 
 French statuary. He is supposed to have been born about 1530. 
 
 Germain Pilon (15 15-1590) was an energetic, skilful sculptor; 
 he executed the tombs of Francis I and Henry H. The Louvre 
 contains a collection of his works. A famous group by him repre- 
 sents three women supporting a gilt vase, which was intended to 
 contain the hearts of Catherine de' Medici and Henry II. The 
 group is known as " The Graces." 
 
 For a long time French sculpture appears to have been employed 
 chiefly in the decorations of tombs. Jacques Sarrazin and Pierre 
 Puget (1622-1694) are distinguished names. The latter, in particu- 
 lar, is said to have resembled Poussin in his enthusiasm for 
 independence and beauty of character. Like Poussin, Puget 
 became disgusted with the gilded slavery of the court life and with 
 inspectors of fine arts, and gave himself up to solitary study. He 
 was painter and architect, as well as sculptor. He has been called 
 the French Michael Angelo. He was original, but eccentric, giving 
 himself over to his moods as a guiding genius. Like Michael Angelo, 
 he often attempted to work directly in marble, without any previous 
 sketches. He lacked taste and knowledge of the antique. One of 
 his famous groups is the " Milo of Crotona devoured by a lion." 
 Wonderful are the action and life of the figure, and the finished 
 execution. The group has been said to rival the famous " Laocoon." 
 It is considered the masterpiece of Puget. No work was too difficult 
 or too complicated for his genius. He seems to have lacked a calm 
 sense of proportion and moderation. His last group was that of 
 "Alexander and Diogenes," finished at the age of 74. His old 
 age was, like that of Michael Angelo, productive and laborious. 
 
28 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 The work of Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720) resembles that of 
 Puget. He was the author of the Mausoleum of Cardinal Mazarin, 
 and many busts, notably those of Pierre Mignard and Charles 
 Le*Brun, said to be good portraits, and certainly creditable works of 
 art. The two brothers, Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou (1658-1735), 
 produced, the former, the group in the Tuileries garden, known as 
 the "Junction of the Seine and Marne," and the latter, that of the 
 famous riding-masters of Marly, now placed at the entrance of the 
 Champs Elysees. A single work by certain sculptors has rescued 
 their names from oblivion, such as "Leda and the Swan," by Jean 
 Thierry (1669-1739), the "St. Sebastian at the Pillar," by Francois 
 Coudray, and a "Hercules vanquished by Love," by Joseph 
 Vinache. " Prometheus and the Vulture," by Nicolas Sebastian 
 Adam (1705-17 78), is a powerful piece of work, and, last is a 
 "Charon," remarkable for its gloomy and reserved strength, whose 
 author's name, alas ! is unknown. 
 
 In the room of the Louvre devoted principally to Edmd Bouchar- 
 don (1698-1762), containing mostly works of the eighteenth century, 
 the florid and effective style of the era is everywhere visible. The 
 style of this sculptor is correct and large, but it lacks fire and 
 enthusiasm. The statues of Christ, Mary, and of eight apostles, 
 which adorn the church of St. Sulpice, are worthy of attention, 
 as well as the sculptures of the Rue de Crenelle fountain. A 
 pleasing statue by this sculptor is that of a young girl holding a stag 
 by a cojd, in the Louvre ; the graceful attitude, the lovely head, and 
 delicacy of the execution in the whole work, recall the antique in 
 in many ways. In the same room which bears Bouchardon's name, 
 is a "Psyche" by Augustin Pajou (i 730-1809) ; upon the pedestal is 
 the following inscription, " Psyche lost Love in wishing to know 
 him." His wit seems to have been greater than his genius. The 
 statue may be classed as a poor affair. Some of his busts, however, 
 have won distinction for him, notably the lifelike portrait of Buffon. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 29 
 
 We come now to the room named after Houdon, which contains 
 not only his work, but that of many of his contemporaries. Jean 
 Antoine Houdon (1741-1828) is one of tlie great names in the 
 history of French sculpture. His best work, perhaps, is to be seen 
 in the The'atre Frangais, rather than in the Louvre. His bust of 
 Moliere, in the lobby, and the famous statue of Voltaire, in the 
 vestibule, have won for him enduring reputation. He has combined, 
 with rare tact and true poetic insight, the real with the ideal. 
 The keen, individual, fox-like expression of Voltaire is softened 
 by something which makes us love the old atheist because of his 
 love for humanity. We remember, as we look at this seated statue, 
 that he was wont to dole out soup to the poor and hungry from 
 his own doorstep. Another statue that we must make mention of 
 is the charming "Diana," represented entirely nude. The style 
 is pure and graceful ; she is represented not at all as a Greek 
 Artemis. The modern French idea of that chaste goddess is 
 much less dignified and nobly beautiful than the one the Greek 
 entertained. 
 
 There is a reclining statue of " Byblis, changed into a fountain," 
 by Charles Dupaty (i 775-1825), which is lovely in its contour and 
 conceived with true sculpturesque feeling. 
 
 The works of the men who have lived into our own time have 
 been preserved, many of them, in the Luxembourg. M. Antoine 
 Louis Barye (1795-1875) is represented by his bronze group of 
 a jaguar devouring a hare. This group was cast by the lost 
 wax method, in one mould ; a process that is coming into general 
 use again, and one which was in great favor with the artists of the 
 Italian Renaissance. M. Barye won distinction, especially in the 
 line of animal representation, and was undoubtedly among the first 
 sculptors in the world. His group of a lion devouring a boar, in 
 the Tuileries garden, is known to us all by the small copies of it 
 sent to this country. Barye was a most conscientious and untiring 
 
 ..- ■ — ;. J««^-.-,■■(«3l^^&-i*l 
 
30 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 Student of nature. He lacked, however, the necessary ideal qual- 
 ities and represented literal facts. 
 
 Another great sculptor in the present French school is M. 
 Emmanuel Fre'miet, born in 1824; he is the author of the famous 
 equestrian statue of Joan of Arc in the Rue de Rivoli. The horse 
 in this group is considered by many animal sculptors to be the 
 finest in existence. All the sculpture by this eminent artist is 
 wrought out with artistic feeling and wonderful technical skill. 
 Another interesting figure in the hall of the Luxembourg is the 
 " Virgil," by M. Thomas, a professor in the ficole des Beaux Arts. 
 All that this refined sculptor has executed is worthy of our study. 
 His work is more calm perhaps than that of any other Frenchman, 
 and nearer to the Greek spirit. It is always moderate, and its pathos 
 is the pathos of all great art. The work reflects the man's char- 
 acter, honest, simple, thorough, high-minded, and noble. Francois 
 Rude we know best by his group of the Marseillaise, a vigorous 
 high-relief on the Arc de Triomphe at the head of the Champs 
 Elysees. This group is modeled with tremendous power, but it 
 leaves upon the mind the impression of uncouthness. Another 
 famous statue is the Spartacus, by Foyatier, in the Tuileries. 
 Pradier, who died in 1852, has left good work in his "Fontaine 
 Moliere " in the Rue Richelieu. A great man we must not forget 
 is Pierre Jean David, known as David d'Angers (i 789-1856), the 
 author of the pediment of the Pantheon, and of the Lafayette 
 at Washington in our own country. This artist combined with 
 great artistic gifts a noble mental endowment and an independent 
 spirit, and like Poussin and Puget, has left the record of an almost 
 stainless life. We may mention names of men who are famous 
 to-day, notably those of Paul Dubois, and the even, refined, and 
 classic Chapu, as well as Guillaume Perraud, Carpeaux, author of 
 the group of dancing girls which adorns the Opera House, Aime 
 Millet, and Falguire, who has made many " Dianas " which are 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 31 
 
 Dianas merely in name. This artist is as skilful in the me- 
 chanics of sculpture as any man in France, not excepting Rodin. 
 Neither the one nor the other has produced work which is large 
 enough in its conception, and sculpturesque enough in its treatment, 
 to be called great ; still in France they are reckoned as the leading 
 sculptors of the day. Our standpoint is different. 
 
 The present school of sculpture in France is by far the most 
 important in the modern world. Intimate knowledge of human and 
 animal form is combined with complete technical skill. The sculp- 
 tors of the Praxitelean age exhibit less technical knowledge than do 
 these clever Frenchmen. At times the French school displays force 
 as original genius : alas, that they should be dominated as they 
 are, and over-ridden in life as well as art, by a debasing, sensual 
 realism ! Realism is carried so far that often their statues are 
 nearly exact copies of nude models. French life demands this literal 
 and voluptuous expression. Their sculpture is not monumental and 
 their last effort, called "A Memorial to Gambetta," "out-Herods 
 Herod," It is perfervid to the point of nausea. The sculptor of 
 this clumsy nightmare has not learned one limitation of his art. As 
 a general criticism, one may say French sculpture as well as archi- 
 tecture goes too far. It lacks the quiet restraint that is characteristic 
 of the great schools of Greece and Italy. Their splendid technical 
 qualities and consummate knowledge of anatomy make this lack of 
 idea and moderation more palpable. When the life of France is 
 different we may hope for works of art that are worthy of the clever 
 technique that distinguishes the carvings of her artists. 
 
 English Sculpture. — The west front of Wells Cathedral is covered 
 with figures carved early in the thirteenth century, before Niccolo 
 Pisano had cut his wonderful pulpit at Pisa, and many years 
 before the beautiful cathedral of Amiens was built. It is believed 
 that the men who did the interesting work on the cathedral in 
 
 «l^d^irSl S:Ji 
 
32 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 England were Englishmen. We are told, moreover, that Edward I 
 caused " stone crosses of magnificent architecture, adorned with 
 statues of the departed queen," to be erected wherever the body of 
 his beloved wife, Eleanor, stopped on its way to Westminster Abbey. 
 A certain William Torell carved the figure of a king for Henry 
 Ill's tomb in Westminster Abbey, and executed three recumbent 
 statues of Queen Eleanor about the year 1291. These facts are 
 interesting, because they show us how early Englishmen did work 
 in sculpture in their own country. 
 
 The cathedrals and churches built in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries show many examples of carving of a historic or religious 
 character. Over the steps of Henry VH's chapel, upon the arch, 
 are to be seen fifty or more statues. On the north side is a corona- 
 tion of Henry V; while on the south face is an effigy of the king, 
 fully armed, mounted on his horse and riding with his companions 
 at full speed. Flaxman speaks of this sculpture as being bold and 
 characteristic. Again, in St. Mary's church, Warwick, may still 
 be seen an effigy of Richard Beauchamp. It is a gilt bronze 
 figure on a marble pedestal, praying, and is the work of William 
 Austen of London. About it are other small bronze statues in 
 niches. 
 
 Pietro Tourgiemo of Florence, the sculptor who is said to have 
 given Michael Angelo, in a fit of jealousy, the blow that broke his 
 nose, came to London to make- the tomb of Henry VII ; and it is 
 recorded that he remained there six years. Henry VIII ordered 
 him to make the most magnificent sepulchral monument possible. 
 Some design was prepared, but the monument was never executed. 
 In 1538 Henry VIII made a proclamation that all images which had 
 been worshiped should be taken down from the churches ; and 
 during the minority of Edward VI, the Duke of Somerset who, as 
 regent, had assumed the title of Lord Protector, ordered all images 
 without regard to character or meaning to be thrown down. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 33 
 
 It was then a dark age for sculpture in England, and no revival 
 occurred until Charles I came to the throne. The first true artist 
 of the English school was Grinling Gibbons (1648-172 1), whose 
 wonderful carvings in wood are still to be seen at Windsor Castle, 
 in the choir of St. Paul's, and in other places. The author of the 
 tomb of General Wolfe in Westminster Abbey was Joseph Wilton. 
 He inaugurated a style which, it is said, Flaxman afterward 
 perfected. From 1740 to 1799 lived John Bacon, who made the 
 busts of Dr. Johnson and John Howard in Westminster Abbey. He 
 was a man of no mean ability. 
 
 Thomas Banks (i 735-1805) is declared by Scott to be the father 
 of ideal sculpture in England. He first studied wood-carving and 
 afterward entered the Royal Academy, where he won the gold medal 
 which entitled him to three years study in Rome. He devoted his 
 time to the study of the antique, which influenced his style not a 
 little. He returned to England, to find but scanty appreciation, and 
 left, disappointed, for Russia, where he remained two years. 
 Catherine H is said to have bought one of his statues and a 
 bas-relief of much merit. A model for a figure of "Achilles 
 Mourning for his Briseis" is preserved in the British Institute. 
 This sculptor of eminent ability had the misfortune to come before 
 the people were ready for him. His life was one of hard disappoint- 
 ments. His enthusiasms were chilled, and his poetic genius 
 was stultified, for lack of sympathy. 
 
 Joseph NoUekens (1737-1823) did some mediocre portrait busts, 
 ■ — "pot-boiling" work, which the more highly organized Banks 
 despised ; and, while Banks could hardly make a living, NoUekens 
 amassed a great fortune. 
 
 John Flaxman (i 755-1826), who is said by eminent English critics 
 to have made the English school of this century, learned his art in 
 the shop of his father, who was a maker of plaster casts. The 
 advantage which he enjoyed in boyhood of seeing the reproductions 
 
34 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 of whatever sculpture was current, produced its effect in after life. 
 At eleven and a half years of age he gained a prize for modeling, 
 and at fourteen was admitted to the Royal Academy. In 1787 he 
 went to Italy, where he remained seven years under the same 
 influences that had formed the genius of Thorwaldsen and Canova. 
 In Rome and its environs, and about Naples, Greek statues and 
 fragments were being found. An enthusiasm for antique work arose, 
 as it did in the best days of the Italian Renaissance. Antique 
 sculpture had a powerful effect upon Flaxman, and led to the 
 formation of that severe and simple style for which he has been 
 distinguished. His "Shield of Achilles," modeled after the 
 description given by Homer, is a fine piece of work. Among his 
 other famous pieces are an " Apollo " and " St. Michael and Satan," 
 done for the Earl of Egremont, and the frieze for the front of the 
 Covent Garden Theatre. Some of his most charming work is found 
 in the bas-reliefs upon the Wedgwood pottery. He also designed 
 vases of exquisite form. In 18 10 he was made Professor of Sculpture 
 at the Royal Academy. Here he gave lectures in art every year 
 during the remainder of his life. His outline designs in illustration 
 of Homer and Dante have been admired by all the world. 
 
 Edward H. Bailey (i 788-1841) was a noted pupil of Flaxman. 
 He is the author of the " Nelson " on the column in Trafalgar 
 Square. A man who gained name and fame for his portrait sculp- 
 ture was Sir Francis Chantry (i 788-1841). He, like Thomas Banks, 
 began life as a wood-carver. In 1803 he entered the Royal Academy, 
 and in 1809 had won fame for his statue of George III. In 18 19 he 
 went to Italy ; in 1835 he was knighted. A group by him in Litch- 
 field Cathedral is much admired. A statue of Lady Louisa Russell 
 good critics have called beautiful. 
 
 We come now to Sir Richard Westmacott, a pupil of Canova 
 (i 775-1856). His works were, for the most part, monumental. He 
 did the monuments to Pitt and Addison in Westminster Abbey, and 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 35 
 
 to Sir Ralph Abercrombie in St. Paul's. He also executed a bronze 
 statue of George III in Windsor. In 1816 he succeeded Flaxman 
 as Professor of Sculpture. 
 
 Richard Westmacott (i 799-1872), son of Sir Richard, was scarcely 
 less famous. He was the pupil of his father, and afterwards studied 
 in Italy. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1837, ^"^ 
 of the Royal Academy in 1839. In 1857 he became Professor 
 of Sculpture in the Royal Academy. His works are chiefly classical 
 and devotional in their character. His " David," as the slayer of 
 Goliath, and his " Cymbal Player," are noted examples of his work. 
 He achieved distinction also as a writer upon art topics. 
 
 John Gibson (i 791-1856) was also a pupil of Canova, and after- 
 ward of Thorwaldsen. He passed the greater part of his artistic life 
 in Rome. Like many of his predecessors, he studied wood-carving 
 in his youth. In 181 7 he went to London as a portrait sculptor, 
 and in the same year, when he was twenty-six years of age, he went 
 to Rome. On his return to England, in 1844, with the statue of 
 Huskisson, he was greeted with the warmest enthusiasm, and was 
 invited to visit Windsor, where he executed a statue of the Queen. 
 His life in Rome was simple and generous, and he was widely 
 known and respected. His only pupil who has achieved distinction 
 is Harriet Hosmer. Some of his famous works are "A Hunter 
 and his Dog," "Narcissus," in the Royal Academy, "Psyche borne 
 by the Zephyrs," now in Rome, and his "Wounded Amazon." 
 Gibson favored the practice of painting statues, an idea which 
 was much opposed by many, and his tinted " Venus " was widely 
 criticised at the time of its execution. There is no doubt that this 
 idea did great harm to sculpture, by creating a desire to add to pure 
 form a meretricious, realistic accessory, the office of which in 
 sculpture was not understood. 
 
 John H. Foley (1818-1874) attained considerable reputation for 
 his groups and portraits. He was made an academician in 1858. 
 
36 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Among his famous works are " The Youth at the Stream," '• Ino and 
 Bacchus," and " Venus rescuing ^.neas." 
 
 There are many English sculptors of talent to-day, although the 
 climate and conditions are unfavorable to the highest development of 
 this art. The greater portion of them have been students in France 
 and Italy. These may be mentioned : Patrick McDowell, author 
 of the " Europe " on the Albert memorial ; Alfred Stevens, the 
 creator of that wonderful piece of decorative sculpture in St. Paul's, 
 the monument to the Duke of Wellington ; John Thomas, who has 
 done some fine sculpture in the new houses of Parliament. Men- 
 tion should be made of Joseph Edgar Boehm, who, although born 
 at Vienna, has lived and worked chiefly in England. He has been 
 held in high esteern by the royal family, and has executed many 
 works for the government. One of his most interesting statues is 
 that of Carlyle. 
 
 Names of sculptors often mentioned to-day are those of Gilbert, 
 Thornycroft, Gebhart, and Onslow Ford. 
 
 Russian Sculpture. — The Russians are developing an important 
 school of sculpture. It has the saving grace of originality. What- 
 ever may be said of it, it is not a weak following of French art ; 
 vigor and dash characterize all the art efforts of this brilliant people. 
 In depicting animal life they are especially strong. Pio Welonski, 
 now working in Rome, is one of their representative men. Marc 
 Antocalsky, residing in Paris, is a man whose work has a strong 
 individuality. This sculpture of Russia lacks a certain humanizing 
 quality which is essential to a lovely and rounded art. Mention 
 should be made also of Martos, Halborg, Orlovsky, and Tchizhob. 
 
