AND ED UCATIONAL SERIES. 
 The following are the Works already published in 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. §[fcf2 
 
 FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 Class 3 . .0... Book. 13. 7 Accession .iS.^j...^... 
 
 '77 
 
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*f*#* W ^ W W ^ W 
 
 A SELECTION FKOM WE ALE'S SEEIES. 
 
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 ^4 BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical; 
 including Church Restoration ; with the Theory of Domes and 
 the Great Pyramid, and Dimensions of many Churohes and other 
 Great Buildings. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., Q.O., 
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 PLUMBING : a Text-book to the Practice of the Art 
 
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 Dwell- 
 
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 Sffi CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS AND IRON 
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5. 
 
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RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON THE 
 
 ERECTION OF 
 
 DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY 
 
 A PERSPECTIVE VIEW, PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS 
 OF A PAIR OF SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS 
 
 WITH 
 
 tbljc Specification, Quantities, mxts (Estimates 
 
 AND EVERY REQUISITE DETAIL, IN SEQUENCE, FOR THEIR 
 CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING 
 
 '& - • - 0 ° • o 00 f o 0 • ° 0 ° * • e 0 c • c e c 2 e c 5 ; „ 
 
 o B - « o •• • # © • c c **#• c • c c c • c e c , c 
 
 By S. ±1. BJR00K8, Architect 
 
 i 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 
87 
 IZ77 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Tx our professional practice wo have frequently been 
 applied to for a treatise on Building, to which, the 
 young student in Architecture, as well as in Building, 
 might refer and see, in an erection of simplicity or 
 splendour, the necessity of studying all the details 
 essential for such erection. In the office of the Archi- 
 tect, it frequently occurs that Buildings, from the 
 variableness of practice, are only taken in detached 
 parts as the work proceeds ; and in the workshop of 
 the Builder (where they have drawings and specifications 
 to work from), the workman, or pupil, is seldom allowed 
 to see them, but takes his instructions from the fore- 
 man for the portion of work to be executed; conse- 
 quently he has little opportunity of acquiring the 
 combined information requisite for the artisan in tho 
 building department to possess. 
 
 Under such considerations tho present work waa 
 projected by Mr. Weale, the publisher of tho rudi- 
 mentary works on the Arts and Sciences. 
 
 We have, in this sketch of a pair of dwellings, 
 endeavoured to show and describe the manner in which 
 a building., from the commencement of it to its com- 
 
I V PREFACE. 
 
 pletion, sliould be dissected and studied in its various 
 mechanical departments, and how they work and com- 
 bine with each other. 
 
 We first submit a set of probationary drawings, all 
 drawn to the same scale, and then show the requisite 
 details, as they would generally occur, for the comple- 
 tion of the carcass, and, lastly, the finishings. We 
 have also divided the specification, quantities, and 
 estimates, into corresponding parts. It may not always 
 be desirable to make such a distinction, but this beinsr 
 a rudimentary work, we have adopted this method iD 
 order to make it as intelligible as possible to the stu- 
 dent in the Building art. We have also given as 
 much attention to the drainage, supply of water, 
 ventilation, &c, as the importance of such an erection 
 demands. 
 
 It may be proper to observe, that we have not 
 strictly conformed to the Metropolitan Building Act, 
 but have endeavoured to show how to erect a sub- 
 stantial building with every attention to the prevention 
 of such casualties as buildings of this class are fre- 
 quently liable to. 
 
 In submitting this as one of a series of designs with 
 their details, allow us to acknowledge the information 
 quoted from the rudimentary series of scientific works 
 before alluded to, as we have freely referred to any of 
 them that would assist us in conveying our views in 
 the theoretical and practical construction of buildings. 
 Perhaps no one is more liable to criticism than the 
 architect for domestic arrangements ; consequently 
 
PREFACE. <5V 
 
 there are few who devote their time to it.Y'A 11 archi 
 tect justly observes : to produce a buildingNfit' for ita 
 purposes, and substantially beautiful at the samb^foie, 
 is a good step towards perfection. And probably tho 
 allusion to street architecture might with benefit be 
 here quoted. 
 
 It is stated that, in alluding to the building at the 
 corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane : — " It is a 
 good step towards that perfection which the commercial 
 architecture of the metropolis may reach. Fleet Street 
 and the Strand, transformed into a succession of such 
 edifices, might Vi?come a worthy Corso for the trading 
 Rome, and make a grand connecting point between 
 the region of docks and warehouses at one end, and of 
 mansions and palaces at the other." 
 
 The building referred to is an example of a commer- 
 cial edifice. It were better, indeed, that the elements 
 of mercantile life were exemplified in its habitations. 
 We have surely had enough of doubtful objects in 
 stucco, &c. : sober and straightforward, not uncomely, 
 are the operations of upright tradesmen ; so let their 
 offices, warehouses, and shops, be truthful, substantial, 
 cheerful, ornamental piles. Thought is not thrown 
 away when applied to the improvement of our streets 
 and mercantile edifices. A man will carry on his 
 affairs with a healthier and clearer mind, surrounded 
 by buildings of the class we are now writing about, 
 than in such dens of darkness as some of the buildings 
 in the neighbourhood of Chancery Lane. 
 
 There is such correspondence between outward forma 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 and shows, and inner feelings and emotions, in all 
 trnthful matters, that it is far from an affair of indif- 
 ference in what manner of form we transact our 
 commerce, with what impress of form we endow our 
 churches, or in what fashion of apartments we meet 
 our friends and children. Providence has arranged 
 this world upon these considerations (so to speak), and 
 surrounded parts of the earth with cheerfulness and 
 healthful beauties. 
 
 "We, who in our offices and ledgers have often little 
 enough thought of Providence, shall we esteem it in- 
 different whether we follow His precepts here, where, 
 perhaps, we need their healthful influence most ? 
 
 To architects, at least, this question is not unim- 
 portant, in an architectural point of view ; for it is in 
 such we s|)eak. As a sanitary question, these things 
 are happily decided. 
 
 The importance of domestic architecture must be 
 held in a very different estimation to what it has been, 
 by any one who hopes to assist in the revival of all 
 architecture, dead since the sixteenth century in our 
 country. 
 
 "We are a commercial people, and a common- sense 
 trading race ; he who can find a brotherhood in archi- 
 tecture with the great republics of mediaeval Italy, the 
 commercial communities of Florence, Genoa, Sienna, 
 will perceive nothing but a source for the highest 
 gratulations. We shall have our San Michele, 
 Sansovino, &c. We, too, may become, amid this 
 Kaleidoscope Europe, a stand-point of light for the 
 
PREFACE. VU 
 
 after-times to reckon from ; but, to achieve this we 
 must recognise and know ourselves. We must develop 
 and not conceal our nationality, in arts as in all things 
 else. From the streets of our cities and .manufacturing: 
 towns, our wealth and power proceed. Let these 
 become the stepping-stones to cur temples ; as they 
 must do, if our temples and our worship are to be 
 sincere. It is not by forgetting, but remembering, our 
 commercial street-life that we shall become a people 
 great in wisdom as in wealth. 
 
 And, indeed, why should words be multiplied about 
 the matter ? It is from these things that we are grow- 
 ing a wise, and, so much as there is of it, a holy people. 
 From counting-houses, offices, warehouses, and cham- 
 bers, come the schemes for baths and wash-houses, and 
 model dwellings, ragged schools, and reformatory 
 asylums. There on one side the genius of the shop- 
 keeping people make them; beyond them burns the 
 glory of future England. What if, on the other side, 
 those who have no work to do embroider mediaeval 
 patterns and multiply Gothic churches over the land ? 
 Let us be grateful that they do so much. 
 
 But meanwhile the architects have work to do ; the 
 public demands its streets and warehouses. Let us 
 bear in mind how great these things are in their 
 destinations — not, truly, all cheating and adulteration 
 ■ — let us remember that we are erecting buildings to- 
 day through which the future contemplate, and the 
 dwellers .therein are preparing the paths of truth by 
 their duties and their charities. 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Let us then look upon those buildings and streets in 
 their proper light, and build as if building for honour- 
 able men : to give our minds tone, let us discipline 
 them to see in this shop-keeping what promise of great- 
 ness it encloses ; and, recognising the nature of the 
 times, perceive that it is in these very streets that the 
 way is opened for us to commence our stone daguerreo- 
 type of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Architects are the limners for the future; to them 
 is perhaps entrusted the verdict which remotest times 
 will form. All else will go, as it has gone, of Art and 
 man's production. But Architecture, that substitute 
 for Nature, is nourished by time as the fossil history 
 of mankind; and as the shells which the nautilus 
 and ammonite of the primasval world have formed, 
 become to us the sure records and interpreters of 
 their far- departed times ; so these shells under which 
 animal life has dwelt, which religion has formed and 
 inhabited, will become, may-be, to future races the only 
 and fossil records whence the epoch of man shall be 
 clearly read. For us, then, who have to mould these 
 latest medals of creation, there is the responsibility 
 that we rightly represent our race — our age ; it is not 
 surely all untruthful. "We forge the long chain of 
 antique history link by link — almost from architec- 
 tural remains : from these we deduce a people and a 
 history for our edification, instruction, and example. 
 Regarded in this light, study will soon disclose to us 
 what valuable and unique opportunity domestic archi- 
 tecture affords in our time. There are yet higher 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 views, under whose radiance the architect begins to 
 perceive the great influence and responsibility of his 
 work. But the consideration of what, and how great 
 effect upon the mind, external objects exert, may be 
 explained on another occasion. 
 
 After thus adverting to street and mercantile archi- 
 tecture, we would solicit some little attention to that 
 style suitable and applicable for domestic purposes or 
 dwellings, that may be proposed to be erected in the 
 suburbs or environs of such as Cities, Towns, or 
 Boroughs, before alluded to. For wherever our places 
 of business assume a different and more healthy cha- 
 racter for their various purposes, and in their erec- 
 tion a more permanent and architectural feature, the 
 dwellings, cottages, villas, mansions, &c, of the sur- 
 rounding country approximate, in a corresponding 
 extent, with such improvements, and, consequently, 
 the buildings for domestic purposes become equally 
 combined with other classes of architecture, a reflection 
 and monument of the people, and a key to the date 
 of their erection. It was by witnessing this laudable 
 improvement that is daily taking place in this City 
 and other parts of the country, and in acquiescence 
 with numerous applications for a series of designs 
 suitable for the domestic arrangement and social com- 
 fort of all grades of society, the present works were 
 projected. It is admitted that much ignorance exists 
 as to the necessary knowledge in the erection of an 
 edifice, however simple : and this is a powerful draw- 
 back to the execution of such undertakings. It is 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 also proverbial that false estimates, which are fre- 
 quently tendered, dishearten many from the prosecu- 
 tion of their plans, in the well-founded suspicion that 
 the expenditure will exceed the means appropriated 
 for that purpose. 
 
 In the erection of an edifice, much depends on the 
 choice of materials, whether for fitness or durability ; 
 and a correct guide in the selection of them, on the 
 most cheap and economical principles, cannot there- 
 fore but be regarded as a desideratum by every one 
 connected with or concerned in building, whether 
 for profit or private purposes. An elaborate and ex- 
 planatory specification, with the quantities of the 
 various materials required in each department, their 
 prices, the amount of labour and price required for 
 working them, with accompanying design, so that any 
 one about to build may arrive at the total expense 
 before commencing ; the most approved and efficient 
 methods of water supply, drainage, wanning, venti- 
 lating, according with the magnitude of the design, 
 will form an important feature of the work. We have 
 commenced our series with a design for a pair of semi- 
 detached dwellings, the estimated expense of each of 
 which would be about £400, or £800 the pair ; thereby 
 giving a selection for the retired tradesman, or the 
 gentleman of moderate wealth who may wish to build 
 over his own demesne, fully detailing the most ap- 
 proved and efficient methods of construction, as well as 
 finishings, as a guide to the various trades employed 
 in the building art. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Each design is exemplified with a perspective view 
 of the building, accompanied with all requisite, plans, 
 elevations, sections, and details, drawn to a large scale; 
 thereby making this volume a work of instruction to 
 the student and builder, and one of reference to the 
 professional practitioner in all his requirements. 
 
 J 
 
 This Second Edition has been carefully revised, and 
 the Appendix to the former impression, " On the best 
 form of Protractors essential for laying down Angles," 
 placed immediately after the chapter which treats of 
 Drawing instruments for producing geometrical figures, 
 which it was intended to supplement. 
 
 Together with Mr. 0. Bruce Allen's "Cottage 
 Building," of which a new edition is just issued with 
 an additional chapter on " The Erection of Suburban 
 Cottages for Tradesmen and Persons of limited incomes," 
 this volume will furnish to members of Building Socie- 
 ties and others every information as to the best means 
 of erecting such a dwelling-house on their land as is 
 best suited to their means. 
 
 Octoivek, 1867. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGK 
 
 healthiness • . . 1 
 
 Locality, prospect, and adjoining grounds . * . . .2 
 
 4 
 
 Expenditure, choice of situation, drainage, and general 
 
 healthiness . 
 Locality, prospect, am 
 The aspect and roads 
 Sewerage, drainage, &c. 
 
 Traps, siphons, &c j? 
 
 Supply of water 
 
 Earn- water tanks and niters 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 Materials and tools used by the Bricklayer . . . . 10 
 Weight of different kinds of earths, with other tables suitable 
 
 and in reference to bricklaying 12 
 
 Table for paving jj 
 
 „ for tiling • 
 
 of the sizes and weights of various articles employed m 
 
 building . . • • • ■ • • ' * 14 
 
 The necessity of the Bricklayer having some knowledge ol 
 
 scale and geometrical drawing 15 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 The principal tools used in carpentry, with their application, 
 and general occupation of the Carpenter, with a description 
 
 of wood and iron bond ^ 
 
 Floors with single and double joisting, &c U 
 
 Various partitions explained 1S 
 
 Roofing 3 
 
 Classification of ditto || 
 
 Scarfing and joining timbers -° 
 
 Wall-plates, &c. . " * 21 
 
 The usual method of measuring Carpenter's work, with the 
 
 tables of lineal, superficial, and cubic measure . . • 22 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 A table explaining the quantities of timber makii 
 
 » » » on average weighing dMj> ton 
 
 The number of cubic feet in every square of flooring, n5bkmr, 
 or quarter partitions of different dimensions 
 „ „ of naked floors without girder 
 
 MASON. 
 
 The trade of the Mason explained ; stone cutting, ditto 
 The application of steam power to the same . 
 The various tools used by the Mason 
 The construction of scaffolds .... 
 The movable derrick crane explained 
 
 The Lewis ditto ditto 
 
 The method of working stones generally . 
 Terms generally used by Quarrymen; jogg 
 
 dowels explained 
 
 Iron cramps and their uses .... 
 The usual custom of measuring Mason's work 
 A table of the weights of the different kinds of stone . 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 The work of the Plumber, with his necessary tools, explained 
 The manufacture of milled and sheet lead-pipes, &c. 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 joints, and 
 
 25 
 26 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 28 
 29 
 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 32 
 
 33 
 33 
 
 Laying of sheet-lead £4 
 
 The fitting-up of cisterns, water-closets, pumps, &c. . . 34 
 A table of the woight of lead pipes per yard . , . 31 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 The applicability of sheet zinc for building purposes 
 
 SMITH AND IRONFOTJNDER. 
 
 The various uses of wrought and cast iron as applied to 
 
 Builder's purposes i 35 
 
 The methods adopted for smelting iron 36 
 
 Steam power as applied to the blast furnaces for working the 
 
 forge hammers and rolling mills 36 
 
 The method of casting iron 36 
 
 The hot- blast furnace explained 37 
 
 A description of various castings applied for different pur- 
 poses 3g 
 
 The conversion of forge-pig into bar iron 39 
 
 A table of the weight of metal ; Coppersmith and warming 
 
 apparatus 40 
 
 b 
 
 35 
 
xiv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAG8 
 
 SLATER. 
 
 The operations which pertain to building 40 
 
 Table of the sizes of roof, slating, &c 42 
 
 PLASTERER. 
 
 Description of tools used 43 
 
 Materials, &c 44 
 
 Operations for plastering 45 
 
 Setting, stucco, rough cast, puzzolan, &c 46 
 
 Memoranda applicable to Plasterer's work . . . . 48 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 An endeavour to explain Joiner's work, with the application of 
 
 their tools, &c 49 
 
 The mechanical operations of the Joiner, &c 52 
 
 Glue : its component parts . . 54 
 
 Tables for Joiners 65 
 
 Sawing 56 
 
 IRONMONGERY. 
 
 Description of hinges . . ..•«... 57 
 
 Locks, bolts, &c «... 57 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 The tools used, the material required, and the Glazier's 
 
 business 58 
 
 A table applicable to glazing 60 
 
 PAINTER, PAPER-HANGER, AND DECORATOR . . . 60 
 
 Painting 61 
 
 Graining 62 
 
 THE APPLICATION OP SCALES AND THE ELEMEN- 
 TARY PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY . . . . 64 
 
 Its uses, &c 65 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF DRAWING PAPER 66 
 
 Hints on the management of drawing-paper . . . .66 
 
 Mounting paper on canvas 68 
 
 On choice of pencils 69 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The use of the compasses or divider 69 
 
 Hair compasses ........ 71 
 
 Compasses with movable points 71 
 
CONTENTS. XT 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bow compasses 73 
 
 Tubular compasses 74 
 
 Portable or turn-in compasses 76 
 
 Large screw dividers . 78 
 
 Spring dividers 79 
 
 Wholes and halves SO 
 
 Proportional compasses . 81 
 
 Triangular compasses 84 
 
 Beam compasses 86 
 
 Knife, file, key, screw-driver 88 
 
 Drawing pens ; 88 
 
 The road pen 89 
 
 The dotting point 90 
 
 Pricking or tracing point 91 
 
 Drawing pins 92 
 
 Protractors . 93 
 
 The circular protractor 94 
 
 Plain, circular, and semicircular protractors . . . • 96 
 
 The plain scale 96 
 
 Plotting scales and rules 100 
 
 The sector • 100 
 
 The decimal scale 191 
 
 The line of artificial numbers 101 
 
 Lines of artificial sines and tangents 103 
 
 The double scales • .105 
 
 Method of using the double lines on the sector . . . . 106 
 
 Line of lines 106 
 
 To diminish a line in any assigned proportion . . . . 108 
 
 Line of chords . > HO 
 
 .Line of polygons 
 
 Lines of sines, tangents, and secants 113 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS OF CARCASS OF BUILDING . . . 116 
 
 „ Excavator 116 
 
 „ Bricklayer 117 
 
 „ Carpenter 121 
 
 M Smith and Iron-founder . . . . 127 
 
 Stone Mason 129 
 
 „ Plumber 130 
 
 „ Slater 130 
 
 „ Zinc Worker 131 
 
 H Finishings : Joiner's work . . 132 — 140 
 „ Plasterer . . . » . . . HO 
 „ Mason H2 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS. Furnishing Ironmonger . . . . 143 
 
 „ Bell-hanger, Plumber .... 146 
 
 „ Glazier, Painter, Paper-hanger . . 148 
 
 „ General conditions . . , .149 
 
 QUANTITIES OF THE VAKIOUS MATERIALS REQUIRED 150 
 }> Excavator, Bricklayer . . . .150 
 
 M Carpenter, Smith and Iron-founder, and 
 
 Plumber 151 
 
 M Mason, Slater 152 
 
 Zinc Worker 153 
 
 j? Requisite materials for the finishings . 153 
 
 tt Joiner's work .... 153 — 157 
 
 Plasterer's work ..... 158 
 t Mason, Furnishing Ironmonger . . 159 
 
 Bell-hanger and Plumber . . .160 
 • Glazier, Painter, and Paper-hanger . 161 
 
 RNGRAYINGS. See Description of Plates. 
 
ON THE 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 When it is determined to erect an edifice of any de- 
 scription, the first and primary consideration should be 
 the money intended to be expended ; the next, when 
 possible, the choice of situation, not only as respects its 
 efficient drainages, dryness, and general healthiness, 
 but also as regards its relative position witli other 
 buildings, and, when a number are proposed to be 
 erected on a new site, to their being so placed as not to 
 interfere with or injure the effect of the surrounding 
 scenery. Consequently, it is desirable, after a space of 
 ground has been appropriated for building purposes, 
 surveyed, levelled, plotted, &c, that a perspective 
 bird's-eye view should accompany the plans, not. so 
 much that the design there exhibited should be carried 
 into execution, but that they shall not interfere with 
 the principal prospect, and as little as possible intercept 
 the view or prospect of each other.* 
 
 The " lamentable way in which the beauty and love- 
 liness of the finest landscape may be injured or destroyed 
 by buildings and grounds is exemplified by the far? 
 famed view from the top of Richmond Hill. What it 
 
 * Mr. C. B. Allen's " Cottage Building " vol. 42 of this series. 
 B 
 
2 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 •was when Thomson wrote it would perhaps be difficult 
 to say j but now — instead of the houses and villas, and 
 the gardens about them, harmonising with and forming 
 a part of the general view to be examined in detail — 
 after the eye is satiated with the whole, it is first struck 
 with the glaring newness (for they all seem as if they 
 were painted and pointed regularly once every year) of 
 first one and then another of these regularly built boxes 
 placed in the middle of a large square garden or lawn, 
 and surrounded by a high fence, and the country round 
 being thickly wooded close up to the wall, the formality 
 of the grounds is rendered truly distressing/-' 
 
 A landscape made up of a collection of square fields, 
 surrounded by regular hedge-rows, and dotted here and 
 there with cubical, newly-painted boxes and straight 
 roads, may satisfy, as it commonly does, the owners of 
 the several lots, but can never be otherwise than pain- 
 ful to the eye of an artist. But what is called land- 
 scape scenery in England is mostly of this description, 
 and appears to be admired on the ground of its cultiva- 
 tion and plenty, qualities perfectly distinct from it, 
 considered as a beautiful object. 
 
 If any general rule could be given for the laying out 
 of building grounds, it would be to avoid everything 
 considered essential — long rows of houses all of the 
 same height, semi-circular rows with a tall house in the 
 centre, &c. The unsightliness of the common plan will 
 be seen by contrasting the picturesque cities of York 
 or Lincoln with the formal and uninteresting appear- 
 ance of Bath or Cheltenham, or they may be seen side 
 by side in the old town of Hastings and the modern 
 Eversfield, with the adjoining triumphal-arched town of 
 St. Leonards. From this cause, London, though the 
 
ON SITUATION, ETC. 
 
 largest, is probably the least picturesque city in Europe. 
 Mr. Disraeli, in his " Tancred," has ably contrasted the 
 old part of London with the new, and has pointed out 
 the absence of all interest of character in the modern 
 portions. Strange that he should have been able to see 
 so clearly that which professors of the art have not only 
 been blind to, but are continually helping to increase. 
 
 If the building is proposed to be placed by the side 
 of a public road, it would be desirable to erect the 
 principal front facing the south-east or south-west as 
 nearly as possible. The principal front, therefore, can 
 only in certain situations be parallel to the public road, 
 but the preference should be given to the south-east. 
 The complete drainage of a house is a point of the 
 utmost importance, as upon it mainly depends the 
 health and comfort of its inmates — and not only is it 
 requisite that the drainage be perfect ; but it must be 
 as little liable as possible to get out of order, and when 
 disturbed for the purpose of cleaning, should be capable 
 of reinstatement with the materials at first used. The 
 most essential points to be attended to in the drainage 
 of buildings generally, where main sewers are formed, 
 are the following: — Assuming in this plate that the 
 main sewer is constructed in the front or principal 
 road — and we desire to convey all our soil, waste 
 water, &c., into it. On the block plan in Plate III., 
 upon which are shown the grounds, buildings, &c., 
 mark the most accessible places for fixing the tank, 
 gulleys, traps, siphons, &c. ; and then upon a skeleton 
 block-plan and section, Plate II. • show the principal 
 pipes for the conveyance of water to the tank, and the 
 waste and soil drains, into the principal sewer, with the 
 necessary falls, traps, and gulleys required. 
 b2 
 
4 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Soilage -drains are sufficiently large for the passage 
 of the soil and water when their diameter is 6 inches. 
 They should have a fall of not less than 6 inches in 
 every 100 feet, and more where possible. They should 
 be made water-tight in order to prevent the liquid 
 portions of the soilage from escaping and so leaving the 
 solid matters in the drain. The waste water passed 
 through should be amply sufficient to carry the soilage 
 onward. To prevent the foul air generated in, or re- 
 turning by the drains, the waste ways should be double- 
 trapped by a bell-trap at the sink where the waste 
 water enters, and by a well-trap short of the inlet to 
 the drain. 
 
 All drains should be so constructed as to admit of 
 being opened for the purpose of cleansing without 
 breaking them, and of the displaced portion being after- 
 wards replaced. A great defect in the common soilage 
 drains, whether built in brick work or earthenware 
 pipes, is, that they have to be broken up whenever 
 they require cleansing; this might be obviated by using 
 drains of the form represented on Plate XIII., Fig. 1. 
 
 The upper tile a, in the diagram, could at any time 
 be lifted off, and the drain cleansed, without the neces- 
 sity of breaking the drain, or of removing any por- 
 tion of the earth, except that immediately covering it. 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A simple kind of trap, applicable to this form of 
 drain (its transverse section being the same), and 
 equally effective as regards its capability of being 
 readily cleansed, is shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 A section and plan of a drain -trap, to be formed of 
 iron or earthenware, is shown in the same plate, Fig. 3 ; 
 the tile a should not be fixed down, but be left loose, 
 
DRAINAGE, TRAPS, SYPHON, ET 
 
 so as to allow of its ready removal, and t 
 of the trap. It would, perhaps, be as well to" 
 whole of the trap loose, which would allow of it>4j!eii>g 
 lifted out, and any obstruction removed. This form 0 
 drain-trap is suitable for yards, areas, &c, and, slightly 
 modified, for streets. Figs. 4 and 5. 
 
 The waste water from sinks does not seem to be 
 sufficient to cleanse these drains thoroughly ; but this 
 may be effected, and at little expense, by simply shorten- 
 ing by one or two inches or more the waste-pipes of 
 the cistern in each case. For as the water runs off by 
 the waste-pipe, the cistern would continue to fill from 
 the main faster than it runs off, till the rate of its 
 coming in (which is always regulated by the ball-cock, 
 and becomes gradually less as the ball rises) became 
 exactly equal to the quantity running off; and this it 
 would continue to do until stopped at the main, the 
 quantity of water running off being regulated by the 
 length of the waste-pipe. 
 
 By this plan every house -drain might be daily 
 cleansed with water, and kept at a low temperature at 
 a trifling expense, that is, at merely the cost of water 
 from each cistern ; though small, it would in each street 
 amount to a considerable body ; it would serve to 
 cleanse the main sewers themselves without the neces- 
 sity of any separate apparatus as proposed above. As 
 before remarked, the air of a house can never be kept 
 pure unless the bell and water traps act perfectly, which 
 they seldom or never do as at present constructed ; for 
 the bells of the traps in common use for sinks and 
 other places are usually left loose for the convenience 
 of cleansing them, as various matters find their way 
 into the trap, and the escape becomes choked ; and 
 
6 ERECTION OE dwelling-houses. 
 
 unless the bell is immediately replaced after the foreign 
 matter is removed, the trap becomes, of course, use- 
 less. To remedy this defect, the bell is sometimes 
 soldered down, when the trap, after a time, becomes 
 filled up, and the bell is forcibly moved and laid aside. 
 A simple apparatus for cleansing the traps when the 
 bells are soldered down has been contrived,* which 
 would be perfectly effective if its careful preservation and 
 use by servants and others could be relied on. But the 
 bell-traps in common use may be much improved, and 
 made to answer all the uses required of them • be always 
 certain of action, and yet admit of occasional cleaning, 
 by fixing the bell to the trap by a hinge, as shown at 
 Plate XIII., Fig. 5, with a projecting piece of metal to 
 prevent its being but partially raised ; so that the bell, 
 being held up while the trap is cleaned by the knob b, 
 as indicated by the dotted lines, falls into its place by 
 its own weight, and can consequently never fail. The 
 use of the metal top a is to prevent the bell being 
 thrown back and left so ; it is on this plate shown in 
 section, Fig. 5. The sink may be of wood, lined with 
 lead, of stone, or slate ; or, perhaps, better than those, 
 of earthenware, which, among other advantages, would 
 allow of the trap being made with it, and forming a 
 part of itself, as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 Supply of Water. 
 
 The arrangements for distributing a supply of water 
 over the different parts of a building will depend very 
 materially on the nature of the supply, whether con- 
 stant or intermittent. The most common method of 
 
 * By Mr. Hosking. 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER. 
 
 supply is from water- works, by pipes which ^communi- 
 cate with private cisterns, into which the water is 
 turned at stated intervals. 
 
 A cistern in a dwelling-house is always more or less 
 au evil ; it takes up a great deal of space, costs a great 
 deal of money in the first instance, and often causes 
 inconvenience from leakage, from the bursting of the 
 service pipes in frosty weather, and from the liability 
 of self-acting cocks to get out of order. The common 
 material for the cistern itself is wood lined with sheet 
 lead ; but slate cisterns have been much used of late. 
 The service or feed-pipe for a cistern, in the case of an 
 intermittent supply, must be sufficiently large to allow 
 of its filling during the time the water is turned on 
 from the main. The flow of water into the cistern is 
 regulated by a ball-cock, so called from its being opened 
 and shut by a lever with a copper or zinc ball which 
 floats on the surface of the water. The surface pipes 
 to the different parts of the building are laid into the 
 bottom of the cistern, but should not come within an 
 inch of the actual bottom, in order that the sediment, 
 which is always deposited in a greater or less degree, 
 may not be disturbed : the mouth of each pipe should 
 be covered by a rose, to prevent any foreign substance 
 being washed into the pipes and choking the taps. To 
 afford a ready means of clearing out the cistern, a waste- 
 pipe is inserted quite at the bottom, sufficiently large 
 to draw off the whole contents in a short time when 
 required ; into this waste-pipe is fitted a standing waste 
 which reaches nearly to the top of the cistern and 
 carries off the waste water, when from any disarrange- 
 ment in the working of the ball-cock the water con- 
 tinues running after the cistern is full. To prevent 
 
8 
 
 EKECTI0N OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 any leakage at the bottom of the standing waste, the 
 latter terminates in a brass plug which is ground to fit 
 a washer inserted at the top of the waste-pipe. 
 
 Where the supply of water is constant, instead of 
 being intermittent, private cisterns may be altogether 
 dispensed with ; the main pipes not being required to 
 discharge a large quantity of water in a short time, 
 may be of smaller bore, and consequently cheaper, and 
 a considerable length of pipe is saved, as the water can 
 be laid on directly to the several taps, instead of having 
 to be taken up to the cistern and then brought back 
 again. The constant flow of water through the pipes 
 also much diminishes the risk of their bursting in frosty 
 weather from freezing of their contents, when there is 
 not a regular supply of water from the mains of water 
 works, if any, as it frequently occurs. In new localities, 
 wells are sunk, and the water raised by means of 
 pumps, and conveyed by pipes to its required destina- 
 tion • and as rain-water is considered the purest of all 
 water, it may be considered desirable to construct a 
 filtering tank for its reception j and where there is a 
 want of wholesome water, a tank might be constructed 
 large enough to receive the rain-water from the roofs 
 of a number of houses. This would insure a constant 
 supply of soft and pure water for all domestic purposes. 
 
 The same would apply where there is no complete 
 system of sewerage j a large manure tank might be con- 
 structed. 
 
 It is calculated that the average quantity of water 
 which falls on a square yard of surface in Britain, in a 
 year, amounts to about 120 gallons, which, for a building 
 containing 100 square yards of roof, gives 12,000 
 gallons, an ample quantity for all purposes. Rain- 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER. « 
 
 water tanks are generally constructed in the following 
 manner : — The ground being excavated, the bottom is 
 laid with one or two courses of bricks, upon which two 
 or three courses of tiles are laid in cement, and the 
 sides and ends are formed with brickwork in cement, 
 and the whole is then rendered with cement about an 
 inch in thickness. The top is either domed or covered 
 with a flat stone. To filter water into a tank of this 
 kind a small well or cistern is constructed, the bottom 
 of which is perforated to admit the water upon which 
 the charcoal is laid, and then covered over with 
 another perforated plate, as shown and described on 
 Plate XIV. j a pump is then applied to the smaller 
 cistern or filter for the supply. This, as will be 
 perceived on inspection, would admit of ready cleaning, 
 as the filter could at any time be lifted out. Plate XIV. , 
 Fig. 1, is a section of the rain-water tank; h the 
 cistern ; a the stone cover to the same ; e e the por- 
 tion for the filtered water ; f filtering medium ; c c the 
 perforated portion for allowing the water to force itself 
 through the filtering medium f ; J rod for lifting the 
 filters out of cistern when it requires cleaning ; c the 
 supply pipe ; d waste ditto. Pig. 2 is a plan of the 
 same tank; a cistern; b slate or earthenware filter. 
 A modification of this arrangement may be adopted 
 for smaller buildings, and a bucket may be applied for 
 dipping the water from the filter. 
 
10 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Our drainage, water supply, &c, having been con- 
 sidered as far as relates to our design, perhaps the next 
 consideration would be for the erection of the carcass of 
 the building, and probably we cannot do better than 
 commence with the bricklayer.* The business of a 
 bricklayer consists in the execution of all kinds of work 
 in which brick is the principal material ; and in London 
 it always includes tiling, and paving with bricks or 
 tiles. "Where undressed stone is much used as a building 
 material, the bricklayer executes this kind of work 
 also ; and in the country the business of the plasterer 
 is sometimes connected with the above-named branches. 
 And here, perhaps, we cannot do better than give the 
 list of tools required, and the classification of them. 
 
 The tools of the bricklayer are — the trowel, to take up 
 and spread the mortar, and to cut bricks to the requisite 
 size ; the brick-axe for shaping them to the required 
 bevel j the tin-saw for making incisions in them to be 
 cut with the axe ; and a rubbing-stone to rub the bricks 
 smooth after being roughly axed into shape. The 
 jointer and the jointing-rule are used for running the 
 centres of the mortar joints ; the raker for raking out 
 the joints of old brickwork, previous to repointing ; the 
 hammer for cutting chases and splays ; the banker, 
 which is a piece of timber about six feet long, raised on 
 supports to a convenient height, to form a table on 
 
 * Consult Mr. E. Dobson's four volumes in this series. I. "Art of 
 Building," No. 22 ; II. " Bricks and Tiles," No. 23 ; ILL "Masonry 
 and Stonecutting," No. 25 : and IV, "Foundations," No. 44. 
 
12 
 
 inVt 
 
 BRICKLAYING. 
 
 which to cut the bricks to any gauge for>^fif 
 and bevels are required. The crow-bar, pty^e^anfr^ 
 shovel are used in digging out the found atibiClj^d^ 
 the rammer in punning the ground round the footings, 
 and in rendering the foundation firm where it is soft, 
 by beating or ramming. 
 
 To set out the work and keep it true, the bricklayer 
 uses the square, the level, and the plumb-rule. For 
 circular work he uses templets* and battering -rules ; lines 
 and pins are used to lay the courses by, and measuring- 
 rods to take dimensions when brickwork has to be 
 carried up in conjunction with stonework ; the height 
 of each course must be marked on a gauge-rod, that the 
 joints of each may coincide. 
 
 The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and mortar 
 by a labourer, who carries them in a hod ; the labourer 
 also makes the mortar, and builds and strikes the scaf- 
 folding. The bricklayer's scaffold is constructed with 
 standards, ledgers, and putlogs. The standards are 
 fir poles, from forty to fifty feet long, and six or seven 
 inches in diameter at the butt ends, which are firmly 
 bedded in the ground. When one pole is not suffi- 
 ciently long, two are lashed together, top and butt, 
 the lashings being tightened with wedges. The ledgers 
 are horizontal poles, placed parallel to the walls and 
 lashed to the standard for the support of the put- 
 logs. The putlogs are cross pieces, usually made of 
 birch, and about six feet long, one end resting in the 
 wall, the other on a ledger. On the putlogs are placed 
 the scaffold boards, which are stout boards hooped 
 with iron at the ends, to prevent them from splitting. 
 
 * The templet should be carefully cut to the form of the work to be 
 executed. For description of the tools used, see "Weale's " Technical 
 Dictionary," No. 36 of this series. 
 
