r-~^r^-----r-r^\r*r-r-r-r-^-----^~~--^-."~---^r-~~-^~~- m -~-^-~r„-.-.'-„-„- 9 5 t^ / s <£A ^fk* t^PS&te* £U t/j. ys'i. <%;>' ^/ * *\ ■JK * * ? ,/.-//;//■ //i !•/>■/■, M'» ( . SniTHtcn Jcttffi Duce Minerva A NEW AND COMPLETE DICTIONARY O F ARTS and SCIENCES; COMPREHENDING ALL The Branches of Ufeful Knowledge, WITH ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS as well ofjlic various Machines, Instruments, Tools, Figur^, and Schemes neceflary for illuftrating them, a s o F The Claffes, Kinds, Preparations, and Ufes of Natural Productions, whether Animals, Vegetables, Minerals, Fossils, or Fluids -, Together with The Kingdoms, Provinces, Cities, Towns, and other remarkable Places throughout the World. Illuftrated with above Three Hundred Copper-Platis, engraved by Mr. Jefe erys, Geographer to His Majesty. The "Whole extracted from the Beft A u t ho r s in all Languages* By a Society of Gentlemen. The SECOND EDITION, With many Additions, and other Improvements. •Hue undique Gaza Conger itur • VirC. i - ■ I V O L. I. LONDON: Printed for W.Owe n, at Homer's Head, In Fleet-flrect MDCCL-XIII. fc THE INTRODUCTION. S mankind, in at leafl all the polite and civilized parts of the world, are abundantly convinced of the ineftimable value of Knowledge, we (hall not detain the reader with needlefs encomiums of it ; neither fhall we e ter upon a tedious hiftory of the rife and progrefs of the feveral Arts and Sciences. It appears to us much more interefting, ?.s well as more con- ducive to our prefent purpofe, to employ the few pages allotted for an Introduc- tion,, in (hewing how juftly this work merits the title of a Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences : this we fhall attempt to do, by briefly explaining the de'fign and nature of the work, and afterwards giving a fhort analyfis of the iubjeit- mattters contained in it. Tm general, then, it is defigned, and, upon examination, we are confident will be found, to be more univerfal and comprehehfive, than any work of the like natuire, hitherto publifhed in any language : for not only are the larger branches of Science, and general clafles of natural objects, here explained and illuftrated; bat,, likewife, their various fubdivifions purlued throughout the moft minute ra- mifications : thus, the properties of Points and Atoms, for inftance, are by no meains omitted, though contained in much narrower bounds than thofe of Lines, Angrles, Surfaces, and Solids : here too the fmalleft Infect and Plant find a place, only/ a lefs one than thofe allotted for the defcription of the Elephant and Oak : in a. word, it will contain, fo to fpeak, the quintefcence of literature, extracted frorm loads of grofs materials, and efpecially from that chaos of words which HH3 up whole pages, where one paragraph might have ferved. But this is not all ; for : befides lopping off excrefcences, curtailing fuperfiuities, and wholly rejecting ufellefs lumber, particular care has been taken to fupply the deficiencies, as well as tco correct what appeared to be amifs in the plans of former fcientifical lexico- graphers : hence it is that fome of our articles are more full than their?, others morre concife, and a multitude of entirely new ones added ; not to mention the different arrangement and difpofition which obtain on many occafions. Among the new articles may be ranked moft, if not all, the geographical ones, many com- merrcial and fcientifical, and not a few in natural hiftory. TThis work, therefore, will make a Complete, though concife, Body of Arts anal Sciences, Natural Hi for y, and Geography, difpofed in the commodious form of a dictionary; concerning which form we find ouifelves obliged to remark, thait fome have very injudicioufly condemned the ufe of references. A thou- fancd inftances might be brought, to prove their being indifpenfibly neceflary to tthe perfection of fuch a work : thus, under the general article Animal, after defnning what is meant by the term, and diftributing it into theclaffes Qvaoru- peids, Birds, Fishes, &c. the nature of a dictionary, which treats of every thimg under diftinft articles, makes references to thefe heads, for the particular description and fubdivifions of each, not only ufeful, but an efiential part of the woirk. On the other hand, to avoid needlefs repetition?, it has been judged fuf- A 2 £cient, 3^ jv INTRODUCTION. ficient, under particular articles, Horse, for example, to fay that it is an ani- mal of the clafs of quadrupeds, and order of the jumenta, or beaftsof burden; taking care to give the chara&eriflical peculiarities that diftinguifh it from all other animals, and refer to the articles Animal, Quadruped, and Jumenta, for its general and claflical characters, or thofe it has in common with other ani- mals of the fame clafs and order. What has been faid of Animal and Horfe, will hold equally with refpedt to other articles; thus, from Arithmetic and Alcehra we refer to Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, ciff. and from thefe back again to Arithmetic and Algebra, for the general ac- count of thefe fciences. This double reference, like a double entry in mer- chants books, is that bond of union whereby the various and frequently very diftant parts of the work are connected together, and an harmony, fimplicity, and order eftablifhed, without which all would be confufion and difcord. But befiJe- this neceflity of fymmetry, arifing from the nature of the work, the ca- price of authors, in coining a multiplicity of names for the fame object, has fub- jtcled lexicographers to the cruel and almofl endlefs talk of explaining the various terms they have ufed for one and the fame thing. Now the only poflible me- thod of doing this in an accurate and fcientifical manner is to defcribe every frcjvobject under a felect name, and refer from the other fynonymous terms to thaflbfeak for the defcription. It remains now to fay fomething of the fources, whence the materials of this wosk have been drawn : and, indeed, thefe are too numerous to be particularly mentioned ; all helps, from whatever quarter, having been ufed with the utmolt freedom. Dictionaries tranfaftions, memoirs, fyllems, commentaries, practices, and even effays, elements, and grammars have contributed their feveral quotas. Thefe, like fo many rich mines, have furnifhed ample materials for erefting this new edifice; in which, however, they are fo transformed and new-modelled, in order to fit them for their refpeclive places, that it would be both tedious and ufe- Jefs to refer to the originals on every occafion. This, neverthelefs, we have al- ways taken care to do when neceffary ; never failing to point out the bed authors on each art and fcience, and refer the curious to books where farther information on the moft interelling fubjects may be obtained. With refpeft to the copper-plates, it is fufficient to obferve, that they mull greatly enhance the merit of the work; fince, without them, the moil; ac- curate descriptions feldom convey fuch diftinft ideas of things as could be wifhed. On the other hand, the defcriptions ferve to explain the copper-plates: for though the engraver has, indeed, with much ingenuity, delineated the many mathema- tical fchemes, figures, machines, inftruments, animals, plants, and other curious productions of .in and nature, l"e!e6ted for the illuftration and embeliifhment of this work ; yet their properties, conftruclion, and various ufes mud be learned fro.n the defcriptjon given of them under their refpective articles. Having thus, in few words, explained the defign and nature of our undertak- ing, we (hall next proceed to lay down a plan of the fubjeft-matter : but as th.s raflc of no fmall difficulty, it will be neceffary, in order to affift our own as well a-; the reader's imagination, to fubjoin tjje .Table or Scheme of Knowledge ; by which, as by an intellectual compals, we have fteercd our courfe through the v. ft ocean of literature. It is conftructed upon a very different plan from all that bave falleo w thin our notice: that of Mr. Chambers has begn generally diilikec, at coo fchoiafttc and abftradled ; and even that of the great Bacon, with all the improvements o( the ingenious authors of the french Encyclop a:dia, is, in our opinion, INTRODUCTION. v opinion, tpo complicated, inafmuch as it blends the confideration of the human foul with that of the objects of its knowledge. On this laft foundation it is that the annexed general Scheme of Human Knowledge has been drawn up ; which, we flatter ourfelves has the advantage of any of thofe before-mention- ed, not only as being more funple and natural, but likewife fuller and more accurately diftributed. This fcheme is branched out, firft in f o the General and Particular objecls of Knowledge : under the former, or general branch, arc comprehended Meta- phyfks, Ontology, or Firft Philofophy ; which are again fubdivided into general Pneumatology, Phyfics, Muhematics, Phyfiology, and Chronology : all which are cither employed about the eflen.es or general attributes of Beings, as will be explained afterwards. Under the fecond grand branch of knowledge are com- prehended all particular objects, fubdivided into Divine, Human, Natural, and Artificial ; the firft whereof includes all that we know about God and matters of religion ; the fecond, all that more immediately regards Mankind, whether con- sidered as Individuals, or Members of Society ; the third, all Natural objects, from the Sun, Stars, and Planets, to the moft minute Infect and Atoms of our earth ; and the fourth, all works of Art ; which, notwithftanding their manifefi; connection with the fecond branch, we have judged expedient to arrange under a feparate and diftinft clafs, for this reafon, that as the admirable works of the great Author of nature are confidered feparately from Theology, fo may the comparatively diminutive, though at the fame time curious and ufeful, produc- tions of human Art be confidered feparately from Mankind themfelves. As to the many fubdivifions of each of thefe larger branches, they may be feen in the fcheme itfelf; which, being drawn up with no inconfiderable application and fludv, is fubmitted to the judgment of the learned, who at leatt cannot fail to approve of our endeavours to pleafe them ; fince thisdefire, added to that of find- ing a cue to guide us through the intricate mazes of literature, was what fet us upon compiling it. We will now take a general furvey of the Arts and Sciences, and as they pafs in review before us, point out the moft important branches treated of under each of them ; which, at the fame time that it ferves as a farther illuftration of the Scheme here referred to, will be a brief analyfis of this work. (i) Metaphysics, Ontology, or First Philosophy, undoubtedly confti- tutc the moft fublime of all fcienees, as treating of the efience and univerfal af- fections of all beings. To be a good metaphyfician, one muft firft be a good diviroe, a good philofopher, and, in fhort, a thorough proficient in every branch of particular knowledge ; he muft have diftinct and adequate ideas of the nature and manifold properties of beings in general; otherwife in clafling, diftinguiih- ing, and varioufly arranging them, he muft unavoidably fall into the groffeft blumders : we have, therefore, endeavoured to explain the various opinions of the learned concerning Efience, Subftance, Caufe, Effect, Poffibility, Necefiity, Power, Duration, Number, Finite, Infinite, Category, Predicament, Genus, Species, cirV. (sb) Pneumatolocy, called a!fo Pneumatics, is one great and important branich of metrphvfics, which treats of fpiritual beings, their powers, attributes, fcfr. whence arfe a great mary curious ar'.icles, as Spirit, God, Angel, Soul, Minid, Underftanding, Idea, Perception, Judgment, Reafoning, Reflection, Sen- latiom, c5c. alfo Knowledge, Science, Will, Memory, Imagination, &c. all treated of in their feveral places. (3) Physics, vi INTRODUCTION, (3) Physics, another great branch of Metaphyfics, to which belongs the ex- planation of the general properties of corporeal beings, is fubdivided into Ma- thematics and Phvfiology. (4) Mathematics treat of Number, Figure, and Magnitude; and hence thefubordinate fuences, Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry : the great excel- lency of all which is owing to this, that as we have more diftinct and determinate ideas of their principles, folikewife is the knowledge thence arifmg more precife and