f RflNKLiN Institute Library FHIL/IDELFHI^ Class iS ^-^ Book W..3 S Accession 4 9 8 QO TEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY EDITED BY Prof. W. GARNETT, D.C.L., and Prof. J. WERTHEIMER, Secretary of the Technical Education Board B.SC, B.A. , F. I.C., F. C.S., of the London County Council and for- ^, ^ »r ^ merly Principal of the Durham College Principal of the Merchant Venturers of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. lechnical College, Bristol. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TEXT-BOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY Edited by Prof. W. Garnett, D.C.L. , Secretary of the Technical Education Board of the London County Council, and Prof. J. Wertheimer, B.Sc, B.A., F.I.C., F.C.S., Principal of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol. Messrs. Methuen and Co. announce the issue of a series of elementary books under the above Title. They will be specially adapted to the needs of Technical Schools and Colleges, and will fulfil the requirements of Students pre- paring for the Examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute. The prices will vary according to the size of the Volumes, which will be suitably illustrated. PRELIMINARY LIST. 1. HOW TO MAKE A DRESS. By Miss Wood, Chief Instructress at the Goldsmith's Institute, New Cross. Crown 8vo. is. 6d. 2. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. By F. C. Webber, Chief Lecturer to the Building Trades' Department of the Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. 3. PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By S. G. Rawson, D.Sc, Principal of the Huddersfield Technical College. 4. DESIGNING AND WEAVING. By A. F. Barker, Head Master of the Textile Department of the Bradford Technical College. 5. THE GEOLOGY OF COAL. By G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, New- castle-on-Tyne. 6. PRACTICAL MECHANICS. By S. H. Wells, Principal of the Battersea Polytechnic Institute. 7. PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By H. Stroud, D.Sc, M.A., Professor of Physics in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 8. BOOT AND SHOE MANUFACTURE. By E. Swaysland, Chief Instructor in Boot and Shoe Manufacture to the Northampton County and Borough Councils. 9. WORKSHOP ARITHMETIC AND MENSURATION. By C. T. MiLLis, M.I.M.E., Principal of the Borough Polytechnic Insti- tute, London. N.B. — Nos. 3, 6, and 7 will be suitable for use in the Laboratories of well-equipped Organized Science Schools. CARPENTRY & JOINERY BY FREDERICK C. WEBBER CHIEF LECTURER TO THE BUILDING TRADES DEPARTMENT OF THE MERCHANT VENTURERS' TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BRISTOL WITH 176 ILLUSTRATIONS METHUEN & CO. 36 ESSEX STREET, W. C LONDON 1898 TH I8J8 PREFACE The substance of the present volume was primarity compiled for the use of students attending the evening classes in Carpentry and Joinery at the Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol. The Drawings, which have been specially pre- pared by the author for this work, are intended to serve not only as illustrations to the text, but as examples for reproduction by the student, so that he may be in a position both to execute a piece of work himself, and, as foreman or leading hand, to convey readily his idea of the form or outline of such work to others. The author has ventured to place the work in its present form in the hands of the public, with a hope that it may be found useful not only to students preparing for the examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute and other similar bodies, but as a work of reference for the apprentice and craftsman generally. FREDERICK C. WEBBER Merchant Venturers' Technical College Bristol Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/carpentryjoineryOOwebb CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE Introduction, 1 CHAPTER II. Geometry and Projection, 10 CHAPTER III. Joints used in Carpentry and Joinery, - - - 38 CHAPTER IV. Floors, 74 CHAPTER V. Partitions, - . - _ 89 CHAPTER VI. Doors, Door Frames, and Jamb Linings, - - - 97 CHAPTER VIL Sashes and Sash Frames, Lantern Lights and Sky- lights, - - - - - - - - - 114 viii CONTENTS CHAPTEE VIII. PAGE EooFS, 138 CHAPTER IX. Fishing, Scarfing, and Timber Trussing, - - - 172 CHAPTER X. Centres, Shoring, and Temporary Work, - - - 179 CHAPTER XL Mouldings and Circular Work, 195 CHAPTER XII. Timber, 211 CHAPTER XIII. Mechanics of Carpentry, 236 CHAPTER XIV. Staircasing and Hand-railing, 266 APPENDIX A. Syllabus (from Programme of City and Guilds of London Institute), - 295 APPENDIX B. Examination Questions of City and Guilds of London Institute, 301 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Drawing Instruments. — It is advisable that the student should obtain at least the following instru- ments and material of moderately good quality. Drawing Paper. — For students' work a fairly good cartridge paper at about 2d. per imperial sheet is as good as will be required, but where the paper is to be subjected to hard wear, as in the workshop, a good hand-made paper should be used. The cost of the latter will be about three times that of the former. The following is a list of names and sizes usually placed upon the market : Name of Paper. Size. Demy, - - - 20 in. by 15 in. Cartridge paper and tracing paper may also be obtained in rolls. The most convenient form for the A Double Elephant, - Antiquarian, Imperial, Atlas, Medium, Eoyal, 22 in. by 17 in. 24 in. by 19 in. 30 in. by 22 in. 34 in. by 26 in. 40 in. by 27 in. 52 in. by 31 in. 2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY present work will be the imperial sheet cut in two, so that its dimensions are 22 in. by 15 in. Drawing-Boards. — Whatever the size of paper used, the drawing-board should be in its linear dimen- sions one inch larger, the half-imperial board would then measure 23 in. by 16 in. It should be true in plane and free from knots and shakes, and should be so constructed as to be free to expand and shrink with the changes of the atmosphere without buckling or twisting. Drawing-boards usually sold are of lime or yellow pine, but the latter will be found to be the most serviceable, as the drawing-pin is more easily pressed into its surface. rig./ (S) (3) K //" ^ The best boards are made of well-seasoned material, and as shown in Fig. 1. The ledges on the back of the board are fastened by means of rose-headed screws, provided with brass washers which, with the exception of the centre one, are slotted, as shown at Fig. 1 . By INTRODUCTION 3 this arrangement the plane of the board is kept true, whilst the expansion and contraction of the material is not hindered. If the board is grooved upon its back, as shown in the previous sketch, not only is the weight reduced, but the bulk of the material being lessened, the tendency to expansion and contraction is also reduced. These grooves may be made about 2 in. apart, I in. wide, and to a depth equal to half the thickness of the board. The thick black line at A represents a tongue of hard wood glued into the left-hand edge of board, so that the tee-square may slide easily upon that edge. This tongue is also cut through at intervals to allow for the changes due to the alteration in the amount of moisture contained in the atmosphere. Tee-Squares. — Of these, there are two forms : one having a parallel blade, whilst that of the other tapers from the stock, and, being lighter to handle, is 4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY to be preferred to the former. Fig. 2 illustrates such a one, its two fiducial edges being protected with hard-wood slips bevelled towards the paper. The blade is fastened to the stock by means of five screws, and, in order to secure its rigidity, two small hard-wood plugs are driven through the blade and into the stock. The tee-square should only be applied to the left- hand edge of the board, and all horizontal lines should be drawn from its top edge. Perpendicular lines are drawn by the aid of the set-squares applied to the top edge of the blade of the square, as shown at Fig. 2. Set-Squares. — Two of these, at least, should be obtained — one 30° and 60°, and the other 45° — and, if of wood, should be of the framed variety. They should be of such a size that the longest edge is at least eight or nine inches long. Scale-Rules. — In the earlier stages of the student's career it will be advisable to adopt the simpler scales, such as ^, ^, ^, and when the detail is too large to be plotted full size. In each of these cases the ordinary joiners' rule will be found to be sufficient, but as he progresses other scales are necessary, and for these the Architects' Scale Eule " may be used ; it is of box-wood and 12 in. long, segmental in section, and with its edges parallel, sixteen scales are marked upon its surfaces, and, with a slight exception, the divisions are brought out to the keen edge, so that dimensions may be plotted directly upon the paper without liability to error. Parallel Rules. — These are usually unreliable, unless of the kind known as perpetual." The student will INTRODUCTION 5 find that parallel lines drawn by the aid of set-squares, as shown at Fig. 3, will be the most accurate. / Fig. 3 Pencils. — The best pencils for work of this kind will be found to be those marked H or HH, sharpened in the form of a wedge or chisel-point. When a drawing is to be finished in pencil it will be advisable to take a finely-pointed HB and "line over" those lines which border surfaces at the bottom and to the right, as shown at Fig. 4. Compasses. — A set of 4 in. or 4| in. compasses with round or needle points, lengthening bar, and 6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY with pen, pencil, and divider points, should be pro- cured, and it will be found convenient to have a spare pair of dividers, if possible, with screw adjustment known as " hair dividers/' Drawing Pen. — If it is intended to finish the draw- ings in ink, a drawing pen with hinged nib will be required ; this pen should always be put away clean and dry, and the filling should be accomplished with a small brush — a small camel hair will suffice. On no account should a drawing pen be dipped into the ink ; the habit is likely to lead to smeared lines and dirty work. Spring Bows. — These will be found necessary for the construction of small circles, but this is only likely to occur in the advanced portions of the work. Sectioning. — Figs. 5 to 11 illustrate the conven- tional methods of hatching or sectioning the surface vu, and 0 respectively. There are two kinds of isometric projection, the first and simplest of which is called " Conventional 32 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Isometric Projection/' from the fact of its being adapted for use with the ordinary rule. The second requires an ''isometric scale," illustrated in Fig. 40, and is known as Pure Isometric Projection/' CONVENTIONAL ISOMETRIC PROJECTION. If the student will take a piece of wood similar to that illustrated in Fig. 39, he will see that the surfaces are bounded by straight lines. These lines are the characters by which the surfaces of the block are represented ; he will further notice, upon placing the block upon the bench or table before him, that the lines bounding the surfaces are either vertical or horizontal. In order to represent these lines in isometric projection it will be necessary to remember two rules (applicable to either method). They are as follows: (1) Vertical lines are drawn vertical; (2) Horizontal lines are drawn at 30° to the horizontal, either to the right or left. First draw the small vertical line marked C (Fig. 39), of a length equal to the thickness of the GEOMETRY AND PROJECTION 33 block, and from its extremities draw two lines on either side, each at 30° to an imaginary horizontal line. Cut off the lines to the left equal in length to the width of the block, and those to tlie right equal to the length of the block. Now join the extremities of the lines at the right and left by vertical lines. These should be of a length equal to the vertical line at C, Now by drawing lines from the tops of the vertical lines last drawn, and in the direction indicated in the sketch, taking care that the lines EAH and DBJ are respectively parallel to one another, the drawing will be completed. What has been said with regard to the rectangular block may be applied to more complicated work. On examining Fig. 41 he will now see that the moulding shown in that figure is formed out of a similar piece of material to that of Fig. 39, but having a partially curved outline it appears to c 34 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY present some difficulty. The curved surface of the mould may be said to be traced by a straight line moving between the outline of the section of the moulding at its ends, so that all that remains to be done is to trace upon the ends of the block this outline in isometric projection. This may be done by constructing an auxiliary elevation of the end view as at Fig. 41, supplying ordinates to the curve, running up perpendicular to the line BC. But BC is already drawn in the isometric view in its real length, so that the position of points upon this line may now be conveyed to that line, and the perpendiculars corresponding in length to those in the auxiliary elevation may now be drawn, remem- bering that perpendicular lines should be drawn vertically and not perpendicular to BC, A fair curve around the topmost extremities of these lines should now be drawn and the isometric projection of the section of the moulding is complete. It now remains to repeat the operation at the other end and draw the necessary lines parallel to the long edges to complete the figure. In order to show how plain surfaces, other than those mutually perpendicular, may be represented, the corner joint of the Oxford frame has been selected (Fig. 42). The student will readily see by the aid of the dotted lines how the points are obtained in that figure, and it should be carefully noted that it is not the angle at which the " stop " is cut, but the distances along the length and across the thickness and breadth of the material that guide him in placing that stop in position. Other exercises may be found in the chapter bearing upon joints, which GEOMETRY AND PROJECTION 35 the student is recommended to reproduce, not only for the purpose of committing to memory the form of con- struction, but to acquire the ability to rapidly portray the form upon paper. Fig. 42. Pure Isometric Projection. — With drawings plotted by this method, it will be necessary to use an isometric scale, the rules with respect to horizontal and vertical lines remaining as in the case of conventional isometric projection. This scale will not be so difficult as at first sight it appears, if the student will follow the reasoning here laid down. In drawing a circle in isometric projection, it is usual to first plot the square which is to contain it, and then to trace the circle by means of ordinates as in Fig. 41. On examining the representation of the 36 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY circle when complete, it will be found that neither the major nor the minor axis truthfully represents its diameter. Apart from this, the horizontal axis of the square will be much extended. To counteract this error, the isometric scale shown in Fig. 40 has been suggested ; it is brought about in the following manner. Fig. 43 represents a square ADBC plotted in an ordinary manner and with one diagonal AB horizontal. The square may now be imagined to rotate about AB until its sides appear at angles of 30° with the horizontal axis ; in this position the square may be said to be represented in pure isometric projection " by the parallelogram AFBE — the length of the hori- zontal diameter or axis being kept constant — the sides of which now bear the ratio to those of the square as \/2 is to \/3. In Fig. 43 the circle has also been GEOMETRY AND PROJECTION 37 represented in pure isometric projection by an ellipse the major axis of which represents truthfully the diameter of the circle. The author has adopted this method of explaining the construction of the isometric scale in preference to the one more generally made use of, and which is next described. It has been explained that the isometric scale bears a ratio to that of the natural scale as J2 is to J\i. In Fig. 40 AB has been laid down of any length and BG erected at B, equal and perpendicular to AB. Join AC and with this line as radius and A as centre, describe the arc CD intersecting AB produced in D. At D erect DE parallel and equal to BC, and join AE. If the line AB \)Q taken as unity, then AC represents the square root of two (v/2) and AE the square root of three (\/3). The natural scale may now be constructed on AE, and by dropping perpendiculars upon AD the isometric scale is constructed. CHAPTER III. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. The work of the carpenter and joiner may be summed up as the building up of a series of timbers to the form or plan of a design laid down, and such is the nature of the material with which he is called upon to work that it requires the greatest care, in the formation of the joints, in order to maintain, as far as possible, the strength of the material employed, and, at the same time, to allow for its expansion and contraction without warping or twisting. In all cases those timbers upon which the strength of a piece of work may depend should not have their sectional area destroyed any more than is absolutely necessary. More especially is this the case where the work is to be subjected to great stress, as in partitions, bridge or roof structures. The timber used in construction is known by a variety of names according to its size or form : the following is an explanation of some of the terms employed. Log. — The trunk of a tree previous to being squared. Balk. — The log roughly squared. Half-timbers. — The balk split or sawn through its centre, along its length ; in half-timbers the heart is JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 39 usually exposed. The term " flitch " is also applied to timbers sawn longitudinally through the heart. Oak timbers split in this manner are known as wainscotted. Spar. — Sawn timbers, such as are suitable for roofing work. Plank. — Sawn timbers, of any length, ranging up- wards from 11 in. wide and from 2 in. to 4 in. thick. Deal. — Sawn timbers ranging from 9 in. by 2 in. to 11 in. by 4 in. Board. — Any timbers between 7 in. and 11 in wide and less than 2 in. thick. Quartering. — Sawn timbers of any length and ranging from 3 in. by 2 in. to 4 in. by 3 in. Batten. — This term is applied to any small timbers, not coming under the head of " quartering," and which is less than 7 in. wide. Scantling. — This is a term often applied to a collection of a variety of small timbers, but is more properly applied to the tabulated or specified sizes of the several parts of a piece of framing. Stuff. — This is the term usually applied to the material during the process of working. Sawn timbers are said to be " in the rough.'' The members of roofing trusses or partitions are ofttimes left as from the saw, and as such are specified as being in the rough." When woodwork has one surface only planed, it is said to be "single wrought"; this may be illustrated in the case of dado framing and the backs and elbows of window framing; but when, as in the case of doors, sashes etc., both the surfaces are planed, the material is known as double wrought." 40 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY It was at one time the custom to allow the diminu- tion of i in. for each wrought surface, so that a door specified as 2 in. was supplied at a finished thickness of 1 f in. This method, although a recognized one, caused a great deal of dissatisfaction ; and to overcome the difficulty, work is now specified as of the required dimension with the words " finished size " inserted. Planing is the process of taking off the rough fibre left by the saw upon the surface of the stuff. When the planed surface has been prepared truth- fully and with a view to further manipulation, it is said to be " faced up and, in order to distinguish it from sides not so faced up, it is pencil-marked at or near the face-edge. This latter surface or edge some- times requires to be specially prepared and, when so prepared, is said to be " shot,'' the process of prepara- tion being termed " shooting." This face-edge also receives a distinguishing mark — usually a cross — the arms of which should terminate upon the arris near the face-side. It is to this face-side or edge that the stock of the square or fence of the gauge should be applied in the process of gauging or squaring. The face-mark as applied to the surface of the work is illustrated in Figs. 45 and 46. The following may be considered as a brief outline of the more useful of the joints which the carpenter and joiner may be called upon to make use of in the process of framing up material. Lap or Halved Joint. — This is formed by the cutting away of one half from the thickness of each of two pieces at their extremities ; it is illustrated at Fig. 44, and is used for the purpose of connecting the ends of material as in the case of two wall plates. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 41 Mitred and Halved Angle Joint. — This joint, shown at Fig. 45, differs from the preceding one in that the shoulders of the face-side are mitred : this is the usual form adopted when the face of the work receives a moulding. Open Mortise and Tenon. — This joint, shown at Fig. 46, is formed by taking away the two outer thirds 42 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY from one piece and the middle third from the other, the shoulders passing in the same direction on both sides. rig ^6, Mitred Joint. — This form of joint is required where the adjacent surfaces are moulded, as at Fig. 47. Open Mortise and Tenon with Mitred Shoulders. — Fig. 48 shows a form of joint having the combined JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 43 advantages of those shown in Figs. 46 and 47. Its form will readily be seen from the figure. Notch Joint. — When a part of one piece has been cut away for the reception of another, as at Fig. 49, it is said to be notched. Ceiling joists have sometimes 44 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY to be notched to binders; but when, as in Fig. 42, Chap. II., both pieces are cut away, it is said to be double-notched. Dovetail Notch. — This is another form of the notched joint, the upper portion being cut in the form of a dovetail (see Fig. 50). Tredgold's Notch. — Fig. 51 represents the form of notch recommended by Tredgold. Whatever may be said in favour of the joint, it is weak at the neck, and the labour involved in its construction makes it less adapted to more general use. Dovetail Halved Joint. — This joint is made use of in the junction of the end of one piece of material with another, either at the end or towards the centre, JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 45 as shown at Fig. 52. In the former case, only one side of the top piece is cut away, the remainder being known as a half dovetail. 46 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Cogged Joint. — Upon referring to Fig. 49 it will be seen that the ends of the notch fit down over the edges of the piece below. If these ends were cut closer and were allowed to rest in notches cut into the vertical edges of the other, such joint would be known as cogged. It is illustrated at Fig. 4, page 80. Tongue and Groove Joint.— This is a joint which is very much used both in carpentry and joinery. As will be seen at Fig. 53, it is made by the formation Fig , 63. of a tongue upon one piece, whilst a groove is cut into the other, into which the tongue should tightly fit. It is further secured by glueing and sometimes nailing. In all cases of nailing it gives greater security if the nails are driven in an inclined direction, as shown at Fig. 53. Another form of this joint is made use of between floor boards, as shown at Fig. 2, page 71, the tongue being formed of either wood or iron, and as JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 47 it is termed when thus formed of separate material — Dovetail Tongue and Groove. — At Fig. 53a is shown another form of tongue and groove : in this case the former is dovetailed, which gives it security without the use of nails. Tusk Tenon. — This is a form of joint without the use of which few floors are made. It is used in connecting the trimmers with the trimming joists, and again at the ends of trimmed joists. It is composed of haunchion, tenon, tusk, and shoulder, and should be arranged as at Fig. 5, page 75. Tredgold recommends the following proportions. Taking the depth of the piece as D : the haunchion should be D, the tenon 1 D, the tusk ^ D, and the shoulder i D. The depth at which the tusk and haunchion should pene- trate the piece mortised is recommended to be -^-^ D. By this arrangement the mortise is kept in the centre loose. i 48 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of the depth of the timbers ; this is important, as, being the neutral line or axis," the fibres are of least importance at this part. The tenons at the ends of trimmers usually pass through the trimming joists and project beyond to an extent equal to the width of the tenon, and are mortised, as shown in the figure, for the insertion of a wedge or key, space being allowed at the back of the wedge for the purpose of closing the shoulders. In special cases, where trimmers meet the w^ooden girder so as to be in a direct line across it, the tenons should not pass through further than is necessary for the purpose of pinning. Scribed Joint. — This is shown at Figs. 54 and 55, and may be described as the butting of one moulded surface against another at an angle with it ; for this purpose the end of one of the pieces has to be cut to the profile of the other. It has an advantage over the mitred joint insomuch as it allows the moulded surface JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 49 of the one in shrinking to slide over the surface of the other without gaping. In skirtings the internal angles D CARPENTRY AND JOINERY should be scribed ; one piece is usually fixed first, whilst the other, having been cut to the required profile, is pressed tightly back into its place and fixed. A view of the back of such skirting is seen at Fig. 54. Table or Rule Joint. — Fig. 56 is a representation of a " table " or " rule joint " : a moulding of the ovolo type is worked upon the edge of one piece, whilst the adjoining piece is hollowed out to receive it. Back-flap hinges are used for this joint, and, when brackets are required to move backward and forward below it, the knuckles of the hinges are sunk below the surface with the flanges. The advantage of this form of hinged joint is that a moulded angle is formed when the pieces are turned at right angles with each other, and the joint has not the appearance of gaping as in the square or butt joint. Housed Joint. — When the end of one piece of material, without being shouldered, is embedded in the surface of the other, it is said to be housed. Arris JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 51 rails usually have their ends embedded or housed into posts to secure additional strength ; but the joint is more commonly used in connecting the ends of treads and risers with strings ; the depth to which they are housed may be ^ in. or f in., according to circum- stances, and they have the additional security of glueing, wedging, blocking, and screwing. Joggle Joint. — This is shown at Fig. 57, and in this case represents the lower end of a wooden storey post joggled to a stone curb which has been tabled and weathered to prevent the water from penetrating the joint ; it is somewhat in the form of a tenon, but cannot be considered purely as such, as it is only intended to keep the post from sliding out of position. Lower ends of solid door frames are sometimes treated 52 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY in this manner, but unless the stone base can be tabled, it is a very bad form of joint, as the water being frequently in contact with the end grain of the wood, the structure is likely to become rotten. Dowel Joints. — This is a form of joint which often, in cabinet work, replaces tenons ; small pins or dowels are driven into the prepared butt ends of a rail and corresponding holes are formed in the stiles for their reception. In another form it is seen at the bottom of solid door-frames, where they are in contact with stone floors. A square or round plug or dowel is driven into the centre of the end of the frame and a corresponding hole is made in the stonework in which it is embedded, the joint being made good in cement. Where there is a liability of water coming in contact with the joint, as in work of the warehouse class, it is advisable to have prepared a cast iron-shoe about 3 in. high, provided with a lug upon its under side : this should be fitted and made fast to the base of the frame, painting both the wood and the inside of the shoe before fixing. Bridle Joint. — The joint between two timbers is said to be bridled when one of its pieces, instead of having a mortise cut into it, has the two outer thirds cut away, as shown at Fig. 58, its centre third remaining intact : it is supposed to give a greater abutment to the ends of struts so that they may be better able to resist the thrusts along their lengths. When, as in the case of centres, a settlement of the framing would cause a strut to take up a slightly different position, the shoulders may be-curved in outline as shown at B, the strength of the joint not being materially weakened by the motion. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 53 Carpenters' Boast. — This is a form of joint acknow- ledged more in theory than in practice, although it has much to recommend it. It has been suggested as the joint between the collar and rafter of a roofing truss, 54 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY and forms a very good tie. Ears, in the form of a sector, are made upon one or both sides of the tie, the arc of the sector being struck from the point A, as shown in Fig. 59. It will be seen that no point of the ear is at a greater distance from A than the length ABj so that all that is required to place the work together is to place the rafters at right angles to the collar or tie; then, after inserting the ears so far as possible, close the tops of the rafters, and the joint is secure, without bolts or other means of fastening. Birdsmouth. — This joint is shown at the junction of the common rafter (page 148), the ends of the timber being cut in the form of a bird's mouth, hence its name ; the angle being usually a right angle, the bevel to which they are cut is taken from a side elevation of the timbers. Matched Joint. — This name is sometimes applied to a tongue and grooved joint when the former is worked in the solid ; it may or may not be provided with a bead upon the face. The section of a matched joint is shown at Fig. 60. Flp 60. y///////////////^^^^<^^^ Forked Heading Joint. — The term ''heading" is applied to the joint at the ends of flooring timbers, and known, when square, as the butt joint. When the heading joint assumes the form shown in Fig. 61, it is known as forked. It is claimed for this joint that it is not so conspicuous as the plain butt joint, but the JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 55 labour involved in its formation precludes its more general adoption. Mortise and Tenon. — Figs. 62 and 63 to 66, page 57, are representations of some of the forms of this joint; in each case the tenon has been haunched, but in its simplest form it may be constructed without it. 56 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Tenons should be properly proportioned ; if constructed too wide in proportion to their thickness, they are apt to buckle from the pressure of the wedges, or in the case of work built up of unseasoned material the tenon is liable to shrink away from the wedges, thus losing its support; again, in thin material, if the mortise were made unduly wide, it would tend to weaken the framing by partially splitting up the work into laminations. It is advisable, in proportioning tenons, to keep their width so near as is possible five times their thickness. The thickness of tenons is largely governed by circumstances, but in the framing of doors, sashes, etc., it is a recognized rule to keep them about one third the thickness of the framing. There are, as has been intimated, departures from this rule, and Fig. 64 is an illustration of such a one ; it is known as a double tenon, and, in this case, its thickness is governed largely by the plough -groove, the inner faces of the tenons being kept flush with it whilst the remaining thickness is on each side divided in two equal parts, the tenon taking up one of them. The advantage of the preceding arrangement is that a mortise lock can be inserted without greatly diminish- ing the strength of the joint. Double tenons may be applied to quartered framing where the thickness of the framing is great as compared to the width of the individual members, and where a single thick tenon placed in the centre would have its width largely diminished by the rebates. Fig. 63 shows a single tenon with haunchion. The width available for the tenon is equal to the width of the rail less ^ in. — the depth of plough-groove — and of this a third has been JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 57 58 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY taken for the haunchion, leaving two-thirds for the tenon. In the case of the bottom rail (Fig. 65), there are two tenons and two haunchions. Bottom rails of doors are seldom less than 9 in. in width, so that deducting ^ in. for plough-groove there remains 8^ in. for division between haunchions and tenons. If this width be divided by four, we have 2^ in. each for both haunchions and tenon ; this should be increased proportionately with the wider rails, but is amply strong enough for the narrower ones. The available width for middle rails is necessarily reduced by 1 in., so that for a 9 in. rail only 8 in. would be available for division. It is usual to divide this width by three for the purpose of proportioning the tenon, but if this result should produce a width of tenon greater than five times its thickness it may be reduced accordingly and the difference given to the haunchion. Gun-stock Joint. — This is the name given to the mortise and tenon joint at the middle rail of a glass door," the stile of which has been diminished in the form of a gun-stock. This diminution of the stile makes it necessary to adopt an oblique shoulder or mitre rail ; the former method frequently proves a stumbling block to the uninitiated. In placing the lines upon the rail whilst in the square, point C, Fig. 62, being on the edge, and representing the extended length of rail, is often taken as the point from which the shoulder-line should pass to B, the consequence being that when the tenons and shoulders have been cut and brought up into position the rail is found to be short at A. In Fig. 62, JE has been placed square with B, and the distance BC is equal to the difference in the widths of the stile plus the depth of moulding JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 59 CA. If, in striking out, a gauge be kept of the depth CA, and if, from C, a line be squared over to point A, then the shoulder-line A-B will be the correct one. A corresponding line to this may be directly placed upon the stile, but in practice the student will find that it is best to allow a small portion of wood — say from yV ii^, to i in. — to remain upon the shoulder of the stile, so that it might be protected until the mould- ings are scribed, and then, having brought the rail approximately into position, cut the inclined shoulder of stile parallel to, and at the required distance from AB, first seeing that the rail is at right angles to the stile. Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints, or Bevelled Shoulder Joints. — These are represented in most of the joints of the roof trusses, and in the mortised and tenoned connection between any two members not at 6o CARPENTRY AND JOINERY right angles to one another : it is seen dissociated at Fig. 67. Chase-Mortise. — When a tenon cannot be entered in the usual manner, a chase has to be cut at its side so that the tenon may be passed into its position from that side. The mortise so treated is therefore called a chase-mortise. Ceiling joists having to be placed in position between binders, and having their ends tenoned, require the mortises to be chased, as shown at B, Fig. 3, page 80. Dovetail Mortise and Tenon. — This is a form of mortise and tenon joint much used in temporary n _ 1 > 1 I 1 1 ; [ 1 , , 1 • 1 1 • I 1 1 ' ■ 1 1 work. It has one of its edges recessed, so as to make the tenon of the form of a dovetail, and is secured in its position by a pair of folding wedges driven at its back : it is shown at Fig. 68. This form of dovetail- ing a tenon may be applied to those which do not pass through the material, and in this form is known as a dovetail stump tenon. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 6i Bareface Tenon. — A tenon which has a shoulder only upon one side of it is known as a bareface tenon (Fig. 69). It is often used in furniture, and becomes necessary in the case of apron pieces to skylights, etc. Stump Mortise and Tenon. — This is the name given to mortises and tenons which do not pass through the material, either from the fact that they would otherwise be carried too far, as in the case of muntins tenoned to wide bottom rails, or from the fact that the end grain of the tenon would be unsightly if allowed to appear upon the exposed edge of a piece of framing. These may be kept in position by glueing, pinning, wedging, screwing from the back, or a com- bination of any two or more of the foregoing. Beaded Joint. — This is the name given to any form of joint provided with a circular-shaped moulding known as a bead, the form and utility of which is described in Chapter xi. 62 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Masons' Mitre. — This is illustrated at Fig. 70. The framing is mortised and tenoned with the shoul- ders in the square, the mouldings being stopped at the mortises. After the shoulders have been fitted, the return of the moulding is worked on the solid, the lines being taken from the adjacent piece. This is the method of mitring adopted by masons, hence its name. 'f.rr r.Ti ^ It is said in favour of this joint that the mitres do not open ; but, as the material used by the carpenter and joiner shrinks and expands, the line of moulding may therefore be lost. This latter drawback does not occur in masonry, and may be disregarded ; but for wood- work, the writer's opinion is that the shoulder line is best at A-B — it certainly is the shorter of the two — and the junction between the mouldings is best made at the mitre. Clamped Joint. — Clamping is one of the means adopted for stiffening wide boards and preventing them from twisting. The material should be thoroughly well JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 63 seasoned before putting together, otherwise it will be found to split in drying. Narrow pieces called clamps are mortised and tenoned to the ends of a board, as at Fig. 71, and may be plain as at ^, or mitred as at B. / ^L9 The latter is known as mitre clamping, and is neces- sary in desk tops, etc., where mouldings have to be returned on the edges, or where the appearance of the end grain on the material would be objectionable. The tenons may or may not pass through the clamps. Key Wide boards not otherwise framed may have dovetail keys let into the back of the material, as in Fig. 72, 64 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY to prevent them from warping, and the key may be planed off flush with the surface, or left standing as in the figure. An enlarged section of the dovetail key is shown at A, Fig. 72. It is advisable to allow the wide end of the key to remain, if possible, so that any looseness caused by the shrinkage of the material may be met by a blow or two upon that end. Foxtail Wedging. — This is the name given to the method of wedging stump tenons, as shown in Fig. 73. 