pRflMKLiN Institute Lidrart 
 
 FHILADELFHI/l 
 
 Class^ .'^.3 BookJi..^...'5>.?^ \ Accession 
 
 Article V. — The Library shall he divided into two classes ; Ihe firfj 
 comprisinfi such work as, from their rarity of value, should not be leit 
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 in a library of reference except when required by Comraitlees of th 
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 Akticle VI. — The Secretary shall have authority to loan to membei 
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 Section 1. — No individual shall be permitted to have more than <w 
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 Section 2. — A fine of ten cents per week shall be exacted for th 
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 turned within three months it shall be deemed lost, and the borrow^ 
 shall, in addition to his fines, forfeit its value. 1 
 
 Section 5.— Should any book be returned injured, the borrower slia] 
 pay for the injury, or replace the book, as the Library Committee ma! 
 direct; and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be lost, th 
 borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. i 
 
 Article VII.— Any person removing from the hall, without permit 
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 Article VIII. — No member or holder of second class stock, whos 
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 Reading Room. 
 
 Article IX. — If any member or holder of second class stock, sha] 
 refuse or neglect to comply with the foregoing rules, it shall be the dut 
 of the Secretary to report him io the Committee on the Library. j 
 
 Article X.— Any member or holder of second class stock, detect oi 
 in mutilating the newspajiers, ])amphlets or books belonging to the Insti 
 tute shall be deprived of his right of mem))ership. and the name of tli 
 offender shall be made public. I 
 
THE COTTOI!^ QUESTION 
 
 PRODUCTION, EXPORT, MANUFACTURE, AND CONSUMPTION 
 
 C O T T O iT. 
 
 A CONDENSED TREATISE ON 
 
 OOTTOI^" IN ALL ITS ASPECTS: AGRIOtJLTUEAL, 
 COMMERCIAL, AKD POLITICAL. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH ENQBAVINQS. 
 
 WILLIAM J. BAEBEE, M.D., 
 
 OF DB SOTO OOnNTY, MISSISSIFFI. 
 
 ' NEW YORK: 
 METROPOLITAN RECORD OFFICE, 424 BROOME ST. 
 1866. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The object of this voliune is to embody the 
 principal information which we have obtained 
 within the present centm-y on the subject of Cot- 
 ton, and present it in a convenient and avaihible 
 form for all who take an interest in the produc- 
 tion of the most valuable plant on the face of the 
 earth. 
 
 The author has obtained this information from 
 various sources. 1st. From more than fifty vol- 
 umes of Reports, Journals, Magazines, Eeviews, and 
 Treatises on Natural History. 2d. From intelligent 
 planters, educated and uneducated men residing in 
 various parts of the South, who, for many years^ 
 liave been watching the tender plant from its up- 
 rising in May to its last lingering moments in De- 
 cember. 3d. From direct observation in the field 
 with the naked eye and the glass. 
 
4: 
 
 PKEFACE. 
 
 To one and all from whom lie has received in- 
 formation lie returns his sincere thants, and begs 
 leave to express the hope that this volume may be 
 a hand-book of intelligence on the subject of which 
 it treats. The author has endeavored to present 
 the most important matters connected with the pro- 
 duction, distribution, and consumption of our great 
 staple in a plain and systematic style^ fruited to the 
 wants and wishes of the great army of industry 
 occupying the country from the Atlantic to the 
 Rio Grande. The Cotton question is one of deep 
 and abiding importance, and it is one in which are 
 involved the hopes and the interests of millions of ^ 
 the human race. 
 
 Let the Almighty blast the crop growing from 
 California to China. Think of the result! Com- 
 merce would drop the sceptre, manufacturers stand 
 crippled, capitalists look aghast, and nake'd myriads 
 cry for bread. 
 
 But, if this be fancy's sketch, let us suppose 
 another case. Let a government seek, by unjust 
 legislation, to crush the only remaining hope of au 
 oppressed people — to tie the hands of honest indus- 
 try, to sicken the heart and madden the head of the 
 toiling multitude — ^to enact the drama of Pharaoh 
 and the land of Goshen— to restore, to its fullest 
 extent, the policy of the lord and master of the 
 
LIST OF AUTHORS CONSULTED. 
 
 5 
 
 Colonies — to establish tarnation without representa- 
 tion — think a,gain, tlioughtfol reader, what must be 
 the inevitable result ? 
 
 Is it not a di^eadful blight sent upon our fields 
 by the poisoned breath of a national assembly ? 
 
 We can stand the rot, the rust, the sore-shin, 
 the caterpillar, the boU-worm ; but, oh ! may a 
 kind Providence and coming patriots deliver us 
 from the merciless tax of a radical Congress. 
 
 W. J. B. 
 
 Senatosia, Miss., September 1, 1866. 
 
 In the preparation of this book the following 
 works have been consulted, and liberal extracts 
 made from them, viz. : 
 
 Patent-Office Eeports, 1854, '55, '66, '57. 
 New American Cyclopaedia — article " Cotton," 
 Wailes's "Agriculture and Geology of Missis- 
 sippi." 
 
 Keport on Geology of Mississippi, by Professor 
 Harper. 
 
 Keport on Geology of Mississippi, by Professor 
 Hilgard. 
 
 Eeport on Geology of Alabama, by Professor 
 Tuomey. 
 
6 
 
 LIST OF ArTHOES CONSULTED. 
 
 Eeport on Geology of South Carolina, by Pro- 
 fessor Brumby. 
 
 Wilson's " Ornitbology." 
 
 Audubon's " Quadrupeds of North America." 
 
 " Life of North American Insects," by Professor 
 Jaeger. 
 
 De Bow's " Eeview," ten volumes. 
 Troost and Curry's " Keport on Geology of Ten- 
 nessee." 
 
 Johnston's " Agricultural Chemistry." 
 Liebig's " Agricultural Chemistry." 
 
TABLE or CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE L 
 
 Botanical Analysis and Description— Thb Flotteb and thr Feutt, . . 9 
 CHAPTEE IL 
 
 HiSTOET OP Cotton — Ancient and Modeen 12 
 
 CHAPTEE IIL 
 
 The Cotton Zone oi" the Woeld 16 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 The Cotton States op the South 25 
 
 Section 1. Geological Features — Mineral Productions. Sec. 2. Hydrog- 
 raphy. Sec. 8. Climatology, Sec 4. Eain Fall, Dews, and Frosts. 
 ^Sse. 5. Productions of the Fore*t — Flora of the South — Edible Fruits. 
 Sec. 6. Fauna of the South. See. 7. Soil of the Cotton States. Sec. 8. 
 Agricultural Statistics. Sec. 9. Principal Diseases. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 Ottltivation op Cotton 80 
 
 Section 1. Selecting a Plantation — Classification of Farms — Prices, Em- 
 ploying Hands. See. 2. Stocking the Plantation — Horses, Mules, 
 Farming Implements, &c. See. 8. Preparation of the Ground. Sec 
 4. Planting, Time -when — Selecting Seed — Quantity to the Acre — 
 Planting by Hand — By the Planter — The coming up — A Good Stand. 
 Sec. 5. Tending the Crop — Barring off— Scraping — Chopping out- 
 Hoeing, and Dirting again and again — Good Seasons — Eapid Growth — 
 The First Blossom — The Bolls — Estimated number on a Stalk to make 
 a Bale to the Acre — In the Grass and out of the Grass. Sec. 6. Lying 
 by — Opening of the Bolls — A fine succession of Kains — Too much 
 Kain— Dry Weather. See. 1. Picking— August to January — Good 
 and Bad Picking— Quantity per Day — Picking by Machinery — Fingers 
 
8 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 the best Machine — Storing away the Cotton — Quantity of Seed Cot- 
 ton to the Acre. See. 8. Ginning and Pressing — Baling. See. 9. The 
 Market. Sec. 10. The Successful Planter — Experiments made by 
 Northerners in 1866 — A Sensible Vermonter. Sec. 11. The Labor 
 Question — Can the White Man labor in the Cotton Melds 1 — How do 
 the Freedmen work ? — How will the two Classes work together ? — 
 What is the probable Future of the Freedmen?— Comparative Esti- 
 mate of Free and Slave Labor. 
 
 CHAPTEB VL 
 
 Pkodtjotion and Expokts of Cotton — Rbmaeks on the Goveknmbnt Tax. 107 
 Section 1. Production and Exports of Cotton — Statistics — Great Demand 
 for American Cotton in all the Markets of the World. Sea. 2. Eemarks 
 on the Government Tax. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 Mandtacttteb of Cotton 126 
 
 Section 1. Textile Fabrics— History of the Cotton Manufacture. Sec. 2. 
 Cotton Manufactures in the United States. Sec. 8. The Cotton Matu- 
 factures of Europe— Manufacture of Cotton by its Producers. 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 Consumption of Cotton 143 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Cotton Seed — Chemical Composition — TTTiLrrv of Sueplus Seed — ^Food 
 FOB Cattle— Manueb — Oil— Oil-Cakes 147 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Diseases op the Cotton Plant 161 
 
 Section 1. Diseases resulting from Insects — Insects frequenting the Cot- 
 ton Plant^Insects found upon the Stalks — Insects found on the Leaf 
 — Insects found on the Terminal Shoots — Insects found on the Flower 
 — Insects found upon the Boll — Insects found on rotted Bolls — In- 
 sects ound in the Cotton Fields not injurious to the Crop — Insects 
 beneficial to Cotton. Sec. 2. Accidents and Diseases of the Cotton 
 Plant, usually from other Causes than Insects — Sore-shin — Frenching 
 — The Eflfects of a bad Subsoil — The Rust — Shedding of young Buds, 
 or Bolls, caused by wet Weather— The Rot. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 CoKOLiTDiNG Remakes — The complicated Netwokk op Cotton — Indttoe- 
 MENTs TO Immigrants — Advantages and Disadvantages — Ftjtitee 
 of the Sottth 247 
 
COTTON PLANT. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
COTTON. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 « 
 
 BOTAliriOAL ANALYSIS AND DESCEIPTION— THE FLOWER 
 AND THE FEUIT. 
 
 An examination of the flower of the cotton plant shows 
 that it belongs to the 15th class, 12th order of theLinnaean 
 system, Monadelphia polyandria. 
 
 According to the natural system, it takes rank with the 
 Malvacece, which embrace the mallow, hollyhock, okra, &c. 
 
 The generic name is Oossypium. Fifteen or twenty 
 species have been described by Linnaeus and De Candolle, 
 the principal of which are Gossypium herhaceum, G. arho- 
 reum, G. hirsutum, G. religiosum, and G. Barhadense. 
 
 The writer is disposed to adopt the opinion that these 
 are mere varieties of one original species, although the 
 weight of authority is against him. 
 
 Be this as it may, cotton appears in the fields of the 
 Southern States in three principal forms, viz., herbaceous, 
 shrubby, and arborescent, or tree-like. 
 
 The cotton of our hill lands is an herb one to three feet 
 high ; that of the bottoms is shrub-like, growing often to 
 the height of ten feet; that of the sea islands is called 
 
10 
 
 BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 arborescent. The cotton of the hills and bottoms is short- 
 stapled ; that of the sea islands is long stapled. 
 
 As more than nine-teuths of the cotton of the country 
 belongs to the herbaceous species, I shall content myself by 
 describing that alone, referring the reader to larger works 
 for scientific details concerning the other species. 
 
 Gossypium herbaceum. Botanical characters. Calyx 
 cup-shaped, obtusely 5-toothed, surrounded by a 3-parted 
 involucel, called the form, and sometimes the square. Leaves 
 5-lobed, mucronate, large as a small hand. Stem smooth, 
 herbaceous ; woody fibre white, spongy, and brittle, covered 
 by a greenish-brown epidermis, very tenacious. 
 
 The branches are long and jointed, bearing at the joints 
 bolls of various sizes. 
 
 Boot tapering, penetrating deep into the ground. For 
 this reason the plant is less affected by drought than and 
 other plant of the country. 
 
 Corolla cup-shaped, polypetalous, two or three inches 
 long; resembles the okra blossom, only that it is never 
 mucb expanded. It is white or cream-colored on the first 
 day till the afternoon, when it changes gradually to a red 
 «olor, closing up and twisting over the germ or young boll; 
 a,nd in a day or two drops off, leaving the boll surrounded 
 by the calyx. 
 
 The boll, or egg-shaped capsule, has fi-om 3 to 5 cells, 
 many-seeded; seeds large and gTeen, surrounded by a 
 tomentose wool. This tomentose wool is the cotton which 
 serves to clothe the nations of the earth. 
 
 From this description, it is evident to any one ac- 
 quainted with the first lessons in botany, that cotton is 
 -simply a fruit. It is entitled to the name of fi-uit, as de- 
 servedly as an apple or a peach. The only difference is this : 
 The apple or the peach is designed for food ; the cotton is 
 
THE FLOWER AND THE FKUIT. 
 
 11 
 
 designed for clothing. A fully developed apple and a 
 fully developed cotton boll are homologous. The one is a 
 pome, the other a capsule. The one consists of a pericarp 
 or rind, pulp, and seed ; so does the other. The pulp of 
 the one is good to eat ; the pulp of the other is good to 
 wear. All fruit is a developed germ — the base of a pistil. 
 In its origin, progress, and maturity, cotton obeys the law 
 of fruit development as rigidly as any product of tree or 
 shrub. 
 
 By reference to plates Nos. 1 and 2, the reader may 
 have a fair view of the cotton plant and its fruit. 
 
 Plate 1 shows the cream-colored corolla on its first 
 appearance, emerging above the form. Below this, on the 
 left hand, is a green boll. On the right, about the middle 
 of the plate, is a boll opening; and immediately below 
 this is a folly expanded boll — the pericarp remaining .after 
 the cotton has been picked out. 
 
 Plate 2 sliows, at the top, the blossom closing up after 
 the change from a white to a pink color ; at the bottom, a 
 fully expanded boll — the pericarp concealed, and the cot- 
 ton ready for picking. 
 
CHAPTEE n. 
 
 HISTOET OF COTTON. 
 
 Cotton was known to the ancients. Herodotus, 460 
 B. c, speaks of the trees of India bearing fleeces more 
 delicate and beautiful than those of sheep, and says that 
 the Indians used them for making cloth. 
 
 From India cotton was introduced into Greece and 
 Rome , and the cloth used as tents by soldiers. Caesar 
 covered the Forum with it, and the Sacred Way from his 
 own house to the Capitoline Hill. 
 
 PUny speaks of wool-bearing trees in Upper Egypt, 
 bearing a fruit like a gourd, of the size of a quince, which, 
 upon ripening and bursting, displayed a downy wool, from 
 which costly fabrics were made resembling linen. 
 
 At the beginning of the Christian era cotton had be- 
 come an article of commerce, and the cotton fabrics of 
 India were in great demand. 
 
 Spain was the first of European countries to adopt the 
 cotton culture. It was introduced there as early as the 
 tenth century by the Moors. About the same time it was 
 extended to Sicily. The Venetians engaged in it about 
 the fourteenth century, and the Turks about the same time 
 introduced it into Roumelia and Macedonia. 
 
 The first notice of the English directing their attention 
 
HISTORY OF COTTON. 
 
 13 
 
 to the manufacture of cotton is found in the " Treasury of 
 Traffic" of Lewis Roberts, 1641, in which it is stated that 
 the Manchester Company " buy cotton wool in London 
 that comes from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home worke 
 the same and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities, 
 and other stufl'es." 
 
 Li the early part of the eighteenth century the English 
 received it from the East and West Indies. 
 
 In the New World, the manufacture of cotton cloth ap- 
 pears to have been well understood by the Mexicans and 
 Peruvians, long before the discovery of their countries by 
 Europeans. Columbus found the cotton plant growing 
 wild in Hispaniola, and later explorers recognized it as far 
 north as the country bordering the Meschachebe or Missis- 
 sippi, and its tributaries. Cortes, on setting out from 
 Trinidad, on the southern coast of Cuba, for his Mexican 
 expedition, gathered it in abundance, to quilt the jackets 
 of his soldiers, as a protection, after the practice of the 
 natives, against the Indian arrows; and when on the Mex- 
 ican coast, among the rich presents received by him from 
 Montezuma, were coverlets and robes of cotton, fine as silk, 
 of rich and various dyes, interwoven with feather work that 
 rivalled the delicacy of painting. 
 
 The West India islands furnished to Great Britain, 
 about the close of the last century, some forty thousand 
 bales. The quality was the long staple. 
 
 In Brazil the crop of the valuable long-staple cotton 
 has proved much more important, and the export of cotton 
 from this country, in the early part of the present century, 
 often exceeded that of any other except the United States. 
 
 In thti United States cotton seed was first planted, as 
 an experiment, in 1621. In the province of Carolina the 
 growth of the cotton plant is noticed in a paper of the date 
 
14 
 
 HISTOET OF COTTON. 
 
 of 1666, preserved in Carroll's " Historical Collections of 
 South Carolina." In 1736 the plant was known in gardens 
 in lat. 39° N. on the eastern shore of Maryland; and about 
 forty years afterwards it was cultivated in the county of 
 Cape May, New Jersey. It was, however, very little known, 
 except as a garden plant, until after the Revolutionary War. 
 
 In 1748 seven bags of cotton wool were exported from 
 Charleston, S. C, valued at £3 11^. 5d. a bag. 
 
 In 1754 another small shipment was made. In 1770 
 three bags were exported. In 1784 eight bags, shipped to 
 England, were seized, on the ground that so mucb cotton 
 could not be produced in the United States, 
 
 The exports of the next six years were successively 
 14 bags; 6; 109; 389; 842; 8L 
 
 In 1790 England received only one bag of cotton from 
 the United States in 1,000 bags imported; in 1792, 1 in 
 126; in 1795,1 in 25; and in 1799, about one-ninth of 
 the importation was from this country. 
 
 From the beginning of the present century to the 
 breaking out of the late civil war, there has been, with the 
 exception of a few years of decline interspersed at vari- 
 ous periods, a steady increase af bales from 100,000 to 
 4,500,000. During the war there was, of course, a rapid 
 decline, and the number of bales went down from four mill- 
 ions and a half to a half million, the number of the first 
 semi-decennial period of the century. 
 
 This will be more fully exhibited in a separate chapter 
 on Cotton Statistics. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 THE COTTON ZONE OP THE WORLD. 
 
 The cotton zone of the world is an immense territory. 
 Lying between the 36tli parallel of north latitude and the 
 36th of south latitude, it embraces in the Western hemi- 
 sphere all the States of the South, including Tennessee and 
 North Carolina, Mexico, Central America, West Indies, the 
 States of South America as far as the mouth of the Rio 
 de la Plata; and in the Eastern hemisphere, the whole of 
 Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, China, East Indies, and 
 nearly all of Australia. 
 
 The cotton zone occupies more than one-half of the 
 arable land surface of the globe ; but it must not be sup- 
 posed that all, or even the principal part of the land in 
 this zone, is suitable for cultivation. The Great Desert of 
 Africa, for instance, would make poor plantations; so would 
 the sides of mountains, and so would other localities which 
 are unfit by reason of an unsuitable soil 
 
 We mean, then, by this cotton zone, a broad belt of 
 land, nearly 5,000 miles wide from north to south, and 
 about 18,000 miles long from east to west, where the cli- 
 mate and seasons are adapted to the cultivation of cotton. 
 
 Kow, as near the torrid zone we find intertropical 
 fruits, so near this cotton zone we discover cotton growing 
 
16 
 
 THE COTTOir ZONE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 and cultivated to some extent ; but, so far as our observa- 
 tions have extended in tbe last twenty years, the plant can- 
 not be profitably cultivated north of 35-|^°. 
 
 A correct view of the limits of this wide region may 
 be obtained by an examination of the climatic chart and a 
 close inspection of the isothermal lines. 
 
 Isothermal lines are the lines of equal heat, extending 
 around the globe. These lines do not coincide throughout 
 with the parallels of latitude, but are always serpentine in 
 their course. They have been determined by long-contin- 
 ued observation with the thermometer, and we present 
 them to the view of the reader as the result of scientific 
 labor performed through a long series of years. 
 
 The outside figures on the margin of this map indicate 
 the degrees of latitude ; the inside figures show the degree 
 of temperature by Fahrenheit's thermometer. Latitude is 
 indicated by degrees of distance; — isothermal lines are 
 designated by degrees of heat, regardless of distance. 
 Thus the true equator, or zero parallel, is a line passing 
 fi'om west to east without departing a hair's breadth from 
 a direct course. It passes through the northern part of 
 Brazil, S. A., thence across the Atlantic, and directly 
 through the centre of Africa. The isothermal equator is 
 a meandering line, which touches and crosses the true 
 equator at different points. It passes entirely north of 
 South America ; thence curving gently, it strikes the true 
 equator in longitude 20° W. ; then curving northward, it 
 passes through Guinea, Soudan, and Abyssinia, and pro 
 ceeding eastward it makes its way through the southern 
 part of Hindostan ; thence curving through the East In- 
 dies, it crosses the true equator between Sumatra and 
 Borneo. 
 
 The cotton zone embraces all that portion of the earth 
 
THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WOELD. 
 
 17 
 
 in whicli the isothermal lines range from 60° to 80° and 
 upward. We have indicated the northern and southern 
 limits by broad, black lines. The northern line is the 
 isotherm of 60° north of the equator ; the southern line is 
 the isotherm of 60° south of the equator. 
 
 Cotton can be raised to some profit, though not very 
 large, on these lines ; but we regard it as a waste of time , 
 and money to attempt its culture in any region where th^ > 
 isotherm falls below 60°. / 
 
 We here subjoin a few extracts from the reports fi^^ 
 American consuls in various parts of the world on the^.sv|)!^ k 
 ject of the production of cotton. ^ ?^ 
 
 1st. Alexandria, Egypt. — There are three species oV"^- 
 cotton cultivated in Egypt. 1. The native, of very in- 
 ferior quality, used in domestic manufactures, but never 
 exported. 2. The Maho or Jumel cotton, which consti- 
 tutes the great bulk of Egyptian, and is grown all through 
 the Delta. It is a long-stapled cotton. 3. The American 
 Sea Island, which has been cultivated in small quantities 
 for the last fifteen years, but which has not had a great 
 success. It will degenerate. 
 
 The annual product of cotton in Egypt is about 
 50,000,000 lbs. It is exported chiefly to Great Britain, 
 France, and Austria. 
 
 The soil and climate are adapted to the profitable cul- 
 ture of cotton ; but the yield depends greatly on the rise 
 in the Nile, as no rain falls except in December. The only 
 fertilizer of the soil is the alluvium of the river. The seeds 
 are sown in April ; the plant begins to flower early in July, 
 and continues flowering until January; and the crop is 
 gathered in September and October. The average product 
 is about 250 lbs, per acre. 
 
 The cotton is very little injured by insects, the chief 
 
18 THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 obstacles being tbe superior advantages of grain-growing, 
 and tbe unskilled labor of the country, which in agricul- 
 ture is performed exclusively by the Fellahs, a race similar 
 to the serfs of Russia. The cotton is badly cultivated and 
 slovenly handled. Manufactories are unprofitable. The 
 mean annual temperature of Egypt is 70°. 
 
 2d. Algiers. — The sea island, long-stapled, and Nankin 
 species of cotton are cultivated in Algeria. The annual 
 product is about 200,000 lbs. There are no manufactories. 
 The entire crop is exported to Havre, where it is sold on 
 account of the French Government.* Mean annual temper- 
 ature, 64°. 
 
 3d. Athens, Greece. — The cotton of Greece grows from 
 two to five feet in height. It is sown annually. The cli- 
 mate is well adapted to its growth, but the soil is not suf- 
 ficiently rich. The short-stapled yields about 60 lbs. of 
 fibre to the acre ; the long-stapled, 300 lbs. It is badly 
 cultivated. Mean annual temperature, 64°. 
 
 4th. Bombay, British India. — The amount of cotton 
 produced in the districts under the Bombay Government 
 is about 250,000,000 lbs, annually, of which about 
 63,000,000 lbs. is manufactured into coarse cloth, worn 
 by the natives. The rest is exported. 
 
 Cotton is ginned in India both by the saw-gin and an 
 instrument called the " churka," which is very simple in 
 construction, resembling a roller and breaker, and turning 
 out about 40 lbs. of clean cotton a day by the labor of two 
 men. The gin is used by large speculators, and is pro- 
 pelled by bullocks, turning out 500 lbs. of clean cotton a 
 day. The quantity of fibre obtained from 100 lbs. of 
 seed cotton is usually about 31 lbs. Some of the gins in 
 
 * During the late war the increase in the culture of cotton was 
 very great, and a much larger quantity than the above was exported. 
 
THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WOELD, 19 
 
 use were made in England, but they are generally of Bom- 
 bay manufacture. The ginning is done by speculators, 
 who buy the cotton of the native growers at the market 
 villages. It is then immediately packed, by means of 
 screws, into bags or loose bales, containing 392 lbs. each. 
 When these arrive at Bombay, they are put into the steam 
 screw and hydraulic presses, and condensed to the uniform 
 size of 4 feet 3 inches in length, 2 feet in width, and 18 
 inches in thickness. 
 
 The climate and soil are admirably adapted to the 
 profitable growth of cotton. The cotton-growing months 
 embrace June and February. The mean temperature of 
 these months is about 90°. The seeds are planted early in 
 June. The plants are in flower from the middle of July 
 to the 10th of August. The cotton is picked in March. 
 About 105 lbs. of clean and ginned cotton is the average 
 product per acre. No insects affect the plant, but the 
 political and social condition of the people has operated 
 and will continue to operate to the prejudice pf the cotton 
 growth and trade, as long as the country is under the gov- 
 ernment of the East India Company. 
 
 6th. Bordeaux, France. — Many experiments have been 
 made in this and the adjoining departments of France 
 within the last fifteen years in the culture of cotton upon 
 different varieties from India, Algeria, and America ; but 
 every attempt has proved an entire failure. The reader 
 will discover, by a glance at the chart, that France is en- 
 tirely north of the cotton zone. 
 
 6th. Calcutta, British India— The cotton plant is in- 
 digenous in India, and has been cultivated by the inhab- 
 itants throughout the whole length and breadth of these 
 extensive territories from a period anterior to historical 
 record. The annual product of British India is 1,000,- 
 
20 
 
 THE COTTON ZONE OP THE WOELD. 
 
 000,000 lbs. Of this amount '750,000,000 lbs. is used by 
 tbe natives, tbe number of whom is 150,000,000. The 
 remaining 250,000,000 lbs. is exported. This quantity 
 would make '500,000 bales, American size. 
 
 The thermometer at Calcutta ranges from 71° mean in 
 January to 93° mean in May. 
 
 The cotton cultivation extends from the extremity of 
 the peninsula of Hindostan to the great Himalaya range. 
 A longer drought than usual kills the cotton-plant ; too 
 much rain rots it ; and if a shower falls at the season of 
 harvest, insects attack the ripe pods, and the dampness dis- 
 colors the fibre. 
 
 7th. Sydney, Australia. — The cotton plant is here a 
 perennial, the frost, except in unusually severe winters, not 
 being sufficient to destroy it. Cotton has been picked 
 from the same stalk five years in succession, the fourth 
 year producing the largest crop ; a pound of clean cotton 
 being then, in some instances, obtained from a single plant. 
 The ordinary yield is a bale of 300 lbs. of clean cotton 
 per acre. The seeds are planted in the latter part of Sep- 
 tember and the early part of October ; the plants are in 
 flower in December ; picking commences in February and 
 continues until June. The soil and climate and all other 
 physical causes are favorable to the profitable growth of 
 this crop. Insects are not injurious. Nature seems to 
 have designed this portion of the world for a cotton field 
 of the most gigantic dimensions. The thermometer, dur- 
 ing the cotton months, ranges from 60° to 100°. 
 
 8th. Spezzia, Italy. — During the occupation of Italy by 
 the French under the first Napoleon, it was one of his pro- 
 jects to introduce the cultivation of the cotton plant ; but 
 it failed generally throughout Northern Italy, and now is 
 not known farther north than in some of the Papal States. 
 
THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 21 
 
 9th. San Juan de los Bemedios, Island of Cuba. — The 
 lands of this section of this island are equal to the best on 
 Red River or the Mississippi for the growth of cotton, and 
 the plant stands for years, but the cultivation of it is un- 
 known. 
 
 10th. Bio de Janeiro, Brazil. — All kinds of cotton can 
 be cultivated to advantage in the province of Rio de 
 Janeiro, whether annual or perennial varieties ; but the — ... 
 
 small quantity that is produced is almost exclusively tree- ^^vA ^\ 
 cotton. The general character of the fibre is long, strona/ ' > 
 and coarse. The quantity manufactured here does jjfbi 
 probably amount to 500,000 lbs. a year. Good ginfied 
 cotton is nearly all imported from Pernambuco, Bahia, and . ' 
 
 other northern ports of this empire. It is ginned mostly . 
 by roller-gins. A few saw-gins from the United States are 
 in use. It is calculated that one negro can cultivate 2,000 
 hills of cotton, producing about 700 lbs. when ginned. 
 
 The soil and climate are finely adapted to the growth 
 of cotton. The thermometer ranges from about 60° to 
 96° F. the whole year round, and cotton bears more or less 
 all the time. The planting takes place in November. The 
 plants flower mostly in June, but they open freely almost 
 all the year. The bulk of the harvest is in September and 
 October, but cotton is picked nearly all the year. No 
 cause, physical, political, or social, except want of energy 
 and enterprise, operates injuriously to the cultivation of 
 cotton in this empire. 
 
 11th. Paramaribo, Butch Guiana. — The herbaceous 
 cotton, such as is grown in the United States, is regarded 
 by the most approved authorities as the variety of cotton 
 best adapted to cultivation in Dutch Guiana. It is here 
 perennial, afibrding a crop every six months, and con- 
 tinuing to yield until four or five years old. The sea 
 
22 
 
 THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 island cotton of the United States soon degenerates. 
 The average annual crop is 2,000,000 lbs,, one-half of 
 ■which is usually exported. All the land on the sea- 
 shore is well adapted to the profitable growth of cotton. 
 The usual yield to the acre is from 150 lbs, to 200 lbs. 
 Planting takes place in April and May, flowering in July 
 and August, picking from September to January. The 
 range of the thermometer is quite limited, being- from 75° 
 to 85°. The temperature of all the months is quite uni- 
 form. Severe droughts and heavy, long-continued rains, 
 together with a white insect, are disadvantages to the cul- 
 ture ; but could scientific culture be applied, with a compe- 
 tency of laborers, the yield per aei-e would average 1,000 
 lbs. seed cotton. 
 
 12th. La Paz, Lower California. — When this country 
 was discovered, a cotton tree was found growing wild, 
 in great numbers, over the entire land, and until about 
 twenty years ago the inhabitants manufactured thread and 
 many other articles for home consumption from the fibre it 
 produced ; but the Mexican Government then prohibited its 
 manufacture by the people, for the sake of the duties which 
 might be obtained on imported articles. If any attention 
 were given to collecting cotton from these trees, many 
 millions of pounds could be gathered every year ; and, by 
 trimming the tree and watering it during the dry season, 
 the quality of the fibre might be much improved. 
 
 The sea island cotton of the United States can be 
 grown to great advantage here, and the lands of this terri- 
 tory are unsurpassed for producing sugar, rice, coffee, and 
 grapes. Although the latitude of La Paz is only 24° N., 
 the climate is so happily tempered by sea breezes, that 
 labor can be performed by any race of men without incon- 
 venience or detriment to health. 
 
THE COTTON ZONE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 23 
 
 13th. Buenos Ayres and Argentine Confederation. — 
 This entire region lies between 22° and 40° south latitude. 
 The soil, in many places, is well adapted to the culture of 
 cotton, but the chmate is not altogether suitable. There 
 is not a suflBcient intensity either of heat or cold, continu- 
 ing the requisite length of season, to urge the rapid growth 
 and maturity of the stalk, and to check vegetation in the , 
 winter. 
 
 A large proportion of the produce of the Confederation 
 has hitherto passed through the city of Buenos Ayres, and 
 the full amount has never exceeded 50,000 lbs. per annum. 
 One-half of the quantity produced is exported, and the 
 other half consumed in the manufacture of rude domestic 
 goods for family use. 
 
 The cultivation is very rude. The wooden plough, which 
 merely scratches the earth, is extensively used, and the hoe 
 is applied so sparingly as to produce but little beneficial 
 result. 
 
 The cotton is prepared on a rude roller-gin by foot or 
 hand. It is packed by the same means m bags, without 
 being pressed. Twenty-five lbs. of lint cotton are obtained 
 from 100 lbs. of seed cotton. 
 
 Neither the physical nor the political condition of the 
 country is adapted to agricultural pursuits. The peasantry 
 of the country are indolent, except in such of their voca- 
 tions as may be followed on horseback ; and the peons are 
 no better. 
 
 The "langosta," or locust, appears in the State of 
 La Plata about once in five years, but not in all regions 
 at the same time. These insects destroy every vestige of 
 verdure wherever they alight, and their number is greater 
 than language can express. They are more injurious in 
 the main than the cotton caterpillar in our Southern States. 
 
CHAPTEE lY. 
 
 THE COTTON STATES OF T^E SOUTH. 
 
 The cotton States, "par excellence^ are South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Ar- 
 kansas. The southern half of North Carolina and Tennes- 
 see produces good cotton ; but neither of these States is 
 included by our best planters in the list of cotton States. 
 As, however, they both produce and manufacture largely, 
 we think they are entitled to be included in the cotton 
 zone of the world, if not in the first-class cotton States of 
 the South. 
 
 The area of this entire region is about 650,000 square 
 miles, containing over 400,000,000 acres, greater than 
 the area of Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and 
 some of the German States, put together. 
 
 Let it be populated as densely as England, it is capa- 
 ble of sustaining 160,000,000 people. Populated- like 
 France, it would hold about 100,000,000. Populated as 
 we think it should be, it will sustain, with ease and com- 
 fort, about 30,000,000. 
 
 No country on the face of the earth presents greater 
 inducements to the laborer, the manufacturer, or the capi- 
 talist. Fifty years ago three-fourths of it was a wilderness. 
 A traveller through the South, in the summer of 1860, 
 might have said with propriety, " The wilderness shall 
 2 
 
26 
 
 GEOLOGICAL FEATTJKES. 
 
 blossom like the rose." The millions of cotton blooms in 
 myriads of fields would have, suggested the passage. 
 
 As this book is intended partly for those who want in- 
 formation on all matters of interest to the immigrant, we 
 propose a brief sketch of the cotton States, exhibiting the 
 varied resources of the country, and pointing out with 
 candor the facilities which the planter will enjoy, and the 
 difficulties which he must expect to encounter. 
 
 Man cannot live by cotton alone. He must have food 
 and timber and iron, coal, salt, and the fruits of vines, 
 trees, and shrubs. Do the cotton States supply all these 
 wants ? This question we propose to answer. 
 
 "We will distribute the subject under the following 
 heads : 
 
 Section 1. Geological Features, including Mineral Produc- 
 tions. 
 
 " 2. Hydrography. 
 
 " 3. Climatology. 
 
 " 4. Eain Fall, Dews, and Frosts. 
 
 " 6. Productions of the Forest — Flora of the South. 
 
 " 6. Fauna of the South. 
 
 " v. Soil of the Cotton States. 
 
 " 8. Agricultural Statistics. 
 
 " 9. Principal Diseases. 
 
 SECT. I.— GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 
 
 The southern portion of the Gulf States, including 
 Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, is 
 mcluded by geologists in the alluvium and post-pliocene 
 formations, and the eastern parts of North Carolina, South 
 Carolina, and Georgia, along the Atlantic slope, belong to 
 the same formation. 
 
GEOLOGICAL FEATTJEES. 27 
 
 The average width of these deposits is about one hun- 
 dred and fifty miles. Proceeding northward from the 
 Gulf toward the State of Tennessee, we find, underlying 
 these formations, the eocene and cretaceous in Mississippi; 
 the eocene, cretaceous, carboniferous, and upper Silurian 
 and granite series in Alabama; the eocene, cretaceous, 
 carboniferous, and granite series in Georgia ; the eocene, 
 cretaceous, and granite series in South Carolina, Pro- 
 ceeding from east to west in North Carolina, we find the 
 alluvium, post-pliocene, miocene, eocene, cretaceous, granite 
 series, and, near the junction with Tennessee, the lower 
 Silurian roots. 
 
 The State of Tennessee is more complicated .in its ge- 
 ology than any other. Beginning at the western boundary, 
 we find, at the low places on the Mississippi river, the 
 alluvium and post-pliocene extending from the northern 
 to the southern piirt of the State. Proceeding eastward,, 
 we discover the eocene, underlaid successively by the Cre- 
 taceous, the Devonian, the upper Silurian, and lower Si- 
 lurian, till we reach the Cumberland mountains, where the 
 last-mentioned formation is overlaid by the carboniferous 
 group, including the coal itself. This coal is a part of the 
 great Appalachian coal field, which extends in a south- 
 western direction into northeastern Alabama. 
 
 Texas and Arkansas present substantially the same va- 
 riety as Alabama. 
 
 MINERAL PRODIJCTIONS OF THESE STATES. 
 
 The alluvium, post-pliocene, and cretaceous formations 
 nowhere produce any massive or heavy minerals. The 
 other formations bear the usual variety of minerals useful 
 in arts and agriculture. 
 
28 
 
 HYDKOGEAPHT. 
 
 North Carolina lias gold, iron, marble, limestone, lead, " 
 marl, and salt. 
 
 Tennessee has compact limestone, marbles in great va- 
 riety, saltpetre, Epsom salts, alum, fine quartzose sand for 
 glass, hydraulic limestone, millstone grit, roofing slate, 
 iron, zinc, lead, copper, coal in abundance, and gold and 
 silver in small quantities. Marl is also found in the west- 
 ern part of the State in the cretaceous system. 
 
 South Carolina has marl, salt, metamorphic marble, gold. 
 
 Georgia and Alabama have marl, salt, limestone, mar- 
 ble, coal, gold, lead, and quartzose sand. 
 
 Florida has no massive minerals, but has an abundance 
 of clay, marl, and fine sand for glass. The same remark 
 is applicable to Mississippi and Louisiana. There is no 
 building limestone in any one of these three States, and 
 the soft ferruginous sandstone is unfit for architectural pur- 
 poses. Some salt has been found in Florida, and a con- 
 siderable mine of it in Louisiana. 
 
 Texas has marl, salt, coal, lead, saltpetre, and limestone. 
 
 Arkansas has marl, salt, saltpetre, lead, silver, lime- 
 stone and gold-bearing rocks, in which some gold has been 
 found, roofing slate, and whetstone. 
 
 SECT. II.— HYDROGKAPHY. 
 
 We recognize in this region four w^ater slopes : 1. The 
 Texas slope ; 2. The Mississippi slope ; 3. The eastern 
 Gulf slope ; 4. The Atlantic slope. 
 
 THE TEXAS SLOPE. 
 
 Tlie largest rivers of this system are the Rio Grande, 
 Nueces, San Antonio, Guadalupe, Colorado, Brazos, 
 Trinity, Neches, and Sabine. 
 
HTDKOGEAPHY. 
 
 29 
 
 All of these streams run separately into the western 
 part of the Gulf of Mexico. Most of them are navigable, 
 and small steamers are generally able to ascend to a dis- 
 tance of from fifty to five hundred miles. 
 
 The Mississippi slope embraces all the country watered 
 by streams which flow into the Mississippi river, and in- 
 cludes the States of Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
 the western part of Tennessee. 
 
 The principal streams are the Mississippi, the White, 
 Arkansas, and Red rivers on the west of the " Father of 
 Waters," and the Yazoo and Big Black on the east. J^e 
 may also include the Pearl and Pascagoula, which, ruX^^iiig 
 southward through the State of Mississippi, em^'y into 
 the Gulf /-■ . 
 
 The eastern Gulf slope embraces all of Alabaiia except 
 the northern part through which the Tennessee river runs, 
 all of Florida except that lying immediately on"^the At- 
 lantic, and western Georgia. 
 
 The principal streams are the Tombigbee, Alabama, 
 Appalachicola, and Suwanee. 
 
 These streams all flow in a southerly direction, and 
 empty into the Gulf of Mexico between longitude 83° and 
 88° west from Greenwich. 
 
 The Atlantic slope embraces eastern Georgia, eastern 
 Florida, all of South Carolina, and all of North Carolina 
 except that part which hes between the Blue Ridge and 
 the Alleghany mountains. 
 
 The principal streams are the St Johns, Altamaha, 
 Ogeechee, Savannah, Edisto, Santee, Great Pedee, Cape 
 Fear, Neuse, Tar, and Roanoke. 
 
 On all these streams and their unnumbered tributaries 
 there are valley lands of surpassing richness and fertihty. 
 
30 
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 and the hill and table lands adjoining them are quite pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 SECT. Ill— CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 The cotton States of the South are situated mostly in 
 the zone of climate designated warm. The peninsula of 
 Florida, a small part of Louisiana and of Texas, are includ- 
 ed in the hot zone. The warm zone embraces the coun- 
 try between the isothermal lines of 70° and 60°. The 
 mean annual temperature of five stations near the Atlantic 
 coast is 65°, and of ten stations in the interior 63°. The 
 climate of the interior is warmer in summer and colder in 
 winter than that of the coast. 
 
 In comparing the climates of the cotton regions with 
 those of other countries, it is necessary to remember how 
 much the best cotton districts are influenced by the Atlan- 
 tic or the Mexican Gulf. The climate west of the Alle- 
 ghany mountains is more mild than that under the same 
 parallels in the Atlantic States, even to the extent of three 
 degrees of latitude. 
 
 This has been explained as caused by the warm air of 
 the Gulf of Mexico being driven up the basin of the Mis- 
 sissippi and that of the Ohio. The direction of the valley 
 north and south no doubt favors the course of the south- 
 ern winds ; while the regions of the Atlantic slopes, being 
 transverse, oppose any such transmission. The majority 
 of the places of which the mean temperatures have been 
 adduced are on the sea-coast, and necessarily participate in 
 the peculiarities of an insular climate ; that is, of seasons 
 moderately contrasted. Still the difference between the 
 hottest and the coldest month of the year is much greater 
 than at Vera Cruz— that igf than 12° ; being, at Mobile, 
 Galveston, and New Orleans, 27°.23, 29°.10, and 29°.96 
 
CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 31 
 
 respectively. But in the interior, at Natchez and Vicks- 
 burg, the differences are greater, being 32°.69 and 31°.57. 
 In the Atlantic districts the differences are nearly as great 
 as those on the south coast, being 31°.Y3 at Savannah 
 and 31°.09 at Charleston ; while in the interior the dif- 
 ferences are much greater, being 36°.02 at Augusta and 
 3 8°. 10 at Columbia. 
 
 Louisiana.— The climate of most parts of this State is 
 somewhat variable. From the sea to Point Coupee, it 
 seldom snows or freezes, except in the months of December 
 and January, and then when the wind is from the north or 
 northwest. There is less heat and more moisture than in 
 any similar latitudes on the eastern continent, and the cli- 
 mate is generally very mild. In winter the thermometer 
 seldom falls more than 2° below the freezing-point. Snow 
 in New Orleans is a great curiosity. 
 
 Mississippi. — Near the Gulf of Mexico the climate re- 
 sembles that of the lower parts of Louisiana. The winter 
 is mild, the summer warm, but tempered by the constant 
 prevalence of the breeze from the Gulf, together with the 
 elevation of the surface. At Natchez, however, the ther- 
 mometer in winter sometimes stands as low as 10° F. In 
 the northern part of the State the winters are quite cold, 
 but only by spells, ten days of cold weather being regarded 
 as a long period. Throughout the State generally, the 
 warm season commences about the middle of April, and 
 continues until the middle of October. Mild weather is 
 often protracted through the winter, and we have often 
 seen, in and about the capital of the State, roses blooming 
 in November. 
 
32 
 
 CLIMATOLOGT. 
 
 Alabama. — In the low and southern parts of this State 
 the heat is very great. The cUmate of the inland and up- 
 per parts may he considered remarkably mild. Frost com- 
 mences generally in October, and continues usually to the 
 latter part of April. During the summer there is usually a 
 prevalence of westerly winds. Those from the southeast 
 are regarded as the sure harbingers of rain. At Mobile, 
 from nine in the morning till evening, the pleasant and 
 salutary effects of the sea breeze are felt. The rich verdure 
 of the earth, with the copious dews that fall during the 
 night, and the elevation of the soil, which in the upland 
 parts is from six hundred to one thousand feet above the 
 sea, produce a beneficial effect upon the climate. The 
 northern part of the State is quite similar in its climate to 
 that of Mississippi. 
 
 Georgia.— climate of Georgia resembles that of 
 Alabama. The winter is the most pleasant season of the 
 year, when the thermometer usually ranges from 40° to 
 66°, though sometimes a considerable degree of cold pre- 
 vails. In the middle and southern regions snow is uncom- 
 mon, but in the northern part it sometimes falls to the 
 depth of five or six inches. The spring is usually rainy, 
 and the summer is variable, with a temperature ranging 
 from 75° to 96°. The atmosphere feels enlivening, being 
 refreshed by gentle breezes from the sea-shore. About the 
 20th of July the summer rains set in, often accompanied 
 with storms of thunder and severe- winds, and, though not 
 tropical in their violence, are often so heavy as to deluge 
 the fields. Similar rains and storms ai-e common through- 
 out the Southern States. About the end of July or be- 
 ginning of August the wind usually changes its direction 
 from southeast to southwest. The autumn is usually fine 
 
CLIMATOLOGT. 
 
 33 
 
 and clear, and frosts rarely come before the end of October. 
 The inhabitants of the hilly tracts, two hundred miles from 
 the coast, enjoy an agreeable climate, which is favorable to 
 health. The cotton in these hill regions, being less exposed, 
 is allowed to hang longer, so as to become perfectly ma- 
 ture. White labor, well directed, will doubtless be ade- 
 quate to the production of crops two hundred miles from 
 the coast ; but in the more southern regions negro labor is, 
 as a general thing, more profitable. 
 
 South Carolina. — The winter of the lower parts of this 
 State is mild, and snow seldom falls near the sea. The 
 cold weather terminates in March, when snow and heavy 
 rains usually occur. April and May are commonly dry 
 months. In the low country the heat of summer is in- 
 tense, but the climate is liable to sudden changes of tem- 
 perature, when it is damp with fogs and heavy dews. 
 June, July, and August are usually the wettest months, and 
 the rains consist of heavy bursts and frequent showers. 
 November is usually fine, even after the coming of frosts, 
 which sometimes do not occur until December. In the 
 upper country frost appears earlier and continues later ; but 
 the weather is not so variable. In winter the cold is con- 
 siderable, but does not last very long. The climate of the 
 Santee hills, which are situated eighty or ninety miles 
 from the coast, is similar in character. 
 
 Florida. — The climate of Florida has long been ex- 
 tolled as the most genial and equable on this continent, 
 and its fame in that respect formerly attracted to the State 
 invalids from all parts of the country. The average degree 
 of temperature is about 73° F., and in no part of the State 
 does the difierence between summer and winter exceed 
 2* 
 
34 
 
 CLIMATOLOGY. 
 
 26°, while at tte extremity of tlie peninsula the variation 
 is not greater than 11°. That portion of the State is 
 clothed in perpetual verdure, and the summer is only dis- 
 tinguished by the frequency of its showers. In many 
 respects the climate of Florida resembles that of Cuba, but 
 the State generally enjoys the advantage of immunity from 
 the malarial diseases which frequently prevail in that island. 
 The warmth and humidity of the climate of Florida are 
 the causes of the luxuriant vegetation which distinguishes 
 it from all the other States. 
 
 Texas. — The climate of Texas is more healthy than 
 that of Louisiana or any of the Gulf States. The weather 
 is dry from March to October, though sufficient rain usu- 
 ally falls to make good crops. The winters are warm and 
 mild on the coast, and for some distance inland snow is 
 seldom seen, except on the higher table-lands or moun- 
 tains. From April to September, the thermometer, near 
 the coast, usually ranges from 63° to 100°. The greatest 
 heats, however, are tempered by strong and constant 
 breezes, which begin to b]ow soon after the rising of the 
 sun, and continue until past noon. The nights throughout 
 the middle region are cool and refreshing during the year. 
 
 Arhansas. — The climate of Arkansas, from its southern 
 extremity to the 35th parallel, is similar to that of Missis- 
 sippi in the same degrees of latitude. The climate of the 
 northern part of the State is similar to that of Tennessee. 
 
 Tennessee. — The climate of Tennessee is usually de- 
 scribed as temperate, salubrious, and invigorating — neither 
 so warm as that of the Gulf States, nor so cold as that of 
 the northern regions. We have skated on her rivers in 
 
EAIN FALL, DEWS, AND FEOSTS. 
 
 35 
 
 winter, and sweated profusely in her cotton fields in sum- 
 mer. The average mean temperature of the year is 
 about 62°. 
 
 North Carolina. — The climate of this State is similar 
 to that of Tennessee, though, from its position east of the 
 Alleghany mountains, it is not quite so temperate. 
 
 SECT. IV.— RAIN FALL, DEWS, AND FROSTS. 
 