certain than that of molt other fciences. (-) Arithmetic is confidered not only with refpect to its fundamental operations, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Divifion ; but likewife the rules of Proportion, Intereft, Fellowfhip, Rebate and Difcount, Tare and Tret. Fractions vulgar and decimal, Reduction, Involution, Extraction of roots, Alligation, Pro^reflion both arithmetical and geometrical, Arithmetic of infi- nites Logarithm?, C5. whence the articles Orthographic, Stereo- graphic, Analemma, Planifphere, Pole, &c, 4 (10) Conics, INTRODUCTION. ' vli (lo) Conics, another branch of geometry, treat of the conic feclions, as Circle, Ellipfis, Parabola, and Hyperbola: whence a variety of articles, as Axis, Afymptote, Abfcifs, Focus, Parameter, Ordinate, Diameter, &c\ all treated of under their feveral articles. (n) Physiology, or Natural Philosophy, a fcience of vaft extent, is univerfally acknowledged to be the molt fublime, moft entertaining, and at the fame time moft ufeful part of fpeculative knowledge, relating to natural objecls. It has for its object the Laws and various Phenomena of Nature ; whence arife the articles Matter, Body, Extenfion, Solidity, Fluidity, Divifibility, Inertia, Motion, Gravity, Attraction, Cohefion, Electricity, Magnetifm, Elafticity, Hardnefs, Softnefs, Malleability, Hear, Light, Cold, Frolt, Condenfation, Rarefaction, Fermentation, Generation, Vegetation, Cryitallization, Nutrition, Putrefaction, Rain, Thunder, Hurricane, Cloud, Meteor, Rain-bow, Summer, Winter, Sound, Tafle, Colour, Smell, &c. In fhorr, this fcience may be look- ed u pon as the bafis of all Natural and Artificial Knowledge, and even of Human, fo far as it regards the body. (12) Dynamics conftitute a branch of phyfiolegy, to which belongs the con- fideration of the Laws of Motion, of Percullion, of Action and Txeaction, of Force, Acceleration, Retardation, Direction, Velocity, Central Forces, Springs, Powers, Weights, &c. (13) Mechanics are another branch of Phyfiology, which treat of the Equi- librium and Combination of Powers ; and hence the fimple machines called the Mechanical Powers, viz. Lever, Ballance, Axis in Peritrcchio, or Axis and Wheel, Pulley, Wedge, Screw, and Inclined Plane : of thefe are all man- ner of compound engines and machines conftructej ; fome confirming of feveral levers; others, of levers, fcrews, and wheels; and others, of all the fimple powers, varnoufly combined. Hence the articles Friction, Friction-wheels, Clock, Watch, Water-works, Wind-mill, Water-mill, Crane, Capftan, Windlar, Pile-engine, Silk-engine, Orrery, tiff. ( 14) Chronology is employed about Time, and comprehends not only the larger periods, as the Julian and Victorian Periods, the Chriltian ./Era, the He- gira, Spanifh yEra, cifc but likewife its lefier diviiions, as Hour, Day, Week, Month, Year, Olympiad, Luftrum, C)de, Age, Century. Heice alfo a va- riety of articles, relating either to the methods of computing time, or the inflrruments for meafuring it, as Fafti, Calendar, Almanac, Eafter, Epact, Golden Number, Style, Julian, Gregorian, Indidion, Dial, Watch, Clock, Water and Sand-glaffes, &c. all explained in their proper places. (15) Theology, considered as a branch of Pneumatology, treats of the Be- ing and Attributes of God, and is either Natural or Supernatural, according as its principles are derived from Reafon or Revelation ; hence aifo the articles Eternity, Omnipotence, Omnifcience, Ubiquity, Creation, Providence, CSV. (16) Religion is of much greater extent, as comprehending the Creed*, Festivals, Ceremonies, and Rites of the almoll numberlefs fec'ts to be found among Chrillians, Jews, Mahometans, and Pagans. Our general divifion of thiefe is into True and Falfe; Chrillianity and Judaifm being ranked under the farmer, and Mahometanifra and Paganilm under the latter : however, to pre- vent m INTRODUCTION. vent being mifunderftood, let it be remarked, that we do not mean this of }a* diitm as profefied by the modern Jews, but fuch as it was before the coming of our Saviour, and as delivered in the Old Teitament ; for as to modern Judaifm, it is perhaps more abfurd than Mahometanifm. The principal articles treated of, under this head bf Religion, may be claffed in the following manner, i. The various Sects, as Prcteitants, Papifts, Arians, Arminians, Socinians, Brachmans, Gymnofophifls, rjfr. 2. The Rites and Ceremonies, as Baptifm, Eucharift, Ordination, Circumcifion, &c. 3. The different kinds of Worfhip, as Adoration, Prayers Pfalmody, Sacrifice, &c. 4. The Fellivals, as Chriftma% Eafter, Pentecoft, Pafibver, Bacchanalia, tffc. 5. The Fails, as Lent, Ramadan, cjr\. 6. The facred Books, as Bible, Al- coran, &c. 7. The facred Minifters, as Prieft, Bifhop, Mufti, Dervis, &c. 8. Places and Utenfils of worfhip, as Church, Chapel, Temple, Mcfque, Al- tar, rjfr. all which are explained in the order of the alphabet. (17) Anthropology includes the doctrine of Human Nature, confidered in general ; the Rank which mankind hold in the Creation ; the Union of Soul and Body, and the Laws thereof; the Immateriality, Rationality, and Immor- tality of the Soul; the unalienable Rights and Privileges of every individual, as Self-prefervation and Liberty ; the Faculties and Defires common to ihe whole human race, as Underftanding, Dcfire of Happinefs, Sociability, l$c. (18) Logic, a fcience much cultivated both by antient and modern philo- fophers, and juftly held in the higheft eftimation, has the Faculty of the Human Underftanding for its object, and is confequently but a branch of anthropology. It cor.fiders the Origin of Human Knowledge, fhews how Ideas or Notions are formed, compares them to difcover their Agreement or Difagreemenr, teaches the Rules of Ratiocination, and explains the # Methods purfued in the Investiga- tion of Tru;h. Hence arife a multitude of important articles, as Perception, Idea, Senfation. Refleclion, Abftra&ion, Compofition, Divifion, Judgment, Proportion, Affirmative, Negative, Universal, Particular, Abfolute, Condi- tional, Self-evident, Argument, Axiom, Principle, Syllogifm, Terms, Premifes, tonclufion, Figure, Mode, Sorites, Dilemma, Sophifm, Enthymeme, Truth, Falfhood, Evidence, Demonttration, Method, Analyfis, Synthefis, &c. (19) Personal Ethics, called by Bacon the Georgics of the Mind, have the Faculty of the Will for their object, and confequently are only a branch of an- thropology, concerning which we cannot affirm what has been faid of logic,, fince philofophers have only confidered it as a fubdivifion of General Ethics, under the title of the Duties of Man to himfelf. Some, indeed, at the head of whom may be placed Lord Shaftelhury and Hutchefon, have treated of the Ba- lance of the Affections, the Power of the Pafiions, and the Beauty of Virtue and Goodncfs ; ytt ftill a regular and fyftematical treatife on this fubject feems to be much wanted. We have explained the various terms Anger, Averfiort, Hatred, Defire, Hope, Joy, Pleafure, Pain, Good, Evil, Paflion, Appetite, Abftinence, Temperance, tsV. under their refpective articles. (20, 21) Hieroglyphics and Heraldry are fifter-arts, whereof the firft, by vario.is Symbols and Emblems, tends to preferve the memory of divir.e ob- jects of knowledge, whether dodrines, offices, or rites ; and the latter, by the like means, perpetuates the honours of great men and families. Every reigion is fornifhed with a peculiar fee of Hieroglyphics, or myftical representations. This: INTRODUCTION. i* The Egyptians of old were famous for them ; the feftivals of the Greeks and Ro- mans were full of them ; and even the chriilian and jewifh religions are not without them, witnefs B ptifm, Circumcifion, Crucifixes, Surplices, &c. How- ever, it muft be con fe fled, that the doctrine of Hieroglyphics ib by no means re- duced to a fyftcm ; which is the reafon that though we have given the beft in- formation in our power on all thefe and the like heads, yet not with fuch pre- cifion as we could have wifhed. With refpeft to Heraldry, the cafe is quite other- wife ; here we have explained the feveral Ordinaries, Charges, Colours, Metals, and Bearings ; whence arife the articles Bar, Bend, Chief, Crofs, Bjrdure, Pale, Saltier, Quarter, Dexter, Sinifter, Or, Argent, Azure, Efcutcheon, Shield, Creft, Supporters, Blazoning, c5V. all which are defcribed in their places, and the figures of mull of them curioufly engraved in the copper-plates. (22,23) Grammar and History are alfo kindred branches of human.' knowledge, ferving to perpetuate the memory of facts and inventions, and fpread ihe knowledge of arts and fciences : the firft we have confidered as divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Profody ; whence arife the articles Letter, Vowel, Confonant, Word, Particle, Subftantive, Adjeclive, Pro- noun, Verb, Active, PalTive, Adverb, Prepofuion, In;erjection, Conjunction, Number, Cafe, Declenfion, Pcrfon, Mood, Tenfe, Concord, Regimen, Verfe, Profe„ Accent, Pronunciation, Primitive, Derivative, Simple, Compound, Re- gular* Irregular, Language, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, F.nglifh, German, French, t5V. As to Hiftory, we have confidered it as divided ir.to Civil, Ecclefiailical, Natural, and Literary; hence the articles Dictionary, Syftem, Abridgement, Elements, Synopfis,.and many of thofe enumerated under the heads Government, Religion, and Natural Hiilory. (24, 25) Rhetoric and Poetry are two liberal arts which owe mod of their captivating charms to a good Imagination, or Genius; and, indeed, without, the aid of this faculty, it is impofiible to excel in any one art or fcience what- ever. Under Poetry come the articles Poem, Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, Ode, Hymn, Pfalm, Song, Satire, Elegy, Epigram, Tragedy, Comedy, Prologue, Epilogue, Soliloquy, Protafis, Epitafis, Cataftrophe, Act, Scene, Paftoral, Farce, Hexameter, Pentameter, Iambic, Sapphic, Adonic, &c. And to Rhetoric may be referred the articles Elocution, Action, Difpofition, Exordium, Narration, Confiirmation, Peroration, Figure, Trope, Exclamation, Ay/oitrophe, Epipho- nema„ Metaphor, Allegory, Hyperbole, Style, bV. (26) Music, another art depending upon imagination, we have explained in the concifelt manner canfiltent with perfpicuity ; the terms 3re not only defined, but the grounds of Harmony accounted for; and both antient and modern Mufic illuftrated under a variety of articles, as Diagram, Chord, Character, Scale, Interval, ClefF, Bafs, Tenor, Treble, Genus, Chromatic, Enharmonic, Diatomic, Gamut, Solfaing, Temperament, Tone, Note, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Octave, Diateffaron, Diapente, Diapafon, Al- legro, Andante, Trumpet, Flute, Organ, Harpfichord, Violin, &c. (27 ) Arts, in general, might be referred to the imagination ; but we choofe rather to clafs them according to the various ufes they are intended to ferve, as may be feen afterwards. (28) Anatomy has the conflituent parts of the human body for its object, which the reader will find concifely and diftinctly explained in their places, fuch are Head, Br.eaft, Thorax, Abdomen, Arm, Leg, Anery, Vein, Nerve, a Mufde. X INTRODUCTION. Mufcle, Bone, Gland, Heart, Stomach, Spleen, Liver, Lungs, Gall, B!oo *iv INTRODUCTION. Brafs, Cobalt, Smalt, Zinc, Nitre, Alum, Armoniac, Precious Stones, Cryftalr, i lint, Marble, Lime-ftone, Slate, Glimmer, Afbellus, Ochres, Maries, Chalk, Clay, Sand, Earth, Petrifactions, ts'c. (48) Hydrology is employed in explaining the Nature, Principles, and Ufes of all kinds of Waters, as Sea-warer, Vitriolic Waters, Sulphureous-waters, Cha- lybeate-waters, Lime-water. fjV. and hence Spring, Bath, Spaw, Bnitol, Pyr- mont, Scarborough, Tunbridge, &c. Waters. As to the medicated Waters, they belong to Pharmacy. (49) Hydrostatics conflitute that part of Natural Hiftory which explains the gravity and preiiure of water : hence the articles Fluids, Gravity, PrefTure, Specific-gravity, Denfity, Rarity, ^Equilibrium, Araeometer, Hydrollatical Ba- lance, Diving-Bel', c?>. Under which we have explained the ui'e of thefe ma- chines in Geometry, Commerce, Mechanics, is'c. alfo for finding the fpecific gravity of folid bodies; whereof we have given a table, as afcertained by the bell writers on thefe fubje&s. (co) Hydraulic i treat of the motion of water, and the conftruction of all kinds of initruments and machines relating thereto. We have therefore con- £dered this fcience in five different lights, according to the caules which pro- duce this motion. 