3 j rl 1 ' 1 1 r 1 The mortises should be made no longer at the top than is necessary for the admission of the tenon, whilst the ends are sloped away towards the interior ; saw kerfs are then made through the tenon, those towards the outside being sloped inwards, so that the edges of the material may not be split. Small wedges are then inserted in the saw kerfs, and the tenon driven into position ; as the end of the tenon reaches the base of JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 65 the mortise the wedges are pressed into the kerfs, widening the end of the tenon and preventing it from being withdrawn. Safe Wedging. — With plain wedging, the material, upon shrinking, sometimes parts from the tenons; more especially is this the case with exterior work, the joints of which have been painted instead of glued. To prevent this, saw kerfs should be made through the tenons, as shown at Fig. 74, allowing the kerf to recede from the side, as the shoulder is approached. If the wedges are driven into these kerfs, instead of at the sides of the tenon, the framing is rendered more secure. Pinning. — This is the process of securing a tenon by the insertion of a pin through both mortise and tenon. The joints of the main timbers of partitions, and in fact all " quartered " work, should be treated in this manner, unless secured by bolts, etc. The pins used in work of this description are sometimes called E 66 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY " treenails," but the term is more common to ship- building localities. Drawbore Pinning. — This is another form of the foregoing. In this case the material containing the mor- tise is first bored through in a position near the shoulder — keeping the pin-hole at a clear distance from the shoulder equal to one and a half times the section of the pin — then, having inserted the tenon, mark the centre of the hole upon the tenon by the aid of the " bit/' first seeing that the shoulders are in position. After withdrawing the tenon a hole may be bored through it, and nearer the shoulder to the extent of nearly half the section of the pin. When framing up the work it may be found necessary to use a steel drawbore pin for the purpose of closing the shoulders, after which the wooden pins may be inserted, first covering them with paint or glue. Pins used for this work should be split, so that the grain may run through their length and not obliquely across, as is sometimes the case with those sawn. Secret Nailing. — This may be accomplished, as shown at Fig. 75, and may be adopted in all cases where the wood is coarse grained or of a porous nature, such as oak or teak. In fixing dado framing, etc., it is sometimes necessary to nail through the framing JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 67 from the face ; a small portion of the grain is lifted with a thin ^ in. or f in. chisel, and the nail driven beneath it ; the material is then glued and replaced. Another form of secret nailing, as' distinguished from face nailing, is adopted in fastening floor-boards. In this case the nail is driven through the edge of the board in an inclined direction, the next board is then brought into position and treated in a similar manner. The edges of the boards being matched, it only requires that one shall be fixed to keep both down, whilst the boards, being fixed at one edge only, are free to shrink and expand with the changes of temperature. Secret Screwing. — Fig. 76 represents a method of further securing the glued joints of work exposed to /7 ^ Z6 1 i ; » T T Id 1 - V c ] o t the weather, by embedding screws along the length of the joint. The method of procedure is as follows: The boards having been jointed in the usual way are set 68 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY up in the vice, and parallel lines marked across the joint in pairs and at intervals of about 2 ft. The distance between the parallel lines should be from 1^ in. to 2 in., but must be equal throughout : in order to secure this, it is well to take a slip of wood with parallel edges and of the required width, and, having laid it across the joint in the required position, pass the pencil along its edges. The top piece having been removed, a stout 1| in. or 2 in. screw is inserted in the centre of the joint and at the rear line, as shown at C in the figure : a hole large enough to receive the head of the screw is then bored in the centre of the edge of the top board and at the forward line ; from this hole a slot is cut large enough to receive the shank of the screw, and back to a little beyond the rear line. A view of one of these sockets is shown at D, Fig. 76, whilst an enlarged elevation of the joint at the lines is shown at B and C, Splayed Heading Joint. — It is a difficult matter in laying floor boards to pull up the butt joints, and the method of closing them more generally adopted is to cut them sloping or splayed, the top edge of the last board laid being left long, whilst the first board is cut to the reverse of this. This arrangement allows the board to slide down into its place, the nailing of the board completely closing the joint. Common Dovetail. — Of the dovetail joints there are several kinds ; but the three shown on page 6 9 are the most important. Fig. 1 represents an end elevation of the pins and side elevation of the sockets of the common dovetail ; the sloping side of the pin is pitched at about 80°, and should be from one-sixth to one-eighth the thickness of the material at its thin JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 69 70 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY edge. Pins should not be placed nearer the edge than half the thickness of the material, although this diffi- culty may be overcome, should the necessity arise, by placing the half pin at the extreme edge. A better idea of the form of the joint may be gained from Fig. lA. Lap Dovetail. — Figs. 2 and 2a (page 69) represent the lap dovetail; the advantage gained over the common dovetail is that the end-grain appears only on one side. For this reason it is used at drawer fronts and in similar positions. Secret, or Mitre Dovetail. — This is shown at Figs. 3 and 3a (page 69); it is a form of joint not so strong as the foregoing, as the dovetailing extends only to a portion of the thickness of the material. Its advantage is that the end-grain of the dovetails do not appear upon the face of the work, a mitre line being all that is visible, hence its name. Flooring Joints. — Figs. 1 to 8, page 71, illustrate various sections of floor boards. Fig. 1 is a represen- tation of a dowelled joint, the boards being secret nailed through its vertical edges, the fastening of one being sufficient to secure the other. Fig. 2 is a section through ploughed and tongued flooring, the tongue being in this case of wrought iron ; a better method than this is to rebate the flooring, placing the tongue at the bottom, as, in the repair of sections, the tongues must be left out. Figs. 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8 are other forms, but the splayed joints are a disadvantage from the fact that when worn in places they exhibit an irregular and unsightly line. Fig. 5 is an illustration of a double dovetail slip feather more suitable for block flooring than for battened. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 71 i/oints. 1 1 1 T^ig. 5. reg.y. , □ : rip. a. a. Fog JO. FcgJ/. / Fcg./2. 72 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Figs. 9 to 12, page 71, and 1 to 12, page 73, are illustrations of various joints made up of a combination of the foregoing and named accordingly. They are suitable for the vertical angles of dado framing and casing generally. JOINTS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 73 tjbonts. 7=tg. 3. rig. 6. rip.7. 1 Fig. 8. ng.9. Pep JO. Hp. a CHAPTER IV. FLOORS. A FLOOR may be described as that portion of a building which separates or divides the structure into stories or flats. They may be of wood, a combination of wood and iron, or, as is now often the case, especially with buildings of the warehouse class, of hard and incom- bustible material, rendering the floor fire and water proof. To discuss the latter class would be beyond the scope of the present w^ork. The term "ground floor" is applied to that which is nearest to, or is approached directly from, the adjoining street level. The floors above this are known as first, second, or third floors respectively as they range up- wards, whilst those below are known as basement floors. The whole of the series enumerated above are known also as main floors, whilst those not passing throughout the building, or not upon the same level as the main floors, are known as ''mezzanine floors." The floor boarding, or that portion upon which the foot rests, although in itself a subject for which much consideration is required, is not by any means the most important point to consider in building up a system of flooring. It is to the design of the framework beneath 76 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY that the greatest amount of attention is required. The timbers which go to make up the supporting framework are known as naked timbers, both as re- garding the timber previous to receiving its covering and in the consideration of the timbers apart from such covering. There are three distinct systems or methods of building up flooring timbers, and it is the strength of such floor and the economical disposition of the material that are the primary considerations in the selection of the particular system to be adopted. Single Flooring. — This is the simplest kind of flooring constructed and is suitable only for small spans up to 14 or 16 feet. Horizontal timbers called joists, 8 in. to 11 in. deep, are placed parallel to and at distances from each other of about 1 2 in. centre to centre, and rest with their extremities upon wall plates, usually 4-|- by 3 in., passing along the entire distance covered by the ends of the joists. It is upon the upper edges of the joists that the flooring boards are fixed, whilst to the lowest edges the ceiling is attached. Figs. 1 and 2, page 75, represent two plans of portions of single floors, the clear span in each case being 16 ft., the largest span advisable with this form of floor. Two rows of strutting have been placed at regular intervals along the joists; these stiffen the joists considerably. The two plans are given to illustrate the method of treatment of the timbers, both when the fireplace is parallel with, and also when at right angles to, the joists. Timbers may not be built into flues surrounded by in. brickwork, it therefore becomes necessary to trim the timbers short of the chimney FLOORS 77 breast. This trimming permits the flooring in and around the fireplaces to the extent of 18 in. in either direction to be built of hard and incombustible material, such as brick, stone, and concrete. Trimmer arches, as shown in the sections at Figs. 3 and 4, are built between the trimmed timbers and upon these hearth stones are laid, embedded in concrete and cement. In Fig. 1, page 75, the joists run parallel to the wall containing the fireplace ; a trimming joist is placed eighteen inches from the chimney breast, and into this are tusk-tenoned two short trimmers, carrying in their turn the ends of the trimmed joists. It is usual to increase the thickness of trimming joists one-eighth of an inch for each trimmed joist carried, and to make the trimmers of the same thickness. All joists, common or otherwise, should rest either upon wall plates or stone templates in pockets ; illustrations of the latter are given on page 84, Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 2, page 75, is a portion of a plan of a single floor, the common joists here running at right angles to the wall containing the fireplace. Two trimming joists rest on the ends of wall plates, one on either side of the chimney breast, with a clear space for a rendering coat between the timbers and flue. At a distance of eighteen inches from the breast-line a trimmer is placed in position, being tusk-tenoned at either end to the trimming joists, whilst to the trimmer all the intervening joists are trimmed ; the latter are therefore termed "trimmed joists." As in the previous example, the trimming joists are increased in thickness to the extent of ^ in. for each joist carried by it. In this case there are two and a half joists carried by each trimming joist, and as 2^ in. joists would be in- 78 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY sufficient, the next larger size is used, namely 2-^ in., and the trimmer made accordingly of 2^ in. material. Double Floors. — Floors, the main timbers of which are composed of either of the following combinations, are known as double floors, plans and sections of which are contained on page 80. (1) Floor joists with ceiling joists, a section of which is shown at Fig. 2, page 80. (2) Common joists with binder, as shown at Fig. 77. (3) Floor and ceiling joists with binders, as given in section at Figs. 1 and 4, page 80. F'loor cJoisCs Double floors may be constructed as such for two distinct purposes. (1) For the purpose of preventing the passage of sound. (2) For the purpose of economically increasing the strength and rigidity of a floor when the span is greater than would be recommended as a single floor. FLOORS 79 Prevention of the Passage of Sound. — The vibra- tion and noise caused by the passage across floors is often an objection in a great many cases. To prevent this the following schemes have been devised. Sound Pugging. — This is shown at Fig. 78, and consists of placing a series of short boards — called sound boarding — across the opening between the joists and about mid- way between the floor and ceiling : these rest loosely upon battens nailed to the sides of the joists, and upon it is placed, to the depth of about 2 in., builders' lime rubble. It is found that by interposing several bodies of different densities, the passage of sound is rendered more difficult. Another method of reducing vibration is to make every fourth or fifth joist deeper by about 2 in. than the remaining ones; this is shown at Fig. 2, page 80. Ceiling joists are then added, notching and spiking them to the deeper joists. This is known as a double floor, and is designed more for the purpose of prevent- ing the passage of sound than of increasing the strength of the floor. It has been recommended that floor joists should not greatly exceed twelve or fourteen feet in length, or they become liable to excessive vibration, causing the plaster ceiling to FLOORS 8i crack and become unsightly; it therefore becomes necessary, in spans greatly exceeding these dimensions, to diminish the distance by dividing the Hoor into " bays," placing binders between, as shown at Fig. 7, page 80. In this case the least distance between the walls is 22 ft., whilst in the other direction it is 23 ft. It will be seen that the single flooring could not be applied in this case. Two 12 in. by 7 in. binders, having a clear span of 22 ft., are placed from wall to wall, resting at their ends on stone templates and in wall pockets specially constructed. As in the last example, the ends of all timbers are kept clear of the walls, and constantly in contact with a fresh supply of air. The line parallel to the wall plate at Fig. 7 represents a cleat fastened to the surface of the wall, to which is made fast the ends of the ceiling joists, the method of trimming round the fireplace being the same in plan as in the last example, whilst sections through A — B and are shown at Figs. 5 and 6 respectively. Sections across the binders are shown at Figs. 1 and 4, either one being applicable. An isometric view of the detail of Fig. 4 is shown at Fig. 3, giving the detail of the cogging at A and that of the chase mortice at B, Double Framed Floors. — When both the length and breadth of a floor space are so great that if binders alone were used they would require to be of such dimensions as would cause the framing to be of unnecessary expense, as in the example given on page 82, girders and binders are rendered necessary. In that case the larger and more important timbers are framed together, hence the name " double framed floor." The larger span is divided up into two or more " bays " by placing girders across the shorter span and F FLOORS 83 at a distance from one another, not less than sixteen feet, but usually about twenty. Into these latter, binders are framed, at distances from each other rang- ing from eight to fifteen feet, and upon these the joists are carried. In the illustration given on page 82, a little more than a third of the plan of a double framed floor is given, the clear spans in length and breadth being 46 ft. and 34 ft. 3 in. respectively. The longer distance has been divided into three smaller spans by placing two flitch girders across in such a position as to divide it into three equal " bays." Into these, binders are framed, dividing the smaller span also into three equal bays, whilst upon them the flooring and ceiling joists are carried. The flooring joists are shown in the two top bays " resting upon the tops of the binders, whilst on the top of the flitch girder is placed a furring piece, the top edge being in line with that of the floor joists. Fig. 3, page 84, represents a section through the girder of such a floor; in this case the whole of the floor timbers are hidden between the floor and ceiling, and greater head-room is given. The girders in Figs. 3 and 4 are sawn into half timbers called flitches, and the wrought-iron flitch-plate inserted between them, being bolted, as shown in section, by the dotted lines of Figs. 3 and 4, and in elevation as at Fig. 5. This gives an opportunity to reverse the timber, thus equalizing the strength throughout its length and minimizing the weakness caused by the local defects, snch as large knots, twisted fibre, etc. Flitch plates should in no case be of the full depth of the timbers, but should finish J in. within the top and bottom surfaces ; otherwise, as the timber shrank, 84 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY FLOORS 85 or by the unequal resistance of the material, the narrow edge of tlie metal plate would form a knife- edge and, bearing alone upon the template, tend to create a fracture. Timber, in being fixed, should have the heart exposed to the air, as it is that part that is most liable to decay. In Fig. 3, page 84, the hearts are exposed and the outer rings placed in contact with the metal plate. Large timbers should under no circumstances have their ends built into walls. In the case of some of the softer and more porous bricks, they are known to absorb nearly their own weight of water. This, in damp houses, or buildings erected without proper damp or ventilating courses, would be readily taken up by the absorptive nature of the woodwork, and the most important part of the timber — its bearing surfaces — would at once be liable to decay. In building houses of several stories, the walls at the base would 86 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of necessity be of greater thickness than at the top : this diminution usually takes place at ceiling level, and in offsets of 4| in. The offsets may be utilized for the purpose of supporting wall plates (4 J in. by 3 in.), upon which the ends of joists may rest and the necessity of building them into walls would be reduced (see Fig. 79). Should no offsets occur at convenient places, the brickwork may be corbelled out as shown V////////////X/////A at Fig. 80. These will not be conspicuous, as in most cases the cornices cover them. Should the former methods however not be practicable, small ' pockets ' should be provided in the walls slightly larger than the section of the material, so that the air may be able to pass in and around the ends. Wall plates, if built into walls, should be looked upon with suspicion, as they are likely, by shrinking or rotting, to cause the wall to lose its support and thus tend to overturn it. FLOORS 87 Timbers resting on, or embedded within walls should be thoroughly dry and have their surfaces coated with bituminous or other material impervious to moisture. When large timbers, such as beams, binders, or girders, rest within walls, ' pockets ' should be provided as shown in elevation and section at Figs. 1 and 2, page 84, support being given to the wall above by means of a 4| in. brick arch, or a stone lintel — sometimes called a Derby " — of a thickness equal to one or two courses of brickwork and supported at its extremities to the extent of 4| in. Basement Floors. — The joists of basement floors rest at their extremities upon wall plates, as described above, and, at intervals along their length, upon plates carried by sleeper walls resting directly upon the foundations and provided with damp courses : these latter should be below all timbers and at least 6 in. above the surrounding soil. No trimmers are neces- sary here, as the hearth stones are carried upon walls at least 9 in. thick and known as ^'fender walls." These latter not only carry the extremities of the hearth stones but also the ends of the joists, wall plates being provided as in other cases. Ventilation of Basement Floors. — The wood-work of basement floors is subject to the damp arising from the soil, and this, when combined with heat generated by kitchen ranges, etc., usually located in basements, is favourable to the growth of fungi which feed upon the moist wood-work, causing its destruction. To prevent this, the air beneath the floors should be subject to constant change so that it may be kept as fresh and cool as the surrounding atmosphere : this is best accom- 88 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY plished by perforating all sleeper walls and creating in the others ventilating courses of vitrified and perforated brick -work. These latter not only act as ventilating courses but, being vitrified, are impervious to moisture, preventing it from rising to the main body of brick- work. CHAPTER V. PARTITIONS. Partitions are the constructions by which the various stories or flats of a building are divided into their several compartments. Besides those which the main walls of a building supply, and which range upwards throughout the entire series of floors, the following may be considered : (1) Studded Partitions. (2) Bricknogged Partitions. (3) Trussed or Quartered Partitions. The following is a description of some of the parts employed. Studs. — These are the vertical members of a lath and plaster partition, upon the edges of which are nailed the laths ; they are usually 2 in. wide and of a thickness equal to that of the main timbers, from 4| to 6 in. When the studs are cut short, as over the heads of doorways, they are termed " puncheons." Framing. — The assemblage of main timbers upon which the partition depends for its strength. Wall Posts. — The vertical pieces of framing ad- joining the wall and passing from sill to head. Sill. — The lowest horizontal member of the framing, 90 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY the piece into which the lowest ends of the studs are fixed. Head. — The highest horizontal member of the framing. Struts. — The inclined pieces which carry the load from central to lower positions, and in such a manner that the thrust is first received by horizontal ties. They are sometimes termed "braces." Interties. — These are horizontal members of the framing, passing from wall to wall, usually at the head of the doorway, and providing an extra tie in cases of necessity. Sometimes the door posts pass without interception from sill to head; in such a case, the door head is tenoned to the posts at a convenient height. This method is not recommended for the heavier classes of work. Nogging Pieces. — These are small horizontal pieces notched to the studding at vertical distances of about 4 ft., and are intended to stiffen the studding. Studded Partitions. — These are common partitions usually erected after a building has been completed; they are not self-supporting, but usually rest upon the floor. The head and sill are placed in position, and between these are placed studs stump-tenoned to the head and sill, usually 4 in. or 4| in. by 2 in., pro- vision, of course, being made for doorways, borrowed lights, etc. No strutting is here employed, but nogging pieces should be used at vertical distances of about 4 ft. for the purpose of stiffening the studding. In some classes of work studded partitions are boarded on one or both sides in place of the lath and plaster. Bricknogged Partitions. — These are, practically, 4 1 in. brick partitions strengthened at frequent PARTITIONS 91 intervals by timber studding. These should range vertically at distances equal to the multiple of half a brick, so as to avoid unnecessary cutting and the consequent waste. Partitions filled in in this manner, and plastered, are considered to be warmer than when left hollow ; the position should be dry and the wood- work thoroughly seasoned and coated, otherwise dry rot will attack the timber-work and render it useless. Trussed or Quartered Partitions. — These are the most important of the timber partitions. They may be made not only self-supporting, but may be constructed to support either the floor or ceiling, and, in some cases, to support both floor and ceiling. The illustra- tion given on page 92 is that of a trussed partition, constructed to support both floor and ceiling, and is intended to show how the various parts of the framing may be disposed. The most important principle that one should bear in mind in framing trussed partitions, is to economically dispose the timbers in such a manner that the weight is brought vertically upon the walls. In order that this may be properly accomplished, struts or inclined braces should be connected directly to the horizontal ties, such as the sill or intertie, and not to wall posts. The latter, being usually only stump tenoned to the ties, are least capable of withstanding the thrust. The sill, in the illustration given on page 92, lies below the level of the bottom of the floor joists, and may be cased similar to a binder. If this is objec- tionable, the sill may be arranged within the level of the flooring ; this is more convenient when the joists are parallel to the sill. Where a series of such par- titions are required in a direct line up through a PARTITIONS 93 building, they may be arranged so that the head of one becomes the sill of the next above ; or the intertie may, if the rooms are not lofty, supply the place of the head of the lower portion and sill of the upper. In some partitions the doorways are made extremely wide for the reception of folding doors ; in this case the door-head should be supported at intervals by means of bolts passing upwards to the head of the partition. The horizontal timbers of framed partitions should be let into the walls at either end ; additional support may be rendered by means of stone corbels, or the brickwork itself may be corbelled out to receive the framing, as shown in Figs. 81 and 82. Figs. 81 and 82 represent two other forms of trussed partitions, the doorways being in the centre and at the side. The heads, interties, and sills being 4 J in. by 6 in., the braces and posts 4 1 in. by 4 1^ in.. 94 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY and the straining pieces 2 1^ in. by 4 1 in. The dia- grams represent the principal trussing only, the studding being left out. The position of the necessary bolts and straps are indicated by dotted lines. Details of the joints are shown in Chapter ill. Brandering or Counterlathing. — When wide tim- bers are employed in trussed partitions, their surfaces should be counterlathed or brandered, as it is some- times called, so that the plaster may be keyed to their surfaces. Laths are first nailed across their width, and others nailed upon them at right angles, thus permitting the plaster to pass in behind. Laths. — The laths used for plastering purposes are of three thicknesses, viz. : Lath, - - - - T6- i^- thick. Lath and half, - - - i in. „ Double Lath, - - - | in. „ PARTITIONS 95 The scantling of partitions generally may be inferred from the sizes already furnished. It would be im- practicable to furnish a table of sizes, as these would differ materially with the design ; the student will be able, by the aid of statics, to determine the stresses in the various members of a particular design, the weight generally being taken as from 13 cwt. to 15 cwt. per square when covered. Fig. 83 represents the joints around the door-head of the partition given in Fig. 81 ; the joints are here dissociated, so that their forms may be readily seen, whilst the strut has been moved from its position for the same purpose. Figs. 84 and 85 represent two forms of nogging pieces and the mode of fixing ; besides being notched 96 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY to the studding, they should be nailed. Sometimes, in common work, nogging pieces are cut clear of the studs, the only fastening they receive being by nailing. CHAPTER VI. DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS. The construction of the work described in this chapter may be considered as forming one of the chief items in the occupation of the joiner, and, although considered chiefly from a point of utility, may be made to lend itself, in some cases, to elaborate architectural treat- ment, both with regard to exteriors as well as in- teriors. It is intended in this work to describe only the plainer varieties, having in view their construction under ordinary circumstances. Battened Doors. — In this series may be considered the following : Ledge doors ; ledged and braced ; framed and battened ; and framed, battened, and braced, the latter being sometimes termed framed and braced. Ledge Doors. — This is the commonest variety of door, and chiefly used in outhouse work. It is constructed by fastening a series of battens (grooved and tongued) together by means of horizontal ledges nailed, or nailed and screwed, to them. In the better class of work the ledges are fastened to the two outer battens by means of two screws at each of their ends, whilst the intermediate battens are simply nailed ; the latter should G 98 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY be of steel or wrought-iron, and should pass through both ledge and batten, and have their points turned at the back ; this process is known as clinching. As the battens shrink away from each other, they loose their support ; and the nails not being sufficient to support them, the door drops at its closing edge. Ledged and Braced Doors. — In order to prevent the ledge door from dropping at its closing edge, braces are placed obliquely from ledge to ledge, passing up- wards from the hanging to the closing edge. These act as struts, preventing the outer edge of the door from dropping. As the struts or braces are always in com- pression, all that is required at the points of support is a plain butt joint, a portion of which should be at right angles to the direction of the brace. As with the ledges, the braces are kept in position by nailing, the points being clinched as in the former case. Page 99 contains an exterior and interior elevation of a ledged and braced door. The hinges and latch have been placed in position mainly for the purpose of in- dicating the direction to which the braces should incline. Framed and Braced Doors. — This is the best form of the battened doors, and when not braced it is usually termed a " fram.ed and battened door." The stiles and top rail should be of the full thickness of the door, whilst the middle and bottom rails and the braces are of the thickness of the door, less the battens. In a 2 -in. door, the battens would be about |- in. thick, whilst the braces and middle and bottom rails would be 1^ in. The middle and bottom rails are provided with bareface tenons, so that they may be brought as near to the centre of the thickness of the stiles as possible. The top rail and stiles are ploughed for the reception DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS 99 lOO CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of a tongue formed upon the top end of all the battens and the extreme edges of the two outer ones. The battens, besides being tongued to the outer framing, are nailed to the bottom and middle rails, and also to the braces, the nails being clinched as previously de- scribed. The braces are usually placed in such a position that their centres pass through the angles of the framing ; by this precaution the thrust along their length is equally distributed to the framing. Braces. — These act as struts, and should incline up- wards from the hanging to the closing stile. The extremities are sometimes plain-butted against the framing, and sometimes tongued ; in the latter case they must be placed in position previous to wedging up. Doors of this kind are usually used in external walls, and for warehouse and stable work. When used in positions where both surfaces are exposed to the wet, the top edge of the middle and bottom rails should be weathered (inclined outwards). The bottom rail should be kept about 1^ in. or 2 in. from the lowest edge of the door ; this is done for the purpose of keeping as much of the material as possible away from surfaces inclined to be damp. The exterior and interior elevation, also the vertical section of a framed and braced door, are shown on page 99. A form of this door is used with church work of the mediaeval type, the battened portion passing over the whole of the framed portion, whilst upon the outside or battened surface mouldings are fixed to form panels. Panelled Doors. — Of these there are several varieties, distinguished by the number of panels and by the finish given to them. Interior doors are not required to be of such a large DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS lOI I02 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY size as those upon the exterior ; the elevation given on page 101 is of standard size, being of a height of 6 ft. 6 in., and in width 2 ft. 6 in. ; other sizes range upwards, increasing by inches in both dimensions, so that a door 6 ft. 9 in. high would be 2 ft. 9 in. wide, and one 7 ft. high would be 3 ft. wide. The position of the middle rail is governed largely by aesthetic principles, but mainly for the purpose of fixing the lock. A convenient position for handling may be considered as 2 ft. 8 in. from the floor line ; this may also be taken as the height of the centre of the middle rail. It has been recommended that the height of the top line of the middle rail should be at a distance of 3 ft. 1 in. from the floor line, but this rule alters the height of the centre of the middle rail as its width increases or diminishes. The elevation given on page 101 is that of a four- panelled door, with the positions of tenons and panels dotted in. These have been arranged according to the instructions furnished in Chapter ill. The different methods of finishing are shown at Figs. 1 to 8. Fig. 1 is a section through what is known as a square framed door with flat panels. Fig. 2 represents a similar door, with drop or sunk mouldings of the quirked and filleted ogee type. Fig. 3 is a similar section, having a beaded and quirked ogee moulding, another form of which is shown in Fig. 4. The section shown at Fig. 5 has a filleted ovolo moulding. Fig. 6 shows a section through the stile of a square framed door, with flat panel and sunk moulding on one side, and flush panel on the other. DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS 103 In the section at Fig. 7 both moulding and bead have been worked upon the framing, the external appearance being somewhat similar to the above. Fig. 8 is a section through the stile of a square framed door, with flat panel on one side, and a raised or " fielded " panel upon the other, the latter being provided with bolection mouldings. Mouldings pro- jecting beyond the face of the work, and being rebated over the framing, are termed " bolection mouldings." An elevation of two raised or fielded panels provided with bolection moulding is shown on page 107. Frieze Rails. — These pass across the door between the middle and top rail, as shown at Fig. 86. The panels above the frieze rail are known as frieze panels." Ftg.86, Fig. ay. The width of muntins and frieze rails should not be so wide as the stiles by \ in., this portion being 104 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY hidden upon one side by the rebate of the linings. Sometimes the muntins do not pass beyond the frieze rail, and a long frieze panel is then necessary. This is the method usually adopted in the formation of a five-panelled door. Six-panelled doors are sometimes arranged, as at Fig. 87, with two muntins passing up through the door. The advantage of this arrangement with wide doors being that 1 1 in. stuff, or less, may be used without the necessity of jointing up, and the panels being of less width, the shrinkage is not so great. Folding doors are those which are hung in pairs, one from each jamb, as shown in elevation at Fig. 88. They may be made to swing or to close into rebates. When doors are required exceptionally wide as com- pared with the height, and where they would otherwise appear unsightly, they are made to appear as in Fig. 88, but in reality they would open as one. These are termed " double-margin " doors, and are constructed as follows : The two halves are framed separately, but, previous to wedging up, the two inner stiles are fitted with three pairs of dry hard-wood folding wedges. The top pair should pass through the stiles about 3 in. below the top rail, as shown at A (Fig. 89). The other two pairs pass through the stiles 3 in. above the bottom and middle rails respectively. The rails of the two doors are first glued and wedged to the inner stiles, which have previously been prepared to the section shown in the figure, and properly jointed. The two inner stiles are then glued and wedged together, the ends of the latter having been cut clear of the plough groves, the panels are inserted, and the process of wedging up is then proceeded with in the ordinary DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS io6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY manner. The joint between the two halves is pro- vided with a double-quirked bead, either worked upon the edges of the stiles, or planted on separately, as shown in section at Fig. 89. Sash Doors. — Page 107 contains an elevation, with vertical and horizontal sections of what is known as a ''gun-stock sash door." When doors, besides being used for ordinary pur- poses, are constructed with glazed panels for the purpose of admitting light, they are said to answer the double purpose of a sash and door, and are therefore termed " sash doors " or glass doors.'' Sometimes the glass extends from top to bottom rail, as is the case with doors for shop fronts, in which case they are known as " all-glass doors." Diminished Stiles. — Doors which have the upper panels glazed should be constructed with diminished stiles, — stiles tapering off to a narrow width as they approach the glazed portion, — so that they may permit so much light to pass as is possible. Mitred Stiles. — When the diminution takes the form of a mitre line of 45°, passing from the lower corner of the middle rail back to a point in direct line with the diminished portion, and takes up a square shoulder line at this point, it is known as a ''mitred stile." Gun-Stock Stiles. — When, as in Fig. 82, Chapter III., the shoulder line passes direct but obliquely across the rail, and when the shoulder of the stile is made to correspond with this line, it is known as a " gun-stock stile," and the shoulder as a " gun-stock shoulder." Gun-stock sash doors are those provided with the gun-stock stiles described above. DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS G un - sfoc/c rSos/? - door. io8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Panels. — These may be finished in a variety of forms. A flat panel, strictly speaking, is one that has its surfaces perfectly plain and of such a thickness that it may be entered into its groove without rebating. These are illustrated in part section by Figs. 1 to 5 inclusive on p. 101. A flush panel is one that has its surface or surfaces finishing flush or level with that of the framing, and may be so upon one or both sides. Panels flush upon one surface only are known as ''flush one side." A tongue is formed upon their edges by rebating, the joint between it and the framing being usually provided with a bead. Bead Butt. — Flush panels having their vertical edges only provided with a bead are known as " bead butt " or " bead and butt." Fig, 89 a. Bead Flush. — When the bead passes around the four edges of the panel, it is known as " bead flush." In place of working the end bead in the solid, a small portion of the material is cut away, and a special DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS 109 worked bead glued and braded in its place. This method is objectionable, as the panel is not free to shrink and expand with the changes of the atmosphere, and often splits in shrinking. A better method is to work the bead upon the framing as shown in the section of Fig. 7, page 101. Battened Panels. — Panels which are made up of a series of battens, with matched joints, are known as battened panels ; they are often arranged so that the battens are placed diagonally, and, in this way, may act as braces or struts. Raised or Fielded Panels. — These are panels which have had their margins recessed, the recessing usually being inclined to the surface. Elevations and sections of these are shown on page 107. Draped Panels. — These are panels which have been moulded upon their surface to imitate the folds of linen, the ends being returned to match. They are sometimes termed " linen panels." Jib Doors. — Doors leading to private apartments, and not intended to be conspicuous, are sometimes constructed in walls. They are usually flush with, and take up, the line and character of the surrounding work, and are termed "jib doors." In some of the best classes of work, doors are finished with different woods upon their surfaces. They are usually constructed in halves, each side beino^ of the same material as the work surrounding it. They are fastened together by means of dovetail keys driven through the inner surface of the stiles ; the joints at the edges of the door are then covered with a veneer of like material. Frames. — In buildings of the warehouse type, or no CARPENTRY AND JOINERY where the walls are left bare, doors are hung to solid frames, fixed upon the surface of the wall or in rebates. External doors are also hung to solid frames. In interiors of buildings of the dwelling-house type, linings, panelled or plain, are fixed around the door- ways, and the doors hung to these. Solid Frames. — Fig. 1, page 111, is a section through one jamb of a solid door frame fixed to a stone wall, battened upon the interior. The 4| in. by 4 in. solid frame is moulded with an ovolo upon its front edge, the rebated joint between the door and frame being beaded. The frame is made fast to the quoins by boring, plugging, and screwing ; the heads of the screws are sunk below the surface, and the holes plugged. The jambs upon the interior are furnished with plain linings, and finished with a band moulding. Fig. 2 is a section through one jamb of a solid frame fixed in a doorway, the brickwork of which is left bare. If the door frame is fixed as the wall is being built, the head may be left long to the extent of 3 in. or 4 in., and built into the wall. This method is usually adopted in doorways having segmental arches and, consequently, no lintels, the head of the frame being made to " take up the line of the arch. Jamb Lining's serve the double purpose of covering or lining the edges of walls at openings, and providing a framework of wood from which to hang the door. Rebates are provided at both edges, although it is seldom that both are used. They are in width (rebates included) equal to the thickness of the wall they cover plus the rendering on both sides, and are fixed to " grounds " or blocking at the back. A set of linings DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS in Soled Jromes 8f fJamb LCnings. 