12 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A bricklayer and his labourer will lay in a day about 
 1000 bricks, or about two cubic yards. 
 
 The tools required for tiling are the lathing -hammer, 
 with two gauge marks on it, one at 7 and the other at 
 7§ inches ; the iron lathing-staff, to clinch the nails ; 
 the trowel, longer and narrower than that used for 
 brick- work; the bosse, for holding mortar and tiles, with 
 an iron hook to hang it to the tiles or to a ladder ; and 
 the striker, a piece of lath about 10 inches long, for clear- 
 ing off the superfluous mortar at the foot of the tiles. 
 
 Brickwork is measured and valued * by the rod or by 
 the cubic yard, the price including the erection and 
 use of scaffolding, but not centering to arches, which 
 is an extra charge. Bricknogging, pavings, and facings 
 by the superficial yard. Digging and steining of wells 
 and cesspools by the foot in depth according to size, 
 the price increasing with the depth. Plain tiling and 
 pantiling are valued per square of 100 feet superficial. 
 
 A journeyman bricklayer receives from 4*. to 5s. 6d. 
 and a labourer from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per day. 
 
 The following memoranda may be useful : — 
 "Weights op different kinds of Eaeth. 
 13 cubic feet of chalk weigh .... one ton. 
 
 17 „ clay , i 
 
 18 „ night soil „ .... I one ton 
 2J| „ gravel „ . . . . j each. 
 23£ „ sand „ . . . . ) 
 
 Twenty-seven cubic feet, or 1 cubic yard, is called a 
 single load, and 2 cubic yards a double load. 
 
 A measure of lime is 27 cubic feet, and contains 21 
 strike bushels. 
 
 A bricklayer's hod measures 1 ft. 4 in. X 9 X 9, and 
 2ontains 20 bricks. 
 
 * See Mr. A. C. Beaton's " Measurements and Quantities/' in this 
 
BRICKLAYING. 
 
 A rod of brickwork measures 16£ ft. 
 
 thick [which is called the reduced or standard s ihwkfte$s) 
 or 272 ft. 3 in. superficial or 306 cubic feet, or llf 
 cubic yards. 
 
 A rod of brickwork, laid four courses to a foot in 
 height, requires 4,353 stock bricks. 
 
 Ditto 1 lj inches to four courses, 4,533 stock bricks. 
 
 These calculations are made without allowing for 
 waste, which is necessary, because the space occupied by 
 flues, bond-timber, &c, and for which no deduction is 
 made, more than compensates for any waste; and in build- 
 ing dwelling-houses, 4,540 stocks to a rod is sufficient. 
 
 If laid dry, 5,370 to the rod. 
 
 4,900 ditto in wells and circular cesspools. 
 
 A rod of brickwork, laid 4 courses to gauge 12 in., 
 contains 235 cubic feet of bricks and 71 cubic feet of 
 mortar, and weighs about 15 tons. 
 
 A rod of brickwork requires \\ cubic yards of chalk 
 lime, and 3 single loads of sand, or 1 cubic yard of 
 stone lime, and 3^ loads of sand or 36 bushels of 
 cement, and an equal quantity of sharp sand. 
 
 A cubic yard of mortar requires 9 bushels of lime 
 and 1 load of sand. 
 
 Lime and sand, and likewise cement and sand, lose 
 one-third of their bulk when made into mortar. 
 
 The proportion of mortar or cement, when made 
 up, to the lime or cement and sand before made up, is 
 as 2 to 3. 
 
 Lime or cement and sand to make mortar require as 
 much water as is equal to one-third of their bulk. 
 
 A cubic yard of concrete requires 34 cubic feet of 
 material ; or if the gravel is to the lime as 6 to 1, a 
 concrete will require 1*1 cubia yard of gravel and sand 1 
 suid 3 bushels of lime. 
 
14 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Facing requires 7 bricks per foot superficial. 
 Gauged arches 10 ditto, ditto. 
 
 Bricknogging, per yard superficial, requires 30 bricks 
 on edge, or 45 laid flat. 
 
 PAVING. 
 
 Stock bricks laid flat require 36 per yard superficial. 
 
 Paving ditto on edge 
 Paving ditto laid flat 
 Ditto on edge 
 Dutch, clinkers 
 12-inch paving tiles 
 10 -inch ditto 
 
 52 
 36 
 82 
 140 
 9 
 13 
 
 TILING. 
 
 Description. <%g£ 
 With pantiles 12 . 
 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 Ditto 
 
 11 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 No. required 
 per Square. 
 
 . 150 
 
 . 164 
 
 . 180 
 
 . 600 
 
 . 700 
 
 . 800 
 
 N.B.— A square of pantiling requires one bundle of laths, and 125 
 sixpenny nails. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 Of the Sizes and Weights of various Articles employed in Building. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Stock-bricks . . . 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 ozs. 
 
 . each 
 
 0 
 
 8| 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2i 
 *5 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Paving ditto . . . 
 
 • j> 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 If 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 8 
 
 Dutch clinkers . . 
 
 • ;> 
 
 0 
 
 6* 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 if 
 
 1 
 
 12-inch paving- tiles 
 
 >» 
 
 0 
 
 H| 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 10-inch ditto 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 9} 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 P^ain tiles . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 10* 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 of 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Pantile laths, per 
 
 10-feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto, 12-feet ditto 
 
 
 144 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 A 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 N.B.— A bundle 
 
 contains 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 twelve laths. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plain tile laths, per bundle . 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 0 
 
 o§ 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Thirty bundles 
 
 of laths 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 make a load. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
it Ji I CK L A Y 1 >> G . f $SSJfi 
 
 To ascertain tlie quantity of brick vvorl* confined' m 
 
 *c 0I 
 
 a well, take the diameter, allowing thev^ickness, on 
 one side, three times of which, and one^^§nth,:will 
 be the circumference. This should be mu^nlied^ by< > 
 the depth, and the contents brought into brick afeiiah^aj£- J 
 work. 
 
 To find what quantity of water a well will hold, 
 multiply half the circumference by half the diameter ; 
 this should be multiplied by the depth, and will give 
 the number of cubic feet which will contain 6 gallons 
 and 1 pint each. 
 
 Having explained the various tools and principal 
 materials used in the trade of a bricklayer, we would 
 impress upon the young artisan to give some attention 
 to geometrical drawing, without which he will never be 
 enabled to read or comprehend the design he may be en- 
 trusted with to execute. For, even in the simple turning 
 of an arch over a centre already fixed for him, unless he 
 knows that every brick should radiate to a centre and 
 knows how to find that centre, he will never be certain of 
 making sound work to his arch. We have endeavoured 
 to show this in two diagrams shown on Plate XVI., 
 Figs. 4 and 5. Let 1 — 2 be the opening or span of 
 the segment of an arch ; e f the rise ; stretch a line, 
 or apply a straight edge, from 2 to f, and mark the 
 centre c j apply the square, and the point where it 
 intersects the centre of the rise b f will be the centre 
 for the arch ; consequently, b will be the converging 
 point for all the bricks on that arch. Fig. 5 merely 
 exemplifies the same principle applied to the ellipse. 
 
 * Much time will be saved by using the Slide-rule in making these 
 calculations. . See " The Slide Eule, and its Use," by Mr. C. Hoare, in 
 this series. 
 
16 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 The business of the carpenter consists in framing 
 timber together for the construction of floors, parti- 
 tions, roofs, oj-c* 
 
 The carpenter's principal tools are the axe, the saw, 
 and the chisel, to which may be added, the chalk-line, 
 plumb-rule, level, and square. The work of the car- 
 penter does not require the use of the plane, which 
 is one of the chief tools of the joiner; and this 
 forms the principal distinction between these two 
 trades, the carpenter being engaged in the rough 
 frame- work, and the joiner on the finishings and 
 decorations of buildings. 
 
 Probably the first occupation a carpenter will have 
 in a building is the preparation and laying of bond- 
 timber, making and fixing of centres, &c. Bond-timber 
 and wood-bricks were formerly used as the only means 
 for providing against irregular settlement in the brick- 
 work. There is, however, a great objection to the use 
 of timber in the construction of a wall, as it shrinks 
 away from the rest of the work, and often endangers 
 its stability by rotting. Instead of bond-timbers, hoop- 
 iron bond is now very generally used. This is formed 
 of iron hooping tarred, to protect the iron from contact 
 with the mortar, and laid in the thickness of the mortar 
 joint. This forms a very permanent longitudinal tie, 
 and has all the advantages, with none of the disad- 
 vantages, of the bond-timbers. 
 
 * " Carpentry and Joinery," founded on Robinson and Tredgold, 
 No. 123 ; and " Roofs for Public and Private Buildings," No. 2-1 of 
 this series. 
 
CA.HPENTRT. 
 
 Floors. 
 
 The assemblage of timbers forming an 
 iug may be either single or double. Single flooring 
 is formed with joists reaching from wall to wall, where" 
 they rest on plates of timber, built into the brickwork, 
 and called wall-plates. The floor-boards are nailed 
 over the upper edges of the joists, whose lower edges 
 receive the lathing and plastering of the ceilings. 
 Double floors are constructed with stout binding joists, 
 a few feet apart, reaching from wall to wall, and sup- 
 porting ceiling joists, which carry the ceiling, and 
 bridging joists, on which are nailed the floor-boards. 
 In double framed flooring, the binders, instead of rest- 
 ing on the walls, are supported on girders. Single 
 flooring is in many respects inferior to double flooring, 
 being liable to sag or deflect, so as to make the floors 
 concave; and the situation of the joists occasions 
 injury to the ceilings, and likewise shakes the walls. 
 This may be prevented in single floors by herring-bone, 
 trussing them, and introducing an iron rod from wall- 
 plate to wall-plate, as shown and described on Plate 
 XIX., Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Fig. 5 shows the method 
 of applying sound boarding puggings, &c, to prevent 
 any sound passing between the upper and lower floors. 
 In double floors, the stiffness of the binders and girders 
 prevents both deflection and vibration, and the floors 
 and ceilings hold their lines, that is, retain their in- 
 tended form much better than in single flooring. 
 
 If it were not for the increased expense, it would be 
 much better for all the joists of a single floor to be 
 laid on a plate supported by projecting corbels, which 
 prevents the wall being crippled in any way by the in- 
 
18 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 sertion of the joists. The plates of basement floors 
 are best supported on small piers carried up from the 
 footings. This is an important point to be attended to, 
 as the introduction of timbers into a wall is nowhere 
 likely to be productive of such injurious effects as at 
 the foundations, where from damp and imperfect venti- 
 lation all woodwork is liable to speedy decay. 
 
 Partitions. 
 
 The partitions forming the interior divisions of a 
 building may be either solid walling of brick or stone, 
 or they may be constructed entirely of timber, or they 
 may be frames of timber, filled in with masonry or 
 brickwork. It would always be best for durability, 
 and security against fire, to make the partitions of 
 solid walling; but this is not always practicable; 
 and in the erection of houses they are generally made 
 of timber. 
 
 The principles to be kept in view, m the construction 
 of framed partitions, are very simple. Care must be 
 taken to avoid any cross strain, and they should not in 
 any way depend for support upon subordinate parts 
 of the construction, but should form a portion of the 
 main carcass of the building, and quite independent 
 of the floors, which should not support, but be sup- 
 ported by them. 
 
 When a partition extends through two or more 
 stories of -a building, it should be as much as possible 
 a continuous piece of framing, with strong sills, at 
 proper heights, to support the floor-joists. 
 
 Where openings occur, as for folding-doors, or where 
 a partition rests on the ends of the sill only, it should 
 
CARPENTRY . 
 
 be strongly trussed, so that it is as incapa^ 
 ment as the walls themselves. 
 
 From want of attention to these points^ 
 quently see in dwelling-houses floors which 
 into curved lines, doors out of square, cracked ceilings 
 and broken cornices, and gutters that only serve to 
 conduct the roof-water to the interior of the building, 
 to the injury of ceilings and walls, and the great dis- 
 comfort of the inmates. 
 
 Roofing. 
 
 In roofs of the ordinary construction, the roof- 
 covering is laid upon rafters, supported by horizontal 
 purlins, which rest on upright trusses, or frames of 
 timber, placed on the walls at regular distances from 
 each other. Upon the framing of the trusses depends 
 the stability of the roof; the arrangement of the 
 rafters and purlins being subordinate matters of detail. 
 The timbering of a roof may be compared to that of a 
 double-framed floor ; the trusses of the former corre- 
 sponding to the girders of the latter, the purlins to the 
 binders, and the rafters to the joists. 
 
 Timber roofs may be divided into two heads : — 
 
 First. Those which exert merely a vertical pressure 
 on the walls on which they rest. 
 
 Secondly. Those in which advantage is taken of the 
 strength of the walls to resist a side thrust, as in many 
 of the gothic open-timbered roofs.. 
 
 Trussed roofs exerting no side thrust on the walls 
 consist essentially of a pair of principals, or principal 
 rafters, and a horizontal tie-beam, and in large roofs 
 these are connected and strengthened by king and 
 queen posts and struts. 
 
20 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING- HOUSES. 
 
 The collar beam roof is the most simple truss, in 
 which the tie is above the bottom of the feet of the 
 principal, which is often done in small roofs for the 
 sake of obtaining height. In this roof the feet of 
 both common and principal rest on a wall-plate, and 
 the tie is called a collar. The purlins rest on the 
 collar, and the common rafters butt against a ridge 
 running along the top of the roof. This kind of 
 truss is only suited for very small spans, as there is a 
 cross strain on that part of the principal below the 
 collar which is rendered harmless in a small space 
 by the extra strength of the principal ; but which, in 
 a larger one, would be very likely to thrust out the 
 walls. 
 
 In roofs of larger spans the tie-beams are placed 
 below the feet of the principals, which are tenoned into 
 and bolted or strapped to them. To keep the beam 
 from sagging, or bending by its own weight, it is sus- 
 pended from the head of the principal by a king-post 
 of wood or iron. The lower part of the king-post 
 affords abutments for struts, supporting the principals 
 immediately under the purlins, so that no cross-strain 
 is exerted on any of the timbers in the truss, but they 
 all act in the direction of their length, the principals 
 and struts being subjected to compression, and the 
 king-posts and tie-beams to tension. The common 
 rafters butt on a pole plate, the tie-beams resting either 
 on a continuous wall-plate, or on short templates of 
 wood or stone. Where the span is considerable, the 
 tie-beam is supported at additional points by suspension 
 pieces called queen posts, from the bottom of which 
 spring additional struts ; and by extending this principle 
 ad infinitum we might construct a roof of any span, 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 21 
 
 were it not that a practical limit is imposed by the 
 nature of the materials. 
 
 Having in a cursory manner described the princi- 
 ples of framing, we will now endeavour to describe 
 some of the principal joints made use of in framing. 
 Timbers that have to be joined in the direction of 
 their length, are what is termed scarfed together, that 
 is, an oblique cut is made across the width of one 
 piece at the end, proposed to be joined, and a corre- 
 sponding one to the piece proposed to be added to it, 
 with bird's-mouth bevels at each end and notches in 
 the middle to admit of oak or iron wedges ; these are 
 then placed together and secured either by iron bolts 
 or straps. The king-post is connected with the tie- 
 beam by a tenon and mortice, and the post should be 
 cut somewhat short, to give the power of screwing up 
 the framing after the timber has become fully seasoned. 
 The tie-beam may be suspended from the king-post 
 either by a bolt or by a strap passed round the tie- 
 beam, and secured by iron wedges or cotters passing 
 through a hole in the king-post ; this last is the more 
 perfect, but at the same time the more expensive of the 
 two methods. 
 
 The king-post is generally cut with joggles for the 
 principal rafters and struts to abut against and frame 
 into. The ends of the principal rafters and struts 
 should be cut off as nearly square as possible, and 
 tenoned into the joggles — otherwise when the timber 
 shrinks, which it will more or less, the thrust is thrown 
 upon the edge only, which splits or crushes under the 
 pressure and causes settlement. 
 
 -The wall-plates are halved and dove-tailed together, 
 and the tie-beams cogged upon them, the purlins 
 
22 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 bridged upon the principal rafters, and the common 
 rafters notched upon the purlins. And it should be 
 observed, as a general rule, all timbers should be 
 notched down to those on which they rest, so as to 
 prevent their being moved either lengthways or side- 
 ways. Where an upright post has to be fixed between 
 two horizontal sills, as in the case of the uprights of 
 a common framed partition, it is simply tenoned into 
 them, and the tenons secured with oak pins driven 
 through the cheeks of the mortice. 
 
 The carpenter requires considerable bodily strength 
 for the handling of the timbers on which he has to 
 work ; he should have a knowledge of mechanics, that 
 he may understand the nature of the strains and thrusts 
 to which his work is exposed, and the best method of 
 preventing or resisting them ; and he should have such 
 a knowledge of working drawings as will enable him, 
 from the sketches of the architect, to set out the lines 
 for every description of work for centering, framing, 
 &c, that may be entrusted to him for execution. 
 
 In measuring carpenter's work, the tenons are included 
 in the length of the timber. This is not the case in 
 joiner's, in which they are allowed for in the price. 
 Carpenter's work is generally measured by the square 
 of 100 feet, and the cubical contents of every square 
 taken out ; and nothing is to be deducted for chimneys, 
 as the extra thickness of the trimmers will make up 
 the deficiency, and in a quarter partition the braces and 
 extra thickness of the door-posts will make up for the 
 opening, but the head and sill must be taken separate j 
 and if the joists or quarterings in roofs or partitions are 
 13 inches asunder, one-twentieth of the quantity found 
 is to be taken off— but if placed within 11 inches, one- 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 twentieth must be added. And in measuring the work 
 for labour, only take the extreme verge, including the 
 bearings, one way, and make no deductions for well- 
 holes, chimney-breasts, doorways, &c. The timber to 
 be collected the full length and size, and chargeaaT^ 
 " cube fir/' without labour. The following tables 
 should be constantly borne in mind by the young car- 
 penter : — 
 
 Lineal or running measure contains 12 inches in 1 
 foot, 3 feet in 1 yard, 2 yards 1 fathom, and 1,760 yards 
 or 5,280 feet in one mile. 
 
 Superficial measure contains 144 square inches in 1 
 foot, 9 feet in 1 yard, and 100 feet in 1 square of floor- 
 ing, roofing, partitioning, &c. ; 272£ feet in 1 rod or 
 pole, and 160 poles in 4,840 yards, or 43,560 feet in 
 
 1 acre. 
 
 Cubic measure comprises the length, breadth, and 
 thickness, and contains 1,728 inches in 1 cubic foot, 
 27 cubic feet in one cubic yard, 282 cubic inches in 1 
 gallon, and 6 gallons and 1 pint in each cubic foot. 
 
 To measure round timber, multiply the mean or 
 quarter girt by itself, and that product by the length 
 by cross multiplication, and the cubical quantity will 
 be ascertained. For instance : suppose a piece of tim- 
 ber to girt 6 feet, one-quarter of this will be 1 foot 
 6 inches, which, multiplied by 1 foot 6 inches, will give 
 
 2 feet 3 inches superficial, which, multiplied by the 
 length (say 20 feet), will give the contents— 45 feet 
 cube ; and in the same way for any other size. 
 
24 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 Of quantities of Timber each making One Load. 
 
 50 cubic feet of square timber. 
 
 40 ditto of round or rough. 
 150 sq. feet of 4-inch planking, 
 170 sq. feet of 3^-inch ditto. 
 200 sq. feet of 3-inch ditto. 
 240 sq. feet of 2|-inch ditto. 
 300 sq. feet of 2-inch ditto. 
 400 sq. feet of l|-inch ditto. 
 
 600 sq. feet of 1-inch planking. 
 30 12-feet 3-inch deals. 
 26 14-feet ditto ditto. 
 18 20-feet ditto ditto. 
 25 12-feet 3-inch plank. 
 21 14-feet ditto ditto. 
 18 16-feet ditto ditto. 
 15 20-feet ditto ditto. 
 
 The folloiving quantities of Material will each, on an average, weigh 
 One Ton : — ■ 
 
 39 cubic feet of oak timber. 
 50 ditto of fir „ 
 60 ditto of elm „ 
 45 feet of ash ,, 
 
 60' feet of beech ,. 
 
 35 12-feet 2|-inch deals. 
 30 ditto 3-inch ditto. 
 46 12-feet 2^-inch batten 
 38 ditto 3-inch ditto. 
 
 The number of Cubic Feet in every Square of Flooring, Roofing, or Quarter 
 Partitions of the folloiving different dimensions, the timbers whereof arc 
 one foot apart, ivhich shoidd not be more in either. 
 
 Roofs and Quarter Partitions. 
 
 cubic 
 
 3 „ 
 3 „ 
 3 „ 
 
 3 . 
 
 4'. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 inches. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 3 by 41 . . 
 
 . . 6 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 „ 2J . . 
 
 . . 5 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3* 
 
 4 „ 4 . . . 
 
 . . 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 „ 4J . • 
 
 . . 9 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 „ 5 . . . 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 Naked Floor without Girder. 
 
 inches. 
 5 by 1\ 
 
 5 „ 3 . 
 
 6 „ 
 « „ 
 
 7 „ 
 
 7 „ 
 
 8 „ 
 8 „ 
 
 2& 
 3 . 
 
 21 
 
 cubic 
 
 
 
 cubic 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 inches. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 7 
 
 2± 
 
 9 by 21 . . 
 
 . . 12 
 
 11* 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 9 „ 3 . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 7* 
 
 10 „ 2\ . . 
 
 , 14 
 
 4^ 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 „ 3". . . 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4* 
 
 11 „ 2J . . 
 
 . . 15 
 
 9^ 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 11 „ 3 . . . 
 
 . . 18 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 12 „ n . . 
 
 . . 17 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 12 „ 3 , 
 
 . . 20 
 
 0 
 
 The above tables of different scantlings will be found 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 25 
 
 very useful to those who are unacquainted with taking, 
 squaring, and cubing dimensions; as also to such as 
 have to make an estimate in a hurry, as they are 
 the common dimensions of fir scantling for joists, 
 rafters, and quarters for roofs and partitions, of second, 
 third, and fourth-rate houses : but we would advise the 
 young carpenter to take the dimensions of the timber 
 required for any stated work, and square and cube 
 them himself.* 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 The business of the mason consists in working the 
 stones to be used in a building to their shape and set- 
 ting them in their places. The works connected with 
 the trade of the mason are those of the stone-cutter, 
 who hews and cuts large stones roughly into shape 
 preparatory to their being worked by the mason, and 
 of the carver, who executes the ornamental portions of 
 the stone-work of a building, as enriched cornices, 
 capitals, &c. Where the value of stone is considerable 
 it is sent from the quarry to the building in large 
 blocks, and cut into slabs and scantlings of the required 
 size with a stone-mason's saw, which differs from that 
 used in any other trade in having no teeth. It is a 
 long thin plate of steel, slightly jagged on the bottom 
 edge, and fixed in a frame, and, being drawn backwards 
 and forwards in a horizontal position, cuts the stone by 
 its own weight. To facilitate the operation a heap of 
 
 * See " Quantities and Measurements," by Alfred Charles Beaton, 
 and « The Slide Eule and its Uses," by Charles Hoare, both in tbi* 
 Series. 
 
20 
 
 ERECTION OF "DWELLIXG-IIOTJSES. 
 
 sharp sand is placed on an inclined plane over the 
 stone, and water allowed to trickle through it so as to 
 wash the sand into the saw cut. Of late years ma- 
 chinery worked by steam-power has been used for 
 sawing marble into slabs as well as stone to a very 
 great extent, and has almost entirely superseded 
 manual labour in this part of the manufacturing of 
 chimney-pieces. 
 
 Some freestones, as Bath stone, are so soft as to be 
 easily cut with a toothed saw worked backwards and 
 forwards by two persons. The harder kinds of stones, 
 as granites and gritstones, are brought roughly into 
 shape at the quarry, with an axe or scappling hammer, 
 and are then said to be scappled* The tools used by 
 the mason for cutting stone consist of the mallet and 
 chisels of various sizes. The mason's mallet differs 
 from that used by any other artisan, being similar to a 
 dome in contour, excepting a portion of the broadest 
 part, which is rather cylindrical ; the handle is short, 
 being only sufficiently long to enable it to be firmly 
 grasped. In London the tools used to break the faces 
 of the stone are the point, which is the smallest de- 
 scription of chisel, being never more than a quarter of 
 an inch broad on the cutting edge ; the inch tool ; the 
 boaster, which is two inches wide, and the broad tool, 
 of which the cutting edge is three and a-half inches 
 wide. The tools used in working mouldings, and in 
 carving, are of various sizes according to the nature of 
 the work. Besides the above cutting tools, the mason 
 uses the banker or bench, in which he places his stone 
 for convenience of working, and straight-edges, squares, 
 
 * Reduced to a straight surface without heing worked smooth. 
 (See " Technical Dictionary.") 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 levels, and templets, for marking the sha^8§K of "thjj 
 blocks, and for trying the surfaces as the Avork pro^seds 
 Any angle greater or less than a right angle is caiKjja 
 bevel angle, and a bevel is formed by nailing two straight- 
 edges together at the required angle ; a bevel square 
 is & square with a shifting back, which can be set to 
 any required bevel. A templet is sometimes called a 
 mould, which moulds are commonly made of sheet 
 zinc carefully cut to the profile of the mouldings with 
 shears and files. For setting his work in place the 
 mason uses the trowel, lines, and pins, the square and 
 level, and plumb, and battering rules for adjusting the 
 faces of upright and battering walls. 
 
 The mason's scaffold is double, that is, formed with 
 two rows of standards, so as to be totally independent 
 of the walls for support, as putlog holes are inadmissible 
 in masonry. 
 
 Of late years the construction of scaffolds with round 
 poles lashed together with cords, has been superseded 
 in large works by a system of scaffolding of square 
 timbers connected together by bolts and dog-irons. 
 The hoisting of the materials is performed from these 
 scaffolds by means of a travelling crane, which consists 
 of a double travelling carriage running on a tramway 
 formed on straight sills laid on the top of two parallel 
 rows of standards. The crab winch is placed on the 
 upper carriage, and by means of the double motion of 
 the two carriages can be brought with great ease and 
 precision over any part of the work lying between the 
 two rows of standards. 
 
 The facilities which are afforded by these scaffolds 
 and travelling cranes for moving heavy weights over 
 large areas have led to their extensive adoption, not 
 
 c2 
 
28 
 
 EKECTI0N OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 only in the erection of buildings, but on landing wharfs, 
 masons' andiron-founders' yards, and similar situations, 
 where a great saving of time and labour is effected by 
 their use. Scaffolding of square timbers appears to 
 have been little used in England before 1837, when 
 Messrs. Cubitt, of Gray's Inn Road, applied it to the 
 erection of the entrance gateway of the Euston Station 
 of the North -Western Railway. Since then it has 
 been very generally used in large works, amongst which 
 may be mentioned the Reform Club House, and the 
 Nelson Column, — where it was carried up in perfect 
 safety to the height of 180 feet; and it was used on a 
 very large scale at the new Houses of Parliament. 
 
 The movable derrick crane is also much used in 
 setting mason's work. It consists of a vertical post 
 supported by two timber back-stays, and a long 
 movable jib or derrick hinged against the post below 
 the gearing. By means of a chain passing from a 
 barrel over a pulley at the top of the post, the derrick 
 can be hoisted to an almost vertical, or lowered to 
 nearly a horizontal position, thus enabling it to com- 
 mand every part of the area of a circle of a radius 
 nearly equal to the length of the derrick. This gives 
 it a great advantage over the old gibbet-crane, which 
 only commands a circle of a fixed radius, and the use 
 of which entails great loss of time from its constantly 
 requiring to be shifted as the work proceeds. 
 
 Derrick cranes appear to have been first introduced 
 at Glasgow, in 1831, by Mr. York, since which time 
 their original construction has been greatly improved 
 upon, and they are now very extensively used. 
 
 In hoisting blocks of stone they are attached to the 
 tackle by means of a simple contrivance called a leivis, 
 which consists of the following arrangement: — A taper- 
 
MASONRY. f f "^^R 
 
 ing hole is nut in the upper surface of the stone to be 
 raised ; the two side pieces of the lewis are\ inserted 
 and placed against the sides of the holes (which being 
 made in the form of a dovetail, and the aperture in the 
 stone made to correspond), a centre parallel piece is 
 then dropped in and secured in its place by a strong 
 pin passing through all three pieces, and the stone 
 may then be safely hoisted, as it is impossible for the 
 lewis to be drawn out of the hole. By means of a lewis, 
 slightly different in form from that just described, 
 stone can be lowered and set under water without diffi- 
 culty, the lewis being disengaged by means of a line 
 attached to the parallel piece, the removal of which 
 allows the other to be drawn out of the mortice. 
 
 In stone-cutting the workman forms as many plane 
 faces as may be necessary for bringing the stone into 
 the required shape with the least waste of material and 
 labour, and on the plane surface, so formed, applies the 
 moulds to which the stone is to be worked. 
 
 To form a plane surface the mason first knocks off 
 the superfluous stone along one edge of the block until 
 it coincides with a straight-edge throughout its whole 
 length — this is called a chisel draught. Another chisel 
 draught is then made along one of the adjacent edges, 
 and the ends of the two are connected by another 
 draught. A fourth draught is then sunk across the 
 last, which gives another angle point in the same plane 
 with the other draughts, and the stone is then knocked 
 off between the outside draughts until a straight-edge 
 coincides with its surface in every part. 
 
 To form cylindrical or moulded surfaces, curved in 
 one direction only, the workman sinks two parallel 
 draughts at the opposite ends of the stone, to be worked 
 until they coincide with a mould cut to the required 
 
30 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 shape, and afterwards works off the stone between 
 these draughts by a straight-edge applied at right 
 angles to them. 
 
 The formation of conical or spherical surfaces is 
 much less simple, and requires a knowledge of the 
 scientific operations of stone- cutting, a description of 
 which would be unsuited to the elementary character 
 of these pages. The reader who wishes to pursue the 
 subject is therefore referred to the writer's volume (25) 
 of this series on Masonry and Stone-cutting, where he 
 will find the required information. 
 
 The finely grained stones are usually brought to a 
 smooth surface, and rubbed with sand to produce a 
 perfectly even surface. 
 
 In working soft stones the surface is brought to a 
 smooth face with a drag, which is a plate of steel, 
 indented on the edge like the teeth of a saw, to take 
 off the marks of the tools employed in shaping it. The 
 harder and more coarsely grained stones are generally 
 tooled ; that is, the marks of the chisel are left on their 
 face. If the furrows left by the chisel are disposed in 
 regular order, the work is said to be fair-tooled ; but if 
 otherwise, it may be random-tooled, or chiselled, or 
 boasted, or pointed. If the stones project beyond the 
 points, the work is said to be rusticated or reticulated. 
 
 Granite and gritstone are chiefly worked with the 
 scappling hammer. In massive erections, where the 
 stones are large, and effect is required, the fronts of 
 the blocks are left quite rough, as they come out of 
 the quarry, and the work is then said to be quarry 
 pitched. 
 
 Many technical terms are used by quarry-men,* and 
 
 * See " Technical Dictionary of Terms used in Architecture, 
 Building," &c. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 31 
 
 others engaged in working stone ; but they need not be 
 inserted here, as they are mostly confined to particular 
 localities, beyond which they are little known, or 
 perhaps bear a different signification. When the mason 
 requires to give the joints of his work greater security 
 than is afforded by the weight of the stone and the 
 adhesion of the mortar, he makes use of joggles, doivels, 
 and cramps. Stones are said to be joggled when a 
 projection is worked out on one stone to fit in a corre- 
 sponding hole or groove in the other ; but this occasions 
 great labour and waste of stone. Dowels are chiefly 
 made use of, which are hard pieces of stone cut to the 
 required size, and let into corresponding mortices in 
 the two stones to be joined together. 
 
 Dowels may be pins of wood, metal, or stone, used 
 to secure the joints of stone-work in exposed situations, 
 as copings, pinnacles, &c. The best material is copper; 
 but the expense of this metal causes it to be seldom 
 used. If iron be made use of it should be thoroughly 
 tarred, to prevent oxidation, or it will sooner or later 
 burst or split the work it is intended to protect. 
 Dowels are often secured in their places with lead 
 poured in from above, through a small channel cut in 
 the side of the joint for that purpose; but a good 
 workman will eschew lead, which too often finds its 
 way into bad work, and will prefer trusting to very 
 close and workmanlike joints, carefully fitted dowels, 
 and fine mortar. Dowels should be made tapering afc 
 one end, which ensures a better fit, and renders the 
 setting of the stone more easy for the workman. 
 
 Iron cramps are used as fastenings on the tops of 
 copings, and in similar situations ; but they are not to 
 be recommended, as they are very unsightly, and if 
 they once become exposed to the action of the atmo- 
 
62 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 sphere, are powerfully destructive agents. Cast iron 
 is, however, less objectionable than wrought for this 
 purpose. 
 
 In measuring mason's work, the cubic contents of 
 the stone is taken as it comes to the banker, without 
 deduction for subsequent waste. If the scantlings are 
 large, an extra price is allowed for hoisting. The 
 labour in working the stone is charged by the super- 
 ficial foot, according to the kind of work, as plain work, 
 sunk work, moulded work, &c. Pavings, landings, &c, 
 and all stones less than three inches thick, are charged 
 by the superficial foot. Copings, curbs, window-sills, 
 &c, are charged per lineal foot. Cramps, dowels, 
 mortice holes, &c, are always charged separately. 
 
 A journeyman mason will receive from 4*. to 5s. 6d. 
 per day, and the labourer from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per day; 
 but masous working piece-work, or at any work re- 
 quiring particular skill, will often earn much more. 
 The remuneration of a stone-carver is dependent on 
 his talent, and the kind of work he is engaged upon. 
 
 The following table of the weights of the different 
 kinds of stone will convey an idea of their relative 
 hardness, and of the labour required to work them :— 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Weights of different kinds of Stone. 
 
 13 cubic feet of marble 
 
 „ of granite . . . 
 „ of Purbeck stone 
 „ of Yorkshire stone 
 „ of Derbyshire grit 
 „ of Portland stone 
 » of Bath stone . . . 
 58 feet superficial of 3-inch York paving 
 70 „ of 2f-iach 
 
 13{ 
 14 
 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 
 weigh one ton. 
 
PLUMBING. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 The work of the plumber chiefly consists an laying 
 sheet lead on roofs, lining cisterns, laying on water to 
 the different parts of a building, and fixing up pumps" 
 and water-closets. The plumber uses but few tools, 
 and those are of a simple character, the greater number 
 of them being similar to those used by other artificers, 
 hammers, mallets, planes, chisels, gouges, files, &c. The 
 principal tool peculiar to the trade of the plumber is 
 the bat, which is made of beech. It is about eighteen 
 inches long, and is used for dressing and flattening 
 sheet lead. Tor soldering, the plumber also uses iron 
 ladles of various sizes for melting solder, as well as 
 lead, and grozing-irons for smoothing down the joints. 
 The sheet-lead used by the plumber is either cast or 
 milled, the former being generally cast by the plumber 
 himself out of old lead taken in exchange, whilst the 
 latter, which is cast lead flattened out between two 
 rollers in a flatting mill, is purchased from the manu- 
 facturer. Sheet-lead is described, according to the 
 weight per superficial foot, as 5 lb. lead, 61b. lead, &c. 
 
 Lead-pipes, if of large dimensions, are made of sheet- 
 lead dressed round a wooden core and soldered up. 
 Smaller pipes are cast in short lengths, of a thickness 
 three or four times that of the intended pipe, and 
 either drawn or rolled out to the proper thickness. 
 
 Soft- solder is used for uniting the joints of lead- 
 work ; it is made of equal parts of lead and tin, and is 
 purchased of the manufacturer, by the plumber, at a 
 price per lb., according to the state of the market. 
 
 c 3 
 
84 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING- HOUSES. 
 
 Laying of Sheet-lead. 
 
 In order to secure lead- work from the injurious 
 effect of contraction and expansion where exposed to 
 the heat of the sun, the plumber is careful not to con- 
 fine the metal by soldered joints, or otherwise. All 
 sheet-lead should be laid with a slope sufficient to keep 
 it dry; a fall of one inch in ten feet is sufficient for 
 this purpose, if the boarding on which the lead is laid 
 be perfectly even. 
 