1. That arifing from the natural gravity and preiTure of the particles of water, which will be explained under the articles Spring, River, Fountain, Fluids, Jet cfeau,l5c. 2. That arifing from the preffure of the air on the (uifa.e of the refervoir, which will be explained under the heads Siphon, Pump, Archi;m deb's Screw, Preffure, &c. 3. The motion of fluids produced by the foice of tondenfed air, confidered under Water-engine. 4. That occa- sioned by the force or preffure of piftons, explained under Forcing-pumps, c. That owing to attraction ; wherce the articles Tide, Capillary Tubes, Hsemaftatics, &c. (51) Navigation is the art of conducting a fhip through the ocean, from one port to another ; by which means a communication is opened between the rnoft tiiftant, countries, and the delicacies, as well as the conveniencies of life, brought from the Eaft and Weft-Indi s ; the manufactures and fuperfluities of one country are carried off, and in exchange are brought home the conimod ties wanted either for homeconfumption, for improving and inlarging their manu- factures, or as commercial articles to be exported again. As therefore Naviga- tion is the foul of ingenuity, the fpring and fupport of induftry, and the only honourable means of enriching a nation, fo ufeful a fcience delerves to be ex- plained in the fulled and rnoft diftinct manner ; which has been accordingly done under the articles Mercator's failing, Plain failing, Current-failing, Midilc- latitude-failing, Great Circle-failing, Compafs, Chart, Needle, Variation, Log, Diftance, Departure, Longitude, Latitude, Reckoning, Courfe, Traverfe, Ob- ferv;nion, Quadrants, Fore-ftaff, Back-ftaff, Allrolable, Harbour, Port, Sound- ing, Mooring, Careening, Star- board, Lar-board, cjfe. together wi.h the many articks hereafter mentioned under Ship-building. (52) Aerology treats of the nature and properties of Air, its Fluidity, Gra- vity, Elaflicity, Denfity, Rarefaction, Principles, Atmofphere, Vapour, Exha- lation, l3c. whence Barometer, Thermometer, Hygrometer, &c. (53) Meteorology treats of the various phenomena obfervable in the at- mofphere, as Fog, Cloud, Rain, Snow, Hail, Dew, Rainbow, Water- fpcut, Hilo, INTRODUCTION". xv Halo, Mock funs, Thunder, lightening, Aurora Borealis, Fiery Meteors, Calior and Polllux, Will-with-the-wifp, c5V. (54) Pneumatics are chiefly employed in explaining the force and fpring of the Aiir, the caufe of Winds, Trade-winds, Monfoons, Hurricanes, cffr. aifo the conitruction of Air-pumps, Air-guns, Diving-Bells, Water-bellows, ^£ol : - pile, Windmills, Rigging and Sails of Ships, fjrV. together with the doctrine of Sound, Echoes, c3V. (55) Optics, including Catoptrics and Dioptrics, maybe confidered as theo- retical or practical. In the firft of thefe views we have explained the nature and propagation of Light, the caufe and Laws of Reflection and Refraction, the different Refrangibility of the rays of Light, the ftructure of the Eye and the nature of Vifion, the appearance of objects through mediums of different forms, and the caufes of the variety of colours obfervable in bodies, as a'fo of opacity and tranfparency. With regard to the practical part, we have given the method of grinding Glaffes, Mirrors, Lenfes, c». and conitructing the molt remarkable Optical instruments, as Telefcope, Microlcope, Camera Gbfcura, Magic Lanthorn, Polemofcope, Polyhedron, Scioptic Ball and Socket, Hdioftata, Spectacles, Spying-Glafles, C5Y. (56, 57) Perspective, Drawing, and Painting, are After arts, which by- means of lines, fhade, and colours, exhibit on a plane the likenefs of natural objects , as they appear to the eye at any height or diitance, or in any attitude or other circumltances. Some of the articles, treated of under thefe heads, are Scenography, Orthography, Ichnography, Stereography, Anamorphofis, Re- duction, Plane, Defigning, Engraving, Etching, Draught, Defign, Pentagraph, Claro-Obfcuro, Attitude, Action, Expreflion, Group, Contralt, Limning, Minia- ture, Frefco, Japanning, Enamelling, Dialling, Drapery, Portrait, IViezzotinto, Colours, Crayon, Proportion, Prototype, c5V. (58) The artificial objects of knowledge are here claffed, according to the prin- cipal purpofes they are intended to ferve ; fome being employed about Diet, others about Drefs and Equipage, and others about Building and Furniture : fome again ;are fubfervient to Literature, and others employed about Tools, Inftruments,, and Machines of all kinds. We (hall now take a view of the fubdivifions of this laft branch of particular knowledge : And firft of the Arts,refpecting (59) Diet, which affords employments for various artifts and tradefmen, a? Baker's, Brewers, Vintneri, Cooks, Butchers, Poulterers, Fifhmongers, CSV. and hence the articles Baking, Bread, Bifket, Flour, Dough, Oven, Brewing, Ale, Beer, Wine, Cyder, Perry, Mead, Punch, Diitilling, Fermenting, Clarifying, Bottling, Flefh, Fifh, Beef, Mutton, Poultry, Wild Fowl, Venifon, Poik, Bacon, Ham, Cod, Herring, Salmon, Anchovy, Apple, Pear, Peach, Nectarine, Currants, Cherries, Pine-apple, Orange, Melon, &c. alio Broth, Soup, jelly, Pudding, Pye, Cuftard, Sauce, Defert, Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, Sugar, Spice;, Milk, Cream, Butter, Whey, Cheefe, Marmalade, Burgoo, Ragoj, Fricafiee, and a multitude of other fimilar articles. (6c) Dress and Equipage give rife to ftill more numerous trades, the prin- cipal of which are mentioned under this branch in our general i'cheme of Know- ledge Hence the articles Cloth, Linen, Silks, Weaving, Fulling, Dying, Bleaclhing, Printing, Stuff's, Cr.mblet, Brocade, Sattin, Cambric, Lawn, Muflin, Gowra, Hat, Stocking, Lace, Fur, Gloves, Shoes, Boots, Saddles, Chariot, Coach, Chair, &c. ■* (6j.) xvi INTRODUCTION {61) Architecture, or the art of Building, includes a mu'titude offul ordinate arts, as Mafonry, Carpentry, and thofe of Bricklayers, Tylers, Sla Glaziers, Smiths, Plafterers, isc. As to Architecture, properly fo calloH confiders the Solidity, Conveniency, Beauty, and Proportion of all mannew Buildings, as Church, Palace, &c The terms, as found in Vitruvius, PalladT Daviler, iffc. are explained. The different orders, as Doric, Ionic, Cor* ihian, Tufcan, Compofite, 6fr. are not only defcnbed, but illuftrated by Cffl per-plates. Hence a variety of uieful articles, as Building, Foundation, W4 window, Door, Gate, Porch, Column, Pedeftal, Bafe, Shaft, Entablatu Capital, Corniche, Freeze, Volute, Module, Modillion, Aftragal, Tore, Chiij ney, Ceiling, Roof, Floor, Wainfcot, Stair, Hall, Apartment, Chamb Cellar, Kitchen, Barn, Stable, iffc. (62) Fortification, or Military Architecture, comprehends manner of Buildings and other works eretled for the fecurity and defence of] City, Town, or other places of ftrength. Hence the articles Fortrefs, or fori £ed Town, Fort, Caftle, Citadel, Baftion, Curtin, Rampart, Ditch, or Mo Counterfcarp, Covered-way, Glacis, Crown-work, Half-moon, Redoubt, Plaj form, Battery, Mine, Trench, Parallel, Circumvallation, Contravallation, all which are in the order of the alphabet, as are the fyllems of Coehorn, Va ban, Scheilter, &c. under Fortification. (63) Ship-building, or Naval Architecture, treats of the Conftrudio Rigging, and different parts of Ships of War and Burden, Sloops, Buffes, Galleyi, Barges, Boats, cifc. Hence the articles Hull, Keel, Stern, Prow, Deck Quarter-deck, Fore cattle, Cabin, Maft, Bowfprit, Cordage, Cable, Ancho Capftan, Pump, Yards, Sails, Tackle, Helm, Steerage, &c. (64, 65, 66) The arts relating to Furniture, Literature, Tools, Inftruments, 1 Machines, afford employment to a multitude of workmen, fome of whom mentioned under thefe heads in our general fcheme, where we are likewife pretl full in regard to the works produced by them ; all which the reader will find de-l fcribed in their places and molt of the Tools, Inftruments, and Machines, illu«| itrated with copper-plates. Thus we have taken a general furvey of the Arts and Sciences, and poim out fome of the principal fubjecls treated of in this Dictionary ; concerning the Utility of which, no reafonable perfon can entertain any doubt : — not the Prince, as having fleets to be equipped, military (lores to he provided, public! buildings to be erecled, and matters of government to be tranfacted; — not the!" Nobleman or Gentleman, who have eftates to be improved, gardens to be laid[ out, mines to be wrought, and other works to be executed ; — not the Divine or! Philofopher, who will here find every branch of Literature treated in a truly fci-l, entifical and confident manner; — not the Merchant or Trader, who witnouta perfect knowledge of the commodities they deal in, the duties to be paid, the* bounties and drawbacks to be received, and other commercial affairs, are liable to» be greatly impofed on ; — and, laftly, not the Farmer or Mechan't, who will here find an accurate defcription of the Tools a- ' Operations of their refpective arts, with many ufeful hints towards improving m. A NE 11 1 1 I — ^M A&BOK SC1&JN 1 1AE EX OBJECfTIS DESUMPTA A D O R, STRIBUTION OF KNOWLEDGE ACCORDING TO ITS OBJECTS. _ CMetaphysics (i), GENERAL known bv tne names of to be found among) J^' C eftivals, f S ) Mahometans, C :cts, &c. J L Pagans; J /-Creeds, I Ceren . Practical, comprehending the< Fafts, j Feftii LSefts C True 7 hence< ^Religions (.6). CFalfei '' HUMAN, refpefting Man, coniidered in General, his Rank and Condition, the Union of Soul and Body, &c. the Science whereof may be termed Anthropology (17), {Apprehenfion, Judgment, Reafbning, Demonftration j j ^"Soul, or Mind, the Faculties! whereof are Will, refpefting "> r Ideas. f comprehending the jPropofitions. Doarine of xSyllogifms. ^Method, whetherj^g;. ? whence Logics (i 8). TDefiie, Love, ■< Hope, whence arife^ £>?> CFear, Hatred, < Averfion, Good, .. j-] • (.whence aiife-J Evil 5 ) C] whence Georgica Anim;e, or perfonal Ethics (19). as an Individual, made up of Memory, as aided by< C Anger 5 -Symbols; whence J H.eroclyp3ics (20). ' I Heraldry '21). (.Letters ; whence Speech, .Imagination, asyVerfe, vemployed about \ Sounds Arts ; ■ /- Orthography, Grammar (t 2 ), comprehending) Etymology. (. Profodv. History (23). 'Rhetoric (24). /•Epic. whence Poetry (25), . fubdivided into Dramatic ; whence ■ Allegorical. Tragedy, Comedy. Opera. Paftoral. Music (26). Painting, Sculpture and the whole body of Arts (27). J Constituent Parts, "J r Anatomy (28 tt ... / 1 „„ CPharmacy (30). Healtn ' I , J Medicine. (29) fubfervient to which are whence \ C Surgery f«V Beauty, Vigour j j Cosmetics (33), \ C Fencing, w Gymnastics (34), comprehending< Dancing, (- Boxing, &c. General Ethics (35), or the duties which men owe to each other, .abftrafting from pofitive inftitutions. of Nations, or the duties which independent and free ftates owe to each other. Municipal, Aibdivided into JsC "' " Cuftomary ?Law (36). PARTICULAR, vizJ .as a Member of Society ; ^ whence « Law ■ of particular States, viz. f Municipal, 1 Civil, com L Canon, re!; mon to all civilized States. pefting the clergy and tcclefiaftical Polity. - the People, •» /'Democracy, the Nobility, I \ Ariftocracy. Government (37), whether J ( . I , ,- ,, fDuumvir-aM lodged in the hands' of "j a few Perfons, f wl,ence j Olygarchy, and hence \ JJ™ J^™ .afinglePerronjJ (.Monarchy. ^Commerce (38) s whence Company, Corporation, Exchange, Duty, Bounty, Drawback, Freight, Charter-party, &e. C Ptolemaic "7 < Copernican >Syftems of Astronomy (39). cTvchonic J NATURAL, which treats of the 'Univerfe ; whence Cofniography, fubdivided into the ~ ,..,...,,. CN^tural, O C Figure and Natural Divifions, as Continent, Ifland. Ocean Like fcf> r GEOGRAPHY (40), fubdivtded .nto-J Political, \ defcribing Its ) Political Divifions, as Empire, Kingdom, Province Coun'tv &/ iaftical,j f it»mju..i t\:j« .-_.. a _..._: m„ CEcclefialtical, C Ecclefiallical Divifions, into Archbifhoprics, Bishopries, Panllies &c. Earth ; whence . .