 Flemish Sculpture. — In Holland little has been done ia the art 
 of sculpture. Nature has provided no ready or suitable materials ; 
 no sculptor has arisen to rival in any degree the splendid art of 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 37 
 
 Rembrandt, the great painter. What statues and monuments we find 
 in the museums, public squares, or halls of Dutch towns, are for the 
 most part the work of foreign artists, so we may pass from Holland 
 to the school of Flanders. It is in the picturesque city of Bruges 
 that we find the best proofs that sculpture was practiced in Flanders 
 contemporaneously with her great art of painting. Two of the most 
 famous works in that city are to be found in the church of Notre 
 Dame ; they are the tombs of Charles the Bold and his daughter, 
 Mary of Burgundy. The effigies are in gilt copper, and repose 
 upon black marble slabs. The carving of the drapery and acces- 
 sories is wonderfully delicate and chaste. They are remarkable 
 chiefly for the fact that they exhibit an execution that could hardly 
 be excelled to-day. 
 
 In the Palais de Justice, in the room where the juries are wont to 
 deliberate, is a famous chimney-piece of carved wood, of which a 
 cast is shown in the Louvre in Paris. It is thought to have been 
 executed by Hermann Glosencamp, who, having been condemned to 
 death, asked leave to execute one last example of his handicraft. 
 By profession he was a wood-carver. He produced, with the aid 
 of his daughter, this most wonderful and beautiful mantel-piece, 
 which not only saved his life, but obtained for him a full pardon. 
 The statues which adorn it are of nearly life-size. In the centre 
 Charles V is represented, holding in one hand a sword and in the 
 other a globe. On his right is a statue of his illustrious grand- 
 father, Charles the Bold, and on his left are portrait statues of 
 Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Austria. The space between 
 these statues is filled with a variety of ornaments, cupids, spirits, 
 armorial bearings, etc. The work is considered a masterpiece of 
 composition, and is greatly admired for the delicacy and beauty 
 of its workmanship. It is not to be wondered that the sculptor was 
 granted his life. 
 
 In the Museum of Dijon, among others, is a work by a Flemish 
 
38 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 artist, a tomb of the Dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Hardy, finished 
 in 1404. We know this to be the work of a sculptor named Claux 
 Sluter, who was assisted by his nephew, Claux de Vousonne, and by 
 Jacques de Baerz, all three of whom served the Duke of Burgundy. 
 Between this age and our own time there is little work of sufficient 
 interest to warrant comment. In our own day may be mentioned 
 Geefs, Fiers, Sopers, and Wiener, who have attained eminence in 
 sculpture. 
 
 The work upon the tombs to which allusion has been made is as 
 delicate and beautiful in many cases as the work of the early Italian 
 Renaissance. 
 
 American Sculpture and Sculptors. — The art of sculpture with 
 us has followed the natural order of development ; that is, it has 
 come only after the necessities of life have been provided for, and 
 some time after the love of painting has been developed. Consider- 
 able interest has been manifested in architecture, and particularly 
 in that classical phase of it which we have termed colonial. The fact 
 that the material from which sculpture is cut, viz., marble, is expen- 
 sive, and has to be brought from Italy, accounts partially for the lack 
 of fine sculpture in our country ; but it is more easily accounted for 
 by understanding thoroughly the conditions of life which engender 
 and develop a love for pure form. These conditions have not 
 long existed in America. That they do exist in part to-day, 
 has been shown in an article published elsewhere, entitled " An 
 American School of Sculpture."^ As early as 1784 we have notice 
 of a Mrs. Patience W^right, born at Bordentown, N.J., 1725, who 
 achieved some success at home, and made for herself a reputation 
 in England as a sculptor. She made likenesses in England of the 
 king and queen, Lord Chatham, and others. She died in 1785. A 
 year before her death there is mention of a statue in wax of Lord 
 
 ^ Art for America. Boston : Roberts Bros. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 39 
 
 Chatham, size of life, standing in a glass case in Westminster Abbey. 
 We must admire her and pity her, when we consider the unfortunate 
 accident of her birth, in an atmosphere not tempered to the artistic 
 genius, and the lack of early instruction. We must admire her for 
 having achieved anything under such hard circumstances. When 
 Mr. Adams was minister at the court of St. James, Mrs. Adams 
 described in an interesting way a visit to Mrs. Wright's studio. 
 Her modeling was done, for the most part, in wax. 
 
 At this time, we already had famous painters, such men as 
 West, Trumbull, and Stuart, while Mrs. Wright seems to have been 
 the only American who had achieved any reputation in sculpture. 
 The arrival of Houdon in 1785 from France, whom Jefferson and 
 Franklin persuaded to come to this country to make a statue of 
 Washington for the State House at Richmond, marked an era for 
 American lovers of art. The head of Washington was modeled 
 directly from life, at Mount Vernon. Mr. Madison was present at 
 many of the sittings. From this statue, which is still in existence, 
 and the excellent painting of his head by Stuart, we may form a 
 just conception of how Washington looked. These portraits were 
 universally admired in their day. Houdon's cast is common enough 
 in France as well as in America, and is an excellent piece of work, 
 though not as big and magnanimous a representation, nor as satis- 
 factory, from an ideal standpoint, as is that made by our own 
 sculptor, Crawford, the father of F. Marion Crawford, the author. 
 This visit of Houdon had a beneficial effect, in agitating in society 
 a desire to know more of, and to own, good works of sculpture. In 
 1789 came to America a certain John Dixey, who practiced orna- 
 mental stone-cutting and wood-carving. We hear of him as the 
 vice-president of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, in 1810 
 or 18 1 2. 
 
 William Rush (born in Philadelphia in 1757, died in 1833) 
 achieved distinction as a modeler and as a wood-carver. The 
 
40 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 second foreign sculptor of any importance who visited America 
 was Giuseppe Ceracchi, known in France and England. He had 
 worked with Canova upon the Pantheon in Rome. He arrived in 
 this country in 1791, and did his best to awaken an interest in the 
 fine arts. He was interested with William Rush and others in the 
 plan for the Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia. He wished to 
 build a great monument ; but Congress failed to appropriate the 
 necessary funds. Before he left this country he executed several 
 interesting busts, notably those of Alexander Hamilton, Washington, 
 Jefferson, Paul Jones, John Jay, and others. When we consider that 
 he was here but four years, the amount of work he accomplished 
 is remarkable ; and his portrait busts are cherished with great 
 care, as they have brought down to us the countenances of some of 
 our greatest men. His work smacks of the pseudo-classical school 
 of Canova. His after-history was melancholy. He joined those 
 in France who were interested in the French Revolution, and 
 on a charge of being concerned in a plot against the first Napoleon, 
 he was guillotined in 1801. 
 
 In the rotunda of the Capitol is a bas-relief signed by N. Gevelot, 
 1827. The subject is Penn making his treaty with the Indians. 
 Nothing seems to be known of this sculptor or of his work. 
 Another bas-relief in the rotunda is signed by A. Capellano, 1827. 
 The theme represented is Pocahontas saving Captain Smith. This 
 man seems to have done other work, but of no great artistic value. 
 
 In 1790, at Rahway, N.J., was born John Frazee, the first Amer- 
 ican sculptor who was educated and pursued his art at home. His 
 early years were hard. He had been brought up as a stone-cutter, 
 and in 1820 we have a record of the first statues he ever saw; they 
 were some casts sent by Napoleon to the New York Academy of 
 Fine Arts. A portrait bust of his dead child, made before he had 
 seen any sculpture, procured for him an introduction to the president 
 of the Academy, Trumbull, who had put himself on ignominious 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 41 
 
 record, as having informed him that " nothing in sculpture would be 
 wanted in this country for a hundred years." No wonder Frazee 
 exclaimed: "Is such a man fit for a president of an academy of 
 fine arts?" 
 
 Artistic appreciation in the early part of our century seems to 
 have been a rare thing. We find the clear-headed John Adams 
 writing to a French sculptor who wished to make his portrait in 
 1818: "The age of sculpture and painting has not yet arrived 
 in this country, and I hope it will be long before it does so. I 
 would not give a sixpence for a picture by Raphael or a statue by 
 Phidias." Still, we find him later inviting this sculptor, M. Binon, 
 to become his guest at Quincy, and consenting to the unpleasant 
 operation of having a plaster mask made of his face, as well as 
 posing for a portrait bust. This bust is to be seen in Faneuil Hall, 
 in Boston, to-day. The first portrait bust made by an American 
 is said to be that of John Wells, Esq., executed, after the death of 
 the subject, by John Frazee, of whom we have spoken. Frazee 
 also made busts of Chief-Justice Marshall, Daniel Webster, Judges 
 Story and Westcott, and of Thomas H. Perkins and John Lowell of 
 Boston. 
 
 Names multiply rapidly as we study the history of sculpture after 
 1825. Horatio Greenough and Hiram Powers, two men who have 
 exercised considerable influence on American art, were born in the 
 same year, 1805. Greenough was a man of scholarly attainments 
 and artistic instincts, and those who knew Powers speak high praise 
 of him. Greenough died in 1852, at the early age of forty-seven. 
 He was a man of undoubted power and untiring energy. To him 
 belongs the credit of being the first American who executed a group 
 in marble, viz., that of "The Chanting Cherubs." The design was 
 suggested to him by Fenimore Cooper, who gave him a commission 
 to execute it. Cooper seems to have had a great love for the 
 Madonna di Foligno by Raphael, in Florence, and the idea of 
 
 " *i <^'/>,i:.,.r- ^t!^^ 
 
 -tM: 
 
 ■Aih.<iS^tj:^lk,:'!>M.ii^aat^'A:aL- .\^ ^. 
 
42 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Greenough's cherubs is distinctly traceable to the cherubim in the 
 foreground of this picture. Henry T. Tuckerman, in the " Book of 
 the Artists," describes this group in a beautiful way. Hiram Powers 
 displayed much mechanical ingenuity as a boy. As a youth, we hear 
 of him as having gained considerable reputation for wax figures he 
 executed for a show, and a panoramic spectacle of the infernal 
 regions, in which the little demons he had modeled were made to 
 act their several parts by skilful mechanical devices. Some of 
 Powers's busts deserve all the reputation the last years have brought 
 to him. He had the true artistic insight and pure classical feeling 
 for art. The adulation bestowed upon him when he executed his 
 " Greek Slave " was far greater than the work merited ; still, we 
 may excuse it, when we consider it was one of the first statues by 
 an American sculptor that claimed public attention abroad. His 
 busts are characterized by fine spiritual feeling, and his reputation 
 may rest safely upon the ideal work he achieved in this line. 
 
 Joel T. Hart, born in Kentucky in 1810, and for many years a 
 resident of Florence, the author of a statue of Henry Clay in Louis- 
 ville, has achieved a certain distinction in his art. He invented 
 a clever machine, by which the tedious labor of transferring the 
 model to marble has been considerably lessened. He was a careful 
 student of the human form, and a conscientious workman. 
 
 Thomas Crawford, born in New York in 18 13, was the first Ameri- 
 can who had a thorough training in his art from his boyhood. He 
 went to study in Italy while still a youth, where Thorwaldsen, that 
 generous Dane, aided him. Charles Sumner made him famous. 
 He found him in Rome, a poor man, unknown and discouraged. He 
 was instrumental in obtaining for Crawford the commission for the 
 group of "Orpheus seeking Eurydice," now in the Boston Athe- 
 naeum. It is a group composed by one who, though still young, 
 had a fine poetic feeling for what is sculpturesque. The figure of 
 an Indian chief, part of the group in the pediment of the Capitol 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 43 
 
 at Washington, was so much admired by the English sculptor 
 Gibson, that he wished it to be cast in bronze, and set up as a monu- 
 ment to Crawford in Rome. Crawford died in 1857, at forty-four 
 years of age, in London. His unfinished work was completed by 
 Randolph Rogers, his friend. A complete set of casts from his 
 work may be seen in the Museum of Fine Arts, in New York. 
 These display the workings of a mind original, vigorous, and 
 artistic. He was a man who must have had in him decided 
 power, or he could not have drawn forth such enthusiastic friend- 
 ship as Charles Sumner showed him. Had he lived to greater 
 years, he would have achieved enduring distinction. We cannot 
 but lament his untimely death. 
 
 Other names we may mention now, are those of Henry Kirke 
 Brown, born at Leyden, Mass., in 181 4 ; Henry Dexter, born in 
 Nelson, Madison County, N. Y., in 1806 ; and Erastus D. Palmer, 
 born in Pompey, N. Y., 18 17. These men, in their work, exhibited 
 industry and talent. They were men who worked faithfully, and 
 whose devotion to art we cannot admire too much or too long. 
 
 William Wetmore Story, born in Salem, Mass., 18 19, son of, 
 Chief-Justice Story, unlike the men who preceded him, had from 
 the first all that wealth, culture, and generous surroundings can 
 give to the development of artistic talent. He was a graduate of 
 Harvard University and, after leaving college, wrote law treatises, 
 as well as poetry that has brought him no little reputation. We 
 do not know whether the future will reckon his poetry to be greater 
 than his efforts in sculpture. His sculpture is conventional rather 
 than imaginatively creative. It is doubtful if the rare word genius 
 will ever be coupled with his name. His work shows culture, study, 
 refinement, and elegance ; it lacks spontaneity. He has represented 
 the art of sculpture with dignity. 
 
 A name which must not be omitted is that of Thomas Ball, born 
 in Charlestown, Mass., 18 19, and still living in Florence, Italy. His 
 
44 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 greatest work, undoubtedly, is the equestrian statue of Washington 
 in the Public Garden, Boston. After all criticism has been made 
 upon this statue, it stands there for all time as a complete embodi- 
 ment, nobly conceived and bravely executed, of our first president. 
 The horse is not executed with the technical cleverness that the 
 great French sculptor Freniiet brings to his work ; but it may be 
 doubted if the latter could produce a work as essentially monu- 
 mental as this. Almost everything that Mr. Ball has done 
 shows a feeling for sculpture, true and lovable. It is better to 
 sacrifice the almost fatal cleverness of perfect technical execution 
 than the all-important essential quality which makes a work monu- 
 mental. Ball's statue is monumental, or nothing. 
 
 Much creditable work has been done in sculpture by J. Q. A. 
 Ward, born in Urbana, Ohio, 1830. Two notable figures by him 
 may be seen in New York City to-day, viz., his " Washington " on 
 Wall Street, and his statue of Shakespeare in Central Park. His 
 work displays sufficient technical ability, while the theme chosen is 
 wrought out in a manner that is dignified, straightforward, simple, 
 and sculpturesque. His equestrian statue of General Thomas, in 
 Washington, has been praised by good judges of the art. 
 
 Launt Thompson, although an Irishman by birth, has so identi- 
 fied himself with America, that his name must not be omitted 
 from even these brief biographical notes. His talent is refined and 
 finished, with facile power and true feeling for sculpture. 
 
 A name which may be mentioned here, and one better known, 
 perhaps, than any other American sculptor's, is that of John Rogers, 
 born in Salem, Mass. (1829), and living now (1894) in New York 
 City. He has done more than any living American to popularize 
 the art of sculpture among us. When his handiwork became known, 
 cheap casts of the vapid figures of Canova and his school became 
 less common. Some of his groups, especially his war subjects, show 
 decided artistic merit ; this is conceded by all sculptors and art 
 critics. 
 

 HISTORY. 
 
 45 
 
 Randolph Rogers, who died in Rome about 1890, was born in 
 New York State in 1825. He pursued his art studies chiefly at 
 Rome, where the greater part of his after life was passed. His best 
 known works are the bronze doors of the Capitol at Washington, 
 which represent scenes, in high relief, from the life of Columbus. 
 A well-known figure of his is the " Nydia," a subject taken from 
 Bulwer's The Last Days of Pompeii. 
 
 The work of St. Gaudens, French, Warner, and other contem- 
 porary sculptors, is so well known, that it need not receive further 
 comment here. 
 
Cycles of Development of Art. 
 
 GREEK SCULPTURE 
 
 ITALIAN SCULPTURE 
 
 DAEDALEAN 
 
 
 AEGINETAN 
 
 NICCOLO PISANO 
 DONATELLO 
 
 TRANSITIONAL 
 
 PHIDIAN 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO 
 
 PRAXITELEAN 
 
 GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA 
 
 DECLINE 
 
 BERNINI 
 
 DECAY 
 
 DECAY 
 
PART II. 
 THE PRACTICE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 THE STUniO. 
 
 ERHAPS the first and most necessary thing for 
 the successful practice of the art of sculpture 
 is a suitable studio. This need not be elaborate, 
 nor finely finished, but must possess certain indis- 
 pensable features. It may be in a loft or out- 
 building or unused stable. It should be upon 
 the ground floor if possible, and so arranged that it may be readily 
 warmed in winter if the climate be severe. This is necessary, not 
 only for the comfort of the sculptor, but to keep his clay models 
 from freezing ; for clay once frozen crumbles to pieces, and the 
 figure is ruined. 
 
 Light. — It is important, also, that the light in a sculptor's studio 
 should be well arranged. The light should come from the north, 
 or as near that point of the compass as possible, because it is 
 desirable to obtain as much daylight as one can without sunshine. 
 The reason for this is, that a bust or statue which stands where 
 sunlight may be thrown or reflected upon it becomes less simple. 
 There are distinct lights or shadows, whereas the same statue in 
 a cool light is seen more sharply and distinctly. The lights and 
 shadows are simple, and the view is not confused by reflected light 
 thrown into the shadow. All light should, if possible, be admitted 
 
48 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 from above. When a side-light only is possible, the lower half of 
 the window should be curtained, so that the light may fall down 
 upon the object as it does in nature. In any case, the light should 
 come from one direction only. If the light be admitted from the 
 side, the model must be moved frequently, so that the light shall 
 fall on all sides equally, otherwise the likeness will be perceptible 
 only in one particular light, or from one point of view. It is well 
 to have a studio so arranged that the light may be admitted from 
 different directions if required, so that the model may be seen in 
 various lights, and defects thus detected that might otherwise be 
 overlooked. These various lights should be kept carefully curtained 
 except when required to test the correctness of the work accom- 
 plished. When one works by night, the light should be so arranged 
 as to fall upon the front of the work. Many sculptors when working 
 upon equestrian statues or monumental work remove their models 
 into the open air, in order more correctly to judge of the progress 
 of the work. This can most easily be accomplished by the use of 
 tracks. To do this frequently is of great assistance to the sculptor ; 
 he is able to judge how the work will appear when set up in its 
 proper position, under the real light of the sky; for the light of the 
 studio, at its best, is defective. 
 
 As a rule, the smaller the aperture through which the light is 
 admitted to the studio, the more direct and pronounced are the 
 shadows, and the more clear and distinct is every detail. It will 
 be found convenient, therefore, to have suitable curtains arranged 
 before the studio light, so that it may be easily regulated. 
 
 If the light be admitted from aboVe, the skylight should be placed 
 at an angle of not more than 45 degrees — better less. 
 