 Flashings are pieces of lead turned down over the 
 edges of other lead- work, which is turned up against 
 a wall, and serve to keep the wet from finding its way 
 between the wall and the lead. The most secure way 
 of fixing them is to build them into the joints of the 
 brickwork, but the common method is to insert them 
 about an inch into the mortar joint, and to secure them 
 with wall hooks and cement. 
 
 Avery important part of the business of the plumber 
 consists in fitting up cisterns, pumps, and water-closet 
 apparatus, and in laying the different services and 
 wastes connected with the same. 
 
 Plumber's work is paid for by the cwt. ; milled-lead 
 being rather more expensive than cast. Lead pipes 
 are charged per foot lineal, according to size. 
 
 Pumps and water-closet apparatus are charged at so 
 much each, according to description, as also basins, 
 air-traps, washers and plugs, spindle valves, stop-cocks, 
 oall-cocks, &c. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Weight of Lead Pipes per Yard. 
 Bore. lbs. ozs. Bore. lba. ozs. 
 
 |-inch .... 3 3 l|-inch . ... 11 0 
 
 g-inch .... 5 7 U-inch. ... 14 0 
 
 1-inch .... 8 0 2-inch , , , . 21 fi 
 
ZINC WORKER. — SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 35 
 
 The wages of a journeyman plumber are from 5s. to 
 6s. per day, and the plumber's labourer receives from 
 3s. to 3s. 6c?. per day. 
 
 ZINC- WORKER. 
 
 The use of sheet-lead has been to a certain extent 
 superseded by the use of sheet-zinc, which, from its 
 cheapness and lightness, is very extensively used for 
 almost all purposes to which sheet-lead is applied. It 
 is, however, a very inferior material, and not to be 
 depended on. The laying of it is generally executed 
 by the plumber, but the working of zinc, and manu- 
 facturing of it into gutters, rain water-pipes, chimney- 
 cowls, and other articles, is practised as a distinct 
 business. 
 
 SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 The smith furnishes the various articles of wrought, 
 iron work used in a building, as pileshoes, straps, screw- 
 bolts, dog-irons, chimney-bars, gratings, wrought-iron 
 railing, and iron balustrades for staircases. Wrought- 
 iron was formerly much used for many purposes, for 
 which cast-iron is almost exclusively employed • the 
 improvements effected in casting during the present 
 century having made a great alteration in this respect. 
 The operations of the iron-founder have been much 
 improved since the middle of the last century, when 
 the smelting of iron was carried on with wood charcoal, 
 and the ores used were chiefly from the secondary 
 strata, although the clay iron-stones of the coal- 
 measures were occasionally used. The weald of Kent 
 and Sussex contained many iron-works during the 
 seventeenth century. The one formerly situated at 
 Lamberhurst, near Tunbriclge Wells, Sussex, is noted 
 
30 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 as having furnished the cast-iron railing round St. 
 Paul's Cathedral. The tilt hammers used in forging 
 bar-iron were chiefly worked by water power. A large 
 pool in Beeding Forest, near Horsham, Sussex, still 
 retains the name of the Hammer Pond, and the former 
 sites of many old forges in the Wealden district may 
 still be traced by the heaps of cinders which yet remain 
 here and there, and by the local name to which the 
 works gave rise. 
 
 The introduction of smelting with pit-coal coke 
 during the last century caused a complete revolution 
 in the iron trade. The ores now chiefly used are the 
 clay iron-stones of the coal measures, and the fuel pit- 
 coal or coke. 
 
 Steam power is almost exclusively used for the pro- 
 duction of the blast furnaces, and for working the forge 
 hammers and rolling mills. For the production of 
 wrought-iron in the ordinary manner, two distinct sets 
 of processes are required : 1st, the extraction of the 
 metal from the ore in the shape of cast-iron ; 2nd, the 
 conversion of cast-iron into malleable or bar-iron by 
 remelting, puddling, and forging. The conversion of 
 bar-iron into steel is effected by placing it in contact 
 with powdered charcoal in a cementing furnace. 
 
 Cast-iron is produced by smelting the previously 
 calcined ore in a blast furnace along with a certain 
 quantity of limestone and coke ; the former acts as a 
 flux, while the combustion of the latter supplies the 
 heat. The metal when fused sinks to the bottom, 
 while the limestone and the impurities rise to the top, 
 and are allowed to run off, forming slag or cinder. The 
 melted metal is run off from the bottom of the furnace 
 into moulds in the case of castings, and into furrows 
 
SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER 1 ^« ,,- ~?> l . 37 
 
 made in a level bed of sand, when the ifietai^ reared 
 for conversion into malleable iron ; thelbars thus pro- 
 duced being called pigs. \XA v\ 
 
 In the year 1827 it was discovered th\t/by the use 
 of heated air for the blast a great saving of >fuel could 
 be effected as compared with the cold blast preeess. 
 The hot blast is now very extensively used, and has the 
 double advantage of requiring less fuel to bring down 
 an equal quantity of metal, and of enabling the manu- 
 facturer to use raw pit-coal instead of coke ; so that a 
 savingis effected both in the quantity and cost of the fuel. 
 
 For a considerable time after its introduction it was 
 held in great disrepute ; which, however, may be chiefly 
 attributed to the inferior quality of ores used, the power 
 of the hot blast in reducing the most refractory offering 
 a great temptation to obtain a much larger product 
 from the furnaces than was compatible with the good 
 quality of the metal. 
 
 The use of the hot blast by firms of acknowledged 
 character has greatly tended to remove the prejudice 
 against it, and in many iron- works of high character 
 nothing but the hot blast with pit-coal is used in the 
 smelting furnaces, the use of coke being confined to 
 the subsequent processes. 
 
 It may be laid down as a principle, that in archi- 
 tectural structures, at least where a proper margin of 
 safety has been provided in determining the scantlings 
 of either cast or wrought-iron to resist known stresses 
 in construction, that it is practically unimportant at 
 present (1867) to the architect whether the metals he 
 specifies or employs be hot blast or cold blast. 
 
 The temperature of the hot blast has been lately 
 considerably intensified by the use of Siemens' s regene- 
 
38 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 rative furnace. The reader wishing further information 
 respecting these furnaces will find a description of them 
 in the articles Heat and Iron in "Tomlinson's Cyclo- 
 psedia of Useful Arts." The results obtained are an 
 increased temperature, a saving in the amount of fuel 
 used per ton of iron obtained, and a better quality of 
 iron. 
 
 Cast-iron is divided by the iron-founder into three 
 qualities : — No. 1, or dark grey cast-iron, is coarse- 
 grained, soft, and not very tenacious. When remelted, 
 it passes into No. 2, or grey cast-iron. This is the 
 best quality for castings requiring strength. "When 
 repeatedly remelted, it becomes excessively hard and 
 brittle and passes into No. 3, or white cast-iron, which 
 is only used for the commonest castings, as sash weights, 
 cannon balls, and similar articles. 
 
 White cast-iron if produced direct from the ore is an 
 indication of derangement in the working of the furnace, 
 and is unfit for the ordinary purposes of the founder, 
 except to mix with other qualities. 
 
 Girders and similar solid articles are cast in sand 
 moulds enclosed in iron frames or boxes, each mould 
 requiring upper and lower boxes. A mould is formed 
 by pressing sand firmly round a wooden pattern, which 
 is afterwards removed, and the melted metal poured 
 into the spaces thus left through apertures made for 
 that purpose. 
 
 The moulds for ornamental work and for hollow 
 castings are of a more complicated construction, which 
 will be better understood from actual inspection at a 
 foundry than from any written description. Almost all 
 irons are improved by admixture with others, and there- 
 fore^ where superior castings are required they should 
 
SMI t il AND IKON-FOUNDER. 
 
 not be run direct from the smelting furnace, but the 
 metal should be remelted in a cupola furnace, which 
 gives the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron 
 to its intended use. Thus for delicate ornamental work 
 a soft and very fluid iron will be required, whilst for 
 girders and castings exposed to cross strain the metal 
 will require to be harder and more tenacious. For 
 bed-piates and castings which have merely to sustain a 
 compressing force, the chief point to be attended to is 
 the hardness of the metal. 
 
 Castings should be allowed to remain in sand until 
 cool, as the quality of the metal is greatly injured by 
 the rapid and irregular cooling which takes place from 
 exposure to air if removed from the moulds in a red-hot 
 state, which is sometimes done in small foundries to 
 economise room. 
 
 Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Derbyshire afford the 
 best iron for castings. The Scotch iron is much 
 esteemed for hollow wares, and has a beautifully smooth 
 surface, which may be noticed in the stoves and other 
 articles cast by the Carron Company. The Welsh iron 
 is principally used for conversion into bar-iron. 
 
 The conversion of forge pig into bar-iron is effected 
 by a variety of processes, which have for their object 
 the freeing of the metal from the carbon and other 
 impurities combined with it, so as to produce as nearly 
 as possible the pure metal. 
 
 Besides cast-iron columns, girders, and similar articles 
 which are cast to order, the founder supplies a great 
 variety of articles which are kept in store for immediate 
 use, as cast-iron palings, balconies, rain water-pipes, 
 and guttering, air-traps, coal -plates, stoves, stable- 
 fittings, iron sashes, &c, &c. 
 
40 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 Both wrought and cast-iron work are paid for by 
 weight, except small articles kept in store for immediate 
 use, which are valued per piece : — 
 
 One cubic foot of cast-iron .... weighs about 450 lbs. 
 
 Ditto ditto of wrought „ 475 „ 
 
 Ditto ditto of closely-hammered . „ 485 „ 
 
 The coppersmith provides sheet copper for covering 
 roofs, copper-gutters, and rain water-pipes; washing 
 and brewing coppers; copper cramps and dowels for 
 stone-mason's work, and all other copper work in a 
 building; but the cost of the material in which he 
 works prevents its general use, and the washing- 
 copper is frequently the only part of a building which 
 requires the aid of this artificer. Sheet copper is paid 
 for by the superficial foot, copper in doAvels, bolts, &c, 
 at per pound. 
 
 "Warming apparatus, steam and gas-fittings, and 
 similar kinds of work are put up by the mechanical 
 engineer, who also manufactures a great variety of 
 articles which are purchased in parts, and put together 
 and fixed by the plumber, as pumps, taps, water-closet 
 apparatus. 
 
 SLATER. 
 
 The business of the slater chiefly consists in covering 
 the roofs of houses with slates ; but it has of late years 
 been very much extended by the general introduction 
 of sawn slates as a material for shelves, cisterns, baths, 
 chimney-pieces, and even for ornamental purposes. 
 
 We propose here to describe only those operations of 
 the slater which have reference to the covering of roofs. 
 Besides the tools which are in common use among 
 other artificers, the slater uses one peculiar to his trado 
 
SLATER. 
 
 called the zax, which is a kind of hatchet wf$i^, sh^p; 
 point at the back. It is used for trimmmg^slafee^. anc*^ 
 making the holes by which they are nalfeS^in tfreir 
 places. J' 
 Slates are laid either on boarding or onNrnw^ 
 battens from two to three inches wide, the latter beTrTg - 
 the more common method on account of its being less 
 expensive than the other. The nails used should be 
 either copper or zinc ; iron nails, though sometimes 
 used, being objectionable from their liability to rust. 
 Every slate should be fastened with two nails, except 
 in the most inferior work. The upper surface of a slate 
 is called its back, the under surface the bed, the lower 
 edge the tail, the upper edge the head, the part of each 
 course of slate exposed to view is called the margin of 
 the course, and the width of the margin is called the 
 gauge. 
 
 The bond or lap is the distance which the lower edge 
 of any course overlaps the slates of the second course 
 below, measuring from the nail-hole. 
 
 In preparing slates for use, the sides and bottom- 
 edges are trimmed, and the nail- holes punched as near 
 the head as can be done without risk of breaking the 
 slate, and at a uniform distance from the tail. 
 
 The lap having been decided on, the gauge will be 
 equal to half the distance from the tail to the nail-hole, 
 less the lap j thus a countess slate measuring nineteen 
 inches from tail to nail, if laid with a three inch lap, 
 would show a margin of eight inches. The battens are 
 of course nailed on to the rafters at the gauge to which 
 the slates will work. If the slates are of different 
 lengths, they must be sorted into sizes and gauged 
 accordingly, the smallest size being placed nearest the 
 
42 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 ridge. The lap should not be less than two inches, 
 and need not exceed three inches. 
 
 It is essential to the soundness, as well as the ap- 
 pearance of slater's work, that the slates should all be 
 of the same width, and the edges perfectly true. The 
 Welsh slates are considered the best, and are of a light 
 sky-blue colour ; the Westmoreland slates are of a dull 
 greenish hue. 
 
 Slater's work is measured by the square of 100 
 superficial feet, allowance being made for the trouble 
 of cutting the slates at the hips, eaves, round chim- 
 neys, &c. 
 
 Slabs for cisterns, baths, shelves, and other sawn 
 work, are charged per foot, superficial, according to the 
 thickness of the slab, and the labour bestowed on the 
 work. Rubbed edges, grooves, &c, are charged per 
 lineal foot. 
 
 A journeyman slater receives about 5s. per day, and 
 his labourer about 3s. per day. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of the Si:es of Roofing Slates. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Doubles 
 
 Ladies 
 
 Countesses .... 
 
 Duchesses 
 
 Imperials 
 
 Eags and Queens . . 
 Westmoreland of vari- 
 ous sizes .... 
 
 Inch slab per foot superficial -weighs 14 lbs. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 1 1 
 
 0 G 
 
 1 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 8 
 
 0 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 G 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 2" 0 
 
 Sffl 
 
 7 
 9 
 10* 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 2 <D 
 
 480 
 280 
 176 
 127 
 
 480 
 280 
 352 
 254 
 
 A Ton will cover 2£ to 2\ 
 squares. 
 
FINISHINGS. 
 
 48 
 
 We have now endeavoured to explain the various 
 trades employed, and the materials required for the 
 carcass of a building, and will commence with the 
 finishings. 
 
 Finishings. 
 
 The work of the plasterer consists in covering the 
 brickwork and native timbers of walls, ceilings, and 
 partitions with plaster, to prepare them for painting, 
 papering, or distempering, and in forming cornices, 
 and such decorative portions of the furnishings of 
 buildings as may be required to be executed in plaster 
 or cement. 
 
 The plasterer uses a variety of tools, of which the 
 following are the principal ones : — 
 
 The drag is a three pronged rake, used to mix the 
 hair with the mortar in preparing coarse stuff. 
 
 The haidk is a small square board for holding stuff 
 on, with a short handle on the under side. 
 
 Trowels are of two kinds, the laying and smoothing 
 tool, with which the first and the last are laid, and the 
 gauging trowel used for gauging fine stuff for cornices, 
 &c, &c. : these are made of various sizes, from three 
 to seven inches long. 
 
 Of floats, which are used in floating ceilings and 
 other work, there are three kinds, viz., the Derby, 
 •which is a rule of such a length as to require two men 
 to use it ; the hand-float, which is used in furnishing 
 stucco ; and the quirk-float, which is used in floating 
 angles. 
 
 Moulds, for raising cornices, are made of sheet copper 
 cut to the profile of the moulding, to be formed and 
 fixed in a wooden frame. 
 
44 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Stopping and picking out tools are made of steel, seven 
 or eight inches long, and of various sizes. They are 
 used for modelling, and for finishing mitres, and 
 returns to cornice. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is usuaiiy called, 
 is similar to common mortar, with the addition of hair 
 from the tanner's yard, which is thoroughly mixed with 
 the mortar by means of the drag. 
 
 Fine stuff is made of pure lime, slaked with a small 
 quantity of water ; after which sufficient water is 
 added to bring it to the consistence of cream. It is 
 then allowed to settle, and the superfluous water being 
 poured off, it is left in a bin or tub to remain in a 
 semi-fluid state, until the evaporation of the water has 
 brought it to a proper thickness for use. In using fine 
 stuff for setting ceilings, a small portion of white hair 
 is mixed with it. 
 
 Stucco is made with fine stuff and clean washed river 
 sand. This is used for finishing work intended to be 
 painted. 
 
 Gauged stuff is formed of fine stuff mixed with plaster 
 of Paris, the proportion of plaster varying according to 
 the rapidity with which the work is required to set. 
 
 Gauged stuff is used for running cornices and mould- 
 ings. 
 
 Enrichments, such as pateras, centre flowers for 
 ceilings, &c, are first modelled in clay, and afterwards 
 cast of plaster of Paris in wax or plaster moulds. 
 
 Papier maclie" ornaments also are much used, and have 
 the advantage of being very light, and being easily au« 
 securely fixed with screws. 
 
OPERATIONS OF PLASTERING. f\ Z^S. 
 
 The variety of compositions and cements made' Y nse of 
 by the plasterer is very great. Roman cement\p>rtland 
 cement, and lias cement, are the principal ones used 
 for coating buildings externally. Martin and Keene's 
 cements are well adapted for all internal plaste^ug 
 where sharpness, hardness, and delicate finish are" 
 required. 
 
 Operations for Plastering. 
 When brickwork is plastered, the first coat is called 
 rendering. 
 
 In plastering ceilings and partitions, the first opera- 
 tion is lathing. This is done with single, one-and-a-half 
 or double laths, these names denoting their respective 
 thicknesses. Laths are either of oak or fir • if of the 
 former, wrought-iron nails are used, but cast-iron nails 
 may be employed with the latter. The thickest laths 
 are used for ceilings, as the strain on the laths is 
 greater in a horizontal than in an upright position. 
 
 Pricking-up is the first coat of plastering of coarse 
 stuff upon laths ; when completed, it is well scratched 
 over with the end of a lath, to form a key for the next 
 coat. 
 
 Laid work consists of a simple coat of coarse stuff 
 over a wall or ceiling. 
 
 Two-coat work is only roughed over with a broom, 
 and afterwards set with fine stuff, or with gauged stuff 
 in the better description of work. 
 
 The laying on of the second coat of plastering is 
 called floating, from its being floated or brought to a 
 plain surface with the float. 
 
 The operation of floating is performed by surrounding 
 the surface to be floated with narrow strips of plastering 
 called screeds, brought perfectly upright, or level, as 
 
46 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 the case may be, with the level or plumb rule ; thus, in 
 preparing for floating a ceiling, nails are driven in at 
 the angles, and along the sides, about ten feet apart, 
 and carefully adjusted to a horizontal plane, by means 
 of the level. Other nails are then adjusted opposite 
 to the first, at a distance of seven or eight inches from 
 them. The space between each pair of nails is filled 
 up with coarse stuff, and floated perfectly true with a 
 floating rule ; this operation forms a screed, perfectly 
 level throughout. Other screeds, are then formed, to 
 divide the work into bays about eight feet wide, which 
 are successively filled up flush, and floated level with 
 the screeds. 
 
 The screeds for floating walls are formed in exactly 
 the same manner, except that they are adjusted with 
 the plumb rule instead of the level. After the work 
 has been brought to an even surface by the floating 
 rule, it is gone over with the hand float and a little 
 soft stuff, to make good any deficiencies that may 
 appear. The operation of forming screeds and floating 
 work, which is not either vertical or horizontal, as a 
 plaster floor laid with a fall, is analogous to that of 
 taking the face of a stone out of winding, with chisel, 
 drafts, and straight edges in stone-cutting, the prin- 
 ciple being in each case, to find three points in the same 
 plane, from which to extend operations over the whole 
 surface. 
 
 Setting. 
 
 When the floating is about half dry, the setting or 
 finishing coat of fine stuff is laid on with the smoothing 
 trowel, which is alternately wetted with a brush, and 
 worked over with the smoothing tools, until a fine 
 surface is obtained. 
 
SETTING. 
 
 47 
 
 Stucco is laid on with the largest trowel and worked 
 over with the hand-float, the work being alternately 
 sprinkled with water and floated until it becomes hard 
 and compact, after which it is finished by rubbing it 
 over with a dry stock brush. The water has the effect 
 of hardening the face of the stucco, so that after re- 
 peated sprinklings and trowelling, it becomes very hard, 
 and smooth as glass. 
 
 The above remarks may be briefly summed up as 
 follows. The commonest kind of work consists of only 
 one coat, and is called rendering, on brickwork, and 
 laying, if on laths. If a second coat be added, it be- 
 comes two-coat work, or render set, or lath lay and set. 
 When the work is floated it becomes three-coat work, 
 and is render, float, and set for brickwork, and lath, lay, 
 float, and set for ceilings and partitions ; ceilings being 
 set with fine stuff and a little white hair, and walls 
 intended for paper with fine stuff and sand ; stucco is 
 used where the work is to be painted. 
 
 Rough stucco is a mode of finishing staircases, pas- 
 sages, &c, in imitation of stone. It is mixed with a 
 large proportion of sand, and roughened by the hand- 
 float, to give it the appearance of stone. 
 
 Rough- cast is a mode of finishing outside work, by 
 dashing over the second coat of plastering, whilst quite 
 wet, a layer of rough cast, composed of well-washed 
 gravel mixed up with pure lime and water till the whole 
 is in a semi-fluid state. 
 
 Pugging is lining the spaces between floor joists with 
 coarse stuff, to prevent the passage of sound, or between 
 two stones, and is done on laths or rough boarding. 
 
 In the midland districts of England reeds are much 
 used instead of laths^ not only for ceilings and parti- 
 
•IS 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING- HOUSES. 
 
 tions, but for floors, which are formed with a thick 
 layer of coarse gauged stuff upon reeds. "Floors of 
 this kind are extensively used about Nottingham, and, 
 from the security against fire afforded by the absence 
 of wooden floors, Nottingham houses are proverbially 
 fire-proof. 
 
 Plasterer's work is measured by the superficial yard, 
 cornices by the superficial foot, enrichments to cornices 
 by the lineal foot, and centre flowers and other decora- 
 tions at per piece. 
 
 Memoranda. 
 
 The wages of a journeyman plasterer are from 4iS. 6d. 
 to 5s. 6d. per day; those engaged on modelling and 
 ornamental work will earn much more. A labourer 
 receives from 2s. 6d. to 3s per day ; and a plasterer's 
 boy about Is. 
 
 Lathing. — One bundle of laths and 384 nails will 
 cover 5 yards superficial measure. 
 
 Rendering.— -187£ yards require 1\ hundred of lime, 
 2 double loads of sand, and 5 bushels of hair. 
 
 Floating requires more labour, but only half as much 
 material as rendering. 
 
 Setting.— 375 superficial yards require l\ hundred of 
 lime and 5 bushels of hair. 
 
 Render Set. — 100 yards superficial require H cwt. of 
 lime, 1 double load of sand, and 4 bushels of hair, and 
 the work of plasterer, labourer, and boy, for 3 days 
 each. 
 
 Lath, Lay and Set.— ISO) yards superficial of lath, layj 
 and set require I load of laths, 10,000 nails, 2\ cwt. of 
 lime, 1£ double load of sand, and 7 bushels of hair. 
 Plasterer, labourer, and boy, 6 days each. 
 
 Twenty per cent, profit is allowed npon all materials.] 
 
JOINERY. f 
 
 ir 4 ^ ^ 
 
 JOINER. \y^\ ^ 
 
 The work of the joiner consists in frammg^tM join- 
 ing together the wooden finishings and decor^ftj^ <5^< 
 buildings, both internal and external; such as tfein^, 
 staircases, framed partitions, skirtings, solid door and 
 window frames, hollow or cased window frames, sashes 
 and shutters, doors, columns and entablatures, chim- 
 ney-pieces, &c. 
 
 The joiner's work requires much greater accuracy 
 and finish than that of the carpenter, and differs mate- 
 rially from it in being brought to a smooth surface 
 with the plane wherever exposed to view, whilst with 
 the carpenter's work the timber is left rough as it comes 
 from the saw. 
 
 The joiner uses a great variety of tools : the principal 
 cutting tools are saws, planes, and chisels. 
 
 Of saws there are a great variety, distinguished from 
 each by their shape and by the size of their teeth. The 
 ripper has 8 teeth in 3 inches ; the half ripper 3 teeth 
 to the inch ; the hand-saw, 15 teeth in 4 inches ; the 
 panel-saw, 6 teeth to the inch. The tenon-saw, used 
 for cutting tenons, has about 8 teeth to the inch, and 
 is strengthened at the back by a thick piece of iron to 
 keep the blade from buckling. The sash-saw is similar 
 to the tenon-saw, but is backed with brass instead of 
 iron, and has 13 teeth to the inch ; the dovetail-saw is 
 still smaller, and has 15 teeth to the inch. Besides the 
 above named, other saws are used for particular pur- 
 poses—as the compass-saw for cutting circular work, 
 and the keyhole-saw for cutting small holes. The car- 
 case-saw is a large kind of dovetail-saw, having about 
 11 teeth to an inch. 
 
50 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Planes are also of many kinds : those called bench 
 planes — as the jack-plane, the trying-plane, the long 
 plane, the jointer, and the smoothing -plane — are used 
 for bringing the stuff to a plane surface. The jack- 
 plane is about 18 inches long, and is used for the 
 roughest work. The trying-plane is about 22 inches 
 long, and used after the jack-plane for trying -up — that 
 is, taking off shavings the whole length of the stuff. 
 Whilst using the jack-plane, the workman stops at 
 every arm's length. The long-plane is about 2 feet 
 3 inches long, and used when a piece of stuff is to 
 be tried-up very straight. The jointer is about 2 feet 
 6 inches long, and is used for trying-up or shooting the 
 joints, in the same way as the trying-plane is used for 
 trying-up the face of the stuff. The smoothing -plane 
 is small, being only about 7\ inches long, and is used 
 on almost all occasions for cleaning or smoothing-off 
 finished work. Rebate-planes are used for sinking 
 rebates, and vary in their size and shape according to 
 their respective uses. Rebate-planes differ from bench- 
 planes in having no handle rising out of the stock, and 
 in discharging their shavings at the side. Amongst the 
 rebate-planes may be mentioned the moving fillister 
 and the sash fillister, the uses of which will be better 
 understood from inspection than description. Moulding- 
 planes are used for sticking mouldings, as the operation 
 of forming mouldings with the plane is called. When 
 mouldings are worked with chisels instead of with 
 planes, they are said to be worked by hand. Of the 
 class of moulding-planes, although kept separate in the 
 tool chest, are hollows and rounds, beads, &c, of various 
 sizes. 
 
JOINERY. L,, ^ 
 
 There are other kinds of planes besnjek tli^\aboyj@-< 
 named, as the plough, for sinking a groove ,£0 receive a; 
 projecting tongue; the bead, for sticking ;$e^dsr-^ tl 
 snipe' s-bill, for forming and cleaning out qtsrks -^ij 
 compass-plane and the forhstaff -plane, for forming con- 
 cave and convex cylindrical surfaces. The shape and 
 use of these and many other tools used by the joiner 
 will be better understood by inspection than description. 
 
 Chisels are also varied in their form and use : some 
 are used merely with the pressure of the hand, as the 
 paring chisel; others by the aid of a mallet, as the 
 socket chisel (so named from the iron at the top forming 
 a socket to receive an iron handle), for cutting away 
 superfluous stuff ; and the mortice chisel, for cutting 
 mortices : the gouges are curved chisels. 
 
 The joiners use a great variety of boring tools, as the 
 brad-awl, gimlet, and stock and bit. The last form but 
 one tool, the stock being the handle, to the hollow of 
 which may be fitted a variety of steel bits of different 
 bores and shapes, for boring and widening out holes in 
 Avood and metal, as countersinks, rimers, and taper 
 shell-bits. 
 
 The screw-driver, pincers, hammer, mallet, hatchet, 
 and adze are too well known to require description. 
 
 The gauge is used for drawing lines on a piece of stuff 
 parallel to its edges. 
 
 The bench is one of the most important of the joiner's 
 implements. It is furnished with a vertical sideboard, 
 perforated with diagonal ranges of holes, which receive 
 the bench-pin, on which to rest the lower end of a piece 
 of stuff to be planed, whilst the upper end is firmly 
 clamped by the bench-screw. 
 
 d 2 
 
52 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 The mitre-box is used for cutting a piece of stuff to a 
 mitre, or an angle of forty-five degrees, with one of its 
 sides. 
 
 The joiner uses for setting out and fixing his work 
 the straight edge, the square, the level or square with a 
 shifting blade, the mitre square, the level, and plumb 
 rule. 
 
 In addition to the tools and implements above 
 enumerated, the execution of particular kinds of work 
 requires other articles,, as cylinders, templets, cramps, 
 &c, the description of which would unnecessarily 
 extend the limits of our present object. 
 
 The principal operations of the joiner are sawing, 
 planing, dovetailing, morticing, and scribing. 
 
 The manner of forming a dovetail is by inserting a 
 wedge-shaped projecting piece, called the pin, into a 
 corresponding hole made to receive it, which is called 
 a socket. 
 
 Morticing is executed by forming a hole in a piece 
 of timber to receive the end of another piece, called 
 the tenon. The tenon is sometimes pinned in its place 
 with oak pins driven through the cheeks of the mortice ; 
 but in forming doors, shutters, &c, the tenon is 
 secured with tapering wedges driven into the mortice, 
 which is cut slightly wider at the top than the bottom, 
 the adhesion of the glne with which the tenon and 
 wedges are first rubbed over making it impossible for 
 the tenon afterwards to draw out of its place. 
 
 Joints in the length of the stuff may be either 
 square, rebated, or grooved and tongued, which is 
 executed by a groove made with a plough and iron on 
 each edge cf the two pieces of stuff, and then a slip of 
 
JOISKKV. 5 i 
 
 wood, which is called the tongue, bein^nse*ked btjnj^e 
 the joint is glued up. \*\ 
 
 Scribing is the drawing on a piece of stu-ff trre^xan 
 profile of some irregular surface to which^K^s ix£ 
 made to fit ; this is done with a pair of compa§5rs*'tjne 
 leg of which is made to traverse the irregular surface, 
 the other to describe a line parallel thereto along the 
 edge of the stuff to be cut. 
 
 In the execution of circular work, or as it is fre- 
 quently termed sweep work, there are four different 
 methods by which the stuff can be brought to the re- 
 quired curve : — 
 
 Firstly. It may be steamed and bent into shape. 
 
 Secondly. It may be glued up in thicknesses which 
 must, when thoroughly dry, be planed true, and, if not 
 to be painted, covered with a thin veneer, bent round it. 
 
 Thirdly. It may be formed in thin thicknesses bent 
 round and glued up in a mould. This may be con- 
 sidered the most perfect of all the methods in use. 
 
 Lastly. It may be formed by sawing a number of 
 notches on one side, by which means it becomes easily 
 bent in that direction, but the curve produced by this 
 means is very irregular, and it is an inferior mode of 
 execution compared to the others. 
 
 When a number of boards are secured together by 
 cross pieces or ledges nailed or screwed at the back, the 
 work is said to be ledged ; ledged work is for common 
 purposes, as cellar-doors, outside shutters, &c. 
 
 Framed work consists of styles and rails morticed 
 and tenoned together, and filled in with panels, the 
 edges of which fit in grooves cut for the purpose in the 
 styles and rails. 
 
 Work is said to be clamped when it is prevented from 
 
51 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 warping or splitting by a rail at each end. If the ends 
 of the rail are cut off it is said to be mitre-clamped, 
 
 There are several ways of laying floors practised by 
 joiners. In laying what is called a straight-joint floor, 
 from the joints between the boards running in an un- 
 broken line from wall to wall, each board is laid down 
 and nailed in succession, being first forced firmly against 
 the one last laid with a flooring cramp. 
 
 Folding floors are laid by nailing down first every 
 fifth board, rather closer together than the united widths 
 of four boards, and forcing the intermediate ones into 
 the space left for them by jumping on them. This 
 method of laying floors is resorted to when the stuff is 
 imperfectly seasoned and is expected to shrink, but it 
 should never be executed in good work. The narrower 
 the stuff with which a floor is laid the less will the joints 
 open, on account of the shrinkage being distributed over 
 a greater number of joints. The floor boards may be 
 nailed at their edges, and grooved and tongued or 
 dowelled, if a perfect floor is wanted. Dowelling is 
 superior to grooving and tonguing, because the cutting 
 away the stuff to receive the tongue greatly weakens 
 the edges of the joint, which are apt to curl. 
 
 Glue is an article of great importance to the joiner, 
 the strength of his work depending much upon its ad- 
 hesive properties. The best glue is made from the skins 
 of animals, that from the sinewy or horny parts being 
 of inferior quality. The strength of the glue increases 
 with the age of the animals from which the skins are 
 taken. 
 
 Joiner's work is measured by the superficial foot, 
 according to its description. Floors by the square of 
 100 feet superficial. Hand-rails, small mouldings, 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 55 
 
 water-trunks, and similar articles, per lineal foot. 
 Cantilevers, trusses, cut-brackets, scrolls to handrails, 
 &c, are valued per piece. 
 
 The wages of a joiner are from 5s. to 6s. per day. 
 
 The following memoranda relative to joiner's work 
 may be found useful : — 
 
 One Square of Flooring will take — 
 
 24 
 
 10-feet boards at . 
 
 . 5-inch gauge. 
 
 
 20 
 
 >> ?) 
 
 at . 
 
 . 6-inch ditto. 
 
 
 17 
 
 >> >> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 7-inch ditto— 
 
 -10 in. wanted. 
 
 15 
 
 •j >> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 8-inch ditto. 
 
 
 13 
 
 >} j> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 9 -inch ditto— 
 
 -2 ft. 6 in. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 j» j) 
 
 at . 
 
 . 10-inch ditto. 
 
 
 20 
 
 12-feet boards at . 
 
 . 5-inch gauge. 
 
 
 14 
 
 !J >> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 6-inch ditto— 
 
 -4 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 5) )> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 7-inch ditto— 
 
 -2 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 » t> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 8-inch ditto- 
 
 -4 ft. wanted. 
 
 12 
 
 >> )> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 9 -inch ditto- 
 
 -1 ft. wanted. 
 
 10 
 
 J) >> 
 
 at . 
 
 . 10-inch ditto. 
 
 
 N.B. One square of flooring will take 200 nails. To 
 make them tough they should be heated in a fire-shovel 
 or the like, with a bit of tallow or grease in them. 
 
 120 twelve-feet deals make one hundred; and the 
 readiest way of calculating the price of a single one is 
 to consider every pound per hundred as two-pence per 
 deal : thus if deals are £40 per hundred, they are 40 
 times two-pence each, or 80 pence, which is 6s. 8d. for 
 each deal ; or if £36 10s. per hundred, they would be 
 36£ times two-pence each, double of which, for pence, 
 would be 73, or 6s. Id. each deal, and in the same way 
 for any other given price. 
 
 120 12-feet 3-inch deals equal 5|- loads of timber. 
 400 superficial feet l^-inch deals weigh 1 load. 
 
 Planks are 11 inches wide. 
 
 Deals „ 9 „ 
 
 Battens „ 7 tJ 
 
56 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A reduced deal is 1£ in. thick, 11 in: wide, and 12 
 feet long. 
 
 A square of flooring laid rough requires 12£ floor- 
 boards. Ditto, edges shot, 12^. Ditto wrought and 
 laid folding, 13. Laid straight joint, 13£. Wrought 
 and laid straight joint, and ploughed and tongued, 14. 
 If laid with 12 feet battens, wrought and laid folding, 
 17, and with straight joint, 18. 
 
 Sawing. 
 
 The sawer is to the carpenter and joiner what the 
 stone-cutter is to the mason. 
 
 The pit saw is a large two-handed savr fixed in a 
 frame, and moved up and down in a vertical direction 
 by two men called the top-man and the pit-man, the 
 first of whom stands on the timber that is to be cut, 
 the other at the bottom of the saw-pit. The timber is 
 lined out with a chalk line on its upper surface, and the 
 accuracy of the work depends mainly on the top-man 
 keeping the saw to the line, whence the proverbial ex- 
 pression top-sawyer, meaning one who directs any 
 undertaking. 
 
 In sawing deals and battens into thicknesses for the 
 joiner's use, the parallelism of the cut is of the utmost 
 importance, as the operation of taking out of winding a 
 piece of uneven stuff causes a considerable waste of 
 material, and much loss of time. 
 
 Circular-saws, moved by steam-power, are now much 
 used in large establishments, timber-yards, &c, and 
 effect a considerable saving of labour over the use of 
 the pit-saw, where the timbers to be cut are not too 
 heavy to be easily handled. 
 