- Qnadiupeds ; and hence Horfemanfliip, Hunting, Farriery, &c. ■ Birds, called Ornithology ; and hence Falconry, Fowling,'" Animals; whence Zoology Ui), or the Science of < Amphibious' Animals as Serpents, Lizards, Frogs, &c. * Fiflies, termed Ichthyology; and hence Filling, &c. lnfeas, both winged and naked, as Flies, Worms, &c. Animalcules, or Animals vifible only by the help of Microfcopes Natural history (;i)1 defcribing its natural Pro-' -•duaions, as f Botany (43), containing the claffes and charaAers a ) Agricijlture (44),") '.Gardening (4-5), ,4u«fciibing the Cultivation ^Husbandry (46), j Vegetables; whence? Agriculture ( 44 ), } .'Gardening (4.t v ,. > Minerals; whence Mineralogy (47), w hi treats ot T Water, Fluids, as < Air, cFire, and f r ak l ng ' 1 l Cooking, I 1 o f Hydro >£< Aerol Light ; J 5 COPTICS • Diet and Domestic Oeconomy (59); J Brewery, I whence the various Operations of ) Diftillery, > to g« l ner with the many Utenfils >iftillery, f l ickling, 1 uring, &c.J j P v Curing (^Skins, Hair, Wool, Dress and Ec^uipage (60), / Silk, whether of \ Flax, Cotton and Hemp Metals, Precious Stones ; . Hatters, Hair-fpinfteis, Brulh Clothiers, Weavers, Falters, vhence/^ hro , wfters ' Silk T^- ! - M Bleachers, Linen-drap?i<;, Mi Mtiflin, Callico, Manchefter- Refiners, Gold-beaters, Gildei . Lapidaries, Diamond-cutters, of Plants. flimple 1 Cvitrifiab'e, calcarious, and incombuftil < compound >Foffil«, as < Ores of Salts, Sulphurs, and Metalsj*, Caggregate J C (parry Concretions, Petrit'aaions, H« c logy (48), Hydrostatics (49), Hydraulics (50), Navig, igy, (52), Meteorology (^3), Pneumatics (54). (55), Perspective (j6), Painting (57). md Implements belonging to each of them. Tanners, Curriers, Shoemake rs, Glovers, Sadlers, Coach-makers, &c. I CMifons, Bricklayers, Tyl ^Architecture (61); whence ^Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Co. r 1 j- -j j • Jt^ (-Church, Palace, Houfe, I V ARTIFICIAL, (58) \ Building, fubdivided intoS Fortification (62); whence Caftle, Fort, Baftion Ramp - whether reUting to \ / C Ship-carpenters, Anchor-fr '-Ship-building (63) ; whence < Ships of war and burden, ( t Hull, Deck, Maft, Yard, Furniture (64); whence ^ ai , n , ters >i J P hol ^ r l er l' J° ; " ers ' Turners, Bedftead-mkers, L Tables, Chairs, Cherts of Drawers, Beds, Blankets, Buroes, LITERATURE (65); whence SP»P«--makeri., Letter founders, Wood-cutters, Printers, Enc tPaper, Parchment, Type, Copper-plate, Prefs, Rolling-prels ■% /-Plough, Scythe, Sickle, Pruning-hook, Cart, Waggon, Water-u / j> Card, Wheel, Loom, Fulling-mill, Vat, Calender, Red, Silk-el > IS- Saw ' Ax > Plane > Chiffel, Gouge, Hammer, Mallet, Sawing-mi ~ Rulers, Compaffes, Quadralits, Theodolite, Circumferentor, Orr \ j Watch, Clock, Dial, Barometer, Thermometer, Camera-ob.'cura; C J V Gun, Piltol, Cannon, Mortar, Coehorn, Ball, Bomb. Rivnn«. S Tools Instruments Machines, Sfr, V (66) nakers, Peruke-makers, &c. Dyers, Woollen-drapers, Taylors, Hofiers, &c. •rcers, Mantua-makers, &c. liners, Thread-fpinners, Lace-weavers, &c. ■elvet, Fuftian, Canvas, &c. s, Embroiderers, Lacemen, Sword-cutlers, Buckle and Button founde: Jewellers ; Ring, Ear-ring, Bracelet, Brilliant, &c. rs, Slaters, Carpenters, Smiths, Glaziers, &c. inthnn, Com'pofne, fefr. Orders ; alio Column, Capital, &c. •\', Library, Bridge, Door, Window, Chimney, &c. rt, Moat,' Crown- work, Curtin,. Horn-work, Halt-moon, &fr. iths, Cordage-makers, Sail-makers, Sailors, &c. ialley, Sloop, Yacht, Barge, Boat, Sculler, gSY, Bowfprit, Stern, Forecaftle, Keel, Cabin, &c. Dabinet-makers, B'aek-fmiths, Silver-fmiths, Carpet- weavers, &c. Beaufets, China, Looking ghnTes, Pictures, Toilets, Plate, Stoves, ©Y ravers, Bookbinders, Bookfellers, Mathematical-inflrument makers, fefc. Ink, Book, Folio, Quarto, Oflavo, Defk, Form, Book-cafe, &c. \. Wind mill, Water-works, Wine-prefs, Powder-mill, Steam-engine, &c. ine, Diamond-cuttevs-wlieel, Machines for wire-drawing, &c. Plummet, Bevel, Crane, Pile engine, Forge, Bellows, Anvil, &c. y, Globes, Scale, Balance^, Screws, Pullies, Axis and Wheel, Wedge, 6 lepfydra, Diving-bell, Telefcope, Pumps, Air-pumps, Micrometer, Micr-ifco; d, Grenado, Drum, Trumpet, Cbam-fliot, Fire-works, Battering-ram, Ballii [To be placed after the Introduction.] A NEW AND COMPLETE DICTIONARY O F ARTS and SCIENCES. a fh. A The firft lettei>of the alphabet, and 5 one of the five vowels, is pronoun- ed varioufly; fomelimes open, as in the words talk, war ; and at others clofe, as in take, wake. A is alfo ufed, on many occafions, as a character, mark, or abbreviation. Thus, in the calendar, it is the firft of the do- minical letters : among logicians, it de- notes an univerfal affirmative propofition : as a numeral, A fignified i among the Greeks j but among the Romans, it denot- ed 500, and with a dafh over it, thus A» 5000. The Romans alio ufed it on pub- lic occafions for ar.tiquare, to antiquate or reject a propofed law ; as did the judges of the fame people Tor abfolvo, I abfolve or acquit ; whence it had the name of literafalutaris. A is frequently alfo met with, denoting Aldus, Augujlus, Agcr, Aiunt, &e, A. A. ftands for Augufti ; A. A. A. for aurum, argentum, aes ; and, among chemifts, for Amalgama. A. M. is ufed for anno tnundi, or artium inagifler. A. A. U. C. for anno ab urbe condita ; A; B. for alia bona ; A. C. for alia caufa, or alius cm/is ; and A. D. for anno domini. On ancient medals, A ftands for Argos, and tbnietimes for Athens; but on coins of modern date, for Paris. A, a, or da, among phyikians, denote ana, or an equal weight, or quantity, of feveral ingredients. The letter A is alfo ufed by merchants, to fignify accepted ; among whom it is likewife ufual to mark their fets of bodks with the letters A,B,C, &c. inftead of the numbers 1, a, 3, &c. A, or an, is alfo one of the englifli articles. See Article. AA, in geography, the name of fevtial Vol, I. ABA rivers, in different parts of the wor|d. 1. Of one in the country of Sologne, 111 France, 3. Of one in french Flandcii--, 3. Of three in Switzerland. 4. Of five in the Low Countries. 5. Of five in Weft- phalia. 6. And, laftly, pf one in Livonia. AACH, in geography, the name of a town and river of Swabia. See the article Swabia. AADE, or AaOa, the name of two rivers, one in the country of the Grifons in Swit- zerland, and the other in dutch Brabant. AAR, the name of two rivers, one in Swit- zerland, and the other in Weftphalia. AATTER, a province of Arabia Felix, fituated on the ReJ-Sea. N. B. There are feveral other places, fometimes fpelled with AA, but more ufually with one A : thefewill be inferred in the alphabetical order, according to the laft orthography. AB, in the hebreW chronology, the ele- venth month of the civil, and the fifth ol the ecclefiaftical, year : it anl'wered to th< moon of our July, and contained thirtj days. ABACATUAIA, in ichthyology, an ame rican fifli of the acaiuhopterygious, 01 prickly-finned, kind. It is a lpecies o: zeus, according to Artedi, and refembles the common plaiff, both in Bz and figure. It has five fin?, one on th back, and another on the belly, hot! running to the tail : there a're other tw( at the gills; and the tail, which is con fiderably forked, makes the fift! 1 .. Se plate I, fig, 1. ABACOT, the name of the anient co.ro net, or cap of ftate, worn by th< kings, the upper part of which was mad up in form of a double crown. & ABAC ABA [ 2 ] ABA ABACTUS, among antient phyficians, a term ui'ed for a mifca'rriage effected by art. ABACUS, in architecture, the uppemiolr member of the capital of a column. See Hie article CAPITAL. Vitruvius tells us, that Calimachus, a fhm- ary of Athens, invented this ornament from the following circumltance. An Athe- nian old woman happening to place a bafket coveied with a fquare tile over the root of an acanthus, which grew on the grave of a young, Corinthian lady, the plant, mooting up the following lpring, encompalfed the balket all around, till meeting with the tile, it curled back in a kind of fcrolls. The fculptor, paflirig by and ohferving it, executed a capital on this plan, reprefenting the tiie by the abacus ; the leaves of the acanthus by the volutes or fcrolls, and the balket by the body of the capital. In the tufcan. doric, airf ionic orders, the abacus is flat and fquare ; but in the richer orders, its four fides, or faces, aie arched inwards, with Come ornament, as a rofe or other flower, in the middle of each arch, and its four corners cut off. See plate I. fig. %. Scamozzi alfo ufes abacus for a convave moulding in the capital of the tufcan pedeil.il. Abacus, or Ab'actfcus, in the antient archi- tecture, iikewile denoted certain compart- ments in mclaic pavements, and the like. Abacus, among antient mathematicians, was a table ftrewed over with dull, or farid, on which they drew their figuers or fchemes. Abacus, in arithmetic, an inflrument for facilitating operations by means of coun- ters. Its form is various ; but that chiefly ufed in Europe, is made by drawing pa- rallel lines, distant from each other at lead twice the diametei of a counter 5 which, placed on the lcwermolt line, flgnifies 1 ; on the fecond, ioj on the third, 100; on the fourth, 1000 ; and fo on. Again, a. counter, placed in the (paces between the lines, fignifies only the half of what it would do on the next fuperior line. Ac- cording to this notation, the fame num- ber, 1 75.I- for example, mr.y be reprefent- td by different difpofuions of counteis. See A and B plate 1 . fig. 3. Abacus pyt bagoric us , ;i multiplication -tab!e, or a table of numbers ready call up, to fa- cilitate operations in arithmetic. Abacus kgijlicus, is alfo a kind of multi- plication -table, in form of a right-angled i: mgle* Abao j IjartnQmtUSi among mufirians, de* notes the arrangement of the keys cf 3 mufical inflrument. ABAFT, in the fea-langunge, a term ap- plied to any thing fituatcd towards the ftern of a veffel : thus, a thing is laid to be abaft the fore mall, or main-marl, when placed between the fore-mail, or main-maftyand the ftern. ABALIENATION, in the roman law, a fpecies of alienation. See the article Alienation. ABAPTISTON, or Anabaptiston, among antient phyficians, names given to the inltrument now called a trepan. See the article Trepan. ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, the fame with diarthrofis. See the article DlARTHROSIS. ABASED, abaijfc, in heraldry, is faid of the wings of eagles, csV. when the tip looks downwards to the point of the fhield, or when the wings arefhut; the natural way of bearing them being fpread. A chevron, pale, bend, &c . are alfo faid to be abafed, when their points terminate in, or below the center of the fhield. LafUy, an abafed ordinary, is one placed below its due fituation. ABASING, in the fea language, the fame with ftriking. See Strike. ABASSI, orABA5Sis, a filver-coin, cur- rent in Perfia, and fomewhat lefs than the englifh fliilling. ABATE, in the manege. A horfe is faid to abate, or take down his curvets, when he pu's both his hinder-legs to the ground at once, and obferves the fame exacf nef's in all the times. See the article Curvet. ABATELEMENT, in commerce, a term ufed for a prohibition of trade to all frencli merchants in the ports of the Levant, who will not ftand to their bargains, or refufe to pay their debts. The abatelement is a fentence of the french conful, and muft be taken off be- fore they can fue any perfon for the pay- ment of thei» debts. ABATEMENT, in a general fenfe, fig- nifies the leffening or diminishing fome- tbing. Abatement, in heraldry, fomething add- ed to a coat of arms, in order to lef- fen its true dignity, and point out fome imperfection or ftain in the character of the perfon who bears ir. Abatements are either made by reverflbn or diminution ; the whole efcutchcon being turned upfide down, or another inverted one added, irt the former cafe j and as to diminutions, they are either a delf, a point, a poii t dexter, a point phampain, a plain point, agoav n imitation of the patriarch of Conftantmople: nor have thofe of the latin chii'ch been behind hand with them in this refpect ; fome having called them- felves abbas abbatum, or the abbot of ab- bots ; and others affumed the title of cardi- nal-abbot. Abbots, however, are chiefly diftinguifh- ed, at prefenr, into regular and com- mendatory ; the former being real monks .or religious, and the latter only feculars or lay-men. Thefe laft, notwithstand- ing that the term commenda?n feems to fignify the contrary, have the perpefual enjoyment of the fruits cf their abbeys. Amiently the ceremony of creating an abbot Co: filled in c'ouhing him with the habit called caculla, or cowl : putting the paftoral ftaff into his hand, and the (hoes called pedaks, on his feet ; but at prefenr, it is only a fimple benediction, improperly called, by fome, confecratiov. Abfot is alfo a title given to others he- fide the fuperiors of monafterles : thus bifhops, whofe fees were, formerly abbeys, ate called