 The entire territory of the Southern States belongs to 
 the region of frequent rains ; and, although there are fr.e^' 
 quent droughts, as in all other parts of the United States, 
 the rain is as equally distributed through the dilFerent 
 seasons, and falls in as great quantity, as in any other^region 
 of the globe lying in the warm zone. I . - 
 
 The following table shows the comparative fall\of yain 
 in the Northern and Southern Atlantic States : 
 
 FALL OF EAm IN INCHES. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Northern Atlantic Slcyps,. 
 
 8.88 
 
 10.05 
 
 9.85 
 
 10.61 
 
 89.89 
 
 Providence (average 28 years) . . 
 Philadelphia (average 28 years). 
 
 11.55 
 
 iV.is 
 
 11.33 
 
 ii'.oi 
 
 10.30 
 10.52 
 
 9! 63 
 9.81 
 
 39.71 
 
 40. 
 
 42.23 
 
 42.83 
 
 42. 
 
 
 10.45 
 9.89 
 
 10.53 
 
 10.15 
 
 10.07 
 
 41.20 
 
 Southern Atlantic, Slojpe and Gulf 
 States. 
 
 11.45 
 
 10.06 
 
 7.52 
 
 44.92 
 
 
 5.90 
 
 10.54 
 
 9.56 
 
 5.80 
 
 49.48 
 81.80 
 
 
 12.86 
 
 18.69 
 
 13.71 
 
 11.72 
 
 56.98 
 
 
 11.29 
 
 17.28 
 
 9.62 
 
 12.71 
 
 50.90 
 
 
 15.08 
 
 19.14 
 
 12.48 
 
 15.40 
 
 62.10 
 
 We have no regular wet and dry seasons, no period- 
 
36 
 
 FLOKA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 ical rains, as on the Pacific slope, but tliey are irregularly- 
 distributed throughout all the seasons of the year. 
 
 Dews. — In the dry periods of summer and autumn a 
 compensation for the want of rain is made by the copious 
 dews. During the day the earth receives an immense amount 
 of heat from the sun. At sunset it begins the work of ra- 
 diation, and carries it on rapidly during the night until it 
 becomes a vast condenser, receiving, in literal showers, 
 moisture from the atmosphere which refreshes all vegeta- 
 tion. The cotton fields rejoice, and the heart of the 
 planter is gladdened. 
 
 Frosts. — The season of frosts and freezing weather, in 
 the larger part of the cotton region, begins about the mid- 
 dle of October, and terminates about the middle of March. 
 Our agricultural period embraces seven months, but it is 
 deemed prudent to defer the planting of cotton until about 
 the middle of April, allowing full time for the earth to be- 
 come thoroughly warm, and giving six months for the plant- 
 ing, cultivation, and maturing of the crop. 
 
 Cotton is a plant of the sun, and requires his genial 
 rays for half the year. It is for this reason that we con- 
 fidently predict that aU experiments north of the 36th 
 parallel of latitude — isothermal of 60° — will fail. 
 
 We advise Illinois farmers to let cotton alone, and to 
 give their attention to stock and grain. 
 
 SECT, v.— PRODUCTIONS OF THE FOREST— FLORA OF 
 THE SOUTH. 
 
 We are indebted to Wailes's " Eeport on the Agriculture 
 and Geology of Mississippi " for the following catalogue of 
 trees, shrubs, herbs, and flowers. The flora of the other 
 States does not differ materially from that of Mississippi. 
 
FLORA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 L FOREST TREES. 
 
 POPULAB NAMB. 
 
 Apple, crab 
 Ash, blue 
 
 " white 
 Beech, 
 Barberry, 
 Birch, 
 Bay, sweet 
 Bayberry, 
 Box elder. 
 Buckeye, dwarf 
 
 Oandleberry, 
 Cherry, 
 
 Cucumber tree, 
 
 Chestnut, 
 
 Chinquepin, 
 
 Cottonwood, 
 
 Cypress, 
 
 Cedar, 
 
 Dogwood, 
 
 " swamp 
 
 Elm, red 
 
 " slippery 
 
 " cork-bark 
 Elder, 
 Gum, sweet 
 
 " black 
 Haw, black 
 
 " possum 
 Hackberry, 
 Hickory, 
 Hazel, 
 
 Hazel, witch 
 
 BCIBNTIFIO NASTB. 
 
 Pyrus coronaria. 
 Fraxinus quadrangulata. 
 
 " acuminata. 
 Fagus Americana. 
 Berberis vulgaris. 
 Betula populifolia. 
 Magnolia glauca. 
 Myrica cerifera. 
 Acer negundo. 
 JEsculus pavia. 
 
 " spicata. 
 Myrica cerifera. 
 Cerasus Yirginiana. 
 Magnolia auriculata. 
 Oastanea vesca. 
 
 " pumila. 
 Populus deltoides. 
 Cupressus disticha. 
 Juniperus Yu-giniana. 
 Cornus florida. 
 
 " sericea. 
 Cephalanthus occidentalis. 
 Ulmus Americana, 
 fulva. 
 " racemosa. 
 Sambucus Canadensis. 
 Liquidambar styraciflna. 
 Nyssa multiflora. 
 Viburnum prunifolium. 
 
 " nudum. 
 Celtis occidentalis. 
 Oarya tomentosa. 
 Oorylus Americana. 
 Hamamelis Virginica. 
 
FLORA OF THE SODTH. 
 
 POPTJXAB NAME. 
 
 Holly, 
 
 Hawthorn, 
 u 
 
 " parsley-leaved 
 Hornbeam, 
 Honeysuckle, 
 
 " white 
 Huckleberry, 
 
 " swamp 
 Hydrangea, 
 Hercules' club, 
 Ironwood, 
 Lauria mundi. 
 Laurel, 
 
 " swamp 
 Linn, 
 
 Leatherwood, 
 
 Locust, 
 
 Locust, honey 
 (( (( 
 
 Magnolia, 
 u 
 
 Maple, sugar 
 " red 
 
 " silver-leaved 
 
 " swamp 
 Mulberry, 
 Myrtle, 
 
 " wax 
 Oak, live 
 
 " red 
 
 " black 
 
 " blackjack 
 
 " white 
 
 " Spanish 
 
 " post 
 
 SOIENTimO SAXE. 
 
 Ilex opaca. 
 Cratgegus ei-us-galli, 
 " punctata. 
 " apiifolia. 
 Oarpinus Americana. 
 Azalea rubra. 
 
 " viscosa, 
 Vaccinium corymbosimi. 
 
 " vacUlans. 
 Hydrangea arborescens. 
 Aralia spinosa. 
 Ostrya Virginica. 
 Oerasus Carolinensis. 
 Oerasus lauro. 
 Kalmia glauca. 
 TUia Americana. 
 Dirca palustris. 
 Robinia pseud-acacia. 
 Oleditschia triacanthos. 
 
 " brachyloba. 
 Magnolia grandiflora. 
 
 " auriculata. 
 Acer saccharinum. 
 " rubrum. 
 " dasycarpum. 
 " negundo. 
 Moras rubra. 
 Myrica inodorata. 
 
 " cerifera. 
 Quercus virens. 
 " rubra. 
 " tinctoria. 
 " nigra. 
 " alba. 
 " falcata. 
 " obtusiloba. 
 
FLORA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTTLAB NAME. 
 
 Oak, chestnut 
 
 " chinquepin 
 
 " overcup 
 
 " swamp 
 
 " willow 
 
 " pin 
 
 Osage orange, 
 
 Pride of Barbadoes, 
 
 Pecan, 
 
 Pecan, latter 
 
 Pig-nut, 
 
 Plum, 
 (; 
 
 " blue 
 " red 
 
 Prickly ash. 
 Pawpaw, 
 Pine, long-leaf 
 " short-leaf 
 " swamp 
 » pitch 
 Poplar, 
 Persimmon, 
 Redbud, Judas-tree^ 
 Sycamore, 
 Sumac, 
 
 " dwarf 
 Strawberry tree, 
 Swamp spice, 
 
 " snow-ball, 
 Sassafras, 
 SheUbark, 
 Starry annis, 
 Spanish mulberry. 
 Service-tree, 
 
 SOIBNTIFIO NAMH. 
 
 Quercus castanea. 
 
 " prinoides. 
 
 " macrocarpa. 
 
 " aquatica. 
 
 " phellos. 
 
 " palustria. 
 Madura aurantiaca. 
 Amoi-pha fruticosa. 
 Carya olivseformis. 
 Hicorea Texana. 
 Oarya amara. 
 Prunus Americana. 
 
 " Chickasaw. 
 
 « ? 
 
 u 2 
 
 u ? 
 
 Xanthoxylum tricarpum. 
 Uvaria triloba. 
 Pinus palustris. 
 
 " rigida. 
 
 " mitls. 
 
 " t£eda. 
 Liriodendron tulipifera. 
 Diospyros Virginiana. 
 Oercis Canadensis. 
 Platanus occidentalis. 
 Ehus glabra. 
 
 " typhina. 
 Euonynms Americanus. 
 Hex prinoides. 
 Hydrangea quercifolia. 
 Laurus sassafras. 
 Oarya alba. 
 Kalmia glauca. 
 Oallicai-pa Americana. 
 Aronia arbutifolia. 
 
40 
 
 FLOEA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTILAE NAME. 
 
 Stewartia, 
 Spice wood, 
 Tupelo, 
 
 " large-fruited 
 Toothache tree, 
 Umbrella tree. 
 Walnut, black 
 Willow, 
 
 SCEBNTIFIO NAMB. 
 
 Stewartia malacodendron. 
 Laurus benzoin. 
 Nyssa villosa. 
 
 " tomentosa. 
 Xanthoxylum clava Herculis. 
 Magnolia tripetala. 
 Juglans nigra, 
 Salix nigra. 
 
 II. PAEA8ITES, EUNNEES, AND CLIMBEE8. 
 
 Blackberry, 
 
 " swamp 
 Creeper, 
 Cross vine, 
 Cornucopia, 
 Coral vine. 
 Dewberry, 
 Green moss, 
 Jasmine, yellow 
 Mistletoe, 
 Poison oak. 
 Passion flower, 
 Spanish moss, 
 Supplejack, 
 Strawberry, 
 Sensitive brier, 
 Sarsaparilla vine, 
 Tie vine. Morning-glory, 
 Wild potato vine. 
 Woodbine, red 
 
 " yellow 
 
 Eubus villosa. 
 
 " hiapidus. 
 Bignonia radicans. 
 
 " crucigera. 
 Glycine fructescens ? 
 Lycium Europseum ? 
 Eubus Canadensis. 
 Tillandsia ? 
 Gelsemium nitidum. 
 Viscum verticillatum. 
 Ehus toxicodendron. 
 Passiflora incarnata. 
 Tillandsia usneoides. 
 Zizyphus volubilis, 
 Fragaria Virginiana, 
 Mimosa instia. 
 Schizandra coccinea. 
 Convolvulus arvensis. 
 
 " panduratus. 
 Lonicera sempervirens. 
 
 " flava. 
 
 III. UNDEEGEOWTH PEEEIWIAL8, 
 
 Bear grass, 
 Cane, 
 
 Yucca filamentosa. 
 Arundo gigantea. 
 
FLOEA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPUIAB NAMB. 
 
 OMna brier, 
 Fern, 
 
 SCilBNTIFIO NAMH. 
 
 Smilax China. 
 Polypodium ? 
 
 Green brier, 
 
 Smilax rotundifolia. 
 
 
 " spinulosa. 
 
 Palmetto, fan 
 
 Sabal minor. 
 
 Prickly pear, 
 
 Opuntia vulgaris. 
 
 Eeed, 
 
 Arundo tecta. 
 
 IV. NOXIOUS WEEDS, 
 
 HURTFUL TO PLANTATIONS! 
 
 Burdoct, 
 
 Lappago major. | 
 
 Beggarsticks, 
 
 Bidens connata. 
 
 Oocklebur, 
 
 Xanthium strumarium. 
 
 Dock, 
 
 Eumex obtusifoha. 
 
 Dog fennel. 
 
 Anthemis cotula. 
 
 Jamestown weed, 
 
 Datura stramonium. 
 
 Sneeze weed. 
 
 Helenium autumnale. 
 
 Stinging nettie, 
 
 Urtica nrens. 
 
 Spanish needlea, . 
 
 Bidens bipinnata. 
 
 Smart weed, ' 
 
 Polygonum articulatum. 
 
 Thistle, 
 
 Cirsium lanceolatum. 
 
 u 
 
 pumilum. 
 
 Wild coffee weed, 
 
 Cassia oecidentalis. 
 
 " chamomile, 
 
 Anthemis arvensis. 
 
 V. VITUS, OK GEAPE. 
 
 Muscadine, Vitis rotundifolia. 
 Choke grape, " cordifolia. 
 Small sour grape, " ? 
 
 VI. PLANTS, USEFUL, MEDICINAL, AND ORNAMENTAL. 
 
 Aster, 
 
 Boneset, 
 
 Columbo, 
 
 Aster radula. 
 Eupatorium perfoliatum. 
 Frasera Walteri. 
 
42 FLOEA 
 
 POPFLAK NAME. 
 
 Ohickvveed, 
 Cotton rose, 
 Calamus, 
 Oat's-tail, 
 Centaury plant, 
 False foxglove. 
 Ginger, wild 
 Green dragon, 
 Gall of the earth, 
 Ground ivy, 
 Horsemint, 
 Hoarhound, 
 Heartsease, 
 Indian turnip, 
 Jerusalem oak, 
 
 " cherry, 
 Lucern, 
 Lamhsquarter, 
 Lobeha, 
 Milk-weed, 
 May apple, 
 Monoca nut, 
 Mallow, 
 Mullein, 
 Pleurisy root. 
 Pink-root, 
 Puccoon, Bloodroot^ 
 Purslane, 
 Poke-weed, 
 Pine-sap, 
 Pickerel-weed, 
 Pansy, 
 Peppermint, 
 Partridge pea, 
 Eattlesnake master, 
 Rush, 
 
 OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 SCIENTIFIO KAMB. 
 
 Stellaria media. 
 Hibiscus grandiflorus. 
 Acorus calamus. 
 Typha latifolia. 
 Sabbatia angularis. 
 . Gerardia flava. 
 Asarum Canadense. 
 Arissema dracontium, 
 Nabalus Fraseri. 
 Epigsea repens. 
 Monarda fistulosa. 
 Marrubium vulgare. 
 Viola tricolor. 
 ArisEema triphyllam. 
 Ambrina anthelraintica. 
 Physalis viscosa. 
 Medicago sativa. 
 Chenop odium allium. 
 Lobelia cardinalis. 
 Acerates viridiflora. 
 Podophyllum peltatum. 
 Nelurabium spec'osum. 
 Hibiscus militaris. 
 Verbascum thapsus. 
 Asclepias tuberosa. 
 Spigelia Marylandica. 
 Sanguinaria Canadensis. 
 Portulaca oleracea. 
 Phytolacca decai.dra. 
 Monotropa hypopitys. 
 Pontedera cordata. 
 Viola tricolor. 
 Mentha piperita. 
 Lathyrus variosus. 
 Hieracium venosum. 
 Equisetixm hyemale. 
 
FLOEA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 43 
 
 POPTTLAE NAME. 
 
 Silk-weed, 
 
 i( a 
 
 Sorrel, 
 Senna, wild 
 Pepper-grass, 
 Specularia, 
 Violet, 
 
 White water-lily, 
 White clover, 
 Wild indigo, 
 
 " sensitive plant, 
 
 " parsnip. 
 Water plantain, 
 Wild senna, 
 Vinnella, 
 Viburnum, 
 Yellow pond-lily, 
 Vervain, 
 Trailing arbutus, 
 Bear's-foot, 
 
 SCIENTiriO NAMB. 
 
 Asclepias purpurascens. 
 
 " variegata. 
 Oxalis stricta. 
 Cassia Marylandica. 
 Lepidium campestre. 
 Specularia perfoliata. 
 Viola rotundifolia. 
 Nymphsea odorata. 
 TrifoliuTQ repens. 
 Baptisia tinctoria. 
 Cassia nictitans. 
 Pastinaca sativa. 
 Alisma plantago. 
 Cassia Marylandica. 
 Cacalia suaveolens. 
 Verbena spuria. 
 Kuphar advena. 
 Verbena spuria. 
 Epigsea repens. 
 Helleborus foetidus. 
 
 Remarks. — Of our timljer and timber trees much of 
 interest nfight be said, did our space admit of it. 
 
 The cypress, for many purposes of building, stands un- 
 rivalled. I have no means of estimating the value of the 
 trade in this timber, but it is immense. 
 
 There is scarcely a town or village on the Mississippi 
 or its tributaries, within the limits of the State, in which 
 there is not one or more steam-mills busily employed in 
 sawing this timber. Add to these the numerous mills 
 similarly employed on plantations, and take into view the 
 logs rafted to New Orleans, and along the river coast be- 
 low our borders, and it will be perceived that the annual 
 consumption of this valuable timber, the growth of our 
 swamps, is enormous. 
 
44 
 
 FLOEA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 Next in value to the cypress, and perliaps more inex- 
 haustible, is the long-leaf pine, which is taken to the mills 
 along the seaboard, or shipped in logs to Europe or the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Suitable sticks for masts or spars in ship -building are 
 greatly in demand at vBry lucrative prices, and a great 
 quantity of this description of timber is purchased for the 
 French- navy. 
 
 In the counties bordering on the sea-shore, the pine is 
 made to afford a considerable supply of tar and charcoal, 
 much of which is taken across the lake to New Orleans. 
 
 The long-leaf pine is not found in any quantity north 
 of the 31st degree, but the short-leaf pine extends to Ten- 
 nessee. 
 
 The live oak is highly prized as an ornamental shade 
 tree, but does not now exist on our coast in such abun- 
 dance as to farnish any considerable supply of timber for 
 ship-building. It is not found north of the 31st degree. 
 
 The geographical distribution of some of our forest 
 trees seems to be well defined. For example, the Magno- 
 lia tripetala (umbrella tree), as a prevailing growtli, seems 
 to be confined to a narrow belt extending northwardly 
 from our southern boundary, in a direction parallel with 
 the general couree of the Mississippi river, and twelve or 
 fifteen miles to the east of it. 
 
 I have not met with it north of the 33d degree of north 
 latitude, which seems also to be about the northern limit 
 of the Spanish moss, Tillandsia usneoides. 
 
 Over extensive districts of country a single species of 
 timber sometimes is found to prevail almost exclusively, 
 with the exception of the inferior shrubs and plants that 
 constitute the undergrowth. This is the case, mainly, with 
 the long and short-leaf pine, which, though sometimes 
 
FLORA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 4:5 
 
 blended, occupy generally distinct tracts; and also with 
 the post-oak and black-jack. The same may be said, but 
 to less extent, of the hickory and the chestnut. 
 
 Other tracts exhibit a remarkable variety of the forest- 
 trees in close association, which generally affect distinct 
 soils and situations. This was noticed as forming a remark 
 able feature of the forests in the eastern part of Wilkinson 
 county, and in part of Amite. 
 
 The evergreens and deciduous trees are seen inter- 
 mingled, and forming varied and pleasing contrasts. In- 
 deed, it was often difficult to detect on quite limited areas 
 the absence of any of our forest trees. 
 
 The sweet-gum was formerly regarded as a useless cum- 
 berer of the earth, and, from its great size on the rich allu- 
 vial lands, difficult to be got rid of except by the slow pro- 
 cess of deadening, by belting or cutting around the tree 
 through the sap. Of late years, it has come into consid- 
 erable use as a fuel on steamboats, and, when seasoned, 
 little difficulty is experienced in burning it. 
 
 The sassafras, a valuable timber tree, and formerly 
 abundant, and in great demand in past years for shingles 
 where the cypress was less convenient, has in consequence 
 been greatly diminished, but large trees of it are still 
 found in many portions of the State. 
 
 The liuQ has also become scarce in many situations 
 ■where it was formerly very abundant. In early times the 
 bark was very useful in manufacturing ropes, and for other 
 purposes, and this was one of the early causes of its destruc- 
 tion. It is a soft-grained wood, of even texture, free from 
 knots and other imperfections, and not liable to shrink or 
 warp when seasoned, and therefore very suitable for ceilings 
 and other interior parts in buildings. 
 
 Bees are very fond of the flowers, and the honey made 
 
 / 
 
46 
 
 FLOEA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 from them is reputed to possses a peculiarly delicate flavor. 
 That from the flowers of the chinquepin, on the contrary, 
 is said to be poisonous. 
 
 Tlie linn appears to be most abundant, at this time, in 
 the western part of Jefferson county. 
 
 The Cottonwood, Populus deltoides, now the chief re- 
 source for steamboat fuel on the lower Mississippi — the 
 ash timber having become nearly exhausted at all accessi- 
 ble points — is of very quick growth, and the rapidity with 
 which it is reproduced is consequently a very favorable 
 circumstance. Every new deposit made by the inundations 
 of the river is speedily covered with a spontaneous growth 
 of young Cottonwood, standing as thickly as a crop of 
 small grain. This arrests the sediment subsequently 
 brought by the river, and new islands and bars are formed, 
 upon which the growth, by a natural process becoming 
 suflficiently thinned out, attains a considerable size in a 
 very few years, thus renewing the supply of fuel, which 
 otherwise would speedily become exhausted. 
 
 The chestnut is only found in the interior, and most 
 abundantly in the northern counties. The tree seems to 
 have become diseased in latter years, and is rapidly dying 
 out. 
 
 EDIBLE FRUITS. 
 
 The peach grows to perfection and in great variety. 
 
 The pear has been cultivated with success, and many 
 varieties are found in our yards and gardens. 
 
 The apple is raised on all our plantations, but not to 
 such perfection as in the North. 
 
 Mgs are found ft-om the southern extremity of Florida 
 to the 33d parallel. 
 
 ' Orange groves and orchards may be seen in Texas, 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 47 
 
 Louisiana, and Florida, and along the Gulf in Mississippi 
 and Alabama. 
 
 The damson plum attains the size of a pullet's egg, and 
 the nectarine (the farzeless peach) is grown by many of oiyj)^ 
 orchardists. 
 
 Grapes are cultivated with remarkable success, and 
 wines have been made here which will stand a good com- 
 parison with the pure juices of Nicholas LongwortltQ' 
 
 Watermelons, muskmelons, cantelopes, and nutmeg- 
 melons grow in rich abundance, while in size and,fla^or 
 they surpass those of a more northern climate. 
 
 PumpJcins reach a development fully equal to those 
 which made the mouth of " Ichabod Crane "water; and 
 squashes, cymlings, and cucumbers lie in profusion m our 
 gardens during their season. 
 
 We have luscious raspberries and mammoth strawber- 
 ries, not surpassed by Peabody's best. 
 
 Udible Boots. — Turnips and Irish potatoes do well ; 
 and yams grow larger than a boy's thigh. The weight of 
 a big yam is from 8 lbs. to 12 lbs. Beets, radishes, &c., 
 all grow with trifling care. 
 
 SECT. VI.— FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 We propose a brief notice of the vertebrated animals 
 both of .the land and water, and likewise a sketch of the 
 insects, both those which are beneficial and those which 
 are injurious to vegetation. 
 
 All vertebrated animals are distributed into four classes: 
 
 1st. Mammals, or milk-giving animals. 
 
 2d. Birds. 
 
 3d. Reptiles. 
 
 4th. Fishes. 
 
 Among the mammals we may notice the 
 
48 
 
 FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPtTLAK NAME. 
 
 SCrENTHTO NAME. 
 
 American deer, 
 
 Cervus Virginianus. 
 
 Black bear, 
 
 Ursus Americanus. 
 
 Eaccoon, 
 
 Procyon lotor. * 
 
 American wolf, 
 
 Lupus occidentalis. 
 
 Black wolf, 
 
 Canis lupus. 
 
 Gray fox, 
 
 Vulpes Virginianus. 
 
 Northern panther, 
 
 Felis concolor. 
 
 Wild-cat, 
 
 Lyncus rufas. 
 
 Beaver, 
 
 Castor fiber. - • . 
 
 Musk-rat, 
 
 Fiber zibetliicus. 
 
 Gray squirrel. 
 
 Sciurus lucatis. 
 
 Red fox-squirrel. 
 
 " capistratus. 
 
 Black " 
 
 " niger. 
 
 Ground " 
 
 " striatus. 
 
 Flying " 
 
 Pteromys volucella. 
 
 Otter, 
 
 Lutra Canadensis. 
 
 Shrew mole, 
 
 Scalops aquaticus. 
 
 American opossum, 
 
 Didelphus Virginianus. 
 
 Leather-winged bat. 
 
 Vespertilio Noveboracensis. 
 
 Common rat, 
 
 Mus decumanus. 
 
 Large wood rat. 
 
 
 Cotton rat, 
 
 Sigmodon hispidum. 
 
 Common mouse. 
 
 Mus musculus. 
 
 Wood mouse, 
 
 Arvicola. 
 
 Common gray rabbit, 
 
 Lepus nanus. 
 
 American gi-ay " 
 
 " Americanus. 
 
 Cane or wood " 
 
 " aquaticus. 
 
 BIKDS. 
 
 N'atatores- 
 
 —Swimmers. 
 
 Mallard, 
 
 Anas boschas. 
 
 Wood duck, 
 
 " sponsa. 
 
 Sprig-tailed duck, 
 
 ' acuta. 
 
 Gray duck. 
 
 " strepera. 
 
 Blue-winged teal, 
 
 " discors. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTTLAR NAME, 
 
 Greeu-winged teal, 
 Spoon-bill duck, 
 Diedipper " 
 Ked-head " 
 Wild goose. 
 Brant, 
 
 Water witcli. 
 
 Great loon, 
 
 Petrel, 
 
 Cormorant, 
 
 White pelican, 
 
 Gannet, or frigate bird, 
 
 Out- water. 
 
 Marsh tern. 
 
 Common gull, 
 
 SCIENTIFIO NAMS. 
 
 Anas Oarolinensis. 
 
 " clypeata, 
 Fuligula albeola. 
 
 " erythrocephala. 
 Anser Canadensis. 
 
 " bemicla. 
 Podiceps cristatus. 
 Colymbus glacialis. 
 Thalasidroma Wilsonii. 
 Phalacrocorax Brasilensis. 
 Pelicanus trachyrhynchus. 
 Tachypetes aquilus. 
 Rhynchops nigra. 
 Sterna Anglica. 
 Larus zonorhynchus;. 
 
 GrallcB — Waders. 
 
 American ring plover, 
 Piping plover, 
 Wilson's " 
 KiUdeer " 
 Whistling " 
 Whooping crane, 
 Great blue heron. 
 Great white " 
 White-crested " ' 
 Blue " 
 Green " 
 Bittern, 
 Indian hen, 
 Eoseate spoonbill, 
 White ibis, 
 Glossy " 
 Spanish curlew. 
 Gray plover, 
 3 
 
 Oharadrius semipalmatus. 
 " melodus. 
 " Wilsonius. 
 " vociferus. 
 Squatarola Helvetica. 
 Grus Americana. 
 Ardea Herodias. 
 " leuce. 
 " candidissima. 
 " cerulea. 
 " virescens. 
 " exilis. 
 " minor. 
 Platalea ajaja. 
 Ibis alba. 
 
 " Mexicana. 
 Numenius longirostris. 
 Totanus Bartramius. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 American snipe, 
 
 Woodcock, 
 
 Eail, 
 
 Coot, 
 
 BOIENTinO NAME, 
 
 Scolopax Wilsonii, 
 Rusticola minor. 
 Ortygomotra Oarolinensis. 
 Fulica Americana. 
 
 Basores — Scratehers. 
 
 Wild turkey, 
 Partridge, or qnail. 
 
 Meleagris galliparvo. 
 Ortyx Yirginiana. 
 
 Scansores — Glimlers. 
 
 Crested woodpecker, 
 Eed-headed 
 Yellow-bellied 
 Downy 
 
 Golden-winged ' 
 Ivory-bill 
 American cuckoo, 
 
 Picus pileatus. 
 
 " erytbrocephalus. 
 
 " varius. 
 
 " rubescens. 
 
 " aurantus. 
 
 " principalis. 
 Ooccyzus Americanus. 
 
 Paroquet, Carolina parrot, Psiticus Carolinensis. 
 
 Insessores — Perchers. 
 
 House martin, 
 Barn swallow, 
 Chimney swallow, 
 Whippoorwill, 
 Cbuckwill's widow, 
 King-fish 61*, 
 Humming-bird, 
 House wren, 
 American robin, 
 Cedar-bird, 
 Blue-bird, 
 Mocking-bird, 
 Brown thrush, 
 King-bird, or bee martin. 
 
 Hirundo purpurea. 
 
 " rufa. 
 
 Acanthylis Pelasgia. 
 
 Caprimulgus vocifefus. 
 (( a 
 
 Alcedo alcyon. 
 Trochilus colubris. 
 Troglodytes aedon. 
 Merula migratoria. 
 Bombycilla Oarolinensis. 
 Si alia Wilsonii. 
 Orpheus polyglottus. 
 
 " rufus. 
 Tyrannus intrepidus. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTTLAE NAME. 
 
 Blue jaj, 
 Common crow, 
 Crow blackbird, 
 Meadow lark. 
 Golden oriole, 
 Red-wiaged oriole. 
 Red- winged starling, 
 Crested red-bird, 
 Red-bird, 
 
 SOIBNTinO NAME. 
 
 Garrulus cristatus. 
 Corvus Americanus. 
 Quiscalns versicolor. 
 Sturnella Ludoviciana. 
 Jeterus Baltimore. 
 
 " Phoeniceus. 
 Sturnns prasdatorius. 
 Pitylus cardinalis. 
 Pyranga sestiva. 
 
 Baptores — Birds of Prey^ 
 
 TULTUEE FAMILY. 
 
 Turkey buzzard, Oatliartes aura. 
 
 Carrion crow, " atratus. 
 
 FALCON FAMILY. 
 
 Bald or brown eagle. 
 Red-tailed hawk. 
 Chicken " 
 Swallow-tailed hawk, 
 Sparrow hawk, 
 
 Haliatus lucocephalus. 
 Butes borealis. 
 Falco anatum. 
 Nauclerus farcatus. 
 Falco sparverius. 
 
 OWL FAMILY. 
 
 Great horned owl, Bubo Virginianus. 
 Screech-owl, " asio. 
 
 Short-eared owl, Otus palustris. 
 
 Barred owl, TJlula nebulosa. 
 
 EEPTILES. 
 
 Turtle Family. 
 
 Soft-shelled turtle, Trionyx ferox. 
 
 Loggerhead turtle, Chelonura Temmincki. 
 
 Snapping turtle, " serpentina.. 
 
62 
 
 FAUITA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTJXAE NAME. 
 
 Green turtle, 
 Hawk-bill turtle, 
 Mud turtle, 
 Terrapin, 
 Gopher, 
 
 Lizard 
 
 Alligatoi', 
 Chameleon, 
 Gray lizard, 
 Striped lizard, 
 Eed-headed lizard. 
 
 BOIENTIFIO NAMB. 
 
 Chelonura mydas. 
 
 " caretta. 
 Kinosternon Pennsylvanicum. 
 Oistuda Carolina. 
 Testudo polyphsemus. 
 
 Family. 
 
 Alligator Mississippiensis. 
 Anolis Oarolinensis. 
 Tropidolepis undulatus. 
 Cnemidophorus sexlineatus. 
 Ligosoma quinquelineatus. 
 
 Batrachian Family. 
 
 Ground puppy, 
 "Water lizard. 
 Bull-frog, 
 Spring frog, 
 "Wood frog, 
 Leopard frog, 
 Tree toad. 
 Common toad. 
 
 Salamandra, seven species. 
 Siren lacertina. 
 Bana pipiens. 
 
 " fontanalis. 
 
 " sylvatica. 
 Hyla halecina. 
 
 " viridis. 
 Buffo Americanus. 
 
 SnaTce Family. 
 
 The following catalogue of our snakes was made by 
 Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution, and de- 
 scribed in his work on the Serpents of North America : 
 
 OPHIDIA. 
 
 CrotalidoB. 
 
 Banded rattlesnake, Orotalus durissus. 
 Ground rattlesnake, Crotalophorus milarius. 
 Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTTLAE KAMB. 
 
 Water moccason, 
 Upland moccason, 
 Highland moccason, 
 Cotton-mouth, 
 
 Harlequin snake. 
 Bead snake, 
 
 Swift garter-snake. 
 Striped snake. 
 Water snake, 
 Blowing viper, ) 
 Hog-nose snake, ) 
 Spreading adder, 
 Hog-nose viper. 
 Black pilot snake. 
 Chicken snake, "j 
 Milk snake, >• 
 Cow snake, ) 
 Egg snake, ) 
 King snake, ) 
 Common black snake. 
 Coach-whip snake, 
 
 Green snake, 
 (( (( 
 
 Eing-necked snake, 
 Scarlet snake, 
 Brown snake. 
 Worm snake, 
 (( (( 
 
 Ring snake, 
 
 SCIENTIFIC NAME. 
 
 Toxicophis piscivorus. 
 Toxicophis atrofuscus. 
 
 Eutsenia saurita ? 
 
 " sirtalis. 
 Nerodia Holbrookii? 
 
 Heterodon platyrhiiios. 
 
 " niger. 
 " simus. 
 Scotophis guttatus. 
 
 Ophibolus clericus. 
 
 " Sayi. 
 
 Bascanion constrictor. 
 Masticophis flagelliformis. 
 Leptophis eestivus. 
 Chlorosoma vernalis. 
 Diadophis punctatus. 
 Rhinostoma coccinea. 
 Haldea striatula. 
 Celuta amcena. 
 Tantilla coronata. 
 Osceola elapsoidea. 
 
 Elapsoidea. 
 
 Elaps fulvius. 
 Elaps tristis. 
 
 Coluberidce. 
 
64 FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 The following catalogue of tlie fishes of the Southwest, 
 prepared by Professor Agassiz, is regarded as an exhaustive 
 classification : 
 
 PLACOIDS. 
 
 Bajm. 
 
 POPTTLAB NAME. SCrBNTIFlO NAME. 
 
 Sting-ray, Trygon Sabina. Les. 
 
 Saw-fish, Pristis pectinatus. Lath. 
 
 GANOIDS. 
 
 Sturiones. 
 
 Shovelnose sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus platirhynchus. 
 Spoonbill sturgeon, Polyodon folium. Lac. 
 
 Sauroids. 
 
 Alligator gar, Lepidosteus spatula. Lac. 
 
 u * 
 
 Pike gar, " - 
 
 Black gar, " Ohasei. Wailes. 
 
 CcBlacanths. 
 Mud-fish, Amia calva. 
 
 Ostraciontes. 
 Cow-fish, Ostracion * 
 
 Gymnodontes. 
 
 , Diodon inaculato-striatus. Mitch. 
 
 Siluroids. 
 
 Oat-fish, salt water, Galeichthys marinus. Cm. 
 " " Arius Milberti. Guv. 
 
 " fresh water, Pimelodus coerulescens. Haf. 
 " " " limosus. Haf. 
 
 * Species not yet identified. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 55 
 
 POPTJLAE NAME. 
 
 Aiigel-fishj 
 
 CTENOIDS. 
 
 PleuronectidcB. 
 
 6C1ENT1FI0 NAME. 
 
 Acliirus mollis. Mitch. 
 
 OTlcetodonts. 
 
 Ephippus faber. Bio. 
 Chsetodon striatus. Lin. 
 
 Sheepshead, 
 Pine perch, 
 
 Trout, 
 
 a 
 
 Red-fiyh, 
 "Wliiting, 
 Big drum. 
 Young drum, 
 White perch, 
 Croaker, or grunt. 
 
 Sparoids. 
 
 Sargus ovis. MitcTi.^ 
 " rhomboides. Guv. 
 
 Scicenoids. 
 
 Otolithus Oarolinensis. Cuv. 
 
 " Drummondi. Hieh. 
 Oorvina ocellata. Guv. 
 Umbrina alburnus. Guv. 
 Pogonias chromis. Lac. 
 
 " fasoiatus. Lac. 
 
 Amblodon :.* 
 
 Micropogon undulatus. Guv. 
 
 Striped bass, 
 Rockfish, 
 Red snapper, 
 Snapper, 
 
 Yellow-tail. 
 
 Percoids. 
 
 Labrax .* 
 
 " lineatus. Guv. 
 Serranus erythrogaster. De K. 
 
 Diploprion fascicularis. Hoi. 
 
 Mesoprion nninotatus. Guv. 
 
 " chrysurus. Guv. 
 
 Oentropristis trifurca. Guv. 
 
 * Species not yet identified. 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 POPTTLAE KAME, BOIENTIFIO NAME. 
 
 Goggle-eye, Oalliurus gulosus. Ag. 
 
 ) Pomotis incisor. Val. 
 
 > " haamatodes. Ag. 
 > " atrorubens. Ag. 
 
 Mugiloids. 
 
 Jmnping mullet, Mugil Plumieri. Guv. 
 
 CYCLOIDS. 
 
 SphyroBnoids. 
 
 > Spliyrasna Barracuda. Cm. 
 
 Scomteroids. 
 
 Spotted mackerel, Oybium maculatum. Guv. 
 
 Pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor. Guv. 
 
 Pompeno, Licliia Carolina. 
 
 ) Caranx ,* 
 
 J Argyrius vomer. Lac. 
 
 Silver-fish, Vomer Brownii. Guv. 
 > Elacate Atlantica. Guv. 
 
 Scomber esoces. 
 Bill-fish, Belone Caribsea. Let. 
 
 Esoces. 
 
 Pike, Esox .* 
 
 Lophioids. 
 
 Toad-fish, Malthea vespertilio. Guv. 
 
 ' * Species not yet identified. 
 
FATJNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 57 
 
 POPULiE NAME. 
 
 Gaspsergoo, 
 
 Buflfalo, 
 
 Sucker, 
 
 Ldbroids. 
 
 SOrENTIFIO NAME. 
 
 Laclinolsemus aigula. GwD, 
 
 Cyprinoids. 
 
 Ichthyobus .* 
 
 Carpi odes .* 
 
 Oatostomus 
 
 Gyprinodonts^ 1 1'^-' 
 
 Top-water, Zygonectes olivaceus. Ag. 
 
 , Oyprinodon ovinus. Val. 
 
 Minnow, Fundulus spilotus. Hoi. 
 r, Heterandria Holbrookii. Ag. 
 
 Scopelini. 
 
 — — , Saurus Mexicanus. Cm, 
 
 €lupeoids. 
 
 Olupea .* 
 
 Tarpon, or Big-scale, Megalops cyprinoides. Lam. 
 AnguilUdm. 
 
 a 
 
 Eel, Anguilla .* 
 
 mSEOTS. 
 
 We bave in the South representatives of the seven 
 orders of the insect world, viz. : 
 
 1. Beetles {Coleoptera) \ 2. Bugs (ffemiptera) ; 3. 
 Straight-winged insects (Orthoptera) ; 4. Butterflies and 
 moths (Lepidoptera) ; 5. Net-winged insects {Neuroptera) ; 
 
 * Species not yet identified. 
 
 3* 
 
58 
 
 FAUNA -OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 6. Vein-winged insects {Rymenoptem)] 1. Two-winged 
 insects [Diptera). 
 
 A brief notice of some of the more prominent of these 
 orders is all that we can attempt in a work of this kind. 
 
 Order 1. Beetles. — A practical classification arranges 
 beetles in three families. 1. Carnivorous beetles, which 
 prey upon living insects. 2, Scavenger beetles, which 
 live on putrid matter, decayed wood, and plants. 3. Her- 
 bivorous beetles, which feed on plants and fruits. 
 
 The first two are useful, but the third are noxious, de- 
 structive to vegetation, injuring the planter, reducing his 
 profits, and exerting a decided influence on the commerce 
 of the world and the comfort of the human family. 
 Among the carnivorous beetles we may mention two or 
 three species of tiger beetles (Cicindelce); the southern 
 lady-bird ( Cocinella australis) ; caterpillar-hunters ( Calo- 
 somce), which are found in our corn and cotton fields, fill- 
 ing the office which Nature has assigned them — devouring 
 the insects which injure vegetation. 
 
 Among the scavenger beetles we notice the tumble-bug 
 [Atuchvs volvens), a cosmopolite of great notoriety ; the 
 horned passalus {Fassalus cornutus) and the stag-beetle 
 [Lucanus dama), both with pincer-like jaws ; and the fox- 
 like cetonia (Amphicoura vulpina). 
 
 These scavenger beetles deposit their eggs usually in 
 rotten wood, sometimes in the ground, and the grubs or 
 larvce live for years as such before their metamorphosis 
 into perfect beetles. Upon their emergence into the per- 
 fect state they commence their labors, and work most dili- 
 gently till ai-rested by cold weather. They purify the 
 atmosphere by feeding on putrid substances and the excre- 
 ments of animals. 
 
 Herbivorous beetles have a horny skin and hard wing- 
 
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 59 
 
 covers. They feed on vegetable substances not only in 
 their perfect state, but when they are grubs. In this list 
 we place the spring beetles {Elater), several species ; Capri- 
 corn beetles [Cramhicince) \ snout beetles (Curculiones), 
 including the wheat weevil, rice weevil, and pea weevil ; 
 and the leaf-eaters ( Chrysomilince). 
 
 Order 2. Bugs. — Bugs do not generally undergo 
 metamorphosis, like beetles. They come forth from their 
 eggs in a perfect condition, with six legs and a proboscis, 
 having no wings. The Cicadce form the only exception to 
 this rule. 
 
 In this order we may enumerate the squash bug 
 ( Coreus iristis), which sucks with its snout the sap of the 
 squash and potato plants, and makes its winter quarters 
 in the crevices of houses and under the bark of trees; 
 tree-hoppers [Membracis), which feed on the leaves of the 
 oak, thie hickory, the locust, and the poplar; plant lice 
 (Aphis), infesting trees, bushes, and herbs; shield lice 
 ( Coccus), which suck the sap of fruit trees. 
 
 Order 3. Straight-winged Insects. — We include among 
 these the grasshopper, walking-leaves, crickets, cock- 
 roaches, earwigs, soothsayers, Avalking-sticks, etc., all of 
 which are found in great variety and abundance. 
 
 Order 4. Butterflies and Moths are found in great va- 
 riety. The useful silkworm can be raised with less care 
 than in the North. We have seen the <Jecropia, the Poly- 
 pheme, theZMwa, and the Promethea, forming their cocoons 
 upon the leaves of our forest trees, as well as upon the 
 trees of the orchards, inviting, as it were, the attention of 
 man. We have the millers, the tent-caterpillars, the spaw- 
 worm, the canker-worm, the apple-worm, all of which are 
 more or k;ss injurious. We are troubled also with the 
 bee-moth, the grain-worm, the carpet-moth, and the hawk- 
 
60 
 
 FAriTA OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 mollis. We enroll on tlie list beautiful and harmless butter- 
 flies, witb all their classic names — Priam, Hector, Ulysses, 
 Ajax, Apollo, Iris, lo, Achilles, Nestor, Menelaus, Paris, 
 Anchises, Helena, Remus, ^neas, Atalanta, and Argus. 
 
 Butterflies are harmless, from the fact that they have 
 no mouths to eat with, but simply a proboscis, by which 
 they suck the juices of flowers. 
 
 Order 5. Net-winged Insects. — All of the insects of 
 this order are useful to man, and deserve our protecting 
 care. We mention among the number the dragon-fly 
 [Libellula), ever on the wing, hovering over fields, brooks, 
 and ponds, greedily devouring gnats, mosquitoes, caterpil- 
 lars, and flies of every description ; the horned corydalis 
 {Corydalis cornutus), and the day-fly {Ephemera vulgata). 
 
 Order 6. Vein-winged Insects. — These are the busy 
 laborers, " gathering honey all the day," and distributing 
 the pollen of flowers to render them productive ; or de- 
 stroying noxious insects as food for themselves and their 
 young ones. 
 
 We notice the gall-wasp {Cynips), which forms the oak 
 ball ; the gold wasp {Chrysis) ; the mud-wasp {Spkex Penn- 
 sylvanica), which lives in the sand, and destroys spiders 
 and cockroaches ; the hornet ( Vesper chartaria) ; the ants 
 (Formica) ; and the honey-bee {Apis mellifera). 
 
 Order V. Two-winged Insects, or Flies. — We include 
 in this list the various gadflies which annoy horses, oxen, 
 and sheep ; the house-fly {Musca domestica) ; the meat- 
 fly {Musca vomitoria) ; the Hessian fly {Cecidomyia de- 
 structor)', the flea {Pulex irritans)] and the mosquito 
 {Culex). 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 61 
 
 SECT. VII.— THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 Soils may be arranged in the following classes : 
 
 1. Clay soils, consisting of silex, alumina, and oxide 
 of iron. 
 
 2. Loamy soil, consisting of about equal parts of sand 
 and clay, with more or less oxide of iron. 
 
 3. Sandy soil, consisting of an excess of sand, with 
 about ten per cent, of clay. 
 
 4. Marly soils, containing loam and from 5 to 20 per 
 cent, of lime. 
 
 6. Calcareous soils, which exhibit loamy and silicious 
 matter, mingled with lime, varying from 20 to 40 per cent. 
 
 6. Vegetable moulds, presenting, upon examination, 
 clayey, loamy, or sandy matter, mixed with about 10 per 
 cent, of vegetable matter. 
 
 The following directions for examining sojls are taken 
 from Johnston's " Agricultural Chemistry " : 
 
 1. Weigh 100 grains of the soil, spread them in a thin 
 layer upon white paper, and place them for some hours in 
 an oven or other hot place, the heat of which may be raised 
 till it only does not discolor the paper. The loss is water. 
 
 2. Let it now (after drying and weighing) be burned 
 over the fire as above described. The second loss is or- 
 ganic, chiefly vegetable matter, with a little water which 
 still remained in the soil after drying. 
 
 3. After being thus burned, let it be put into half a 
 pint of water with half a wineglassful of spirit of salt, and 
 frequently stirred. When minute bubbles of air cease to 
 rise from the soil on settling, this process may be consid- 
 ered as at an end. The loss by this treatment will be a 
 little more than the true percentage of lime. 
 
62 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 4. A fresh portion of the soil (say 200 grains), in its 
 moist state, may now be taken and washed, to determine 
 the quantity of silicious sand it contains. If the residual 
 sand be supposed to contain calcareous matter, its amount 
 may be readily determined by treating the dried sand with 
 diluted muriatic acid, in the same way as when determin- 
 ing the whole amount of lime contained in the unwashed 
 soil. 
 
 We have in the South all these varieties of soil ; and in 
 order to determine what kind of soil is best adapted to the 
 culture of cotton, the following general principles must be 
 understood : 1. A soil suitable for the production of any 
 given vegetable, Avhether grain or fruit, must contain all 
 the inorganic constituents ^vhich the plant requires, and 
 none that can do it any injury. 
 
 2. A defective soil can be fertilized only by the addi- 
 tion of a manure containing the substance or sxibstances 
 which were originally wanting. 
 
 With these explanations we present the following anal- 
 yses of cotton soils, and of the ash of the cotton plant, by 
 Charles T. Jackson, M.D., of Boston ; 
 
 ANALYSES OF COTTON-PRODUCING SOILS. 
 No. 1. 
 
 Soil from St. Simon^s IsJyand, Georgia, on wh ich the Sea Island 
 or Long-staple Cotton is grown. 
 
 This soil consists of a gray sand, mixed with a fine 
 loam, containing black particles. One thousand grains of 
 it yield to boiling distilled water 1|- grains of soluble mat- 
 ter, lyL- grains of which consist of vegeta,ble organic mat- 
 ter, and half a grain of mineral salts, consisting of chloride 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 63 
 
 of sodium, phospliates of lime and soda, sulphates of soda 
 and potash, sulphate of magnesia, and carbonate of lime, 
 which was originally a crenate of lime. 
 
 One thousand grains of this soil yield to a boiling so- 
 lution of carbonate of ammonia 3 1 grains of soluble matter, 
 two-fifths of a grain of which consist of mineral salts, as 
 above named. 
 
 The insoluble carbonaceous matters amounted to 24 
 grains to 1,000, or 2| per cent. 
 
 
 92.040 
 
 per cent. 
 
 
 1.500 
 
 
 
 0.280 
 
 (( 
 
 
 0.370 
 
 u 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 (( 
 
 
 0.500 
 
 u 
 
 Peroxide of iron and oxide man- 
 
 
 
 
 1.500 
 
 <; 
 i( 
 
 
 0.040 
 
 
 0.009 
 
 (( 
 (( 
 
 
 0.010 
 
 Grenic, apocrenic, andhumic acids. 
 
 0.360 
 
 u 
 
 Insoluble vegetable (carbonaceous) 
 
 
 (( 
 
 
 2.400 
 
 
 trace. 
 
 
 
 100.009 
 
 
 Analysis of the Asli of Sea Island or Long-staple Cotton Jrom 
 St. Simon's Island, as alove. 
 
 The stalk of this plant, stripped of its leaves and bolls, 
 when burned, yielded lOV grains of ashes. The leaves, 
 buraed, yielded 107|^ grains of ashes; and the cotton fibre 
 yielded, when burned, 13 grains to 1,000. One thousand 
 
64 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 grains of tlie seeds, when burned, yielded 36f grains of 
 ashes. 
 
 Twenty-five grains of the ashes from the stalks yielded — 
 
 Silica , . . . 
 
