Table of Contents 
 
 ntroduction 3 
 
 Evolution of cement Manufacture and Use 4 
 
 fearly Production of Cement 6 
 
 I!ement Raw Materials 11 
 
 Jniformity of Quality of Dragon Cement 15 
 
 Standard Specifications for Cement 23 
 
 Abstract of Foreign Specifications of Cement 29 
 
 Effect of Sand on Cement Mortar 38 
 
 finishing Concrete Surfaces 43 
 
 iVaterproofing of Concrete 51 
 
 t'revention of Rust in Reinforcement for Concrete 55 
 
 Storage of Cement 57 
 
 resting Cement without Laboratory Equipment 65 
 
 Proubles with Cement and their Usual Causes 75 
 
 Fireproof Qualities of Portland Cement Concrete 77 
 
 Concrete Blocks 95 
 
 Standard Specifications for Cement Blocks 103 
 
 Concrete in Connection with Farm Work 115 
 
 tree Dentistry 125 
 
 Cement in Water Works Construction 131 
 
 rorresdale Filtration Plant 133 
 
 Cement Railroad Work 145 
 
 Cement Ave. Arch Bridge, Washington, D.C 151 
 
 New York Stock Exchange Building Foundation 161 
 
 rhirty-Ninth St. Building, New York 169 
 
 Westinghouse Lamp Co. Building 181 
 
 Miscellaneous Cost Data 191 
 
 Uses of Portland Cement, List of. 221 
 
DRAG ON 
 P O R T'L AND 
 C E M X NT 
 
 M A-W U F A C TU Ft-E D E. Y 
 
 LAW RE"KC E PORTLAND 
 
 1889 
 
 1909 
 
 U,sed oA^er- Twervty Yearns 
 
 SALES OFKICE,^ 
 THE LAWRENCE- CEMENT - CO 
 HQ 1 BROADWAY -NEW -YORK 
 
 and 
 
 LAWRBNCEPORTLANDCBMBNT- CO 
 HARRISONBUILDINGPHILADELPHIA 
 
 /909£d/Hon 
 
HE CEMEm 
 
 rock from which 
 " DRAGON " Port- 
 land cement is made 
 was discovered 1821- 
 1829 by the Lehigh 
 Coal & Navigation Company at Siegfried's Bridge, North- 
 ampton County, Pennsylvania, while surveying and build- 
 ing their canal through the Lehigh Valley. This imme- 
 diate section of Pennsylvania became afterwards, in 1875, 
 the birthplace of the American Portland Cement industry. Up 
 to that date a very small quantity of natural cement only had 
 been made from this rock, and the first Portland cement made 
 from this deposit, about that time, amounted to Ip than two 
 thousand barrels for that year's outpit. From tajs small be- 
 ginning the Portland cement indusay has grown to its present 
 proportions of 51,002,612 barrels manufactured in 1908 in the 
 United States. Of this quantity, the Lawrence Portland 
 Cement Company produced its full proportion and takes 
 pleasure in presenting to all cement users the following notes 
 concerning a very few of the many uses to which its cement has 
 been put, together with historical notes, proofs of the superiority 
 of " Dragon " Portland cement, and some practical suggestions 
 
 relating thereto. 
 
 "5 <0 ^ / 
 
 3 
 
.rrr 
 
 Ancient: Egyptians, Mexicans, Peruvians and the Greek col- 
 onists in Italy, used lime, more or less hydraulic in 
 nature in much of their work. 
 
 500 B. C. Traces of Roman works using cementing materials, 
 lime and puzzolona. 
 
 27 B. C. Dome of Pantheon, 142 feet in diameter, built by 
 Agrippa, is of concrete, using lime and puzzolona. 
 
 1 100 A. D. Foundations of Salisbury Cathedral built of con- 
 crete, using lime and other cementing materials. 
 
 1485 Alberti describes mortar. 
 
 1568 Phillibert de L'Orme describes use of lime with river 
 sand. 
 
 1570 Palladio describes uses of forms, cement, etc. 
 1756 Smeaton used hydraulic lime in building the Eddystone 
 Lighthouse. 
 
 1 791-6 Patents granted Parker in England for "Roman Ce- 
 ment," (a highly limed natural cement), 
 
 1796 The manufacture of natural cement commenced in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1802 Natural cement produced in small quantities in France. 
 1 8 10 Patent granted Dobbs in England for Roman cement. 
 
 4 
 
8i3 Vicat commenced extensive manufacture from clayey 
 limestone of artificial hydraulic cement in France. 
 
 8i8 Discovery in United States of suitable rock for making 
 natural cement during construction of Erie Canal. 
 This was manufactured by White and sold for 20 
 cents a bushel. 
 
 821-1829 Discovery at Siegfried's Bridge, Northamp- 
 ton County, Pa., of Suitable Rock for Mak- 
 ing Natural Cement. 
 
 822 Frost commenced manufacture of artificial hydraulic 
 cement in England. 
 
 825 Cement rock discovered in Ulster County, New York, 
 and natural cement manufactured there during the 
 next year. 
 
 1828 Thames tunnel constructed using Portland cement. 
 
 1828 A cement mill was built at Rosendale, New York. 
 
 1829 Rock discovered near Louisville, Ky., and almost imme- 
 
 diately thereafter manufacture commenced. 
 
 1832 The Lawrence Cement Company commenced pro- 
 ducing Natural Cement at Creek Locks in a 
 converted grist mill. 
 
 1845 About this date manufacture of cement established on a 
 
 scientific basis. 
 
 1846 Discovery at Boulogne-sur-Mer of natural rock suitable 
 
 for cement. 
 
 1850 Cement manufactured at Siegfried's Bridge. 
 1852 Mill for manufacture of Portland cement erected at 
 Stettin, Germany. 
 
 1866 Saylor commenced manufacture of cement at Coplay, 
 Pa., near Siegfried's Bridge, and commenced ex- 
 perimenting on methods of improving the quality of 
 the output. 
 
Diagram 
 
 Showing Yearly 
 rroducHotiiti the 
 Vnitcd Slates and 
 Imporhatlous of 
 rovUand Cement into them. 
 
 6 
 
1872 Portland cement manufactured from marl and clay near 
 Kalamazoo, Michigan, • 
 
 1S75 First true Portland cement produced in Lehigh District, 
 United States, by Saylor. 
 
 18^75 A mill started at Washington, Pa., to use limestone and 
 clay. 
 
 1887 Manufacture of " DRAGON " Portland Cement 
 Commenced. 
 
 1S99 Over 100 cement plants producing in Germany. 
 1902 Establishment of the Association of American Portland 
 Cement Manufacturers. 
 
 '" Of the six works started prior to 1881 half that number were 
 faiilures and represented a complete loss to their promoters." 
 
 From this time on (1883) plants sprung up rapidly in the Lehigh 
 V;alley section, among the older ones being the LAWRENCE, all 
 of these now being important producers."— (Meade, Portland Ce- 
 mtent, p. 10.) 
 
 "'The plant of the LAWRENCE PORTLAND CEMENT 
 C(OMPANY is located in the Lehigh District at Siegfried, Pa., 
 aboout seven mi.les above AUentown, on the Central Railroad of New 
 Jetrsey. The original plant located here was one of the first mills 
 ercected in this country, and manufactured both hydraulic cement and 
 Pcortland cement."— (The Cement Industry— Latbury & Spackman 
 in Engineering Record.) 
 
 7 
 
THE JOURJSAL 
 
 MONUMEN TS TO A CEMENT. 
 
 Big BuildingiJ In and Out of New York 
 Testify to Dtirabiiity of Dragon. 
 
 New Yorlc, Dec. 19. — In curiou.s con- 
 tradiction to the well-grounded belief tliat 
 time changes all things, the Lawrence 
 Cement Co., which furnished the cement; 
 for the old Custom House on Wall street.^ 
 is to furnish Dragon cement for the new 
 Custom House, just south of Bowling 
 Green, proving conclusively tliat in this 
 mstauce merit has not changed. 
 