112 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY consists of two jambs or vertical pieces and one head or soffit. Plain Linings. — In some cases the linings are so narrow that they will not allow of being panelled ; they are consequently left plain, as shown in Fig. 4, page 111, and the rebates worked on the solid. Panelled Jamb Linings. — Fig. 3, page 111, is a section through one jamb of a set of panelled linings, with a half-plan of the soffit, looking up. The framing is taken at 3 in. wide, and the rebates are tongued on. This latter process is recommended as giving the opportunity of covering the ends of the tenons and providing a more substantial edge for hanging purposes. Splayed grounds are provided upon either side, and the joints between the plaster and grounds covered by band mouldins^s or architraves. The term "architrave" was originally applied of the lowest member or division of an entablature, and which rests immediately upon the capital of a column, and is now applied generally to the moulded margin around the front edges of linings to doors or window openings. It is not recommended to carry the delicate members of the architraves to the floor level, but to stop them at about 10 in. or 12 in. above, and finish upon a plinth block, as shown at Fig. 88, and in plan at Fig. 3, page 111. Band Mouldings. — When the moulded margin around a door or window opening assumes the less dignified form shown in the upper portion of Fig. 3, page 111, it is known as a "band moulding," another section of which is shown at Fig. 1 upon the same page. Double-faced Architrave. — When an architrave DOORS, DOOR FRAMES, AND LININGS 113 presents two plain surfaces, it is known as double- faced." The architrave shown in section at the lower portion of Fig. 3, page 111, is known as double-faced. Grounds. — The wood foundations upon which archi- traves and band-mouldings are fixed are termed grounds. Their backs are grooved, rebated, or splayed for the purpose of forming a key for the plaster, and are fixed by means of plugs, wood pallets or joints, and wood bricks, and, in addition, they are sometimes framed from back to front by rails dovetailed between them. When mortised and tenoned together, they are known as " framed grounds." Plugs are small pieces of tapered wood driven into a wall after it has been built ; they should be cut winding, so that they may have an opportunity of holding to the wall, even after shrinking. Pallets or Wood Joints. — These are of the same length and width as a brick (9 in. by 4-i- in.), and of a thickness equal to the mortar joints (about ^ in.). They are built in with the work as it proceeds, at distances of about 18 in. from each other. These are found to be by far the best means of fastening, as, being thin, the liability to shrinkage is reduced, whilst there is no necessity of raking out the joints of brick- work so soon after being built. Wood Bricks are sometimes used for fixing, but they are liable in dry walls to shrink away and become loose, whilst in wet walls they are liable to rot. Fixing Blocks. — These are made of a composition of coke-breeze and cement. They are of such a nature that a nail may be driven into them, and at the same time they are not subject, as is the case with wood, to dry rot. H CHAPTER VIL SASHES AND SASH FRAMES, LANTERN LIGHTS, SKYLIGHTS, Etc. The construction of sashes, sash frames, and skylights forms another important section of the work that may be said to come strictly under the category of joiners' work. Perhaps the most useful and convenient may be considered as being the sliding sashes in cased frames. Figs. 1, 2, and 3, page 115, represent the interior elevation, with vertical and horizontal sections re- spectively of a pair of vertical sliding sashes, with cased frame, and sometimes known as "double-hung sashes with cased frame." With the half plan or hori- zontal section, is shown a half plan looking down upon the top of the head. Although it is not usual in practice to show this, it has been done here to illus- trate the method of blocking the head of the sash. It will be seen on looking at the sections that the casing is simply nailed together without tonguemg, this being the method adopted in the commonest class of work. The following is a brief description of the various parts : Sill. — This is the lowest member of the framing ; it SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. Fig . 3. ii6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY should at least have its top surface weathered, so that the water may not lodge upon it ; but it is far better to have at least one sinkage upon its surface, and if this is throated the water will be prevented from being driven back to the interior. Fig. 3, page 117, repre- sents a part section through such a sill provided with a ventilating bead. The section has been taken with the sash lifted to a height equal to the thickness of the meeting rail. This allows a current of air to enter the room through the open joint between the meeting rails. The splayed joint of the meeting rails acts as a baffler, sending the fresh air back to the glass, and dispersing it about the room without creating direct currents of cold air. It is found to act in every way satisfactorily. Sills should be constructed of hard and durable wood, such as oak or teak, as they are fixed in positions which render them liable to dry rot. Pulley Stiles. — These are the vertical side pieces against which the sashes slide, the parting bead being tongued along the centre. Pulley stiles are fixed by being sunk into the sill to the extent of about half the thickness of the latter ; they are also wedged and spiked (nailed). It is most important that the pulley stile shall be faced up perfectly true, or the casing when fixed will take up the irregularities. Pulley stiles may be either plain or tongued at the edges ; in exposed situations it is necessary to have them tongued. They are usually constructed in fir, but in the better class of work, mahogany or teak is used. Pulley Heads. — These connect the tops of the pulley stiles, and are either housed or tongued, and grooved at the joint. They are, with the exception of the centre groove, usually of the same section as the ii8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY pulley stile ; it is not usual to provide a parting bead at the head except in exposed situations. Inner Casings. — These are nailed to the inner edge of the pulley stile, to the sill and head, and in the better class of work are of the same material as the interior fittings of the compartment, and are of a thick- ness ranging from f in. in common work to 1 in. in the better class, and of a width varying with the surrounding circumstances. Outer Casings. — These are the casings which are fixed to the outside edge of the pulley stile, the extreme edge projecting to the extent of f in. or f in. beyond the face of the pulley stile. Parting Beads. — These are beads fixed to the centre of the pulley stiles, and which form the partitions between the channels in which the sashes slide. They are usually of the same material as the pulley stiles, are f in. in thickness, and should project beyond the face of the pulley stile to the same extent as the outer casing. They are tightly fitted to the groove of the pulley stile, and by this means only should they be held in position. Stop Beads. — These are the movable beads, nailed or screwed to the edge of the inner casings. They should be of such a thickness that the inner surface is in direct line with the crown of the parting bead and the edge of the outer casing. They are sometimes of such a width that they pass over the joint between the casing and pulley stile, and in the better class of work are sometimes fixed in rebates by means of brass " cups and screws." Parting Laths or Slips. — These are contained inside the casing, and are hung loosely from the centre SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 119 of the ends of the pulley stiles ; they prevent the weights from striking each other. In ordinary work they are of fir, and about ^ in. thick ; but in the best work they are often of stout zinc. Back Linings. — These are usually of f in. material, tongued to the inner casing, and nailed upon the back edge of the outer casing. They complete the boxing of the weights, and prevent the latter being caught upon the rough surface of the brick rebates. The sashes slide in vertical grooves formed by the casing, and are balanced by lead or cast-iron weights attached to cords passing over pulleys, the latter being fixed about 3 in. from the top of the pulley stiles. Brackets. — The joints between the meeting rails and stiles of sashes are sometimes dovetailed, but if the ends of the stiles were allowed to project, the ordinary form of tenon would suffice, and is calculated to make the stronger joint ; the ends of the stiles in this case should then be moulded in the form of a bracket. This method is shown on p. 115, Figs. 1 and 2, and in practice is found to cause wide sashes to run " freely. Window Boards. — Narrow " boards " or battens, sometimes only 1| in. wide, are tongued to the inner surface of the sill, to create a finish and " break " the joint between it and the plaster below. They have their front edges moulded (usually a half-round) and the ends returned," and are convenient for butting the ends of the band moulding upon. Page 120 contains an interior elevation of a pair of 2 in. double hung sashes and cased frame, fixed in a two-and-half brick wall, with splayed boxed shutters I20 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Arclntrn,-f. INTERiOR f.LEVAT/Oif SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 121 122 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY and with window back and elbows complete, enlarged details of which will be seen on pp. 117 and 121. Boxed Shutters. — These are shutters which fold back in "leaves" into boxings as shown on pp. 117, 120, 121, and 123. Page 121 contains an example of splayed boxed shutters in a 22| in. brick wall. The wall, in this case, being thick enough to receive the whole of the shutters without the necessity of the boxing standing out into the room. Square Boxed Shutters are those which stand out at right angles to the wall. In thick walls, they may be arranged within its thickness ; but when, as in the section on p. 123, the wall is thin, the boxings may stand out into the room. Advantage may be taken in such an arrangement to create a window seat ; whilst the only objection is that the boxing is apt to block the light from parts of the room. This latter objection may be obviated by allowing the shutters to close back in narrow recesses asjainst o the face of the wall. The first panelled leaf is then provided with a plain return piece, wide enough to allow the shutter to close back into its boxing and having at the angle a rule joint. Vertical Sliding Shutters. — Another method of disposing of shutters, especially where the wall is not a thick one, is to slide them vertically downwards behind the window breast ; a vertical and horizontal section is shown on p. 124. They are balanced in the same manner as sliding sashes, casings being required as for the latter. The window board is here made to answer the purpose of a cover or flap which, when open, reveals the shutters. Similar flaps may be provided to close against the vertical portion of the casing. SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 123 ffji^oug^ one scde of a window fof^Q 3 6 opening OoA CiU efs^5 - Pa//ey stilt' f/^" Stone CtU (weotljereci) Oafslde lininj) ' Stop Bead ^ Window Tdoord \ Square Strutters 124 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Verftcaf Sliding S/jutfers SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 125 Advantage is taken of the depth behind the joist and wall plate to allow the shutters to pass down behind them. The shutters are usually made for this purpose in two leaves, and, in the case of lofty windows, require even more depth than has already been suggested ; for this purpose the brickwork may be recessed to the extent of two or three courses behind the wall plate. Kings are provided in the top edge of the shutters for lifting purposes, and are so constructed that, when not in use, they fall below the surface of the top plate. French Casements. — This is another form of sash door, but in this case the sash, which was primarily constructed for the purpose of light, has been made to take the form of a door for the convenient approach to a veranda or balcony. Page 127 contains half elevations of such a casement ; that to the left of the centre line represents a half elevation of the exterior, whilst on the right is shown a half elevation of the interior. The stiles, in this case, are made so frail that it is not advisable to sink the lock below its surface. For this reason, special locks and bolts are provided ; the latter are known as espagnolette bolts ; they are screwed upon the surface of the stile, and are constructed in such a manner that by turning a small handle, placed in a convenient position along it, the lengthened bolt en- gages with the sockets both at the top and bottom. Sections of the above casement are given on page 128. Sashes of this kind are made to open outwards as well as inwards, special advantages being claimed for each. In exposed situations, it is suggested that the best results are obtained by hanging the doors to open towards the outside, as when the force of the wind presses against them, they are closed into the rebates. 126 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY When hung in this manner, and left open, they are liable to be caught by the wind, and great care has to be exercised to fasten the door when open, so that it may not slam. When the doors open towards the interior there is a difficulty in closing the joint at the sill. In order to overcome this difficulty several patent water-bars have been introduced with greater or less success. The section given on page 128 has been provided with an ordinary wrought-iron tongue against which the door closes, whilst a pro- jecting weather-board has been fixed upon the outer edge. The frame has here been provided with a tran- some and transome-light for ventilating purposes. As will be seen from the section, the light has been hung from the transome ; this arrangement prevents down draughts, and disperses the air along the ceiling, where it mixes with and dilutes the vitiated atmosphere of the interior, purifying it, and rendering it less objec- tionable. In the horizontal section two methods of closing the joint at the stile are shown ; tlie lower one is considered to render the joint more secure in exposed situations. The frames for French casements are always solid, but may be constructed with or without the transome rail shown on page 127. Casement sashes with solid frames are sometimes used in work known as " Eliza- bethan " ; they are somewhat similar in detail to the French casement, but are not used as doors. They are sometimes constructed in sets with solid mullions dividing them into double, treble, or quadruple lights, and are known as two-light or three-light casements, according to the number of divisions contained by the frame. These are also constructed with or without SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 129 the horizontal member known as the transome. All top surfaces of the framing exposed to the rain should be weathered so that the .water may easily run off. It is advisable to throat them also, so that the water may not be driven back. Fig. 90 is a section of a wood sill weathered and throated. rig Capillary Attraction. — When two surfaces are placed so that only a small space exists between them, and when placed with their lower edges in contact with water, the latter will rise vertically to a con- siderable extent above the normal surface of the liquid, not by absorption alone, but by capillary attraction, and the height to which the water may rise increases as the space diminishes. I I30 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Throating. — Water has also the power of adhering to the under side of horizontal surfaces, and, if allowed to do so, will travel some distance in this manner, and often find its way to interiors. To avoid this, grooves wide enough to prevent capillary attraction are sunk into the under surface of projecting wood-work ; this is termed " throating." Another form of throating is adopted on the vertical edges of sinkages on wood sills, to prevent the wind from driving the water from the lower to the higher surfaces ; the force of the wind is checked by the throating, and the water thrown back upon the lower surface. It will be seen from Fig. 90 that all these points have been considered in the design of the joint ; not only that, but the joint between the bead of the sill and the bottom rail has been prepared in a manner somewhat similar to that of the meeting rails. It requires but little additional labour in its preparation, and is the means, in exposed situations, of keeping out all cold currents of air. The sash, as it is lifted, at once clears itself, and no loose joint or other clearance is required. The approximate area of window surface for the lighting of a room may be found by extracting the square root of the number of cubic feet obtained by multiplying together the length, breadth, and height as follows : Area in sq. ft. = \/Length x Breadth x Height. Borrowed Lights. — These are small sashes placed in partitions for the purpose of giving light to inner rooms or staircases not sufficiently lighted from other sources. They are fixed in framing, formed of a set of SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 131 linings, with window-board, the latter usually extend- ing beyond the surface of the wall, and having its edges rounded. The linings are provided with band moulding, mitred at the top angles, and butting upon the window-board at the bottom. Horizontal sliding sashes are sometimes used in outhouses ; they are more difficult to construct than ordinary hinged casements, and do not give good results. They are peculiar to some localities, and when one sash (the outside) is constructed with the frame, the other sliding upon a tongue or in rebates, they are known as " Yorkshire lights.'' The closing joint is provided with beads projecting from the face of the sashes and forming rebates. Pivoted Sashes. — This form of sash is shown on page 132 ; they are used principally in buildings of the warehouse class, and in stables, and the method is often adopted for the opening of the ventilating sashes in lantern lights. The advantage gained in the latter position is obvious from the fact that the sash, always balanced upon the centre pin, requires little power to open it. The position to which the sash may be opened may vary from the horizontal to the position indicated in the illustration. Some architects prefer the former, whilst others are of the opinion that the sash should incline as indicated. The position of the centre pin should be a little above the centre of gravity, so that the preponderance is always in favour of the closing of the sash. A good rule to adopt is to place the pivot in the centre of the clear line midway between the " squares." It will be seen that certain parts of the beads are fixed to the frame, whilst the others are fixed to the sash. The exact position of the 132 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Pivoted Sqs/^ ond Solid JT^ome. V///////// Mortar Screed p to close Joint ^ Segmental Sqs// oper2ed to s/^eM/ cutting of ^heQois iiull-nose 7?>ricks SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 133 joint may be determined by placing lines across the side of the frame in the direction and position occupied by the crowns of the beads when the sash is open. These lines will mark the extreme points of the joints, and, if from the centre of the position of the pivot, a circle be drawn, having for its radius the distance between this point and the extreme points alluded to above, then tangents to this circle will represent the line of junction between the beads. The ''centres" for the above are sold in pairs, one having a pivot upon the plate, whilst the other has a corresponding socket grooved from the side for the convenience of hanging. The pivot may be attached to the sash, and the socket to the frame ; in this case the groove of the socket has to be carried to the edge of the frame. This method has the objection that the end of the groove, appearing upon the surface, is unsightly. To avoid this, the pin may be attached to the frame, and the socket to the sash ; in this case the groove is carried to the splayed butt-end of the bead, and, in that position, is not so conspicuous. Allowance must, in this case, be made in the joint of the outer bead by raising the joint to the extent of half the thickness of the sash, so that the sash may be passed into its position. Dormer Lights. — These are windows constructed in the sloping surfaces of roofs. They are distin- guished from skylights by standing vertically, whilst the latter lie in a surface parallel to the plane of the roof. They are often constructed as casements, but may be of any of the forms previously described. Skylights. — These are sashes of a peculiar con- struction lying in the plane, or parallel to the surface 134 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of the roof. They are fixed to, or hung from, the upper portion of a curb or lining. For the purpose of fixing skylights, the common rafters are cut and trimmed in a manner somewhat similar to the trim- ming of joists, and a curb or lining is fixed as shown on page 135. The bottom rail of a skylight is known as an apron piece, and is thinner than the light by the depth of the rebate and plus a small amount usually allowed for the escape of the moisture which con- denses upon the cold surface of the glass ; in some cases channels are cut in the top surface of the apron piece for the same purpose. Two methods are shown of the joint between the bars and apron piece, whilst the latter is joined to the stiles of the light by means of bareface tenons. Lantern Lights. — These are glazed enclosures con- structed at the ridges of sloping roofs or upon lead flats, for the purposes of light and ventilation to rooms or staircases below. They are a decided improvement upon skylights, but are more expensive to construct. The roofing timbers are trimmed around in the usual way, and curbs are made to stand at least 6 in. higher than the highest part of the roof adjoining. These are firmly secured at the angles, by dovetailing or other means equally secure, and with the trimmings cased by plain or match boarding or by panelling. Solid frames with projecting sills of hard wood rest on, and are secured to, the curbing, the whole being crowned with a lead flat or glazed top lights, as shown in the part section and elevation contained on page 136. Between the glazed side lights and the panelling or " combing," as it is sometimes called, a gutter should be fixed so that the condensed vapour may pass away to the SASH AND SASH FRAMES, ETC. 137 exterior. The details of construction may best be seen on examination of section on page 136. The top lights are nere hipped ; the horizontal width of the margin W is obtained by developing the angle, as seen at Fig. 1, page 136, 0 being the angle of inclination of the top lights. Fig. 2, page 136, represents the method of obtaining the bevel of the joint at the hip, and which may be described as follows : — Draw the single lines ABC, representing the plan of the angle, with BD as the plan of the hip. Construct the angle BAD equal to the pitch of the top lights (0). Draw FB equal to BB, and at right angles to BB. Join F with B. Draw AC at right angles to BB, and intersecting it in G. From G construct GH at right angles to FB, and in- tersecting it in point H, With G as centre, and GH as radius, construct the arc RI, intersecting BB in /. Join AI and IC AIC is the angle between the planes of the top lights, and AIG its mitre. For the purpose of covering the angles, ridge rolls are required ; these are shown in position upon the illustration, page 136. CHAPTER VIIL EOOFS. In our consideration of roofs, attention will not be paid so much to the actual covering itself as to the means of its support. They vary in outline according to span, character of work it is intended to cover, and also to climatic conditions. Pitch, — In some parts of the continent, where they are favoured with much sunshine and little rain, the tendency is to construct flat roofs with wide overhanging eaves, so as to produce as much shade as is possible ; whilst towards the north, where heavy rains and snows prevail, the custom is to make the roofs steeply pitched. Again, the character of the building to be covered in- fluences the pitch to a great extent. In classic build- ings the roofs are usually pitched at about 25°, as were also those of the late Gothic, whilst those of the German renaissance and early Gothic were steeply pitched, even to the extent of about 60°. Page 140 contains a series of single line diagrams illustrating the method of treat- ment of spans from 8 ft. to 45 ft. and above. Lean-to Roof. — This roof is intended for small out- buildings constructed against the walls of main build- ings. Common rafters only are used in spans up ROOFS 139 to 10 ft. ; these are notched or birdsmouthed and spiked to the wall plates, and the roof covering attached. The stability of such a roof depends greatly upon the fixing at the tops of the rafters ; unless thoroughly well supported here, the thrust along the rafters has a tendency to overturn the lower walL Couple Roofs. — In this case common rafters are used in pairs or couples, one from either wall. They are secured by spiking to the ridge piece, the lower ends being notched or birdsmouthed to the wall plates. In this case the weight of the roof and its covering is thrown obliquely upon the wall, but the tendency to overturn is lessened as the pitch of the roof is in- creased. It is not recommended to adopt the couple roof in spans exceeding 12 ft. See Fig. 2, page 140. Collar Roof. — The diagram furnished by Fig. 3, page 140, shows this roof in its simplest form. When the span is greater than 12 ft., the timbers need tying together. The tie in this case is placed half-way up the rafters, and in this position is known as a " collar." An elaborate form of this roof with trusses is sometimes used in Gothic structures, and the in- creased span is provided for by means of brackets or ribs. See page 159. Couple Close. — When the feet of the rafters are tied together horizontally, as in Fig. 4, page 140, they are said to be closed ; and the arrangement of the roofing timbers in this manner is known as a " couple close." In the smaller spans the wall plates are tied at. intervals of every 3 or 4 feet; but if ceilings are attached, then each closing piece forms a ceiling joist, and needs to be spaced at about 12 inches apart. In long spans, from 16 to 18 feet, and where ceilings are I40 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY ROOFS 141 attached, the ceiling joists need to be supported at their centres by iron rods. King-post Truss. — In the foregoing examples com- mon rafters only were used, but in spans from 18 ft. upwards trusses or principals are necessary ; that at Fig. 6 is known as a " king-post truss/' suitable for spans from 18 to 30 ft. A full elevation of this truss is shown on page 142, with common rafters, ridge piece, purlins, and pole plates added. It will be seen that the king-post truss is composed of principal rafters, tie-beam, king-post, and struts. These, when framed together, complete the truss or principal. The advantage of trussing is that, by its means, the weight of the roof is carried vertically upon the walls. The trusses should be arranged to span the building at intervals of from 8 to 10 feet, and between them are carried the ridge piece, purlins, and pole plate; to these are fixed the common rafters, which, in their turn, carry the roof covering. Thus the weight is carried, first, by the common rafters to the ridge piece, purlins, and pole plate, and, by them, concen- trated at their junction with the principals. The detail of the joint at the head of the king-post is shown by the enlarged sketch at Fig. 1, whilst the joint at the purlin is shown at Fig. 2. To prevent the purlin from being turned over, short pieces, called cleats, are partially sunk into the top or back of the principal rafter, and spiked or bolted. In order that the nature of the stresses in the various members may be understood, we will build up the truss in sections. First, place the two principal rafters in position upon the wall, and consider that a load has been placed at the apex or head. The load has a ROOFS 143 tendency to push the walls out; to prevent this, place the tie-beam in position, making good the joint between it and the principal rafter. It will now be seen that, if the tie-beam and its joints are strong enough, the feet of the rafters are kept in position. We may infer from this that the principal rafters are in com- pression, and the tie-beam is in tension. Now, place the loads at points half-way up the principal rafters (the position of the purlins), and, if the loads are heavy enough, the rafters will be seen to bend or sag, and approach a point near the centre of the tie- beam. To prevent this, place the two supports or struts in position, passing from the centre of the tie- beam up to the centres of the principal rafters. It will now be seen that the weights at the purlins are conveyed across the principal rafter and down the strut to the tie-beam, and the principal rafter bends only as the tie-beam is bent. Now, place the king- post in position, supported at the head between the rafters, and allow the struts to rest against the enlargement at the base. If the king-post is strong enough, and the joints are properly constructed, it will be found capable, not only of holding in suspension the weight carried along the struts, but also of assist- ing to carry the tie-beam with its load. If the king- post were constructed of material sufficiently elastic, we should find it stretched by the weight ; it is therefore in tension. The following is a summary of the results : Member. Nature of Stress. Compression. Compression. Tension. Tension. Principal Eafters, Struts, - Tie-Beam, King-post, 144 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Camber. — Horizontal timbers, however straight they may be previous to being placed in position, have a tendency to deflect or sag in the centre, even from their own weight. This is very noticeable, and gives the impression of weakness. Even a small deflection appears to the eye to be much more than is actually the case. To counteract this, beams, bressummers, joists, etc., should be placed with their rounded edges uppermost, and in framed timbers an allowance, known as " cambering," should be created. Arching or cambering the timbers was at one time considered to give increased strength ; this may have been so at a time when walls were built stout enough to withstand the oblique thrusts, but in modern con- struction it is far from being the case. As an arched or cambered beam assumes the straight line, it has a tendency to thrust outwards its supports, so that care must be exercised that the camber is not too great. Cambering the tie-beams of wood trusses has the effect of reducing the subsequent settlement of the structure. The king- or queen-posts are, for this pur- pose, cut short to the extent of 1 in. or 1^ in. for every 20 ft. in the length of the span. This has the effect, when the shoulders have been drawn up, of tightening all the joints throughout the truss, so that any subsequent settlement due to this cause is pre- vented. Queen-post Truss. — When the span exceeds 30 ft., two vertical posts are used instead of one ; these are known as "queens," and the truss is called a " queen - post." Page 145 contains a part elevation of a queen- post truss for a span of 37 ft., whilst enlarged details are shown on pages 146, 148, 149, and 151. ROOFS 145 ROOFS 147 The joints around the head and foot of the queen- post are shown on page 146, with the necessary ironwork, that at the foot being known as the gib and cotter joint. The method of using the gib and cotter strap will best be seen in the section, page 146. The strap passes underneath the tie and up the sides of the posts. A mortise is cut in the latter in a position slightly above the holes provided in the enlarged ends of the strap. Iron gibs of the form shown in the figure are then inserted, the ears keeping the strap in position whilst the iron wedges or cotters are driven. It will be seen that the gibs are in contact with the iron strap at the top, and with the wood post underneath. The driving of the cotters has the effect of opening out the gibs ; these in their turn press against the strap at the top, lifting it, and bringing up the tie-beam with it, whilst the cotter below presses against the post, keeping it down and consequently closing the joint. The gib and cotter strap may be applied in the same way to king- posts, and to the support of sills in the framing of partitions. Eoof trusses are placed at distances governed by surrounding circumstances usually 8 or 10 feet. Where this dimension is exceeded, the purlins require to be greatly strengthened either in their scantling, or by trussing or strutting. Parapet Gutters. — The section given on page 148 shows the method of treatment of the timbers at the foot of the principal rafters when a flat gutter has to be formed against a parapet. In this case the gutter bearers are notched over and spiked to the common rafters, the latter resting upon a wall plate. Pockets ROOFS 149 TdlocHirzQ Course Finish 9dox Guttler and Cess/dool ISO CARPENTRY AND JOINERY have here been provided for the reception of the end of the truss, and provision made for the ventilation of the roofing timbers, by placing an air grating just above the cornice. The flov7 is given to the gutter in this case by varying the height of the gutter bearers ; this necessarily makes the gutter wider as the height of the bearer increases. Box Gutters. — The section on page 149 gives the method of forming a box gutter. The pole-plate is made use of here, for the purpose of carrying the ends of the common rafters, instead of the wall plate, the essential difference between the two being that the wall plate rests throughout its length upon the wall, whilst the pole plate rests only at intervals upon the ends of the roof trusses. The full depth of the pole plate is here taken advantage of for the varying height of the gutter bearer, the ends of which are tenoned into its sides, forming an approximately parallel gutter. The cess- pool is a form of tank or cistern for the purpose of collecting or receiving the rain-water previous to its being emptied into the down-pipe ; it may be formed within the depth of the tie-beam, where the position of the latter does not prevent it. Eaves Gutters. — These are illustrated on page 151. The roofing timbers are carried over the edge of the wall at least 1.8 ins., the common rafters being sup- ported either by jack rafters or by a pole plate. Soffit bearers are carried out from the wall, and made fast to the ends of the common rafters, the ends being closed or covered by a fascia board. It is to the fascia board that the gutter is fixed, the depth of the former allow- ing the gutter to be fixed with the necessary flow. The soffit is covered either by boarding or lath and 152 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY plaster ; whilst at intervals air gratings may be fixed for the purpose of ventilating the roof timbers. Abutments. — These are formed by increasing the thickness of walls immediately underneath bearing timbers, when increased support is required ; corbels or brackets of stone are also used for the same pur- pose. By a slight alteration of the scantling, the details at the foot of the principal rafter, as given on pages 148, 149, and 151, may be adapted both for king- and queen-post roof trusses. Mansard Roofs. — On page 1 5 3 is shown a complete elevation of a mansard roof truss, with common rafters, purlins, curbs, and pole plates added. It is a com- bination of king- and queen-post trusses, with two roof planes on either side. The advantage of this form of roof is that increased accommodation may be obtained without the expensive construction of walls. It is a common occurrence on the Continent to find several tiers of rooms within the roof itself. The section given on page 154 shows how a similar form of roof may be constructed upon purlins without the use of a truss. It is intended here to finish with parapet wall at the front, and with overhanging eaves gutter at the back. Philibert-de-Lorme Truss. — The truss shown on page 156 is an illustration of what is known as a Philibert-de-Lorme " truss. The main rib is formed up of a series of short lengths of boards in three thick- nesses, placed vertically, and with butt joints. These are stiffened by being fastened with radiating pieces to a blade of 11 in. by 4 in. material and to the uprights. The radiating pieces are made slightly orna- mental in character, whilst the top five are made to ROOFS support the skylight and ventilators. The truss, as here constructed, is intended for temporary use only. The strength of curved ribs of this kind, as compared to a solid rib, is equal to one of the same breadth and thickness, less one rib. Colonel Emy Truss. — Another form of truss with laminated ribs is that shown on page 157. In this case the boards or laminations are concentric and cylindrical, well bolted together. These are built upon a rough platform or "centre," the boards being forced to " take up " the curve by means of cramps. It is, however, found that when the laminations are thoroughly jointed at the butts, and kept well together by bolting, the tendency to spring, on being released, is but little. And this is entirely counteracted by the subsequent external bracing and strutting. This method of building up ribs by laminations adapts itself admirably well to the construction of bridges and large roofs, where economy and strength are the chief considerations. Gothic Roofs. — The truss illustrated on page 159 is an adaptation of the collar beam mentioned in the previous part of the chapter. The collar is secured to the principal blade by a stump mortise and tenon, and by means of a collar strap with bolts. The ten- dency of roofs of this description is to push the walls outward, the angle at the collar opening, whilst that at the foot of the rafter closes. The ribs, which for the sake of economy are built up in sections, are made fast to the blades and collar and to each other by means of small purpose-made oak tenons about 8 in. long and 4 in. wide, firmly draw- bore-pinned with f in. or i in. oak pins or tree-nails, ROOFS Colonel £^;72(/ 77"c/ss. SmoU po/^tcori s/^owinc? draccrrg of S^_nrig^cnp_Z.cne^ f^cds senile I rct/lor //y oift/u?e 158 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY The joints between the ribs are spliced, and these, and their joints with the blades, are tongued, as shown in the enlarged section. The blades in this example are 11 in. by 5 in., whilst the ribs are 2^ in. thick. It is desirous, in roofs of this kind, to carry the timbers to as low a point in the wall as is possible. In this case an upright plate has been attached to the lower end of the blade, and this, with the rib, has been carried down to a stone corbel, upon which it rests. Hammer-Beam Truss. — This truss is illustrated upon page 160, the short horizontal hammer-beam com- ing out from the foot of the principal rafter giving the truss its name. Trusses of this kind lend themselves to elaborate ornamentation, the spandrils being filled with tracery panels, and the ribs and blades moulded to such an extent that the outline of the principal timbers is, in some examples, almost lost to view. The diagram represented at the bottom of the page is that of the hammer-beam roof over Westminster Hall, reputed to be the best example of its kind in the country. Three main ribs are here made use of on either side of the centre, one passing directly from the centre of the collar, whilst the others pass in either direction from the end of the hammer-beam. Wind Braces. — In lofty trusses of the foregoing kinds, it is necessary to afford some additional lateral support in order to keep them in a vertical plane. These are usually placed in the plane of the roof, and pass, in the form of ribs, from one truss to the other. Turret Roofs. — The illustration given on page 1 6 1 is that of a pyramidal or turret-shaped roof, octagonal in plan. The principal rafters are supported at three points by strutting, two passing from the centre i6o CARPENTRY AND JOINERY ROOFS i62 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY post, whilst the third passes up from the foot of the queen-post. These latter are made fast to the ties by gib and cotter straps, whilst additional support may be given to the struts by fixing short cleats on the off- side of the queen-posts. Drips. — In arranging gutters, consideration must be made for the covering material. If that material be lead, then the gutter should be arranged, as nearly as possible, in 7 ft. lengths. In practice it is found more convenient to work the lead in lengths not exceeding this dimension. At these distances drips are arranged which afford an opportunity of joining the lengths in such a manner that, although kept in position, they are free to shrink and expand with the changes of tem- perature. Page 163 contains five methods of forming the drip. Fig. 1 represents what is known as a plain drip. The lead is worked up from the lower to the higher level, and tacked to a rebate. This is the fixed end, the other being arranged — as the top piece of lead — to move freely with the expansion and contraction, without buckling. Fig. 2 represents a sloping drip, the advantage of this form being that the lead is more easily bossed at the ends. Fig. 3 represents a rounded drip. In this case the lead is not so easily cut through in walking over it, as with the square edge. The section given in Fig. 4 has the advantage of preventing the lead from rising when the gutters are wide. The section of Fig. 5' has been arranged to prevent the passage of water through the lead joint by capillary attraction, a peculiar property of fluids explained in the previous chapter. Side Gutters. — Sections, with part elevations, are shown on page 164, of the various forms of gutters con- ROOFS 163 164 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY ROOFS 165 structed upon the sloping sides of roofs to make water- tight their junction with rising stacks or gable-ends. The sections in each case are taken through stacks or chimney flues, the inside of the 4 J in. being parged, whilst the outside has been rendered, this latter pre- caution making it doubly secure against fire. Dragon Ties. — In hipped roofs it is often found desirable to give additional support to the wall plates, and to secure a better seating for the hip rafter than the wall plates afford. This is accomplished by first bracing the wall plates together, as shown on page 166, and then to tenon a dragon beam to its centre, notch- ing it at the back to the tops of the wall plates. The arrangement of the timbers in this manner is known as a " dragon tie." Roofing Irregular Plans. — Great difficulty is sometimes experienced in arranging the roofing of buildings irregular in plan ; page 169 contains two such examples. The difficulty is sometimes overcome by inclining the ridges, and sometimes the eaves, or in some cases the roof plane has been twisted to meet the irregularity, neither of which is considered to produce a good effect. Figs. 1 and 2 represent two irregular plans. In the first case two of the walls are parallel, and, being the long walls, the ridge may be made parallel to them, and the ends hipped to meet it. The positions of the trusses are marked by double dotted lines. The irregular plan given in Fig. 2, page 169, offers the greater difficulties of the two. If the planes of the roof are to be true, and the ridges and eaves hori- zontal, the only position which the plans of the ridges can occupy is parallel to the wall plates. If four ROOFS 167 ridges were adopted, then the means of draining the central portion would be intercepted. The method adopted here is to make use of the upper three ridges only, allowing the water collected between them to drain to the lower wall. To draw the plans of the valleys, consider the side ridges produced until they intersect in point J (at the top of the page), and draw JN, bisecting the angle at J and intersecting the lower wall line in N. This line may be considered as the plan of the valley gutter between the ridges. By developing this inclined valley line with the outliiie of roof, as shown by the dotted lines, the intersecting joint M is obtained, its plan being immediately below it. Then by joining up the plan of this point with the inter- sections of the ridges, the plans of the two remaining valleys are obtained. The lengths of the hips and the bevels of their backing are shown in this example, the methods adopted being explained in the following. To find the Length of the Hips. — The hips may always be considered as occupying the position of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, the plan of the hip being its base, and the difterence in the altitude of the highest and lowest points of the hip, the perpendicular. If these lines be rotated about the plan, into the horizontal plane, the length of the hip may readily be obtained. In Fig. 1, page 169, AB represents the plan of the hip, and BC the difference in their altitudes. By turning down BC at right angles to BA, then AC represents the true length of the hip. This process has been repeated with each one of the hips in Figs. 1 and 2. To find the Backing of the Hip or the Angle between the Planes of the Roof — The dihedral CARPENTRY AND JOINERY angle between the two roof planes is measured by a third plane, mutually perpendicular to the first pair ; the angle between the lines of intersection represents the angle required. For this purpose, the horizontal plane is brought up to the level of the wall plates, the plans of the latter being represented by a single line. The plane used for measuring the dihedral angle is always triangular, and made up by the two lines including the required angle and the line which is the horizontal trace of the plane. Of this triangle three elements are sought for the purpose of its construction, viz., the base, perpendicular, and the position of that perpendicular. Taking the same corner as used in the last case, Fig. 1, we will pro- ceed to find the angle contained between the planes intersecting in the hip of which AB is the plan. In order that a plane shall be perpendicular to two others, its horizontal trace must be at right angles to the plan of the line of intersection. The dotted line is therefore drawn at right angles to AB, and represents the base of the triangle already alluded to. Its intersection (F) with AB is also the position of the foot of the perpendicular. To find its length, take a side view of the hip or intersecting line {AC). If from Fj a line be drawn perpendicular to AC and intersecting it in (?, then FG represents the length of the perpendicular. With F as centre and FG as radius, construct an arc cutting AB in H. Then FG (the length of the perpendicular) is rotated into a position at right angles to BF, and the angle BHF is the angle required. The plan being irregular, the angles will all differ ; the operation therefore requires to be repeated at each corner. ROOFS I J6'0 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Pur/in^ and /ac/c ffo/Cer's rr^etfyod of obtocnfrig ^/hevclrS ROOFS 171 To find the Bevels for Purlins.