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[^^jfor the injury, or replace the book, as the Library Committee may direct ; -J^^ ^>^and if one or more books, belonging to a set or sets, be lost, the borrower shall replace them or make full restitution. ^ Article VII. — Any person removing from the Hall, without permission H l^^jfrom the proper authorities, any book, newspaper, or other property in ^ j^)^ charge of the Library Committee, shall be reported to the Committee, who ^ ^ may inflict any fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars. ^ Ixl Article VIII. — No Member or holder of second class stock, whose i'rg annual contribution for the current year shall be unpaid, or who is in arrears for fines, shall be entitled to the privileges of the Library or Read- ^ ^4ng Room. ^ U<*, ARTieT>E IX. — If any Member or holder of second class stock, shall refuse 'f? ^ J or neglect to comply with the foregoing rules, it shall be the duty of the 4* ^'i^ Secretary to report him to the Committee on the Library. i^l ?Cj Artiq^e X. — Any Member or holder of second class stock, detected in Q mutilating the newspapers, pamphlets or books belonging to the Institute, <^ ^^J shall be deprived of his right of membership, and the name of the offender ^" shall be made public. ^."C^^" ^ SELECTION FKOM WE ALE'S SERIES. fyiZ t^^fJ, THE DBAINAGE OF TOWNS AND BUILDINGS, i^c^J ^}^^^l3^r Kiidimcntary Treatise on; sug-gcstive of Sanatory Regulations ^)^"^r^'^ conducive to the Health of an Increasing Population. By G. 9"?^^-^ I>Kvsi)ALE Demi'sey, C.E. Reviscd and gTcatly extended : with '^^^c^^ Notices of the IMetropolitan Drainage, Thames Embankment, T^f^ IvOVkii! and Water Supply Schemes. Illustrated. 2s. '-'•it'^ ^h:^ir^ THE DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS. %a -C'"^ ^' r)iivsi)ALE Demi'Sey, C.E. Illustrated. Is. 6d. ■c^'^'vj^' *** ll^ith Drainage of Towns and JUiildingay' in one vol., 3s. npxl^ THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, -C'^ >?X{^^ Rudimentary Treatise on; for Building and other purposes, and on the Blowing np of Bridges. By Gen. Sir John Buiigoyxe, i^c^ Jvi.TS^iTC Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated. Is. 6d. 20?^^ f^Srp THE APPLICATION OF IRON TO THE CON- J^lt Va^'^o structtox of bridges, girders, roofs, and iif^ ■k^V^^^jPc OTHER IFORKS, By Fiiancis Campix, C.E. With numerous t^^-?^ K^"''^^>V^ Illustrations. 2s. X'^y COTTAGE BUILDING ; or, Hints for Improved Dwell- ^j^"^ '^^^i^^sU """n^ ^^1' ^l^c Labouring Classes. By C. Biiuce Allen, Architect. 5-2?, S Illustrated. Is. P^^^^ T^^iC'^ FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, SiHudi- ^Pf^, mentary Treatise on; containing a Synopsis of the principal cases of Foundation Works, with the usual modes of treatment, X'^<^ i^-''-?^ &» ^^^^ practical remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, and Jx'^J^^ Beton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams, with an Account C ("'rt^jCX of the new Mole executed in Beton at the Harbour of Algiers. By E. DoESON, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated. Is. 6d. ^V)-^ LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, ^-^''xi; 5^ MASTICS, FIASTERING, &c., Rudimentary Treatise on. 5o^< ^ By G. R. BuiiNELL, C.E. Is. 6d. ^' THE BUILDERS AND CONTRACTORS PRICE fej?^: BOOK ; containing the latest prices for work in all branches of r the Building Trade, with an Appendix of Tables, Notes, and Jri<>^' Memoranda. By G. R. Buiinell, C.E. 3s. Gd. jSf <^ll^ Tr.-17?.W.Y6^ AND VENTILATION, a Rudimentary 1^^^] ^>T^^tV:V 'Treatise on; being a concise Exposition of the General Prin- ■^'^^ ciples of the Art of Warming and Ventilating Domestic and X^^ >f<^ ^'r^^^'t Public Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses. Ships, &c. By Charles .^^r^^ ToMLiNsoN, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated. '3s. 5^'^'' CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS AND IRON SAFES, Rudimentary Treatise on the. Edited by Charles i^c^i^t ToMLiNSON, F.R.S. Illustrated. 2s. Gd. V ' Va,-^7T IOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, E.C. 7^. J!", RUDIMENTS OF THE ART OF BUILDING. En (Jfibc cBcctions — GEXERAL PRIXCIPLES OF COXSTRUCTIOX ; MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING; STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; USE OF MATERIALS; WORKING DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND ESTIMATES. By EDWARD DOBSON, assoc.i.c.e. and m.i.b.a. AUTHOR OF "the RAILWAYS OF BELGIUM," ETC. EIGHTH EDITION. ^ LONDON : LOCKWOOD & CO., 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL. 1871. ubhary ADVERTISEMENT. Five very large impressions of this little treatise have been exhausted in less than ten years, a sufficient proof of its great utility and the estimation in which it is held. Indeed, it is within the mark to state that, if not the very best, it is looked upon as one of the best treatises to be placed in the hands of the younj: student whose future walk in life is destined to be that of a builder, architect, or engineer. This sixth edition contains an Appendix of Notes, by Robert Mallet, A. M., F. U.S., bringing forward new facts, or principles, which, at the date of the original publication, had been less clearly developed than at present, and referring the reader to various sources of more enlarged special information in works not noticed by the Author himself. New editions of Mr. Dobson's other treatises, intended to supplement his " Rudiments of the Art of Building," have also just been issued — the Principles of Brickmaking, and Manu- facture of Bricks and Tiles," supervised by Professor Charles Tomlinson; Masonry and Stone-cutting, with Principles of Masonic Projection;" and the Treatise on Foundations and Concrete Work," with notes by G. Dodd, Esq. These little manuals were published by the Author as companions to one another. Maij, 18G7. 3 PREFACE. In offering this little volume to the public, it may be desirable to say a few words, by way of preface, as to the object and character of the work. It has been written at the suggestion of the publisher, to accompany the Kudimentary Series, and as a first book on the Art of Building, intended for the use of young persons who are about to commence their professional training for any puri>uit connected with the erection of buildings ; and, also, for the use of amateurs who wish to obtain a general knowledge of the sub- ject without devoting to it the time requisite for the study of the larger works that have been written on the different branches of construction. To avoid unnecessarily extending the limits of the work, those subjects are omitted which are treated of in other volumes of this series, as Building Stone, Brick-making, and the Composition of Colours and Varnishes. For the same reason little has been said of the manufacture of glass and the smelting of metallic ores, because they have been repeatedly treated of in various elemen- tary works, whilst a considerable space has been devoted to the consideration of the differences between hot and cold blast irons, and to the description of the operations of the iron-founder, subjects which are not generally to be met with but in expensive works. The equilibrium of retaining walls is a subject which has long eugaged the attention of mathematicians with little practical success, the results arrived at by different eminent writers being quite at variance with each other. For the chapter on this sub- ject a few simple formulea are given, which embrace all the con- ditions of the thrust of the earth and of the resistance of the h vi PKEFACE wall, the friction of the earth against the back of the wall being also taken into account In the article on the strength of cast-iron flanged beams a simple rule is given for calculation, founded on the assumption that the position of the neutral axis in a cast-iron rectangular beam, at the time of fracture, is at about ^th of its whole depth below its top surface, which is now pretty generally admitted to be the case. Amongst various works, the following have been carefully consulted during the composition of this little work. The publications of the Institution of Civil Engineers and of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Professional Papers of the Royal Engineers, Weale's Quarterly Papers on Engineering and Architecture, Weale's Bridges, the Works of Peter Nicholson, G wilt's EncyclopsDdia of Architecture, Dr. lire's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, Tredgold's Carpentry, the works of Pasley and Yicat on Limes and Cements, Aikin's Papers on Arts and Manufactures, Barlow on the Strength of Materials, Tredgold and Hodgkinson on Cast Iron, and Bartholomew on Practical Specifi- cations ; all these works will be found extremely valuable to the student. I ha^e great pleasure in acknowledging the kind assistance of my friend Mr. H. W. Kirby, C.E., in the articles on the equili- brium of retaining walls, and on the strength of cast-iron beams; to whom I am also indebted for the valuable notes appended to the article on retaining walls. The articles on Iron-Founding, Carpenter and Joiner's Work, and House-Painting, have been carefully revised by friends prac- tically engaged in those pursuits. E. DOBSON. CONTENTS. SECTION I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION Foundations — Two principal causes of failure, 1. — Natural Foujidaiio,ii, 2 ; some soils only require to be protected from the action of the atmosphere, 3. — Artificial Foundations, 4; Use of timber objection- able, where exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, 5; founda- tions partly natural and partly artificial, 6 ; piles used as props from a hard under-stratum, 7 ; piles used to consolidate soft ground where there is no bard bottom, 8. — Foundations in Water, 9 ; Foundations formed wholly of piles, 10; iron piles, 11; screw piles, 12 ; cast-iron piling at Gravesend Pier, 13 ; foundations formed with cast-iron cylin- ders, 14 ; Indian foundations, 15; solid foundations, where there is no danger from the scour of the water, 16 ; foundations of pierre perdue, 17; foundations of coursed masonry, 18; heton, 19; caissons, their use, 20 ; caissons on foundations of leton, 21 ; caissons on pile founda- tions, 22; solid foundations laid in cofferdams, 23; cofferdams on a foundation of beton, 24 ; reference to volume on " Foundations and Concrete Works," 25. Re TAiNiNQ Walls — Difference between retaining walls and breast walls, 20 ; theoretical rules for the strength of retaining walls of little prac- tical use, 27; calculation of stability divided under two heads, viz., pressure of earth and resistance of wall, 28 ; definitions, 29 ; Pressure of Earth — On what it depends, 30 ; calculation of minimum thrust, 31 ; calculation of maximum thrust, 32 ; action of a wedge without friction, similar to that of a fluid, ^S— Resistance of fFa^^— Calculation of, 34 ; best form, idem; advantages of triangular form, 35; modifica- tion of the triangular form commonly made use of, 36 ; illustrations of the comparative strength of differently-shaped walls, 37 ; protecting the toe of a retaining wall, 38; counterforts, 39. Breast Walls — Principal precautions to be taken in building, 40 ; to inclined strata, 41 ; drainage essential, 42. viii CONTENTS Arches — Arch defined, 43 ; fails by turning on the edges of the voussoirs, 44 ; curve of equilibrium, 45 ; experimental arch with curved voussoirs, 46 ; coincidence of the catenarian curve and curve of equilibrium, 47 ; two methods of equilibrating arches, viz., by suiting the curve to the weight, or the weight to the curve, 48 ; illustration of the mode of calculating the required load on the haunches, 49 ; minimum thickness required to contain the curve of equilibrium, 50 ; in semicircular arches the springing forms part of the abutment, 51 ; depth of the voussoirs must be calculated for the maximum load, 52, — Brich Arches — Com- mon mode of building defective, 53; best method, 54. — Arches of Iron awe? jTm&er, 55; laminated arched beams, 56. — Skew Arches — Causes which led to their construction, 57 ; peculiarity of the skew arch, 58. — Centering defined, 59 ; points to be attended to in construction of, 60 ; centering for Gloucester Over Bridge, 61 ; centering to Grosvenor Bridge, 62; defects of ordinary centering, 63. — Abutments, three modes of preventing failure in, 64 ; wing walls of bridges, 65. — Vaulting — Definitions, 66 ; Koman vaulting, 67 ; Gothic vaulting, peculiarity of, 68 ; domes, 69. Ma&onry — Brickwokk — Bond — Term masonry sometimes includes brick- work, 70; three classes of masonry, 71; different kinds of masonry used in connection with each other, 72 ; mortar essential to strength of rubble work, 73 ; defects in ashlar work, 74 ; bed-dowel joggles, 75 , stone facings to brickwork should be backed up in cement, 76 ; ashlar must bond with brickwork, 77 ; bond, in what consisting, 78 ; brick bond, 79 ; three points to be attended to in building walls, 80 ; uni- formity of construction, 81 ; bond — fir bond, 82 ; hoop-iron bond, 83 ; distribution of the load, 84 ; inverted arches, 85 ; lintels, 86 ; bres- summers of cast-iron not fireproof, 87. Partitions— Principles of framing, 88. Floors — Naked flooring, 89 ; objections to inserting timbers in walls, 90 ; fireproof floors, 91 ; tile floors, 92» Hooping — Timbering of a roof similar to a double-framed floor, 93. — Trussed Roofs — Collar truss, 94 ; king truss, 95 ; queen truss, 96 ; iron roofs, 97; roofs of Houses of Parliament, idem,} these roofs covered with galvanized sheets of cast iron, 98 ; roof of Riding House at Moscow, 99 ; bow suspension truss, 100. — Roofs on the jprincijple of the Arch — Philebert de Lorme's system, 101; disadvantages of, 102; Colonel Emy's employment of the laminated arch rib in 1825, 103 ; laminated rib used in England by Messrs. Green, in 1837. — Gothic Roofs — Generally exert more or less thrust on the walls, 104 ; roof ol Chaldon Church, Surrey, 105 ; alteration of many high-pitched roofs tc CONTENTb obtain a clerestory, 106 ; flat roof, with tie beams and principals, 107 ; king-post roof, with struts under tie beam, 108 ; these roofs not sound examples of construction, 109 ; general principles of large open timber roofs of fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, idem; roof of Great Hall, Hampton Court, 110 ; roof of hall at Eltham, 111; roof of Westmin- ster Hall, 112 ; roofs of this kind not to be executed in fir without using iron straps or bolts, 113. — Roof Coverings — Slate and stone, 114; tiles, 115; shingles, 116; metallic coverings, 117; lead, 118; copper, 119; zinc, 120; cast-iron, 121; contraction and expansion of metallic covei ings, 122 ; weights of different coverings, idem. Supply op Wateh — Influence of the two modes of supply, viz., constant and intermittent, on the arrangements of a building — manner of fitting up private cisterns, 123. Warminq and Ventilation — Warming by fire-places and by heated air, 124; two systems of ventilation — veniilation by exhaustion, 125; ven- tilation by forcing, 126. SECTION II. • MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING. List of building materials, 128. — Timber — Structure of a tree, 129 ; points to be attended to in preparing timber for the use of the builder, 130; age of timber, 131 ; time of felling, 132; seasoning, 133; decay, causes of, 134; prevention of, 135 ; timber chiefly used by the builder, 136; fir, 137; oak, 138; fancy woods, 139. — Limes and Cements, Mortar y Concrete^ ^e^ori— 'Property of mortar depends on the chemical composition of the limestones used, 140; three classes of limestones 141; process of making mortar, 142; imre Zmes— chalk, 143; gyp- sum, 144; water cements, 145; Dorking lime, 146; lias limes, 147; composition of loater limes, 148 ; puzzolana always used for hydraulic works previous to the discovery of natural cements, 149 ; artificial puz- zolana, 150 ; artificial cements, 151 ; quality of sand fit for mixing with different limes, 152 ; concrete and beton — rubble masonry of snipill stones bedded in mortar used at a very early period, 153; differences Oetween concrete and beton, 154; composition of concrete, 155. — As- jphalte — its composition, 156. — Metals— W&i of metals used as building materials, 157. — Iron — difference between cast and wrought iron, 158,' the weald of Kent and Sussex the principal seat of the iron manufac- , ture, previous to the introduction of smelting with pit-coal, 159; pit- coal now used as fuel, and steam power employed to produce the blaat h 3 X CONTENTS. in the smelting furnace, 160 ; two sets of processes required for the ' production of wrought iron, 161; mode of smelting, 162 ; introduction of the hot blast, 163; cast iron divided into three qualities, 164; cast- ing, 165; conversion of forge pig into bar-iron, 166; lead, 167; copper, 168; zinc, 169; brass, 170; bronze, difficulty in casting, 171; bell metal, 172. SECTION III. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Materials of a building exposed to compression, tension, and cross-strain, 173; resistance to compression, 174; resistance to tension, 175 ; cross- strain. — Strength of Beams — two considerations, viz., the mechanical effect of the load and the resistance of the beam, 176 ; mechanical effect of a given load under varying circumstances, 177; resistance of the beam, 178 ; consideration of the best form for cast-iron beams, 179 ; calculation of the strength of flanged beams, 180 ; use of a strong top flange, 181; proving, 182; trussed timber beams, 183; strength oj story posts and cast-iron pillars ; wooden story posts, 184; strength of cast-iron pillars, 185; cases of transverse strain arising from settle- ments, 186. SECTION IV. USE OF MATERIALS Excavator, 187. Bricklayer — Nature of the business, 188 ; tools, 189 ; bricklayer's la- bourer, 190; bricklayer's scaffold, 101; amount of day's work, 192; tools for tiling, 193; measurement of brickwork, 194; of paving, 195; of tiling, 196. Mason — Business of the mason, stone-cutter, and carver, 197; preparation of stone for the use of the mason, 198; tools, 199; mason's scaffold, 200 ; Derrick cranes, 201 ; hoisting stone, 202 ; mode of working stone, 203 ; face-work, 204 ; securing joints, 205 ; measurement of mason's work, 206. Carpenter — Nature of the business, 207; tools, 208; joints and connec- tions, 209 ; quali^cations of a carpenter, 210 ; measurement of carpen- ter's work, 211. Joiner — Difference between the occupations of the carpenter and of the CONTENTS. xi joiner, 212; tools — saws, 213; planes, 214; cliise!^, 215; hoiiiig tools, 216; other implements, 217; dovetailing and mortising, 218; joints, 219; scribing, 220; circular work, 221; ledged, framed, and clamped work, 222 ; straight joint and folding floors, 223 ; glue, 224 ; measurement of joiner's v/ork, 225 ; ironmongery — principal descriptions of, 226 ; hinges, 227; locks, 228 ; latches, 229. Sawyer, 230. Slater — Nature of the business, 231 ; tools, 232 ; mode of laying slates, 233 ; measurement of slater's work, 234. Plasterer— Nature of plasterer's work, 235 ; tools, 236 ; materials, 237 ; operations of plastering, 238; summary of above, 239; measurement of plasterer's work, 240. Smith and Iron-founder, 241. Coppersmith, 242. Warming Apparatus, &c., supplied by the mechanical engineer, 248. Bell-hanger — Mode of hanging bells, 244 ; how paid for, 245. Plumber— Nature of plumber's work, 246; tools, 247; materials, 248; laying of sheet lead, 249 ; fitting up water-closets an important branch of the plumber's trade, 250; measurement of plumber's work, 251. Zinc Worker, 252. Glazier — Nature of glazier's work, 253 ; glazing in sashes, 254 ; glazing in lead work, 255; tools, 256; cleaning windows, 257; measurement of glazier's work, 258. Painter, Paper-hanger, and Decorator — Business of the painter, 259 ; materials, 260 ; tools, 261 ; operation of painting, 262 ; painting on stucco, 263 ; graining, 264 ; clearcoling, 265 ; distemperinjr, 266 ; measurement of painter's work, 26T; Bcagliola, 268 ; gilding, 269 ; paper-hanging, 270. SECTION V. WORKING DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, ESTIMATEa, AND CONTRACTS Design and superintendence of lari^e works the business of the architect, 271; profession of the architect and trade of the builder sometimes united, this not desirable, 272 ; business of a surveyor, 273 ; mode of conducting large wcrks, 27i.— Plan of Site, 275.— Levels, the import xii CONTENTS ance of correct levels, 276; mason's level, 277; spirit level, 278; levelling staff, 279 ; mode of entering observations in level book, 280 ; Bench marks, 281; making up level book, 282 ; checking the computa- tions, 283; Datura line, 284; the water level, 285. Working Drawings — Qualifications of a draughtsman, 286 ; three classes of working drawings, viz., block plans, general drawings, and detailed drawings, 287. Specifications — Nature of 288 ; conditions of contract, 289 ; description of the works, 290 ; merit of a specification consists in explicitness* 291. Bills of Quantities, prepared by the surveyor, 292; three distinct opera- tions in taking out quantities, 293 ; taking dimensions, 294 ; abstract- ing, 295 ; bringing quantities into bill, 296 ; skeleton estimate, 297; quantities furnished to builders, 298 ; extra works, 299 ; surveyors, how paid, 300 ; architect's charges, 301. X TES AND Illustrations.— Retaining walls (p. 13), A; easing down centering (p. 30), B; fire-proof floors (p. 42), C; roofs of large span (p. 47),D; zinc coating (p. 59),E; heating and ventilation (p. 62), P; preservation of timber (p. 68), G; steel manufacture (p. 75), H ; cast iron, &c., (p. 77), I ; tensile resistance (p. 80), K ; strain on girders (p. 88), L. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SECTION r. Fro. 1 2 6/ 7 i 10 11 14 15^ 16 I 17 18 19j 20 21 22 23 24 25 26) 27 i Art. 2 6 10 22 23 24 26 29^ 31 32 34 37 41 44, 50 51 ' 58 ' 61 64 DKsrRiPTroN. Fracture from unequal settlement. Sketch of the timber foundations for the walls of the Leyden station of the Amsterdam and Rotterdam Railway- Timber pier in a tidal river. Section of the caisson before being lowered. Section of the work when com pleted. Building in caissons on pile foundations. Single dam. Cofferdam with puddle wall. Cofferdams on a beton foundation. Retaining and breast wall. Dia2:ram8 illustrating the mode of calculating the strength of J retaining walls, Breast walls to support inclined strata. Diagrams illustrating the equilibrium of arches. Skew arch built in spiral courses. Centering of the Gloucester Over Bridge. Abutment built as a continuation of the arch. Abutment built in an arched form to throw the thrust of the arch on the wing walls. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fio. Art. ^ Description. 28 \ Diagram showing the manner in which wing walls of bridges r often fail from the pressure of the earth at the back of the ( abutment. 29 ) Best form for an abutment to resist the pressure of a heavy bank. 30 ) Cylindrical vault. 31 [ 66 Coved vault. 32 ) Groined vault. 33 68 Gothic vaulting. 34 ) Rubble masonry. 35 > 71 Coursed masonry. 36 ) Ashlar masonry. 37 76 Brick wall with ashlar facing. 38 ) HQ English bond. 39) Flemish bond. ^? 84 Girder let into a recess. \ ^ . ^ 41 ) ( Section through girder. 42 88 Section of a dwelling house showing the framing of the timbei partition dividing the back and front rooms. 43 ) Single flooring. 44 V 89 Double flooring. 45 ) Double framed flooring. 46 ) 47 ( . V 90 Different methods of fixing ceiling joists. 49 ) 50 91 Fire-proof floor formed with brick arches resting on iron girders. 51 92 Flat roof formed of plain tiles laid on light cast-iron girders. 52 94 Collar truss. 53 95 King truss. 54 ) King truss with queen posts. 65 j Queen truss with straining piece. 56 97 Diagram of the construction of the trusses of the iron roof over the New House of Lords, Westminster. 57 ) gg Roof of the celebrated Riding House at Moscow. 58 ) Details of arched beam in the roof of the Riding House at Moscow. 59 101 Philibert de Lorme's system of arched ribs. 60 103 Sketch of a roof at Marac, near Bayonne, by Colonel Emy. 61 ) Section of Chaldon Church, Surrey, showing the form of the ► 105 original roof. 62 ) Details of roof, Chaldon Church, Surrey. 63 S Diagram showing the manner in which the high pitched roofs of many country churches have been altered in order to introduce clerestory windows above the roofs of the aisles. 64 Flat Gothic roof without principal rafters. 65 Mode of securing spandril struts without the use of iron straps 66 1 Roof of nave West Bridgeford Church, Notts. 67 107 Flat Gothic roof with principal rafters. 68 108 Gothic king-post roofs. 109 Diagrams illustrating the principles of Gothic roofing. I.I8T OF 1LLUST11ATI0N8 XV Fio. Art. Description. 71 110 Hampton Court Palace, Middlesex, sketch of the framing of the roof of the Great Hall, omitting the decorative details! 72 111 Eltham Palace, Kent, sketch of the construction of the roof of the Great Hall. 73 112 We>tn)inster Hall, London, sketch of one-half of a truss, show- in<^ the principal timbers only. 74 123 Cibteni. SECTION II.— No Illustrations. SECTION III. 75 \ Beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other. 7(3 I -^f.^ Beam loosely supported at the ends and loaded in the middle. 77 ( ' Beam supported in the middle and loaded at the ends. 78 ) Beam fixed at both ends and loaded in the middle. 79 178 Diagram illustrating the position of the neutral axis in beams. 80 179 Diagram illustrating the mode of calculating the strength of cast- iron beams. 81 ) Wooden beam trussed by increasing the resistance to com pre* > 183 sion. 82 ) Wooden beam trussed by increasing the resistance to tension. 83 185 Diagram illustrating the mode of increasing the strength of cast iron pillars. f SECTION IV. Mason's lewis for hoisting stone. Mode of working plane surfaces. Mode of working moulded surfaces. Joggle joint. Mode of scarfing timbers. Mode of securing the foot of a principal rafter to a tie hean:^ Mode of suspending a tie beam from a king post. Purlin framed into a principal rafter. Purlin notched on to the principal rafter. Slate boarding laid on purlin rafters. Rebate. Dovetail. Mortise and tenon. Joints in woodwork. Circular work glued up in thicknesses and veneered. Circular work bent round in thicknesses. Circular work bent the whole thickness of ^he VAtH. Ledged door. Framed door. Clamped work. 203 84 202 85) 86 i 87 205 88^ 9?h09 92 93 j 94 214 218 95 96 j 97 219 98 ) 99 } 221 100 ) 101 h)2 ^ 222 103 xvi LIST OF ILLUyXRATTO^rc. Fio. Art. Description. Z\ 233s^::i„ j Slating. 106 ) Lead roll. 107 i Drip and flashing. SECTION V. 108 274 Mode of setting out foundations. 109 277 Levelling with the mason's level. 110 282 Levelling with the spirit leveL 111 287 Mode of fig^uring working drawings. RUDIMENTS OF TiriB ART OF BUILDING. SECTION L GENEEAL PKINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION FOTODATIOKS. J. In preparing the foundation for any building, there are two sources of failure which must be carefully guarded against: viz., inequality of settlement, and lateral escape of the supporting material ; and, if these radical defects can be guarded against, there is scarcely any situation in which a good foundation may not be obtained. 2. Natural Foundations, — The best foundation is ^natural one, such as a stratum of rock, or compact gravel. If cir- cumstances prevent the work being commenced from the same level throughout, tlie ground must be carefully benched out, i.e. cut into horizontal steps, so that the courses may all be perfectly level. It must also be borne in mind that all work will settle, more or less, according to the per- fection of the joints, and therefore in these cases it is best to bring up the foundations to a uniform level, with large blocks of stone, or with concrete, before commencing the superstructure, which would otherwise settle most over the deepest parts, on account of the greater number of mortar h RUDIMENTS OF THE joints, aiid thus cause unsightly fractures, as shoAvn in fig. 1. Fig. I. 3. Many soils form excellent foundations when kept from the weather, which are worthless when this cannot be effected. Thus blue shale, which is often so hard when the ground is first opened as to require blasting with gun powder, will, after a few days' exposure, slake and run into sludge. In dealing with soils of this kind nothing is required but to keep them from the action of the atmosphere. This is best done by covering them with a layer of concrete, which is an artificial rock, made of sand and gi-avel, cemented with a small quantity of lime. For want of tliis precaution many buildings have been fractured from top to bottom by the expansion and contraction of their clay foundations during the alternations of drought and mois- ture, to which they have been exposed in successive seasons. 4. Artificial Foundations — Wliere the ground in its natural state is too soft to bear the weight of the proposed structure, recourse must be had to artificial means of sup- port, and, in doing this, whatever mode of construction be adopted, the principle must always be that of extending the bearing surface as much as possible ; Just in the same way, that, by placing a plank over a dangerous piece of ice, a couple of men can pass over a spot which would not bear the weight of a child. There are many ways of doing this — as by a thick layer of concrete, or by layers of planking, or by a network of timber, or these different methods may ART OF BUILDING. 3 be combined. The weight may also be distributed over the entire area of the fomidation by inverted arches. 5. The use of timber is objectionable where it cannot be kept constantly wet, as alternations of dryness and moistun^ soon cause it to rot, and for this reason concrete is very ex- tensively used in situations where timber would be liable to decay. 6. In the case of a fouiidation partly natural and partly artificial, the utmost care ai:vi circumspection are required to avoid unsightly fractures in the superstructure ; and it cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind of the reader, that it is not an unyielding, but a uniformly yielding foundation that is required, and that it is not the amount, so much as tlie inequality, of settlement that docs the mis- chief. The second great principle which w^e laid down at the commencement of this section was — To prevent the lateral escape of the supporting material. This is especially neces- sary when building in running sand, or soft buttery clay, which would ooze out from below the work, and allow the superstructure to sink. In soils of this kind, in addition to protecting the surface with planking, concrete, or timber, the whole area of the foundation must be inclosed with piles driven close together; — this is called sheet-piling. An example of a wide-spread foundation in soft ground is shoNMi in fig. 2 fp. 4), which is a section of the foundation for the walls of the Ley den station of the Amsterdam and Rotterdam Railway, built a.d. 1843.* The station stands upon such bad ground, that it was necessary to support the walls upon a kind of raft resting on oak piles. 7. Where there is a hard stratum below the soft ground, out at too great a depth to allow of the solid work being brought up from it without greater expense than the cir- cumstances of the case will allow, it : s usual to drive down * From the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Va\ ffineerR," 1844. n % 4 EUDIMENTS OF THE wooden piles, shod with iron, until their bottoms are firmly fixed in the hard gromid. The upper ends of the piles are then cut off level, and covered with a platform of timber on which the work is built m the usual way n : uiiiii iiijaiiiinn- U Q- -□ — Q- 8. Where a firm foundation is required to be formed in a situation where no firm bottom can be found within an available depth, piles are driven, to consolidate the mass, a few feet apart over the whole area of the foundation, which is surrounded by a row of sheet-piling to prevent the escape of the soil ; the space between the pile heads is then filled to the depth of several feet with stones or concrete, and the whole is covered with a timber platform, on which to com- mence the solid work. 9. Foundations in Water, — Hitherto we have been describ- ing ordinary foundations ; we now come to those cases in which water interferes with the operations of the builder, oftentimes causing no little trouble, anxiety, and expense. Foundations in water may be divided under three heads : 1st, Foundations formed wholly with piles. 2nd, Solid foundations laid on the surface of the ground, either in its natural state, or roughly levelled by dredging. 3rdly, Solid foundations laid helow the surface, the ground being laid drj by cofferdams ART OF BUILDING. 5 10. Foundations formed ivhoUy of piles. — The simplest foundations of this kind are those formed hy rows of wooden piles hraced together so as to form a skeleton pier for the support of horizontal heams ; and this plan is often adopted in building jetties, piers of wooden bridges, and similar erections where the expense precludes the adoption of a more permanent mode of construction ; an example of this kuid is shown in fig. 3. ^ ^ ^ i TIT I 1 U 1 H i 1 1 I FX In deep water the bracing of the piles becomes a difficult matter, and an ingenious expedient for effecting this was made use of by Mr. Walker, in the erection of the Ouse Bridge, on the Leeds and Selby Eailway, a.d. 1840. This consisted in rounding the piles to which the braces are at* tached for a portion of their length, to allow the cast-iron 6 RUDIMENTS OF THE sockets in which they rest to descend and take a solid bear- ing upon the square shoulders of the brace-piles. After the brace-piles were driven, the braces were bolted into their sockets and dropped down to their required position, and their upper ends were then brought to their places and bolted to the superstructure. 