 The Lawrence Cement (.'o. is whati 
 Wall Street calls an "old-timer." for it 
 has been in e.tistenc*' more than 70 voars. 
 Its product — Dragon cement — was selected' 
 by the Federal Government for use in 
 the construction of various buildings. It' 
 was used in tlie Chamber of Commerce's 
 new home and in the East River bridge^ 
 foundations. : 
 
 Twenty-five thousand barrels of the ii 
 cement were utilized in the construction of il 
 that splendid building wiiich is to house I 
 the New York Stock Exchange. A fact 
 for those - who marvel at huge sums is 
 that the company has made and .sold un- 
 ward of 20,OI)0,(K>() barrels of cement 
 Dragon cement is a vei'italde dragon to 
 decay and unrelinblo com))etitors 
 
 TILE CLASSIFICATION WRONG. 
 
 t'dllector's AsMesaiuent as "Seml-Vltrl- 
 fled" Reversed by Appraiser. 
 
 Tiles imported by the American Shipping 
 Company of Chicago were decided yester- i 
 day by General Appraiser McClelland to be ! 
 dutiable at the rate of 4 cents pc-r stiuare ■ 
 foot diir^tjy or by similitude as "tiies i 
 niain, > ■. one color, e ng two j 
 
 quare Mze.*' Jfie/ tor as- j 
 
 Unlten 
 idom, it. 
 jerful sei 
 i as a wl' 
 [seems p 
 : est in . 
 lo the h 
 might be 
 
 "With 
 "of prac 
 cattle ' 
 the t 
 might 
 Bmit' 
 pric*. 
 
 Aoc 
 live' 
 don' 
 noth. 
 Unlte<. 
 stateme. 
 mittee re 
 grave do', 
 form igr 
 urally ha 
 oUier sta, 
 tivej? of ; 
 ible that/- 
 l is & Co. 
 last nam 
 hig COv 
 United 
 Uiiitet 
 
 In a , 
 ency t' 
 lence 
 commit 
 
 OdS/- " 
 
 by 
 
 Clipping from " Journal of Comimerce," Dec 20, 1901. 
 
United States Custom House (Old Structure), 
 New York City, Erected 1840. 
 
Colonial (Toal an6 Supply (Tontpanj 
 
 COAL AND BUILDERS' SUPPLIES 
 
 Columbus. Ohio. Nov. lo» 1908. 
 
 The Lawrence Cement Co. of Penrt'a,, 
 Philadelphia, Fa. 
 
 Gentlemen: - 
 
 We have handled the Dragon-Portland 
 cement for the past year and desire to continue 
 handling it for the coming season. We have 
 found it superior in hoth color and strength to 
 any of the other Portland cements we have ever 
 handled. The great features that we find 
 takes with our people are that each and every 
 car is. uniform and exactly the same as the 
 last one and that the cement does not vary in 
 color or strength as a great many of the Eastern 
 cements . 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 The Colonial Coal & Supply Co. 
 
 10 
 
Cement Raw Materials. 
 
 The raw materials from which so-called Portland Cements 
 are manufactured must consist essentially of calcium carbonate 
 and silicate of alumina. The exact proportions required are 
 determined by the actual chemical composition of the materials 
 combined, since each of the ingredients as found in nature, or as 
 a result of some process of manufacture, includes a certain pro- 
 portion of the other principal ingredient, together with various 
 foreign materials which are not essential in the manufacture of 
 cement. The usual ratio is about 75% carbonate to 25% sili- 
 cate. These two substances are obtainable in so many diverse 
 forms that a large range of choice of raw materials is possible. 
 The following combinations have actually been used in difEerent 
 cement manufacturing plants in various parts of the United 
 States : 
 
 Cement rock and limestone. 
 Limestone and clay. 
 Limestone and shale. 
 Marl and clay. 
 Chalk and clay. 
 
 Limestone and blast furnace slag. 
 Alkali waste and clay. 
 
 Cement rock occurs in various parts of the United States. It 
 is really an argillaceous limestone, or one which contains both 
 argillaceous matter (silicate of alumina, or clay) and lime. It 
 is usually rather soft in texture and occasional deposits are found 
 which, when properly treated, will produce a perfect Portland 
 Cement without admixture of any other special rock. 
 
 The deposit in the Lehigh Valley is one of the largest and 
 purest in the world, and the quarry of the Lawrence Portland 
 
 11 
 
Cement Company, situated as it is in Northampton County, is 
 most fortunately located for the securing of a very high grade 
 rock. Many other manufacturers operate several separate mills, 
 taking rock quarried from entirely different sites, but the mis- 
 cellaneous result of such diverse origin and manufacture is sold 
 as a single brand. The Lawrence Portland Cement Company 
 operates quarries at one point only, the whole face of which is 
 thrown down by each blasting operation. These conditions, to- 
 gether with the uniformity of the rock disclosed by the chemical 
 analyses given on page 14, show the wonderful uniformity 
 of the crude material employed in the manufacture of 
 " DRAGON " Portland Cement. When it is appreciated that 
 this highly uniform crude stock is manufactured in a single im- 
 mense mill, one cause of the superiority of " DRAGON " Port- 
 land Cement is evident. 
 
 Certain drawbacks are inherent in the use of other materials 
 than cement rock and limestone in the manufacture of Portland 
 cement. For instance, the employment of slag is apt to produce 
 a cement which will disintegrate in the air, which can therefore 
 be used only where great strength and hardness are not re- 
 quired ; naturally, too, there is apt to be an excess of sulphur and 
 other detrimental ingredients. A small amount of cement has 
 been produced from the waste obtained from the manufacture 
 of soda when the ammonia-soda process is employed. This 
 waste is essentially a precipitated chalk and when burned with 
 clay will produce a Portland cement of a certain quality. 
 
 13 
 
The Lawrence Cement Co., 
 
 Hew York City. 
 Deax Sirs:- 
 
 I have been eelling your "Dragon" Portland 
 Cement almost exclusively for five years or more and 
 have done so with entire satisfaction to my customers 
 and to myself. It has been uniform, has worked in 
 such a manner as to be desired by the trade generally, 
 and I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public 
 for any purpose whatever. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 14 
 
The Uniformity of Qi^ality of 
 ''Dragon" Portland Cement. 
 
 Every effort is made throughout the manufacture of 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement to produce an article of absolute 
 uniformity in every point and the tests herew^ith submitted prove 
 conclusively that through a period covering a number of years, 
 " Dragon " Portland cement has been found as uniform as it is 
 possible to make such an article. 
 
 The uniformity of any given cement depends upon eight ele- 
 ments : 
 
 (a) Uniformity in the chemical composition of the cement 
 
 rock and of the limestone. 
 
 (b) Uniformity of mixture of the raw materials. 
 
 (c) Intimateness of the mechanical mixture of the cement 
 
 rock and of the limestone. 
 
 (d) Uniformity of the degree of fusion of the clinker. 
 
 (e) Uniformity of fineness of grinding. 
 
 (f) Uniform quality and quantity of set regulator, 
 
 (g) Uniformity of seasoning. 
 
 (h) Absolute exclusion of dampness. 
 
 The materials used must be such as are provided by nature 
 and any company is fortunate in possessing quarries vs^here a 
 uniform quality of rock exists. That the Lawrence Portland 
 Cement Company is thus fortunate is shown by the following 
 chemical tests of the cement rock removed during a short period 
 of two months operation in each of the years 1906, 1907 and 
 19108. 
 
 Date. Si 02 Fej O3+AI2 O3 Ca C03 Mg C03 
 
 Nov. & Dec. 1906 15.80 8.08 70-03 5-1 1 
 
 1907 15.82 
 
 1908 15.41 
 
 8.21 
 8.20 
 
 69.83 
 70.30 
 
 5-25 
 5-23 
 
 15 
 
The limestone employed by this company has not varied in 
 composition as much as in carbonate of lime during the 
 
 same period, thus proving the high character of the materials 
 employed in the manufacture of " Dragon " Portland Cement. 
 