 Oai'bonio acid 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Lime . 
 
 Magnes: 
 Potash 
 
 0.600 g 
 
 Tail 
 
 6.000 
 
 Cl 
 
 0.198 
 
 tt 
 
 0.480 
 
 u 
 
 3.969 
 
 It 
 
 7.059 
 
 u 
 
 0.183 
 
 u 
 
 3.802 
 
 <( 
 
 1.744 
 
 (( 
 
 24.035 
 
 (( 
 
 0.965 
 
 M 
 
 25.000 
 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Twenty-five grains of the ashes of the leaves yielded- 
 
 SiUca 1.200 grains. 
 
 Carbonic acid 4.959 " 
 
 Chlorine 0.667 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1.271 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 4.864 " 
 
 Lime 6.978 " 
 
 Magnesia 0.350 " 
 
 Potash 2.922 " 
 
 Soda 1.789 " 
 
 25.000 
 
 One thousand grains of the clear cotton fibre, yielding 
 13.1 grains of ashes, gave — 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 65 
 
 Silica 0.60 grains. 
 
 Carbonic acid 2.80 " 
 
 Chlorine 0.30 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid , 0.54 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1.64 " 
 
 Lime 1.80 « 
 
 Magnesia 0.64 " 
 
 Potash 2.79 " 
 
 Soda 1.90 " 
 
 13.10 " 
 
 One thousand grains of the seeds yielded 36| grain? 
 of ashes, which consist of — 
 
 
 0.1000 srains 
 
 
 0.3504 
 
 (( 
 
 
 0.3940 
 
 11 
 
 
 0.0980 
 
 11 
 
 
 11.3618 
 
 u 
 
 
 1.7484 
 
 11 
 
 
 6.0888 
 
 11 
 
 
 13.3566 
 
 (( 
 
 
 3.1070 
 
 
 
 36.6000 
 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Upper Alluvial Soil of Savannah River ^ on wMeh the Short- 
 staple Cotton grows, in Edgefield, South Carolina. 
 
 This soil yields upon analysis — 
 
 Silica 78.000 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 10.040 « 
 
 Lime 0.260 *' 
 
 Magnesia 0.200 » 
 
66 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 Potasli 1.000 per cent. 
 
 Soda 0.730 « 
 
 Peroxide of iron and oxide man- 
 ganese 4.850 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.310 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid trace. 
 
 Chlorine 0.050 " 
 
 Orenic, apocrenic, and humic acids. 0.400 " 
 
 Insoluble vegetable matter 4 300 " 
 
 100.140 
 
 One thousand grains of this soil, digested with a solu- 
 tion of carbonate of ammonia, yield i-^-^ grains of soluble 
 matter, four grains of which consist of the organic acids 
 of the soil, namely, crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids, and 
 nine-tenths of a grain consist of mineral matters — phos- 
 phate of lime, sulphate of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron — 
 the alkalies, soda and potash, and a little silica. 
 
 This soil has for its mineral constituents the disin- 
 tegrated matters from the metamorphic rocks, chiefly 
 micaceous and argillaceous slate rocks, the particles of 
 mica being unusually abundant, but the argillaceous mat- 
 ters in a finely decomposed state, or in the condition 
 of clay. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Upland Cotton Soil, from near JacTcson^ Mississippi^ the sam- 
 ples obtained from the surface to the depth often inches. 
 
 This soil is very fine loam, and, when dry, is almost an 
 impalpable dust. One hundred grains of it on analysis 
 yielded — 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 6Y 
 
 Silica 81.00 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 6.80 " 
 
 Lime.. 0.57 
 
 Magnesia 1-60 " 
 
 Potash 0.58 
 
 Soda 1-29 » 
 
 Peroxides of iron and manganese. . 4.18 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.38 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.07 " 
 
 Chlorine 0.05 " 
 
 Crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids. 0.30 " 
 
 Insoluble vegetable matter 3.00 " 
 
 99.82 " 
 
 Loss 0.18 " 
 
 100.00 
 
 The subsoil of tlie above, obtained twenty inches below 
 the surface, yielded — 
 
 Silica 88.451 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 4.100 « 
 
 Lime 0.500 " 
 
 Magnesia 1.800 " 
 
 Potash 0.790 « 
 
 Soda 1.450 « 
 
 Peroxides of iron and manganese. 3.900 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.190 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.014 " 
 
 Chlorine 0.005 " 
 
 Crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids, 0.410 " 
 
 Insoluble vegetable matter 3.000 " 
 
 99.610 
 
 Loss 0.390 
 
 100.000 
 
68 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Surface Soil from Samtjiel Wood's plantation^ in Hamock 
 County^ Mississippi. 
 
 One hundred parts by weight of this soil yielded — 
 
 Silica 88.52 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 1.20 " 
 
 Lime 0.40 " 
 
 Magnesia 0.50 " 
 
 Potash 0.38 " 
 
 Soda 1.00 " 
 
 Peroxides of iron and manganese. . 2.00 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.60 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid (less than xrsr) trace. " 
 
 Chlorine trace. " 
 
 Crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids. 0.92 " 
 
 Carbonic acid . €.20 " 
 
 Insoluble vegetable matter 4.33 " 
 
 100.05 
 
 One thousand grains of this soil yielded to boiling dis- 
 tilled water two grains of soluble matter, or one-fifth of one 
 per cent., and this, on incineration, yielded half a grain of 
 ash, or five-hundredths of one per cent. The ash consists 
 of phosphate of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, sulphate 
 of lime, and the alkalies, potash and soda. 
 
 Digested in a solution of carbonate of ammonia, one 
 thousand grains of the soil produce a dark cofFee-brown 
 solution, which, evaporated to dryness, yields ten grains of 
 soluLle matter, consisting of the organic acids of the soil, 
 namely, crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids ; and on being 
 burned off, this matter yields four-fifths of a grain of ash, 
 
THE SOIL OP THE COTTON STATES. 69 
 
 consisting of the mineral salts which were combined with 
 the above-named acids. The organic acids weigh 9^ 
 grains, or ninety-two hundredths of one per cent., and the 
 ashes, or mineral salts, eight-hundredths of one per cent. 
 ' One hundred grains of the subsoil yield on analysis — 
 
 Silica 90.000 per cent. 
 
 Alumina 2.000 " 
 
 Lime 0.280 " 
 
 Magnesia 0.300 " 
 
 Potash 0.290 " 
 
 Soda 2.014 " 
 
 Peroxides of iron and manganese. 1.200 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.800 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid O.OOT " 
 
 Chlorine 0.005 " 
 
 Orenic, apocrenic, and humic acids . 1.020 " 
 
 Insoluble vegetable matter 2.Y90 " 
 
 100.716 
 
 One thousand grains of this subsoil, on digestion with 
 a solution of carbonate of ammonia, at a boiling heat, 
 yield 1 2^ grains of soluble organic matter and salts ; and, 
 on combustion, two grains of saline or mineral matter re- 
 main, leaving for organic matters dissolved 12^ grains. 
 The ash contains phosphate of hme, sulphate of lime, soda, 
 potash, and chlorine. 
 
 From the composition of this subsoil, it will appear 
 that deep or subsoil ploughing is indicated as appropriate 
 for this plantation ; for the subsoil is richer in certain im- 
 portant ingredients than the surface soil, as will be seen 
 on comparing the proportions of soda and of phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
70 
 
 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 Analysis of the Ash of a Long-staple {Sea IslancC) Cotton 
 Plant talcen from the same Soil as alove. 
 
 The stalk of this plant, weighing thirteen ounces, on 
 being burned, yielded one hundred and thirty-three grains 
 of ashes, which consist of, in twenty-five grains of the ash — 
 
 Soda. 
 
 1.150 
 
 grains 
 
 5.600 
 
 u 
 
 0.603 
 
 u 
 
 0.412 
 
 u 
 
 2.739 
 
 It 
 
 6.254 
 
 it 
 
 1.100 
 
 u 
 
 2.851 
 
 a 
 
 3.851 
 
 a 
 
 0.940 
 
 11 
 
 25.000 
 
 ii 
 
 The dry leaves, weighing seven and one-half ounces, 
 on being burned, yielded three hundred and six grains of 
 ashes, and twenty-five grains of this ash gave, on analysis — 
 
 Silica 
 
 Carbonic acid .... 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia , 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 Peroxide of iron 
 
 25.000 
 
 1.540 
 
 grains 
 
 3.800 
 
 u 
 
 2.220 
 
 u 
 
 1.065 
 
 u 
 
 2.795 
 
 (( 
 
 7.275 
 
 (( 
 
 0.200 
 
 (( 
 
 3.522 
 
 <( 
 
 1.908 
 
 <( 
 
 0.675 
 
 (( 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 71 
 
 One thousand grains of tlie fibre, or clean cotton, 
 yielded fifteen grains of aslies, whicli consist of — 
 
 Silica 0.240 grains. 
 
 Carbonic acid 3.500 " 
 
 Chlorine 1.100 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.824 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1.733 " 
 
 Lime 2.641 " 
 
 Magnesia 0.200 
 
 Potash 3.628 " N 
 
 Soda 0.974 
 
 Carbon (not burned) 0.230 ^ ^ 
 
 15.070 
 
 One thousand grains of the seeds yielded 41^ grains 
 of ashes, which consist of — 
 
 Silica 0.160 grains. 
 
 Carbonic acid 1.200 " 
 
 Chlorine 0.430 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.872 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 10.640 " 
 
 Lime 1.850 " 
 
 Magnesia 7.860 " 
 
 Potash 12.340 " 
 
 Soda 4.472 " 
 
 Loss 1.376 " 
 
 41.200 " 
 
 Analysis of Ashes of Short-staple Cotton^ from Hamburg^ 
 South Carolina. 
 
 One thousand grains of the clean cotton fibre, burned, 
 yielded fifteen grains of ashes, which consist of — 
 
^2 THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 
 
 Silica 0.150 grains. 
 
 Carbonic acid 4.100 " 
 
 Chlorine 1.105 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.779 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.581 " 
 
 Lime l.oro « 
 
 Magnesia 0.250 " 
 
 Potash 4.412 « 
 
 Soda 2.140 « 
 
 14.587 
 
 Loss 0.413 
 
 15.000 
 
 One thousand grains of the seeds yielded thirty-nine 
 grains of ashes, which consist of — 
 
 
 0.080 
 
 grains 
 
 
 1.018 
 
 li 
 
 
 0.480 
 
 u 
 
 
 0.892 
 
 u 
 
 
 10.690 
 
 u 
 
 
 1.126 
 
 (( 
 
 
 7.600 
 
 u 
 
 
 13.096 
 
 u 
 
 
 4018 
 
 (( 
 
 
 39.000 
 
 (( 
 
 Analysis of the Seeds of a Short-staple Cotton Plant, from 
 Jachson, Mississippi. 
 
 One thousand grains of the seed, burned, yielded 
 twenty-eight grains of ashes, which consist of— 
 
THE SOIL OF THE COTTON STATES. 73 
 
 Silica 
 
 Carbonic acid. . 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 27.800 
 
 Loss 0.200 
 
 28.000 
 
 0.260 grains. 
 
 1.000 " 
 0.260 
 
 0.240 «' 
 
 7.648 " 
 
 1.122 " 
 
 5.032 " 
 
 7.276 " 
 4.962 
 
 Analysis of the Ashes of the entire Plant of Upland or Short- 
 staple Cotton, from Savannah Eiver, Georgia. 
 
 The whole plant, wMch weighed three pounds when 
 dried, yielded, on burning, nine hundred and sixty grains 
 of ashes, twenty-five grains of which were resolved into— 
 
 Silica 0.570 grains*. 
 
 Carbonic acid 5.600 " 
 
 Ohloi-ine 0.239 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.927 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 2.403 " 
 
 Lime 4.478 " 
 
 Magnesia ., 2.509 " 
 
 Potash and soda (diflf.) 6.394 
 
 Peroxide of iron , 1.880 " 
 
 25.000 
 
 Remarks. — ^By these analyses we learn the nature and 
 proportions of the mineral ingredients which the different 
 4 
 
74 
 
 AGEIOULTUEAL STATISTICS. 
 
 parts of the cotton plants draw from the soil, and which 
 must be present in the soil to render it capable of pro- 
 ducing this crop. 
 
 Now, since the seeds weigh nearly four times as much 
 as the cotton fibre in each plant, it is evident that, as they 
 are very rich in saline matters, phosphates of magnesia 
 and lime, and in the alkalies, potash and soda, they form 
 one of the most valuable fertilizers to return to the soil. 
 If the seed be sold and sent away for the manufacture of 
 oil, the oil-cake, still containing all the saline matters, may 
 be returned as a manure for cotton fields, and it will be 
 found to be one of the best fertilizers, not only for that 
 crop, but also for com, which requires a large supply of 
 the phosphates and alkalies. 
 
 It does not appear by these analyses that sea island or 
 long-staple cotton plants appropriate any more chlorine 
 or chloride of sodium than the short-staple varieties ; and 
 it seems probable that atmospheric influences on the humid 
 seaboard favor the growth of the long-staple cottons, and 
 that the saline matters in the soil do not produce the dif- 
 ference by their absorption into the plants. 
 
 SECT. VIII.— AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. 
 
 We present the following table as a fair average for 
 twenty years, including 1840 and 1860, of the productions 
 of the cotton States. As to the land, improved and unim- 
 proved, we are unable, at this date, to' speak with precision, 
 but we believe the statement in the table is not far from 
 correct : 
 
AGEICULTURAL STATI8TTCS. 
 
 Y5 
 
 si 
 
 4 f , 
 
 ffi CO o o <M I— o 
 
 (MCNtO X: /yi CO CO T< 03 
 
 CO o CO t- 
 O 05 CO 
 
 05 r-l tH (M CO 
 
 "Tl* iCJ fiO.G^ ^^'^'"l,"^ 
 CCJTPt- 00 rH iH a> 
 
 >Cf5C5 THiQC^rH-^iO 
 
 CO t— <M lO O <M O 
 
 t-^''c^"oi"Tfrco~co CO co'co'th 
 
 t- lO CO O CC__CO_tJH ^'-J.^ 
 
 COCOCSOSMCOt-lOQCD 
 
 CO -F lO OS ■< 
 
 _ _ ^5 rt( 00 CO iO CM 
 COOO-rtfOfMCOaiO'd^r-t 
 t-^O '-H,f^»,CO CO O 
 
 t-'t-t co^oTco'co'Tjrcricr'^ 
 
 CSCOtO!M(MCOi-HOCOO 
 Cf^-^t-^CO^CO t-^OO^iO 00 
 
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PRINCIPAL DISEASES. 
 
 77 
 
 SECT. IX.— PRINCIPAL DISEASES. 
 
 If any one supposes that the South is a paradise, 
 where sickness and son-ow find no place, he is mistaken. 
 We are all of the earth, earthy, and more or less liable to 
 disease. The South is not exempt. 
 
 On the other hand, if any one supposes that the South 
 is a hotbed of disease, generating, more than any other 
 region, diseases foul, pestiferous, and incurable, he is equally 
 mistaken. 
 
 The South is as healthy as the North. There, reader, 
 we assure you, is the result of forty years' observation, 
 made by intelligent physicians in both sections of the 
 country. 
 
 Let the bills of mortality be produced, and we have no 
 fears for the correctness of our statement. 
 
 New Orleans is as healthy as Boston ; Charleston is as 
 healthy as New York. 
 
 We have the same miasmatic diseases here which pre- 
 vail generally in the valley of the Mississippi, from Minne- 
 sota to Louisiana. 
 
 We have intermittent fever in its simple, inflammatory, 
 and congestive forms ; remittent bilious fever, in the same 
 varieties. We have also typhoid fever, with its self-limited, 
 lingering pecuUarities ; scarlet fever, which runs its course, 
 as everywhere else ; and, in certain localities, as in New 
 Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, and other seaports, 
 we have had occasionally the yellow fever, which has long 
 since become disarmed of its terrors by an enlightened 
 medical profession. 
 
 The scourge of nations — epidemic cholera;— has never 
 been so prevalent in the South as in the North and West 
 
78 
 
 PEINCrPAL DISEASES. 
 
 Whether this is owing to the wide-spread distribution of 
 silicious and loamy soils and subsoils of the tertiary forma- 
 tion, holding " fi'eestone water," or to some other cause, 
 we will not say. But the fact is historical and worthy of 
 notice, that throughout the larger part of the area of the 
 Southern States cholera is unknown. 
 
 With regard to constitutional diseases, sucb as con- 
 sumption, rheumatism, and the various forms of scrofula, 
 a man is certainly as safe south of the parallel of 35° as he 
 is north of it ; and in reference to local, irritative, and in- 
 flammatory affections, we know, from personal observation, 
 that Mississippi is healthier than Indiana, 
 
 Acclimation. — The whole mystery of acclimation is 
 simply this : let a new-comer obey the laws of health, and 
 he will escape ; let him violate these laws, and he will suf- 
 fer the penalty. 
 
 If, forgetting the dictates of reason and the promptings 
 of refined emotion, he yield himself to animal impulse, eat 
 and drink like the brute that fattens for the slaughter-pen, 
 be deserves to pass through the fiery ordeal of fever. 
 
 If, on the other hand, he inquire into the laws which 
 regulate the preservation of health and the prevention of 
 disease, and submit himself, body, soul, and spirit, to the 
 obedience of these laws, immunity is the result. 
 
 Let hira avoid night air, malarious swamps, big suppers, 
 and the whiskey bottle ; let him keep in the shade as much 
 as possible from ten o'clock a.m. to three p.m.; let him 
 shun all barbecues, midnight balls, and masquerades; let 
 him learn to subdue his passions and improve himself in mo- 
 rality , and, our word for it, if he possesses a good constitu- 
 tion as a basis of operations, he will pass along unscathed. 
 
 It is a popular idea that the immigrant must have the 
 acclimating fever. This idea is erroneous. Many of our 
 
PKINOIPAL DISEASES. 
 
 79 
 
 acquaintances from the North and West have resided here 
 for fifteen years past, enjoying almost uninterrupted health, 
 and entirely escaping the inaugural disease. 
 
 Many escape unhurt during the first year, and are taken 
 down the second season. They allow disease to accumu- 
 late in their systems for twelve or eighteen months, and 
 then it manifests itself in the form of a bilious fever. To 
 all such our advice, already given, is specially applicable. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON, 
 
 SECTION L 
 
 SELECTING A PLANTATION— CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS PRICES 
 
 EMPLOYING HANDS. 
 
 If we attempt the classification of plantations, based 
 on the single property of good land, we might dispose of 
 the subject very readily by exhibiting the following grades : 
 
 1. Good bottom plantations, which, upon careful culti- 
 vation, yield from one to two bales per acre. 
 
 2. Good upland plantations — fine table-land, with more 
 or less creek bottom, yielding from one-half to one bale 
 per acre. 
 
 3. Second-rate upland plantations — land more undu- 
 lating than No. 2, yielding from one-third to one-half bale 
 per acre. 
 
 4. Poor hills, yielding from one-eighth to one-fourth 
 bale per acre. 
 
 The first, while in the woods and the cane, were sold 
 before the war for prices ranging from five to ten dollars 
 per acre ; though fifteen or twenty years ago the same lands 
 were bought by speculators as swamp lands for prices 
 ranging from twenty-five cents to one dollar per aere. 
 
 Good wild lands in the Mississippi bottom can now be 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 81 
 
 bought for five dollars per acre. It must be noticed here 
 that the best plantations, as to quality, are not always the 
 most desirable localities. Thus, for example, some of the 
 richest alluvial lands in the Mississippi bottom are in the 
 midst of a vast wilderness of cane, oaks, bears, and wild- 
 cats. The man who is fond of a " lodge in some vast wil- 
 derness " might be content, with a few companions and la- 
 borers, in such a retreat ; and after he has cleared his plan- 
 tation, and patiently waited for the coming of the second 
 or third year, he will be richly rewarded for his labor. But 
 he who wants good society, churches, schools, and all the 
 conveniences of refined life, would not fancy such a location. 
 
 Again, it is important that a planter should have a good 
 outlet. He might possibly find a rich place, above over- 
 flow, but unfortunately surrounded by impenetrable swamps. 
 Two bales to the acre might be made in theory, but not in 
 practice. 
 
 During the days of our "patriarchal institution" our 
 wealthiest planters owned at least two plantations — the 
 " home place " and the " one in the bottom." The resi- 
 dence, with all the comforts of life, was located on the 
 former, and the detailed negroes, under an overseer, worked 
 the latter. 
 
 What changes may be brought about by the abolition 
 of slavery we are not fully prepared to say. We presume, 
 however, that the arrangements wiU not be quite so exten- 
 sive, and the bales will not be piled quite so high. 
 
 The best bottom plantations are those immediately on 
 a river above overflow. Such locations are decidedly 
 healthier than any in the interior of the bottoms. 
 
 For a family residence and plantation we think the 
 best table and creek-bottom land of the hill country is, 
 upon the whole, more desirable — more especially when we 
 4* 
 
82 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 take in view tlie social and moral advantages. Places of 
 this kind, with respectable improvements, can be bought 
 for prices ranging from fifteen to twenty-five dollars per 
 acre. Second-rate upland places, more or less worn, but 
 capable of good repair, can be had for prices ranging from 
 six to twelve dollars per acre. 
 
 There are four requisites for a good plantation : 1. Good 
 soil, well diffused over land that cannot wash away. 2. 
 Good timber and plenty of it. 3. Good water in abun- 
 dance. 4. Contiguity to a good landing or depot. A 
 man endowed with common sense will take all these things 
 into consideration. By reference to Chap. IV., sec. 5, the 
 reader will find that all the timber trees useful for building 
 and fencing are found in our forests. 
 
 On all places not well watered there is one remedy — 
 dig wells and pools. 
 
 Employing Hands. — During the present year (1866) 
 hands have been employed at various rates and upon vari- 
 ous contracts. Most of the employed hands are the negroes 
 formerly owned by the employers. These, together with 
 our noble army of young men returned fi'om the field of 
 battle, constitute nine-tenths of the agricultural working 
 force of the South. Some, preferring wages paid monthly, 
 are receiving from eight to fifteen dollars per month and 
 board ; but tbe larger portion are working upon contracts 
 by which they are entitled to receive from one-half to one- 
 third of the cotton crop — the employer agreeing to furnish 
 the land, the working stock, and the farming implements; 
 the employee agreeing to furnish his own food and cloth- 
 ing, and pay his doctor's bills and taxes. We presume 
 similar arrangements will be made hereafter. 
 
 It is usually estimated that one hand will cultivate 
 about fifteen acres — five in corn and ten in cotton. 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 83 
 
 SECTION n. 
 
 STOCKING THE PLANTATION — ^HOKSES, MULES, FARMING IMPLEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Let us suppose that a man of moderate means has 
 purchased or reated a small place, say two hundred acres ; 
 and that he wishes to cultivate one hundred acres which 
 are already cleared. What stock, implements, and num- 
 ber of hands does he need ? We will try to answer the 
 question by placing before the reader's eye a bill of items. 
 
 4 horses or mules, at $150 $600.00 
 
 4 turning ploughs 25.00 r 
 
 4 broad shovels 25.00 
 
 Plough harness 25.00 
 
 1 wagon - •• . 80.00 
 
 1 yoke oxen 100.00 
 
 Axes, hoes, shovels, and spades 20.00 
 
 Saws, augers, chisels, hammers, and sundry tools. 2S.00 
 Cross-cut saw , . - - . 10.00 
 
 $910.00 
 
 In addition to this bill, the new-comer will n«ed corn 
 sufficient to supply his wants from the first of January to 
 September, when corn comes in, say three hundred bushels, 
 which will cost him $300. The entire bill amounts to 
 $1,200. 
 
 To run this little plantation will require at least six 
 good hands constantly in the field and two at the house, 
 unless tbe latter can be supplied by a man's own family. 
 If circumstances are favorable, our small planter will prob- 
 ably make thirty-five bales of cotton and eight hundred 
 bushels of corn. This will be a profitable business, reckon- 
 ing cotton at thirty cents per pound. After paying off 
 his hands, he can pay for his stock and implements and 
 
84 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 meet all his family expenses for the year. He would then 
 have his work stock and fanning implements paid for, and 
 com in his crib sufficient for the next year. 
 
 SECTION in. 
 
 PREPARATION OP THE GROUND. 
 
 It is proper to remark here that if the immigrant 
 chooses to purchase a place in the woods, it will be im- 
 practicable to plant cotton the first or second year. He 
 must content himself with being a corn planter for two 
 seasons, at the same time raising fruits and garden vege- 
 tables. Cotton will not do well in new ground. 
 
 Again, we may remark that many places need drain- 
 ing on account of wetness. The advantages of draining, 
 wherever it is needed, cannot be too highly appreciated. 
 It not only carries off the surplus moisture, but warms 
 the soil, pulverizes the land, promotes the absorption of 
 fertilizing substances, enables the tap-root of cotton to 
 penetrate into the subsoil and draw nourishment there- 
 from, and, in few words, improves crops both in quantity 
 and quality. It has also been demonstrated that highlands 
 derive great benefit from drainage. It prevents surface 
 washing, the falling water being rapidly absorbed and 
 running to the ditches. It also prevents drought, by 
 rendering the subsoil more permeable to water, and also 
 by pulverization ; by deepening the soil ; by compelling 
 the roots to strike downward at once and to prepare for 
 drought; and by increasing the capacity of the soil to 
 absorb moisture from the atmosphere. 
 
 Fertilizing the Land. — Many of the old fields of the 
 South, which may be marked " I. C." — Inspected and Con- 
 
CULTIYATION OF COTTON. 
 
 85 
 
 demned—c2.n be restored to pristine vigor by carefal fer- 
 tilizing. If calcareous manures are needed, we bave marl 
 in every variety— clay marls, stony marls, greensand marls, 
 and sbell marls, containing from forty to fifty per cent, of 
 carbonate of lime, forty to fifty of silicious matter, from 
 five to ten of organic matter, witb traces of iron and 
 manganese, and other substances in very small proportions. 
 
 If vegetable mould is needed, it can be easily obtained; 
 but the most convenient of all fertilizers, and one which 
 Southern planters have been using many years, is the 
 cotton seed. We refer the reader to Chapter IX. for 
 further remarks on this subject. 
 
 EotLiNG Logs and Cleaning up.— A cotton crop 
 occupies the time and attention of the planter just one 
 year. We ask the reader to accompany us to the field 
 about the first of January. The hands are rolling logs and 
 cleaning up. Some are setting fire to the big log heaps; 
 others are knocking down or pulling up the old cotton 
 stalks and gathering them together to be burned. In 
 another portion of the field, which has already been 
 brushed off, an irregular procession of ploughs maybe seen, 
 and these useful tools, with a horse or mule at the beam, 
 and a negro at the handles, have already commenced the 
 work of bedding up. This is done by throwmg from four 
 to six furrows of the turning plough together. The num- 
 ber of furrows required to make the bed depends upon the 
 character of the land— poor land requiring fewer furrows 
 than the rich alluvial bottoms, where the cotton plant 
 spreads itself. As the time for planting approaches, these 
 beds are reversed— that is, they are thrown back into the 
 middles in the same manner that they were originally 
 thrown up. This is styled "rebedding," and should not 
 be done until very shortly before planting time. 
 
86 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTOH, 
 
 Hill-sides or undulating ground must be carefully 
 circled, to prevent washing. This process consists in 
 ploughing round the hills and undulations in such a man- 
 ner as to have your beds nearly horizontal — say a fell of 
 one inch to fifteen feet. Your cotton beds then are so 
 many levees, which confine the water to the middles, from 
 which it is gradually conveyed by means of the fall to the 
 terminus of the rows, excepting that which is taken up by 
 absorption or which is evaporated. We are now ready to 
 consider the next step in this complicated work. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 PLANTING, TIME WHEN — SELECTING SEED — QtTANTITT TO THE ACRK — 
 
 PLANTING BY HAND BY THE PLANTER — THE COMING UP — ^A GOOD 
 
 STAND. 
 
 The time for planting varies with the latitude. In tbe 
 southern part of the Gulf States corn is planted in February 
 and March, and cotton about the first of April ; but in the 
 region lying north of the thirty-third parallel, corn is 
 planted in the latter part of March, and cotton from the 
 middle to the latter part of April. 
 
 Selecting Seed. — It is highly important to select good 
 seed. Sound seeds have a greenish-black color, are plump, 
 ellipsoid in shape, about half an inch in their larger diam- 
 eter, and about a quarter of an inch in their smaller. When 
 cracked by the teeth, they pop, and the internal substance 
 is white and slightly creamy in color, yielding upon 
 pressure more or less oil. If they do not present these 
 tests upon examination, they are worthless for planting. 
 You may give them to the hogs. 
 
 Every thing being now ready, we proceed to deposit 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 87 
 
 the seed in the ground. If your bed is rough and cloddy, 
 an iron-tooth harrow may be drawn over it. You then 
 open your bed with a small plough or duct-bill colter to 
 the depth of about two inches. In this furrow the seeds 
 are sown by hand from a sack or apron. The covering- 
 block follows the sower. This is drawn by a mule driven 
 by a negro. The apportionment of these hands is as 
 follows : one to open, two to drop the seed, and one to 
 cover. This plan is still adopted over a larg€ portion of the 
 country ; but of late years we have been introducing and 
 using with great success the machine called the " cotton- 
 planter," which, with one hand and one mule, will do the 
 work of four hands and two mules on the old plan. The 
 cotton-planter is simply a light but substantial framework 
 in which the various parts are adjusted as follows : The 
 opener is introduced through the beam immediately in 
 rear of the clevis-pin ; at a distance of two or three inches 
 behind this comes a blunt, wedge-shaped piece of wood, 
 the object of which is to smooth out the furrow made by 
 the opener, and to prevent the dirt from falling in and 
 fining it up. Then follows the revolving cylinder contain- 
 ing the seed. This cylinder has small holes about an inch 
 and a half in length and three-fourths of an inch in width, 
 cut about every six or eight inches apart entirely around 
 its middle circumference. The seeds drop through these 
 holes into the furrow made by the opener, and are covered by 
 a board which is placed immediately behind the cylinder. 
 
 Under the old system of hand-dropping, three bushels 
 of seed to the acre were necessary ; but upon the improved 
 plan, a bushel or a bushel and a half is altogether sufficient. 
 
 In a week or ten days after planting the seeds come up, 
 and, under favorable circumstances, as thick as hops on a 
 vine. In ten days more the young plant has attained a 
 
88 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 height of three or four inches, and demands immediate 
 attention. The planter thinks he has a good stand, but, if 
 he be a man of experience, he knows that eternal vigilance 
 is the price of cotton as well as of liberty. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 TENDING THK CROP — BARRING OFF — SCRAPING CHOPPING OUT — HOEING 
 
 AND DIETING AGAIN AND AGAIN GOOD SEASONS RAPID GROWTH 
 
 THE FIRST BLOSSOM — THE BOLLS ^ESTIMATED NUMBER ON A STALK 
 
 TO MAKE A BALE TO THE ACRE IN THE GRASS AND OUT OP THE 
 
 GRASS. 
 
 The situation of the plant at this stage is simply this : 
 it is standing thickly set in the middle of a ridge or bed, 
 surrounded by grass and weeds. Two things are neces- 
 sary to be done, with as little delay as possible : the grass 
 must be removed, and the cotton thinned out : to effect 
 these important purposes, we start the hands with turn- 
 ing ploughs to barring off. This is done by running 
 the bar of the ploughs lightly on each side of the row, 
 and as near the cotton as convenient, so as to throw the 
 dirt from the plant. Immediately at the heels of the 
 plough hands follow the hoes. These do the work of 
 thinning. This consists of cutting out the cotton to the 
 width of the hoe, or about twelve or fourteen inches, and 
 leaving it in bunches of from three to six plants each. 
 After the thinning, as "^oon as practicable, say in three or 
 four days, the shovel ploughs come along and throw the 
 dirt back to the cotton, covering up what young grass may 
 have been left by the hoe hands, and affording a support to 
 the young plant. This is called dirting or moulding. 
 The hoes follow immediately after the dirting, and bring 
 the cotton to a stand by chopping out the bunches, left at 
 the previous hoeing, to one or two plants. 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 89 
 
 We may remark in this connection, that many planters, 
 instead of barring off with the turning plough, employ the 
 scraper — a sharp-edged implement, somewhat plough-like 
 in its appearance, which cuts away the grass from the 
 cotton, and leaves it standing in the midst of a smooth, 
 bald ridge. The ridge, after scraping, is liable to bake 
 under the influence of the sun; and as the roots of the 
 cotton are now very short and tender, and require a 
 pulverized soil, we believe the barring-ofF process to be 
 preferable. 
 
 The subsequent cultivation may be varied according to 
 the nature of the season. The ploughs, hoes, and sweeps 
 will be used as they may be foimd best adapted to the 
 condition of the crop. 
 
 The latter implement is, like the scraper, of modern 
 introduction. It resembles one of the hoes of a harrow, 
 flanked with wide-cutting blades or wings, forming two 
 sides of a triangle, and mounted on a beam ; is capable of 
 Sweeping the whole width of the row or the greater part 
 of it at once, loosening the soil, and destroying weeds, 
 vines, and every thing that does not require to be turned 
 under and effectually buried. It is a very efiScient tool, 
 and is employed with advantage, and especially in dry 
 seasons, in keeping down tie vine [convolvulus, or morning 
 glory), which, if not thoroughly done, is an after-source of 
 great annoyance and damage. 
 
 With favorable seasons the plant grows rapidly, more 
 especially after the tap-root has penetrated deep into the 
 soil. 
 
 The first blossom is sought after with great anxiety. 
 This is found at different dates in different localities, from 
 the first of June to the fourth of July. The young bolls, 
 surrounded by the squares or forms, appear upon the 
 
90 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 dropping of the bloom. In their infent state they look 
 something like a small, conical apple soon after its emer- 
 gence from the germ state. In their full maturity they are 
 as large as pullet eggs, still preserving their conical shape. 
 From two to ten grow on a limb, and not unfrequently we 
 have counted two hundred on a single plant. 
 
 It is estimated that one hundred bolls of cotton will 
 make one pound of cotton in the seed. Now allow that 
 you plant your cotton in rows three feet and a half apart, 
 and chop it out to eighteen inches in the drill; this 
 would give you on a square acre of ground sixty rows of 
 cotton, with one hundred and forty plants to each row. 
 Suppose that you pick on an average twenty bolls from 
 each stalk, then every five stalks would furnish you with 
 one pound of seed cotton, and every row with twenty-eight 
 pounds. The sixty rows would furnish 28 x 60, or 1,680 
 pounds of seed cotton, which will ordinarily make an 
 average-sized bale. 
 
 If in the month of July the crop is clean, blooms and 
 bolls are loading the branches, and good seasons have 
 cooperated with the planter's labor, he may, barring all 
 future accidents, consider himself "good for a full crop." 
 But if, on the other hand, he has neglected to cultivate 
 the plant, supplying its wants and keeping oS its enemies, 
 with the best seasons that Heaven can send, he will inevi- 
 tably find himself " in the grass ; " and how to get out of 
 that grass is a problem the solution of which requires 
 more labor, bigger drops of. perspiration, and the extraction 
 of more roots, than any thing in the department of mixed 
 mathematics. Indeed, the problem may be thus stated : 
 
 Given, sundry cotton rows, handsomely covered with 
 flourishing grass ; it is required to find the cotton. 
 
 Still further, it is required to save the cotton by ex- 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 91 
 
 terminating the grass. This is perhaps the most difficult 
 part of the solution, because the season has so far advanced, 
 and all the circumstances are likely to be so untoward, 
 that, not unfrequently, the planter after a few days' work is 
 utterly discouraged, and reasoning as the fox did about 
 the grapes, says in his heart, if not with his mouth, 
 " The worm will get it anyhow, it^s no use to try any longer.'''' 
 Then issuing his orders to all the hands, he leaves the 
 grassy plain, and thus gets out of the grass. But it is not 
 always so. Indeed, most of our planters get somewhat 
 in the grass every season, but by faithful " pegging away " 
 get out and save their cotton. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 LAYING BY — OPENING OF THE BOLLS — A FINE SUCCESSION OF EAINS— - 
 TOO MUCH RAIN — DRY WEATHER. 
 
 Laying hy is giving up a crop to take care of itself. 
 The last ploughing and hoeing constitute the laying by. 
 This occurs at diftei-ent dates according to different cir- 
 cumstances. The planter should never lay by as long as 
 he can materially profit his crop by working it. Some are 
 detained in this operation as late as the first of August. 
 After this the hoes may be of some service in removing 
 grass and weeds that may have escaped former workings; 
 but it is not expedient to use the plough, simply because 
 the branches and bolls now crossing and lapping would be 
 injured by the mules and swingletrees, and not because of 
 any injury inflicted upon the roots. 
 
 The bolls b<;gin to open from the middle of July to 
 the middle of August. This opening is caused by the 
 separation of the valves of the capsule, and the concurrent 
 
92 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON, 
 
 expansion of the four internal cells containing the cotton ; 
 and the process continues onward till winter. At first the 
 cotton in the cells is a moist, pithy-like substance, but 
 gradually, under the influence of the sun, assumes a dry, 
 fibrous, woolly-like character, and hangs nodding from the 
 pericarp ready to be gathered. 
 
 Before we proceed to consider the subject of picking, 
 we must say something about rains and dry weather. In 
 the early part of the planting season, and indeed up to the 
 opening of the bolls, light rains, refreshing seasons," at 
 intervals of eight or ten days, are very acceptable; hnt 
 after the opening of the bolls commences, lighter showers 
 at longer intervals are altogether sufficient. Indeed, the 
 only rain desired is just a sufficiency to keep the plant 
 alive — to prevent its shedding its foliage to such an extent 
 as to expose the young and partially developed bolls too 
 much to the sun. Long-continued drought in June and 
 July will cause shedding of the forms and may prove dis- 
 astrous. After the middle of September, dry weather can 
 do no material injury, but is rather advantageous. 
 
 Heavy, drenching, long-continued rains are always 
 more or less injurious. Should they occur when the cot- 
 ton is young, it will be to a great extent drowned out, 
 and the stand destroyed. The plant will also be much 
 more liable to rust and sore-shin. Coming on later in the 
 season, when the plant is covered with bolls and forms, 
 heavy rains will cause what is known as the second growth. 
 The plant will grow large and tall, its foliage will be dense 
 and green, and the consequence is that a large part of the 
 bottom bolls will be rotted, and the top bolls, from an ex- 
 cess of sap, will fail to come to maturity in time to escape 
 the blighting influence of frost. 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 93 
 
 SECTION vn. 
 
 PICKING AUGUST TO JANUARY GOOD AND BAD PICKING QUANTITT 
 
 PER DAY ^PICKING BY MACHINERY FINGERS THE BEST MACHINE 
 
 STORING AWAY THE COTTON QUANTITY OF SEED COTTON TO THE ACRE. 
 
 Picking commences in the more southern part of the 
 cotton region about the middle of July, but from the lati- 
 tude of Montgomery, Alabama, at various dates from the 
 middle to the last of August. The field is usually picked 
 over about three times, and the season generally continues 
 till late in the fall ; and we have often seen hands at work 
 in the field till the close of the year. 
 
 A few days before the commencement of the operation 
 the big hamper baskets are prepared, each one holding 
 from Y5 to 160 pounds. These are placed at convenient 
 distances in the field ; the hands are all ready, each one 
 taking two rows, the haversack suspended from his neck, 
 into Avhich he deposits the locks of cotton. When the 
 sacks are full, the contents are emptied into the baskets, 
 and the latter are moved up from point to point as con- 
 venience may require ; and thus they move all day long, restr 
 ing for dinner, and at night bring home their baskets filled 
 with the fleece of the plant. A good hand will pick two 
 hundred and fifty pounds per day ; a moderate hand one 
 hundred and fifty ; an inferior hand from seventy-five to 
 one hundred. The cotton is weighed usually at noon and 
 at night, and deposited in covered rail pens, from which it 
 is subsequently hauled to the gin house. Should the cotton 
 be picked damp, it will be necessary to sun it, which is 
 done on a large scaffold or platform, erected immediately 
 in front of and adjoining the gin house. For this reason 
 the gin hou§6 should always front to the south. 
 
 Several machines have been invented for the purpose 
 
94 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTOST. 
 
 of picking cotton ; and tlie advertisements in our papers, 
 setting forth their superior advantages, remind us of the 
 wonderful virtues of infallible patent medicines. Up to 
 this time, we have seen no machine equal to the fingers of 
 a good stout, brisk negro. 
 
 When a suflficient quantity of cotton has been picked 
 and penned, it is removed to the gin house, and stored 
 away carefully in the large upper chamber convenient to 
 the gin stand. Here it lies till all things are ready, secure 
 from all hurtful influence. 
 
 The quantity of seed cotton to the acre varies, of course, 
 with the quality of the land. The best bottom lands will 
 yield from 1,600 to 3,000 lbs. ; the best highland places 
 will make from 1,200 to 1,500 lbs. ; good second-rate high- 
 lands from 600 to 800 lbs. ; and poor hills from 100 to 
 400 lbs. In 1860 there were 8,000,000 acres under culti- 
 vation, and something over 4,000,000 bales were pro- 
 duced, or a half bale per acre as an average. Now, as it 
 takes about 1,600 lbs. of seed cotton to make a bale, it 
 follows that 800 lbs. of seed cotton was the average per 
 acre in 1860. 
 
 SECTION vm. 
 
 SINNING AND PRESSING BALING. 
 
 FoETY years ago, in old Virginia, we saw the negroes 
 picking the cotton seed from the fibre with their fingers. 
 There was one man in the neighborhood who had a roller- 
 gin stand, and he was considered ahead of everybody else. 
 Whitney's gin had not yet been introduced, although em- 
 ployed by Georgia planters for twenty years. It was in- 
 deed a great invention, and deserves to take rank with the 
 telescope and mariner's compass. The modem improve- 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 95 
 
 ments upon Whitney have brought the machine to per- 
 fection, and we now behold it doing the work which, fifty 
 years ago, was performed by three hundred hands. 
 
 The cotton gin now used is composed of a stand 
 about six feet in width, inclosing a cylinder and brush, 
 arranged horizontally, and running on iron axes in compo- 
 sition metallic boxes. On the cylinder are arranged a series 
 of circular saws, made of the best cast-steel plates, in seg- 
 ments, or two parts. They are placed about one inch apart, 
 and are so secured to the cylinder as to insure perfect accu- 
 racy and uniformity of action. The teeth are very pointed 
 and oblique, and are very carefully and smoothly dressed. 
 The cylinder, when put in njotion by a band running on a 
 trundle-head attached to it on one side of the stand, and 
 by which it is connected with the running gear, revolves 
 in such a manner that the teeth pass between a correspond- 
 ing series of metallic grates, curved or bent so as to conform 
 to the circumference of the saws, and placed in such a 
 manner as only to permit the free passage of the teeth of 
 the saw, together with the lint which it removes in its 
 revolutions. The grates form one side of a movable hop- 
 per, the breastboard or fall in front forming the opposite ; 
 the hopper working on hinges at the bottom, by which the 
 grates can be elevated above the saws as occasion requires. 
 
 In its working position, the teeth of the saws pass 
 through the grates and enter the hopper just so far as to 
 take a proper hold on the cotton, with which it is kept 
 supplied by raking it from the pile of seed cotton deposited 
 on the top of the stand. 
 
 In operation, the saws passing through the cotton cause 
 it to revolve-in the hopper, and form a roll from which the 
 seeds, as the lint becomes detached, fall to the bottom, and 
 are removed by means of a spout. 
 
96 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 In the rear of the cylinder, and in contact with it, is a 
 circular brush of bristles supported on arms which, revolv- 
 ing by means of the gearing with, great velocity, compared 
 with the revolutions of the saws, whips or brushes rapidly 
 and completely from them the lint or fibre drawn through 
 the grates. The velocity with which this fan-like brush 
 revolves causes a strong draught of air through the aper- 
 tures in the stand, which wafts the lint in light flakes 
 through a flue to the lint room, made close and tight for its 
 reception. The flues are constructed with a false floor of 
 slats, between which much of the false seed and trash, 
 which may have passed through the grates with the lint, 
 falls in passing to the lint room, and the cotton is thus 
 freed from these impurities. 
 
 A good sixty-saw gin will gin five or six bales a day ; 
 but the average performance, where care is taken to make 
 a good article, is not more than three bales. 
 
 From the lint room the cotton is taken to the press. 
 
 The boxes in which the cotton is pressed in packing, 
 are made of wide three-inch plank, and are four and a half 
 feet long and twenty-two inches wide, securely keyed 
 together, and having side doors hinged on the ends to take 
 out the bales when pressed and tied ; the top and bottom 
 of the box, either of which is called the follower, as the 
 pressure is applied from above or below, according to the 
 construction of the press, are made of similar timber, with 
 seven grooves at regular and corresponding distances, 
 through which to pass the ties. 
 
 Preparatory to making the bale, a piece of bagging of 
 suitable dimensions is spread on the bottom of the box. 
 A proper quantity of cotton being packed or trodden in, 
 another piece of bagging, of suflicient size to complete the 
 covering, is laid on, the screw or lever is put in motion, 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 97 
 
 and the follower ascends or descends into tlie box, as the 
 case may be, to the edge of the side doors, which are then 
 thrown open ; the ends and edges of the bagging are gath- 
 ered together and stitched with twine, and the ropes passed 
 through the grooves and tied. The movement of the screw 
 or lever is then reversed, the pressure removed, and the 
 bale taken out. Instead of rope, hoop iron is used to a 
 great extent by our planters. They are coated with paint 
 to prevent rust, and are fastened by means of rivets passed 
 through holes punched at proper distances. It is be- 
 heved by many that the hoop iron will, in a few years, 
 entirely supersede the use of rope. 
 
 The motive power, in most of our gin houses, consisJ§^ 
 of four mules, hitched to a horizontal lever, passing throu^'h: 
 a vertical shaft, upon which is constructed the large centel 
 cog-wheel. The cogs are made to play into a wallowerloR 
 vertical spur-wheel, on one end of a horizontal shaft, to met 
 opposite end of which the band-wheel is attached ; a gum 
 band, about a foot in width, connects this with the trundle- 
 head of the gin stand, and puts the machinery in motion. 
 On some plantations steam is used instead of horse power. 
 
 Bales are put up so as to weigh about 500 lbs., though 
 the commercial bale is estimated at 400. After being 
 marked and numbered, the bales are hauled in wagons to 
 the most convenient depot, from whence they are shipped 
 to market. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 THE MARKET, 
 
 Cotton is usually consigned to a merchant in a city or 
 large town ; and the planter can use his discretion about ita 
 sale. He may instruct his merchant to sell immediately, 
 5 
 
98 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 or wait for a higher market. He may allow him to use his 
 own judgment, or give him special instructions, limiting as 
 to time and price. 
 
 The merchant or factor takes the cotton, stores it away 
 m his shed, takes samples, and goes out in search of a 
 buyer. After receiving several bids from various brokers, 
 he finally closes down on one at a stipulated price per 
 pound. The cotton is weighed, the calculation made, 
 the money paid to the merchant ; the merchant settles 
 with the planter, charging him for storage, commission, 
 drayage, repairage, weighing, and insurance. 
 
 In addition to all these charges we now pay, '* by con 
 straint, not willingly," the government tax of three cents 
 per pound. This tax we will consider in another chapter. 
 
 The Avhole expense on a bale of cotton, from the time 
 it leaves the planter's depot until it is sold to a broker, 
 may be estimated as follows : 
 
 Freight (say 40 miles) $2.00 
 
 Drayage.. 50 
 
 Storage 50 
 
 Repairage (probably) 25 
 
 "Weighing 25 
 
 Insurance 1.00 
 
 Commissions 4.00 
 
 Government tax 15.00 
 
 Total $23.50 
 
 GRADATION OF QUALITY AND PRICES. 
 
 There are three primitive classes of cotton, viz., ordi- 
 nary, middling, and fair; but factors and brokers have 
 made so many wool-splitting distinctions, that we are com- 
 pelled to recognize all their divisions and subdivisions. 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 99 
 
 We presume the following would be regarded as an ex- 
 
 haustive classification : 
 
 Primitive Class. Subdivisions. Prices supposed. 
 
 { Low ordinary 25 c. per lb. 
 
 1. Ordinary., . •< Ordinary 27c. " 
 
 ( Good ordinary 32c. " 
 
 ( Low middling 34c. " 
 
 2. Middling... ■] Middling 36c. " 
 
 ( Good middling 40c. " 
 
 [ Middling fair 44c. " 
 
 3. Fair } Fair 48c. " 
 
 ( Fine fair 50c. " 
 
 It is a very easy matter for us to see the difference be- 
 tween low ordinary and middling, or between middling 
 and fine fair ; but the art of discriminating by a glance of 
 the eye, so as to determine with precision where middling 
 ends and good middling begins, belongs to the factor and 
 broker ; and they have it in their special keeping, often 
 agreeing and often disputing. 
 
 We have witnessed some of these disputations, much 
 to our amusement and greatly to our moral training. The 
 factor and broker preach from the same text, but their 
 sermons are widely divergent. The text is this : Self-in- 
 terest is a primary principle of human nature. The factor 
 unrolls his specimen or sample, and says, " Here, Brother 
 Broker, I want to sell you a good bargain this morning. 
 Look at that sample of middling." 
 