 Construction. — The studio should, if possible, be constructed of 
 wood, and the interior should be left unfinished. Mechanical appli- 
 ances, which may be necessary in the progress of the work, may 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 49 
 
 thus be readily attached to the walls if required, and as readily 
 removed. The floor should be well laid, level, and firmly supported. 
 It should be of a material which a thorough wetting will not injure, 
 for in the progress of large work the studio must be frequently 
 washed. The walls should be colored in a neutral tint ; terra cottas 
 and grays are most frequently used for this purpose. Care should 
 be taken, in the construction of a studio, to arrange for a door of 
 sufficient size to permit the ready removal of large models and the 
 admission of necessary materials. 
 
 Tools. — The sculptor should provide himself with an abundant 
 supply of tools of two classes : first, those peculiar to his work ; and, 
 secondly, a good assortment of carpenter's tools. The latter will 
 
 No. I.— TOOLS FOR MODELING IN CLAY OR WAX. 
 
 be found useful, and, indeed, indispensable in construction of skele- 
 tons, frames, and other appliances, which will be described hereafter. 
 The tools belonging directly to the sculptor's work are well displayed 
 in the accompanying cuts. Experience has shown these designs 
 
so 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 No. 2. — TOOLS FOR PLASTER WORKING. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 51 
 
 to be best adapted to the work. It is understood, as a matter of 
 course, here that all sculpture is first modeled in clay or wax, 
 and not cut directly, as some suppose, from stone and marble. 
 Hence the tools here shown are those for use in clay or wax 
 modeling. Those employed in stone-cutting will be discussed 
 
 TOOLS FOR CLAY-WORK. 
 
 under that head. The best tools are made of polished box-wood 
 or rubber, as seen in the cuts. A twisted wire of brass or iron 
 enters into the partial constructions of some varieties. The French 
 school makes use of some tools constructed wholly of steel or iron, 
 with serrated edge. 
 
52 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Tools are generally of three kinds, and are to be used only when 
 the work is too fine for the fingers, 
 
 1. Tools with chisel edge, either square or oblique. 
 
 2. Tools with a convex edge or point. 
 
 3. Tools with a concave edge. 
 
 Excellent tools are made from cocoa-nut wood. The close surface 
 prevents clay from adhering, and the feeling in the hand is one of 
 pleasure. Tools are usually from 6 to 10 inches in length, and 
 swell toward the middle, which should be oval, so that the tool may be 
 held firmly, and conveniently turned at will between the thumb and 
 the first two fingers. To make these tools, saw the wood into desired 
 shape, then rasp the tool into form with wood-rasp ; next, smooth 
 with a scraper or the edge of a piece of broken glass ; finish with 
 fine sand-paper, and finally polish by burnishing with a smooth 
 convex steel instrument. 
 
 One eminent sculptor has shown that tools are made to use on 
 the parts of a statue or bust only where the fingers cannot be used. 
 A good tool resembles a finger, and is capable of similar and perhaps 
 more delicate work. Each sculptor must find the tools best suited 
 to his own handling. Any well equipped art-store can furnish 
 ordinary tools (see cut No. i). It is advisable for sculptors to make 
 their own, and many actually do so, since they are simple and easily 
 made. One soon learns from his work the tools best adapted to his 
 hand, and makes them from material near at hand. 
 
 Studio Appliances. — The first requisite is one or more good 
 modeling-stands. The construction of these is extremely simple, 
 but must be such as to secure stability rather than elegance. 
 Although some are constructed with three legs, those with four are 
 to be preferred, since the former are too easily overturned. The top 
 should be so arranged as to turn easily upon its rollers or pivot, and 
 thus allow the clay model to be readily turned in any direction. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 53 
 
 No. 4. — PUMPS FOR MOISTENING CLAY, COMPASSES, AND WIRE 
 TOOLS FOR MODELING. 
 
54 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 The top should overlap the lower part so that the water may not 
 come in contact with rollers or other mechanism and thus by rust- 
 ing impede their ready action. The construction of the modeling- 
 stand in most common use may be seen in cut No. 5. To prevent 
 warping, the top should be made of two sections, the grain of the 
 lower section set at right angles with that of the uppfer, and the two 
 sections then firmly fastened together. It is convenient to have a 
 modeling-stand that may be raised and lowered at 
 will ; but these are expensive and more complex 
 in design. The ordinary stand can be made by 
 any carpenter or cabinet-maker at a small expense. 
 Hard and thoroughly seasoned wood is desirable. 
 It is a great convenience to have the stand 
 mounted upon rollers, so that it may easily be 
 moved about. In case of large or monumental 
 work, the stand should be placed upon heavy 
 rollers, as in frontispiece, or on a track. In small 
 modeling-stands the top should turn easily upon 
 a pivot let into a socket. 
 A number of boxes of varying sizes, strongly constructed, will be 
 found indispensable for the studio. Small holes should be cut in the 
 sides and top, to provide for the insertion of fingers, so that the 
 boxes may be easily moved. A wet sponge is convenient for 
 occasionally cleansing the fingers from accumulated clay. This is 
 necessary since, from the natural heat of the skin, the adhering clay 
 quickly dries and crumbles over the work. 
 
 5. — MODELING- 
 STAND. 
 
 Modeling. — Clay and wax are most easily manipulated. Stone 
 and wood require more time and tools in the working, beside taking 
 greater strength and facility. After one has learned to work in wax 
 or clay, one is better prepared, if the growth has been normal, to 
 carve and cut these less flexible materials. 
 
FKACTICE. 
 
 55 
 
 Modeling should be undertaken before drawing, and is as useful 
 to the painter almost as to the sculptor. We have evidences of 
 crude attempts to carve and model in prehistoric times, before man 
 had learned to draw. In the great industrial schools abroad, and 
 now in our own country, modeling is made the basis of all instruc- 
 tion. By modeling one learns unconsciously to draw. Any one 
 with patience and perseverance may learn to copy simple forms. 
 Experience and skill make 
 the successful modeler. This 
 is the mechanical or tech- 
 nical side of sculpture. One, 
 however, may master its 
 every difficulty and yet not 
 be a great sculptor. 
 
 The mechanical process of 
 modeling is as follows : Hav- 
 ing secured the clay from the 
 nearest pottery or art-shop, 
 we proceed to make it ready 
 for use. If it be hard and 
 broken in pieces it must be 
 put in a tub or suitable re- 
 ceptacle and sprinkled with 
 clean water. Leave it to 
 soak and stir it from time 
 to time, so that it may be 
 moistened evenly throughout. Let us start, however, with the hy- 
 pothesis that you have obtained soft clay, pliable and ready for 
 immediate use. Even in such a case it will be well to work it thor- 
 oughly, as one kneads dough in making bread (see cut No. 6), so 
 that every part may respond to your touch. It should be soft as 
 velvet, and all sand and foreign matter should be carefully removed. 
 
 No. 6. — KNEADING THE CLAY. 
 
56 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 No. 7. — A STUDY. 
 
 Pass your hand through and through it. If it is too dry for easy 
 manipulation, add more water ; if too wet and sticky, add more 
 clay, or work with the hands until it is of right consistency. In any 
 case, a good kneading will do it no harm. It is the first lesson in 
 modeling — to knead one's own clay and thus accustom the fingers 
 to its use. 
 
 Let your first subject be neither too large nor too small, not difficult 
 nor intricate. Beginners should not attempt 
 anything original. A cast of a strong face with 
 many lines, like that of Dante, or a cast of the 
 eyes or mouth of Michael yVngelo's David, would 
 be good for the beginner. Place the subject on 
 a flat board, or, better, attach it to a board con- 
 structed for work in relief, and set it at an angle, 
 as shown in cut No. 8. Drive one or two nails into the background, 
 to which attach pieces of copper wire of varying lengths, to the end 
 of which fasten short pieces of wood, made to support the clay. 
 Such supports are called " butterflies." These should be well made. 
 Now, press the clay upon the board and let your wire of " butterflies " 
 rest inside, where they will do the most 
 service as supports. Do not attempt to 
 shape any part in your hand, but put the 
 clay upon the board and squeeze it into 
 the general form of the whole mask or sub- 
 ject to be copied, and so gradually build 
 up until it seems to be of like proportion 
 with the model. Look now to the contour of the whole. Do not 
 become fascinated with, and attempt to finish, any one part ; keep all 
 at the same state of advancement, otherwise, in attending to some 
 detail, you will find that the proportion of the whole has been 
 sacrificed. This is a vital law : attend to mass first, then detail will 
 come naturally. One may make occasional use of calipers or 
 
 No. 8. — BOARD FOR RELIEF 
 WORK 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 57 
 
 compasses, made as shown in cut No. 4. It is well to keep in 
 mind, however, what Michael Angelo said, viz.: "that a sculptor's 
 compasses should be in his eyes." Train the eye to be its own 
 compasses, lest your work look mechanical. Begin at once to look 
 at your work, as it grows, from a distance. Do not stand over it 
 continuously, walk away every few moments ; this is a thing one 
 must make a habit from the beginning. It is the general effect 
 that you are concerned with chiefly ; this is vastly more important 
 than fine finish. 
 
 The first simple work being finished, a second and more difiicult 
 model may be undertaken, such as a mask of St. Jerome by Michael 
 Angelo, or the head of the "Venus of Melos." Be sure to take 
 some worthy subject, so that taste and eye may be cultivated from 
 the first. Some trouble will be found in the beginning in treating 
 hair. Avoid attempting to model every hair. Represent your hair 
 by masses or tufts, not by fine lines, for such give a hard, wooden 
 effect. It is the soft, wavy quality that we care for in sculpture — 
 the movevietit of the hair. The Venus should be taken after the St. 
 Jerome, for the subtle curves of a woman's rounded cheek, or those 
 of a child, are the most difficult things to do in all sculpture. An 
 old head is much more easily copied than a young one. Do not try 
 to improve upon a model. Copy it as literally and neatly as 
 possible. 
 
 We may now undertake a bust ; let us take, for example, the head 
 of one of the Roman emperors with strongly marked features. The 
 head of the "Young Augustus" can be obtained as easily as any 
 other. Now we must see how best to support the clay. It has not 
 consistency to stand of itself, and we must construct a frame-work 
 or skeleton which will hold the clay firmly and safely. We place a 
 flat piece of board, say six inches square, upon the top of the stand, 
 and into this we mortise an upright, or prop, which is to run up 
 through the centre of the bust and head. It should come within 
 
58 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 about an inch of the top of the head. It is a desirable way to make 
 the prop run as high as the neck and then to attach to it firmly with 
 copper wire a strong piece of lead pipe, say ^ inch in diameter (see 
 cut No. 9). As the lead pipe may be readily bent, this will admit 
 of turning the head in any direction. The action is the first thing 
 to be considered, — the pose or inclination. Do not use string in 
 construction, as it soon rots and smells badly. 
 
 A little reading of the general principles of phrenology may now 
 be done with advantage. Learn the salient characteristics of the 
 human head. Camper and Rimmer are excellent authorities. The 
 ..... clay must be firmly pressed about the prop or 
 
 support and upon the cross-pieces shown in 
 cut No. 9, intended to support the shoulders. 
 This cross-piece must be firmly attached with 
 wire or screws to the prop running up through 
 the bust. In modeling a bust, turn the work 
 frequently and move all about it. Do not 
 develop one side of the head farther than the 
 other. Look at the general contour of the 
 whole. Block or square out the work first. 
 Learn to see the planes in the face and head. 
 Remember that this process of modeling is 
 quite the reverse of chiseling. In carving, one 
 takes a block of stone and chips away what is 
 not needed, until the size and shape correspond with the model or 
 original design. In modeling in clay, we start with a support of 
 wood or iron and build up until the desired height or relief is 
 attained. One should add pellet by pellet, rolling a piece of clay 
 in the fingers into balls, and adjusting with the thumb or tool to the 
 body of the clay. See that each pellet or piece becomes an integral 
 part of the body or nucleus of clay, and firmly welded to it. 
 Eyelids, parts of lips and ears, and other delicate portions are 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 SKELETON FOR 
 BUST. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 59 
 
 formed by rolling clay in the fingers to the desired size, and then 
 applying the roll or string of clay where it is called for and adjusting 
 the same carefully with a tool suited to the purpose. 
 
 Learn to look at your work not only from a distance, but step on 
 a ladder and look down upon it ; get down upon your knees and 
 look up at it. In other words, look at it from every direction 
 possible. Every change will reveal new defects, if there be any. 
 You cannot look at it from too many directions, be assured of that. 
 At first you will find your compasses valuable aids. Establish certain 
 vital proportions, such as the distance between the eyes, height of 
 face, length of nose, etc. Learn to do without them as your eye 
 becomes trained. Learn from the first to use a plumb-line ; a ball 
 of clay fastened to the end of a slight string will answer. Hold this 
 in front of the model ; notice the position of the face and its parts 
 with regard to the plumb or vertical in the model ; then see if your 
 copy has the same relations when you hold your line in front of it. 
 See if the action corresponds with the action of the model. Leave 
 this work from time to time, being sure to cover it with wet cloths 
 or a rubber cloth, so as to insure its being kept moist and pliable. 
 Sprinkle it night and morning (see Frontispiece). Vary your work 
 with simple designs of foliage, or some decorative, architectural 
 design (see cuts Nos. lo and ii). The latter teaches precision, 
 because exactness is required. Keep the copy and model on the 
 same level, and as close as convenient to one another. 
 
 A hand or foot may now be undertaken. A peg of wood, or large 
 nails set or driven in a board, will form sufficient support for the 
 clay in such simple subjects. Do not try anything original until you 
 can make successful copies of other work. After making such, try a 
 simple head from nature. Find an old man or woman with strongly 
 marked features, who will pose for you. Proceed in modeling from 
 nature as you have done in working from casts. 
 
60 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 We come now to the building of a figure of life or colossal size. 
 For sketches, use copper wire for the skeleton ; twist one strand 
 upon another, as shown in the design (cut No. 12) ; attach pieces of 
 copper wire for arms, legs, etc. Any design not over a foot in height 
 may be built upon wire, as skeleton shown in the cut. A design not 
 over six inches in height is often made without a skeleton, having 
 the interior simply of clay, a little harder than that used upon large 
 
 No. 10 —SUBJECTS FOR DECORATIVE MODELING 
 
 work. In buildmg wire-skeletons, take careful account of the ler.gth 
 of the arms and legs, so that the wire may not protrude when the 
 clay is put upon it. Have a canon of proportion, such as that given 
 in Fau and Rimmer. 
 
 The building up of a large figure has many difficulties. The 
 following method is employed in most studios. If the sculptor is to 
 build a large figure, he makes first a small sketch model, say, from 
 two to four feet in height. He perfects this model, until it expresses 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 61 
 
 the meaning he wishes to convey — until the action, pose, contour, 
 and expression are satisfactory. It should be built with careful 
 regard to proportion. If the sculptor's figure is to be of colossal 
 size, eight feet in height, for example, a small model may be made, 
 two feet in height, that is one fourth, or four feet, which is half ; 
 then, when he comes to construct his large figure, he can, by his 
 enlarging calipers, throw up the colossal statue by a simple mathe- 
 
 No. II. — SUBJECTS FOR DECORATIVE MODELING. 
 
 matical process. Jt is hardly necessary to say that this sketch-model 
 should be studied first from the nude living model, and then clothed 
 in the costume or drapery of the epoch represented. Too much 
 care cannot be bestowed upon this sketch-model; carelessness or 
 hurry at this stage of the work will surely lead to serious trouble 
 and great waste of time, money, etc., later. The art of sculpture 
 requires great conscientiousness; let every step of the work be 
 done thoroughly. A flimsy construction has ruined many a noble 
 statue. 
 
62 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 The Skeleton. — Having a modeling-stand well constructed, and, 
 for the sake of convenience, set upon rollers, so as to be readily 
 moved to or from the light, as the sculptor may wish, we proceed to 
 construct the frame-work or skeleton destined to support the clay. 
 
 The common method, which is in vogue 
 in many great studios, is to get a bar 
 of iron and to bend it into the general 
 shape required. This iron should have 
 four feet or claws at the bottom, which 
 may be securely screwed into the model- 
 ing-stand, or board, or platform nailed 
 upon it, which is to support the statue. 
 This iron, as will be seen, runs up a foot 
 or more in the rear of the proposed 
 statue, then is turned directly forward, 
 at a right angle, so as to enter the back 
 of the statue at the dorsal vertebrae. 
 Then it bends at another right angle 
 and passes up through the torso as far 
 as the nape of the neck. To this iron 
 are fixed cross-pieces of very thick lead 
 pipe or wrought iron. These are to 
 support the weight of the clay at the 
 hips and shoulders, and to these in turn 
 must be attached the lead pipe or irons 
 which are to form the skeleton of the 
 legs and arms. It is readily understood 
 that the iron or pipe in the legs must be left long enough to descend 
 through the middle of the ankle and through the six inches of clay 
 which is generally left under a statue, to the groundwork of boards, 
 and there, where action has been determined upon, they are firmly 
 fixed with nails. "Butterflies" must be attached to the skeleton of 
 
 SKELETON FOR FULL 
 FIGURE. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 63 
 
 the legs and arms and to the central support of iron. Make use 
 of plenty of these, else you may enter your studio some fine morning 
 and find your wet clay upon the floor. Most sculptors have had 
 this sad experience. 
 
 In constructing the support for the head, attach a strong piece of 
 lead pipe to the central core. This will pass through the neck and 
 almost to the top of the head, and will admit of the head being 
 turned in any direction. Make use of small square pieces of wood 
 about the size of a carpenter's lead pencil to strengthen parts of legs 
 and arms where there is no joint. These should be bound about the 
 part to be strengthened ; they are found very useful in helping to 
 sustain the clay that is apt to slide away from the limbs. The iron 
 used for the support or core one may call the central iron or back- 
 bone. It must vary, of course, in size, according to the size of the 
 statue and the weight of the clay it is to sustain. For an eight foot 
 statue, an iron three inches square, or at least two inches and a half, 
 will be found none too large. 
 
 Having prepared, then, our skeleton, we may proceed to the 
 covering of it with clay. The clay should be tightly pressed about 
 the core, which passes through the torso first ; then model roughly 
 the limbs, neck, and head. The suggestions given for modeling a 
 bust apply as well to an entire figure, and need hardly be repeated. 
 Make use now of a garden syringe or pump, as shown in cut 
 No. 4, for wetting your figure. If the studio be warmed, this 
 should be done frequently. Throw but a little water upon it at 
 a time, not enough to run ; a little stream working its way into 
 the clay will cause a crack and result often in an entire section 
 falling off. 
 
 We must speak of the framework of the hands ; this should be 
 made of twisted copper wire, in rough imitation of the actual skel- 
 eton. The fingers should be so constructed as to be moved in any 
 direction. 
 