 This uniformity of composition is made more perfect by the 
 number of times the materials are handled between the time 
 stone is taken from the quarry until it is ready for the kilns. 
 Each such operation tends to distribute small inequalities 
 throughout the whole mass so that the greater the number of 
 such mixings the more uniform is the quality of the final output. 
 By carrying on blasting operations so that the face of the full 
 width of the quarry is blasted down at one time, the stone re- 
 ceives its first mixing. This stone is further mixed when the 
 quarry cars are dumped at the tipple into the large hopper bot- 
 tom cars running to the crushers. Each crushing operation 
 mixes the particles so that when it is known that fully eleven 
 such manipulations take place before the ground mixture is 
 burned it will be evident to what extent uniformity of the raw 
 material is assured. Chemical analyses are made of each bin of 
 cement rock and limestone before the stone is used. The mix- 
 ing of the limestone with the cement rock is carefully done at the 
 scales which are set by the chemist as a result of his determina- 
 tions. After this mixture has been made it is subjected to 
 analyses every two hours and any necessary corrections are made 
 prior to final grinding. 
 
 Doubtless the most important item in the manufacturing of 
 cement in regard to its uniformity is that of the burning of the 
 clinker. The crude mix must be uniformly fine and the air 
 blast and composition of coal must be uniform. The coal em- 
 ployed by the Lawrence Portland Cement Company dur- 
 ing the last eight years has been so uniform in quality that its 
 ash content has not varied 3% during that long period, so that 
 the degree of heat and its rate of change from point to point are 
 absolutely alike from hour to hour and day to day. 
 
 The gypsum rock used for the purpose of regulating the set is 
 carefully analyzed to detect any inequalities in chemical com- 
 
 17 
 
u 
 
 05 
 
 iO>OOiOiOiOO'OOOOOOOOOU5iOOOiOi-0>J^O 
 I>OOOOOOOOt^OOOOCX)QOQOOOt^OOOOt>-OOOOOOOOOOt-0000 
 
 rHMrMr^rHr-lr-IC^rHr^r-lrHrHrH^rHiH^^jHr-lTHrHTH 
 
 ^t--Qoq^ooT^c^^vcGooorof^":l^xo^oo^r^T^•t/)•^vo 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + ++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ 
 
 + + + ++++ ++ + 
 
 O^O^o^0^a^o^C^l0^o^O^O^a^O^O^O^a^0^o^O^C^o^a\0^0^ 
 
 i-IMrO-*LOiOC^OOa\OiHM»HC<)rO'^>J^^I>OOC^OTHf<) 
 i-( rH tH rH t-I i-i 
 
 18 
 
position and the addition is made before the clinker receives its 
 first crushing. The fineness of grinding is tested hourly, often 
 each machine in the plant being separately investigated. In 
 addition to these tests for fineness, the cement is tested hourly 
 in accordance with the specifications of the American Society of 
 Civil Engineers and a much more rigid accelerated test than 
 that required by the society is carried out. Cement pats are 
 first steamed for three hours and then boiled for an equal period, 
 thus making certain the quality of the final product. 
 
 The tests reported in the table on the opposite page were taken at 
 random from one day's result and show the uniformity of the 
 tests obtained even though two individuals conducted the tests 
 at different hours of the day. 
 
 The table on page 21 shows the uniformity of the average re- 
 sults obtained for a single month from year to year during the 
 past four years and clearly indicates the remarkable uniformity 
 of " Dragon " Portland Cement. 
 
 No experiments have been devised to determine the color vari- 
 ations but the fact that cement users throughout the country 
 have remarked on the uniformity of color of Dragon cement is 
 the best indication of uniformity of its quality. (See testimo- 
 nials pages 10, 22, 92, 98 and 106.) 
 
 This uniformity of quality is the most important item to be 
 considered with regard to any cement when the quality itself is 
 within required limits. A standard of quality has been estab- 
 lished within a certain range of values by an agreement entered 
 into between the manufacturers of Portland cement and large 
 numbers of users, such as the American Railway Engineering 
 and Maintenance of Way Association, the American Institute 
 of Architects, the American Society of Testing Materials, the 
 National Association of Cement Users, etc. 
 
 Specifications as to this standard of quality have been prepared 
 by the American Society for Testing Materials, while a stand- 
 ard method of making the tests required to determine the qual- 
 ity have been drawn up by the American Society of Civil En- 
 gineers. 
 
 19 
 
L. & D. EDWARDS & CO., 
 DEALERS IN 
 ALL KINDS OF BUILDING MATERIALS, 
 COAL AND KINDLING WOOD. 
 LONG BRANCH, NEW JERSEY. 
 
 July 30. 1901 
 
 F. E. Morse Co., 
 
 17 State St, N. Y. 
 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 We c£in recommend the "Dragon" 
 Portland cement for every purpose that 
 Portland cement is used. An artificial 
 stone hulk-lie ad v/as huilt v/ith it at this 
 place and it is the only cement that ever 
 remained in tact one year after being used 
 
 We have sold it for concreting 
 and widewalks, which have resulted satis- 
 factory in every respect. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 20 
 
TABLE OF AVERAGE TESTS OF 
 " DRAGON " PORTLAND CEMENT. 
 
 MONTH OF 24 HOURS. 7 DAYS. 28 DAYS. 7 DAYS ^.^ys. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 
 NEAT 
 
 
 1905 
 
 462 
 
 731 
 
 799 
 
 1906 
 
 486 
 
 737 
 
 805 
 
 1907 
 
 
 700 
 
 809 
 
 1908 
 
 506 
 
 726 
 
 804 
 
 I :3 SAND 
 
 269 359 
 
 253 331 
 
 257 327 
 
 280 351 
 
 Note— These are the average of the tests made dur^ng the 
 single month of July for the years shown, and demonstrate 
 beyond cavil the wonderful uniformity of " Dragon " Portland 
 Cement from year to year. 
 
 21 
 
Taunton, Mass., Oct 8,1908. 
 
 Mr. Chaxles D. Stout, Gen'l Sales Agent, 
 Lawrence Cement Company * 
 1 Biroadway, Uew York City 
 
 Dear Sir;- 
 
 In reply to your favor of the ..i* 
 BtUl In drjing e?2e! ^"'"^'^ cemsnt., which -^ra 
 
 Thinic undoubtedly we shall *u 
 circumstances land the buslnpL^ 
 are going to accept your of ?er ^c «.nH T""?"^^^'^ 
 the man of experience rJfPrrpH J ^^'"d ^o Taunton 
 our party the bene?U Jf Ms ex^erfpn^^^ ^^^^ 
 started. Win advise vnn fof^ ®"^® ^" getting 
 a.weeJc, just wha? date be'L'?' ^^^^^^^y in 
 
 giving you amply time in whirh ?^ * «?onvenient, 
 arrangements. "^^'^^ proper 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 PRESBREY STOVE LINING^O. 
 
 22 
 
standard Specifications 
 
 FOR CEMENT 
 Adopted August 15th, 1908, by the 
 American Society for Testing Materials. 
 General Observations. 
 
 1. These remarks have been prepared with a view of point- 
 ing out the pertinent features of the various requirements and 
 the precautions to be observed in the interpretation of the re- 
 sults of the tests. 
 
 2. The Committee would suggest that the acceptance or re- 
 jection under these specifications be based on tests made by an 
 experienced person having the proper means for making the 
 tests. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 3. Specific gravity is useful in detecting adulteration. The 
 results of tests of specific gravity are not necessarily conclusive 
 as an indication of the quality of a cement, but when in com- 
 bination with the results of other tests may afford valuable in- 
 dications. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 4. The sieves should be kept thoroughly dry. 
 
 Time of Setting. 
 
 5. Great care should be exercised to maintain the test pieces 
 under as uniform conditions as possible. A sudden change or 
 wide range of temperature in the room in which the tests are 
 made, a very dry or humid atmosphere, and other irregularities, 
 vitally affect the rate of setting. 
 