 The saw is mounted in the middle of a stout bench 
 
IRONMONGERY. 
 
 57 
 
 furnished with guides, by means of which the stuff to 
 be cut is kept in the required direction, whilst it is 
 pushed against the saw, Avhich is the whole manual 
 labour required in the operation. 
 
 IRONMONGERY 
 
 Is charged for, generally, with the work to which it is 
 attached ; the joiner being allowed 20 per cent, profit 
 upon the prime cost. 
 
 The principal articles of ironmongery used in a 
 building consist of nails, screivs, sash-pulleys, bolts, 
 hinges, locks, latches, and sash and shutter-furniture, 
 besides a great variety of miscellaneous articles which 
 we have not space to enumerate. 
 
 Of the different kinds of hinges may be mentioned 
 hook-and-eye hinges for gates, coach-house doors, &c. ; 
 butts and back-flaps for doors and shutters; cross 
 garnets, which are used for hanging ledged doors and 
 other inferior work ; H and H -hinges, whose names are 
 derived from their shape ; and parliament hinges. 
 
 Besides these are used rising-butts for hanging doors 
 to rise over a carpet or other impediment, projecting- 
 butts, used when some projection has to be cleared, 
 and spring-hinges and swing centres for self-shutting 
 doors. 
 
 The variety of locks now manufactured is almost 
 infinite. We may mention the stock-lock, cased in 
 wood for common work, and rim-locks, which have a 
 metal case or rim, and are attached to one side of a 
 door ; they should not be used when a door has suffi- 
 cient thickness to allow of a mortice-lock, as they often 
 ^atch the dresses of persons passing through the door- 
 d 3 
 
58 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 way. Mortice-lochs, as the name implies, are those 
 which are morticed into the thickness of the door. 
 
 The handles and escutcheons are called the furniture 
 of a lock, and are made of a great variety of materials, 
 as brass, bronze, ebony, ivory, and glass, &c. 
 
 Of latches, there are the common thumb-latch, the 
 bow-latch, with brass knobs, the brass pulpit-latch, and 
 the mortice-latch. 
 
 There are also a great variety of other articles, both 
 useful and ornamental, kept in stock and supplied by 
 the furnishing ironmonger. 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 The business of the glazier consists in cutting glass, 
 and fixing it into lead-worh, wood-work, or wood 
 sashes. The former is the oldest method of glazing, 
 and is still used, not only for cottage windows and 
 inferior work, but for church windows and glazing with 
 stained glass, which .is cut into pieces of the required 
 size, and set in a leaden framework; this kind of 
 glazing is called fretwork. Glazing in sashes is of 
 comparatively modern introduction. The sash bars are 
 formed with a rebate on the outside for the reception of 
 the glass, which is cut into the rebate, and firmly beaded 
 and back-puttied to keep it in its place. Large squares 
 are also sprigged or secured with small brads driven 
 into the sash bars. 
 
 Glazing in lead-work is fixed in leaden rods called 
 comes, prepared for the use of the glazier by being 
 passed through a glazier's vice, in which they receive 
 the grooves for the insertion of the glass. The sides 
 or cheeks of the grooves are sufficiently soft to allow 
 of their being turned down to admit the glass, and 
 
GLAZING. 
 
 again raised up and firmly pressed against it\after its 
 insertion. For common lead- work, the bars are soldered 
 together so as to form squares or diamonds. In fret- 
 work, the bars, instead of being used straight, are bent"*" 
 round to the shapes of the different pieces of glass 
 forming the device. Lead-work is strengthened by 
 being attached to saddle-bars of iron, by leaden 
 bars soldered to the lead-work and twisted round 
 the iron. 
 
 Putty is made of pounded whiting beaten up with 
 linseed oil into a tough tenacious cement. 
 
 The principal tool of the glazier is the diamond, 
 which is used for cutting glass. This tool consists of 
 an unpolished diamond fixed in lead, and fastened to a 
 handle of hard wood. 
 
 The glazier uses a hacliing-knife for cutting out old 
 putty from broken squares, and the stopping -knife for 
 laying and smoothing the putty when stopping-in glass 
 into sashes. For setting glass into lead-work, the 
 setting-knife is used. 
 
 Besides the above, the glazier requires a square and 
 straight edge, and a pair of compasses, for dividing th& 
 tables of glass to the required sizes. Also, a hammer 
 for springing large squares, and brushes for cleaning off 
 the work. 
 
 The glazier's vice has already been mentioned. The 
 latter-kin is a pointed piece of hard wood, with which 
 grooves of the cames are cleared out and widened for 
 receiving the glass. 
 
 Cleaning windows is an important branch of the 
 glazier's business in most large towns; the glazier 
 taking upon himself the cost of all glass broken in the 
 operation. Glazier's work is valued by the superficial 
 
60 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 foot, the price increasing with the size of the square. 
 Irregular panes are valued according to the extreme 
 dimensions each way. 
 
 Crown glass is blown in circular tables, from 3 feet 
 6 inches to 5 feet diameter, and is sold in crates, the 
 number of tables in a crate varying according to the 
 quality of the glass. 
 
 A crate contains 12 tables of best quality. 
 Ditto ditto 15 „ second ditto. 
 Ditto ditto 18 „ third ditto. 
 
 Plate glass is cast in large plates on horizontal tables, 
 and afterwards polished. 
 
 The manufacture of sheet or spread glass, which was 
 formerly considered a very inferior article, has of late 
 years been much improved. Much is now sold, after 
 being polished, under the name of patent plate. 
 
 PAINTER, PAPER-HANGER, AND DECORATOR. 
 
 The business of the house-painter consists in cover- 
 ing with a preparation of white lead and oil such por- 
 tions of the joiner's, smith's, and plasterer's work as 
 require to be protected from the action of the atmo- 
 sphere. Decorative painting is a higher branch, re- 
 quiring a knowledge of the harmony of colours, and 
 more or less artistic skill, according to the nature of 
 the work to be executed. 
 
 The introduction of fresco painting into this country, 
 as a mode of internal decoration, has led to the employ- 
 ment of some of the first artists of the day in the 
 embellishment of the mansions of the nobility, and the 
 example thus set will no doubt be extensively followed. 
 
 The principal materials used by the painter are — 
 white lead, which forms the basis of all the colours used 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 in house-painting ; linseed oil and spirits^Hiir^ettt^ne 
 used for mixing and diluting the colours jwfcd drygps, 
 as litharge, sugar of lead, and white vitriol, w&fth arK 
 mixed with the colours to facilitate their edgi ng/ 
 Putty, made of whiting and linseed oil, is used for 
 stopping or filling up nail holes and other vacuities, in 
 order to bring the work to a smooth face. 
 
 The painter's tools are few and simple : they con- 
 sist of the grinding -stone and mutter, for grinding 
 colours ; earthen pots, to hold colours ; cans for oil and 
 turps ; pallet knife, and brushes of various sizes and 
 descriptions. In painting wood, the first operation 
 consists in killing the knots, from which the turpentine 
 would otherwise exude and spoil the work. To effect 
 this, the knots are covered with fresh slaked lime, 
 which dries up and burns out the turpentine ; when 
 this has been on twenty-four hours, it is scraped off, 
 and the knots painted over with a mixture of red and 
 white lead mixed with glue size. After this, they are 
 ffone over a second time with red and white lead 
 mixed with linseed oil ; when dry, they must be rubbed 
 perfectly smooth with pumice stone, and the work is 
 then ready to receive the priming coat. 
 
 This is composed of red and white lead, well diluted 
 with linseed oil. 
 
 The nail holes and other imperfections are then 
 stopped with putty, and the succeeding coats are then 
 laid on, the work being rubbed down between each coat 
 with pumice stone, to bring it to an even surface. The 
 first after the priming is mixed with linseed oil and a 
 little turpentine ; the second coat with equal quantities 
 of linseed oil and turpentine. 
 
 Ip laying on the second coat where the work is not 
 
62 
 
 ERECTION- OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 to be finished white, an approach must be made to the 
 required colour. The third coat is usually the last, and 
 is made with a base of white lead, mixed with the 
 requisite colours, and diluted with one-third of linseed 
 oil to two-thirds of turpentine. 
 
 Painting on stucco, and all other work in which the 
 surface is required to be without gloss, has an addi- 
 tional coat mixed with turpentine only, which from its 
 drying of one uniform flat tint is called a flatting coat. 
 If the knots show through a second coat they must be 
 carefully covered with silver leaf. Work finished as 
 above described would be technically specified as 
 knotted, primed, painted three oils, and flatted. Flat- 
 ting is almost indispensable in all delicate interior 
 work, but it is not suited to outside work, as it will not 
 bear exposure to the weather. Painting on stucco is 
 primed with boiled linseed oil, and should then receive 
 at least three coats of white lead and oil, and be 
 finished with a flat tint. 
 
 The great secret of success in painting stucco is, 
 that the surface should be perfectly dry, and as this 
 can hardly be the case in less than two years after the 
 erection of a building, it will always be desirable to 
 finish new work in distemper, which can be washed off 
 whenever the walls are sufficiently dry to receive the 
 permanent decorations. 
 
 Graining is the imitation of the grain of various 
 kinds of wood, by means of graining tools, and, when 
 well executed and properly varnished, has a handsome 
 appearance, and lasts many years. The term graining 
 is also applied to the imitation of marble. 
 
 Clear coling is a substitution of size for oil, in the 
 preparation of the priming coat. It is much resorted 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 63 
 
 to by painters on account of the ease with which 
 a good face can be put on the work with fewer coats 
 than when oil is used, but it will not stand damp, 
 which causes it to scale off, and it should never be used 
 except in painting old work, which is greasy or smoky, 
 and cannot be made to look well by any other means. 
 
 Distempering is a kind of painting in which whiting 
 is used as the basis of the colours, the liquid medium 
 being size ; it is much used for ceilings and walls, and 
 will require two, and sometimes three coats, to give it 
 a uniform appearance. 
 
 Painter's work is valued per superficial yard, accord- 
 ing to the number of coats, and the description of 
 work, as common colours, fancy colours, party colours, 
 &c. 
 
 Where work is cut on both edges, it is taken by the 
 lineal foot. In measuring railings, the two sides are 
 measured as flat work. Sash panes are valued per 
 piece, and sashes per dozen squares. 
 
 The manufacture of scagliola, or imitation marble, is 
 a branch of the decorator's business which is carried to 
 very great perfection. Scagliola is made of plaster of 
 Paris and different earthy colours, which are mixed in 
 a trough in a moist state, and blended together until 
 the required effect is produced, when the composition 
 is taken from the trough, laid on the plaster ground, 
 and well worked together with a wooden beater and a 
 small gauging trowel. When quite hard, it is smoothed, 
 scraped, and polished, until it assumes the appearance 
 of marble. 
 
 Scagliola is valued at per foot superficial, according 
 to the description of marble imitated and the execution 
 of the work. 
 
61 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Gilding is executed with leaf-gold, which is furnished 
 by the gold-beater in books of twenty-five leaves, each 
 leaf measuring 3^ by 3 inches. 
 
 The parts to be gilded are first prepared with a coat 
 of gold-size, which is made of Oxford ochre and fat oil. 
 
 The operations of the paper-hanger are so simple as 
 to require little description. There are as great a 
 variety of patterns as there are of prices, and the expense 
 of hanging them is generally regulated by the value of 
 the paper, as the most expensive papers require more 
 time and attention than the plainer sorts. 
 
 A piece of paper is twelve yards long, and is twenty 
 inches wide when hung, and covers sixty feet superficial, 
 hence the number of superficial feet that have to be 
 covered divided by sixty, will give the number of pieces 
 required for any description of work. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.* 
 
 Having thus far described most of the principal tools 
 and materials used in the several trades engaged in 
 the erection of dwelling-houses, it is necessary that 
 the young artisan should now give attention to lineal 
 drawing. We are now desirous of conveying our opinion 
 (founded upon many years' experience, both theoreti- 
 cally and practically) of its utility and importance ; and 
 in doing so, we may not probably assume too much, by 
 stating that not any mechanic in the building depart- 
 ment, or in fact in any other, can ever be efficient in his 
 
 * See Heather's "Descriptive Geometry," and his "Mathematical 
 Instruments," both in this series. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 
 
 business unless he comprehends the application o^ scales 
 and the elementary principles of geometrical drawi 
 
 Until late years there was not that attention pai 
 this art which its general application and usefulness de- 
 manded, it being considered more an acquisition for 
 the mathematician, artist, or amateur, than the me- 
 chanician. But the progress that has been made within 
 the last half century in every branch of mechanical art 
 has rendered necessary a practical and theoretical know- 
 ledge of at least the rudiments of mechanical drawing ; 
 and the want has been met by the Schools of Art, which 
 afford, at a comparatively low cost, instruction in this 
 important auxiliary to the various arts of design and 
 ornamentation. 
 
 That geometrical drawing to the young mechanic 
 may at first be considered a dry and useless study is 
 admitted, but he must recollect that no one ever rose to 
 eminence in any of the arts or sciences without per- 
 severance and intense application, and although the 
 study here particularly alluded to may be considered dry 
 and uninteresting at first, it will be rewarded by the 
 pleasure and confidence it gives to its possessor hereafter. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that without a knowledge of 
 scales and their application, and an elementary ac- 
 quaintance with the principles of geometry, no one, 
 however well-informed on other subjects, can convey 
 the emanation of his mind for any practical mechanical 
 purpose.* He certainly may be enabled in a cursory 
 manner to sketch out his ideas, but they cannot with 
 any certainty be carried into practical execution, unless 
 they are geometrically delineated to a scale. Having 
 
 * See Warren's " General Problems of Shades and Shadows," on© 
 of the best books on the subject. 
 
6G 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 thus expressed our views upon the usefulness and appli- 
 cation of drawing, we will now endeavour to explain 
 the paper in general use for drawing, and the particular 
 use of such scale and mathematical instruments as 
 are essential for him to possess. 
 
 A Table of the Dimensions of Dkawing-Paper. * 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 . 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 by I5h 
 
 
 22| 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 i?i 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 19* 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 23£ 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 26" 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 )t 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 )) 
 
 48 
 
 HINTS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 The first thing to be done preparatory to the com- 
 mencement of a drawing is the preparation of the paper, 
 that is, the stretching it evenly upon a drawing-board. 
 The edges of the paper should first be cut straight, and 
 as near as possible at right angles with each other. 
 Also the sheet should be so much larger than the in- 
 tended drawing and its margin, as to admit of being 
 afterwards cut from the board, leaving the border by 
 which it is attached thereto, by glue or paste, as we 
 shall next explain. The paper must be thoroughly and 
 equally damped with a sponge and clean water on the 
 opposite side from that on which the drawing is to be 
 made. When the paper absorbs the water, which may 
 be seen by the wetted side becoming dried, as its surface 
 is viewed slant -ways against the light, it is to be laid 
 
 * It is assumed that the student is fully acquainted with the use of 
 the drawing-boards, T-squares, set squares, and parallel rulers. 
 
DRAWING PAPER. 
 
 •^/^ralld^ V 
 
 on the drawing-board with the wetted side 
 and placed so that the edges may be near 
 with those of the board, otherwise in using a T-*^ftJ^re 
 an inconvenience may be experienced. This done, 
 a straight-edge on the paper with the margin parallel to 
 and about half an inch from one of the edges of the 
 paper. The straight-edge or ruler must now be held firm 
 while the said projecting half-inch of paper is turned 
 up against it; then a piece of glue, previously softened 
 by a few seconds' exposure to the steam from a basin of 
 hot water, must be passed once or twice along the turned 
 up edge of the paper, after which, by sliding the ruler 
 over the glued border, it will again be laid fiat, and the 
 ruler or straight-edge being pressed down upon it, that 
 edge of the paper will adhere to the board. If sufficient 
 glue has been applied the ruler may be removed directly, 
 and the edge finally rubbed down by an ivory book- 
 knife, or any clean polished substance at hand, which 
 will then firmly cement the paper to the board. This 
 done, another but adjoining edge of the paper must be 
 acted upon in a like manner, and then the remaining 
 edges in succession ; we say the adjoining edges, because 
 we have occasionally observed that when the opposite 
 and parallel edges have been laid first, without continu- 
 ing the process progressively round the board, a greater 
 degree of care is required to prevent undulations in the 
 paper as it dries. 
 
 Sometimes strong paste is used instead of glue; but 
 as this takes a longer time to set, it is usual to wet the 
 paper also on the upper surface to within an inch of 
 the paste mark, care being taken not to rule or injure 
 the surface in the process ; the Avetting of the paper in 
 either case is done for the purpose of expanding it, and 
 
68 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 the edges being fixed to the board in its enlarged state 
 acts as stretcher upon the paper while it contracts in 
 drying, which it should be allowed to do gradually. 
 All creases or undulations by this means disappear from 
 the surface of the paper, and it is a smooth plane to 
 receive the drawing. 
 
 In mounting paper upon canvas, the latter should be 
 well stretched upon a smooth flat surface, being damped 
 for that purpose, and its edges glued down as was 
 recommended in stretching drawing paper ; then with a 
 brush spread strong paste upon the canvas, beating it 
 in until the grain of the canvas be all filled up ; for 
 this, when dry, will prevent the canvas from shrinking 
 when subsequently removed. Then, having cut the 
 edges of the paper straight, paste one side of every 
 sheet and lay them upon the canvas, sheet by sheet, 
 overlapping each other a small quantity. If the drawing 
 is strong it is best to let every sheet lie five or six 
 minutes after the paste is put on it, for as the paste 
 soaks in, the paper will stretch and may be better 
 spread smooth upon the canvas, whereas, if it be laid 
 on before the paste has moistened the paper, it will 
 stretch afterwards and raise blisters when laid upon the 
 canvas. The paper should not be cut off from its ex- 
 tended position till thoroughly dry, which should not be 
 hastened, but left in a dry room to do so gradually if 
 time permit, if not, it may be exposed to the rays of 
 the sun, unless' in the winter season, when the assistance 
 of a fire is necessary, provided it is not placed too near 
 a scorching heat. In joining two or more sheets of 
 paper together by overlapping, it is necessary, in order 
 to make a neat joint, to feather-edge each sheet, this is 
 done by carefully cutting with a knife half-way through 
 
PENCILS AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 69 
 
 the paper near the edge and on the sides which are to 
 overlap each other, then strip off a feather edge or slip 
 from each, -which, if done dexterously, will form a very 
 neat and. efficient joint when put together. The fol- 
 lowing method of mounting and varnishing drawings 
 or prints may be considered useful. Stretch a piece 
 of linen on a frame, to which give a coat of isinglass 
 or common size, paste the back of the drawing or print, 
 which leave to soak and then lay it on the linen. When 
 dry give it at least four coats of well-made isinglass 
 size, allowing it to dry between each coat. Take Canada 
 balsam diluted with the best oil of turpentine, and with 
 a clean brush give it a full flowing coat. 
 
 Pencils. 
 
 In selecting black pencils for use, it may be remarked, 
 that they ought not to be very soft nor so hard that 
 their traces cannot be easily erased by the India rubber. 
 Great care should be taken in the pencilling, that an 
 accurate outline be drawn, the pencil marks should be 
 distinct, yet not heavy, and the use of the rubber 
 should be avoided as much as possible, for its frequent 
 application ruffles the surface of the paper and will 
 destroy the good, effect of shading or colouring, if any 
 is afterwards to be applied. 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, 
 
 The Compasses. 
 
 The compasses or dividers are instruments so well 
 known, that it would be superfluous to enter into a 
 lengthy description of them, or of the various uses to 
 which they may be applied. The best are constructed 
 
TO 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 with joints of two different metals, as steel and brass, 
 whereby the wear is more equal, and the motion of the 
 legs uniform and steady, and not subject to sudden 
 jerks in opening or shutting; this motion will occasion- 
 ally require some adjustment to render it uniformly 
 smooth, and to move stiffer or easier at pleasure j but 
 so that they may keep steadily any position that may 
 be given to them, the adjustment is performed by the 
 application of a turn-screw to this axis of the joint. 
 In the common compasses a simple screw forms the 
 axis upon which the legs move, and may be turned 
 with a screw driver of the ordinary construction j but 
 in the best made instruments a steel pin passes through 
 the joints, having at one end a head of brass riveted 
 fast upon it, and on the other end a similar plate is 
 screwed, which is therefore a nut, on a diameter of 
 which is drilled two small holes for the application of a 
 lever of a particular description. 
 
 The points of a well-made instrument should be of 
 steel, so tempered as neither to be easily bent or 
 blunted ; not too fine and tapering, and yet meeting 
 closely when the compasses are shut. As some of the 
 numerous uses to which this instrument may be 
 applied, the following may be mentioned : — To take 
 any extent or length between the points of the com- 
 passes, and to set it off or to apply it successively upon 
 any line. To take any proposed line between the 
 points, and by applying it to the proper scale, to find 
 its length. To set off equal distances upon a given 
 line, to describe circles, intersecting arcs, &c. To make 
 an angle equal to any given angle ; to lay off an angle 
 of a given quantity upon an arc of circle from the line 
 of cords, &c. ; to construct any proposal in plotting, or 
 drawing plans, &c, &c. 
 
COMPASSES. 71 
 
 The Hair Compasses. 
 
 This instrument is represented in the adjoin- " 
 ing engraving, and is constructed in the same 
 manner as those above described. The only- 
 difference consists in a contrivance b, whereby 
 the lower point, or half one shank, can be moved 
 a very small quantity, either towards or from the 
 other point, which is useful when a distance is 
 required to be taken with the utmost possible ; 
 exactness. This contrivance consists of a fine 
 spring and screw, by which, when the compasses 
 are opened nearly to the required extent by the 
 help of the screw b, the points may be set to the 
 greatest precision, which cannot be done so well 
 by the motion of the joints alone. 
 
 Compasses with movable points. 
 
 In the smaller and more portable cases of drawing 
 instruments, it is customary to insert a larger sized pair 
 of compasses, of which the point of half of one of the 
 legs is never movable, to admit of adapting singly a 
 pen or pencil, or dotting points. The pen point is used 
 for drawing circles or arcs with ink, and is constructed 
 like the drawing-pen, which will be hereafter described ; 
 the pencil point is alike adapted to hold a piece of black 
 lead pencil or crayon for describing circles or arcs that 
 are not to be permanent, and the dotting point consists 
 of two blades similar to those of the drawing pen, but 
 rounded at the points, between which revolves a small 
 wheel with numerous points round its circumference 
 resembling the rowel of a spur. The space between 
 the blades being supplied with Indian ink, and the 
 
72 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 =7 
 
 wheels rolled upon paper, as the compasses describe a 
 circle or arc, each point as the wheel revolves will pass 
 through the ink and transfer it to the paper beneath, 
 making equi-distant dots in the circle which the com- 
 passes describe. 
 
 The movable points have a joint in them just under 
 that part which locks into the shank of the compasses, 
 by which the part below the joint may be set perpen- 
 dicular to the plane on which the lines are described 
 when the compasses are open. An additional piece, 
 called a lengthening bar, is frequently applied to these 
 compasses, which by lengthening the movable leg 
 
 enables them to strike larger 
 circles, or measure greater 
 extents than they otherwise 
 would perform. When 
 this is applied, the movable 
 part has a joint similar to 
 those on the pen and pencil 
 points, and for a similar 
 purpose the annexed dia- 
 gram represents this instru- 
 ment and its appendages. 
 
 a the compasses with 
 a movable point at b ; 
 c and d, the joints to set each 
 point perpendicular to the 
 paper ; e the pencil point ; 
 f the pen point (this is 
 represented with a dot- 
 ting wheel, the pen point 
 and the dotting point are similar in shape to each other) ; 
 a the lengthening bar. 
 
BOW COMPASSES. 
 
 Bow Compasses. 
 
 These are a small pair having a point either for ink or 
 pencil. They are used to describe small arcs or circles/ 
 which they do more conveniently than large compasses, 
 not only on account of the size, but also from the shape 
 of their head, which rolls easily between the fingers and 
 can be turned round as delicately as they require to be 
 moved for drawing very minute circles. 
 
 The adjoining figures represent the pencil bow as 
 suited for describing arcs of different 
 radii. Fig. 1 is a construction 
 adapted for describing arcs of a ra- 
 dius intermediate between those de- 
 scribed by the above-named com- 
 passes, and those capable of being 
 produced by the bows represented by 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 In Fig. 1 the pencil point b, and 
 the centre point f, can be *opened a 
 considerable width by the joint A, 
 whilst in the other construction, 
 Fig. 2, the corresponding points e 
 and g are limited in their opening, 
 the two blades carrying the points, 
 being formed out of one solid piece 
 of steel, and tempered so as to form a 
 spring at the upper part corresponding with the joint a 
 in Fig. I. The spring of the two blades is then kept in 
 obedience by an adjusting screw d, by which the two 
 points may be set to any required degree of minuteness, 
 and very small circles may be described with a precision 
 
74 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 that could not be expected or scarcely attempted by 
 the construction of Fig. 1. 
 
 The pen bows are represented in the annexed engrav- 
 ing ; their construction is similar to the pencil bows 
 last described. In the pen point of 
 Fig. 1, there is a second joint just below 
 letter a, by which, when the instrument 
 is open for use, the pen may be set per- 
 pendicular, or nearly so, to the paper, 
 which is essential in the use of the draw- 
 ing pen. This is a corresponding con- 
 trivance with that noticed in describing 
 the compasses with movable points. In 
 Fig. 2, b shows the spring blades carry- 
 ing the points g and d, and c, the adjust- 
 ing screw, to set these points to the re- 
 quired radius. 
 
 Tubular Compasses. 
 
 The engraving on page 75 represents 
 this instrument. It may be used as an ordinary pair of 
 compasses, either with two fine points, a pen point, or a 
 pencil point, and is capable of describing circles to any 
 extent of radius from an eighth of an inch to fourteen 
 inches and a-half, and with the advantage of reversing 
 points which may be changed from pen to pencil, &c, 
 without deranging the setting of the instrument when 
 opened to any definite extent. 
 
 a and b are the two principal legs of the instrument, 
 consisting of tubes movable about a very nicely con- 
 structed joint at c. Within these are two sliding tubes 
 e and d, which draw out their whole length, and are 
 accurately fitted to the principal tubes a and b, so that 
 
TUBULAR COMPASSES. 
 
 75 
 
 they may be drawn out to their required extent with a 
 smooth and steady motion, not subject to sudden stop- 
 pages, or to move with equally sudden jerks, a proof of 
 bad workmanship, but uniformly, and not too easy.* 
 To assist in this, their inner extremities are made to 
 act as springs within tubes, 
 wherein they slide, thus increas- 
 ing their friction. 
 
 The outward extremity of 
 each of the sliding tubes e 
 and d terminates in a square 
 headed joint, a and b ; upon 
 these move the pieces c and d, 
 which carry the point limbs of 
 the compasses. The joints a 
 and b in this instrument cor- 
 respond with the joints c and 
 d of the compasses with mova- 
 ble points as before described, 
 and are used for a similar pur- 
 pose, namely, to set the point 
 limbs perpendicular to the 
 paper, and consequently paral- 
 lel to eacl other, at whatever 
 opening the legs of the com- 
 passes may be extended to. 
 
 In our engraving, the pivots of the two point limbs/, 
 Ti and e, g to the two carrying pieces, which are jointed 
 to the tubes at a and b, also give the means of in- 
 verting the position of the points ; that is to say, the 
 
 * Messrs. Parkes and Son, of Birmingham, hare introduced needle- 
 points to their compasses, which greatly tend to facilitate accuracy in 
 drawing. 
 
 e2 
 
76 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 limbs can be turned upon these pivots so as to make 
 the points e and g, or / and h change places. By this 
 simple and ingenious contrivance, the draftsman, after 
 having used the two fine points e and /, for fixing 
 with precision the opening of the compass to his re- 
 quired radius, may obtain a pencil point to describe 
 a corresponding arc or circle, by simply turning the 
 pencil limbs h, /, round on its pivot d, which will 
 cause the point of a pencil or crayon placed in the 
 tube h } to change places with the fine point / of the 
 compasses, and as the pivot is (or ought to be) at right 
 angles to a line connecting the points f, and of the 
 pencil at h, the latter will exactly take the place of 
 the former, at the same extent or opening, e, f. In 
 like manner, by turning the pen limb e, y, round its 
 pivot c, the pen point g may be made to occupy the 
 position of the fine point e, or whatever the compasses 
 may have been set to in the first instance. The milled- 
 head screw, represented at k, is for the purpose of fixing 
 a pencil firmly in its tube h; the screw i is for adjusting 
 the blades of the pen-point g, between which the ink 
 is inserted to any required degree of fineness, so as to 
 produce a corresponding fine or coarse circular line. 
 The joint m, by removing altogether the screw i, gives 
 the means of opening the blades for the better cleans- 
 ing them after use. 
 
 Portable or Turn-in Compasses. 
 
 This forms in itself a complete portable case of draw- 
 ing instruments, consisting of a large pair of compasses 
 with movable points, which are also so contrived that 
 one forms in itself a small pencil bow and the other a 
 pen bow ; and when the whole instrument is put toge- 
 
PORTABLE COMPASSES. 
 
 77 
 
 ther and folded up (or the points turned in, from 
 whence is derived the name of turn-in compasses) they 
 occupy a space not more than three inches long, and 
 may be carried in the pocket without being an incum- 
 brance. The annexed engraving represents the instru 
 ment when all its parts are together. The principal 
 
 legs of the instrument are f and g, movable, as usual, 
 by a joint at a. The lower joints, b and c, afford the 
 means of setting the front limbs, d and e, perpendicular 
 to the paper, as explained before when describing the 
 last instrument. Each of the point limbs may be re- 
 moved from the legs f and g, and by means of their 
 joints b and c form perfect instruments — the one a pen 
 bow, represented at h, and the other a pencil bow, 
 shown at I k. The points of these lesser instruments 
 are all adapted to slide into the principal legs, f and g, 
 of the larger one, which are made hollow for their 
 
78 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 reception. A section of the limb f is shown at j, to 
 convey to the reader a better idea of the arrangement. 
 
 It may easily be seen from the engraving, that by 
 reversing either of the points in the principal in- 
 strument, the other point may be used as a centre. 
 When not in use the instrument may be conveniently 
 carried in a sheath or case provided for the pur- 
 pose. There are also various forms and arrangements 
 of the parts occasionally given to the instrument to 
 suit the fancies of individuals; but the one we have 
 described above will give the reader a correct notion of 
 the general character of this class of instruments. 
 
 Large Screw Dividers. 
 We have now to describe another class of compasses, 
 such as are used for accurately dividing lines, &c., into 
 a definite number of equal parts, or for setting off 
 equal distances. The first of these is the large screw 
 divider represented in the adjoining figure: a is the 
 centre, about which the legs a c and a b open or 
 shut ; b and c are joints by which the pointed limbs 
 may be set perpendicular as usual. The extent or 
 opening between the points is regulated by a screw 
 passing through a socket, r, and terminated at the 
 other extremity by a milled head, by which the screw 
 is turned round. Between this milled head and the 
 nearest pointed limb is fixed what is called a micro- 
 meter head, decimally divided round its outer or 
 cylindrical edge. One turn of the screw carries the 
 micrometer head completely round; therefore, when 
 part of a turn only is given to the screw, the divisions 
 on the head show what fraction of a turn has been 
 given, and if it be known what number of turns or 
 threads of the screw are equal to one inch, the points of 
 
SPRING DIVIDERS. 
 
 79 
 
 these compasses may be thus set to any small definite 
 measure of length with the utmost precision. The 
 index or zero for reading the fraction of a turn of the 
 screw is marked on the point limb below b : thus this 
 instrument may be considered as a beam compass of 
 small dimensions and minute accuracy. 
 
 Spring Dividers. 
 This instrument, represented in the accompanying 
 diagram, is particularly useful for repeating divisions 
 of a small but equal extent— a practice that has the 
 name of stepping, for which a small pair of hair 
 compasses would also be found useful when the head is 
 constructed as shown in the adjoining figure, or similar 
 to that of the bow compass before described, and for 
 reasons before stated. The upper part forming the 
 handle is composed of brass or silver, whilst the lower 
 part from a towards the points is made of one piece of 
 steel of a spring temper, whereby the two points are 
 
80 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 always endeavouring to recede from each other, or oven 
 by their elasticity, which is counteracted by the ad- 
 JJ justing screw b, by which it may be set to the 
 
 II required opening. This acts in the same man 
 ner as the micrometer screw, described as 
 belonging to instruments before explained, 
 but with this difference-that it has not the 
 means of pointing out the measure of the 
 material, or extent between the fine points 
 of the compasses, which must therefore be 
 |b taken from a suitable scale. 
 
 w 
 
 Wholes and Halves. 
 
 Having explained the general construction 
 of the most approved instruments of the 
 smaller kind for describing circles and divid- 
 ing lines, we come now to allude to those 
 employed in copying and reducing draw- 
 ings. And first of the instrument represented in 
 the annexed engraving, which is the simplest form of 
 proportional compasses, and capable of reducing or en- 
 larging in one proportion only— namely, one-half 
 from whence its name of wholes and halves is derived' 
 The points a and e are one piece of metal : likewise 
 the points b and d are at the extremities of another 
 piece of metal, and straight lines connecting these 
 points pass through the centre, c. The legs of the in- 
 strument are connected together by a joint of the usual 
 form at c, placed one-third of the whole length from 
 one extremity: consequently, whatever may be the 
 extent of the opening of the points a and b, it will 
 always be double the extent of the opening of the 
 other two points, d and e. Therefore, if the whole 
 
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. 
 
 38 
 
 length of any line be taken between the ope^jng t 
 the two former points, the interval between t%.tw< 
 latter points will be exactly one-half the leng^>o 
 the same line ; consequently, this instru- e 
 ment affords the readiest means of divid- 
 ing a line into two equal parts, or vice 
 versa. Its usefulness in dividing lines 
 does not rest here; for, if the original 
 line has to be divided into any number 
 of parts— 2, 4, 6, 8, &c, by constantly 
 taking the half of the half in the same 
 manner as taking the half of the original 
 line in the first instance, the requisite 
 number of subdivisions may be obtained. 
 
 Proportional Compasses. 
 
 This instrument is a very useful and 
 necessary appendage to a case of drawing 
 instruments, and although rather expensive 
 in its original cost, it very soon repays f B 
 its owner in saving both time and trouble. The pro- 
 portional compasses consist of two equal and similarly 
 formed parts or limbs, a e and b d (see the accompany- 
 ing engraving), which are represented as opening upon 
 a centre c, and forming a double pair of compasses or 
 points, a b, e d. "When shut up, the two limbs appear 
 as one, and a small stud fixed on one fits into a notch 
 made in the other, and retains the instrument exactly 
 in its closed position, the two points also at each ex- 
 tremity then coincide and become as one point. When 
 thus closed the dove-tailed slits shown in the engraving 
 as made in each limb, being equal and similar, coincide 
 and appear as one slit, and in this position only can the 
 
 x< 3 
 
82 ERECTION OF DWELLING- HOUSES. 
 
 adjustment be made for any required proportion ; that 
 is to say, the instrument must always be closed in order 
 to slide and fix the centre c in its proper 
 place, and the opening of the small points e 
 d at the other extremity. 
 
 The centre consists of a pivot or steel pin, 
 which passes through the dove-tailed pieces 
 of brass, nicely fitted to slide in the before- 
 named slits, and also through a circular nut 
 or collar on each face, which answers the 
 double purpose of keeping the dove-tailed 
 pieces of brass in their slits, and also firmly 
 clamping them together by means of the 
 milled head, c, when they are moved to the 
 position where the centre is required; on 
 the dove-tailed pieces a line is drawn for the 
 zero to set the centre by, which in our en- 
 graving is represented as coinciding with the 
 division on the limb marked 2, and nearly 
 with the one marked 12. On the face of 
 each limb there are two sets of division, 
 one denominated lines, a second circles, a third planes, 
 and the fourth solids. When the zero of the centre 
 on the dove-tailed sliding-piece is set to the division 
 marked 1, on the line of lines, then the proportion 
 between any opening of the large points a b, will be 
 two to one, or twice as great as the opening of the 
 smaller points d e, and consequently any extent taken 
 between the large points may be accurately divided 
 into two parts by the smaller ones. Also when the 
 zero is set to the division marked 3, on the same lines, 
 the proportion of any opening will be three to one, or 
 that of the smaller points will be one-third of the 
 
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. 
 