11. There is always, however, a gi^eat objection to the use of piles partly above and partly under water, namely, that, from the alternations of dryness and moisture, they soon decay at the w^ater-line, and erections of timber require ex- tensive repairs from this cause. In tidal waters, too, they are often rapidly destroyed by the worm, unless great ex- pense is undergone in sheathing them with copper. To obviate the inconveniences attending the use of timber, cast iron is sometimes used as a material for piles : but this again is objectionable in salt water, as the action of the sea- water upon the iron converts it into a soft substance Avhich can be cut with a knife, resembling the Cumberland lead used for pencils. 12. In situations where a firm hold cannot be obtained for a pile of the ordinary shape, such as shifting sand, Mitchell's patent screw-piles may be used with great ad- vantage. These piles terminate at the bottom in a large iron screw 4 ft. in diameter, wdiich, being screwed into the ground, gives a firm foot-hold to the pile. This is a very simple stnd efficient mode of obtaining a foundation where all other means w^ould fail,, and has been used in erecting light-houses on sand-banks with great success. The Maplin sand light-house at the mouth of the Thames, and the Fleetwood Lighthouse, at Fleetwood, in Lancashire, both erected a.d. 1840, may be instanced. 13. An ingenious system of cast-iron piling was adopted by Mr. Tierney Clark, in the erection of the Town Pier at Gravesend, Kent, a.d. 1834, in forming a foundation for the cast-iron columns supporting the superstructure of the T head of the pier. Under the site of each column were driven three cast-iron piles, on which an adjusting plate was ART OF BUILDING 7 firmly keyed, fomiing a broad base for the support of the column, which was adjusted to its correct position, and bolted down to tlie adjusting plate 14. A kind of foundation on tlie same principle as piling has been lately much used in situations where ordinary piling cannot be resorted to with advantage. The method referred to consists in sinking hollow cast-iron cylinders until a hard bottom is reached. The interior of the cylinder is tlien pumped dry, and filled up with concrete or some equally solid material, thus making it a solid pier on which to erect the superstructure. The cylinders are made in lengtJis, which are successively bolted together as each previous length is lowered, the excavation going on at the bottom, which is kept dry by pumping. It often happens, however, in sinking through sand, that tlie pressure of the water is so great as to blow up the sand at the bottom of the cylinder; and, when this is the case, the operation is car- ried on by means of a large auger, called a miser, which excavates and brings up the materials without the necessity of pumping out the water. The lower edge of the bottom length of each cylinder is made with a sharp edge, to enable it to penetrate the soil witli greater ease, and to enter the hard bottom stratum on which the work is to rest. This method was adopted by Mr. Eedman in the erection of the Ten-ace Pier at Gravesend, Kent, finished a.d. 1845. 15. Before closing our remarks on pile foundations, we must mention a very curious system of cariying up a foundation through loose wet sand, which is practised in India and China, and is strictly analogous to the sinking of cast-iron cylinders just described. It consists in sinking a series of wells close together, which are afterwards arched over separately, and covered with a system of vaulting on which tlie superstructure is raised. The method of sinking these wells is to dig down, as far as practicable, without a lining of masonry, or until water is reached; a wooden curb is then placed at the bottom of tlie excavation, and a brick cylinder raised upon ii 8 RUDIMENTS OF THE to the height of 3 or 4 ft. above the ground. As soon as the work is sufficiently set, the curb and the superin- cumbent brick-work are lowered by excavating the ground under the sides of the curb, the peculiai^ity of the process being that the well-sinker works under water, frequently remaining submerged more than a minute at a time. These cylinders have been occasionally sunk to a depth of 40 ft. 16. Solid Foundations simply laid on the Surface of the Ground, — Where the site of the intended structure is per- fectly firm, and there is no danger of the work being under- mined by any scour, it will be sufficient to place the mate- rials on Jie natural bottom, the inequalities of surface being first removed by dredging or blasting. 17. Pierre perdue. — The simplest mode of proceeding is to throw down masses of stone at random over the site of the work until the mass reaches the surface of the water, above which the work can be carried on in the usual man- ner. This is called a foundation of ''pierre perdue,'' or random work, and is used for breakwaters, foundations of sea-walls, and similar works. Plymouth breakwater is an example on a large scale. 18. Coursed Masonry, — Another way, much used in har- bour work, is to build up the work from the bottom (which must be first roughly levelled) with large stones, carefully lowered into their places ; and this is a very successful method where the stones are of sufficient size and weight to enable the work to withstand the run of the sea. The diving-bell affords a ready means of verifying the position of each stone as it is lowered. 19. Beton. — On the Continent foundations under water are frequently executed with blocks of beton or hydraulic concrete, which has the property of setting under water. The site of the work is first inclosed with a row of sheet piling, which protects the beton from disturbance, until it has set. This system is of very ancient date, being de- scribed by Vitruvius, and was practised by the Eomans, who ART OF BUILDING. 9 have left us many examples of it on the coast of Italy. The French engineers have used heton in the works at Algiers, in large blocks of 324 cubic feet, which were floated out and allowed to drop into their places from slings. This method, which proved perfectly successful, was adopted in consequence of the smaller blocks first used being displaced and destroyed by the force of tlie sea. 20. Caissons. — A caisson is a chest of timber, which is floated over the site of the- work, and, being kept in its place by guide piles, is loaded with stone until it rests firmly on tlie ground. The masonry is then built on the bottom of the caisson, and when the work reaches the level of the water the sides of the caisson are removed. This method of building has been much used on the Continent, but is not much practised in this country. West- minster Bridge, London, is a noted instance of its failure. The bottom of the river has been scoured out to a depth of several feet since the erection of the bridge; and the foundations of the piers remained in a dangerous state until they were secured in the recent repairs by driving sheet-piling all round them, and underpinning the portions which had been undermined. 21. An improvement on the above method consists in dredging out the ground to a considerable depth, and put- ting in a thick layer of beton on which to rest the bottom of the caisson. 22. There is a third method of applying caissons which is practised by our continental neighbours, and which is free from the objections which commonly attend the use of caissons. A firm foundation is first formed by driving piles a few feet apart over the whole site of the foundation. The tops of the piles are then sawn off under water, just enough above the ground to allow of their being all cut to the same level. The caisson is then floated over the piles, and, when in its proper position, is sunk upon them, being kept in its place by a few piles left standing above the others, the water being kept out of the caisson by a kind of well con- B 3 KUDIMENTS OF THE structed round each of these internal guide piles, which are built up into the masonry This method of building in caissons on pile foundations is shown in figs. 4 and 5. The Fig. 4. -TitiEJiiSi ^iKiiifliiiiiiiiiyiiiy piers of the Pont du Val Benoit at Liege, built a.d. 1842, which carries the railway across the Mouse, have been built on pile foundations in the manner here described. Fig. 5. 23 Solid Foundations laid in Cofferdams. — There are many circumstances under which it becomes necessary to lay the bottom dry before commencing operations. This is done by inclosing the site of the foundation with a water- tight wall of timber, from within which the water can be pumped out by steam power or otherwise. Sometimes, in shallow water, it is sufficient to drive a single row of piles only, the outside being protected with clay, as shown in fig. 6 ; but in deep water two or even four rows of piles will be required, the spacq between them being filled in with well-rammed puddle, so as to form a solid water-tight mass ART of:" building. U (See fig. 7.) The great difficulties in the construction of a cofferdam are — 1st, to keep it water-tight; and, 2nd, tc support the sides against the pressure of the water outside, which in tidal waters is sometimes so great as to render it necessary to allow a dam to fill to prevent its being crushed Fig. 7. 24. In order to save timber, and to avoid the difficulty of keeping out the bottom springs, it has been proposed by a French engineer, after driving the outer row, to dredge out the area thus inclosed, and fill it up to a certain height with beton. The cofferdam is then to be completed by driving an inner row of piles resting on the beton, and pud- dling between the two rows in the usual manner; and the 12 KUDIMENTS OF THE masonry is carried up on the beton foundation thus pre pared. This construction is shown in fig. 8. Fig. 8. i r 1 Mill' . ill 1 1 25. The limits of the present volume prevent our enter- ing into any detail as to the preparation of concrete and beton, the methods in use for driving piles, and the con- struction of cofferdams : the reader who wishes to pursue the subject further is referred to the volume of this series on " Foundations and Concrete Works," where he will find a detailed description of these operations. KETAINING WALLS. 26. The name of retaining wall is applied generally to all walls built to support a mass of earth in an upright or nearly upright position ; but the term is, strictly speaking, restricted to walls built to retain an ai'tificial bank, those erected to sustain the face of the solid ground being called hreast walls'. (See fig. 9.) 27. Retaining Walls. — Many rules have been given by different writers for calculating the thrust which a bank of earth exerts against a retaining wall, and for determining the form of wall which affords the greatest resistance with the least amount of material. The apphcation of these rules to practice is, however, extremely difficult, because we have no means of ascertaining the exact manner in which earth acts against a wall ; and they are, therefore, of litfJe AKT OF BUILDING. 13 value except in determining the general principles on which the stabihty of these constructions depends. (See Note A, p. 155.) ^.^ 28. The calculation of the stability of a retaining wall divides itself into two parts. 1st. The thrust of the earth to be supported. 2nd. The resistance of the wall. 29. Definitions (see fig. 10). — The line of rupture is that along which separation takes place in case of d^slip of earth. Fig. 10. The slope which the earth would assume, if left totally un- supported, is called the natural slope, and it has been found that the line of rupture generally divides the angle formed by the natural slope and the back of the wall into neai'ly equal parts. The centre of pressure is that point in the back of the wall above and below which there is an equal amount of pres- sure ; and this has been found by experiment and calcula- 14 RUDIMENTS OF THE tion to be at frds of tlie vertical height of the wall from its top. The wall is assumed to be a solid mass, incapable of sUding forward, and giving way only by tm^ning over on its front edge as a fulcrum. In the annexed diagrams the foundations of the walls have, in all cases, been omitted, to simplify the subject as much as possible. The term slope in the following investigation is used as synonymous with the expression line of rupture, 30. Amount and Direction of the Thrust, — There are two ways in which this may be calculated: — 1st, By consi- dering the earth as a solid mass sliding down an inclined plane, all slipping between the earth and the back of the wall being prevented by friction. This gives the minimum thrust of the earth 2nd, By assuming the particles of earth to have so little cohesion, that there is no friction either on the slope or against the back of the wall. This method of calculation gives the maximum thrust. The real thrust of any bank will probably be somewhere between the two, depending on a variety of conditions which it is impossible to reduce to calculation ; for, although we may by actual experiments with sand, gravel, and earths of different kinds, obtain data whence to calculate the thrust exerted by them in a perfectly dry state, another point must be attended to when we attempt to reduce these results to practice, viz. the action of water, which, by destroying the cohesion of the particles of earth, brings the mass of mate- rial behind the wall into a semi-fluid state, rendering its action more or less similar to that of a fluid according to the degree of saturation. The tendency to slip will also veiy greatly depend on the manner in which the material is filled against the wall. If the ground be benched out (see fig. 9), and the earth well punned in layers inclined from the wall, the pressure will be veiy trifling, provided only that attention be paid to sur- face and back drainage. If, on the other haiid, the bank be tipped in the usual manner in layers sloping towards the ART OF BUILDING. 15 wall, the full pressure of the earth will be exerted against it. and it must be made of corresponding strength. 31. Calculation of Minimum Thrust. — The weight of the prism of earth represented by the triangle ABC, fig. 10, Fig. 11. shall have W : h Ji will be directly as the breadth AC, the height being constant; and the inclination of B C re- maining constant, but the height varying, the weight will be as the square of the height. If, there- fore, we call the weight of the prism ABC, W, the breadth A C, h, the height A B, h, and the specific gravity of the earth, s, we If we call the thrust of W in the direction of the slope, then (neglecting friction), on the principle of the inclined plane, W will be to W' as the length of the incline is to its height ; or, calling the length B C, Z, then 7i W h Ir s* Z:/i::W: W^ = '_ = I 2Z The effect of the weight of the prism A B C to overturn the wall will be as multiplied by the leverage E F, fig. 11, found by letting fall the pei-pendicular E F, from the front edge of the wall, upon D F, drawn through the centre oi pressure in a direction parallel to the slope. When D F • The value of W here given will increase with the length of A C in & constantly decreasing ratio, never exceeding supposing the back of the wall to be upright. But in practice the friction must always be taken into consideration ; and, as this increases directly as A C, there will be a limit at which the thmst and the resistance balance each other, this limit being the natural slope ; and, as the thrust and the resistance increase with the length of A C in different ratios, there will be a point at which the effective thrust is greatest, or, in other words, a slope of maximum thrust which determines the position of the line of rupture. RUDIMENTS OF THE passes through E, then EF=0, and the thrust has no tendency to overturn the wall ; and, when D F falls within the base of the wall, E F becomes a negative quantity, the thrust increasing its stability. Calling the overturning thrust T, we have T = W' X EF = *-^:* ^ 5-^, 2 I the value of E F * depending on the inclination of the slope and the width of the base of the wall 32. Calculation of Maximum Thrust. — If we consider the moving mass to slide freely down the slope, and the friction between the earth and the back of the wall to be so slight as to be inappreciable, then the prism ABC will act as a wedge, with a pressm-e perpendicular to the back of the wall, which will be the same whatever the inclination of B C, the height and inclination of the back of the wall being constant, and as the square of the height where the height varies, the pressure being the least when the back of the wall is vertical ; for calling the pressure P, and drawing A I, fig. 12, perpendicular to B C, we have, on the principle of the wedge, . . . ^ Tx., T. X AB hit's X AB A I : A B : : W- P = — ^y- = -^^^r and by construction & /^ = ^ A I, as they are each equal to twice the area of the triangle ABC; therefore, by substi- tution, Iklhs X KB lis X AB ^ = 2TAI 2 The effect of the prism A B C to overturn the wall will be P multiplied by the leverage E F,t which will be found by • EF=A X — - Eb"! and I 3 J T = W X E F =1^* X ^ ('^ - E bV— - xY-^ - E B V t Calling the angle X A B = ^ ^„ AB.EB.AX h ..^^ ART OF BUILDING. 17 drawing D F, fig, 13, at right angles to the back of the wall through the centre of pressure, and making EF Fig. 12. Ficj, 13. perpendicular to it ; then calling the overturning thrust, as before, T, T = P X EF = -^^x^^^x^^ When DF passes through E, then EF=0, and the thrust has no tendency to overturn the wall ; and, if D F falls within the base, the thrust will increase its stability. When tlie back of the wall is vertical, then A B =: 7i and E F =^ aj^tl T = _. 3 6 33. These results show that, where the friction of the eai^tli against the slope and the back of the wall is de- stroyed by the filtration of water, the action of the earth will be precisely similar to that of a column of water of the height of the wall. The pressure upon the side of any ves- sel is the half of the pressure that would take place upon the bottom if of the same area. Now, calling the specific gravity of the water s, the pressure upon the bottom, sup- ^ ^ ^ ^ AB.A5^/AB.EB.AX\ AndT=PxEF=— 2 ( 3--— A-B— h ^11 X f AZ±EB . AX) 2 V 3 / The positive sign is to be used when the back of the wallleans bacKwards; the negative, when it leans forwards. IB RUDi:y its own weight, it is suspended from the head of the 54). Fig. 52. RIDCE Fig. 53. ART OF BUILDING. 45 principals by a king post of wood or iron. The lower part of the king post affords ahutments for struts supporting the principals immediately under the purlins, so that no cross strain is exerted on any of the timbers in the truss, but they all act in the direction of their length, the principals iind struts being subjected to compression, and the king post and tie beam to tension. Fig. 53 shows a sketch of a king ti'uss. The common rafters but on a 'pole plate, the tie beams resting either on a continuous plate, or on short templates of wood or stone. 96. Where the span is considerable, the tie beam is sup- ported at additional points by suspension pieces called oueen posts (fig. 54), from the bottom of which spring Fig. 54. additional struts ; and, by extending this principle ad infinitum, we might construct a roof of any span, were it not that a practical limit is imposed by the nature of the materials. Sometimes roofs are constructed without king posts, the queen posts being kept apart by a straining piece. This construction is shown in fig. 55, which shows the design of die old roof (no^v destroyed) of the chm-ch of St. Paul, outside the walls, at Eome. This truss is in- teresting from its early date, having been erected about 400 years ago ; the trusses are in pairs, a king post l:x4ng keyed d6 BUDIMENTS OF THE Fig, 55. in between each pair to support the tie beams in the centre. 97. Of late years iron has been much used as a material for the trusses of roofs, the tie beams and suspending pieces being formed of light rods, and the principals and struts of rolled T or angle iron, to which sockets are riveted to receive the purlins. The iron roofs of the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster are admirable examples of this mode of con- struction. The principle of the trussing of the roof over the House of Peers is shown in fig. 56. The tie beam and Firj, 56. /\ \ \ / \ A '1* r:T:-:-r-;-«-^ suspension rods are of flat bar iron, the principal and cominon rafters are of rolled T iron, the struts and Durlins ART OF BUILDING 47 arc of cast iron, and the whole is fitted together with cast- iron shoes. 98. The great novelty in the constmction of the roofs just mentioned consists in tlieir covering, which is formed of galvanized sheets of cast iron, lapping over each otlier at the joints, and forming a very perfect and water-tight covering, which is at the same time perfectly fire-proof, Fig. 57. too >>a ^ ^ o 100 and not liahle to be affected by exposure to the atmo- sphere. 99. The largest roof ever executed in one span is that of the Imperial Riding-House at Moscow, built in 1790, of which the span is 235 ft. (fig. 57). The principal feature in this roof is an arched beam, the ends of which are kept from spreading by a tie beam, the two being firmly con- nected by suspension pieces and diagonal braces: the aiT.hed beam (fig. 58) is formed of three thicknesses of Fig. 58. timber, notched out to prevent their sliding on each otlier, — a method which ig objectionable on account of the danger ot ihe splitting of the timber under a considerable stram. (See Note D, p. 156.) 48 RUDIMENTS OF THE 100. The principle of the bow smpension truss, as this system of trussing is called, has been much used within the last ten years for railway bridges and similar works. One of the best executed works of this kind is a bridge over the Eiver Ouse, near Downham Market, in Norfolk, on the line of the Lynn and Ely Eailway, the trusses of which are 120 ft. span. 101. Roofs on the principle of the Arch. — In the 16th century, Philibert de Lorme, a celebrated French architect, published a work in which he proposed to construct roofs and domes with a series of arched timber ribs in place of trusses, these ribs being formed of planks in short lengths, placed edgewise, and bolted together in thicknesses, break- ing joint (fig. 59). This mode of construction has been more or less used ever since the time of its author. An instance of its successful application on a large scale was the original dome of the Halle au Ble, at Paris, 120 ft. in diameter, built by Messrs. Legrand and Molino. This roof Fi^. 59. has since been replaced by an iron one, the original dome having been destroyed by fire. The roof of the central compartment of the Pantheon Bazaar in Oxford Street, London, 38 ft. span, is another very elegant example. 102. There are, however, some great disadvantages con- nected with this system. There is considerable waste of material ; the labour is great as compared with roofs of similar span of the ordinary construction; and, as the chief strength of the rib depends upon the lateral cohesion of the fibres of the wood, it is necessary to provide such an amount of siu^plus strength as shall insure it against the greatest cross strain to which it can be exposed froiD violent winds or othemise ART OF BUILDING. 49 103. Sti'iick by tlicse disadvantages, Colonel Emy, a French military engineer, proposed, in 1817, an improve- ment on the system of Philibert de Lorme, which was pre- cisely the laminated arched rib so much in use at the present day. It was not until 1825 that he obtained per- mission to put his design into execution in the erection of a large roof 65 ft. span at Marac, near Bayonne (fig. 61) j. Fig. 60. The ribs in this roof are formed of planks bent round on templets to the proper curve, and kept from separating by iron straps, and also by the radiating struts which are in pairs, notched out so as to clip the rib between them. The principle of the roof is exceedingly good. The principals, wall-posts, and arched rib, form two triangles, fiimly braced together, and exerting no thrust on the walls ; and tlie weight of the whole roof being thrown on the wails at tlie feet of the ribs, and not at the pole plate, the 50 RUDIMENTS OF THE walls are not tried by the action of a heavy roof, and the consequent saving m masonry is very great. The great difference in principle between the arched rib of Philibert de Lorme, and the laminated rib of Colonel Emy, is, that in the latter the direction of the fibre of the wood coincides with the curvature of the rib ; and, as a consequence of this, the joints are much fewer; the rib possesses considerable elasticity, so as slightly to yield rather than break under any violent strain ; and, from the manner in which the planks are bolted together, it is im- possible for the rib to give way, unless the force applied be sufficient to crush the fibres. The principle of the laminated arched rib was first ap- plied in England in 1837 by the Messrs. Green of New- castle, by whom it has been extensively used in the erection of railway bridges. 104. Gothic Roofs. — The open timber roofs of the middle ages come, for the most part, under the second class, viz, those which exert more or less thrust upon the walls, al- Fig. 61. go 5 0 3o * See Tredgold's Carpentry, new and much improved edition, in 4to. 1853. ART OF BUILDING. 51 not Fig. 62. though there are many fine examples in which this is the case. We propose to descrihe the principal varieties of these roofs, witliout reference either to their decorative details, or to tlieir chronological arrangement, our ohject here heing simply to explain the principles on which they were constructed. 105. Fig. 61, which is a section of the parish church of Chaldon, near Merstham in SuiTey, shows a system of roofing formerly very common. This may be compared to single flooring, as there are no principals, purlins, or even ridge. It is a defective form of roof, as the rafters have a tendency to spread and thrust out the walls. In the ex- ample before us, this effect has been pre- vented by the insertion of tie beams, from which the collars have been propped up (fig. 62), tlius, in fact, balancing the roof on the centres of the collars, wdiich are in con- sequence violently strained. 106. After the introduction of the 4-centred arch, a great many church roofs of the con- struction just described w^ere altered, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 63, in order to obtain more light by the introduction of clerestoiy win- dows over the nave arches. The flat roofs which superseded the former ones were often formed without any tmss whatever, being simply an arrangement of main beams, purlins, and rafters, precisely similar to a double-framed floor, with the difference only that the main beams, instead of being per- fectly straight, were usually cut out of crooked timber so as to divide the roof into two inclined planes. To throw the weight of the roof as low down as possible, a post ; h sill ; c c struts. 52 EUDIMENTS OF THE the ends of the main beams are often supported on upright Fig. 64. posts placed against the walls and rest- ing on projecting corbels, the wall posts and beams being connected by struts in such a way that deflection in the centre of the beam cannot take place, unless the load be sufficient to force out the walls, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 64. The struts are often cut out of stout plank, forming solid spandrils, the edges of which are moulded to suit the profile of the main beam (see fig. 65), which also Fig. 65. shows the manner of securing the struts to the wall poses and to the beam with tongues and wooden pins. A very good example of this construction is shown in fig. 66, which is from West Bridgeford Church, Nottinghamshire. There are many very beautiful examples remaining in dif- ferent parts of the country. 107. A somewhat similar construction to that last de- scribed is shown in fig. 67, in which principals are intro- duced, strutted up from the main beam, so as to give a greater slope to the roof than could well be obtained with a single beam. ART OF BUILDING. 53 Fig, 66. Fig. 68. Fig. 37. 108. Fig. 68 exhibits a construction often to be met with, which, in general appearance, resembles a trussed king post roof, but which is in reality very dif- ferent, tlie tie beam being a strong girder supporting the king post, which, instead of serving to suspend the tie beam from the principals, is a prop to the latter. In this and the previous example, any tend- ing to deflection of the tie beam is pre- vented by struts : the weight of the roof is thrown by means of wall posts con- siderably below the feet of the rafters, so that the weight of the upper part of the wall is made available to resist the thrust of the struts. 109 The roofs we have been describing are not to be recommended as displaying any great amount of construc- tive skill. Indeed, although they answer very well for small spans with timbers of large scantling and side walls of suf- ficient thickness to resist a considerable thrust, they are totally unsuited to large spans, and are in every way inferior to trussed roofs. The above remarks do not apply to the high pitched 54 RUDIMENTS OF TITR roofs of the large halls of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- turies, which, for the most part, are trussed in a very per- fect manner, so as to exert no thrust upon the walls; altliough, in some instances, as at Westminster Hall, they depend upon the latter for support. The general design of these roofs is shown in figs. 69 and 70. The essential parts of each truss are, a pair of Fig. 69. piincipals connected by a collar or ivind beam, and two hamvier beams, with queen posts over them, the whole forming three triangles, which, if not secured in their relative positions, otherwise than by the mere transverse strength of the principals, would turn on the points c c 'fig. 7 0), the weight of the roof thrusting out the walls in the mamier shown in the figure. There are two ways in which Fig. 70. ART OF BUILDING. 55 :\ truss of tliis Idiid may be prevented from spreading. 1st, The ends of the hammer beams may be connected with the collai' by tension pieces, a a (fig. 69), by which the thrust on the walls will be converted into a vertical pres- sure. 2nd. The hammer beams may be kept in their places by struts, h b, the walls being made sufficiently strong by buttresses, or otherwise, to resist the thrust. In existing examples, we find sometimes one and some- times the other of these plans followed ; and occasionally both methods are combined in such a manner that it is often difficult to say what parts are m a state of compression, and what are in a state of tension. 1 10. The roof of the great hall at Hampton Court (fig. 71) is very strong, and so secm^ely tied, that were the bottoni Fig, 71. Struts, b b, removed, there would be little danger of the principals thmsting out the walls ; and, on the other hand, h'om the weight of the roof being carried down to a con- siderable distance below the hammer beams by the wail 56 RUDIMENTS OF THE posts, the walls themselves offer so much resistance to side thrust, that there would be no injurious strain on them were the tension pieces, a a, removed. 111. The construction of the roof of the hall at Eltham Palace, Kent (fig. 72), differs very considerably from that of Fig. 72. the Hampton Court roof. The whole weight is thrown on the top of the wall, and the bottom pieces, b b, are merely ornamental, the tension pieces, a a, forming a complete tie. This has been shown by a partial failure which has taken place. The wall plates having become rotten in conse- quence of the gutters being stripped of their lead, the weight has been thrown on the pseudo struts, which have bent under the pressure, and forced out the upper portion of the walls. 112. The roof of Westminster Hall (fig. 73) is one of the finest examples now existing of open timbered roofs. The peculiar featin^e of this roof is an arched rib in three thicknesses, something on the principle of Philibert de Lorme ; but it is so slight, compared with the great span, that it is probable in designing the roof, the architect took ART OF BUILDING. 57 Fig. 73. full advantage of the support afforded by the thickness of the walls and the buttresses ; if, indeed, the latter were not added at the time the present roof was erected, in 1395. It has been ascertained that the weight of the roof rests on the top of the walls, the lower part of the arched rib only serving to distribute the thrust, and to assist in pre- venting the hammer beams from sliding on the walls. D 3 58 RUDIMENTS OF THE 113. The mediaeval architects generally employed oak in the construction of their large roofs, the timbers being morticed and pinned together, as shown in fig. 65. This system of construction is impossible in fir and other soft woods, in which the fibres have little lateral cohesion, as the timber would split with the strain; and therefore, in modern practice, it is usual to secure the connections with iron straps or bolts passing round or through the whole thickness of the timbers. EOOF COVERINGS. 114. The different varieties of roof coverings principally used may be classed under three heads : stone, wood, and metal. Of the first class, the best kind is slate, which is used either sawn into slabs or split into thin laminae. The dif- ferent sizes of roofing slate in common use are given in the description of Slaters' Work, article 234. In many parts of the country thin slabs of stone are used in the same way as roofing slate. In the Weald of Sussex the stone found in the locality is much used for this pur- pose, but it makes a heavy covering, and requires strong timbers to support it. 115. Tiles are of two kinds : ijlain tiles, which are quite flat; and ^pantiles, which are of a curved shape, and lap over each other at the sides. Each tile has a projecting ear on its upper edge, by which it is kept in its place. Some- times plain tiles are pierced with two holes, through which oak pins are thrust for the same purpose. 