 23 
 
d 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 -J w 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a, 
 
 w ^ 
 pi! " 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 w ^ 
 
 o - 
 
 < 
 o 
 
 H 
 
Tensile Strength. 
 
 6. Each consumer must fix the minimum requirements for 
 tensile strength to suit his own conditions. They shall, how- 
 ever, be within the limits stated. 
 
 Constancy of Volume. 
 
 7. The tests for constancy of volume are divided into two 
 classes, the first normal, the second accelerated. The latter 
 should be regarded as a precautionary test only, and not infal- 
 lible. So many conditions enter into the making and inter- 
 preting of it that it should be used with extreme care. 
 
 8. In making the pats the greatest care should be exercised 
 to avoid initial strains due to molding or to too rapid drying- 
 out during the first twenty-four hours. The pats should be 
 preserved under the most uniform conditions possible, and rapid 
 changes of temperature should be avoided. 
 
 9. The failure to meet the requirements of the accelerated 
 tests need not be sufficient cause for rejection. The cement may, 
 however, be held for twenty-eight days, and a retest made at the 
 end of that period using a new sample. Failure to meet the re- 
 quirements at this time should be considered sufficient cause for 
 rejection, although in the present state of our knowledge it can- 
 not be said that such failure necessarily indicates unsoundness, 
 nor can the cement be considered entirely satisfactory simply 
 because it passes the tests. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS. 
 General Conditions. 
 
 1. All cement shall be inspected. 
 
 2. Cement may be inspected either at the place of manu- 
 facture or on the work. 
 
 3. In order to allow ample time for inspecting and testing, 
 the cement should be stored in a suitable weather-tight building 
 having the floor properly blocked or raised from the ground. 
 
 4. The cement shall be stored in such a manner as to permit 
 easy access for proper inspection and identification of each ship- 
 ment. 
 
 5. Every facility shall be provided by the contractor and a 
 period of at least twelve days allowed for the inspection and 
 necessary tests. 
 
 25 
 
MANUFACTURER OF THE CELEBRATED 
 "KING WINDSOR DRY MORTAR." 
 
 Telephone Main 25 
 
 D. J. PENNEY 
 
 DEALER IN 
 
 HA«D AND SOFT COAL 
 Sewer Pipe and Fittings, Lime, Cement 
 OFFICE: Plaster, Fire Brick and Clay 
 
 Cor. Nickel Plate and Broadway 
 
 ^<i.-»<^(Un, Nov. 2. 1908. 
 
 Mr. Hurst, 
 
 Cleveland Macadam Co., 
 Cleveland, 0. 
 
 Dear Sir:- 
 
 P^^* '^^^ city of Norwalk. 
 
 0., I used 1500 bbls. of j'our Dragon Cement in the 
 ^obstruction of a 60" concrete sewer, a mixture 
 
 We had a test made at Mansfield. 0. of 
 several cements and the Dragon had the best test 
 of all the cements tested and in our sewer it 
 gave us the best job of any cement we ever used. 
 
 could pull our forms in twelve hours and when 
 we had occasion to cut a hole in the sewer it 
 was almost ingpossible to get it through. 
 
 o^o-i^ ^ ever have an occasion to use cement 
 
 again, nothing but Dragon for mine. 
 
 Thanking you for pronipt attention to 
 orders and shipment of same and further stating 
 the Dragon is the best cement I have ever used 
 JemS^n^^^* ^^^"^ handling cement, I beg to 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 26 
 
6. Cement shall be delivered in suitable packages with the 
 brand and name of manufacturer plainly marked thereon. 
 
 7. A bag of cement shall contain 94 pounds of cement net. 
 Each barrel of Portland cement shall contain 4 bags, and each 
 barrel of natural cement shall contain 3 bags of the above net 
 weight. 
 
 8. Cement failing to meet the seven-day requirements may 
 be held awaiting the results of the twenty-eight day tests before 
 rejection. 
 
 9. All tests shall be made in accordance with the methods 
 proposed by the Committee on Uniform Tests of Cement of the 
 American Society of Civil Engineers, presented to the Society, 
 January 21, 1903, and amended January 20, 1904, and January 
 15, 1908, with all subsequent amendments thereto. 
 
 Portland Cement. 
 
 17. Definition. This term is applied to the finely pulver- 
 ized product resulting from the calcination to incipient fusion of 
 an intimate mixture of properly proportioned argillaceous and 
 calareous materials, and to which no addition greater than 3^ 
 has been made subsequent to calcination. 
 
 18. The specific gravity of the cement, ignited at a low red 
 heat, shall not be less than 3.10, and the cement shall not show 
 a loss on ignition of more than 4%. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 19. It shall leave by weight a residue of not more than S% 
 o>n the No. 100, and not more than 25% on the No. 200 sieve. 
 
 Time of Setting. 
 
 20. It shall not develop initial set in less than thirty min- 
 uites, and must develop hard set in not less than one hour, nor 
 nnore than ten hours. 
 
 Tensile Strength. 
 
 21. The minimum requirements for tensile strength for 
 briquettes one inch square in section shall be within the follow- 
 
 27 
 
ing limits, and shall show no retrogression in strength within 
 the periods specified.* 
 
 Age. Neat Cement. Strength. 
 
 24 hours in moist air 150-200 lbs 
 
 7 days (i day in moist air, 6 days in water) 450-550 " 
 
 28 days ( I day in moist air, 27 days in water) . . . .550-650 " 
 One Part Cement, Three Parts Standard Sand. 
 
 7 days ( i day in moist air, 6 days in water) 150-200 Ihs. 
 
 28 days (i day in moist air, 27 days in water) . . . .200-300 " 
 
 If the minimum strength is not specified, the mean of the 
 above values shall be taken as the minimum strength required. 
 
 Constancy of Volume.' 
 
 22. Pats of neat cement about three inches in diameter, one- 
 half inch thick at center, and tapering to a thin edge, shall be 
 kept in moist air for a period of twenty-four hours. 
 
 (a) A pat is then kept in air at normal temperature and ob- 
 served at intervals for at least 28 days. 
 
 (b) Another pat is kept in water maintained as near 70° F. 
 as practicable, and observed at intervals for at least 28 days. 
 
 (c) A third pat is exposed in any convenient way in an at- 
 mosphere of steam, above boiling water, in a loosely closed vessel 
 for five hours. 
 
 23. These pats, to satisfactorily pass the requirements, shall 
 remain firm and hard and show no signs of distortion, checking, 
 cracking or disintegrating. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid and Magnesia. 
 
 24. The cement shall not contain more than 1.75% of an- 
 hydrous sulphuric acid (S O3) nor more than 4% of magnesia 
 (Mgo). 
 
 The normal chemical composition of Portland Cement is 
 usually within the following limits : 
 
 Silica 20.00 to 25% 
 
 Alumina 5.00 to 9% 
 
 Oxide of Iron 2.00 to 5% 
 
 Lime 57.00 to 65% 
 
 Magnesia , i.oo to 4% 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 0.25 to 2% 
 
 * (For example, the minimum requirement for the twenty-four hour 
 neat cement test should be some specified value within the limits of 150 
 and 200 pounds, and so on for each period stated.) 
 
 28 
 
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K. G. SCOTT, Jn. W.E.SCOTT J.P.SCOTT 
 
 GENERAL CONTRACTORS 
 
 BARGE CANAL CONTRACT NO, 45 
 
 BBLL. TELEPHONE 212 
 
 Baldwinsville, N. Y., Nov 16, 1908, 
 
 Mr. J. F. Miller, Sect., 
 
 Cumberland Hyd, Cement & Mfg Co., 
 Cumberland, Md. 
 
 Dear Sir:- 
 
 Wo are very glad indeed to testify as 
 to the satisfactory quality of your cement, having 
 recently if inished a contract for the A. B. Sr. A. 
 R. R. Co. in Ge'orgia, where we used some 25000 
 "barrels of your ceijient, every car of v/hich was 
 subjected to a rigid test by the railroad company 
 and not a barrel was rejected or held up for second 
 test. On our Barge Canal work we have a contract 
 with you for some 35000 barrels, having used ^out 
 8000 barrels, all of v/hich was subjected to the 
 tests of the State of Nev/ York, and so far we 
 have not had the least trouble. 
 