— Fig. 1, page 170, may be considered as a portion of the plan of a regular-shaped building, and ABC a section through its roof planes. Two enlarged purlins are represented in section, each placed at different angles to the roof plane. For the purpose of obtaining a larger diagram, the sides of the purlins have been increased to a width equal to the length of the radii of the circles. The extremities of these radii have been carried back to the plans of the hips. The ends of the surfaces when developed represent geometrically the true bevel upon the ends of the material. To find the Bevel of the Jack Rafters. — The irregular end of a building has been selected for this example, and is shown at Fig. 2, page 170. The double lines represent the plans of jack rafters (short- ened rafters). The perpendicular distance from the eaves to the ridge has been found by developing the pitch GFD, and then turning it into the horizontal plane at EF. One each of the margin lines of the jack rafters have been produced to meet the hips developed. The angles between these lines represent those re- quired. CHAPTER IX. FISHING, SCARFING, AND TRUSSING TIMBERS. In some of the larger varieties of framing which the carpenter has to construct, it is often a difiScult matter to procure timbers of sufficient length for his require- ments. He has, therefore, to resort to one or other of the following means, viz., fishing or scarfing. The essential difference between the two being that, in making a fished joint, the breadth or depth of the timber is increased; whilst in scarfing, the joint is constructed within its own breadth and depth. Fished Joint. — In these joints no part of the length of the timber is lost. For this reason, and for the fact that they require little labour to construct, it is considered the most economical method of length- ening timbers. They may be constructed for compres- sion, tension, and for transverse stress. Fig. 91 is intended to resist compression ; it is the neatest of the fished joints, as the plates do not project much beyond the thickness of the material. Another fished joint, designed to resist compression, is that shown at Fig. 92, in which case wood fish plates have been used. It has been said that the strength of these joints is equal to the strength of the fish plates; but FISHING, SCARFING, AND TRUSSING TIMBERS 173 the fact must not be lost sight of that the plates are placed in the most effective position, and are, com- paring equal sections, far more powerful here than in the centre of the depth of the timbers. Fig. 93 is designed to resist both compression and tension. As a tensile joint, its strength depends upon the ability of the material to resist shearing, both with respect jug ao. XXX to the wood and iron. On the under side of the figure, the butt is prevented from opening by the hard-wood keys or cogs. The top plate is said to be tabled. A good joint for the purpose of resisting trans- verse stresses may be constructed by sinking a wood fish plate a little below the surface of the side in compres- sion, and by placing an iron fish plate upon the tensile side, and bolting the whole well together. The bolts should be placed zigzag, to preserve, so far as possible, the effective area of the material. The fish plates are 174 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY , 'T: ^ 4f ^ T 5 . 1 1 r L- < * — — '-^ 3- c?. f V V V V '3' j' 'I • ^ ^ -4^ FISHING, SCARFING, AND TRUSSING TIMBERS 175 of a length equal to six times the depth of the piece joined. Scarfing. — Figs. 1 to 6, page 174, are representations of scarfing for tension, compression, and transverse stresses. In each of these cases, each piece is cut away to the extent of the length of the scarf. Fig. 1 represents a scarf suitable for compression only. Fig. 2 is an illustration of an example intended to resist both compression and transverse stresses. Figs. 3 and 4 are designed for a similar purpose. Figs. 5 and 6 are designed for the purpose of ties, and are also calculated to resist transverse stresses. Figs. 7 and 8 are given to represent the method of finishing the top and bottom edges of the foregoing examples when they are subject to side thrusts. Fig. 7, of the two, is calculated to be best adapted for compression joints, the bearing surfaces being at right angles to the direction of the thrust. Strengthening Horizontal Timbers. — For this purpose a series of timbers may be built up at the side of each other, the strength of such timbers being increased directly as the number of the pieces used. If bolted together in a manner somewhat similar to the flitched beam (Chapter iv.), they are rendered considerably stronger, the strength increasing directly as the breadth. Timbers placed above each other, if properly designed and secured, are even stronger than those placed side by side. This will be easily understood from the fact that the strength of rectangular timbers varies directly as the square of the depth. Upon examination of Fig. 94, it will be seen that the pieces or laminae, of which the whole beam is composed, is liable to slide over each other as 176 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY they are deflected or bent down. This must be pre- vented, if the fullest effect of the increased depth is to r be secured. In Figs. 3 and 4, p. 177, sliding is pre- vented by cogging or indenting the surface of one piece below that of the other, and securing the pieces by iron straps. It is estimated that, to secure the best results from the above, the sum of the indents should be equal to the total depth of the beam. Trussing. — This may be done within the depth of the beam, or it may extend beyond, and with wrought iron or cast. If the latter be used, it must be placed in such a manner that the stresses to which it may be subject, produce compression only. Cast iron may not economically be used to resist tension. In the example given on p. 177, Fig. 2, the beam, which is composed of two flitches, has been trussed by means of a tension rod passing down to the lower end of a vertical wooden strut provided with an iron face plate. The tension rod passes upward between the two flitches and through cast-iron shoes, specially prepared and provided with splayed backs, directly at right angles to the direction of the tie-rod. As has been previously stated, the trussing may be carried out within the depth of the beam itself, and, in that case, the face plate of the last example would be let into the under side of the beam, the bar passing under it. FISHING, SCARFING, AND TRUSSING TIMBERS 177 178 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY A single beam may be trussed in a similar manner to the last, but in such a case the rods would pass down the outer faces, one on either side. Another example is shown on p. 194, the beam of the traveller being provided with two struts to afford additional support to the moving load. In order to receive the ends of the tension rods, the shoes are, upon both sides, provided with stout projecting ears, cast in the solid metal. Timbers may be trussed as shown at Fig. 1, page 177. This is the method usually employed in supporting the upper levels of gallery flooring, and in positions where parallel timbers are required both at the top and bottom, and where the increased depth is an advantage. Plain strutting, where possible, should always be preferred to cross bracing, as less labour is involved, and the full sectional area of the timber employed is effective. This is not the case where timbers cross each other in the same plane, the cutting or cross bracing reducing the effective area of the timbers joined by one half. CHAPTER X. TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, AND CENTERING. Timbering Excavations. — When earth has to be excavated for the construction of foundations, drainage, and other works, the sides need to be sup- ported in a manner which will prevent them from falling in. The methods employed will vary greatly with the character of the soil and its condition. In moderately stiff soil, such as clay, and which has to be excavated only to the depth of 3 or 4 ft., vertical poling boards, from 8 in. to 10 in. wide, and from 2 in. to 3 in. thick, are placed at intervals of about three or four feet, and are supported by struts 4 in. by 4 in. or 5 in. by 5 in. These are kept in position by being firmly driven from the top and not from the sides (see Fig. 1, page 180). In loose, rubbly soil it will be advisable to support the sides with poling boards, closely placed, and in lengths of about 3 ft. Waling pieces are placed across the poling boards near their ends, and these are supported by the struts. Waling pieces require to be of stouter material than the poling boards, the thickness being largely controlled by the nature of the soil, and also by the spacing. The waling used in the excavations i8o CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Timbering Ejccq vq tions TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERINCx t8i shown at Fig. 2, page 180, is of 7 in. by 3 in. material. In loose sandy soil, it will be found necessary to sup- port the material by placing horizontal waling pieces directly against the soil, supporting these by vertical poling boards driven downwards, and, as the work pro- ceeds, strutting them at regular intervals. In soft or waterlogged soil, such a& river-bed work, it is necessary to use specially prepared sheeting, as shown in Fig. 95. This is of thin material, driven between stiffer timbers known as guide piles." The sheeting is driven before excavating, the pointing of the ends of the boards (as shown in the figure) assisting to close the joints, and thus prevent, as far as possible, the escape of water. The joints are matched in the manner shown, so that pressure, being brought to bear upon any one board, may be distributed over a series. Bearing Piles. — These are of whole timbers 10 or 15 in. square, and of a length varying with the 1 l82 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY requirements. They are used for the purpose of creat- ing foundations on soft and treacherous ground over- lying a hard substratum. They are assisted in their passage through the soil by being pointed at the lower ends, and protected, as shown in Fig. 96, by cast-iron points, secured by wrought-iron straps and bolts. The heads are protected during the process of driving by wrought-iron rings. The pile driver is a vertical staging of wood-work, secured in its position by guy ropes, and having an engine, by means of which a large weight, called a " monkey," of from two to three cwt. is raised. The " monkey " is allowed to fall from a varying height. TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING 183 regulated by the set required and by the resistance of the pile. The pile, by repeated blows from the " monkey," is driven to such a depth that, either by the friction of its sides against the soil, or by reaching a harder substance below, it is capable of affording the required bearing power. The resistance offered by piles may be found by the following formula : ^ WH 8i> When L = safe load in cwts. (cut off at the ground), 1) = set of pile by the last blow in inches, 11= height of the fall in inches, W = weight of " monkey " in cwts. Shoring. — This is the term given to the methods adopted for temporarily supporting the walls of a build- ing which shows signs of bulging, or of passing out of the perpendicular, or of supporting the upper portion of a wall during the process of underpinning, or alter- ing the character of a portion of the building. Raking Shores. — Those props or timbers which pass from the ground to the wall in an inclined position are termed " raking shores." They should be of whole timbers, — of the same dimensions, both in width and thickness. When a series of shores pass directly from the same platform to different points in the height of a wall, they are known as double or treble raking shores, according to the number of tim- bers so situated. It is the custom, under some condi- tions, to start a support from a point midway up the shore, and not directly from the ground ; such support is known as a " rider." TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING 185 Illustrations of three varieties are given on page 184. In order to fix a shore, or system of shoring, a wall piece is first fixed to the wall, covering the portion inclined to bulge, and having mortised in it holes large enough for the " needle " to pass through. These needles are rectangular pieces of wood about 4 in. by 4 in. or 5 in. by 4 in., and about 18 in. long, which, after passing partially into the wall, are allowed to pro- ject about ten or twelve inches. Against these the head of the raking shore is placed, additional support having first been given by a cleat partially sunk into the wall piece immediately above the needle. The foot of the raking shore rests upon a platform composed of short ends of deals, about 3 ft. long, crossing and re- crossing each other. Upon this a sole piece rests in a direction at right angles to the wall. The sole piece sometimes takes the place of a platform. In this case the material should be of a width and thickness equal to that of the shore itself. The raking shore is best adjusted by bringing the foot closer to the wall. This should be done with the aid of a handspike or crowbar, applying it as a lever of the second order. Jarring of the frame-work should be avoided so far as possible, as, in being communicated to the brickwork, the mortar joints are apt to be destroyed. Eiders are adjusted at either end by folding wedges, and are made secure either by a bonding of hoop-iron, or by planking. In the latter case the planking may be extended to the wall piece and made to serve the purpose of struts. Iron dogs " — short pieces of | in. round or square iron, with the ends pointed and turned through an angle of 90° — are then applied to keep the several parts in place. Shores, flying or raking, should TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING //on^ontol or I'lytng S/?o/^es. TJouble SysCcm. i88 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY be applied to walls in positions thoroughly well sup- ported, such as the junctions of floors, or against the edges of other walls. Details of raking shores are shown on page 186. Flying Shores. — These are horizontal shores passing across the space between two houses ; and, as is the case with raking shores, as one, two, or three horizontal shores are used in the same trussing, so is the system known as single, double, or treble flying shores. Wall pieces and needles are used in this, as in the raking shores. The shores are cut a little short of the dis- tance between the wall pieces, and rest temporarily upon cleats. They are then adjusted by means of folding wedges, additional support being rendered by strutting. The illustration given on page 187 is that of a double system of horizontal flying shores. Dead Shores. — These are shown on page 189. The front wall of a ground floor has been removed for the insertion of a shop front. The upper floor windows are first strutted to prevent settlement, and then holes are drawn in the solid brickwork for the insertion of the needles ; these must be in positions where they will not interfere with the progress of the work. Brick- work, to the extent of about 1 ft. 6 in. or 2 ft., on either side of the needles, may, with care, be left un- supported, or may be removed in steps upwards in the form of a rough arch. The needles are supported at either end by upright timbers known as " dead shores," resting upon " fenders " or sleepers," and, as will be seen in the section on page 189, the shores may be made the means of supporting the floors that may intervene. The floor is here carried upon a long plate of 11 in. by 3 in., supported by the shorter shores, TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING 189 lY/^oie 77r/7bers 7)eac/ S/^^ore /f Tdnch yvol/ It 190 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY and adjusted by folding wedges at the base, the differ- ence between the top surface of the floor and the underside of the needle being taken up with short cleats or plates resting on at least three or four joists, and this again adjusted by means of folding wedges. Sufficient space must be left between the shores and the wall on either side to carry on the progress of the work. The joints are all plain-butted, and are secured in position by iron "dogs." Upon removing supports of this kind, it is always advisable to do so by degrees, so that all new work may take up its bearing gradually, and without fracture. Centering. — A ''centre" is a rough, temporary plat- form of wood, upon which arches are sprung. It should, in the outline of its elevation, be of the exact form of the archway. It is composed of two or more cheeks or ribs firmly secured together, whilst upon their upper edges pieces, called laggings," are fixed, ranging in size from small battens to heavy planking according to the nature of the work. It is upon the laggings the voussoirs or arch stones rest during the building of the arch. In order to apply the plumb- rule and straightedge, it is necessary to keep the laggings a little short of the face of the work, | in. upon each side being sufficient in small work. As the " centre " takes the weight of the voussoirs until the keystone has been placed in position and the centre " struck," great care is required in deciding upon the correct positions for the struts, so as to economically carry the superincumbent weight with safety. It has been found by experience and investigation that arch stones do not begin to slide upon their beds TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING 191 until the joints are inclined at angles of about 30^, varying according to the material, the condition of its surface, and also to the nature of the cementing material employed. It is therefore obvious that centres are not required to lend support to the voussoirs until the bed joints of the latter have reached what is known as the " angle of repose " of that material. This tendency goes on increasing with the angle of the bed joints until a perpendicular line through the centre of gravity of any voussoir falls without its base, in which case the whole weight of the stone has to be borne by the centre. Fu) 97 Fig. 97 is an example of centering for a semicircular arch, the span of which is 18 ft. Up to this span ordinary planking ribs may be used. These may be nailed together with butt joints, and in suah a manner that they break line with each other. 192 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Centres. Segm ento I. TEMPORARY WORK, SHORING, CENTERING 193 When arches exceed the span given in the last example, the centres need to be trussed either with small king-posts or with queen-posts. Two such ex- amples are shown on page 192. Striking or Easing Centres. — After the keystone has been placed in position, and before the mortar or cementing material has had time to set, the centre should be eased, or allowed to drop slightly from its position, so that the voussoirs may be able to take up their own bearing. This should be accomplished by degrees and with great care, avoiding all unnecessary jarring or unequal settlement, or fracture may occur and the work be rendered insecure. For small work the striking is carried out by easing the folding wedges inserted between the centre and its supports ; but in the larger varieties tapered and stepped cotters or keys are employed, as shown on page 192. These are allowed to project until the arch is completed, and then, by driving them back by degrees, the " centre " drops from its position. Gantries. — For the purpose of lifting heavy masonry or other work, a gantry, similar to that shown on page 194, is constructed, the standards passing down on either side of the work. These are usually arranged with a traveller and hoisting gear, so that material may be lifted from any position of the work. In some important work the movement of the traveller and the hoisting gear is controlled from one point, usually at ground level. N 194 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY CHAPTER XI. MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK. The mouldings which are used at the present day are mainly of Grecian and Roman origin. They are shown separately on page 196, whilst a combination of some of them will be seen in the cornice, frieze, and archi- trave on page 199. Speaking generally, the mouldings of both types will be found to be of the same com- binations, but with this distinction — the Roman morldings are of circular outline, whilst the Grecian mouldings are elliptic, or of curves, other than the circle. Fillet. — This is a flat, narrow band alike both in the Roman and Grecian. It is used principally to divide the combinations of the other mouldings, and caps the cyma recta and cyma reversa. Torus. — This is the bead as known at the present time. It is commonly used as a plinth or base moulding, and gives the appearance of strength and support. Ovolo. — This is another of the mouldings which convey the impression of support, and with the cyma reversa and scotia — other mouldings designed for the same purpose — are usually placed in cornices or capping moulds. 196 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Mouldings. f(om on. GrecCon. ] ratet. Torus. Oi/olo. or Coi/etto. Fascia %eta. f(et/ersQ. TT^oc^itus or ScotcQ. ' MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK 197 Hollow or Cavetto. — This, with the two following, viz., annulets and cyma recta, are intended to convey an impression of shade, whilst the fascia gives the impression of light. Astragal. — This is a projecting semicircular or bead-shaped moulding, shown in its various forms at Figs. 98 to 103. Fig. 98 is a representation of the true astragal as a horizontal band ; when situated as a vertical moulding, as Fig. 99, it is known as a cocked bead. When sunk below the surface, as at Fig. 100, it is known as a double quirked bead. Fig. 101 is a representation of a returned bead, whilst at Fig. 102 is seen the ordinary or single quirked bead. The latter stuck upon the edge of matched boards, or boards placed with their edges in contact with one another, has the 198 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY effect shown in Fig. 100, and counteracts the unsightly appearance of an open joint. Fig. 103 represents the angle or staff bead. It is in section of the form of a segment of a circle larger than the semicircle. It is fixed as a protection at the angle of plastered walls, the flattened surface affording a key for the plaster. Hollow and Astragal. — This, as shown on page 201, is a combination of hollow and round, with a listel or fillet between. Enlargement and Diminution of Mouldings. — The example given is that of a combination of cornice, frieze, and architrave (Fig. 1, page 199). It is re- quired to reduce its projection from GH to IJ, and its height from AB to CD, Taking the projection GH first. Draw IJ of the required length parallel to and at a convenient distance from GH. Join HJ and GI, producing them to meet in K. From all important points in the projection of the moulding, drop perpen- diculars to GH, From the feet of the perpendiculars draw lines converging to K and intersecting IJ. IJ will then be divided proportionately to GH, and will represent the diminished projection of the moulding. For the diminished height repeat the process at AB (Fig. 1), drawing CD of the required height parallel to and at a convenient distance from AB. If the height and overhanging projection are to be reduced in strict proportion, then the triangles GHK and ABN must have their perpendicular heights divided by IJ and CD in the same ratio. This is perhaps best accomplished by making the two triangles similar, and dividing the similar sides proportionately. Mouldings may be enlarged by placing the line 200 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY representing the increased height obliquely across the moulding, as at EF, the increased heights of each member being represented by that portion of the oblique line crossing the member. The increased overhanging projection is obtained in a similar manner by placing the line representing that distance obliquely across the perpendiculars over GH. The enlargements may also be found by triangles similar to the method of diminishing. In that case, the lines IJ and CD would be replaced by the increased distances, and the positions of the apices of the triangles K and N would be reversed, and placed on the opposite sides of the bases GH and AB, The term " similar " has been mentioned with reference to the triangles used in the enlargement and diminution of mouldings. In order that triangles may be similar, it is only required that they shall have their several angles equal each to each, then the sides about their equal angles are proportional. Fig. 2, page 199, is a representation of two similar triangles, CBA and EBD. Raking Mouldings. — These are shown at Fig. 3, page 199, the sections A and (7 being the raking sections of the bar B, The student will readily understand the method of obtaining them from the figure, the thickness being in each member the same. Intersections of Curved Mouldings.— The illustra- tions furnished on pages 201 and 202 are given to show how the mitres of curved mouldings of panelled soffits are obtained. A single line diagram of a separate scheme has been shown in each case, and, to avoid needless repetition, a portion only has been enlarged. The enlarged portion of each diagram has been repre- MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK 203 sented by the dotted lines at the centre of each rail. The following is a summary of the results obtained : Mouldings Intersecting. Two straight mouldings (any position), - Two curved mouldings of equal radii (internally or externally), Two curved mouldings of equal radii (internal with external). Curved mouldings with unequal radii (internal, external, or combined), Curved mouldings with straight (in- ternally or externally and acute or obtuse), ----- In mouldings of curved outline and with but few members, supplementary marginal lines must be adopted, and through their intersections a fair curve represent- ing the mitre line may be drawn. Circular Louvre Frames. — These are ventilating frames fixed in the walls of stables and other buildings where air is required without light. The fixing of the louvre boards in the manner shown on page 204 pre- vents the driving rain from passing to the interior, whilst currents of fresh air are directed upwards to- wards the ceiling, and there diffused. The method of obtaining the outline of the louvres will readily be seen when it is understood that they terminate upon a cylindrical surface, the diameter of which is equal to the distance between the quirks of the beads (see page 204). By producing these lines, and by drawing the line ACD parallel to the sloping sides of the louvres, and intersecting the lines produced Mitre Obtained. Straight. Straight. Curved. Curved. Curved. MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK 205 in A and D, the major axis of the elliptical section of the cylinder is obtained. The minor axis HOB is made equal to the diameter of the cylinder ; the axes bisecting each other at right angles, the outline of the curve may be drawn. In order to find the true shape of any louvre, project its extremities from the section of the frame to the major axis. If, from these points, lines be drawn at right angles to the major axis to meet the curve, the outline of the surface of the louvre will be obtained. A pattern will be required for each side, but both may be obtained by the same process. Pendentives. — The term " pendentive " is analogous to that of " spandrel," and it will be necessary to thoroughly understand the latter before a proper con- ception of the former may be obtained. A spandrel is the irregular triangular surface intercepted between the extrados of an arch and an imaginary rectangle surrounding it. Where two arches are placed in con- tinuation, the whole of the triangular surface included below an imaginary horizontal line joining the crowns and the outline or extrados of the arch on either side is termed the "spandrel." The term" spandrel" is applied to plane surfaces only. When the surface is curved and intersected by vertical or horizontal planes, the portion intercepted between such planes is known as a "pendentive." The figures given on page 206 will serve, not only to illustrate the meaning of the term " pendentive," but to show how the curves of the ribs are obtained. In this case, when the main rib AC or DB is laid down, all other parallel ribs may be taken from them. To find the Curve of the Ribs. — Having drawn the plan, and laid down the main rib ACDB, with section 2o6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY MOULDINGS AND CIRCULAR WORK 207 of octagonal curb, trace the dotted lines from a, c, e, etc. (Fig. 1), crossing the diagonal AB at right angles and intersecting the main rib. The portions inter- cepted between the dotted lines from each rib will represent the face-mould of that portion. The face- mould for the angle rib is represented at 4a, and is obtained by a fresh development of the upper portion of the rib upon the plan of the rib at /. The heights of the points 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the sectional elevation, are also obtained from the development of the large rib. Circle on Circle. — Work that, in plan and elevation, has a circular outline is known as " circle on circle " work. In order to describe the methods employed to obtain the lines, the circular headed door frame has been selected. Two examples will be explained, viz., the head divided in two and also in three parts. The example given on page 208 is that of the head divided in two. Having drawn the plan and elevation, draw the chord ab in plan, and the tangent xy parallel to ab. These lines represent the plans of the back and front surfaces of the required plank, and their distance apart, the thickness. Draw the radiating dotted lines intersecting ab and xy in points 1, 2, 3, etc. Project the points upwards, to the front surface of the frame in elevation, and draw the vertical lines 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. The heights of the upper and lower extremities of these lines upon the front and back will represent the heights of similar ordinates upon the face-mould. Transfer the lines xy and ab with their numbers to a convenient position and set up ordinates, cutting them off in length equal to those in elevation. Trace a fair curve through the points on the ordinates, and the face-mould 2o8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Circle on Ccrcie. 210 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY is obtained. It will be noticed that the line 3x has been taken perpendicular to the line ab ; x tlierefore represents the internal edge of the plank at the lower end. Join D with x, and the edge of the plank is determined. The other edge of the plank is drawn tangent to the face-mould and parallel to the first edge, the bevels at the ends being represented at C and D. If the edge of the plank above b,y be developed, the bevel at that end will be found. This is shown at U and F. At the other end a square is used. In the example shown on page 209, the head of the frame is divided into three, and the method of obtaining the face-mould is similar in each case. The student should remember that the joints between the three are butted, and are normal to the curve at that point. The bevel at G is applied to the vertical surface of the top portion, whilst the bevel at If belongs to the top and bottom edge. The bevel at J is applied to the ends in a manner somewhat similar to a square. CH/VPTER XIL TIMBER: ITS GROWTH, TREATMENT, AND PRESERVATION; VARIETIES AND THEIR PECULIARITIES, USES, AND DEFECTS. Growth. — Upon examination of a transverse section of one of the soft-wood trees, such as the firs or pines, a series of concentric and more or less regular circles will be found, composed of light and dark material. With the exogens or outward growers, these rings or layers are produced by the ascending sap in the spring, forming what is known as spring-wood. After being exposed upon the leaf to the action of the sun, the sap is decomposed, and in its altered condition returns by way of the trunk, depositing another layer, known as autumn-wood, differing slightly in colour, and thus creating a line of demarkation between the spring- wood of one year's growth and that of the next. In tropical climates this motion of the sap takes place in the rainy seasons, and the annual rings are not so strongly marked. The annual rings are composed of a number of small cells, which in some timbers can only be distinguished by the aid of a microscope, whilst in the coarser grained timbers, such as that of the oak, they may be seen with the naked TIMBER 213 eye. Communication of the sap is carried on between the annual rings by cells, contained in radial planes, and known as medullary rays. These are found in all timbers, but are more strongly marked in the oak, beech, and plane trees, and are known by the joiner as the felt, silver grain, or clash, and are illustrated by the radial lines in Fig. 3, page 212. The formation of the growth externally causes the heart of the tree each year to become more dense. The student will notice this for himself; the wood nearest the heart offers more resistance to the tools than that more remote. Upon close examination of a log of timber, there will be found, besides the annual rings, two distinct classes of wood, in some cases differing in colour, and usually separated by one distinct ring. Two such logs are shown at Figs. 1 and 2, page 212. These different classes of wood are known by the names of duramen and alburnum. The former is the heart or perfect wood, whilst the latter is the sapwood. This latter variety is found upon the outside of the trunk, but upon the growth of new wood exteriorly, the older portion of sapwood becomes indurated and changes its state to that of duramen or heartwood. With the younger trees the sapwood forms by far the greater part of the trunk, but as the tree reaches maturity, the perfect wood or duramen increases and the sapwood becomes less in proportion. Fig. 1, page 212, represents a section of the trunk of a tree of im- mature growth, with the sapwood forming by far the greater portion of the section, whilst Fig. 2 is a representation of the section of a trunk of mature growth, the sapwood forming but a small portion of the section. 214 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Felling. — This is the operation of cutting down the tree previous to its conversion into timber. From the foregoing remarks it may be inferred that a tree, in order to be fit for the builder, should have arrived at maturity, or, if not, it will be found to contain a large quantity of alburnum or sapwood, w^hich is deficient in strength and durability. The matui'e age of a tree varies considerably, according to the class to which it belongs, but ranges from 60 to 150 years. A tree that has passed maturity will lack a full growth of foliage at the top. At the appearance of such signs, the tree should be felled in order to save its wood. Another important point to consider is with regard to the seasons. It is advisable that a tree should be felled when the sap is at rest ; this, in temperate climates, is at midsummer and midwinter ; but the latter is to be preferred, as at that period the trunk contains less of its juices, and is not so liable to fracture in drying. For the same reason, in tropical climates, the dry seasons are the best for felling purposes. Seasoning. — This is the process of extracting from the timber its moisture and sap. In the resinous varieties it is advisable to rouglily square the log as soon as it is felled. This not only facilitates the dry- ing process, but prevents the wood from splitting. The student will understand, from the relative dimen- sions of the circumference and diameter, how it is that whole timbers " shake " to such an extent in drying. In addition to this, it is found that timbers shrink considerably more in the direction of the ring than across. This is shown at Fig 3, page 224, and, al- though exaggerated, points out the direction in which the greatest change takes place, TIMBER 215 No seasoning process is equal to the natural pro- cess of air-drying ; by it the timber not only retains its natural elasticity, but the process of desiccation is brought about without that amount of warping, twist- ing, and splitting so common to other methods. It is carried on in open sheds by stacking and stripping the timber upon elevated platforms, so constructed that they are true in plane, otherwise a permanent twist may be given to the material so stacked. The strips used vary from one to three inches in thickness, are placed at regular distances along the stack, and in strictly vertical lines, so that no cross strain is put upon the material. Timber should not be subjected to direct sunlight. Where timber sheds are erected in exposed positions, it is advisable to cover the sides with louvre board ino- so that, whilst the air would have free access, the rain and direct sunlight would be prevented from striking the timber. The time re- quired by the process varies with the class of timber, its sizes, and the condition when received. Fir may be instanced, as taking half the time occupied by oak. Oak, 24 in. sq., will occupy about two years. Oak, 7 in. or 8 in. sq., will occupy about six months. Other scantling in like proportion. The stacking of large quantities of timber by the builder represents a great expense, and is looked upon as so much money lying idle, and can therefore only be carried out by firms heavily financed. Water Seasoning consists of wholly immersing the timber in " ponds " — convenient places near large timber yards, usually close to the banks of navigable rivers. This process is carried on for about three 2i6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY weeks, in which time a large part of the sap is washed out. The material is then dried in stacks as above. Hot-Air Process of Seasoning. — This is a process only applicable to small timbers, as wood, being a poor conductor of heat, a small portion only of its depth is affected by it. It is carried on in chambers heated by steam (usually the spent steam from the engine) passing through a series of 3 -in. or 4-in. pipes below the floor, the timber being carefully stacked so as to allow of the free access of heated air and evaporation of the moisture, and at the same time to prevent warping and twisting. Condensing tubes, through which cold water passes, should be placed at intervals around the chamber, so that the moisture, as it evaporates from the timber, may condense upon the surface of the pipes and find its way by channels to the exterior. Smoking. — This is known as M'Neile's " process, and is reputed to produce good results. The opera- tion, like the previous one, is carried out by stacking in a brick chamber, but in this case the products of combustion are allowed to enter the chamber, the atmosphere of which is kept moist by the evaporation of water contained in a tank situated below the timbers but above the fire. In all processes of desiccation care should be exer- cised to apply the heat gently, as by a rapid process the timber is injured by splitting. Steaming. — This is a process by which the wood is subjected to the action of steam, and is considered to be effectual with any sized timbers. In this process the timber is stacked in wooden tanks, but stripping is necessary only to allow of a free passage of the steam. TIMBER 217 as no warping or twisting takes places. The time occupied is calculated at the rate of one hour for every inch in thickness. PEESERVATION. In order to prevent, as far as possible, the decay of timber, several methods have been brought forward, each tending to a greater or less extent to bring about the desired result ; they are as follows. Painting. — This is a process of covering the surface with sublimate of lead, or in work subjected to sulphur fumes, zinc white. These are thinly spread over the work by means of a brush, the vehicle used being linseed oil with a small addition of driers. With all coating methods the material should be thoroughly dry before the application of the preserva- tive, otherwise the moisture within the material would be prevented from escaping, and dry rot would ensue. Tarring. — When the work is of a rough character and out of doors, covering the work with gas tar is often resorted to. In either of the above processes two, three, and four coats are often applied to make it effectual. Sanding. — This is a process of covering the surface with sand. The work is first coated with stiff paint and the sand sprinkled over it, afterwards dusting off the superfluous sand and repeating, finally coating the surface with a paint to produce the desired colour. This has the effect of making the work appear like stone. The sand should be clean and free from all loamy or earthy matter. 