abbots ; as are the fupeiiors of fome congregations of regular canon?, particularly that of St. Genevieve at Paris : and among the Genoefe, the chief magiftrate of their republic formerly bore the title of abbot of the people. It was likewife ufual, about the time of Char- lemaign, for feveral lords to aflume the title of count-abbots, abba-covtitrs; and that for no other reafon, but becaufe the fuper-intendency of certain abbeys was committed to them. ABBREVIATION, the fame with abbre- viature. See Abbreviature. ABBREVIATOR, in a general fenfe, one Ba who A B D [ 4 3 A B D who abridges, or reduces a long writing into narrow bounds. Ab.;reviators, in the chancery of Rome,are officers whole bufjnefs, according to Cham- pini, is to d- aw up the pope's briefs, and reduce the petitions granted by the pontiff into proper form. The abbreviators con- flit iite a college of leventy-two perfon c , divided into two parks, or ranks ; the one called abbre-viatores de parco major e t who are tweivs in number, and all pre- lates ; the other, abbre-viatores de parco minore, called alfo examinatores, who may be all lay-men. ABBREVIATURE, or Abbreviation, properly fignifies the fubftitution of a fyl- lable or letter for a whole word : thus M. {lands for manipulus, a handful j and Cong, for congius, a gallon. Abbreviature, in a lefs proper fenfe, is ufed for any mark or character. See Cha- racter. ABBREUVOIR, in mafonry, certain in- dentures made with a hammer, in the joints and beds of (tones, in order that the mortar being received into thefe, may bind them the firmer together. ABCEDARY, Abcedarian, or Abece- darian, an epithet given to compofi- tions, the parts of which are difpofed in the order of the letters of the alphabets thus, we fay abcedarian pfalms, lamen- tations, hymns, &c. ABDALS, in the afiatic cuftoms, a kind of furious enthufiafts, whofe madntfs makes them frequently run about the ftreets, and kill all they meet of a different religion from what they profels : this our faiiors call running a tnuk. ABDEST, among mahometans, a kind of wafliing, or lotion, praclifed both by Turks and Perfians, before prayers, en- tering the mofque, or reading the alco- ran, ABDIARA, in geography, a kingdom of Alia, dependent on that of Pegu. See the article Pf.gu. ABDICARIAN proportion, ahdicaria fro- pofitio, in logic, the fame with a nega- tive one. See the article Proposition - . ABDICATION, abdicatio, the aft of a magistrate, who gives up. or diverts him- felf of an office. It differs from refig- nation, as this lad is done in favour of fome. other perfon: whereas abdication i* done without any iuch view. See Re- signation. Abdication is alfo ufed, by civilians, for a father's di (carding bis fon. This, call- ed 1 kewife afamilia alienatio, was diffe- rent from exheredation, or difmheriting, as being done in the father's Hfe-tirme? whereas exheredation never took place till his death : fo that an abdicated fon was actually difinherited, but not vice verfia. This term, among the Romans, was alfo ufed for a citizen's renouncing his liberty, and voluntarily becoming a (lave. ABDOMEN, in anatomy, the lower part of the trunk of the body, reaching from the thorax to the bottom of the pelvis. See the articleTHORAX. The abdomen is divided, by anatomiits, into three anterior regions, viz. the epi- gaftric, or upper one ; the umbilical, or middle one : and the hypogastric, or lower one: there is alfo one pofterior re- gion, called regio lumbar is. See the ar- ticle Epigastric, &c. Each of thefe regions is likewife divided int® three parts, a middle and two late- ral ones : thus, in the epigaftric region, befides the middle part, we have the right and left hypochondrium ; in the umbilical region, the umbilicus or middle part, and its lateral parts, the lumbi or loins ; and, laftly, in the hypogaftric region, the middle part is called pubes, and its two lateral parts the inguina or groins. See Hypochondria, &c. Within the abdomen, befides the fto- mach and alimentary duel, there are contained the mefentery, mefocolon, o- mentum, liver, gall-bladder, fpleen, pan- creas, mefenteric glands, the lafteal vef- fels, receptaculunv chyli, kidneys, re- nal glands, ureters, bladder, and the in- ternal parts of generation in both fexes. See Stomach, &c. The abdomen forms a kind of oblong convexity, like an oval vault, feparated from th« cavity of the thoiax by the dia- phragm. It is lined, on the infide, with a ftrong but foft membrane, called the peritoneum ; which furrounds, and con- tains all the vifcera. On the outfide, it is guarded by the mufcles called obliqui afcendentes and defcendentes : together with the reStus tranfverfalis and pyramida- lis. See the defcription of each under its proper article. The cavity of the abdomen is of an ir- regularly oval figure, but (till lymmctri- cal. On the forefide, it is uniformly arched or oval, and its greateit capacity is about the navel. On the upper lide, it is bounded by a portion of a vault, ve- ry much inclined. On the back fide, it is in a manner divided into two cavities, by the jutting out of the vertebrae of the loins. On the lower fide, it contracts all the way to the edge of the pelvis, and from A B D I from thence expands again a little, as far as tire os coccygis, and the tubercles of the i.'cium ; terminating in the void fpace between thefe three parts. It is remarkable of the fkin of the ab- domen, that it may be naturally increaf- ed ve-ry much in breadth, without lofing any thing confiderable ot its thicknefs,as is the cafe in the natural llates of corpu- lency and pregnancy. Dif cafes of the Abdomen are chiefly in- flammations, abfcefTes, indurations, infla- tions., fpafms, £?r. See Inflamma- tion;, &c. Wounds of the Abdomen. Thefe either affect the common integuments and muf- cles only, or they likewife penetrate into the abdomen. Now it is eafy to exa- mine whether this laft be the cafe, by the eye, by a probe or finger, or by injecling warm water into the wound : if the wa- ter mieets with no obftruflion, the wound certainly penetrates ; but if it is thrown back,, and the probe cannot enter, you may conclude the wound has not pene- trated into the cavity of the abdomen. Won .nds which do not penetrate into the cavity are of two forts ; for either the comrmon integuments only are hurt, or the mtufcles alio of the abdomen are di- vided, as far as the peritoneum. Wounds of thie firft kind are eafily cured, but thofe of the latter clafs are extremely dangerous, becaufe the inteltines are apt to fal.l through the wound. Hence the futune becomes necefTary to keep the gap- ing lips of the wound together ; after which, the wound is to be drefled with vulneirary bdfams, and a flicking plafter : reft amd abftinence mult likewile be en- joined the patient, and his bowels kept open by an emollient clyft-r. If th«e wound be found to penetrate, the furgeion ought t0 examine carefully whe- ther amy of the interlines he hurt ; which he may conclude is not the cale, when there is no great degree of weaknefs, hae- morrhage, pain, fevers, &c; if when the patienit is laid on the wounded fide, there is no difcharge of chyle, gall, excrements, or uriine, if milk be injected warm, and returm without any alteration of its co- lour i if the ir.ftrument was not very fharp ; and, laftly, if there is no vomit- ing nor difcharge of blood by the mouth, ftool, or urine, nor any Iwelling and hardmefs of the belly. ABDUCENT, abducent, in anatomy, the fame with abductor. See Abductor. ABDUCTION, in logic, a fcrm of rea 7 5 ] ABE V foning, called by the Greeks apagoge^ \ wherein, from a certain or undeniable propofition, we infer the truth of fome- thing iuppofed to be contained in that propofition : thus in this fyllo^ifm, Whatever God has revealed is certain- ly true : Now, God has revealed £he myfteries of the incarnation and trinity : Therefore, thefe myfteries are certain- ly true. In arguments of this kind, it is always neceffary to prove the minor propofition to be contained in the major, or undeni- able one, otherwife the reafoning lofes all its force. Abduction, in furgery, a kind of frac- ture, wherein the bone being entirely broken near a joint, the two flumps re- cede confiderably fiom each other. See Fracture. ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in ana- tomy, a name given to feveral mufcles on account of their ferving to withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to which they are fixed. Of this kind are the ab- duclor auricularis, or of the little- finger j the abduclor ir.dicis, or of the tore-finger ; the abduclor labiorum, called alio levator and elevator ; the abduclor minimi digiti pedis, or of the little toe ; the abduclor oculi, or ot the eye ; the abduclor qffis me- tacarpi digiti minimi, or metacarpal ab- duclor ; the abductor pollicis, or of the thumb, called alfo thenar; the abduclor pollicis longus, called alio exteitfor primus pollicis ; and laftly, the abduclor pollicis pedis, or of the great toe. S.e Finger, Thumb, Toe, &c. ABECEDARIAN, the fame with abce- dary. See Abcedary. ABEL-TREE,orABELE-TREE, a name given to the white poplar with large leaves. See the article Poplar. ABELMOSCH, or Abelmusch, the name of the egyptian ketmia, with per- fumed feeds, called by us mujh-fccd. See the articles Ketmia and Musk-seed. ABELOITES, or A B e L o N i a n s, in church-hiftory, a feci ot heretics, called alfo abelians, whofe diftinguifhing doc- trine was to marry, and yet live in pro- feiTed abftinence; a tenet, which, ac- cording to fome authors, they founded or, that text, i Cor. vii. 89. Let them that ka is punilliable as a principal or acceffary. See the ar- ticle Accessary. An abettor is the fame with one who is deemed art and part, by the lav,- cf Scot- land. See Art and Part. ABEX, the name of a large tract of land lying along the weftein coaft of the Red- Sea : it is fubject to the Tuiks. ABEYANCE, Abeiance, or Abbay- ance, in law, the expectancy of an eftate or pofftfiion : thus, when a parfori dies, the fee of the glebe belonging to his church isfaid to be in abeyance during the time the parfonage is void. It is a fixt principle of law. th*t the fee-nmp!e of all lands is in fomebody, or die in abey- ance. ABIB, in tire hebrew chronology, the firft month of their ecclefialtical year. It was afterwards called nifan, and anfwered to our March. ABIES, the Fir-Tree, in botany, a fpe- cies of the pine-tree, the fpecific charac- ters of which are, that the leaves are fingle, and not placed in pairs as in the pine. See plate I. fig. 4. and the ar- ticle Pine. The tops and leaves of the fir-tree, are recommended to be taken in diet drinks for the fcurvy. Rofin, tar, common pitch, burgundy pitch, ftrafburg turpen- tine, canada ballam, &c. are productions of fir ; for the defcription and ufes of all which, fee Rosin, Tar, &c. ABIGEAT, abigcatus, in the civil law, the ciime of dealing or driving off cattle in droves, otherwife called abailus. It was more feverely punifhed than fim- ple theft, viz. by a condemnation to the mines, banilhment, or even death it- felf. Abigeat was alfo ufed among antient phyficians, in the fame fenfe with abactus, for a mifcarriagc or abortion effected by art. See Abortion. ABIGEUS, in the civil law, one who is guilty of the crime abigeat. See the ar- ticle Abigeat. ABILITY, in a law fenfe, is the power of doing certain actions, principally in regard to the acquifition or transferring of property. Every perfon is fuppofed to have this power, whom the law does not difable. See the article Non- Abi- lity. ABINGTON, a town of Berkfhire, fitu- ated on the river Thames about fifty five miles W. of London, and five miles fouth of Oxf'oid, It gives the title of earl "V. ! A B L [ 7 3 A B L earl to the noble family of Bertie. AB-INTESTATE, ab intcflato, in the civil law. See Intestate. ABISHERING, in our old law books, charters, &c. a liberty or freedom from all amerciaments: alfo a right to the forfe itures of others. ABJURATION, in law, is ufed for re- nouncing, difclaiming, and denying the pretender to have any manner of right to the throne of the'e kingdoms ; and that upon oath, which is required to be taken upon divers pains and penalties by many llatutes, particularly i W. snd M. 13 W. III. 1 Anne. 1 Geo. I. Abjuration, in our antient cuftoms, an oath taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who had fkd to a place of fancTuary, to leave the world for ever. This is much the fame with what in Scotland is