 83 
 
 extent of the larger points, and the same of the re- 
 maining divisions on the line which extend to ten of 
 the line marked " circles" on the opposite edge of the 
 same face of the instrument; the divisions are num- 
 bered from 6 to 20, and the index of zero being set to 
 any number, the points will open in proportion to the 
 radius of a circle to the side of an inscribed polygon of 
 that number of sides. Thus if it be set to the division 
 marked 8, and the points a b are opened to the radius 
 of any circle, the opening of the smaller points d e will 
 divide the circumference into eight equal parts. 
 
 The other lines of divisions, namely, those marked 
 " planes " and " solids," are on the other face of the 
 instrument, these are in fact lines of square and cube 
 roots. The line of "planes" or "squares" shows the 
 proportion between the areas of similar plane figures. 
 Thus, set the zero to the division marked 3, and mea- 
 sure the side of the square in the large points a b, the 
 opening of the short ones, d e, will then be equal to 
 the side of a square, which will be one-third the area of 
 the other. The same of triangles, circles, or any other 
 regular plane figure. 
 
 To find the square root of a given number, shut the 
 compasses and set the zero to the number given upon 
 the line of planes, open the instrument, and from any 
 scale of equal parts take the number between the larger 
 points a b, then apply the smaller points d e, to the 
 same scale, and the distance between them will be 
 equal to the square root of the distance between the 
 points of the larger legs a b. The mean proportional 
 between two given numbers is the square root of their 
 product, and may be found by the proportional com- 
 passes 3 thus, required the mean proportional between 2 
 
84 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 and 4$. Open the compasses with the zero or indei set 
 against 9, the product of two given numbers, til) the 
 distance between the larger is equal to 9, taken rrom 
 some scale of equal parts, then the distance betveen 
 the smaller points will be equal to 3 of the same scale, 
 and is the mean proportional between 2 and 44 for as 
 2 : 3 : : 3 : 4±. 
 
 The line of "solids" expresses the proportions 
 between cubes or spheres. Thus, set the zero to the 
 division marked 2 on the line of solids, then measure 
 the diameter of any sphere, or the side of a cube which 
 will have one half the solid content of the former. In 
 like manner, by setting zero to the divisions marked 
 3, 4, &c, the interval between the larger and smaller 
 points of the instrument will show respectively the 
 diameters, &c, of spheres, of which one shall have 
 three or four times the solid of the other. 
 
 Also the cube root of any number may be fommd by 
 setting zero upon the given number upon the line of 
 solids, &c., as described for obtaining square r<o<ot by 
 means of the line of planes; proportional compas(ses of 
 the best construction are sometimes made with a clamp 
 and tangent screw for setting the zero with the inttmost 
 precision; this, however, is seldom used, amdl the 
 instrument we have described is the kind in gcnieral 
 requisition. 
 
 Triangular Compasses. 
 The adjoining figure represents this instrument as 
 it appears when closed up for packing in its case. 
 That which appears in the engraving as one li.rmlb a, 
 consists of a pair of compasses precisely of the ordiimary 
 construction; the single point limb b, has a coirmjpass 
 joint at a, by which its points may be opened at; might 
 
TRIANGULAR COMPASSES. 
 
 85 
 
 angles to the plane of the pair of compasses a, when the 
 three points will form a triangle. The compass point at a 
 is firmly attached to the centre of the compasses a, which 
 by means of a nut or screw may he turned round 
 without moving the limbs, of which it is the centre The 
 double motion thus given to the point limb b (both right 
 angles to, and parallel to the plane of the com- 
 passes Aspartate of the nature of an universal 
 joimt, and enables the three points of the 
 instrument to be placed at the angular points 
 of any shaped triangle whatever, be it ever so 
 obttuse. Also, by the same means, the three 
 poiints may be brought into one straight line. 
 Thiis instrument, it will be obvious from 
 the description, is chiefly useful in trans- 
 fer-ring points from one paper to another, 
 and is very serviceable in copying mecha- 
 nical drawings. The two points of the com- 
 passes a being set upon such points of the 
 drawing as are already copied, the third 
 point, b, of the instrument may be moved 
 by- its universal joint, a b, to rest upon any 
 otlhieir point, and then by similarly applying 
 th(e points of a to the corresponding points 
 om the copv, the new point of the original may be 
 comrcectly transferred to it by means of the limb of the 
 imsttiriiment b . Another form of tri- 
 angular compasses is represented m 
 thie; annexed engraving, a, b, c is a 
 soUiicU tripod, having at the extremity 
 of each arm a limb, c, a, and e, 
 meowing freely upon centres, by 
 wlhikch they may be placed in any position with respect 
 
86 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 to the tripod and each other. These limbs carry points 
 at right angles to the plane of the instrument, which 
 may be brought to coincide with any three given points 
 on the original drawing, and then transferred to the 
 copy as above described. 
 
 Beam Compasses. 
 
 The accompanying diagram represents this instru- 
 ment, which consists of a beam, a, a, of any length 
 
 s i;,<tiri. 
 
 
 n 
 
 C 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 A ' 
 
 
 
 
 required, generally made of well-seasoned mahogany; 
 upon its face is inlaid, throughout its whole length, 
 a slip of holly or box-wood, a, a, upon which are en- 
 grayed the divisions or scales, either feet and decimals, 
 or inches and decimals, or whatever particular scale 
 may be required: those made for use of the persons 
 engaged on the ordnance survey of Ireland w-ere 
 divided to a scale of chains, 80 of which being eq ual 
 to six inches, which therefore represented one miile, 
 that being the scale to which the survey is beiing 
 plotted. Two brass boxes, b and c, are adapted to tthe 
 beam; the latter may be moved by sliding to any p«urt 
 of its length, and fixed in position by tightening tthe 
 clamp screw e. Connected with the brass boxes mire 
 the two points of the instrument, g and h, which miay 
 have any extent of opening by sliding the box c aLomg 
 the beam, and the other box b being firmly fixed at 
 one extremity. The object to be attained in the mae 
 
BEAM COMPASSES. 
 
 87 
 
 of th.s instrument is the nice adjustment of the points 
 g and ii to any distance apart; this is accomplished 
 by tvo verniers or reading plates, b, c, each fixed at 
 the side of an opening in the brass boxes to which they 
 are attached, and afford the means of minutely sub- 
 dividing the principal divisions, a, a, on the beam which 
 app ear through those openings ; d is a clamp screw for 
 a similar purpose as the screw e, namely, to fix the 
 box b, and prevent motion in the point it carries after 
 adjustment to the position; f is a slow-motion screw 
 by ^which the point g may be moved any very minute 
 quantity, for perfecting the setting of the instrument 
 afte:r it has been otherwise set as nearly as possible by 
 the hand alone. 
 
 TThe method of setting the instrument for use may 
 be lunderstood from the above description of its parts, 
 andi also by the following explanation of the method of 
 exaimining and correcting the adjustment of the vernier 
 b, which, like all other mechanical adjustments, will 
 occasionally get deranged; this verification must be 
 dome by means of a detached scale. Thus, suppose for 
 exaimple that our beam-compass is divided into feet, 
 inclhes, and tenths, and subdivided by the vernier to 
 humdredths, &c. First set the zero division of the 
 vermier to the zero of the principal divisions on the 
 beairni, by means of the slow-motion screw p. This 
 mmstt be done very accurately. Then slide the box c 
 witlh. its point g, till the zero on the vernier c exactly 
 cohmcides with any principal division on the beam, as 
 12 imches or 6 inches, &c, which must also be done 
 to ai great nicety (in some superior kind of beam- 
 coimjpasses the box c is also furnished with a tangent 
 or slow-motion screw, by which the setting of the 
 poimifcs or the divisions may be done with the utmost 
 
83 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 precision in the same manner as the vernier b lby 
 means of the screw f), then apply the points to a 
 similar detached scale, and if the adjustment is perfect 
 the interval of the points g h will measure on it tlhe 
 distance to which they were set on the beam. If thcey 
 do not by ever so small a quantity, it should be cor- 
 rected by turning the screw f till the joints exacttly 
 measure that quantity on the detached scale : then lby 
 loosening the little screws which confine the vernierr b 
 m its place, the position of the vernier may be graduallly 
 changed till its zero coincides with the zero on the beaim 
 and then, tightening the screws again, the adjustment 
 will be complete. 
 
 Knife, File, Key, and Screw-driver. 
 The annexed engraving represents a very useful ap- 
 pendage to a case of drawing instruments ; its use w/ill 
 
 T7~ 
 
 be too apparent to need much description. A is tlhe 
 knife blade, b the file, c the screw-driver, and d tlhe 
 key, which is adapted to fit the heads of the compasses 
 for tightening or loosening them as may be required. 
 
 Drawing Pens. 
 These are made as represented in the accompanvinng 
 engraving. The left-hand figure shows the form <of 
 the best kind, the handle is of ivory, and the bladdes 
 have a joint whereby they may be opened for the piunr- 
 pose of more effectually cleaning them after use. Thhe 
 right-hand figure, which is in two parts, shows an oMeer 
 form of construction, the part a, to which is attachieed 
 a pricker or protracting pin, screws into the nawt 
 
THE ROAD PEN. 
 
 89 
 
 marked b, making the handle of sufficient length to 
 use conveniently as a drawing pen, thus combining two 
 instruments in one. 
 
 The milled head screw, which is repre- 
 sented as connecting the blades together, 
 is for the purpose of setting their points 
 at any opening to draw a line of an 
 assigned thickness. In using the pen, 
 it should be slightly inclined in the di- 
 rection of the line to be drawn, taking 
 care, however, that the edges of both 
 the blades touch the paper. These ob- 
 servations are equally applicable to the 
 pen-point of the compasses before de- 
 scribed, observing, as before stated, that 
 whenever a circle or an arc of more than 
 abouit an inch radius is to be described, 
 the point should be so bent that the 
 bladles of the pen be nearly perpendicu- 
 lar to the paper, and both of them touched at the 
 sarnie time. 
 
 The Road Pen. 
 T^is instrument consists of two pens, a and b, so 
 arramged with a spring which gives them a tendency 
 to sseparate from each other to the extent of about 
 half- an inch, which tendency is counteracted by a 
 screrw, c, whereby the pen-points may be set to any 
 reqiuired interval within the above limits. The screws 
 a anicl b are for the purpose of setting the points of the 
 blaclle to draw lines of any assigned degree of fineness, as 
 before explained for the ordinary drawing pen. The use 
 of tMs instrument is to draw two lines parallel and close 
 to ejaich other at the same time, whereby perfect paral- 
 
90 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 lelism may be secured. It is usually known by the 
 name of the Road Pen, having been originally designed 
 to draw lines of roads upon maps, both sides 
 Q being drawn at the same time. For such pur- 
 poses it is very convenient, as one side or femce 
 may be drawn with a stronger line than ithe 
 other, which is frequently done on general 
 maps as a distinguishing mark for principal 
 or turnpike roads, &c. In like manner it; is 
 useful in drawing lines of canals, where boumd- 
 ing lines are generally more nearly paralllel 
 than on public roads ; besides which, it miay 
 be successfully used in mechanical and arcihi- 
 Jc tectural drawings, where extremely chose 
 parallel lines are very frequently required. 
 
 The Dotting Point. 
 The great expense of time in dotting by hamd 
 such lines upon a drawing as may be essenttial 
 to be shown and not drawn in full, may be 
 obviated by the use of this instrument. It 
 in all respects resembles a drawing-pen, except tlhat 
 the points are not so sharp, and the back blade, as 
 seen in the engraving, is a pivot, on which may be 
 placed a dotting-wheel, a, resembling the rowel of 
 a spur; the screw, b, is for opening the blades to 
 remove the wheel for cleaning after use, or repkac- 
 ing it with one of another character of dot. T?he 
 cap, c, at the upper end of the instrument, is a box 
 containing a variety of dotting wheels, each producimg 
 a different shaped dot. These are used as distinguassh- 
 ing marks for different classes of boundaries on maipDs ; 
 for instance, one kind of dot distinguishes comnity 
 
THE PRICKING OR TRACING POINT. 
 
 91 
 
 boundaries, another kind parish boundaries j a third 
 kind distinguishes that which is both a county and a 
 parish boundary. In using this instrument, 
 the ink must be inserted between the blades 
 of the dotting wheel, so that as the wheel 
 revolves the points shall pass through the ink, 
 each carrying with it a drop, and marking the 
 paper as it passes. It is sometimes stated as 
 an objection, that the wheel will often revolve 
 many times before it begins to deposit its ink 
 on the drawing, thereby leaving the first part 
 of the line altogether blank, and in attempt- 
 ing to go over it again, the made dots are 
 liable to get blotted 3 at all events, the line is 
 likely to consist of dots of different sizes, which 
 is at least unsightly. This evil may be mostly 
 remedied by placing a piece of blank paper 
 over the drawing at the very point the dotted 
 line is commenced upon; then begin with 
 drawing the wheel over the blank paper first, 
 so that by the time it will have arrived at the 
 proper point of commencement, the ink may be ex- 
 pected to flow over the points of the wheel, and make 
 the diotted line perfect, as required. 
 
 The Pricking or Tracing Point. 
 This instrument consists of a pair of forceps, which 
 firmly hold a needle point, or blunt point, a, by means 
 of a "sliding ring, b. Its use, which scarcely needs 
 pointing out, is chiefly in copying drawings, the 
 origimal being laid upon paper intended to receive the 
 copy,, and held down by weights or pins to prevent its 
 shiftim g its position. The principal points are trans- 
 
^2 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Wd to the copy by pricking through the origina. 
 ^.th a very fine needle. This method of copying can- 
 not be resorted to when the original is of con- 
 !B J siderable value. When such is the case, a com- 
 mon method of copying is by placing between 
 the drawing and the intended copy a sheet of 
 thin paper (such, for instance, as bank post paper), 
 one face of which has been sprinkled with black 
 lead and rubbed until it be uniformly covered 
 and then as much wiped off as would come away 
 with gentle rubbing. This being placed with 
 the blackened part towards the intended copy 
 a blunt point substituted for the needle point in 
 the instrument may be drawn with gentle pressure 
 over the lines of the original without damag- 
 TTT ing it, and the blackened paper will leave cor- 
 M responding lines on the fair sheet beneath - by 
 • reversing the needle in the instrument, leaving 
 the eye end instead of the point exposed, and 
 using it edgeways, it will be found a fine and smooth 
 tracer. 
 
 Drawing Pins. 
 These require but little explanation. They are used 
 to fix paper down upon a drawing or other board in any 
 required position, and in most cases answer better than 
 <=Y^ teaVy wei S llt ^ wllicn frequently 
 
 A V J\S^/ USed f ° r that P ur P ose ' as the board 
 . ■ bV — ^ may be shifted from place to pllace 
 
 without moving the paper. They consist of a birass 
 
 head with a steel point at right angles to its plane. 
 
 a represents it as seen edgeways, and b as seen from 
 
 above. 
 
PROTRACTORS. C3 
 
 Having endeavoured to explain the construction g£ r*y 
 
 for the purpose of drawings ' 
 .rved, and hence producing ^ 
 
 such instruments as are used 
 lines., whether straight or curved 
 geometrical figures,, we will now proceed to explain the 
 best form of protractors which are essential for laying 
 downi angles. 
 
 Protractors. 
 
 Thie edge of the semicircular is divided into 180 
 degnees, and subdivided to half degrees, or 30 minutes, 
 and mumbered for the convenience of plotting. Eound 
 the (edge is carried a vernier, which subdivides the 
 principal divisions into single minutes. The vernier 
 is atttached to an arm, forming a radius to the semi- 
 circke, which is extended beyond the circumference, 
 and lhas on the extended part a fiducial edge, on which 
 the aangular line is to be drawn. 
 
 Thie centre of the instrument, which is visible from 
 abovre, by the centre upon which the vernier radius 
 movces, is a ring placed concentric with the centre. To 
 use ithis instrument, it is only necessary to set the 
 verniier to the given angle, then place the protractors 
 so tthat the fiducial edge may in every part exactly 
 coinccide with the line already given, and the centre 
 withi the given angular point. A line then being 
 drawrn along the fiducial edge will be the direction of 
 the lline forming the angle required ; and upon moving 
 the ] protractor, such line may be produced and con- 
 necteed with the angular point. In adjusting the fiducial 
 edge 5 upon the given line, so that the centre may exactly 
 coinccide with the given angular point, there is a cer- 
 tain degree of practical difficulty (we are now alluding 
 to wlhenever great accuracy is aimed at). 
 
94 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 It is not, therefore, essential, in setting the instru- 
 ment, to have any regard to the given angular point, 
 but only to set the edge nicely upon the given line • 
 then, with a needle point, make three punctures in 
 the paper, one near the extreme point, a second at the 
 circumference of the arc, and the third as nearly as 
 possible at the centre. The protractor may then be 
 removed; and if all has been accurately performed, 
 these three points will be in one straight line, which 
 may be transferred to pass through the given angular 
 point by straight edge or ruler. 
 
 The Circular Protractor 
 
 Is a complete circle, connected in its centre by four 
 radii. Like the instrument last described, the centre 
 is left open, and surrounded by a concentric ring or 
 collar, which carries two radial bars. To the extremity 
 of one bar is a pinion, working in a toothed rack, quite 
 round the outer circumference of the protractor. To 
 the opposite extremity of the other bar is fixed a 
 vernier, which subdivides the primary divisions on the 
 protractor to single minutes, and, by estimation, to 
 30 seconds. This vernier, as may readily be under- 
 stood, is carried round the protractor by turning the 
 pinion. Upon each radial bar is placed a branch, 
 carrying at their extremities a fine steel pricker, whose 
 points are kept above the surface of the papers by 
 springs placed under their supports, which give Avay 
 when the branches are pressed downwards, and allow 
 the points to make the necessary punctures in the 
 paper. The branches are attached to the bars with a 
 joint, which admits of being folded backwards over 
 
THE CIRCULAR PROTRACTOR. 
 
 95 
 
 the instrument when n3t in use, and for packing in 
 its case. 
 
 The centre of the instrument is jepresented by the 
 intersection of two lines, drawn at right angles to each 
 other on a piece of glass, which enables the person 
 using it to place it so that the centre, or intersection 
 of the cross lines, may coincide with any given point 
 on the plane. If the instrument is in correct order, a 
 line, connecting the fine pricking points with each 
 other, would pass through the centre of the instrument, 
 as denoted by the before-mentioned intersection of the 
 cross lines upon the glass, which, it may be observed, 
 are drawn so nearly level with the under surface of the 
 instrument as to do away with any serious amount of 
 parallax when setting the instrument over a point from 
 which any angular lines are intended to be drawn. 
 
 In using this instrument, the vernier should first be 
 set to — zero (or the division marked 860), on the divided 
 limb, and then placed on the paper, so that the two 
 fine steel points may be on the given line (from whence 
 other and angular lines are to be drawn), and the centre 
 of the instrument coincides with the given angular 
 point on such line. This done, press the protractor 
 gently down, which will fix it position by means of 
 very fine points on the under sides. It is now ready 
 to lay off the given angle, or any number of angles 
 that may be required, which is done by turning the 
 pinion till the opposite vernier reaches the required 
 angle. Then press down the branches, which will 
 cause the points to make punctures in the paper on 
 the opposite sides of the circle ; which being afterwards 
 connected, the line will pass through the given angular 
 point, if the instrument was first correctly set. In 
 
06 
 
 EllECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 this maimer, at one setting of the instrument a great 
 number of angles may be laid from the same point. 
 
 As described for the last instrument, it is not essen- 
 tial that the centre be over the given point when 
 applied to the given line, provided the pricking points 
 exactly fall upon the line ; for an imaginary line, con- 
 necting the pricking points in this instrument, corre- 
 spond with the line on the diameter of the protractor 
 last described. Sometimes, instead of a rack and 
 pinion motion, a third radial arm is attached to the 
 centre at right angles to the other two, upon which is 
 fixed a clamp and tangent screw, by which the vernier 
 is not only fixed in position upon the circular limb of 
 the instrument, but by the tangent, or slow motion 
 screw, it may be set to the required angle with the 
 greatest accuracy. 
 
 Plain, Circular, and Semicircular Protractors. 
 Other and very useful protractors are made, con- 
 sisting of a circle or semicircle, without verniers, slow- 
 motion screws, or any other appendages, having simply 
 a fiducial circular edge, nicely divided to degrees and 
 half-degrees, or more minute subdivisions, if the instru- 
 ment is sufficiently large to admit of them. A very 
 useful instrument of this kind has a diameter of six 
 inches, and will be found sufficiently accurate for most 
 ordinary purposes, and not above one-third of the cost 
 of the above-named instrument, which, however, must 
 be resorted to when the utmost attainable accuracy is 
 required. 
 
 The Plain Scale. 
 This instrument is usually made of ivory, 6 inches 
 long, and If inches broad ; it has on it two diagonal 
 
THE PLAIN SCALE. | 
 
 scales, one half the size of the other, on tl\|^me^iu^ 
 or face of the instrument, which, for distuil^on-satfce, ^ 
 
 we will call the upper side. These diagonayps^are^ 
 consist of eleven parallel lines, drawn eq ui- distant fro m - - 
 each other, and divided by vertical lines into equal 
 parts of an inch long-, and numbered from right to 
 left— 1, 2, 3, &c. The top and bottom lines of the 
 extreme half-inch space to the right is subdivided into 
 ten equal parts by diagonal lines drawn from the tenth 
 below to the ninth above, from the ninth below to the; 
 eighth above, from the eighth below to the seventh 
 above, &c, till from the first below to the nothing 
 above, so that by these means the half- inch space is 
 subdivided into 100 equal parts. Thus, if each of the 
 first divisions of the half-inch spaces be considered to 
 represent unity, each of the first divisions will express 
 tV of 1, and each of the subdivisions taken on the dia- 
 gonal lines, counting from the top downwards, will 
 express of the last subdivisions, T ^y of the half-inch 
 spaces (or primary divisions). If each of the half-inch 
 spaces (or primary divisions) be considered as repre- 
 senting 10, then each of the first subdivisions will 
 express 1 (or unity), and each of the second T V of unity. 
 Again, if each of the primary divisions (or half-inch 
 spaces) be considered to represent 100, then each of 
 the first subdivisions will express 10, and each of the 
 second subdivisions 1, or unity, &c, &c. 
 
 The method of taking distances from the scale may 
 be thus shown :— Suppose the distance to be 347 on 
 the diagonal, lined, joined to the 4th subdivision on the 
 top line, count 7 downwards, reckoning the distance 
 of each parallel as 1 ; there set one point of the com- 
 passes, and extend the other till it falls on the inter- 
 
 F 
 
98 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 section of the third primary division with the same 
 parallel in which the other point of the compasses 
 rests, and their opening will then express a line of 
 347, 34*7, or 3*47, according as we may have con- 
 sidered the primary divisions to represent ICO, 10, or 
 unity. 
 
 The smaller diagonal scale is formed by dividing the 
 half-inch space into two, and the further or left-hand 
 quarter of an inch space is then diagonally divided as 
 above described. 
 
 On the same or upper face of the instrument, a pro- 
 tractor is formed round its edges, and after what has 
 been stated upon that instrument, nothing more than 
 the mention of it is requisite in this place. On the 
 under surface of the instrument a variety of scales are 
 engraved, among which are the following : — 
 
 Line of Chords marked CorOfl. 
 
 „ Rhombs „ R H. 
 
 „ Tangents „ T A. 
 
 „ Sines „ SI. 
 
 „ Secants „ SEC. 
 
 „ Longitudes „ L 0 1ST. 
 
 „ Latitudes „ L A. 
 
 „ Inclination of ") j ^ 
 
 Meridians j " 
 
 „ Hours „ H O. 
 
 Besides scales having the following number of equal 
 divisions to the inch :— 30, 35, 45, 50, and 60. 
 
 The line of chords serves either to set off an angle 
 from a given point to any line, or to measure the 
 quantity of any angle already laid down. The first is 
 done by opening the compasses to the extent of 
 GO degrees upon the line of chords (which is always 
 equal to the radius, the circle of projection), and set- 
 
SCALES. 
 
 90 
 
 ting one foot upon the angular point ; with that extent 
 describe an arc ; then talcing the angular quantity from 
 the same chord line, set it off from the given line upon 
 the arc described ; a right line connecting the given 
 point with that upon the arc will form the angle 
 required. To measure an angle already laid down, 
 describe as before an arc of 60 degrees; and then taking 
 the extent with a pair of compasses between the lines 
 which form the angle upon the said arc, the opening 
 measured upon the same line of chords will denote the 
 dimensions of the angle. 
 
 The line of rhombs serves to lay down or measure on 
 a chart the angle of a ship's course in navigation. 
 
 The lines of tangents, sines, and secants, are used in 
 the stereographical and orthographical projection of the 
 sphere. 
 
 The line of longitudes, with the help of the line of 
 chords, will show how many miles are contained in a 
 degree of longitude at any latitude. Thus, with a pair 
 of compasses take from the line of chords the number 
 of degrees of the given latitude, and apply the opening 
 of the compasses to the line of longitude, placing one 
 point of the compasses on the last division, marked 60 
 on the longitudes, the other point will note upon the 
 same line the number of miles in one degree of longi- 
 tude at the given latitude. For example, if the given 
 latitude be 60 degrees, take 60 from the line of chords, 
 and applying one point of the compasses on the last divi- 
 sion of the line of longitude (marked 60), the other 
 point will fall upon the division marked 30 on the same 
 line, showing that 30 miles is contained in one degree 
 of longitude at the latitude of 60 degrees. The lines 
 of latitude, inclination of meridian, and of hours, are 
 
 f 2 
 
100 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 applicable to the practice of dialling, which does not 
 fall within our present purpose. 
 
 Plotting Scales and Rules. 
 
 These need but few observations, as they are nothing 
 more than scales of equal parts, the divisions being 
 placed on a fiducial edge, by which any length may be 
 pricked off on the paper without using the compasses, 
 whose points, bv freauent use. destroy the fineness of 
 the graduation. Plotting scales are made of various 
 dimensions, and of all varieties of graduation, to suit 
 the purposes of the draftsman. Parallel rulers are also 
 made of various constructions — some of them sliding, 
 and others with rollers, each having its own advantages. 
 The plain scale above described is frequently fitted with 
 rollers, making it at the same time a convenient small 
 parallel. 
 
 The Sector. 
 
 The sector derives its name from the fourth propo- 
 sition of the sixth book of Euclid, where it is demon- 
 strated that similar triangles have their like sides pro- 
 portional. 
 
 This instrument consists of two rulers, movable 
 round an axis or joint, from whence several scales are 
 drawn on the faces of the rulers. 
 
 The two rulers are called legs, and represent the 
 radii, and the middle of the joint expresses the centre 
 of a circle. 
 
 The scales generally put upon sectors may be dis- 
 tinguished into single and double. The single scales 
 are such as are commonly put on plain scales, and may 
 be applied in the same manner. The double scales are 
 
THE LINE OF ARTIFICIAL NUMBERS. 101 
 
 those which proceed from the centre ; each scale is laid 
 twice on the same face of the instrument, namely, one 
 on each leg. From these scales, dimensions or dis- 
 tances are to be taken, when the legs of the instrument 
 are in an angular position. 
 
 The Decimal Scale. 
 
 This scale lies on the edge of the instrument, and is 
 of the same length as the sector when opened (one foot 
 is the usual length for sectors placed in cases of instru- 
 ments), and is divided into 10 equal parts or primary- 
 divisions, and each of these into 10 other equal parts, 
 so that the whole (foot) is divided into 100 equal parts. 
 
 The Line of Artificial Numbers. 
 
 The line of numbers (marked n), or Gunter's Line, 
 as it is commonly called, is a line of geometrical pro- 
 portion divided into nine unequal parts, beginning at 1 
 towards the left hand, and numbered on with 2, 3, 4, 
 5, &c, to 10, about the middle of the line, where another 
 radius begins, and the same divisions are repeated, 
 numbered as before to 10, at the end of the line on the 
 right hand. Each of these primes, or first grand divi- 
 sions, are subdivided, according to the same ratio, 
 into ten other parts, and each of these divisions (if the 
 line be of sufficient length) should again be subdivided 
 into ten lesser parts. But upon pocket sectors, which, 
 when opened, are twelve inches in length, only the 
 part from 1 in the middle to 2 towards the right hand 
 is a second time divided, and that but into five parts 
 instead of ten, every one of which must be accounted 
 as two centesms in numbering ; there-fore, upon the 
 
102 
 
 ERECTION 01' DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 line the figures 1, 2, 3, &c, which denote the primes, 
 may be taken arbitrarily, either as units, tens, hundreds, 
 or thousands, or thousandth parts of an unit. 
 
 If 1, at the beginning of the line, be taken for unity, 
 then 1 in the middle will be 10, and 10 at the end 100 ; 
 but if the first 1 be accounted 10, then 1 in the middle 
 will stand for 100, and 10 at the end for 1000. Again, 
 if the first 1 be reckoned 100, then 1 in the middle 
 will be 1000, and 10 at the end 10,000. 
 
 When, therefore, the first, or prime, represents 10 
 units, the figures 2, 3, 4, &c, to 1 in the middle, will 
 stand for 20, 30, 40, &c. ; and each tenth, or subdivision 
 in the first radius of the line, will signify 1 unit ; and 
 each centesm in those tenths (if there be any) will be 
 one-tenth part of an unit : 1 in the middle will be (as 
 before observed) 100 ; and the figures 2, 3, 4,&c, follow- 
 ing, 200, 300, 400, &c. ; each tenth, or subdivision in 
 the second radius, will denote 10 units; and each 
 centesm 1 unit. Again, let the first 1 represent 100, 
 then the 2, 3, 4, &c, following, 200, 300, 400, &c. ; 1 in 
 the middle 1000 ; and 10 at the end 10,000. According 
 to this supposition, in the first, each tenth of a prime 
 will be 10 units, and each centesm 1 unit ; and in the 
 second radius, each tenth of a prime 100, and each 
 centesm 10. 
 
 In estimating decimal fractions upon the line, if 1 
 in the middle be accounted as unity, then will each 
 prime in the first radius denote *1, each tenth of a 
 prime '01, and each centesm -001. If 10 at the end of 
 the line to the right hand be accounted as unity, the 
 whole first radius will represent 1, and 2, 3, 4, &c, in 
 the second radius will represent 2, 3, 4, &c, every 
 prime in the first radius, and every tenth of a prime in 
 
LINES OF ARTIFICIAL SINES AND TANGENTS. 
 
 the second radius, will signify -01, or one hundredth 
 part of unity, or centesm ; in the second, will denote 
 •001, or thousandth part of unity. 
 
 The numeration of the line thus explained, let it now 
 be proposed to find the point thereon, answering to the 
 number 436. For four hundred, take the first four 
 primes next the left hand j for the second figure, 3, 
 take three tenths of the grand division between 4 
 and 5 ; and for the six units, reckon six centesms, 
 or six parts of the next tenth, so that the extent 
 from 1 at the beginning of the line to that point, 
 will express the number 436. The same point will 
 likewise represent the numbers 43'6, 4*36, or 436; 
 if the first be accordingly accounted 10, 1, or T V of 
 unity. 
 
 To multiply upon the line, extend your compasses 
 from 1 at the beginning, to the point representing the 
 number of your multiplier. The same extent will 
 reach from the number of your multiplicand to the 
 product. Thus, if 125 were given to be multiplied by 
 42, extend the compasses from 1 to 42, and the same 
 extent will reach from 125 to 5250. 
 
 To divide upon the line, extend your compasses 
 backwards from the numbers of the division to unity. 
 The same extent, laid the same way, will reach from 
 the number of the dividend to the quotient. Thus, if 
 5250 were to be divided by 125, extend the compasses 
 backwards from 125 to unity; the same extent will 
 reach the same way, from 5250 to 42. 
 
 The Lines of Artificial Sines and Tangents. 
 The line of artificial sines (marked s) consists only of 
 the logarithms of the natural sines, transferred from a 
 
104 ERECTION OF DWELLING - HOUSES. 
 
 table of logarithms to the scale. They are numbered 
 from the left to the right, with the figures 1, 2, 3, &c, 
 to 10, which stands about the middle of the line • and 
 so forward with 20, 30, 40, &c, to 90, at the end on 
 the right. In the first part of the line, the grand 
 divisions each represent one degree ; so that if each 
 prime he subdivided into twelve parts (as they are 
 commonly called upon sectors), each subdivision will 
 represent five minutes. In the latter part of the line 
 the grand divisions, which are each ten degrees, being 
 subdivided into ten parts, each of them will signify fi«re 
 minutes. In the latter part of the line the grand 
 divisions, which are each ten degrees, being subdivided 
 into ten parts, each of them will represent one degree; 
 and according as they are again subdivided into four,' 
 three, or two parts, such second divisions contain fifteen,' 
 twenty, or thirty minutes each. 
 
 What has been stated of the line of sines is likewise 
 to be understood of the line of artificial tangents 
 (marked t), whose divisions begin also at 1, and run on 
 to 10 in the middle of the line, signifying degrees. In 
 the second part it runs on with 20, 30, &c, to 45, which 
 stands at the end of the line; then returns back again 
 to 90, where it began. 
 
 The use of these lines is in working proportions, 
 whether arithmetical or geometrical, as well as in tri- 
 gonometrical solutions. Thus, in all proportions, three 
 terms are given to find a fourth. Seek out, therefore 
 the first term, whether number, sine, or tangent, on its 
 proper line; and in that point set one foot of the com- 
 passes, and extend the other* to the second or third 
 term, whichever of them is of the same name as the 
 first; the same extent laid from the other term the 
 same way will reach to the fourth term required. 
 
THE DOUBLE SCALES. 
 
 105 
 
 Example. — As the sine of 52°. 30' : 85 : : radius, or 
 the sine of 90° to the fourth number required. 
 
 Set one foot of the compasses in the line of artificial 
 sines on 52°. 30', and extend the other foot to 90 Q on 
 that line ; the same extent will reach from 85 on the 
 line of numbers to 107, the fourth term required. 
 
 The Double Scales. 
 
 These consist of the line of lines, or of equal parts 
 marked l ; the line of chords marked c ; the line of 
 sines marked s ; the line of secants also marked s, but 
 placed on the reverse side of the sector; the line of 
 polygons marked Pol; a line of tangents to 45° marked 
 t ; and also a second, line of tangents from 45 Q to 75°. 
 Each of these scales begins at the centre of the instru- 
 ment, and is terminated near the other extremity of 
 each leg ; viz. the lines at 10, the chords at 60, the 
 sines at 90°, and the tangents at 45° ; the remainder 
 of the tangents, or those above 45°, are on other scales 
 beginning at | of the length of the former, counted 
 from the centre, and marked with 45, and run to about 
 76 degrees. 
 
 The secants also begin at the same distance from the 
 centre, where they are marked with 10, and are con- 
 tinued to as many degrees as the length of the sector 
 will allow, which is about 75°. 
 
 The angles made by the double scales of lines of 
 chords, of sines, and of tangents to 45 degrees, are 
 always equal. 
 
 The angles made by the scales of upper tangents, 
 and of secants, are also equal, and sometimes these 
 angles are made equal to those made by the other double 
 scales. 
 
 F 3 
 
106 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 The scale of polygons is put near the inner edge of 
 the legs ; their beginning is not so far removed from 
 the centre as the 60 on the chords is. The beginning 
 of this scale is marked 4, and from thence is figured 
 towards the centre of the instrument to 12. 
 
 From this disposition of the double scales, it is plain 
 that those angles which are equal to each other when 
 the legs of the sector are close, will continue equal to 
 each other at every opening of the instrument. 
 
 Method of using the Double Lines on the Sector. 
 
 When a measure is taken on any of the sectoral 
 lines beginning at the centre, it is called a lateral 
 distance ; but when a measure is taken from any point 
 on one line, to its corresponding point on the line of 
 the same denomination on the other leg, it is called a 
 transverse distance. 
 
 The divisions of each sectoral line are contained 
 within three parallel lines, the innermost being the line 
 on which the points of the compasses are to be placed, 
 because this is the only line of the three which goes to 
 the centre, and is therefore the sectoral line. 
 
 Line of Lines. 
 
 Multiplication.— With, the compasses, take from any 
 convenient distance from the scale of equal parts the 
 length of one of the factors, and open the sector until 
 the transverse distance between 10 and 10 is equal to 
 it; then the transverse distance of the other factor 
 (measured upon the same scale of equal parts) will repre- 
 sent the product. 
 