 In the meantime v/e have used it on 
 several small contracts with the above results. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 SCOTT BROILERS, 
 
 37 
 
The Effect of Sand on Cement 
 
 Mortar 
 
 Experiment shows that the character of the sand employed for 
 making the mortar used for concrete blocks, sidewalks, brick 
 masonry, stucco, reinforced concrete, etc., has a vital effect on 
 the resulting product, so that a very careful study of all available 
 sources of supply should always be made whenever a large struc- 
 ture is involved or a concern is undertaking the manufacture of 
 cement products on any considerable scale. The strength of the 
 mixture, its rate of set, and the yield obtainable with a given 
 quantity of cement are all found to depend on the nature of the 
 sand employed and very often perfectly good cement has been 
 wrongfully condemned because of trouble which has ultimately 
 been traced to the sand with which the cement was mixed. 
 
 Extensive experiments have been carried out under the direc- 
 tion of the U. S. Geological Survey and the results obtained are 
 exceedingly instructive if from no other standpoint than the one 
 that few absolutely definite conclusions can be drawn from them. 
 Twenty-two samples of sand, twelve samples of gravel screen- 
 ings, and twenty-five samples of stone screenings were carefully 
 analyzed physically, and numerous mortar specimens prepared 
 with a single special cement, the specimens being tested after 
 varying periods. Over 25,000 individual tests were made in 
 this connection and while certain broad generalizations, like 
 those which follow, can be deduced, the most instructive points 
 are brought out from study and comparison of individual speci- 
 mens. 
 
 Mortar made of each variety of material was tested with each 
 proportion of cement selected, viz. : i :3 and i -.4. in tension, com- 
 pression and bending, respectively, at ages of 7, 28, 90, 180 and 
 360 days. In general it was found that greater uniformity ex- 
 isted between the results obtained after 180 days than in those 
 made after shorter periods, because unavoidable differences in 
 the cement were more apparent at younger ages, while such ir- 
 regularities disappeared as the test pieces became older. 
 
 38 
 
Each sample of sand, gravel and stone screening, was sepa- 
 rated into sizes by passing through sieves of the commercial sizes 
 called lO, 20, 30, 40, 50, 80, lOO and 200. The results show- 
 ing the quantities thus obtained were plotted and analyzed in 
 various ways. The results seemed to indicate that the nearer 
 the grading curve approached a uniform grade line from the 
 finest to the coarsest, the greater was the strength of the mortar 
 obtained. 
 
 The voids were also determined in each specimen and the 
 strength, in a general way, was found to decrease with an in- 
 crease of voids. 
 
 The density of the mortar made from each specimen was ac- 
 curately determined and in a very general way it was observed 
 that high density usually meant greater strength and greater 
 weight per cubic foot, and vice versa. The yield of each mortar 
 with a given mixture and quantity of the crude materials was 
 also carefully measured. 
 
 The general opinion, hitherto widely held, was also confirmed 
 that mortars mixed with coarse materials are stronger than when 
 the materials may be considered as very fine. 
 
 Examination of the numerous photographs and comparison 
 with the tests of the samples illustrated show that so-called 
 " sharpness " of grain has apparently nothing to do with the 
 strength of the mortar produced. 
 
 A certain amount of so-called silt or pure clay when added to 
 mortar has often been found to increase its strength until a point 
 is reached where this addition exceeds about ten per cent of the 
 cement, after which it becomes an increasing detriment. The 
 Government tests do not throw definite light on this point. 
 
 But particular interest attends the making of particular com- 
 parisons, a few of which are as follows : 
 
 The two samples of gravel screenings of Figure A and 
 Figure B, p. 36, are apparently almost identical. One was se- 
 cured in Michigan and one in Ohio. One tested 8567 pounds 
 per square inch in compression while the other tested only 4650 
 under similar conditions. Judging from the appearance of the 
 photograph, the sample of sand on the same page (Fig. C) would 
 be taken to be of excellent quality, while it developed only 3677 
 pounds. Again, compare the two sands shown on page 40 
 (Figure D and Figure E). One tested 4225 and the other 
 7554 when mixed 1:3 while the better sand tested 5193 when 
 mixed 1 14, thus showing itself far superior to even the first men- 
 tioned sand when mixed with 33% less cement. Several other 
 
 39 
 
Samples of Sand. 
 
pairs of samples almost identical in distribution of sizes, tested 
 2000 pounds apart, showing that that feature is not a predomi- 
 nant one. All samples which would provide sufficient material, 
 had one single size of grain separated, and all samples thus ob- 
 tained were similarly tested. Only that material which would 
 pass a number 30 sieve and be held by a number 40 was used, 
 mixed i :3 in each case. The results ran from about 3600 lbs. to 
 about 2000 lbs. among twenty samples of sand ; thus disclosing a 
 very wide variation in quality entirely aside from all questions of 
 size of grain or amount of cement used. 
 
 Finally the " yield " or amount of mortar obtainable when 
 cement and sand are mixed in specified proportions, and the 
 strength of the resulting mixture are interesting points to all who 
 must purchase large quantities of sand. 
 
 In the Government tests, sand and gravel screenings gave 
 much higher yields than did stone screenings, as a general rule. 
 
 The actual yield of mortar in proportion to the quantity of 
 sand used (by weight) varied from 1.27 down to 1.02. Obvi- 
 ously a purchaser could afford to pay much more for the first 
 kind mentioned than for the second, and when it might simul- 
 taneously be found possible to secure high strength tests with good 
 yields, a still more advantageous condition would result. A yield 
 of 1 . 1 8 may be considered much above the average, but one sample 
 showing that yield tested 3677 lbs. while three others yielding 
 1. 21, 1. 19 and 1.20 gave results of 6125, 6719 and 7108 lbs. 
 respectively. Of 58 samples the average yield was 1.13, so that 
 it is evidently possible by a proper selection of sand to secure 
 from 5 to 10% above the average amount of mortar to be ex- 
 pected and still mix the sand and cement always in the same rel- 
 ative proportions. 
 
 A cement user should therefore examine and test most care- 
 fully all possible sources of sand supply so as to secure the best 
 result and on the other hand should never condemn a cement 
 unless similar careful tests have been made to determine the ef- 
 fect of the sand being used. For purposes of comparison, a 
 special sand has been selected by scientists and called the " Stand- 
 ard Sand." It may be obtained from all large testing labora- 
 tories and many cement manufacturers. Results obtained with 
 it, however, are usually much below those obtainable with com- 
 mercial sands, the Government result being 4042 pounds per 
 square inch in compression, which is seen to compare only fairly 
 with most of the other examples mentioned. 
 
 41 
 
Finishing Concrete Surfaces 
 
 In all super-structural concrete work, a certain degree of 
 artistic treatment is involved. This very largely takes the form 
 of panels, mouldings, projections, pilasters, belt courses, bal- 
 conies, etc., but surface finish also must be considered in all but 
 the simplest structure. 
 
 The uniformity and dullness of untreated concrete surfaces is 
 not pleasing to most persons, so that many architects and con- 
 structors make use of variations in color, as well as of special 
 surface treatment. The wet concrete, which is now most often 
 employed, is so very plastic that it shows in the minutest detail 
 the peculiarities of the moulds in which it is formed. Neces- 
 sarily, therefore, imperfections in these moulds are to be care- 
 fully avoided and only such moulds selected as will give surfaces 
 which are pleasing in appearance. Forms which are imper- 
 fectly constructed with different thicknesses of lumber used in- 
 discriminately or with dirt or old cement adhering to their sur- 
 faces, will not produce results which are compatible with ordi- 
 nary conditions. Where it becomes necessary to secure perfect 
 surfaces as they leave the forms, the latter should be constructed 
 of narrow, matched lumber, at least one inch and a quarter thick, 
 carefully braced so as to prevent bulging, and thoroughly washed 
 with water immediately before fresh concrete is deposited. 
 Joints should be carefully filled with clay and the grain marks 
 can be reduced to some extent by oiling the lumber and then 
 throwing fine sand against the oiled surface. With careful con- 
 struction, very elaborate mouldings, intaglio work, etc., can be 
 produced, but such work is costly, since the carpentry must be 
 equal to the best cabinet work or pattern making. Very beau- 
 tiful results, however, can be obtained where cost is not an item. 
 