called Jignin-g an ail of baniflment. Arjur ation of herejy, the folemn recan- tation of fome doctrine, as wicked and falfe. ABLACTATION, ablattalio, the wean- ing a child from the bread. As nature has taken care to provide an aliment fuit- able to the ltomachs of new-born infants, fo it has pointed out directions when to change it for a diet that is more folid and difficult of digellion. See the article In- fant. Kxercife and motion are the grand pro- moters of digeftion. W h t lit therefore an infantt is incapable of fufficient exerci e and motion to digeft folid food, a thin fluid is provided for his iuftcijance, which is rtlmofft convened info nourishment before it is taken into his ftomach ; and left the nurfe fhould give him improper aliment, providence fcems to have iecured his ten- der ftomach, in fome degree, from the milch:iefs of indigeftion, by denying the infant the ufe of teeth for the firft months. Seethe articles Digestion and Milk. Hence it will appear, that a child ought rot to> be weaned tili nature points out the proper lime, by giving him teeth, and makirng him capable of taking- exercife fufliciffint to comminute, and afterwards to digteft, an aliment more folid artd more diliicu.lt to difiblve than the milk of its motheir or nurfe. But becaufe an infant is funniflied by degiees with the inftru- ments of maftication, and the power of ufing exercife, the transition from milk to folid fond fhould not. be ftulden. It is mot poffible to lay down rules for weanimg of children adapted to every cafe that imay occur ; regard is to be had to the Strength and health of the mother or nurfe, as well as of the child. Upon the whole, the method which nature items to point out fhould be purfued, unlefs fome ciicumftances interfere, which make it impracticable. Ablactation, among the antient gar- deners, the fame with what is now called grafting by approach. See the article Grafting. ABLAI, a country of Great-Tartary, the inhabitants of which, called Buchars or Buchares, are Subject to -Ruffia, but tier only for protection. It lies eastward of the river litis, and extends five hundred leagues along the fouthern frontiers of Siberia. ABLAQUEATION, in the agriculture of the antients, an operation called bar- big of trees by our gardeners. See the article Baring. ABLATIVE, ablati-vus, in latin gram- mar, the name of the fixth cafe, which is peculiar to that language. See the ar- ticle Case, The ablative is oppofed to the dative j the latter expreffing the action of giving, and the former that of taking away ; thus, ablalum eft a me, it was taken from me. It is fometimes called the- comparative cafe, as being much ufed in comparing things together : thus, dulcior melle, fweeter than honey. Ablative alfolute, among latin gramma- rians, is much the fame with what iu englifh is called a parenthefis, as, jwxwnte Deo, with God's allillance. It is called abfolute, becaufe governed by no other word. ABLECTI, in roman antiquity, a feleft body of foldiers, chofen from* among thofe called extraordinarii. See Ex- TRAORDINARII. * ABLEGMINA, in roman antiquity, choice parts of the entrails of victims, called alfo profcia, porricia, profecla, and profcg?nina. The ablegmina, were fprinkled with flour, and burnt en the altar ; the priefts pouring fome wine on them. ABLUENTS, in medicine, diluting me- dicines, or fikh as dlffblve and carry off acrimonious and ltimulating Bills, in any part of the body, efpecially the Stomach and inteffines. ABLUTION, in a general fenfe, fignt- fies the wsfhing or purifying Something with water. Ablution, in a religious fenfe, fignifie* a ceremony in ufe among the antients, and Hill abo r 8 flill pra&ifed by the Mahometans : it confifted in wafhing the body, which was always done before Sacrificing, or even entering their temples. This cuftom was probably derived from the Jews ; fince we read in fcripture, that Solomon placed at the entry of the temple, which he ereaed to the true God, a great Laver which the text calls a Bralen lea, where the priefts wafiied themfelves before they offered facrifice, having before- hand fanclified the water, by throwing into it the afh.es of a vi&im that was flain in facrifice. Ablution, in the church of Rome, was a fmall quantity of wine and water, which the communicants formerly took to warn down, and promote the digeftion of the hoft. They Hill ufe this term for the water, with which the prieft wafhes his hands after confecrating the hoft. Ablution, among chemifts and apothe- caries, is ufed for warning away the fu- perabundant falts of any body ; an ope- * ration otherwife called edulcoration. See Edulcoration. Ablution, among phyficians, is ufed either for warning the external parts of the body by baths ; or deterging the bowels by thin diluting fluids, as water- gruel, whey, &c. Frequent ablutions with warm water are faid to difpofe the hody to putrid difeafes, by relaxing its fibres j which is thought to be one rea- fon, why the phgue is fo frequent in the turkifh dominions 5 the Mahometan re- ligion enjoining conftant ablutions. ABO, a city of Sweden, and capital of the province of Finland : it is fituatcd in E. longitude ai° 30'. and N. latitude 6o° 30' ftt the mouth of the river Aurojoki, on the Bothnic gulph, about two hundred and forty miles N. E. of Stockholm, ABOLISHING, the fame with abolition. See the next article. ABOLITION, in a general fenfe, is ufed for deftroying, or utterly eradicating fomething. Abolition, in law, deaotes the repeal- ing any law or ftatute, and prohibiting fome cuftom, ceremony, &c. Sometimes alfo it fignifies leave granted by the king, or a judge, to a criminal accufer to for- bear any farther profecution. Abolition is alfo ufed by antient civilians and lawyers, for defifting from, or an- nulling, a legal profecution ; for remit- ting the punifhment of a crime ; and for cancelling or difcharging a public debt. ABQLLA* a military garment, woi'n by 3 ABO the greek and roman foldiers : it W£J lined, or doubled, forwarmnefs. ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or AbOmA- sius, in comparative anatomy, names ufed for the fourth ftomach of ruminat- ing beafts, or fuch as chew the cud. Thefe have four ftomachs, the fuft of which is called who fuftered death for the worihip of images. ABRASION", in medicine, the corroding or wearing of the interlines, by (harp and acrimonious humours, or medicines. To remedy this evil, emollient and ob- tunding medicines are recommended. See the article EMOLLIENTS. ABRAXAS, a term fometimes ufed as fy- nonymous with abracadabra. See the ar- ticle Abracadabra. Abraxas, in church-hiftory, a myftical term exprefiing the fupreme God, under whom the Bafilidians fuppofed 365 de- pendent deities. It was the principle of the gnollic hierarchy, whence (prang their multitude of JEov&. From abraxas pro- ceeded the primigenial mind ; from the primigenial mind, the logos, or word j from the logos, the phronefis, or pru- dence ; from phronefis, fophia and dyna- mis, or wifdom and ftrength ; from th«fe two proceeded principalities, powers, and C aogels $ A B R [ angels ; from thefe other angels, to the number of 365, who were fuppofed to ^iave the government of fo many ccleftial orbs committed to their care. Abraxas, among antiquaries, nn antique gem or (lone, with the word abraxas en- graved on it. Theie are a great many Vinds of them, of various figures and fizes, moftly as old as the third centu- ry. ABRENUNCIATION, a term of the fame import With renunciation. See the article Renunciation. ABRIDGING, the fhortening, epitomiz- ing, or contracting any book, matter, or thing. Abridging, in algebra, is the reducing a compound equation to a more fnnple form. See the aiticle Equation. To prevent the mind's being diftracled with attending to known quantities, con- cerning which nothing further is requir- ed ; and to keep the attention entire for the reft; mathematicians life to abridge their equations, by exprefling all the known quantities ot the fame term, by a fingle letter. --For an inftance: to abridge the equation x 1 — axx+abx— abc~ o — b -\-ac —c +bc All the known quantities — a~b—c of the fecond term are fuppofed equal to one jingle letter — n : all the known quanti- ties -\-ab + ac + be of the third term, equal to another letter -f- />: and all the known quantities — abc of the fourth term to a (ingle letter — q. By which means we have x z —nxx-\-q — o, inftead of the equation propofed. ABRIDGMENT, in literary biftory, fig- nines much the fame with an epitome, or ahftraft of a large work. See Epitome. The perfection of an abridgment contilis in taking -only what is material and fub- flantial, and rejecting all fuperfluities, whether of (ientiment or ftyle : in which light, abridgments mull be allowed to be ufeful performances. Abridgments are a very numerous kind of books : we have abridgments of the common law, of the (mutes, of the philofophical tranfaclions, of Locke on the human understanding, Abridgment, in law, the fhortening a count, or declaration : thus, in affize, a man is (aid to abridge his plaint, and a woman her demand in action of dower, if any land is put therein, which is not :o ] A B S in the tenure of the defendant ; for ox* a plea of non-tenure, in abatement of the writ, the plaintiff may leave out thofe lands, and pray that the tenant may an- fwer to the remainder. The reafon is, that thefe writs run in general, andthenj- foie fhall he good for the reft. ABROCHMENT, or Abbrochment, abrocbamenlum, in our old law-books, the fame with foreftalling. See the ar- ticle Forestalling. ABROGATION, abrogation, fignifies the totally repealing and abolifhing a law, in which fenfe it differs from derogation, obrogation, SV. See Derogation, &c. There may be a great many reafons for abrogating a law, as the inconvenience and bad confluences arifing from it, an alteration of circumftances, a change in the face of affairs, &c. which may make the repealing it abfolutely neceffary. ABROTANUM, Southern-wood, in botinv. See Southern-wood. ABRUPTION, in furgery, the fame with abduction. See Abduction. ABRUZZO, in geography, the name of two provinces of the K. of Naples, both lying on the gulph of Venice, and called the farther and nearer Abruzzo in regard to the city of Naples. The farther Abruz- zo, is bounded on the weft by the pope's territories, and feparated from the nearer Abrnzzo by the river of Pefcara. ABSCESS, in medicine and furgery, an inflammatory tumour, containing puru- lent matter, pent up in a flefliy part. Abfjefs is tynonymous with apottem, impolthume, and impofthumation ; and is always the effect' of an inflammation, which frequently may be difcuffed with- out coming to a fuppuration, or before an abfeefs is formed. See the articles Inflammation, andTuMOUR. When the tumour of an inflammation increases, together with the pain, heat, and puliation depending thereon, and thefe fymptoms continue three days, all applications, tending to refolve the tu- mour, are to be left off; inftead of which the fuigeon ought to forward the fuppu- ration, by applying emollient and matu- rating medicines to the part affected. Fats, oils, and glutinous fubftances an- fwer this put pofe, by obftructing the pores of the (kin. There are alio a variety of herbs, fruits, feeds, roots, gums, and meals, which, if made into pultices, an- fwer the fame end. The molt noted of thefe are galbanuro, fagapenum, ammo- niacum, tfw./. Ab siN'i'Hir^r.or Wonmrooj} '* € 1 A B S [ H ] A B S nlacum, bdellium, opopanax, among the gums : thefe mult be diffolved in yolks of eggs, and foine yell added. Marfh- mallows, lint-feed, fcenugreek-feed, figs, onions, &c. made in a pultice, with butter, yeft, and honey, and often ap- plied to the part hot, are accounted ex- cellent for ripening abfcefles, which is known to be the cafe, by the foftnefs and whiter.efs of the tumours. See the ar- ticle Suppuration. When the abfcefs is well digefted, it Zhou Id be opened with a leal pel in the foftefl and molt dependent part, that the matter may have the freer exit. If the abfcefs be large, the fcalpel is not to be taken out immediately, but the incifion farther inlaiged. Thus, the putrid mat- ter is to be let out, and, when glutinous, gently preffed forth with the hands. In making the incifion, great caie mult be taken not to cut the large blood vefTels, nerves, and tendons. As to the reft of the cure, it confifts in thoroughly clean- ing, and then healing the ulcer, with mundificative and balfamic