 Example.— Multiply 4 by 5, expand the compasses 
 from the centre of the sector to 4 on the primary divi- 
 sions (or take it from any other scale of equal parts), and 
 
PROPORTIONS. f 
 
 open the sector till this division becomes the transverse 
 distance from 10 to 10 on the same divisions ; then 
 the transverse distance from 5 to 5, measured upon the 
 same scale as the former, will equal 2 or 20, the 
 answer. 
 
 Division. — Make the lateral distance of the dividend 
 the transverse distance of the divisor ; the transverse 
 distance of 10 will be the quotient. 
 
 Example. — Divide 20 by 4. Make 20, taken from 
 any convenient scale of equal parts, the transverse dis- 
 tance of 4, then the transverse of 10 (measured upon 
 the same scale) will be 5, the answer. 
 
 It will readily be perceived for the multiplication or 
 division of high numbers, aliquot parts of both factors 
 must be taken, and the result multiplied by the same. 
 The application of the sector to such common arith- 
 metical operations is therefore very limited (and of 
 doubtful utility). 
 
 Proportion. — Two lines being given to find a third 
 proportional. 
 
 Example.— The given = 2 and 6, a third propor- 
 tional required. Take between the compasses the lateral 
 distance of the second term 6 (either from the line of 
 lines on the sector, or any convenient scale), and open 
 the sector until this distance becomes the transverse 
 distance to the first term 2, then the transverse dis- 
 tance of the second term 6 measured upon the same 
 scale as the former, will equal 18, the third proportional 
 required. 
 
 If the legs of the sector will not open so far as to let 
 the lateral distance of the second term fall between the 
 divisions expressing the first term, then take f, or 
 any aliquot part of the second term (such as will cou- 
 
108 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 veniently fall within the opening of the sector), and 
 make such part the transverse distance of the first term ; 
 then, if the transverse distance of the second term be 
 multiplied by the denominator of the part taken of the 
 second term, the product will give the third propor- 
 tional required. Thus, in the above example, take | of 
 6 = 2, which make the transverse distance of 2 the 
 first term ; then the transverse distance of 6 the second 
 term will be = 6, which multiplied by 3, will give 18, 
 the answer. 
 
 Three lines being given to find a fourth proportional, 
 open the sector until the lateral distance of the second 
 term, or some aliquot part thereof, becomes the trans- 
 verse section of the first term, or some aliquot part 
 thereof becomes the transverse distance of the first 
 term ; then the transverse distance of the third term 
 will be the fourth proportional required, or such a sub- 
 multiple thereof as was taken of the second term. 
 
 Example. — To find a fourth proportional to the 
 numbers 2, 6, and 10. 
 
 Take this lateral distance of the second term 6 from 
 any convenient scale of equal parts, and open the sector 
 until that quantity, or any aliquot part thereof, becomes 
 the transverse distance of the first term 2, then the 
 transverse distance of the third term 10, taken from 
 the same scale of equal parts, will give 30, the fourth 
 proportional required. 
 
 To diminish a Line in any Assigned Proportion. 
 Example. — Let it be required to diminish a line of 4 
 inches in the proportion of 8 to 7. Open the sector 
 until the transverse distance of 8 is equal to a lateral 
 distance of 7. 
 
PROPORTIONS. I . ^ 
 
 Mark the point where 4 inches will reaches a ktterai 
 distance taken from the centre, which will^^ in <this 
 case 6"86, and the transverse distance taken a\t^^)CTO| 
 will ue 3 inches and a half, the proportion r< 
 that is, 8 : 7 1 : : 4 : 3|. 
 
 We may remark, once for all, that in all problems 
 with the sector, if any given line is too long for the legs 
 of the instrument, take |, or \, &c, of it, and the 
 result multiplied by 2, 3, or 4, will give the quantity 
 required. 
 
 The use of the sector in reducing drawings may be 
 thus shown : — Suppose a triangle was to be reduced to 
 the proportion of 4 to 7. 
 
 Take the length of one side of the triangle in the com- 
 passes, and make it the transverse distance of 7 and 7 ; 
 then take the transverse distance 4 and 4, which will be 
 the length of the corresponding side of the reduced 
 triangle. Next take the length of another side of the 
 given triangles, and make the transverse distance of 7 
 and 7 as before. Then the transverse distance of 4 
 and 4 will be the length of the corresponding side of 
 the reduced triangle; one point of the compasses being 
 placed at the proper extremity of the first reduced line, 
 describe an arc with the length of the second line as 
 radius. Lastly, the third side of the given triangle 
 being made the transverse distance of 7 and 7, and that 
 of 4 and 4 being taken, another arc intersecting the 
 former one, described from the opposite end of the first 
 reduced line, will give the point to be connected with 
 each end of the first reduced line, and the triangle will 
 be completed. 
 
 In the same manner, any right-lined figure, of how 
 many sides soever, may be reduced in any given pro- 
 portion or augmented by the same rule. 
 
no 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 To divide a given line into any proposed number of 
 equal parts : — 
 
 Make the length of the given line the transverse dis- 
 tance to the figures representing the number of parts 
 required ; then the transverse distance of 1 and 1 Avill 
 divide the given line as required. 
 
 Example. — Suppose a line to be divided into 9 equal 
 parts, take the length of the given line in the com- 
 passes, and open the sector until it becomes the trans- 
 verse distance between 9 and 9 ; then the transverse of 
 1 and 1 will be ith part of the given line, or such a 
 sub-multiple of the ith part as was taken of the given 
 line. Or the £th part will be the difference between 
 the given line and the transverse distance 8 and 8. 
 
 The latter of these methods is to be preferred when 
 the parts required fall near the centre of the instru- 
 ment. 
 
 To make the line of lines represent any scale of equal 
 parts for drawing, plans, elevations, &c. Thus, sup- 
 pose a scale of one to five chains, or one inch to five 
 feet were required. Take one inch in the compasses, 
 and, by opening the sector, make it the transverse dis- 
 tances of 5 and 5, and then the transverse distance of 
 any other corresponding points, as 6 and 6, H\ and 7i 
 will be that number of chains, and links or feet, &c, 
 to the scale required. 
 
 Line of Chords. 
 The double scales of chords upon the sectors are 
 more generally useful than the single line of chords 
 described on the plane scale : for, on the sector, the 
 radius with which the arc is to be described may be of 
 any length, between the transverse distance of 60 and 
 
LINE OF CHORDS. 
 
 of 60, when the legs are close, and that of the transverse 
 of 60 and 60 when the legs are opened \is~tfar as the 
 instrument will admit of. But with the chords on the 
 plane scale, the arc described must be alway«^olM;he 
 same radius. 
 
 To protract or lay down a right-lined angle, which 
 shall contain a given number of degrees, suppose 46°. 
 
 Case 1. — When the angles contain less than 60 
 degrees, make the transverse distance of 60 and 60 
 equal to the length of the radius of the circle, and with 
 that opening describe an arc. Take the transverse 
 distance of the given degrees 46, and lay this distance 
 on the arc. Prom the centre of the arc draw two Hues, 
 each passing through one extremity of the distance laid 
 on the arc, and these two lines will contain the angle 
 required. 
 
 Case 2. — When the angle contains more than 60 
 degrees. Suppose, for example, we wish to form an 
 angle containing 148 degrees. Describe an arc, and 
 make the transverse distance of ^ or &c, of the 
 given number of degrees, and lay this distance on the 
 arc twice or thrice. Draw two lines connecting them, 
 and they will form the angle required. 
 
 When the required angle contains less than 5 de- 
 grees, suppose 3£, it will be better to proceed thus 
 with the given radius, and from the centre describe an 
 arc, and from a given point lay off the chord of 60°, 
 which suppose to give the point a ; and also from the 
 first point lay off in the same direction the chord of 
 56^- degrees (= 60° — 3£°), which would give the point b ; 
 then through these two points draw lines to the point a, 
 and they will represent the angle of 3£ degrees, as 
 required. From what has been stated about the pro- 
 
112 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 tracting of an angle to contain a given number ol 
 degrees, it will easily be seen how to find the degrees 
 or measure of an angle already laid down. 
 
 Line of Pohjgons. 
 The line of polygons is chiefly useful for the ready 
 division of the circumference of a circle into any 
 number of equal parts from 4 to 12, that is, as a ready 
 means to inscribe regular polygons of any given number 
 of sides from 4 to 12, within a given circle. To which 
 set off the radius of the given circle (which is always 
 equal to the side of an inscribed hexagon), as the trans- 
 verse distance of 6 and 6 upon the line of polygons. 
 Then the transverse distance of 6 and 6 upon the line 
 of polygons. Then the transverse distance of 4 and 4 
 will be the side of a square ; the transverse distance 
 between 5 and 5, the side of a pentagon • between 7 
 and 7, the side of a heptagon ; between 8 and 8 the 
 side of an octagon ; between 9 and 9, the side of a 
 nonagon, &c. ; all of which is too plain to require an 
 example. 
 
 If it be required to form a polygon upon a given 
 right line, set off the extent of the given line as a 
 transverse distance between the points upon the lines 
 of polygons, answering to the number of sides of which 
 the polygon is to consist, as for a pentagon between 5 
 and 5, or for an octagon between 8 and 8 ; then the 
 transverse distance between 6 and 6 will be the radius 
 of a circle whose circumference would be divided bv 
 the given line into the number of sides required. 
 
 The line of polygons may likewise be used in describ- 
 ing, upon a given line, an isosceles triangle, whose 
 angles at the base are each double that at the vertex. 
 
SINES, TANGENTS, AND SECANTS. 
 
 113 
 
 For, taking the given line between the compasses, open 
 the sector, till the extent becomes the transverse dis- 
 tance of 10 and 10, then the transverse distance of 6 
 and 6 will be the length of each of the two equal sides 
 of the isosceles triangle. 
 
 All such regular polygons, whose number of sides 
 will exactly divide 360 (the number of degrees into 
 which all circles are supposed to be divided) without a 
 remainder, may likewise be set off upon the circum- 
 ference of a circle by the line of chords. Thus, take 
 the radius of the circle between the compasses, and 
 open the sector till that extent is the transverse dis- 
 tance between 60 and 60 upon the line of chords ; then 
 having divided 360 by the required number of sides, 
 the transverse distance between the numbers of the 
 quotient will be the side of the polygon required. Thus 
 for an octagon, take the distance between 45 and 45 : 
 and for a polygon of 36 sides, take the distance between 
 10 and 10, &c. 
 
 Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants. 
 
 Given the radius of a circle (suppose to two inches) ; 
 required the sine and tangent of 28°. 30' to the radius. 
 
 Open the sector so that the transverse distance of 
 90 and 90 on the sines, or of 45 and 45 on the tangents, 
 may be equal to the given radius, viz. two inches; then 
 will the transverse distance of 28°. 30', taken from the 
 sines, be the length of that sine to the given radius ; or 
 if taken from the tangents, will be the length of that 
 tangent to the given radius. But if the secant of 
 28°. 30' was required, make the given radius of two 
 inches a transverse distance of 0 and 0. at the bejrm- 
 
Ill 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 ning of the line of secants, and then take the transverse 
 distance of the degrees wanted, viz. 28°. 30'. 
 
 A tangent greater than 45 degrees (suppose 60) is 
 found thus : — 
 
 Make the given radius, suppose two inches, a trans- 
 verse distance to 45, and 45 at the beginning of the 
 scale of upper tangents, and then the required degrees 
 (60) may be taken from the scale. 
 
 Given the length of the sine, tangent, or secant ol 
 any degrees, to find the length of the radius to that 
 sine, tangent, or secant. 
 
 Make the given length a transverse distance to its 
 given degrees on its respective scale. Then, 
 
 £ a ? ine . ,- a ) the trans- ( 90 and 90 on the sines ) will be 
 
 If a tangent under 40 s f ' 'vU rf , J 45 and 45 on the tangents f the 
 
 If a tangent above 45° ( ™ ™ UJ ": •) 45 and 45 on the upper tangents ( radius 
 
 If a secant ) ul " ce 01 ( 0 and 0 on secants. ) sought. 
 
 To find the length of a versed sine to a given number 
 of degrees, and a given radius. 
 
 Make the transverse distance of 90 and 90 on the 
 sine, equal to the given radius. 
 
 Take the transverse distance of the complement of 
 the given number of degrees. 
 
 If the given number of degrees is less than 90, sub- 
 tract the complement of the sine from the radius, the 
 remainder will be the versed sine. 
 
 If the given number of degrees are more than 0, 
 add the complement of the sine to the radius, and the 
 sum will be the versed sine. 
 
 To open the legs of a sector, so that the correspond- 
 ing double scale of lines, chords, sines, tangents, may 
 make each a right angle. 
 
 On the line of lines, make the lateral distance 10, a 
 
SINES, TANGENTS, AND SEfA? 
 
 transverse distance between 8 on one 
 other leg. 
 
 On the line of sines, make the later; 
 transverse distance 45 to 45 y or from 
 from 30 to 60 ; or from the sine of any 
 complement. 
 
 On the line of tangents make the lateral distance of 
 45 a transverse distance between 30 and 30. 
 
 Having now endeavoured to describe the principal 
 drawing instruments in general use, and the principal 
 scales from which all others emanate, we propose at 
 some future period to exemplify the simplicity of their 
 application to all the trades engaged in the building 
 art, accompanied by some useful diagrams and geo- 
 metrical problems. 
 
116 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER VI, 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS : ARTIFICERS' WORK, AND 
 
 QUANTITIES. 
 
 Having thus conveyed some preliminary notions as to 
 the methods of designing architectural structures upon 
 paper, and having also described the several materials and 
 trades with their chief tools and methods of manipula- 
 tion, which are employed in the construction of dwell- 
 ing houses, we proceed to illustrate the design itself, 
 which will be done most briefly by giving (with the 
 necessary illustrations) an example in the following 
 
 " Specification of the different Artificers' Work re- 
 quired for the erection of two houses proposed 
 to be erected on a plot of ground, situate 
 
 for ' 
 
 according with, and corresponding to the various 
 drawings, comprising plans, elevations, sections, 
 and details, made and combined with this specifi- 
 cation for the purpose of such erection, and under 
 the superintendence of 
 
 CARCASS OF BUILDING." 
 
 excavator. 
 
 The ground is to be excavated to the whole of the 
 extent of the principal building for the basement storey, 
 
DRAINS. 
 
 117 
 
 and to the depth and dimensions shown, and described 
 on the plans and section. Plates II. and III., which will 
 average an area of about 50 feet by 50 feet, and 5 feet 
 deep ; and the trenches then to be dug out of sufficient 
 breadth and depth for the construction of the founda- 
 tions of the several walls, chimney breasts, piers for 
 sleepers, &c. To excavate when and where directed, 
 according to the dimensions, the earth required for the 
 formation of the rain-water tank, being about 11 feet 
 long, 8 feet deep, and 8 feet wide, as well as for all 
 pipes, drains, traps, syphons, or cesspools, that are, or 
 may be hereafter, described or necessary. 
 
 To fill in and well ram the earth or soil round all the 
 foundations, piers, traps, gullies, syphons, &c, and to 
 well puddle round and about the rain-water tank, suffi- 
 cient to prevent the ingress or egress of water. To level 
 all grounds and to cart away from time to time, as may 
 be directed, all the superfluous earth or rubbish that 
 accumulates round or in the buildings or grounds during 
 their erection, and to leave them in a clean and perfect 
 condition at the conclusion of the works. 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Drains. 
 
 Provide and lay six-inch glazed earthenware socket- 
 jointed pipes, for conveying soil and waste- water into 
 principal drain or sewer, in the position and to the depth 
 shown on the block-plan and section, Plate III., with 
 a fall of not less than 6 inches to every 100 feet, and 
 to fix and make perfect and secure, No. 8 15-inch 
 earthenware gully-traps, and No. 4 syphons of the best 
 and most approved description. To lay a 6-inch similar 
 
118 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 connecting pipe from principal and servants' water- 
 closets, as well as 4-inch glazed pipes, from sink in back 
 kitchens and front areas into the above-named or 
 principal drain, with all necessary bends, traps, &c, to 
 render the drainage perfect. Build in 9-inch sound 
 stock brickwork, the rain-water tank, and complete the 
 same in the manner shown and described, and to the 
 dimensions exemplified on Plate XIV., viz. : The walls 
 all round to be built in 9-inch brickwork hi cement, 
 and the bottom to be paved with two courses of bricks 
 laid fiat in the same material, upon which are to be two 
 courses of tiles bedded in cement, and the whole to be 
 rendered all round with compo 1£ inch thick, and all 
 the external portion to be well puddled. To lay and 
 fix complete 4-inch glazed earthenware socket-pipes, 
 from the zinc down-comers of roofs into the said tank, 
 and a 6-inch waste ditto into the principal drain or soil 
 pipe, with all necessary bends, neck, or traps, that may 
 be requisite for the full completion of the conveyance 
 of the water to and from the tank and the drainage. 
 
 Building. 
 
 The whole of the brickwork to be executed with 
 sound hard-burnt stock bricks laid in well-made mortar, 
 composed of Dorking lime (or any other that approxi- 
 mates to the same quality), mixed in the proportion of 
 one measure of lime to three of clean sharp river or 
 road sand, free from loam or earthy particles. 
 
 The whole of the external walls of the erection as 
 high as the ground-floor line to be laid in old English 
 bond and left rough for receiving Boman cement stucco, 
 and from thence to the top of the building, to be carried 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 up in Flemish, bond and prepared and left for tuck 
 pointing. No four courses in either bona\to rise more 
 than 12 inches in height, and all the several walls, 
 chimney-breasts, piers, &c, with their various footings, 
 to be built and finished in the manner and according to 
 the dimensions shown and described upon the accom- 
 panying plates. 
 
 All openings below the ground-floor line to have 
 rough skew-back arches turned over them, and all 
 above, both to front and back elevation, to have 14- 
 inch arches of the best picked malms rubbed and set 
 in putty. 
 
 The foundations to be laid in three courses, and the 
 piers for sleepers to be built 9 inches square, as shown 
 and described on Plate XV. To provide and lay a course 
 of slates between two beds of cement on all the walls 
 at the level of the ground surface of the principal 
 building to prevent the rising of the damp. 
 
 Each storey of the building to have two double tiers 
 of hoop-iron bonds, of No. 12 gauge, properly tarred 
 and bedded round and across all the walls of the build- 
 ing. To build up the bay-windows and porches to 
 entrance-hall in cement, and according with the manner 
 and dimensions shown and described on Plates XXII, 
 and XXIII. 
 
 No. 6 air bricks to be inserted between the floor 
 joists of each storey in front, and the same number 
 in the back elevations, for allowing ventilation to the 
 floors. 
 
 To turn over all door and window openings 4$ dis- 
 charging arches closely set, and to each fire-place a 
 inch brick trimmer, and insert a wrought-iron chimney- 
 bar 2 inches wide by | of an inch thick, as shown on 
 
120 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Plate XVII., to all the chimney openings; the bars to 
 have 4J inch bearing, and to be turned up and down at 
 the ends. 
 
 To carry up all the flues as shown on section, and in 
 the direction thereon described, and to properly core and 
 parget the same. 
 
 To thoroughly bed in mortar all the sleepers, wall- 
 plates, wood bricks, bond-timber, lintels, and all others 
 requiring to be set or bedded in mortar, and to fix in 
 and point with lime and hair all the door and window 
 frames. 
 
 A chasm in the brickwork of each house to be left 
 where directed, from the ground to the principal water- 
 closet, for soil and water-pipes. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
 The walls of these buildings to have two courses of 
 footings, and carried up to their various heights one 
 brick or 9 inches thick, and the flues to be taken as 
 shown on the section, one tier of iron hoop bond, similar 
 to that described for the principal building, to be in- 
 serted all round the party and external walls. 
 
 A 6-inch glaze earthenware soil pipe to be laid from 
 servants' water-closet into principal or main drain, and 
 a 4-inch ditto from sink in back-kitchen into waste- 
 drain, properly trapped and in connection with waste or 
 soil-pipe of the above-named closet. 
 
 To carry up 4^-inch division or protection walls be- 
 tween water-closet, coal-cellar, and back -kitchen. Also 
 to 9-inch spandril brickwork, with necessary footings 
 for the support of steps from ground-floor to garden. 
 
GROUND FLOOR. 
 
 121 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 All the timber used {except for the sleepers) to be the 
 best Dantzic, Riga, or Memel fir. The sleepers to be of 
 well seasoned oak, as free from knots, shakes, and sap as 
 possible, and all the scantlings figured on the drawings 
 or herein expressed to finish to their full dimensions. 
 ~No ceiling joists, quarters, or rafters are to be more 
 than 12 inches apart. 
 
 To provide and fix all wood bricks where and when 
 required, as well as all necessary centres, screens, 
 springing slips, and all other articles necessary for the 
 due execution of the carpenter's work. 
 
 Basement Storey. 
 
 The sleepers to be of oak 5x3 inches, halved and 
 spiked together, and bedded level and soundly on thf 
 brick piers, as shown and described on Plate XV. 
 
 The floor joists to be 4 x 2 inches, bridged and 
 well nailed to sleepers. 
 
 Wood bricks to be inserted where requisite in jambs 
 of doors, windows, &c., as well as round the walls for 
 fixing the skirting and other joiner's work to. 
 
 Lintels to be inserted over all the door and window- 
 openings, 3 inches thick, and the width of the jamb ; 
 and to have at least a 4-inch bearing on each jamb. 
 
 Ground Floor. « 
 Wall-plates 4j x 3 inches to* be inserted the whole 
 length of front and back walls, to be halved and dove- 
 tailed at the angles of the two external flank walls, 
 and return upon the same not less than 6 feet, to form 
 a connecting bond with the front and back walls of the 
 building. A wall-plate of the same scantling to be also 
 
 o 
 
122 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 inserted upon the top of the wall dividing breakfast 
 room from kitchens. 
 
 The floor- joists to be 9 X 2 inches, and to extend 
 from front to back wall of building and over bay 
 window, and to be bolted and spiked to the wall-plates. 
 The joists to be herring-bone trussed, and to have on 
 the floors of each house No. 3 1-inch wrought iron 
 tension-rods inserted, as shown and described, with 
 the trimmers on Plate XIX. It must be' distinctly un- 
 derstood that before the herring-bone trussing and iron 
 tension -rods are applied, the joists on each floor must 
 be shored up in the centre to form a camber of at 
 least 2£ inches, when, after the trussing is filled in, and 
 the above-mentioned rods screwed up, the shoring may 
 be taken away. 
 
 The wood trimmers before and on the sides of chim- 
 ney-breasts to be framed and supported as shown and 
 described on Plate XVI. It may, perhaps, be as well 
 to state, that they are framed at one end into the front 
 one, and rest upon a stone corbel inserted purposely 
 for their support at the other ; and after being properly 
 applied to their places, are secured by an iron bar 
 being well spiked to the end of each end trimmer. 
 
 The trimmers for well-hole of stairs to be of the 
 same scantling, and supported from the flank walls in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Lintels, bond, wood bricks, and every other requisite 
 to be inserted as before described for the basement 
 floor. 
 
 First or Chamber Floor. 
 The wall-plates to be 4£ X 3 inches, and to extend 
 the whole length of front and back walls of building, 
 
QUARTER-PARTITIONS. 
 
 123 
 
 to be halved and dovetailed and well spiked at the 
 angles, and to return upon the flank walls, not less 
 than 6 feet, to form a connecting bond at the angles. 
 The floor joists to be 9 x 2 inches, and to extend from 
 front to back and over bay windows, and to be notched 
 and spiked to wall-plates. 
 
 The joists to be herring-bone trussed, and wound up 
 with wrought iron tension rods, as shown and described 
 for the ground floor below. 
 
 Also, the trimmers to be framed, fixed, and supported 
 in a similar manner ; at the same time providing and 
 fixing all necessary centres, bond, wood bricks, and 
 every other requisite. 
 
 Attic. 
 
 The wall-plates of this floor to be of the same scant- 
 ling, and to be fixed on the walls in a similar manner 
 to that above described for the two floors below. The 
 floor joists to be also 9x2 inches, and fixed, herring- 
 bone trussed with the iron rods applied in a like 
 manner to those before described, as also the trimmers ; 
 with all the necessary auxiliaries alluded to for the 
 before-named floors. 
 
 Quarter-partitions. 
 The partitions to be framed and fixed in the manner 
 shown and described on the Plates XXIV. and XXV., 
 and the floor joists notched and secured to the heads or 
 sills thereof (as the case may be), which heads and sills 
 are to rest on a stone corbel inserted in the party wall 
 for that purpose, and connected together by iron straps, 
 as shown and described at Fig. 2, Plate XXV. The 
 scantlings to be of the following dimensions, viz.:— 
 
 a 2 
 
124 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 heads and sills, 7x3 inches ; side and door posts, 
 4 x 3| inches ; braces, 3£ x 3| inches ; ailing in quar- 
 ters, 31 X 2 inches; with all necessary bolts, ties, straps, 
 &c, fixed complete. 
 
 Cisterns. 
 
 A cistern to be framed and fixed in the roof over 
 water-closet, and put together with white lead, as shown 
 and described in Plate XXIV., Eigs. 4 and 5, and to 
 be of the following dimensions, viz. :— 8 feet long, 6 
 feet wide, and 3 feet deep ; the quarterings of the 
 heads, sills, sides, and bottom, to be 3 x 3 inches, 
 framed- and put together in the usual manner, with li 
 by \ thick iron ties at all the angles, properly spiked 
 thereto j the whole to be lined with l|-inch ploughed 
 and tongued yellow deal boarding. 
 
 A smaller cistern also to be prepared and fixed imme- 
 diately under the one above described, but just above 
 the water-closet, upon the quarter space of stairs 
 between the ground and chamber floors, the size of 
 which is to be 2 feet 6 inches long, 1 foot 6 inches wide, 
 and 1 foot 6 inches deep— to be prepared from 1^-inch 
 yellow deal, ploughed, tongued, dovetailed, and strapped 
 in the usual manner 
 
 Roof to principal Building. 
 The roof to be framed and fixed with wall -plates, tie- 
 beams, queen and king posts, principal rafters, half 
 principal ditto, pole plates, purlins, common rafters, 
 diagonal ties, slips, ridges, &c., as shown and described 
 on Plates XX. and XXI., and with the accompanying 
 explanation, viz. :— Two whole pair of principal rafters 
 to be framed and fixed at the intersection of the hips, 
 
and eight half principal rafters in the $5^tioif* 
 on plan of roof to be framed into them ; t^^all-^^tei^^ 
 to be properly scarfed and wedged togethe^1%ij;h o^Ek 
 or iron wedges, and to be halved, dove-tailed^&jg ^weff ^ 
 spiked at the angles, so as to form and be a con- 
 tinuous bond all round the external walls of the build- 
 ing; the tie-beam and angular ties to be properly 
 cogged down upon the wall-plate ; the principal rafters 
 and half principal rafters to be framed with the necessary 
 draft, and in the usual manner, with all the requisite 
 iron bolts, clips, straps, wedges, &c, fixed thereon ; the 
 pole plates to be scarfed and wedged together, and 
 tenoned and fixed at the angles, so that it may make 
 a continuous tie to the roof, in the same manner the 
 wall-plate does to the walls, and the purlins to be 
 scarfed where required, and fixed to hips in the usual 
 Avay — and to be bridged down upon principal rafters ; 
 the hip rafter to be framed into the dragging tie, and the 
 common rafters to be notched on to purlins and pole 
 plate. The ridge board and hip rafters to rise full 2 inches 
 above the top or line of common rafters for dressing the 
 lead round. The scantlings of the timbers for this roof 
 are to be as follows : — 
 
 The plate for fixing brackets to 4| by 
 
 Wall-plate 4£ „ 4£ 
 
 Cantilevers, to be halved and nailed to feet of 
 
 common rafters 4 „ 2 
 
 Tie beam 9 „ 4 
 
 Principal rafters 7, ,4 „ 
 
 Pole plate and purlins 7 „ 4 
 
 Common rafters 4 „ 2 
 
 Queen and king posts in clear of joggles .... 4 4 
 
 Praces or struts > . . 4 „ 3 
 
 Hips and ridges 12 „ 2 
 
 Diagonal and dragging ties 4 J „ 4^ 
 
126 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Battens for slates 
 
 Collar pieces 
 
 To prepare and fix to collar pieces of roof ceiling 
 
 joists 
 
 2 by Of 
 7 „ 3 
 
 4* „ 2 
 
 And to fix, as shown in Plate XX., all canting fillets, facia, as 
 may be required, to their various sizes, &c. 
 
 To prepare and fix in jambs and other places required, 
 and, where directed, wood bricks for fixing and com- 
 pleting the joiner's work, and to prepare and bed 
 lintels over all door and window openings ; the width 
 of the jambs 3J inches thick, and to lay 4J inches on 
 each jamb. 
 
 The servants' privy to have a wall-plate 4& x 3 inches 
 inserted, and to have floor 4J x 2 inches notched thereon, 
 and trimmed for pan of closet. 
 
 The roofs over these buildings to be plain lean-to 
 roofs, each declining from the party-wall, and to the 
 same inclination as that of the principal building, and 
 to comprise a wall-plate, tie-beam, principal rafter, 
 forming common rafter as well, a purlin supported by a 
 strut from the tie- beam, and a pole plate ; the whole to 
 be battened for receiving slates, &c. 
 
 The scantlings for these offices are to be of the fol- 
 lowing dimensions, namely : — 
 
 Wall-plates, 4£ X 3 inches ; tie-beams 8x4 inches ; 
 pole plate, 4f x 3 inches ; principal rafter, 8x3 inches ; 
 common rafters, 3§ x 2 inches ; ridge-board, 6 x li 
 inches ; and battens for slates, 2 x f inches. 
 
 Two cisterns to be prepared and fixed in roofs over 
 the sinks for receiving the water from the service and 
 the rain-water tank ; these cisterns are to be 4 feet 
 long, 3 feet wide, and 2 feet 6 inches deep, and framed 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 127 
 
 with skeleton angular framing j that is, to have a head 
 and sill all round with quartering, at all the angles 
 similar to that described for the cistern in principal roof, 
 with one upright in the middle, and a corresponding 
 piece across the bottom/ the whole to be lined with 
 1 5-inch yellow deal, ploughed, tongued, and put together 
 with white lead. A partition in each cistern, prepared 
 in the same manner, from 1-inch yellow deal, to be 
 inserted and grooved into sides and bottom. 
 
 To provide and fix, when and where directed, all 
 centres, bond, timber, wood bricks, springing pieces, 
 &c, and set out all necessary work, and to do or cause 
 to be done all and everything that is required of a 
 carpenter in a building, providing all materials, the 
 best of their respective qualities, and all requisite plant 
 for the full completion of the work. 
 
 SMITH AND IRON-FOUNDER. 
 
 All the iron work, except that particularly described 
 to be cast, to be of the best malleable metal, as free 
 from blister or any other imperfections as possible. To 
 prepare, deliver, and assist in fixing No. 16 wrought- 
 iron chimney bars, of the dimensions of the opening 
 shown on the various drawings, and of the form and 
 manner described in the detailed Plates, each bar to be 
 2 inches wide, and fth of an inch thick, to have a 4| 
 bearing on each joint, and to turn up and down 2| 
 inches at each end. 
 
 To prepare and deliver No. 8 iron straps, 2 feet 6 
 long, 2| inches wide, and £-inch thick, punched with 
 holes for the necessary spikes, &c, for tieing heads and 
 sills of partitions together, and as shown on Plate 
 XXIV., Fig. 2, prepare No. 6 iron clips for partition 
 
128 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 posts, 2 feet long, 3£ clip, 2 inches wide, and £ inch 
 thick. 
 
 To prepare, provide, and assist in fixing, No. 18 one- 
 inch wrought iron tension rods, to extend from front 
 to "back walls of the building, three of which are to be 
 fixed in each floor of each house of the building, with 
 2-inch head, one inch thick at one end, and taped up 
 at the other end at least four inches, with a nut of 
 the same size as the head, with a pair of washers to 
 each rod, 6 inches by 3 and £ of an inch thick. See 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 To prepare and deliver No. 12 iron clips for feet of 
 principal rafter, as shown on Plate XXI., Fig. 1, 18 
 inches long, 4 inches clip, 2 inches wide, and £ inch 
 thick, pierced for the necessary spikes, &c. ; No. 4 clips 
 for foot of queen posts, Figs. 3 and 4, 2 feet long, 4- 
 inch clip, 2 inches wide, &c, £ inch thick, with mortice 
 for wedges, 1} inches deep, and § thick, and a pair of 
 corresponding wedges to each clip. 
 
 No. 4 pairs of iron straps to fix on the heads of 
 queen posts, stretching piece and head of principal 
 rafter, made to the form shown on the same plate, 2 
 feet 6 inches long, 2 inches wide, \ inch thick, pierced 
 for the requisite spike, &c. 
 
 No. 4 f-inch bolts for king posts, 2 feet long, taped 
 down 3£ inches, with 2 heads and washers, 4 inches by 
 3, and i of an inch thick. 
 
 No. 8 clip similar to those described for the whole 
 principal rafters, to be provided for the half principal 
 rafter. No. 8 clips also to be provided for the heads of 
 the same, 1 foot 6 inches long ; clip 4 inches by 2 
 inches wide, and \ inch thick, with all necessary spikesj 
 nails, wedges, &c, for making the work complete. 
 
STONEMASON. 
 
 129 
 
 To provide and fix No. 8 angular irons to top and 
 sill of cistern in roof, 1 foot 6 inches upon each return, 
 
 2 inches wide, and £ inch thick ; and also No. 8 for the 
 two smaller cisterns, 1 foot long, 1^ inch wide, and 
 
 inch thick. 
 
 STONEMASON. 
 
 To put to all the external doorways Yorkshire stone 
 solid tooled steps, with mortice holes for receiving the 
 ends of door-posts. 
 
 To provide and fix No. 8 properly dished and holed 
 gully stones, 15 inches square and 3 inches thick, when 
 and where directed ; as also a 5-inch York landing, 10 
 feet long by 7 feet wide, or two stones to correspond 
 to the same dimensions over the rain-water tank, with 
 every preparation of receiving the slate filter, as shown 
 on Plate XIY. 
 
 To prepare and bed No. 20 Yorkshire stones, 1 foot 
 
 3 inches square, and 1 foot 4 inches deep, for receiving 
 trimmers to floors and heads and sills of partitions, 
 tooled as shown on Plate XXIV. 
 
 To prepare and fix 100 feet run of York throated 
 coping, 12 x 3, to area of front and back elevations, 
 and to kitchen offices ; also, 36 feet run of rough York, 
 1 foot 4 inches by 4 inches thick, to form core for the 
 cornices of entrance porches and bay windows. 
 
 To prepare, provide, and fix tooled, rubbed, and 
 throated window sills, 8 inches wide and 4£ inches 
 thick, properly dished, to all openings of windows in 
 front and back elevations and kitchen offices, according 
 to the dimensions shown on the various drawings. 
 
 To prepare and fix to the porches of entrance doors 
 a 6-inch tooled and rubbed landing, with steps leading 
 
 g 3 
 
130 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 thereto, 12 inches by 6 inches, bedded to brick span- 
 drils, as shown on Plate XX1IL Also, to fix a tooled 
 landing 7 inches thick to the back or garden entrance, 
 and the steps from thence to the garden, which are to 
 be 2^-inch tooled treads and risers securely bedded on 
 brick spandrils carried up for that purpose. 
 
 To provide and fix in back kitchen a stone sink, to 
 size shown on plan and 6 inches deep, with a hole cut 
 and dished to receive bell trap and waste water pipe. 
 
 To cut on the stonework all necessary holes, mor- 
 tices, rebates, grooves, as required, and all other work 
 pertaining to the trade of a mason. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 All the slips and ridges of principal roof to be covered 
 with 6 lb. milled lead, and to be laid down over the 
 slate at least 6 inches on each side with the usual lap, 
 and secured in the most approved manner. The dormer 
 lights to attics to be also covered with 6 lb. lead, and 
 the vertical sides of each with 5 lb. lead. All the 
 flashings for this roof, as well as that over kitchen 
 office, to be of 5 lb. lead, and to dress over the slates 
 and up the side at least 6 inches, and where requisite 
 to be let into the brickwork at least 1 inch, with all 
 necessary solder, holdfast screws, nails, &c, with every 
 other requisite for making the internal roofs impervious 
 to wet, from rain, snow, or other causes. 
 