 With this form of treatment, the surface is always extremely 
 smooth and unless treated in color, is apt to be somewhat monot- 
 onous. Many people admire a rougher texture. Several 
 
 43 
 
methods are employed in securing sucli results. Sand blasting 
 is very effective, and if carefully done by an expert, can be made 
 to produce panels, belts, etc., and the effect of the blast can be 
 carried as deeply as desired. By a slight cutting of the surface, 
 the appearance of sandstone is obtained. Deeper cutting will re- 
 move more of the mortar which has been flushed against the 
 forms and the aggregate will be exposed. 
 
 By a proper selection of the various ingredients entering into 
 the original mixture, variations in surface and even in color are 
 obtainable, if the surface is sand blasted or otherwise treated, so 
 as to reveal these aggregates. Broken brick, white marble chips, 
 blue trap rock, other colored marbles, etc., together with the gray 
 matrix of the cement mortar, can be combined, to give almost 
 any desired combination of colors and surface effects. White 
 pebbles of various sizes can be emplo3'ed and the aggregate may 
 be anything from the size of coarse sand to that of pieces an inch 
 or more in diameter. Obviously, if special effects are desired 
 with this course of treatment the concrete must be deposited with 
 exceptional care. 
 
 Instead of sand blasting, the concrete surface may be scrubbed 
 with water and ordinary scrub brushes, if the concrete is not al- 
 lowed to get too old and hard. Water should be freely used 
 from a hose and the amount of force exerted in the scrubbing 
 will give shallow or deep cutting effects as desired. For this 
 work only from twenty-four to forty-eight hours should elapse 
 between the time the fresh concrete is deposited and that when 
 its surface is treated, depending on the weather conditions. 
 Older concrete may be similarly treated by etching with acid. 
 This may be either sulphuric, hydrochloric or acetic. The con- 
 crete work should be deposited in a fairly dry mixture if acid is 
 eventually to be used. The acid should finally be neutralized 
 with an alkaline solution and well soaked with water. (This 
 acid treatment is covered by patents.) 
 
 Less vigorous treatment can be secured by wetting and rub- 
 bing the surface with a block of hard wood, old concrete, sand- 
 stone or carborundum ; or scrubbing with a stiff wire brush ; but 
 in each instance the concrete must not have attained too great an 
 age. A vigorous use of water is also advisable. Other textures 
 of surface may be obtained by tooling with pneumatic tools or by 
 
 45 
 
hand.^ The concrete should be very hard for this method of 
 handling (at least forty-five days old), and when care has been 
 taken w^ith the forms and in the placing of this concrete, efifects 
 practically identical with those of natural stone can be procured. 
 Bush-hammering is the most popular method, w^hile other forms 
 of finish have also been employed. All the exterior surfaces of 
 the Connecticut Avenue Bridge in Washington, w^ere thus 
 treated. (See description elsew^here.) Unless form lumber 
 which is uniform in thickness is employed, it becomes necessary 
 to tool some parts of the surface deeper than others. This vari- 
 able depth of tooling produces differences in the surface which 
 are objectionable, so that care should be exercised in the con- 
 struction of the forms in regard to this point, although they may 
 be constructed of rough lumber if more convenient. 
 
 The use of rough lumber and a very dry mixture carefully 
 rammed will also give a pleasing surface under certain circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Almost any special variety of treatment and of any degree of 
 intricacy can be secured by the use of stucco. Obviously the 
 stucco may be of any color, texture and finish. But it must be 
 firmly bonded to the backing and very carefully applied. Smooth 
 finished stucco work is apt to develop fine hair cracks and is con- 
 sequently objectionable. These cracks are also usually discov- 
 ered in other varieties of surfaces, but with slap-dash and pebble- 
 dash work they are not noticeable. Some workmen allow the 
 stucco to become partially set and re-temper it in an endeavor to 
 obviate this surface " crazing," as it is called. Mouldings and 
 heavy work of other kinds must be built up little by little, each 
 layer carefully applied and fully hardened before the next one is 
 installed. About 25% of lime mortar can advantageously be 
 mixed with the cement mortar for stucco work. 
 
 It is much easier to produce color effects by employment of 
 stucco than by endeavoring to employ colored cement or some 
 coloring compound in the mortar of the mass concrete work 
 iLither for stucco or mass work, however, the following mate- 
 rials have been successfully employed : 
 
 Buff Stone Color: Use 36 parts Portland cement, 8 parts by 
 weight of yellow oxide of iron, and i part red oxide 
 
 Red: Use 87 parts Portland cement, 11 parts red oxide of 
 iron, 2 parts black oxide of iron or copper. 
 
 46 
 
Yellow: Use 84 parts Portland cement, 14 parts yellow 
 oxide of iron, 2 parts black oxide of iron or copper. 
 
 Caen Stone Color: Use 36 parts Portland cement, 4 parts 
 yellow oxide of iron, Yz part red oxide. 
 
 Blue: Use 80 parts Portland cement, 18 parts azure blue or 
 ultra marine, 2 parts black oxide of iron or copper. 
 
 Green: Use 85 parts Portland cement, 12 parts of oxide of 
 chromium, 3 parts black oxide of iron or copper. 
 
 Chocolate: Use 88 parts Portland cement, 6 parts of black 
 oxide of manganese, 4 parts red oxide of iron, 2 parts black 
 oxide of iron or copper. 
 
 Black: Use 87 parts Portland cement, 13 parts black oxide 
 of manganese or any carbon black. 
 
 White: Use 67 parts Portland cement, 33 parts sulphite of 
 barytes. 
 
 Only those coloring materials should be employed which con- 
 sist of the oxides of the various elements, since the salts are all 
 liable to disintegration. Even colors thus obtained appear to 
 fade to some extent in the course of years. In mixing the in- 
 gredients, the greatest care and exactitude are essential. If im- 
 properly mixed, the surfaces are apt to be spotty. In deciding 
 upon a tint, specimen containing different proportions of the 
 coloring matter and of Portland cement should be made and 
 allowed to become quite dry before observation. 
 
 More satisfactory methods of securing color are by the em- 
 ployment of brick or tile embedded in the concrete surface. 
 Very striking effects can be secured by the use of red brick in 
 the form of quoins, lintels, belt courses, etc., in combination with 
 concrete for the pilasters, sill courses, etc. Occasionally, cur- 
 tain walls under windows, etc., are constructed in red or bufE 
 brick with good effect. If the brick are to be embedded in the 
 mass concrete work as the latter is carried on, a rather dry mix- 
 ture should be used, and in order to maintain the exact positions 
 of the several pieces, joints should be maintained by the use of 
 wooden wedges and strips. Tile, either glazed or unglazed, and 
 of any degree of intricacy of design as to shape and color, can be 
 employed. They may be first glued to perforated forms with 
 common bill posters' paste, and then the mass concrete deposited 
 as usual. When the concrete is properly set, deluging the forms 
 
 47 
 
'Z c ^ 
 o 5 ^ 
 
 „ S 
 
 Sow 
 
 2 S3 g 
 § ^ ^ 
 
 O v ^ 
 O i-i c 
 
with water will dissolve the paste so as to allow the removal of 
 the moulds. Such tile work can also be cast in the shape of 
 slabs which are to be set in recesses moulded in the mass con- 
 crete work, if this method is found more economical than placing 
 the tile on the moulds for the original surface. When the latter 
 course is employed, copper tacks are sometimes used to secure the 
 tile to the centering, no discoloration from rust taking place with 
 the lapse of time where copper has been used. Mosaic floors, the 
 soffits of arches and domes, belt courses around columns or along 
 facades, ornamental medallions and innumerable other points 
 have been beautifully ornamented by this means. In a sense, 
 one becomes a painter using clay paint. The breadth of design, 
 width of line, etc., must obviously be proportioned to the dis- 
 tance of the observer from the ornament. 
 