 " Middling, indeed ! " responds the broker : " I call that 
 low middling." 
 
 " I don't see it," says the factor. 
 
 " I don't see that it is middling," responds the broker. 
 " However, how many bales have you ? " 
 " Twenty," answers the factor. 
 
100 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 " What will you take ? " 
 
 " Thirty-six." 
 
 " Can't give it." 
 
 " What will you give ? " 
 
 " Thirty-four." 
 
 " Can't take it." 
 
 " I'll split the difference and give you thirty-five." 
 
 " Take it. Write out your draft quick ; I'm in a hurry." 
 
 " Just wait, my friend, till I see the twenty bales, and 
 have 'em weighed." 
 
 A laugh and a joke close the conference ; but before 
 night the transaction is closed. The cotton changes hands, 
 and the broker ships it as soon as possible to New York or 
 New Orleans, and " realizes " — perhaps a profit, perhaps a 
 loss. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 THE SUCCESSFUL PLANTER — EXPERIMENTS MADE BT NORTHERNERS IN 
 1866 A SENSIBLE VERMONTER. 
 
 The successful planter is a man who must possess a 
 certain kind and degree of intelligence and executive 
 ability. He may be a learned man, or a very illiterate 
 one. The learning is not objectionable — indeed, on many 
 accounts, very desirable ; but much learning will not make 
 cotton unless the possessor applies it properly to practice. 
 
 Some of our best planters are well-educated men. Some 
 of our best-educated men are poor planters, and some of 
 the most successful planters in the country are the most 
 illiterate. Hence, we infer a man must have cotton-plant- 
 ing sense. He must have sound common sense, good 
 perceptive faculties, strong animal energy, indomitable 
 perseverance, good governing faculties, and an all-con- 
 
CULnVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 101 
 
 quering will. He must be trained in the school of experi- 
 ence. He must know " the times and the seasons " of the 
 cotton plant. He must study its wants, watch its growth, 
 notice its developments, and give direction to his hands to 
 work precisely in accordance with his orders. 
 
 A kind Providence has placed all things under law. 
 All the ordinances of Nature are the laws of God. If man 
 obeys them, be will be blessed in natural advantages and 
 privileges. If he disobey, he will suffer punishment. And 
 all this natural administration of affairs is entirely independ- 
 ent of moral character. True, the moral and the natural 
 do not come in conflict; they are harmonious, coming 
 from the same Author. But we mean that moral goodness, 
 disregarding natural law, will never make a cotton crop ; 
 and still further, that well-directed industry, conforming to 
 the laws of cotton growth, will make a cotton crop, whether 
 the planter be a saint or a sinner. 
 
 We are strono- advocates of natural as well as moral 
 Providence. " God sends his rain on the just and on the un- 
 just." He has ordained seasons, soils, climates, and zones 
 of vegetation. He has endowed men with the capacity to 
 study the history, habits, wants, necessities, and demands 
 of every plant on the globe, and to determine their respec- 
 tive utility. 
 
 If man's labor harmonize with Nature's ordinances, the 
 labor will prove a success. If the labor come in collision 
 with Nature, it must prove a failure. Oranges cannot be 
 cultivated in the frigid zone, and the polar bear cannot be 
 trained to live in the torrid zone. Nature forbids it. So, 
 too, with regard to our mighty and influential plant. It 
 must be treated in accordance with its nature. It must be 
 planted and cultivated in a soil and under a climate 
 adapted to its physical constitution ; and he who dares to 
 
102 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 violate the laws wliich govern the planting and culture of 
 cotton, will find himself the loser. 
 
 Many of our " Northern friends " have made experi- 
 ments among us during the present year, in raising cotton. 
 So far as we have learned, nearly all of them are " in the 
 grass," with little hope of recovery. They trusted too 
 much to their own wisdom, and to the "intelligence and 
 faithfulness " of their colored friends. Very few of them 
 will be able to " make buckle and tongue meet," and many 
 of them will come out in debt. 
 
 We heard of one sensible Vermonter. He came all the 
 way down from the Green Mountains, and selected a river 
 plantation, stocked it well, and hired a good, practical 
 overseer or superintendent — a man who was born and 
 raised in the country, and has made cotton for nearly 
 twenty years. He paid hira a large price — perhaps $2,000 
 a year to attend to , his place — returned to Vei-mont and 
 attended to his home business. He has a fine crop, and 
 will make money. 
 
 In this case the real planter — ^the one recognized by 
 Nature and by the cotton — is the overseer or superintendent, 
 who with ceaseless vigilance "makes every thing move 
 about him like clockwork" from daylight to the going 
 down of the sun. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 THE LABOR QUESTION — CAN THE WHITE MAN LABOR IN THE COTTON 
 
 FIELDS ? now DO THE FREEDMEN WORK ? HOW WILL THE TWO 
 
 CLASSES WORK TOGETHER ? WHAT IS THE PROBABLE FUTURE OF THE 
 
 FREEDMEN ? COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE OF FREE AND SLAVE LABOR. 
 
 To the first of these questions we give an unhesitating 
 aflSrmative answer, but it will require some explanation. The 
 man unaccustomed to labor cannot stand the cotton field. 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 103 
 
 He may, possibly, train himself to it gradually, but the 
 chances are against bim. The white man, fresh from the 
 North right in the heat of summer, cannot endure the labor ; 
 a few days' working will lay him up for the balance of the 
 season. But the white man who has been raised to labor, 
 more especially one who has been raised in the country, 
 can endure it. Our young men who returned from the 
 army, laid down the sword and the gun, and took up the 
 plough and the hoe— they have found themselves to be 
 as able in the cotton field as they were on the field of 
 battle. Tliey have laid hy their crops, and will be soon 
 ready for picking. They have been blessed with an 
 ordinary share of health, and indeed bid fair to make 
 splendid laborers. 
 
 Our " Northern brethren " also, as far as capacity for 
 labor is concerned, appear to be doing nobly. They tug . 
 and toil, and pour out their sweat in copious streams over 
 their small cotton and big gTass, and demonstrate their 
 physical manhood in a most satisfactory manner. 
 
 The laboring foreigner, too, is coming in and joining 
 the great congregation of workers, — the German, the 
 Frenchman, the Irishman, the Englishman, the Scotchman, 
 the Swiss, and the Italian. 
 
 With proper care and prudence, the Caucasian accus- 
 tomed to labor can work in the cotton field, though he 
 cannot stand it as well as the negro. About one-third of 
 the present laborers are white, the balance blacks. 
 
 In answering the second question, How do the freed- 
 men work ? facts alone must be our guide. We answer 
 very briefly, and without any hesitation, when left solely 
 to themselves, they do precisely as all the race have done 
 who have gone before them. They sink down into idle- 
 ness, filth, disease, and death. The report of Generals 
 
104 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 Steedman and FuUerton, made during the past summer, is 
 very satisfactory on this point. It is simply a second edi- 
 tion of McKenzie's " St. Domingo," in respect of the moral 
 and industrial status of the negro, and his gradual descent 
 from slavery, through freedom, to the grave. 
 
 On the other hand, we state with pleasure that wherever 
 the negro has been controlled, put to work, compelled to 
 work by contract, and has had the superintendence of a 
 competent white man, he does well ; the nearer he has been 
 made to approach his old position of a slave, the better he 
 has laliored, and we believe it will always be so. The 
 course of the late Congress, more especially in conferring 
 civil rights upon the negro, is well calculated to arouse the 
 worst fears of the Southern planter. The inevitable 
 tendency of all their measures is to establish vagabondism, 
 pauperism, pest-houses, crowded hospitals, walking nui- 
 sances, larceny, pillaging bureaux, negro effeminacy, epi- 
 demics, desolation, death. The end of these things is the 
 extinction of the poor Africans, and the grand jubilee of 
 their destroyers. May God stop them in their mad career 1 
 May a wise policy prevail, and may the freedman by ju- 
 dicious legislation of the State in which he lives, and the 
 kind yet rigid discipline of his employers, live long in the 
 land, and prove himself a useful laborer ! We cannot well 
 give him up. We can do better for him than any of his 
 new friends. We know his wants, his wishes, his capacity ; 
 and, as we have accepted the abolition of slavery as a 
 fixed and unalterable fact, we are now paying him for his 
 labor, and endeavoring to allow him to work out his own 
 salvation by our sincere cooperation. 
 
 We ask protection from the government. What is it ? 
 We ask " to he let alone." This is all the protection we 
 want. Shall we have it ? The future of the freedmen, then, 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 105 
 
 may be thus stated : If the radical poHcy is carried out^ 
 they will degenerate and become extinct : if union 
 measures prevail, just the very reverse of the radical policy, 
 they will live, flourish, increase, and contribute by their 
 labor to the wealth of the country. 
 
 In this connection we present the following remarks of 
 Hon. J. W. Clapp, of Mississippi, made at the close of a 
 valedictory address to the Trustees of the University of 
 Mississippi, last July • 
 
 " The plan which would seem to be dictated alike by 
 policy and true philanthropy is, that the two races here in 
 the South should be left, without the surveillance and 
 intermeddling of a third party, to work out together their 
 respective destinies, and for each one to adapt itself to that 
 level where the great law of moral gravitation will sooner 
 or later inevitably place it. This plan, it is conceded, is, 
 like every thing human, liable to abuse, and may give rise 
 to instances of hardship and injustice; but if the two 
 races are to live together, it is the only feasible mode by 
 which collision and conflict Can be avoided, the capacity of 
 the negro for labor utilized, and he be rendered a compara- 
 tively respectable member of the community. 
 
 " But as the probability is that the policy adopted by 
 the law-making power at Washington will be adhered to, 
 by which the negro will inevitably become more and more 
 unreliable and inefficient as a laborer, prudence, if not an 
 imperative necessity, require that we should, in view of 
 this contingency, make systematic and persevering efforts 
 to fill up the channels of industry from other sources, and 
 with those of our own color who can be assimilated and 
 identified with us as a homogeneous element both of pros- 
 perity and power ; treating the negro in the mean time 
 with humanity and kindness, encouraging his mental and 
 6* 
 
106 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 
 
 moral culture, and extending to him without stint or 
 grudging all the rights to which he is properly entitled in 
 his new condition, but at the same time preserving with 
 jealous pertinacity a social barrier between him and us 
 that shall be impassable and perpetual, for upon this 
 depends our preservation as a people from a fate more 
 deplorable than extermination itself." 
 
 We sincerely hope that the apprehension expressed by 
 the distinguished speaker will not be realized, and that the 
 thunder is now preparing which will break in terrible fury 
 on the heads of the traitors who have been trying to 
 estabUsh a despotism upon the ruins of the republic. 
 
 Let us hope for the best, labor and wait ; and the time, 
 we trust, will soon come when our labor will not be in 
 vain. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 PEODUOTION AND EXP0ET8 OF COTTON— KEMAEK8 ON THB 
 GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF COTTON — STATISTICS — GREAT DEMAND FOB 
 AMERICAN COTTON IN ALL THE MARKETS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 We propose now to notice tlie production of cotton in 
 tlie Southern Sta1;es for sixty years of the present century ; 
 to show the exports to all the great foreign marts for the 
 four years heginning 1854 and closing 1857, as a probable 
 average annual amount for twenty years preceding 1861 ; 
 the shipments from Southern ports for one year (Sep- 
 tember 1, 1857, to September 1, 1858), as a fair sample of 
 annual shipments for the same period; and lastly, the 
 importations into England for six years, 1848 to 1853, 
 from the United States and other cotton countries of the 
 world. 
 
 The following table shows the quantity of cotton 
 produced in the cotton States of the South, with the 
 value of the same, from the year 1801 to the year 1860, 
 inclusive : 
 
108 PRODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF COTTON. 
 
 48,000. 
 65,000, 
 60,000. 
 65,000. 
 70,000, 
 80,000. 
 80,000, 
 T5,000. 
 82,000; 
 85,000. 
 80.000, 
 75,000, 
 75,000. 
 70,000: 
 100,000, 
 124,000: 
 180,000 
 125,000, 
 167,000, 
 
 1820 i 160,000, 
 
 1821 1180,000, 
 
 1822 210,000, 
 
 1823 ! 185,000, 
 
 1824 i215,000: 
 
 1825.....: 225.000, 
 1826... .'246,000. 
 
 1827 270,000, 
 
 1828 '325,000, 
 
 1829 365,000 
 
 1880 '850,000, 
 
 Price, 
 cts. 
 
 44 
 22 
 21 
 24 
 26 
 25 
 24 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 15J 
 
 9i 
 lOi 
 
 8J 
 20 
 30 
 
 ,000 1 24 
 
 000 30 
 
 000 : 25 
 
 ,000, 17 
 
 000 ! 16 
 
 000 ; 19 
 
 ,000; 14 
 
 ,000 f 15 
 
 ,000 ! 16 
 
 ,000 13 
 
 ,000 1 14 
 
 ,000 11 
 
 ,000 10 
 
 ',000 i 9 
 
 21,100,000 
 12,100,000 
 12,600,000 
 15,600,000 
 18,200,000 
 20,000,000 
 19,200,000 
 12,700,000 
 13,900,000 
 14,400,000 
 12,400,000 
 7,100,000 
 7,500,000 
 5,600,000 
 20,000,000 
 37.200,000 
 31,200,000 
 37,500,000 
 41,200,000 
 27,200,000 
 28,800,000 
 39,900,000 
 25,900,000 
 82,200,000 
 86,000,000 
 32,000,000 
 37,800,000 
 85,700,000 
 86,500,000 
 81,500,000 
 
 1831. 
 1832. 
 1883. 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 1838. 
 1839. 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849 
 18.50. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 1S56. 
 1857. 
 1858. 
 1859. 
 1860. 
 
 I Price, 
 
 885,000, 
 890,000, 
 445,000, 
 460,000, 
 550,000, 
 570,000. 
 720.000. 
 545,000: 
 870,000, 
 654, 000: 
 673,000, 
 943,000, 
 8I2.OOO: 
 958,000, 
 840,000, 
 710,000, 
 940,000: 
 1,000,000, 
 860,000, 
 890,000: 
 1,300,000 
 1,400,000, 
 1,300,000, 
 1,200,000, 
 1,550,000, 
 1,80(),000: 
 1,400,000, 
 1,750,000, 
 2,200,000, 
 1,650,000: 
 
 000 
 000 
 000 
 ,000 
 000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 
 ,000 
 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 000 
 000 
 000 
 ,000 
 000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 ,000 
 000 
 i,000 
 
 The following table presents the quantities of cotton 
 exported from the United States to the principal commer- 
 cial countries for the years named : 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Austria 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Holland 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 British N. A. possessions 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Blsewnere 
 
 To all countries 
 
 696,247,047 
 144,428,860 
 85,024,074 
 37,719,922 
 13,980,460 
 14,961,144 
 12,725,830 
 2,914,954 
 12,146,080 
 6,048,165 
 9,212,710 
 72,790 
 82,983 
 250,638 
 121,059 
 1,946,895 
 
 673,498,259 
 210,118,909 
 88,071,795 
 80,809,991 
 12,219,553 
 9,761,465 
 16,087,064 
 448,897 
 7,527,079 
 4,941,414 
 8,428,437 
 883,204 
 209,186 
 9,620 
 144,006 
 270,822 
 
 892.127,988 
 22i;767,611 
 58,479,179 
 62,066,658 
 28,171,784 
 6,034,452 
 20,a54.867 
 4,643,384 
 6,010,395 
 13,096,530 
 17,289,637 
 4,158,530 
 1,168,081 
 4,950 
 388,398 
 20,169,267 
 
 987,833,106 1,008,424,701 1,351,431,701 1,048,282,475 
 
PKODTJCTION AKD EXPORTS OF COTTON. 
 
 109 
 
 The following table shows the shipments from Southern 
 ports for the year September 1, 1857, to August 31, 1858 : 
 
 FROM. 
 
 New Orleans. . . 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Texas 
 
 Florida 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Charleston 
 
 ■North Carolina.. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Philadelphia. . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 Boston 
 
 Grand total 
 
 Preceding year. 
 
 Increase . 
 Decrease 
 
 1,016,716 
 265,464 
 33,938 
 25,771 
 149,346 
 192,251 
 
 495 
 164 
 995 
 110,721 
 14,110 
 
 1,809,966 
 1,428,870 
 
 To North- 
 ern Europe. 
 
 286,596 
 89,887 
 1,689 
 
 7,876 
 85,508 
 
 12,951 
 
 384,002 
 413,357 
 
 29,355 
 
 Other B'or- 
 eign Ports. 
 
 125,454 
 10,219 
 
 116,304 
 21,462 
 14,716 
 
 7,680 8,300 
 83,126 88,524 
 
 20,808 
 1,549 
 
 215,145 
 245,798 
 
 30,658 
 
 8,841 
 4 
 
 181,842 
 164,632 
 
 16,710 
 
 1,495,070 
 887,032 
 50,333 
 25,771 
 167,702 
 299,404 
 
 495 
 164 
 
 995 
 147,821 
 15,668 
 
 2,590,455 
 2,252,657 
 
 837,798 
 
 The quantity absorbed by the home market in 1856 
 was only about one-fifth of the entire crop— 770,739 bales 
 of 400 lbs. each, or 308,295,600 lbs. This amount, worth 
 about 130,000,000, was, by a moderate estimate, made to 
 produce about five times the sum by the industry applied 
 to its manufacture in the New England and Southern fac- 
 tories. 
 
 The following table shows the importations into England 
 in the years named from the United States and the other 
 cotton countries of the world. The quantity is stated in 
 packages, each package containing 300 lbs. 
 
 1848... 
 1849... 
 1850.,. 
 1851... 
 1852... 
 1858... 
 
 American. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 East India. 
 
 Egyptian. 
 
 West India, 
 &c. 
 
 Packages, 
 total. 
 
 1,875,400 
 1,477,900 
 1,184200 
 1,398,700 
 1,789,100 
 1,532,000 
 
 100,200 
 163,800 
 171,800 
 108,700 
 144,200 
 182,400 
 
 227,500 
 182,200 
 307,900 
 828,800 
 221,500 
 485,300 
 
 29,000 
 72,600 
 79,700 
 67,400 
 189,900 
 105,400 
 
 7,900 
 9,100 
 5,700 
 4,900 
 12.600 
 9,100 
 
 1,740,000 
 1.905,400 
 1,749,800 
 1,903,500 
 2,857,800 
 2,264,200 
 
 Mr. J. B. Gribble, of New Orleans, assuming that the 
 average weight of packages of raw cotton to be, from the 
 
110 PEODTJCTIOlf AOT) EXPOETS OF COTTOI«. 
 
 West Indies, 173 lbs. ; Brazil, 181 lbs. ; Egypt, 306 lbs. ; 
 East Indies, 385 ; and the United States, 440 lbs. ; then 
 reducing all to bales of 400 lbs. each, arrives at this result : 
 The product of the West Indies would be, for the year 
 1856, 4,090 bales; Brazil, 5,500; Egypt, 86,445; East 
 Indies, 445,637 ; and for the United States, 3,880,580, or 
 nearly seven-eighths of the product of the world. 
 
 The crop of 1860 was about 4,500,000 bales. Of this 
 amount the home market took one-fifth, or 900,000 bales 
 leaving 3,600,000 bales for- exportation. Of the amount 
 exported, Great Britain took sixty per cent., or 2,160,000 
 bales; France, about 500,000; and the balance was'dis 
 tributed to the different states of Europe. 
 
 The "London Economist," after tracing the progress 
 of the trade from 1838 to 1850, arrives at the following 
 conclusions: That the supply of cotton from other sources 
 than the United States has been irregularly decreasing ; 
 that, including the United States, the supply from aU quar- 
 ters available for home consumption has of late years been 
 falling off at the rate of 1,000 bales a week, while the con- 
 sumption has been increasing during the same period at 
 the rate of 3,600 bales a week; that in the United States 
 alone the growth is increasing, but limited there to about 
 the same ratio as the increase of slaves, viz., three per cent, 
 per annum ; that this is barely sufficient to supply the in- 
 creasing demand for its own consumption, and for the Con- 
 tinent of Europe ; and that consequently, if this branch 
 of industry is to increase at all on its present footing in 
 Great Britain, it must be by applying a great stimulus to 
 the growth of cotton in other countries adapted to the cul- 
 ture. The incapacity of other regions to supply the de- 
 mand being shown, the writer looks to the British West 
 India islands, and the African and AustraUan colonies, as 
 
PKODUCTION AND EXPORTS OF COTTON. Ill 
 
 most likely to make up the deficiency under encourage- 
 ment from the British Government. 
 
 From all the facts before us it is plain that, in the lan- 
 guage of a late writer ("De Bow's Review" for August), 
 " the South can defy the competition of the world in cot- 
 ton growing." Whether " its former ascendency will be 
 maintained and advanced under a system of free labor," 
 remains to be seen. 
 
 By consulting our first table (p. 109), it wiU be seen 
 that, with the exception of a few bad crop years, there was 
 a gTadual increase of production from 1801 to 1861, rising 
 from about 50,000,000 lbs. to 1,650,000,000 lbs., or from ' 
 100,000 bales to upward of 4,000,000. 
 
 What was the simple reason of this increase ? The in- 
 crease of the laborers. In the year 1800 there were Ipss' 
 than 250,000 slaves in the South. In the year 1860 th^re , 
 were 4,000,000. Now, suppose the government had never , 
 interfered with slavery, is it not reasonable to suppose that, 
 with the gradual mcrease of the slave population, there 
 would be an increase of cotton bales? Most assuredly. 
 We venture the assertion that, inasmuch as the increase 
 of the slave population from 1850 to 1860 was nearly one 
 million, and the bales of cotton rose from 2,000,000 to 
 4,000,000, the year ISlO would exhibit an increase of 
 the sLme population, making the entire number at least 
 5,250,000, and the number of cotton bales not far from 
 6,000,000. 
 
 Will free labor do as well ? If fife is spared, we shaU 
 see. Some of our readers wiU have the privilege of watch- 
 ing the progress of the new order of things. We sincerely 
 hope, for the good of the country, that it may prove a suc- 
 cess. We confess, however, that we are thoroughly and un- 
 changeably pro-slavery, and every day confirms us in our faith. 
 
112 EEMAEKS ON THE GOVEENMENT TAX. 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 REMARKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 We propose, in this section, to consider the probable 
 consequences of the late law of Congress, taxing raw cotton 
 three cents per pound. 
 
 It is a law of trade, that the great markets of the world 
 control and regulate the less. Liverpool is the great mar- 
 ket of the world for cotton, and Liverpool prices will, con- 
 sequently, regulate the prices of that article in all other 
 markets. The three cents per pound tax on cotton in the 
 United States cannot in any way affect the price of the ar- 
 ticle in Liverpool, only so far as it may tend to diminish 
 the supply from this country, and thereby increase the de- 
 mand there ; but as there is a large and increasing supply 
 thrown on the foreign market from the East Indies, China, 
 %ypt> Brazil, and other countries, a diminution of the 
 supply from the United States will surely stimulate the 
 production of cotton in other countries. The vacuum pro- 
 duced by the diminished supply fi-om the United States 
 would soon be filled by the stimulated industry of other 
 countries; and we should lose the compensating advan- 
 tages of an increased demand which would otherwise result 
 from diminished production in this country. 
 
 It is, therefore, clear that the whole weight of the tax 
 falls on the producer of cotton in this country ; that it will 
 operate as a bounty to stimulate the production of cotton 
 in other countries, to the amount of the tax; and that the 
 effect will be to drive the American planter from the cul- 
 ture of cotton, unless it should command such a price in 
 the foreign market as to make his labor remunerative, 
 even with a discrimination against him of three cents per 
 
EEMAKK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 pound, and m favor of his competitors in foreign countries 
 to that amount. It will be seen, therefore, that the law 
 operates as a protection, to the amount of three cents per 
 pound, to the production of other countries, against the 
 competition from this country ; and that the law virtually 
 imposes an enormous tax on our own citizens to build up 
 the fortunes of the rival producers of foreign countries. ^ 
 
 It is wise in any government to so shape its legislation 
 as to promote the prosperity and happiness of its people. 
 Contentment, and attachment to the government, will be 
 the result. Possessing the means, they will have the will 
 to defend it against all aggression ; but partial laws, un- 
 justly discriminating against one portion of the people, 
 and in favor of another portion, will never fail to produce 
 disquietude, and tend to alienate the affections of those 
 aggrieved from their government. This fact has been most 
 painfully illustrated by the terrible civil war through 
 which we have just passed. 
 
 When cotton commands thirty cents per pound, a tax 
 of three cents per pound amounts to ten per cent, on the 
 entire gross proceeds ; at twenty-five cents, the tax is 
 twelve per cent. ; at twenty cents, it is fifteen per cent. ; 
 and at ten cents, it is thirty per cent., or nearly one-third 
 of the whole gross proceeds of the crop. Now, before the 
 war, when cotton commanded from ten to twelve cents, he 
 was considered a successful planter who realized six per 
 cent, profit per annum upon the capital invested in its pro- 
 duction. From this fact it will be perceived that cotton 
 must bear an enormous price to enable the planter to realize 
 any profit on his labor; and should the price decline ma- 
 terially, his labor would not only cease to be remunerative, 
 but he would certainly be ruined by the business, and to 
 avoid this he would abandon the pursuit. 
 
114: EEMAEK8 ON THE GOVEKNMENT TAX. 
 
 What, then, let us inquire, would be the consequence 
 to another great interest of the country ? There are in- 
 vested in the manufacture of cotton, chiefly in the North, 
 several hundred millions of capital. Suppose the produc- 
 tion of cotton to cease in this country, or to be so reduced 
 as not to supply our mills, then our spinners would have 
 to resort to foreign countries for their supply. Could they 
 do this, and successfully compete with the manufacturers of 
 Europe, when, even now, with the raw material furnished at 
 home at much less expense than it would cost them from 
 abroad, they are unable to compete with foreigners, with- 
 out the protection of the government by a high tariff? 
 
 Again : the machinery of this country, I apprehend, is 
 not adapted to the manufacture of the short-stapled cotton 
 of the East Indies, China, or Egypt, and, to engage in the 
 manufacture of that cotton, would have to be materially 
 changed or abandoned, and new machinery instituted. 
 The increased expenditure necessary to effect either of 
 these objects would be overwhelming ; which, added to the 
 loss sustained by the lapse of time before the repairs of 
 the old or the erection of the new machinery could be 
 effected, would cause our manufacturers to abandon the 
 business altogether. The vast capital invested would be 
 partially if not wholly lost. Bankruptcy and ruin would 
 overwhelm our " lords of the loom." Thousands and tens 
 of thousands of operatives would be thrown out of employ- 
 ment, and pauperism and crime would present their hag- 
 gard forms throughout the land. 
 
 Again : before the war, the cotton crop of the South 
 was upward of 4,000,000 of bales of 400 lbs. each; say, 
 4,000,000 bales, or 1,600,000,000 lbs. At thirty cents 
 per pound, the value of this cotton would be $480,000,000 ; 
 and even at the low price of ten cents, its value was 
 
EEMAEKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 $160,000,000. This, however, is too low an estimate. 
 The crop of 1860 was worth, perhaps, $200,000,000. 
 This amount in value was exported, and even at ten cents 
 per pound furnished our merchants and manufacturers, in 
 supplies and exchanges, with $200,000,000. But at thirty 
 cents, as we have seen (and much of it has been sold above 
 that price), it yielded for those purposes $480,000,000. 
 Suppose this great basis of exchange to be stricken away, 
 not only would our "lords of the loom" be ruined, but our 
 supply of domestic cotton goods being cut off, necessita- 
 ting largely increased importations from abroad, would in- 
 crease the demand for exchange to the amount of such in- 
 creased importations ; while the supply of exchange would 
 be $200,000,000 less than at present. Our whole exports, the 
 last fiscal year, if I recollect right, including cotton, reached 
 but little over half the value of our imports ; leaving a bal- 
 ance of trade against us of, say, $200,000,000, which must 
 be made up in gold. Take away the basis of exchange, 
 furnished by cotton, and all the proceeds of gold from 
 California and Australia together would be unable to meet 
 the balances against us each year. The country would 
 soon be drained of every dollar of its specie ; paper, with- 
 out a specie basis to sustain it, would be our only currency ; 
 and these paper promises to pay money, when known that 
 there is no money to redeem them, would soon become 
 utterly worthless. It is not difiicult to perceive the conse- 
 quences. Our diminished exchanges and diminished credit 
 would force diminished importations. Diminished impor- 
 tations would cause diminished revenue, and necessitate 
 the levying increased internal taxes. Decreased exports 
 would cause diminished importations, and our navigation 
 interests would to that extent be crippled. The mercan- 
 tile, the manufacturing, and the shipping interests, would 
 
116 REMARKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 reel and totter under the shock ; and the government, with 
 diminished revenues, and a puWic debt of $3,000,000,000, 
 likely to be increased by the allov?ance of unsettled claims, 
 and the reckless legislation of Congress, must let its credit 
 sink ; under which dreadful shock not only all the great 
 interests of the country, but the government itself, will 
 likely be involved in one common ruin. 
 
 It is objected by the South that the law in question is 
 partial; that the agricultural productions of the North are 
 not subjected to any such tax ; that the North, which is 
 rich— and, by the immense spoils taken from the South 
 during the war, made still richer — is not taxed upon its 
 agricultural productions; while the South, plundered of 
 thousands of millions of its property— its plantations, cities, 
 and towns laid waste by fire and sword — is so poor that 
 it is a struggle for the people to hve ; and yet Congress, 
 disregarding their crushed and ruined condition, has deter- 
 mined to discriminate against them, and tax them more 
 than the entire net proceeds of their labor. Crushed as 
 the Southern people are, they have not lost their manhood 
 and self-respect. All experience proves that it is danger- 
 ous to trample too long on a proud and brave people. 
 Sad, indeed, is the lesson on this point taught us by the 
 late civil war. The white population of the South, including 
 Maryland, Western Virginia, East Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 and Missouri, at the commencement of the war, was about 
 8,000,000. If we subtract from this the number of loyal- 
 ists (so called) in those States, with the scattering men of 
 that caste in other parts of the South, I think it not far 
 from the truth to say we had 5,000,000 of white per- 
 sons true to the Confederacy ; add these loyalists to the 
 North, and it would swell the Federal population against 
 us to at least 26,000,000, or five to one. In addition to 
 
EEMAEK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 117 
 
 these, nearly 200,000 of our negroes were marslialled 
 against us, as well as multiplied thousands from the vast 
 tide of immigration from Europe that flowed in during the 
 war. Yet this mighty power, with an estabUshed govern- 
 ment, a regular army, a navy, machinery to manufacture all 
 the appliances of war ; with the inexhaustible granaries of 
 the West to feed their armies, and all the world open to 
 their shipping, by which they obtained all the munitions 
 of war necessary to keep a million of men in the field, was 
 resisted for four years by 5,000,000 ! These 5,000,000, 
 before the war, had no established government, no army, 
 no navy, no treasury, but a meagre supply of arms and 
 ammunition, and, by the blockade of their ports, were 
 shut out from all the world. They had to create the ap- 
 phances of war; from raw militia create and organize 
 armies for their defence ; and yet, with all this disparity 
 in men and means, they during four long years defended 
 themselves with a valor and prowess scarcely equalled in 
 the annals of history. Twice they carried the war into the 
 enemy's country, and caused President Lincoln to tremble 
 for the safety of bis capital. The subjugation of these 
 5,000,000 by 26,000,000, with their foreign enlistments 
 and 200,000 negro soldiers added, cost the North, in killed 
 and wounded, and in death by disease, not less than 
 1,000,000 men, and not less than $4,000,000,000 of 
 treasure. It has left the nation overwhelmed in debt, and 
 produced a degree of demoralization in society the evils 
 of which arc incalculable. 
 
 And what produced all this? The South loved the 
 Union of their fatliers. They were proud of and gloried 
 in the names of the statesmen and heroes which they had 
 given to the TJni')n. They had studied political science 
 under such mastefs as Washington, Jefferson, Madison, 
 
118 EEMAEKS ON THE GOVEENMENT TAX. 
 
 Monroe, and Jackson, whom they had given to the nation 
 as Presidents ; and they could boast of a Patrick Henry, a 
 Randolph, a Pinkney, a Lowndes, a Calhoun, a Hayne, a 
 McDuffie, a Clay, and a long line of illustrious statesmen that 
 had adorned the annals of the country. They had more 
 than borne their part in all the wars for the defence and 
 for the maintenance of the honor of the country. Why, 
 then, I again ask, did they, by secession, attempt to leave 
 the Union ? I answer, because the North had, as they 
 thought, miwarrantably intermeddled with their interests — 
 interests secured to them by the constitutional compact. 
 Because they saw the North treat with contempt an 
 opinion of the Supreme Court, deciding the territoiial 
 question in their favor ; and because the North had elected 
 a President and Congress pledged to carry out the policy 
 of excluding them and their property from a participation 
 in the enjoyment of the common property of the nation. 
 They saw, or thought they saw, a fixed deteimination on 
 the part of the North to deprive them of their rights, in 
 violation of the compact of union ; and they attempted 
 to withdraw the powers they had conferred upon an agent 
 that was abusing its trust. For attempting this, the North 
 waged war upon them. 
 
 Now, we will not stop to inquire whether the South 
 was right or wrong. There can be no doubt but that they 
 thought they were right. They never would have left the 
 Union which they loved, if they had not believed that the 
 life, the soul of that Union was gone ; and that a dead, 
 putrefying carcass, called " the UnionJ'' only remained. 
 The Union was only valuable because, while it existed 
 according to the Constitution, it was the bulwark of our 
 rights and liberties. See the deplorable consequences 
 resulting from a policy that produced alienation from a 
 
EEMAEK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 119 
 
 government which we once loved. Never would the South 
 have tho>ught of adopting the painful alternative of seces- 
 sion, or of abandoning the Union^ had they not been 
 alienated in their affections from it by the violation of the 
 constitutional cotnpact, as they believed, by the majority 
 who controlled the government. They had a firm convic- 
 tion that there was a determination on the part of that 
 majority to wrong and oppress them. The consequence 
 was, secession of eleven States, and a long, bloody, and 
 disastrous war. 
 
 The South never desired more of the North than a 
 faithful observance of the constitutional compact. And 
 now, after all that has passed, give them their constitu- 
 tional rights, and they will again be the most devoted 
 friends and defenders of the Union. Continue to deny 
 them these, seek to humble and degrade them, impose on 
 them unequal burdens, tax them without allowing them a 
 voice in the government, and you will again rouse the spirit 
 of "76. You will keep alive and fan their resentments to a 
 flame. They will be led to despise the government which 
 they once loved, and, Hke oppressed Ireland, will watch 
 with sleepless vigilance for a favorable opportunity to 
 throw off the oppressor's yoke. 
 
 The United States will be fortunate indeed should 
 they escape var in the future with one or more of the 
 great nations of the earth ; and should such war come, it 
 will be much safer to have the good will of a brave people 
 than their enmity. 
 
 The South would not complain of a moderate tax on 
 cotton, one which they could pay, provided the agricultural 
 products of the North were taxed in the same proportion ; 
 but they are unwilling that the rich North shall enjoy an 
 exemption, which, in their impoverished condition, strug- 
 
120 EEMAEKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 gling for their very existence, is denied them. Their State 
 treasuries are empty, and must be replenished ; they have 
 thousands of helpless widows and orphans, and maimed 
 and crippled men to support ; and, owing to the ruin and 
 desolation caused by a vandal enemy, those once in af- 
 fluence are mostly reduced to poverty. All the business 
 pursuits of life have been thrown into confusion by the 
 destruction of their former organized system of labor. 
 Half the negroes will not work at all, or, if they do, it is 
 to no valuable purpose. Under these circumstances, it is 
 not only unjust but it is heartless cruelty to levy a partial 
 and enormous tax on their chief means of support. This 
 tax will operate peculiarly hard upon the poor negro. A 
 large majority of the negroes engaged in planting have 
 formed partnerships with their employers, and are to 
 receive, in some cases, one-third, but in most cases one-half, 
 of the crops. The industrious among them are struggling 
 to make a " start in the world ; " but if they have to pay 
 fifteen dollars tax on every five hundred pound bale they 
 make, they will have little or nothing left, after defraying 
 the enormous expenses of living the present year. Indeed, 
 many of them will be left in debt. The result will be, 
 dissatisfaction with their condition, and they will sink into 
 discouragement. They^ill find the fancied boon of free- 
 dom like the apples of Sodom, beautiful to the sight or in 
 the imagination, but dissolving to ashes upon the touch. 
 WiU not our Congress do something to relieve them? 
 Surely if they have no sympathy with or compassion for 
 the sufifering whites of the South, they will do something 
 to relieve their colored brethren. 
 
 The intention of the framers of the Constitution was to 
 form a Union founded on justice, and on equality of rights, 
 privileges, and immunities among all the parties to the 
 
EEMAEKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 121 
 
 compact ; that of the benefits to be derived from the 
 government, each State and the citizens of each State 
 should be entitled to equal participation ; and that of the 
 burdens of government, each State should bear its just 
 proportion. Tbey also intended that if an immunity were 
 allowed to the people of one State, the people of all the 
 States should be allowed the same or a like immunity. 
 In proof of this, we invite attention to a few clauses of the 
 Constitution : 
 
 1. " We the people of the United States, in order to 
 foiTO a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure the 
 pubHc tranquillity, and to secure the blessings of liberty to 
 ourselves and posterity, do ordain and establish this 
 Constitution." 
 
 Is the taxing of cotton, produced only in the South, 
 while the agricultural productions of the North are not 
 taxed at all, doing equal justice, and calculated " to insure 
 domestic tranquillity " ? 
 
 2. "Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor- 
 tioned among the several States, which may be included 
 within this Union, according to their respective numbers." 
 
 The British Government levied a tax upon the colonies, 
 while they were excluded from representation in Parlia- 
 ment. In opposition to this injustice, and in defence of 
 the great principle that taxation and representation should 
 go together, the Revolutionary War was fought. With a 
 view to prevent this abuse of power on the part of Congress, 
 in reference to " the several States of the Union;' and to 
 secure equal justice in the levy of taxes, the last-quoted 
 clause was inserted. 
 
 From the fact that the right of representation and the 
 power of direct taxation are coupled together in the last- 
 quoted clause, it is obvious that the intention of its. 
 6 
 
122 EEMAKK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 framers was to prevent the wrong of taxation without 
 representation (imposed on the colonies by the British 
 Government) from being perpetrated by Congress on any 
 of the States of the Union. And when a direct tax should 
 be levied by Congress, it was provided that it should be 
 apportioned among all the States in a ratio proportioned to 
 the population ; and that no discriminating tax should be 
 levied on one portion of the people, or on one State, or one 
 section of the Union, and not on another. 
 
 3. "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
 taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and 
 provide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
 United States ; but all duties, imposts,, and excises, shall 
 be uniform throughout the United States." 
 
 This clause fully sustains my views on the preceding 
 clause, by requiring all duties, imposts, and excises, to be 
 UNIFORM THBOTJGHOUT the United States. 
 
 4. " No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
 
 from any State." 
 
 Cotton is almost wholly exported from the Southern 
 States to find a market, and the above clause positively 
 prohibits a tax on all articles that may be exported. 
 
 5. " The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
 privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States." 
 
 That is, if under the Constitution the citizens of any 
 State enjoy certain privileges, the citizens of all the States 
 shall be entitled to enjoy the same. If the citizens of any 
 State are allowed an immunity, the citizens of all the 
 States shall be entitled to the same immunity. How could 
 Congress, if they had any regard for the Constitution 
 which they were sworn to support, in view of the two last- 
 quoted clauses, levy this unjust tax upon an ^'a.rticle of 
 export;' and grant an immimity from taxation to the agricul- 
 
EEMARK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 123 
 
 tural productions of the Nortt, while they tax enormously 
 the chief agricultural product of the South ? 
 
 From the views just presented, and from the clauses of 
 the Constitution quoted to support them, I think that every 
 candid mind must decide that the tax law referred to is 
 clearly and grossly unconstitutional, and therefore void. 
 
 We will close this section by an appeal to the sense of 
 justice which we hope still remains with a majority of the 
 Northern people. We invoke the sympathies of our com- 
 mon humanity, and call upon you to use your best efforts 
 at the ballot-box, and by the force of public opinion to 
 correct the evil of which we complain. In electing mem- 
 bers of Congress, we implore you to select men who are 
 worthy of the name of statesmen — men who understand 
 the Constitution of their country, and whose sense of 
 moral obligation will insure its faithful observance — men 
 of pure morality, high-toned honor, lovers of their coun- 
 try, their whole country — patriots who will zealously labor 
 to promote justice, peace, good will, and prosperity through- 
 out the whole country — men free from sectional hate, and 
 a blind and frenzied fanaticism. It is useless to make any 
 appeal either to the justice, the magnanimity, the mercy, 
 the wisdom, the prudence, or the patriotism of the ruling^ 
 majority in Congress. I apprehend that it will require a 
 larger intellectual microscope than any philosopher or 
 statesman of the present day possesses to find much, if 
 any, of those desirable qualities in the leaders who control 
 the present Congress. But to you, the masses of the 
 Northern people, to you who have not lost your senses 
 under the stupefying and maddening influence of a wild 
 and frenzied fanaticism — you who love the Union of our 
 fathers, and regard the Constitution as the bulwark of free- 
 dom, the palladium of our safety, and the sheet-anchor of 
 
124 EEMARK8 ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 
 
 our hope, to you we appeal. Are you willing to utterly 
 crusli and ruin a people by unjust and unconstitutional 
 legislation, who have been robbed and plundered of nearly 
 all they possess ? Could you see our once well-cultivated 
 farms now changed into a gloomy, desolated waste ; our 
 once well-stocked plantations, now almost entirely destitute 
 of horses, mules, cattle, hogs, sheep, &c., and behold the 
 lonely chimneys and charred remains of our once smiling 
 cottages and stately mansions, sad mementoes of the past 
 and reminiscences of happier days; could you see the 
 gray-haired sires and matrons bending under the weight 
 of years, reduced to poverty by the ruthless hand and 
 torch of the invader, toiling from morn to eve to sustain 
 the helpless widows and orphans of their murdered sons ; 
 could you see our whole people struggling as it were for 
 life against the rolling surges of adversity, surely you 
 would frown upon all attempts to further injure them. 
 And as philanthropists and Christians, will you not mingle 
 your sympathies with ours for the poor negro, who is now 
 just entering on a new and untried scene of his being, and 
 who needs, greatly needs the fostering care instead of the 
 crashing power of the Government? How is it possible 
 that he can live and support his family at the present 
 enormous price of clothing and provisions on one-third or 
 one-half of the proceeds of his labor, pay his medical ac- 
 counts, his State and county taxes, necessary contingent 
 expenses, and ten, perhaps thirty per cent, of the value of 
 his crop to the Federal Government, and have any thing 
 left ? Is it for the interest of the country, either North or 
 South, to keep this unfortunate race in poverty, and fill the 
 country with pauperism and crime ? Surely not. And yet 
 the tendency of this iniquitous and unwise tax law is to 
 produce that result. 
 
EEMAKKS ON THE GOVERNMENT TAX. 125 
 
 And now, in eonclusion, I will only add, that I trust I 
 have satisfactorily shown that the law in question is im- 
 politic, unwise, unjust, cruel, unmerciful, and unconsti- 
 tutional ; and I hope that all lovers of justice, all who are 
 attached to their country and its institutions, and who de- 
 sire to save the Government from committing political 
 suicide, will rally to the rescue, hurl from the places they 
 disgrace the incompetent, fanatical, and revengeful squad 
 that are leading the country to ruin, and put in their stead 
 statesmen — patriots who love their country, their whole 
 country, and who will labor assiduously to heal the fester- 
 ing wounds left by the late unhappy war, promote peace 
 and good will, and conduct our beloved country on the 
 high road which leads to glory, prosperity, and happiness. 
 
CHAPTEK YII. 
 
 MANUFAOTTTEE OF COTTON. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 TEXTILE FABEI08. 
 
 The various cloths used by civilized men for all the 
 purposes of life are woven from cotton, wool, silk, flax, 
 and hemp. Of all these materials, the greatest is cotton. 
 Cotton cloth and cotton fabrics of every style are worn by 
 men in all possible conditions of life. From infancy to old 
 age cotton garments are indispensable ; and while silks 
 and satins are both usefal and ornamental, they always 
 conceal ,the less costly article which is worn alike by the 
 rich and the poor. 
 
 The following list shows the different classes of cotton 
 goods manufactured in this country and in Europe : Lin- 
 seys, Osnaburgs, calicoes, ginghams, webbing, drills, ticks, 
 duck, sheeting, shirting, jeans, denims, cottonades, flannels, 
 Silesians, kerseys, laces, edgings, insertings, cambric, fringe- 
 work, &c. It enters also into the fabrication of velvets, 
 silks, satinets, broadcloths, and linen ; and to what extent 
 art and science may carry its uses time alone can tell. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. 
 
 127 
 
 HISTORY OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE. 
 
 A few remarks on the history of spinning and weaving 
 machines will not be out of place. 
 
 One hundred years ago James Hargraves invented the 
 spinning jenny, in which eight spindles at first were set in 
 a frame and made to spin as many threads at one operation, 
 the ends passing from the spindles through a fluted wooden 
 clasp which was held in the left hand, and could be made 
 to close upon the threads and hold them fast as it was 
 moved to and from the spindles. The number of spindles 
 was afterward increased to eighty. Richard Arkwright 
 soon afterward came forward with a new invention of spin- 
 ning by rollers, the effect of which was to draw out the rolls 
 as they came from the carding machines, and by the slight 
 pull elongate and straighten the fibres left crooked or 
 double in the carding. By combining several fleeces or 
 card ends and passing them through together, and causing 
 them to unite in one roll, a fleecy ribbon is obtained of 
 great uniformity, and by repeating the process the quality 
 is still farther increased. From this fine, uniform roll, 
 Arkwright produced an even and firm thread, suitable as 
 well for the warp as the woof. About the year iVVO he 
 built the first mill in which the machinery was run by a 
 water-wheel. Factories were afterward rapidly established 
 throughout England. The first machines for carding and 
 spinning were made in the United States in 1786. The 
 Beverly Company commenced operations in Massachusetts 
 in 1*787, and they succeeded in manufacturing cotton 
 goods, but with very imperfect machinery. In 1788 the 
 Providence (R. I.) Company commenced making homespun 
 cloth, but their machinery was also imperfect, and they 
 
128 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. 
 
 made slow progress. In 1790 the first ArkwrigM ma- 
 chinery was set in operation, and a new impulse was given 
 to the manufacture of cotton. From 1800 to 1815 the 
 number of bales consumed increased from 500 to 90,000. 
 Up to the year 1813 cloth was woven by the hand loom, 
 and at this date about 100,000 operatives were employed 
 and $40,000,000 invested in the business. During this 
 year Francis C. Lowell built a factory for about 1,700 
 spindles, and furnished it with power looms for weaving. 
 The first cotton mill in Lowell was erected in 1822. Tliirty 
 years afterward twelve manufacturing companies were in 
 operation there, whose mills, amounting to fifty-one in 
 number, extended in a continuous line of about a mile. 
 From that time to this mills have been on the increase in 
 the New England States, and many have been erected like- 
 wise in the South and West, giving employment to thou- 
 sands of operatives, contributing largely to the wealth of 
 the country, and sustaining commerce with foreign nations. 
 
 SECTION n. 
 
 COTTON MANUPAOTUEES IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The table on page 129 shows the amount and valuation 
 of cotton manufactured in the United States, with tlie re- 
 ported number of mills, looms, and spindles, the variety 
 of manufactured articles and their valuation, for the year 
 1857. Not one-third of the mills, however, are reported, 
 as will appear from the next table : 
 
 The table on page 130 shows the total number of cot- 
 ton establishments, according to the census of 1850, the 
 capital employed, the cotton used, the hands engaged, and 
 * the value of the manufactured articles. 
 
MAUUFACTUEE OF COTTON. 
 
 129 
 
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MAimFACTUKB OF COTTON. 
 
 131 
 
 SECTION ni. 
 
 THE COTTON MANtTFACTUEES OF ETJKOPE. 
 
 Great Britain. — This nation ranks first among foreign 
 countries in the manufacture of cotton fabrics. Prior to 
 our civil war she took from forty to sixty per cent, of the 
 exports of the American crop ; and some idea may be 
 formed of the extent of her manufactures when it is stated 
 that their amount in numljer and value will more than 
 double those of the United States. Her fabrics are good 
 and substantial, though not quite so fine and beautiful as 
 those of the Continent. She runs 21,000,000 spindles. 
 
 France. — This nation ranks next to Great Britain in 
 the quantity and value of the cotton consumed, while the 
 variety of articles into which it is fabricated, is mucli 
 greater. In the taste and beauty of her tissues she justly 
 claims the first place among modern nations. Her mills 
 send forth every description of cotton goods — from the 
 common calicoes of Eouen to the richly figured muslins of 
 Mulhouse, the gossamer .tulles of Saint Quentin, and the 
 exquisite tarlatans of Tarare. 
 