 SLATER. 
 
 The roof over principal building to be covered with 
 duchess slating, with at least 3 inches lap, and the usuai 
 gauge of about 10| inches securely fixed to the battens, 
 with 2 copper nails to each slate; and to cover the 
 
ZINC WORKER. 
 
 131 
 
 kitchen office with lady slates, with the usual lap and 
 gauge fixed to the battens, with 2 zinc nails to each 
 slate, with all the necessary dressings to hips, valleys, 
 and eaves, &c, and both roofs to be securely pointed 
 with lime and hair. 
 
 To provide, prepare, and fix No. 12 3-inch slate 
 cantilevers, to the size and form shown in the drawing 
 of details for roof. 
 
 To provide and fix in the rain-water tank a f-inch 
 slate filter, according with and to the dimensions de- 
 scribed on the plan and section Plate XIV., with all 
 necessary lifts, perforated plates, taps, &c, and apparatus 
 complete. 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 To prepare and fix all round principal building a 
 gutter of the best Belgian zinc of 15 -inch gauge, to 
 the form and dimensions shown and explained on Plate 
 XXI., with all proper falls to the various dimensions, 
 and so manufactured in external appearance as to be 
 level with the soffit of the projecting eave of the 
 building, as shown on the before-named plate. 
 
 To put up and securely fix No. 6 downcomers of 4- 
 inch calibre in the position marked on plan of roof. 
 
 To provide and .fix the said in the position marked 
 on the plan of roof, and each to have a suitable cistern 
 head, with all necessary shoes, laps, joints, holdfasts, 
 and every requisite to connect them with the earthen- 
 ware pipes laid for conveying the water into the rain- 
 water tank. 
 
 The gutters and downcomers from the roof over 
 kitchen offices of 3-inch calibre, with corresponding 
 cistern-head. 
 
132 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Also to provide and fix a 2-inch downcomer, with 
 every requisite bend from the flats of the bay windows 
 and entrance porches to the drain in front area. 
 
 FINISHINGS. 
 joiner's work. 
 Attic Floor. 
 
 The dormer light in each room to be fitted up with 
 two-inch beaded, and rebated frames, and 1^-inch 
 chamfered sashes, suspended on pivots in the centre, 
 with all requisite cords, pullies, fastenings, &c, for the 
 opening and closing of the same, in an impervious and 
 efficient manner. 
 
 Floor. 
 
 The floor to be lj-inch white deal, and laid folding; 
 skirting ground 2 inches wide by f thick, chamfered 
 to receive plaster, and as shown on Plate XXVI., 
 Fig. 2, to be fixed all round the rooms, and a similar 
 description of ground to, door and window joints, which 
 are to be covered with a 1^-inch moulding, to form an 
 architrave and break the joints of plaster, and grounds, 
 and to the ground round rooms, is to be fixed a 6-inch 
 square skirting-board. The jambs of doors to have a 
 f-inch beaded lining, and to have a slip braded on to 
 form the rebate for doors, which are to be 1 \ inch ; 
 two panel square, hung with suitable butt hinges and 
 fastenings. 
 
 Chamber Floor'. 
 The floor to be 1^-inch yellow deal, with a straight 
 }oint, and splayed heading, joints, with mitred borders 
 
GROUNDS. . V 1 ; J 3 
 
 to hearths, a ground 2 inches wide b\t 1^ inO^ tffitypy 
 chamfered, to be fixed all round the roontejor fejefejvin^ 
 the plaster and fixing the skirting to, anNO^so or&3^ r Z 
 wide of the same thickness round all door &iid window 
 openings. The housemaid's small closet on tnii^Gor^- 
 to be formed with a l|-inch square panelled partition, 
 and the door to correspond with the other described for 
 this floor. 
 
 The sashes and frames for the principal rooms on 
 this floor, to be of the Venetian character, with the 
 centre sashes of each window, double hung, and side 
 sashes fixed. The frame to be deal cased, with oak 
 sunk sills, brass cased pullies, with lj-inch ovolo sashes 
 hung with cast-metal weights, patent cord, &c, and the 
 sashes and frames for dressing-room and stairs to be of 
 a similar description and double hung. The finishing 
 to all these windows to be as shown and described on 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 The jamb lining for doors to be 1\ inch thick, beaded 
 and single rebated, and to have 1^-inch four-panel- 
 square doors, properly hung with 2| butt hinges. 
 
 The skirting to be moulded 9 inches wide, and fixed 
 in the manner shown at Fig. 2, Plate XXVI. 
 
 Ground or Principal Floor. 
 The floor to be lj-inch yellow deal, straight jointed, 
 splayed heading, joints edge-nailed, and mitre borders 
 to hearths. 
 
 Grounds. 
 
 Skirting grounds 2| inches wide, by 1 inch thick, 
 to be fixed all round the floors for receiving the plaster, 
 and fixing the skirting to the upper edge, to be ploughed, 
 
134 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELETN"G-HOUSES. 
 
 and all angles to be dovetailed together, as well as tlie 
 ends secured in a similar manner to the vertical grounds 
 of doors and windows — (see grounds to Venetian window) 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 Entrance Hall. 
 
 The door frames to he 4 inches by 3| inches, rebated 
 and beaded, with double rebated transom head, and to 
 be tenoned into stone step. 
 
 The doors to be 2£ inch, two panel bolection moulded 
 on both sides, |th panels, and to be hung with 3 pair 
 of Z\ butt hinges. 
 
 The fan-light to be a 2-mch lamb's tongue moulded 
 light and fixed above door, with grounds, linings, and 
 architraves, corresponding with those shown and de- 
 scribed for the floor on Plates XXVI. and XXVII. 
 To put up, with all the corresponding fittings, a pair of 
 2-inch sash doors, with a suitable light above, to divide 
 the entrance hall from passage and stairs. 
 
 Also to provide and fix a 2-inch sash door and par- 
 tition to form the lobby under water-closet, ,and 
 divide the stairs from the garden or back entrance to 
 this floor, with all suitable finishings, and according to 
 the one above described for dividing the hall from the 
 stairs. The door frame from lobby to garden to be 
 prepared for fan and side lights (as shown on elevation 
 of back front), the external posts and head to be 3£ 
 inches by 3 inches, and the two vertical posts, as well 
 as transom head, to be 3£ inches by 2\ inches, to be 
 beaded, rebated, and tenoned into step, in a similar 
 manner to that described for the front entrance door, 
 and to have a 2-inch sash-door fan and side-lights, with 
 11 -inch framed boxing shutters as high as the transom 
 
DOORS. 
 
 135 
 
 head, the grounds, linings, and other finishings, to be 
 similar to those shown on Plate XXVI, and described 
 for the Venetian window in the back parlour. 
 
 Bay-windows, Front Parlours. 
 These windows to be fitted up and finished in the 
 manner shown and described on Plate XXVII., with 
 deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, and the centre posi- 
 tion to have brass cased pullies, patent cords, and 
 cast metal weights, and prepared to receive the sashes, 
 which are to be 2-inch lamb-tongue moulding, the 
 middle sashes double hung, and those of the sides 
 fixed. The other portions are to be prepared and fixed 
 in the manner shown on the before-mamed Plate 
 XXVII., for receiving metal, revolving shutters, and 
 finished with the grounds, linings, soffit, skirting, 
 architraves, as there shown and described. 
 
 Back Parlour. 
 The Venetian window in this room to be fitted up in 
 the manner shown and described in Plate XXVI., 
 Fig. 4 ; the middle sashes to be double hung, and the 
 side lights fixed. To have 1^-inch moulded shutters 
 hung with brass, cased pullies, patent cord, and cast 
 metal weights; and to have 1^-inch framed and moulded 
 back. The grounds, linings, architrave, &c, in a cor- 
 responding manner to those described and shown for 
 the front parlour or dining room. 
 
 Doors. 
 
 To prepare and fix 1^-inch double rebated and beaded 
 jamb-lining to the grounds for the folding- doors be- 
 tween the two parlours. The doors to be 1^-inch 
 
136 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 double moulded, two panels in each door, and the 
 grounds, architraves, &c, to be of the same description, 
 and to correspond with those before described. The 
 jamb-linings for the other doors to be of the same de 
 scription as before stated, and to have 1^-inch 4-panel 
 doors moulded on both sides, with corresponding 
 grounds and architraves. 
 
 Skirting. 
 
 All the skirting for this floor to be board wide and 
 1 inch thick, and to be surmounted with a 1^-inch 
 rebated moulding. 
 
 Basement. 
 
 Breakfast Room.— The floor to be 1^-inch yellow 
 deal, straight joints and splayed headings, and mitred 
 borders to hearth. The bay window to have sashes 
 and frames similar to those described for dining-room 
 above, and to have sliding shutters similar to those 
 shown and explained for the back parlour windows, 
 with door skirting, lining, and all others of a cor- 
 responding character. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 The floor to be 1^-inch deal, folded and mitred 
 border to hearth. 
 
 Sash Frames. 
 
 The sash frames to be of a similar description to 
 those already described for the upper floor, and to have 
 1^-inch ovolo sashes, and 1}- inch square framed sliding 
 or hung shutters with 1-inch grounds and 1^ moulding 
 to break the joint and form architrave, as those de- 
 scribed for the attic storey. 
 
STAIRS. 
 
 Cellar Boor \^ ^ ^| 
 
 Under principal entrance and back entr^^door^. ' 
 to have frame 3| by 3 inches, beaded and sin>§^^e-^ 
 
 bated and tenoned into stone steps or sills, and to hi 
 a li-inch 4-panel bead and butt door. The back 
 entrance door frame to be of similar scantling, but 
 framed with a transom head for a 1 fan light, and the 
 door to this frame to be a H-inch sash door with a 
 lifting shutter; and all other doors on this floor to be 
 ll-inch 4-panel square doors, with lining and finishing 
 as above stated for the attics. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 The stairs from basement to ground floor to have In- 
 wrought yellow deal strings, with 1^-inch treads and 
 1-inch risers blocked and bracketed, and securely 
 housed into the strings in the usual manner. 
 
 The partitions forming the spandril framing, as well 
 as those forming pantries and store closets, to be 1^- 
 inch square panel, and to have a 6-inch | skirting 
 board, to correspond with others that are to run round 
 the passage. 
 
 Stairs from ground floor to chamber storey to be 
 geometrical, with one circular string and quarter cir- 
 cular on landing, as shown on Plan, and to have l^-inch 
 yellow deal treads, risers, carriage and string boards, 
 with all requisite carriage furrings to soffit, &c. The 
 treads to have round and hollow nosings. The risers 
 to mitre into the external string, which is to be dove- 
 tailed to receive the balusters and the return nosing ; 
 the other end of both treads and risers to be housed 
 and securely wedged into the external string ; a full 
 scroll curtail step, with veneered riser and circular part 
 
138 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 to frame into external string, to be firmly fixed it the 
 starting of the flight, and the succeeding step to be 
 gradually carved until they join the straight dyers. 
 (See Ground Plan, Plate V.) The whole flight tc have 
 | X f inch -square balusters dove-tailed into ths end 
 of tread and string, and covered with the mitred 
 nosing. One ornamental iron baluster, taped, and to 
 have nuts and screws complete, to be securely fixed in 
 centre of scroll of curtail step, and No. 3 plain iron 
 balusters, corresponding with those of deal tefore 
 described, to be fixed where requisite on the flight. 
 The whole to be surmounted with a 2|-inch moilded 
 Spanish mahogany hand-rail, sunk to receive the 
 balusters and properly wreathed to well, and to have a 
 corresponding mitred cap over curtail step. The same 
 description of skirting as described for rooms of giound 
 floor to be fixed all round hall and passage, and the 
 same mouldings to continue up inside string of stairs : 
 finding and applying all necessary joints, screws, and 
 every other requisite to make the work complete. 
 
 Water Closet. 
 
 On quarter space. — The partition dividing stairs from 
 water-closet to be a 2-inch framed and moulded sash 
 partition with sash doors to correspond, prepared for 
 receiving ground or stained glass, with the moulded 
 skirting of stairs continued round on the stair side and 
 the whole to finish in accordance with the stairs. 
 
 Inside. — The window- frame and sash to correspond 
 with the one described for the chamber storey. To fit 
 up the seat and riser with 1^-inch Honduras mahogany, 
 the riser to be properly dished out to the form of pan, 
 and to have a beaded box for handle. This seat to be 
 
KITCHEN OFFICES, 
 
 139 
 
 covered with a framed and beaded skeleton for the flap 
 to hang to, which is to be H-inch selected mahogany, 
 hung with brass butts, and both frame and flap to have 
 a projected moulded nosing; finch beaded skirting 6 
 inches deep to be fixed round back and sides, as also 
 on ground in front of riser. The whole to be fitted up 
 with all necessary scantling, bearers, &c, for the sup- 
 port of pan and apparatus, as well as the efficient 
 support of the seat and riser, in the most approved 
 manner. 
 
 Also to fit up with 1-inch Honduras mahogany an 
 angular wash-board and closet, the closet underneath 
 with a 1-inch square panel-door, hung to a beaded and 
 suitable skeleton frame, with all suitable appendages 
 for receiving basins and depositing towels, &c, and also 
 to fix over chasm of soil, waste, and supply-pipe, a 
 1-inch mahogany-framed skeleton-ground, rebated and 
 beaded for a corresponding board, to be slightly screwed 
 to the same for allowing easy access to the before- 
 named pipe, a small moulding, to be fixed over ground, 
 and plaster to break the joint; and to fix on all other 
 articles that may be required for the full completion of 
 the closet. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 All the external door-frames to be 3£ x 3 in. yellow 
 deal, beaded and rebated, and tenoned into stone sills 
 or steps. Those to servants' water-closets, and to the 
 lobby between kitchen and back-kitchen to be framed 
 with transom heads, and to have 1£ lights fixed therein. 
 The whole of the external doors to be 1^-inch bead 
 and butt, 4-panel doors framed flush on one side, and 
 square panel on the other. All internal doors to be 
 
140 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 fitted up in the same manner as those described for 
 the attic. The doors for coal-shoots to have a small 
 2^-inch x 2-inch frame rebated and beaded and 1-inch 
 ledged doors. 
 
 The sash-frames and sashes for kitchens to be of a 
 similar description to those described for chamber- 
 floors; and each window to have a pair of l|-bead, 
 bead and flush-panel shutters hung to the frame on 
 the outside. 
 
 The small window to pantries, marked d d on the 
 basement plan, to have 2\ x 2-inch beaded and rebated 
 frames, and a 1^-inch sack hung upon centres for ven- 
 tilation. The servants' water-closets, marked a on the 
 same plan, are to have floor-joints 5x2 inches, and laid 
 with 1J yellow deal. The seat and risers to be also 
 of l|-inch deal, properly fixed and blocked to pan, and 
 dished out in a corresponding manner ; and a beaded 
 box prepared for the pull ; a movable | beaded casing 
 to be placed over pipes, with every article to make the 
 work complete. 
 
 PLASTERER. 
 
 Attic. 
 
 Lath, plaster, and set the ceilings and partitions, and 
 also render, and set the walls of the same. 
 
 Chamber Floor. 
 To lath, plaster, float, and set the ceilings and 
 partitions, and render, float, and set the walls ; run 
 a plain moulded cornice round the porch room of this 
 floor of 6 inches girth, and one round back room of 
 5 inches girth. 
 
STAIRS. 
 
 141 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 
 Entrance and passage — lath, plaster, float, and set the 
 ceilings ; the partitions to be lathed, floated, and set 
 in stucco; and render, float, and set the walls in 
 stucco ; and finish the whole for painting ; and a plain 
 moulded cornice of 5 inches girth to be run all round 
 so far as the break of stair will admit. 
 
 The front and back parlours to have their ceilings 
 and partitions lathed, plastered, floated, and set, and to 
 have a 10-inch plain moulded cornice run round both 
 rooms. 
 
 Basement Floor. 
 The ceilings of this floor to be lathed, plastered, 
 floated, and set; and the walls rendered, floated, and 
 set; the front room, or breakfast parlour, to have a 
 plain moulded cornice of 5 inches girth run all round. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 The stairs from basement to ground floor and all 
 other contiguous conveniences, not before alluded to, 
 to be finished as the rooms of the attic floor : the 
 next flight from ground floors to chamber floors, with 
 the lobby and water-closet included : to finish in the 
 manner described for the entrance halls, that is to 
 say, the soffit of the stairs and ceilings to be lathed, 
 plastered, and set, and partitions to be lathed, plastered, 
 floated, and set with stucco ; and all the walls rendered, 
 floated, and set in stucco, and finished for painting. 
 The stairs from chamber floors to attic to be finished in 
 a corresponding manner to that already described for 
 the chamber floor. All the ceiling and soffits to be 
 twice lime-whitened. 
 
142 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Kitchen Offices. 
 
 To lath, plaster, and set all the ceilings, and to render 
 and set the walls. 
 
 The ceiling and walls of these buildings to be twice 
 lime-whitened. 
 
 Outside Work. 
 
 The tops of chimneys to be stuccoed in cement all 
 round, with fillet moulding and blocking, as shown on 
 front elevation, Plate IX. 
 
 The soffit of the eaves of principal building to have 
 a sinking between each bracket to form a panel, as 
 shown on section, "Fig. 1, Plate XXI., and to be lathed, 
 plastered, and set; the portion round flank and back to 
 be finished plain. The string-course and frieze to be 
 finished in stucco, with Atkinson's cement, and in the 
 manner shown and described on the same Plate. 
 
 The entrance porches and bay-windows to be finished 
 in stucco as shown and described on Plates XXII. and 
 XXIII., with cornice, piers, pilasters, spandrils, &c., all 
 complete. The whole of principal front from basement 
 to ground-floor line to be stuccoed with cement, and 
 have returned reveals, sides of steps to entrance hall, 
 and party wall of area with sunk joints, as shown on 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 Attics. 
 
 To put to each fire-place in attic a hearth and back 
 hearth of 3 inches Yorkshire stone, and to each opening 
 jambs and head 5 inches wide and 1 inch thick, with a 
 shelf of the same dimensions, properly cramped and 
 fixed together. 
 
A.TTIC FLOOR. 
 
 143 
 
 Chamber Floor. 
 To provide and fix on this floor No. 4 marble chimney 
 piece, with back hearths, slabs, and shelves complete, 
 to the value of 40s. each. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 Provide and fix on this floor No. 4 marble chimney- 
 pieces, with back hearth slabs, and mantel complete, 
 to the value of £3 each. 
 
 Basement Storey. 
 To provide and fix in the breakfast- room No. 1 
 marble chimney piece, with back hearth, slab, and 
 mantel complete, to the value of £2 10s. 
 
 Kitchens. 
 
 To fix complete, rubbed York chimneys, with mantels 
 and hearths complete, to the value of £2 each, and to 
 the back kitchen chimney pieces of the same description 
 of stone to the value of 30s. each. 
 
 To pave the lobby leading from kitchen to back 
 kitchen, and the whole of the kitchen offices, as well as 
 the front and back areas, with 2| tooled York paving. 
 
 FURNISHING IRONMONGER. 
 
 Attic Floor. 
 
 To provide and deliver for dormer lights on this floor 
 No. 8 f-inch pivots, with side-plates, patent cord and 
 pulleys for opening and closing the lights, as also No. 4 
 barrel 4-in. bolts, and requisite staples for fastening the 
 same, with all necessary screws, naiis, &c. Also to 
 
144 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 deliver No. 4 6-inch iron-rim locks, with box staples, 
 keys, and brass furniture, with all necessary screws and 
 nails complete for the doors to these rooms. 
 
 Chamber Floor. 
 
 To provide and deliver all the brass cased pulleys, 
 patent cord, cast metals, weights, &c, shown on the 
 drawings, and described in the joiner's work for this 
 floor, as well as 2-inch spring fastenings to each sash. 
 
 To provide No. 16 pair of butt-hinges, with all ne- 
 cessary screws, &c, as well as No. 4 6-inch morticed 
 locks, with brass furniture complete, for the principal 
 doors ; No. 2 4-inch brass spring and bolt latches for 
 dressing rooms, and No. 2 4-inch iron closet locks, 
 with all requisite striking plates and furniture com- 
 plete. 
 
 Water-Closet. 
 
 To provide the brass cased pulleys, cords, weights, 
 fastenings, &c, for this window, as before described, as 
 well as one pair of 2| butt-hinges for door, and a 4J 
 brass spring and bolt latch with furniture complete for 
 door. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 
 To provide the brass cased pulleys, patent cord, 
 weights, fastenings, &c, as before described for the 
 sashes, as also a set of a similar description for shutters 
 of back-parlour, and to provide and fix to the bay- 
 window of this floor the metal revolving shutter shown 
 on Plate XXVII., with all requisite machinery for their 
 efficient action, as well as the necessary furnishing. 
 
 To provide for entrance doors to hall No. 4 pair of 
 
BREAKFAST ROOM. 145 
 
 4-inch butt-hinges, with all necessary screws, &c, and 
 a best 10-inch draw-back mounted lock, with staple 
 and all necessary furniture complete; as also a 12-inch 
 door-chain, with brass knobs and asp complete, and two 
 10-inch barrel bolts, with staples and plates complete 
 for top and bottom of door. The back entrance doors 
 to have hinges, locks, bolts, and chain of a similar 
 description; the shutters to have 18-inch bow-latch 
 shutter-bars complete, with every necessary, &c., and 
 to provide for doors dividing lobby from stairs, a 3-inch 
 brass spring bolt latch. 
 
 To provide for shutters in back parlour No. 4 1-ipch 
 brass flush rings, with No. 2 brass clips for fastenings. 
 To provide for doors not before alluded to on this floor 
 No. 8 pair of 3-inch butt-hinges, with all necessary 
 screws, &c, and for folding doors No. 4 12-inch brass 
 flush-bolts, with all necessaries, &c, as also to provide 
 No. 6 inch mortice locks, with brass striking plates 
 and furniture complete. 
 
 Breakfast Room. 
 
 To provide for the sashes brass cased pulleys, patent 
 cords, and fastenings, as described above for back- 
 parlour; but the shutter will require three pair of bras 8 
 cased pulleys with weights, fastenings, and cords, com- 
 plete; the door of this room to be provided with a 6- 
 inch mortice lock, and brass furniture complete. 
 
 To provide for kitchen window and shutters the sanw 
 number of brass cased pulleys, cords, and fastenings, as 
 before described for the back-parlour. 
 
 To provide for the six back-entrance doors 9-inch 
 iron spring-stock locks with staples complete, No. 6 
 10-inch door chains, and No. 12 10-inch barrel-bolts- 
 
146 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 and staples all complete, as also No. 6 6-inch iron rim 
 stock locks with box staples complete for the other 
 doors, and to provide No. 24 pair of 3-inch butt-hinges, 
 as well as No. 8 pair of 2| ditto, with all necessary 
 auxiliaries, &c. 
 
 To provide one ornamental cast-iron baluster, 1£ 
 diameter, 3 feet 6 inches long, tapped at one end, with 
 nut and plates complete for curtail step, and three 
 other, | by f, two feet 5 inches long. 
 
 It is to be distinctly understood that the furnishing 
 ironmonger is to deliver all articles here expressed, and 
 all others that may be requisite for the due execution of 
 the work into the possession of the joiner, who will 
 apply and fix the same in their relative positions, pro- 
 viding and delivering, as may be required, glue, brads, 
 nails, screws, and materials generally supplied by the 
 ironmonger. 
 
 BELL-HANGER. 
 
 To provide and hang bells with all proper springs, 
 cranks, wires, &c, of the size required, and in the 
 position when and where may be hereafter directed, to 
 the value of £10. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 To line the cisterns in roof of principal building, as 
 well as the four smaller ones described for supply of 
 water-closet and kitchen offices, with six pounds milled 
 lead, in the most efficient and workman-like manner, 
 and to lay on from principal main to the large cistern 
 in each house a l^-lead main supply-pipe, with a 6-inch 
 ball-cock properly applied at the cistern end, with a 
 standing waste of the same calibre to be taken down 
 
PLUMBER. ' *y^, 147 
 
 and connected with principal drains. The house- 
 service, to be 1-inch calibre, to be taken into small 
 cisterns over water-closets, and from thence into cistern 
 in roof of kitchen offices ; each of the small cisterns to 
 be furnished with a suitable ball-cock, standing waste 
 and service with rose-tops, and every other requisite 
 article. The water-closets to be fitted up with Beet- 
 son's patent valve closets, with Warner's registered 
 valves and patent regulators fitted up complete, and to 
 have a 5-inch soil-pipe connected and continued per- 
 fectly sound into principal drain ; and to complete the 
 closet apparatus with all necessary bends, valves, traps, 
 &c, to render them efficient and complete in all their 
 actions, the service pipes to be brought from the small 
 cistern above, as well as two f-inch service-pipes to 
 supply the water to the washing-basins in corner ; to 
 provide and fix No. 2 10-inch wash-basins, and fix to 
 the i pipes suitable cocks, and to the basins a stop 
 valve, with chain and waste pipe complete into principal 
 drain. 
 
 To provide and fix to each house one of "Warner's 
 vibrating lift and force pumps, with all necessary pipe, 
 bosses, and fastenings for supplying the filtered rain 
 water into the cisterns situate in roof over kitchen 
 offices, &c, and bring from the said cisterns two 1 -inch 
 service pipes to sinks in washhouse, with all proper 
 taps, &c., as well as the waste pipes from cisterns, and 
 all other articles that are requisite to make the supply 
 of water complete ; to provide and fit up in servants' 
 privies two single-valve pan water-closets, with flush- 
 ing apparatus, and pipes of 1-inch calibre for water 
 brought from cisterns in roofs, with necessary bends, 
 traps, joints, &c, for carrying soil into principal drain, 
 
 h 2 
 
148 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 The plumber to furnish and provide the water-closets 
 as described, with all necessary traps, syphons, bends, 
 pipes, lead, solder, joints, taps, cocks, bosses, roses, and 
 every other article that is necessary for the full com- 
 pletion of his work. 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 To glaze the windows in attics with good seconds 
 Newcastle glass, properly beded and back puttied, and 
 the window in chamber-floor and water-closet with good 
 crown glass, which is to be well beded, braded, and 
 back puttied. 
 
 Ground Floor. 
 All the sashes on this floor to be glazed with 20- 
 ounce crown glass. 
 
 Basement Floor. 
 The bay-window in breakfast-room to be glazed with 
 20-ounce glass, and all the other windows to be with 
 the best Newcastle seconds glass. 
 
 PAINTER. 
 
 To knot, prime, and paint in three oils all the outside 
 wood and iron work, and to flat any of the inside work 
 when and where directed, and to finish the other in any 
 colour that may be hereafter decided on. 
 
 PAPER-HANGER. 
 
 To prepare and hang [except the hall passage, stair- 
 case, water-closet, and landing, which are to be painted) 
 the whole of the chamber floor with paper hereafter 
 to be chosen, to the amount of Is. 6d. a piece, and 
 
rtENERAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 149 
 
 the front and back parlour on the ground floor, and the 
 breakfast room on the basement floor, with paper to 
 the amount of 2s. 6c?. per piece, hanging and bordering 
 included. 
 
 General Conditions. 
 It is to be distinctly understood that the party or 
 parties contracting for the erection of the buildings 
 herewith described, are to provide and deliver on the 
 premises, all the materials, the best of their respective 
 qualities, also to provide and furnish all necessary plant, 
 scaffolding, labour, and all other articles that are re- 
 quisite for the full completion and finishing of the work, 
 according with the accompanying drawings and this 
 specification ; and if anything should be shown in the 
 drawings and not herein specified, or anything herein 
 specified that is not shown on the drawings, the same 
 to be executed as if fully shown and explained in both ; 
 and if any alteration from the drawings or this specifica- 
 tion should take place during the progress of the work, 
 such alteration not to make the contract or estimate 
 null and void, but the expense of such deviation to be 
 added to, or deducted from (as the case may be), such 
 estimate. 
 
 It is requested that the amount for each particular 
 trade, with a tariff of prices upon which such estimate 
 is founded, shall accompany each tender. 
 
 Specifications are generally and should be always 
 accompanied by a schedule or statement in an orderly 
 and classified form, of the quantities of every material 
 that will be required in the structure specified in the 
 judgment of the architect. This is called the bill of 
 quantities, of which the following is an example, as 
 applying to the foregoing specification. 
 
150 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 A bill of quantities is for the guidance both of the 
 architect and of the artificer, as respects the estimates ; 
 but errors or omissions in it are never to exonerate the 
 artificer from the completion of his contract. 
 
 BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 Quantities of the various Materials, and the Excavation 
 necessary, for the erection of two Houses proposed 
 to be built on a plot of ground situate 
 
 according to the various drawings (numbered from 1 to 
 17 inclusive) and specifications made for that purpose. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BUILDING— CARCASS. 
 
 EXCAVATOR. 
 
 Cube 
 yards. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 573 
 
 To be excavated and carted away . 
 Levelling, filling-in, pugging, ramming, and 
 •arting away earth, rubbish, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 BRICKLAYER. 
 
 Eods. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Eun. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 f. 
 
 d. 
 
 28 
 
 u 
 
 200 
 200 
 
 Of 6-inch glazed socket pipes, 
 with requisite bends . 
 
 Of 4-inch ditto . 
 
 No. 8 15-inch gully traps 
 
 No. 4 6-inch syphons 
 
 Of reduced or standard brick- 
 work 
 
 Of rubbed malm arches 
 
 
 
 
BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 25 
 925 
 
 Of English oak, for sleepers . 
 
 ]8| loads of Riga timber, 
 framed in floors, partitions, 
 roof, cisterns, &c., according 
 to drawings and specifica- 
 tion* . 
 
 ' : - 
 
 * It perhaps is necessary to observe that this calculation embraces the net quantity of 
 timber required for the erection of the carcass of the buildings, exclusive of any other 
 article. 
 
 SMITH AND IRONFOUNDER. 
 
 Hoop-iron bond . 
 
 Chimney bars . 
 
 Clips and straps for partitions 
 
 For tension rods, &c. 
 
 For clips and straps to roof. . 
 
 For bolts, &c. . 
 
 Ties to cistern, &c. . . 
 
 2759 lbs. = 24 cwt. 71 lbs. 
 
 Exclusive of all spikes, holdfasts, nails, screws, 
 and every other article requisite for the sound 
 fixing of the above-named works, which are 
 to be calculated in the estimate. 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 Of 6-lb. lead, for flashings, &c. 
 Ditto, to dormer lights . . 
 
 5- lb. ditto, to sides of ditto , 
 
 6- lb. flashings to lights and chimney, &c. 
 Ditto to cisterns .... 
 
 5143 lbs. = 45 cwt. 3 lbs. weight of milled lead, exclu- 
 sive of any other article. 
 
(52 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 MASON. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Super. 
 
 Bun. 
 
 
 1 
 
 at 
 
 -i 
 
 d. 
 
 50 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 36 
 
 50 
 36 
 60 
 
 75 
 71 
 
 Of tooled steps for doors 
 
 No. 8 15-inch gulley-stones 
 properly dished, aud five 
 holes in each . . . 
 
 Of 5-inch York landing for 
 rain-water tank . 
 
 Of tooled York, for trimmers, 
 of floors, and heads and 
 sills of partitions, &c. . . 
 
 Of 12-inch X 3-inch throated 
 coping, for area walls, &c. . 
 
 Of stone core for cornice, I ft. 
 4 in. wide, 4 in. thick 
 
 Of dished amd throated window- 
 sills . . . . . 
 
 Of 6 -inch rubbed York landing, 
 for entrance porches . 
 
 No. 20 tooled and rubbed York 
 steps, for entrance doors 
 
 Of 7-inch tooled landing . . 
 
 Of 2^-inch tooled treads, 13 in. 
 wide, and 
 
 Ditto, for riser, 7 in. wide, for 
 steps from back entrance of 
 ground-floor to garden . . 
 
 
 s. 
 
 SLATER. 
 
 Square. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 
 
 Of Duchess slating, with all . cuttings and 
 pointings complete 
 
 No. 12 slate cantilevers or brackets, for 
 principal elevation— (See details of roof, 
 Plate XXI.) 
 
 No. 1 sawn slate filter, as shown and described 
 on Plate XIV., with all necessary bolts, nuts, 
 screws, rods, perforated plates, &c, com- 
 plete 
 
 
 s. 
 
BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 153 
 
 ZINC WORKER. 
 
 
 Run. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 *. 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 168 
 
 210 
 
 80 
 
 Of 6-inch gutter, worked and fixed as 
 shown on details of roof, Plate XXI. 
 
 No. 6 octagon heads, with shoes, &c., 
 complete . . . ■ • • 
 
 Of 4-inch piping, for down-comers, 
 fixed complete . . . 
 
 Of 3-inch ditto, for ditto of entrance- 
 porches and bay windows . . . 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities of the various Materials requisite for finish- 
 ing and completing the Carcasses of two Houses, 
 before calculated for. 
 
 JOINER'S WORK. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 * eet N( 
 Run. 
 
 FLOORS. 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 .«. 
 
 d. 
 
 1304 
 3120 
 
 
 . Or 13 square 4 feet of 1 J-inch 
 white floor-boards, laid fold- 
 ing in attic and part of 
 basement stories 
 Or 31 square 20 feet yellow 
 deal floor-boards, laid with 
 a straight joint and splayed 
 headings, for chamber, 
 ground-floor, and part of 
 basement stories 
 
 GROUNDS. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 106 
 
 120 
 
 250 
 
 , Of f -inch grounds 2-inch wide, 
 faced and chamfered, for 
 attic .... 
 Of 1-inch ditto, for chamber 
 floor 
 
 . Of 1-inch splayed framed 
 ground, 3^-iuch wide, for 
 chamber floors . 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 ! 
 
 H 3 
 
154 
 
 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 JOINERS' WOKK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 Feet 
 Kan. 
 
 330 
 
 164 
 
 54 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 52 
 
 390 
 
 390 
 
 No. 
 
 Of 1-inch X 2 J -inch ploughed 
 skirting grounds, for ground 
 floor .... 
 
 Of 1 -inch ploughed and framed, 
 and 5 inches wide, for door 
 and windows (See Plate 
 XXVI.) 
 
 SASHES AND THAMES. 
 
 Of chamfered and rebated 
 lights, with frames and 
 finishings made complete 
 according to the specifica- 
 tion . . . . 
 
 VENETIAN WINDOWS — 
 CHAMBER FLOOB. 
 
 To front and back windows, 
 with frames 1^-inch, oval 
 sashes, lining, and all finish- 
 ing complete, as shown on 
 the drawings and described 
 in the specification 
 
 Ditto for back-parlour and 
 kitchen windows, with 
 sashes, frames, suspended 
 shutters, and all finishings 
 complete . . . . 
 
 Of small frames, sashes, and 
 finishings complete, for small 
 windows, &c. 
 
 BAY WINDOWS. 
 
 Of frames, sashes, lining, 
 soffit, and all other finish- 
 ings complete, except the 
 metal shutters . 
 
 With suspended shutters and 
 finishings complete, for 
 breakfast-room (see, for the 
 finishings of these windows, 
 Plates XXVI. and XXVII., 
 and specification) , 
 
BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 155 
 
 JOINERS' WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 Feet 
 Run. 
 
 No. 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 256 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 •• 
 
 
 188 
 
 • • 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 •• 
 
 40 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 729 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 
 
 JAMB-LININGS. 
 
 Of 1-inch beaded linings, with 
 stops braided on, for attic 
 and part of basement storey 
 
 Of 1-inch beaded and single 
 rebated ditto ditto . . . 
 
 Of IJ-inch beaded and double 
 rebated ditto ditto 
 
 DOOR-FRAMES, DOORS, AND 
 FINISHINGS. 
 
 Of lj-inch two-panel square 
 doors, for attics and part of 
 basement . . . . 
 
 Of ditto four-panel square 
 doors, for ground-floor and 
 part of basement 
 
 Of 1 f-inch four-panel, moulded 
 on both sides, for ground- 
 floor and breakfast room . 
 
 For entrance-hall door-frames, 
 transom-head, fan-light, 
 doors, and finishings, all 
 complete (see specification) 
 
 For back or garden entrance, 
 door-frame, sash-door, side- 
 lights, fan-lights, boxing 
 shutters, and all other finish- 
 ings complete . 
 