medicines. See the article Ulcer. Abscess, in farriery, is a purulent tumour incident to feveral animals, as horfes, fheep, poultry, &c. In horfes, a cataplafm, or pultice, of lime, reduced to a fine powder, and mixt with wine and oil in equal quanti- ties, ought to be applied to the part af- fected j or one of wheat-flower, fteeped in vinegar, with half an ounce of manna, may be ufed in its ftead. In fheep, the way is to open the tu- mour, in what part foever it is found, and after letting out the matter, to pour into the wound fome melted pitch, and burnt fait powdered. In poultry, they open the abfcefs with a pair of fciflars, preifing out the corrup- tion with their fingers ; and then give them lettuce chopped final!, and mixed with bran (tceped in water, and fweeten- ed with honey, to eat. ABSCISSE, abfeifa, in conic feaions, the part A P, (fee plate II. fig. 4) of the diameter of a curve line, intercepted be- tween the vertex A of that diameter, and the point P. where any ordinate orfemi- ordinate, M P, to that diameter, falls. From this definition it is evident, that there are an infinite number of variable abfeiffes in the fame curve, as weil as an infinite number of ordinates. In the parabola, one ordinate has but one abfcUTe j in an ellipfisj it has two j in an hyperbola, confiding of two parts, it has alio two ; and in curves of thefecond and third order, it may have three and four. ABSCISSION, abfcijfw, in rhetoric, a- fi- gure of fpeech, whereby the fpeaker (tops fiiort in the middle of bis difcourfe : e. g. one of her age and beauty, to be lem alone, at fucto an hour, with a man of bis character. I need fay no more. Abscission, in furgery, is lometimes ufed for amputation, but more property for cutting off fome part of the body, when become any wife hurtful : thus we fay the ablciifion of the prepuce, of a lip, &c. ABSINTHIATED medicines, thofe im- pregnated with the virtues of abfmtbium, or worm-wood : thus we fay, abfinthiated wine, abfinthiated ale, abfinthiateJ water, &c. See the next article. ABSINTHIUM, worm-wood, in bota- ny, a (pedes of artemifia. See the ar- ticle Artemisia. See alfo plate If. fig. 1. which reprefents the flowers and feeds of worm- wood. Worm-wood is greatly commended for its medicinal virtues : it ftrengthens the ftomach, removes obftruclions of the liver and fpleen, creates an appetite, and de- ftroys worms. It is alio uled in other intentions, for which fee the article Worm -wood. ABSIS, in aftronomy, the fame with ap- fis. See the article Apsis. ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, denotes ibmething which is unconnected with, or independent on others. Among metaphyficians, an abfolute be- ing is one whofe exiltence depends on no external caufe, or that exifls by a necef- fity of its own nature. Absolute is alfo an epithet applied to things which are free from limitations or conditions : thus we fay, an abfolute de- cree, abfolute promife 3 ©V. See Decree, Promise, &c. ABSOLUTELY, in a general fenfe, that quality or manner of ailing whereby a perfon, action, or thing, is denominated abfolute. Absolutely, among divines, is ufed for completely, or with full power and effect, independently of any thing elfe : thus ca- tholics hold, that the prieft forgives fins abfolutely ; whereas proteftant divines do it only declaratively. Absolutely, in geometry, fignifies, en- tiiely or perfectly : thus, abfolutely round is the fame as perfectly raur.d. ABSOLUTION, in a general fenfe, the A B S t act of forgiving, pardoning, or re'eafing. Absolution, among civilians, is ufed for a definitive {'entente, declaring the accufed perfon innocent, and releafing him from all farther profecutioh. Absolution, among catholics, a power affnmed by the priefts to forgive fins ab- folutely, that is, by virtue of a power inherent in themfelves. By Mat. 13 Eliz. to procure absolutions from Rome is de- clared to be high treafon. Proteftant divines pretend to no uich power, but only declare the fcripture terms of pardon. Absolution, in th-3 prtfbyterian church, is chiefly ufed for a fentence of the church? judicatories, . eieafing a man from excom- munication, and receiving him again imo communion. Abfolutio ad cautdam, is a provifional abfo- lution, granted to a perfon who has ap- pealed from a fentence of excommuni- cation. Absolutio af:i union between the luthe- rans and calvinifts. ABSORBENTS, in the materia medica, fuch medicines as have the power of dry- ing up redundant humours, whether ap- plied to ulcers, or taken inwardly. Teftaceous powders, boles, chalk, cal- cined bones, &c. are efteemed the moll powerful abforbents ; which are chiefly given in diforders, arifing (torn too great an abundance of acids in the ftomach. Jt is a neceflary pieciution, to drink di- luting liquors along with abforbents ; alfo to take gentle purges, as weil dur- ing the ufe of them, as when they are left off. Absorbent Fefeb, in anatomy, a name peculiarly given to the lacleals opening into the interlines, and ferving to imbibe the nutritious juice. See the article Lao teal Vessels. The pores uiffufed over the body are ibmethncs alfo called by this name, from their imbibing air, effluvia, &c. Absorbent Veffels is alio a mine ufed by feme naturalifts for the fibres of the roots of plants, which draw nourifhment from the furroundine earth, bee the article Root, 12 ] A B S ABSORBING, the fwallowing up, fuck- ing up, or imbibing any thing : thus black bodies are laid to abforb the rays of light ; luxuriant branches, to abforb or vvalle the nutricious juices, which fhould feed the fruit of trees, ©V. ABSORPTION, the eflFecls of abforbing. Seethe article Absorbing. Thus wc read of abf'urptions of the earth, when large tracts of land have been fwallowed up. ABSTEMIOUS, an epithet given to per- fons who ufe a fpare diet, but more efpe- cially to thofe who abftain from wine. Abstemious, ahflemii, in church - hi- ftory, a name given to fuch perfons as could not partake of the cup of the eu- charift, on account of their natural aver- iion to wine. Calvinifts allow fhefe to communicate in the fpecies of bread only, touching the cup with their lip; which is deemed a profanation by the lutherans. ABSTENTUS, among civilians, an heir who is with-held by his tutor from en- tering upon his inheritance. Ecclefiaftical writers likewife ufe ihe word abjlentus for an excommunicated perfon. ABSTERGENTS, in the materia medica, medicines proper for cieanfing the body from concretions and other impurities, not to be effected by Ample abluents. Abftergents are of a faponaceous nature, and therefore very different from meie abluents, tho' Caitellus reprefents them as the fame. ABSTINENCE, abfinentia, the abstain- ing or refraining from certain enjoy- ments ; but more efpecially, from eat- ing and drinking s thus the Jews were obliged, by the law of Mofes, to abllain from their wives on certain occafions 5 and it has always been a practice, to ab- ftain from a luxuriant diet at flared times, as well out of a religious view, as to confirm and preferve health. See the article Fast. Abftinence is highly extolled by fome phyficians, and that juftly, when no more is meant by it but a proper regimen : but it mult have bad conlequences, when in- dulged without a due regard to the con- ftitution,age, ftrength, %fc. of the perfon who nraclifes it. ABSTINENTES, in church -hiftory, a fe6t of antient heretics, who carried ab- ftinence and mortification to an exceflive length. ABSTRACT idta f among logicians, the idea. A B S [ idea of fome general quality or property coniidered (imply in itfelf, without any refpecl to a particular fubjeft : thus, mag- nitude, equity, &c. are abftracT: ideas, when we confider them as detached from any particular body or perfon. It is generally allowed, that there are no objects in nature correfponding to abftract ideas : nay, fome philofnphers, and particularly the late lord Boling- broke, difpute the exiftence of abitracl ideas themfelves, thinking it impofii- ble for the human mind to form anyfuch. AbftracT; ideas are the fame with thofe called universal ones, and the manner of forming them, according to modern phi- lofophers, is this : we readily obferve a refembiance among fome of our par- ticular ideas, and thereby get a general notion applicable to many individuals. Thus, hsrfes are found to refenble each other in fhape, voice, and the general configuration of their parts. Now, the idea which takes in this refembiance, excluding what is peculiar to each indi- vidual, becomes of courfe common to this whole family or clafs of animals, and is therefore called a general, univer- fal, or abftract idea. See Abstraction and Idea. Abstract terms or nvords, thofe made ufe of to denote abftracT ideas. See the article Abstract idea. Abstract is alfo an epithet given to fe- veral other things on account of their pu- rity, or univerlality : thus, we fay ab- (tract numbers, abftrafcl mathematics, &fr. See Number and Mathematics. Abstract, in matters of literature, a con - cife but general view, or analyfis, of fome large work ; in which fehfe, it dif- fers from an abridgment only as being fhorter, and its entering lefs minutely into particulars ; and from an extract, as this laft is only a particular view of fome part or paffagje of it. ABSTRACTION, in logic, that opera- tion of ihe mind whereby it forms ab- ftracT ideas. See the article Abstract, fupra. The faculty of abftraftion ftands directly oppofite to that of compounding. By compofition we confider thofe things to- gether, which, in reality, are not joined together in any one exiftence. And by abftraclion, we confider thofe things fe- parately and apart, which, in reality, do not exift apart. See Composition. According to the celebrated Mr. Locke, «rt>ftra£lion is performed three ways, 13 3 A B S Firft, when the mind confiders any one part of a thing by itfelf, without attend- ing to the whole, as the arm, leg, &c. of a man's body. Secondly, by conli- dering the mode of a fubftance, without taking in the idea of the fubftance itfelf: thus, geometricians confider the pro- perties of lines, or the length of bodies, without attending to their breadth or depth. Thirdly, by generalizing our ideas in the manner mentioned under Abstract idea. This doctrine, however, of abftracTion, is denied by Dr. Berkeley, the late bifhop of Cloyne, who owns that he can imagine a man with two heads, or the upper part of a man joined to the body of a horfe : nay, adds he, I can confider the hand, the eye, the nofe, each by itfelf, abltracV ed or feparate from the reft of the~body, but then whatever hand or eye I imagine, . it muft have fome particular ffi3pe and colour ; likewife the idea of a man that I frame to myfelf, muft be either of a white or a black, or a tawney, a ftraight cr crooked, a tall or a low or a middle fized man. Neither can I, by any ef- fort or thought, conceive an abfolutely abftrafted idea, of motion for inftance, diftincl from the body moving, and which is neither fwift nor flow, cur- vilinear, nor rectilinear j and the like may be faid of all abftracT ideas what- foever. Abstraction, in chemiftry,the evaporat- ing or drawing off a menfrruum from the fubjeeT it had been put to dilTolve. Some alfo ufe the word abltracTion, as fynony- mouswith diftillation and cohobation. ABSTRACTITIOUS, or Abstrac- tive, a term ufed by fome chemifts for a fpirit drawn from vegetables, without fermentation. ABSTRUSE, a term denoting fomething that is difficult, dark, obfeure, and not eafy to be undei flood, and accordingly oppoi'ed to what is plain and obvious. Thus, metaphyfics is an abftrufe fcience, as is the new doclrine of infinite fe- ries. ABSURD, an epithet given to any action, fentiment, &c. which contradicts or runs counter to a manifelt truth, or to the re- ceived opinions of mankind : thus, it would be abfurd to affirm, that twelve inches are not equal to a foot : when ap- plied to actions, abfurd is fynonymous with ridiculous. See the articles Ridi- cule and Absurdity. There is an argument, called reduBia ABS [ 14 3 A B Y ad abfurdum ; which proves a thing to be true, by (hewing the abfurdity of the contrary fuppoiition. ABSURDITY, that error by which any thing may be denominated abfurd. See the article Absurd. The great caufe of abfurdity, is in fpeech. As reafon confifts in the due ufe of names and words, abfurdity ccnfifts in the abufe of them. The higheft of all our facul- ties, and cur failings, take their rife from the fame thing, language; and are as it were well coupled together, to tem- per each other, and reduce human na- ture to a kind of mediocrity. Hobbes affigns abfurdity as a privilege peculiar to man, and which no other rrea- ture is capable of: he adds, that of all men, thole called philofophers, are mod expofed to it. Whence the faying of Ci- cero: there is nothing fo abfurd but has been faid by a philofopher, nihil tarn ab' furde did potefi, quod non dicatur a pbilo- fapbo. The reafon feems to be, that of all men they reafon, and difcourfe molt. Yet a nearer and more appofite caufe may be affigned ; viz. their neglsft at fetting out, to define the terms they make ufe of, i. e. to affign the precife idea each is made to reprelent : which is much like a man's undertaking to number, without knowing the value of the numeral figures j reafoning, according to the author firlt cited, being no other than computing. Divers absurdities alfo arife from the wrong connecting names into propor- tions ; as firft, when the names of bo- dies are applied to accidents; or the names of accidents to bodies : as in that propofition, faith is infufed, or infpired j iince nothing is either fufible, or infpir- able, but body : and the fame abfurdity the Carttiiansfall into, when they make extenfion to conftitute body, £?