 The fine cotton tissues of French fabrication are cali- 
 coes, Indiennes, percales, ginghams, madopolain, jaconet, 
 organdie, figured muslins, printed muslins, handkerchiefs, 
 shawls, tulles, bobinets, laces, bonnetine (caps, under-shirts, 
 drawers, gloves, &c.), fringes, and nankeens. 
 
 Two thousand and forty establishm-ents consume raw 
 material valued at $38,395,372. Their operations, by the 
 aid of 212,000 workmen and 113,000 machines, increased 
 this value to 161,000,000. The following summary pre- 
 sents an outline of the dificrent branches of cotton manu- 
 
132 
 
 MANUFACTUKE OF COTTON. 
 
 facture in France, after the raw material has been converted 
 into yarn or thread : 
 
 1. Tissues of pure Cotton. 
 
 Number of establishments 1,484 
 
 Yalue of the spun cotton used $18,384,806 
 
 Value of the tissues fabricated $30,448,200 
 
 Total number of hands employed 145,474 
 
 Wages of these hands $6,750,000 
 
 Looms 92,623 
 
 Spindles 190,836 
 
 Profits, wages, and general expenses $12,090,000 
 
 2. Transparent Tissues, embracing Tulles, Laces, and 
 Embroideries. 
 
 Number of establishments 46 
 
 Value of raw material $1,000,000 
 
 Value of products $2,700,000 
 
 Number of hands 1 7,400 
 
 3. Bleaching, Dyeing, and Printing Establishments. 
 
 Number of every kind 290 
 
 Value of raw material $11,292,000 
 
 Value of products $16,500,000 
 
 Number of hands 18,000 
 
 4. Mixed Cotton Tissues. 
 
 These embrace cotton and wool velvets; cotton and 
 -wool blankets ; cotton, wool, and flax fabrics ; cotton and 
 
 silk ; cotton, silk, and wool. 
 
 Total number of establishments 195 
 
 Value of raw material $6,960,000 
 
 Value of products $10,290,000 
 
 Number of hands 26,000 
 
MANTJFACTDRE OF COTTON. 
 
 133 
 
 As an evidence that American cotton is prized more 
 highly in France than any other, it is sufficient to state 
 that the average annual importation into that country for 
 ten years, including 1851 and 1860, amounted to 180,000,- 
 000 pounds. Of this amount 160,000,000 pounds came 
 from the United States, and the remaining 20,000,000 
 from all other countries. 
 
 Switzerland. — The numher of cotton spinning mills 
 in Switzerland is 132 ; the number of weaving mills, 48 ; 
 spindles, 1,100,000 ; looms, 7,800 ; number of pounds of 
 raw cotton imported, about 30,000,000. Fine muslins are 
 the leading articles manufactured. 
 
 Russia. — The empire of Russia has kept a nearly 
 equal pace with the other Continental states in the in- 
 crease of consumption and manufacture of cotton. Before 
 our civil war Russia was receiving about 125,000 bales, or 
 66,000,000 pounds. 
 
 There were in 1860 about sixty cotton spinneries, hav- 
 ing 1,250,000 spindles, and employing nearly 60,000 hands. 
 Weaving, dyeing, and printing cotton stuffs occupied four 
 times that number of people. The tissues fabricated are 
 calicoes, mitrales, percales, nankeens, Indiennes, shirtings, 
 and Persiennes. The manufacture of fine tissues is very 
 limited. The value of cotton tissues is about 65,000,000 
 silver rubles. Nearly all of their tissues are consumed in 
 the country, a small quantity only being exported to 
 Asia. 
 
 There are large manufactories of cotton in Austria, 
 Sardinia, Belgium, and the Zolherein States, of which we 
 cannot now speak particularly. 
 
134 
 
 MAlsrUFACTHRE OF COTTON. 
 
 It affords us pleasure to present to the reader tte fol- 
 lowing remarks, made Mr. Claiborne to Jacob Thomp- 
 son, Secretary of the Interior, in the year 1858 : 
 
 " In conclusion, it may be said that it would be difficult 
 to over-estimate the importance of cotton in the movement 
 of the industry and commerce of the civilized world. Since 
 the inventions of Arkwright and Watt, in England, and 
 Whitney, in our own country, its manipulation and fabri- 
 cation have become so comparatively easy and cheap, and 
 its adaptation to supply the wants or the luxuries of man 
 have proved to be so multifarious, that the question of an 
 adequate supply of it to the growing demand has become 
 one of the very highest importance, being exceeded in in- 
 terest by that of the cereals alone. Its influence in the 
 well-being of the masses by furnishing employment, suste- 
 nance, and cheap clothing, has long since been fully ad- 
 mitted ; and such has been the impetus afforded by it to 
 the invention and improvement of manufacturing ma 
 chinery, that, in his work, before quoted, M. Audiganne 
 remarks that ' it was certainly a curious sight, that of the 
 different aliments afforded by cotton to labor, and the ser- 
 vices rendered to man at this day by this substance, of 
 which the consumption has increased tenfold four or five 
 times in less than sixty years. Cotton is manufactured 
 among the greater part of the nations that figured at our 
 side in the Palace of Industry. Nearly all had sent there 
 samples of their fabrication — samples more or less numer- 
 ous, more or less remarkable, but always worthy of atten- 
 tive examination. The degree of advancement of each 
 people in the career of industry might be measured by its 
 skill in the treatment of cotton.'' 
 
 " Illustrating its commercial and political influence as 
 between the United States and Great Britain, Dr. EngeJ 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. 
 
 135 
 
 says of it, 'that England and the United States are 
 bound together by a single thread of cotton, which, weak 
 and fragile as it may appear, is, nevertheless, stronger than 
 an iron cable.' 
 
 " No wonder, then, that the question of the adequate 
 supply of this mighty and all-powerful agent soars at this 
 day so far above many which, at the beginning of the 
 present century, far outranked it in their bearings upon 
 the interests of civilized man ; and it may not, in this con- 
 nection, be deemed out of place to allude, briefly, to the 
 history of the supply in Great Britain, which has long 
 been the principal receiver of the raw material, not only 
 to meet her own growing demands, but to be distributed, 
 to some extent, among those European countries which 
 commercial supremacy has made tributary to her. 
 
 " Cotton planters and manufacturers are alike under 
 great obligations to Joseph Rudworth Sharp, R H. S., of 
 London, for his valuable tables, published in September 
 last, which exhibit in a clear and comprehensive manner 
 the gross amount of receipts per year, with quinquennial 
 averages, and the countries of production of the cotton 
 received in the United Kingdom, &c., from the year 1821 
 up to 1855. These tables are admirably arranged, and 
 must have cost an immense amount of labor to their com- 
 piler ; and with full acknowledgment of the very great aid 
 they have been to me, the second of them is annexed 
 hereto, as affording, in a clear and succint form, the best 
 information attainable on that subject 
 
 " It will be seen from this statement how vast has been 
 our own contribution of the raw material to Great Britain 
 and Europe generally, and how much more reliable as a 
 source of supply our cotton fields are than those of any or 
 all other countries, as their production between 1851 and 
 
136 
 
 MANUFACTUEE OF COTTON. 
 
 1855 was five times that of the East Indies; and that, 
 while during that period, all other countries exported to 
 Great Britain 937,024,276 pounds, our own sent her 
 3,424,602,024 pounds, or more than three and a half 
 times as much. 
 
 " In his first table, Mr. Sharp sets down the import 
 from the United States into the United Kingdom, in 1866, 
 at 780,040,016 pounds; that from the East Indies at 180,- 
 496,624 pounds ; and the total from all other countries 
 than the United States at 243,846,512 pounds, leaving a 
 balance in our favor of 536,193,504 pounds, and also 
 showing that in that year also we contributed more than 
 three times as much to European supply than all other 
 countries combined, while it must be remembered that 
 our domestic consumption was advancing so rapidly as to 
 require for its use 652,739 bales, which estimated at 460 
 pounds each, were equal to 293,732,550, or more than the 
 import into England that year from all other coimtries 
 than our own. 
 
 " Mr. Samuel S. Littlefield, editor of the New Orleans 
 * Price Current,' than whom there is no better informed or 
 more reliable authority on the subject of cotton and the 
 cotton trade in the Union, estimates the value of our crop 
 of 1857 at 2,931,619 bales, after making all allowances for 
 differences in their weights in different sections of the 
 country, at an average of $50 per bale, making the total 
 sum of $146,975,960. This gentleman has also furnished 
 me with much interesting information, and several valuable 
 suggestions. 
 
 " From what has been said under the various heads of 
 this report, the following conclusions as to the influence 
 of raw cotton among the nations who are our chief cus- 
 tomers for it may be drawn — 
 
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. / 137 
 
 1. "That it contributes vastly to their social well- 
 being by furnishing labor, sustenance, and cheap and com- 
 fortable clothing to many thousands of their subjects or 
 citizens. 
 
 2. " That to commerce, it contributes immensely by 
 famishing a great variety of articles, by which its ex- 
 changes are in a considerable degree regulated, and large 
 profits continually realized. That to capital, it offers the 
 means of profitable investment and returns, and aids 
 greatly in its accumulation. 
 
 3. " That its political influence arises from the fact, 
 that, by opening and extending commercial relations be- 
 tween different nations, it has created sympathies and ties 
 of common interest, which make the policy of peace and 
 its attendant blessings far more easy to maintain than was 
 once the case ; that it adds to the national wealth and re- 
 sources, and by furnishing employment and support to 
 many thousands who might otherwise be without either, 
 it makes contented those who would, through idleness or 
 suffering, become burdens to the State. 
 
 4. " That the permanent and adequate supply of raw 
 cotton thus becomes to Great Britain and Continental Eu- 
 rope a subject of vital importance, and indeed of absolute 
 necessity; and that any considerable diminution in the 
 crop of the United States would cause the gravest incon- 
 veniences, while the occurrence of any state of things 
 whereby it should be entirely cut off would be followed 
 by social, commercial, and political revulsions, the effect 
 of which can scarcely be imagined." 
 
138 
 
 MANDTACTUBE OF COTBOJT. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF COTTON BY ITS PRODUCERS. 
 
 Suggestions of S. R. Cockrill seventeen years ago, commended for 
 Reflection of Capitalists in 1866. 
 
 The spindles and looms must be brought to the cotton 
 fields. This is the true location of this powerful assistant 
 of the grower. In the West, in the East, or in the North, 
 would be better than any foreign country ; but the best lo- 
 cation is the sunny South, where the cotton grows. The 
 next best location is in the provision regions nearest the 
 South. 
 
 The inequality between the labor and capital for grow- 
 ing and that for spinning is startling. A pound of cotton, 
 ploughed, hoed, picked, ginned, baled, spun, and wove, ia 
 worth eighteen cents. The spinning and weaving, it is 
 said, can be afforded for three cents cost, which would 
 leave fifteen cents per pound for the labor of the planter, 
 supposing the cotton mill in the cotton field, and the mill 
 to get cost only ; but as three cents may be too low an 
 estimate, make it six, and then twelve cents is left for the 
 planter. But now, what does he get? Four, five, and six. 
 The question may now be asked, "Who gets the balance? 
 Allowing six cents to the grower and six cents to the 
 spinner, there will be six cents yet unaccounted for. It 
 goes to pay warehouse charges, freight, insurance, drayage, 
 storage, weighage, pickages, pressage, commissions, postage, 
 bills of lading, exchange, freight to Liverpool, dock dues, 
 freight on railroad to Manchester, and then it is at the mill, 
 and the same process brings it back, and this will fully ac- 
 count for the six cents a pound. Who pays these charges ? 
 The grower. 
 
 The growth and production of cotton are accomplished 
 by the muscles of men and mules, laboring incessantly 
 
MAJSrUFACTUEE OF COTTON. 
 
 139 
 
 eleven months in every twelve ; exposed to heat, to cold, 
 to wind, and rain, and to the malaria of swamps. 
 
 The spinning and weaving are done by the iron mus- 
 cles of the spindle and loom, driven by the never-tiring 
 engine, waited upon by boys and girls ; and this labor is 
 under roof, certain as to quantity, free from overflow, from 
 frost, from caterpillar, and from boll-worm. This simple 
 statement is e%ndence, clear and strong, that it is the grow- 
 er's labor which is now sacrificed, and greatly sacrificed. 
 A firm and determined resolution among the planters, for 
 they are the men who are suffering, and they must act for 
 themselves, can arrest this policy in a few years. An export 
 duty on "raw cotton" would insure it, but it may be ac- 
 complished without it. 
 
 Having determined that the mills must come to the cot- 
 ton, which is but one move, whilst sending the cotton to 
 the mills is a heavy annual, perpetual tax, it is proper to 
 inquire if cotton growers can get up the spindles and looms 
 among the fields. 
 
 Tlie following facts answer the question in the afl5rmar 
 tive most distinctly. We estimate the crop at 2,300,000 
 bales. The factories now in the United States require of 
 this 600,000 bales— leaving 1,700,000 for the South to spin. 
 This would require 350 mills, with 10,000 spindles each, 
 or 700 mills with 5,000 spindles each, or 3,500,000 spin- 
 dles. 
 
 Other expenses in and about the machinery. 5,000,000 
 
 Cost of Spindles. 
 
 3,500,000 spindles, with all machinery neces- 
 sary, looms, &c., at $12 
 
 700 engines and fixtures, at $8,000 
 
 $42,000,000 
 5,600,000 
 
 Total 
 
 $52,600,000 
 
140 
 
 MAXUFACTUBE OF COTTON. 
 
 The macliinery, if all purchased in one year, would cost 
 about 150,000,000. This is the only debt of importance 
 necessary to be made, and its payment can be extended 
 into ten instalments of $5,000,000 each, interest added. 
 The difference in the income of cotton growers when they 
 become spinners is so great that this debt would never be 
 felt. The 1,700,000 bales intended for the cotton-field 
 spindles, now yields an income of $40,000,000 at six cents. 
 The same cotton spun up, by the creation of the above 
 debt, by these iron muscles, will give the same growers an 
 income of $120,000,000, less the cost of spinning and 
 weaving, which would give an increase of net gain per an- 
 num nearly equal to the cost of the machinery. 
 
 One mode here suggested is, for planters, provision 
 growers, and mechanics of all the cotton States to send in 
 petitions for manufacturing companies to be chartered, upon 
 application to the Legislatures of their respective States ; 
 and also to pass an act for a general charter for all persons 
 who may associate together for manufacturing purposes, so 
 as to avoid partnerships, and limit the liability of stock- 
 holders to the loss of their subscriptions as stock 
 
 Spinning may be commenced with any number of 
 spindles, with or without looms. There is an extensive 
 demand for cotton yams, and thread is a salable manufac- 
 ture. The mills at LowbII average about 6,000 spindles 
 for each building. There is one, however, at Salem, con- 
 taining 30,000 spindles, the largest in the world under one 
 roof. The size of buildings, then, will depend upon the 
 quantity of machinery intended to be worked. A mill for 
 2,500 or 3,000 spindles, for coarse goods, will require, 
 perhaps, three rooms, twenty-five by sixty feet long ; and 
 a plan suitable for the cotton-field system, which will be in 
 the country, and where land costs nothing, and manageable 
 
MAmnFACTTJEE OF COTTON. 
 
 141 
 
 by slave labor, at comparatively no cost, is for fifteen plant- 
 ers to take $4,000 each in stock, select a site for the mill 
 near their plantations, detail three men from each, making 
 a building force of forty-five men, besides an overseer and a 
 general manager, one of the stockholders. With this force, 
 and as many teams as may be necessary, they will proceed 
 to put up three rooms of twenty-five feet by sixty feet, of 
 wood, one story bigh, of coarse, strong, undressed lumber, 
 such as tbey can readily prepare from the forest, without 
 an outlay of capital. Add at convenient distances fifteen or 
 twenty cabins, and the buildings for the mill are up. This 
 wooden, one-story plan for the cotton field possesses the 
 advantages of costing nothing, of fixing and running the 
 whole machinery upon the ground, making it more steady 
 and accessible, and avoiding wear and tear, with better 
 ventilation, less noise, and perhaps less risk from fire, 
 because it is not the walls of a mill, but the cotton about 
 machinery, which is liable to bum. 
 
 "We see no good reason why the views of Mr. Cockrill 
 may not be adopted by our planters, and we commend 
 them to the serious consideration of all our readers who 
 feel a real interest in the prosperity of the country. 
 
 We are happy to state in this place that the number of 
 cotton manufacturers in the South is now greatly on the 
 increase. Georgia seems to be taking the lead. Nearly 
 one hundred mills will be in operation in the old Empire 
 State by the first of November next. 
 
 Mississippi, too, is building large factories. About 
 twenty are already erected, and several more projected. 
 Alabama has about thirty; North Carolina, thirty-five; 
 South Carolina, twenty-five ; Tennessee, thirty-five ; Louis- 
 iana, five ; Texas and Arkansas not heard from. 
 
142 
 
 MANUFACTTJEE OF COTTON. 
 
 We do not give these numbers as absolutely correct. 
 Our statements are made from the best information we can 
 obtain. 
 
 We are going to work in good earnest, not only to re- 
 pair the waste places of the war, but to build up and im- 
 prove and prosper, and to show to the world that we can 
 be as good soldiers in peace as we are in war ; and that we 
 intend to achieve some most glorious victories on the fields 
 of labor and in the chambers of commerce. 
 
CHAPTER yni. 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. 
 
 "We lestrict the pLrase "consumption of cotton" to 
 the actual wear and tear by the millions who are compelled 
 to use it. A man of calculating mind may form some idea 
 of this immense consumption by beginning his reckoning 
 in his own family. How many yards of common domestic 
 are required to clothe a single person for a year ? Twenty- 
 five yards is not too large an estimate as a fair average for 
 old and young; adult women requiring fifty yards, and 
 small children from fifteen to thirty. How many persons 
 are there in the United States requiring cotton cloth? 
 30,000,000. Then it will require 760,000,000 yards. This 
 calculation does not include the fine cambrics, muslins, 
 laces, &c., of foreign importation. 
 
 Let us extend our calculations across the water. Let 
 us suppose that England takes annually 2,000,000 bales, or 
 900,000,000 pounds. This will make 1,800,000,000 yards 
 of cloth. A larger portion af this cloth is designed for 
 clothing, and is distributed to all parts of the world, 
 to be worn out or consumed on the backs of the needy 
 myriads. 
 
 France takes 500,000 bales, or 225,000,000 pounds. 
 She converts it mostly into fine fabrics, such as laces and 
 tiilles. Supposing one pound of cotton will make four yards 
 
CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. 
 
 of fine tissue, then it appears that France weaves 900,000,- 
 000 yards of extra fine cotton cloth, a large portion of 
 which she consumes herself ; the balance being used up 
 chiefly by England and the United States. 
 
 The usual estimate of the consumption of cotton in the 
 United States and England is from five to six pounds for 
 each person ; but we believe the estimate for the United 
 States is too low. Mr. Bowring, in his Report on the 
 German ZoUverein, states the consumption at 4^ pounds 
 to each family (or less than a pound to each person), but 
 this is certainly below the present distributive amount. The 
 estimate for France is from four to four and a half pounds 
 to each person. Dr. Dieterici, of the Statistical Bureau 
 of Berlin, estimated the consumption in Prussia, in 1806, 
 at three-fourths of a yard ; in 1841 at seven yards ; and in 
 1844, at thirteen yards; but it is now believed to amount 
 to from twenty-four to thirty yards. In Turkey and the 
 adjacent countries the consumption is estimated at from two 
 to two and a half pounds for each person. With respect to 
 India and China our knowledge is less certain. Mr. Royle, 
 in his excellent work on " The Culture and Commerce of 
 Cotton in India," informs us that some observers estimate 
 the consumption in British India at twenty pounds to each 
 individual, the aggregate consumption at 3,000,000,000 
 pounds, and the crop at 3,100,000,000. He questions the 
 correctness of this estimate ; but the cotton produced there 
 is different in quality, unclean, and badly prepared for the 
 loom, and woven into inferior fabrics which are used for 
 more varied purposes than cotton cloth is applied to in 
 other parts of the world, including not only the cloths and 
 robes of the people, but their beds and bedding, tents, 
 cords, bands, and almost every purpose to which a textile 
 material of such softness and flexibility is possibly adapted. 
 
CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. 
 
 145 
 
 The importance of this product to the people who there 
 cultivate and consume it is unquestionably great. In fact, 
 we cannot comprehend how what appear to be their 
 absolute wants could be gratified without it. While it 
 supplies their own requirements, however, in their present 
 condition, it makes but little impression upon the general 
 commerce of mankind. In this respect, the product of the 
 United States, where its extended culture does not date a 
 century back, is of the first importance, though the experi- 
 ments of the English in British India were commenced a 
 century earlier, and though the history of the culture of 
 the plant in Asiatic countries runs through thousands of 
 years. No branch of industry probably ever rose to such 
 magnitude in so brief a time. Producing a very large 
 annual supply above the actual wants of the country, and 
 of a material superior in quality to the yield of any other 
 land, the United States possesses by virtue of this crop an- 
 interest in the commerce of the world, which could not be' 
 secured by means of a product less peculiar in its nature, 
 or less intimately connected with the social condition of 
 civilized Europe. This cotton chain not only binds one 
 section of our land to the other, but unites England to ua 
 
 " With links more durable than links of steel." 
 
 English and American fabrics made from our cotton are- 
 known over the whole globe, and in the markets of China 
 and India take precedence of the products of the indigenous 
 staple, in some fabrics, not only because they are better,, 
 but because they can be purchased even there at lower 
 prices. Thus, this improved product of the soil in America, 
 aided by the inventions of Arkwright, Watt, and Whitney, 
 is even now more powerful than armies in securing the 
 advancement of civilization and enlightened liberty. Their 
 7 
 
146 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. 
 
 influences are yet to increase as the demand for cotton is 
 augmented. There must be more soil devoted to its cul- 
 ture, or that already under tillage must be improved in 
 fertility. More laborers must bend to the work, or the 
 industry now so applied must be rendered more produc- 
 tive. And none of these changes can be accomplished 
 without visible effects upon the social and political affairs 
 of mankind. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 COTTON SEED-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION— UTILITY OF SUEPLTTS 
 SEED— FOOD FOB CATTLE— MANURE— OIL— OIL-OAKES. 
 
 Pkof. Jackson lias made several analyses of cotton 
 seed, whicli, together with his remarks suggested by his 
 examination, we here present for the benefit of the reader. 
 
 His first analysis was made for the purpose of determin- 
 ing the proportion of fixed oil contained in the seed ; the 
 next was a chemical examination of the properties and 
 composition of the " oil-cake," or what remains of the seed 
 after the extraction of the oil. The third gives the true 
 elementary constitution of the oil-cake ; and the fourth, the 
 nature and proportions of the inorganic principles, or 
 mineral salts, contained in the ashes of the incinerated oil- 
 cake, and also, that of the seed before the oil was separated. 
 It will be understood by the chemist that a vast deal of 
 labor has been required to work out all these results. 
 
 Separation of the Oil. — In order to separate the 
 fixed oil, pure ether was employed, and it was found that 
 one hundred grains of the dried pulverized seeds yielded, 
 in one experiment, 39.Y, and in another 40 per cent, of 
 pure fatty oil. By pressure, 33 per cent, of oil was 
 obtained. The specific gravity of the oil obtained from 
 
148 
 
 COTTON SEED. 
 
 the ethereal solution, was 0.933, water being unity. 
 This is also the specific gravity of purified whale-oil. 
 
 Cotton-seed oil is stated, by Dr. Wood, to be a drying 
 oil ; but that obtained by Dr. Jackson does not appear to 
 possess drying properties, serving perfectly well for the 
 lucubration of machinery, and for burning in lamps, as well 
 as for making soap. It will also serve as a substitute for 
 olive oil in many cases, and perhaps may be eaten as a 
 salad oil, for it has no disagreeable odorous taste. 
 
 Chemical Examination of Oil-Cake. — Linseed oil- 
 cake is well known, both in Europe and in this country, as 
 valuable food for cattle, and as an excellent fertilizer, worth 
 from forty to forty-five dollars per ton for the latter pur- 
 pose. On examination of the cotton-seed oil-cake, it is 
 found to possess a sweet and agreeable flavor, and is much 
 more pure and clean than linseed oil-cake. One hundred 
 grains of the seed leave sixty grains of oil-cake. This 
 cake, examined for sugar, is found to contain 1.1 grains, 
 and for gum, thirty-five grains. Iodine gives no proof of 
 the existence of any starch in cotton seed, nor in the oil- 
 cake. Alcohol dissolves out the sugar, which is, like that 
 obtained from raisins, grape-sugar. Boiling water dissolves 
 the gum, and becomes very mucilaginous. The gum is 
 precipitable from the water, by means of pure alcohol. 
 
 Ultimate Analysis — Elementary Constituents of 
 THE Oil-Cake. — Carbon, 37.V40; oxygen, 39.663; nitro- 
 gen, 7.753 ; hydrogen, 5.869 ; salts (inorganic), 8.960. 
 Total, 99.985. These salts arc obtained by the .combus- 
 tion of a separate portion of the same cake. 
 
 Chemical Composition of the Salts. — Three hundred 
 grains of cotton seed burned give 16.5 grains of ashes, 
 
COTTON SEED. 
 
 149 
 
 which yield alkaline salts soluble in acids. Of the 16.5 
 grains of ashes, it is found that 9.13 grains consist of phos- 
 phate of lime. On separating the various salts, and re- 
 ducing them to their ratios, for one hundred grains of the 
 oil-cake the result is found to be as follows : 
 
 Alkaline salts, soluble in water 0.13 
 
 Pbosphate of lime ^-04 
 
 Potash 0.46 
 
 Soda 0.53 
 
 Phosphoric acid, with traces of sulphuric acid and 
 
 chlorine.... 0.81 
 
 Silica, and oxides of iron and maaganese 0.18 
 
 5.15 
 
 Loss 0.85 
 
 5.50 
 
 The foregoiag analyses of cotton seed justify and ex- 
 plain the use made of them by the Southern planters, in 
 preparing the soil with the rotted seeds as a special manure 
 for Indian corn, which draws so largely on the soil for 
 phosphates. It wiU also be seen that, since the cotton- 
 seed oil-cake contains nearly eight per cent, of nitrogen, 
 and nearly six per cent, of hydrogen, the elements of am- 
 monia are present in sufficient quantities to form about ten 
 per cent, of ammonia, a powerful stimulant to vegetation, 
 and a solvent and carrier of humus into their circulation. 
 The carbon is more than sufficient to take up all the 
 oxygen in the formation of carbonic acid, another active 
 fertilize^; and the excess of carbonaceous matter will re- 
 main and form humus, or vegetable mould, which the alka- 
 lies, soda, potash, and ammonia will, in part, dissolve and 
 carry into the circulation of plants, which possess the 
 power of approximating and converting it into their tis- 
 
150 
 
 COTTON SEED, 
 
 sues. The phosphates go ultimately to the seeds, and, in 
 Indian corn and in wheat, concentrate wholly about the 
 germs in their mucilage or "chits." Thus it is proved 
 that every ingredient of cotton-seed cake acts as a nutri- 
 ment to vegetation. 
 
 Cotton seed are greedily devoured by cattle and hogs, 
 and are found to be quite nutritive. Fresh seed may he 
 fed to cattle, but they ought to undergo partial decom- 
 position before being given to hogs. The fibre adhering 
 to the new seed seems to irritate their air-passages, ex- 
 citing cough and inflammation of the lungs, which not 
 unfrequently terminate in death. 
 
 A judicious use of cotton seed as food for animals will 
 save the planter's corn, and enable him, if he is scarce of 
 grain, to supply the demand made by his horses and mules 
 as well as his family. It must not be supposed, however, 
 fi-om what we have said, that cotton seed alone is sufficient 
 for the nourishment of cattle and hogs, or for the pro- 
 duction of good milk and good pork Nothing is equal 
 to good corn. 
 
 The usual method of applying cotton seed to the 
 ground as a manure, is to pile it in the fields in heaps of 
 ten bushels, so as to place about twenty bushels on an acre. 
 This is usually done late in the fall or early in the winter, 
 and by planting time the decomposed seed are ready for 
 use. They are usually taken by the hands and deposited 
 in the cotton drills and corn rows along with the sound 
 seed. 
 
 Cott'On-seed oil is used extensively for lubricating ma- 
 chinery. It is also consumed in lamps, but does not afford 
 as brilliant a light as coal oil. 
 
THE EOT IN COTTON. 
 
 PtATE III. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 
 I 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAIJT. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 DIBBASEB EBSTJLTnJG SOLELY FEOM INSECTS. 
 
 The cotton world is greatly indebted to Mr. T. Glover 
 for his researches into the diseases of our valuable plant. 
 We present the result of his labors without offering any 
 apology. 
 
 INSECTS FREQUENTING THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 The cotton plant furnishes food for numerous insects, 
 some of which feed exclusively upon the leaf, some upon 
 the flower, while others destroy the young buds and bolls. 
 It is my purpose to describe these insects, not in the order 
 of their classification by natural families, but according to 
 the part of the plant they most generally frequent, or to 
 which their ravages are chiefly confined. Thus, by refer- 
 ring to the parts injured, one can easily recognize the in- 
 sects, or their larvae, which attack them in any of the 
 stages of their existence. 
 
 Many of these insects at first appear in small numbers, 
 and only become formidable in the second or third gener- 
 
152 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 ation ; for instance, if a female boll-worm produce five 
 hundred moths, one-half of which are males and the other 
 half females, the next generation, if tlie increase be in the 
 same ratio, will amount^ to one hundred and twenty-five 
 thousand caterpillars or moths ; and all this is ac'com- 
 phshed in the space of a few weeks. It will therefore be 
 perceived that their destruction depends upon prompt and 
 timely action ; and planters may materially aid in carrying 
 out a work designed for their mutual benefit, by minutely 
 observing the habits and characteristics of these pests of 
 our fields, devising means for their destruction, and com- 
 municating the results of their observations and experi- 
 ments, through some appropriate channels, to the public. 
 
 Insects injurious to the cotton plant consist of those 
 very destructive to the general crops, such as the boll- 
 worm, cotton caterpillar, and some others; and those 
 which do comparatively little injury, their numbers thus 
 far not being sufficiently great to cause much damage, 
 such as the leaf-rolling caterpillar (Tortrix) and several in- 
 sects hereafter mentioned. There are still others, which 
 do not materially injure the crop itself, such as the span- 
 worm, and others which only feed upon the petals or 
 pollen of the flowers. There are also many insects found 
 m the cotton fields which do no damage whatever to the 
 plant, but merely feed upon weeds and grass growing be- 
 tween the rows, such as the caterpillar of the Argynnis 
 columbina, which feeds upon the passion-vine, and that of 
 the Zanthidia niceppe, which sometimes devours the Mary- 
 land cassia, and produces the beautiful orange-colored but- 
 terflies, seen in vast numbers hovering over moist or wet 
 places on the plantations. 
 
 A class of insects which is highly beneficial, compre- 
 hends the larvae of the lady-bird, the ichneumon flies, and 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 153 
 
 many otters, that are ever on tlie searcli for living victims 
 amongst tlie noxious tribes, and which serve to keep the 
 numbers of the latter within proper bounds. 
 
 Thus, it is highly necessary to!»be able to recognize the 
 injurious from the comparatively innocuous as well as the 
 useful insects, and I have therefore thought proper to de- 
 scribe and figure most of those which infest the cotton 
 fields, as many of them feed upon or injure the plants in 
 one State or another; and, although they may do but 
 little injury at first, yet were they to multiply as fast as 
 some others, they would eventually become as great a 
 nuisance as the boll-worm is at present. According to a 
 communication from Colonel Whitner, of Tallahassee, in 
 Florida, the latter insect was scarcely known in that region 
 before the year 1841 ; but it has since increased to such 
 an extent as to cause an immense yearly loss to the 
 planters. 
 
 Several methods of destroying insects on plantations 
 and elsewhere have been recommended, one of which is 
 the use of fire or burning torches. The innumerable 
 myriads of nocturnal moths, being attracted by the lights, 
 burn their wings as they hover around, and are either de- 
 -stroyed at once or disabled from flying about to deposit 
 their eggs in distant parts of the field. A species of lan- 
 tern has been used for entrapping such as are attracted by 
 light, and with some success. It is formed of a top, bot- 
 tom, and back, made of wood, with a glass front and sides, 
 a little more than a foot square, according to the size of 
 the glasses used. The front is supported by a pillar at 
 each corner ; on the inside of the back of the lantern is 
 fastened a tin or glass reflector. The three glazed sides 
 consist of two panes, sliding in grooves, made in the top 
 and bottom boards, and meeting in the middle at an angle 
 1* 
 
154 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 of about one hundred and twenty degrees, instead of one 
 pane, as in common lanterns. These panes can be slipped 
 in and out, so as to leave a space open between them, 
 larger or smaller as may Ije desired. A lamp is placed in 
 the centre of the bottom, protected from insects and wind 
 by a common glass chimney, which protrudes through a 
 hole in the top. All the bottom of the box inside of the 
 glass having been previously cut away, excepting a circular 
 place on which to put the lamp, it is then deposited on a 
 vessel or barrel covered with cloth, having ^n aperture 
 cut in it corresponding with the bottom of the box, and 
 the vessel beneath, containing molasses, or some other ad- 
 hesive substance. The insects which may be flying about 
 will be immediately attracted by the light, and approach 
 the angle of the panes until they shall have entered the 
 aperture, when, once within, and not being able to fly out 
 again, they will come in contact with the heated glass 
 chimney, and thus be precipitated into the vessel beneath, 
 in which they will perisli. 
 
 Another plan, which it is hoped may, upon experiment^ 
 be found applicable to the enemies of the cotton plant, has 
 lately been reported as having proved efficient as a means 
 of destroying the tobacco-worm in Florida. This worm is 
 the larva of a large moth commonly known by the name 
 of the " tobacco-fly " {Sphynx Carolina), which is in the 
 habit of feeding upon the nectar, or honey, contained in 
 flowers, over which it may often be seen in the evening, 
 poised in the air in a manner similar to that of the hum- 
 ming-bird, mating a buzzing noise with its wings, and 
 busily employed in extracting the sweets by means of its 
 long trunk. 
 
 As it had been previously observed that these moths 
 ai-e particularly fond of the Jamestown weed {Datura 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 Stramonium), a plan adopted in Florida as an effectual 
 means of destroying them, and which it is said has suc- 
 ceeded to a considerable extent, has been communicated 
 by Mr. Jesse Wood, of Mount Pleasant, in that State, 
 who says : 
 
 " About five years ago, Mr. Igdaliah Wood, of this 
 vicinity, endeavored to poison the fly that produces the 
 horn-worm, by applying a preparation of cobalt and sweet- 
 ened water to the flower of the tobacco-plant. He found 
 some difficulty in consequence of the cup of this flower not 
 being in a favorable position to retain the poison. Mr. 
 George Sunday next tried the bloom of the gourd-vine, with 
 better success. Mr. E. Johnson afterward used the James- 
 town weed, which answered the expectation of the most 
 sanguine. The preparation consists of about a pint of wa- 
 ter, a gill of molasses or honey, and an ounce of cobalt. 
 After inserting a quill through the cork of the bottle, he 
 let fall a few drops of this mixture into the cup of the 
 flower about sunset. As this poison will soon kill the 
 stalk of the Jamestown weed, the best plan is to break off 
 the blossoms, make a hole in the ground, and place them 
 in it. It is thought that the flies find them quicker than 
 when left upon the stalks. It is certain to destroy the 
 moths, although they frequently live until ten o'clock the 
 next day, notwithstanding they are disabled from flying or 
 depositing their eggs soon after taking the poison. 
 
 " I consider this discovery of immense value to tobacco 
 planters, and, if it or any similar method should lead to 
 the destruction of the cotton caterpillar and boll-worm, 
 which is highly probable would be the case, it will be of 
 incalculable benefit." 
 
 From this statement, it will be seen that, if such a plan 
 is really of utility when applied to the cotton-fly, there can 
 
156 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 be no reason why it should not answer also in regions 
 where honey-bees are not kept, for all such insects as are 
 attracted by sweet substances ; and it is to be hoped that 
 experiments will be made the ensuing season, and reported 
 for the public good. The thing to be chiefly desired now 
 is, to find out the favorite food of the particular kind of 
 insect to be destroyed; then to discover and use some 
 efficient poison for the accomplishment of the purpose. 
 If, however, birds should perish from feeding upon these 
 poisoned insects, it will somewhat militate against the ad- 
 vantages of the plan. 
 
 Several experiments were made in Florida by the writer, 
 on the utility of using arsenic, cobalt, and strychnine, as 
 means of destroying insects, some few of which succeeded, 
 while many failed. In several instances, the insects would 
 not touch the mixture at all. 
 
 Honey or sugar and rum, when rubbed on the bark of 
 trees, will attract and intoxicate several species of insects, 
 and might sometimes be advantageously used. Many 
 planters in the Southern States recommend the berries of 
 the "China-tree," or "Pride of China" {Melia azderack), 
 to be put around cabbage-plants, in order to prevent the 
 attack of the cut-worm ; and as it is already known that 
 these berries have an intoxicating effect upon the robins 
 'which eat so freely of them, they may have the same nar- 
 cotic properties when applied to insects. It is at least 
 worth while to make the experiment. Whale-oil soap, 
 mixed with water, in proper proportions, thrown upon 
 plants infested with plant-lice (Aphides), is almost certain to 
 -destroy them. Flour of sulphur is stated to be useful 
 when applied to grape-vines, or any other plants which are 
 infested with the red spider, or are attacked by a fungoid 
 growth. A mixture of a gallon of water, a gallon of whis- 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 157 
 
 key, or other spirit, and four ounces of aloes, was highly 
 recommended in Florida as a certain remedy against the 
 attacks of the orange-scale insects; but, with some who 
 have tried it, although all the insects appeared to he de- 
 stroyed, in a few weeks they reappeared, showing that the 
 wash would have to be continually repeated until all the 
 eggs under the scales had hatched and the younger broods 
 were killed. Perhaps the same mixture might be success- 
 fully used for several other kinds of insects. 
 
 But, while so many artificial modes are recom^einded 
 to accomplish the destruction of insects, planters *are^ vspry 
 apt to overlook the great daily benefits derived from other 
 agents which have been kindly provided by Nature t6 
 check their undue increase. These agents are the birds, 
 which constantly destroy them in any of their varied 
 forms— larva, pupa, or perfect insect. Mocking-birds and 
 bee-martins catch and destroy the boll-worm moth, and 
 many others, even on the wing, when the latter first appear 
 upon the plantations, and thus materially diminish their 
 numbers. If the fields are ploughed in the fall, maay in- 
 sects and chrysalides, which would otherwise come out in 
 safety in the spring, are turned to the top of the farrow- 
 shce, and either fall a prey to the ever-busy birds, or perish 
 from exposure to the wintry frosts. 
 
 The nimble and graceful lizards of the South also act 
 beneficially to the planter, as they are constantly on the 
 alert, and catching every insect that chances to alight in 
 their way. Toads, also, do much good, as they wander 
 principally during the morning and evening hours, as well 
 as in cloudy weather, and entrap insects by means of their 
 viscid tongues. Such benefactors as these should be pre- 
 served, and not injured or killed as they often are. One 
 pair of wrens or blue-birds, in a Northern garden, or of 
 
158 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 mocking-birds on a Southern plantation, will accomplish 
 more in destroying insects injurious to vegetation than can 
 be imagined by one who has not studied their habits, or 
 watched them with attention, when busily engaged in 
 searching under every lea:^ or in every fissure of the bark, 
 for their insect prey. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND UPON THE STALKS. 
 The Cut-Worm. 
 
 I have not been able this year (1855) to procure speci- 
 mens of the worms which cut off the young plants early in 
 the season, as I arrived in the region of cotton-fields after 
 their ravages had ceased ; but, from the authority of able 
 and scientific plantere, I am induced to believe that they are 
 very similar in habits and appearance to many of the cut- 
 worms of the gardens, which penetrate the earth close to a 
 plant, and at night emerge from their retreats to gnaw it 
 off at or near the ground. 
 
 A gentleman in Florida, who had been troubled with 
 this pest, informed me that a particular spot of four or five 
 acres in his field had been literally thronging with cut- 
 worms, so that most of the plants were either eaten off or 
 destroyed, and that, finally, fearing the loss of his whole 
 crop, he turned into the enclosure some twenty or thirty 
 young pigs, which soon discovered the worms, rooted them 
 \xp in great numbers, and fattened on the unaccustomed 
 .diet. The cotton was not injured, as the pigs were too 
 young to root deep enough to destroy the plants. The pigs 
 remained where the worms were to be found, never troub- 
 ling any other portions of the field, and their strong powers 
 of scent enabled them to detect their insect prey even when 
 buried in the earth. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAOT. 
 
 Should the moths of this cut-worm he like those of 
 their congeners of the North, and attracted hy Ught, it 
 might be well to use a lantern like that already de- 
 scribed, or to ascertain the favorite substance upon which 
 they feed, and poison them, as suggested in the case of the 
 tobacco-fly. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND ON THE LEAF. 
 
 The Cotton-Louse. — {Aphis ?) 
 
 When the cotton-plant is very young and tender it is 
 particularly subject to the attacks of the cotton-louse, 
 which, by means of its piercer, penetrates the outer coat- 
 ing, or parenchyma, of the leaf or tender shoots, and sucks 
 the sap from the wound. The under part of the leaves or 
 young shoots are the places mostly selected, and the con- 
 stant punctures and consequent drainage of sap enfeebles 
 the plant and causes the leaf to curl up, turn yellow, and 
 subsequently fall to the ground. The young lice are ex- 
 tremely minute, and of a greenish color ; but when they 
 become older, they are about a tenth of an inch in length, 
 and often dark green; but in some instances they are 
 almost black. It is conjectured that the color somewhat 
 depends upon the health of the plant as well as that of the 
 insect, or perhaps upon their food, as I have seen green 
 and black lice promiscuously feeding upon the same plant. 
 The female produces her young ahve throughout the sum- 
 mer, when she may often be seen surrounded by her nu- 
 merous progeny, sucking the juice from the leaves, and still 
 producing young. Some naturalists state that the females, 
 late in the fall, produce eggs for the generation of the next 
 spring. If so, it is in order to preserve the species, as the 
 
160 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAOT. 
 
 insects themselves are easily killed by frost and cold ; and 
 their increase would be incalculable were it not tliat Nature 
 has provided many enemies among the insect tribes to 
 prevent their too rapid multiplication. Both males and 
 females are said to possess wings at certain seasons ; but 
 the females and young in summer appear to be wingless. 
 The end of the abdomen of both sexes is provided with 
 two slender tubes, rising like horns from the back, from 
 which often exudes "the honey-dew," or sweet gummy 
 substance, seen sticking to the upper sides of the leaves 
 beneath them, and which forms the favorite food of myriads 
 of ants. Although young plants are mostly attacked, yet 
 I have seen old " stands " in Georgia, with their young 
 shoots, completely covered with this pest as late as No- 
 vember. 
 
 The principal insects that destroy the aphides are the 
 lady-bird, the lace-fly and the syrphus, all of which wagf 
 incessant war upon them, and devour all they can find. 
 Another fly, the ichneumon, likewise lays an egg in the 
 body of the louse, which, hatching into a grub, devoiKrp 
 the inside of the still living insect until it eventually dies, 
 clinging to the leaf even in death, and the fly makes it? 
 appearance from the old skin of the aphis. 
 
 When old cotton-plants are suffering from the attacks 
 of the louse, many planters cause their tops to be cut off" 
 and burned, and by so doing partially succeed in destroy- 
 ing them ; yet, when we consider that, by this method, 
 many young blossoms and "forms" must likewise be 
 destroyed, it must be confessed that the remedy is almost 
 as bad as the disease. In a garden or green-house, a solu- 
 tion of whale-oil soap, from a syringe, showered upon the 
 upper and under parts of the foliage, has been used with 
 much advantage ; yet, upon the extended scale of a cotton 
 
Magnified. 
 
 COTTON LOUSE. 
 
 Magnified. 
 
 Old Boll attacked, and old Worm. Young Boll attacked. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE COTTON PLANT. Plate IV. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 161 
 
 plantation, such a remedy is altogether impracticable, and, 
 until we can collect further information upon this subject 
 from intelligent planters, we must rest content with the 
 instinct of our insect allies. 
 
 Geasshoppers. — (Locusta ?) 
 
 Grasshoppers, or, more properly speaking, " locusts," 
 occasionally do much damage to young cotton-plants, as 
 they not only feed upon the tender leaves, but have been 
 caught in the very act of devouring the petals of the 
 flowers in the fields of Georgia, as late as the month of 
 November ; but, as at this time the grass on which they 
 usually feed abounds between the rows, the damage done 
 by them to the general crop is but slight. 
 
 Several species of grasshoppers, or locusts, infest old 
 cotton and grass fields, some of them being of large size 
 and possessing great powers of flight. It may, however, 
 be observed, that the true locust is not the insect generally 
 known by that name in the United States, which is in 
 reality a harvest-fly {Cicada), usually inhabiting trees, 
 where it makes an incessant buzzing noise which may be 
 heard at a great distance during the summer and autumnal 
 evenings. The shape of the harvest-fly is much clumsier 
 and broader than that of the real locust, and the under- 
 wings are not folded up like a fan, under a wing-case, but 
 transparent, stiff, and veined. 
 
 The real locust is similar to the grasshopper in shape, 
 but the body is more robust, the antenna3 shorter, and its 
 flight much longer and more vigorous. Its under-wings, 
 also, when at rest, are folded up in fan-like plaits under 
 the outer-wing covers. Grasshoppers and locusts are pro- 
 duced from eggs as perfect insects, with legs and antennae. 
 
162 DISEASES or THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 They are able to run about and leap witb great agility, but 
 are entirely destitute of the rudiments of wings, except in 
 the pupa state. It is only the perfect insects whicb are 
 able to perpetuate their kind. They are generally fur- 
 nished with ample wings, which enable them to fly from 
 field to field. Grasshoppers and locusts do much harm, 
 wben very numerous, to grass and vegetables, and even to 
 firuit-trees, as well as to cotton. Turkeys, ducks, and 
 other fowls feed upon tbem with great avidity, and are 
 very useful in diminishing their numbers. In some of the 
 Northern States, they have been destroyed by means of 
 sheets spread upon poles, so as to sweep them into a bag 
 fastened behind, which is drawn over the fields infested 
 by them ; they are then killed by means of boiling water 
 or fire. 
 
 The Leaf-Hoppee. — [Tettigonia ?) 
 
 The leaves of the cotton-plant are often injured by the 
 leaf-hopper. This small insect is found upon the plant in 
 the larva, pupa, and perfect state. In all these forms, it 
 sucks the sap from the leaf, causing small diseased and 
 whitish-looking spots, much disfiguring the foliage, and 
 injuring the plant itself, when the insects are very numer- 
 ous. They are also found in great numbers on grape- 
 vines, in Florida, and injure the foliage to a considerable 
 degree. 
 
 The perfect insects are very small, measuring only from 
 one-tenth to three-twentieths of an inch in length. The 
 head is somewhat crescent-shaped, of a green color, with 
 two red spots on the upper surface. The thorax is also 
 green, with two crescentr-shaped spots of red on each side 
 of a small red spot in the centre. The wing-cases are 
 green, with two stripes or bands of red, running parallel 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 163 
 
 down each wing-case, from the thorax to the upper margin, 
 where they form an acute angle. The legs are yellowish- 
 green, the hinder pair being much longer than the others, 
 and furnished with bristles on the tibia. In the larva 
 state, they are able to leap with great agility ; but it is 
 only in the perfect state that they are able to fly, the 
 under-wings being hidden by the wing-cases, and not per- 
 fectly developed in the larvae or pupse. There are several 
 species of these insects found upon cotton, which it will 
 not be necessary here to describe, as their natural history 
 and habits are nearly the same. 
 
 In using the lantern already described, it was found 
 that thousands of these small insects were attracted from 
 some grape-vines in an adjoining field. The use of fires 
 or lights may therefore be recommended to destroy them, 
 when they become very numerous, although, as regards 
 the cotton, they are not often found on it in numbers suf- 
 ficient to do much harm. 
 
 The Cotton Caterpillar. — {Noctua zylina.) 
 
 The leaves of the plant are sometimes entirely devoured 
 by what is commonly known to planters as the " cotton 
 caterpillar," or " cotton army-worm." It does not appear 
 every year in immense numbers, but at uncertain intervals. 
 This season (1855), it first made its appearance in the 
 vicinity of Tallahassee about the month of August, on the 
 plantation of Mr. Hunter, and then spread gradually 
 through the rest of the plantations in that region. In 
 October, it had already committed considerable ravages in 
 several of the cotton-fields, not so severe, however, as had 
 been anticipated, though the crops on several plantations 
 were somewhat injured. 
 
164 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 The perfect insect, or fly, when at rest, is of a triangular 
 shape, the head forming one and the extremities of the 
 wings the other two angles. The color of the upper-wings 
 is reddish-gray, a dark spot with a whitish centre appear- 
 ing in the middle of each. The under-wings are of a dark 
 reddish-gray. The moth of this caterpillar loses much of 
 its grayish cast when it becomes older, and the down has 
 been rubbed from the wings. It then assumes more of a 
 reddish tinge. 
 