116. Wooden coverings are little used at the present day, except for temporary purposes : shingles of split oak were formerly much used, and may still be seen on the roofs of some country churches. 117. Metallic Coverings. — The metals used for roof cover- ings are lead, zinc, copper, and iron. 118. Lead is one of the most valuable materials for this purpose on account of its malleability and durability, the ART OF BUILDING. 59 action of the atinosphere having no injui'ious effect upon it. Lead is used for covering roofs in sheets weighing from 4 to 8 lbs. per sup. foot. 119. Copper is used for covering roofs in thin sheets weighhig aljout 16 oz. per sup. foot, and from its lightness and hardness has some advantages over lead ; but the expense of the metal effectually precludes its general adoption. 120. Zinc has of late years superseded both lead and copper to a considerable extent as roof coverings. It is used in sheets weighing from 12 oz. to 20 oz. per sup. foot. It is considered an inferior material to those just named ; but its lightness and cheapness are great recommendations, and the manufacture has been much improved since its first introduction. 121. Cast iron, coated wdth zinc to preserve it from rust- ing, is now much used in a variety of forms. We have already mentioned its adoption for covering the roofs of the new Houses of Parliament. (See Note E, p. 157.) J 22. All metallic coverings are subject to contraction and expansion with the changes of the temperature, and great care is requisite in joining the sheets to make them lap over each other, so as to make the joints water-tight, without preventing the play of the metal. The following table of the comparative weights of different roof coverings may be useful : — 123. The arrangements for distributing a supply of water over the different parts of a building will depend very materially on the nature of fhe supply, whether constant or intermittent. Cwt. qrs. lbs. Plain tiles, per square of 100 ft. sup Pantiles . Slating, an average Lead, 7 lb. to the sup. foot . . Copper or zinc, 16 oz. do. 18 0 0 9 2 0 7 0 0 6 2 0 1 0 0 SUPPLY OF WATER. 60 KUDIMENTS OF THE The most common method of supply from water-works is by pipes which communicate with private cisterns, into which the water is turned at stated intervals. A cistern, in a dwelling-house, is always more or less an evil ; it takes up a great deal of space, costs a great deal ol money in the first instance, and often causes inconvenience, from leakage, from the bursting of the service pipes in frosty weather, and from the liability of the self-acting cock to get out of order Fig. 74 shows the ordinary arrangements of a cistern for a dwelling-house. The common material for the cistern itself is wood lined with sheet lead ; but slate cisterns have been much used of late. Large cisterns or tanks for the supply of breweries, manufactories, &c., are usually made of cast-iron plates, screwed together by means of flanges all round their edges. ^{g^ >j4^^ The service or feed pipe for a cistern, in the case of an inter- mittent supply, must be sufficiently large to allow of its filling during the time the water is turned on from the mains. The flow of water into I i ^ t the cistern is regulated by a hall cock, so called from its being opened and shut by a lever, with a copper ball, which floats on the surface of the water. The service pipes to the different parts of the building are laid into the bottom of the cistern, but should not come within an inch of the actual bottom, in order that the sedi- ment, which is always deposited in a greater or less degree, may not be disturbed : the mouth of each pipe should be covered by a rose, to prevent any foreign substances being washed into the pipes and choking the taps. To afford a ready means of cleaning out the cistern, a waste pipe is inserted quite at the bottom, sufficiently large to draw off the whole contents in a short time when re- quired ; into this waste pipe is fitted a standing ivastCj which ART OF BUILDING. 61 reaches nearly to tlie top of the cistern, and carries oflf the waste water, when, from any derangement in the working of the ball cock, the water continues running after the cis- tern is full To prevent any leakage at the bottom of the standing waste, the latter terminates in a brass plug, which is ground to fit a washer inserted at the top of the waste pipe. Where the supply of water is constant, instead of being intermittent, private cisterns may be altogether dispensed with ; tlie main service pipes, not being required to dis- charge a large quantity of water in a short time, may be of smaller bore, and, consequently, cheaper, and a consider- able length of pipe is saved, as the water can be laid on directly to the several taps, instead of having to be taken up to the cistern and then brought back again. The constant flow of water through the pipes also much diminishes the risk of tlieir bursting in frosty weather from freezing of their contents. WARMING AND VENTILATION. 124. The various contrivances employed for warming buildings may be classed as under : — Methods of Warming independently of Ventilation. 1st. By close stoves, the heating surface being either of hon or of eai^thenware. 2nd. By hot-air flues, passing under the floors. 3rd. By a system of endless piping heated by a current of hot water from a boiler, the circulation being caused by the cooling, and consequently gi'eater weight, of the water in the lower or returning pipe. Methods of Warming combined with Ventilation. 4th. By open fii^es placed in the several apartments. 5 th. By causing air which has been previously heated to pass through the several rooms. This last system is more perfect than any of the others above described, both as regards economy of fuel and regulation of the temperature. 62 RUDIMENTS OF THE A great though common defect in the consti^uction of fireplaces is their being placed too high ; whence it is not unusual for the upper part of a room to be quite warm whilst there is a stratum of cold ah^ next the floor, the effect of which is very injurious to health. In all methods of warming, in which the air is heated by coming in contact with metallic heating surfaces, care should be taken that their temperature should not exceed •212°; as, when this limit is exceeded, the air becomes unfit for use, and offensive from the scorching of the par- ticles of dust or other matters that are always floating in it. 125. There are two modes in which artificial ventilation is effected, each of which is very efficient. The one most in use is to establish a draught in an air shaft or chimney communicating by flues with the apart- ments to be ventilated, the effect of which is to cause a constant current in the direction of the shaft, the air being admitted at the bottom of the building, and warmed or cooled as may be required, according to the season of the year. The new House of Lords is ventilated in this manner The air is admitted at the bottom of the buildings, filtered by being passed through fine sieves, over which a stream of water is constantly flowing; warmed in cold weather by passing through steam cockles, and then, rising through the building, goes out through the roof into the furnace chimney, the draught being assisted by a steam jet from a boiler. 126. The other mode of ventilation to which we have alluded is on a completely opposite principle to that just described, the air being forced into the apartments by me- cnanical means, instead of being drawn from them by the draught in the chimney. This latter plan is used with great success at the Eeform Club House, the General Post-Office, and many other build- ings» the air being thrown in by the action of large fans driven by steam power. (See Note F, p. 157.) ART OF BUILDING. 68 DRAINAGE. 1^7 This is a subject of equal importance with any ol tliose previously noticed ; but as two volumes of this series ai'e devoted to its consideration, it is unnecessary to enter upon it in tliese pages. SECTION II. MATEEIALS USED IN BUILDING. 128. The materials used in building may be classed under the following heads, viz. — Timber. Stone. — See volume on " Blasting Eocks and on Stone." Slate.— 5^6'^ Section IV. Art. 234. Bricks and Tiles. — See volume on " Brick-making and Tile-making." Limes and Cements. — See also Mr. Burnell's volume, in this series. Metals. Glass. — See Section IV. Art. 258. Colours and Varnishes. — See volume on " House-paint- ing and Mixing Colours." Some of these form the subjects of separate volumes of this series, to which the reader is therefore referred as above; and others are noticed in Section IV. of this volume Our remarks in this section will, therefore, be exclusively confined to the consideration of Timber, Limes and Cements, and Metals. timber. 129. If we examine a transverse section of the stem of a tree, we perceive it to consist of three distinct parts : the hark, the wood, and the pith. The wood appears disposed in rings round the pith, the outer rings being softer and containing more sap than those immediately round the pith VN'hich form what is called the heart wood. 64 RUDIMENTS OF THE These rings are also traversed by rays extending fron^ the centre of the stem to the bark, called medullary rays. The whole structure of a tree consists of minute vessels and cells, the former conveying the sap through the wood in its ascent, and through the bark to the leaves in its descent ; and the latter performing the functions of secre- tion and nutrition during the life of the tree. The solid parts of a tree consist almost entirely of the fibrous parts composing the sides of the vessels and cells. By numerous experiments it has been ascertained that the sap begins to ascend the spring of the year, through the minute vessels in the wood, and descends through the bark to the leaves, and, after passing through them, is deposited in an altered state between the bark and the last year's wood, forming a new layer of bark and sap wood, the old bark being pushed forward. As the annual layers increase in number, the sapwood ceases to perforai its original functions ; the fluid parts are evaporated or absorbed by the new wood, and, the sides of the vessels being pressed together by the growth of the latter, the sapwood becomes heartwood or perfect wood, and until this change takes place it is unfit for the purposes of the builder. The vessels in each layer of wood are largest on the side nearest the centre of the stem, and smallest at the outside. This arises from the first being formed in the spring, when vegetation is most active. The oblong cells which surround the vessels are filled with fluids in the early growth ; but as the tree increases in size, these become evaporated and absorbed, and the cells become partly filled with depositions of woody matter and indurated secretions, depending on the nature of the soil, and affecting the quality of the timber. Thus Honduras mahogany is full of black specks, \vhile the Spanish is full of minute white particles, giving the wood the appearance of having been rubbed over with chalk. At a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, March, 1 84Ji, it was stated by Professor Brande, that " a ART OF BUILDING. 05 beech tree in Sir John Sebright s park in Hertfordshire, 03\ being cut do^\^^, was found perfectly black all up the heart. On examination it was discovered that the tree had grown upon a mass of iron scorire from an ancient furnace, and tliat tlie wood had absorbed the salt of iron." This anecdote well explains the differences that exist between different specimens of the same kind of timber mider different cir- cumstances of growth ; and it is probably the nature of the soil that causes the difference of character we have just named between Hondm-as and Spanish mahogany. There is a great difference in the character of the annual rings in different kinds of trees. In some they are very distinct, the side next the heart being porous, and the other compact and hard, as in the oak, the ash, and the elm. In others the distinction between the rings is so small as scarcely to be distinguished, and the texture of the wood is nearly uniform, as in the beech and mahogany. A third class of trees have the annual rings very distinct and their pores filled with resinous matter, one part being hard and heavy, the other soft and light-coloured. All the resinous woods have this character, as larch, fir, pine, and cedar. The medullary rings are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye in the majority of trees ; but in some, as the oak and the beech, there are both large and small rings, which, when cut through obliquely, produce the beautiful flowered appearance called the silver grain. 130. In preparing timber for the uses of the builder there are three principal things to be attended to, viz. the age of the tree, the time of felling, and the seasoning for use. 131. If a tree be felled before it is of full age, whilst the heartwood is scarcely perfected, the timber will be of infe- rior quality, and, from the quantity of sap contained in it, will be very liable to decay. On the otlier hand, if the tree be allowed to stand until the heartwood begins to decay, the timber will be weak and brittle : the best timber G6 KUDIMENTS OF THE comes fron-j trees that have nearly done growing, as there is then but little sapwood, and the heartwood is in the best condition. 182. The best time for felling trees is either in mid- winter, when the sap has ceased to flow, or in midsummer, when the sap is temporarily expended in the production of leaves. An excellent plan is to bark the timber in the spring and fell it in winter, by which means the sapwood is dried up and hardened ; but as the bark of most trees is valueless, the oak tree (whose bark is used in tanning) is almost the only one that will pay for being thus treated. 133. The seasoning of timber consists in the extraction or evaporation of the fluid parts, which are liable to decom- position on the cessation of the growth of the tree. This is usually effected by steeping the green timber in water, to dilute and wash out the sap as much as possible, and then diying it thoroughly by exposure to the air in an airy situa- tion. The time required to season timber thoroughly in this manner will of course much depend on the sizes of the pieces to be seasoned ; but for general purposes of carpen- try, two years is the least that can be allowed, and, in sea- soning timber for the use of the joiner, a much longer time is usually required. 134. Decay of Timber. — Properly seasoned timber, placed in a dry situation with a free circulation of air round it, is very durable, and has been known to last for several hun- dred years without apparent deterioration. This is not, however, the case when exposed to moisture, which is always more or less prejudicial to its durability. When timber is constantly under water, the action of the water dissolves a portion of its substance, which is made apparent by its becoming covered with a coat of slime. If it be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, as in the case of piles in tidal waters, the dissolved parts being contmually removed by evaporation and the action of the water, new surfaces are exposed, and the wood rapidly decays. ART OF BUILDING 07 \Miere timber is exposed to heat and moisture, tlie albu- men or gelatinous matter in tlie sapwood speedily putrenes and decomposes, causing what is called rot. The rot in timber is commonly divided into two kinds, the ivet and the dnj, but the chief difference between them is, that where the timber is exposed to the air, the gaseous products are freely evaporated ; whilst, in a confined situation, they com- bine in a new form, viz. the diy-rot fungus, which, deriving its nourishment from the decaying timber, often grows to a length of many feet, spreading in every direction, and insi- nuating its delicate fibres even through the joints of brick walls. In addition to the sources of decay above mentioned, timber placed in sea water is very liable to be completely destroyed by the perforations of the worm, unless protected by copper sheathing, the expense of which causes it to be seldom used for this purpose. 135. Prevention of Decay. — The best method of protect- ing woodwork from decay when exposed to the weather is to paint it tlioroughly, so as to prevent its being affected by moisture. It is, however, most important not to apply paint to any woodwork which has not been thoroughly sea soned ; for in this case the evaporation of the sap being prevented, it decomposes, and the wood rapidly decays. Many plans have been proposed for the prevention of the rot. Kyan s process * consists in impregnating the timber with corrosive sublimate, thus converting the albumcm into an indecomposable substance. This method, although not always successful, is undoubtedly of great use, particularly where inferior or imperfectly seasoned timber has to be used. It is, however, said to render the wood brittle. Payne's process f consists in impregnating the wood with metallic oxides, alkalies, or earths, as may be required, and decomposing them in the wood, forming new and insolu- ble compounds. Timber thus prepared will not burn, bui only smoulder ♦ PatenUc a.d. 1832. + Tatented a. P. 1841. 68 KUDIMENTS OF THE A process invented by Mr. Bethell,* and much used in railway works, is to impregnate the timber with oil of tar : this appears to be very successful in preventing decay, but the danger of accidents from fire is much increased. \ 136. The variety of timber trees suitable to the purposes of the builder is very great ; but fir and oak are the kinds chiefly used, although larch, beech, poplar and other woods, are employed to a limited extent in localities where they can be obtained more cheaply than foreign timber. Very little home-grown fir is used in England, as foreign timber, either in balks, or cut up into planks, deals, or battens, can be obtained at a moderate price in all the large towns in the kingdom, and is very superior to any grown in this country. Baltic timber is more esteemed than American, but a very great deal of the latter is used. 137. Fir is one of the most useful of the woods used by the builder. It is light, soft, easily worked, and very dura- ble ; but the lateral cohesion of the annual rings being very slight, it will not bear much strain, except in the direction of the length of the fibres. Ked pine is also much used for carpenters' work, and is very durable. Yellow pine is sometimes used for joiners* work, but it is an inferior mate- rial, and liable to rot. 138. Oak, for purposes requiring strength, is preferred of English growth ; that from Sussex is considered the best, being hard and fine-grained. The Dutch wainscot, which is grown in Germany, is a softer kind, and on that account not so apt to warp and twist, for which reason it is pre- ferred to English oak for the purposes of the joiner : the texture of oak is very uniform, hard, and compact, which renders it superior to all other woods, as it will bear to be strained in any direction without fear of the rings separa- ting, as in the resinous woods. 139. For internal finishings, maliogany is much used; that called Spanish, which comes from the West India Is- lands, is considered the best. * Pateated m 1838. t See Note G, p. 158. ART OF BUILDING. 60 For joiners' and cabinet-makers' work, a great many kinds of fancy wood ai'e imported, which are cut by machi- nery into thin shces, called veneers, and used as an orna- mental covering to inferior work. In veneering, caro should be taken tliat the body of the work be thoroughly seasoned, or it will shrink, and the veneer will fly off. LIMES AND CEMENTS, MORTAR, ETC. 140. So much of the stability of brickwork and masonry depends upon the binding properties of the mortar or cement with which the materials are united, especially when exposed to a side pressure, as in the case of retaining Avails, arches, and piers, that it is of no small importance to ascertain on what the strength of mortar really depends, and how far the proportions of the ingredients require mo- dification, according to the quality of the lime that may have to be used. It was long supposed that the hardness of any mortar depended upon the hardness of the limestone, from which the lime used in its composition was derived ; but it was ascertained by the celebrated Smeaton, and since his time clearly shown by the researches of others, amongst whom may be named, Vicat in France, and Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Pasley in this countiy, that the hardness of the hmestone has nothing to do with the matter, and that it is its chemical composition which regulates the quality of the mortar. 141. Limestone may be divided into three classes. 1st. Pure limes — as chalk. 2nd. Water limes — some of which are only slightly hydraulic, as the stone limes of the lower chalk, whilst others are eminently so, as the lias limes. 3rd. Water cements— as those of Sheppy and Harwich. 142. In making mortar the following processes are gone through. ] St. The limestone is calcmed by exposure to strong ro RODIMENTS OF THE heat in a kiln, which drives off the carbonic acid gas ooxi- tained in it, and reduces it to the state of quick-lime, 2nd. The quick-hme is slaked by pouring water upon it, when it swells, more or less, with considerable heat, and falls into a fine powder, forming a hydrate of lime. 3rd. The hydrate thus formed is mixed up into a stiffish paste, with the addition of more water, and a pro- per proportion of sand, and is then ready for use. 143. Fur e Limes. — Chalk is a pure carbonate of lime, consisting of about 5 parts of lime combined with 4 of car- bonic acid gas. It expands greatly in slaking, and will bear from 3 to 3 1 parts of sand to one of lime, when made up Vnto mortar. Chalk lime mortar is, however, of little value, as it sets or hardens very slowly, and in moist situations never sets at all, but remains in a pulpy state, which ren- ders it quite unfit for any work subjected to the action of water, or even for the external walls of a building. 144. Gypsum, from which is made plaster of Paris for cornices and internal decorations, is granular sulphate of lime, and contains 26*5 of lime, 37*5 of sulphuric acid, and 17 of water. It slakes without swelling, with a moderate heat, setting hard in a very short time, and will even set under water ; but as it is, like other pure limes, partly solu- ble in water, it is not suitable for anything but internal work. 145. Water limes have obtained their name from the pro- perty they possess in a greater or less degree of setting under water. They are composed of carbonate of lime, mixed with silica, alumina, oxide of iron, and sometimes other substances. 146. Dorking lime, obtained from the beds of the lower chalk, at Dorking, in Surrey ; and Hailing lime, from a simi- lar situation near Eochester, in Kent, are the principal limes used in London for making mortar, and are slightly hy- draulic ; they expand considerably in slaking, but not so much as the pure limes, and will make excellent mortar when mixed with 3 parts of sand to 1 of lime. Mortaj ART OF BUILDING 71 made witli these limes sets hard and moderately quick, and when set, may be exposed to considerable moisture ^vithout injury ; but they will not set under water, and are therefore imfit for hydraulic works, unless combined with some other substance, as puzzolana, to give them water-setting properties. 147. The blue lias limes are the strongest water limes in this countiy. They slake very slowly, swelling but little in tlie process, and set very rapidly even under water ; a few days only sufficing to make the mortar extremely hard. The lias limes will take a much smaller proportion of sand than the pure limes, the reason of which will be understood when it is remembered that they contain a considerable proportion of silica and alumina, combined with the lime in then- natural state, and consequently the proportion of sand which makes good mortar with chalk lime, would ruin mortar made with Aberthaw, Watchet, Barrow, and other lias limes. In the Vale of Belvoir, where the lias lime is extensively used, the common practice is to use equal parts of lime and sand for inside, and half sand to one of lime for face, work. 148. Water Cements. — These differ from the water-limes, as regards their chemical composition, only in containing less of carbonate of lime and more of silica and alumina. They require to be reduced to a fine powder after calcina- cion, without which preparation they cannot be made to slake. The process of slaking is not accompanied by any increase of bulk, and they set under water in a short time, a few hours sufficing for a cement joint to become perfectly hard. The principal supplies of cement-stone for tlie London market are derived from Harwich in Essex, and the Isle of Sheppy in Kent ; where they are found in the London clay in tlie form of calcareous nodules. Cement will not bear much sand without its cementitious properties being gi-eatly weakened, the usual proportion being equal parts of sand and cement RUDIMENTS OF THE 149. The use of natural cement was introduced by Mr Parker, who first discovered the properties of the cement- stone in the Isle of Sheppy, and took out a patent for the sale of it in 1796, under the name of Kornan cement. Before that time, hydraulic mortar, for dock walls, har- bour work, &c., was usually made, by mixing common lime with trass, from Andernach in Germany, or with puzzolana from Italy ; both are considered to be volcanic products, the latter containing silica and alumina, with a small quantity of lime, potash, and magnesia. Iron is also associated with it in a magnetic state. 150. The expense of natural puzzolana led to the manu- facture of artificial puzzolana, which appears to have been used at an early date by the Eomans, and has continued in use in the South of Em^ope to the present day ; artificial puzzolana is made of pounded bricks or tile dust. The Dutch manufacture an artificial puzzolana from burnt clay, in imitation of the trass of Andernach, which is said to be a close imitation of the natural product. 151. The great and increasing demand for cement, and its great superiority for most purposes over lime mortar, have induced manufacturers to turn their attention to the manufacture of artificial cement, and this has been at- tended in many instances with perfect success ; the artifi- cial cements now offered for sale, formed by imitating the composition of the natural cement-stones, being mostly equal in quality, if not superior, to the Koman cement, the use of which has been partly superseded by them. 152. The quality of the sand used in making mortar is by no means unimportant. It should be clean and sharp ; i. e. angular, and perfectly free from all impurities. The purer the lime the finer should be the quality of the sand, the pure limes requiring finer, and the cements a coarser sand, than the hydraulic limes. CONCRETE AND BETON. 153. Bubble masonry, formed of small stones bedded in ART OF BUILDING. 73 mortar, appears to have been commonly used in England from an early period; and similar work, cemented witli hydraulic mortar, was constantly made use of by the Eo- mans m then* sea-works, of which many remains exist at tlio present day in a perfectly sound state. 154. This mode of forming foundations, in situations where sohd masonry would be inapplicable, has been re vived in modern times; in England under the name of concrete, and on the Continent under the name of beton. Although veiy similar in their natm^e and use, there are yet gi-eat differences between beton and concrete, which de- pend on the natm-e of the lime used, concrete being made with the weak water limes which will not set under water, vvhilst beton is invai'iably made with water-setting limes, or with limes rendered hydraulic by the addition of puzzolana. Describing the two by their differences, it may be observed that concrete is made with unslaked lime, and immediately thrown into the foundation pit ; beton is allowed to stand before use, until the lime is thoroughly slaked : concrete is thrown into its place and rammed to consolidate it; beton is gently lowered and not afterwards disturbed : concrete must be thrown into a dry place, and not exposed to the action of water until thoroughly set ; beton, on the con- traiy, is made use of principally under water, to save the trouble and expense of laying dry the bottom. 155. Concrete is usually made with gravel, sand, and gi'ound unslaked lime, mixed together with water, the pro- portions of sand and lime being those which would make good mortar without the gravel, and, of course, vaiying ac- cording to the quality of the lime ; with the common limes, slaking takes place at the time of mixing, and the quality of the concrete is all the better for the freshness of the lime. If lias lime be used, the concrete becomes beton, and must be treated accordingly. The lime in this case must be thoroughly slaked (which often takes many hom^s) before it can be considered fit for use ; and, if this precaution be not attended to, the whole 74 RUDIMENTS OF THE of the work, after having set veiy hard on the surface, cracks and becomes a friable mass, from the slaking of the refractory particles after the body of the concrete has set. The reader is referred, for furtlier information on this subject, to the volume of this series on " Foundations and Concrete Works." 156. Asphalte, so much in use at the present day for foot-pavements, terrace-roofs, &c., is made by melting the asphalte rock, which is a carbonate of lime intimately com- bined with bitumen, and adding to it a small portion of mineral tar, which forms a compact semi-elastic solid, ad- mkably adapted for resisting the effects of frost, heat, and wet. Many artificial asphaltes have been brought under public notice from time to time, but they are all inferior to the natural asphalte, in the intimate combination of the lime and bitumen, which it appeal's impossible to effect thoroughly by artificial means. METALS. 167. The metals used as building materials are iron, lead, copper, zinc, and tin. 158. Iron. — Iron is used by tlie builder in two different states, viz. cast iron and wrought iron, the differences be- tween them depending on the proportion of carbon com- bined with the metal ; cast iron containing the most, and wrought iron the least. 159. Previous to the middle of the last century, the smelting of iron was earned on with wood charcoal, and the ores used were chiefly from the secondaiy strata, although the clay ironstones of the coal measures were occasionally used. The weald of Kent and Sussex* contained many iron- works during the seventeenth century. That at Lamber- hurst, near Tunbridge Wells in Sussex, is noted as having * The clay ironstones of Sussex are very rich, and are still raised in considerabk quantities, and shipped for Wales and Newcastle. ART OF BUILDING. 75 furnished die oast-iron railing round St. Pauls Cathedral. The tilt hannners used in forging bar iron were chiefly worked by water power. A large pool in Beeding Forest, near Horsham in Sussex, still retains the name of the Hannner Pond, and the former sites of many old forges hi the wcalden district may still be traced by the heaps of cinders which yet remain here and there, and by the local names to which tlie works gave rise. IGO. The introduction of smelting witli pitcoal coke durmg the last century caused a complete revolution in the iron trade. The ores now chiefly used are the clay iron- stones of the coal measures, and tlie fuel, pitcoal or coke. Steam power is almost exclusively used for tlie production of the blast in tlie furnaces, and for working the forge ham- mers and rolling mills. 161. For the production of wrought iron in the ordinary manner, two distinct sets of processes are required. 1st. The extraction of tlie metal from the ore in the shape of cast iron. 2nd. The conversion of cast iron into malleable or bar-iron, by re-melting, puddling, and forging. The conversion of bar iron into steel is effected by placing it in contact with powdered charcoal in a furnace of cementa- tion. (See Note H, p. 158.) 162. Cast iron is produced by smelting the previously calcined ore in a blast furnace, with a portion of limestone as a flux, and pitcoal or coke as fuel. The melted metal sinks to the bottom of the furnace by its gi'eater specific gravity. The limestone and other impurities float on the top of the melted mass, and are allowed to mn ofi", forming slag or cinder. The melted metal is run ofl" from the bot- tom of the furnace into moulds, where castings are re- quired, and into furrows made in a level bed of sand, when the metal is required for conversion into malleable iron, the bars thus produced being called pigs. 163. In the year 1827, it was discovered that by the use of heated air for the blast, a great saving of fuel could be ofFected, as compared with the cold blast process. E '2 70 RUDIMENTS OF THE The hot blast is now very extensively in use, and has the double advantage of requiring less fuel to bring down an equal quantity of metal, and of enabling the manufacturer to use raw pitcoal instead of coke, so that a saving is effected both in the quantity and cost of the fuel. For a considerable time after its introduction it was held in great disrepute, which, however, may be chiefly attributed to the inferior quality of materials used, the power of the hot blast in reducing the most refractory ores offering a great temptation to obtain a much larger product from the furnace than was compatible with the good quality of the metal. The use of the hot blast by firms of acknowledged character has greatly tended to remove the prejudice against it ; and in many iron works of high character, nothing but the hot blast with pitcoal is used in the smelting furnaces, the use of coke being confined to the subsequent pro- cesses. Perhaps it may be laid down as a general principle, that where the pig iron is re-melted with coke in the cupola furnace, for the purposes of the ironfounder; or refined with coke in the conversion of forge pig into bar iron, it is of little consequence whether the reduction of the ore has been effected with the hot or the cold blast; but where castings have to be run directly from the smelting furnace, the quality of the metal will, no doubt, suffer from the use of the former. 