64 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 I 
 
 We have now given sufficient directions for the construction of 
 the ground-work or skeleton which may serve for any ordinary single 
 figure. Much must, of necessity, be left to the natural ingenuity of 
 the student. Every sculptor has his own methods and ways of con- 
 structing supports for his figures. Cut No. 13 shows a sculptor in the 
 act of putting clay upon a large figure. Cut No. 12 again has shown 
 the skeleton of this figure before any clay had been applied to it. 
 The use of certain large tools, as shown in cuts, will be found of 
 great assistance. In all large work use a thin piece of copper wire 
 for cutting clay. Wherever it is necessary to attach drapery to a 
 figure, wire netting of a very coarse mesh will be found useful. 
 Fasten this with long wooden pegs to the body. In this way it 
 is easily and firmly supported. 
 
 Now a word as to keeping the clay in working condition. It is 
 not enough to sprinkle it night and morning ; it should be covered 
 at night with damp cloths. These cloths should be of very light 
 weight ; a thin muslin, such as is used in covering butter, is the most 
 desirable. It will be found convenient and advisable to construct 
 a square framework, which may be suspended over your figure. 
 Attach to this a rubber cloth which shall fall on all sides and over 
 the top, and so excluding the air, keep your clay figure moist and in 
 good condition. This framework may be let up and down by pulley 
 and rope. Most well-equipped studios have one or more of these. 
 If one has no syringe or sprinkler at hand, a small whisk broom may 
 be used to wet the clay. 
 
 In throwing up the large figure from the sketch-model, begin at 
 first by taking only the principal measurements, such as height, 
 breadth of shoulders, position of chin, nipples, navel, thigh bone, 
 patella, etc. Your large figure at this stage should be studied from 
 the nude model, and the muscular forms roughly blocked out, no 
 matter if they are to be entirely covered with the costume. Select 
 for this purpose a model with an exaggerated muscular development, 
 
65 
 
 No 13 —SCULPTOR AT WORK UPON CLAY MODEL. 
 
66 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 or your statue, when completed and covered with its drapery, will look 
 thin and lifeless. As you establish different points of measurement, 
 or proportion, from the little model (of which it is advisable to have 
 a nude study), by means of your enlarging compasses, put in small 
 wooden pegs, — they come of a wedge-like shape, about an inch and 
 a quarter long, the top end of the thickness of a lead pencil, and 
 tapering to a point. From the moment you begin to put your clay 
 upon the skeleton, make constant use of the plumb-line. 
 
 Proportions of the Figure. — Proportion is the true relation of 
 one part to another, and should produce on the mind the effect of a 
 harmonious whole. It may be defined simply as harmonious relation 
 or symmetry. 
 
 Even the nymphs, satyrs, centaurs, and other creations of the 
 Greek fancy were produced according to strict laws of proportion. 
 With the decadence of Greek art artistic proportions were lost sight 
 of. In the tenth century the crude sculptors of the new religious art 
 produced figures varying from four or five heads to fourteen heads 
 in length ; there seems to have been no established canon. In the 
 middle ages little thought was given to harmonious proportion. 
 The sculptor thought only of the fervid, religious idea or symbol he 
 wished to embody. The ugly seems to have been thought an effective 
 way of representing a religious idea. 
 
 Toward the end of the fourteenth century, at the time when the 
 Belvedere torso was discovered, and many other antique sculptures 
 unearthed, may be noted a return to the old laws and principles 
 governing proportion and construction; and finally Michael Angelo 
 accepted and restored the Greek standard of Vitruvius. Each statue 
 should be distinct, individual, and harmonious in itself. 
 
 If you put a long head on a square body, or a square head on 
 a long body, the appearance is incongruous and disproportionate ; 
 no sense of harmony is produced. But if you place a long head 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 67 
 
 on a long body, or a square head on a square body, the result is 
 harmonious. 
 
 The difference in the height of people is the difference in the 
 length of the leg. A number of people seated together will appear 
 of about the same height. 
 
 In this book we shall hold to the system of proportion formulated 
 by Vitruvius, which he deduced from the writings of the most emi- 
 nent Greek sculptors, and which Michael Angelo adopted. He 
 gives us this general rule, viz. : that the ancients made their figures 
 eight heads or ten faces high ; and that all other subdivisions of the 
 body were based upon this standard. He takes the head as the 
 unit. The common divisions in length of the human figure are as 
 follows : 
 
 Total height of figure, eight heads (that is, skull-lengths). The 
 average male head is 8^ inches ; this would make a figure of 5 feet 
 ID inches. For artistic purposes it is well to make the figure 6 feet 
 high. From the os pubis (or pubic bone) to the sole of the foot, one 
 half ; from the os pubis to the top of the head, one half. The 
 OS pubis should always be the centre of the total length of the 
 entire figure. Flaxman gives the three following divisions, viz. : 
 first, from acromion process (the upper process of the shoulder- 
 blade articulating with the collar-bone) to the front termination of 
 the pelvis ; second, from there to the top of the patella or knee- 
 cap ; third, from the top of the patella to the bottom of the inner 
 ankle. 
 
 To lend added grace, the Greeks added an inch or two of length 
 to the lower limbs in excess of the length of the torso. The legs 
 may be made more graceful by increasing the length from the patella 
 to the sole of the foot. The dignity and grace of a figure depend 
 largely upon the length of the lower limbs. 
 
 The average foot-length, 1 1 inches. Two foot-lengths are allowed 
 for the length of the leg from the ground to top of the patella. 
 
68 TECHNIQUE OE SCULETURE. 
 
 The Arm. — From acromion process to elbow (in straight arm), 
 i)^ heads. From elbow to first knuckles, i}4 heads. As a general 
 rule, from acromion process to elbow is the same distance as from 
 the elbow to the first knuckle. The hand is the same length as 
 face, or ^ of a head. 
 
 Breadths. — Shoulders between the two acromion processes, 2 
 heads. Across the loins or edge of pelvis, i^ heads. Across hips 
 or trochanter (one of the two processes at the upper end of thigh- 
 
 bone). 
 
 heads. 
 
 Depths. — Shoulders from pectoral to shoulder-blade, i^ heads. 
 Loins, rim of pelvis, ^ head from front to back termination. Gluteus, 
 I head. 
 
 Proportions of the Female. — The proportions of woman are in 
 the lengths the same as those of man, viz.: the whole figure is 
 8 heads in length. The average female head measures eight and 
 one fourth (8^) inches from the bottom of the chin to the apex 
 of the skull. This gives us, then, a figure 5 feet 6 inches in height. 
 If the lower limbs are equal to the length of the torso, this would 
 be the average size of a woman. The Venus de Medici is 5 feet 
 and 3 inches in height. The head measures 73^ inches in length. 
 The centre of the whole figure is the os pubis, or front termination 
 of the lower part of the pelvis. The width of shoulders, 2 heads ; 
 width of hips or trochanters, i ^ heads. 
 
 Length of Arm in Female. — From acromion process to elbow, 
 i^ heads. From elbow to first knuckles, i^ heads. Length of 
 foot, i^ heads. Length of leg, 2% heads. 
 
 A proportion common to both sexes is this, viz.: the outstretched 
 arms, measured from tip to tip of fingers, will give the same length 
 
 I 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 ffi 
 
 as the total height of the figure. From the pit of the throat to the 
 nipple of the breast, 8^ inches, or one head-length, and the same 
 from nipple to nipple. The difference in the proportions of the 
 male and female skeleton is in the widths. I'he bones in the female 
 are of greater delicacy and lightness. The collar-bones sloping, seem 
 to lengthen the neck. As these proportions fell into disuse after 
 the time of Phidias, Praxiteles, and their immediate followers, art 
 began to retrograde. 
 
 Expression. — Expression has been called the soul of art. It 
 may be best described, perhaps, as that characteristic or attribute 
 which distinguishes one individual from another. For example, a 
 friend is coming toward you from a distant point ; he is too far away 
 for you to see his face or the details of his clothing, yet you recog- 
 nize \i\\x\. at once by a peculiar gait, inclination, or attitude. It is 
 this distinguishing trait with which the artist is vitally concerned. 
 Great artists receive and give forth this characteristic of " expres- 
 sion " in a large and dramatic way, while inferior artists seldom rise 
 above the theatrical rendering of it. The study of the sketches of 
 Michael Angelo will lead to an appreciation of this great quality 
 better than many books written upon the subject. (Bear in mind, 
 however, that his chief defect sprang from too fervid expression.) 
 With a few sweeping lines he gives the entire character of his model. 
 Expression is obtained by looking at a thing in its great curves. 
 
 One man, for instance, drops his shoulders and head in a peculiar 
 way; you know him at once from any of his townsmen; another has 
 a long, ambling gait. As men depart from the normal, the more 
 are they easily represented in art ; that is, the lowest and easiest 
 form of art is caricature. Expression, while a vital quality, is not 
 sufficient of itself ; and where it has become all-important, the deca- 
 dence of art has quickly followed. See, for example, the debased 
 school of Bernini and his followers. 
 
70 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 Expression may be said to belong as much to the mental and 
 sensuous make-up of the artist as to the purely technical side of his 
 art. Genuine feeling will do more to make art impressive than any 
 possible or strained expression. This is shown in the work of the 
 early masters.- The pure and simple forms used by Donatello and 
 the Delia Robbias are certainly more impressive and characteristic 
 of a greater art than the work of Bernini and his school, which has 
 alr^dy been referred to. If one lacks this quality, it is most easily 
 obtained, perhaps, by attendance at any well-ordered theatre, espe- 
 cially such a theatre as the French have, where comedy and character- 
 depiction is the chief aim. 
 
 Harmony. — For a fine sense of harmony no nation has ever 
 equalled the Greek. Let us take, for example, the statues of Anti- 
 nous or the Adonis of the Naples Museum, typical embodiments of 
 perfected youthful grace and rhythm. The large forms in these 
 statues are given with a calm firmness that would make them charm- 
 ing and restful if only fragments were left to us. Let us look, on 
 the other hand, at the fighting gladiator of the Louvre. Study the 
 balance and proportion of the whole. Every muscle is brought into 
 proportionate use ; one side is not developed at the expense of the 
 other. It is consistent and harmonious throughout, though not of 
 the best period. 
 
 Two distinct types are given in two female figures of antiquity, 
 viz., the Venus of Melos and the Venus de Medici. Both measure 
 eight heads in length ; the one is calm, majestic dignity; the other, 
 soft, winning grace. Utterly different, yet each is harmonious in 
 itself. 
 
 Composition. — Composition is largely a mental operation ; for, 
 until the hand has been trained to execute, thought is of little avail. 
 It comes naturally after invention. It may be considered under two 
 
PR AC TIC E. 
 
 71 
 
 heads : first, as it pleases the eye, by happy and proper disposition of 
 Hght and shade ; and, secondly, as it gives more adequate expression 
 to the theme, by preserving a correspondence between the sentiment 
 of the subject and the material employed. In all cases the object 
 and ultimate aim of composition is to develop the sentiment or poetic 
 feeling which it is desired to express. It is the echo of the sense, 
 as much as sound is in the writing of poetry. It is an all-important 
 consideration. The Greek had mastered its laws completely, GiVen 
 an architectural space to decorate, he filled it so adequately as to 
 leave nothing further to be desired. Neither can anything be taken 
 away without taking away from the meaning it is intended to convey. 
 The greatest composer of modern times, perhaps, is Michael Angelo. 
 No more felicitous arrangement can be suggested, perhaps, than that 
 of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 
 
 Drapery. — After considering the nude figure, its sentiment, char- 
 acter, and expression, after having determined upon our action, and 
 developed the dififerent muscular forms and superficial anatomy, we 
 come, naturally, to consider the drapery or costume with which we 
 are to clothe it. 
 
 The lines of the drapery should be contrasted with or opposed to 
 those of the figure, and in other cases should be parallel to the 
 latter. All this fine and sagacious choosing belongs partly to the 
 artist's instinct for selection, and as much, perhaps, to the education 
 he has received and the antique models he has studied. Let us 
 look at the principles, or laws, which govern the curves and folds 
 which drapery takes on. We must consider, too, the difference 
 between heavy and light drapery. 
 
 Drapery, then, like other things about us, is subject to the laws 
 of gravitation and motion ; and is affected more or less by these 
 laws according to its weight or airiness, its strength or weakness 
 of texture, the force of wind or other power moving it, — according, 
 
72 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 of course, to the action or lack of action in the wearer. This study 
 of drapery is very intricate ; it will either add to or take from the 
 force of character of your statue ; and it must add to or take from 
 its poetic meaning. It is not an accessory, but a vital part of your 
 figure. The Greeks achieved preeminent distinction in the treat- 
 ment of drapery. No artists before or after can be compared to 
 them, except, perhaps, the masters of the Italian Renaissance. 
 The Greek used drapery to make his figures terrible, mystical, 
 or sublimely beautiful. Study a cast of the statue of the " Nike 
 of Samothrace," or "Winged Victory"; see what added motion 
 is given to the figure by the way in which the drapery is thrown 
 back. 
 
 The most common and simple forms of drapery are those produced 
 by the weight of the cloth hanging straight down from two projecting 
 points of a surface or figure. These forms we call folds, and a suc- 
 cession or series of such folds lends dignity, height, and massive 
 strength to the figure. See, for example, what nobility such straight 
 folds have given to the archaic Greek statues. Such folds can be 
 used with good effect when opposed to the soft curves of the arms 
 or shoulders. 
 
 One of the first facts we must consider in drapery is its uniformity. 
 It may be thick throughout, or light and easily agitated ; but it 
 should be uniform throughout, for all artistic purposes. If it is not 
 so, we can make no laws for its action, and shall have to trust the 
 clothing of our figures to haphazard. Let us assume, then, that 
 whatever quality or weight our drapery possesses, we may depend 
 on its being uniform. Naturally, the heavier the material, the broader 
 and more generous are its folds ; while, if the drapery be thin and 
 flexible, the number of folds is greatly multiplied ; and this idea is 
 more marked where the drapery is suspended from the figure ; for 
 the light weight of the stuff enables the model to take up easily a 
 great quantity, and to throw it over the shoulder, or to gather it in 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 n 
 
 drooping folds over the girdle, or to fasten it easily with a pin or 
 brooch. Textures that feel soft in the hand assume naturally soft 
 and pleasing curves, while harsh or heavy material is apt to take on 
 folds that are sharp, cross cut, and angular in character. 
 
 If we throw a piece of drapery carelessly over any object, it rests, 
 naturally, on the most salient points of such object, and it will fall 
 either perpendicularly as the folds we have previously described, or 
 it will be caught up and hung in waves or festoons. If the drapery 
 is very heavy, it will hang in folds that radiate from the point of 
 attachment. All folds radiate from the points of support, or from 
 the points or places where they are gathered and held up, according 
 to the fashion or necessity of the time. These facts regarding 
 thickness or lightness, harshness or softness, abundance or meagre- 
 ness of drapery, together with this law of radiation from points of 
 support, are the facts or basis upon which we construct draperies. 
 
 Where two points of support are equally distant from the ground, 
 and of equal prominence, it is easy to see that drapery will fall in 
 symmetrical waves between them ; but where one is more prominent, 
 the folds will meet alternately and give greater sharpness and variety 
 to the composition. Where much drapery hangs from one point, it 
 will drop straight down ; but the central line of the whole mass, it 
 will be seen, is the only one which is actually perpendicular. 
 
 So much for drapery hanging from points or supports. Where 
 drapery falls loosely over the figure, a general direction or inclination 
 is given to its folds by a drawing of it, or pulling toward some other 
 part of the body by action or change of motion. In cases like this 
 the laws that govern it are as manifold as the actions which the 
 human body may assume, or the causes which may affect it. Such 
 cases must be studied always from nature. Mr. Moody, formerly 
 of South Kensington, gives a general rule that " folds will be shaken 
 out from the front and upper parts of the body or limbs, and will be 
 naturally found where there is more room for them ; for we should 
 
74 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 never forget that ^lepth is necessary to folds. Where this ceases 
 to be the case, the drapery must either be plain or in fiat plaits." 
 The same critic shows, in his excellent lectures, how color, variety, 
 motion, and mass are given to the figure by a proper use of drapery; 
 and how necessary it is to art and to plastic and pictorial interpre- 
 tations of history and the social distinctions imposed by society. 
 The king is known from the beggar by the character of his drapery. 
 Perhaps he exaggerates its importance ; for it is certain that the 
 nude figure in the hand of the Greek and modern artist has been 
 made inexpressibly lovely; still it is so valuable an adjunct, and so 
 much a part of man, that we must understand how to handle it, and 
 have full appreciation of the dignity of its office. 
 
 Modeling in Relief. — In the modeling of reliefs one usually places 
 a layer of clay upon a slab of slate or square drawing-board, varying 
 in size according to the requirements of the work. Clay must be 
 put on of depth sufficient for the intended relief, — little for low 
 relief, like the work of Donatello, a great deal for such work as the 
 Delia Robbias did. Many modern sculptors draw an outline upon 
 their slab of slate, then fill it in with clay to the thickness desired, 
 thus keeping the work true to one plane. This is the common, and, 
 one may add, commonplace, manner of modeling bas relief. Men 
 who have studied this subject in an exhaustive way believe that 
 the true and artistic way of modeling in relief is as follows : 
 
 The background should be of clay, and no part of the relief should 
 be made higher than the background. One advantage, ostensibly, 
 of this order of relief is that the spectator can see the work only 
 from the right position, viz., the front. We are speaking more par- 
 ticularly in this respect of low and middle relief, and not of high 
 relief. Most relief is meant to be lighted from one side, but seen 
 from the front. Work in relief may be called a compromise between 
 drawing and modeling. To be successful in this order of sculpture 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 75 
 
 requires true artistic feeling, and great knowledge of the laws and 
 limitations of sculpture, 
 
 Egyptian and Assyrian reliefs are particularly interesting, and are 
 usually found to have been cut out of, and not attached to, the 
 background. A comparison of modern work with that of Greece, or 
 even of Egypt and Assyria, will show that the sculptors among 
 
 No. 14. — PORTRAIT RELIEF IN MARBLE, READY FOR FINISHER. 
 
 even these ancient people understood work in relief, or the technique 
 of relief, better than most modern artists. The variety given by the 
 uneven and waving background of antique work accounts largely for 
 its charm and its vital force. In what work we have of Greece, 
 scarcely an instance can be cited where the background is the level 
 plane so much used to-day. The background should vary according 
 
76 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 to the feeling the sculptor wishes to express. There are occasions 
 when we must cut below the average surface, and sometimes, to 
 obtain an effect, the background must rise to give the desired shadow 
 over form or feature. 
 
 It is easier, of course, to make high or alto relief than to execute 
 low relief. It is readily seen that striking effects are at once obtained 
 in high relief. Less subtlety of genius is required for this kind of 
 work. The method practiced by certain medieval sculptors — of 
 modeling in low relief, then raising the whole design, and cutting 
 a groove about the outline — should not be copied. It partakes 
 too much of artifice to be called legitimate. Serious men will avoid 
 it. The student should take great care to see that the light falls 
 upon his work from only one direction. It may be either a top or 
 a side light. Modeling in relief is a branch of sculpture that cannot 
 be taught. It comes largely from poetic feeling and instinct for the 
 subtle and illusive forms or ideas. The study of Greek models, how- 
 ever, will be of great benefit. 
 