2i8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Charring the ends of posts previous to embedding them in the ground has been found to have a beneficial effect, especially in soils inclined to be wet. The effect of carbonization is to render the material so treated proof against decomposition, but, like all other coating processes, the interior must be either deprived of its sap, or have its condition so changed that it is not likely to become decomposed. Several methods have been tried, in order to render immutable the decomposable elements, amongst them being the following : Abel's, Bethell's, Boucherie's, Burnett's, Gardner's, Kyan's, Margary's, and Payne's. The process of treatment recommended by Sir F. Abel is a three-coat one, the first coat of which con- sists of a dilute solution of silicate of soda, containing one of a saturated solution of the same to four of water. The second coat consists of a creamy solution of fat or pure lime ; whilst the third consists of a similar solution to the first, diluted to the extent of one of the saturated solution to two of water. These solutions are applied to the smooth surface of the work by means of a brush, care being taken that the silicate of soda solution is dry before the application of the lime. The effect of this process is to increase the lasting properties of the wood, and to render it uninflammable. Bethell's process is one of creosoting, and although it renders the timbers highly inflammable and of objectionable smell, it is the most effective and popu- lar process now in use, and is proof against the attacks of animal life. The process consists of piling the timber in wrought-iron tanks, creating a vacuum within the same, and then subjecting the timber to a TIMBER 219 solution of creosote at a temperature of 120°, and at a pressure of about 150 lbs. per sq. in. Specifications for creosoting should state the quantity per cubic foot to be injected. This ranges from 8 to 12 lbs. per cubic foot, according to the class of work for which the material is to be used. Sir William Burnett's process is somewhat simi- lar to the above, but in this case a metallic salt is used. The solution of the salt (1 lb. of chloride of zinc to 6 or 7 gallons of water) is forced into the pores of the wood under a pressure of 150 lbs. per sq. in. The advantage of the process is that the material appears to be more thoroughly im- pregnated than in the former method. There is an absence of smell. The material is rendered uninflam- mable, whilst the poisonous nature of the salts renders it proof against the attack of insects. The material (chloride of zinc) is soluble in water, and therefore, to a slight extent at least, is liable to be washed out. Experience has proved, however, that a sufficient quantity is retained for all practical purposes. M. Boucherie's process is one of impregnating the material, by slight pressure, with a solution composed of 1 lb. of sulphate of copper to 12 gallons of water. The newly-cut end of the timber is provided with a collar or washer of leather or felt, whilst a disc of wood is made fast to the end of the timber by means of a screw through the centre, and in such a way that the felt washer intervenes, creating a small space over the end of the timber. This chamber is then connected by means of a rubber tube to a tank containing the sulphate of copper solution. The tank is placed at a height of about 15 or 20 feet, so tliat 220 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY a head of pressure " is created. The solution, enter- ing the pores of the wood, forces the sap out and takes its place. It takes but a few hours to complete the process, and it is said the material is at once ready for use. The completion of the process is indicated by the application of prussiate of potash to the other end of the material ; a complete passage of the salt is marked by a brown stain. Margary's is an English process, and appears to be contemporary with that of the French (M. Boucherie's). It differs from the latter, both as regards the inten- sity of the solution and the method of application. Margary recommends that only 7 or 8 gallons of water should be added to each pound of the salt. The materials are placed in a tank, and the timber is allowed to remain until thoroughly steeped, the time required being about two days per inch of the thick- ness of the timber. Kyan's process consists of steeping the timber in bi-chloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), in the proportion of 1 lb. of the sublimate to 15 gallons of water. A stronger solution than the above is re- commended for the best effects, and also injection under pressure similar to the former processes. Payne's is a double process, two chemicals being separately applied. A partial vacuum is created by the condensation of steam, and upon the admission of a solution of sulphate of iron. The latter is said to find its way, even to the heart of heavy timber, through the pores rendered empty by the extraction of the moisture. Sulphate of lime is then injected, and a chemical action takes place between the two, rendering the material so treated not only proof TIMBER 221 against dry rot and the attack of insects, but also uninflammable. Gardner's process is that of washing out the sap from timber by chemical means. The process is said to occupy from one to two weeks, and is carried on in open tanks. It is said not only to preserve the lasting properties of the timber, but to render it more dense, thereby increasing its crushing resistance. Material so treated is capable of resisting the attack of insects, and is also rendered uninflammable. Defects. — The following are some of the defects to be found in timber : Knots, — These are the portions of the branches of trees enveloped by the trunks, and are classed as live or dead knots according to whether they have retained or lost their nature ; the latter are considered most objectionable. Sapwood. — This is the outer portion of the tree. It is deficient in strength and liable to decay. It may be distinguished in most timber by being dis- coloured, and again by absorbing an abnormal amount of moisture. StaV'Shakes are small shakes passing through the timber in radial planes, and often beginning at the outer surface; these are illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, 4, and 5, page 212. Cup-shakes are illustrated in Fig. 4, page 212, and may be described as shakes separating the annual rings. In sawn timbers they sometimes sever the wood in two by passing along the entire length of the material. Heart-shakes are large clefts passing through the heart of the timber. These should be carefully 222 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY observed in balk timbers ; if they are winding in plane or twist through the length of the material, they are liable to spoil a great portion of the heart of the timber. Twisted fibre is a defect sometimes found in timber growing on the borders of forests, and which have been subject to the action of violent winds. Timber with this defect is liable to be " short " in its grain when converted into plank. Druxiness is a defect peculiar to special kinds of timber, such as oak and lignum vitae. It is seen in white or yellowish streaks passing with the grain of the material. A druxy knot is one that has a portion of it changed in colour and has become druxy ; this usually takes place in sectors. Docttiness is seen more particularly in the plane tree and beech, the former being subject to it even more so than the latter. It is the name given to the small elliptical-shaped spots ranging from about i in. to li in. in length. In its last stages it is of a dry powdery nature. Foxiness is the term given to the appearance of dis- coloration upon the surface of the material. It is the first indication of decay, and is particularly noticeable in birch. Upsets, — This is the name given to a rupture in the continuity of the fibre. It is caused by crushing, or improper treatment in stacking or loading. Rind-Galls. — These are caused by a local destruc- tion of the liber or rind during the growth of the timber, from which, either by the accumulation of foreign matter or other cause, the wound has never healed. TIMBER 223 Waney Edges. — These are edges upon which have been left small portions of the rounded surface of the log and sometimes covered with small portions of the liber or inner bark. Conversion of Timber. — The mode of converting timber depends largely upon the variety, the purposes for which it is intended, and upon the market. In all the conifers, and with a large quantity of hard- or leaf- wood timbers, the heart should be laid bare at the earliest opportunity. This will largely reduce the tendency to split. The Kiga and Memel wainscot oak logs are cleft when placed upon the market, whilst the more modern Austrian wainscot logs are sawn longitudinally through the heart. In order to retain the silver grain of oak, logs should be cut as shown at Fig. 1, page 224, so that all boards are taken from radial planes. This method is considered expensive owing to the constant change of position in sawing and the waste of material, but most of the small triangular stuff may be utilised for the construction of mouldings. At Fig. 2, page, 224 is shown other methods of converting oak timbers, so as to retain as far as possible the silver grain. Another method of converting a log of hard-wood timber is shown at Fig. 5, the heartwood being reserved for quartering. Fig. 4, page 224, illustrates one of the Baltic methods of converting a log. By sawing through the centre, two 1 0 in. by 3 in. good quality deals are obtained ; whilst two thin deals are obtained from the sides, each having a quantity of sapwood at the external edges. In order to get the widest deal from a log, one piece is sometimes cut from the centre, but this piece, it must 224 IPw.S. Mg. 3. TIMBER be remembered, contains the heart. From a close observation of Fig. 3, page 224, the student will be able to see how the form of pieces alter during the process of seasoning, when taken from various parts of the log. If two deals be taken from a log, one from a radial plane, and another from the outer portion of the log, at right angles to a radial plane, then the latter, upon seasoning, will be found to have shrunk in width considerably more than the former, but, apart from this fact, the latter is stronger when occupying the position of joists or bearing timbers. From a close acquaintance with the movements of timber during the process of seasoning, the student will be able, upon examination of the end of a board, to determine what the subsequent behaviour of that piece of timber may be when placed in the work. Classification. — Forest trees are classed by botanists under two distinct heads, Monocotyledons and Dicoty- ledons, according to the particular organization of the seed. But it is to the growth of the stem, or the de- velopment of the trunk, that the carpenter or joiner has to turn his attention. According as the tree develops by the formation of the woody tissue upon the interior or upon the exterior of the trunk, so is it known either by the name of Endogenous, or inward grower, or by the term Exogenous, or outward grower. It is from the dicotyledons and conifers that we obtain our large and ever-increasing supply of timber. This latter class of timber is again divided by the forester into two distinct classes : Needle-leaf and broad-leaf trees. Needle-leaf trees are the cone bearers, and their timbers are known as firs or pines. They are also classed under the head of soft woods ; whilst p 226 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY amongst them may be placed the cedar, larch, cypress, yew, and cowrie. Broad-leaf or hard-wood trees differ from the preceding class in being non-resinous. Amongst them are the poplar, chestnut, oak, elm, ash, beech, alder, etc. In commerce the terms pine and fir are so loosely used that one might almost consider them synonymous but for the following facts : The term "pine" is not applicable to the timber known as spruce. Baltic fir " is a term commonly used with all the Baltic conifers in contradistinction to the hard or leaf- woods of the same district, but it is more properly used in connection with the spruce varieties. The term " fir " is never applied to the American pitch pine {pinus rigida). The term " deal " is the commercial term sometimes applied to small stuff of the " white," yellow," and " red " varieties other than pitch pine, from the fact that these varieties come to our markets in the form of deals. From the above, the student will be able to under- stand why it is that northern pine {pinus sylvestris) is known by such other terms as Scotch fir, red, and yellow deal. Standards. — A Petersburg standard is equivalent to 120 pieces, each 12 ft. long, 11 in. wide, and 1^ in. thick. By multiplying these quantities together, we get the number of units of length, breadth, and thick- ness contained in the above standard, and which will be found to be 23,760; and from this number we may obtain an equivalent standard of other scantling. Sup- pose we require 12 ft. lengths, 11 in. wide and 2 in. TIMBER 227 thick ; then, by continued division of the constant by these latter quantities, we are able to obtain the number of deals we might have to the standard, as follows : 12 ft. ) 23760 11 in. ) 1980 2 in. ) 180 90 deals. An Irish standard is similar to the London standard and contains 120 pieces, each 12 ft. long by 9 in. wide and 3 in. thick — equivalent to 270 cubic ft. A square of timber is 100 ft. super; enough to cover a surface 10 ft. by 10 ft. The quality marks on Baltic deals are stencilled upon the end of the deal (usually in red), whilst the Baltic logs are scribed. American deals are sometimes marked in red chalk, upon the broad surface near the end, with one, two, or three lines, according as the quality is " firsts,'' seconds," or thirds." CARPENTRY AND JOINERY ^ --Z^ CO o rrj >— I c3 H ^5 5-1 , o ^ CO P CO ^ r. 5-1 CO (D -^-3 r-l Q, OJ O o.S s c3 ^ O O 'TJ e) CO ft! S 5 2 X H CO <4H O CO o 5 o g 5^ rH O CI n^J ^ CO ^ CD G g g p =^ {X {> CD ? 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G =3 O C^ O ^ ^ G (T) CO 17:3 CO rG .in ^ g § .2 § CO > 5^ CO ^ G .15 . •rH O bO cc P "E^ ^^^^ •-To CD fH P 'O M P bD P^. 03 ^ '-^ !3 ^ <^ ^ p M M c 03 ^ P . +j P - ^ ^ c3 03 03 ^ cd Ph ^ O ^ CO ^ ^ ^ S 03^ p CD CJD^ 03 O 03 P 03 M - c3 ^-1 p..2^< rj O O P bD p 2-2 03 03 "5 03 +3 rQ W3 - p^ bD 03 ^ S ^ P .P 03 O rP ^ "He P >^ 03 P P 03 C2 P > ^^-s O ^ P 03 . o.2 ^ ■v.^ CO CO +3 1 — I !:3 ^ en <^ o o ?3 <^ ^ s O o3 5 c3 ^ O ^ CO "TJ CO ,0 o o ^ r (D (X) r£3 > - 55 P f-i CP c-' CO PhIT^ ^2 "r: Ph C3 •r-l IX) P d I -+-5 O M (X» O m =3 ^ H ^ O M <^ CD a; n3 P ^ O oJ cS 1 — I o J-i 03 a o "I ^5" s 8 a 2 ^ 22 § ^3 I:: ^ s 1^ ^ S ?i -4) ?2 ^ 6. i o p . (X) O < P o TIMBER 233 ^53 a c3 .5 O .s § G O (X) ^ o 5 CO ; P o ^ . p o S .5 O o3 02 p ^ <^ OJ 03 c ^2 a> o ^ 6^ ?2 Si 0.2 -t-s CO ;h CO rr O ^ c H CO CO CO 2 &C M CD r-H o3 5^ ^ £>d' ^ ^ o a> CO ^ ^ P^ 03 Ph p ^ P ^-^ o § ^ =^ P S rH^l! o ^ g ^ ^ , ~ -M -(-= ^ o3 q3 ^ p Ph CO 2 a> P ^ ^ o 02 o ^ rP P o O (D 5-1 >t3 . r— I O) rj p a) •!-( P =^ °l CO O + + P ce .2 c^ Si p ^ ^ ^ O C« 03^ ^ c3 rd c/j I — I O O) O 03 J3 •o O c3 • © ^ s ^ I CD ct_| Qj a) 5_i CC CD a 03 G 0^ <1 Ph.^ CD CD P* 03 o . o3 ^ o3 -tT'-m CD :a Si «5 ^ ^ ^ 'Jii CD >->^ ""d P^ g CC Ce PL, 03 ^ 2 ^ ^ 'o o3 oT ^-^ O CQ S O -jf 'ii: ce ^ 03 o =3 o ^ m f3 M S o o o TIMBER a • o c: a !3 — J .z; ^3 r2 : o ^ c3 o ^ _ 03 • ;:j CO (XI J3 -M «3 CC O 5 o , o o a3 o3 >^ « g O c3 O Ph ^ ^ o .s ^ .s ^ 'B M d Ph O n3 r^H O ^ r OT CO ^ -(J , CO n , o c3 (X) 03 O 5h Jd ; >^ > g O S3 s ^ p ^ a g g p _0 -t^ ''^ ill 5-1 o3 f-^ P P CO -fJ ~ rica. )pe. aah. )pe. rica. CD -r! Amei Eurc Burn Eurc Ame] Eur op Amei o o op ++ ^5 05 SO J 5i CHAPTER XIIL MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY. The effect of force upon matter is to produce, or tend to produce, an alteration of form, position, or volume. These alterations of form or volume are called strains, and the forces which produce them stresses. The following table gives some of the stresses met with in carpentry, the strains they produce, and the mode of fracture, if any : Stresses. Tension. Compression. Transverse. Shearing. Strains. Elongation. Shortening. Bending. Distortion. Mode of Fracture. Tearing away. Crushing. Breaking across. Cutting, as with a pair of scissors. For the present purpose it will be convenient to consider a structure as an erection, consisting of one or more members so bound or secured together as to be capable of resisting, without any great amount of motion, any external or internal forces. The forces that a structure may be called upon to support or resist are as follows : (1) Gravitation, due to internal or external loads, such as the roof and its MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 237 load, including snow ; (2) Wind pressure. The first, gravitation, acts downwards, and in a perpendicular line. This is met, and, if equilibrium is to be main- tained, is resisted by the reaction of the walls. The second, wind pressure, acts in an inclined direction, but is calculated as normal or at right angles to the surface upon which it impinges or strikes. Newton's Third Law of Motion is as follows : " To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction, or action and reaction are always equal but opposite in direction." From this, we see why it is that walls, or pillars supporting a loaded beam, must offer together a resistance equal to the beam and its load. These are termed parallel forces, because they act parallel to each other. In order to discuss the action of a force, we require to know at least the following : (1) Its magnitude. (2) Its line of action. (3) The sense of the force or the direction in which it acts. (4) Its point of application. All these particulars may be represented graphically ; that is, they may be represented by points and lines. We are accustomed to represent a quantity numerically, as 4 inches, 6 tons, 1 0 days, etc. ; but, by the mutual understanding that a foot is the unit, we may say that a yard measure represents three. Again, by changing the unit to an inch, we may say that the same yard measure represents thirty-six ; and so on, by a proper understanding of the unit employed, we may, by a line of fixed length, represent quantity or magnitude. 238 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Again, the student will readily see that, by the position occupied by a line, the direction of a force may always be represented. Parallelogram of Forces. — If two forces acting at a point be represented, both in magnitude and direction, by two straight lines drawn from a point, and if a parallelogram be constructed having these two lines for its adjacent sides, then that diagonal of the parallelo- gram which passes through the point of application of the forces will represent their resultant, both in magnitude and direction. Example (Fig. 103). — Two forces of 5 lbs. and 7 lbs. respectively act at a point C, and at an angle equal to A. Find their resultant. Draw two lines BC and DC equal in length to 5 and 7 units respectively, including an angle equal to A, and intersecting at point C. Complete the parallelogram FORCES ACTING AT A POINT. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 239 CBED. Then the diagonal EC passing through the point of application C represents, both in magnitude and direction, the resultant. The resultant force is one that produces a result equal to a combination of others, and the forces producing it are known as com- ponents. The resultant in the example given will be found to be 9 lbs. as measured by the number of units contained in it. N.B. — The equilibrant is equal and opposite to the resultant. Triangle of Forces. — If three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order, then the forces will be in equilibrium. Example (Fig. 104).— Three forces AB, £C, and CA are represented as acting at the point 0. Find, by the principle of the triangle of forces, if they are in equilibrium. N.B. — In this case Bow's Notation has been used ; the method may be briefly described as follows : Assign a letter to each of the surrounding spaces as 240 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY separated by the lines of force (Fig. 104). Then in the reciprocal figure 105, lines representing the forces will have, at their extremities, letters corresponding to those appearing in the spaces of the former figure. In the case before us the triangle closes ; we may there- fore consider the forces are in equilibrium. Polygon of Forces. — If any number of forces act at a point, and if, starting from any point, a line be drawn equal to and in the same direction as the representative of one of the forces, and from its last extremity another line be drawn equal to and in the same direction as the representative of the next force, and so on until lines have been drawn representing each force ; and if from the point so arrived at a line be drawn to the starting point, then that line shall represent, both in magnitude and direction, the equilibrant of the forces. If, when all the forces have been represented in the reciprocal figure, the point commenced with should be found to coincide with the last one, then the forces will of themselves be in equilibrium. Example (Fig. 106). — Let the lines AB, BC\ CD, DE, and EA represent, in magnitude, forces acting in the direction of the arrow points through the point 0. Find, by a reciprocal figure, whether the forces produce equilibrium or not. Assign letters to each space as separated by a line of action. From any point, as A (Fig. 107), draw the line AB, equal in magnitude, parallel in direction to AB (Fig. 106), and terminating in point B. From point B draw BC equal in magnitude and parallel in direction to BC (Fig. 106). Eepeat until each force has been represented, then, if the polygon be closed, MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 241 the forces represented in Fig. 106 are in equilibrium. If not, draw a line closing the polygon ; this line represents the equilibrant, or force required to produce equilibrium. These principles of the parallelogram may be applied to the solution of stresses in structures, so that the nature and intensity of the stress in any member of a framed truss may be readily obtained. As an example, take the jib crane represented in Fig. 108. Here we have two members of the bracket AD and JC produced, supporting the load W at the point A. As the directions of the three forces are known and the magnitude of the one (W), we may readily complete the figure. Let AB represent the magnitude of the load IF; then by completing the parallelogram in BC and CD, the tension of the tie- rod is measured by the line AD, and CA is the amount of force exerted in the compression boom to produce equilibrium. Applied to the couple roof, the parallelogram of Q 242 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY forces may be used to determine the stresses set up ill the rafters. The loads upon roof trusses, although distributed along the blade, may be considered as being con- centrated at the joints, as it is by way of the joints that the load is passed to the various members (Example, Fig. 109). The load W is here hung from the apex A, and its magnitude is measured by AD. The load is evidently supported by the rafters, and therefore certain stresses are set up within them, due to the load W; these act along the lines AB and AC, and it is here proposed to find the amount of such stresses, in order to be able to correctly estimate the amount of material requii'ed to resist those stresses. The magnitude and direction of the resultant AD being known, and the direction of the two components (in this case the rafters) being known, complete the parallelogi'am AFDE, FA then MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 243 represents the internal stress set up in A£, and EA the internal stress set up in AC. The irregular or unsymmetrical truss has here been selected as affording a more interesting example than would be afforded by a symmetrical one. The student will see that as the load TV approaches the wall at so the inclined rafter AB will become more steeply pitched until the load W, or the line through which it acts, touches the wall, then AB will become vertical and will support the whole of the weight W. As it is, the load borne hj AC and as measured by AB is much smaller than that in AB, This the student will now see is due to the fact that the load is nearer to the point of support at B. Before passing on to the consideration of the more complicated structures, it will be advisable to see what takes place within the walls, as it is obvious the stresses passing down the rafters must be resisted. It has been said that for every action there must always be a reaction. The walls in each case must therefore be capable of offering an oblique resistance equal and opposite to the forces along the rafters. 244 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY In some classes of roofing the walls would require to be abnormally tliiclv to resist this oblique thrust ; it is therefore desirable to find out what other support will be equivalent to it, and this is done by resolving the oblique force along the rafter into its vertical and horizontal components ; this is shown at Fig. 109 as being equal in magnitude and direction to GA and FG respectively. It is assumed here, that having the adjacent sides, the whole of the rectangle upon FG and GA has been constructed. Parallel Forces. — These are illustrated by the vertical loads borne by a structure and the upward resistance offered by the supporting walls, and, if equilibrium is to be maintained, these opposing forces must be equal. With symmetrical structures uniformly loaded we readily assume that the weight is equally disposed between the two walls — half the load to each. It is now proposed to show how unsymmetrical loads are disposed between two walls. Fig. 110 represents a beam supported at A and B, and loaded unsymnietrically with 4 tons. Find, graphically, what portion of the load (irrespective of the weight of the beam) is borne by each of the walls. From any point A (Fig. 1 1 1) set down a vertical line AB, representing by scale 4 tons. Select any pole (9, and join OA and OB. From the points of support, and through the load (Fig. 110), let fall perpendicular lines. From any point D in the vertical line through A (Fig. 110) draw UF parallel to AO (Fig. Ill), intersecting the vertical line through the load at F, Through F draw FB parallel to BO (Fig. Ill), and intersecting the vertical line through B. Join DB (Fig. 112); this is the closing line of what is known MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 245 as the funicular^ polygon BDE. If through the pole 0 (Fig. Ill), a Ime be drawn parallel to the closing line of the funicular polygon and intersecting the " line of loads " {AB) in point C, then CA and CB represent graphically the portions of the load carried by the walls at ^ and ^ respectively. Line of Loads. — If the external forces acting on the beam of Fig. 110 produce equilibrium, or remain supported, these forces must, when represented by equivalent lines, form a closed polygon. If the student will from point A (Fig. Ill) draw the line AB equal to the downward load on the beam, and from the point so arrived at draw BC equal and parallel to the upward reaction at B, and from the point C draw CA equal to the upward reaction at A, he will find that he has arrived at the point of commencement, and that he has completed a polygon of ^From the Latin 'a rope or chord,' 246 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY forces ; but all the forces being parallel, the polygon of forces is represented by a straight line. As this line represents the external forces on the structure all acting vertically, it is given the name " line of loads," in contradistinction to the polygon of the internal forces, called the stress diagram." Polar Diagram.' — Attached to the line of loads (Fig. Ill) a series of lines are drawn from a pole 0 to the line of loads; this is termed the ''polar diagram." Eeciprocal figures are those figures, the lines of which bear a corresponding relation one to the other. Figs. 104 and 105 are reciprocal, as also are Figs. 106 and 107. The funicular polygon and the polar diagram are reciprocal figures. A ID Another example of an unsymmetrically loaded beam is represented at Fig. 113. In this case a series of loads are applied. It is proposed, by means of the MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 247 polar diagram and the funicular polygon, to find not only the reactions at the walls, but the centre of gravity of the loads, or the line through which their resultant acts. First set down the line of loads ADEB equal to the sum of the loads, and from any point 0 construct the polar diagram OA, OB, OE, OB. Construct the funicular polygon as in the last example ; the external lines will, if produced, intersect in point G. Through G draw the vertical line, which line passes through the centre of gravity of the loads. If through the point 0, in the polar diagram, a line be drawn parallel to the closing line of the funicular polygon and intersecting the line of loads in point F, then FA represents that portion of the loads borne at A, whilst FB represents the portion borne at B. Mathematically, the reactions at the walls A and B may be found as follows : The beam represented in k — c ^0 - 0 W d^ 30'^ O' r Fig. 114 spans an opening of 30 ft. and rests at its extremities at points A and B] it supports a concentrated load of 12 tons at C — a point 10 ft. from B, Neglecting the weight of the beam itself, find the reactions at A and B, 248 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Eeaction at A _ Weight Sit GxCB 12x10 Span 30 4 tons. Reaction at B Weight at (7 X C/^ 12x20 ^ , ° — =8 tons. Span 30 Total Reactions =12 tons. 8 Jbr^s. 5Jbr2s. 6* Tb?^, /7 C Jd E 7i Ttg. m. Taking the example shown at Fig. 115, the reactions may be found by taking each load individually and summing the result as follows : Reaction at A due to the load at C Weight at (7 X (75 8x19 -AB -61 tons. Reaction at A due to the load at T) Weight at i)xD5 _3xl2 ~ AB "24 Reaction at A due to the load at E _ Weight at ^ X EB _ 6x8 ~ ~AB ~ W = W tons. = 2 tons. Total Reaction at ^ = 9| tons. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 249 Reaction at 5 due to the load at C Weight ^tCxCA 8x5 = AB Reaction at B due to the load at D _ Weight ^tDxDA 3 x 12 _ AB -l^tons. Reaction at B due to the load at E WelAtsit ExEA 6x16 Total Reaction at ^ = 7i tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Total Reactions = 9| + 7| - 1 7 = Total Load. By a collection of the quantities in the following form, the sanie end may be obtained : Reaction at A W. at CxCB^W. RtDxDB + W. Sit ExBB AB _ 8xl9 + 3xl2 + 6x8 ~ 24 152 + 36 + 48 236 - 24 ~2l~^ ^ • Reaction at B W. at CxCA+W. at JxZ)^+W. E x EA AB 8x5 + 3x12 + 6x16 24 40 + 36 + 96 172 : 7i tons. 24 24 Total Reactions = 17 tons = Total Load. The former processes will be better understood when 250 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY the student knows what is meant by the moment of a force about a point." The moment of a force about a given point is a measure of the tendency of the force to rotate about that point, and, as both force and distance enter into its consideration, it is expressed in terms of the units employed; thus in Fig. 116, the )^ force of 4 tons acts at a distance of 5 ft. from the point 0. The measure of the tendency of the force AB to rotate about the point 0 is therefore 4 tons by 5 ft. or 20 ft.-tons, and is equivalent to 20 tons acting at the distance of 1 ft. from the same point, or to 1 ton acting at a distance of 20 ft. The student should, by comparing the above equivalents as illustrated at Fig. 117, see Fig. Fig. J 17 iron. the advantage gained by extending the distance, or arm of the lever," as it is sometimes called. At Fig. 118 is represented a similar set of forces to those given in Fig. 114, the beam being here represented by a single line, the distances and lettering being the same. The support given by the MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 251 wall is here represented by the little triangle or fulcrum, the distance CB and load at C being 10 ft. and 12 tons respectively. Taking moments about fig. m. QO'- o " n ToT^s c ^ /O'-O c 30-0" the point B, we have a force of 120 ft.-tons. Now, if we extend the arm of the lever to the distance between the supports of Fig. 114, viz., 30 ft., we shall be able to find what upward force is required at A to equilibrate the load or force at G as follows : Force A xAB = Force or load Sit 0 x CB ; Force or load at C x CB Force at A 12 X 10 30 AB = 4 tons. Theory of Beams. — By a sufficient acquaintance with the foregoing, we are able to investigate the relative strengths of cantilevers and beams under varying methods of load and support. For this purpose we shall require to extend the definition of the ''moment of a force," and, as it is also a measure of the tendency to bend the beam 252 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY or cantilever, we shall find it more convenient to consider it as the bending moment of a load, or simply as the bendmg moment." Taking the case of the cantilever, (Fig. 119), we see that the bending t i Fig. IZO. moment is equal to the weight multiplied by the length L (expressed as WL). Graphically, this may be represented at any position along its length, by scaling ab to represent this quantity ; then by joining cb we have a triangle dbc representing a bending moment diagram in which any vertical ordinate represents the B.M. (bending moment) of the cantilever at that section. The student should here observe that the B.M. is a varying quantity, and in the case of the cantilever is at a maximum at ab. Now the strengths of two beams are in the inverse ratio of their maximum B.M. ; and taking the canti- MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 253 lever as the standard, the equation will be represented as follows : Strength of beam under consideration Strength of standard cantilever WL Max. B.M. of beam under consideration* Before proceeding to describe the method of obtaining the bending moments of beams generally, it will be advisable to consider another force acting upon beams, called the shearing force. This may be vertical or horizontal. Fig. 94 represents a beam built up of a series of thin separate laminae hori- zontally. A slight load will be sufficient to cause the horizontal laminations to slide one over the other. In the solid beam the cohesion of the material itself resists the tendency to a great extent, varying with the cohesive strength of the material. There is also a vertical shear to contend with, as shown at Fig. 120. The semi-beam or cantilever is here split up into a series of vertical laminations, kept together for the sake of illustration by a strong elastic core. By a small pressure upon the top, in any position, the laminations may be made to slide vertically over each other. This tendency varies with the manner of loading; in the case of the cantilever (Fig. 119) it is constant throughout and equal to the load W. With cast and wrought iron beams or girders, where the sectional area is small, the consideration of shearing is very important; but with rectangular timbers, where the working section is so much greater than the effective sectional area, the consideration of shearing is not so important, but should still demand the student's careful attention. 254 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Fig. 121 represents a cantilever loaded symmetrically along its length, the bending moment diagram of which is constructed by superimposing a series of triangles one on the other, and in such a way that their apices are each upon vertical lines, passing through the loads they respectively form the diagram for. Their bases are in a vertical line common to all, and are scaled each to a length equal to the weight multiplied by its distance from the wall end, the unit employed being in terms of the above factors. W The base of the first triangle will be equal to — x Z (the full length): the next will be equal to — x-A 6 6 W 1 and so on, until the last is equal only to — x -X. ^ 'dee e G 6 W 5 MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 255 The B.M. diaoram for a distributed load will have a parabolic curve. The loads in the diagram of Fig. 121 being concentrated at certain points, the parabolic curve of the B.M. diagram is made up of a series of straight lines which gradually merge into the true curve as the loads are placed closer to each other. The shearing stress diagram at A is also composed of a series of steps in this case, and would merge into the triangle shown by the dotted line were the load spread uniformly over its length. The bending moment would in that case be equal to the weight acting through its centre of gravity, or W x-y or half that of the standard cantilever (Fig. 2 119), and, as their strengths are in the inverse ratio of their Max. B.M., we may consider the former to be twice as strong as the latter. In Fig. 122 we have i 1 V WL Fig. /i>i>. ^ a rectangular beam, supported at its extremities and loaded with a weight {W). It is here obvious that 256 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY half the weight goes to one abutment and half to the other ; the B.M. is therefore equal to half the load multiplied by halt the length, - ~ X — : 2 2 whilst the shearing stress is equal to W Fig. 123 shows a rectangular beam loaded un- symmetrically. The Max. B.M. is equal to the reaction at the wall multiplied by its distance from the centre Wx CB of gravity of the load, or — xAC. It may be seen here that the funicular polygon may also be the B.M. diagram, but the vertical line X must be made equal to the Max. B.M. The shearing stresses are found graphically by means of a polar diagram and the funicular polygon, the dotted line being drawn parallel to the closing line of the polygon. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 257 Fig. 124 represents a beam loaded uniformly along its length. The B.M. diagram and also that of the shearing forces are drawn as in the previous figure. VV W 4 ^ ~5 ~3 , 11111 It will be seen from the figure that the B.M. diagram approximates a parabolic curve ; the closer the lines of loading, the more truthful will the parabolic curve be represented. The Max. B.M. is found as in the figure of 122, with this exception — the total load is divided in two, each half being concentrated at distances from the supports equal to a quarter of the span ; then W L :Max. B.M.= WL The example shown in Fig. 125 is that of a beam fixed into the walls at both ends. This may seem anomalous from the fact already related that the ends of beams should not be built into walls ; but when a beam passes in continuation over a series of supports, those covering the central spans are considered to have R 258 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY their ends fixed, and in a manner even more efficient than actually building them into walls. The B.M. diagram is here a straight-lined figure, and, as the beam has a tendency to assume the position indicated by the dotted lines, there is a point of con- trary flexure — a point at which the B.M. is nil ; we may also assume that the bending moments at the centre 1 ii i -' J t\ r 8 1 T J- /i and ends are equal. From these statements we may reason that the point of contrary flexure is at distance of — from each end, and hence the Max. B.M. must be 4 2 4~~"8 • It has been said that the vertical ordinates through the diagrams are measures of the intensity of the stresses at those points, and any unit of length, weight, or length and weight may be employed, and it must MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 259 not be forgotten that the scale used to plot the B.M. diagram is one of length and weight combined ; thus ^ in. may be made to represent inch-pounds, inch- hundredweights, or inch-tons, or even foot-pounds, foot-hundredweights, or foot-tons. It will be seen from the figures that the same scale has not been used to plot the B.M. diagram as has been used to plot the shearing stress diagram ; in fact, it is often con- venient to plot them by a different scale, care, of course, being taken in reading to use the same scale as that adopted for plotting. We have seen in Fig. 109 how it is possible to obtain the stresses set up within the roof couple. It is now proposed to extend the principle to the example given in Fig. 12 6, namely, that of the kingpost roof truss. The total load borne by the roof is concen- trated at the joints, and if the weight at each bay is divided by two, the weights may be disposed as shown in the frame diagram (Fig. 126) — one-eighth of the total load will be carried by the wall at either end, and may not be considered as acting upon the truss ; the other six parts are disposed at the three other joints, two to each. In order to find the stress diagram (Fig. 127), Bow's Notation will be used, and may be de- scribed as follows : Assign a letter to each space around the figure as separated by an external force, also to each space in the figure surrounded by* members. Now, in the reciprocal figure (Fig. 127), lines having letters at either end represent corresponding lines in the frame figure having the same letters at either side. The external forces are here parallel, therefore the polygon representing them will be a closed one, and 26o CARPENTRY AND JOINERY will be known as the " line of loads " (ADEFGBCA) (Fig. 127). Here C divides the loads ^ to ^ into two equal parts, and BC and OA represent the equal reactions at the walls. To Construct the Stress Diagram. — Having con- structed the line of loads/' and divided it into its several parts AD, DB, etc., commence at point A in the frame diagram (Fig. 126). We have here four forces in equilibrium, namely, CA, AD, DH, and HC \ the magnitudes and directions of the first two are known, also the directions of the last two. The magnitude of the latter may be found if from D (Fig. 127) we draw a line parallel to DH (Fig. 126), and if from (7 (Fig. 127) we draw a line CH parallel to its reciprocal CH 126), and intersecting the line from D in|^. These lines DH and HC (Fig. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 261 127) will represent not only the magnitude, but the direction of the forces in the corresponding members of the frame diagram. By taking the known forces GA and AD, and examining the corresponding lines in Fig. 127, the student will see that CA is an upward re- action ecj^ual to four units, and passing from ^ to D we have a downward force equal to one unit. In order to complete the circuit around the point we have Dif and HC, terminating at (7, the point of starting ; but DH passes downwards towards the point of support — the wall — and is therefore in compression ; whilst HC passes in a direction away from that point, and is therefore in tension. For every joint in the frame diagram (Fig. 126) a corresponding polygon will be found in the stress diagram, which will furnish lines corresponding in magnitude and direction to those contained in the frame. Transverse Strength of Rectangular Beams. — If we take a small piece of deal 1 in. square, and about 4 ft. long, and place it between two supports, we shall find that by bearing upon it, it deflects or is bent to an appreciable extent ; but upon removing the pressure, the piece regains its former position. By gradually increasing the pressure we shall be able to reach such a point that, after removing the load, the piece fails to recover its former position. This is termed the elastic limit of the material. By an in- crease of the load or pressure we shall be able to arrive at such a point as to produce fracture of the material ; such a point is known as its ultimate strength, and the load which caused the specimen to break is known as its breaking weight. Now take a piece of the same class of material 262 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 7 in. wide and 1 in. thick (a floor board will do), and of the same length as in the last example. We shall, by placing it upon its flat surface and noting the weights which produce fracture, find it to be about seven times as strong as the last example, but if we turn a similar piece of 7 in. by 1 in. material upon its edge, we shall find it to be seven times stronger than when placed upon its flat, so that it is seven times seven as strong as the first specimen. From the foregoing we see that the transverse strength of rectangular timbers varies directly as the breadth and as the square of the depth ; it varies also directly as the strength of the particular material employed, and inversely as the length of span or distance between the supports. This is represented by the following formula : z * When W = Breaking weight of a beam, girder, or bressummer under a central load, Z = Length of span in feet, & = Breadth in inches, = Depth in inches, c = Constant, found by experiment upon similar material, and which may be expressed in lbs., cwts., or tons, at pleasure, remembering always that the expression W will be in like terms to the constant. Example. — Find the breaking weight of a beam of red pine, 8 in. deep and 5 in. wide, spanning an opening 16 ft. wide. The constant for red pine may be taken as 4 cwts. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 263 By applying the above formula, Tir_ bxd'^ X c 5x8x8x4 z ^ re = 80 cwt. The student is recommended to make a sketch of each example previous to working. Cases may occur to the student in which any one of the quantities upon the right-hand side of the equation is unknown ; this quantity may be removed to the left by a change of sign. The formulae for these purposes will then appear as follows : The strongest beam is obtained when the breadth is to the depth as 5 is to 7. The following example will serve to illustrate the method of obtaining the correct breadth and depth of a beam of limited sectional area, say 150 sq. ins. : Let x = tlie unit of breadth and depth, then 5xx7x = 150 sq. ins. bxd '^ X c G JVxL 150 3^' and Then breadth = 5 x 2-07 in. = 10-35 in., depth = 7 X 2-07 in. = 14 49 in. and 264 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY It sometimes occurs in practice that the most economical dimensions are required for a beam of a particular class of material to cover a known span and to successfully resist a certain load as follows : Material (red pine), therefore constant = 4 cwt. This latter item is necessary from the fact that the ordinary formula supplies the breaking weight, and, in order that the beam under consideration should successfully resist the concentrated load of 16 cwt., it should be considerably stronger, in this case 5 times stronger. We must therefore calculate for a beam loaded to the extent of 5 x 16 cwt. = 80 cwt. By usual formula, Length of span = 13 ft. Concentrated load = 16 cwt. Factor of safety = 5. fF=—j-—, or JVx L = cxbxd'^ ; but breadth = ^d, fF X L = c X ^d X d'^, and b 7T5 inches (d being expressed in inches), |-X(i = | X 7-15 = 5-11 inches. MECHANICS OF CARPENTRY 265 The transverse strength of rectangular tmibers is greatly mcreased by the addition of wrought-iron flitch plates, as shown in Chapter iv, firmly secured by means of bolts. Flitch plates are sometimes secured to the sides of timbers and the ultimate strength of either combination may be found by the following formula : W= J , ^ = combined thickness of wrought-iron flitch plates (taken as about ^^t\\ that of the total thickness of beam or girder) ; all other quantities represented algebraically are of the same value as in the previous formula. CHAPTER XIV. STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING. This is a branch of joinery requiring a knowledge of practical geometry, and unless the apprentice shows ability in this direction it is seldom that he is brought in contact with the work. It is desirable, at an early stage of the subject, to explain some of the terms employed. Stairs. — An assemblage of steps for the easy and convenient passage from one floor to another. Staircase. — That compartment which contains or is intended to contain the stairs. Tread. — That portion of the step upon which the foot rests in ascending or descending the stairs, and which should not be less in width than will permit the foot resting firmly upon the same. The least width for this purpose has been laid down as 9 in., whilst the greatest width approaches nearly double that dimension. Going. — The going of a tread is the width of the same, as measured horizontally between the nosing of one tread and that of the next adjacent to it. This, it will be seen, is smaller than the full width of the tread. A portion of the wood used in the tread passes STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 267 beneath the riser, and is serviceable only for the pur- pose of making good the joint between tread and riser, and may not be considered as available for the purpose of resting the foot. N.B. — It is to the going of the tread that reference is made in determining the proportionate width of tread and riser (see page 273). The "going" of a flight is the horizontal distance covered by that flight. Rise. — The vertical distance between the top of one tread and the top of the next one to it. Riser. — The vertical piece of timber passing between the treads to which the latter are secured, and which gives solidity to the step. Flier. — A step, the tread of which is parallel throughout its length (page 278). Flight. — A continuous series of fliers. Winders. — Those steps, the treads of which taper in plan and permit the person passing over them to turn either to the right or left, according as the winders turn in either of these directions (see Fig. 1, page 278). Kite. — That winder which has its centre line passing to, or near, the angle of the staircase, and is kite- shaped in plan. The kite differs from an ordinary winder in the fact that, whilst both taper in plan, the former is quadrilateral and the latter triangular (see Fig. 3, page 278). Nosing. — The rounded front edge of a tread. Bottle-nose. — The ordinary rounded nosing with the addition of a small scotia beneath it (see enlarged section, page 269). Bull-nose Step. — A step with a rounded end in plan, as illustrated at Fig. 3, page 278. 268 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Curtail Step. — The step immediately below the scroll of the hand-rail, from which it takes its form; the first step of the flight, and one which has its end shaped in the form of a volute. Line of Nosing. — An imaginary line passing down the nosings of a flight of steps. Newel. — The main post of a series of balustrading ; the vertical post from which the hand-rail starts in dog-legged or open-newelled stairs. Balusters. — The small vertical pillars terminating with the hand-rail at the top, and which form a guard at the open end of the stairs ; they should be spaced at no greater distance from each other than 5 in. clear. Hand-rail. — The capping piece of the balustrading ; the rail upon which the hand rests in ascending or descending the stairs ; usually rounded upon its upper surface and fixed at such a height as to be conveniently grasped by the hand, usually 2 ft. in. above the line of nosing (measured vertically), and to which is added at the landings half the rise. String. — An inclined board with its plane vertical, and to which the ends of the steps are made fast. Wall-string. — That string which is adjacent to the wall. Well-string. — The outer or exposed string; that string which carries the ends of the steps opposite to those near the wall. Close-string. — That string which from a side view- has its long edges parallel to each other (page 269). The lowest portion is termed an apron. Cut-string. — That string which has its upper edge cut to the line of the treads and risers. STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 269 270 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Notch-board. — A form of rough carriage used with open stairs in buildings of the warehouse class, and having its upper edge notched to receive the treads, hence its name (Fig. 4, page 271). Mitred-string. — A form of cut-string not furnished with brackets, and which needs to have the vertical edges of the stepping mitred with the risers. This term is mostly used in conjunction with that of cut- string," and then known as cut and mitred string (page 269). Bracketed-string. — A form of cut-string provided with brackets of an ornamental character (page 269). Wreathed-strings. — The strings of a geometrical stair which pass uninterruptedly throughout the whole height of the stairs, and which are therefore of necessity of a twisted or wreathed character. Continued wreath or wreathed hand-rail is one which, like the wreathed-string, passes uninterruptedly throughout the stairs, and is curved, bent, or twisted in its form. A ramp is a concave curve of the crown of the hand-rail whilst the latter continues in the same vertical plane. A knee is a convex curve of the crown of the hand- rail, somewhat similar to the above, but opposite in direction. Swan-neck. — A combination of ramp and knee (see page 280). Rough carriages are pieces of rough quarterings placed beneath stairs to give them additional support ; they are sometimes called rough strings, as they are often placed in corresponding positions to the strings. Spring-trees. — This is another name for rough 272 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY carriages, but is more properly applied to the rough carriages below winders. Rough brackets are blocks of wood fastened to the carriages of stairs to increase the support to the treads and prevent creaking. Figs. 1, 2, and 3, page 271, are illustrations of the various methods of rough bracketing. Returned Nosings. — In the representations of cut- strings (page 269), the nosings are made to appear as being returned upon the ends of the treads. This is accomplished by planting on a piece of the same profile and with a grooved and tongued joint, forming when complete an effective finish, and covering the unsightly appearance of the end grain of the tread. Landings are resting places, and are either half space or quarter space, according as they extend the whole width of the staircase or only the width of the stair; these are illustrated by Figs. 2 and 3, page 278. Stair Planning. — Stairs have been described as being an assemblage of steps for the easy and con- venient passage from one floor to another, and to secure this end it will be necessary to consider the following points. In order that stairs may not be the cause of unnecessarily fatiguing the person passing over them, they should be provided with sufficient landing-places, and the steps should be properly proportioned. Separate flights should not contain more than ten or twelve steps ; at these places landings should be pro- vided, and it is advisable to cause the adjacent flights to pass in different directions. The stairway should be broad enough to allow at least two persons passing each other with ease, and for this purpose steps should have a length of at least three feet. STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 273 Proportion of Treads and Risers.— The author does not deem it advisable to put the student in possession of a tabulated list of proportionate sizes, but to place at his disposal the means whereby he may obtain the sizes for himself, and to show the method by which they are obtained. An easy pace along a horizontal plane has been set down as 23 in., but in passing upward in a vertical direction, it is not considered advisable to go beyond half this distance, namely, 1 1 J in. In ascending stairs a person passes not only upward but forward, that is to say, he covers a small distance in each direction, vertically and horizontally ; it therefore follows that, in calculating the dimensions of steps, twice the rise plus the tread must equal 23 in. From the above remarks the following formulae may be deduced, the number 23 being taken as a "constant." Going of tread = Constant - Twice the rise = 23-2r, (1) where r = rise ; -r,. Constant - Tread = ^^, (2) where ^ = the going of the tread. To apply the formulae given above, the student may take the following examples : (i.) Having taken the height from floor to floor by means of a rod (storey rod), and having found that it contains equal sub-divisions of 5 in. without a remainder, and adopting this as a convenient rise ; what should be 1;he correct tread in this case ? s 274 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY By formula (1) we have Going of tread = Constant - 2r = 23 - 10 = 13 inches. (ii.) What rise would be recommended for a step, the tread of which was 12 in. ? Using formula (2), ^. Constant -if 23-12 ixise = —T. = — 'Z 2 = 51 in. Numerous other examples may be taken at the student's pleasure, but he should always bear in mind that the tread must be at least wide enough to afford sufficient support for the foot, viz. not less than 9 in. Before commencing the planning of stairs, it will be found necessary to obtain the following facts : (1) The dimensions of the staircase or compart- ment which is to contain the stairs. (2) The heights from floor to floor successively. (3) The position and dimensions of approaches; size and position of window openings. The first item will largely govern us in the par- ticular class of stairs to adopt. The various kinds are illustrated on page 278. Winders should, as far as possible, be avoided, and should not under any circum- stance begin at the top of a flight. The width of the tread of a winder is measured at a distance of 1 5 in. from the hand-rail ; this being the position of the path over winders, the tread should at this line conform as far as possible to the other treads. The general surroundings of staircases are usually of such a diverse character that no definite rules can be laid down for the guidance of the craftsman in determining the STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 275 position for the various fliers, winders, and landings, in order to avoid interference with the means of lighting or approach. In the commoner classes of stairs no difficulty will be experienced ; but with others it will require all his skill and ingenuity to devise the best possible plan, and so fulfil all the requirements necessary for a convenient and easy stair. The construction of the various forms of steps will readily be seen from the illustrations furnished on pp. 269, 271, and 276; the tread and riser having been made, and the particular method of breaking the joint having been decided, the two are carefully glued and screwed together, and small triangular blocks about 2|- or 3 in. long are glued to the joint at intervals of about 12 or 15 in. The steps thus constructed are inserted individually into the housings provided in the string and there glued, wedged, screwed, and blocked as illustrated. The construction of the curtail step is one that requires to be more fully described. This step is usually constructed in three parts — namely, tread, scotia board, and riser. The tread is similar to the ordinary one, with the exception that it takes up the form of scroll of the hand-rail at its extremity. The scotia board replaces the small scotia shown in the other examples, and in this form enables the step to be constructed expeditiously, and with much greater strength; it is illustrated at Figs. 3 and 5, page 276. It is in the construction of the riser that the greatest care is required, and in which the greatest amount of labour is involved. It is usually built up of two or more thicknesses of material, firmly glued and 276 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Coristnucfcon of Cur^tact Step, Fig J. S CO tea fhoQtd ^,_,.LVTT^ J'// ' ? § w^<^^^^ yvelQr^ of Scotco fioord STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 277 screwed together, and finally covered with a veneer as shown at Fig. 1, page 276. A sufficient portion at the end of the front riser is reduced to the thickness of a veneer, or about yV in. thick ; it is then steamed or saturated with hot water, so that it becomes easily pliable, the extreme end is then held by means of folding wedges to the innermost angle of the volute, carefully glued, brought round to its correct position, and finally tightened by a second pair of folding wedges. The thick ends are then screwed together and cleaned off. A short bracket for the reception of the string is dovetailed to the solid portion of the riser at right angles to it, and the former are then halved, glued and screwed together at convenient positions, the rounded angle being made good by means of a gusset piece. Different Forms of Stairs in Plan. — These are illustrated upon page 278. Fig. 1 represents a variety common to small cottage property, consisting of a straight flight with winders at the bottom. The hand-rail and string are here made fast to the newels by means of stump or stub tenons (drawbore pinned). Fig. 2 represents a variety known as dog-legged," the return flight taking an abrupt turn to a position parallel and close to the side of the first. A larger example of the dog-legged variety is illustrated on page 280, and is here shown in plan and section with small cupboard behind the spandril framing, entered by way of the small door at the side. The necessary amount of headroom between parallel flights is here figured, and may be taken as the smallest dimensions permissible. The storey rod is also shown on this illustration, the chequered 278 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY StQtrs. Straight Stair =0- Stairs. Geo/r}atrieat STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 279 appearance indicating the number and heights of the risers. Fig. 3, page 278, illustrates an open-newel stair, a variety suitable for wide and open staircases, and capable of being thoroughly well lighted — an import- ant feature of a convenient stair. An illustration of the application of both the quarter-space landing and winders is here afforded, although, where possible, the latter should be avoided. A geometrical stair is shown at Fig. 4, and may be described as a stair in which the continued wreath is used : other examples of the same variety are turret or spiral stairs (open or close newel), and stairs having an elliptical plan. The steps of the latter, as also some of the former varieties, are required to be made " balanced " or " dancing " — a name given to a particular class of winders, in which the lines of nosing do not pass through, or radiate to, the same point in plan. Hand-railing, or that branch of it dealing with continuous wreaths, would not prove such a difficult subject as it at first sight appears, if the student would, in the earlier stages, model each example of the subject taken in hand. Much time and labour is ofttimes spent in thinking out abstruse problems which, after being solved, are not sufficiently im- pressed upon the student's memory to aid him in its subsequent application to practical work. The student is therefore recommended to construct models to a convenient scale, and so obtain a grasp of the subject by means which, in the end, will prove by far the most economical, both as regards time and material. 28o CARPENTRY AND JOINERY STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 281 The author proposes to deal with the subject purely upon recognized geometrical methods, so that the student who has done equivalent geometrical work to, or has successfully completed the Elementary Course of Practical Plane and Solid Geometry, as set down in the Science and Art Departments Syllabus, will have but little difficulty in mastering the subject. The hand-rail follows a line vertically over the ends of the steps, and as far as is convenient at a constant vertical distance from it throughout. A development, therefore, of the ends of the steps will reveal, as far as the height is concerned, the position of the hand-rail. For the present, in order to more easily grasp the subject, the student is asked to disregard the position of steps, also the fact that the hand- rail has substance, and to imagine the hand-rail as represented only by a line the centre line of rail When the student finds himself able to con- struct the centre line of rail " he will, with very little difficulty, be able to extend his knowledge and construct the ''face-mould." The next step will then be to apply the face-mould to the plank, and finally to construct the rail. One of the most important principles the hand- railer has to remember is that oblique sections of cylinders are ellipses. The cylinder as used by the craftsman is a modification of the geometrical cylinder, and may be described as an imaginary solid composed of a right rectangular prism with hemi-cylinders attached to its two opposite and vertical faces ; and which in plan is of the same outline as the well-hole. The rail or continued wreath, passing over such a form in plan, will of necessity be in 282 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY some places straight, whilst in others it will pass in a twisted manner over the segmental ends, and at these positions will take up the elliptic form. Two systems have been adopted for finding the elliptic curve. The older and now almost extinct method was by a system of ordinates, and known as the " method by ordinates." The other and more modern method is known by the name of tangent system," in which, in order to obtain the curve, the tangents to it are first found and subsequently the elliptic curve. Upon examination of the various rails in plan, the curved portions will be found almost invariably to be of either of the following forms: 1st, the I circle or quadrant ; 2nd, an arc of a circle greater than the quadrant ; 3rd, an arc of a circle less than the quadrant. The tangents to the foregoing will include the following angles, respectively : 1st, a right angle ; 2nd, an angle less than a right angle (acute angle) ; 3rd, an angle greater than a right angle (obtuse angle). Two such cases are shown on pages 284 and 287 and serve the purpose of illus- trating two out of the three cases differing in plan. The true tangents stand vertically over their plans, varying in length with their inclinations, and giving rise to the following classification : 1st Class — Hand-rails, one tangent of which is horizontal and the other inclined. 2nd Class — Hand-rails, both tangents of which are equally inclined. 3rd Class — Hand-rails, the tangents of which are unequally inclined. The above classification is necessary only for the STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 283 purpose of thoroughly understanding the causes which give rise to the necessity of employing one or two bevels, and bring about various changes in the figure. In Chapter 11. it was explained that the planes upon which the plans and elevations are projected stand at right angles to each other, and are termed the co-ordinate planes. These planes, for the convenience of drawing, are opened out into one — the plane of the paper — but as soon as the drawing is completed they are supposed to come up again into their proper positions at right angles to each other. For con- ventional purposes the line of intersection between them is known as the ground line or XY. It is by the use of these co-ordinate planes that the centre line of rail and other requirements of hand-railing are found. To find the "centre line of rail." — Fig. 1 , page 284, is a diagramatic representation of the problem shown at Fig. 2, and will assist the student to understand the latter geometrical method. AC and CD (Fig. 2, page 284) are the plans of the tangents of the rail passing over ABD. AB is the shank or straight part of the rail, and BD the curved portion, which, in this case, passes through an angle of 90°, or the fourth part of the circle. The lieights of points A, B and D are known, also that of the intermediate point C (where the tangents cross). The tangent being in the vertical plane, cd' represents not only its true length, but a portion of the vertical trace of the plane containing it, and the tangent CB being turned back or developed into the vertical plane, its true length will be repre- sented by ch-^. By producing d'c to the XY in point A^ and joining it with A, the horizontal 284 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Method of frndcng ^/^e Centre Lcne STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 285 and vertical traces of the plane containing the tangents are found. The plane containing these tangents is conveniently hinged to the vertical plane about the vertical trace, and thus falls into the plane of the paper. With as centre and with A^A as radius, describe an arc. With c as centre and with cA^ as radius, describe an arc cutting the first in A^. Join A^ with A2 and c with A2, then the angle d'cA^ repre- sents the real angle between the tangents, and being the tangent points to the elliptic curve. For the purpose of completing the semi-ellipse, the plan of the centre line of rail " is extended to form the semi-circle terminating at either end upon the plan of that steepest line in the plane which will pass through the central axis of the cylinder. This line is marked >S1203, and being the plan of the steepest line in the plane, it will of necessity be drawn at right angles to the horizontal trace of that plane. That steepest line in the plane which passes through the axis of the cylinder will represent the major axis of the ellipse, and the minor axis will be repre- sented by that horizontal line, lying in the plane, which passes through the axis of the cylinder and has its plan Oc parallel to the horizontal trace. Upon the development of the inclined plane of the rail (centre line) draw the major axis at right angles to the development of the horizontal trace {A^A^ 1) and through the point 1. Through c draw c 0 representing the position of the minor axis, and there- fore at right angles to the major axis. This line wdll be of the same length as its plan CO, and its divisions may be marked off direct from the plan. 286 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY By producing the lower tangent (cB^A^) to S, and the major axis to S, we have the half diagonal SO, which, when divided proportionately to its plan SO, will give us the major axis of the ellipse. From S, at the end of the half diagonal, set off the line aS^ 1,2,0 at any angle and join its end 0 with the like point 0 of the half diagonal. Draw 2,2 and 1,1 parallel to 0,0 ; then 2,0 on the half diagonal will represent the semi-major axis. The student, having the major and minor axis, will now be able to complete the elliptic curve, but must be careful to secure that the tangent points d' and &2 are correct. The real length of the shank or straight portion is represented by the line &2^2- The bevels required to be applied to the ends of the rails are represented by the angles contained between the inclined plane of the centre line of rail and the tangent planes. It will sometimes be found that the bevels are alike for both ends ; the case represented on page 290 is an example, only one bevel being required. To obtain the bevel. — The angle between the two planes is measured by a plane mutually perpendicular to the first two, and such planes standing at right angles to two others must have their horizontal traces at right angles to the plan of the line of inter- section. In this case (page 284) the plan of the line of intersection is in the XY, and c, A is at right angles to it. We therefore select this line as the horizontal trace of the third plane, and set up cb\ at right angles to the line of intersection (the vertical trace of the plane). Now, by bringing down cb/ into the same plane as cA, and completing the right-angled 288 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY triangle we have the bevel or angle between the planes. To find the Face-Mould. — For this purpose, an- other example has been selected, page 287, a rail of the second class, in which the plan of the rail extends beyond the quadrant of the circle ; the tangents, there- fore, contain an angle less than 90°. The only points of importance in the diagram on page 287 that differ from that on page 290 is the fact that the tangents are unequally inclined, and the horizontal line lying in the plane and passing through the axis 0 does not pass through the point where the tangents cross. To the student who is able to success- fully master the previous diagram this will not be a great difficulty, as E will have its elevation e in its tangent immediately above it. OE is the plan contained in the minor axis, and, being a horizontal line, represents its true length. "When the major axis is drawn, eo is drawn at right angle to it, and the points representing the minor axis taken directly from the plan. The major axis is divided similarly to the last example, six focal points being necessary instead of two. When the three ellipses are found, the butt ends of the rail are drawn at right angle to the centre tangent lines, and through the tangent points d'h. It is most essential, when taking up the face-mould, to take up the tangents to the ''centre line of rail," also the position of the minor axis, as the rail at this point will be parallel to the face of the plank. Two methods are practised for the cutting of the rail from the plank, and are described as follows : ''Square Cut" Method. — This is the most economi- STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 289 cal method of cutting the rail from the plank ; the saw passes at right angles to, or square with, the surface of the plank, hence its name (Fig. 3, page 290). Bevel Cut " Method. — This is the name given to the method of cutting the rail obliquely from the plank (see Fig. 4, page 290). When the cut passes at a very acute angle with the face of the plank, a great waste of material is the result, and although it is considered to be the most direct method, preference is given to the square cut." Fig. 2, page 290, is given to illustrate the method of obtaining the face-mould and bevel in a case where the plan of tangents is at an acute angle and the tangents equally inclined (one bevel only being re- quired). The lettering has, as far as possible, been kept alike in the two examples, so that this example may be the more readily followed. To decide the thickness of plank required for a rail : Take the section of a rail and turn it through an angle represented by the steepest pitched bevel ; draw parallel lines tangential to the curve at the top and bottom ; the distance between these parallels will represent the thickness of plank required. Application of the Face-Mould. — The face-mould having been obtained, and the thickness of the plank decided, place the face-mould upon the plank, and mark the butt ends of the mould, also its centre lines; the ends are now ready to be cut. At this point the butt joints should be truly squared with the tangents ; this is accomplished by placing the stock of the square to the ends of the material, and so adjusting the ends until the blade of the square coin- cides with the tangent lines. The ends, which must T STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 291 also be squared with the face of the plank, must now be considered finished as regards their planes and should not be subsequently altered, as the least altera- tion here is likely to lead to greatly increased errors in the pitch of the rail. The face-mould more strictly belonging to the centre of the rail, the tangents should be squared over to the centres of the ends. These points having been obtained, the bevels are applied and the new positions for the top and bottom tangents are obtained. The face-mould now requires to be moved along until the tangents of the mould cor- respond with the new positions of the tangents on the plank ; the outline of the rail may then be pencilled upon the plank. To Construct the Outline of Scroll to any Diameter (Fig. 1, page 292). — Having decided the width AB, divide it into eight equal parts. At A let fall a perpendicular equal to one-eighth of AB. Join BD^ and from C let fall a perpendicular to it, cutting it in U. With C as centre and CU as radius, describe an arc cutting AB in point 1, the centre of the first quadrant. Draw li^ perpendicular to and describe the quadrant BF. Through D, draw a parallel to AB, intersecting IF in point 2, the centre of the second quadrant. From F erect the perpendicular F, 0 upon BD ; point 0 is the centre of the spiral. Join 1, 0, and produce, intersecting D2 in 3, the centre of the third quadrant. From 3 set up a perpendicular to i)2, and with 3 as centre and 3D as radius, describe the third quadrant. Join 2, 0 and produce to intersect 311 in 4, the centre of the fourth quadrant. Draw 4e/ perpendicular to 4/f and equal to it in length. With 4 as centre and STAIRCASING AND HAND-RAILING 293 iff radius, complete the fourth quadrant. The remaining centres may be found as follows : The diagonals 1, 3 and 2, 4 cut the perpendiculars 4/ and 5K in points 5, 6, 7, etc., but beyond this it is seldom necessary to go. The inner margin of the rail is struck from the same centre as the outer, and at a distance from the latter equal to the width of the rail. To find the Face-Mould for the Shank (Fig. 2, page 292). — This rail comes under the first class, having one of the tangents horizontal. The tangents to the centre line of rail are represented in plan at Fig. 1 by the lines LM and NF. The shank extends to the point B in plan. Fig. 3 represents a develop- ment of the lines in order to obtain their true lengths, MNP and B being of the same lengths as the corre- sponding lines of Fig. 1. ENR^^ represent the pitch of the stairs, similar in shape to the outline of the " pitch-board.'' In order to obtain the true length of the inclined tangent NP^B^^ set up over the plan the respective heights of these points as obtained by the " pitch-board " ; the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle will give it its true length. The real angle between the tangents can here be obtained by inspection, and, as in all cases of the first class, will be found to be a right angle. MN and P^^, being set up in their correct positions, will represent the semi-minor and semi-major axes of the ellipse which may now be drawn. The increased width of rail at the butt end is due to the inclination of the plank, and may be found by setting the true width of the rail along the horizontal line NP (Fig. 3), and from the extremities set up the perpendiculars intersecting the inclined line 294 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY NP.2 ; the portion intercepted between the tops of the perpendiculars represents the increased width. Easing the Rail. — It is usual in cases similar to the last to allow the shank portion of the scroll to take a more gradual change as it joins the scroll ; this is accomplished by cutting the scroll out of material ^ in. thicker than the rail, so that the moulded scroll can be formed to rise to the extent of ^ in. as it approaches the shank piece. Fig. 4 represents the relative position of the end of the tread, with respect to the hand-rail above. An enlarged section of the rail is shown at Fig. 5, in order to illustrate how much material may be saved by working close to the section of rail. It is not advisable that the student should attempt this in the earlier stages of the work as it is likely to lead to mistakes, but to work his twisted rail first to the rectangular section, and then to mould it if necessary. APPENDIX A. SYLLABUS. (From the Programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute.) The Preliminary Examination will include questions founded on the following subjects : 1. British and metric systems of units of length, area, and volume. 2. Division of straight line into parts, and elementary problems in practical plane geometry. Construction and use of scales. 3. Construction of polygons as used in setting out a templet or mould for lantern lights and roofs of turrets, etc. 4. Area of plane figures. Construction of oblong equal in area to any irregular figure bounded by straight lines, and of not more than eight sides. Calculation of area of floors, walls, gables, and roof surfaces. 5. Properties of circle as applied to the setting out of circular arches and simple mouldings. Measurement of relation of circumference of circle to diameter, arcs, chords, etc. 6. The practical setting out of simple pieces of joinery, such as door-frames, king-posts, and of simple plane figures, including circular, elliptic and other curves, showing tangent and normals of arches and centering. 296 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 7. Measurement of bulk of simple solid figures, such as cube, prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone and sphere, and parts of the same. 8. Construction of plan elevation and section of simple solids. Representation in oblique and isometrical pro- jection of solid figures, and also of the simple joints, such as housing, mortise and tenon, halving, etc. 9. Graphic methods of representing and measuring the stress in a simple truss. Simple experiments on bending and testing strength of beams. Principle of parallelogram and triangle of forces, and simple problems thereof. 10. Simple mechanical contrivances, such as lever, pulley, wedge, and screw. Problems illustrating their uses. 11. Practical determination of densities of different woods. 12. The principal tools used in carpentry and joinery, their names, shapes, uses, etc. 13. The more common woods used in carpentry and joinery. ORDINARY GRADE. In addition to the foregoing, candidates in the Ordinary Grade are expected to know the following subjects : 1. Nature and properties of the various kinds of wood used in carpentry and joinery, with the ports or places from which they are obtained. Methods of seasoning and preservation of timber. Strength of timber. Mode of planning and converting materials, so as to avoid waste and shrinkage, and obtain the maximum strength or stiff- ness. 2. Tools, their names, shapes, uses, etc. Labour-saving machinery. 3. Mechanical drawing as applied to carpentry and joinery. Drawings, full-size, showing shoulder-lines, etc., APPENDIX A 297 on the material before it is cut; and the various joints in carpentry and joinery. Setting out rods. Working drawings of panelled and framed and braced doors, door frames and casings, double hung sashes, sliding and hanging shutters, French casements, folding shutters, and boxings, rebates or linings for swing doors, etc. 4. A general knowledge of the proportions of stiles, rails, muntins, etc., in doors and windows, heights of rails in doors to suit knobs or latches, the usual sizes of doors, windows, etc., and of the kind of material and strength to be used. 5. Mouldings, their forms and names. Intersection of mouldings at different angles, also of straight and circular mouldings. Enlarging and diminishing mouldings. Lines for determining the sections of moulded bars and hip-rafters in skylights and lanterns. Method of determining the true section of raking mouldings over square or oblique plans, also when the given moulding is on the rake. 6. Bevels. Finding bevels for hip-rafters, jack-rafters, purlins, splayed linings, raking mouldings, and oblique work generally. Also a knowledge of the method employed to place bevel lines direct upon the work, without making a drawing of the same. 7. Newel and geometrical stairs. Proportion of riser and tread. General planning of stairs to clear windows, and other obstacles, and to obtain proper head room. Method of finding the proper position of winders and diminished fliers. General construction, and methods of support. 8. Mechanical principles. The principles required in framing roof trusses, timber partitions, trussed girders, bracing large doors, gates, etc. Drawings to scale of the same, showing the comparative strain in different parts, by means of graphic statics. 298 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 9. Methods of strengthening beams and girders by "fiitching" and "trussing," etc. How wood roof trusses are acted upon by cambering the tie-beam, and the motive for cambering. Different methods of shoring. Flying and raking shores. 10. Joints. Mortise and tenon, the proportion tenons should bear to the thickness and width of material. The proportion of the parts of the tusk tenon, the position of mortises with regard to the neutral axis. Joints for oblique timbers, position of the shoulder with regard to the direction of the strain. Trimming round voids in roofs, floors, etc. Difl'erent methods of scarfing. Proper position, and kind of sti'aps and bolts used to secure joints. 11. Hinges, various kinds of, and modes of applying them. Centre-pin joint, back-flap, rule-joints, etc. Working drawings, showing the path of difl'erent parts of the work so as to obtain clearance, etc. 12. A general knowledge of the use of Aveather boards, water bars, throating, etc., for external work. Particular attention should be paid to the form of joints and manner of hanging French casements and skylights. 13. Plumbing and slating. Preparing and fixing flash- ings, tilting pieces, forming drips, rolls, cistern heads, etc. , for plumber and slater, construction of flats for lead and zinc — also preparing and fixing angle beads, grounds, etc., for plasterer. HONOURS GRADE. For the Honours Examination candidates must have passed in a previous year in the Ordinary Grade. The Examination will be Written and Practical. (1) Written Examination, — Advanced questions on some of the preceding subjects, and in addition a knowledge will be required of : APPENDIX A 299 1. The various methods of constructing centres for segmental, elliptical, parabolic and other arches, showing the direction of the joint lines of the arch. Fixing and striking large centres. 