<■. Se- condly, when the names of accidents in- herent in external bodies are attributed to accidents of our own bodies ; as when it iis faid that colour is in the object, found in the air, ©V. Thirdly, when the names of bodies are attributed to words, or conceptions j as is done by thofe who af- fert that there are universal things, that animal is a genus, &c. Fourthly, when the names of accidents are given to words, and propofitions ; as when it is faid that the definition is the nature of the thing, or a perfon's command, is his will. Fifthly, when in lieu of proper words, metaphors and tropes are made ufe of} as, the way leads to fucb a % place, the proverb fays this or that i which though allowable on ordinary oc- calions, yet is of mifebievous confe- quence in reafoning and fearching after truth. Laftly, when names are taken at random, and ufed without meaning, as tranfubftantiation, confubftantiation, en- telechia, &c. He that can avoid thefe rocks will not ea- fily fall into an abiurdity, except in a very long chain of reafoning, when he may be apt to forget fome propofition before laid down. ABSYNTHIUM, the fame with abfin- thium. See Absinthium. ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight ufed in the kingdom of Pegu, equal to twelve teccalis and a half. Two abuccos make an agiro, or giro ; two giri make half a biza, which weighs loo heccali', that is to fay, 2 pound 5 ounces the heavy weight, or 3 pounds 9 ounces light weight of Venice. ABUNDANT numbers, thofe whofe parts added together make more than the whole number : thus the parts of 20, make 22, viz. 1, i, 4. 5, 10. ABUSE, in a general fenie, the pervert- ing fomething from its true defign, pur- pofe, or intention. Abuse of avords, is the ufing them with- out any clear and diftinft ideas, or with- out any idea at all. See Absurdity. ■SV^'Abuse, a phrafe fometimes ufed for the crime of felf-pollution. See Pol- lution. ABUTALS, the boundaries of a piece of land. ABUTILON, in botany, is, according to Linnams, a fpecies of fida, the flower of which refembles that of the mallow, but the fruit is a kind of head compofed of feveral bivalve capfules t thefe are affixed to an axis, and bftially contain Manry- fhaped feeds. See Plate II. fig. 2. and the article Sida. The abutilon is diuretic and vulnerary*} its leaves, applied to ulcers and fores, ferve to cleanfe them ; and its feeds taken inwardly, promote urine, and expel the gravel. ABYSS, in a general fenfe, fignifies any I unfathomable depth, or an immenfe col- ] leclion of waters. I Abyss, more particularly, denotes a vafl j cavern or hollow receptacle, in the cen- ter of the earth, filled with water; the exiftence of which has been difputed by j fome, and defended by other naturalifts. 1 To it has been attributed the origin of \ fpring«, A C A [ t firings, the level maintained in the fur- faces of different feas, and their not over- flowing their banks, Gfr. But the queftion, whether there be fuch an abyfs or no, i'eem.s yet undetermined- See the articles Earth and Deluge. Abyss is alfouled forfeveral other things, as the cavernous bowels of a mountain, or hell, or the bottomlefs pir, the center of an efcutcheon, a gulph, &c . Abyss, in antiquity, a name given to the temple of Prolerpine. Abyss, among alchemifls, is ufed by fome for the immediate receptacle of the lemi- nal matter, and by others for the firlt matter itfelf. Abyss, in a metaphorical fenfe, is applied to any thing that is infcrutable, or in- comjjiehenlible: thus, the judgments of God are called a great abyfs. ABYSSINIA, a large empire of Africa, otherwile called Ethiopia. See the ar- ticle Ethiopia. ABYSSINIAN church, that eftablifhed in the empire of Abyffinia '. it makes only a branch of the Cophts or Jacobites, a left o>t heretics who admit only one na- ture In Jefus Chrift. ACACIA, in botany, a fpecies of mi- mola, the Mower of which confills of only one anfundibuhform leaf, containing a number of Itamina : the flowers are uui- ally collected in chillers or little heads. The piftil arifes from the bottom of the *fiowe»-, and at length becomes a flat pod, five or fix inches long, and divided into leveral hollow partition?, containing a number of roundifh feeds. See plate II. tig. 3. and the article Mimosa. There are a great many varieties of aca- cia, all which may be propagated with us on hot beds. They belong to the poly- andfia clafs of Linnaeus, and are culti- vated by tile Chinefe for the fake of their flowers : thefe they ufe in dying that beautiful yellow, which we find bears 'warning in their filksand Huffs. ACACIA, in the materia medica of the an- tients, a gum made from the egyptian acacia tres. and thought to be the (a:ne with our gum-arabic, Acacia germanica, an inipiffated juice, made of wild floes, hardly iipe. The true a :acia is I iid to be very fcarce in the fhops, where the g( rman acacia is ufed in its (ttad. both being powerful aftring-nts, and qo:\ rood in hesmonhages, and a'l k ixes. Acacia, >r Akakia, in antiquity, a rp]l or bu^ eprsten ; e medals of the 5 ] a c a greek and roman emperors : fome think it is only a handkerchief, which they ufed as a fignal ; others take it for a volume, or roll of memorandums or petitions j and finally, others will have it to be a purple bag filled with earth, to remind the prince of his mortality. ACADEMIC, Academician, or Aca- demist, a member of a modern acade- my. See the article Academy. Academics is more particularly ufed for a feet of antient philoibphers, who main- tained that all things were uncertain, and confequently that men ought to doubt of every thing. They even went fo far, as to doubt whether or no they ought to doubt ; it being a received maxim a- mong Ihem, fc nil fcirs, ne hoc quidem, quod nihil fciant. Of this feci, Socrates and Plato were the: founders. Cicero, who was an academic philofopher himfelf, gives a more favour- able account of them. He tells us, that all the difference between the academics, and thofe who imagined tljemlelves pof- feffed of the knowledge of things, con- filled in this : that the latter were fully perfuaded of the truth of their opinions; whereas the former held many thing-: to be only probable, which might very well ferve to regulate their conduct, though they could not pofuively affert the cer- tainty of them. In this, fays he, we have greatly the advantage of the dogma - tills, as being moredilengaged, more un- biaffed, and at full libeity to determine as our judgment Ihall direcl. But the ge- nerality of mankind, I know not how, are fond of error ; and choofe rather ta defend, with the utmolt obftinacy, the opinion they li3ve once embraced, than with candour and impartiality, examine which lentiments are moll agreeable to truth. Academ. II. 3. This piffage alone, if there were no o- ther proof, is a fufficient vindication of the academics from the charge of Pyn ho- nifm. See Pyrrhonians. ACADEMY, in grecian antiquity, a large villa in one of the fuburbs cf Athens, where the feci of phiiofophers called a- cademics held their affernblies. It took its name from one Academus or Ecade- mus, a citizen of Athens j as our mo- dern academies taketheiis from it. This term was alfo ufed metaphorically, to denote the feci of academic phiiofo- phers. See the la(l article. Academy, in a modern fenfe, fignifies a focietv o{ learned men. eftabliihed for the improve- a c a r i improvement of arts or fciences. Some anchors confound academy with univer- fity ; but though much the fame in la- tin, they are very different in englifh. An univerfity is properly a body com- pofed of graduates in the feveral facul- ties ; of profellbrs, who tench in the public fchools j of regents, or tutors, and ftudents who learn under them, and afpire likwife to degrees. Whereas an academy is not intended to teach or pro- fefs any art, fuch as it is, but improve it : it is not for novices to be instructed in, but for thofe that are more knowing ; for nerfons of dtftinguifhed abilities tc con- fer in, and communicate their lights and difcoveries to each other, for their mutual benefit and improvement. See the article University. Academies of antiquity, are fho'e de- iigned for the illustration of whatever regards antiquity, as medals, coins, in- fcriptions, &c. There are feveral academies of this kind in different parts of the world, as at Upfal in Sweden, at Cortonain Tufcany, at Paris, and at London : thefe two laft are called, one the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres, and the other the anti- quarian fociety. See Antiquary. Academies of arcbiteclure. See Aca- demies of fainting, infra. Academies of belles lettres, thofe chiefly defigned for the cultivation of eloquence and poetry. Befides the academy of belles lettres at Paris, and one at Caen, there are feveral in Italy, fcales, au4 is net eatable. Ss« u!*u IV. fig.. *• [ 18 ] A C A Acara-Peba, a fmall Brafilian fifh, *• bout a foot long, and four or five inches broad. Its mouth is large, but without teeth, and its tail is forked. It has one long back fin, the anterior rays of which are rigid and prickly, but the hinder ones foft and flexible. It teems to be * variety of fmaris. See Smaris. Acara-Pitamba, a beautiful brafilian fifh, refembling our mullet, and grow- ing to two feet, or more in length. Its tail terminates in two oblique horns ; and along the middle of each fide, thec» runs a broad and beautiful gold-colour- ed line, from the gills to the tail. Its back, down to this line- is variegated alia with fpots of the fame colour 5 and the fides under the line, are, variegated with fliort, longitudinal lines, of a fomewhat paler colour than that of the broad line. Its belly is white and its fins yellow. See plate IV. fig. 4. ACARAUNA, a fmall american fifh, called by our failors the old wife, of which there are feveral fpecies. They feldom exceed four or five inches in length, and are nearly as broad as long. One has a fharp thorn, or prickle, oa each fide near the tail ; thefe it draws in or thrufls out at pleafure. Another, which is that called the old wife, has four fharp thorns on each fide its upper jaw, and two on each fide the under one: from thefe laft, which bend downwards, and in-fhipe refemble a cock's fpur, there runs up a row of fmall thorns to the eye. See plate IV. fig. 3. ACARNAN, a fmall fea-fifh, common in the Mediterranean, and fuppofed to be the fame fpecies with the rui:ellio,or eryi thrinus. See plate V. fig. 1. and the ar» ticleERYTHRINUS. ACARUS, in- zoology, a numerous genus of infe&s, comprehending the lice of fe-| vra! animals, and the mites in general. The body of the acarus is fliort and] roup.difh ; the eyes are two; and the] legs eight in number, each confiding of ] eight joints. The largett or longelt leg* ged acarus is defcribed in plate V. fig. 2. ; ACATALEPSY, acatalepfia, among an- tient phikfophers, the impofllbility ofj comprehending fomething. The diuinguiihing tenet of the pyrrho* nians was, their ailerting an abfolute aca- talepfy in regard to every thing. Se«l the article Pi rrhonians. ACATALEPTJ.C, ax«V*«*I'«»o '« ">»»-] enti ■.y/*ny- tfitl/ / . \c\ua Ari Ac\iiA-JJr(Z r . ^f.'J. Vff.J . ACAttATOA. ^ 7^. /Ac A 11 A -1* IT AM It A T.