 Modeling of Decorative Work. — In the modeling of small 
 objects, such as fruits, flowers, or parts of foliage, the clay to be 
 used may be placed upon a slab of slate, so that the work when 
 completed may be easily removed from the background. It is found 
 convenient often to place under the subject a block or rectangle 
 of clay of an inch or more in thickness, which may be taken hold 
 of and turned in the hand. This permits reaching readily every 
 part of the work. Delicate portions, such as stems of flowers and 
 fruit, are made by rolling bits of clay between the fingers. The 
 petals of flowers are often modeled independently, and adjusted to 
 their places with a small wooden tool. If the subject is not to be 
 taken from the background, artistic and delicate effects may be 
 obtained by cutting below the surface of it, or drawing the subtle 
 portions of the design upon it with a delicate tool. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 77 
 
 If the work is designed for terra-cotta, care should be taken that 
 no air-holes are anywhere left. Wed each part firmly to the body 
 of the work, or to the ground to be decorated. 
 
 Modeling of Plaques, Vases, etc. — This order of modeling is 
 not difficult, but requires considerable practice to produce successful 
 results. In decorating a vase, choose one that is slightly dry, and a 
 day or two after it has come from the potter's wheel. It is often 
 convenient to do such work at the pottery, or to have in one's studio 
 a potter's wheel. By choosing clay slightly dry, sufficient firmness 
 is given to resist the pressure of the tool or hand when decorating 
 the same. It will be found interesting to use clays of different 
 color. Pleasing results in color are thus obtained. 
 
 Architectural Designing. — Architectural decoration opens out a 
 vast field for the modeler. The process is the same as that described 
 under the head of " Modeling of Decorative Work." Such designs are 
 always baked, and become terra-cotta. This material is as durable 
 as, and will resist fire better than, any stone. A special clay is 
 used for this purpose, made up of a combination of potter's clay, 
 fire clay, alkalies, and ground potsherds. The mixing of the 
 whole produces a harmonious substance, which, under the action 
 of fire, vitrifies, and does not require glazing afterward. When 
 baked, this composition is proof against the ravages of time as well 
 as of fire. 
 
 The decoration of brick buildings, which is now coming in vogue, 
 as well as the interior ornamentation of fire-places, gives a wide field 
 for development of this order of modeling. 
 
 Terra-Cotta Work. — Reference has been made to the preparation 
 of work intended to be baked or fired. If the model be a statue, 
 bust, or other work, care must be taken that space is left in the 
 
78 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 body, limbs, or head for air to circulate freely, so that the work may 
 dry equally in all parts. When the clay has become slightly dry, 
 parts may be removed with a fine copper wire and the necessary 
 hollowing made. Then the parts may be replaced. The work should 
 not be taken to the pottery until the clay has dried as thoroughly 
 as is possible without the direct action of fire. The ancients used 
 terra-cotta, or baked clay, not only for statuettes and figurines, such 
 as those of Tanagra, but, moreover, for life-size and colossal statues. 
 There are statues of Jupiter and Juno of full life-size in the museum 
 at Naples in this material. To-day, terra-cotta is used mainly for 
 decorative purposes, and to preserve a sculptor's first small sketch 
 of a proposed work. 
 
 Mould-Making and Casting. — After having finished a work in 
 clay, no matter what it be, the artist must put it in some more durable 
 form or material. The material which is most used is called plaster 
 of Paris or calcined gypsum. This process of "casting" may, with 
 patience, be learned by any one ; it is entirely mechanical. To do it 
 nicely requires no little experience, however. You ought to begin 
 with some small and simple subject — take, for instance, the mask of 
 Dante, to which we have previously referred. Place your clay copy 
 of it upon a horizontal stand, and build about i^a border or wall 
 of clay of, say, a half inch in thickness and an inch in height; this 
 is to keep the liquid plaster from running away. If the model from 
 which you are to cast be of plaster instead of clay, or of any hard 
 material, the process is much more complicated; we shall describe 
 such processes further on. For the present, we shall assume your 
 model to be of clay. Plaster will not adhere to soft clay ; so if 
 our mask of Dante be of clay and in good condition, you may mix 
 your plaster and proceed at once to make the mould, which is the 
 first step. Take a common tin basin or bowl, holding, let us say, 
 two quarts and a half, and pour into it two quarts of water. Now, 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 79 
 
 having procured your plaster of Paris (it is usually sold at paint- 
 shops), sprinkle it into the water, shaking it all about lightly until the 
 plaster seems to have almost filled the dish and absorbed the water. 
 Stir the whole mixture now with a large spoon until the consistency 
 be perfectly smooth and like thick milk or cream. See that the 
 plaster does not form into lumps or balls ; stir underneath the surface, 
 so that air be not introduced ; now pour or put with the spoon some 
 of the new-made mixture upon your clay model, and be sure that 
 the liquid fills all the recesses of the model. It is well sometimes 
 to blow the liquid plaster into the eyes, ears, and other intricate 
 places which otherwise it might not reach. Now pour your plaster 
 on quite fearlessly until it shall have covered your model to the 
 thickness, let us say, of an inch of the plaster (an experienced caster 
 would make his mould thinner). In about fifteen minutes your plaster 
 will have "set" sufficiently for you to take away the border of clay, 
 and in half an hour more you may turn over the solid mass and 
 dig out the clay model. This should be done carefully, so as not 
 to injure the underlying mould. Remove the clay from the intricate 
 recesses with a small wooden modeling-tool ; clean your mould 
 thoroughly with a soft paint brush, and set it aside to dry for some 
 hours. This process of drying may be hastened by placing the 
 mould near the fire. 
 
 When the mould is found to be thoroughly dry, give the inside 
 two coats or more of linseed oil or shellac varnish, put on carefully 
 with a clean brush ; fasten the mould, face down, by setting blocks 
 of wood or broken brick about it to support it ; then, having mixed 
 your plaster as above described, pour it into the mould, and see that 
 it penetrates into every crevice and fills the entire space. Let the 
 plaster set for an hour ; then turn the mass over and begin to chip 
 away and destroy the mould ; use for this purpose a dull chisel of 
 about half an inch in width, and a light wooden mallet. Be careful 
 that you do not injure the underlying cast. When this breaking 
 
80 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 away has been accomplished, your cast is complete, and it should be 
 a fac-simile of your clay model. While your plaster is yet soft in 
 the mould, it is well to insert at the top of the face a twisted loop 
 of copper wire, bent at the ends, by which the cast, when complete, 
 may be suspended. 
 
 In casting a bust or statue from the clay, one half is first covered 
 with the liquid plaster, which is allowed to " set " before the other 
 half is covered. The two halves are kept from uniting by a solution 
 of clay water or oil painted upon the edges. By this means the 
 mould may be divided and the clay model more readily removed. 
 In casting large statues, a projecting leg or arm is often removed 
 and cast separately. 
 
 The kind of mould we have described is called a waste mould to 
 differentiate it from what is known as a piece mould. We may now 
 give our attention to casting in piece moulds. A reference to cut 
 No. 15 will show you such moulds. In the same cut you will see the 
 half of such a mould. No student should attempt to make a piece 
 mould of any work of value until he has watched the operation suc- 
 cessfully executed by the hands of experienced mould-makers. Piece 
 moulds are almost never made from clay originals. The original 
 should be in plaster, marble, or bronze. If you wish to undertake 
 the work, you must begin by thoroughly soaping the original, so that 
 plaster will not adhere to it. Now mix in a quart bowl as much 
 plaster as is thought necessary for the piece to be taken, and apply 
 it to the original wherever it is found best to begin the work. A 
 little experience soon teaches that plaster parts may be taken off 
 only from smooth or rounded surfaces, and where no undercuts (or 
 underlying crevices) exist. In the casting of an eye it may be neces- 
 sary to make several different pieces ; when one piece has hardened, 
 trim its edges smoothly and pass around them a coat of shellac, 
 clay water, or any liquid which will prevent the fresh plaster from 
 adhering to said part. More plaster must now be mixed, and the 
 
 I 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 81 
 
 adjacent surface covered, allowing plaster to form close up to the 
 finished piece ; then a third piece must be made, and so on until 
 the whole model or original is covered. Over these little pieces 
 pass a coating of shellac ; pour on a large covering of soft plaster, 
 and allow this to set. You will understand this covering best from a 
 
 No. 15.— "PIECE MOULD," SHOWING INTERIOR. 
 
 reference to cut No. 15, which shows it about the small pieces, hold- 
 ing them firmly in place. This casing or cover the Italians aptly call 
 the mother-mould, which keeps the small pieces, or little children, 
 together. Holes are bored in the top surface of this, as shown in 
 cut No. 15, which are known as keys, and which allow the other half 
 
82 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULP'rVRK. 
 
 of the piece mould when completed to be safely and readily attached 
 to it, thus forming the whole piece mould. In the cut you will 
 see depicted, on the exterior surface of the piece mould, wooden 
 pegs held in place firmly by pieces of string. These are made to 
 hold in place such underlying pieces as would fall out when the 
 mould is moved about. It is believed that the cuts will explain this 
 process of making piece moulds better than any words can possibly 
 do. Such moulds, when completed, are shellacked and partially filled 
 with liquid plaster, having been securely fastened together with rope, 
 and when this has set, are taken apart. This mould may serve for 
 many castings, while a waste mould serves but for one example. 
 Cut No. 1 6 represents a workman engaged in putting together the 
 various parts of a piece mould. 
 
 We may now consider a third process of casting, invented within 
 the last twenty years, and known as gelatine casting. Let us take, 
 once more, a plaster cast of the bust known as ''The Young 
 Augustus." We cover this head with tissue paper to prevent soiling, 
 and over this we lay a coating or casing of soft clay, say half an 
 inch in thickness. The gelatine ultimately is to fill the place occu- 
 pied by this clay. Let us now make a simple mould of two pieces 
 over this clay coating ; while the plaster is still soft, divide the 
 mould by a piece of strong carpet thread passed around the entire 
 bust over the shoulder and across the topmost ridge of the ears. 
 When this is set we remove the two halves, take out our clay casing, 
 remove the paper from the model, and, having given the latter a 
 coat of shellac, if it be of plaster, place it again within this new-made 
 mould. It will be held in place by keys, or points of plaster, which 
 have been left for this especial purpose. We see now that there is 
 a hollow space about the bust between it and the outer mould. We 
 now prepare our glue or gelatine. Peter Cooper's white glue may 
 be used as well as fine gelatine. This must be boiled and liquefied 
 in what is termed a milk-boiler. When it is soft we may pour it into 
 
PKACTICE. 
 
 83 
 
 the space left for it about the model. Let it harden over night ; 
 then carefully separate the halves of the mould. This will leave a 
 casing of gelatine about the model, which can be removed only by 
 cutting it in halves. Now remove the model, and replace the halves 
 of the gelatine mould within the corresponding halves of the plaster 
 shell. Now reunite the whole, and the mould is finished and ready 
 for use. 
 
 PUTTING TOGETHER A PIECE MOULD. 
 
 Small objects are cast of solid plaster, but busts and larger objects 
 are cast hollow. This last is done to insure lightness, strength, and 
 economy. The hollow casting is effected by pouring a small quan- 
 tity only of the liquid plaster into the mould at one time, and by 
 maintaining a constant rolling of the mould, so that the plaster shall 
 cover all portions of the interior equally. One entire coating of the 
 interior of the mould must be completed before the plaster begins 
 
84 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 to "set." The other coatings may be added at will. Rods of iron 
 are often inserted in the legs or arms of statues to insure strength. 
 In the casting of reliefs a layer of burlap or of flax is often inserted 
 to insure lightness, as well as to hold the material firmly together. 
 
 Press Moulds. — There is still another kind of mould sometimes 
 used, which we may call, for want of a better name, a press mould. 
 Such n)o<alds are used where it is intended to reproduce a work of 
 art, or where many copies of the same model are desired. If one, 
 for instance, has made a relief, with no undercuts, in casting the 
 same it will be seen that the mould of plaster of Paris, made over it, 
 can be removed without any injury to the model. This mould, then, 
 may be used to multiply any number of copies like the original, and 
 this is done by simply pressing the clay into the mould, beginning 
 from the centre, let us say, and working out toward the edges, put- 
 ting every fresh pat of clay upon the starting-point in the centre, and 
 thus making the under-clay cover the entire surface of the mould 
 and leave no cracks or joinings, which would occur if clay were put 
 on at different points and worked together. 
 
 The little statuettes, so common in Europe, made of terra-cotta, 
 are reproduced in this way. The clay having been pressed into 
 piece moulds, it will be found useful and interesting to take, let 
 us say, some mould of a little head in low relief, and having made 
 a press of it in clay, to change the entire expression by jarring 
 the clay impression from the bottom or side. With one head as 
 a basis, almost every conceivable expression and shape may be 
 obtained ; then, too, a press mould is useful, because it often saves 
 labor. Having a good normal head as a basis, we may readily 
 change the relation of one part to another, and so make the portrait 
 of any subject in a short space of time. 
 
 Tinting of Plaster. — It may be well to make brief mention of 
 the methods commonly used for tinting casts in plaster of Paris, 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 S5 
 
 and obtaining some surface that will admit of their being readily 
 cleansed ; for, unless such surface is added, it is difficult to freshen 
 a plaster cast when once soiled. The surface known to sculptors 
 and plaster-cast manufacturers as the " ivory finish " is produced as 
 follows : The subject to be coated is placed near a fire and warmed; 
 then ordinary stearin (from which cheap candles are made) is melted, 
 and if the subject is small enough, it is either immersed in a bath 
 of this liquid stearin, being done very quickly, or else the model is 
 held over the bath (having been warmed), and the stearin poured over 
 it quickly from a bowl. The coating thus obtained is hard and shiny. 
 
 Good effects are often produced by mixing a little yellow ochre or 
 burnt umber with oil, or turpentine, or even water (we speak of dry 
 colors), and rubbing it over the entire surface ; then the high lights 
 are cleaned up with a soft piece of flannel, and the color left in the 
 places where it is desired for artistic effect. 
 
 Another way in vogue among sculptors, more than with the plaster- 
 cast manufacturers, is to dissolve common beeswax in turpentine, 
 making a thick mass, and then to re-dissolve a part of this com- 
 pound (according as the coating of the cast is too light or heavy) in 
 other turpentine, and apply with a soft brush to the cast. Color 
 may be added to this finish if desired. 
 
 Yet another way is to paint the surface of the cast with a solution 
 of white lead and linseed oil, very thinly mixed. Any of these sur- 
 faces may be cleansed with a little tepid water. Many casters obtain 
 a simple surface by coating the subject with linseed oil or soap. 
 
 The tinting of marble we shall consider under the head of Poly- 
 chromy. It may be suggested here that nothing is so fine as the 
 pure white plaster, provided a suitable light may be found for the 
 cast. Color is useful to counteract the effect of cross-lights. When 
 small pieces, such as statuettes and reliefs, are to be produced and 
 tinted, it is best to use the fine grade of plaster known as alabaster 
 plaster. 
 
86 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 The best tinting of casts and coloring in imitation of antique 
 and renaissance work in this country is undoubtedly that done by 
 Mr. Charles Hazeltine of Providence, R. I. 
 
 The most complete plaster cast shop in the world is that of P. P. 
 Caproiii & Bro., Province Court, Boston. It is well worth a visit, for 
 here one can see every variety of work in progress. 
 
 Casting in Bronze. — Bronze casting dates from that period known 
 to archaeologists as the Bronze Age, a prehistoric time lying between 
 the age of stone and that of iron. The brass spoken of in the Bible 
 is probably another term for bronze. The working of iron and steel 
 seems to have been little known or used by the ancients ; their 
 armor, weapons, and utensils were usually made of bronze. 
 
 Bronze is an alloy of copper, with eight or ten per cent of tin, 
 to which ingredients a little lead and zinc are often added to render 
 the melted mass more fluid and fusible, so that it may fill and flow 
 into all the intricacies of the mould. (See cut No. 17, representing 
 the fusing process in bronze casting.) 
 
 Copper is more easily fused by the addition of tin' as an alloy. 
 If it is desired to produce a bronze of a very hard and durable 
 nature, the compound is made up of about seven parts copper to 
 one part tin. If, on the other hand, a soft bronze is sought for, 
 to be rolled or worked, the compound is made up of sixteen parts 
 copper to one part of tin. Eighty parts of copper to twenty parts of 
 tin is a common compound for statues and reliefs. From the intro- 
 duction of metals into the compound, a variety of bronze has been 
 obtained, varying in hardness and color. The method of fusion 
 also affects results. Gold, silver, copper, and lead, and a fusion of 
 lead and tin (producing pewter), besides 'tin, have been used as 
 alloys in modern as well as ancient times. The alloy chiefly used by 
 the ancients was made up of copper and tin. Those that have been 
 tested are said to contain from ten to thirteen per cent of tin ; the 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 87 
 
 proportion of tin used to-day is less. In the making of bronze, 
 various nations have used different proportions. The bronze of the 
 Greeks had lead, silver, and gold often added to the composition, 
 and the Romans, in their day, adopted the Greek system of pro- 
 
 No. 17. -BRONZE CASTING -FUSING THE METAL AND PREPARING THE MOULD. 
 
 portion. lo-day bronze* is composed most frequently of two thirds 
 copper and one third brass, to which ingredients are added, some- 
 times, small quantities of lead and zinc. The latter metals tend to 
 make the cast more firm and brilliant. 
 
88 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 With the ancients bronze casting was carried to a high state of 
 perfection. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans made use of it not 
 only for statues, but in the architectural decorations of their temples, 
 palaces, and gorgeous theatres. The wealth of certain ancient cities 
 was gauged by the number of bronze statues they possessed. The 
 bronze of Corinth, Delos, and Egina is famous in history, while 
 Athens, Rhodes, and Delphi are reported to have owned upwards of 
 three thousand statues each. 
 
 Casting in bronze is a difficult process, and requires great experi- 
 ence as well as sagacious judgment ; for good Avork a thoroughly 
 equipped workshop is necessary. It is the delicacy and refinement 
 of the workmanship, rather than the color, that distinguishes fine 
 bronzes. All bronze comes from the fire with a brassy tone or color. 
 The patina or color desired is given afterwards by suitable oxidation 
 or sulphurization. Black, red, brown, or green can be easily attained. 
 The color itself has nothing to do with the cost of bronze. It is the 
 labor expended upon its production. 
 