164. Cast iron is divided by ironfounders into three qua- lities. No. 1, or black cast iron, is coarse-grained, soft, and not very tenacious. When re-melted it passes into No. 2, or grey cast iron. This is the best quality for castings re- quiring strength : it is more finely grained than No. 1, and is harder and more tenacious. When repeatedly re-melted it becomes excessively hard and brittle, and passes into No. 3, or white cast iron, which is only used for the commonest castings, as sash-weights, cannon-balls, and similar articles. White cast iron, if produced direct from the ore, is an in- dication of derangement in the working of the furnace, and ART OF BUILDIxVG. V7 is unfit for the ordinary pui'poses of the founder, except to mix with other qualities. (See Note I, p. 159.) 165. Girders and similar soUd articles are cast in sand moulds, enclosed in iron frames or boxes, each mould re- quiring an upper and lower hox. A mould is formed hy pressing sand firmly round a wooden pattern, which is after- wards removed, and the melted metal poured into tlie space thus left through apertures made for the purpose. The moulds for ornamental work and for hollow castings are of a more complicated construction, which will be bet- ter understood from actual inspection at a foundry than from any written description. Almost all irons are improved by admixture with others, and, therefore, where superior castings are required they should not be run direct from the smelting furnace, but the metal should be re-melted in a cupola furnace, which gives the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron to its intended use. Thus, for delicate ornamental work, a soft and very fluid iron will be required, whilst, for girders and castings exposed to cross strain, the metal will require to be harder and more tenacious. For bed-plates and cast- ings which have merely to sustain a compressing force, the chief point to be attended to is the hardness of the metal. Castings should be allowed to remain in the sand until cool, as the quality of the metal is gi^eatly injured by tlie rapid and irregular cooling which takes place from exposure to air if removed from the moulds in a red-hot state, which is sometimes done in small foundries to economise room Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Derbyshire, afford the best irons for castings. The Scotch iron is much esteemed for hollow wares, and has a beautifully smooth surface, which may be noticed in the stoves and other articles cast by the Carron Company. The Welsh iron is principally used for conversion into bar iron. 160. The conversion of forge pig into bar iron is effected by a variety of processes, which have for their obje(;t the 78 RUDIMENTS OF THE freeing the metal from the carbon and other impurities combined with it, so as to produce as nearly as possible the pure metal. We do not purpose to enter in these pages into any of the details of the manufacture of bar iron, or of its conversion into steel, as our business is rather with the ironfounder than the manufacturer; it may, however, be proper to state, that new processes have lately been patented, by which both malleable iron and steel may be produced directly from the ore, without the use of the smelting furnace, a plan which is likely to be attended with beneficial results, both as regards economy and quality of metal. 167. L^acZ.— Lead is used by the mason for securing dowels, coating iron cramps, and similar pm-poses, see Sec- tion IV., Plumber. Lead is also used by the smith in fixing iron railings, and other work where iron is let into stone ; but the use of lead in contact with iron is always to be avoided, if pos- sible, as it has an injurious effect upon the latter metal, the part in contact with the lead becoming gradually softened. The chief value of lead, however, to the builder, is as a covering for roofs, and for lining gutters, cisterns, &c., for which uses it is superior to any other metal. For these purposes the lead is cast into sheets, and then passed be- tween rollers in a flatting-mill^ until it has been reduced to the required thickness. Cast-lead is often made by plumbers themselves from old lead taken in exchange ; but it is very inferior to the milled lead of the manufacturer, being not so compact, and often containing small air-holes, which render it unfit for any but inferior purposes. 168. Copper, — See Section IV., Coppersmith. 169. Zinc, — See Section IV., Zincworker. 170. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, the best proportions being nearly two parts of copper to one of zijic. AKT OK BUIIJDING. 79 171. Bronze is a compound metal, composed of copper and tin, to which are sometimes added a little zinc and lead. The best proportions for casting statues and bas-reliefs appear to be attained when the tin forms about 10 per cent, of the alloy. By alloying copper with tin, a more fusible metal is obtained, and the alloy is much harder than pure copper ; but considerable management is required to prevent the copper from becoming refined in the process of melting, a result w^hich has frequently happened to inexperienced founders. 172. Bell-metal is composed of copper and tin, in the proportion of 78 per cent, of the former to 22 per cent, of tlie latter. SECTION III. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 173. There are three principal actions to which the ma- terials of a building are exposed. 1st. Compression — as in the case of the stones in a wall. 2nd Tension — as in the case of a king-post or tie- beam. 3rd. Cross strain— as in the case of a bressummer, floor-joists, &c. The last of the three is the only one against which pre- cautions are especially necessary, as in all ordinaiy cases the resistance of the materials used for building is far be- yond any direct crushing or pulling force that is likely to be brought upon them. 174. 1st. Resistance to Compression. — The following table shows the force required to crush 1| in. cubes cf several kinds of building nbaterial . — BO RUDIMENTS OF THW lbs. \U: Good brick. . . 1817 Portland stone . ] 0,281 Derbyshire grit . 7070 Granite „ . 14,300 These amounts so far exceed any weight that could have to be borne on an equal area, under ordinary circumstances, that it is quite unnecessary in the erection of a building to make any calculations on this head when using these or similar materials. Cast iron may be considered as practicably incompres- sible ; wrought iron may be flattened under great pressure, but cannot be crushed. Timber may be considered, for practical purposes, as nearly incompressible, when the weight is applied in the direction of the fibres, as in the case of a wooden story-post ; but the softer kinds, as fir, ofter little resistance, when the weight is applied at right angles to the fibres, as in the case of the sill of a partition ; and, besides this, timber, however well-seasoned, will al ways shrink, more or less, in the direction of its thickness, so that no important bearings should be trusted to it. 175. 2nd. Resistance to Tension. — The principal building materials that are required to resist direct tension are timber and wrought iron, (See Note K, p. 159.) The following table shows the weight in tons required to tear asunder bars 1-inch square of the following mate- rials : — Tons. Oak 51 Fir 5^ Cast iron , ... . 7i Wrought iron 10 Wrought copper . 15 English bar iron 25 Blistered steel -591 Cast iron, however, although included in the above table, is an unsuitable material for the purpose of resisting ten- sion, being comparatively brittle. With regard to timber, it is practicably impossible to tear asunder a piece of even ART OF BUILDING. 81 moderate size, by a force applied in tlie direction of the fibres, and therefore tlie dimensions of king-posts, tie- beams, and otlier timbers which have to resist a pulling force, ai'e regulated by the necessity of forming proper joints and coiniections with the other parts of the framing to which they belong, rather tlianby thSeir cohesive strength, But it must be borne in mind, that although the strength of all kinds of timber is very great in the direction of the fibres, the lateral cohesion of the annual rings is in many kinds of wood veiy slight, and must be assisted by iron sti'aps in all doubtful cases. The architects of the middle ages executed tlieir magnificent wooden roofs without these aids, but they worked in oak, and not in soft fir, which would split and rend if treated in the same way, Wrouglvt iron is extensively used for bolts, straps, tie- rods, and all pui-poses which require great strength, with small sectional area ; one-fourth of the breaking weight is usually said to be the limit to which it should be strained ; but, in all probability, this amount might be doubled with- out any injurious effects. STKENGTH OF BEAMS. 176. 3rd. Cross Strain. — In calculating the strength of beams when exposed to cross or transverse strain, two principal considerations present themselves: 1st, The me- chanical effect which any given load will produce under varying conditions of support; and 2ndly, The resistance of the beam, and the manner in which this is affected by the form of its section. J 77. 1st. Mechanical Effect of a given Load under varying Circumstances. — If a rectangular beam be supported at each end and loaded in the middle, the strength of the beam, its section remaining the same, will be inversely as the distance between the supports, the weight acting with a leverage which increases at this distance.* If a beam be * It may be as well to observe that, although this is true as to the strength of beams under ordinary circumstances, it does not hold good when 82 RUDIMENTS OF THE fixed at one end and weighted at the other (fig. 75), its, strength will be half that of a similar beam of double the Fig, 75. length supported as first described (fig 76). A parallel case to this is that of a beam supported in the middle and Fig, 76. loaded at the ends (fig 77). In each of the above cases the beam will bear double the load if it be equally distri- buted over its whole length, as shown by the dotted lines ; the loading is carried to the breaking point, the deflection of the beam causing an increase or diminution of the leverage according to the mode of support. The difference of strength arising from this cause is, however, too trifling to he taken into consideration, except in delicate experiments on the nltimate strength of beams. ART OF BUILDING. 83 aiid lastly, tlie strength of a beam firmly fixed at the ends is to its strength when loosely laid on supports as 3 to (se£ fig. 78). Fip. 78. k X. X .,)(. .A,. .) 1 m mm These results may be simply expressed thus : Let s be the weight which would break a beam of given length and scantling fixed at one end and loaded at the other ; then 2 5 would break the same beam fixed at one end and uniforaily loaded ; 4 s would break the same beam supported at each end and loaded in the middle ; 6 s would break the same beam fixed at each end and loaded in the middle ; 8 s would break the same beam supported at each end and unifonnly loaded ; 1 2 s would break the same beam fixed at each end and uniformly loaded. J 78. 2nd. Resistance of the Beam. — If a beam be loaded so as to produce fracture, this will take place about a centre or neutral axis, below which the fibres will be torn asunder, and above which they will be crushed. This may be very clearly illustrated by drawing a number of parallel lines with a soft pencil on the edge of a piece of India rubber, and bending it round, when it will be seen that the lines are brought closer together on the concave, and stretched further asunder on tlie convex side, whilst, between the two edges, a neutral line may be traced, on which the dimions 84 EUDIMENTS OF THE remain of the original size, which neutral line divides the fibres that are subjected to compression from those in a state of tension {see fig. 79). Fig. 79. The resistance of a rectangular beam • will, therefore, depend, 1st, on the number of fibres, which will be propor- tionate to its breadth and depth ; 2nd, on the distance of those fibres from the neutral axis, and the consequent leverage with which they act, which will also be as the depth ; and, lastly, on the actual strength of the fibres, which will vary with different materials, and can only be determined approximately from actual experi ments on rectangular beams of the same material as those whose strength is required to be estimated. The actual strength of any rectangular beam will, there- fore, be directly as its breadth multiplied by the square of the depth, and inversely as its length; or, calling s the transverse strength of the material, as in art. 177, b the breadth, d the depth, I the length between the supports, and W the breaking weight, l The following may be taken as the value of s for iron and timber, the length being taken in feet, the breadth and depth in inches, and the breaking weight in pounds. Constant multiplier Constant multiplier or rectangular beams for rectangular beams fixed at one end and loosely supported at loaded at the other. the ends and loaded in the middle. Wrought iron 512 1 i 2048 Cast ditto 500 > x 4 \ 2000* Fir and EngUsh oak 100 ) i 400 * The above is an average value calculated from a great number of pub- lished experiments on different irons. The best Derbyshire and Stafford- shire irons might probably be taken as high as 2500, whilst the ordinary Scotch hot-blast irons could not be trusted to bear more than from 1700 tc ll^OU. ART OF BUILDING. 85 It must be remembered that the numbers here given in- dicate the breakhig weight, not more than one-third of which should ever be apphed in practice. Timber is per- manently injured if more than even one-fourth of the breaking weight is placed on it, and, therefore, this limit should never be passed. A single example will suffice to show the importance of the principles just explained, and the lamentable results that may follow from ignorance of them. K we take a fir binding joist, say 9 in. x 4 in., which is to have a bearing of 12 ft. between its supports, and place it edgeways, it will . , , , . . , 400 X 4 X 9' requu-e to break it a weight = ^ = 10,800 lbs.: but if, for the purpose of gaining height, we place it flat- 400 X 9 X 4^ ways, it will break with a weight = = 4800 lbs., or less than one-half. 179. We may see from this example that the shape of any beam has a great influence on its strength ; and in making beams of iron, which can be cast with gi^eat facility in any required shape, it becomes an important question how to obtain the strongest form of section with the least expenditure of metal. The usual section given to cast-iron girders is that of a thin and deep rectangular beam, with flanges or projections on each side at top and bottom ; where the strength of the Fiff, 80. metal will be most effective, as being ^ at tho grcatest posslblc distauco from ■ f — — ^ r'^ the neutral axis (fig. 80). i The gi^eat question now is, what should be the relative thickness of the top and bottom flanges, the centre part of the beam having been made as thin as is consistent with sound casting? If the metal were incompressible, the top flanges might be infinitely thin ; if incapable of extension, the bottom ^'^ RUDIMENTS OF THE ones might be indefinitely reduced. If it offered eqaal re- sistance to tension and compression, the neutral axis would occupy the centre of the beam, and the top and bottom flanges would require to be of equal strength. We are indebted to Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson for the pub- lication* of a valuable set of experiments conducted by him, having for their object the determination of the posi- tion of the neutral axis in cast-iron beams. The result of his experiments is, that in cast-iron rectangular beams, the position of the neutral axis at the time of fracture is at about one-seventh of the whole depth of the beam below its upper surface Hence, in girders with flanges, the thickness of the bottom flanges should be six times that of the upper ones (supposing them to be of the same width), in order to obtain the greatest strength with the least metal. Practically it would be almost impossible to cast a beam thus proportioned, and, therefore, the top flanges are made of the same thickness, or nearly so, as the bottom ones, but of a less width, so as to contain the same relative quantity of metal, disposed in a more con venient form for casting (fig. 80). The difliculty of making sound castings where the parts are of unequal thickness also renders it necessary to make the thickness of the middle rib nearly equal to that of the flanges. 180. To calculate the strength of a cast-iron beam, tho sectional area of whose top flanges is ^ of that of the bottom ones, we must find that of a rectangular beam of the same extreme depth and width, and deduct from it the resistance of the portions omitted between the top and bottom flanges (fig. 80). If we call the whole width of the bottom of the beam, W, the sum of the widths of the two bottom flanges, w, the whole depth of the beam, D, and the vertical distance be- tween the flanges d (on the supposition that the top flanges * Experimental Kesearches on the Strength and other PropoTties of (TasT Iron, 8vo, 1846. Weale. ART OF UUILDINQ 87 are of the same widths as tlie bottom ones, and i of their thickness, as shown by Uie dotted hnes in fig. 80), the dis- tance between the supports, I, the strength of the material, s, as in art. 177, and if the weight required to break abeam when loosely supported at the ends and loaded in the middle be called .r. Then x = ^ , and if wo take the length in feet and the other dimensions in inches, and call s = 560 lbs., which is not too much for tlie best Staffordshire irons ; then As = 2240 lbs. = 1 ton ; and therefore ~" ^ = t breaking weight in tons. The value of d in this rule will be D — ^- of the thick- ness of the bottom flanges, and so long as the sectional area of the top flanges is more than ^ of that of the bottom ones,* the rule may be applied to girders of variously pro- portioned flanges, as the additional strength gained by in- creasing the size of the top flanges beyond the proportion here named is veiy small in proportion to the metal used, and, in neglecting to take it into account, we are sure to err on the safe side. 181. It must not be supposed, that because increasing the thickness of the top flanges does not materially increase the resistance to vertical pressure, it is on that account use- less : on the contrary, where a beam is of considerable depth in proportion to the widths of the bottom flanges, it will often be desirable to make the top flanges more than ^ of the bottom ones, in order to prevent the girder from twisting laterally, and to increase the resistance to any side * It must be remembered that in making the top flanges narrower thaa the bottom ones for convenience of casting, as the bulk of the metal is brought nearer to the neutral axis by so doing, the sectional area of the top flanges must be rather more than J of that of the bottom ones, in order to keep the position of the neutral axis the same as in a rectangular beam. 88 RUDIMEN'J'S OF THE thrust to which it may be exposed from brick arches oi otherwise. 182. In practice, it is not desirable to load iron girders beyond J of their ultimate strength, and they should be proved before use by loading them to this extent or a little more, but care should be taken never to let the proof exceed ^ the breaking weight, as a greater load than this strains and distresses the metal, making it permanently weaker. The ultimate strength of a girder of the usual proportions may be approximately ascertained from its deflexion under proof on the assumption that a load equal to half the break- ing weight will cause a deflection of -^^-^ of its length. h-- 183. Trussed Timber Beams. — Timbers exposed to severe strain require to be trussed with iron, and this may be done in two ways: 1st, by inserting cast-iron struts, as in fig. 81, Fig. 81. rfh. . — ■ ^ f — — ^ thus placing the whole, or nearly the whole, of the wood- work in a state of tension ; 2nd, by wrought-iron tension, rods, as in fig. 82, which take the whole of the tension, Fig. 82. whilst the timber is thrown entirely into compression The latter mode of trussing is now very extensively used in strengthening the carriages of travelling cranes and for similar purposes ; and, by its use, a balk of timber which will barely support its own weight safely without assistance, * The author is indebted for this rule to the manager of the FnODXiiK Foundry, Derby, See also Note L, p. 160. ART OF BUILDING. 89 may be iiiiide to cai'iy a load of many tons without sensible deflection. STRENGTH OF STORY-POSTS AND CAST-IRON PILLA31S. 184. When a piece of timber, whose length is not less than 8 or 10 times its diameter, is compressed in the direction of its length, as in the case of a wooden story- post supporting a bressummer, it will give w^ay if loaded beyond a certain point, not by crushing, but by bending, and will ultimately be destroyed by the cross strain, just as a horizontal beam would be by vertical pressure applied at right angles to the fibres. The rules for determining the dimensions of a piece of timber to support a given weight without sensible flexure are veiy complicated, and are of little practical value, as they depend upon the condi- tion that tlie pressure is exactly in the direction of the axis of the post — a condition rarely fulfilled in practice. 185. Wooden story posts have been to a great extent superseded by the use of cast-iron pillars, which possess great strength with a small sectional area, and are on that account pai'ticularly well adapted to situations where it is of consequence to avoid obstructing light, as in shop-fronts. In determining the design of a cast-iron pillar, whose length is 20 or 30 times its diameter, two points have to be considered : 1st, the liability to flexure; 2nd, the risk of the ends being crushed by the load not acting in the direction of the axis of the pillar. The resistance to flexure is greatly in- creased by enlarging the bearing surface at the ends of the pillar, as in fig. 83, which, on the other hand, increases the liability of the ends to fracture, in the event of the load being thrown on the side instead of on the centre of the column, by any irregular settlement of the building. The judicious architect will, therefore, take a mean course, swelling out the capitals and bases of his cast-iron pillai's enough to prevent their shafts from bend- 90 RUD1MEJ3TS OF mK ing, but at Hie same time avoiding any thin flanges or pro- jections, which might be hable to be broken. No theo- retical rule for determining the proportions of a cast-iron pillar depending on the weight to be supported can be de- pended on in practice. The real measure of the strength of a cast-iron story-post must be the power of resisting any lateral force which may be brought against it; and as a slight side blow will suffice to fracture a pillar which is capable of supporting a vertical pressure of very many tons, we have only to make sure of the lateral strength, and we are quite certain to be on the safe side as regards any vertical pressure which it may have to sustain. 186. Besides the above cases of transverse strain, there are others arising from irregular settlements, which are amongst the greatest difficulties with which the builder has to contend. Thus, to take a familiar instance, the window sills of a dwelling-house are often broken by the settlement of the brickwork being greater in the piers than under the sills, from the greater pressure on the mortar joints ; and this will take place with a difference of settlement which can scarcely be detected, even by careful measurement.* We need not here enlarge on this subject, as we have several times in the preceding pages had occasion to notice both the causes of irregular settlement, and the precautions to be taken for its prevention The strength of materials to resist torsion or twisting, as in the case of a driving shaft, is an important consideration in the construction of machinery, but is of little conse- quence in the erection of buildings, and therefore need not be noticed in these pages * The reader need scarcely be told that a careful builder will always defer pinning wp his sills until some time has been allowed for the settlement of the brickwork, but this will not always prevent ultimate fracture. ART OF BUILD IN 'J. 91 SECTION IV. USE OF MATERIALS. EXCAVATOR. 187. The digging required for the foundations of com- mon buildings usually forms part of the business of the bricklayer, and is paid for at per cubic yard, according to the depth of the excavation, and the distance to which the eartli has to be \Yheeled ; this being estimated by the run of 20 yards. In large works, which require coffer-dams and pumping apparatus to be put down before the ground can be got out for the foundations, the work assumes a different character, and is paid for accordingly ; the actual excavation being only a small item of the total cost compared with those of dredg- ing, piling, puddling, shoring, pumping, &c. The workmen required for the construction of coffer-dams and similar works are labourers of a superior class, accus- tomed to the management of pile-engines and tackle, and competent to the execution of such rough carpenter's work as is required m timbering large excavations. The methods in use of constructing coffer-dams, driving piles, and executing other work connected with foundations, are described in tlie volume of this series on " Foundations and Concrete Works;" to which the reader is referred for further information on the subject. BRICKLAYEB. 188. The business of a bricklayer consists m the execu- tion of all kinds of work in which brick is the principal material ; and in London it always includes tiling and pav- ing witli bricks or tiles. Where undressed stone is much used as a building material, the bricklayer executes this kind of work also, and in the country, the business of the plasterer is often united with the above-named branches. 189. The tools of the bricklayer are the trowel, to take up RUDIMENTS OF THE and spread the mortar, and to cut bricks to the requisite length: the hrick axe, for shaping bricks to any required bevel ; the tin saw, for making incisions in bricks to be cut with the axe, and a ruhhing-stone, on which to rub the bricks smooth after being roughly axed into shape. The jointer and the jointing-rule are used for running the centres of the mortar-joints The raker, for raking out the mortar from the joints of old brickwork previous to re-pointing. The hammer, for cutting chases and splays. The hanker is a piece of timber about 6 feet long, raised on supports to a convenient height to form a table on which to cut the bricks 1:0 any required gauge, for which moulds and bevels are re- quired. The crowbar, pick-axe, and shovel are used in dig- ging out the foundations, and the rammer in punning the ground round the footings, and in rendering the foundation firm where it is soft by beating or ramming. To set out the work and to keep it true, the bricklayer uses the square, the level, and the plumh-rule; for circular or batter- ing work he uses templets and battering -rules ; lines and pins are used to lay the courses by ; and measuring-rods to take dimensions. When brickwork has to be carried up in con- junction with stonework, the height of each com^se must be marked on a gauge-rod, that the joints of each may coincide. 190. The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and mortar by a labourer, who carries them in a hod. The labourer also makes the mortar, and builds and strikes the scaf- folding. 191. The bricklayer's scaffold is constructed with standards, ledgers, and putlogs. The standards are fir poles, from 40 to 50 ft. long, and 6 or 7 in. diameter at the butt ends, which are firmly bedded in the ground. When one pole is not sufficiently long, two are lashed together, top and butt, the lashings being tightened with wedges. The ledgers are horizontal poles placed parallel to the walls, and lashed to the standards for the support of the putlogs. The putlogs are cross pieces usually made of birch, and about 6 ft. long, one end resting in the wall, the AKT OF BUILDING 93 other on a ledger. On the putlogs are placed the scaffold boai'ds, which are stout boai'ds hooped at the ends to pre- vent them from spHtting. 192. A bricklayer and his labourer will lay in a single day about 1000 bricks, or about two cubic yards. 193. The tools required for tiling are — the lath'uKj- hammer, witli two gauge marks on it, one at 7, and the other at 7] inches ; the iron lathiiuj staff, to clinch the nails ; the trowel, which is longer and narrower than that used for brickwork ; the hosse, for holding mortar and tiles, with an iron hook to hang it to the laths or to a ladder ; and the striker J a piece of lath about 10 in. long, for clearing off the supei-fluous mortar at the feet of the tiles. 194. Brickwork is measured and valued by the rod, or by the cubic yard, the price including the erection and use of scaffolding, but not centering to arches, which is an extra charge. Bricknogging, pavings, and facings, by the superficial yard. Digging and steining of w^ells and cesspools by the foot in depth, according to size, the price increasing with the depth. Plain tiling and pantiling are valued per square of 100 feet superficial. A journeyman bricklayer receives from 4s. to 5s. 6c?., and a labourer from 2s. M. to 3s. M. a day. The following memoranda may be useful: — - Weirjlit of different kinds of Earth. 1 3 cubic feet of chalk weigh one ton. 17 „ clay 18 „ nightsoil „ 2 If „ gravel 23^ „ sand „ Nightsoil is removed in carts containing 45 cubic feet, or 2 J tons. Twenty-seven cubic feet or 1 cubic yard is called a single load, and 2 cubic yards a double loar^ 94 BUDIMENTS OF THE A measure of lime is 27 cubic feet and contains 21 striked bushels. A bricklayer's hod measures 1 ft. 4 in. x 9 in. x 9 in., and contains 20 bricks. A rod of brickwork measures 16^ ft. square, il brick thick (which is called the reduced or standard thickness), or 272 ft. 8 in. superficial, or 306 cubic feet, or 11-^ cubic yards. Table of the Sizes and Weights of various Articles. Description. Length. Breadth. Thickness. Weight. ft. in. ft. m. ft. in. lbs. oz. Stock bricks each 0 8| 0 H 0 6 0 Paving do. . 0 9 0 44 0 If 4 0 Dutch clinkers u 0 6J 0 3 0 1^ 1 8 12-in. paving tiles 0 11 1 0 111 0 13 0 10-in. do. i) 0 9| 0 n 0 1 8 9 Pantiles . . . i> 1 u 0 104 0 0 Oi 5 4 Plain tiles . 0 0 oi 2 5 Pantile laths per 10 ft. bundle 120 0 0 0 1 4 6 Do. „ 12 ft. do. 144 0 0 li 0 1 5 0 N.B. — A bundle contains twelve laths. Plain tile lathes per bundl e . 500 0 0 1 0 3 0 N.B.— Thirty bundles of laths make a load. A rod of brickwork, laid four courses to a foot in height, ' requires 4353 stock bricks. Ditto, 11^ in. to 4 courses, 4533 stock bricks. These calculations are made without allowing for waste, which is unnecessary, because the space occu- pied by flues, bond timber, &c., and for which no deduction is made, more than compensates for any waste ; and in building dwelling-houses, 4300 stocks to a rod is sufficient. If laid dry, 5370 stocks to the rod. 4900 ditto, in wells and circular cesspools. A rod of brickwork, laid 4 courses to gauge 12 in., con- tains 235 cubic feet of bricks and 71 cubic feet of mortar, and weighs about 1 5 tons. A rod of brickwork requires 1| cubic yard of chalk lime and 8 single loads of sand, o\ 1 cubic yard of stone lime ART OF BUILDING. and 3^^ loads of sand, or 30 bushels of cement and an equal quantity of sharp sand. A. cubic yai'd of mortar requires 9 bushels of lime and i load of sand. Lime and sand, and likewise cement and sand, lose ^ of their bulk when made into mortar. The proportion of mortar or cement, when made up, to the lime or cement and sand before made up, is as 2 to 3. Lime or cement and sand to make mortar require as much water as is equal to ^- of their bulk. A cubic yard of concrete requires 34 cubic feet of material ; or, if the gravel is to the lime as 6 to 1, a cubic yard of concrete will require I'l cubic yard of gravel and sand and 3 bushels of lime. Facing requires 7 bricks per foot superficial Gauged arches, 10 ditto ditto. Bricknogging per yard superficial requires 30 bricks on edge, or 45 laid flat. 195. Paving: — Stock bricks laid flat require 30 per yard supei^ciaL Ditto on edge 5 '2 „ Paving bricks laid flat „ 36 „ Ditto on edge „ 82 „ Dutch clinkers ditto ,,140 „ 12-inch paving tiles „ 9 „ 10-inch ditto „ 13 „ 196. Tiling:— Description. With pantiles Ditto . . Ditto . . Gauge in Inches. No. required per square. 12 11 10 150 164 180 N.B. — A square of pantiling re- quires 1 bundle of laths and l-^ hundred of sixpenny nails. 95 RUDIMENTS OF THE With plain tiles Ditto . . Ditto Description. Gauge in Inches. 4 No. required per square. 600 700 80o 3 N.B. A square of plain tiling requires 1 bundle of laths, 1 peck of tile pins, and 3 hods of mortar Plain tiles laid flat 210 MASON. 