 The perfect flies, or moths, are easily attracted by 
 lights, and may be found resting in the daytime on the 
 walls or ceilings of rooms, attracted there, no doubt, by 
 the candles or lamps on the evening before. If undisturbed, 
 they will remain motionless during the day ; but, as night 
 approaches, they fly off" with much vigor and strength. 
 When in the open air, they may be found among and under 
 the leaves of the cotton-plant, as well as those of the weeds 
 which surround the plantation. The eggs are deposited 
 principally on the under sides of the leaves, but often upon 
 the outer calyx ; and I have even found them, when very 
 numerous, upon the stem itself. 
 
 Wherever these caterpillars were very abundant, I 
 counted from ten to fifteen eggs on a single leaf, which are 
 very small, and difficult to be distinguished from the leaves 
 themselves, on account of their green color. In shape, the 
 eggs are round and flat, and, when examined under a 
 microscope, they appear regularly furrowed or ribbed. 
 Their color, when freshly deposited, is of a beautiful semi- 
 transparent sea-green. They are closely attached to the 
 leaf on which they are laid- I am thus particular to state 
 this, because, in an able article published some time ago, 
 it was alleged that "the egg is fixed upon the leaf by a 
 small filament attached by a glutinous substance." This 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAOT. 
 
 165 
 
 mistake might the more easily be made by any person 
 who had not himself observed the eggs when hatching, as 
 that of the lace -wing fly is held by such a filament, and, 
 moreover, is found in smiilar situations on the leaves, but 
 generally with or near a colony of plant lice, where the 
 instinct of the parent lace-wing fly teaches it to deposit its 
 eggs, and thus provide for a supply of fresh food for the 
 young larvae, which feed upon and destroy millions of the 
 cotton-lice. There is a great diff"erence also between the 
 eggs of the caterpillar moth and those of the boll-worm 
 moth, the first being, as before stated, round and flattened 
 in shape, and green in color, whereas those of the boll- 
 worm moth are not flat, but more of an ovoid shape, and 
 of a dirty-yellowish tinge. I cannot state exactly what 
 time is required to hatch the eggs after they have been 
 laid by the parent fly, as I could not succeed in procuring 
 any from the moths hatched and kept in confinement, 
 although carefully preserved for the purpose. Dr. Capers 
 says that it requires from fourteen to twenty days ; but the 
 eggs I found in the fields invariably hatched within a week 
 from the time they were brought into the house. How- 
 ever, this must depend a great deal upon the state of the 
 atmosphere and the warmth of the season. The young 
 caterpillars, when hatched, very soon commence feeding 
 upon the parenchyma, or soft, fleshy part of the leaves, and 
 continue to do so until they become suflnciently large and 
 strong enough to eat the leaf itself. They are able to 
 suspend themselves by a silken thread when shaken from 
 the plant. They change their skins several times before 
 attaining their full growth, when they measure from one 
 and a half to nearly two inches in length. The first brood 
 of caterpillars, in August and September, were all of a green 
 color, with narrow, longitudinal, light stripes along each 
 
166 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 side of their bodies, and two broader ligbt-yellowish 
 stripes along each side of their backs, down the centre of 
 each of which was one distinct, narrow, hght-colored line. 
 Each of the broader bands was marked with two black 
 spots on each segment ; and on each segment of the sides 
 were three or more dark dots. The head was yellowish- 
 green, spotted with black. The caterpillars of the second 
 and third generations are of a much darker color than 
 those of the first ; their under parts are more of a yellowish- 
 green, and their sides sometimes of a purple cast; their 
 backs are black, with three distinct light-colored lines 
 running down their length ; and their heads are also darker, 
 and of a yellowish-brown, spotted with black. 
 
 The question naturally arises, What causes this 
 change of color in the latter part of the season, since the 
 moths hatched from the lightest and darkest caterpillars 
 prove to be exactly the same ? Several planters attribute 
 it to the influence of the sun, or to the food upon which 
 they subsist ; but this can scarcely be the case, as I have 
 often observed individual caterpillars, evidently of the 
 second or third generation, of the lightest green color, 
 amongst a crowd of the black worms on the same leaf, as 
 late as October, and exposed to the same influences of the 
 sun. 
 
 These insects appear to multiply to the greatest extent 
 in damp, cloudy weather. When the older caterpillars are 
 suddenly touched, they have the habit of doubling them- 
 selves up and springing to a distance of several times their 
 length ; but when imdisturbed, and not feeding, they appear 
 to rest on the leaf with the fore part of the body elevated 
 and somewhat curved, whereas, sometimes they keep up a 
 species of swinging or jerking motion from side to side, 
 as if enjoying the heat of the sun. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 167 
 
 This caterpillar is farnislied with six pectoral, eight 
 ventral, and two anal feet, of which, however, the two an- 
 terior ventral ones are imperfect, small, and apparently use- 
 less, so that its mode of progression somewhat resembles 
 that of the span-worm, or looper, of the North, elsewhere 
 described. 
 
 In fifteen or twenty days after the caterpillar has at- ■ 
 tained its full size it ceases to feed. It then doubles down 
 the edge of a leaf, and fastens it with its own silk to the 
 main part of the same leaf, or by webbing several leaves 
 together, forming thereby a very loosely-spun cocoon. In 
 this, it transforms into a chrysalis, which at first is green, 
 but in a short time after changes to a chestnut-brown, or 
 even to almost black. 
 
 The first brood I raised were fifteen days in the chrys- 
 alis state before making their appearance as perfect moths ; 
 but, as this happened in a cold room and screened from 
 the sun, I am of the opinion that, when they are exposed 
 to a warm sun in the open fields, the time must necessarily 
 be much shorter. I raised one caterpillar late in the fall, 
 which was even thirty days before emerging from its 
 cocoon ; but this I attributed entirely to the cold weather 
 and non-exposure to the sun. This fact would tend to 
 show that the hatching of the chrysalis may be delayed, 
 by peculiar circumstances, until long after the natural 
 time. 
 
 The tail of the chrysalis is furnished with several small 
 hooks, bent inward, by means of which it is enabled to 
 hold fast to the loose web of which the cocoon is formed, 
 while emerging from the chrysalis skin, or, in case of acci- 
 dent, to prevent it from falling out of the cocoon during 
 the prevalence of strong winds. 
 
 There have been many speculations regarding the 
 
168 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 origin and periodical visits of this moth. In 1843 Mr. 
 Whitefnarsh B. Seabrook read a " Memoir on the Cotton- 
 Plant" before the State Agricultural Society in South 
 Carolina, in which he says, " That the cotton moth sur- 
 vives the winter is nearly certain ; an examination of the 
 neighboring woods, especially after a mild winter, has 
 been often successfully made for that purpose. They 
 were seen by the writer in May last, in the edge of a belt 
 of pines, within a few yards of a cotton-field. In the 
 winter of 1825, Benjamin Reynolds, of St. John's, Colle- 
 ton, found them in the woods, principally on the cedar- 
 bush, incased alive in their cover, impervious to water, 
 and secured to a twig by a thread. The pupae, wrapped 
 in cotton leaves, from their bleak exposure, invariably die 
 on the approach of cold weather." 
 
 From what was stated to me by some of the best 
 planters in Florida last summer, it would seem that this 
 caterpillar appears on their plantations more or less, 
 almost, if not every year, and sometimes in a most un- 
 accountable manner. Mr. E. Richards, of Cedar Keys, 
 furnishes a statement which would seem to prove that it 
 is migratory in its habits, as there is no other method of 
 accounting for its sudden presence, except that, having 
 previously existed on some other plant or weed, it had 
 left it for food more congenial to its taste, although it has 
 been asserted that the real caterpillar will eat nothing but 
 cotton. He says : " The last of July, 1 845, these cater- 
 pillars made their appearance in a small field of three or 
 four acres of sea island cotton, planted on "Way Key, as 
 an experiment to see if cotton could be advantageously 
 cultivated on the Keys, no other cotton having been pre- 
 viously planted within eighty miles of them ; but the 
 whole crop was devoured. The caterpillar was at the 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 169 
 
 same time destroying the cotton in tlie interior of the 
 country." 
 
 In a statement made this season by Mr. William Mun- 
 roe, of Gadsden county, Florida, to the Agricultural De- 
 partment of the Patent Office, he appears to think sea 
 island cotton not so liable to be attacked as the short 
 staple, when the two varieties are planted together. In 
 his letter he says : " I observed, when I had two fields of 
 cotton adjoining, the one short staple and the other sea 
 island, and the cotton caterpillars made their appearance, 
 that they always destroyed the short-staple cotton first. 
 Four years ago my crop was destroyed by the worm, and 
 at that time they ate every green leaf on the short-staple 
 cotton before they attacked the sea island. This year 
 (1855) my short-staple crop was destroyed by the worm,, 
 on the Appalachicola river, and I observed that after the 
 short-staple crop was all eaten, several sea island stalks in 
 the field, at a little distance, seemed to be uninjured ; but, 
 upon close examination, it was found that the woi-m had 
 just commenced upon them. My impression, from the 
 above observation is, that if we in this country were to 
 confine ourselves to the production of the sea island cotton, 
 the attack of the caterpillar would be much less fi-equent,, 
 or would probably altogether cease." 
 
 In regard to the periodical visitations of these cater- 
 pillars. Dr. Capers remarks that their first appearance, as 
 destroyers of cotton, was in the year 1800, and that m 
 j 1804 the crops were almost destroyed by them. A snow- 
 i storm occurred, however, and swept them away ; but they 
 I were found the succeeding seasons, though in smaller num- 
 bers. In 1825 they were spreading, but perished again by 
 a storm. In 1826 they destroyed the crops. The first 
 notice of them in this year was on the first of August, at 
 8 
 
170 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 St. Helena. Soon after they were found on all the sea- 
 coast, from New Orleans to North Carolina. On the 23d 
 of the same month they had destroyed almost all the cot- 
 ton leaves, but suddenly left the plant, though not for the 
 purpose of webbing, as many of them were young. The 
 cause of their sudden disappearance is stated to have been 
 that they were too much exposed to the powerful effects 
 of the sun, in consequence of the plants being nearly des- 
 titute of foliage, and not protecting them from its direct 
 rays. 
 
 Colonel Benjamin F. Whitner, of Tallahassee, has also 
 written an interesting article on the depredations of this 
 caterpillar in that vicinity. "In 1835," says he, "the 
 crops were entirely exempt from the ravages of the cater- 
 pillar. In 1836 it appeared by the first of October, but 
 did no harm. In 1837 no mention is made of it. These 
 notes were made in Madison county, Florida." 
 
 Colonel Whitner then moved to Leon county, in the 
 same State, where, in 1838, the caterpillar appeared early 
 in August. The second brood stripped the plants by the 
 20th of September, and were so numerous that, after de- 
 vouring the entire foliage, they barked the limbs and 
 stalks, and ate out bolls nearly grown. In 1839 they 
 were less numerous, and appeared late. In 1840 they 
 came out from the 15th to the 20th of July, and, by the 
 6th of September, the plants were stripped of their leaves 
 and young bolls, so that the entire crop was less than half 
 of the average of other years. In 1841 this caterpillar 
 was seen in Madison county from the 15th to the 20th of 
 August, and in Leon county between the 20th of August 
 and the 1st of September. The loss was serious, com- 
 prising probably one-fifth of the crop. In 1842 no dam- 
 age was done. In 1843 they appeared near Tallahassee 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 171 
 
 on the 1st of August, and plantations were stripped by the 
 15th of September. The crop was cut off from one-third 
 to two-fifths by the caterpillar and storm. In 1844 the 
 cottoh-worm was found webbed up on the 13th of July, 
 and by the 15th of September some plantations were en- 
 tirely denuded ; yet, in other parts of the county, the rav- 
 ages were only partial. In 1845 there was no appearance 
 of the caterpillar. In 1846 it was found webbed up by 
 the 7th of July. The second brood began to web up on 
 the 26th of that month ; and by the 20th, the parts of the 
 field in which the worm was first seen were found to be 
 eaten out, and the fly, the worms, large and small, and the 
 chrysalides, were discovered at the same time, a state of 
 things never observed before. By the 5th of September 
 the damage amounted to a loss of more than one-half of 
 the crop. In 1847, although the fly was seen on the 16th 
 of July, no injury was done to the crop. In 1848 it was 
 but slightly injured ; but the year 1849 was particularly 
 marked by the ravages of the caterpillar, as well as that 
 of 1852. 
 
 Colonel Whitner fiirther observes that these worms 
 appear in successive broods, and accomplish the cycle of 
 their transformations in from twenty-six to thirty days, 
 which has also been corroborated by others. 
 
 A caterpillar hatched from the egg, under my own in- 
 spection, however, passed twenty days before webbing up ; 
 but as it had been kept in confinement in a cold room, 
 most probably the growth was not so rapid as it would 
 have been in the open air and exposed to the warmth of 
 the sun. The skin was shed five times during the period 
 of its growth, and on the twentieth day the caterpillar her 
 gan its web. 
 
 In a very interesting communication from Mr. E. N. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAITT. 
 
 Fuller, of Edisto island, South Carolina, te describes the 
 depredations of the caterpillar in his neighborhood as 
 follows : 
 
 " In 1840, I discovered their ravages, confined to the 
 luxuriant portions of the fields near the sea-coast of this 
 island. The larvae were destroyed in the latter part of 
 September. In 1843 they were first heard of by the 1st 
 of September, when their ravages, limited as in 1840, 
 were quite perceptible at some distance. A frost on the 
 18th of that month probably destroyed them. In 1846 
 they appeared on the 20th of July ; and by the 10th of 
 September, I suppose there was scarcely a cotton leaf or 
 any tender portion of the plants remaining, and the worms, 
 not fully grown, deserted the ravaged fields by millions in 
 search of food, failing to find which they died from starva- 
 tion. The crop of this island was about forty per cent, of 
 an average one. In 1849 the caterpillars made their first 
 appearance on the 22d of August ; their ravages this year 
 being confined to the low spots, caused no injury of 
 moment. In 1852 they were found on the 10th of Au- 
 gust about forty miles to the southward, and on this island 
 about the 20th of the same month. They disappeared 
 here, however, without doing injury. 
 
 " Thus they have appeared at regular intervals of three 
 years. In 1855, when they were again looked for, an in- 
 tense drought from the early part of July was sufficient to 
 prevent their increase, had they made their appearance. 
 The old planters say that m 1804 and in 1825 they ap- 
 peared as in 1846 ; that is, in periods of twenty-one years. 
 
 " As near as I can judge, not having made any record, 
 the length of time from the hatching of the egg to the 
 chrysaUs is twelve days ; remaining four days in the chrys- 
 ahs state, and six days more to the hatching of the egg. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 1Y3 
 
 This seems to be the case in a season of moisture and 
 heat, without which their progress probably would be 
 more slow." 
 
 Among the many remedies recommended for this fly, 
 or moth, fires and lights in the fields have been highly 
 spoken of as attracting and destroying the miller. But 
 even this may have its disadvantages, as Colonel Whitner, 
 who has tried it, states that "it not only attracts the files 
 from other plantations, but that multitudes of moths per- 
 ished in the fiames." An article likewise appeared iiv', 
 some of the Southern papers, not long since, recommeni*^ 
 ing white cotton flags about a yard square, to be placpdc? 
 in the field, by which the moths are attracted, and upj^n- 
 which they deposit their eggs. Plates similar to those 
 recommended for the boll-worm have also been used with 
 partial success. But to destroy this pest, it will be neces^ 
 sary to ascertain exactly the date of the appearance of the 
 first moths, and then to exterminate them in the best man- 
 ner, and as quickly as possible. Could not some favorite 
 aliment be found on which the moth prefers to feed, as in 
 the case of the tobacco-fiy, and then poison them with 
 some effective agent ? Tliis would at once rid the fields 
 of the first broods of moths, the progeny of which, in the 
 second and third generations, might devastate half the fer- 
 tile plantations of the South. 
 
 The Grass Caterpillar. 
 
 Another insect, which is often found in cotton fields, 
 and mistaken for the real cotton caterpillar, is commonly 
 known by the trivial name of the " grass-worm " or " cater- 
 pillar," owing to the circumstance of its most natural food 
 consisting of grass and weeds, although, when pressed by 
 hunger, it will sometimes eat the leaf of the cotton plant. 
 
174: DISEASES OP THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 These caterpillars were very numerous in the vicinity 
 of Columbus, in Georgia, about the end of September and 
 the beginning of October, 1854. They devoured grass, 
 young grain, and almost every green thing which came in 
 their path. Instances have been known in which, urged 
 as they were by necessity and starvation, they actually de- 
 voured stacks of fodder that were stored away for winter 
 consumption. Deep ditches cut in the earth to stop them 
 were immediately filled up by the multitudes which fell in 
 and perished, while eager millions still rushed over the 
 trembling and half-living bridge, formed by the bodies of 
 their late companions, bent on their mission of destruction 
 and devastation. 
 
 These caterpillars do no essential injury to the cotton, 
 especially when weeds abound, as they content themselves 
 with the grass growing between the rows ; and, unless very 
 numerous, they cannot be classed among those doing much 
 harm to the general crop, and are mentioned here princi- 
 pally as having been so frequently mistaken for the real 
 cotton caterpillar. When pressed by necessity, however, 
 as has already been stated, they will feed upon cotton 
 leaves. I raised about thirty of them upon this food alone, 
 merely as an experiment, and they grew and perfected 
 their transformations, although appearing to prefer a grass 
 diet if it could be obtained. When about to change, they 
 formed cocoons of silk under stones or in the ground near 
 the surface, interwoven with particles of earth, and came out 
 perfect moths from the 24th to the 30th of October ; and, 
 as these specimens were kept in a room without artificial 
 heat, I conjectured that those in the open fields would ap- 
 pear about the same time. 
 
 At a plantation in the vicinity of Columbus, where the 
 caterpillars were very numerous, and had already devoured 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 175 
 
 all the grass oa one side of a field, which was divided into 
 two equal parts by a broad and sandy carriage-road passing 
 through the centre of it, the grass on the other side having 
 been untouched, it was interesting to observe the opera- 
 tions of numerous colonies of ants that had formed their 
 holes or nests in the road, and were lying in wait for any 
 unfortunate grass-wom, the natural desire of which for a 
 fresh supply of food should tempt it to cross this danger- 
 ous path. First, one ant more vigilant than the rest would 
 rush to the attack; then another, and another, until the 
 poor caterpillar, entirely covered by its pigmy foes, and 
 completely exhausted in strength by its unavailing efforts 
 to escape, was finally obliged to succumb to superior num- 
 bers and die as quietly as possible, when the carcass was 
 immediately carried off by the captors to their nests, or, 
 when too heavy "to be dragged away at once, they fed upon 
 it as it lay in the road. This warfare was carried on every 
 day as long as the grass-worms prevailed, and no doubt 
 their numbers were diminished in this way to a consider- 
 able extent. 
 
 The grass-caterpillara, when in confinement, very often 
 kill and devour each other ; and, when one is maimed in 
 the least, it stands a very poor chance for its life. Several 
 intelligent planters state that, when the gTass and weeds 
 are entirely devoured, and no other vegetable food is to be 
 found, they will attack each other and feed upon the still 
 living and writhing bodies of their former companions. 
 One grass-caterpillar which was kept in confinement, al- 
 though furnished with an abundance of green food, actually 
 appeared to prefer to feed upon other caterpillars, no mat- 
 ter of what kind, so long as their bodies were not defended 
 by long, bristling hairs, or spines. 
 
 The grass-caterpillar is from an inch and a half to an 
 
176 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 inch and three-quarters in length. A longitudinal light- 
 brownish line runs doAvn the centre, and two yellow lines 
 along each side of the hack, which is somewhat veined 
 with black lines, and is of a dark color, marked with black 
 spots, from each of which grows a short bristle, or hair. 
 Below these yellow stripes, the sides are of a dark color, 
 almost black ; beneath this, extends a light-colored line, in 
 which the spiracles are placed ; the lower part of the body 
 is of a dirty green, spotted with black ; the head is black, 
 marked with two lines of a yellowish color, forming an 
 angle on the top ; the body is somewhat hairy. This 
 caterpillar has six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal feet. 
 
 The above description applies only to the brightest- 
 colored specimens of the grass-worm, as they vary much in 
 color and markings, some of them being almost black, and 
 showing indiscriminately their stripes. The chrysalis is 
 brownish black, and is formed in a cocoon of silk under 
 the ground, the sand and small pebbles being so interwoven 
 with it as to cause the whole cocoon to appear like an 
 ovoid ball of earth ; but it is never found webbed up in 
 the leaves, as is the case with the true cotton-caterpillar, 
 already described. The moth measures about an inch and 
 one-fifth across the wings, when they are expanded ; the 
 upper wings are gray, slightly clouded with a darker color, 
 and a lighter spot or ring is faintly seen in the centre ; the 
 under-wing-3 are of a yellowish white, shaded with gray 
 along the margin, near the upper-wings. 
 
 Specimens of these caterpillars were brought to me 
 when at Savannah, in Georgia, and they were suspected to 
 have injured the rice in that vicinity in the month of June. 
 Colonel Whitner, of Tallahassee, speaks of the grass-cater- 
 pillar as having stripped fields of grass, in 1845, and also 
 as attacking the com, sugar-cane, and upland rice. It has 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. ITT 
 
 likewise been said that an insect similar, if not identical 
 with the grass-caterpillar, destroys the leaves of the sweet 
 potato. Thus it appears to he almost omnivorous, and 
 not choice in its selection of food, like the true cotton 
 caterpillar, which is believed to confine itself to the cotton 
 plant alone. 
 
 The grass-worm cannot be classed among those insects 
 very injurious to cotton, although instances have been 
 known where it has destroyed the foliage to some extent. 
 It is more especially mentioned here as being found in 
 cotton fields, and often confounded with the true cotton 
 caterpillar. The difference, however, is more plainly de- 
 scribed under the head of the latter. 
 
 The same remedies are applicable to this insect as have 
 been suggested for the boll-worm caterpillar, or any other 
 night-flying moth. 
 
 The Red Spider. — (Acarus?) 
 
 Much injury is done to the cotton leaf by a minute red 
 spider, which presents very much the appearance of in- 
 cipient rust, except that the leaf is of a more rusty brown 
 in spots, instead of the bright yellow of the real rust. This 
 red spider principally attacks the under side of the leaf, the 
 spots caused by its punctures turning brown, and finally in- 
 creasing until it is completely stung all over, and falls from 
 the plant. 
 
 This insect is extremely minute, and when on the leaf 
 it can scarcely be discerned by the naked eye. Some of 
 the young appear to be of a greenish cast ; but when they 
 are advanced in age the abdomen assumes a dark crimson 
 shade, with darker maroon spots upon its upper surface. 
 The legs, which are hairy, are eight in number. 
 
 This family of the mites {Acari) do much injury to 
 8* 
 
/ 
 
 178 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 vegetable life, as they are so extremely minute as to escape 
 the notice of the superficial observer. When they iafest 
 grape-houses, or rose-busbes, it bas been recommended to 
 dust the leaves while moist with flowers of sulphur. 
 
 The Drop or Hang Worm. — (CEceticus ?) 
 
 The " drop-worm," as it is commonly called, is occa- 
 sionally found upon the cotton leaf, but generally infests 
 the arbor-vitse, larch, and hemloct-spruce. It is also found 
 upon many of the deciduous-leaved trees, such as the lin- 
 den, negundo, and maple. Dr. Harris states that the fe- 
 male worm never quits her case, but lays her eggs in the 
 skin of the chrysalis, in which she herself also remains until 
 the eggs are all deposited, when she closes the end with 
 down, and crawls out of the case and dies. These eggs 
 being hatched, the young worms, after they are hatched, 
 make little silken cocoons, open at both ends, and are cov- 
 ered with fi-agments of leaves, twigs, etc., in which they 
 ■conceal themselves, and drag them about wherever they 
 move. These cases are enlarged as the insects increase in 
 size, and are still carried about by the worms. When they 
 change their places, they protrude their heads, the first 
 three segments of the body, and six legs, from one end of 
 the case ; but when the insects wish to rest, each case is 
 fastened by a few threads to the leaf or branch, and they 
 retreat within. When shaken from the tree by an accident 
 or by high winds, the worms are able to suspend them- 
 selves by means of small threads, and hang in the air ; 
 hence the name. When young, they are often blown from 
 tree to tree, and thus carried to a considerable distance 
 from the place where they were hatched. 
 
 The males and their cases are much smaller than those 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. ITS 
 
 of the females, the worm being only about an inch in 
 length. The first three segments of the body are whitish, 
 marked with black hnes and spots ;. the segments where 
 they join are brownish; the head is marked with wavy 
 hnes of black on a white ground ; the rest of the body is 
 of a dirty, blackish green. It has six pectoral feet, by 
 means of which it moves from leaf to leaf, with its body 
 and case, the latter either perpendicularly suspended in the 
 air or dragged by the worm from behind. There are eight 
 very small ventral and two anal feet, by means of which it 
 clings to the inside of the case. The chrysahs measures 
 about three-quarters of an inch in length, and contains the 
 rudiments of wings, legs, head, and antennae, like other 
 moths, and is of a dark brown. The perfect moth comes 
 out in autumn, and measures across the expanded wings 
 about an inch and three-twentieths. Its body is downy, 
 and of a blackish brown ; tlie wings are semi-transparent, 
 and scantily clothed with blackish scales, which are black- 
 est on the margins and veins ; the antennae are covered at 
 their tips, and are doubly feathered from the base to be- 
 yond the middle. The female is much larger than the 
 male, and never leaves her case, but changes into the per- 
 fect insect in the shell of the ehrysaUs, and only emerges 
 from it when the eggs are laid within. The young, after 
 leaving their maternal case, in the spring, immediately 
 commence their cases, aud spread over the native tree oi 
 any others that may happen to stand near. 
 
 These insects are a great nuisance wherever they once 
 get established, as they are exceedingly prolific. One fe- 
 male chrysalis case, which was dissected, contained seven 
 hundred and ninety eggs, while others have been found to 
 contain nearly a thousand. 
 
 These pests are very rarely seen on the cotton plant, 
 
180 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 and even when such is the case, tliey may have been blown 
 there from the cedars, maples, or other deciduous-leaved 
 trees in the woods «n the edges of the plantations. They 
 are the more particularly mentioned here, from the fact 
 that, if taken in time, they may easily be exterminated on 
 deciduous-leaved shade-trees ; for, as I have before stated, 
 the female cases contain all the eggs, which may be seen 
 in winter hanging on the branches when the leaves have 
 fallen, and even are large enough to be distinguished when 
 on evergreens. It would therefore require but little trouble 
 to pull them off in the autumn and winter, and burn them, 
 so that neither males nor females should escape. If this 
 course were pursued two or three years in succession, there 
 would not be so many complaints in our cities about the 
 drop-worms destroying the foliage of the trees. 
 
 The Corn Emperor-Moth. — (Satumia io.) 
 
 The foliage of the cotton plant is also eaten by the 
 caterpillar of a large moth. This spiny and stinging 
 caterpillar is often found upon the leaf of cotton in Septem- 
 ber ; it feeds likewise upon the blades of Indian corn, and 
 the leaves of the willow, balsam-poplar, dogwood, and 
 many other trees. Whenever one of them is found in a 
 field, the plants attacked by it may be easily distinguished 
 by their leafless appearance in the midst of the otherwise 
 green and flourishing vegetation, as it rarely quits a plant 
 before it is completely denuded. Often, however, those 
 which have lost their leaves from the rust present much 
 the same bhghted appearance; but, in this case, the 
 numerous yellow, withered leaves, which are scattered on 
 the ground, at once indicate the disease. 
 
 The thorny spines with which these caterpillars are 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 181 
 
 armed liave a peculiarly poisonous property, and are capar 
 ble of inflicting painful and severe wounds, similar to the 
 sting of a wasp. It is therefore necessary, if the insects 
 require to be touched, to use a stick or branch, when 
 - removing them from the plants on which they feed. 
 
 These caterpillars- cannot be classed among those very 
 injurious to cotton, as they do not appear to be suflSciently 
 numerous to effect much damage. Very few complaints 
 have been made about them by the planters either of 
 Georgia or South Carolina; but this year (1855) the 
 same caterpillar was found very abundant in the cotton 
 fields near Tallahassee, but the damage done by them was 
 trifling. 
 
 Mr. Newman, of Philadelphia, who has paid much 
 attention to the breeding of caterpillars, states that this 
 insect is found on the willow. Dr. Harris says, they are 
 also found upon the balsam-poplar and elm, in Massa- 
 chusetts ; and, according to Smith and Abbot, in their 
 " Insects of Georgia," it is found on the dogwood, sassafras, 
 and Indian com, which are devoured by them. 
 
 This caterpillar is from two inches and a quarter to 
 two inches and three-quarters in length ; but, as Dr. Harris 
 has minutely described them, I will quote his own words : 
 
 " The caterpillars are of a pea-green color, with a 
 broad, brown stripe, edged below with white, on each side 
 of the body, beginning on the fourth segment and ending at 
 the tail. They are covered with spreading clusters of green 
 prickles, tipped with black, and of a uniform length. Each 
 of these clusters consists of about thirty prickles, branching 
 from a common centre, and there are six clusters on each 
 of the rings, except the last two, on which there are only 
 five, and on the first four rings, on each of which there is 
 an additional cluster low down on each side. The feet are 
 
182 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 brown, and there is a triangular brown spot on the under- 
 side of each ring, beginning at the fourth." The brown 
 stripe mentioned by Dr. Harris is often of a reddish brown, 
 and, in high-colored and healthy individuals, I have seen it 
 almost of a carmine red. 
 
 The caterpillars are gregarious when young ; but, when 
 older, they are solitary. When fully grown, they form a 
 brownish cocoon of a gummy substance among the leaves, 
 resembling parchment. The perfect moth comes out the 
 following spring. It is said that there are two broods of 
 these insects in a season, in the Southern States ; but I 
 have not observed the caterpillars on cotton later than 
 September. 
 
 The chrysalis is brown, and of a short, thick form, with 
 a number of hooked bristles on the tail. 
 
 The following is Dr. Harris's description of the moths : 
 " They sit with their win^s closed and covering the body 
 like a low roof, the front edge of the under-wings extend- 
 ing a little beyond that of the upper-wings and curving 
 upward. The sexes differ both in color and «ize; the 
 male, which is the smallest, is of a deep or Indian-yellow 
 color ; on its fore-wings there are two oblique, wavy lines 
 toward the hind margin, a zigzag line near the base, and 
 several spots so arranged on the middle as to form the 
 letters a h, all of a purplish-red color. The hind-wings 
 are broadly bordered with purplish red, next to the body, 
 and near the hinder margin there is a narrow curved band 
 of the same color. Within this band, there is a curved, 
 black line, and on the middle of lite wing a large, round, 
 blue spot, having a broad black border and a central white 
 dash. The fore-wings of the female are of a purpUsh 
 brown, mingled with gray ; the zigzag and wavy lines 
 across them are also gray, and the lettered space in the 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 183 
 
 middle is replaced by a brown spot surrounded by an 
 irregular gray line. The hind-wings resemble those of the 
 male in color and markings; the thorax and legs are 
 purplish brown, and the abdomen is ochrey yellow, with a 
 narrow, purplish-red band on the edge of each wing. 
 These moths expand from two inches and three-quarters to 
 three inches and a half." 
 
 The only method that can be taken to destroy these 
 insects would be to kiU the moths when and wherever 
 found, and to strike the caterpillars from the plants and 
 then crush them under foot Although they cannot prop- 
 erly be classed among the insects very injurious to cotton, 
 not being sufficiently numerous to do much harm, yet, if 
 left undisturbed, they mdy so increase as to become a 
 nuisance to the planter both of cotton and corn. 
 
 The Cotton Torteix. — {Tortrix?) 
 
 When the margins of the leaf of the cotton plant are 
 found rolled up and fastened to the main part by means of 
 a loose web of silk, it is often discovered to be the work of 
 the small tortrix, which makes this shady retreat in order 
 to shelter itself from the sun and rain, as likewise for a 
 place of concealment from birds and other enemies. 
 Sometimes, however, these leaves are similarly rolled up 
 by a spider, as a suitable nest or receptacle for its eggs ; 
 but, when this is the case, the inside will be found to con- 
 tain a silken bag in which the eggs either have been or are 
 aboiit to be deposited. 
 
 When disturbed, this caterpillar always retires into its 
 place of shelter, and, if forcibly driven out, it is able to 
 retreat backward from the open end, and to suspend itself 
 in the air by a thread, which issues from its mouth, having 
 
184 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 previously fastened the other end of this thread to the leaf 
 from which it had feUen. The leaves attacked by this 
 moth can be distinguished from those that are perfect, by 
 their roUed-up and distorted appearance ; and either this 
 insect, or one very similar in habits and appearance, some- 
 times attacks the young and tender ends of the cotton- 
 shoots, which are often seen webbed up into a mass and 
 partially eaten out. 
 
 The caterpillar, when fall grown, is about an inch in 
 length, of a bright-green color, with a brownish or black 
 head, and has a helmet-shaped black mark on the first 
 segment of the body. It has six pectoral, eight ventral, 
 and two anal feet ; the two anterior pair of pectoral ones 
 being dark-colored. 
 
 The chrysalis measures from three-fifths to seven-tenths 
 of an inch in length, is of a brown color, somewhat spiny, 
 and furnished with four hooks at the end of the tail, by 
 which it is enabled to hold fast to its web. The chrysalides 
 are formed in semi-transparent cocoons of loose silk 
 among the leaves; and in about foaiteen days, the perfect 
 moths come out. The moth at rest has a somewhat bell- 
 shaped appearance, the upper-wings suddenly becoming 
 quite broad a short distance from the thorax. They are 
 of a chestnut-brown color, with an oblique dark-brown 
 band forming an obtuse angle near the middle ; and, on 
 the inner margin of each wing, a rather more indistinct 
 band runs near the body. The tips are also banded with 
 dark brown. The under-wings are yellow, with a blackish- 
 colored mark on their margins and sides, while the under- 
 side is yellow and more or less shaded. 
 
 I should judge, from the small numbers of these cater- 
 pillars, that they do comparatively little if any injury to 
 the main crop, and no doubt the moths would be attracted 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 185 
 
 by lights or fires placed in the field at night, as recom- 
 mended for the moth of the cotton caterpillar. The same 
 plan would also serve to diminish their numbers, should 
 they ever increase. 
 
 The Yellow Caterpillar. 
 
 There is a yellow, hairy caterpillar found on the cotton 
 plant in September and October, which devours the leaf. 
 The specimens observed in South Carolina and Georgia 
 appeared to be of solitary habits, not congregating together, 
 like the cotton caterpillar and grass-worm, but feedmg 
 alone on the plant. 
 
 The young of these insects are of a much lighter color 
 than those nearer maturity. The ground color of the old 
 caterpillar is yellow, profusely specked and shaded with 
 small black dots ; a yellow longitudinal line runs along the 
 side below the spiracles ; on each segment of the body rise 
 numerous small yellowish-brown excrescences, or warts, 
 from which issue tufts of long brownish-black hairs. The 
 head is black, jvith a yellow stripe running down the mid- 
 dle. It has six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal feet. 
 The cocoons are ovoid in shape, formed on or near the 
 surface of the ground, and constructed of silk intermingled 
 with gravel, particles of soil, and the hairs from their own 
 bodies. These caterpillars are reputed to be capable of 
 stinging ; but as I repeatedly handled them with impunity, 
 their poison, if any, cannot be very powerful. 
 
 The chrysaUdes, which are dark brown, approaching to 
 black, appeared about the end of September, and were 
 quite short and thick. I cannot describe the perfect moth, 
 as, unfortunately, the chrysalides did not live to perfect 
 their last transformation. These caterpillars, although 
 described as infesting cotton, cannot be classed amongst 
 
186 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 those very injurious, as they do not appear in numbers 
 suflBcient to injure the general crop. 
 
 There is a red, hairy caterpillar of like characteristics, 
 that sometimes eats the cotton leaf, but which it is un- 
 necessary to describe here. 
 
 The Cotton AB,GTiA.—{Arctia ?) 
 
 A species of arctia was also found in Tallahassee, in 
 the month of July, upon the cotton plant ; but, most prob- 
 ably, the parent moth had wandered away from its more 
 natural food, as the identical kind of caterpillar was found 
 at the same time upon the brambles by the roadside near 
 that place. The plant attacked, however, was in the mid- 
 dle of the field, and not near any brambles or weeds, on 
 which the eggs might have been laid. The bare stem and 
 branches of the cotton were covered with the unsightly 
 web, and all but a few straggling Caterpillars had dis- 
 appeared, having probably webbed up preparatory to the 
 final change. 
 
 The full-grown caterpillar is from an inch and one- 
 tenth to an inch and three-tenths in length ; the back dark- 
 colored, and covered with tufts of long, blackish-gray hairs ; 
 the sides are of a pale-greenish color, with a line between 
 the black and green distinctly marked ; the six pectoral feet 
 and head are black, and the ventral and two anal ones are 
 green. 
 
 The chrysalides were formed on the 24th of July, in 
 cocoons or loose webs, intermingled with their own hair, 
 and spun under the loose leaves. They were nearly half an 
 inch in length, short and thick in form, and brown in 
 color. The moths came out in about twelve or fourteen 
 days. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 187 
 
 The wings of the male measure, when expanded, from 
 nine-tenths of an inch to an inch across, and are white, 
 with one or two black dots near the centre of the upper 
 pair ; the eyes are black ; the antennae feathered, and the 
 two fore-legs of an orange color. 
 
 The female is much larger than the male, measuring 
 about an inch and one-fifth across the expanded wings. 
 She is very similar to the male in <!olor, but has no black 
 spot on the upper-wing ; nor are the antennae feathered as 
 in the male. 
 
 I consider, from the circumstances under which the 
 nest, or web, of caterpillars was found, that it was accident 
 alone which caused their presence on the cotton, as I have 
 never seen them before nor since, in any number, among 
 the plants. Therefore, they may be classed among 
 those insects which cause little or no harm to the general 
 crop. 
 
 These moths are similar to the Arctia textor of Harris, 
 but appear to differ from them in the spots on the upper- 
 wings of the male, and in some other slight particulars. 
 The habit of webbing up the limbs is also the same. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND ON THE TERMINAL SHOOTS. 
 
 The insects attacking the terminal shoots of the cotton 
 plant are at present very little known; but when their 
 habits shall have been more thoroughly investigated, there 
 is no doubt that they will be found to be much more de- 
 structive than is generally supposed. 
 
 No practical planter can have passed through his cotton 
 fields, without frequently observing that the terminal leaves 
 of many of the plants have been webbed up and eaten out, 
 or that many of the young blossoms have suddenly turned 
 
188 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 brown, or " flared " open, and, on the slightest touch, fall 
 to the ground. Some of this damage may no doubt be 
 caused by excessive moisture or heat, or by an unhealthy 
 state of the plant itself. But if the ends of all the shoots 
 be closely examined, it will generally be found that several 
 minute insects lie hidden between the folds of the leaves 
 and buds, probably feeding upon the tender foliage, or 
 extracting the sap. The Aphis, or cotton-louse, is often 
 found in such places. 
 
 The Pea-Green Caterpillar. 
 
 In the cotton fields near Tallahassee many of the tender 
 leaves and young blossoms of vigorous and healthy plants 
 were observed to be webbed together in a mass. Upon 
 opening one of them, a small caterpillar, between three- 
 fifths and seven-tenths of an inch in length, was discovered 
 feeding upon the interior. This caterpillar is of a pea- 
 green color, with a dark longitudinal stripe running down 
 the middle of the back, and a row of two dark spots with 
 white centres to each on every segment of the body, except 
 the first, running parallel on each side of the dark stripe. 
 Tlie head is black; the first segment of the same color, 
 with a dividing line of white between it and the head, and 
 another light division between this and the second segment. 
 The pectoral feet are black, and the body sparingly clothed 
 with short bristles, or hairs. 
 
 This caterpillar, for the most part, lives and feeds in 
 the terminal shoots ; but I have found it webbed up be- 
 tween the outer calyx and boll of the cotton, or in the 
 calyx of the flower. 
 
 The chrysalis, which is of a light-brown color, is about 
 two-fifths of an inch in length, and is formed in the same 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 189 
 
 webbed-up terminal shoot wbich served tbe caterpillar as a 
 shelter. It shed the caterpillar skin about the 2Yth of 
 September, and the perfect moth came out in aboiit ten 
 days. 
 
 The moth, when expanded, measures from three-fifths 
 to seven-tenths of an inch across the wings ; the body and 
 thorax are of a brown color; the upper-wings light brown, 
 with a band of darker brown running obUquely across 
 them near the centre (one specimen had two dark oblique 
 lines on the upper-wing) ; a dark triangular mark occurs 
 on the upper side of the wing, between the margin and 
 band, and the margin itself is of a dark brown ; the under- 
 wings are of a yellowish brown ; the under side of the 
 wings is brown, marked crosswise by darker lines, giving it 
 somewhat a marbled appearance; and the antennae are 
 threadlike. The distinguishing feature of this small moth 
 is the very long and dark-colored palpi, which are some- 
 what curved upward, and project from the front of the 
 head like a trunk. 
 
 The damage done by these small insects is not so ap- 
 parent at first as that caused by those of a larger size, such 
 as the boll-worm and others ; yet, no doubt, many of the 
 buds and leaves on the terminal shoots are destroyed by 
 them. These webbed-up leaves, however, must not be 
 confounded with the webs made by numerous small spiders, 
 which also select such places for their abodes, and no doubt 
 do good by destroying many young caterpillars and moths. 
 
 The Cotton Lyg^eus. — {Lygcem?) 
 
 Young cotton-buds are frequently observed at the end 
 of the terminal shoots, turning brown, and eventually 
 dropping off. This has been attributed to the agency of 
 
190 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 the young larvae of the " bore-worm," or " boll-worm," which 
 certainly are sometimes found in the terminal shoots of 
 cotton ; but, when this is the case, the buds are generally 
 either eaten from the outer calyx, or the bud itself perfo- 
 rated, and the former flaring open; whereas, the buds 
 which turn black, as before described, are closely enveloped 
 in the outer calyx, and present a triangular form, with a 
 dry and dark-brown appearance. 
 
 Upon close examination, a number of extremely minute 
 larvse, measuring a little over one-twentieth of an inch in 
 length, were found in the injured shoots. The insects, 
 when confined in a bottle with some young terminal cotton 
 shoots and buds, to ascertain if they really injured the plant, 
 were observed immediately to attack each other with great 
 animosity ; and, in a short time, one of the strongest larvae 
 killed and sucked out the juices from three of its compan- 
 ions, and also from a cotton-louse which had been placed 
 in the glass. The same insect, however, was afterward 
 plainly seen, on several occasions, to suck sap from the ter- 
 minal shoot and young buds ; and as there were no more 
 insects for it to feed upon, it must necessarily have per- 
 fected its growth and transformations afterward on vege- 
 table juices alone. Almost every terminal shoot which 
 was diseased^ had in it one or more of these minute larvse 
 or perfect insects. 
 
 The pupae are of a reddish brown, about one-twentieth 
 of an inch in length, with eyes of a reddish-brown color. 
 The perfect insect is rather more than one-twentieth of an 
 inch in length, also with reddish-brown eyes, yellowish an- 
 tennae, and a head and thorax black ; tlie triangular space 
 between the wings is black; the wings are brownish yellow, 
 barred in the centre with two triangular black marks ; the 
 ends of wings diamond-shaped, of a light color ; the upper 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 191 
 
 part of tlie thigh is black, and the rest of the leg yel- 
 lowish. 
 
 This insect is more especially mentioned here in order 
 to draw attention to the various tribes which attack the 
 terminal shoots of cotton, as at present very little appears 
 to be known about them, and immense numbers of young 
 buds dry up and fall in the manner mentioned above, un- 
 observed from their minute size. Many of them are, no 
 doubt, cast in consequence of atmospheric and various 
 other causes, but as this small insect has been observed 
 sucking the juices from the plant, it may be found that 
 several others do the same thing in different localities. 
 The young boll-worm is, no doubt, found in these shoots ; 
 but I very much doubt whether the fallen blackened buds 
 are owing to injuries received from it, as will be seen in the 
 article on that worm. It is true, the young boll-worm 
 causes many immature forms to drop, but in such cases the 
 bud attacked generally shows where the injury has been 
 done by a small puncture. 
 
 As several of the Beduvii or Cimicidce have the power 
 of stinging man and animals in a very severe manner, with 
 their probosces, or piercers, may they not in some measure 
 possess the same power over vegetable life ? The question 
 is merely asked to lead to further inquiries on the subject. 
 
 Sap-Suckers. 
 
 Another insect found in the young shoots and newly 
 formed bolls, the color of which is green ; the eyes reddish 
 brown ; the legs green, with the thighs red ; the antennae 
 are four-jointed, and also green, with red at the end of 
 each joint. The pupa is about a quarter of an inch, and 
 the perfect insect is seven-twentieths of an inch, in length ; 
 
192 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 the antennse are brown and green, the eyes brown ; the 
 thorax somewhat triangular ; the anterior part green and 
 shaded with reddish brown posteriorly ; the legs, brown 
 and green ; the wing-cases with a cross, shaped like the 
 letter X, forming four triangles, those nearer the thorax be- 
 ing reddish brown ; the side triangles are green. 
 
 I observed these insects, when confined under glass, 
 sucking the sap from the buds and young bolls, their only 
 food. The young eventually completed their transforma- 
 tions into perfect insects. They were observed, moreover, 
 to eject large drops of green sap from their abdomens, 
 which could only have been procured from the buds them- 
 selves. As it has been already seen that these insects 
 puncture the bolls and extract the juices therefrom, the 
 question arises whether they do any material injury, either 
 by this extraction of the sap, or by a poisonous sting, like 
 some of the Reduvii. 
 
 There is likewise another of the same species of insect, 
 which was found perforating the yoijng flower-buds and 
 bolls of the cotton, similar to the above. The head and 
 anterior portion of the thorax are reddish brown, the re- 
 mainder of the thorax yellow, with a double dark mark in 
 the middle ; the wing-cases are brownish black, with two 
 longitudinal lines from the upper outside corner of the 
 wing-cases to the posterior edge, forming a dividing mark 
 somewhat shaped like the letter X. 
 
 The Centrinus Perscillus. 
 
 This insect is about three-twentieths of an inch in 
 length, of a grayish color, with a rather long, curved ros- 
 trum, or bill ; was found in the terminal shoots, as well as 
 in the blossom ; but I could not perceive that in any way 
 it injured the plant. I have also seen very young boll- 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 193 
 
 worms in the terminal shoots, but, upon examination, I 
 have generally found the egg deposited upon the outer 
 calyx of a young bud or boll, the parenchyma, or tender 
 succulent substance, of which was mostly eaten, and the 
 young bud pierced or its contents sucked or eaten out. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND ON THE FLOWER, 
 
 The flower of the short-staple cotton is of a yellowish- 
 white color the first day of its blooming ; it then gradually 
 assumes a pinkish tinge toward its outer edge; the second 
 day it partially closes, turns pink, and presents such an en- 
 tirely different appearance that it can scarcely be recognized 
 as the same flower. 
 
 There are several insects which infest this flower, or 
 " bloom," as it is frequently termed, some for the sake of 
 the nectar, or honey ; others for the pollen ; and a few for 
 the corolla itself. 
 
 The Blistee-Fly. — {Cantharis strigosa.) 
 
 Several blister-flies, or cantharides, found in Columbia^ 
 South Carolina, were seen to devour the petals of the cot- 
 ton flower. One of these insects is a little more than half 
 an inch in length, of a reddish-brown color, with the eyea 
 and a spot on the head black. Two long black marks are 
 seen on the thorax, and two longitudinal stripes, also black„ 
 on each wing-case ; the legs and antennae are black ; and 
 the abdomen protrudes somewhat beyond the wing-cases. 
 Some of them are smaller than others, measuring not 
 quite half an inch in length, and are of a rusty ash-gray 
 white; others are of the same color, but with two broad, 
 longitudinal black stripes on the elytrae. The two last 
 9 
 
194 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 mentioned vary so mucli in the distinctness of their stripes, 
 some of them being the medium between the perfectly 
 gray and the striped, that it is somewbat diflBcult to deter- 
 mine whether they are the same insect or not. The under- 
 wings are clouded, and nearly black. 
 
 These insects, although they eat boles in the petals, do 
 but little, if any, damage to the crop ; yet, together with 
 the Chauliognathus, bees, and. wasps, may perhaps be ben- 
 eficial, as serving to fecundate many plants by carrying the 
 pollen from flower to flower. 
 
 The Cotton CHAULioaNATHus. — {Chauliognathus Pennsyl- 
 vanicus.) 
 
 This insect does not appear to attack the petals in the 
 same manner as the cantharides, just described, but con- 
 tents itself with the pollen or nectar, which is found in the 
 flower, where it may be often seen so much occupied in 
 feeding as scarcely to take any notice of the approach of 
 mankind. It is so plentiful near Columbia, South Caro- 
 lina, that four or six may be taken from one bloom alone. 
 When issuing from the flower, tbey sometimes appear to 
 be so abundantly powdered with pollen as to be perfectly 
 yellow, and no doubt serve in some measure beneficially, 
 as a medium for transporting the pollen and fertilizing 
 other blooms. 
 