 Bronze is cast in two ways, viz., the common way of sand-casting, 
 or the process known as the "Cire Perdue," or "Lost Wax" method, 
 which found favor with the masters of the Italian Renaissance, and 
 has lately come into vogue once more. The method of casting in 
 sand may be described as follows : 
 
 A model of the subject to be cast is taken in plaster of Paris. 
 Over this model is made a mould of fine sand, called caen-sand, 
 according to processes described under " Piece Moulds." This sand, 
 while wet, is beaten into the desired firmness with small hammers, 
 and under this hammering process it becomes as hard as stone. 
 When the mould, then, is thus firmly made or formed, the model or 
 core is removed, and the mould filled with the liquefied metal. It 
 is to be understood that the mould, before it has been finally fast- 
 ened together, has been perforated by a number of channels, to 
 admit of the liquid metal being poured readily into it, and being 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 89 
 
 allowed to escape easily when the mould has become full. Cut 
 No. 17 shows the men at work preparing the liquid metal, while 
 cut No. 18 shows the metal in a perfectly liquid state being poured 
 from an earthenware vase into the mould which is prepared to receive 
 it. When the metal has cooled, the external casing or mould is 
 tik'„'n ofiF, and the metal retains the rough surface of the sand in 
 
 No. 18. — BRONZE CASTING — Fl LLING THE MOULD. 
 
 which it has chilled. It can be seen that the reproduction secured 
 by this method of casting must be an exact fac-simile of the model. 
 Over the rough surface, when bronze comes from the mould, is passed 
 a graving-tool, or chisel, to give a desired polish or remove marks or 
 "jets " left by the mould. 
 
90 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Sometimes the whole design is engraved or chiseled without any 
 previous casting. When this is the case, the metal has been given 
 its form by a process of hammering or beating, and is called beaten 
 or wrought work. When iron or bronze is to be beaten the metal 
 must be hot ; but in the case of gold, silver, and softer metals, it is 
 hammered or worked cold upon an anvil. 
 
 The " Cire Perdue '" is a process dear to every true sculptor ; 
 because by it bronze is made to reproduce the exact model and 
 touch of the sculptor's hand, without the least after-chiseling or 
 polishing. It is used chiefly to-day for the reproduction of statuettes 
 and busts. It has its dangers and drawbacks. Notwithstanding 
 these, some of the more daring artists of to-day are using this method 
 for the reproduction of important monuments. One of its chief 
 advantages is, that when the model has been transferred to wax, 
 from which the cast is made, the sculptor may enter, the foundry 
 and retouch his work at the last moment. The " Lost Wax " 
 method may be described as follows: 
 
 When the thickness of the bronze statue or work has been decided 
 upon, wax is run into the space between the core and the mould 
 which the bronze is finally to occupy. l"he core and mould are 
 made of baked clay, the mould and core being held apart by stays 
 of iron wire. The melted bronze is run in upon the wax, which 
 disappears before the advancing bronze, and runs out of exits pre- 
 pared. Thus the space occupied by the model, which, we have seen, 
 was made of wax, is now taken up by the bronze, which must be, if 
 successfully cast, an exact reproduction of the original of the model. 
 
 Large or monumental works are sometimes cast in one piece, but 
 oftener in parts, which are afterwards united by heating and appli- 
 cation of melted metal. 
 
 Bronze, as has been already mentioned, is given its color, or 
 "patina," after it has been cast. The green bronze color is some- 
 times produced on metal by the application of vinegar, or dilute 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 91 
 
 nitric acid, or sal ammoniac. To give the color of an antique bronze 
 to new-made work in bronze or brass, ^ of an ounce of sal ammoniac 
 and a drachm and a half of bin-oxalate of potash (salt of sorrel) is 
 dissolved in a quart of vinegar, and this solution rubbed over the 
 bright metal until the surface becomes dry through the friction. 
 The object should be kept warm, and the process repeated until the 
 desired tone or color is found. 
 
 Almost any color may be imparted to copper, brass, or iron by an 
 application of chloride of platinum, varying according to the number 
 of applications and degree of dilution. For the bronzing of reliefs, 
 medals, or coins, two parts of verdigris and one part of sal ammoniac 
 are dissolved in vinegar, and the solution then boiled, skimmed, and 
 diluted with water until it produces in the mouth a weak metallic 
 taste, and, on further dilution, lets fall no precipitate. This solu- 
 tion, in turn, is boiled briskly and poured over the subject to be 
 colored. 
 
 An occasional rubbing with oil will preserve and restore a fine 
 bronze surface. For the cleansing of bronze statues, a diluted solu- 
 tion of caustic alkalies is used. 
 
 Cutting in Marble. — Modern sculptors do little work upon the 
 marble with their own hands, which fact, in a measure, accounts 
 for the characterless result of many finished statues, when compared 
 with a clay model. The great sculptors have chosen at all times to 
 finish their own work, or to direct it with closest scrutiny. Only so 
 may favorable results be obtained. It is said that Michael Angelo 
 carved his entire statues with his own hand. Very few sculptors 
 now believe this. There is so much dull, mechanical work that the 
 machine and "scarpolino" do better than the intellect, that such 
 carving would be a waste of time. Then, too, " the hand of little 
 practice hath the daintier sense," and the continuous striking upon 
 the marble dulls the delicate sense of touch and feeling, and stiffens 
 
92 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 the muscles. A sculptor who does all his marble work himself will 
 finally do but little that is fine in modeling and cutting, and, from 
 the tediousness, produce little work, all his time going to the 
 developing of one production. A sculptor should certainly know 
 how. The best carver or marble cutter is the man who is most 
 faithful to your model and idea, and who has no creative genius 
 of his own. The carving of net-work or any delicate design, often 
 so much admired, is merely a labor of patience, and requires no 
 more genius than do the broad and simple surfaces. 
 
 No matter what the statue is to be, the sculptor usually models a 
 small sketch in clay or wax. When satisfied that his idea and action 
 are fitted for plastic representation, and he has developed his little 
 model to express that idea, he then sets up his iron skeleton or 
 framework which is to support and form the core of his large work, 
 whatever it may be. This and the following processes have already 
 been fully described. Let us assume that the work is already cast 
 in plaster of Paris, and ready for the firmer material of marble. The 
 model to be copied is placed on a large block, called a "scale-stone." 
 Having secured a block of marble of sufficient size, the operator 
 places this also on a similar block. The most salient parts of the 
 plaster model are marked with a lead pencil. These marks are to 
 serve as points of measurement. The fronts of the " scale-stones " 
 now receive marks that exactly correspond with these. An instru- 
 ment known as a "pointing machine " is then brought into use. This 
 is constructed with a simple cross as its main feature, and provided 
 with socket joints, and arms that move readily upon them. At the 
 extremity of one arm is affixed a "needle," which is so adjusted as 
 to slide in and out easily, and yet is firmly held when desired. This 
 "pointing machine" is then taken in hand by the carver, or pointer, 
 and adjusted to three salient points of the model, which have been 
 prepared to receive it. (See cut No. 19.) The movable arm is then 
 adjusted to the first point of measurement, such as, for example, the 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 93 
 
 No. 19. — THE "POINTER" AT WORK. 
 
94 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 end of the nose. The "needle" is extended until it touches the 
 pencil mark at this point. The whole instrument is now removed 
 from the model and applied to the block of marble, upon which 
 three corresponding salient points have been marked. It fits into 
 these as it did upon the modeljj We find, however, that the "needle" 
 does not reach the same depth as it did upon the model. The 
 operator therefore removes his machine, and chisels as much of the 
 marble away as he deems safe. Then he places the machine for a 
 second trial. This process is repeated until the "needle" reaches 
 the required depth. A pencil mark is then made to show that the 
 point is found. In cutting away the operator is careful not to reach 
 the extreme point desired, but to leave a slight surface of perhaps 
 the thickness . of a piece of paper. This, in the final finishing, is 
 removed with the chisel or rasp. (For marble tools see cut No. 20.) 
 
 This process is continued until the work to be reproduced is shaped 
 out. A superior workman is now employed, who, with chisel, rasp, 
 and file, copies and develops the more delicate portions of the work. 
 This part of the work is done under the direct supervision of the 
 sculptor himself. Variety of texture and the harmonizing of the 
 whole is finally done by the sculptor's own hand. (See cut No. 21.) 
 
 A rich quality of surface is produced by rubbing with fine sand, 
 pumice-stone, or some similar substance. Michael Angelo polished 
 some of his statues, as did many of the ancients. The sharp 
 points of reflected light, however, take from the fine eflfect of the 
 form. A solution of tea, hot wax, or oils of peculiar quality are 
 often used in producing a mellow tint upon the surface of the 
 marble. This process is quite distinct from Polychromy, or the 
 coloring of sculpture. 
 
 Polychromy. — In ancient Egypt statues were colored for religious 
 purposes. It was intended to make them look as nearly like the 
 original as possible, and so deceive the spirit, or Ka, should he 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 95 
 
 return to the tomb and find that his mummy had been removed. 
 
 With the Greek, color was used for decorative purposes, or was an 
 
 accident of the material used. In architecture it enhanced the 
 
 splendor of the whole, and 
 
 was a foil to the figures in 
 
 the frieze. In the middle 
 
 ages color was often used, 
 
 and all interior sculpture was 
 
 colored. 
 
 The coloring of parts of a 
 statue destroy the unity and 
 harmony of the whole. Place 
 sculpture in its appropriate 
 and native light, and color 
 will be unnecessary. One may 
 accept as a principle, that 
 any detail of execution that 
 draws our attention from the 
 consideration of a statue as a 
 whole, is bad art. The plastic 
 sense is confused thereby, no 
 matter how we may open our 
 eyes in wonder. If it can be 
 shown that color was in vogue 
 in the best days of Greek art, 
 there is no reason for it that 
 has yet been shown other than 
 private caprice. The coloring " 
 of the great " Minerva " and 
 "Jupiter" was, in a measure, accidental, that is, color was the 
 attribute of the precious material of which these colossal statues 
 were constructed. Phidias used these materials because it was 
 
 20.— TOOLS USED IN MARBLE CUTTING. 
 
96 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 required of him to do so. If the effect was strikingly magni- 
 ficent, it was at the expense of grander emotions. The Greek 
 evidently first took color, with his idea of form, from Egypt. 
 There color, as before indicated, had a religious significance. 
 The Greek continued, somehow, to use it as an ornament when 
 its symbolical force had entirely disappeared. No doubt, in 
 decorative sculpture color has a place, but it should be used 
 only by a master who can distinguish the picturesque from the 
 sculpturesque. 
 
 Models. — One seldom finds perfect proportion in the models of 
 to-day. The right side is apt to be more developed than the left, in 
 the bones as well as the muscles. The development in both sexes de- 
 pends, of course, largely upon the occupation pursued. An all-round 
 athlete is the finest type of physical development to be found. Many 
 good models may be seen in the modern circus. The best models 
 that can be found to-day are men who, starting with good health, 
 have taken sufficient exercise to develop a sound and symmetrical 
 body, and have at the same time rounded out the moral and intel- 
 lectual sides of their natures. A perfectly developed man should 
 be rounded out physically, morally, and intellectually. It is 
 difficult to find models with the lower extremities of sufficient 
 length. In fact, the artist's power of selection must be brought 
 constantly into play. One model will have finely developed legs, 
 but thin and scrawny arms, and vice versa ; another with a 
 splendid torso has a short and insufficient neck, and so on. In 
 the female model the most common defects are : an unequal distri- 
 bution of fat over the lower part of the figure, perhaps a thin and 
 bony chest, or a too broad pelvis. The sculptor must create his 
 ideal figure from a number of models, selecting with great care 
 a perfect part from each, and combining all parts into a harmo- 
 nious and organic whole. 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 97 
 
 No. 21. -THE CARVER OR FINISHER AT WORK. 
 
98 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 \ 
 
 Art Study Abroad. — The ficole des Beaux Arts liolds examina- 
 tions twice a year, in February and July. Any American is eligible. 
 The candidate is examined in History, Perspective, Anatomy, Archi- 
 tecture, Drawing, and Modeling. Those who do not reach a certain 
 standard are not admitted. For the examination in history, a list 
 of questions is prepared which may be obtained from the secretary 
 of the school a month before the examination takes place. This 
 list consists of not more than thirty-five questions. Answers may 
 be written in English if candidate prefers that tongue. 
 
 In Perspective, some simple problem is given. In Anatomy, the 
 drawing of one or two bones of the human body is required, such 
 as the femur and the knee-joint. In Architecture, the pupil is re- 
 quired to make a scale drawing of a simple column or entablature 
 of one of the Five Orders. In Modeling, one is expected to copy 
 some bas-relief or simple cast from the antique. 
 
 The examinations occupy nearly a month. Those who pass suc- 
 cessfully have the privilege of study in one of the ateliers and 
 attending lectures for two years without expense. A small fee is 
 demanded, however, on entering the school, for the use of the 
 materials. 
 
 The professors visit their respective studios at the school twice 
 each week. The school hours are from 8 to 12.30 a.m. in the winter, 
 and from 7 to 1 1 a.m. in the summer. Each student is criticised 
 separately. The lectures in Anatomy by Professor Duval may be 
 attended by students outside the school. 
 
 Most students work in a private atelier in the afternoon or evening. 
 One of the most frequented schools for drawing is the Academic 
 Colarossi, where men and women study together. M. Colarossi has 
 two schools, one at No. 8 Rue de la Grande Chaumiere; also No. 39 
 Avenue d'Eylau or Victor Hugo. He has an able corps of professors. 
 
 The galleries of the national museums are open every day except 
 Monday. One may obtain a card on application which will admit 
 
PRACTICE. 
 
 99 
 
 him to any museum and allow him to work there. Temporary per- 
 missions are accorded by the Director ; he may be seen on every 
 Tuesday and Thursday from lo to 2 o'clock. A student should 
 learn the laws and restrictions of these museums. 
 
 Not much good art is seen in the shop windows of Paris, and 
 the student must depend largely on the galleries of the Louvre, the 
 Luxembourg, and occasional exhibitions, and the yearly Salons. 
 Every student should visit the churches of Paris, which contain 
 many fine works of art. 
 
 The American Art Association at 131 Boulevard Montparnasse 
 furnishes all information regarding boarding-houses, hotels, physi- 
 cians, the diplomatic service, and art and color merchants. The 
 candidate should present himself at the Association on his arrival in 
 Paris, for by so doing he will save time and money. On the pro- 
 duction of credentials he will be given a card of admission to the 
 Association gratis for one month. If considered suitable for mem- 
 bership, he may be admitted by the payment of $2.00 initiation fee 
 and annual dues of $.15.00. Information there will be given regarding 
 the curriculum of the " Julien " school, as well as others we have men- 
 tioned. Applications for admission should be made to the Secretary. 
 
 Living abroad is not as cheap as it is reported in America. Every 
 detail of the expense may be readily learned by application at the 
 American Art Association, and more space need not be devoted to 
 this subject. 
 
 Art Study at Home. — The author of this work is satisfied from 
 his own experience and from careful observation and investigation, 
 that art may be studied as successfully in America as abroad, be it 
 in Munich, Paris, or Rome. There is not time to discuss this subject 
 at any length ; but the author advises any one, who "is about to pursue 
 
100 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 the serious study of art, to visit the art schools of this country 
 before incurring the expense of a trip to Europe, and the dangers of 
 studying art in a foreign country. 
 
 Art for America must be developed upon American soil ; and 
 where a man of strong individuality and character may safely pursue 
 art study abroad, a dozen will sink into servile imitation of foreign 
 masters. There is not the excuse now which was formerly urged for 
 foreign study; we have at this time well furnished museums, and 
 thoroughly equipped schools of art. 
 
 Greece did not become great in the fine arts by sending her young 
 men to study in Egypt or the Orient. Until the last few years, one 
 may say until the World's Fair, art study was pursued with difficulty 
 in this country ; but now the Art Students' League in New York, the 
 Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, the art schools at Chicago and Boston, 
 or the leagues in Washington, St. Louis, and other cities, aflford all 
 necessary advantages. The facilities offered are in most cases better 
 than those to be found in Paris or elsewhere on the continent. The 
 rooms are better ventilated, the surroundings healthier, to say nothing 
 of the purer moral atmosphere, and the life and environment much 
 more conducive to an enduring national art. 
 
 The author has developed tliis subject at some length in his book 
 "Art for America," by Roberts Brothers, but has felt it necessary to 
 insert in a later work this earnest plea for American art, and the men 
 who are giving their lives to make it sincere, noble, and lasting. 
 
\M 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ;^. :f- ■ n-. -::■■. ^^m.* 
 
 :-&i: ii-.*v'"iii!iai^"itt. 
 
 '-'■j^ -: -ifca^"" 
 
 i*!ftrft^^&ssia-" ^..fiim^ 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF SCULPTORS AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 
 
 Agasias (Greek), b. 400 B.C. Fighting Gladiator. Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Ageladas (Greek), b. 500 n.c. No work extant. 
 
 Agesander (Greek), unknown. One of the three sculptors of Laocobn. Vati- 
 can, Rome. 
 
 Agnoi.o di Baccio (Italian), b. 1460, d. 1543. Palazzo Bartolini, Florence. 
 
 Agnolio (Italian), b. about 1260. 
 
 Agostino (Italian), b. about 1265, </. about 1350. Church .San Francesco, Siena. 
 
 Agrate, Marco Farrerio (Italian), b. about i 500. The four elements. 
 
 Albano, Francesco (Italian). San Bartholomeo, so called. 
 
 Alciiimedes (Greek), b. 500 B.C. Venus of the gardens. 
 
 Algardi, Alessandro (Italian), b. 1600, d. 1654. St. Leo forbidding Attala to 
 enter Rome. St. Peter''s, Pome. 
 
 Am.egrain, Christopher Gabriel (French), b. 1710, d. 1795. Nude figures. 
 
 Ammanato, Bartholomeo (Italian), i^.1511, d. 1590. Ponte Delia Trinith, 
 Florence. 
 
 Andrea Pisano (Italian), /'. 1270, d. 1345. Bronze relief gates at San Gio- 
 vanni, Florence. 
 
 Anguier, Francois (French), b. 1604, d. 1669. Tomb of Cardinal de Berrulle 
 at Moulins. 
 
 Anguier, Michel (French), b. 161 2, d. 1686. Group of the nativity in the church 
 of Valle de Gras.se. 
 
 Apollodorus (Greek), /'. 350 b.c. 
 
 Apollonius (Greek), /'. 200 b. c. Toro Farnese. jVaples. 
 
 Apollonius (Greek). Torso Belvedere. Vatican, Rome. 
 
 Aristides (Greek), b. 490 b.c 
 
 Aristocles (Greek), /'. 600 B.C. Of Cydonia. 
 
 Aristocles (Greek), b. 400 B.c. Of Sicyon. 
 
 Aristomedes (Greek), /'. about 550 B.C. Cybele. 
 
 A thenadorus (Greek), b. about 350 B.C. Portraits busts of women. 
 