197. The business of the mason consists in working the Stones to be used in a building to their required shape, and in setting them in their places in the work. Connected with the trade of the mason are those of the Stonecutter, who hews and cuts large stones roughly into shape preparatory to their being worked by the mason, and of the Carver, who executes the ornamental portions of the stone-work of a building, as enriched cornices, capitals, &c. 198. Where the value of stone is considerable, it is sent from the quarry to the building in large blocks, and cut into slabs and scantlings of the required size with a stone- mason's saw, which differs from that used in any other trade in having no teeth. It is a long thin plate of steel, slightly jagged on the bottom edge, and fixed in a frame; and, being drawn backwards and forwards in a horizontal position, cuts the stone by its own weight. To facilitate the operation, a heap of sharp sand is placed on an inclined plane over the stone, and water allowed to trickle through it, so as to wash the sand into the saw-cut. Of late years machinery worked by steam-power has been used for saw- ing marble into slabs to a very great extent, and has almost entirely superseded manual labour in this part of the manu- facture of chimney-pieces. Some freestones, as Bath-stone, are so soft as to be easily cut with a toothed saw worked backwards and forwards by two persons. ART OF BUILDING. 97 The harder kinds of stones, as granites and gritstonof), ai'O hi ought roughly into shape at the quaiTy, with an axo or a scapphng hammer, and are then said to he scappled. 199. The tools used hy the mason for cutting stone con- sists of tlie mallet and chisels of various sizes. The mason's mallet differs from that used by any other artisan, being similar to a dome in contour, excepting a portion of the broadest part, which is rather cylindrical; tlie handle is short, being only sufficiently long to enable it to be firmly grasped. In London the tools used to work the faces of stone are the pointy which is the smallest description of chisel, being never more than a quarter of an inch broad on the cutting edge; tlie mch tool; the boaster, which is 2 in. wide; and the broad tool, of which the cutting edge is 3| in. wide. The tools used in working mouldings and in carving are of various sizes, according to the nature of the work. Besides the above cutting tools the mason uses the banker or bench, on which he places his stone for conve- nience of working, and straight edges, squares, bevels, and temj^lets for marking the shapes of the blocks, and for trying the sujfaces as the work proceeds. Any angle greater or less than a right angle is called a bevel angle, and a bevel is formed by nailing two straight edges together at the required angle ; a bevel square is a square with a shifting stock which can be set to any required bevel. A templet is a pattern for cutting a block to any particular shape ; when the work is moulded the templet is called a mould. Moulds are com- monly made of sheet zinc, carefully cut to the profile of the mouldings with shears and files. For setting his work in place the mason uses the trovoel, lines, and pins, the square and level, and plumb and battering rules, for adjusting the faces of upright and battering walls. 200. The mason's scaff'old is double, that is, formed with two rows of standards, so as to be totally independent of the walls for support, as putlog holes are madmissiblo in masonry'. y 98 RUDIMENTS OF THE During the last ten years the construction of scaffolds, with round poles lashed with cords has been entirely super- seded in large works by a system of scaffolding of square timbers connected by bolts and dog irons. The hoisting of the materials is performed from these scaffolds by means of a travelling crane, which consists of a double travelling carriage running on a tramway formed on stout sills laid on the top of two parallel rows of standards. The crab-winch is placed on the upper carriage, and, by means of the double motion of the two carriages, can be brought with great ease and precision over any part of the work lying between the two rows of standards. The facilities which are afforded by these scaffolds and travelling cranes for moving heavy weights over large areas, have led to their extensive adoption, not only in the erec- tion of buildings, but on landing wharfs, masons and iron- foimders' yards, and similar situations, where a great saving of time and labour is effected by their use. Scaffolding of square timbers appears to have been little used in England before a.d. 1837, when Messrs. Cubitt, of Gray's Inn Koad, applied it to the erection of the entrance gateway of the Euston station of the North- Western Kail- way. Since then it has been very generally used in large works, amongst which may be mentioned the Keform Club House, in a.d. 1838, and the Nelson Column, commenced A.D. 1840, where it was carried up in perfect safety to the height of 180 feet; and it has been used on a very large scale at the New Houses of Parliament now in progress. Although of modern introduction in England this kind of scaffolding is not a new invention. It appears to have been used at Cologne Cathedral from the first com mencement of that building in a.d. 1248. It was also used by Domenic Fontana in a.d. 1586, for erecting the Egyptian Obelisk in front of St. Peter's at Eome; and similar scaffolding was used in Paris in our own times, in erecting the Arc de I'Etoile, and the Eglise de la M'ddeloino. AUT OF BUILDING. 99 aOl The moveable derrick crane is also much used in setting mason's work. It consists of a vertical post, sup- ported by two timber backstays, and a long moveable jib or derrick hinged against the post below the gearing. By means of a chain passing from a barrel over a pulley at the top of the post, the derrick can be raised to an almost vertical, or lowered to an almost horizontal position, thus enabling it to command every part of the area of a circle of a radius nearly equal to the length of tlie derrick. This gives it a great advantage over the old gibbet crane, which only commands a circle of a fixed radius, and the use of which entails great loss of time from its constantly requiring to be shifted as the work proceeds. Derrick cranes appear to have been first introduced at Glasgow^ a.d. 1833, by Mr. York, since which their original construction has been very greatly improved upon, and they are now very extensively used. 202. In hoisting blocks of stone they are attached to the tackle by means of a simple contrivance called a lewis, which is shown in fig. 84. A tapering hole having been cut in the upper surface of the stone to be raised, the two side pieces of the lewis are inserted and placed against the sides of the hole ; the centre parallel piece a is then in- Fiff. 84. serted and secured in its place by a pin passing through all three pieces, and the stone may then be safely hoisted, as it is impossible for the lewis to draw out of the hole. By means of the lewis, in a slightly altered form from that here shown, stones can be lowered and set under water without difficulty, the lew^is being disengaged by means of a line attached to the parallel piece ; the removal of which allows tlie others to bo dra^vn out of the mortice. 203 In stone-cutting, the workman forms as many plane F 2 IOC RUDIMENTS OF THE faces us may be necessary for bringing the stone into the required shape, with the least waste of material and labour, and on the plane surfaces so formed applies the moulds to which the stone is to be worked. To form a plane surface, the mason first knocks of! the superfluous stone along one edge of the block, as a, b (fig. 85), until it coincides Fig-. ^6 with a straight edge through- out its whole length; this is called a chisel draught. Another chisel draught is then made along one of the adjacent edges, as 5, c, and the ends of the two are connected by another draught, as Qi^ c f a fourth draught is then sunk across the last, as h, d, which gives another angle point d, in the same plane with a, h, and c, by which the draughts d a and a c can be formed ; and the stone is then knocked off between the outside draughts until a straight edge coincides with its surface in every pai^t. To form cylindrical or moulded surfaces curved in one direction only, the workman sinks ^^9' 86. ■t;^yQ pai^allel draughts at the op- posite end of the stone to be worked, until they coincide with a mould cut to the required shape, and afterwards works off the stone between these draughts, by a straight edge applied at right angles to them (fig. 86). The formation of conical or spherical surfaces is much less simple, and requires a knowledge of the scientific operations of stone-cutting, a description of which would l>e unsuited to the elementary character of these pages. The reader who wishes to pursue the subject is therefore referred to the volume of this series on " Masonry and Stone-cutting," ^vdiere he will find the required information ART OF BUILDING. 101 QO'l. The finely-grained stones are usually 1) rough t to a pmooth face, and rubbed with sand to produce a perfectly pvon surface. In working soft stones, the surface is brought to a smooth face with the drag, which is a plate of steel, in- dented on the edge like the teeth of a saw, to take off the marks of tlie tools employed in shaping it. The harder and more coarsely-grained stones ai'e gene- rally tooled, that is, the marks of the chisel are left on their face. If the furrows left by the chisel ai'e disposed in regular order, the work is said to be fair-tooled, but if other- wise, it may be random-tooled, or chiselled, or boasted, or pointed. If tlie stones project beyond the joints, the work is said to be rusticated. Granite and gritstone are chiefly worked with the scap- pling hammer. In massive erections, where the stones are large, and a bold effect is required, the fronts of the blocks are left quite rough, as they come out of the quaiTy, and the work is then said to be quarry pitched. Many technical terms are used by quarrymen and others engaged in working stone ; but they need not be inserted here, as they are mostly confined to particular localities, beyond which they are little known, or perhaps bear a different signification. 205. Wlien the mason requires to give to the joints of his work greater security than is afforded by the weight of the stone and the adhesion of the mortar, he makes use of joggles, dowels, and cramps. Stones are said to be joggled together when a projection is worked out on one stone to fit into a corresponding hole or groove in the other [see fig. 87). But this occasions great labour and waste of stone, and dowel-joggles are chiefly made use of, which are hard pieces of stone, cut to the required size, and let into coiTesponding mortices in the two stones to bo joined together. Dowels ai*e pins of wood or metal used to secoi'e tlie RUDIMENTS OF THE joints of stone-work in exposed situations, as copings, pinnacles, &c. The best material is copper; but the ex- pense of this metal causes it to be seldom used. If iron be made use of, it should be thoroughly tinned to prevent oxidation, or it will, sooner or later, burst and split the work it is intended to protect. Dowels are often secured in their places with lead poured in from above, through a small channel cut in the side of the joint for that purpose ; but a good workman will eschew lead, which too often finds its way into bad work, and will prefer trusting to very close and workmanlike joints, care- fully fitted dowels, and fine mortar; dowels should be made tapering at one end, which ensures a better fit, and fenders the setting of the stone more easy for the work- Qian. Iron cramps are used as fastenings on the tops of copings, and in similar situations ; but they are not to be recom- mended, as they are very unsightly, and, if they once be- come exposed to the action of the stmosphere, are power- fully destructive agents. Cast iron is, however, less objec- tionable than wrought iron for this purpose. 206. In measuring mason's work, the cubic content of the stone is taken as it comes to the hanker, without deduc- tion for subsequent waste. If the scantlings are large, an extra price is allowed for hoisting. The labour in working the stone is charged by the super- ficial foot, according to the kind of work, as plain worlc, sunk work, moulded work, &c. Pavings, landings, &c., and all stone less than 3 in. thick, are charged by the superficial foot. Copings, curbs, window sills, &c., are charged per lineal foot. Cramps, dowels, mortice holes, &c., are always charged separately. A journeyman mason will receive from 45. to 5s. M. per day, and the labourer from 25. Qd, to 3s. per day; but ART OF BUILDING. 103 masons working at piece-work, or at any work requiring piu'ticular skill, will ollen earn much more. The remuneration of a stone-carver is dependent on his talent, and the kind of work he is engaged upon. The following table of the weights of different kinds of stone will convey an idea of their relative hardness, and of the labour required to work them. Table of the Weights of different kinds of Stone 13 cubic feet of marble weigh one ton 13 J- „ gi'anite 14 „ Purbeck stone 14 J „ Yorkshire stone IG ,, Derbyshire grit 17 „ Portland stone 18 „ Bath stone Mem. — 58 ft. superficial of 3-in. York paving weigh one ton 70 ft. superficial of 2i-in. York paving weigh one ton CARPENTER 207. The business of the carpenter consists in framing timbers together, for the construction of roofs, partitions, floors, &c. 208. The carpenter's principal tools are the axe, the adze, the saw, and the chisel, to which may be added the chalk-line, plumb-rule, level, and square. The work of the carpenter does not require the use of the plane, which is one of the principal tools of the joiner, and this forms the principal distinction beween these trades, the carpenter being engaged in the rough framework, and the joiner on the finishings and decorations of buildings. 209. The principles of framing have been already fully described in the 1st section of this work, and we shall therefore confine oin* remarks on the operations of the carpenter to a description of the principal joints made us(3 of in fi-ammg. 104 RUDIMENTS OF THE Timbers that have to be joined in the direction of their length are scarfed, as shown in fig. 88 ; the double wedges, a a, serve to bring the timbers home, when they are secm'ed, Fig, 88. either by bolts, as shown at h h, or by straps, as at c c, the latter being the most perfect and the most expensive fas- tening. Fig. 89 shows the manner of connecting the foot of a principal rafter with a tie-beam The bolt here shown Ftff. 89. M m Fig. 90. keeps the rafter in its place, and prevents it from slipping away from the abutment cut for it, which, by throwing the thrust on the tenon, would probably split it. The end of the rafter should be cut with a square butt, so that the shrinkage of the timber will not lead to any settle- ment. The connection of the foot of ^ a king-post with the tie beam to be suspended from it is shown in fig. 90. The king-post should be cut somewhat short, to give the power of screwing up the framing after the timber has ART OF BUILDING. 105 become fully seasoned. The tie-beam may be suspended from tlie king-post, either by a bolt, as shown, or by a strap passed round the tie-beam and secured by iron wedges or cotters, passing through a hole in the king-post; this last is the more perfect, but at tlie same time the more expen- sive of the two methods. Fig. 90 also shows the manner in which the feet of the struts butt upon the king-post. They are slightly tenoned to keep them in their places. The ends of a strut should be cut off as nearly square as possible, otherwise, when the timber shrinks, which it will always do, more or less, the thmst is thrown upon the edge only, which splits or crushes under the pressure, and causes settlement. This is shown out by the dotted lines on the right-hand side of the cut. The dotted lines on the opposite side of tlie figure show a similar effect, produced by the shrinking of the king-post, for which there is no preventative but making it of oak, or some other hard wood. The same observations apply to the connections of the principal rafters with the top of tlie king-post, which are managed in a precisely similar manner. In figures 91, 92, and 93, are shown different methods of fixing purlins, which are sufficiently explained by the figures to need no further description. In figures 46, 47, 48, and 49, are shown the modes of framing the ends of binding joists into girders, and of connecting the ceiling joists with the binders ; and as these Fig. 91. Fig. 92. F 3 106 RUDIMENTS OF THE liave been already described under the head of " noors/" Fi^ 98. it is unnecessary here to say anything further on the sub- ject. As a general rule, all timbers should be notched down to those on which they rest, so as to prevent their being moved either lengthways or sideways. Where an upright post has to be fixed between two horizontal sills, as in the case of the uprights of a common framed partition, it is simply tenoned into them, and the tenons secured with oak pins driven through the cheeks of the mortice. 210. The carpenter requires considerable bodily strength for the handling of the timbers on which he has to work ; he should have a knowledge of mechanics, that he may understand the nature of the strains and thrusts to which his work is exposed, and the best method of preventing or resisting them; and he should have such a knowledge of working drawings as will enable him, from the sketches of the architect, to set out the lines for every description of centering and framing that may be entrusted to him for execution. 211. In measuring carpenters* work the tenons are in- cluded in the length of the timber* this is not the case ART OF BUILDING. 107 in joiners* work, in which they are allowed for in tlie price The labour in franihig, roofs, partitions, floors, &c., is either valued at per square of 100 superficial feet, and the timber chai'ged for separately, or tlie timber is charged as " fixed in place," the price varying according to the labour on it, as " cube fir in bond," " cube fir framed," " cube fir wrought and framed," &c. For shoring ^ of the value of the timber is allowed for use and waste. The wages of a journeyman carpenter are from 4s. to 5s. Qd. per day. JOINER. 212. The work of the joiner consists in framing and joining together the wooden finishings and decorations of buildings, both internal and external, such as floors, stair cases, framed-partitions, skirtings, solid door and window frames, hollow or cased window frames, sashes and shutters, doors, columns and entablatures, chimney-pieces, &c., &c. The joiner's work requires much greater accuracy and finish than that of the carpenter, and differs materially from it in being brought to a smooth sm"face with the plane wherever exposed to view, whilst in carpenters' work the timber is left rough as it comes from the saw. 213. The johier uses a great variety of tools; the prin- cipal cutting tools are saws, planes, and chisels. Of saws there are many varieties, distinguished from each other by their shape and by the size of the teeth. The ripper has 8 teeth in 3 inches ; the half-ripper 3 teeth to the inch; the hand saw 15 teeth in 4 inches; ihQ panel saw 6 teeth to the inch. The tenon saw, used for cutting tenons, has about 8 teeth to tlie inch, and is strengthened at the back by a thick piece of hon, to keep the blade from buckling. The sash saw is similar to the tenon saw, but is backed witli brass instead of iron, and has 13 teeth to the inch. The dovetail mw is still smaller, and has 15 teeth to the inch. 108 RUDIMENTS OF THE Besides the above, other saws are used for paiticulai purposes, as the compass saw, for cuttmg ch^ciilar work, and the key-Jiole saw, for cutting out small holes. The car- case saiv is a large kind of dovetail saw, having about 11 teeth to an inch. 214. Planes are also of many kinds; those called J^nc^ planes — as the jack plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the jointer, and the smoothing plane, are used for bringing the stuff to a plane surface. The jack plane is about 18 in. long, and is used for the roughest work. The trying plane is about 22 in. long, and used after the jack plane for trying up, that is, taking off shavings the whole length of the stuff; whilst in using the jack plane the workman stops at every arm^s-length. The long plane is 2 ft. 3 in. long, and is used when a piece of stuff is to be tried up very straight. The jointer is 2 ft. 6 in. long, and is used for trying up or shooting the joints, in the same way as the trying plane is used for trying up the face of the stuff. The smoothing plane is small, being only 7^ in. long, and is used on almost all occasions for cleaning off finished work. Rebate planes are used for sinking rebates [see fig. 94), and vary in their size and shape according to their respec- ^, tive uses. Kebate planes differ from bench planes in having no handle rising out of the stock, and in discharging their shavings at the side. Amongst the rebate planes may be mentioned the moving fillister and the sash fillister, the uses of which will be better understood by inspection than from any description. Moulding planes are used for sticking mouldings, as the operation of forming mouldings with the plane is called. Wlien mouldings are worked out with chisels instead of with planes, they are said to be worked by hand. Of the class of moulding planes, although kept separate in the tool chest, are hollows and rounds of various sizes. There are other kinds of planes besides the above; as the plough, for sinking a groove to receive a projecting ART OF BUILDING. 100 tongue ; the bead plane, for sticking beads ; the snipe hill, for forming quirks ; the compass plane and the forkstaff plane, for forming concave and convex cylindrical surfaces. The shape and use of these and many other tools usecf by the joiner will be better understood by a visit to the jomer's shop than by any verbal description. 215. Chisels are also varied in their form and use. Some are used merely with the pressure of the hand, as the paling chisel; others, by the aid of the mallet, as the socket chisel,"^ for cutting away superfluous stuff; and the mortice chisel, for cutting mortices. The gouge is a curved chisel. 216. The joiner uses a great variety of bonng tools, as the brad-awl, gimlet, and stock and hit. The last form but one tool, the stock being the handle, to the bottom of which may be fitted a variety of steel bits of different bores and shapes, for boring and widening out holes m wood and metal, as conntersinks, rimers, and taper shell hits. 217. The screw-driver, pincers, hammer, mallet, hatchet, and adze, ai'e too well known to need description. The gauge is used for drawing lines on a piece of stuff parallel to one of its edges. The bench is one of the most important of the joiner's implements. It is furnished with a vertical sideboard, per- forated with diagonal ranges of holes, which receive the bench pin on which to rest the lower end of a piece of stuff to be planed, whilst the upper end is firmly clamped by the bench screw. The mitre box is used for cutting a piece of stuff to a 7)iitre or angle of 45 degrees with one of its sides. The joiner uses for setting out and fixing his work — the straight edge, the square, the bevel or square with a shifting blade, the mitre square, the level, and the plumb rule. In addition to the tools and implements above enu- merated, the execution of particular kinds of work requires • Named from the iron forming a socket to receive a wooden handle. no RUDIMENTS OF THE other articles, Fig, 95. as cylinders, templets, cramps, &c., the description of which would unnecessarily extend the limits of this volume 218. The principal operations of the joiner are sawing, planing, dovetailing, mortising, and scribing. The manner of forming a dovetail is shown in fig. 95. The projecting part, a, is called the 2^m, and the hole to receive it is called the socket. Mortisiiig is shown in fig. Fig. 96. the projecting piece is called the tenoriy and the hole formed to receive it the mortice. The tenon is sometimes pinned in its place with oak pins driven through the cheeks of the mor- tice ; but in forming doors, shut- ters, &c., the tenon is secured with tapering wedges driven into the mortice, which is cut slightly wider at the top than at the bottom, the adhesion of tba glue with which the wedges are first rubbed over, making it impossible for the tenon afterwards to draw out of its place. 219. Joints in the length of the stuff may be either square, as at a, fig. 97, or rebated, as at 5, or grooved and Fig. 97. tongued, as at c, or grooved on each edge and a tongue let in, as at d 220. Scribing is the drawing on a piece of stuff the exact profile of some irregular surface to wliich it is to be made to fit: this is done with a pair of compasses, one leg of which is made to traverse the irregular surface, the other to ART OF BUILDING. Hi Fig. 9S. describe a line parallel thereto along the edge of the stuff to bo cut. 221. In the execution of circular, or, as it is termed, sweep icork, there are four dift'erent metliods by which the stuff can be brought to the required curve: — 1st. It may be steamed and bent into shape 2nd. It may be glued up in thick- nesses, as shown in fig. 98, which must, when tlioroughly dry, be planed true, and, if not to be painted, covered with a thin veneer bent round it. 3rd. It may be formed in thin thicknesses, as shown in fig 99, bent round and glued up in a mould. This may be considered the most perfect of all the methods in use Fig. 99. Fig, 100. Fig. 101, Fig, 102. Lastly. It may be formed by sawing a number of notches on one side, as shown in fig. 100, by which means it be- comes easily bent in that direction, but the curve produced by this means is veiy irregular, and it is an inferior mode of execution compared to the others. 222. When a number of boards are secured together by cross-pieces or ledges nailed or screwed at the back, the work is said to be ledged {see fig. 101). Ledged work is used for common purposes, as cellar doors, outside shutters, &c. Framed work (fig. 102) consists of styUs and rails mortised and tenoned LEDCE TTT EI RUDIMENTS OF THE together, and filled in with pannels, the edges of which fit in grooves cut for that purpose in the styles and rails. Work is said to be clamped when it is prevented from warping or splitting by a rail at each Fig.lO^.^^ end, as in fig. 103; if the ends of the rail are cut off, as shown at a, it is said to be mitre clamped. 223. There are two ways of laying floors practised by joiners. In laying what is called a straight joint floor, from the joints between the boards running in an unbroken line from wall to wall, each board is laid down and nailed in succession, being first forced firmly against the one last laid with a flooring cramp. Folding floors are laid by nailing down first eveiy fifth board rather closer together than the united widths of four boards, and forcing the intermediate ones into the space left for them by jumping upon them ; this method of laying floors is resorted to when the stuff is imperfectly seasoned and is expected to shrink, but it should never be allowed in good work. The narrower the stuff with which a floor is laid the less will the joints open, on account of the shrinkage being dis- tributed over a greater number of joints. The floor boards may be nailed at their edges, and grooved and tongued or dowelled, if it be wished to make a very pei-fect floor. Dowelling is superior to grooving and tonguing, because the cutting away the stuff to receive the tongue greatly weakens the edges of the joint, which are apt to curl 224. Glue is an article of great importance to the joiner; the strength of his work depending much upon its adhesive properties. The best glue is made from the skins of animals ; that from the sinewy or horny parts being of inferior quaUty. The strength of the glue increases with the age of the ani« mals from which the skins are taken. ART OF BUILDING. 113 Joiners' work is measured by the superficial foot, according to its description. Floors by the square of 100 superficial feet Handrails, small mouldings, water-trunks, and similai articles, per lineal foot. Cantilevers, trusses, cut brackets, scrolls to handrails, &c., are valued per piece. The wages of a joiner are from 4s. to 5s. Qd. per day. The foUowmg memoranda relative to carpenters' and jioiners' work may be found useful. Weight of Timber, 84 cubic feet of mahogany weigh one ton 39 oak ,, 45 „ ash „ 51 „ beech ,, 60 „ elm 65 „ fir 50 cubic feet of timber 1 load. 120 deals = one hundred. 120 12 ft. 3 in. deals = 5? loads of timber. 400 supei-ficial feet 1| in. deal = 1 load. Planks are . . 11 in. wide Deals .... 9 „ Battens 7 ., A. reduced deal is 1 J in. thick, 1 1 in. wide, and 1 2 feet ioLg. A square of flooring laid with 12 feet deals requires Laid rough .... . . 12j floorboards. Ditto, edges shot . .... 12 J „ Wrought and laid folding . .13 „ Ditto, straight joint 13^ „ Wrought and laid straight joint, and ploughed and tongued . . 14 „ If laid with 12 ft. battens, Wrought, and laid folding ... 17 Ditto, ditto, straight joint . .19 ^ 114 EUDIMENTS OF THE 226. Ironmongery is charged for with the work to which it is attached; the joiner being allowed 20 per cent, profit upon the prime cost. The principal articles of ironmongery used in a building consist of nails and screws, sash pullies, holts, lunges, locks, latches, and sash and shutter furniture, besides a great variety of miscellaneous articles, which we have not space to enu- merate. 227. Of the different kinds of hinges may be mentioned hook and eije hinges, for gates, coach-house doors, &c. ; butts and hack-flaps, for doors and shutters ; cross garnets of I— form, which are used for hanging lodged doors, and other inferior work: H and H— hinges, whose name is derived from their shape ; and parliament hinges. Besides these are used rising hutts, for hanging doors to rise over a carpet, or other impediment ; projecting hutts, used when some projection has to be cleared, and spring hinges and siving centres, for self-shutting doors. 228. The variety of locks now manufactured is almost infinite. We may mention the stock lock, cased in wood, for common work. Him locks, which have a metal case or rim, and are attached to one side of a door: they should not be used when a door has sufficient thickness to allow of a mortice lock, as they often catch the dresses of persons passing through the doorway. Mortice locks, as the name implies, are those which are mortised into the thickness of the door. The handles and escutcheons are called the furniture of a lock, and are made of a great variety of materials, as brass, bronze, ebony, ivory, glass, &c. 229. Of latches, there are the common thumh latch, the how latch, with brass knobs, the brass pulpit latch, and the mortice latch. 280. The sawyer is to the carpenter and joiner what the stone-cutter is to the mason. The pit-saw is a large two-handed saw fixed in a frame, and moved up and down in a vertical direction, by two men, ART OF BUILDING. called the lop-man and the pit-man ; the first of whom stands on the thnher that is to be cut, the other at the bot- tom of the saw-pit. The timber is lined out with a chalk line on its upper surface, and the accuracy of the work de- pends mainly on the top-man keeping the saw to the line, whence the proverbial expression top-sawyer, meaning ono who directs any undertaking. In sawing up deals and battens into thicknesses for the joiner's use, the parallelism of the cuts is of the utmost im- portance, as the operation of taking out of ivinding, a piece of uneven stuff, causes a considerable waste of material, and much loss of time. Circular saws, moved by steam power,* are now much used in large establishments, timber yards, &c., and effect a great saving of labour over the use of the pit saw, where the timbers to be cut are not too hesxy to be easily handled. The saw is mounted in the middle of a stout bench, fur- nished with guides, by means of which the stuff to be cut is kept in the required direction, whilst it is pushed against the saw, Avhich is the whole of the manual labom* required in the operation. SLATER. 231. The business of the slater consists chiefly in cover- ing the roofs of houses with slates, but it has of late years been veiy much extended by the general introduction of sawn slate, as a material for shelves, cisterns, baths, chim- ney pieces, and even for ornamental purposes. We purpose here to describe only those operations of the slater which have reference to the covering of roofs. 232. Besides the tools which are in common use among other artificers, the slater uses one peculiar to his trade, called the zax, which is a kind of hatchet, with a sharp point * The author recently visited a carpenter's shop in a country village in Leicestershire, which was mounted in a very complete manner, with bench and other saws, lathes^ &c., all worked by a set of wind-saib on the reel 110 RUDIMENTS OF THE at the back. It is used for trimming slates, and making the holes by which they are nailed in their places. 233. Slates are laid either on boarding or on narrow bat- tens, from 2 to 3 inches wide, the latter being the more common method, on account of its being less expensive than the other. The nails used should be either copper or zinc; iron nails, though sometimes used, being objectionable from tlieir liability to rust. Every slate should be fastened with two nails, except in the most inferior work. . The upper surface of a slate is called its hack, the under surface the bed, the lower edge the tail, the upper edge the head. The part of each course of slates exposed to view is called the margin of the course, and the width of the mar- gin is called the gauge. The bond or lap is the distance which the lower edge of any course overlaps the slates of the second course below, measuring from the nail-hole. In preparing slates for use, the sides and bottom edges are trimmed, and the nail-holes punched as near the head as can be done, without risk of breaking the slate, and at a uniform distance from the tail. The lap having been decided on, the gauge will be equal to half the distance from the tail to the nail-hole, less tlie lap. Thus a countess slate, measuring 19 in. from tail to nail, if laid with a 3-in. lap, would show a margin of _ 19in. 3 in. ^^-^ ^g^^ ggg^ 104, 105.) Fi^. 