 Bronze, copper or painted pressed metal, can also be employed 
 to any extent required to give color and ornamental effect to 
 concrete work. Light iron grilles, balconies, etc., are very ef- 
 fective in combination with concrete work, but all metal when 
 so used must be absolutely prevented from corroding, or other- 
 wise the concrete surface will be stained so as to become imme- 
 diately very unsightly. Blocks of mortar or concrete made with 
 very fine aggregate, can be planed, sawed, or turned with ma- 
 chines just as the softer quarried stones are handled. 
 
 49 
 
RINEHART & DENNIS COMPANY 
 RAILWAY CONTRACTORS 
 
 COLORADO BUILDING TrLiVHom, m<m- 
 
 WASffiN-CT^N. o. c. NovomDer 18, 1908. 
 
 Cumberland Hydraiaic Cement & Mfg Co., 
 
 Cumberland^ Md. 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 Replying to your favor of the 14th 
 inst., beg to say we have used a large quantity 
 of your Dragon Portland cement in connection 
 with the lining of two double track tunnels on 
 the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad near Alberton, 
 Md., also on other works, and the cement has 
 always given entire satisfaction. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 RIHEHART & DEMIS COMPANY. 
 
 50 
 
Water Proofing of Concrete 
 
 Except for mass concrete foundations, all work should be 
 made as water proof as possible. Experiment has shown that 
 rich concrete is practically impervious to water. Mixtures 
 poorer than one to four are apt to be very pervious. Concrete 
 made with large aggregate is much more impervious than that 
 containing only smaller sizes. Two-and-a-half inch stone, for 
 instance, is far superior to three-quarter inch. Gravel is su- 
 perior to broken stone in producing imperviousness. Again, the 
 thicker the wall the less water will flow through it in propor- 
 tion, and the older the concrete the less pervious it is. Usually, 
 after the flow of water has continued for a few hours, it is found 
 to diminish rapidly in quantity, apparently due to the filling of 
 the pores with the very fine particles carried in suspension by the 
 water. If this action takes place at all, it is produced very rap- 
 idly. On the other hand, if it is not thus rapidly produced, the 
 effect of the water is apt to be injurious, because it and the 
 chemicals it contains will dissolve certain parts of the concrete 
 which will then be carried away and the whole mass become 
 honey-combed, even to the point of failure. The denser the con- 
 crete, the less pervious it is; so that the usual line along which 
 experimenters work, is to find means and materials for filling the 
 minute pores which form in the concrete as it hardens. As has 
 been said, extra cement will do this. Hydrate of lime is an ex- 
 ceedingly impalpable material and is often employed. Pure 
 silica or alumina in the form of silt or clay is also effective to a 
 certain extent and when such clay happens to have the property 
 of slightly swelling when damp, the imperviousness is supposed 
 to be increased. 
 
 Certain chemicals are also sometimes added to the cement or 
 
 51 
 
H C. MASTBJtS, P»KM. 
 
 ALL CONTRACTS MADE CONTINGENT UPON STRIKES. FiUB. ACCIDENT OR CAUSES BEYOND OUit CONTROL 
 
 W. J. ORANOER. ViCK-PNSS. c. P. MULLEN. $te-V A TntAC 
 
 Wf^ JUagteriBf Sc JHulIen Construction €o. 
 
 MCMBER BUILDERS EXCHANOC 
 
 ReinforceD Conctete anO JTttetitooflng 
 
 CONCRETE BUILDINGS. FOUNDATIONS, WALKS 
 FLOORS. PAVEMENTS, BRIDGES 
 
 ClenitlanJ, 0. 
 
 Hot lath, 1908 
 Re to "Dragon" Cement. 
 
 The CleTeland Macadam Co., 
 
 Builders Exchange. 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 One of the jobs in coiurse of construction at 
 this time on which we are using "Dreigon" Cement is the 
 Plain Dealer Building. 
 
 The interior construction of this building is 
 composed of steel columns in concrete, and reinforced 
 concrete girders, supporting rather exceptionally long 
 span floor slabs. These spans run up as high as twenty- 
 six feet, and carry loadings from three hundred to four 
 hundred pounds per square foot. The thickness of 
 these slabs varies from twelve inches to sixteen 
 inches, and is con5)osed of hollow tile and reinforced 
 concrete . 
 
 This particular construction of long span 
 slab work is very advantageous to the owner of the 
 building, as the reduction in head room due to beams 
 and girders is cut down to a minimum. 
 
 The concrete of this building is composed of 
 "Dragon" cement and crushed furnace slag, and reinforced 
 with cold twisted steel bars. 
 
 This work, as you know, is being done under 
 the supervision of Mr, George H. Smith. Architect, of 
 this City. ' ' 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 THE MASTERS & MULLEN COUST. CO. 
 
 Per 
 
 Sec'y & Treas. 
 
 52 
 
the mortar. Some of them are entirely inert and simply act as 
 registers of flow because they produce in connection with water 
 a capillary phenomena of a negative variety, similar to that 
 which exists between mercury and glass or between oil and 
 water. Others are supposed to form insoluble precipitates as 
 soon as extra water is encountered, these precipitates filling the 
 voids as does the silt or extra cement above described. 
 
 Moisture is prevented from getting below the surface of a 
 concrete structure in many cases by special treatment of that sur- 
 face. Long continued trowelling will produce a dense condi- 
 tion such as is found in a sidewalk, which is practically impervi- 
 ous to water. 
 
 Numerous waterproof paints have been devised but very few 
 of them are effective for long periods because the majority con- 
 tain oils of some nature which are attacked by the alkali in the 
 cement with the production of soluble soaps. These are washed 
 away with every rainstorm and the surface soon becomes non- 
 waterproof. Pure paraffine wax installed with the application 
 of heat is doubtless the most effective method of preventing in- 
 gress of moisture. 
 
 All methods of surface treatment have the disadvantage that 
 they prevent further hardening of the concrete as soon as they 
 are installed, because no more moisture can penetrate to the in- 
 terior and it is moisture which is essential to further hardening. 
 
 53 
 
L AORHettlnTS CONTINOBNT UPON STUIKtS. ACCIDZNTS t 
 
 ? CONTROL 
 
 ASSOCIATE ays. 
 
 BOSTON. NBW YORK. PHn.ADBI.PHlA. BALTIMORE WASHINCTom n ^ ™- „ 
 TORONX..-CAM. ™. H»0. PAR,S, PRA.CH. BRU«Et.. I" ^,™„ J^^^^ """^ 
 
 oei^iUM. DORTMUND. GERMANY. ©ALB. SWITZERLAND VIENNA. AUSTRIA. 
 
 EXPANDED METAL 
 FLOORS. 
 
 SOLID riRCPROOF PARTITIONS. 
 
 The Expanded Metal Fireproofing Co. of Pittsburg. 
 
 303 HOME TRUST BUILblNG. 
 
 541 WOOD STREET. 
 
 PIREPROOP DWCLLINCS. 
 
 V. J. McMARLIN. S« 
 
 Pittsburg. Pa. -^une 7,05. 
 
 Cumber5.and Hydraulic Cement & Mnfg Co., 
 Cumberland, Md. * 
 
 Gentlemen :- 
 
 In reply to your recent letter to 
 the writSt, will say that our delay in 
 answering is due to my absence from the City. 
 
 The buildings which we have built 
 of strictly reinforced construction in which 
 your Dragon cement was used was the Charleston 
 National Bank Building, Charleston, W. Va, 
 and the Samuel Ach Building, Cincinnati, Ohio 
 also the Salvation Army Barracks, Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 We have used your Dragon cement in 
 probably fifty buildings with structural 
 steel frames and reinforced concrete floor all 
 to our entire satisfaction. 
 