 Athenadorus (Greek). One of the three sculptors of Laocobn. Vatican, Rome. 
 
104 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Bartolini, Lorenzo (Italian), b. about 1777, d. 1850 a.d. Colossal bust of 
 
 Napoleon I. 
 Bartolommeo, Maestro (Italian), b. about 1390. Porta della Carta, chief 
 
 entrance to the Doge's Palace, Venice. 
 Barye, Antoine Louis (French), b. 1795, '^- '^75- J-ion strangling a boa. Paris. 
 Becerra, Gaspero (Spanish), b. 1520, d. 1570. Statue of the Virgin. Madrid. 
 Begarelli (Italian), b. 1498, d. 1565. Celebrated modeler in stucco. Intimate 
 
 of Correggio. 
 Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (Italian), b. 1598, d. 1680. Colonnade at entrance, 
 
 St. Peter'' s, Rome. 
 Berruguete, Alonzo (Spanish), b. , d. 1561. Restored the Alhambra. 
 
 Spain. 
 Bosio, Francois Josef (Italian), b. 1769, d. 1845. Cupid darting arrows. 
 Bouchardon (French), b. 1698, d. 1762. Fountain of Crenelle, Paris. 
 Brunelleschi, Filippo (Italian), /J. \yi-],d. 1444. Dome of the Cathedral, /7or^«r^. 
 BuoNAROTTi, Michael Angelo (ItaUan), b. 1474, d. 1563. Moses. St. Peter's, 
 
 Rome. 
 BuPALUS (Greek), b. 550 B.C. 
 
 Cafkieri, Jean Jacques (French), b. 1723, d. 1792. Statue of Moliere. 
 
 Cain, Auguste, b. 1822, d. 1894. The Eagle defending his prey. 
 
 Calamus (Greek), b. about 450 a.d. Colossal bronze statue of Apollo. 
 
 Calicles (Greek), /;. about 430 li.c. 
 
 Canachus (Greek), b. about 400 B.C. 
 
 Cano, Alonzo (Spanish), b. 1600, d. 1667. The high altar of the church of 
 Lebrija with statue of Virgin and child at Grenada. 
 
 Canovv, Antonio (Italian), b. 1757, d. 1822. Theseus vanquishing the Mino- 
 taur. Vienna. 
 
 Carpeaux, Jkan Baptists (French), b. 1827, d. 1875. (Iroup of dancing girls in 
 front of Opera House, Paris. 
 
 Cavelier, Pierre Jules (French), b. 1814. Statue of Truth. Luxembourg, 
 Paris. 
 
 Cellini, Benvenuto (Italian), /a 1500, d. 1570. Perseus and Medusa. Florence. 
 
 Cephisodotus (Greek), flourished about 17 B.C. The Nine Muses. 
 
 Cephisodotus, the younger, lived about 300 B.C. Probably the author of the 
 two youths wrestling in Tribune, Florence. 
 
 Chantry, Sir Francis (English), b. 1782, d. 1841. Bronze statue of \Villiam 
 Pitt. London. 
 
LIST OF SCULPTORS. 
 
 105 
 
 Chares (Greek), b. about 300 b.c. The Colossus at Rhodes. 
 
 Chaudet, Antoine Denis (French), b. 1763,0'. 1810. Oedipus. 
 
 Cleomenes (Greek), b. 300 B.C. Probably author of the Venus de Medici, Florence. 
 
 Cleves, Corneille van, b. 1645, d. 1738. 
 
 CoLOMB, MiCllEl, (French), b. 1431, d. 1514. Tomb of Francois II., Duke of 
 Bretagne. 
 
 CoRTOT, Jean Pierre (French), b. 1787, d. 1843. The Soldier of Marathon. 
 
 Cousin, Jean (French), b. 1500, d. 1590. Painting of the Last Judgment. 
 
 CouSTOU, Guii.LAU.ME (French), /'. 1678, d. 1746. Two groups, each of which is 
 composed of a horse prancing, and a groom, at entrance Champs-filysees, 
 Paris. 
 
 CousTOU, Nicholas (brother of Cuillaume), b. 1658, d. 1733. Group represent- 
 ing the junction of the .Seine and Marne. Paris. 
 
 CoYSEVOX, Antoine (French), b. 1640, d. 1720. Two bronzed horses at the 
 Tuileries, Paris. 
 
 Dameas (Greek), b. 1400 B.C. Statue of the athlete Milo in the Temple of 
 
 Olympia. 
 Dannecker, Johann Heinrich von (German), b. 1758, d. 1841. Ariadne on 
 
 the panther. 
 Dantan, Antoine Laure (French), b. 1798, d. 1878. Kas-relief of Silene. 
 Dantan, Jean Pierre (brother of Antoine), b. 1800, d. 1869. Bust of Cheru- 
 
 bini. 
 David, Pierre Jean (French), b. 1789, d. 1856. Pediment of the Pantheon. 
 
 Paris. 
 Desbceufs, Antoine (French), b. 1493, ^- 1562. 
 
 Desjardins, Martin-Bogaert (Dutch), b. 1640, d. 1694. Masterpiece. Colos- 
 sal group, Louis XIV. Destroyed in the Revolution. 
 Donatei.lo, Donato, de Belto di Bardo (Italian), b. 1383, </. 1466. St. 
 
 George, fa9ade of San Michel, Florence. 
 Drake, Friedrich (German), b. 1805, d. 1882. Allegorical group of the eight 
 
 provinces of Prussia. 
 Dubois, Paul (French), b. 1829. 
 
 DuMONT, Francois (French), b. 1688, d. 1726. Statue of thunder-struck Titan. 
 Dumont, Jacques Edme (French), b. 1761, d. 1844. Grandson of Fran9ois 
 
 Dumont. 
 Dupaty, Charles Mercier (P"rench), b. 1771, d. 1825. Ajax pursued by Nep 
 
 tune. 
 
106 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 Dui'RK, Jean or Giovanni (Italian), b. 1817, d. 1882. Pieta, Siena. 
 DIJRER, Albert (German), h. 147 1, d. 1528. The Three Graces. Carlsruhe. 
 DuRET, Francisque (French), b. 1805, d. 1866. Statue of Moliere, Hall of 
 Institute, Paris. 
 
 Falconnet, £tienne Maurice (French), b. 1716, d. 1791. Colossal statue 
 
 in bronze of Peter the Great, St. Petersburg. 
 
 Falguiere (French), b. , d. . Young martyr. Luxembourg, Paris. 
 
 Flaxman, John (English), b. 1755, d. 1826. Shield of Achilles. Group of the 
 
 archangel Michael and Satan. 
 Francheville, Pierre (French), b. 154S, d. 1620. Group, Time bearing away 
 
 Truth. 
 Friemiet, Emmanuel (French), b. 1824. Joan of Arc. Paris. 
 
 Geefs, Guillaume (Belgian), ^ 1806, d. i860. Statues of Rubens and Malebran. 
 Geeks, Jan Joseph (Belgian), /'. 181 1, d. 1885. Adonis departing to the chase. 
 Ghiberti, Lorenzo (Italian), b. 1378, d. 1455. Bronze gates of the Baptistry, 
 Florence. 
 
 -, d. 1320. 
 
 Giovanni, Pisano, son of Nicola (Italian), b. 
 
 GiRARDON, FRAN901S (French), /'. 1630, d. 1715. Sculptures of the "Fountain 
 of the Pyramids." 
 
 Glaucias (Greek), b. 480 B.C. 
 
 Glaucus (Greek), b. at Chios, 6th century B.C. 
 
 Glycon ((ireek). Farnese Hercules. 
 
 GoujON, Jean (French), b. 1530, d. 1572. Bas-reliefs of Naiads for the "Foun- 
 tain of the Innocents," Paris. 
 
 Guillain, Simon (French), b. 1581, d. 1658. The statues in the church of the 
 Sarbonne, Paris. 
 
 Guillaume, Jean Baptiste Claude, b. 1582, d. 16 — . The tomb of the 
 Gracchi. 
 
 i 
 
 Hegias (Greek), b. 450 B.C. Statue of Minerva. 
 
 Houdon, Jean Antoine (French), b. 1741, d. 1828. Statue of Voltaire. Thea- 
 tre Franfais, Paris. 
 
 HussoN, Jean Honore Aristide (French), b. 1803, '^- '864. Bas-relief of 
 Dante and Virgil. 
 
 John of Bologna (Flemish), /a 1524,^/. 1608. The Flying Mercury. Bargello, 
 Florence, 
 
LIST OF SCULPTORS. 
 
 107 
 
 Kaeschmann, Joseph (German). Jason carrying away the golden fleece. 
 
 Kiss, Augustus (German), 0. 1802, J. 1865. Amazon attacked by a tiger. 
 
 Berlin. 
 Krafft, Adam (German), b. 1429, d. 1507. A tabernacle in the church of St. 
 
 Lawrence, Nuremberg. 
 
 Lamaire, Philippe Henri (French), b. 1798, J. 1880. Pediment for Madeleine, 
 
 Paris. 
 Lysippus (Greek), b. about 330 U.C. Apoxyomenus. Vatican, Pome. 
 
 Millet, Aime (French), b. 1819, d. 1891. Ariadne. 
 
 MoiTTE, Jean (F"rench), b. 1746, d. 18 lo. A bas-relief of Fran'ce. 
 
 Montelupo da Baccio (Italian), b. 1445, d. 1533. 
 
 MoNTORSOLl, Fra Giovanni Angelo (Italian), b. 1500, d. 1563. P'ountain in 
 
 front of Cathedral, Messina. 
 My RON (Greek), lived 480 B.C. The Discobolus. Vatican, Pome. 
 
 X AUG IDES (Greek). Mercury. 
 
 Onatas (Greek), lived about 460 B.C. Statue of Apollo. 
 
 Orca(;na, Andrea di C'ione (Italian),^, about 1308, (/. about 1368. The Loggi; 
 di Lanzi. Florence. 
 
 Pagou (French), b. 1730, d. 1809. Statue pf Pascal. 
 
 Perraud (French), b. 1821, d. 1876. 
 
 Phidias (Greek), b. about 4S5 B.C. Sculptures of the Parthenon. 
 
 Phiteus (Greek), b. about 353 b.c. Tomb of Mausolus, king of ('aria. 
 
 Pigalle, Jean Baptiste (F'rench), b. 17 14, d. 17S5. Monumental group at 
 
 Strasburg, in honor of Marshall Saxe. 
 Pii.oN, Germain (French), /'. 1515,^/. about 1590. A marble group of Thr«e 
 
 Graces. Louvre, Paris. 
 PiSANO, Giovanni, son of Niccolo (Italian), b. 1238, d. 1320. High altar in 
 
 Cathedral of Arezzo. 
 PisANu, Niccolo (Italian), b. 1226, d. 1273. 
 Polycles (Greek), /;. aliout 370 B.C. I lermaphrodite. 
 Polycletus (Greek), b. about 450 B.C. Doryphorus the Spear-bearer. 
 Polydorus (Greek). One of the sculptors of the Laocoon. 
 Porta, della, Giacomo (Italian), b. 1525, d. 1605. Portal of St. John. Late- 
 
 ran, Rome. 
 
108 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 Pradier, Jacques (French), b. 1792, d. 1852. Psyche ; Atlanta and Niobe group 
 
 Louvre. 
 Praxiteles (Greek), /'. about 360 k.c. Hermes, at Olympia. 
 PuGET, Pierre (French), b. 1622, d. 1694. Milo of Crotona. 
 
 Rauch, Christian (German), b. 1777, d. 1857. Statue of Frederick the Great. 
 
 Berlin. 
 RoBBiA, Andrea della (Italian), b. 1444, d. 1527. Works in enameled terra 
 
 cotta. 
 RoBBiA, Giovanni della (Italian), b. 1470. 
 
 RoBBiA, Girolamu della (Italian). Statue of Catherine di Medicis. 
 RoBBlA, LucA della (Italian), b. about 1388, (/. 1463. Reliefs on the Campanile 
 
 and Choir of the Cathedral, Elorence. 
 RoLLAND, Philippe Laurent (French), b. 1746, d. 1816. Statues of Homer 
 
 and Solon. 
 Roman, Jean Baptiste Louis (French), b. 1792, d. 1835. 
 
 Roubiliac, Louis Francois (French), b. 1695, '^- '762. Statue of Shakespeare. 
 Rude, Franqois (French), b. 1784, d. 1855. Relief on Arc of Triumph, Paris. 
 
 Sansovino, Jacoppo Tatti (Italian), b. 1479, '^- '570. Statues of Mars and 
 
 Neptune. Doge''s Palace, Venice. 
 SCHADOW, Johann Gottfried (German), b. 1764, d. 1850. Statue of Frederick 
 
 the Great. 
 SCHWANTIIALER, LuDWJc; MicHAEL (German), b. 1802, d. 1848. Statue of 
 
 Bavaria. Munich. 
 SCOPAS (Greek), b. 400 B.C. Statues of Venus, Vesta and Apollo. 
 SiMART, Pierre Charles (French), b. 1806, d. 1857. Statues and reliefs for the 
 
 Louvre. 
 Sola, An ionio (Spanish), b. 1790. Ciroup of Daoiz and Velarde. 
 Steinkacii, Erwin von (German), b. , d. 1318. Worked upon his own 
 
 design for the door of the tower of the Strasburg Cathedral. 
 
 Theodorus (Greek), 600 B.C. An early sculptor in bronze. 
 
 Thierry, Jean (French), b. 1669, d. 1739. Worked in Spain for Philip V. 
 
 Thomas, John (English), /'. 1813, d. 1862. Statues in the Houses of Parliament 
 
 Thornycroft, Hamo, b. March 9, 1850. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Albert Bertel (Danish), b, 1770, d. 1844. Lion of Lucerne. 
 
CERTAIN VALUABLE BOOKS ON SCULPTURE. 
 
 109 
 
 TiMOTHEUS (Greek), b. about 350 B.C. Statue of Diana. 
 
 Verrocchio, Andrea (Italian), b. 1432, d. 1488. Equestrian statue of Colleoni. 
 
 Venice. 
 ViscHER, Peter (German), b. 1460, d. 1540. Tomb of St. Sebald. Nuremberg. 
 
 Westm.a^cott, Sir Richard (English), b. 1775, d. 1856. Statue of George III. 
 
 Windsor. 
 Westmacott, Richard (English), b. 1799, d. 1872. David the slayer of Goliath. 
 
 CERTAIN VALUABLE BOOKS ON SCULPTURE. 
 
 " Introductory Studies in Greek Art." Jane E. Harrison. New York: Mac- 
 millan & Co. 
 
 " Manual of Ancient Sculpture." Pierre Paris ; edited by Jane E. Harrison. 
 London : 11. Grevel & Co. ; Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott Co. 
 
 "Lectures on Art." //. Taine ; translated by John Durand. 2 vols. New 
 York : Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 "Lectures and Lessons on Art." E". W. Moody. London : George Bell & Son. 
 
 " Wonders of Sculpture." Louis Viardot. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. 
 
 "The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston — Catalogue of Casts." Edward Robin- 
 soti. Boston : Houghton, Mifiiin & Co. 
 
 "Art Thoughts." James Jackson Jarves. Boston : Houghton, MifHin & Co. 
 
 " Art Studies." James Jackson Jarves. Boston : Houghton, MifHin & Co. 
 
 " Lectures on Sculpture." John Plaxman. Cincinnati : Robert Clark & Co. 
 
 " Sculpture, Renaissance and Modern." Leander Scott. New York : Charles 
 Scribner's Sons. 
 
 Encyclopasdia Britannica, Vol. 21. Article on .Sculpture. Prof. J. H. Middleton. 
 
 "Masks, Heads and Faces." Ellen Russell Emerson. Boston: Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
 " Talks on Art." W. M. Hunt. Boston : Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 " Anatomy of the External Forms of Man," for the use of Artists, Painters 
 and Sculptors. Dr. J. Eau ; edited by Dr. Robert Knox. Cincinnati : Robert 
 Clark & Co. 
 
 " Elementary Artistic Anatomy," for the use of Art Schools. L>r. J. Eau ; 
 translated and edited liy C. Carter Blake. Cincinnati : Robert Clark & Co. 
 
110 
 
 TECHNIQUE OF SCULPTURE. 
 
 "A Rule of Proportion for the Human Figure." John Marshall ; with plates 
 by John S. Cuthbert. Cincinnati: Robert Clark & Co. 
 
 " Anatomy for Artists." John Marshall ; with plates by John S. Cuthbert. 
 Cincinnati : Robert Clark & Co. 
 
 " The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression," as connected with the Fine 
 Arts. With Plates. Cincinnati : Robert Clark & Co. 
 
 " Essays on Physiognomy." J. C. Lavater ; edited by Hofcroft. With profiles. 
 Cincinnati : Robert Clark & Co. 
 
 " Art, its Laws and the Reasons for them." Samuel P. Long. Boston : Lee & 
 Shepard. 
 
 " Anatomy in Art." Jonathati Scott Hartley. New York. 
 
 Winkelmann's " History of Ancient Art." 
 
 Hamilton's "Thoughts on Art." 
 
 Kugler's " Hand-book of Italian Schools." 
 
 Crowe's " Hand-book of German, Flemish and Dutch Art." 
 
 Lubke's " History of Art." 
 
 Mrs. Clement's " Painters, Sculptors, Architects, Engravers and their Works." 
 
 Lessing's Works on Art. 
 
 Ruskin's Works on Art. 
 
 Charles Waldstein's " Phidian Essays." 
 
 Davidson's " Parthenon Frieze " and " Essays." 
 
 Goodyear's " Evolution of Ornament " and other works. 
 
 Lucy Mitchell's " History of Sculpture." 
 
 Tuckermann, \\. T., "The Book of Artists — American Artist's Life." 
 
 Johnson, E. W., " The Studio Arts." 
 
 " Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers." Amelia B. PJdwards. New York : 
 Harper & Bros. 
 
 Maspero's "Egypt and Assyria." 
 
 Hoppin's " Early Renaissance." 
 
 "Two French Sculptors." IV. C. Brownell. In Century Magazine for Nov., 
 1890. 
 
 Magazine of Art. New York: Cassell Pub. Co. 
 
 Figaro Salon. New York: Boussod, Valadon & Co. 
 
 The Portfolio. London: Seeley & Co. 
 
 L'Art. Paris. 
 
 I 
 
ART PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ART PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Foremost among the art publications of America one should mention the Art 
 Interchange. This monthly compares favorably with the English Art Journal, 
 and is better suited to our needs. Its information is varied, but not too much so 
 for a nation where every branch of art is being earnestly studied. The author 
 advises all art students to read the Interchange, and so keep pace with contem- 
 poraneous art movements. Its editorial page is not the slave of its advertising 
 sheet, as is too often the case with other art publications and reviews. 
 