104. Fig. 105. AKT OF BUILDING 117 The battens are of course nailed on the rafters at the gauge to which the slates will work. If the slates are of different lengths, they must be sorted into sizes, and gauged accordingly, the smallest sizes being placed nearest the ridge. The lap should not be less than 2 in., and need not exceed 3 in. It is essential to the soundness as well as the appearance of slaters' w^ork, that the slates should all be of the same width, and the edges perfectly true. The Welsh slates are considered the best, and are of a light sky blue colour. The Westmoreland slates are of a dull gi'eenish hue. 234. Slaters' work is measured by the square of 100 su- perficial feet, allowances being made for the trouble of cutting the slates at the hips, eaves, round chimneys, &c. Slabs for cisterns, baths, shelves, and other sawn work, are charged per superficial foot, according to the thickness of the slab, and the labour bestowed on the work. Rubbed edges, grooves, &c., are charged per lineal foot. Table of the Sizes of Roofing Slates. Description. Doubles . Ladies Countesses Duchesses Length. Breadth. ft. in. 1 1 1 4 1 8 2 0 Imperials . . 2 Eaws and Queens 3 "Westmoreland s. i of various sizes ft. in. 0 6 0 8 0 10 1 0 2 0 2 0 Averafje Sauge in inches. 5i- 7 9 10,^ No. of squares 1200 will 2 7 10 Weicfht per 120(1 in tons. No. re- quired to cover one square. 480 280 176 127 No. of nails required to one square. 480 280 352 254 a ton will cover 2 J to 2^ squares, do. do. 2 do. Inch slab per foot superficial weighs 14 lbs. A joiuTieyman slater receives about 5s. per day, and his labourer about os. L18 RUDIMENTS OF THE PLASTERER 285. The work of the plasterer consists m covering tlie brickwork and naked timbers of walls, ceilings, and parti- tions with plaster, to prepare them for painting, papering, or distempering ; and in forming cornices, and such deco- rative portions of the finishings of buildings as may be re- quired to be executed in plaster or cement. 236. The plasterer uses a variety of tools, of which the following are the principal ones : — The drag is a three-pronged rake, used to mix the hair with the mortar in preparing coarse stuff. The liaivk is a small square board for holding stuff on, with a short handle on the under side. Trowels are of two kinds, the laying and smootliing tool, with which the first and the last coats are laid, and the gauging trowel, used for gauging fine stuff for cornices, &c. ; these are made of various sizes, from 3 to 7 in. long. Of floats, which are used m. floating, there are three kinds, viz. the Derby, which is a rule of such a length as to require two men to use it ; the hand float, which is used in finishing stucco ; and the quirk float, which is used in floating angles. Moulds, for running cornices, are made of sheet copper, cut to the profile of the moulding to be formed, and fixed in a wooden frame. Stopping and picking out tools are made of steel, 7 or 8 in. long, and of various sizes. They are used for modelling, and for finishing mitres and returns to cornices. 237. Materials. — Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is usually called, is similar to common mortar, with the addi- tion of hair from the tanner's yard, which is thoroughly mixed with the mortar by means of the drag. Fine stuff is made of pure lime, slaked with a small quantity of water, after which, sufficient water is added to bring it to the consistence of cream. It is then allowed to settle, and the superfluous water being poured off, it is left in a binn or tub to remain in a semifluid state until the evaporation of the water has ART OF BUILDING brought it to a proper thickness for use. In using fine stuff for setting ceilings, a small portion of white hair is mixed with it Stucco is made witli fine stuff, and clean-washed sand This is used for finishing work intended to be painted. Gawjed stuff is formed of fine stuff mixed with plaster of Paris, the proportion of plaster varying according to the rapidity with which the work is required to set. Gauged stuff is used for running cornices and mouldings. Enrichments, such as pateras, centre flowers for ceilings, &c., are first modelled in clay, and afterwards cast of plaster of Paris in wax or plaster moulds. Papier mache orna- ments also are much used, and have the advantage of being veiy light, and being easily and securely fixed with screws. The variety of compositions and cements made use of by the plasterer is very great. Eoman cement, Portland ce- ment, and lias cement, are the principal ones used for coat- ing buildings externally. Martin's and Keene's cements ai-e well adapted for all internal plastering where sharpness, hardness, and delicate finish are required. 238. Operations of Plastering. — ^When brickwork is plas tered, the first coat is called rendering. In plastering ceilings and partitions, the first operation is lathing. This is done with single, one and a half, or double latlis; these names denoting their respective thicknesses Laths are either of oak or fir ; if the former, wrought-iron nails ai-e used, but cast-iron nails may be employed with the latter. The thickest laths are used for ceilings, as the strain on the laths is greater in a horizontal than in an upriglit position. Pricking up is the first coat of plastering of coarse stuff upon laths ; when completed, it is well scratched over with the end of a lath, to form a key for the next coat. Laid icork consists of a simple coat of coarse stuff over a wall or ceiling. Two-coat xcorh is a cheap description of plastering, in which the first coat is only roughed over with a broom, and after- 120 RUDIMENTS OF THE wards set with fine stuff, or with gauged stuff in the bettor descriptions of work. The laying on of the second coat of plastering is called floating, from its being floated, or brought to a plane surface with the float. The operation of floating is performed by surrounding the surface to be floated with narrow strips of plastering, called screeds, brought perfectly upright, or level, as the case may be, with the level or plumb-rule ; thus, in prepar- ing for floating a ceiling, nails are driven in at the angles, and along the sides, about 10 ft. apart, and carefully ad- justed to a horizontal plane, by means of the level. Other nails are then adjusted exactly opposite to the first,' at a distance of 7 or 8 in. from them. The space between each pair of nails is filled up with coarse stuff, and levelled with a hand float; this operation forms what are called dots. When the dots are sufiiciently dry, the spaces between the dots are filled up flush with coarse stuff, and floated per- fectly true with a floating rule ; this operation forms a screed, and is continued until the ceiling is surrounded by one continuous screed, perfectly level throughout. Other screeds are then formed, to divide the work into bays about 8 ft. wide, which are successively filled up flush, and floated level with the screeds. The screeds for floating walls are formed in exactly the same manner, except that they are adjusted with the plumb- rule instead of the level. After the work has been brought to an even surface with the floating rule, it is gone over with the hand float, and a little soft stuff, to make good any deficiencies that may appear The operation of forming screeds and floating work, which is not either vertical or horizontal, as a plaster floor laid with a fall, is analogous to that of taking the face of a stone out of winding with chisel-drafts and straight edges in stone-cutting; the principle being in each case to find three points in the same plane, from which to extend ope- rations over tlie whole surface ART OF BUILDINQ 121 SeUituj — When the floatmg is about half dry, tlie setthjg or finishing coat of fine stuff is laid on with the smoothing trowel, which is alternately wetted with a brush and worked over w^ith the smoothing tool, until a fine surface is ob- tained. Stucco is laid on with the largest trowel, and worked over with the hand float, the work being alternately sprinkled with water, and floated until it becomes hard and compact, after which it is finished by rubbing it over with a dry stock brush. The water has the effect of hardening the face of the stucco, so that, after repeated sprinklings and trowelings, ii becomes very hard, and smooth as glass. 239. The above remarks may be briefly summed up as follow^s. The commonest kind of work consists of only one coat, and is called rendering, on brickwork, and laying, if on laths. If a second coat be added, it becomes twc- coat work, as render-set, or lath lay and set. When the work is floated, it becomes tln-ee-coat work, and is render, float, and set, for brickwork, and lath, lay, float, and set, for ceil- ings and partitions ; ceilings being set with fine stuff, with a little white hair, and walls intended for paper with fine stuft and sand ; stucco is used where the work is to be painted. Rough stucco is a mode of finishing staircases, passages, &c., in imitation of stone. It is mixed with a large pro- portion of sand, and that of a coarser quality than trow^eled stucco, and is not smoothed, but left rough from the hand float, which is covered with a piece of felt, to raise the grit of the sand, to give the work the appearance of stone. Bough cast is a mode of finishing outside work, by dash- ing over the second coat of plastering, whilst quite wet, a layer of rough- cast, composed of well-washed gravel, mixed up with pure lime and water, till the whole is in a semi- fluid state. Pugging is lining the spaces between floor joists with coarse stuff, to prevent the passage of sound, or between two stones, and is done on laths or rough boarding. G KUDIMENTS OF THE In the mjdland districts of England, reeds are much used instead of laths, not only for ceilings and partitions, but for floors, which are formed with a thick layer of coarse gauged stuff upon reeds. Floors of this kind are extensively used about NottiDgham ; and, from the security against fire afforded by the absence of wooden floors, Nottingham houses are proverbially fire-proof. 240. Plasterer's work is measured by the superficial yard; cornices by the superficial foot ; enrichments to cornices by the lineal foot ; and centre flowers and other decorations at per piece. MEMORANDA. The wages of a journeyman plasterer are from 4s. to 5s. a day; those engaged in modelling and ornamental work will earn much more ; a labourer receives from 2s. 6cZ. to 3s. a day, and a plasterer's boy about Is. Lathing. — One bundle of laths and 384 nails will cover 6 yards. Uendering. — 187^ yards require 1| hundred of lime, 2 double loads of sand, and 5 bushels of hair. Floating requires more labour, but only half as much material as rendering. Setting. — 375 yards require 1| hundred of lime, and 5 bushels of hair. Bender set. — 100 yards require hundred of lime, 1 dou- ble load of sand, and 4 bushels of hair. — Plasterer, labourer, and boy, three days each. Lath, lay, and set. — 130 yards of lath, lay, and set, require 1 load of laths, 10,000 nails, 2| hundred of lime, 1| double load of sand, and 7 bushels of hair. — Plasterer, labourer, and boy, six days each. Twenty per cent, profit is allowed on all materials. SMITH AND IRON FOUNDER. 241. The smith furnishes the various articles of wrought- ~ ironwork used in a building; .as pileshoes, straps, screw- ART OF BUILDING. 123 bolts, dog-irons, chimney bars, gratings, wrought-iron rail- ing, and wrought-iron balustrades for staircases. Wrought iron was formerly much used for many purposes for which cast iron is now almost exclusively employed ; the improve- ments effected in casting during the present century having made a gi'eat alteration in this respect. The operations of the ironfounder have been described in Section II. of this volume, and therefore we have onl^f here to enumerate some of the principal articles which are furnished by him. Besides cast-iron columns, girders, and similar articles which ai'e cast to order, the founder supplies a great variety of articles which are kept in store for immediate use ; as cast-iron gratings, balconies, rain-water pipes and guttering, air traps, coal plates, stoves, stable fittings, iron sashes, &c. Both wrought and cast iron work are paid for by weight, except small articles kept in store for immediate use, which are valued per piece. lbs. One cubic foot of cast iron weighs about 450 Ditto wi'ought ,, 475 Ditto closely hammered 485 242. The coppersmith provides and lays sheet copper for covering roofs ; copper gutters, and rain-water pipes ; wash- ing and brewing coppers ; copper cramps and dowels for stonemasons' work ; and all other copper work in a building ; but the cost of the material in which he works prevents its general use ; and the washing copper is frequently the only part of a building wdiich requires the aid of this artificer. Sheet copper is paid for by the superficial foot, according to weight, and pipes and gutters per lineal foot; copper in dowels, bolts, &c., at per pound. 243. Warmincj apparatus, steam and gas fittings, and similar kinds of w^ork, are put up by the mechanical engineer, who also manufactures a great variety of articles, which are pur- chased in parts, and put together and fixed by the plumber, as pumps, taps, water closet apparatus, &c. 124 JRUDIMENTS OF THE 244. The hell-hanger provides and hangs the bells required for communicating between the different parts of a building, and connects them with their pulls, or handles, by means of cranks and wires. The action of the pull upon the bell should be as direct, and effected with as few cranks, as possible ; and the cranks and wires should be concealed from view, both to protect them from injury, and on account of their unsightly appearance. In all superior work, the wires are conducted along con- cealed tubes, fixed to the walls before the plasterer's work is commenced. The simplest way of arranging the wires is to carry them up in separate tubes to the roof, where they may all be conducted to one point, and brought down a chase in the walls to the part of the basement where the bells are hung. By this means very few cranks are required, and a broken wire can be replaced at any time without trouble. 245. Bell-hangers' work is paid for by the number of bells hung ; the price being determined by the manner in which the work is executed. The f urniture to the pulls is charged in addition, at per piece. A journeyman smith receives about 55. a day, and his labourer about 3s, Qd. ; a good bell-hanger will receive 7s. a day PLUMBEE. 246. The work of the plumber chiefly consists in laying sheet lead on roofs, lining cisterns, laying on water to the different parts of a building, and fixing up pumps and water closets. 247. The plumber uses but few tools, and those are of a simple character ; the greater number of them being simi- lar to those used by other artificers, as hammers, mallets, planes, chisels, gouges, files, &c. The principal tool peculiar to the trade of the plumber is the hat, which is made of beech, about 18 in. long, and is used for dressing and flat- tening sheet lead For soldering also the plumber uses iron ART OF BUILlM^a. 125 ladles, of various sizes, for melting solder, and grazing irons, for smoothing down the joints. 248. The sheet lead used by the plumber is either cast or milled, the former being generally cast by the plumber himself out of old lead taken in exchange; whilst the latter, which is cast lead, flattened out between rollers in a flatting mill, is purchased from the manufacturer. Sheet lead is described according to the weight per superficial foot, as 5-lb. lead, 6-lb. lead, &c. Lead pipes, if of large diameter, are made of sheet lead, dressed round a wooden core, and soldered up. Smaller pipes are cast in short lengths, of a thickness three or foiir times that of the intended pipe, and either drawn or rolled out to the proper thickness. Soft solder is used for uniting the joints of lead-work. It is made of equal parts of lead and tin, and is purchased of the manufacturer by the plumber, at a price per lb., accord- ing to ihe state of the market. 249. Laying of Sheet Lead. — In order to secure lead- work from the injm-ious effects of contraction and expansion, when exposed to the heat of the sun, the plumber is careful not to .confine the metal by soldered joints, or otherwise. AH sheet lead should be laid to a sufficient current, to keep it dry; a fall of 1 in. in 10 ft. is sufficient for this pui-pose, if the boarding on which the lead is laid be perfectly even Joints in the direction of the current are made by dressing the edges of the lead over a wooden roll, as shown in fig. 106. Joints in the length of the current are made with drips, as sho^vn on the left-hand side of fig. 107 Flashings are pieces of lead turned down over the edges of other lead-work, which is turned up against a wall, as shown on the right-hand side of fig. 107, and serve to keep the wet from finding its way between the wall and the lead Fig. 106. Fig. 107. 126 KUDTMENTS OF THE The most secure way of fixing them is to build them into the joints of the brickwork ; but the common method is to insert them about an inch into the mortar joint, and to secure them with wall hooks and cement. {See fig. 107.) 250. A very important part of the business of the plum ber consists in fitting up cisterns, pumps, and water-closet apparatus, and in laying the different services and wastes connected with the same. 251. Plumbers' work is paid for by the cwt., milled lead being rather more expensive than cast. Lead pipes are charged per foot lineal, according to size. Pumps and water-closet apparatus are charged at so much each, according to description ; as also basins, air traps, washers and plugs, spindle valves, stop-cocks, ball-cocks, &t. Table of the W eight of Lead Pipes, per yard. Bore. lbs. oz. i inch 3 3 f „ ,...57 1 „..,.,... 8 0 li „ . ' . 11 0 1^ „ . ^ , . . U 0 2 „ . 21 0 The wages of a journeyman plumber are from 55. to 65. a day The plumber's labourer receives from 35. to 35. Qd. a day ZINC WOKKER. 252. The use of sheet lead has been, to a certain extent, superseded by the use of sheet zinc, which, from its cheap- ness and lightness, is very extensively used for almost all purposes to which sheet lead is applied. It is, however, a very inferior material, and not to be depended upon. The laying of it is generally executed by the plumber ; but the working of zinc, and manufacturing of it into gutters, rain- water pipes, chimney cowls, and other articles, is practised as a distinct business GLAZIER. * 253. The business of the glazier consists in cutting glass, cJid fixing it into lead-work, or sashes. The former is the ART OF BUILDING. 127 oldest description of glazing, and is still used, not only for cottage windows, and inferior work, but for church windows, and glazing with stained glass, which is cut into pieces of the required size, and set in a leaden framework ; this kind of glazing is called fretwork. 254. Glazing in sashes is of comparatively modern intro- duction. The sash-bars are formed with a rebate on the outside, for the reception of the glass, which is cut into the rebates, and firmly bedded and backputtied to keep it in its place. Large squares are also sprigged, or secured with small brads driven into the sash-bars. 255 Glazing in lead-work is fixed in leaden rods, called cames, prepared for the use of the glazier by being passed through a glazier's vice, in which they receive the grooves for tlie insertion of the glass. The sides or cheeks of the grooves ai'c sufficiently soft to allow of their being turned down to admit the glass, and again raised up and firmly pressed against it after its insertion. For common lead-work, the bars are soldered together, so as to form squares or diamonds. In fretwork, the bars, in- stead of being used straight, are bent round to the shapes of the different pieces of glass forming the device — lead- work is strengthened by being attached to saddle bars of iron, by leaden bands soldered to the lead-work, and twisted round the iron. Putty is made of pounded whiting, beaten up with lin- seed oil into a tough tenacious cement. 256. The principal tool of the glazier is the diamond, which is used for cutting glass. This tool consists of an unpolished diamond fixed in lead, and fastened to a handle of hard wood. The glazier uses a hacking-out knife, for cutting out old putty from broken squares ; and the stopping knife for lay- ing and smoothing the putty when stopping-in glass into Bashes. For setting glass into lead-work, the setting knife is used. Besides the above, the glazier requires a square and 128 BUDIMENTS OF THE Straight edges, a rule, and a pair of compasses, for dividing the tables of glass to the required sizes. Also a hammer and brushes, for sprigging large squares, and cleaning off the work. The glaziers vice has already been mentioned ; the latter - kin is a pointed piece of hard wood, with which the grooves of the cames are cleared out and widened for receiving the glass. 257. Cleaning windows is an important branch of the glazier s business in most large towns ; the glazier taking upon himself the cost of repairing all glass broken in cleaning. 258. Glaziers* work is valued by the superficial foot, the price increasing with the size of the squares. Irregular panes are taken of the extreme dimensions each way. Crown glass is blown in circular tables from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. diameter, and is sold in crates, the number of tables in a crate varying according to the quality of the glass. A crate contains 12 tables of best quality „ „ 15 ,, second do. ,, „ 18 ,, third do. Plate glass is cast in large plates on horizontal tables, and afterwards polished The manufacture of sheet or spread glass, which was formerly considered a very inferior article, has of late years been much improved : much is now sold, after being po- lished, under the name of Patent Plate PAINTER, PAPER-HANGER, AND DECORATOR. 259. The business of the house-painter consists in cover- ing, with a preparation of white lead and oil, such portions of the joiner's, smith's, and plasterer's work as require to be protected from the action of the atmosphere. Decora- tive painting is a higher branch, requiring a knowledge of the harmony of colours, and more or less of artistic skill, according to the nature of the work to be executed. The introduction of fresco painting into this country as a mode ART OF BUILDING. 129 of internal decoration has led to the employment of some of the first artists of the day m the embellishment of the mansions of the nobility ; and the example thus set will, no doubt, be extensively followed. 260. The principal materials used by the painter are white lead, which forms the basis of almost all the colours used in house-painting ; Unseed oil, and spirits of turpentine, used for mixing and diluting the colours ; and dryers, as litharge, sugar of lead, and white vitriol, which are mixed with the colours to facilitate their diying. Puttij, made of whiting and linseed oil, is used for stopping or filling up nail holes, and other vacuities, in order to bring the work to a smooth face. 261. The painter's tools are few and simple; they con- sist of the grinding stone and muller, for grinding colours; earthen pots, to hold colours ; cans, for oil and turps ; a pal- let knife, and brushes of various sizes and descriptions. 262. In painting woodwork, the first operation consists in killing the knots, from which the turpentine would other- wise exude and spoil the work. To effect this, the knots are covered with fresh slaked lime, which dries up and burns out the tiu^entine. When this has been on twenty- four hours, it is scraped off, and the knots painted over with a mixture of red and white lead, mixed wdth glue size. After this they are gone over a second time with red and white lead, mixed vnth linseed oil. When dry, they must be rubbed perfectly smooth with pumice stone, and the work is ready to receive the priming coat. This is com- posed of red and white lead, well diluted with linseed oil. The nail holes and other imperfections are then stopped with putty, and the succeeding coats are laid on, the work being rubbed down between each coat, to bring it to an even surface. The first coat after the priming is mixed with linseed oil and a little turpentine; the second coat with equal quantities of linseed oil and turpentine. In lay- ing on the second coat, where the work is not to be finished xhite, an approach must be made to the required colour G 3 130 RUDIMENTS OF THE The third coat is usually the last, and is made with a base of white lead, mixed with the requisite colour, and diluted with one-third of linseed oil to two-thirds of turpentine. Painting on stucco, and all other work in which the sur- face is required to be without gloss, has an additional coat mixed with turpentine only, which, from its drying of one uniform flat tint, is called a flatting coat. If the knots show through the second coat, they must be carefully covered with silver leaf. Work finished as above described would be technically specified as knotted, primed, painted 3 oils, and flatted. Flatting is almost indispensable in all delicate interior work, but it is not suited to outside work, as it will not bear exposure to the weather 263. Painting on stucco is primed with boiled linseed oil, and should then receive at least three coats of white lead and oil, and be finished with a flat tint. The great secret of success in painting stucco is, that the surface should be perfectly dry ; and, as this can hardly be the case in less than two years after the erection of a building, it will always be advisable to finish new work in distemper, which can be washed off whenever the walls are sufficiently dry to receive the permanent decorations. 264. Graining is the imitation of the grain of vaiious kinds of woods, by means of graining tools, and, when well executed, and properly varnished, has a handsome appear- ance, and lasts many years. The term graining is also ap- plied to the imitation of marbles. 265. Clear coling (from claire colle, i. e. transparent size, Fr.), is a substitution of size for oil, in the preparation of the priming coat. It is much resorted to by painteis, on account of the ease with which a good face can be put on the work with fewer coats than when oil is used; but it will not stand damp, which causes it to scale off, and it should never be used except in repainting old work, which is greasy or smoky, and cannot be made to look well by any other means. ART OF BUILDING. 131 •^66. Distempering is a kind of painting in which whiting is used as the basis of tlie colours, the hquid medium being size ; it is much used for ceihngs and waUs, and always \\\\\ require two, and sometimes three coats, to give it a uniform appeai-ance. 207. Painters' work is valued per superficial yard, ac- cording to the number of coats, and the description of work, as common colours, fancy colours, party colours, &c. Where w^ork is cut in on both edges, it is taken by the lineal foot In measuring railings, the tw^o sides are mea- sured as flat work. Sash frames are valued per piece, and sashes at per dozen squares 268. The manufacture of scagiiola, or imitation marble, is a branch of the decorator s business, which is carried to veiy great perfection. Scagiiola is made of plaster of Paris and different earthy colours, w'hich are mixed in a trough in a moist state, and blended together until the required effect is produced, when the composition is taken from the trough, laid on the plaster ground, and w^ell worked into it with a wooden beater, and a small gauging trowel. When quite hard, it is smoothed, scraped, and polished, until it assumes the appearance of marble. Scagiiola is valued at per superficial foot, according to the description of marble imitated, and the execution of the work. 269. Gilding is executed with leaf gold, which is fur- nished by the gold-beater in books of 25 leaves, each leaf measuring 3^ in. by 3 in. The parts to be gilded are first prepared with a coat of gold size, which is made of Oxford ochre and fat oil. 270. The operations of the paper-hanger are too simple to require clescnption. A piece of paper is 12 yards long, and is 20 in. wide, when hung, and covers GO ft. superficial ; hence the number of superficial feet that have to be covered, divided by 60, will give the number of pieces required. RUDIMENTS OF THE Paper-hangers' work is valued at per piece, accoiding to the vahie of the paper The trades of the plumber, glazier, painter, paper-hanger, and decorator are often carried on by the same person SECTION V. WOEKING DEAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, ESTI- MATES, AND CONTEACTS. The erection of buildings of any considerable mag- nitude is usually carried on under the superintendence of a professional architect, whose duties consist in the prepara- tion of the various working drawings and specifications that may be required for the guidance of the builder ; in the strict supervision of the work during its progress, to insm'e that his instructions are carried out in a satisfactory manner; and in the examination and revision of all the accounts connected with the works. This brief enumeration of the duties of an architect will suffice to show how many qualifications are required in one who aims at being thoroughly competent in his profession He must unite the taste of the artist with the science ani practical knowledge of the builder, and must be at the same time conversant with mercantile affairs, and counting- house routine, in order that he may avoid involving his employer in the trouble and expense attendant on disputed atjcounts, which generally are the result of the want of a clear and explicit understanding, on the part of the builder, of the obligations and responsibilities of engagements based upon the incomplete drawings or vaguely-worded specifications of an incompetent architect. 272. The profession of the architect and the trade of the builder are sometimes carried on by the same person : but this union of the directive and executive functions is not to be recommended; in the first place, because the duties of the workshop and the builder's yard leave little ART OF BUILDING. 133 time lor tlie study of the higher branches of architectural knoivledge ; and, in tlie second place, because the absence of professional control will always be a strong temptation to a contractor to prefer his own interests to those of his employer, however competent he may be to design the buildings with the execution of which he may be charged. During the present century, the impulse given to our ails and manufactures, and the improvements effected in the internal communications of the country, have given rise to the execution of many extensive works requiring for their construction a large amount of mechanical and scientific knowledge ; in consequence of which a new and most important profession has sprung up during the last thirty years, occupying a middle position between those of architecture and mechanical engineering, viz., that of the civil engineer. The practice of the architect and of the civil engineer so closely approximate in many respects, that it is difficult strictly to draw the line of demarcation between them ; but it may be said m general terms that, whilst the one is chiefly engaged in works of civil and decorative architecture, such as tlie erection of churches, pubhc buildings, and dwelling-houses, the talent of the »ther is principally called forth in the art of construction on a large scale, as applied to retaining walls, bridges, tunnels, lighthouses, &c., and works connected with the improvements of the navigation and internal communica- tions of the country. 273. The business of the surveyor is often carried on as a distinct branch of architectural practice ; and, as the title of suiweyor is often appropriated by those who have no real claim to it, a few words on a surveyor's duties may not be here out of place. SuiTeyors may be divided into three classes ; land sur- veyors, engineering surveyors, and building surveyors. The business of an engineering surveyor, as distin guished from that of a land surveyor, chiefly consists in the preparation of accurate plans, sections, and other data 134 RUDIMENTS OF THE relative to the intended sites of large works, which may be required by the architect or engineer preparatory to making out his working drawings, and in conducting levelling operations for drainage works, canals, railways, &c. The building surveyor prepares, from the drawings and specifications of the architect or the engineer, bills of quantities of intended works, for the use of the builder, on which to frame his estimates ; and, in the case of contracts, these bills of quantities form the basis of the engagements entered into by the builder and his employer, the surveyor being pecuniarily answerable for any omissions. The surveyor is also employed in the measurement of works already executed or in progress ; in the latter case, for the purpose of ascertaining the advances to be made at stated intervals, and is engaged generally in all business connected with builders' accounts/-^^ 274. The following is the general routine of proceedings in the case of large works. It will readily be understood that in small works subdivision of labour is not carried to such an extent, the architect superintending the works himself, without the aid of a clerk of the works, and the builders taking out their own quantities. I. The general design having been approved of, and the site fixed upon, an exact plan is made of the ground, the nature of the foundation examined, and all the levels taken that may be required for the preparation of the working drawings. II. The architect makes out the working drawings, and draws up the specification of the work. III. A meeting is held of builders proposing to tender for the execution of the proposed works, called either by public advertisement or private invitation, at which a surveyor is appointed in their behalf to take out the quantities. Sometimes two surveyors are appointed, one on the part of the builders, and one on the part of the * See Student's Guide for Measuring and Estimating Artificer's Work," 2nd edition, 8vo, 1853. ART OF BUILDING 186 architect, who take out the quantities together, and check each other as tliey proceed. IV. The surveyor having furnished each party proposing to tender, with a copy of tlie bills of quantities, the builders prepare their estimates, and meet a second time to give in their tenders, after which the successful competitor and the employer sign a contract, drawn up by a solicitor, binding the one to tlic proper execution of the w^orks, and the other to the payment of the amount of their cost at such times and in such sums as may be set forth in the specification. V. The work is then set out,* and carried on under the * On Setting-out IForh. — The determination of the exact position of an intended building being sometimes difficult to accomplish, a few remarks on the subject may be acceptable. The setting out of the leading lines is simple enough on level ground, where nothing occurs to interrupt the view, or to prevent the direct mea- surement of the required distances ; but to perform this operation at the bottom of a foundation pit, blocked up with balks and shores, and ankle- deep in slush, requires a degree of practice and patience not alwa3's to be met with. Let us take a simple case, such as the putting in the abutment Fig. 108. 