 Of door-frame, with 1^-inch 
 four-bead and butt complete, 
 for cellar . . . . 
 
 Frame, with transom-head 
 light and 1^-inch sash door, 
 lifting shutters, and all 
 other finishings complete . 
 
 FRAMED PARTITIONS, WITH 
 DOORS COMPLETE. 
 
 Of I^-inch square panel, in- 
 cluding 6 two-panel lj-inch 
 doors complete, for store- 
 closet and pantries 
 
 Ditto, sash-partition and doors, 
 
156 ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 JOINER'S WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 Feet 
 Eun. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 t. 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 to divide stairs from lobby of 
 garden entrance 
 Of l|-inch sash partition, to di- 
 vide stairs from water-closet 
 
 SKIRTINGS. 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 220 
 270 
 
 1 
 
 210 
 
 380 
 280 
 
 120 
 
 
 Of f-inch skirting, six inches 
 wide, for attic and part of 
 basement floors . . . 
 
 Of 1-foch ditto moulded, for 
 chamber floors . 
 
 Of 1-inch rebated ditto, for 
 ground-floor and breakfast- 
 room 
 
 MOULDINGS. 
 
 Of 1^-inch, to form architrave 
 over grounds, and pilaster 
 attic story .... 
 
 Of 2-inch, for chamber-floor . 
 
 Of 3^-inch for ground-floor 
 and breakfast-room . 
 
 Of IJ-inch for basement . . 
 
 WATER-CLOSET. 
 
 
 
 
 1 112 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 7 
 8 
 
 '*3 
 
 
 Of mahogany seat and riser, 
 dished to basin and handles 
 
 Duto mahogany-framed top, 
 with moulded nosing, lining 
 complete, and finished with 
 skirting all round . . . 
 
 Of mahogany wash-stand, with 
 closet and shelves, &c, un- 
 derneath .... 
 
 Of mahogany doors to ditto . 
 
 Feet run of J-inch skirticg, 
 six inches wide . . . 
 
 Of rebated and beaded maho- 
 gany box, to cover service 
 and supply-pipes 
 
 (See specification for these 
 privies.) 
 
 
 
 
BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 JOINER'S WORK continued. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 Feet 
 Run. 
 
 40 
 to 40 
 
 936 
 
 32 
 
 136 
 
 No. 
 
 STAIRS FROM KITCHEN TO 
 GROUND-FLOOR. 
 
 Of lj-inch treads, properly 
 blocked .... 
 
 Of 1-iach risers . . . 
 
 Of l£-inch string boards witfa 
 bracket housings and carriage 
 complete .... 
 
 GEOMETRICAL CIRCULAR WELL- 
 STAIRS, FROM GROUND TO 
 CHAMBER-FLOOR. 
 
 Of lj-inch yellow deal treads, 
 risers, strings, and carriage ; 
 the risers mitred into external 
 string, and treads moulded 
 and mitred to return nosings, 
 and the whole completed as 
 shown on and described in 
 specification . . . . 
 
 Blocked and veneered curtail 
 step, with return to join 
 external string . 
 
 Of 2|-inch sunk mahogany 
 moulded hand-rail, wreathed 
 to circular well, as well as 
 to curtail step, and to be 
 mitred into a hand-work 
 mahogany cap, with all ba- 
 lusters complete to cham- 
 ber landing, comprising the 
 fixing of one ornamental ba- 
 luster to curtail, and three 
 plain ones on the flight 
 
 STAIRS FROM CHAMBER-FLOOR 
 TO ATTIC-FLOOR. 
 
 Of treads, risers, strings, and 
 carriage complete 
 (See plan and specification.) 
 
 I ! 
 
158 
 
 ERECTION OF D WELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 PLASTERER'S WORK. 
 
 Superficial 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Run. 
 
 1018 
 
 
 
 484 
 
 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 
 
 236 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 596 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 •« 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 Of lath, plaster, float aiid set 
 
 to ceilings and partitions. 
 Of render, float and set on walls 
 Of cornice, 10-inch girth . 
 Of ditto, 6-inch ditto 
 Of ditto, 5 -inch ditto 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 Of lath, plaster, and stucco, to 
 hall, passage, and stairs 
 
 Of render, set and float in 
 stucco, on walls, &c. . . 
 
 Of lime whitening . 
 
 OUTSIDE WORK, 
 IN ATKINSON CEMENT. 
 
 Of cornice, 5-inch girth, &c. . 
 
 Of ditto, 3-inch fillet, for 
 chimney-top 
 
 Of string-course, frieze, avolo 
 moulding, and sunk soffit, 
 under eaves of front eleva- 
 tion ... . . 
 
 Of sunk dentules, to front ele- 
 vation .... 
 
 Of plain lathed and trowelled 
 soffit, under eaves of sides 
 and hack elevation . . . 
 
 PORCHES. 
 
 Of lath and float, to ceilings 
 Of cornice, on brickwork 
 To caps and bases of pilasters 
 To bases of ditto . . . 
 Of render, float, and jointed to 
 
 spandrils of steps 
 Ditto, chamfered and worked 
 
 to steps (see Plate XXIII.) . 
 
 BAY WINDOWS. 
 
 With sunk joints to jambs 
 Plain work to top 
 Of cornice .... 
 To front, rendered, floated and 
 
 sunk-jointed . 
 Ditto, to area walls 
 Of 6-inch string-course . . 
 
BILL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 159 
 
 MASON. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 c 
 
 10 
 
 397 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 Of 1-inch rubbed York stone, for 
 
 chimney-pieces in attic . 
 Chimney-pieces for chamber-floors . . 
 
 Ditto ditto for ground-floors 
 
 Ditto ditto for basement-floors . . 
 Of 2| tooled York, for paving to areas 
 
 and cellars, including steps 
 
 
 
 
 FURNISHING IRONMONGER. 
 
 No. 
 
 24 
 16 
 8 
 16 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 
 ATTIC-FLOOR. 
 
 f-inoh pivots, with patent cords, complete . 
 
 pair of brass-cased pulleys . 
 
 yards of patent sash-cord .... 
 
 metal sash-weights . 
 
 2-inch spring sash-fastenings 
 
 pair of 2\ butt hinges . 
 
 4-inch leaf spring latches .... 
 
 4-inch iron closet locks . . . , 
 
 6-inch mortice locks, with furniture, complete 
 
 WATER-CLOSET. 
 
 pair of 2j butts 
 
 2 42-inch brass spring latches, complete 
 
 GROUND-FLOOR. 
 
 12 brass-cased pulleys 
 
 30 yards patent cord ... ... 
 
 12 metal weights . ...... 
 
 4 2-inch brass fastenings 
 
 revolving shutters, w ; 4i all requisite finishing, to 
 be estimated at so much each. 
 
 ENTRANCE-HALL AND BACK ENTRANCE. 
 
 pair of 4-inch butt hinges 
 
 best 10-inch draw-back mounted spring locks . 
 12-inch door-chains, brass-mouuted, with asp, and 
 all pomjplste • ... .« . . . ..... *!* 
 
 10-in<*h* bar/el«6olfe*# !»J * I.I*! . I 
 18-inc"h bt>w-la£ch «h*»t3;ej Jbolt* I .*! .*. 
 3-inch brass spring-locks 
 
IGO ERECTION OF DWELLING -HOUSES. 
 
 FURNISHING IRONMONGER continued. 
 
 
 
 at 
 
 no* 
 
 SHUTTERS IN 1'ARLOUR. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 4 
 
 1-inch brass flush-rings ..... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 brass clips for fastenings, with requisite pins . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 pair of 3-inch butt hinges .... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3-inch £ash bolts . . . . . 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6-inch mortice locks, with furniture, complete . 
 
 
 
 
 BASEMENT- STORY. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 pair of brass-cased pulleys . . . . 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 yards patent cord ..... 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 metal weights 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6-inch mortice locks 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 9-inch iron-rim locks, with furniture, complete 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 10-inch barrel bolts, complete . . . . 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6-inch iron-rim locks, ditto .... 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 pair of 3 -inch butt hinge3 ... . . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 pair of 2i-inch ditto ..... 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ornamental cast baluster . . . . 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 plain ditto ditto, 2 ft. 6 in. high, j in. X f in. 
 
 
 
 d. 
 
 BELL-HANGER. {See specification.) 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 Feet 
 Bun. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 
 d. 
 
 300 
 
 140 
 100 
 
 Of 1^-inch service-pipe to principal cistern, with 
 fittings-up, complete 
 
 Ditto of waste into water-closet . . . 
 
 Ditto to water-closet cistern and kitchen . 
 
 To fit up, complete, two of Warner's patent 
 wa( k ej-cJos,ets, •(ste .snpejficaiien),. and .two. 
 bin jle^vj&f e.');lo$ets,;f©J SecoiidYiy* Closet's*^ ifl. 
 
 yar£i .*..;/ ; ,i. :•*.* : .#* •* ^, ** it** *• •' 
 
 Of 1-inch service-pipe to the same . . . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
WLL OF QUANTITIES. 
 
 101 
 
 GLAZIER. 
 
 Feet 
 Super. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 233 
 361 
 
 Of Newcastle seconds • glass, bedded and well 
 
 Of 20-ounce glass, the greater portion to be 
 bradded, as well as back puttied (see specifi- 
 
 
 
 
 PAINTER. 
 
 Yard*. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 «. 
 
 d. 
 
 846 
 
 ■ 
 
 4 
 8 
 11 
 4 
 
 Frames and sashes to attic . 
 
 Venetian frames and sashe3 . . . 
 
 Ditto, usual size ..... 
 
 OUTSIDE WORK. 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 40 
 
 4 
 8 
 11 
 
 To eaves, &c 
 
 To doors, iron-work, &c. . . . 
 Frames and sashes to attic . 
 Venetian frames and sashes . . . 
 Ditto, usual size . 
 
 All properly prepared and finished ac- 
 cording to specification. 
 
 
 
 
 PAPER-HANGER. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 at 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 27 
 34 
 
 For chamber-floor .... 
 For ground-floor ... . . 
 For basement . 
 
 
 
 
 These quantities only apply to the principal buildings 
 (the kitchen offices not being included), and which may 
 be executed for about 400/. each, or 800/. the pair. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 I. Perspective view of the proposed pair of semi-detached cottages 01 
 dwellings. 
 
 II. Block-plan of ground, showing position of rain-water tank, drains, 
 traps, siphons, &c, with a section describing their fall, current, &c., 
 to and from the said tank to principal sewers. 
 
 III. Block-plan, showing position of buildings, gardens, yard, &c, and 
 
 the situation of the gully-traps, siphons, &c. 
 
 IV. Basement-plan, comprising breakfast-room, kitchen, back kitchen, 
 
 cellars, store-closets, water ditto, coal-cellars, pantries, with the 
 position of their sinks, dressers, &c. 
 
 V. Plans of ground-floor, comprising porticos, entrance-halls, dining- 
 rooms, parlours, lobbies, &c, with stairs to front and back en- 
 trances, and roofs over offices. 
 
 VI. Plans of chamber-floor, arranged for front and back bed-rooms, front 
 dressing-rooms, water-closets, roofs over offices, &c., &c. 
 
 VII. Plan of attice, consisting of two front and two back bed-rooms, with 
 
 a portion of principal roof, gutters, &c. 
 
 VIII. Plan of roofs, showing chimney flues, roof of dormer lights, ridge, 
 
 flashings, hips, gutters, &c, &c. 
 
 IX. Entrance elevation. 
 X. Back elevation. 
 
 XI. Longitudinal section of carcass, showing flues, &c, with elevation of 
 kitchen, offices, &c, and ground line of front and back of building. 
 
 XII. Transverse section of carcass, showing flues and position of stairs, 
 
 with the height of story figured thereon, and the ground lines of 
 back and front of building. 
 
 XIII. Traps for drain, &c, exemplified in six figures. Fig. 1. The section 
 
 of drain that can be easily cleaned without the necessity of r&* 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 163 
 
 3PLATR 
 
 moving any portion of the earth, &c. Fig. 2. A simple sort of 
 trap applicable to this form of drain. Fig. 3. A section and plan 
 of a drain trap to be formed of iron or earthenware. Figs. 4, 5, 
 6. A similar description exemplified for various purposes. See 
 Description, page 5. 
 
 XIV. Plan and section of rain-water tank, with slate filtering machine, so 
 applied as to be taken out for cleaning, &c. 
 
 XV. Plan of brick piers, sleepers, and joists, consisting of six figures, viz., 
 Fig. 1. Plan of pier. Fig. 2. Section of pier sleepers and joists. 
 Fig. 3. Transverse section of the same. Fig. 4. Plan of pier, 
 sleepers, and floor-joists. Fig. 5. Method of notching sleepers 
 for receiving floor-joists, &c. Fig. 6. Floor-joists, bridged for 
 fixing upon sleepers. 
 
 XVI. Details of brickwork, exemplified in six figures. Fig. 1. Footings 
 of external and party walls. Fig. 2. Footings, showing projec- 
 tions for sleepers, &c. Fig. 3. Chimney breast, brick and wood 
 trimmers, with herring-bone trussing. Fig. 4. Floor joists, with 
 ditto. Fig. 5. The elliptical arch, with its radii for brickwork. 
 Fig. 6. The segment of a circle for the same. 
 
 XVII. Details of brickwork for chimneys. Fig. 1. Plan of foundation. 
 
 Fig. 2. Shows a different method with fenders. Fig. 3. Eleva- 
 tion of chimney breast, with chimney bars. Fig. 4. Section of 
 the same and back. Fig. 5. Brick corbels. 
 
 XVIII. Plan and section of chimney breast and trimmers. Fig. 1. Plan. 
 Fig. 2. Section of the same. 
 
 XIX. Details of floor-joists for first, second, and third floors, &c, with 
 
 the application of their tension rods. Fig. 1. Plan of walls, 
 wall-plates, floor-joists, tension-rods, &c Section of end of the 
 same. Fig. 3. A perspective sketch, showing their combination. 
 Fig. 4. Transverse trusses to floor-joists. Fig. 5. Floor-joists, 
 with sound boarding applied. 
 
 XX. Plan and section of a portion of roof. Fig. 1. Section showing the 
 
 whole principal rafters at each hip. Fig. 2. Plan of the same, 
 showing the position of whole and half principles, &c. 
 
 XXI. Details of roof. Fig. 1. Part of principal rafter, with all aux- 
 iliaries, &c. Fig. 2. Elevation of bracket. Fig. 3. Head and 
 foot of queen-posts, &c, with their clips and ties. Fig. Jr. Side 
 elevation of the same. Fig. 5. King-posts, tie-beams, rafters, &c. 
 
 XXII, Plan and elevation of portion of bay window, showing external 
 finishing. 
 
ERECTION OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 XXIII. Details of entrance porch. Fig. L Plan of side and pilaster. Fig. 2. 
 
 Plan of spandrel. Fig. 3. Elevation of the same, with sLeps, &c. 
 Fig. 4. Section of cornice, frieze, &c. Fig. 5. Elevation of the 
 same. Fig. 6. Ditto of the base. 
 
 XXIV. Transverse section, showing partitions. Fig. 1. Partition for 
 
 ground and chamber floors. Fig. 2. Heads and sills of the same. 
 Fig. 3. Struts and braces. Fig. 4. Plan of a portion of cistern in 
 roof. Fig. 5. Section of the same, &c. 
 
 XXV. Longitudinal section, showing partitions. Fig. 1. Partition for 
 
 ground and chamber floors. Fig. 2. Head and Braces. Fig. 3. 
 Door heads. 
 
 XXVI. Details of finishing for the various floors. Fig. 1. For doors, 
 windows, &c, attic floor. Fig. 2. Grounds and skirting chamber 
 floor. Fig. 3. "Windows, doors, &c, chamber floor. Fig. 4. 
 Windows and doors, back parlour and breakfast-room. 
 
 XXVII. Finishings for bay windows. Fig. 1. Portion of plan, showing 
 sash frame ; angular metal bar groove for revolving shutters, &c. 
 Fig. 2. SectioH of the same, showing box for machinery of revolv- 
 ing shutters, &c. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED BV VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON'. 
 
Plate III. 
 
 BLOCK PLAN. SHOWING BUILDINGS. kc. 
 
Plate IV. 
 
Plate VII. 
 
 PLAN OF ATTICS. 
 
 J> C A L e OF FEET . 
 
I 
 
 Plate IX. 
 
Plate XI. 
 
Plate XVIII. 
 
 FIG . || . SECTION 
 
 or end trimmer: 
 
 END TRIMMER p 
 
 1 
 
 IP 
 
 A ,. STONE 
 
 FOR SUPPORTINC 
 
 CORBE L 
 END TRIMMERS. 
 
Plate XX. 
 
Plate XXII. 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
Plate XXV. 
 
±>LATE XXVI. 
 
PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers for 
 
 Books : Rudimentary, Scientific, 
 "WEALE'S SERIES," ETC. 
 
 LONDON, 1862. 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
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 Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE APPLICATION OF IRON 
 TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, 
 ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS* By F. Campin, C.E. i 2 mo,3J. 
 
6 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., 
 
 Oblique Arches. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of 
 OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. 3rd Ed. Imp. 8vo, Ss. cloth. 
 
 Oblique Bridges. 
 
 A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE 
 BRIDGES, with 13 large Plates. By the late Geo. Watson 
 Buck, M.I. C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson 
 Buck, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Dia- 
 grams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by 
 W. H. Barlow, M.I.C.E. Royal 8vo, \2s. cloth. 
 
 " The standard text book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's 
 treatise and it would be impossible to consult a better." — Engineer. 
 
 Gas and Gasworks. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF GASWORKS AND THE 
 MANUFACTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF COAL-GAS. 
 Originally written by Samuel Hughes, C.E. Sixth Edition. 
 Re-written and much Enlarged, by William Richards, C.E. 
 With 72 Woodcuts. i2mo, $s. cloth boards. 
 
 Waterworks for Cities and Towns. 
 
 WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, 
 with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of Eng- 
 land as influencing Supplies of Water. By S.Hughes. 4*. 6d. cloth". 
 
 Locomotive- Engine Driving. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING ; a Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael 
 Reynolds, M. S.E., formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and 
 S. C. R. Fourth Edition, greatly enlarged. Comprising A 
 KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illustra- 
 tions and Portrait of Author. Crown 8yo, 4.?. 6d. cloth. 
 " Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently 
 
 recommend the book not only to the practical driver, but to every one who takes au 
 
 interest in the performance of locomotive engines." — Engineer. 
 
 The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, 
 AND ENGINE-BOY : comprising a Historical Notice of the 
 Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors, with a project 
 for the establishment of Certificates of Qualification in the Running 
 Service of Railways. By Michael Reynolds, Author of 
 " Locomotive- Engine Driving." Crown 8vo, 4:. 6d. cloth. 
 " From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of 
 to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles."— English Mechanic. 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving. 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Rey- 
 nolds ("The Engine-Driver's Friend"), Author of "Locomo- 
 tive-Engine Driving," &c. With Plates and Woodcuts, and Steel 
 Portrait of James Watt. Crown 8vo, \s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Engine- Driving Life. 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE ; or Stirring Adventures and Inci- 
 dents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine-Drivers. By Michael 
 Reynolds. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. \Just published. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7 
 
 Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, &c. 
 
 IRON AND HEAT • exhibiting the Principles concerned in the 
 construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the 
 _ Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C. E. 3^ 
 
 Fire Engineering. 
 
 FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With 
 a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- 
 ment ; Remarks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of 
 Life from Fire; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English 
 Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c, &c 
 By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, 
 handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, il. 4s: cloth. 
 " We can most heartily commend this book." — Engineering 
 
 "Mr. Young's book on 'Fire Engines and Fire Brigades' contains a mass of 
 information, which has been collected from a variety of sources. The subject is so 
 intensely interesting and useful that it demands consideration. "—Building News. 
 
 Trigonometrical Surveying. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geo- 
 graphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Recon- 
 naissance, Levelling, &c, with the most useful Problems in Geodesy 
 and Practical Astronomy. By Lieut. -Gen. Frome, R.E., late In- 
 spector-General of Fortifications. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, and 
 partly Re-written. By Captain Charles Warren, R.E. With 
 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, 16s. cloth. 
 
 Tables of Curves. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES 
 
 for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander 
 
 Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Printed on 48 Cards 
 
 and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, y. 6d. 
 
 "? a j h r able is P rinted on a sma11 card . which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves 
 the hands free to manipulate the instrument." — Engineer. 
 
 "a^^^I '' a man may know that aU his da y' s wo ' rk must fal1 °n 'wo of these 
 cards, which he^ puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind."— 
 
 Engineering Fieldwork. \Athen*u»t. 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, 
 applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine 
 Surveying and Levelling. Second Edition, revised, with consider- 
 able additions, and a Supplement on WATERWORKS, SEWERS 
 SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. Davis Haskoll, C E 
 Numerous folding Plates. In 1 Vol., demy 8vo, 1/. 5s., cl. boards. 
 
 Large Tunnel Shafts. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. 
 A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck* 
 M. Inst. C.E., Resident Engineer, London and North- Western 
 Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, \zs. cloth. 
 " Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason,' and the 
 observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construc- 
 tion of the templates, will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to 
 New" SmeQnaS profession ' and t0 a11 who have t0 build similar shafts."— Building 
 
 "Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save 
 much time and obviate many mistakes."— Colliery Guardian. 
 
8 WORKS IN ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC., 
 
 Survey Practice. 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE : for Reference in Surveying, 
 Levelling, Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land 
 and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis 
 D'A. Jackson, A-M.I.C.E. Author of "Hydraulic Manual and 
 Statistics," &c. Large crown, 8vo, \2s. 6d., cloth. 
 " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can 
 recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the 
 accomplished surveyor." — Athenceum. 
 
 " A general text book was wanted, and we are able to speak with confidence of 
 Mr. Jackson's treatise. . . . We cannot recommead to the student who knows 
 something of the mathematical principles of the subject a better course than to fortify 
 his practice in the field under a competent surveyor with a study of Mr. Jackson's 
 useful manual. The field records illustrate every kind of survey, and will be found 
 an essential aid to the student." — Building News. 
 
 " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical expe- 
 rience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book both a very 
 useful one and very agreeable to read." — Builder. 
 
 Sanitary Work. 
 
 SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND 
 IN VILLAGES. Comprising : — I. Some of the more Common 
 Forms of Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water 
 Supply. By Chas. Slagg, Assoc. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, 3^ cloth. 
 "A very useful book, and may be safely recommended. The author has had 
 practical experience in the works of which he treats." — Builder. 
 
 Locomotives. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Com- 
 prising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive 
 Engine. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large additions treat- 
 ing of the Modern Locomotive, by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., 
 M.I.C.E., Author of "Tramways, their Construction and Working," 
 &c, &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. y. 6d. cloth boards. 
 "The student cannot fail to profit largely by adopting this as his preliminary text- 
 book." — Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 " Seems a model of what an elementary technical book should be." — Academy. 
 
 Fuels and their Economy. 
 
 FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; consisting of an Abridg- 
 ment of "A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention 
 of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A.I. C.E. With extensive 
 additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of 
 Fuel— Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. Kin- 
 near Clark, C.E. , M.I. C.E. Second Edition, revised. With 
 numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 4s. cloth boards. 
 " Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satis- 
 factory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be had." — Engineer. 
 
 Roads and Streets. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In 
 Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By 
 Henry Law, C.E. Revised and Condensed. II. Recent 
 Practice in the Construction of Roads and Streets : including 
 Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte. By D. Kinnkar 
 Clark, C.E., M.I. C.E. Second Edit, revised. i2mo, $s. cloth. 
 " A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will 
 
 be of considerable service to architects, builders, and property owners generally."— 
 
 Building- News. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOj 
 
 Sewing Machine {The). V 1 
 
 SEWING MACHINERY ; being a Practical 
 Sewing Machine, comprising its History and DetaT 
 struction, with full Technical Directions for the Adjusting^rf-Sks,! 
 ing Machines. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of "Electro 
 Plating: a Practical Manual;" "Electric Light: its Production 
 and Use." With Numerous Illustrations. 121110, 2s. 6d. cloth 
 boards. 
 
 Field-Book for Engineers. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- 
 TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. 
 Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of 
 Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting 
 the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Re- 
 ducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary 
 manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential 
 Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the 
 Instrument ; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System 
 of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earth- 
 work Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. 
 With numerous Woodcuts. 4th Edition, enlarged. Cr. 8vo. 12s. cloth. 
 " The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables 
 
 of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the 
 
 genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — Athetuzum. 
 
 " Cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the 
 
 engineering profession." — Mining Journal. 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of. 
 
 A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, 
 C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With 
 numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the 
 railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earth- 
 work will find a great amount of practical information very admirably arranged, and 
 available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations 
 required in the engineers' contractor's offices." — Artizatt. 
 
 Drawing for Engineers ; &c. 
 
 THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING 
 DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering 
 Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A., 
 South Kensington. Fourth Edition, carefully revised. With upwards 
 of 300 Plates and Diagrams. l2mo, cloth, strongly bound, $s. 
 
 " A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — Engineering. 
 
 " Indispensable for teachers of engineering drawing." — Mechanics' Magazine. 
 
 Weales Dictionary of Terms. 
 
 A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, 
 BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, 
 ARCHEOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. 
 Fifth Edition, revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining 
 Records, Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts." i2mo, 6s. cl. bds. 
 " The best small technological dictionary in the language." — Architect. 
 " The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after 
 extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very 
 complete." — Mining Joitrnal. 
 
WORKS IN MINING, METALLURGY, ETC., 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY, ETC. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D.C. Davies, F.G.S., author of "A Treatise on 
 Slate and Slate Quarrying." With numerous wood engravhgs. 
 Second Edition, revised. Cr. 8vo. \2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " Without question, the most exhaustive and the most practically useful wore we 
 have seen ; the amount of information given is enormous, and it is given contisely 
 and intelligibly." — Mining Joicrnal. 
 
 " The volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be without." — CoT.iery 
 Guardian. 
 
 " The author has gathered together from all available sources a vast amouat of 
 really useful information. As a history of the present state of mining throughout 
 the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual want, for no such infor- 
 mation has hitherto been brought together within such limited space." — Athenceim. 
 
 Slate and Slate Qtmrrying. 
 
 A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, 
 Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., 
 Mining Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding 
 Plates. Second Edition, carefully revised. l2mo, y. 6d. clothboa'ds. 
 "Mr. Davies has written a useful and practical hand-book on an important industry, 
 with all the conditions and details of which he appears familiar." — Engineering. 
 
 " The work is illustrated by actual practice, and is unusually thorough and lucid. 
 . . . Mr. Davies has completed his work with industry and skill." — Builder. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con- 
 taining Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of 
 Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of 
 Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the 
 Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth 
 Edition, revised and much enlarged. i2mo, cloth boards, 5j. 
 " Has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important points, while all 
 material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into."— Standard. 
 
 Manual of Mining Tools. 
 
 MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, 
 Mining Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac- 
 tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. 
 l2mo, 3j. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 
 4to, 6s. Together, gs. cloth boards. 
 "Students in the Science of Mining, and Overmen, Captains, Managers, and 
 
 Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. 
 
 Morgans' Manual."— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Mining, Surveying and Valuing. 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- 
 PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining 
 Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Im- 
 proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles 
 of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal 
 Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil 
 Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c, l2mo, 4J. cloth. 
 "Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which, as far 
 as we have tested it, is'thoroughly trustworthy." — Iron and Coal Trades Reznew. 
 
 *** The above, bound with Thoman's Tables. (See page 20.) 
 Price Js. 6d. cloth. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 Coal and Coal Mining. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By 
 Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c, Chief Inspector 
 of the Mines of the Crown. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. 
 l2mo, with numerous Illustations, 4s. cloth boards. 
 "Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared with much care, and 
 as an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as 
 of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very 
 large number of readers." — Mining Journal. 
 
 Underground Pumping Machinery. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE ; being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with 
 a Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their 
 General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode 
 of their Application, and their merits'compared with other forms of 
 Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell, Joint- Authorof" The 
 Cornish System of Mine Drainage." 8vo, i5j.ci.0th. [Just published. 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, ETC. 
 — « — 
 
 Pocket Book for Naval Architects & Shipbuilders. 
 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 POCKET BOOK OF FORMULA, RULES, AND TABLES 
 AND MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S HANDY 
 BOOK OF REFERENCE. By Clement Mackrow, M. Inst. 
 N. A., Naval Draughtsman. With numerous Diagrams. Fcap., 
 1 2 j. 6d., strongly bound in leather. 
 " Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels." 
 ■ — Engineer. 
 
 "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require 
 to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's 
 hock." —English Mechanic. 
 
 "Mr. Mackrow has compressed an extraordinary amount of information into this 
 useful volume."— AtJienceum. 
 
 Grantham s Iron Ship-Building. 
 
 ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING j with Practical Examples and 
 Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 
 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together 
 with separate Text, also considerably enlarged, i2mo, cloth limp. 
 By John Grantham, M. Inst. C.E., &c. 2/. 2s. complete. 
 
 " Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. It will, we are confident, command an 
 extensive circulation among shipbuilders in general. By order of the Board of Admi- 
 ralty, the work will form the text-book on which the examination in iron ship-building 
 of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based." — Engineering. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR 
 MUL^f FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, 
 A. I.N. A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 32mo, 
 leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4J. 
 
 "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette. 
 
 " Scarcely anything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for- 
 gotten." — Iron. 
 
WORKS IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC., 
 
 L ight- Houses. 
 
 EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS; being a Report of 
 a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major George H. 
 Elliot, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 En- 
 gravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text. 8vo, 2IJ. cloth. 
 
 Surveying [Land and Marine). 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, In Reference to the 
 Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers, 
 Tov.ns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description 
 and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. 
 With 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, \zs.6d. clo.h. 
 
 "A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student." — Builder. 
 
 " Of the utmost practical utility, and may be safely recommended to all students 
 who aspite to become clean and expert surveyors." — Mining J eternal. 
 
 Storms. 
 
 STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the 
 Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouis. 
 By William Blasius. Crown 8vo, ioj. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
 Rudimentary Navigation, 
 
 THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navi- 
 gation. By James Greenwood, B.A. New and enlarged edition. 
 By W. H. Rosser. i2mo, 3.5-. cloth boards. 
 
 Mathematical and Nautical Tables. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES, for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, 
 and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on 
 Logarithms. By Henry Law, C.E. Together with a Series of 
 Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By J. R. 
 Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. 
 New Edition. i2mo, i\s. cloth boards. 
 
 Navigation {Practical), with Tables. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION : consisting of the Sailor's Sea- 
 Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together 
 with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Work- 
 ing of the Problems. By Henry Law, C.E., and Professor 
 J. R. Young. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings and 
 Coloured Plates. i2mo, 7-f. strongly half bound in leather. 
 
 WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 The following books in Naval Architecture, etc., are published in the 
 above series, 
 
 MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By 
 
 Robert Kipping, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. 121110, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. Tenth Edition, enlarged. By Robert 
 
 Kipping, N.A. Illustrated. i2mo, 3^. cloth boards. 
 NAVAL ARCFHTECTURE. By James Peake. Fourth Edition, 
 
 with Plates and Diagrams. l2mo, 4s. cloth boards. 
 MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS. By Robert 
 
 Murray, C.E. Seventh Edition. i2mo, 35. 6d. cloth boards. 
 
PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 
 Construction. — • — 
 
 THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 
 Architect. With 47 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo, Ss. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — Builder. 
 
 "■ No architectural student should be without this hand-book." — Architect. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
 Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, 
 Author of "The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of Eng- 
 land," &c. 31 Plates, 4to, half morocco, gilt edges, ll. is. 
 Also an Enlarged edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Detailed 
 Specifications, Estimates, &c. 2/. 2s. half morocco. 
 " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic 
 a r hitect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." — Building News. 
 
 Useful Text- Book for Architects. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors. 
 Clerks of Works, &c. By Frederick Rogers. Author of 
 "Specifications for Practical Architecture," &c. Cr. 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 " As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c, it 
 vrould be hard to find a handier or more complete little volume." — Standard. 
 
 Taylor and Cresy s Rome. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.S.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. 
 New Edition, thoroughly revised, and supplemented under the 
 editorial care of the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Chaplain of Gray's Inn. Tkis is 
 the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision 
 of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient 
 Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates, 
 half-bound, 3/. 3s. 
 *** Originally published in two volumes, folio, at 18/. iSs. 
 
 Vitruvius A rchitecture. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS VITRUVIUS 
 POLLIO. Translated by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. 
 Numerous Plates. i2mo, cloth limp, ^s. 
 
 The Young Architect's Book. 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight- 
 wick, Architect. New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. 
 Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. i2mo, cloth boards, 4J. 
 " Will be found an acquisition to pupils, and a copy ought to be considered as 
 necessary a purchase as a box of instruments." — Architect. 
 
 " A large amount of information, which young architects will do well to acquire, if 
 they wish to succeed in the everyday work of their profession." — English Mechanic. 
 
 Drawing for Builders and Students. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE 
 BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. 
 By George Pyne. With 14 Plates, 4to, is. 6d. boards. 
 
14 WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC., 
 
 The House-Owner's Estimator. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR; or, What will ii 
 Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price-Book adapted to the 
 Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural 
 Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B. A. 
 Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, A.R.I.B. A., 
 Surveyor. Third Edition, carefully Revised. Crown 8vo, 3-r. 6d., 
 cloth. \_J list published, 
 
 " In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." — Field. 
 
 " A very handy book for those who want to know what a house will cost to build, 
 alter, or repair." — English Mechanic. 
 
 Boiler and Factory Chimneys. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; their Draught-power 
 and Stability, with a chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert 
 Wilson, C.E., Author of "Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c, &c. 
 Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical Building. 
 
 A BOOK ON BUILDING, CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL, 
 Including Church Restoration. By Sir Edmund Beckett, 
 Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Chancellor and Vicar-General 
 of York. Author of "Clocks and Watches and Bells," &c. 
 Second Edition, i2mo, $s. cloth boards. 
 "A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. Sir E. BecketS 
 
 will be read for the raciness of his style. We are able very cordially to recommend 
 
 all persons to read it for themselves. The style throughout is in the highest degree 
 
 condensed and epigrammatic." — Times. 
 
 " We commend the book to the thoughtful consideration of all who are interested 
 
 in the building art." — Builder. 
 
 Architecture, Ancient and Modern. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modem. 
 Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by Joseph Gwilt, 
 F.S.A., &c, with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Archi- 
 tecture, by the Earl of Aberdeen ; the ORDERS of 
 Architecture, by W. H. Leeds, Esq. ; The STYLES of Archi- 
 tecture of Various Countries, by T. Talbot Bury ; The 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 15 
 
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1 6 WORKS IN CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC., 
 
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V 'v .If 
 
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 "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have 
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18 WORKS IN MECHANICS, ETC., 
 
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 "llATHEMAT ICS, T ABLES^ 
 
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 MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN j being a 
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 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 21 
 
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 PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING. By W. E Dickson, 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBYLOCKWfc^A, 
 
 The Alkali Trade—Sulphuric At 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE?" 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of bocla, ana T5t«wau»g 
 Powder By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne and London. With 232 Illustrations and Working Draw- 
 
 *K a t cToth aiDing 386 pages of text 
 
 f^M^4mandF^men as a useful guide in their datl? rounds 0/ duty. 
 
 Chap. I. Choice of Site and General 
 Plan of Works— II. Sulphuric Acid— 
 III. Recovery of the Nitrogen Com- 
 pounds, and Treatment of Small Pyrites 
 —IV. The Salt Cake Process- V. Legis- 
 lation upon the; Noxious Vapours Ques ; 
 tion— VI. The Hargreaves' and Jones 
 Processes— VII. The Balling Process— 
 VIII. Lixiviation and Salting Down 
 
 Synopsis of Contents. 
 
 IX. Carbonating or Finishing— X. Soda 
 Crystals — XI. Refined Alkali — XII. 
 Caustic Soda — XIII. Bi-carbonate of 
 Soda — XIV. Bleaching Powder — XV. 
 Utilisation of Tank Waste- XVI. General 
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 of the most approved forms of a PP" a ' u ' f -l^'he used for the purposes of con- 
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26 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC., 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKW 
 
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28 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 29 
 
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PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOfl 
 
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32 WORKS PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. 
 
 * A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country' 
 
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