 This insect is not quite three-quarters of an inch in 
 length ; its head, eyes, and antennje are black ; its thorax, 
 orange, with a large dark spot in the centre ; its wing-cases 
 are orange yellow, with a black, longitudinal, broad stripe 
 running down each, near the inner margin, leaving a nar- 
 row inner and broad, outer margin of yellow orange. This 
 black stripe grows broader toward the abdomen, leaving a 
 
DISEASES OE THE COTTON PLANT. 195 
 
 narrow stripe, also of yellow, at the end of the elytrae. Its 
 legs are black. 
 
 The Yellow-mabgined-wingbd Chauliognathxis. — 
 [Chauliognathus marginatus.) 
 
 A small species of chauliognathus is found in Florida, 
 where it appears to take the place of the last^mentioned 
 insect, having the same habits, and occurring in the same 
 places. It is nearly half an inch in length ; the head is 
 orange yellow, with a black mark below the eyes, which 
 are also black ; the tliorax is yellow, with a longitudinal 
 black mark down the centre; the wing-cases are black, 
 edged around the outer and inner margins and the end 
 with orange yellow ; the lower part of the thighs is also 
 orange yellow ; the upper part and rest of the legs and an- 
 tennae are black. This insect frequents the flowers of the 
 cotton, but, as yet, I have never discovered it domg any 
 injury. 
 
 The Delta-thobaxed Triohius. — {Trichius delta.) 
 
 A small beetle, which is little more than two-fifths of 
 an inch in length, is also found in cotton blooms, and some- 
 times on the bolls. The head is black, including several 
 white marks ; the thorax is also black, bordered with yel- 
 low, containing a singular triangle of yellow lines, the 
 lower end of which appears as if broken off; the wing- 
 cases are reddish brown, with two oblique black spots on 
 the upper, and two longitudinal black ones enclosing a 
 yellowish mark on their lower parts ; the abdomen pro- 
 trudes the twentieth part of an inch beyond the wing- 
 cases, and is of a yellowish color ; the fore-legs are spiny 
 
196 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 and of a brown color ; the Mnd-legs are very long, brown ; 
 the ends of the tibse and tarsi black. 
 
 From what has been seen of the habits of this insect, 
 and its comparative scarcity, I should not regard it as 
 injurious to the crop, and therefore I would class it 
 amongst those insects frequenting the cotton, but not in- 
 jurious to it. 
 
 Twelve-spotted GtAlekeuca. — {Galereuca duodecim- 
 punctata.) 
 
 A small leaf-beetle is often found in the young flowers 
 of the cotton, where it gnaws holes in the petals. This in- 
 sect is about three-tenths of an inch in length ; the head is 
 black ; the thorax orange green ; the wing-cases greenish 
 yellow, with six black spots on each ; the upper part of 
 the thighs is green, and the rest of the leg dark-colored, or 
 nearly black. 
 
 Among the remedies suggested for destroying the 
 striped cucumber-beetle [Galereuca vittata), Dr. B. S. Bar- 
 ton, of Pennsylvania, recommends " sprinkling the vines 
 with a mixture of red pepper and tobacco." Ground 
 plaster and charcoal dust have also been recommended, 
 as well as watering the vines with a solution of an ounce 
 of glauber salts in a quart of common water, or tobacco 
 water. An infusion of hops, elder, or walnut leaves, is said 
 to be very useful ; as, likewise, sifting powdered soot 
 upon the plants when they are wet with the morning dew. 
 Others have advised sulphur and Scotch snutF to be applied 
 in the same way. 
 
 Dr. Barton likewise states, that " as these insects fly by 
 night as well as by day, and are attracted by lights,* burn- 
 ing splinters of pine knots, or of staves of tar-barrels, stuck 
 in the ground during the night around the plants, have 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 197 
 
 been found useful in destroying these beetles." Similar 
 remedies migbt possibly apply to the twelve-spotted 
 galereuca. 
 
 As these insects are not sufBciently numerous to do 
 any harm to the cotton crop, these remedies are merely 
 mentioned as applying to the cucumber-beetle, or any 
 other pests of the garden or fields, of similar habits. 
 
 Span-Worms, or Loopers. — {GeometrcB?) 
 
 Among the numerous insects which injure the flowers 
 of the cotton plant may be found several caterpillars, many 
 of which are of the kind termed "loopers," or "span- 
 worms," from their peculiar mode of locomotion. 
 
 Near Columbus, in Georgia, I found a species of cater- 
 pillar which were quite numerous, about an inch and a half 
 in length, and of a bright-green color, eating the petals of 
 the cotton flower, from the 12th of October to the 29th of 
 November. They had six pectoral, four ventral, and two 
 anal feet, and were obliged to loop their bodies when pro- 
 gressing from place to place, after the manner of the so- 
 called span-worms or loopers. Their bodies were green, 
 and slightly hairy. The chiysalides were seven-tenths of 
 an inch in length, and of a green color. The moth, with 
 wings extended, measures about an inch and three-tenths, 
 is of a shaded or clouded blackish brown, with a metallic, 
 gold-colored semicircle near the centre of each upper-wing ; 
 a round spot of the same color also lies close to it, but 
 nearer the margin ; the under- wings and body are of the 
 same blackish brown. When at rest, the upper-wings 
 come together like the roof of a house ; a tuft of hair 
 projects from the upper part of the thorax, and a smaller 
 tuft is found near or between the junction of the wings, 
 which appear to curve up toward the outer margin. 
 
198 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAIJT. 
 
 Another Caterpillar 
 
 Is of the same habits, size, form, and color, except that 
 it has a white longitudinal line running down each side. 
 The chrysalis, however, is of a dark-brown color, whereas 
 that of the preceding is always green, with dark-brown 
 markings only on the thorax and back. The moth also is 
 similar in shape and color — so much so, indeed, as to war- 
 rant a belief that they may be different sexes of the same 
 species. 
 
 Mr. Peabody, of Columbus, states that this caterpillar 
 was very destructive to the leaves of turnips in 1854. 
 Several which were placed in confinement, were attacked 
 by a singular and fatal disease. However healthy they ap- 
 peared at first, they gradually assumed a lighter color, 
 ceased feeding, became swollen, and, suspending them- 
 selves by the hind feet to any projecting twig, very soon 
 died and became putrid and black. 
 
 These caterpillars were quite plentiful in the vicinity of 
 Columbus, but were not found in Florida the following 
 year. They cannot be classed among insects very injurious, 
 as they were not sufficiently numerous to harm the cotton. 
 
 The Small Cotton Span- Worm. 
 
 A very small looper-caterpillar, or span-worm, about 
 seven-tenths of an inch in length, of a brown or greenish 
 color, with five yellow and black markings or bands on the 
 middle segments, and of about the thickness of a knitting- 
 needle, was very numerous on the blossoms of cotton in 
 Georgia during the month of October. 
 
 These caterpillars have six pectoral, with only two 
 ventral and two anal feet ; their mode of progression is by 
 
DISEASES or THE COTTON PLANT. 199 
 
 alternately stretching out and contracting the body in the 
 form of an arch. They are thus enabled to advance nearly 
 half their length every stride or step, and, from this ^cir- 
 cumstance, derive their common name of " span-worm," or 
 " looper." 
 
 The favorite food of these insects appeared to consist 
 of the petals. In some places they were very numerous, 
 as many as four having been taken from one bloom alone. 
 In color, they varied much from green to brown; but both 
 were similarly banded with another color. The chrysalides 
 were fixed by the tail to the leaves with a glutinous matter 
 or silk, and measured about seven-twentieths of an inch in 
 length ; were of a brownish-green color, and remarkable 
 for having the upper part of the thorax somewhat square, 
 flat, and furnished with two minute protuberances,, or 
 spines, over the head and eyes. When disturbed, they 
 instantly drop from the leaves, and suspend themselves in 
 mid-air by means of a thread, which issues from the 
 mouth; and although exceedingly abundant in one part 
 of the field, yet they were scarcely to be found out of that 
 particular spot. 
 
 As these insects are very small, and eat holes in the 
 petals of the flowers alone, they cannot injuriously aflFect 
 the general crop. 
 
 The Larger Span-Worm. 
 Another span-worm, or caterpillar, appears in the Caro- 
 linas, Georgia, and Florida early in October, and feeds 
 upon the petals of the cotton flower. It measures, when 
 ftdly grown, from an inch and a half to an inch and three- 
 fourths in leng-th ; the color is reddish brown, marked with 
 faint, longitudinal darker stripes ; the head is somewhat 
 angular, and divided at the top ; there is a light spot on 
 
200 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 each side, about the middle of the body, and two short 
 excrescences, or warts, on the extremity. In several speci- 
 mens there are white spots running down each side of the 
 back. The chrysalis is a little more than half an inch in 
 length, and is of a brownish color. The moth measures 
 an inch and three-tenths across the expanded wings, which 
 are of a light, clouded-gray color, with an irregular, dark, 
 oblique line running across the upper-wing, and two others, 
 not quite so distinct, nearer the body. There is also a 
 dark, oblique line, and another fainter one, crossing the 
 under-wing ; the margins are scalloped with a darker color ; 
 the antennae are feathered. 
 
 This caterpillar feeds upon the petals of the cotton 
 flower, and, when disturbed, assumes a stiff, erect attitude, 
 in which it might easily be mistaken by men or birds, for 
 a dried twig or stick. When about to change, in October, 
 it descends into the earth, becomes a brownish chrysalis, 
 and in about fourteen days the moth appears. 
 
 The caterpillars are not very numerous, and therefore 
 can do but little harm to the general crop. 
 
 Another span-worm, somewhat similar to the above in 
 shape and color, is very numerous in cotton fields, but feeds 
 upon the bind-weed flower (Convolvulus), and does not 
 disturb cotton. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND UPON THE BOLL. 
 
 During the time that cotton is maturing its seed-vessels, 
 there are several insects of the " plant-bug " species found 
 both upon the young and the old bolls ; but whether these 
 insects have any thing to do in producing the rot, is a 
 question which cannot be easily answered before further 
 information shall have been collected upon the subject. I 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 201 
 
 will here simply give the results of some experiments madt 
 by me this season (1855) to determine whether any of 
 these insects do or do not suck the sap from the bolls. In 
 the month of October, several plant-bugs were caught, and 
 placed singly in glass bottles, containing young and middle- 
 sized bolls, and all of those hereafter described were 
 observed with their piercers penetrating the bolls, and 
 busily engaged sueHng out the sap. 
 
 The Green Plant-Bu&.— (Pmtofoma 
 
 This insect is about seven-tenths of an inch in length, 
 rather broad, and of a bright-green color ; the head is 
 furnished with two ocelli on the upper part; the eyes are 
 brown, and the scutellum, or triangular place between the 
 wing-covers, is very large and also of a green color ; the 
 upper part of the body, which is flattened, is margined 
 with an edge of yellow, and has a black spot on the yellow 
 edge of each segment. The piercer, which is long and 
 jointed, when not in use, is recurved under the thorax ; 
 the antennae are five-jointed. 
 
 An insect was described fcy Mr. Bailey, of Monticello, 
 in Florida, as being very numerous in his cotton fields ; 
 and his overseer informed me that he had seen it in the 
 very act of piercing a boll, which he afterward cut open, 
 and found that the puncture had penetrated through the 
 outer shell, or case of the boll, to the cotton, and that the 
 mark where the piercer had penetrated was discolored. 
 Those I had in confinement certainly were frequently seen 
 with their trunks inserted into bolls, and sucking the sap. 
 
 The larva is very similar to the perfect insect in shape 
 and color, but smaller in size, and is not famished with 
 wings. The pupa possesses rudiments of wings only, and 
 9* 
 
202 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 it is the perfect insect alone which, by means of a pair of 
 under-wings, concealed beneath the wing-cases, is able to 
 fly about and propagate its kind. 
 
 The Gray Plant-Bug. — {Pmtatoma ?) 
 
 The spotted plant-bug is very much of the same shape 
 as that last described, but is not so broad. It is gray, and 
 marked with black dots and lines ; it is also smaller than 
 the former, being only three-fifths of an inch in length ; 
 the outer margin of the thorax is somewhat pointed or 
 angular; the scutellum, broad and triangular; and the 
 wings, when closed, terminate with a black, diamond- 
 shaped mark, where they overlap ; there are two ocelli ; the 
 antennae are five-jointed ; and the appearance of the insect 
 is flat, broad, and similar to the so-called " squash-bug " of 
 the North. This insect was often seen with its piercer 
 inserted into a boll, extracting the sap, which was ejected 
 from the abdomen as a bright, greenish liquid. 
 
 Tliese insects were found plentifully on the cotton in 
 Geor^a, in 1854, and in Florida, in 1855. 
 
 The Red-Ed ged-Winged Reduvhjs. — {Reduvius ?) 
 
 A species of reduvius was found in abundance in the 
 cotton fields of Florida, in 1855. The female measures a 
 little more than three-fifths of an inch in length, and the 
 male about ha¥ an inch. The head is of a grayish black ; 
 the eyes prominent, black, and brilliant ; the antennae are 
 four-jointed; the thorax is triangular, with the angle 
 toward the head, truncated, black, with an edging of red ; 
 the wing-cases are reddish, spotted with black, and edged 
 with red, with their ends, where they overlap, black; the 
 legs are black from half way up the thighs, where they are 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 203 
 
 red ; the under-wings are clouded with black veins. It so 
 closely resembles the celebrated "red-bug" of Eastern 
 Florida that it has probably been mistaken for it by many 
 planters, who have stated that the true red-bug is often 
 found in Middle and Western Florida, where none are to 
 be found, though I searched diligently for them. 
 
 These insects, when confined in glasses, were not 
 observed to feed upon the sap of the bolls, although it 
 probably does some injury, like the much-dreaded red-bug 
 alluded to above. 
 
 The Li&ht-Banded-Winaed AsrisoscELis. — [Anisoscelis ?) 
 
 A species of anisoscelis was found in abundance in the 
 cotton fields both of Georgia and Florida. It appeared to 
 be very active and vigilant, as, however carefully approach- 
 ed, it always flew away with a loud, humming sound. 
 Several of these insects were observed on a large boll, 
 apparently busily employed ; but when suddenly disturbed, 
 they dispersed in different directions. Upon examining 
 the boll, the sap was seen exuding from several minute 
 punctures, which was attributed to these insects having 
 bored into the boll for the sake of the vegetable juices con- 
 tained therein. 
 
 The larva, when young, is of a light scarlet or crimson, 
 with two black spots on the back, in which are two black, 
 thorny excrescences, or points ; there are also four black, 
 thorny excrescences on each side ; the legs, antennae, and 
 eyes are black ; and the hind-legs thicker than the others. 
 
 The pupa is brown, with its wing-cases only in an 
 incipient state, and the tibiae of the hind-legs have already 
 attained a broad, flattened appearance. 
 
 The perfect insect is about seven-tenths of an inch in 
 
204 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 length ; tlie antennae are four-jointed ; the eyes, prominent 
 and brown ; the piercer four-jointed, and, when at rest, re- 
 curved under the body ; the ocelli are two in number ; the 
 thorax rising from the head, and somewhat angular on the 
 margin ; the wing-covers are reddish brown, with a distinct 
 yellowish-white band across the middle ; the anterior and 
 middle legs are reddish brown ; the hind-legs, however, are 
 very singular in shape, the thighs being thick and spiny 
 on their under side, and the tibia furnished with a broad 
 flattened enlargement on each side, larger on the upper one 
 and somewhat wing-shaped, with two teeth, or notches, on 
 the margin. This makes the insect appear to have hind- 
 legs entirely out of proportion to its size. These insects 
 are very numerous in cotton fields, and may be seen flying 
 from plant to plant during the heat of the day. 
 
 There are several other insects found upon cotton ; but 
 those mentioned above are the most numerous. The ques- 
 tion now arises whether they have any thing to do with the 
 " rot," or whether that disease is caused by a peculiar state 
 of the atmosphere, or by imperfections of the soil. May 
 not the punctures made by these insects, in some peculiar 
 seasons, incline the boll to the rot more readily than in 
 others, though in more favorable seasons it may be made 
 with comparative impunity ? A singular circumstance, 
 however, is rather against the insect theory, namely, that, 
 while some particular cotton-plant is observed to be much 
 aflected by the rot, the plants standing close to it may be 
 comparatively free and healthy. On one diseased plant I 
 counted seventeen rotted bolls, while the very next plants 
 were green, and exhibited not the least sign of disease. 
 The query as to whether the rot is caused by insects or the 
 peculiar state of the soil or atmosphere, is here submitted 
 for the purpose of inciting planters to make experiments, 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 205 
 
 and to report their success, in order ttat we may soon 
 come to a definite conclusion upon tlie subject 
 
 The Brownish-Black Anisoscelis.— (-4wesosce?*s ?) 
 
 A very large anisoscelis, about an incb and one-fifth in 
 length, and of a brownish black, I found quite numerous in 
 the cotton fields of Florida. The head of this insect is 
 brownish black, with prominent eyes ; the thorax rough, 
 black, and somewhat triangular; the antennae, four-jointed; 
 the legs, brown ; the thighs, brownish black and spiny ; the 
 hind-legs, in appearance, entirely disproportionate in size 
 to the insect ; with the thighs very stout, thick, and spiny, 
 and the tibiae with broad, flattened, wing-shaped projec- 
 tions ; the trunk is recurved under the thorax. 
 
 These insects, though somewhat numerous, were never 
 observed to suck the sap from the bolls ; yet it would be 
 well to investigate their habits more minutely, before 
 deciding whether they are injurious or not. 
 
 The Dark-Shaded Cetonia. — {Oetonla melanckolica.) 
 
 This beetle is found on those bolls which have been 
 bored into by the boll-worm, extracting the flowing sap 
 from the lacerated sides of the wound. As many as five 
 have been taken from the interior of a single boll, which 
 had been previously hollowed out by the worm, and where 
 the sap was flowing very freely. Some planters accuse 
 them of making the holes in which they are found ; but 
 most of the bolls examined by me had evidently previously 
 been hollowed out, and the beetles had only entered for the 
 sake of the extravasated sap. Sometimes, however, they may 
 80 abrade the skin of a boll as to cause a flow of juice, of 
 which they will avail themselves, as I have occasionally 
 
206 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 observed solitary individuals sucking the sap under very 
 suspicious circumstances, where no previous wound had 
 been made by the worm. They can do but little harm, 
 however, to the crop. 
 
 This beetle is rather more than half an inch in length ; 
 of an ovoid form ; greenish, with somewhat of a metallic 
 lustre ; across the wing-cases are several whitish spots and 
 short lines ; the tail is obtuse, hairy, and protrudes beyond 
 the wing-cases ; the legs are rather spiny, of a dark color 
 and metallic lustre. 
 
 The Indian Cetonia. — (Cetonia Inda.) 
 
 I have observed another beetle very abundant in the 
 blooms, and sometimes in the open bolls of the cotton, in 
 Florida, in October, which apparently did no injury. This 
 beetle is three-fifths of an inch in length, and of a brown 
 color, spotted and marbled with a darker bro.wn and black. 
 It flies with a loud humming sound, and is apparently 
 sluggish in its habits when not on the wing. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND ON ROTTED BOLLS. 
 
 Much has been said about the rotted bolls of cotton, 
 the cause of which has been attributed to insects ; and it 
 has been alleged that, if these bolls were well examined, 
 several of the insects causing the disease would always be 
 found inside. It is true, many small insects are found in 
 such rotted bolls, but they have invariably been previously 
 cracked or split open by disease, or bored into by the boll- 
 worm. The fact is, the insects found in such places 
 frequent them merely for the sake of the sap which exudes 
 from the wounds, or for the fimgoid growth that generally 
 flourishes in such situations. It is very often the case that 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTOISr PLANT. 
 
 207 
 
 the effect is thus mistaken for the cause, and that insects 
 perfectly innocent are blamed for a disease with which they 
 have nothing to do, except that they resort to the already 
 injured bolls for food or shelter. 
 
 The insects in decaying and rotted bolls of cotton are 
 very numerous, but most of them are quite small. 
 
 Another Insect — ( Carpophilus ? ) 
 
 Was found in such bolls as were either bored into by 
 the boll-worm, or had been split open by the rot, and did 
 not appear upon the bolls unless they had been previously i 
 injured. I have counted as many as thirty of these beetles j 
 in a single diseased boU, and there is scarcely an injured \ 
 or split boll in some fields in which one or more of them 
 is not to be found. They likewise occur in considerable 
 numbers in the tops of such ears of maize as have been 
 eaten out by the corn-worm (Heliothes), (see Report for 
 1854), and have much of the sap exuding, or are covered 
 with a fungoid growth. They appear to dislike light, and 
 seek shelter in dark places, secure from the rays of the sun. 
 
 This insect is about the tenth of an inch in length, and 
 of a brown color ; the wing-cases are short, covering only 
 about two-thirds of the abdomen. The larva is a small 
 yellow grub, with six fore-legs and two points at the end 
 of the tail, and is often found in the rotted parts of the 
 bolls. 
 
 If this insect were to be found in the bolls before they 
 were already rotted, or to be seen in the act of piercing 
 the outer case, it might, perhaps with reason, be accused 
 of causing the disease ; but, as they are never found inside 
 before the rot has commenced, it is very much to be 
 doubted whether they have any thing to do with it, or 
 
208 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 merely visit sucli places for the purpose of obtaining a 
 food suitable to tbeir taste, or a dark sheltered place in ac- 
 cordance with their habits. 
 
 The Squaee-necked Sylvanus. — [Sylvmns quadricolUs.) 
 
 The larva and perfect insect of this minute beetle has 
 already been figured, in the Agricultural Eeport for 1854, 
 where it is described as having been found in Indian corn. 
 It also frequents diseased cotton-bolls, most probably for 
 the sake of the seed, which is generally exposed to its 
 attacks, when the boll has been split open by disease. 
 
 Another Insect 
 
 Was also found very numerous in some of the rotted 
 bolls ; but as soon as the latter were taken from the plant 
 and opened, the beetles ran off with great rapidity, and 
 endeavored to hide themselves imder any substance that 
 would serve as a place of shelter. They appeared to dis- 
 like the open light, and were generally found in dark and 
 obscure places. 
 
 There were likewise several small insects found in 
 rotted bolls, such as the Colastus semitectus, and many 
 others, which it will be unnecessary to enumerate here, as 
 their habits are very much the same as those above men- 
 tioned, nearly all of them frequenting such places merely 
 for food and shelter, and not causmg the rot in any 
 manner. 
 
 The hemipterous insects, heretofore mentioned, cer- 
 tainly do pierce the bolls with their beaks or piercers, for 
 the sake of the sap ; for they have been caught in the 
 very act, and this even before any appearance of the rot 
 could be discovered. They might, therefore, perhaps, with 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 209 
 
 better reason, be suspected of having something more to 
 do with the disease than the small beetles already men- 
 tioned. But, even in this case, it would be well to inves- 
 tigate further before coming to a definite conclusion. 
 
 The Coen -Worm. — {Heliothes ? ) 
 
 The caterpillar producing this small moth, described in 
 the Agricultural Report for 1864 as injurious to the Indian 
 corn in the Southern States, is likewise found in the bolls 
 of cotton which have been split open by the rot, but can 
 have nothing to do with producing the disease. It most 
 probably feeds upon the seeds contained in the rotted 
 bolls. 
 
 The chrysalis is formed in a cocoon inside the boll ; it 
 is about one-fifth of an inch in length, of a brown color, 
 and formed in a cocoon of silk, interwoven with fsece^nd 
 dust from the boll. 
 
 The caterpillar is about three-tenths of an inch in 
 length, of a reddish or pink color, with the head and part 
 of the first segment brownish. It has six pectoral, eight 
 ventral, and two anal feet, and is able to suspend itself by 
 a thread, when disturbed. The body is slightly covered 
 with a few short hairs. 
 
 The moths appear in about fourteen days in warm 
 weather, and, when expanded, measure nearly two-fiffchs 
 of an inch ; the upper-wings are of a shaded chestnut 
 brown, mottled with darker brown and black ; the tips of 
 the wings are marked with dark spots ; the under-winga 
 are very narrow, brown, and deeply fringed with fine hairs, 
 presenting almost the appearance of feathers. The insect, 
 when at rest, places the upper wings together, forming a 
 ridge with the extremity turned up. There appear to be 
 
210 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 several generations of these insects during the season, and, 
 although found in rotted bolls, they are perfectly harmless 
 as to the causing of disease. 
 
 There are several other insects found in rotted bolls 
 which it will be unnecessary here to describe ; for, although, 
 as before stated, they are found in bolls already split open 
 by the rot, or eaten into by the worm, yet they are no 
 more the cause of the disease than the woodpecker is the 
 cause of the death of the tree out of which it extracts the 
 insects which have already accomplished its destruction. 
 
 The Boll-Worm. — {Heliothes?) 
 
 The egg of the boll-worm moth is generally deposited 
 on the outside of the involucel, or outer calyx of the 
 flower, and I have taken it from the outer calyx even of 
 thi* young boll itself. It has been stated that the egg is 
 laid upon the stem, which also forms the first food of the 
 young worm ; but after a thorough and careful examination 
 of several hundred stems, I found only one egg in this 
 situation, and that, from its being upon its side instead of 
 its base, had evidently been misplaced, and never hatched. 
 
 The egg of the boll-Avorm is laid singly upon the in- 
 volucel about twilight, and is of a somewhat oval shape, 
 rather flattened at the top and bottom, and is formed with 
 ridges on the side, which meet at the top in one common 
 centre. The color is yellowish until nearly hatched, when 
 it becomes darker, the young enclosed caterpillar showing 
 through the translucent shell. A single boll-worm moth, 
 dissected by Dr. John Gamble, of Tallahassee, contained 
 at least five hundred eggs, which differed much from those 
 of the cotton caterpillar moth, which are round and flat- 
 tened like a turnip, of a beautiful green color, and scarcely 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 211 
 
 to be distinguislied from the leaf on which they are de- 
 posited. The eggs of the boll-worm moth hatched in 
 three or four days after being brought in from the field, 
 and the young worms soon commenced feeding upon the 
 parenchyma, or tender fleshy substance of the calyx, on the 
 outside, near where the egg was laid. When they had 
 gained strength, they pierced through the outer calyx, 
 some through the petals into the enclosed flower-bud, 
 while others penetrated the boll itself. Sometimes the 
 pistil and stamens are found to be distorted and discolored, 
 which is caused by the young worm, when inside the bud, 
 eating the stamens and injuring the pistil, so that it is 
 drawn over to one side. When this is the case, the young 
 worm bores through the bottom of the flower into the 
 young boll before the old corolla, pistil, and stamens fall 
 off, leaving the young boll, inner calyx, and outer calyx, or 
 involucel, still adhering to the foot-stalk, with the y^ng 
 worm safe in the growing boll. 
 
 The number of buds destroyed by this worm is very 
 great, as they fall off when quite young, and are scarcely 
 observed as they lie, brown and withering, on the ground. 
 The instinct of the caterpillar, however, teaches it to for- 
 sake a bud or boll about to fall, and either to seek another 
 or to fasten itself to a leaf, on which it remains until the 
 skin is shed ; it then attacks another bud or boll in a sim- 
 ilar manner, until, at length, it acquires size and strength 
 sufficient to enable it to bore into the nearly-matured bolls, 
 which are entirely destroyed by its punctures ; for, if the 
 interior is not devoured, the rain penetrates the boll, and 
 the cotton soon becomes rotten and of no value. 
 
 The rotted bolls serve also for food and shelter to nu- 
 merous small insects, such as those already mentioned, and 
 which have been erroneously accused of causing the rot. 
 
212 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 Whenever a young boll or bud is seen with the involucre, 
 or outer calyx, called by some the " ruffle," spread open, it 
 may be safely concluded that it has been attacked by the 
 worm, and will soon fall to the ground and perish. The 
 older bolls, however, remain on the plant ; and, if many of 
 the fallen buds or bolls be closely examined, the greater 
 portion of them will be found to have been previously 
 pierced by the worm, the few exceptions being caused 
 either by the minute punctures of some of the plant-bugs, 
 from rain, or other atmospheric influences. Those injured 
 by the worm can be distinguished by a small hole on the 
 outside where it entered, and which, when cut open, will 
 generally be found partially filled with small fragments of 
 faeces. 
 
 When very young, the boll-worm is able to suspend 
 itself by a thread, if blown or brushed from the boll or 
 leaf on which it rested. After changing its skin several 
 times, and attaining its full size, the caterpillar descends 
 into the ground, where it makes a silky cocoon, interwoven 
 with particles of gravel and earth, in which it changes into 
 a bright chestnut-brown chrysalis. The worms, which en- 
 tered the ground in September and October, appeared as 
 perfect moths about the end of November. 
 
 A boll-worm, which was bred from an egg found upon 
 the involucel, or ruffle of the flower-bud, grew to rather 
 more than a twentieth of an inch in length by the third 
 day, when it shed its skin, having esten in the mean time 
 nothing but the parenchyma, or teuder fleshy substance 
 from the outside. On the fifth dav it bored or pierced 
 through the outer calyx, and commenced feeding upon the 
 inner ; and, on the sixth day, it agiin shed its skin, and 
 had increased to about the tenth of an inch in length. On 
 the tenth day it again shed its skin, ate the interior of the 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 213 
 
 young flower-bud, and had grown mucli larger. On the 
 fourteenth day it, for the fifth time, shed its skin, attacked 
 and ate into a young boll, and had increased to thirteen- 
 twentieths of an inch in length. From this time it ate 
 nothing but the inside of the boll, and on the twentieth 
 day the skin was again shed, and it had grown to the 
 length of an inch and one-tenth, but unfortunately died 
 before completing its final change. 
 
 These moths probably lay their eggs on some other 
 plants when the cotton is inaccessible, as a young boll- 
 worm was found this season in the corolla of the flower of 
 a squash, devouring the pistils and stamens ; and, as there 
 is a striking similarity between the boll-worm and the corn- 
 worm moth, described in the Agricultural Report for 1864, 
 in the appearance, food, and habits, alike in the caterpillar, 
 chrysalis, and perfect state, it will perhaps prove that the 
 boll-worm may be the young of the corn-worm moth, and 
 that the eggs are deposited on the young boll, as the 
 nearest substitute for green corn, and placed upon them 
 only when the com aas become too old and hard for their 
 food. 
 
 Colonel B. A. Sorsby, of Columbus, Georgia, has bred 
 both these insects, atd declares them to be the same ; and, 
 moreover, when, acccrding to his advice, the corn was care- 
 fully wormed on two or three plantations, the boll-worms 
 did not make their appearance that season on the cotton, 
 notwithstanding that, on neighboring plantations, they 
 committed great ravages. 
 
 The worms, or caterpillars, have six pectoral, eight ven- 
 tral, and two anal fett, and creep along with a gradual mo- 
 tion, quite unlike tin; looping gait of the true cotton cater- 
 pillar, and vary mmi in color and markings, some being 
 brown, while others are ahnost greea All are more or less 
 
214 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLATSTT. 
 
 spotted with black, and slightly covered with short hairs. 
 These variations of color may perhaps be caused by the 
 food of the caterpillar. Some planters assert that, in the 
 earlier part of the season, the green worms are found in the 
 greatest number, while the dark brown are seen later in 
 the fall, as we know is the case with the cotton caterpillar. 
 
 The upper-wings of the moth are yellowish, in some 
 specimens having a shade of green, but in others of red. 
 There is an irregular dark band running across the wing, 
 about an eighth of an inch from the margin, and a cres- 
 cent-shaped dark spot near the centre ; several dark spots, 
 each enclosing a white mark, are also discovered on the 
 margin ; the under-wings are lighter colored, with a broad, 
 black border on the margin, and are also veined distinctly 
 with the same color. In the black border, however, there 
 is a brownish-yeUow spot, of the same color as the rest of 
 the under-wings, which is more distinct in some specimens 
 than in others, but may always be plainly perceived ; there 
 is also, in most specimens, a black mark or line in the 
 middle of the under-wings, on the nervure ; but, in some, 
 it is very indistinct. 
 
 These moths multiply very rapidly ; for, as I have be- 
 fore observed, one female moth sometimes contains five 
 hundred eggs, which, if hatched in safety, would rapidly 
 infest a whole field, three generations being produced in 
 the course of a year. 
 
 In an interesting communication from Colonel Benja- 
 min F. Whitner, of Tallahassee, he states that the boll- 
 worm was scarcely known in his neighborhood before the 
 year 1841 ; and yet, in the short period of fourteen years, 
 it had increased to such a degree as to have become one 
 of the greatest enemies to the cotton on several plantations 
 in that vicinity. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 215 
 
 It has been recommended to light tires in various parts 
 of the plantations, at the season when the first moths of 
 this insect make their appearance, as they are attracted by 
 light, and perish in great numbers in the flames ; and, if 
 the first brood of females be thus destroyed, their numbers 
 must necessarily be reduced, as it is highly probable that 
 it is the second and third generations which do the prin- 
 cipal damage to the crops. Some successfiil experiments 
 in kilUng these moths with molasses and vinegar were 
 made by Captain Sorsby, a year or two ago, which I here 
 describe in his own words : 
 
 "We procured eighteen common-sized dinner-plates, 
 into each of which we put about half a gill of vinegar and 
 molasses, previously prepared in the proportion of four 
 parts of the former to one of the latter. These plates were 
 set on small stakes, or poles, driven into the ground in the 
 cotton fields, one to about each three acres, and reaching a 
 little above the cotton plant, with a six-inch-square board 
 tacked on the top, to receive the plate. These arrange- 
 ments were made in the evening, soon after the flies had 
 made their appearance. The next morning we found from 
 eighteen to thirty-five moths to each plate. The experi- 
 ment was continued for five or six days, distributing the 
 plates over the entire field, each day's success decreasing 
 until the number v^as reduced to two or three to each 
 plate, when it was abandoned, as being no longer worthy 
 of the trouble. The crop that year was but very little in- 
 jured by the boll-worm. The flies were caught in their 
 eugerness to feed upon the mixture, by alighting into it, 
 and being unable to make their escape. They were doubt- 
 less attracted by the odor of the preparation, the vinegar 
 probably being an important agent in the matter. As flies 
 feed only at night, the plates should be visited late every 
 
216 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 evening, the insects taken out, and the vessels replenished, 
 as circumstances may require. I have tried the experiment 
 with results equally satisfactory, and shall continue it until 
 a better one is adopted." It might be well also to try the 
 lantern-trap before mentioned, as another means of destruc- 
 tion, and likewise the method of poisoning recommended 
 in the general remarks on insects. As it appears from 
 Colonel Sorsby's communication that the moth is attracted 
 by, and feeds with avidity upon molasses and vinegar, could 
 not some tasteless and effective poison be mixed with this 
 liquid, so that all the early moths which might partake of 
 it would be destroyed before laying their eggs ? 
 
 A long caterpillar, measuring from an inch and three- 
 fifths to an inch and nine-tenths in length, and with a thick 
 body, is sometimes found in bolls of cotton in similar situ- 
 ations as the boll-worm. It feeds likewise upon the leaf, 
 and some specimens, which were confined in a box, de- 
 voured green corn from the ear. These insects vary much 
 in color, some being of a beautiful velvet black, while 
 others are considerably lighter. The head of the cater- 
 pillar appears small for the bulky size of the body, and is 
 black, with two stripes of yellow, forming an angle on the 
 front. On each side of the back runs a longitudinal line, 
 and below the spiracles is seen another line of a reddish 
 or ruddy color. The under part is of a light brown. It 
 has six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal legs, and its 
 mode of progression is by a gradual creeping, the same as 
 the boll-worm. 
 
 The chrysalides were formed under ground, in cocoons 
 of earth, agglutinated with silk, and were about four-fifths 
 of an inch in length, and of a brownish color. 
 
 The moth measured an inch and three-tenths across the 
 expanded wings ; the upper pair were of a brownish color, 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 217 
 
 marked on the margin with an irregular band of dirty 
 cream-color, marked with black spots on the extreme outer 
 edge. In the centre of each wing was an oblique line of 
 the same color ; the body was brown ; the under-wings of 
 a dirty, yellowish white, with a dark shade near where they 
 touch the upper-wings ; the antennae were threadlike. 
 
 The eggs producing these worms were found deposited 
 in clusters in September, and not singly, like those of the 
 boll-worm. The old caterpillars are subject to a disease 
 which often proves fatal ; and hence it is difficult to raise 
 them in confinement. When attacked, they appear to 
 bloat or swell very much, become full of a watery pulp, 
 suddenly cease to feed, and soon perish, when the outer 
 skin turns black, and the inside is found to be full of st. 
 liquid, putrid matter. Perhaps, if they were not subject to 
 this disease, these caterpillars might do as much damage 
 to the cotton as the boll-worm ; but, being generally not 
 very numerous, they cannot do much injury. 
 
 The same remedies will do for these worms, or cater- 
 pillars, that have been recommended for the boll-worm. 
 
 The Striped Pale-Green Caterpillar. 
 
 There was another cateipillar found feeding upon the 
 leaves of the cotton plant, near Columbus, in Georgia,, 
 which sometimes buried itself in the bolls, in the same 
 manner as the boll-worm. It was about an inch and a 
 half in length, of a pale-green color, with wavy, longitudinal 
 stripes of a lighter color on the back, and with a longitu- 
 dinal black line running down each side, thicker and darker 
 on the fore part of the head. Under this was a broader 
 line, nearly white, tinged with light red or reddish brown,. 
 On each side of every segment was a small black spot. It 
 had six pectoral, eight ventral, and two anal feet. 
 10 
 
218 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTOlSr PLANT, 
 
 Most of these caterpillars were found about the 20th 
 of October, but, unfortunately, died before completing 
 their final change. They were not numerous on the plan- 
 tations, and therefore could do but little damage. 
 
 The Red Bug, or Cotton-Stainer. — {Lygceus?) 
 
 This destructive insect is found by millions in East 
 Florida, on the cotton plantations, where it does immense 
 damage by staining the fibre of the cotton in the bolls, 
 and rendering it unfit for use where pure white fabrics 
 are required. Some specimens were found near Jactson- 
 ville, in October, on the open bolls, under the dried calyx, 
 and congregating together on the dead leaves under the 
 plants, or on rotten logs or decayed wood. Several of the 
 open bolls were actually red with these insects, exhibitiiig 
 every stage of growth, from the larva to the perfect bug, 
 all clustered together in such masses as almost to hide the 
 white of the cotton itself The beak, or rostrum, is four- 
 jointed, with the end blackish, and when not in use, is re- 
 curved under the thorax, which is somewhat triangular in 
 shape, with the anterior part red ; a narrow, distinct band 
 of whitish yellow divides the thorax from the head ; the 
 posterior part is black, edged between the thorax and wing- 
 cases with whitish yellow ; the scutellum is triangular, red, 
 and edged with a distinct line of whitish yellow on each 
 side, and partly down the centre of the wing-case ; the 
 elytrse, or wing-cases, are flat, brownish black, and contain- 
 ing two distinct X-shaped whitish-yellow lines on them, 
 intersecting each other near the centre ; the wing-cases are 
 also edged with a distinct yellowish line, as far as the X. 
 The body is flattened, and in the female projects on each 
 side beyond the wing-cases, showing the bright red of the 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAliTT. 219 
 
 abdomen, and contrasting with the dark color of the wing- 
 cases. The under-wings are hidden under the upper wing- 
 cases, and are transparent, veined, and of a yellowish color, 
 clouded with black. The thighs of the fore-legs are some- 
 what spiny near the tibiae, and of a red color. The tibiae 
 and tarsi are black ; the under part of the body is bright 
 red, with rings of yellowish white running around it, on 
 the edge of each segment. 
 
 The female produces about one hundred eggs; the 
 young larva is completely red, almost scarlet, with distinct 
 whitish-yellow bands around the body, an the edge of^ 
 each segment. The thighs are red, with the tibiae, tars| 
 and antennae blackish. J 
 
 The pupa differs only in size, and in having the un-^^ 
 formed wing-cases very small and black, contrasting strongly 
 with the vivid red of the body. 
 
 The perfect male is about three-fifths of an inch in 
 length, and the female about seven-tenths of an inch, from 
 the head to the end of the abdomen. They are similar in 
 shape and color, differing only in size. The head and eyes 
 are red, the antennae black, with four long joints; 
 
 The following communication on the subject of this 
 insect was received from Mr. B. Hopkins, of Jacksonville, 
 a practical sea-island planter, of nearly thirty years' ex- 
 perience : 
 
 " The ' red bugs,' or, as they are sometimes properly 
 denominated, the ' cotton-stainers,' generally make their 
 appearance about August, or late in July, which is near the 
 usual season for cotton to begin to open. They can read- 
 ily be distinguished from other bugs, hannless in their na- 
 ture, by their being of a red color, and more sluggish in 
 their movements. The nearer the fruit advances toward 
 maturity, the more injury they do to the cotton. The 
 
220 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 pod, or boll, is perforated by this bug. Whether the 
 staining matter is imparted to the fibre of the cotton during 
 the perforation directly, or by a sloT^^^ocess diflFiising it- 
 self with the sap abounding at that time in the pod, is not 
 yet ascertained. I am of the latter opinion, from the fact 
 that almost the entire product of the boll is discolored 
 when it opens, which does not seem at all to cause a pre- 
 mature development. As winter approaches, they grad- 
 ually retire, and take refuge among the logs, or burrow 
 into the soil at the root of the cotton plant, where they 
 hybernate. After a wet season, in winter, they may be 
 found in hundreds on the sunny side of the stalks, enjoy- 
 ing the genial atmosphere, until toward evening, when they 
 again retire. They can be kept down very easily, when 
 there are not more than five acres planted to the hand. 
 
 " I have been in the habit of offering a reward every 
 night to the negro that brings in the greatest quantity, 
 each of whom is fiirnished with a pint bottle, suspended 
 across the shoulders, into which, as they pass along pick- 
 ing the cotton, they deposit all they can discover. In 
 many instances I have seen the bottle filled by one negro 
 in a day. They may also be greatly reduced by destroy- 
 ing them when they come out in winter, in their half-torpid 
 state ; a torch of fire in that case is best. They may be 
 buried a foot under ground, and most of them will still 
 escape from their inhumation. If there should be stumps 
 or trees in the fields, they should be burned, and that will 
 generally reduce the quantity for a year or more. In fact, 
 when they receive timely and proper attention, they need 
 not be dreaded. 
 
 " No process that I know of can extract the stain pro- 
 duced in the bolls ; it is indelible, and considerably re- 
 duces the price of the cotton in the market. These insects 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 221 
 
 have been mucli on the increase for the last ten years, which 
 I attribute to the excess in planting, as well as the want of 
 proper efforts for their destruction." 
 
 It has been stated by other planters, that the faeces of 
 the insect produce the reddish or greenish stain, and that 
 the red-bugs will collect where there are splinters or frag- 
 ments of sugar-cane. Advantage has already been taken 
 of this habit to collect them by means of small chips of 
 sugar-cane, when they may be destroyed by boiling water ; 
 and as they also collect around piles of cotton-seed, they 
 may thus be easily decoyed, and then killed, either by fire 
 or hot water, when congregated. AU stumps and dead 
 trees standing in the field should be well burnt out. The 
 experiment of destroying them by means of the crushed 
 sugar-cane and poison has been tried ; but, as no report of 
 the experiment has been received, it remains doubtful 
 whether it can be recommended or not. 
 
 INSECTS FOUND IN THE COTTON FIELDS— NOT INJURIOUS 
 TO THE CROP. 
 
 (Zanthidia niceppe,) 
 
 There are many other insects found in cotton fields, 
 which are perfectly harmless to the plant, although the 
 larvae of many of them subsist upon the weeds which grow 
 between the rows or around the edges of the plantation. 
 
 Among these insects we find butterfiies, in general, one 
 species of which is frequently seen hanging over the 
 ground by hundreds, around moist and damp places. The 
 caterpillar of this fly is of a deep-green, velvety appearance, 
 with a yellowish longitudinal line running down each side. 
 It was found upon the Cassia Marylandica, and measured 
 an inch and one-fifth in leng-th. The chrysalis is greenish. 
 
222 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON" PLANT. 
 
 with a very pointed head, and fastened to the branch or 
 leaf by the tail, and by a thread fastened at each side and 
 passed over its back. 
 
 This butterfly is about an inch and four-fifths across the 
 expanded wings, which are of an orange color, with a broad, 
 black border around the edges. 
 
 The Aeqynnis Columbina. 
 
 The caterpillar of another butterfly is often found on 
 cotton plants, where it has wandered from its natural food, 
 which consists of the wild passion-flower, so often found 
 growing as a weed amongst the crops. It is about an inch 
 and two-fifths in length, of a bright-chestnut color, with two 
 longitudinal black stripes along the sides, and a broken line 
 of yellowish white inside of each black stripe ; it has two 
 long, projecting, black horns, or protuberances, on the first 
 segment of the body. When about to change, it selects a 
 place under a leaf, branch, or fence, where it spins a small 
 spot of silk, to which it suspends itself by its hind-legs ; the 
 skin of the fore part of the body then splits open, and the 
 chrysalis makes its appearance, also hanging suspended by 
 means of several small hooks, with which the end of the 
 tail is furnished, and which, during the disengagement of 
 the skin, becomes entangled in the silk. 
 
 The chrysalis is about seven-tenths of an inch in length, 
 of a pale, whitish gre.en, containing black marks and 
 brilliant metallic, golden spots. These chrysalides, how- 
 ever, together with those of the great American frittellary 
 butterfly, are often destroyed by the larvae of a small fly. 
 
 The butterfly makes its appearance in summer in a few 
 days, and measures irom two inches and a half to three 
 inches across the expanded wings. It is of a bright 
 chestnut-brown, barred and spotted with black. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 223 
 
 Gbeat American Frittellart. — {Agraulis vanillce.) 
 
 The caterpillar of this butterfly is of a hght chestnut- 
 brown color, with a dark, longitudinal stripe down each 
 side, and is shaded with black below the spiracles. Tt 
 measures about an inch and a half in length, and is covered 
 with sharp, thorny spines ; two spines are also found upon 
 the top of its somewhat square-shaped head. 
 
 The chrysalis, which is shaded with brown and drab, is 
 about an inch and a tenth in length, and hangs suspended 
 by the tail from trees, shrubs, and fences. 
 
 The butterfly measures from two inches and three- 
 fourths to three inches and a fourth across the wings ; the 
 upper sides of which are of a bright rich chestnut-brown, 
 spotted and marked on the veins with black. The under- 
 side is beautifally marked with large, metallic, silver spots. 
 
 Ants. 
 
 Whenever the plants are infested with cotton-lice 
 [Aphides), myriads of small ants may be seen running 
 hurriedly up and down the stems and leaves, or leisurely 
 moving amongst the lice, quietly tapping first one and then 
 another with their antennae, or feelers, and occasionally 
 making a dead halt where they find a sufficiency of this 
 insect food. Many planters suppose that these ants are 
 the parents of the lice ; others again suspect them of 
 destroying the aphis ; neither of which, however, is the 
 case, as the ants merely visit the colonies of lice to devour 
 the sweet, gummy substance that exudes from the tubercles 
 on the bodies of the aphides, and which is commonly 
 called " honey-dew," from the erroneous impression that it 
 is formed in the atmosphere, and then deposited in the 
 form of dew iipon the upper surface of leaves. This honey- 
 
224 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 dew, however, is a swe«t liquid, ejected from the anal 
 tubercles of the cotton-louse, and elaborated in its own 
 body, from the sap which had previously been extracted 
 from leaves or young shoots, and which, if not immediately 
 devoured by the ants, is ejected by the plant-louse, and 
 falls in drops upon the upper portions of the leaves that 
 are beneath, making them appear as if varnished, or, if old, 
 causing the places thus defiled to be black and rusty, as if 
 aflfected with a black mildew, or rust. 
 
 The ants feed voraciously upon this honey-dew, whea 
 fresh, and cause the aphides to eject the substance at will, 
 by merely tapping their abdomens with their antennae ; the 
 drop ejected is immediately devoured by the ants, and 
 other aphides are visited and subjected to the same treat- 
 ment, until the appetites of the ants are satisfied, when 
 they either loiter about the leaves or descend to their nests 
 in the gTOund. Ants are of utility in devouring any weak 
 or disabled insects they may encounter in their path, or in 
 consuming any animal substances which might otherwise 
 contaminate the air. 
 
 Ants are generally divided into "males," "females," 
 and " neuters." The males and females, at one stage of 
 their growth, are furnished with wings, which the female 
 gnaws or casts otF when about to form a colony. The 
 neuters afterward form the general mass. There are 
 several varieties of the ant found in the cotton fields, of 
 very different habits and appearance. The most numerous 
 make a hole in the earth, and form a sort of hillock around 
 it, of the grains of earth or sand brought up from below 
 the surface of the ground, and from this nest they make 
 excursions in every direction in search of food. 
 
 There is also another species — "red ants," so called, 
 but in reality belonging to the family Mutillidce. They are 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 225 
 
 found singly upon the ground in plantations, and some- 
 times measure half an inch in length. Their color is a 
 vivid, velvety red and black. They are able to inflict pain- 
 ful and severe wounds with a long sting with which they 
 are provided. There are also three or four species of small 
 ants, exceedingly troublesome in some of the Southern 
 houses, where they find their way into pantries, closets, 
 boxes, or trunks, however closed, and devour any eatable 
 article which may fall in their way. The only means of 
 pi'eventing the ravages of these insects is to isolate the 
 article to be preserved in a vessel of water, or to put all 
 four of the legs of the table, on which the articles may be 
 placed, into vessels filled with water. 
 