136 RUDIMENTS OF THE constant direction of a foreman on the part of the buildei', and on the part of the pjrchitect under the superintendence of an inspector or clerk of the works, whose duty is to be constantly on the spot to check the quality and quantity of material used, to see to the proper execution of the work, and to keep a record of every deviation from the drawings that may be rendered necessary by the wishes of the employer, or by local circumstances over which the archi- tect has no control. The work is measured up at regular intervals, and of a bridge or viaduct, any error in the position of which would render the work useless (see fig. 108). The leading lines having been laid down on the drawings, the first thing to be done, before breaking ground, is to set out the centre line very carefully with a theodolite and ranging rods for a considerable distance on each side of the work, and to fix its position by erecting poles, planed true and placed perfectly upright, in some part of the line where there is no chance of their being disturbed. Next, the exact position of the abutment on the centre line would be decided upon, and fixed by setting out another line at right angles to the first, as c d, which would also be extended beyond the works, and its posi- tion fixed by driving in stakes, the exact position of the line on the head of the stake being marked by a saw-cut Q) . These guiding lines having now been permanently secured, the plan ol the abutment may be set out on the ground, the dams driven, and the earth got out to the required depth. By the time the excavation is ready for commencing the work, it generally presents a forest of stays, struts, and shores, that would defy any attempt at setting out the work on its own level ; it must, therefore, be set out at the level of the top oi the dam, and the points transferred or droj^ped as follows : — First, tho position of the centre line is ascertained by reference to the poles, and, nails being driven into the timbers at the sides of the dam, a hne line is strained across; the position of the line cd h found, and a second line strained across in the same way. In a similar manner other lines are strained from side to side at the required distances, the lengths being measured from the line c d, and the widths from ah, until the outline of the foundation course is found ; the angle points are then transferred to the bottom ol the excavation by means of plumb-lines, and the work is commenced, its accuracy being easily tested by measurements from the Unes a h and c c2, until it is so far advanced as to render this unnecessary. ART OF BUILDING 137 payments made on account to the builder, upon the archi- tects certificate of the amorait of work done. VI. The work being completed, the extras and omissions are set against each other, and the difference added to or deducted from the amount of the contract, and the whole business is concluded by the aixhitect giving a final certifi- cate for the payment of the balance due to the builder. 275. Flmi of Site. — In preparing the plan of the site of any proposed works, the operations of the surveyor will generally have to be extended beyond the spot of gi^ound on which the building is to stand. The frontages of the adjacent buildings, and the position of all existing or con- templated sewers, drains, and watercourses, should be correctly ascertained and laid down. Sketches drawn to scale of the architectural features of the adjacent buildings, if in town, and accurate outline sketches of the incidents of the locality of the intended operations, if in the country, should accompany the plan, that the architect may try the efi'ect of his design before its actual execution renders it impossible to remedy its faults. By the careful study of all these data the architect may hope to succeed in making his works harmonise with the objects that suiTound them ; without them, failure on this head is almost a certainty. 276. Levels. — Where the irregularities of the gi^ound are considerable, it is necessary to ascertain the variations of the surface before the depth of the foundations and the position of the floors can be decided upon. It also frequently happens that the levels of the floors and other leading lines, in a new building, are regulated by the capabilities of sewerage or drainage, or by the heights of other buildings with which the new work will ultimately be connected, as in the case of new streets. It therefore becomes of importance to have simple and accurate means of ascertaining and recording the relative heights of difi'erent points. For this purpose both the spirit level and the mason's level are used 138 RUDIMENTS OF THE 277. Where the ground to be levelled over is limited in extent, and the variations of level do not exceed 12 feet, the heights of any points may be found with the mason's level in the following manner. {See fig. 100.) Fig. 109. In a convenient place, near the highest part of the ground, drive three stout stakes at equal distances from each other, and nail to them three pieces of stout plank, placed as shown in the cut, their upper edges being adjusted to the same horizontal plane by means of the mason's level. The level being then placed on this frame, an assistant proceeds to the first point of which the height is required, holding up a rod with a sliding vane, which he raises or lowers in obedience to the directions of the surveyor, until it coincides with a pair of sights fixed at the bottom of the level ; the height of the vane will then be the difference of level between the top of the levelling frame, and the place where the staff was held up. 278. The above and similar methods will sufhce for taking levels in a rough way for the ordinary purposes of the builder ; but where great accuracy is requisite, or where the levels have to be extended over a considerable distance, as is often the case in drainage works, the use of a more perfect contrivance is necessary, and the spirit level is the instrument principally used for this purpose. The spirit level consists of a telescope mounted on a portable stand, and furnished with screw adjustments, by means of which it can be made to revolve in a horizontal plane, any deviation from which is indicated by the motion of an air-bubble in a glass tube fixed parallel to the toie- scope. ART OF BUILDING. 139 The eye-piece of the telescope is furnished with cross- wires, as they are technically termed, made of spiders' thread, of which the use will he presently explained. 279. The levelling staff, now in common use, is divided into feet, tenths, and hundredths, in a conspicuous manner, so that, with the help of the glass, every division can be distinctly seen at the distance of one hundred yards or more. The mode of conducting the operation of levelling is as follows : — The surveyor having set up and adjusted his instrument, the staffholder proceeds to the point at which the levels are to commence, and holds up his staff perfectly upright and turned towards the surveyor, who notes the division of the staff which coincides with the horizontal wire in the tele- scope, and enters the same in his level-book; the staff- holder then proceeds to the next point, and the reading of the staff is noted as before ; and this is repeated until the distance or the difference of level makes it necessary for the surveyor to take up a fresh position. While this is being done, the staffholder remains stationary, until, the level being adjusted again, he carefully turns the face of the staff so as to be visible from the instrument in its new position, and a second reading of the staff is noted, after which he proceeds forward as before for a fresh set of obseiwations. 280. In every set of observations the first is called a Backsight and the last a Foresight. The remaining obser- vations are called intermediates, and are entered accord- ingly. It will be seen that an error in an intermediate reading is confined to the point where it occurs ; but a mistake in a back or foresight is carried throughout the whole work, and therefore every care should be taken to insure accuracy in observing these sights. 281. The surveyor should commence and close his work by setting the staff on some well-defined mark, which can .readily be referred to at any subsequent period, such as a door-step, plinth of a column, &c. These marks are called 140 RUDIMENTS OF THE bench marks, written B M, and are essential (ov eitbei checking the work or carrying it on at a subsequent period. 282. The reduction of the levels to a tabular form for use IS a simple arithmetical operation, which will be readily understood by examination of the annexed example of a level-book, and of the accompanying section,^ fig. 110 Fig. 110. The difference between the successive readings in any set of observations is the difference of level between the points where the staff was successively held up, and by simple addition or subtraction, according as the ground rises or falls, we might obtain the total rise or fall of the ground above or below the starting point ; but as this would require two columns, one for the total rise, and one for the total fall, it is simpler to assume the starting point to be some given height above an imaginary horizontal datum line, * In plotting sections of ground, it is usual to make the vertical scale much greater than the horizontal, which enables small variations of level to be easily measured on the drawing without its being extended to an inconvenient length. This is shown in the lower half of fig. 110. The upper part of the figure shows the section plotted to the same horizontal a.vA vertical sca^e- ART OF KUlLDrKrt. Ml f!ra\vn below the lowest point of the ground, to which level ail the heights are referred in the column headed total height above datum line. 283. The accuracy of the arithmetical computations is proved by adding up tlie foresights and backsights, and, de- ducting the sum of the former from that of the latter (the height of the first B M having been previously entered at the top of the page as a backsight), the remainder will be the height of the last B M, and should agree with the last figures in the column of total heights. 284. In levelling the site of a proposed building, if no suitable object presents itself for a permanent B M for futm^e reference, a large stake, hooped with iron, should be driven into the ground in some convenient place where it will not be disturbed. The height of this stake being then carefully noted and marked upon the elevations and sec- tions of the building, it will serve as a constant check on the dei)ths of the excavations and the heights of the diffe- rent parts of the work, until the walls reach the level of the principal floor, when it will no longer be required. 285. We must not leave tlie subject of levels without mentioning a very useful instrument, called the water-level, which consists of a long flexible pipe, filled with water, and terminating at each end in an open glass tube. When it is required to find the relative heights of any two points, as, for instance, the relative levels of the floors of two adjoining houses, the two ends of the tube are taken to the respec- tive points, the tube being passed do^vn the staircases, over the roofs, or along any other accessible route, no matter how circuitous, and the required levels are found by mea- suring up from the floors to the surface of the water, which will of course stand at the same level at each end of the tube WORKING DRAWINGS. 286 The architect being furnished with the plan and levels of the site of his operations, and having caused a 142 RUDIMENTS OF THE 01 o : u I g i "1^ EH i * i * pq 2 i "Is i P5 o o I 1 o I s o o o o CO o o vo o l-H o oi c4 T-I oi '<3^ CO CO CO CO O O I>1 rA O O U2 pq o o rH (N* o o o o O (M* CO o 1-i OO ART OF BUILDTNG. 143 careful examination to be made of the probable nature of the foundation by digging pits or taking borings, proceeds to make out his working drawings. It is not sufficient for the execution of working drawings that tlie draughtsman should be acquainted with the ordi- naiy principles of geometrical projection. He must also be thoroughly conversant with perspective, and with the principles of chiascuro, or light and shade, or he will work at random, as the geometrical projections which are required for the use of tlie workmen give a very false idea of the effect the work will have in execution. 287. Working drawings may be divided under three heads, viz. : — Block plans. General drawings, and Detail drawings : — I. Block Plans. — These show the outline only of the intended building, and its position with regard to surround- ing objects. They are drawn to a small scale, embracing the whole area of the site, and on them are marked the existing boundaiy walls, sewers, gas and water mains, and all the new walls, drains, and water-pipes, and their pro- posed connection with the existing ones, so that the builder may see at a glance the extent of his operations. A well-digested block plan, with its accompanying levels, showing the heights of the principal points, the fall of the drains, &c., is one of the first requisites in a complete set of working drawings. II. General Drawings. — These show the whole extent of the building, and the aiTangement and connection of the different parts more or less in detail, according to its size and extent. These drawings consist of Plans of the foundations, and of the different stories of the building, and of the roofs ; Elevations of the different fronts ; and Sections showing the heights of the stories, and such con- stmctive details as the scale will admit of. These draw- ings are carefully figured, the dimensions of each part being calculated, and its position fixed by reference to some well-defined line in the plans or elevations, the position oi 144 EUDTMENTS OF THE which admits of easy verification in all stages of the work. This is best done by ruling faint lines on the drawings, through the principal divisions of the design, as shown in fig. Ill, where the plan and elevation are divided into com- Fig. 111. [>artments by lines passing thi'ough the centres of the columns from which all the dimensions are dated each way These centre lines are, in the execution of the work, kept constantly marked on the walls as they are carried up, so that they are at all times available for reference. By this means, the centre lines having been once care- fully marked on the building, any slight error or variation from the drawings is confined to the spot where it occurs, instead of being carried forward, as is sometimes the case, to appear only when correction is as desirable as it is im- possible. The use of these centre lines also saves much of the labour of the draughtsman, as they form a skeleton, of which only so much need be filled up as may be required to show the design of the work. III. Detailed Drawings. — These are on a large scale, showing those details of construction which could not be ART OF BUII.r«INO. 14b explained in the general drawings, such as the framing oi floors, partitions, and roofs, for the use of the carpenter; the patterns of cast-iron girders and story posts for the iron-founder; decorative details of colunnis, entablatures, and cornices, for the carver; the requisite details bchig made out separately, as far as possible, for each trade ; which arrangement saves much time that would otherwise be wasted in referring from one drawing to another, and, which is still more important, insures greater accuracy, from the workman understanding better the nature of his work. In making the detailed drawings, every particular should be enumerated that may be required for a perfect under- standing of the nature and extent of the work. Thus, in preparing the drawings for the iron-founder, every separate pattern should be drawn out, and the number stated that will be required of each. This principle should be attended to throughout the whole of the detailed drawings, as, in the absence of such data, it is very difficult to prepare correct estimates for the execution of the work without devoting more time to the study of the drawings than can generally be obtained for that purpose. SPECIFICATION. 288. The drawings being completed, the architect next draws up the specification of the intended w^orks. This is divided under tw^o principal heads — 1st, the conditions of the contract; and 2nd, the description of the work. The title briefly states the nature and extent of the works to be performed, and enumerates the drawings which are to accompany and to form part of the written specification. 289. Conditions of Contract. — Besides the special clauses and provisions which are required by the particular circum- stances of each case, the following clauses ai^e inserted in all specifications : — 1. The works are to be executed to the full intent and H 146 RUDIMENTS OF THE meaning of the drawings and specification, and to the satis- faction of the architect. ^. The contractor to take the entire charge of the wo^ks during their progress, and to be responsible for all losses and accidents until their completion. 3. The architect is to have power to reject all improper materials or defective workmanship, and to have full con- trol over the execution of the works, and free access at all times to the workshops of the contractor where any work is being prepared. 4 Alterations in the design are not to vitiate the contract, but all extra or omitted works are to be measured and valued according to a schedule of prices previously agreed upon. 5. The amount of the contract to be paid by instalments as the works proceed, at the rate of — per cent, on the amount of work done, and the balance within from the date of the architect's final certificate. Lastly. The works are to be completed within a stated time, under penalties which are enumerated. 290. The description of the works details minutely the qua- lity of the materials, and describes the manner in which every portion of the work is to be executed, the fulness of the description depending on the amount of detailed infor- mation conveyed by the working drawings, care being taken that the drawings, and specification should, together, con- tain every particular that is necessary to be known in order to make a fair estimate of the value of the work. 291. The chief merit of a specification consists in the use of clear and explicit language, and in the systematic arrangement of its contents, so that the description of each portion of the work shall be found in its proper place ; to facilitate reference, every clause should be numbered and have a marginal reference attached, and a copious index should accompany the whole. BILLS OF QUANTITIES. 292 The surveyor being furnished by the architect with ART OF BUILDING. 147 the dra\vin(^s and specilication, proceeds to take out tlic quantities for the use of tlie parties who propose to tender for tlie execution of the ^vork. This is done in the same way that work is measured when executed, except that tlie measurements are made on the drawings with a scale instead of on the real building witli measuring rods. 293. In taking out quantities there are three distinct operations: 1st, taking the dimensions of the several parts of the work and entering them in the dimension book ; 2ndly, working out the quantities from the dimensions, and posting them into the columns of the abstracts, which is called abstracting ; 3rdly, casting up the columns of the abs- ti-acts and bringing the quantities into bill. 294. The dimension book is ruled and the dimensions entered as in tlie following examples : — No. Dimension. Quantity. Description. 16 ft. in. 0 0 10 0 2} ft. in. 1 38 10 ^ Memel fir framed joists to front \ room ground floor. In this example, the w^ork measm-ed consists of sixteen joists, each 14 ft. long and 10 in. deep and 2^ in. thick, and tlie total quantity of timber they contain amounts to 38 ft. 10 in. cube. Dimension. No. of bricks in thickness. Quantity. Description. ft. in. ft. in. 20 6 ) Stock brickwork in mortar to 1 235 9 > front wall, from footings to 11 6 . - . ) 1st set-off. This example needs no explanation. 295. In preparing the abstract for each trade, the sm- veyor looks over his dimensions to see what articles he will H 2 148 EUDIMENTS OF THE have, and rules his paper into columns accordingly, VrTiting the proper heads over each. The principal point to be attended to in abstracting quantities is, to preserve a regular rotation in aiTanging the different descriptions of work, so that every article may at once be found on referring to its proper place in the abstract. No fixed rules can be given on this head, as the form of abstract is different for every trade, and must be varied ac- cording to chcums Lances ; but, as a general principle, arti- cles of least value should be placed first. Solid measure should take precedence of superficial, and superficial of lineal, and miscellaneous articles should come last of all ; or in technical terms, the rotations should be, 1st, cubes; 2nd, supers. ; 3rd, runs ; and, lastly, miscellaneous. 296. In bringing the quantities into bill, the same rota- tion is to be observed as in abstracting them, care being taken that every article is inserted in its proper place, so that it may readily be found in the bill. The limits of this volume prevent our going into much detail on the subject of builders' accounts, and we must therefore confine ourselves to laying before the reader a skeleton estimate, which will give him a tolerable idea of the manner in which the several kinds of artificers' work are abstracted and brought into bill. 297. Estimate for the Erection of at for , according to Specification and Drawings numbered prepared by Architect. (Date.) 1 to Foundations. yds. ft. — cube Excavation to foundations (including cofferdams, pumping, &c. Concrete at Timber in piles driven — ft. through (describe the material), including ringing, shoeing, and driving, but not ironwork . . • . Do. in 6-in. planking, spiked to pile- heads flfiTJ-ied forward ABT OF BOILDINGr. — — cube s ft. in. — — supl. Foundations continued. Brought forward Wrought iron in shoes to piles . Totiil of foundations to be carried to summary .... Bricklayer. Reduced brickwork in mortar , Do. do. in cement . Tiling (describing the kind, whether phiin or pantiling, if single or double laths, &c., &c.) • • • . BricknogGfing to partitions Paving (of various descriptions) And all other articles valued per yard superficial. Gauge arches ..... Facings (with superior description of bricks, specifying the quality) Cutting to arches or splays And all other work valued by the foot superficial. Barrel or other drains (specifjnng size, &c.) Tile creasing ..... And all other articles valued by running measure. Chimney pots, each ; bedding and pointing sash and door fj-ames, each; and all miscellaneous articles Total of bricklayers' work to be carried to summary . Mason. Rubble walling . . • Hammer-dressed walling in random courses .... Stone (describing the kinds) Labour on above (as plain work, sunk, moulded or circular work) Hearihs, pavings, landings, &c., begin ning with the thinnest . Marble slabs, beginning with the tliinnest and inferior qualities Window sills, curbs, steps, copings, &c. Jog q[le joints, chases, &c. Carried forward at ■ £ i. d. i. d. d. RUDIMENTS OF THE Mason continued. Brought forward . Mortices and rail holes, &c. — dowels, cramps, and other articles numbered Total of mason's work to be carried to summary .... Carpenter and Joiner. sapl. Labour and nails to roofs, floors, or quarter partitions . . . at- Battenings and boardings according to description ..... Floors, according to description, begin- ning with the inferior and ending with the best descriptions And so on for all work valued by the square. - cube Memel fir, according to description, as fir bond, fir framed, wrought and framed, wrought, framed, and re- bated, &c Do. proper door and window cases Then oak and superior descriptions of timber, in the same way. Then the superficial work, as — — — Slip], \-m. deal rough linings, and so on with the different thicknesses of deals according to the labour on them ; arranging them according to their thickness and the amount of labour on them, beginning \vith the thinnest .... Then oak plank or mahogany in the same way. Then take the framed work, as — Ij-in. deal square-framed inclosure to closets, and so on with the rest of the framed work, as doors, shutters, sashes, frames, &c., according to description .... Then the work valued by running measure, as — •2j-in. Spanish mahogany moulded, grooved, and beaded handrail Then the numbers, as — Nos. iMitred and turned caps, fixing iron balusters, &c. .... Lastly — The Ironmongery, every article of which should be carefully described .... Total of carpenter and joiner's wcvk to be carried to summary £ d. AJiT OF BUILDING. - — — BUpl Slater. I Countess, or any other kind of slating, according to description It. in. Then slate slab, as — Inch shelves, rubbed one side, begin- ning with the slabs of least thick' ness, and arranging them according to the labour bestowed on them Then the work valued by running measure, as — — - — run Patent saddle-cut slate ridge Lastly the numbers, as — Nos.lHoles, cut. Sec Total of slater's work to be carried to summary Plasterer. First the superficial quantity of plastering, as — Render float and set to walls, begin- ning with the commonest, and pro- ceeding through the diflferent de- scriptions of two and three coat work up to the stuccos and superior work IThen the whitewashing, distempering, I &c Next the run of cornices, arch traves, reveals, &c., as — Plain cornice to drawing-room, 14-in, girt And lastly the numbers, as — 4 mitres, 1 centre flower, 30 in. dia- meter, &c., &c. . Total of plasterer's work to be car- ried to summary yds. ft. — — 8upl. In. — mn Nos. tons cwt.qrs.lbs 7 lis. ft. — run Smith and Iron-Founder. Begin with the cast-iron, as — Cast iron in No. 4 girders, including patterns, painting, and fixing N.B. — State the No. of patterns. Then the smaller castings, as — Railings, balconies, columns, &c. .! Then the wrought iron, as — I Wrought iron in chimney bars, straps, screw bolts, railings, &c. . .' Then the articles sold by running measure, as — I Cast-iron gutters, water-pipes, Ktc. .! Carried forward 15*^ RUDIMENTS OF THE cv.x. f, 13 ; centre of pressure, 13 ; ounterforts, 21 ; resistance of the ivall, 18; strength of different shaped, 20 ; strongest form of the, 19; triangular form, ad- vantage of, 19 ; triangular form, modification generally used, 19. Warming, methods of, described, 61 . Warming combined with ventilation, advantage, 61. Water cements described, 71. Water cisterns, 60. Water-closet apparatus, 126. Water, foundations in, 4 ; beton, 8 ; caissons, 9 ; Clark's system, 6 ; cofferdams, 10 ; coursed masonry, 8 ; formed wholly of piles, 5 ; Indian and Chinese, 7; Mitchell'H screw piles, 6; pierre perdue, 8; solid on the surface of the ground, 8 ; use of cast-iron cylinders, 7. WMter limes, corauosition ot, 70. 168 INDEX. Water, supply of, 59. Welsh iron, 77. Westminster Hall, roof of, described, 57. Wet rot, 67. White cast iron, 76. Wing; walls, construction of, 32. Wood, formation of, 64 ; variation in the texture of, 65. 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Imp. 4to, half bound in morocco. [In the press. In accumulating information for this vohi?ne^ the AiUhor has been very liberally assisted by several professioftal friends, who have made this department of engineering their special study. He has thus been in a position to prepare a work which, luithin the limits of a single volume, will supply the reader with the most co?7iplete and reliable information upon all subjects, theoretical a7td practical, con- iiected witJi water supply. Through the kindness of Messrs. A7tdei'' son, Batemafi, J{awksle)>, Homersham, Baldwin Latham, Lawson, Milne, Quick, Rawlinson, Simpson, and others, seiferal works, con- stituted and in course of co?tstruction, from the designs of these gentle- 7nen, will be fully illustrated aiul desc7'ibed, AMONGST OTHER IMPORTANT SUBJECTS THE FOLLOWING WILL BE TREATED IN THE TEXT : — Historical Sketch of the means that have been proposed and adopted for the Supply of Water. — Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. — Rainfall and Evaporation. — Springs and Subterranean Lakes. — Hydraulics. — T\\(t Selection of Sites for Water Works. — Wells. — Reservoirs. — Filtration and Filter Beds. — Resenroir and Filter Bed Appendages. — Pumps and Appendages. — Pumping Machinery. — Culverts and Conduits, Aqueducts, Syphons, ^c. — Distribution of Water. — Water Meters and general House Fittings. — Cost of Works for the Supply of Water. — Con- stant and Intermittent Supply. — Suggestions for preparing Plans, &c. &c., together with a Description of the numerous Works illustrated, viz : — Aberdeen, Bidcford, Cockermouth, Dublin, Glasgow, Loch Katrine, Liverpool, Manchester, Rotherham, Siuiderland, and several others ; with copies of the Contract, Drawings and Specifi- cation in each case. 2 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humbers Modern Engineering, First Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William HuMBER, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c. Price 3/. 3>r. half morocco. Ltsf of the Plates. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Victoria Station and Roof— L. B.& S. C. Rail. i to 8 Mr. R. Jacomb Hood, C.E. Southport Pier 9 and 10 Mr. James Brunlees, C.E. Victoria Station and Roof— L. C. &D. & G. W. Railways iitoiSA Mr. John Fowler, C.E. Roof of Cremorne Music Hall 16 Mr. William Humber, C.E. Bridge over G. N. Railway 17 Mr. Joseph Cubitt, C.E. Roof of Station — Dutch Rhenish Railway .. 18 and 19 Mr. Euschedi, C.E. Bridge over the Thames — West London Ex- tension Railway 20 to 24 Mr. William Baker, C.E. Armour Plates 25 Mr. James Chalmers, C.E. Suspension Bridge, Thames 26 to 29 Mr. Peter W. Barlow, C.E. The Allen Engine 30 Mr. G. T. Porter, M.E. Suspension Bridge, Avon 31 to 33 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C.E. and W. H. Barlow, C.E. Underground Railway 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler, C. E. W^ith copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for many important engineering works." — Engineer. Humbers Modern Engineering. Second Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1864 ; with Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c. Price 3/. y. half morocco. List of the Plates. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin i to 15 Mr. G. F. Lyster, C^E. Charing Cross Station Roof — C. C. Railway. 16 to 18 Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E. Digswell Viaduct — Great Northern Railway. 19 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Robbery Wood Viaduct— Great N. Railway. 20 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Iron Permanent Way "zoa Clydach Viaduct — Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Railway 21 Mr. Gardner, C.E. Ebbw Viaduct ditto ditto ditto 22 Mr. Gardner, C.E. College Wood Viaduct — Cornwall Railway . . 23 Mr. Brunei. Dublin Winter Palace Roof 24 to 26 Messrs. Ordish & Le Feuvre. Bridge over the Thames— L. C. & D. Railw. 27 to 32 Mr. J. Cubitt, C.E. Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 36 Messrs. Bell & Miller. With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. '* A restmte oiz}^ the more interesting and important works lately completed in Grea.t Britain ; and containing, as it does, carefully executed drawings, with full working details, will be found a valuable accessory to the profession at large. " — Engineer. ** Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public."— /'mci'/Vrt;/ Mechanic's Journal. WORKS PUBLISHED ]]V LOCKWOOD & CO. 3 Humbers Modern Engineering. Third Series, A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1865. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of J. R. M 'Clean, Esq., late Pre- sident of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3^'. half morocco. List of Plates and Diagrauis, MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. North Side. Map showing Interception of Sewers. Middle Level Sewer. Sewer under Re- gent's Canal. Z\liddle Level Sewer. Junction with Fleet Ditch. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Elevation. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over River Lea. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junction. <)utfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Elevation. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. I)etails. «)utfall Sewer. Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway. Details. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London Waterv\'orks* Feeder. Elevation. Outfall Sewer. Bridge over East London Waterworks' Feeder. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Plan, Outfall Sewer. Reservoir. Section. Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet. Outfall Sewer. Penstocks. South Side. Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. Outfall Sewer. Bermondsey Branch. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Plan. MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS. coiithuied — Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outlet. Details. Outfall Sewer. Reservoir and Outkt. Details. Outfall Sewer. Filth Hoist. Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides}. THAMES EMBANKMENT. Section of R'iver Wall. Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Elevation Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Details. Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and Waterloo Bridges. York Gate. Front Elevation. York Gate. Side Elevation and Details. Overflow and Oudet at Savoy Street Sewer. Details. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Penstock. Overflow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer. Penstock. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. Eleva- tion. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- tails. Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge. De- tails. Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections. Gullies. Plans and Sections. Rolling Stock. Granite and Iron Forts. ^Vith copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c Opinions of the Press. " Mr. number's works — especially his annual * Record,' with which so many of our readers are now familiar — fill a void occupied by no other branch of literature. . . . The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear representations of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. number's last volume." — Eiigmeeritig. ** No engineer, architect, or contractor should fall to preserve these records of works which, for magnitude, have not their parallel in the present day, no student in the profession but should carefully study the details of these great works, which he may be one day called upon to imitate." — Mechanics Magazine. ** A work highly creditable to the industry' of its author The volume is quite an encyclopaedia for the study of the student who desires to master the subject c f municipal drainage on its scale of greatest development."— -/'rac^rV^/ Mi^chayiics jfoitrnal. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Humberts Modern Engineering, Fotirth Series. A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1866. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3^. half-morocco. Zis^ of the Plates ajid Diagrams. NAME AND DESCRIPTION. PLATES. NAME OF ENGINEER. Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, Metropolis i to 4 Mr. Bazalgette, C.E. Barrow Docks 5 to 9 Messrs. M'Clean & Stillman, Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Valparaiso [C.E. Railway 10, 11 Mr. W. Loyd, C.E. Adams' Locomotive, St. Helen's Canal Railw. 12, 13 Mr. H. Cross, C.E. Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway 14 to 16 Mr. J. Hawkshaw, C.E. Road Bridge over the River Moka 17, 18 Mr. H. Wakefield, C.E. Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia ... . 19 Mr. Siemens, C.E. Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railw. 20 to 22 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E. St. Germans Viaduct, Cornwall Railway .... 23, 24 Mr. Brunei, C.E. Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell 25 Mr. J. Coode, C.E. Millwall Docks .' 26 to 31 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and William Wilson, C.E. Milroy's Patent Excavator 32 Mr. Milroy, C.E. Metropolitan District Railway 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, Engineer-In - Chief, and Mr. T. M. Johnson, C.E. Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters a to c The Letterpress comprises — A concluding article on Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters, with Illustrations and detailed descriptions of the Breakwater at Cher- bourg, and other important modern works ; an article on the Telegraph Lines of Mesopotamia ; a full description of the Wrought- iron Diving Cylinder for Ceylon, the circumstances under which it was used, and the means of working it ; full description of the Millwall Docks ; &c., &c., &c. Opinions of the Press. *' Mr. Humber's 'Record of Modern Engineering' is a work of peculiar value, as well to those who design as to those who study the art of engineering construction. It embodies a vast amount of practical information in the form of full descriptions and working drawings of all the most recent and noteworthy engineering works. The plates are excellently lithographed, and the present volume of the ' Record ' is not a whit behind its predecessors." — Mechanic^ Magazine. *' We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its usefulness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men in the profes- sion, cannot be too highly prized." — Artizan. "The volume forms a valuable companion to those which have preceded it, and cannot fail to prove a most important addition to every engineering library."— il/zV/w.^- Journal. ** No one of Mr. Humber's volumes was bad ; all were worth their cost, from the mass of plates from well-executed drawings which they contained. In this respect, perhaps, this last volume is the most valuable that the author has produced." — Prac- tical Mechanics' Joicrnai. 5 Hiivibers Great Work on Bridge Co7istritctio7i. A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATLSE on CAST and WROUGIIT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, includin[; Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William H umber. Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous additions to the Text. In 2 vols. imp. 4to., price 6/. i6j". 6^. half- bound in morocco. \_Rect:ntly published . " A rery valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. la addition to elevations, plans, and sections, large scale details are given, which very- much enhance the instructive worth of these illustrations. No engineer would wil- lingly be without so valuable a fund of information." — Civil EtigiJieer and Arcliitccf s yourtial. "The First or Theoretical Part contains mathematical investigations of the prin- ciples involved in the various forms now adopted in bridge construction. These investigations are exceedingly complete, having evidently been very carefully con- sidered and worked out to the utmost extent that can be desired by the practical man. I'he tables are of a very useful character, containing the results of the most recent experiments, and amongst them are some valuable tables of the weight and cost of cast and wrought-iron structures actually erected. The volume of text is amply illus- trated by numerous woodcuts, plates, and diagrams : and the plates in the second volume do great credit to both draughtsmen and engravers. In conclusion, we have great pleasure in cordially recommending this work to our readers." — Artizan. ' Mr. Humber's stately volumes lately issued — in which the most important bridges erected during the last live years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hcmans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail."— -£';;^/;/c'd'r. Weale's Engineer s Pocket-Book. THE ENGINEER'S, ARCHITECT'S, and CONTRACTOR'S POCKET-BOOK (Lockwood & Co.'s; formerly Weale's). Published Annually. In roan tuck, gilt edges, with 10 Copper- Plates and numerous Woodcuts. Price 6j-. ** A vast amount of really valuable matter condensed into the small dimen- «iions of a book which is, in reality, what it professes to be — a pocket-book We cordially recommend the book to the notice of the managers of coal and other mines ; to them it wiM prove a handy book of reference on a variety of subjects more or less intimately connected with their profession." — Colliery Gitardian. * ** Every branch of engineering is treated of, and facts, figures, and data of every kind abound." — Mechanics' Mag. ** It contains a large amount of information peculiarly valuable to those for whose use it is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural professions generally." — Mini)ig Jourrial. Iron Bridges, Girders, Roofs, &c. A TREATISE on the APPLICATION of IRON to the CON- STRUCTION of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and OTHER WORKS ; showing the Principles upon which such Structures arc- Designed, and their Practical Application. Especially arranged for the use of Students and Practical Mechanics, all Mathematical For- mulae and Symbols being excluded. By Francis Campin, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. i2mo., cloth boards, 3^., cloth limp, 2s. \Rccently ptd)lisJied, For numbers of young engineers the book is just the cheap, handy, first guide they want." — MiddlesboroHS^k iVeekly Neivs. " Invaluable to those who have not been educated in mathematics." — Colliery Gnardian. " Remarkably accurate and well written." — Artizan. 6 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Barlow on the Strength of Materials^ enlarged, A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. ; and an Appendix on the Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes and Gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S., Mem. Inst, of France ; of the Imp. and Royal Academies of St. Petersburgh and Brussels ; of the Amer. Soc. Arts ; and Hon. Mem. Inst. Civil Engineers. A New and considerably Enlarged Edition, revised by his Sons. P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., Mem. Inst. C.E., and W. H. Barlow^. F.R.S., Mem. of Council Inst. C.E., to which are added a Sum- mary of Experiments by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., William Fairbairn, F.R.S., and David Kirkaldy ; an Essay (with Illustrations) on the effect produced by passing Weights over Elastic Bars, by the Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S. And Formulse for Calculating Girders, &c. The whole arranged and edited by William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and Mem. Inst. M.E., Author of A Complete and Practical Treatise on Cast and Wrought-Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Demy 8vo, 400 pp.j, with 19 large Plates, and numerous woodcuts, price iSs. cloth. ** This edition has undergone considerable improvement, and has been brought down to the present date. It is one of the first books of reference in existence." — Artizan. " Although issued as the sixth edition, the volume under consideration is worthy of being regarded, for all practical purposes, as an entirely new work . . . the book is undoubtedly worthy of the highest commendation." — Mining yoiir7iaL "An increased value has been given to this very valuable work by the addition of a large amount of information, which cannot prove otherwise than highly useful t» those who require to consult it The arrangement and editing of this mass of information has been undertaken by Mr. Humber, who has most ably fulfilled a task requiring special care and ability to render it a success, which this edition most certainly is. He has given the finishing touch to the volume by introducing into it an interesting memoir of Professor Barlow, which tribute of respect, we are sure, will be appreciated by the members of the engineering profession." — Mechanics' Magazine. "A book which no engineer of any kind can afford to be without." — Colliery Guardian. *' The best book on the subject which has yet appeared We know of no work that so completely fulfils its mission." — English Mechanic. There is not a pupil in an engineering school, an apprentice in an engineer's or architect's office, or a competent clerk of works, who will not recognise in the scientific volume newly given to circulation, an old and valued friend." — Bznlding News. " The standard treatise upon this particular subject." — Engineer. Strains, FormulcB & Diagrams forCalmlation of, A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their STRENGTH ; consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams,, with numerous Details for Practical Apphcation, &c. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., &c. Fcap. 8vo, with nearly loo- Woodcuts and 3 Plates, price ^s. 6d. cloth. "The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is as convenient as it well could be The system of employing diagrams as a substitute for complex computations is one justly coming into great favour, and in that respect Mr. Humber's volume is fully up to the times." — Engineering. ^ "The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good." — Athenceum. "We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers." — English Mecha?iic, WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 7 Sti^ains. THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. ByF. W. Sheilds, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, ^s. cloth. Contents. — Introductory Remarks ; l)cams Loaded at Centre; Beams Loaded at unequal distances between supports ; Beams uniformly Loaded ; Girders with triangu- lar bracing Loaded at centre ; Ditto, Loaded at unequal distances between supports ; Ditto, uniformly Loaded ; Calculation of the Strains on Girders with triangular Basings ; Cantilevers; Continuous Girders: lattice Girders; Girders with Vertical Struts and Diagonal Ties ; Calculation of the Strains on Ditto ; Bow and String Girders ; Girders of a form not belonging to any regular figure ; Plate Girders ; Ap- portionments of Material to Strain ; Comparison of different Girders ; Proportion of Length to Depth of Girders ; Character of the Work ; Iron Roofs. Co7istrtictio7i of Iro7i Beams, Pillars, &c, IRON AND HEAT, Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat m the Smelting Furnace. By James Armour, C.E. Woodcuts, i2mo, cloth boards, 3^-. dd. ; cloth limp, 2s. 6(/. [^Recently picblisktd. " A ver^' useful and thoroughly practical little volume, in everj-- way deserving of circulation amongst working men." — Minhig Journal. " No ironworker who wishes to acquaint himself with the principles of his own trade can afford to be without it." — Soicth Durhaiii Merctiry. Power in Motiojt. POWER IN MOTION : Horse Power, Motion, Toothed Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces, &c. By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. i2mo, cloth boards, 31. 6d,; cloth limp, 2s. 6d. \_Receiitly piiblished. *' Numerous illustrations enable the author to convey his meaning as explicitly as it is perhaps possible to be conveyed. The value of the theoretic and practical know- ledge imparted cannot well be over estimated." — N.re." — Mining Joicrnal. Earthwork, Measicrentent and Calctdation of. A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. 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Second Edition, much enlarged, consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theo- dolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the System of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep cal- •ulated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts, i2mo, price \2.s. cloth. ** A very useful work for the practical engineer and surveyor. Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables prepared with the accuracy and fulness of 'chose given in this volume." — Rail- luay Netvs. The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same." — Atheiicpum. " The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering profession."' — Mining; yournal. *'We know of no better field-book of reference or collection of tables than that Mr. Haskoll has given." — Artizaii. " A series of tables likely to be very useful to many civil engineers." — Bnilding News.. A very useful book of tables for expediting field-work operations. . . . The present edition has been much enlarged." — Mechajiics' Magazine. We strongly recommend this second edition of Mr. Haskoll's * Field Book' to all classes of surveyors." — Colliery Gtcardiaji. THE PRACTICAL RAILWAY ENGINEER. A concise Description of the Engineering and Mechanical Operations and Structures which are combined in the Formation of Railways for Public Traffic ; embracing an Account of the Principal Works exe- cuted in the Construction of Railways ; with Facts, Figures, and Data, intended to assist the Civil Engineer in designing and executing the important details required. By G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. Fourth Edition, revised and greatly extended. With 71 double quarto Plates, 72 Woodcuts, and Portrait of GEORGE STEPHENSON. One large vol. 4to, 2/. 12s, 6d. cloth. Harbours. THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS. By Thomas Stevenson, F.R.S.E., M.LC.E. Reprinted and en- larged from the Article "Harbours," in the Eighth Edition of " The Encyclopaedia Britannica." With 10 Plates and numerous Cuts. 8vo, \os, 6d. cloth. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 13 Bridge Constricction in Masonry, Timber, and Iron, EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC- TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select \Vorks. By W. Davis IIaskoll, C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works, illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, price 2/. I2s, 6d, half-morocco. " One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and treating on the common cvery-day practice of the railway engineer. ... A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove invaluable to hhndreds. The tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance its value. " — Efigiiieering. ** A very valuable volume." — Bjdlder. "An excellent selection of examples, verj- carefully drawn to useful scales of pro- portion. " — A rtizan. Alatheniatical and Drawing Instruinents. A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPAL MATHEMATICAL AND DRAWING INSTRUMENTS employed by the Engineer, Architect, and Sui-veyor. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E., Author of Practical Tunnelling," &c. &c. Third Edition, with a Description of the Theodolite, together with Instruc- tions in Field Work, compiled for the use of Students on commenc- ing practice. With numerous Cuts. i2mo, price 3J. 6d. cloth. Mathematical histrtiinents, their Constrtictio7t, &c. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS : their CONSTRUC- TION, ADJUSTMENT, TESTING, AND USE; comprising Drawing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instru- ments. By J. F. Heather, M.A., Author of *' Practical Plane Geometry," "Descriptive Geometry,-" &c. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely rewritten. With numerous Wood-cuts. i2mo, cloth boards, price 5^. [Nozv ready. Oblique Arches, A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, price Ss. cloth. T/ie small remaining stock of this work^ which has been un- obtainable for some tif?ie, has jnst beeJi purchased by LoCKWOOD & Co. Oblique Bridges. A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE BRIDGES, with 13 large folding Plates. By Geo. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, corrected by W. H. Barlow, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, 12s. cloth. "The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches, is Mr, Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better." — Eng;itieer. "A very complete treatise on the subject, re-edited by Mr. Barlow, who has added to it a method of making the requisite calculations without the use of trigonometrical formula;." — Builder. 14 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Wealds Series of Rudimentary Works. These highly popular and cheap Series of Books, now comprising nearly Three Hundred distinct Works in almost every department of Science, Art, and Education, are recommended to the notice of En- gineers, Architects, Builders, Artizans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in Workmen's Libraries, Free Libraries, Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, Science Classes, &c., &c. Lists of the several Series may be had on application to LOCKWOOD The following is a Selection of the Works on Civil Engineering, ^c. — STEAM ENGINE. By Dr. Lardnee. is. TUBULAR AND IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, including the Britannia and Conway Bridges. By G. D. Dempsey. is. 6d. STEAM BOILERS, their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong. With Additions, xs. 6ower and Intermediate Rates. By William Inwood, Architect. The i8th edition, with considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Dis- count, Annuities, ia>i. " No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." — The Rock. Geology, Physieal. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General Portlock's Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts. i2mo, 2.s, [Ready. Geology, Historical, HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based on Major-General Portlock's Rudiments of Geology.) By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. Numerous Woodcuts. i2mo, 2s. 6//. \_Ready. Or Physical and Historical Geology, hoimd in One Volume, price ^s. Wood- Carving. INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, hand- somely printed, with Ten large Plates, price is. 6d. "The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ' A Lady's ' publication." — Aihena'tnji. *' A real practical guide. It is very complete." — Literary CJucrchman. " The directions given are plain and easily understood, and it forms a very good introduction to the practical part of the carver's art." — English Mechanic. Popular Work on Painting. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F. S.A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, 6j. cloth. %* This Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools of A rt at South Kensington, ** A work that may be advantageously consulted. Much may be learned, even by those who fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of this impretcnding but comprehensive treatise." — Art Jo7ir7ial. " A valuable book, which supplies a want. It contains a large amount of original matter, agreeably conveyed, and will be found of value, as well by the young artist .seeking information as by the general reader. We give a cordial welcome to the book, and augur for it an increasing reputation." — Builder. " This volume is one that we can heartily recommend to all who are desirous of understanding what they admire in a good painting." — Daily News. 28 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Delamotte' s Works on IllMmination & Alphabets, A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION ; for the use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Prac- tical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Dela- MOTTE. Small 4to, price Qi*. Elegantly bound, cloth antique. "A handy book, beautifully illustrated ; the text of which is well written, and cal- culated to be useful. . . . The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as taste." — Athe7iceuin. ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIyEVAL ; from the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, price 4x. cloth. **A well-known engraver and draughtsman has enrolled in this useful book the result of many 3^ears' study and research. For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be useful." — Athe7iceum. EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA- MENTAL ; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Per- spective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alpha- bets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Royal 8vo, oblong, price d^s. cloth. ** To artists of all classes, but more especially to architects and engravers, this very handsome book will be invaluable. There is con.prised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended m the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is wonderful. " — Sta^idard. MEDIEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- NATORS. By F. Delamotte, Illuminator, Designer, and Engraver on Wood. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. Willis Brooks. Small 4to, 6^. cloth gilt. ** A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, sometimes with a sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem emblazoned in these characters would be only comparable to one of those delicious love letters symbolized in a bunch of flowers well selected and cleverly arranged." — Siin. THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias- tical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, 2s. 6d. in ornamental boards. WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD CO. 29 AGRICULTURE, &c. Yonatt and Biirris Complete Grazier. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. nth Edition, enlarged by Robert Scott Burn, Author of *'The Lessons of My Farm," cS:c. One large 8vo volume, 784 pp. with 215 Illustrations, i/. is. half-bd. CONTENTS. O71 iJic Breeding, Rearing, Faitefiif!(i, nndCeiieral ^Innagofient 0/ Neat Cattle. — IntroductoryViewof the diftercut Breeds of Neat Cattle in Great Britain. — Com- parative View of the difterent Breeds of Neat Cattle. — General Observations on Buying and Stocking a Farm with Cattle. — The Bull. — The Cow. — Treatment and Rearing of Calves. — Feeding of Calves for Veal. — Steers and Draught Oxen. — Graz- ing Cattle. — Summer Soiling Cattle. — Winter Box and Stall-feeding Cattle. — Artificial Food for Cattle. — Preparation of Food.— Sale of Cattle. 0)1 the EcoJLomy and Ma^mgemefit of tlie Dairy. — Milch Kine. — Pasture and other Food best calculated for Cows, as it regards their Milk. — Situation and Buildings proper for a Dairy, and the proper Dairy Utensils. — Management of Milk and Cream, and the Making and Preservation of Butter. — Making and Pre- servation of Cheese. — Produce of a Dairy. On the Breedi?ig, Rearifig, and. Ma- fiageivent of Fartn-horses. — Introductory and Comparative View of the different Breeds of Farm-horses. — Breeding Horses, Cart Stallions and Mares. — Rearing and Training of Colts. — Age, Qualifications, and Sale of Horses. — Maintenance and Labour of Farm-horses. — Comparative Merits of Draught Oxen and Horses. — Asses and Mules. On the Breedi?tgf Rearing, and Fat- tening of SJuep. — Introductory and Com- parative View of the different I'reeds. — Merino, or Spanish Sheep. — Breeding and Management of Sheep. — Treatment and RearingofHouse-lambs,Feedingof Sheep, Folding Sheep, Shearing of Sheep, c^c. On the Breedi)ig, Rearing, and. Fat- teningof Swine. — Introductory and Com- parative View of the different Breeds of Swine. — Breeding and Rearing of Pigs. — Feeding and Fattening of Swine. — Curing Pork apnd Bacon. 0)1 tJie Diseases of Cattle. — Diseases Incident to Cattle. — Diseases of Calves. — Diseases of Horses. — Diseases of Sheep. — Diseases of Lambs. — Diseases Incident to Swine. — Breeding and Rearing of Do- mestic Fowls, Pigeons, &c. — Palmipedes, or Web-footed kinds. — Diseases of Fowls. 0)1 Farm Offices and Implements of Husbaridry. — The Farm-house, the Farm- yard, and its Offices. — Construction of Ponds. — Farm Cottages. — Farm Imple- ments. — Steam Cultivation. — Sowing Ma- chines, and Manure Distributors. — Steam Engines, Thrashing Machines, Corn- dressing Machines, Mills, Bruising Ma- chines. On the C:dture and Managetnent of Grass Land. — Size and Shape of Fields. — Fences. — Pasture Land. — Meadow Land. — Culture of Grass Land. — Hay- making. — Stacking Hay. — Impediments to the Scythe and the Eradication of Weeds. — Paring and Burning. — Draining. Irrigation. — Warping. 0;l the Cultivatia>i and Application of Grasses, Pjclse, and Roots. — Natural Grasses usually cultivated. — Artificial Grasses or Green Crops. — Grain and Pulse commonly cultivated for their Seeds, for their Straw, or for Green Forage. — Vegetables best calculated for Animal Food.— Qualities and Compara- tive Value of some Grasses and Roots as Food for Cattle. 0)L Manures in General, and their Application to Grass Land. — Vegetable Manures. — Animal Manures. — Fossil and Mineral Manures.— Liquid or Fluid Ma- nures. — Composts.— Preservation of Ma- nures. — Application of Manures. — Flemish System of Manuring. — Farm Accounts, and Tables for Calculating Labour by the Acre, Rood, &c., and by the Day, Week, Month, &c.— Monthly Calendar of Work to be done throughout the Year. — Obser- vations on the Weather. — Index. " The standard and text-book, with the farmer and grazier." — Fariner's Magazine. " A valuable repertory' of intelligence for all who make agriculture a pursuit, and especially for those who aim at keeping pace with the improvements of the age."— BeWs Messenger, " A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures," — Mark Lane Express. 30 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. Scott Bursts Introduction to Far^ning. THE LESSONS of MY FARM : a Book for Amateur Agricul- turists, being an Introduction to Farm Practice, in the Culture of Crops, the Feeding of Cattle, Management of the Dairy, Poultry, and Pigs, and in the Keeping of Farm-work Records. By Robert Scott Burn, Editor of The Year-Book of Agricultural Facts," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Fcp. 6^. cloth. **Amost complete introduction to the whole round of farming practice." — John Bull. ' ' There are many hints in it which even old farmers need not be ashamed to accept." — Morning Herald. Tables for La^id Valuers, THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: being Tables, on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. To which are added. Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure ; also, Tables of Square Measure, and of the various Dimensions of an Acre in Perches and Yards, by which the Contents of any Plot of Ground may be ascertained without the expense of a regular Survey ; &c. By R. PIUDSON, Civil Engineer. New Edition, with Additions and Corrections, price 4^-. strongly bound. This new edition includes tables for ascertaining the value of leases for any term of years : and for showing how to lay out plots of ground of certain acres in forms, square, round, &c., with valuable rules for ascertaining the probable worth of standing timber to any amount ; and is of incalculable value to the country gentleman and pro- fessional man." — Farmer s Jour7ial. 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To which are added several Cliapters on Agriculture and Landed Property, by Professor Donaldson, Author of several works on Agriculture. With iiumerous Engravings, in one thick vol. 8vo, price i/. Ss. cloth. coi Arithmetic. Plane and Solid Geometpy. Mensuration. Trigonometry. Conic Sections. Land Measuring. Land Surveying. Levelling. Plotting. Computation of Areas. Copying Maps. Railway Surveying. Colonial Surveying. Hydraulics in connection WITH Drainage, Sewerage, and Water Supply. rTENTS. Timber Measuring. Artificers' Work. 1 Valuation of Estates. i Valuation of Tillage and Tenant ! Right. Valuation of Parishes. ! Builders' Prices. ! Dilapidations and Nuisances. The Law relating to Appraisers and . Auctioneers. ] Landlord and Tenant. ! Tables of Natural Sines and Co- 1 sines ; for Reducing Links into Feet, &c. &c. I Stamp Laws. i Examples of Villas, &c. To zu/iic/i are added Foiirieen Chapters ON LANDED PROPERTY. By Professor Donaldson. Chap. I.— Landlord and Tenant : their Position and Connections. Chap. IL— Lease of Land, Conditions and Restrictions; Choice of Tenant, and Assignation of the Deed. Chap. IIL — Cultivation of Land, and Rotation of Crops. Chap. IV.— Buildings necessary on Cultivated Lands : Dwelling-houses, Farmeries, and Cottages for Labourers. ' Chap. V. — Laying out Farms, Roads, Fences, and Gates. Chap. VL— Plantations, Young and Old Timber. Chap. VIL— Meadows and Embankments, Beds of Rivers, Water Courses, and Flooded Grounds, Chap. VIIL— Land Draining, Opened and Covered : Plan, Execution, and Arrangement between Landlord and Tenant. Chap. IX. — Minerals, Working, and Value. Chap. X. — Expenses of an Estate. Chap. XI.— Valuation of Landed Property ; of the Soil, of Houses, of Woods, of Mmerals, of Manorial Rights, of Royalties, and of Fee Farm Rents. Chap. XII.— Land Steward and Farm Bailiff : Qualifications and Duties. Chap. XIII.— Manor Bailiff, V/oodreeve, Gardener, and Gamekeeper: their Position and Duties. Chap. XIV.— Fixed Days of Audit : Half-yearly Payi.ieiiLs of Rents, Form of Notices, Receipts, and of Cash Books, General Map of Es- tates, &c. 32 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. No Englishman ought to be without this book!' EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER ; a Handy-Book of the Prin- ciples of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. 9th Edition, carefully revised, including a Summary of the New Bankruptcy Laws, the Fraudulent Debtors Act, the Reported Cases of the Courts of Law and Equity, &c. With Notes and References to the Authorities. i2mo, price 6^". %d. (saved at eveiy consultation), strongly bound. \^Now ready. Comprising the Rights and Wrongs of Individuals^ Mercantile and Com- me7'cial Law, Cri??tijial Law, Parish Lazv, Cotmty Court Laiv, Game and Fishery Laws, Poor Men's Lawsuits. THE LAWS OF Bankruptcy. Bills of Exchange. Contracts and Agreements. Copyright. Dower and Divorce. 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