2. Different forms of scaffolding, staging, and gantries, and their construction. 3. Circular work. Method employed to bend boards, ribs, or mouldings round circular work, by kerfing, grooving, steaming, etc. Moulds and bevels re- quired for soffits in straight and circular walls — also for ribs in groins, domes, and niches, circle upon circle, etc. 4. Hand-railing. The proper height of hand-rails over fliers, winders, and round landings. Method of describing hand-rail scrolls. The theory and use of tangent planes and tangent lines, as employed in the tangent system of hand-railing. Method of determining the position of the face-mould plane, to pass through three points in the central line of rails — the moulds, bevels, length of balusters, etc. 5. Construction of fittings for churches, shops and domestic work, pews and stalls, shop fronts and cases, tables, fitments for butler's pantry, housekeeper's room, etc. (2) Drawing. — Drawing to scale from data furnished by the Examiner. (3) Practical Work. — Each candidate will be required, during the year preceding the Examination, to design and execute in suitable material an original piece of work, and to forward the same to London (carriage paid) on or before April 23rd, together with a certificate signed by his em- ployer, or by the class teacher and a member of the School Committee, stating that the work has been wholly executed by the candidate himself without assistance. The specimen 300 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of work must be accompanied with a working drawing, with particulars of quantity and nature of materials used, and must be of such dimensions that it will fit into a box not larger than two cubic feet. Note. — Specimens are preferred which are sufficiently large to show the practical work and are loosely " wedged up" so that they can be taken to pieces for examination. Candidates are advised if they select so large a subject that it must be made to a small scale, to make in addition portions to an enlarged scale, showing the construction. The candidates are advised to affix a price to their models if they wish to sell theiiiy as the Examiner is authorized to recom- mend for purchase to the TForshipfid Company of Carpenters any work he considers of especial merit. Full Technological Certificate. — A Provisional Certificate will be granted on the results of the above Examination. For the full Technological Certificate in the Ordinary Grade, the candidate who is not otherwise qualified will also be required to have passed the Science and Art Department's Examination in the Elementary Stage at least; and for the full Certificate in the Honours Grade, in the Advanced Stage at least, in two of the following Science subjects : I. Practical, Plane, and SoHd Geometry. III. Building Construction. VI. Theoretical Mechanics. VII. Applied Mechanics. Certificates showing that the candidate has passed the Elementary Examination of the Science and Art Depart- ment in Geometrical Drawing, as well as in Freehand or Model Drawing, will be accepted in lieu of one of the above Science subjects for the full Technological Certificate in either grade of the Examination. APPENDIX B. QUESTIONS SET BY THE EXAMINATIONS DEPARTMENT OF THE CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE, 1897. 54. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. (Preliminary Examination.) Monday, May 3rd, 7 to 10. INSTRUCTIONS. No Certificates will be given to candidates on the results of this Preliminary Examination, but their successes will be notified. Candidates may take the Ordinary Grade without having passed the Preliminary Examination ; or both Examinations may be taken in the same year. The number of the question must be placed before the answer in the worked paper. Not more than ten questions to be answered. Three hours allowed for this Examination. 1. What is the difference between the decimal and duo- decimal systems of measurement Which is in ordinary use amongst carpenters and joiners in England ? Convert 7149 from the decimal to the duodecimal scale. (30 marks) 2. Describe the best method you know of constructing a scale of feet and inches, and illustrate by making a scale of 1 J inches to a foot. (32) 3. It is proposed to construct a hexagonal lantern-light 302 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY of 5 feet diameter. Draw an outline plan of same on a scale of 1| inches to a foot. (32) 4. The hall over which is the skylight referred to in previous question is also hexagonal, and has a diameter of 1 2 feet. What is the area of the floor ? (34) 5. One side of this hall has a semicircular bay window the full width of side. Find the area of the floor of the bay. (34) 6. Show, by sketches, the manner in which the several conic sections are obtained from a cone. Give rules for approximately setting out an ellipse. (34) 7. A baulk of timber is 20 feet long, 15 inches by 15 inches at one end and 12 inches by 12 inches at the other. What would be its price at 2s. per foot cube ? (32) 8. Make an isometrical drawing of a cylinder 3 inches in diameter and 1| inches deep, standing on its base. (36) 9. Draw in isometrical projection, quarter full size, the mortise and tenon to the bottom rail of a 2 inch door, the parts separated. (36) 10. Two forces of 16 and 63 lbs. act upon a point at right angles to each other ; find their resultant. (34) 11. A king-post roof truss, 20 feet span and 10 feet in height, has a purlin on each side resting on the middle of principal rafters, under which are the struts. The load of each purlin is 5 cwt. Find, graphically, the strain on each part of the truss. (40) 12. A man sitting upon a board suspended from a single movable pulley pulls downwards at one end of a rope, which passes under the movable pulley and over a pulley fixed to a beam overhead, the other end of the rope being fixed to the same beam. What is the smallest proportion of his whole weight with which the man must pull in order to raise himself 1 (30) 13. If three cubes of wood, the first of fir 3 inches on the side, the second of oak 4 inches on the side, and the APPENDIX B 303 third of mahogany 5 inches on the side, are placed before you, how would you determine the relative densities of the different woods 1 (32) 14. Give a short description of six ordinary tools used by the carpenter and joiner. (36) 15. What wood do you consider most suitable for (a) tie-beams, (b) floor joists, (c) floor boards, (d) panelling, (e) shop fronts, (/) hand-rails. (30) 16. Explain how you would distinguish between a good* and a bad deal. (32) 54. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. Saturday/, April 2Uh, 2.30 to 6.30. INSTRUCTIONS. The candidate must confine himself to one grade only, the Ordinary or Honours, and must state at the top of his paper of answers which grade he has selected. He must not answer questions in more than one grade. If he has already passed in this subject, in the first class of the Ordinary Grade, he must select his questions from those of the Honours Grade. The number of the question must be placed before the answer in the worked paper. A sheet of drawing paper is supplied to each candidate. Drawing instruments to be used in this Examination. Not more than nine questions to be answered in either grade. Foiir hours alloived for this j^cLper. The maximum number of marks obtainable is affixed to each question. Full Technological Certificate. — Qualifying Subjects. See page 300. For Ordinary Grade, two in the Elementary Stage ; for Honours, two in the Advanced Stage, from the following : — I. Practical, Plane, and Solid Geometry. III. Building Construction. VI. Theoretical Mechanics. VII. Applied Mechanics. 304 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY A Certificate in Elementary Stage of Geometrical Drawing as well as in Freehand or Model Drawing, will serve in lieu of one Science subject for either grade. Passing the Preliminary Examination will count as one subject. ORDINARY GRADE. Every candidate is required to attempt question No. 3, aiid at LEAST foiir other questions. 1. Give sketches to illustrate how the cutting of timber affects its use, and state how you would prefer timber to be cut from the log, and why. (32 marks) 2. Describe the various processes through which deal should be passed before it can be considered thoroughly seasoned. (34) 3. State for what purposes the following tools are used : Firmer chisel, back saw, jack plane, router, side fillister, chariot plane. (36) 4. Give plan and section, 1| in. to afoot, of a lead gutter behind stone parapet, showing feet of rafters, outlet of gutters, etc., complete. (32) 5. It is required to cover a building 40 ft. wide with roof in one span and ^ pitch. Give elevation of the truss you would use to scale 4 feet to an inch. (34) 6. Give enlarged details of joints to the foregoing roof in isometrical projection, showing the ironwork you would use. (36) 7. Draw section to scale, IJ in. to a foot, through a fire- place on first floor, showing the construction and trimming of the floor. (34) 8. Draw to a scale, 1| in. to a foot, plan and elevation of an angle tie and dragon piece, and show how you would obtain the bevels of hip-rafter. (32) 9. Give sketches of a centre for semicircular stone arch 20 ft. span, and describe the position and use of wedges. (35) APPENDIX B 305 10. What must be the scantling of a fir beam to carry safely a distributed load of five tons over a span of 10 ftJ (36) 11. Draw plan and elevation to h in. scale of 2J in. framed, ledged, and braced door, in two heights, with fan- light over and solid fir wrought, rebated and beaded frame in opening 4 ft. by 9 ft. (34) 12. Draw plan and elevation to | in. scale of a pair of 2^ in. folding doors, each leaf five-panel bolection moulded with raised (or fielded) panels. Size of opening 6 ft. by 7 ft. 6 in. (34) 13. Show the linings and finishings, with details of grounds and backings, necessary to the above door in a 14 in. wall. (34) 14. Draw plan and section to scale, IJ in. to a foot, of a three light casement with solid frame and muUions. Size of opening 5 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. Give section through sill 1 full size. (36) 15. Draw to a scale, | in. to a foot, a newel staircase, with open well-hole 3 ft. 6 in. wide, in a hall 10 ft. wide. Height from floor to floor 12 ft. Show enlarged details of treads and risers. (36) 16. Give sketches ^ full size of the following joints: Secret dovetail, double tenon and mortise, fox wedging, rule joint, meeting rail of double- hung sash, rebate and tongue. (36) HONOURS GRADE. Candidates for Honours must have previously passed in the Ordinary Grade f and must have already forwarded to the Institute the required specimen of their practical work. Every candidate is required to attempt question No. 4, and at LEAST three other questions. 1. Give a short description of the various European soft woods, and state the purpose for which each is best adapted. (32) u 3o6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 2. Give some account of dry rot, and the situations in which it is to be expected. What signs would lead you to believe that dry rot exists in the timbers of a building ? What is to be done when dry rot is discovered 1 (35) 3. Describe the three best preservative processes (other than seasoning) with which you are acquainted, and state their value in increasing the durability of timber. (30) 4. Describe the construction, uses, cost of purchase, and expense of running one of the following machines : (a) General joiner ; (b) planing machine ; (c) spindle machine. (40) 5. Draw to scale, 1 in. to a foot, the foot of a hammer- beam truss, 40 ft. span and | pitch ; dot outline of tenons and show the bolts and straps. The hammer beam, with all work below it, and the ends of timber framed above, to be shown. (36) 6. Draw to scale, 1 in. to a foot, section through a venti- lating turret, 6 ft. internal diameter, on the roof mentioned above, and show how you would frame it to the roof. (36) 7. Give elevation to scale, ^ in. to a foot, of a quarter partition, 18 ft. wide and 24 ft. high, running through two storeys and self-supporting over the ground floor. On the first floor is a central doorway 6 ft. 6 in. wide by 7 ft. 6 in. high ; on the second floor is a doorway 3 ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. 6 in. from one side wall ; and another 4 ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 2 ft. from the other wall. Give details of joints ; show all ironwork and figure scantlings. (30) 8. Draw elevation and section to scale, J in. to a foot, showing construction of a gantry over pavement 10 ft. wide and with staging 12 ft. from ground. (34) 9. Draw plan and section to scale, | in. to a foot, of a shop front, showing arrangement for giving light to base- ment. Frontage, 18 ft.; height from floor to ceiling, 13 ft. (35) APPENDIX B 307 10. Two houses of 18 ft. frontage each in a terrace have been pulled down, and shoring is required for supporting the adjoining houses on each side. Sketch to scale, ^ in. to a foot, the shoring you would construct, and giv^e scantlings and details of the joints. (32) 11. Give a description of not more than six hard woods with which you are acquainted, stating their nature, uses, cost, and the relative difficulty of working as compared with first quality yellow Baltic deal. (36) 12. Describe fully how you would set out a moulded hand-rail to a geometrical staircase which has ten winders, the well-hole being 2 ft. in the clear and the risers each 6 in. high. (38) 13. The staircase above mentioned has a veneered string. Work out to a large scale the development of the veneer round the well-hole, and show by dotted lines the con- struction. (36) 14. A niche segmental on plan, and 5 ft. wide across the front, has a domical head, semicircular on elevation. Show by sketches to scale, 1 in. to a foot, how you would construct the domical head, and give rules for finding curves of ribs and bevels of ends. (32) 15. Give a plan to scale, J in. to a foot, of a butler's pantry, 10 ft. by 8 ft. and 10 ft. 6 in. high, showing the fittings necessary, and give details to scale of, 1^ in. to a foot, of one of the fittings. (34) 16. Draw to scale, of | in. to a foot, a lantern light, elliptical on plan, 7 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 3 ft. 6 in. high, internal dimensions. Show how you would get cuts or bevels of bars at top and bottom. (34) 3o8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 1898. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION. Monday^ May 9th, 7 to 10. 1. Is the method of measuring in the carpenters' trade decimal or duodecimal 1 How would you convert from one system to the other 1 (36 marks) 2. Construct a plain scale to read 2 inches to 1 foot. (30) 3. Describe the method of inscribing in a circle any regular polygon. On a given line 2 inches long construct a pentagon. (30) 4. Make an irregular heptagon, and reduce the same to an oblong of equal area. (34) 5. The chord of a circle is 12 feet; the rise in the segment is 2 feet. Find the radius of the circle by figures. (35) 6. Set out a circular-headed door frame, inside measure- ment 4 feet, the door 2 inches thick. Transome with fanlight over. (38) 7. What is the cubical contents of half a regular hexa- gonal pyramid of 2 feet edge and 5 feet high '? (37) 8. Draw the plan and elevation of a hexagonal prism of l|-inch edge at ends and 3-inch axis, when the axis is horizontal but inclined to the plane of elevation at 40"". Make the section of this prism, when cut by a plane, parallel to the plane of elevation. (38) 9. Make isometric or oblique drawings of the follow- ing joints, and figure their dimensions: "Haunched," tenon joint,'' " grooved and tongued," and " common dove- tail." (32) 10. The handle of a mortising machine is 2 feet long. How much more pressure would you be able to exert, applying the same force, if the handle were made 1 foot longer ? (38) APPENDIX B 309 11. {a) Describe the difference between the teeth of a ripping saw and those of a dovetail saw, and give the reasons for their respective shapes, (h) What bit would you use to bore a |-inch hole into the end grain of a piece of timber 1 (38) 12. Describe the characteristics and uses of the principal conifer timbers. (40) ORDINARY GRADE. Not more than nine questions are required to be answered. 1. Write a brief description of oak, teak, and yellow deal, and state the purposes for which they are used. Give the principal market firms and ports of shipment. (32 marks) 2. Why is the iron of a shoulder plane reversed, as compared with a jack plane ? Why should the pitch of a moulding-plane iron be greater for hard wood than for soft wood ? (35) 3. Make the elevation of rather more than half of a six- panelled door, 7 ft. 2 in. high and 3 ft. 2 in. wide; and a vertical section, scale 1 in. to the foot. All the parts should be fully dimensioned. Make to scale | full size a detailed section through the panel and moulding. (36) 4. Make isometric drawings of the joint at the lock-rail of the door in the preceding question, and also of the joint at the bottom rail of the door, with double tenons. (32) 5. Make sections of the following mouldings : Cyma recta (Roman and Greek), Astragal torus (Roman and Greek), Cavetto (Roman and Greek), Ovolo (Roman and Greek). These drawings must be large enough to show the geometrical construction, and the working lines should be left in. (38) 6. Make a half elevation to a scale of \ in. to the foot of a truss partition, 20 ft. wide, 15 ft. high, with a door- CARPENTRY AND JOINERY way near each end. Illustrate by freehand sketches the joints, and the means you would employ in making and securing it. (40) 7. Draw a plan, to a scale of | in. to a foot, of a newel staircase, 3 ft. 6 in. wide; height, floor to floor, 12 ft.; in a hall 9 ft. wide. Explain the method of setting out this stair, and how you would determine the proper proportion of treads to risers. (40) 8. Make line diagrams and write the names of the parts of a collar-beam roof of 16 ft. span, and show by line diagrams the form of principal you would use for a 25 ft., 35 ft., and a 50 ft. span roof. Show the parts in com- pression by single lines, and those in tension by double lines. (36) 9. \SECTION Elevation APPENDIX B The foregoing sketch is the plan and elevation of a moulding on the rake. Determine the method of working the two end pieces to intersect with it, and of obtaining the angles for mitreing it. (38) 10. What do you understand by strengthening beams and girders by means of flitching and trussing ? Give sketches to illustrate. (32) 11. Show by sketch the different methods of scarfing, and state which are adapted for the different strains. (30) 12. Describe the following: Back flap, rule joint, and give illustrations of their use. (30) 13. Make a drawing of a small skylight, to be fixed in a flat roof, and give details to show how the weather is kept out. (32) 14. A room, 20 ft. by 15 ft., has a bay window, fireplace, and two doorways. Describe the method of fixing the grounds to receive the skirtings, architraves, etc. (34) HONOURS GRADE. N.B, — Candidates for the Honours Grade must have previously forwarded to the Institute a specimen of their practical work. Candidates are expected to answer not less than five questions, hut they may answer more. 1. A centre is required for an elliptical arch of stonework, having 25 ft. span and 10 ft. rise. Draw, to a scale of \ in. to the foot, such centering, and mark thereon scantlings of the timber. (34) 2. Describe and show in detail the mode of taking out the front wall of a ground storey to insert a shop front, with needful shoring. (38) 3. Give the best methods of seasoning timber, and the relative time required for the following : Yellow deal. 312 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY pitch pine, oak, black walnut, wainscot, and mahogany for joinery. What is meant by second seasoning, and how would you treat high class joinery in going through the 4. A niche is in shape a quarter of a sphere, and it is to be boarded so that the joints of the boards are horizontal when the boards are bent round. Show the geometrical 5. Draw half the horizontal section through an internal doorway, the wall being 18 in. thick. Show grounds, architraves, frame, jamb lining, and door 2^ in. thick, with moulding on the solid and raised panels ; scale, 2 in. to 1 foot. Write a brief description of making, fixing, and hanging such fittings in high-class work. (38) 6. A window has a 6-ft. opening. It is to be fitted with splayed folding boxing shutters. The soffit is framed. Write a brief description of the method of fixing the various parts. (32) 7. Make sketches of mouldings sufficiently clear to illus- trate the character of the following: Greek, Eoman, Norman and Decorated periods. Give sections of mouldings com- monly used in various forms of joinery. (40) 8. Show how you would set out a rod for a window-frame fitted with a pair of French casements. (30) process ? (32) method of setting out the boards. (36) INDEX. A Abel's process of preservation, 218. Abutments, 152. Alder, characteristics of, 228. Angle between roof planes, 136, 137, 168, 169. Angles, to bisect, 10, 11. Annulets, 196. Application of face-mould, 289. Architraves, 111, 112. Area of window space, 130. Ash, characteristics of, 226. Astragal, 197. B Back linings, 119. Backing of the hip, 167-169. Balk of timber, 38. Balsam fir, characteristics of, 229. Balusters, definition of, 268. Band moulding. 111, 112. Bareface tenons, 61. Basement floors, 87. Batten, 39. Battened doors, 97-99. Battened panels, 109. Bead butt panels, 108. Bead flush panels, 108. Beaded joints, 61. Beads, various forms of, 197. Beams, transverse strength of, 261. Bearing piles, 181-183. Beech, characteristics of, 228. Bending moment diagram, 252. Bethell's process of preservation, 218. Bevel-cut method, 289. Bevelled shoulder joint, 59. Bevels for hand-railing, 286. Bevels for purlins, 171. Birch, characteristics of, 229. Birdsmouth joint, 53. Board, 39. Borrowed lights, 130. Bottle-nose steps, 267, 269. Boucherie's process of preservation, 219. Bow's notation, 259. Boxed shutters, 122. Box gutters, 150. Brackets to sashes, 119. Bracketted string, 270. Brandering, 94. Breaking weights, to find the, 262. Bricknogged partitions, 90. Bridle joint, 52. 314 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Bull-nose steps, 267, 278. Burnett's process of preservation, 219. C Canary wood, characteristics of, 231. Camber, 144. Capillary attraction, 129. Carpenter's boast, 53. Cased sash and frame, 115, 117. Cedar, characteristics of, 229. Centering, 190-193. Centre line of rail, 283, 284. Charring the ends of posts, 218. Chase mortise, 60, 80. Chestnut, characteristics of, 229. Circle, area of, 18. Circle on circle, 207-210. Circle, through three points, 12. Circular louvre frame, 203, 204. Citron wood, characteristics of, 229. Clamped joint, 62, 63. Classification of timber, 225. Close string, definition of, 268. Cogged joint, 46. Coke-breeze fixing blocks, 113. Collar-beam truss, 160. Colonel Emy truss, 155, 157. Colouring, 8, 9. Common dovetail, 68. Compasses, 5. Components of a force, 239. Conifers, 225. Conversion of timber, 223, 224. Co-ordinate planes, 26. Corbels, brick, 86. Counterlathing, 94. Cups and screws, 118. Cup shakes, 221. Curtail step, definition of, 268. Curbs to lantern light, 134-136. Cut string, definition of, 268. Cypress, characteristics of, 229. D Datum lines, 7. Dead shore, 188, 189. Deal, dimensions of, 39. Deal, red, 226. Deal, white, 226. Deal, yellow, 226. Development of cone, 29. Dicotyledons, 225. Dimensions to working drawings, 7. Doatiness, 222. Dog-legged stairs, 277-280. Doors, battened, 97-100. Doors, double-margined, 104. Doors, framed and battened, 98. Doors, gunstock, 106, 107. Doors, jib, 109. Doors, ledged, 98. Doors, standard size of, 102. Dormer lights, 133. Double-faced architraves, 111, 112. Double floors, 78, 80. Double-framed floors, 81, 82. Douglas fir, characteristics of, 229. Dovetail, common, 68. Dovetail, halved joint, 44, 45. Dovetail, key, 63. Dovetail, lap, 70. Dovetail, mortise and tenon, 60. Dovetail, notch, 44. Dovetail, secret, 70. Dovetail, tongue and groove, 47. Dowel joint, 52. Dragon tie, 165, 166. Draped panels, 109. Drawbore pinning, 66, INDEX 315 Drawing boards, 2. Drawing pens, 6. Drips, 162, 163. Druxiness, 222. Druxy knots, 222. E Easing '^centres," 193. Easing the rail, 294. Eaves gutter, 150, 151. Ebony, characteristics of, 229. Ellipse, problems relating to, 18-25. Elm, characteristics of, 230. Endogenous trees, 225. Enlargement of mouldings, 198, 199. Equilibrant, 239. Examination papers (1897), 301. Examination papers (1898), 308. Exogenous trees, 225. F Facing-up material, 40. Facemould, to find the, 288, 293. Fielded panels, 107, 109. Fillet, 195. Fished joints, 172, 173. Fixing blocks, 113. Flier, definition of, 267, 278. Flight, definition of, 267. Flitch, definition of, 39. Flitch girders, 82, 265. Flitch plates, 83-85. Flooring joints, 70. Flying shores, 187, 188. Folding wedges, 104, 105. Force, particulars required, 237. Forces in roof couples, 243. Forked heading joints, 54. Foxiness, 222, Foxtail wedging, 64. Framed and braced doors, 98, 99. French casements, 125-128. Frieze rail, 103. Funicular polygon, 245. G Gantries, 193, 194. Gardner's process of preservation, 221. Geometric mean, 15, 16. Going, definition of, 266, 267. Gothic roofs, 155, 159, 160. Graphic methods of representing quantity, 237. Greenheart, characteristics of, 230. Ground floor, 64. Grounds framed and splayed, 113. Growth of timber, 211. Gun-stock joint, 55, 58. Gutter behind blocking course, 149. H Hair dividers, 6. Half timbers, 38. Hand-rail, height of, 268. Hand-railing, 279, 294. Hand-railing, classification of, 282. Hammer-beam truss, 158. Haunched tenon, 56-58. Head-room, 280. Heart-shakes, 221. Height of lock rail, 102. Hickory, characteristics of, 230. Hips, to find the length of, 167-169. Hollow or cavetto, 196-198. Holly, characteristics of, 230. Hornbeam, characteristics of, 230. Housed joint, 50. Hyperbola, to draw the, 22-24, 3i6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY I Inking in drawings, 8. Inner casings, 118. Intersection of mouldings, 200-203. Interties, 90. Isometric projection, 31, 32. Isometric projection of mouldings, 33. Isometric projection, pure, 35. Isometric scale, 32, 36. J Jack rafters, 151, 170, 171. Jamb linings, 110, 111. Jarrah, characteristics of, 231. Jib crane, forces set up in, 242. Jib doors, 109. Joggle joint, 51. Joints, various, 73. K Kauri, characteristics of, 231. King-post, nature of stress in, 143. Kite, definition of, 267. Knee, definition of, 270. Knots, definition of, 221. Kyan's process of preservation, 220. L Laggings, 190. Landings, 272, 278. Lantern lights, 134, 136. Lap or halved joint, 40, 41. Larch, characteristics of, 231. Laths, various sizes of, 94. Ledged and braced doors, 98, 99. Ledged doors, 97. Lettering drawings, 7. Lignum vitae, characteristics of, 231. Lime, characteristics of, 231. Line of loads, 245. Log of timber, 38. Louvre frames, 203, 204. M Mahogany, characteristics of, 232. Mansard roofs, 152-154. Margary's process of preservation, 220. Masons' mitre, 62. Matched joint, 54. Maximum bending moment, 253. Mezzanine floors, 74. Mitre dovetail, 70. Mitre, plain, 42. Mitred and halved joint, 41. Mitred string, definition of, 270. Modes of fracture, 236. Moment of a force, 250, 251. Monocotyledons, 225. Mortise and tenon, 55-57. Mouldings, raking, 199, 200. Mouldings, various forms of, 195- 197. N Naked floor timbers, 76. Needle leaf trees, 225. Newel, definition of, 268. Nogging pieces, 90, 96. Normal to an ellipse, 21. Nosing, definition of, 267. Notched joint, 43. Notch -board, definition of, 270. O Oak, characteristics of, 232, 233. Oblique mortise and tenon, 59 Oblique nailing, 46. Octagonal roof, 161. Off'sets, brick, 85. INDEX 317 Open mortise and tenon, 41, 42. Oregon pine, characteristics of, 229. Orthographic projection, 26. Outer casings, 118. Ovolo, 195. P Painting timber, 217. Pallets, wood, 113. Panelled doors, 100, 101. Panelled jamb linings, 111, 112. Panels, 108, 109. Parabola, to construct the, 21-23. Parallel forces, 244. Parallel rules, 4. Parallelogram of forces, 238. Parapet gutters, 148. Parting beads, 118. Parting laths, 118. Partitions, various forms of, 89. Pencil drawings, 8. Pendentives, 205, 206. Philibert-de-Lorme truss, 152, 156. Pine, yellow, 233. Pinning, 65. Pinus rigida, 226. Pinus sylvestris, 226. Pitch pine, 234. Pivoted sashes, 131, 132. Plain jamb linings, 112. Planing, 40. Plank, 39. Plans of stairs, various forms, 278. Plugs, 113. Pockets in walls, 86, 87. Points of contrary flexure, 258. Polar diagrams, 246. Poling boards, 179, 180. Polygon of forces, 240, 241. Polygons, to construct, 13, 14. Q Quadrilateral figures, 17. Quality marks, 227. Quartered partitions, 91. Quartering, 39. Queen-post, details of, 146. Queen-post, truss, 140, 144, 145. R Raised or fielded panels, 107, 109. Raking shores, 183. Ramp, definition of, 270. Reactions, 247-249. Red deal, characteristics of, 234. Resultants of a force, 239. Riders, 185, 186. Rind galls, 222. Rise of step, 267. Riser, definition of, 267. Roof, collar, 139, 140. Roof, couple, 139, 140. Roof, couple close, 139, 140. Roof, king-post, 140, 141. Roof, lean-to, 138, 140. Roof, pitches, 138. Roof, princess-post, 140. Roof, queen-poiat, 140. Roofing irregular plans, 165. Rosewood, characteristics of, 234. Rough brackets, 271, 272. Rough carriages, 270, 271. S Safe wedging, 65. Sanding timber, 217. Sapwood, 2 J 3, 221. Sash doors, 106, 107. Scale rule, 4. Scantling, 39. Scarfing timbers, 172-175. Scribed joints, 48, 49. 3i8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY Scroll, to describe the, 291. Secret nailing, 66. Secret screwing, 67. Sectioning, 6. Sections of panelled doors, 101. Sections of pyramid, 30. Set squares, 5. Shearing stress diagrams, 252-258. Sheeting, 181. Shooting, 40. Shoring, 183-189. Shutters, vertical sliding, 122-124. Side gutters, 162-164. Sills, 82, 92-94, 114. Silver fir, characteristics, 229. Single flooring, 76. Skylights, 133-135. Smoking timber, 216. Solid frames, 110, 111. Sound pugging, 79. Spar, 39. Splayed heading joint, 68. Splayed shutters, 121. Spring bows, 6. Springtree, 270. Spruce fir, characteristics of, 234. Square boxed shutters, 122, 123. Stair planning, 272. Staircase, definition of, 266. Stairs, definition of, 266. Stairs, various forms of, 278. Standards, timber, 226, 227. Star-shakes, 212, 221. Steaming timber, 216. Stiles, diminished, 106. Stiles, gun-stock, 106. Stiles, mitred, 106. Stop bead, 118. Storey rod, 277. Strengthening timbers, 175. Stresses in king-post truss, 260. Striking centres, 193. Strings, 268, 269. Studded partitions, 90. Studs, 89. Stufi", 39. Stump mortise and tenon, 61. Swan-neck, 270, 280. Sycamore, characteristics of, 235. Syllabus of City and Guilds of London Institute, 295. T Table or rule joint, 50. Tangents to circles, 15. Tangents to ellipses, 21. Tarring timber, 217. Teak, characteristics of, 235. Tee-squares, 3. Theory of beams, 251. Throating, 130. Tie-beam, nature of stress in, 143. Timber defects, 221-223. Timber growth, 211-213. Timber preservation, 217-221. Timber seasoning, 214-216. Timbering excavations, 179-181. Tongue and groove joint, 46. Torus, 195. Transome light, 127. Tread, definition of, 266. Tread, proportion of, 273. Tredgold's notch, 44. Tredgold's tusk tenon, 47. Treenails, 66. Triangle of forces, 239. Trussed partitions, 91-94. Trussed timbers, 176-178. Turret roofs, 158. Twisted fibre, 222. INDEX 319 U Upsets, 222. V Veneering around scroll, 277. Ventilating courses, 87, 88. Ventilation of roof timbers, 150- 152. W Wainscot, 223. Waling pieces, 179. Wall plates, 85. Wall pockets, 86, 87. Wall posts, 89. Wall-strings, 268. Walnut, characteristics of, 235. Waney timber, 223. Well-string, 268. Window backs, 120. Window boards, 119. Window elbows, 120. Wood bricks, 113. Wood joints, 113. Wreathed-strings, 270. Y Yellow deal, characteristics of, 233. Yellow pine, characteristics of, 233. Yew, characteristics of, 235. GLASGOW : PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF METHUEN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS : LONDON 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. CONTENTS FORTHCOMING BOOKS, .... 2 POETRY, ...... 8 BELLES LETTRES, ANTHOLOGIES, ETC., . . 9 ILLUSRTATED BOOKS, ..... 10 HISTORY, . . . . . . .II BIOGRAPHY, . . . . . .14 TRAVEL, ADVENTURE AND TOPOGRAPHY, . . 15 NAVAL AND MILITARY, . . . . 17 GENERAL LITERATURE, . . . . 18 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, . . . . 20 PHILOSOPHY, ...... 20 THEOLOGY, . . . . . .21 FICTION, ...... 24 BOOKS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, .... 34 THE PEACOCK LIBRARY, • • • • 34 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES, • • • 35 SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY . . 36 CLASSICAL TRANSLATIONS .... 37 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, • • • • 37 SEPTEMBER 1898 September 1898. Messrs. Methuen's ANNOUNCEMENTS Travel and Adventure NORTHWARD: OVER THE GREAT ICE. By R. E. Peary. With over 800 Illustrations, Maps and Diagrams. Two Vohwies, 1 1 00 pp. De7ny %vo, 2>'^s, net. In this important work Lieutenant Peary tells the story of his travels and adven- tures in the Arctic regions. 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The Gold Medals of the Royal Geographical Society and of the Russian Geographical Society have been conferred upon him for this journey. THE HIGHEST ANDES. By E. A. FitzGerald. With 40 Illustrations, 10 of which are Photogravures, and a Large Map. Royal %vo, 30 j. 7iet. Also, a Small Edition on Handmade Paper, limited to 50 Copies, A narrative of the highest climb yet accomplished. The Illustrations have been reproduced with the greatest care, and the book, in addition to its adventurous interest, contains appendices of great scientific value. CHITRAL : The Story of a Minor Siege. By Sir G. S. Robert- son, K. C.S.I. With Numerous Illustrations and a Map. Demy %vo, 2\s, net. Sir George Robertson, who was at the time British Agent at Gilgit, has written the story of Chitral from the point of view of one actually besieged in the fort. 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Seco7id Edition, ' A history written in the spirit of scientific precision so worthily represented by Dr. Petrie and his school cannot but promote sound and accurate study, and supply a vacant place in the English literature of Egyptology.' — Times. Flinders Petrie. RELIGION AND CONSCIENCE IN ANCIENT EGYPT. By W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., LL.D. Fully Illustrated. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. ' The lectures will afford a fund of valuable information for students of ancient ethics. — Manchester Guardian. 12 Messrs. Methuen's List Flinders Petrie. SYRIA AND EGYPT, FROM THE TELL EL AMARNA TABLETS. By W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., LL.D. Crown %vo. 2s. 6d, •A marvellous record. The addition made to our knowledge is nothing short of amazing.' — Times, Flinders Petrie. EGYPTIAN TALES. Edited by W. M. Flinders Petrie. Illustrated by Tristram Ellis. In Two Volumes, Crown Zvo, 3^. 6^/. each, * A valuable addition to the literature of comparative folk-lore. The drawings are really illustrations in the literal sense of the word.' — Globe. ' Invaluable as a picture of life in Palestine and Egypt.' — Daily News. Flinders Petrie. EGYPTIAN DECORATIVE ART. By W. M. Flinders Petrie. With 120 Illustrations. Cr, Svo, ^s. 6d, * In these lectures he displays rare skill in elucidating the development of decorative art in Egypt, and in tracing its influence on the art of other countries.' — Times. C. W. Oman. A HISTORY OF THE ART OF WAR. Vol. II. : The Middle Ages, from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century. By C. W. Oman, M.A., Fellow of All Souls', Oxford. Illustrated. Demy Svo. 2is. ' The book is based throughout upon a thorough study of the original sources, and will be an indispensable aid to all students of mediaeval history.' — AtheucEUin. 'The whole art of war in its historic evolution has never been treated on such an ample and comprehensive scale, and we question if any recent contribution to the exact history of the world has possessed greater and more enduring value.' — Daily Chronicle. S. Baring Gould. THE TRAGEDY OF THE C^SARS. With numerous Illustrations from Busts, Gems, Cameos, etc. By S. Baring Gould. Fourth Edition, Royal Zvo, i^s, ' A most splendid and fascinating book on a subject of undying interest. The great feature of the book is the use the author has made of the existing portraits of the Caesars, and the admirable critical subtlety he has exhibited in dealing with this line of research. It is brilliantly written, and the illustrations are supplied on a scale cf profuse magnificence.' — Daily Chronicle. H. de B. Gibbins. INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND : HISTORI- CAL OUTLINES. By H. de B. Gibbins, M.A., D.Litt. With 5 Maps. Second Edition. Dei7iy Svo, los. 6d. H. E. Egerton. A HISTORY OF BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY. By H. E. Egerton, M.A. Demy Svo. 12s. 6d. * It is a good book, distinguished by accuracy in detail, clear arrangement of facts, and a broad grasp of principles. ' — Manchester Guardian. * Able, impartial, cleai'. . . . A most valuable volume.' — Aihenceuz/i. Messrs. Methuen's List tj Albert Sorel. THE EASTERN QUESTION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. By Albert Sorel, of the French Academy. Translated by F. C. Bramwell, M.A., with an Intro- duction by R. C. L. Fletcher, Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. With a Map. Crown Svo. 4.S. 6d, 'The author's insight into the character and motives of the leading actors in the drama gives the work an interest uncommon in books based on similar material.' — Scotsman. C. H. Grinling. A HISTORY OF THE GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY, 1845-95. By Charles H. Grinling. With Maps and Illustrations. Demy Svo. los. 6d. 'Admirably written, and crammed with interesting facts.' — Daily Mail. * The only adequate history of a great English railway company that has as yet appeared.' — Tiuies. ' Mr. Grinling has done for the history of the Great Northern what Macaulay did for English History.' — The Engineer. A. Clark. THE COLLEGES OF OXFORD : Their History and their Traditions. By Members of the University. Edited by A. Clark, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln College. Zvo, \2s. 6d, * A work which will certainly be appealed to for many years as the standard book on the Colleges of Oxford.' — Athenaum. Perrens. THE HISTORY OF FLORENCE FROM 1434 TO 1492. By F. T. Perrens. ?>vo, 12s. ed. A history of Florence under the domination of Cosimo, Piero, and Lorenzo de Medicis. J. Wells. A SHORT HISTORY OF ROME. By J. Wells, M. A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham Coll., Oxford. With 4 Maps. Crown Svo. 3^. 6d. This book is intended for the Middle and Upper Forms of Public Schools and for Pass Students at the Universities. It contains copious Tables, etc. * An original work written on an original plan, and with uncommon freshness and vigour. ' — Speaker, 0. Browning. A SHORT HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL ITALY, A.D. 1250-1530. By Oscar Browning, Fellow and Tutor of King's College, Cambridge. Second Edition, In Two Volumes, Crown Svo. 5^. each. Vol. I. 1 250- 1 409. — Guelphs and Ghibellines. Vol. II. 1409- 1 530. — The Age of the Condottieri. ' Mr. Browning is to be congratulated on the production of a work of immense labour and learning.' — Westminster Gazette. O'Grady. THE STORY OF IRELAND. By Standish O'Grady, Author of ' Finn and his Companions.' Cr. ^vo. 2s. 6d, *Most delightful, most stimulating. Its racy humour, its original imaginings, make it one of the freshest, breeziest volumes. ' — Methodist Times, 14 Messrs. Methuen's List Biography S. Baring Gould. THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON BONA- PARTE. By S. Baring Gould. With over 450 Illustrations in the Text and 12 Photogravure Plates. Large quarto. Gilt top, 363-. ' The best biography of Napoleon in our tongue, nor have the French as good a biographer of their hero. A book very nearly as good as Southey's "Life of Nelson." ' — Manchester Guardian. 'The main feature of this gorgeous volume is its great wealth of beautiful photo- gravures and finely-executed wood engravings, constituting a complete pictorial chronicle of Napoleon L's personal history from the days of his early childhood at Ajaccio to the date of his second interment.' — Daily Telegraph. ' Nearly all the illustrations are real contributions to history.' — Westminster Gazette. Morris Fuller. THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF JOHN DAVENANT, D.D. (1571-1641), Bishop of Salisbury. By Morris Fuller, B.D. Demy Svo. los. 6d. J. M. Rigg. ST. ANSELM OF CANTERBURY : A Chapter IN THE History of Religion. By J. M. Rigg. Demy Svo. ys, 6d, Tvlr. Rigg has told the story of the life with scholarly ability, and has contributed an interesting chapter to the history of the Norman period.' — Daily Chronicle. F. W. Joyce. THE LIFE OF SIR FREDERICK GORE OUSELEY. By F. W. Joyce, M.A. ^s. 6d. ' This book has been undertaken in quite the right spirit, and written with sympathy, insight, and considerable literary skill.' — Times, W. G. Collingwood. THE LIFE OF JOHN RUSKIN. By W. G. Collingwood, M.A. With Portraits, and 13 Drawings by Mr. Ruskin. Second Edition. 2 vols. Svo. ^2s. * No more magnificent volumes have been published for a long time.' — Times. ' It is long since we had a biography with such delights of substance and of form. Such a book is a pleasure for the day, and a joy for ever.' — Daily Chronicle. C. Waldstein. JOHN RUSKIN. By Charles Waldstein, M.A. With a Photogravure Portrait. Post Svo. ^s. 'A thoughtful and well-written criticism of Ruskin's teaching.* — Daily Chronicle. A. M. F. Darmesteter. THE LIFE OF ERNEST RENAN, By Madame Darmesteter. With Portrait. Second Edition. Cr,Svo. ds. * A polished gem of biography, superior in Its kind to any attempt that has been made of recent years in England. Madame Darmesteter has indeed written for English readers The Life of Ernest Renan." ' — A theno. 12s. 6d. ' The book Is full of good things, and of sustained Interest.' — St. James's Gazette. * A graphic sketch of one of the most exciting and important episodes in the struggle for supremacy in Central Africa between the Arabs and their European rivals.' — Times, i6 Messrs. Methuen's List A. St H. Gibbons. EXPLORATION AND HUNTING IN CENTRAL AFRICA. By Major A, St. H. Gibbons, F.R.G.S. With 8 full-page Illustrations by C. Whymper, 25 Photographs and Maps. Demy %vo. \^s. His book is a grand record of quiet, unassuming, tactful resolution. His adven- tures were as various as his sporting exploits were exciting.' — Times. E. H. Alderson. WITH THE MASHONALAND FIELD FORCE, 1896. By Lieut. -Colonel Alderson. With numerous Illustrations and Plans. Demy Svo. los. 6d, *An interesting contribution to the story of the British Empire's growth.'