 The smaller ants, however, have a formidable enemy, 
 the ant-lion, which, in the larva state, forms a funnel-shaped 
 hole in the sand, near the ants' nests, in the bottom of 
 which it lies concealed, all except its jaws, and waits with 
 patience in this den for any ant that may chance to pass 
 along the treacherous path. The ant, suspecting no harm, 
 reaches the edge of the pit-fall, and, the loose sand giving 
 way, it if5 precipitated to the bottom, where the larva of the 
 ant-lion immediately seizes it with its jaws, and, after suck- 
 ing out its juice, casts the empty skin away. Should the 
 anfortunate ant, however, elude the first assault of the ant- 
 lion, and endeavor to escape by climbing up the steep sides 
 of the funnel-shaped hole, the ant-lion throws repeated 
 showers of sand with such precision upon the unfortunate 
 victim that it very seldom fails to overwhelm and bring it 
 within reach of its jaws, when it is seized and its juices 
 extracted as above described. 
 
 The perfect insect of the ant-lion much resembles the 
 dragon-fly in form and general appearance ; it is also 
 furnished with four veined wings, by means of which it is 
 10* 
 
226 
 
 DISEASES OE THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 enabled to transport itself from place to place. The 
 antennae, however, are much longer, and the larvae of the 
 dragon-fly are decidedly aquatic, instead of living upon the 
 land, like those of the ant-lion, 
 
 INSECTS BENEFICIAL TO COTTON. 
 Spiders. 
 
 Spiders, in cotton or grain fields, are decidedly bene- 
 ficial, inasmuch as they wage perpetual v?ar against other 
 insects, and are incessantly on the watch to catch and 
 destroy all which, in their erratic flights, happen to be- 
 come entangled in their webs. 
 
 One spider makes a very singular nest for her young, 
 of fine silk, webbed up and closely woven together in the 
 shape of a basket with a round bottom, and most generally 
 placed on or near the top of the cotton plant, Tliis basket 
 is furnished with a cover fitting closely to the top, and is 
 filled with egg-s. When the young spiders are hatched, 
 they creep from under this cover, and eventually disperse 
 over the web, which is comparatively large and strong, and 
 stretched from plant to plant. The old female spider 
 appears to brood over this nest, displaying much maternal 
 solicitude for the safety of her infant progeny ; for, if forced 
 away, she immediately returns, and will sufter herself al- 
 most to be torn limb from limb, rath.er than desert her 
 precious charge. 
 
 The habits of the different species of spiders are very 
 dissimilar ; for, while some are almost entirely stationary 
 all their life-time, others are continually moving about, 
 roaming from leaf to leaf, and living entirely by hunting. 
 Many spin their nets from plant to plant, to entrap unwary 
 insects, and generally stay quietly at home in comfortable 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 227 
 
 webs securely sheltered from the sun and rain, under or 
 between the leaves, waiting patiently for every stray moth 
 that is 60 unfortunate as to fly into their nets. With the 
 fore-feet carefully placed on a line leading to the radiating 
 net-work, in order to feel the tremulous motion imparted 
 to it by the unavailing efforts of any captive insect to 
 escape, the spider remains perfectly motionless until some 
 straggling fly happens to become entangled when it im- 
 mediately rushes down the central line, and, after tying 
 the limbs of its unfortunate victim with a loose web of silk, 
 in order to arrest its struggles for life, deliberately gives it 
 the death-wound, drags the carcass to its den, and devours 
 it at leisure. Other spiders hunt for and capture their 
 insect prey in a maimer similar to that practised by the cat. 
 One of them at first approaches an unconscious victim so 
 gently as not to awaken its suspicion, at the same time 
 taking advantage of every inequality of stem or leaf, in 
 order to conceal itself, until within springing distance, and 
 then jumping suddenly upon its back, killing it with its 
 powerful hooked fangs. It then sucks out the whole of its 
 juices, leaving only the empty skin, to be blown away by 
 the wind. 
 
 Another description of a small spider, about the tenth 
 of an inch in length, of a light-drab color, with two or 
 more dark spots on its back, was found very numerous 
 inside of the involucre, or ruffle, of the cotton bloom, bud, 
 and boll, where it is said to be useful to the planter in 
 destroying very young boll-worms. In many cases, where 
 the eggs of the boll-worm moth had been deposited and 
 hatched out, and the young worms had eaten through the 
 outer calyx, and already partially pierced a hole in the 
 young bud, or boll, it was frequently observed that no 
 worm could be discovered inside ; but upon opening such 
 
228 DISEASES OF THE COTTON" PLANT. 
 
 a ruffle, this small spider was almost invariably found 
 snugly ensconced in its web ; hence it was surmised that 
 the young worm had entered between the ruffle and the 
 boll, or bud, and had been destroyed by the spider, the 
 nest of which was found in such situations. 
 
 As all spiders are in the habit of destroying small, 
 noxious insects, they may be regarded as beneficial, espe- 
 cially when the crops are preyed upon by the larvae of very 
 small flies, such as the wheat midge, the Hessian fly, and 
 many others. These insects, being constantly on the wing, 
 flying about from plant to plant, to deposit their eggs, are 
 very apt to become entangled in the webs, and to be there 
 destroyed. 
 
 The spider itself, however, has enemies, one of which 
 is the " mud-wasp," so called. This insect builds cells of 
 clay in out-houses, and under beams, or in other sheltered 
 places. Their nests resemble small pieces of mud thrown 
 aip against a roof or wall, when wet, and afterward dried by 
 exposure to the air. 
 
 The Carolina Tigeb-Beetle. — {Megacephela OaroKna.) 
 
 This beetle belongs to the family Cicindeladce, other- 
 wise called " tiger-beetles," from their savage propensities, 
 and the beautiful spots and stripes with which their metal- 
 lic wing-cases are adorned. These beetles are always 
 hunting about the ground in search of insect food. A 
 smaller and darker species especially delights in the glare 
 and heat of the mid-day sun ; and, when disturbed, flies 
 only a short distance, alighting with its head directed tow- 
 ard the object which has excited its alarm. 
 
 The lai-vae of the tiger-beetle inhabit cylindrical holes 
 in the earth, and, in these burrows, they wait patiently for 
 
DISEASES OF THE -COTTON PLANT. 
 
 229 
 
 any passing insect that may be crawling about on the 
 ground, which, when within reach, is seized, dragged to 
 the bottom of its subterranean den, and there devoured at 
 leisure. They are of a dirty yellowish white, and are 
 furnished with two hooks on the back In the Southern 
 States, they are often taken by the boys, by means of a 
 piece of grass or straw, which being inserted into their 
 dens, is seized by the insect in its crooked jaws, and held 
 with such tenacity that it will not let go until, by means 
 of a sudden jerk, it is brought to the surface of the ground 
 and secured. 
 
 The Carolina tiger-beetle is about seven-tenths of an 
 inch in length, of a most beautiful metallic blue, violet, and 
 green ; and, when placed in certain positions, it assumes 
 the lustre of bronze or gold. It may also be known by a 
 yellowish curved spot on the extremity of each wing-case. 
 It appears not to be so partial to the light of the sun as 
 some other species, but often conceals itself under stones. 
 It is also seen much more frequently in the cotton fields 
 during cloudy weather, or toward evening, than in a fervid 
 mid-day sun. 
 
 The Predatory Beetle — [Harpalus?) 
 
 A beetle belonging to the genus HarpaUs, is very 
 beneficial to the cotton planter, inasmuch as its food con- 
 sists principally of other insects, and of dead putrescent sub- 
 stances. Numbers of them may be seen running about the 
 surface of the ground in search of food, and when disturb- 
 ed, hide themselves under grass, roots, or stones. The 
 formation of their jaws is peculiarly adapted to a predatory 
 life. As they are very strong, and hooked at the extremity, 
 they are enabled to seize and hold fast any soft-bodied in- 
 sect, which they generally kill and devour. 
 
230 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAINT. 
 
 It should here be mentioned, however, that the larvae 
 of an insect of this species have been accused in Europe of 
 feeding upon the pith and stems of grasses and succulent 
 roots, but at the same time it is stated to feed also upon 
 the larvae of other insects. 
 
 Another very similar insect {Zabrus gihbus), both in 
 the larva and pupa state, is said to be injurious to wheat in 
 Europe ; and although the two last mentioned may be 
 injurious to vegetation, yet, as a general rule, tbe Carabidce 
 are carnivorous, and destroy multitudes of insects m the 
 larva, pupa, and perfect state. 
 
 The Devil's Coach-Horse. — [Reduvim novenarius.) 
 
 This insect abounds in the city of Washington, during 
 the summer and autumnal months, and is very useful in 
 destroying the disgusting caterpillars which swarm on the 
 shade-trees. The eggs are deposited in autumn upon 
 branches, and are hatched in May or June. When young, 
 the insects have abdomens of a bright-red color, with some 
 dark or black spots on their backs. The head and thorax 
 are black. When they shed their skins, they are grayish 
 in color, and display only the rudiments of wings. It is 
 only in the last stage that they acquire perfect wings, when 
 they are capable of flying with great vigor. 
 
 The perfect insect measures about an inch and a quarter 
 in length. It destroys multitudes of noxious insects, in 
 every stage of their growth, and is therefore highlj bene- 
 ficial ; but, at the same time, it is dangerous to man, if 
 handled incautiously, as the punctures made by its piercer 
 are often followed by severe consequences. When about 
 to attack another insect, it advances toward its prey with a 
 most cautious and stealthy gait, lifting up and putting 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 231 
 
 down its feet apparently in the same careful manner as a 
 pointer when approaching his game. When near enough 
 to make the fatal dart, it plunges its piercer into the 
 unfortunate caterpillar, and deliberately sucks out its 
 juices. A small specimen experimented with, was placed 
 in a box with ten caterpillars, all of which it destroyed in 
 the space of five hours. 
 
 The Ichneumon YhY.— {Ichneumon ?) 
 
 An ichneumon fly was found in the cotton fields near 
 Columbus, in Geoi-gia, busily employed in search of some 
 caterpillar in the body of which to deposit its eggs, as is 
 generally the habit of this class of flies. The eggs being 
 hatched within the caterpillar, the larvae devour the fatty 
 substance, carefully avoiding all the vital parts, until they 
 are fully grown, when the caterpillar, having in the mean 
 time changed into a chrysalis, with the devouring larvae m 
 its interior, the life of its unresisting victim is destroyed, 
 and the grubs change into pupae, and eventually emerge 
 from the chrysalis skin perfect ichneumon flies, to deposit 
 their eggs in other caterpillars. 
 
 These insects are generally seen running about plants 
 infested with caterpillars or worms, continually jerking 
 their wings, and anxiously searching in every cranny and 
 crevice in quest of a subject, in which to form the nest 
 and provide food for their young. 
 
 The circumstance of this fly's coming from the skin or 
 case of the moth, or butterfly, is the cause of the mistakes 
 so often made by persons not well versed in natural his- 
 tory ; for, when a caterpillar is confined in a glass, and 
 after the change to a chrysalis has taken place, when the 
 real moth is expected to come out, and this fly makes its 
 
232 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 appearance, the young naturalist concludes, of course, that 
 the fly is produced by the caterpillar ; whereas the rightful 
 tenant of the chrysalis-case had been previously displaced 
 and devoured by the larva of the ichneumon fly, which 
 was produced from an egg placed by the parent fly in the 
 body of the caterpillar. This fact is here noticed in con- 
 sequence of some drawings of insects injurious to cotton 
 having been sent to the Patent Office, among which an 
 ichneumon fly was figured as proceeding from the chrysalis 
 of a caterpillar. This was correct, inasmuch as it was the 
 parasite which had devoured the chrysalis, but not true 
 when intended to represent the perfect insect as naturally 
 proceeding from the caterpillar itselt 
 
 Some chrysalides of the cotton caterpillar, which had 
 been preserved during the autumn of 1855, as an experi- 
 ment to try whether they would live untU the following 
 spring, having been hatched out prematurely by the heat 
 of the room in which they were kept, two ichneumon flies 
 were produced of a slender shape, and about half an inch 
 in length ; the abdomen or body of the female was black, 
 and marked with seven light-colored, yellowish, narrow 
 rings around it ; the head was black, with the eyes brown, 
 the antennae long, jointed, and nearly black ; on the head 
 were three ocelli ; the thorax was black ; the wings trans- 
 parent, of a rather yellowish tinge, veined with black, and 
 having a distinct black mark on the outer margin of the 
 upper pair ; the first joint of the hind-leg was compar- 
 atively large, thick, and of a brownish color ; the thighs 
 were also brown ; the tibiae black, with a broad white band 
 in the middle ; the tarsi were white, tipped with black ; 
 and the ovipositor protruded more than the tenth of an 
 inch. The male presented much the same appearance as 
 the female, but was more slender in form. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAOT. 
 
 233 
 
 The Smaller Ichneumon Fly. — {Ichneumon?) 
 
 The iclmeumon fly wMcli destroys tte aphis, or louse, 
 so very injurious to the cotton plant, is a minute insect, 
 not quite the twentieth of an inch in length. The head 
 and thorax are black, and the legs and abdomen of a yel- 
 lowish color. Although so extremely small as to be un- 
 observed, it is constantly engaged in exterminating the 
 cotton lice, myriads of which it destroys by preying upon 
 their vitals. The female fly lays a single egg in the body 
 of each louse, which, when hatched, becomes a grub. This 
 grub devours the interior substance of the aphis, leaving 
 only the gray and bloated skin clinging to the leaf. This 
 skin serves the young larva for a shelter, where it remains 
 until it changes into the perfect fly, when it emerges from 
 a hole gnawed through the back, and issues forth famished 
 with four transparent wings, to recommence the beneficial 
 labor of depositing more eggs in the surrounding colonies 
 of lice on the neighboring plants. 
 
 The number of lice destroyed in this way can be more 
 fiilly appreciated by observing the multitude of empty gray 
 and bloated skins, more or less scattered over the cotton 
 plants infested, each skin having a hole in the back through 
 which the perfect fly has escaped. 
 
 The Syrphfs. 
 
 The laiTse of this syrphus are found wherever aphides, 
 or plant-lice abound, and present the appearance of small, 
 yellowish-white, naked maggots, or grubs, of about a flfth 
 of an inch in length. Their color is brown, with six dis- 
 tinct yellow spots on the first three segments of the body, 
 and the sides are also marked on the margin with yellow ; 
 
234 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 the body is somewhat hairy. The head is armed with 
 powerful jaws, and gradually tapers to a point, while the 
 tail terminates abruptly as if cut off. 
 
 The parent fly deposits her eggs amongst the lice, in 
 order to insure an adequate supply of food to each grub. 
 These eggs are soon hatched by the heat of the sun, and 
 the young grub immediately commences crawling about 
 the leaf; and, being blind, incessantly gropes and feels 
 around on either side in search of cotton or plant lice, its 
 natural food, one of which, being found by the touch, is 
 instantly seized, elevated above the surface of the leaf on 
 which it is quietly feeding, in order to prevent the strug- 
 gling victim from using its feet, or clinging to the leaf when 
 endeavoring to escape from its voracious destroyer. After 
 piercing the living insect the grub leisurely sucks out the 
 juices, throws away the empty skin, and recommences feel- 
 ing about in search of another, which, when found, is 
 treated in the same way. When ready to change, the 
 syrphus maggot fastens itself to a leaf or stalk, by means 
 of a glutinous secretion from its own body, and the outer 
 skin contracting into a pear-shaped case, soon hardens by 
 exposure to the air, and the pupa is formed inside. 
 
 After a few days, during the heat of summer, the per- 
 fect fly emerges from a hole, at the blunt end of the case, 
 to lay eggs amongst the colonies of lice on the neighboring 
 plants. The perfect fly is about seven-tenths of an inch 
 across the wings, which are two in number, and transparent. 
 The body is generally more or less banded with brown, 
 or black and yellow, and appears like that of a diminutive 
 wasp. This fly has a peculiar habit of hovering on the 
 wing, apparently without motion or exertion, during the 
 heat of the day, near or over flowers, and when disturbed 
 it darts away with great swiftness ; but, if the object that 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 235 
 
 alarmed it is removed, it immediately resmnes the same 
 attitude and spot, only darting off every now and theii to 
 chase some other intruding fly from its own peculiar do- 
 main, over which it appears to imagine it possesses abso- 
 lute sway. 
 
 These insects are of essential aid to the farmers and 
 planters, as their larvae materially diminish the numbers of 
 lice which infest vegetation. 
 
 The Ladt-Bied. — (Ooccinella?) 
 
 The lady-bird is a most valuable auxiliary to the cot- 
 ton planter, as it destroys the cotton louse, or aphis, by 
 thousands, and is most plentiful where they abound, always 
 being busy at the work of destroying them ; and, as such, 
 I consider it one of the most beneficial of insects to the 
 planter. 
 
 The larva is a small, bluish black, alligator-looking in- 
 sect, of about the fourth of au inch in length, spotted with 
 a few orange marks on the sides and backs. Whenever 
 one of them is seen among a colony of the aphides, the 
 planter may safely calculate that in a few days the number 
 of the lice will be greatly diminished. The larva, when 
 hungry, seizes an aphis, and immediately commences eating 
 him alive. This savory repast being finished, it eagerly 
 hunts about until it has secured another victim, and thus 
 completely destroys all the others upon the leaf. When 
 about to change into the pupa, it fastens itself by the tail 
 to a leaf ; the skin of the back splitting open, a small 
 hump-backed, black and orange colored pupa makes its ap- 
 pearance, which, although furnished with the rudiments 
 of wings and legs, is incapable of locomotion or feeding, 
 but remains adhering to the leaf, with the dried-up skin of 
 
236 DI8EA8E8 OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 the larva still sticking to the end of the pupa. After re- 
 maining in this state for a few days, this skin again splits, 
 and the perfect lady-bird emerges, furnished at first with 
 soft wings, hut which afterward harden, and serve to trans- 
 port it to the distant colonies of cotton lice, in the midst 
 of which the eggs are again deposited, to form new broods 
 for the destruction of the planters' greatest pest. The per- 
 fect lady-bird also devours aphides, but not in such num- 
 bers as their larvje, in which state it also destroys the 
 chrysalis of the butterfly (^Argynnis columbina), seen so 
 often in the cotton fields. I have repeatedly observed them 
 in Georgia, killing the chrysalides of this butterfly, which 
 hung suspended from the fence-rails, and on the under side 
 of the boughs of trees and shrubs. It appears to attack the 
 chrysalis chiefly when soft, and just emerged from the 
 caterpillar skin. It is in this state that these wandering 
 larvae attack it, and biting a hole in the skin, feed greedily 
 upon the green juice which exudes from the wound. 
 Sometimes, however, it becomes a victim to its own rapa- 
 city ; for the juice of the chrysalis, drying up by the heat 
 of the sun, quickly forms an adhesive substance, in which 
 the larva is caught, and thus detained until it perishes. 
 Indeed, so very voracious are these larvae, that they will 
 even devour the defenceless pupae of their own species, 
 when found adhering to fences or walls. 
 
 Many planters imagine that these lady-birds are in 
 some mysterious manner connected with the appearance of 
 the cotton louse, or even that they are the progenitors of 
 the aphis itself. This erroneous impression is formed in 
 consequence of these insects being always found in similar 
 situations at the same time, and abounding on plants al- 
 ready weakened by the attacks of the cotton louse. Their 
 sudden disappearance is also accounted for, as, with the 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 237 
 
 decrease of their natural food, the lady-birds also disappear 
 and migrate to neighboring plantations in search of a fresh 
 supply of nutriment. I have actually known several 
 planters who have caused them to be destroyed by their 
 field hands, when and vvherever found, and who complained 
 that their plants were still destroyed by the aphis, or cot- 
 ton louse. This was only to be expected, as they had de- 
 stroyed the natural enemy of the louse, and sufFei*ed the 
 pests themselves to breed in peace and safety. I have seen 
 the larvae of the lady-bird as late as the 18th of November, 
 in Georgia, still busy exterminating the aphis. The yellow, 
 oleaginous fluid, which is emitted by this insect when han- 
 dled, has a powerful and disagreeable odor, and is men- 
 tioned by Westwood, m his " Modern Classification of In- 
 sects," as having been recommended as a specific for the 
 toothache. 
 
 It may be remarked, however, that there is a much 
 larger species of this insect which does considerable dam- 
 age to the leaves of cucumbers, melons, squashes, etc., as 
 both larvae and perfect insects devour the leaves and eat 
 holes in them, so as sometimes totally to disfigure and de- 
 stroy the plants. 
 
 The perfect insect measures nearly half an inch in 
 length, and is of a yellow color, with twelve large and 
 small black spots on the wing-cases, and four small black 
 spots on the thorax ; it can be very easily distinguished, 
 however, from its beneficial congener, both by size and 
 color, the useful lady-bird being only about the sixth or the 
 seventh of an inch in length, and of a bright-red or almost 
 scarlet color, with black spots, while the injurious insect is 
 much larger, measuring nearly half an inch in length, and 
 being of a light-yellow color, spotted with black. 
 
238 BISEASE8 OF THE COTTON PLAOT. 
 
 The LACE-TfiNa Fly. — {ffemerobius ?) 
 
 The larva of tlie lace-wing fly is furnished with two 
 long and sharp jaws, by means of which it seizes the cot- 
 ton louse, and in a few minutes sucks out the juices, leaving 
 merely the white, dried skins to show where it once com- 
 mits its ravages. The eggs are very singularly placed at 
 the end of a thread-like filament, fastened to the under 
 side of the leaf, and are generally deposited near a colony 
 of lice, in clusters of a dozen or more together, causing 
 them to appear to the casual observer like a bunch of fungi. 
 The eggs being hatched in the midst of the cotton lice, the 
 young larvae commence their work of extermination, seiz- 
 ing the younger lice in their jaws, and holding them in the 
 air, and in despite of their struggles, sucking out the juices, 
 and finally throwing away the empty skins. 
 
 The larvae of this insect are not quite a fifth of an inch 
 in length, and are furnished with a sort of apparatus at the 
 extremity of their tails, by means of which they are capable 
 of adhering to a leaf, even when all their feet are detached, 
 thus being guarded against accidental falls during high 
 winds that might otherwise destroy them. When ready to 
 change, a thread is spun from the tail, and, often forming a 
 rough sort of cobweb, the insect spins a semi-transparent, 
 ovoid cocoon, from which it emerges as a beautiful, bright- 
 green fly, with two brilliant eyes, which sparkle like gold, 
 and four transparent wings, of a greenish cast, delicately 
 veined and netted with nerves resembling the most beauti- 
 ful lace-work ; and hence the common name. This splen- 
 did insect, however, emits a most nauseous and fetid odor 
 when held in the hand. 
 
DISEASES OP THE COTTON PLAJST. 
 
 239 
 
 SECTION n. 
 
 AOOIDENTS AND DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT, TTStJALLT FEOM 
 OTHER OAirSES THAN DSTSEOTS. 
 
 Cotton, lite many other plants, is subject to diseases, 
 caused principally by accidents, the defects of the soil in 
 which it grows, the depredations of insects, and the effects 
 of the weather. Those whicb are the most fatal may be 
 described as follows : 
 
 SORE-SHIN. 
 
 One of the diseases to which the cotton plant is sub- 
 ject, commonly known among planters as the " sore-shin," 
 is sometimes occasioned by a careless stroke of the hoe, 
 scraping the outer bark from the stem while the plant is 
 yet young and tender. The sap being arrested by the 
 wound, that part of the main stem above the injury dwin- 
 dles away, becoming both weak and brittle. Although the 
 regenerative powers of the plant may afterward produce 
 new bark from the sides of the wound, and the injury heal 
 up, leaving only a larger Or smaller cicatrix, or scar, ac- 
 cording to the extent of the wound received, the stem 
 eventually becomes so attenuated and weak as frequently 
 to break off at or above the place where the wound was 
 first made. 
 
 The preventive of this disease would be, to take great 
 care when hoeing, not to bruise nor injure the young plant, 
 as, when the growth is once stopped by an accidental 
 bruise, or abrasion of the bark, the plant, if not broken 
 down by storms, or the weight of its own top foliage, will 
 always appear stunted or weak. 
 
 There is also said to be another species of " sore-shin," 
 
240 DISEASES OE THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 to whicli the young cotton plant is liable, differing entirely 
 from that occasioned by careless hoeing,, the cause of which 
 is attributed by many to cold, cutting winds, when the 
 plant is very young. Others, however, assert that, when a 
 high wind shakes the tender plant, the main stem is so 
 much bent and twisted, that the sap vessels are upturned, 
 and a serious injury occurs ; but the wound is sometimes 
 healed, and if the cotton grows vigorously afterward, it 
 apparently outgrows the shock. 
 
 FRENCHING. 
 
 In certain portions of the plantations, in many parts of 
 Florida, individual plants grow with white or variegated 
 leaves. This peculiairity is termed " Frenching ; " but, as I 
 observed only a few thus marked, it may, perhaps be only 
 a sport of Nature, similar to the variegated leaves of culti- 
 vated plants of our gardens. Indian com, however, is subject 
 to " French ; " and, in this case, the disease has been attrib- 
 uted to some imperfection of the soil ; to improper use of 
 manures, as well as to various other causes. Be this as it 
 may, it appears as if only certain spots, varying in area in 
 the same field, are attacked, sometimes in succession, year 
 after year, while the remainder of the crop is perfectly 
 healthy and good. When corn is thus Frenched on what 
 are termed " Frenched lands," it grows light-colored, some- 
 times almost white, or striped, and bears no crop. Until 
 this Frenched land has been thoroughly and properly ana- 
 lyzed, it would be useless to say any thing more on a subject 
 so little understood ; and I merely mention this disease 
 here to invite public attention to it, and to induce practical 
 farmers to experiment, in order to find out the cause, and, 
 should one be discovered, to suggest some remedy for its 
 removal. 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 241 
 
 THE EFFECTS OP A BAD SUBSOIL. 
 
 When on the plantation of Major Haywood, of Talla- 
 hassee, in Florida, in the month of August, several very fine 
 and apparently healthy cotton plants, from four to five 
 feet in height, covered with forms and bolls, were observed 
 to be dying suddenly, in certain spots, the leaves being 
 withered, as if the damage had been done within twenty- 
 four hours. Such plants eventually died ; and, on taking 
 them up, no worm, insect, nor injury, either external Of 
 internal, could be discovered ; and the only conclusion that 
 could be drawn was, that some of the roots had suddenly 
 penetrated into a soil totally unfitted for, and evidently 
 deleterious to, the life of a plant. What rendered it the 
 more singular was, the fact that other cotton plants were 
 growing most luxuriantly within one or two feet of that 
 which was stricken. 
 
 THE RUST. 
 
 The cotton plant is also subject to a disease called the 
 " rust." The leaves, when first attacked, appear rather yel- 
 lower than the rest, with red spots on the surface, and often 
 margined with the same red color. These leaves then turn 
 yellower and redder every day, until the plant assumes a 
 bright-red or almost a carmine appearance, when, finally, 
 the whole of the foliage turns more of a brown color, and 
 falls to the earth. "WTien the disease attacks the boll, it 
 assumes a different appearance, and is termed the " red " 
 or " black " rust, as the case may be. The cotton, in such 
 bolls as have been attacked by the black rust, and the bolls 
 themselves, shrivel up, and turn dark-colored, as if they 
 had been severely blighted or mildewed, and are totally 
 valueless. 
 
 11 
 
242 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 This disease has been attributed to leaving pokeberry 
 plants in the field. But this I have never observed, and 
 suppose the assumption to be on the same principle that 
 the mildew on wheat was formerly attributed to the influ- 
 ence of the barberry bush. Others state that rust is owing 
 to an undue proportion of lime in the earth, and it is 
 no doubt caused by some organic or inorganic imperfection 
 of the soil in which it is grown ; but until such soil shall 
 have been thoroughly analyzed, and its component parts 
 correctly ascertained, nothing certain can be known about it. 
 There is also another theory in regard to the subject of the 
 rust — that it is entirely owing to atmospheric changes, and 
 not to the soil. Experiments, however, ought to be insti- 
 tuted to find out the real cause, and the result made 
 known, as the disease has done, and is at present doing, 
 much injury to the crops of the South. Salt, sown at the 
 rate of half a bushel to the acre among cotton, is stated to 
 be a certain preventive of tbe rust, and to restore the plant 
 to its former vigor; but several planters whom I have 
 spoken to on the subject, deny the fact, and say that salt 
 had no effect whatever. 
 
 There is also another species of rust caused by an 
 acarus, which vdU be found described on a preceding page. 
 
 SHEDDING OF TOUNG BUDS, OB BOLLS, CAUSED BT WET 
 WEATHER. 
 
 When the cotton blooms, or flowers, are exposed to the 
 heavy and beating rains of a Southern climate, especially 
 between the hours of ten and two, as they are opening, or 
 have already opened, it frequently happens that such blooms 
 prove barren. The outer calyx turns yellow, and eventually 
 the unfertilized flower and immature boll fall to the ground, 
 the seeds turn brown, and the fibre of the cotton is worth- 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 243 
 
 less. This is generally attributed to the heavy drops of 
 rain washing away the pollen, which should have impreg- 
 nated the pistil ; the embryo seed-vessel, of course, never 
 matures, but dries up and perishes. Bees, wasps, and in- 
 sects in general, are Nature's agents in distributing the 
 pollen, or fertilizing dust. As they fly from flower to 
 flower, small particles of tbis dust adhere to some part of 
 their bodies or limbs, with which they impregnate the next 
 flower while in searcb of honey or more dust. 
 
 Sometimes the pistil and stamens of a cotton bloom 
 are found eaten in such a manner as to distort them. This 
 injury is often caused by the very young boU-woi-m, which, 
 penetrating the young flower bud by a hole through the 
 outer calyx, where the egg was laid, after eating several of 
 the enclosed stamens and anthers, and injuring one side of 
 the pistil, bores into the embryo boll, before it is shed, I 
 have reared several caterpillars found in such situations, 
 and proved them to be the true boll-worm. Moreover, I 
 have found the hatched shell of the egg on the outer calyx, 
 and traced the caterpillar's track through the petals to the 
 stamens, and finally to the boll itself. I will not, however, 
 enlarge on this subject here, but refer to the article on 
 " The BoU-worna," in a former part of this work 
 
 THE ROT. 
 
 The " rot " has been attributed to a variety of causes, 
 such as changes in the atmosphere, defects in the soil, the 
 attacks of insects, and to the growth of fungi Mr. Troup, 
 in the " American Farmer," describes its appearance with 
 great accuracy. He says : The first indication is seen in 
 a small circular spot on the outside of the boll, exhibiting 
 a darker green than the circumjacent parts ; as if a globule 
 of water had been dropped upon it, and been absorbed. 
 
244: 
 
 DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLAIST. 
 
 Many of these are frequently seen at the same time on the 
 same boll. They spread themselves, sometimes faster, 
 sometimes slower, as if induced, either by the state of the 
 atmosphere, or condition of the plant, changing color as 
 they progress, until they assume a dark brown, approach- 
 ing to black, and until the whole exterior is in like manner 
 affected ; or untU it receives, from some cause, a sudden 
 check, and then this appearance is only partial In the 
 first case, the disease has penetrated to the centre of the 
 fruit, the fermentation is complete and universal, and is 
 seen in a frothy, white liquid thrown out on the surface. 
 Putrefaction follows, and the destruction of the seed and 
 immature wool being finished, nothing is left but the rind, 
 or exterior coating of the boll, which, exhausted of its 
 juices, hardens, turns black, and thus terminates the pro- 
 cess. In the other case (that of suddenly checked disease), 
 the interior of the boll in some instances remains unhurt ; 
 in others, it is only partially injured; and, in the last case, 
 the pods, remaining unhurt, mature and expand. This, 
 however, rarely happens, as the disease is wonderfully 
 capricious, going and coming unaccountably, attacking at 
 one time with more, at another with less violence ; so that 
 the fruit, which escapes entire destruction on the first at- 
 tack, may fall a victim on the second. Nor is this capri- 
 ciousness justly attributable to the changes in the atmos- 
 phere, as its origin does not seem to have any connection 
 with the weather." 
 
 It is very difiicult to find out the true cause of this dis- 
 ease, as it sometimes appears in dry as well as in wet years, 
 although it is generally more destructive during rainy sea- 
 sons. The young bolls are often found rotted, as well as 
 the half-matured and old, so that the age of the fruit does 
 not appear to have any thing to do with it. Many of them 
 
DISEASES OF THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 245 
 
 may have the interior entirely dried up and destroyed, 
 while others wUl open with only one or two segments rot- 
 ted, the rest being perfectly healthy, and filled with good 
 white cotton. 
 
 As to the theory of a defect in the soil, it has been 
 stated by some planters that barnyard manure will often 
 produce it ; but, if this is the case, it is somewhat singular 
 that it has often been observed that one plant may be very 
 badly affected by the rot, while others on each side are per- 
 fectly healthy and uninjured, as has often been observed. 
 This fact appears to show that a great deal depends upon 
 the constitution of the plant itself, which may be inherited 
 from its parent, and perhaps a choice of good sound seed^ 
 from strong and healthy plants only, might in time have a 
 great effect in remedying this disease ; and, as we know 
 that much depends upon the vigor, health, and prolific 
 qualities of the parent plant, it might perhaps be well to 
 make experiments by planting seed of diseased, and sound, 
 healthy plants, in the same situation and soil. 
 
 The fungoid, growth, found on the old rotted bolls, 
 when they begin to open, may perhaps be regarded more 
 as the result than the cause of the disease. Several insects, 
 it is true, have been found in these rotten bolls, where 
 most probably they had crept for food and shelter, after the 
 boll had become rotten, while oi^iers have been caught in 
 the very act of piercing the bolls ; but this subject will be 
 found treated at greater length under the head of " The 
 Boll," and insects found in or upon it, on a preceding page. 
 
 While on the subject of the rot, it may be well to 
 mention that there are three glands on the inside of the 
 outer calyx, at the bottom of the boll, and three on the 
 outside between the " rufl3e " and stalk, which secrete and 
 give out a sweet substance, which ants, bees, wasps, and 
 
246 
 
 DISEASES or THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 plant bugs avail themselves of as food, I have seen young 
 bolls, apparent^ healthy, suddenly drop from the pla,nt, 
 and, on being carefully cut open, showed a wound which 
 had been pierced by the trunk of some insect, in one of 
 these glands, and that a watery rot had commenced where 
 the boll had been stung. It was evident that this rot had 
 been caused by the piercer of some insect unknown, as the 
 puncture could be traced throughout its length to tbe heart 
 of the lower part of the injured boll. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS— THE COMPLICATED NETWORK OF COT- 
 TON—INDUCEMENTS TO IMMIGKANT3— ADVANTAGES AND DIS- 
 ADVANTAGES—FUTURE OF THE SOUTH. 
 
 We wish to make a short, summary statement, and 
 draw our labors to a close. 
 
 1. Prior to the abolition of slavery, the production of 
 cotton employed capital to the amount of two billion 
 dollars : landed property and implements being estimated 
 at about two hundred million dollars, and the balance 
 estimated as the value of the slaves. 
 
 2. Since the abolition of slavery, the capital invested in 
 the production of cotton in the United States does not 
 exceed two hundred million dollars. 
 
 3. It furnishes labor in the field for one million of 
 souls. 
 
 4. It feeds the spindles of one thousand manufactories' 
 in the United States, and of five thousand manufactories 
 in Europe. 
 
 5. It has paid nearly two-thirds of the national debt of 
 the United States for the last fifty years. 
 
 6. It is a wonderfiil source of wealth, enriching the 
 planter, the manufacturer, the cotton broker, the ship- 
 master, and the merchant. 
 
 1. It has, within the present century, cheered the 
 
248 
 
 CONCLUDING KEMAEKS. 
 
 hearts of billions of operatives in both hemispheres, fed 
 • their hungry mouths, and the mouths of their dependants, 
 
 8. It goes to the hovels of wretchedness, and adminis- 
 ters comfort. It enters the palace of the millionnaire, and 
 defiantly says, " Do without me if you can J " 
 
 9. In all the complications of agriculture, manufactures, 
 and commerce it bears an important part ; yea, exercises a 
 controlling influence. If "commerce is king," cotton is 
 prime minister. 
 
 10. The cotton locks of the South are the best on the 
 face of the globe, and must have an increasing demand. 
 
 11. The labor of the present year will probably produce 
 1,500,000 bales; certainly not more, and perhaps less. 
 
 12. The amount on hand now in England, together 
 with all she will likely receive from all other countries than 
 this, cannot supply the demand. England wants 4,000,000 
 bales. She will probabiy receive 2,500,000 bales from all 
 other countries besides North America. Deduct this from 
 the 4,000,000, and we have exactly 1,600,000 bales. 
 
 13. But what will France do, and Belgium, and 
 Switzerland, and the German ZoUverein states ? They all 
 want some of our cotton, and will have it 
 
 14. The demand for cotton in England and on the 
 Continent, for the year 1867, will be unprecedented. It 
 ought to command a good price. 
 
 15. The cry will be for years to come, ay, for ages, 
 "Give us more cotton — ^good cotton, American cotton — 
 fine fibre." 
 
 16. Cotton being in such great demand, laborers will 
 be well compensated who prove themselves faithful to their 
 employers. 
 
 17. Cotton lands will be in good request, and must 
 bear a good price. 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 249 
 
 18. If protected by the government by the simple and 
 most beautiful process of letting us alone, and placing no 
 obstacles in our way, there is laid up for us, in our soil, 
 an incalculable amount of wealth. 
 
 To industrious immigrants we say. Come on, and try the 
 country. We have some disadvantages in many parts of 
 the South, physical and moral, but these are found else- 
 where. Much of our country has been laid waste by the 
 ruthless hands of the destroyer and the robber, but it is 
 fast recovering. We have the miasmatic fevers of the 
 Mississippi Valley, but they are not more fatal than the 
 same forms of disease away out in the West. 
 
 We have mosquitoes, buflfalo-gnats, and gad-flies, but 
 they do not continue all the year. We have the boll-worm, 
 the cotton louse, and the cotton caterpillar, which sometimes 
 sadden the heart of the planter, but we always make some- 
 thing, and not unfrequently we make " a mighty big crop." 
 
 We close our volume by an extract from the " Prison 
 Life of Jefferson Davis : " 
 
 " In ten years, or perhaps less, the South will have 
 recovered the pecuniary losses of the war. It has had 
 little capital in manufactures. Its capital was in land and 
 negroes. The land remains productive as ever. The 
 negroes remain, but their labor has to be paid for. Before 
 the war there were 4,000,000 negToes, and the estimate 
 that 1,000,000 have died off during the war is too large. 
 
 "As to a mingling of the races, Nature has erected 
 ample barriers against the crime. There is no danger of 
 its prevalence. 
 
 " The blacks are a docile, affectionate, and religious 
 people ; like cats in their fondness for home. The name of 
 freedom had charms for them ; but until educated to be 
 self-supporting, it would be a curse. 
 11* 
 
250 
 
 CONCLUDING BEMAKK8. 
 
 " If herded together in military villages, and fed on 
 rations gratuitously distributed, rum, dirt, and disease 
 would devour them off the face of the earth in a few years. 
 With peace established they would return, in ninety-five 
 cases out of the hundred, to their old plantations, and work 
 for their old masters. 
 
 " The value of the slaves before the war was two 
 thousand million dollars. This is all gone. Still the 
 negro's labor remains ; and with this, and such European 
 labor as will be imported, and such Northern labor as must 
 flow South, the profits of the Southern staples will not be 
 long in restoring material prosperity. 
 
 " The negro, in his freedom, will not make more than 
 six bales of cotton per year. Under the old system of 
 labor he made ten. But the price has more than doubled, 
 and his labor now must yield a large profit. 
 
 " The land will not pass to any great extent from its 
 former proprietors. They will lease it for a few years to 
 men with capital, and then resume working it themselves, 
 or sell portions of it with the same object, not materially 
 decreasing their own possessions. 
 
 " When the country is quiet, and the profits of the 
 crops come to be known, there will be a rush Southward 
 fi:om the sterile New England regions, and from Europe, 
 only equalled by that to California on the discovery of 
 gold. Men will not stay in the mountains of Vermont 
 and New Hampshire, cultivating little farms of from fifty 
 to a hundred acres, only yielding them some few hundreds 
 a year profit for incessant toil, when the rich lands of the 
 South, under skies as warm and blue as those of Italy, and 
 with an atmosphere as exhilarating as that of France, are 
 thrown open at from a dollar and a half to three dollars 
 per acre. [Rather too low an estimate at this time. Say 
 
CONCLUDESTG EEMABKS. 
 
 261 
 
 from three dollars to thirty. — B.] The water power of 
 the South will be brought into use by this new immigra- 
 tion, and manufactures will spring up in all directions, 
 giving abundant employment to all classes." 
 
 One year and three months have elapsed since the utter- 
 ance of the foregoing prophecy by the distinguished prisoner 
 at Fortress Monroe, Since that time, we have seen crowds 
 of negroes coming home to their old masters. We have 
 seen many of them dying at military posts. We have seen 
 the grasping Puritan leasing land at ten dollars per acre, 
 hiring Southern overseers, and mating money. We have 
 seen some of them try the experiment with a few trifling 
 white men and as many trifling freedmen, and mate a per- 
 fect failure. 
 
 We have seen manufactures springing up, as if by the 
 magician's wand, all over the South. We have seen our 
 noble women encouraging their husbands and sons to 
 wort. We have seen our brave young men marching in 
 files and columns to the field to fight the enemy, chopping 
 cotton to the music of " Dixie."" 
 
 And while viewing these things, and trying to loot into 
 the future, we called to mind a lesson impressed on us 
 more than forty years ago by a worthy teacher. " Boys," 
 said he, " who was the first laborer ? " Some said Cain, 
 some Abel, and some Adam. 
 
 " You are all wrong," said our worthy president, God 
 was the first laborer. Don't you remember Deus creavit 
 coelum et terram intra sex dies ? And, again, it is said, He 
 rested from His labor. Now translate this short sentence, 
 Labor vincit omnia." With wonderful concord we all ex- 
 claimed, " Labor conquers all things." 
 
PROSPECTUS 
 
 OP THE 
 
 AND NEW YOEK VINDIOATOE. 
 
 ENLARGEMENT OF THE PAPER 
 FROM SIXTY-FOUR TO EIGHTY COLUMNS. 
 
 THE POLITIOAL PLATFORM OP THE RECORD. 
 
 After the publication of the 26th number of the RECORD of last 
 year, we increased ITS SIZE from SIXTY-POUR to EIGHTY COL 
 UMNS. IT IS NOW THE LARGEST DEMOCRATIC AND FAM- 
 ILY PAPER PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES; and, al- 
 though our expenses are very heavily increased by the change, we 
 supply the paper at the same price. The reading matter is of a 
 more varied and interesting character, on account of the greater 
 space placed at our disposal, and which is equal to FOUR AD- 
 DITIONAL PAGES, or SIXTEEN COLUMNS. We are encouraged 
 to this change by the success that has attended our efforts to present 
 the public with a paper that has held fast, through every vicissitude, 
 to the two cardinal principles of State Rights and Self-Government, 
 and that refused amid the fearful conflict of the past four years to 
 lower the banner on which those principles were inscribed. We feel 
 certain that this effort on our part to render our paper in every way 
 deserving of the continued support of our friends, will be met by a 
 generous and active cooperation on theirs in enabling us to extend its 
 circulation. We know it will gratify them to be told that, despite 
 the malice and persecution of our political enemies, despite the sup- 
 pression of the Record and the arrest of its editor, despite the official 
 power which was wielded to our disadvantage and material injury, 
 we have been enabled to weather the storm in which so many went 
 
2 
 
 down, and are now looking forward with hope to a greater degree of 
 usefuhiess in the future. For our part, we have no change whatever 
 to make in our principles. The great political dogmas enunciated 
 by the men of are as true to-day as they were then; and, 
 
 though they have been forgotten by the people and trampled under 
 foot by arbitrary power, it is only by a return to them that popular 
 freedom can be saved from the dangers by which it is beset, through 
 fanatics on the one hand, and designing and unprincipled politicians 
 on the other. 
 
 We see no reason, after a full survey of the whole political field, 
 to despair of the ultimate success of the principles for which we have 
 contended. Force has been applied, and it has not decided, because 
 it was not competent to decide, that the principles of State Rights 
 and SeLf-Government have ceased to exist. It is needless to pursue 
 this subject further, as its force must be apparent to every unbiased 
 and impartial mind. 
 
 The future is before us, and as a journalist we shall perform oui 
 duty hereafter as we have performed it in the past. We have, as we 
 said, no change to make. The RECORD'S platform of principles re- 
 mains the same. It will be henceforward its aim to be a truthful 
 and unswerving exponent of State Rights, and it is therefore inflex- 
 ibly opposed to the anti-Democratic policy of consolidation. Behev- 
 ing that popular freedom in this RepubUc is dependent upon State 
 Sovereignty, it is at war with all despotic encroachments on that prin-_^ 
 ciple and the rights of the people. It shall never cease to advocate 
 the supremacy of the Civil Authority, and to denounce and condemn 
 the pretensions and usurpations of Military Power. 
 
 In the future, as iu the past, the RECORD will continue the faitli- 
 ful advocate of Democratic principles. It is true that recent events, 
 brought about by a fanatical interference with the rights of States, 
 and by an intolerance of the Constitution and laws made in accord- 
 ance therewith, have caused a temporary revulsion ; but the princi- 
 ples of the great revolution are only kept in abeyance^ and will, we 
 beheve, be reasserted ere many years elapse. The people have yet 
 to learn from experience that the lessons and teachings of the great 
 statesmen who formed the Republic cannot be set aside unless by the 
 total overthrow of popular freedom and self-government. No fact 
 was more completely establislied, no principle more thoroughly viu- 
 
8 
 
 dicated, than that which asserts that " Government derives its just 
 powers from the consent of the governed," and that a Union which 
 can only be perpetuated by the strong arm of military power, must, 
 if continued to be so sustained, result in the establishment of a cen- 
 tralized despotism. 
 
 The Record and Vindicator shall continue, as it has begun, the 
 outspoken and fearless opponent of every act of unconstitutional 
 policy, the defender of the great Charter of American Freedom, and 
 the unflinching advocate of Liberty of Speech, Vote by Ballot, 
 beas Corpus, Trial by Jury, Freedom of the Press, and State Rights. 
 
 LITEHARY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 We devote special attention to this part of the Record, as each 
 number beais ample testimony, and the " Portfolio " is one of its 
 best and most successful features, blending, as it does, the humorous 
 and the poetical with light sketches, anecdotes, and incidents in end- 
 less variety. All the contributions to this department are original, 
 and the general approbation with which it has been received by the 
 reading public stamps it as a complete success. We may add that 
 the original poetry, which appears in this and other parts of the 
 paper, is not surpassed, if it is equalled, by any journal, American or 
 European. 
 
 THE FICTIONAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 While ignoring the unhealthy and sensational style of too many 
 of the current periodicals, we aim to make this department unsur- 
 passed in point of interest to the best works of imagination, and 
 shall leave nothing undone to render it equal, in its collection of 
 original stories and tales, to the most popular and highest class of 
 the fictional productions of the day. We are determined that no 
 paper shall excel ours in this important feature, and that the younger 
 portion of our patrons will find in its entertaining and pleasant 
 reading a happy substitute for the dubious kind with which the 
 country is unfortunately flooded. 
 
 THE EDITORIAI. DEPARTMENT. 
 
 In our political platform we have presented the principles of the 
 Record, and it shall be hereafter, as it has been in the past, our 
 great object to sustain its reputation in this great and vital particu- 
 
4 
 
 lar. The frank and outspoken manner with which all the subjects 
 that properly come within the scope of this department have been 
 treaterl, will be adhered to throughout. The editor firmly believes 
 that the principles which he advocated and sustained during the 
 late fierce and bloody four years' war, are, if possible, more essential 
 now than ever, and that in their success alone can the great Revolu- 
 tion of '76 find its best and most practical development. 
 
 THE NEWS DEPARTMENT. 
 
 It is our aim to give in the Record a complete resum6 of 
 news, both through the correspondence and the general intelligence, 
 prepared expressly for its columns. Our Foreign and Domestic 
 Summary, in which the important intelligence of the day is given, is all 
 rewritten, so that our readers are saved the trouble of poring over 
 long and tedious statements and accounts to get at the points of the 
 news. The commendation which this department of the Record has 
 generally received is the best proof of its success. 
 
 MISCEIiliANEOUS. 
 
 In addition to the departments enumerated, we give from time to 
 time art and scientific matters due attention, and occasionally present 
 an interesting and instructive melange of miscellaneous reading. 
 
 The Metropolitan Record and Vindicator will be supplied to 
 Subscribers on the following terms : 
 
 To City Subscribers, served by carriers $5 00 per year. 
 
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 Terms to Advertisers : 
 
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 All orders and communications should be addressed to the editor, 
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 which he will do without any cost to them. 
 
Date Due