 The art publications of George Barrie & Co. of Philadelphia are worthy of 
 kindest notice. Mr. Harrie has published many expensive books at a financial 
 loss, because of his love for true art. His publications compare favorably with 
 any in the world. 
 
 AMERICAN BRONZE FOUNDERS AND FOUNDRIES. 
 
 It would seem fitting that the industry of bronze founding should have some 
 mention in this book, and while there are at the present time numerous successful 
 foundries in America, I shall make mention only of those of which I have some 
 personal knowledge. 
 
 M. H. MoSMAN, of Chicopee, Mass., is a founder of bronze who brings to his 
 work not only the fine qifklities of an artist, but a remarkable and noteworthy 
 devotion. It was at the Chicopee Foundry that the equestrian statue of 
 Washington, by Thomas Ball, was cast. This work has stood the test of time 
 and weather. Mr. Mosman has discovered a happy secret for fusing bronze. The 
 author recommends this foundry and the sincere man who stands at its head. 
 
 The Gorham Manufacturing Company of New York has established a 
 successful foundry at Providence, R. I. This department is in the hands of Mr. 
 J. H. Buck and his son, A. A. Buck, who bring intelligence and courtesy to their 
 work. Their terms are moderate, and the work conscientiously executed. They 
 have shown remarkable success in the casting of small pieces, animals, statuettes, 
 etc. The author believes this company, and the gentlemen in charge of this 
 department, to be in every way trustworthy. 
 
112 
 
 TECHNIQUE OE SCULPTURE. 
 
 The Henry Bonnard JIrunze Cumtanv has had for some years a success- 
 ful foundry in New York City. This company refers with pride to a number of 
 large works executed at its foundry, which have given satisfaction to American 
 sculptors. 
 
 There is another foundry in New York City which has been conducted for 
 many years by Mr. P. E. Guerin at 21 and 23 Jane St. Here excellent small 
 work has been done. John Rogers has had the originals of his groups cast 
 there, and he speaks highly of the integrity of this house. 
 
 The author is satisfied that bronze casting can now be done in this country as 
 successfully as abroad; that is, the casting in sand moulds. The new process 
 of casting in wax moulds, or the revival of old processes, is conducted with more 
 safety in Rome, Paris, and England; but he believes that in the near future 
 casting by the "lost wax " method will become popular here, and be accomplished 
 as successfully as the casting by sand moulds. It is only right that American 
 sculptors should encourage, as far as they are able, the American founders; for it 
 has taken courage and endurance to open and sustain a bronze foundry in this 
 country where art is still in its beginnings. 
 
 THE PANTOGRAPH PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The following description of a new machine involving the pantograph principle 
 may prove helpful and interesting. At one end of a horizontal bench is a universal 
 joint to which is attached a rod or arm. This arm supports two tool carriages, 
 and has a longitudinal groove for convenience in adjusting and keeping the 
 carriages in their proper position. One of these carriages supports a stump or 
 runner, and the other a graving point. The carriages are also connected by a rod 
 in such a manner that in conjunction with the arm supporting them perfect freedom 
 of motion in every direction is attained with the stump, which is, of course, 
 exactly duplicated by the graving tool. On the bench are two turn-tables so 
 adjusted that their position can be varied at will and revolved without changing 
 their relative positions. The tables are fixed opposite the carriages, and one 
 receives the model and the other the block of plaster or other material which is 
 to be transformed into a reproduction of the model on a reduced or enlarged 
 
 t 
 
THE PANTOGRAPH PRINCIPLE. 
 
 113 
 
 scale. The operator holds the stump lightly, and makes it pass over the entire 
 surface of the model, while at the same time the sharp steel graver cuts into the 
 plaster block, and reproduces mathematically the model, inasmuch as both tools 
 work from the same centre. The proportions of the reproduction are fixed by 
 the mathematical adjustment of the turn-tables and carriages above mentioned. 
 As all the parts slide on their supports, the enlargement or reduction is not in the 
 least arbitrarily fixed, but can be changed as much or as little from any given size 
 within the limits of the machine as the operator may wish. It is obvious that in a 
 complete revolution of the tables, an infinity of points on the model may be 
 touched by the stump, and exactly duplicated by the graver on the reproduction ; 
 consequently it is possible to obtain a reproduction of the entire surface of the 
 model. By the variety of tools which may be used, the large planes as well as the 
 finer surfaces of the model are quickly reproduced, making it possible to complete 
 a complicated piece, not only with absolute accuracy, but also with great rapidity. 
 
 Mr. Ir.'\ G. French has invented a modeling machine embodying the 
 pantograph principle, which the author has at present in his studio, and which, 
 from practical test, he has found to be an entire success. It may be moved 
 easily from one part of the studio to another, which is a great convenience. The 
 author has used other machines, and finds this the only moulding machine in 
 which there is no lost motion or distortion. It will enlarge or reduce work with 
 the same fidelity. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Adams, John 39. 4 1 
 
 ^ischylus 9 
 
 Agrippa 13 
 
 American Art Association at Paris 99 
 
 American Sculpture and Sculptors 38 
 
 Ancient Critics, Wealth of . . . 88 
 
 Andrea della Robbia 19 
 
 Angelo, Michael . . . . 16, 23, 27 
 
 Antocalsky 36 
 
 Apollo of the Belvedere .... 6 
 Apoxyomenos {stah(e) . . . .13 
 
 Architectural Designing .... 77 
 
 Arm, The 68 
 
 Art Journals in 
 
 Art Study Abroad 98 
 
 — At Home 99 
 
 Assyria 3, 4 
 
 Attila (Gothic Period) .... 14 
 
 Augsburg (musetim) 21 
 
 Augustine Age 13 
 
 Augustus, Emperor 13 
 
 Austen, William 32 
 
 Bacon, John 33 
 
 Bailey, Edward H 34 
 
 Ball, Thomas 43. 44 
 
 Bamberg 20 
 
 Banks, Thomas 33. 34 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Barye, M. Antoine Lewis ... 29 
 
 Bastianini of Fiesole 24 
 
 Baths of Caracalla 14 
 
 Becerra, Gasparo 19 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini 26 
 
 Berruguete, Alonzo 19 
 
 Binon, M 41 
 
 Boehm, Joseph Edgar .... 36 
 
 Breadths 68 
 
 Bronze Founders in 
 
 Brown, Henry Kirke 43 
 
 Bruges 37 
 
 Brunswick 21 
 
 Buonarotti(Michael Angelo) 1 6, 1 7, 23, 27 
 
 Byzantium 14 
 
 Caesar 13 
 
 Caligula 13 
 
 Canova .... 24, 34, 35, 40, 44 
 
 Capellano, A 40 
 
 Capitol at Rome 12 
 
 Carpeaux 30 
 
 Casting in Bronze 86 
 
 Cellini, Benvenuto 18 
 
 Ceracchi, Giuseppe 40 
 
 Chantry, Sir Francis 34 
 
 Chapu 30 
 
 China and Japan , 4 
 
116 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Cicero 13 
 
 Claux de Vousonne 38 
 
 Clay 55, 64 
 
 Cleomenes 14 
 
 Colomb, Michael 26 
 
 Composition 70 
 
 Construction 48 
 
 Coudray, Fran9ois 28 
 
 Coustou, Guillaume 28 
 
 Coustou, Nicolas 28 
 
 Coysevox, Antoine 28 
 
 Crawford, Thomas . . . 39, 42, 43 
 
 Cutting in Marble 91 
 
 David, Pierre Jean 30 
 
 Death of the Virgin 21 
 
 Decadence of Sculpture .... 14 
 
 Depths 68 
 
 Dexter, Henry 43 
 
 Dixey, John 39 
 
 Donatello 16, 23 
 
 Drapery 71 
 
 Dubois, Paul 30 
 
 Dupaty, Charles 29 
 
 Diirer 14, 22 
 
 Early Christians 14 
 
 Edme, Bouchardou 28 
 
 Edward 1 32 
 
 Egypt 2 
 
 English Sculpture 31 
 
 P^truria and Etruscans .... 11 
 
 Etrurian Sculptors 12 
 
 Expression 69 
 
 Farnese Hercules {statue) ... 14 
 
 Fiers 38 
 
 Fifth Century B.c 8 
 
 Figure, Human . . .66, 67, 68 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Flaxman, John . . . . . 32, 33, 34 
 
 Flemish Sculpture 36 
 
 Foley, John H 35 
 
 Ford, Onslow 36 
 
 Frazee, John 40, 41 
 
 Freiberg Cathedral 20 
 
 Fremiet, M. Emmanuel . . . 30, 44 
 
 French Art 24 
 
 French, D. C 45 
 
 Gebhart 36 
 
 Geefs 38 
 
 Germain Pilon 27 
 
 German Sculpture 20 
 
 Gevelot, N 40 
 
 Ghiberti, Lorenzo 16 
 
 Gibbons, Grinling 33 
 
 Gibson, John 35-43 
 
 Gilbert 36 
 
 Giotto 16 
 
 Gizeth 2 
 
 Glosencamp, Hermann .... 37 
 
 Gothic Period, The 14 
 
 Goujon, Jean 26 
 
 Graeco-Roman School .... 13 
 
 Greece 2, 5 
 
 Greenough, Horatio .... 41, 42 
 
 Hair, Movement of 57 
 
 Harmony 70 
 
 Hart, Joel T 42 
 
 Head, Human 58 
 
 Hildesheim Cathedral .... 20 
 
 Hosmer, Harriet 35 
 
 Houdon, Jean Antoine ... 29, 39 
 
 Innsbruck 22 
 
 Italian Renaissance, The ... 15 
 
INDEX. 
 
 117 
 
 • PAGE 
 
 Jacques de Baerz 38 
 
 Jacques Sarrazin 27 
 
 Japanese 5 
 
 Jean Juste of Tours 26 
 
 Jean Texier 26 
 
 Jefferson and Franklin .... 39 
 
 John of Bologna 18 
 
 Jorg Syrlin 22 
 
 Kiss, Augustus 23 
 
 Krafft, Adam 14, 22 
 
 Length, Height, etc., Human Figure 67 
 
 Length of Arm in Female ... 68 
 
 Lescot 27 
 
 Light 47 
 
 Louvre -"^i Zl 
 
 Luca della Robbia 19 
 
 Lysippus 10 
 
 Maderno, Stefano 18 
 
 Madison 39 
 
 Marble, Cutting in 91 
 
 Marco 19 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 13 
 
 Marienburg Castle 21 
 
 McDowell, Patrick 36 
 
 Merseburg Cathedral 20 
 
 Modeling 54 
 
 — Egyptian and Assyrian ... 75 
 
 — In Relief 74 
 
 — Machine 112, 113 
 
 — Of Decorative Work .... 76 
 
 — Placques, Vases, etc 77 
 
 Models 96 
 
 Modern Italian Sculpture ... 23 
 
 Monti 24 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mould-making and Casting ... 78 
 
 — I>rying 79 
 
 — Piece Mould 81 
 
 — Waste Mould 80 
 
 Museum of Dijon 37 
 
 Neo-Attic School 9 
 
 Nero 13 
 
 Nineveh 4 
 
 Nollekens, Joseph 33 
 
 Nuremberg 21 
 
 Orcagna 16 
 
 Pajou, Augustin 28 
 
 Palais de Justice 37 
 
 Palmer, Erastus D 43 
 
 Paolo 19 
 
 Pericles 9 
 
 Perraud, Guillaume 30 
 
 Persia 4 
 
 Persians 4 
 
 Phidias 9 
 
 Pierre Puget 27 
 
 Pilon, Germain 27 
 
 Pisano, Andrea 16 
 
 Pisano, Niccolo 'S' 3^ 
 
 Pointer, Work of 94 
 
 Polychromy . . • 94 
 
 — With the Greek 95 
 
 Poussin 27, 30 
 
 Powers, Hiram 42 
 
 Pradier 30 
 
 Prague 21 
 
 Praxiteles 9 
 
 Press Moulds 84 
 
 Proportions of Human Figure . 66, 68 
 
 Puget, Pierre 27, 30 
 
118 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rauch 23 
 
 Rietschel 23 
 
 Robbias, Delia 20 
 
 Rogers, John 44 
 
 Rogers, Randolph 45 
 
 Rome 'O, 13 
 
 Rossa -\ 
 
 Rude, Fran9ois 30 
 
 Rush, William 39> 4° 
 
 Russian Sculpture 36 
 
 Sansovino 17, 18 
 
 Sarrazin, Jacques 27 
 
 Schwanthaler 23 
 
 Scopas 9 
 
 Sculpture i, 2 
 
 Simone 19 
 
 Skeleton, The 62 
 
 — Hands 63 
 
 Sluter, Claux 38 
 
 Sopers 38 
 
 Sophocles 9 
 
 Spanish Art 19 
 
 St. Gaudens 45 
 
 St. Sebald 22 
 
 Stevens, Alfred 36 
 
 Story, William Wetmore ... 43 
 
 Strasburg Cathedral 21 
 
 Stuart ....*..... 39 
 
 Studio Appliances 52 
 
 Studio, The 47 
 
 Sumner, Charles 42, 43 
 
 Tabernacle 2 
 
 Terra-Cotta work 77 
 
 Thierry, Jean . 28 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Thomas, John 36 
 
 Thomas, M 30 
 
 Thompson, Launt 44 
 
 Thornycroft 36 
 
 Thorwaldsen 34, 35, 42 
 
 Tinting of Plaster 84, 85 
 
 Tombs (Discovered in Voltcrra) . 11 
 
 Tools 49, 52 
 
 Torell, William 32 
 
 Tourgiemo, Pietro 32 
 
 Trumbull 39> 4° 
 
 Tuckerman, Henry T 42 
 
 Vela 24 
 
 Venus de Medici 13 
 
 Verres 13 
 
 Vinache, Joseph 28 
 
 Vischer {family) . . . . . 14, 22 
 Vitruvius 67 
 
 Ward, J. Q. A 44 
 
 Warner 45 
 
 Wax Method 90 
 
 Wells Cathedral 32 
 
 Wells, John 41 
 
 Welonski, Pio 36 
 
 West 39 
 
 Westmacott, Richard 35 
 
 Westmacott, Sir Richard ... 34 
 
 Wiener 38 
 
 Wilton, Joseph 33 
 
 Wohlgemuth 22 
 
 Wolff, Albert 23 
 
 Wright, Mrs. Patience .... 38 
 
 Xerxes 4 
 
y 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS 
 
 \ 
 
 *iC : k- ^itrti'.^.:Sf ■¥ . i«fV^ 
 
 ;.»"''-> :iaaa.j]*«»- 
 
16 
 
 HIGHER ENGLISH. 
 
 ATHEN^UM PRESS SERIES. 
 
 ISSUED UNDEK THE GENEIIAL EDITORSHIP OF 
 
 Professor George Lyman Kittredge, of Harvard University, 
 
 AND 
 
 Professor C. T. Winchester, of Wesleyan University. 
 
 TT is proposed to issue a series of carefully edited works in 
 English Literature, under the above title. This series is in- 
 tended primarily for use in colleges and higher schools ; but it 
 will furnish also to the general reader a library of the best things 
 in English letters in editions at once popular and scholarly. The 
 works selected will represent, with some degree of completeness, 
 the course of English Literature from Chaucer to our own times. 
 The volumes will be moderate in price, yet attractive in appear- 
 ance, and as nearly as possible uniform in size and style. Each 
 volume will contain, in addition to an unabridged and critically 
 accurate text, an Introduction and a body of Notes. The amount 
 and nature of the annotation will, of course, vary with the age 
 and character of the work edited. The notes will be full enough 
 to explain every difficulty of language, allusion, or interoretation 
 Full glossaries will be furnished when necessary. 
 
 The introductions are meant to be a distinctive feature of the 
 series. Each introduction will give a brief biographical sketch of 
 the author edited, and a somewhat extended study of his genius, 
 his relation to his age, and his position in English literary history. 
 The introductory matter will usually include a bibliography of 
 the author or the work in hand, as well as a select list of critical 
 and biographical books and articles. See also Announcements. 
 
 Sidney's Defense of Poesy. 
 
 Edited with an Introduction and Notes by Albert S. Cook, Professor 
 of English in Yale University. I'iino. Cloth, xlv + 103 pages. By 
 mail, !K) cents; for introduction, 80 cents. 
 
 William Minto, Late Prof, of Lit- 
 erature, University of Aberdeen: It 
 seems to me to be a very thorougii 
 and instructive piece of work. Tlie 
 interests of the student are consulted 
 
 in every sentence of the Introduction 
 and Notes, and tlie paper of ques- 
 tions is admirable as a guide to the 
 tiiorough study of the substance of 
 the essay. 
 
I 
 
 HIGHER ENGLISH. 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 Ben J orison's Timber: or Discouen'es 
 
 Made upon Men and Matter, as they have Flowed out of his Daily 
 Readings, or had their Reflux to his Peculiar Notions of the Times. 
 
 Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by Felix E. Schelling, Profes- 
 sor in the University of Pennsylvania. 12mo. Cloth, xxxviii + 166 
 pages. Mailing price, iX) cents ; for introduction, 80 cents. 
 
 'PHIS is the first attempt to edit a long-neglected English classic, 
 which needs only to be better known to take its place among 
 the best examples of the height of Elizabethan prose. The intro- 
 duction and a copious body of notes have been framed with a 
 view to the intelligent understanding of an author whose wide 
 learning and wealth of allusion make him the fittest exponent of 
 the scholarship as well as the literary style and feeling of his age. 
 
 Edward Dowden, Prof, of English, 
 Trinity Colleqe, Dublin, Ireland : It 
 is a matter for rejoicing that so valu- 
 able and interesting a piece of liter- 
 
 atu. as this prose work of Jonson 
 should be made easily accessible, and 
 should have all the advantages of 
 scholarly editing. 
 
 I 
 
 Selections from the Essays of Francis Jeffrey. 
 
 Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by Lewis E. Gates, Instructor in 
 English in Harvard University. 12mo. Cloth, xlv + 213 pages. By 
 mail, $1.00; for introduction, !)0 cents. 
 
 'PHE selections are chosen to illustrate the qualities of Jeffrey's 
 style and his range and methods as a literary critic. The 
 introduction gives a brief sketch of the history of Reviews in 
 England down to 1802 and suggests some of the more import- 
 ant changes in critical methods anu in the relatiotis between critic 
 and public which were brought about by the establishment of the 
 Edinburgh Review. This volume is especially valuable for classes 
 that are beginning the independent study of literary topics and 
 methods of criticism. 
 
 Charton Collins, London, Author 
 of "Bolinghvoke and Voltaire," 
 "Jonathan Swift," etc. : The intro- 
 duction gives succinctly and clearly 
 all the facts which enable students 
 to understand Jeffrey's character- 
 
 istics as a man, his relative position 
 to his contemporaries, his excellence, 
 his deficiencies and his limitations. 
 . . . I have no hesitation in saying 
 that the book supplies a real want, 
 and supplies it excellently. 
 
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