— Daily Ne7us. * A clear, vigorous, and soldier-like narrative.* — Scotsman. Seymour Vandeleur. CAMPAIGNING ON THE UPPER NILE AND NIGER. By Lieut. Seymour Vandeleur. With an Introduction by Sir G. GoLDiE, K.C.M.G. With 4 Maps, Illustrations, and Plans. Large Crown Svo. los. 6d. Upon the African question there is no book procurable which contains so much of value as this one.' — Guardian. Lord Fincastle. A FRONTIER CAMPAIGN. By the Viscoimt FiNCASTLE, V.C., and Lieut. P. C. Elliott-Lockhart. With a Map and 16 Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown %vo, 6j. *An admirable book, combining in a volume a piece of pleasant reading for the general reader, and a really valuable treatise on frontier war.' — Aihencnum. J. K. Trotter. THE NIGER SOURCES. By Colonel J. K. Trotter, R.A. With a Map and Illustrations. Crow7i %vo. ^s, 'A most interesting as well as a lucidly and modestly written book.' — Spectator. Michael Davitt. LIFE AND PROGRESS IN AUSTRAL- ASIA. By Michael Davitt, M.P, With 2 Maps. Croivn^vo. ds. 500 pp. * An interesting and suggestive work.' — Daily Chronicle. 'Contains an astonishing amount of practical information.' — Daily Mail. 'One of the most vaKiable contributions to our store of Imperial literature that has been published for a very long time.' — Pall Mall Gazette. W. Crooke. THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES OF INDIA : Their Ethnology and Administration. By W. Crooke, With Maps and Illustrations. Demy Svo. los. 6d. * A carefully and well-written account of one of the most important provinces of the Empire. Mr. Crooke deals with the land in its physical aspect, the province under Hindoo and Mussulman rule, under British rule, its ethnology and sociology, its religious and social life, the land and its settlement, and the native peasant. The illustrations are good, and the map is excellent.' — Manchester Guardian. A. Boisragon. THE BENIN MASSACRE. By Captain BoiSRAGON. Seco7td Edition. CroivnZvo. 't^s. 6d. ' If the story had been written four hundred years ago it would be read to-day as an English classic' — Scotsman. 'If anything could enhance the horror and the pathos of this remarkable book it is the simple style of the author, who writes as he would talk, unconscious of his own heroism, with an artlessness which is the highest art.' — Pall Mall Gazette. Messrs. Methuen's List 17 H. S. Cowper. THE HILL OF THE GRACES : or, the Great Stone Temples of Tripoli. By H. S. Cowper, F.S.A. With Maps, Plans, and 75 Illustrations. Demy Svo. los. 6d. Forms a valuable chapter of what has now become quite a large and important branch of antiquarian research.' — Times. W. Kinnaird Rose. WITH THE GREEKS IN THESSALY. By W. Kinnaird Rose, Reuter's Correspondent. With Plans and 23 Illustrations. Crown Zvo. 6j". W. B. Worsfold. SOUTH AFRICA. By W. B. Worsfold, M.A. With a Map, Second Edition, Crow7i Svo. 6s. 'A monumental work compressed into a very moderate compass,' — World. Naval and Military a. W. Steevens. NAVAL POLICY : By. G. W. Steevens. Demy Svo. 6s, This book is a description of the British and other more important navies of the world, with a sketch of the lines on which our naval policy might possibly be developed. 'An extremely able and interesting work.' — Daily Chronicle. D. Hannay. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY, From Early Times to the Present Day. By David Hannay. Illustrated. 2 Vols, DemyZvo, 'js, 6d, each. Vol. I., 1200- 1688. We read it from cover to cover at a sitting, and those who go to it for a lively and brisk picture of the past, with all its faults and its grandeur, will not be disappointed. The historian is endowed with literary skill and style.' — Standard. 'We can warmly recommend Mr. Hannay's volume to any intelligent student of naval history. Great as is the merit of Mr. Hannay's historical narrative, the merit of his strategic exposition is even greater.' — Times. C. Cooper King. THE STORY OF THE BRITISH ARMY. By Colonel Cooper King, Illustrated. De7ny Svo. ys, 6d. ' An authoritative and accurate story of England's military progress.' — Daily Mail. * This handy volume contains, in a compendious form, a brief but adequate sketch of the story of the British army.' — Daily News. R. Southey. ENGLISH SEAMEN (Howard, Clifford, Hawkins, Drake, Cavendish). By Robert Southey. Edited, with an Introduction, by David Hannay. Second Edition, Crown Svo. 6s. * Admirable and well-told stories of our naval history.' — Ariny and Navy Gazette. 'A brave, inspiriting book.' — Black and White. W. Clark RusselL THE LIFE OF ADMIRAL LORD COL- LINGWOOD. By W. Clark Russell, With Illustrations by F. Brangwyn. Third Edition. C^-own %vo. 6s. ' A book which we should like to see in the hands of every boy in the country.' — St. James s Gazette. * A really good book.' — Saturday Review. E. L. S. Horsburgh. THE CAMPAIGN OF V^ATERLOO. By E. L. S. Horsburgh, B.A. With Plans, Crown Svo. 5j. *A brilliant essay — simple, sound, and thorough.' — Daily Chronicle. A 3 i8 Messrs. Methuen's List H. B.George. BATTLES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. ByH.B. George, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford. With numerous Plans. Third Editio7t, Crown Svo. 6s. Mr. George has undertaken a very useful task — that of making military affairs in- telligible and instructive to non-military readers — and has executed it with laud- able intelligence and industry, and with a large measure of success.' — Times, General Literature S. Baring Gould. OLD COUNTRY LIFE. By S. Baring Gould. With Sixty- seven Illustrations. Large Crown Zvo, Fifth Edition, 6s, **'01d Country Life," as healthy wholesome reading, full of breezy life and move- ment, full of quaint stories vigorously told, will not be excelled by any book to be published throughout the year. Sound, hearty, and English to the core.' — World. S. Baring Gould. HISTORIC ODDITIES AND STRANGE EVENTS. By S. Baring Gould. Fourth Edition, Crown%vo, 6s, * A collection of exciting and entertaining chapters. The whole volume is delightful r ead ing. ' — Times. S. Baring Gould. FREAKS OF FANATICISM. By S. Baring Gould. Third Edition, Crown Svo. 6s, ' A perfectly fascinating book.' — Scottish Leader. S. Baring Gould. A GARLAND OF COUNTRY SONG : English Folk Songs with their Traditional Melodies. Collected and arranged by S. Baring Gould and H. F. Sheppard. Demy ^to, 6s. S. Baring Gould. SONGS OF THE WEST: Traditional Ballads and Songs of the West of England, with their Melodies. Collected by S. Baring Gould, M.A., and H. F. Sheppard, M.A. In 4 Parts. Parts /., //., ///., 3^. each. Part IF., 5^. In one Vol., French morocco, \<^s, A rich collection of humour, pathos, grace, and poetic fancy.' — Saturday Review. S. Baring Gould. YORKSHIRE ODDITIES AND STRANGE EVENTS. By S. Baring Gould. Fourth Edition, Crown 8vo, 6s, S. Baring Gould. STRANGE SURVIVALS AND SUPER- STITIONS. By S. Baring Gould. Crown Svo, Second Edition, 6s, S. Baring Gould. THE DESERTS OF SOUTHERN FRANCE. By S. Baring. Gould, 2 vols. Demy Svo, 32s, Cotton Minchin. OLD HARROW DAYS. By J. G. Cotton Minchin. Crown Svo Second Edition, 51. ' This book is an admirable record.' — Daily Chronicle. Messrs. Methuen's List 19 W. E. Gladstone. THE SPEECHES OF THE RT. HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. Edited by A. W. Hutton, M. A., and H. J. Cohen, M.A. With Portraits. Demy Svo. Vols, IX, and X, 125. 6d. each, E. V. Zenker. ANARCHISM. By E. V. Zenker. Demy Svo. 7s. 6d. ' Well-written, and full of shrewd comments.' — T/ie Speaker. * Herr Zenker has succeeded in producing a careful and critical history of the growth of Anarchist theory. He is to be congratulated upon a really interesting work.' — Literature. H. G. Hutchinson. THE GOLFING PILGRIM. By Horace G. Hutchinson. Crow7t Svo. 6s. ' Full of useful information with plenty of good stories.' — Truth. 'Without this book the golfer's library will be incomplete.' — Pall Mall Gazette. * We can recommend few books as better company.' — St. Ja7ness Gazette. ' It will charm all golfers.' — Times. ' Decidedly pleasant reading.' — Athenceum. J. Wells. OXFORD AND OXFORD LIFE. By Members of the University. Edited by J. Wells, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Crown Svo. 3^. 6d. * We congratulate Mr. Wells on the production of a readable and intelligent account of Oxford as it is at the present time, written by persons who are possessed of a close acquaintance with the system and life of the University.' — Athenceuni. J.Wells. OXFORD AND ITS COLLEGES. By J. Wells, M. A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Illustrated by E. II. New. Second Edition. Fcap. Svo. '^s. Leather, '^s. 6d. net. 'An admirable and accurate little treatise, attractively illustrated.' — World. * A luminous and tasteful little volume.' — Daily Chronicle. * Exactly what the intelligent visitor wants.' — Glasgow Herald. 0. G. Robertson. VOCES ACADEMICS. By C. Grant Robertson, M.A., Fellow of All Souls', Oxford. With a Frontis- piece. Pott. Svo. 33*. 6d. ' Decidedly clever and amusing.' — Athencsum. * A clever and entertaining little hook.'— Pall Mall Gazette. L. Whibley. GREEK OLIGARCHIES : THEIR ORGANISA- TION AND CHARACTER. By L. Whibley, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6j. * An exceedingly useful handbook : a careful and well-arranged study.' — Times. L. L. Price. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, By L. L. Price, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Crown Svo. 6j. J. S. Shedlock. THE PIANOFORTE SONATA: Its Origin and Development. By J. S. Shedlock. CroivnSvo. 55. ' This work should be in the possession of every musician and amateur. A concise and lucid history and a very valuable work for reference.' — Athenceum. E. M. Bowden. THE EXAMPLE OF BUDDHA : Being Quota- tions from Buddhist Literature for each Day in the Year. Compiled by E. M. Bowden. Third Edition. i6?no, 2s, 6d. 20 Messrs. Methuen's List Science and Technology Freudenreich. DAIRY BACTERIOLOGY. A Short Manual for the Use of Students. By Dr. Ed. von Freudenreich. Translated by J. R. AiNswoRTH Davis, B. A. Crown 2>vo 2s.6d. Chalmers MitcheU. OUTLINES OF BIOLOGY. By P. Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., Illustrated. Crown Svo. 6s. A text-book designed to cover the new Schedule issued by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. G.Massee. A MONOGRAPH OF THE MYXOGASTRES. By George Massee. With 12 Coloured Plates. I^o}/al Svo. iSs. net, * A work much in advance of any book in the language treating of this group of organisms. Indispensable to every student of the Myxogastres. ' — Nature. Stephenson and Suddards. ORNAMENTAL DESIGN FOR WOVEN FABRICS. By C. Stephenson, of The Technical College, Bradford, and F. Suddards, of The Yorkshire College, Leeds. With 65 full-page plates. Demy Svo. ys. Sd. * The book is very ably done, displaying an intimate knowledge of principles, good taste, and the faculty of clear exposition.' — Yorkshire Post. HANDBOOKS OF TECHNOLOGY. Edited by Professors GARNETT and WERTHEIMER. HOW TO MAKE A DRESS. By J. A. E. Wood. Illustrated. Crow7i Svo. is. 6d. A text-book for students preparing for the City and Guilds examination, based on the syllabus. The diagrams are numerous. ' Though primarily intended for students, Miss Wood's dainty little manual may be consulted with advantage by any girls who want to make their own frocks. The directions are simple and clear, and the diagrams very helpful.' — Literature, 'A splendid little book.' — Evening News. Philosophy L. T. Hobhouse. THE TPIEORY OF KNOWLEDGE. By L. T. Hobhouse, Fellow of C.C.C, Oxford. Demy Svo, 21s, * The most important contribution to English philosophy since the publication of Mr. Bradley's Appearance and Reality." ' — Glasgow Herald. * A brilliantly written volume.' — Times. W. H. Fairbrother. THE PHILOSOPHY OF T. H. GREEN. By W. H. Fairbrother, M.A. Crown Svo. is, 6d, ' In every way an admirable book.' — Glasgow Herald. F. W. BusseU. THE SCHOOL OF PLATO. By F. W. BussELL, D.D., Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. Demy Svo, \os, 6d. * A highly valuable contribution to the history of ancient Glasgow Herald. 'A clever and stimulating book, — Manchester Guardian. Messrs. Methuen's List 21 P. S. Granger. THE WORSHIP OF THE ROMANS. By F. S. Granger, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Philosophy at Univer- sity College, Nottingham. Crow7t Svo. 6s. * A scholarly analysis of the religious ceremonies, beliefs, and superstitions of ancient Rome, conducted in the new light of comparative anthropology.'— 7"/ww, Theology 1banM)OO?i0 of tCbeolop^* General Editor, A. Robertson, D.D., Principal of King's College, London. THE XXXIX. ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENG- LAND. Edited with an Introduction by E. C. S. Gibson, D.D., Vicar of Leeds, late Principal of Wells Theological College. Second and Cheaper Edition in One Voluine, Demy %vo* I2s, dd. * Dr. Gibson is a master of clear and orderly exposition. And he has in a high degree a quality very necessary, but rarely found, in commentators on this topic, that of absolute fairness. His book is pre-eminently honest.' — Times. * After a survey of the whole book, we can bear witness to the transparent honesty of purpose, evident industry, and clearness of style which mark its contents. They maintain throughout a very high level of doctrine and tone.' — Guardian, * The most convenient and most acceptable commentary.' — Expository Times. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF RELIGION. By F. B. Jevons, M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Bishop Hatfield's Hall. De?ny Svo. los. 6d. *Dr. Jevons has written a notable work, which we can strongly recommend to the serious attention of theologians and anthropologists.' — Manchester Guardian. * The merit of this book lies in the penetration, the singular acuteness and force of the author's judgment. He is at once critical and luminous, at once just and suggestive. A comprehensive and thorough book.' — Birmingham Post. THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCARNATION. By R. L. Ottley, M. a., late fellow of Magdalen College, Oxon., and Principal of Pusey House. In Two Volumes. Demy Svo. 155. * Learned and reverent : lucid and well arranged.' — Record. *A clear and remarkably full account of the main currents of speculation. Scholarly precision . . genuine tolerance . . . intense interest in his subject — are Mr. Ottley 's merits.' — Guardian. JTbe Cburcbman'6 ILibrar^* Edited by J. H. BURN, B.D. THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH CHRISTIANITY. By W. E. Collins, M.A., Professor of Ecclesiastical History at King's College, London. With Map. Crowit Svo. 35. 6d. An investigation in detail, based upon original authorities, of the beginnings of the English Church, with a careful account of earlier Celtic Christianity. Some very full appendices treat of a number of special subjects. * An excellent example of thorough and fresh historical work. — G^tardian. SOME NEW TESTAMENT PROBLEMS. By Arthur Wright, Fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6i". ' Bold and outspoken ; earnest and reverent.' — Glasgow Herald. 22 Messrs. Methuen's '^ist S. R. Driver. SERMONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE OLD TESTAMENT. By S. R. Driver, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the Uni- versity of Oxford. Crown %vo, 6^. * A welcome companion to the author's famous ' Introduction.' — Guardian. T. K. Oheyne. FOUNDERS OF OLD TESTAMENT CRITI- CISM. By T. K. Cheyne, D.D., Oriel Professor at Oxford. Large crown %vo, *js. 6d. A historical sketch of O. T. Criticism. 'A very learned and instructive work.' — Times. H. H. Henson. DISCIPLINE AND LAW. By H. Hensley Henson, B.D., Fellow of All Souls', Oxford; Incumbent of St. Mary's Hospital, Ilford ; Chaplain to the Bishop of St. Albans. Fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d. ' An admirable little volume of Lent addresses. We warmly commend the general drift of Mr. Henson's book.' — Guardian, H. H. Henson. LIGHT AND LEAVEN : Historical and Social Sermons. By H. Hensley Henson, M.A. Crown Svo, 6s. ' They are always reasonable as well as vigorous. ' — Scotsman. W. H. Bennett. A PRIMER OF THE BIBLE. By Prof. W. H. Bennett. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. ' The work of an honest, fearless, and sound critic, and an excellent guide in a small compass to the books of the Bible.' — Manchester Guardian^ 'A unique primer.' — English Churchman. C.H.Prior. CAMBRIDGE SERMONS. Edited by C.H. Prior, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke College. Crown Svo. 6s. A volume of sermons preached before the University of Cambridge by various preachers, including the late Archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop Westcott. Cecilia Robinson. THE MINISTRY OF DEACONESSES. By Deaconess Cecilia Robinson. With an Introduction by the Lord Bishop of Winchester and an Appendix by Professor Armitage Robinson. Crown Svo. y. 6d. *A learned and interesting book, combining with no ordinary skill the authority of learned research with the practical utility of a descriptive manual of parish work.' — Scots7nan. E. B. Layard. RELIGION IN BOYHOOD. Notes on the Religious Training of Boys. By E. B. Layard, M.A. iSmo. is. W. Yorke Fausset. THE DE CATECHIZANDIS RUDIBUS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Edited, with Introduction, Notes, etc., by W. Yorke Fausset, M.A. Crown Svo. 35. 6d, An edition of a Treatise on the Essentials of Christian Doctrine, and the best methods of impressing them on candidates for baptism. F. Weston. THE HOLY SACRIFICE. By F Weston, M.A., Curate of St. Matthew's, Westminster. Pott Svo. is. A small volume of devotions at the Holy Communion, especially adapted to the needs of servers and those who do not communicate. Messrs. Methuen's List 23 A Kempis. THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. By Thomas a Kempis. With an Introduction by Dean Farrar. Illustrated by CM. Gere, and printed in black and red. Second Edition, Fcap, 8vo. Buckram, 31. 6d, Padded morocco^ ^s. 'Amongst all the innumerable English editions of the " Imitation," there can have been few which were prettier than this one, printed in strong and handsome type, with all the glory of red initials.' — Glasgow Herald. J. Keble. THE CHRISTIAN YEAR. By John Keble. With an Introduction and Notes by W. Lock, D. D. , Warden of Keble College, Ireland Professor at Oxford. Illustrated by R. Anning Bell. Second Edition, Fcap. Sz^o, Buckram, 3^. 6^/. Padded morocco^ 55. ' The present edition is annotated with all the care and insighi: to be expected from Mr. Lock. The progress and circumstances of its composition are detailed in the Introduction. There is an interesting Appendix on the mss. of the "Christian Year," and another giving the order in which the poems were written. A '* Short Analysis of the Thought " is prefixed to each, and any difficulty in the text is ex- plained in a note.' — Gtuirdian. ^Tbe Xlbrar^ of Devotion* Pott Svo, 2s.; leather, 2s. 6d, net, *This series is excellent.' — The Bishop of London. * A very delightful edition.' — The Bishop of Bath and Wells. ' Well worth the attention of the Clergy.'— The Bishop of Lichfield. *The new " Library of Devotion " is excellent.' — The Bishop of Peterborough. * Charming.' — Record. * Delightful.'— C/^«r^/i Bells. THE CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Newly Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by C. BiGG, D.D., late Student of Christ Church. *The translation is an excellent piece of English, and the introduction is a masterly exposition. We augur well of a series which begins so satisfactorily.' — Ti7nes. *No translation has appeared in so convenient a form, and none, we think, evidenc- ing so true, so delicate, so feeling a touch.' — Bir7ninghavi Post. ' Dr. Bigg has made a new and vigorous translation, and has enriched the text with a luminous introduction and pithy notes.' — Speaker, THE CHRISTIAN YEAR. By John Keble. With Intro- duction and Notes by Walter Lock, D.D., Warden of Keble College, Ireland Professor at Oxford. * No prettier book could be desired.' — Manchester Guardian. 'The volume is very prettily bound and printed, and may fairly claim to be an advance on any previous editions.' — Guardian. * The introduction is admirable, and admirers of Keble will be greatly interested in the chronological list of the poems.' — Bookman.' THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. A Revised Translation, with an Introduction, by C. Bigg, D.D. , late Student of Christ Church. Dr. Bigg has made a practically new translation of this book, which the reader will have, almost for the first time, exactly in the shape in which it left the hands of the author. 'The text is at once scholarly in its faithful reproduction in English of the sonorous Church Latin in which the original is composed, and popular in the sense of being simple and intelligible.' — Scotsman. 24 Messrs. Methuen's List 3leatifr0 oC Eelfgion Edited by H. C. BEECHING, M.A. Portraits, crown Svo. 35. 6d, A series of short biographies of the most prominent leaders of religious life and thought of all ages and countries. The following are ready — CARDINAL NEWMAN. By R. H. HUTTON. JOHN WESLEY. By J. H. Overton, M.A. BISHOP WILBERFORCE. By G. W. Daniel, M.A. CARDINAL MANNING. By A. W. Hutton, M.A. CHARLES SIMEON. By H. C. G. Moule, D.D. JOHN KEBLE. By Walter Lock, D.D. THOMAS CHALMERS. By Mrs. Oliphant. LANCELOT ANDREWES. By R. L. Ottley, M.A. AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY. By E. L. CUTTS, D.D. WILLIAM LAUD. By W. H. HUTTON, B.D. JOHN KNOX. By F. M^Cunn. JOHN HOWE. By R. F. HoRTON, D.D. BISHOP KEN. By F. A. Clarke, M.A. GEORGE FOX, THE OUAKER. By T. HODGKIN, D.C.L. JOHN DONNE. By Augustus Jessopp, D.D. THOMAS CRANMER. By A. J. Mason. Other volumes will be announced in due course. Fiction SIX SHILLING NOVELS Marie Corelli's Novels Crown Svo. 6s. each, A ROMANCE OF TWO WORLDS. Seventeenth Ediitoit. VEN DETTA. Fourteenth Edition, THELMA. Eighteenth Edition, ARDATH. Eleventh Edition, THE SOUL OF LILITH Ninth Edition. WO RM WO O D. Eighth Edition. BARABBAS : A DREAM OF THE WORLD'S TRAGEDY. Thirty -second Edition, * The tender reverence of the treatment and the imaginative beauty of the writing have reconciled us to the daring of the conception, and the conviction is forced on us that even so exalted a subject cannot be made too familiar to us, provided it be presented in the true spirit of Christian faith. The amplifications of the Scripture narrative are often conceived with high poetic insight, and this "Dream of the World's Tragedy'* is a lofty and not inadequate paraphrase of the supreme climax of the inspired narrative.' — Dublin Review, THE SORRO\VS OF SATAN. Thirty-eighth Edition. * A very powerful piece of work. . . . The conception is magnificent, and is likely to win an abiding place within the memory of man. . . . The author has immense command of language, and a limitless audacity. . . . This interesting and re- markable romance will live long after much of the ephemeral literature of the day is forgotten. ... A literary phenomenon . . . novel, and even sublime.' — W. T. Stead in the Review of Reviews. Messrs. Methuen's List Anthony Hope's Novels C7'own Svo. 6s. each, THE GOD IN THE CAR. Seventh Edition. ' A very remarkable book, deserving of critical analysis impossible within our limit ; brilliant, but not superficial ; well considered, but not elaborated ; constructed with the proverbial art that conceals, but yet allows itself to be enjoyed by readers to whom fine literary method is a keen pleasure.*— The World. A CHANGE OF AIR. Fifth Edition. 'A graceful, vivacious comedy, true to human nature. The characters are traced with a masterly hand.' — Times. A MAN OF MARK. Fourth Edition. ' Of all Mr. Hope's books, A Man of Mark " is the one which best compares with " The Prisoner of Zenda." ' — National Observer. THE CHRONICLES OF COUNT ANTONIO. Third Edition. 'It is a perfectly enchanting story of love and chivalry, and pure romance. The Count is the most constant, desperate, and modest and tender of lovers, a peerless gentleman, an intrepid fighter, a faithful friend, and a magnanimous foe.' — Guardian. PHROSq. Illustrated by H. R. Millar. Third Edition. 'The tale is thoroughly fresh, quick with vitality, stirring the blood, and humorously, diz.^\\m'g\y loXA.''— St. J atnes s Gazette. * A story of adventure, every page of which is palpitating with action.' — Speaker. ' From cover to cover " Phroso " not only engages the attention, but carries the reader in little whirls of delight from adventure to adventure.' — Academy. SIMON DALE. By Anthony Hope. Illustrated. Third Edition. Crown Sz>o. 6s. * "Simon Dale" is one of the best historical romances that have been written for a long while.' — St. Ja7ncss Gazette. 'A bright and gallant story.' — Graphic. 'A brilliant novel. The story is rapid and most excellently told. As for the hero, he is a perfect hero of romance — he is brave, witty, adventurous, and a good lover. ' — A themeuin. * There is searching analysis of human nature, with a most ingeniously constructed plot. Mr. Hope has drawn the contrasts of his women with marvellous subtlety and delicacy. This love-story of 200 years ago makes the man and the woman live again, ' — Times. S. Baring Gould's Novels Crown Svo. 6s. each. *To say that a book is by the author of "Mehalah" is to imply that it contains a story cast on strong lines, containing dramatic possibilities, vivid and sympathetic descriptions of Nature, and a wealth of ingenious imagery.' — Speaker. * That whatever Mr. Baring Gould writes is well worth reading, is a conclusion that may be very generally accepted. His views of life are fresh and vigorous, his language pointed and characteristic, the incidents of which he makes use are striking and original, his characters are life-like, and though somewhat excep- tional people, are drawn and coloured with artistic force. Add to this that his descriptions of scenes and scenery are painted with the loving eyes and skilled hands of a master of his art, that he is always fresh and never dull, and it is no wonder that readers have gained confidence in his power of amusing and satisfying them, and that year by year his popularity widens.' — Court Circular. ARM I NELL. Fourth Editio7u URITH. Fifth Edition. IN THE ROAR OF THE SEA. Sixth Edition. MRS. CURGENVEN OF CURGENVEN. Fourth Edition. 26 Messrs. Methuen's List CHEAP JACK ZITA. Fourth Edition. THE QUEEN OF LOVE. Fourth Edition. MARGERY OF QUETHER. Third Edition. J ACOUETTA. Third Edition. KITTY ALONE. Fifth Edition. NOEML Illustrated by R. C. WOODVILLE. Third Edition. THE BROOM-SQUIRE. Illustrated by F Dadd. Fourth Editio7i. THE PENNYCOMEQUICKS. Third Edition. DARTMOOR IDYLLS. GUAVAS THE TINNER. Illustrated by F. Dadd. Second Edition. BLAD YS. Illustrated. Second Edition. Gilbert Parker's Novels Crown Svo. 6s. each. PIERRE AND HIS PEOPLE. Fourth Edition. * Stories happily conceived and finely executed. There is strength and genius in Mr. Parker's style.' — Daily Telegraph. MRS. FALCHION. Fourth Edition. ' A splendid study of character.' — Athenceum. * But little behind anything that has been done by any writer of our time.' — Pall Mall Gazette. * A very striking and admirable novel.' — St. James s Gazette. THE TRANSLATION OF A SAVAGE. * The plot is original and one difficult to work out ; but Mr. Parker has done it with great skill and delicacy. The reader who is not interested in this original, fresh, and well-told tale must be a dull person indeed.' — Daily Chronicle. THE TRAIL OF THE SWORD. Illustrated. Sixth Edition. ' A rousing and dramatic tale. A book like this, in which swords flash, great sur- prises are undertaken, and daring deeds done, in which men and women live and love in the old passionate way, is a joy inexpressible .* — Daily Chronicle. WHEN VALMOND CAME TO PONTIAC : The Story of a Lost Napoleon. Fourth Edition. * Here we find romance — real, breathing, living romance. The character of Valmond is drawn unerringly. The book must be read, we may say re-read, for any one thoroughly to appreciate Mr. Parker's delicate touch and innate sympathy with humanity.' — Pall Mall Gazette. AN ADVENTURER OF THE NORTH: The Last Adven- tures of * Pretty Pierre.* Second Edition. 'The present book is full of fine and moving stories of the great North, and it will add to Mr. Parker's already high reputation.' — Glasgow Herald. THE SEATS OF THE MIGHTY. Illustrated. Ninth Edition. ' The best thing he has done ; one of the best things that any one has done lately.' — St. James s Gazette. *Mr. Parker seems to become stronger and easier with every serious novel that he attempts. He shows the matured power which his former novels have led us to expect, and has produced a really fine historical novel.' — Athencsum. * A great book.' — Black and White. *One of the strongest stories of historical Interest and adventure that we have read for many a day. ... A notable and successful book.' — Speaker, Messrs. Methuen's List 27 THE POMP OF THE LAVILETTES. Second Edition, ^s.^d, ' Living, breathing romance, genuine and unforced pathos, and a deeper and more subtle knowledge of human nature than Mr. Parker has ever displayed before. It is, in a word, the work of a true artist.' — Pall Mall Gazette. Conan Doyle. ROUND THE RED LAMP. By A. Conan Doyle. Fiflh Edition, Crown Svo, 6s, ' The book is far and away the best view that has been vouchsafed us behind the scenes of the consulting-room. ' — Illustrated London News. Stanley Weyman. UNDER THE RED ROBE. By Stanley Weyman, Author of * A Gentleman of France.' With Illustrations by R. C. Woodville. Fottrteenth Edition. Crown Svo, 6s, * A book of which we have read every word for the sheer pleasure of reading, and which we put down with a pang that we cannot forget it all and start again.' — Westminster Gazette. ' Every one who reads books at all must read this thrilling romance, from the first page of which to the last the breathless reader is haled along. An inspiration of manliness and courage.' — Daily Chronicle. Lucas Malet. THE WAGES OF SIN. By Lucas Malet. Thirteenth Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. Lucas Malet. THE CARISSIMA. By Lucas Malet, Author of * The Wages of Sin,' etc. Third Edition. Crown Svo, 6s. S. R. Crockett. LOCH INVAR. By S. R. Crockett, Author of * The Raiders,' etc. Illustrated. Second Edition, Crown Svo. 6s. ' Full of gallantry and pathos, of the clash of arms, and brightened by episodes of humour and love. . . . Mr. Crockett has never written a stronger or better book.' — Westminster Gazette. S. R. Crockett. THE STANDARD BEARER. By S. R. Crockett. Crown Svo, 6s, ' A delightful tale in his best ztyXe.'—Speaker. ' Mr. Crockett at his best.' — Literatiire. * Enjoyable and of absorbing interest.* — Scotsman. Arthur Morrison. TALES OF MEAN STREETS. By Arthur Morrison. Fourth Edition, Crown Svo. 6s, ' Told with consummate art and extraordinary detail. In the true humanity of the book lies its justification, the permanence of its interest, and its indubitable triumph.' — A thenceum. ' A great book. The author's method is amazingly effective, and produces a thrilling sense of reality. The writer lays upon us a master hand. The book is simply appalling and irresistible in its interest. It is humorous also ; without humour it would not make the mark it is certain to m^iV^.'' —World. Arthur Morrison. A CHILD OF THE JAGO. By Arthur Morrison. Third Edition, Crown Svo, 6s. * The book is a masterpiece.' — Pall Mall Gazette. ' Told with great vigour and powerful simplicity.' — Athenceum. 28 Messrs. Methuen's List Mrs. Clifford. A FLASH OF SUMMER. By Mrs. W. K. Clif- ford, Author of * Aunt Anne,' etc. Second Edition, Crown Svo, 6s, ' The story is a very beautiful one, exquisitely told. ' — Speaker, Emily Lawless. HURRISH. By the Honble. Emily Law- less, Author of * Maelcho,' etc. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo, 6s, Emily Lawless. MAELCHO : a Sixteenth Century Romance. By the Honble. Emily Lawless. Second Edition, Crown Svo, 6s, * A really great book.' — Spectator. 'There is no keener pleasure in life than the recognition of genius. A piece of work of the first order, which we do not hesitate to describe as one of the most remarkable literary achievements of this generation.' — Manchester Guardian. Emily Lawless. TRAITS AND CONFIDENCES. By The Honble. Emily Lawless. Crown 8m 6s, ' A very charming little volume. A book which cannot be read without pleasure and profit, written in excellent English, full of delicate spirit, and a keen appreciation of nature, human and inanimate.' — Pall Mall Gazette. Jane Barlow. A CREEL OF IRISH STORIES. By Jane Barlow, Author of * Irish Idylls. ' Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s, 'Vivid and singularly real.' — Scotsman. J. H. Findlater. THE GREEN GRAVES OF BALGOWRIE. By Jane H. Findlater. Fourth Edition, Crown Svo, 6s, * a powerful and vivid story.' — Standard. ' A beautiful story, sad and strange as truth itself.' — Vanity Fair. * A very charming and pathetic tale.' — Pall Mall Gazette. ' A singularly original, clever, and beautiful story.' — Guardian. * Reveals to us a new writer of undoubted faculty and reserve force.' — Spectator. 'An exquisite idyll, delicate, affecting, and beautiful.' — Black and White. J. H. Findlater. A DAUGHTER OF STRIFE. By Jane Helen Findlater. Crown Svo, 6s, 'A story of strong human interest.' — Scotsman. ' Her thought has solidity and maturity.' — Daily Mail. Mary Findlater. OVER THE HILLS. By Mary Findlater. Second Edition, Crown Svo. 6s. ' A strong and fascinating piece of work.' — Scotsman. ' A charming romance, and full of incident. The book is fresh and strong.* — Speaker. * Will make the author's name loved in many a household.' — Literary World. * A strong and wise book of deep insight and unflinching truth.' — Birmingham Post. H. G. Wells. THE STOLEN BACILLUS, and other Stories. By H. G. Wells. Second Edition, Crown Svo, 6s. ' They are the impressions of a very striking imagination, which, it would seem, has a great deal within its reach.' — Saturday Review. Messrs. Methuen's List 29 H. G. Wells. THE PLATTNER STORY and Others. By H. G. Wells. Second Edition, Croivn Svo. 6s. * Weird and mysterious, they seem to hold the reader as by a magic spell,' — Scotsman. * No volume has appeared for a long time so likely to give equal pleasure to the simplest reader and to the most fastidious critic' — Acadauy. Sara Jeanette Duncan. A VOYAGE OF CONSOLATION. By Sara Jeanette Duncan, Author of *An American Girl in London.' Illustrated. Third Edition. Crown ^vo, ds, * Humour, pure and spontaneous and irresistible.' — Daiiy Mail. 'A most delightfully bright book.' — Daily Telegraph, 'Eminently amusing and entertaining.' — Outlook. ' The dialogue is full of wit.' — Globe. * Laughter lurks in every page.' — Daily News, E. F. Benson. DODO : A DETAIL OF THE DAY. By E. F. Benson. Sixteenth Edition, Crown Stjo, 6s. ' A delightfully witty sketch of society.' — Spectator. ' A perpetual feast of epigram and '^2Sz.Aox.'— Speaker, E. F. Benson. THE RUBICON. By E. F. Benson, Author of *Dodo.' Fifth Editio7i, Crown ^vo. 6s, E. F. Benson. THE VINTAGE. By E. F. Benson. Author of 'Dodo.' Illustrated by G. P. Jacomb-Hood. Third Edition. Crow7i %vo, 6s, * An excellent piece of romantic literature ; a very graceful and moving story. We are struck with the close observation of life in Greece.' — Saturday Kevieiv, ' Full of fire, earnestness, and beauty.* — The World. 'An original and vigorous historical romance.' — Morning Post. Mrs. Oliphant. SIR ROBERT'S FORTUNE. By Mrs. Oliphant. Crown Svo, 6s, * Full of her own peculiar charm of styleand character-painting. * — Fall Mall Gazette. Mrs. Oliphant. THE TWO MARYS. By Mrs. Oliphant. Second Edition, Crown Svo. 6s, Mrs. Oliphant. THE LADY'S WALK. By Mrs. Oliphant. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s, 'A story of exquisite tenderness, of most delicate fancy.' — Pall Mall Gazette. W. E. Norris. MATTHEW AUSTIN. By W. E. Norris, Author of * Mademoiselle de Mersac,' etc. Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 'An intellectually satisfactory and morally bracing novel.' — Daily Telegraph. W. E. Norris. HIS GRACE. By W. E. Norris. Third Edition, Crown Svo, 6s. * Mr. Norris has drawn a really fine character in the Duke of Hurstbourne. — A thenaum. W. E. Norris. THE DESPOTIC LADY AND OTHERS. By W. E. Norris. Crown Svo. 6s, ' A budget of good fiction of which no one will tire.' — Scotsman, 30 Messrs. Methuen's List W. E. Norris. CLARISSA FURIOSA. By W. E. Norris, C?'oiv7i Svo, 6s. 'As a story it is admirable, as ajeu d esprit it is capital, as a lay sermon studded with gems of wit and wisdom it is a model.' — The World. W. Clark Russell. MY DANISH SWEETHEART. By W. Clark Russell. Illustrated. Fourth Edition, Crown Svo. 6s. Eobert Barr. IN THE MIDST OF ALARMS. By Robert Barr. Third Edition, Crown %vo. 6s. ' A book which has abundantly satisfied us by its capital humour.' — Daily Chronicle. ' Mr. Barr has achieved a triumph.' — Pall Mall Gazette. Robert Barr. THE MUTABLE MANY. By Robert Barr, Author of * In the Midst of Alarms,' * A Woman Intervenes,' etc. Second Edition. Croivn 8z'o. 6s. ' Very much the best novel that Mr. Barr has 5^et given us. There is much insight in it, and much excellent humour.' — Daily C/u'onicle. *An excellent story. It contains several excellently studied characters.' — Glasgoiu Herald. J. Maclaren Cobban. THE KING OF ANDAMAN : A Saviour of Society. By J. Maclaren Cobban. Crown 8vo. 6s. * An unquestionably interesting book. It contains one character, at least, who has in him the root of immortality.' — Pall Mall Gazette. J. Maclaren Cobban. WILT THOU HAVE THIS WOMAN ? By J. M. Cobban, Author of * The King of Andaman.' Crown Svo. 6s. M. E. Francis. MISS ERIN. By M. E. Francis, Author of * In a Northern Village.' Second Edition. Crown 2>vo, 6s, ' A clever and charming story.' — Scotsman. ' Perfectly delightful.'— Z?^z7^ Mail. 'An excellently fancied love tale.' — Athcnceti/Ji. Eobert Hichens. BYE WAYS. By Robert Hichens. Author of * Flames,' etc. Second Editioii. Crow7tZvo. 6s. ' A very high artistic instinct and striking command of language raise Mr. Hichens' work far above the ruck.' — Pall Mall Gazette. ' The work is undeniably that of a man of striking imagination.' — Daily News. Percy White. A PASSIONATE PILGRIM. By Percy White, Author of * Mr. Bailey-Martin.' Crown 2>vo. 6s. ' A work which it is not hyperbole to describe as of rare excellence.' — Pall Mall Gazette. * The clever book of a shrev/d and clever author.' — AtJiencsum. W. Pett Ridge. SECRETARY TO BAYNE, M.P. By W. Pett Ridge. Crown Zvo. 6s, ' Sparkling, vivacious, adventurous. — St. James's Gazette. * Ingenious, amusing, and especially smart.' — World. J. S. Fletcher. THE BUILDERS. By J. S. Fletcher, Author of ' When Charles I. was King.' Second Edition, Crown Svo, 6s, ' Replete with delightful descriptions.' — Vanity Fair. ' The background of country life has never been sketched more realistically.* — World, Messrs. Methuen's List 31 Andrew Balfour. BY STROKE OF SWORD. By Andrew Balfour. Illustrated by W. Cubitt Cooke. Fourth Edition, Crown %vo, 6 J". ' A banquet of good things.' — Academy. * A recital of thrilling interest, told with unflagging vigour.' — Globe. * An unusually excellent example of a semi-historic romance.' — World. * JNIanly, healthy, and patriotic.'— G'/«j'^^7w Herald. J. B. Burton. IN THE DAY OF ADVERSITY. By J. Bloun- DELLE-BuRTON.' Second Edition, CrownZvo. 6^. ' Unusually interesting and full of highly dramatic situations. — Guardian. J. B. Burtvr.^ DENOUNCED. By J. Bloundelle-Burton. Second Edition, Croivn Svo 6s, J. B. Burton. THE CLASH OF ARMS. By J. Bloundelle- Burton. Second Edition. Crown Sz'O. 6s. * A brave story — brave in deed, brave in word, brave in thought.' — SI. fames s Gazette. * A fine, manly, spirited piece of work.' — World. J. B. Burton. ACROSS THE SALT SEAS. By J. Bloun- delle-Burton. Crown Svo. 6s. ' The very essence of the true romantic spirit.' — Truth. * An ingenious and exciting story.' — Manchester Guardian. * Singularly well written.' — Athenccuvi. W. 0. Scully. THE WHITE HECATOMB. By W C. Scully, Author of * Kafir Stories.' Crown %vo. 6s. ' Reveals a marvellously intimate understanding of the Kaffir mind.' — African Critic. V/. C. Scully. BETWEEN SUN AND SAND. By \N, C, Scully, Author of * The White Hecatomb.' Crown %vo, 6s. * The reader will find the interest of absolute novelty.' — The Graphic. 'The reader passes at once into the very atmosphere of the African desert: the inexpressible space and stillness swallow him up, and there is no world for him but that immeasurable waste.' — Aihenceum. 'Strong, simple, direct.' — Daily Chronicle. 'One of the most enthralling tales we have x^2.^.'— World. Victor Waite. CROSS TRAILS, By Victor Waite. Illus- trated. Crown Svo. 6s, ' Every page is enthralling.' — Academy. ' Full of strength and reality.' — Athenceuvt. * The book is exceedingly powerful' — Glasgow Herald. I. Hooper. THE SINGER OF MARLY. By I. Hooper. Illustrated by W. Cubitt Cooke. Crown Svo. 6s, * The characters are all picturesque.' — Scotsman. ' A novel as vigorous as it is charming.' — Literary World. M. 0. Balfour. THE FALL OF THE SPARROW. By M. C. Balfour. Crown Svo. 6s, ' It is unusually powerful, and the characterization is uncommonly good.'— World. H. Morrah. A SERIOUS COMEDY. By Herbert Morrah. Crozvn Svo. 6s, 32 Messrs. Methuen's List H. Morrah. THE FAITHFUL CITY. By Herbert Morrah, Author of * A Serious Comedy. ' Crown Svo, 6s. L. B. Walford. SUCCESSORS TO THE TITLE. By Mrs. Walford, Author of ' Mr. Smith, ' etc. Second Edition, Crown 2>vo, 6s, Mary Gaunt. KIRKHAM'S FIND. By Mary Gaunt, Author of * The Moving Finger.' Crown Svo, 6s. * A really charming novel.' — Standard. M. M. Dowie. GALLIA. By Menie Muriel Dowie, Author of * A Girl in the Karpathians. ' Third Edition. Crown Svo, 6s, * The style is generally admirable, the dialogue not seldom brilliant, the situations surprising in their freshness and originality.' — Saturday Review. M. M. Dowie. THE CROOK OF THE BOUGH. By Menie Muriel Dowie. Crown Svo. 6s, 'An exceptionally clever and well-written book.] — Daily Telegraph. ' An excellent story with shrewd humour and bright writing. The author is delight fully vf'itiy:— Pall Mall Gazette. ' Strong, suggestive, and witty.' — Daily News. J. A. Barry. IN THE GREAT DEEP. By J. A. Barry. Author of * Steve Brown's Bunyip.' Crown Svo. 6s, ' A collection of really admirable short stories of the sea.' — Westminster Gazette. Julian Corbett. A BUSINESS IN GREAT WATERS. By Julian Corbett. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s, J. B. Patton. BIJLI, THE DANCER. By James Blythe Patton. Illustrated. Crown Svo, 6s, ' Powerful and fascinating.'— Mall Gazette. 'A true and entrancing book.' — Country Life Illustrated. 'A remarkable book.' — Baok7nan. ' A vivid picture of Indian life.' — Academy. Norma Lorimer. JOSIAH'S WIFE. By Norma Lorimkr. Second Edition, Crown Svo, 6s. ' Written in a bright and witty style.' — Pall Mall Gazette. Lucy Maynard. THE PHILANTHROPIST. By Lucy May- NARD. Crown Svo, 6s, ' It contains many graphic sketches of the private life of a charitable institution.'— Glasgow Herald. L. Cope Comford. CAPTAIN JACOBUS : A ROMANCE OF THE ROAD. By L. Cope CORNFORD. Illustrated. 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