 Respectfully yours, 
 
 EXPAimSD METAL PIREPROOFING CO., 
 
 Sec'y & Treas, 
 
 54 
 
Prevention of Rust in Reinforce- 
 ment for Concrete. 
 
 Two theories exist with regard to the action which takes place 
 when iron or steel corrodes. One is that this action is electro- 
 lytic in nature, while the other considers that the reaction is 
 purely chemical. In either case, moisture is essential, while with 
 regard to the purely chemical theory, an excess of oxygen or 
 other oxidizing agent is required. 
 
 Pure cement, with its slight alkaline reaction, when applied in 
 a continuous coating over the surface of a steel or iron rod or 
 other shape, has been found to act as a preservative of high order. 
 Paints are actively exploited, which contain as the principal in- 
 gredient, Portland Cement either as manufactured for usual pur- 
 poses or produced synthetically with this particular object in 
 view. In every instance it is obvious that an absolutely con- 
 tinuous film of cement must be applied to the steel surface. _ In 
 reinforced concrete work, this is secured by properly proportion- 
 ing the concrete mixture so that the cement and water forms a 
 grout which can be worked against the reinforcement rods, and 
 if properly done, will coat them in the required manner. With 
 this in view a slight excess of water is required, and it is neces- 
 sary that in the case of floor slabs, beams and girders, the mortar 
 from the concrete be constantly made to flow ahead of the ma- 
 jority of the material being deposited, so as to surround the re- 
 inforcement and thoroughly coat it. This action is largely facil- 
 itated by a gentle tapping of the reinforcement which produces a 
 slight vibration. This acts so as to keep the larger particles of 
 the concrete pushed away from the surface of the reinforcement, 
 the space between being filled with the mortar, consisting largely 
 of cement. 
 
 Some practitioners have required that all reinforcement be 
 dipped in a bath of cement grout before being installed in the 
 forms, but, by careful manipulation during the deposit of the con- 
 crete, this extra handling and cost is unnecessary and can be ob- 
 viated. Where special care has not been taken, however, re- 
 inforcing rods have been uncovered after a few years and found 
 nothing but a streak of rust. 
 
 In the case of cement work which is applied under the trowel, 
 such as stucco, etc., or where the reinforcement is in such a shape 
 that it cannot be manipulated so as to secure the complete coating 
 of its surface with grout, it becomes necessary because of the per- 
 
 55 
 
viousness of such stucco or concrete to the action of air and 
 water, to supply other methods of preventing the rusting of the 
 reinforcement. Where heavy steel beams are used as grillages, 
 for instance, or in the floor systems of composite bridges, sub- 
 ways, etc., it is very essential that rust be prevented and that 
 stray electric currents are not allowed to attack the metal struc- 
 ture. Various coatings have been devised, some of which are 
 claimed to be of high resisting power against moisture and elec- 
 tricity, and many experiments have been performed to discover 
 their real virtues. A high grade of asphalt or coal tar pitch, 
 when uniformly applied to a thoroughly cleaned structure which 
 is not so cold that the pitch hardens so rapidly as to become 
 brittle, has been found particularly effective. 
 
 In the case of stucco, greater trouble has been experienced, and 
 many instances are known in which large areas have become sep- 
 arated from the original structure because of complete corrosion 
 of the metal reinforcement, resulting in much unsightliness and 
 some absolute danger. Here again, special coatings for the 
 metal work have been employed. Proprietary compounds, to be 
 added to the cement in a dry state or to the cement mortar in the 
 form of a liquid, are also widely advertised. They are supposed 
 to make the stucco waterproof and hence prevent the possibility 
 of rust in the metal work on which the stucco is placed. Finally, 
 exterior coatings over the' surface of the finished work are often 
 applied. Doubtless the most perfect of these is wax which is 
 driven into the cement work under heat and remains as a perfect 
 preventive of any action by moisture, acid or alkali, so long as 
 the stucco does not crack and allow entrance of some destructive 
 agent through capillary action. Were it possible to use the pure 
 cement directly against and completely covering the wire lath or 
 other metal work on which the stucco is placed, the necessity of 
 these other devices above mentioned would be obviated, but a 
 stucco mixed rich enough to produce this effect would be too 
 costly under ordinary circumstances, and resort can better be 
 made to other methods for economic reasons. 
 
 In general, the preventing of rust on steel imbedded in cement 
 mortar and concrete, can be obviated where dense masses are 
 produced and where the metal work can be completely coated 
 with a rich cement mixture. Where this condition has been 
 found to exist, reinforcement has been known to remain in a 
 condition as perfect as when it left the rolling mills, even after 
 severe exposure of the concrete work to destructive agencies for 
 long periods extending over as many as fifteen or twenty years. 
 
 56 
 
5torage of Cement 
 
 The usual methods of shipment of cement are as follows : 
 
 Cotton Sacks : Cotton sacks in which " Dragon " Port- 
 land Cement is shipped bear the fac-simile of the " Dragon " 
 label and the sack is of the best quality, securely tied. Each 
 sack of cement weighs 95 pounds. 
 
 Paper Bags : Paper bags bear the fac-simile of the " Dragon ' 
 label and the quality of the paper is of the best, making a 
 strong package for those desiring cement shipped in paper. Each 
 bag of cement weighs 95 pounds. 
 
 Barrels: The barrels are made of first grade staves, se- 
 lected heading and patent hoops, making an especially strong, 
 neat package. Barrels are well lined with water-proof paper. 
 The " Dragon " label is pasted on one end of every barrel and 
 the brand is stencilled on the opposite end and in three places on 
 side of barrel. Every barrel of " Dragon " Portland 
 CEMENT WEIGHS 400 LBS. GROSS. Wherever cement is stored, 
 it must be kept absolutely dry. Moisture from the ground and 
 from condensation is to be as carefully avoided as from rain and 
 snow. 
 
 Storehouses erected with their floors about three feet above 
 the ground are found convenient for purposes of shipment either 
 by truck or by rail and at the same time they effectively prevent 
 trouble from ground moisture. If the floors are constructed of 
 concrete or of plank laid directly upon the ground, before put- 
 ting in any cement 2x4 scantling should be first laid down 
 about 30 inches apart and then inch-and-a-half or two-inch 
 plank laid upon them to form an air space under the pile of 
 cement bags or barrels. 
 
 Steel frame structures covered with galvanized iron and even 
 
 57 
 
Figure i. 
 
brick walls often drip with condensation from the atmosphere, 
 so that timber is far superior for shed purposes wherever its 
 erection is permissible according to municipal building and fire 
 department regulations. Cement in sacks can seldom be stored 
 to advantage to heights greater than that of twenty or twenty- 
 two full bags. Barrels can be tiered more than an equivalent 
 height but if carried too high, require special hoisting arrange- 
 ments or long inclines and the barrels are apt to burst. The 
 tiering of cement in bags higher than ten requires extra labor in 
 and out. Cement in paper bags is not easy to handle because 
 the bags are apt to break through the middle. 
 
 In piling bag cement it is wisest to separate each shipment and 
 preferably each car load. The latter is the practice followed by 
 many large users. Cars contain from 135 to 200 barrels. A 
 200 barrel car consists of 800 bags. If piled 10 high, 800 bags 
 can conveniently be arranged in 5 rows of 16 bags each. Five 
 times the length of a bag is approximately 9 feet. Sixteen times 
 the width of a bag is approximately 20 feet. These figures re- 
 quire very snug piling. If bags are piled 20 high, a somewhat 
 greater length is necessary because the end bags must be arranged 
 in the form of a " bulkhead " to resist the outward pressure. 
 Such a bulkhead can best be made by laying a first row of h^d- 
 ers, carried ten high with the bags behind placed as usual. The 
 eleventh and succeeding tiers should also have an end row of 
 headers, but they should overlap only about half the length of a 
 bag of the lower ten tiers, extending over the first one of the cross 
 rows. In the upper section the header row should be carried only 
 eight high, and instead of seven rows of bags, only six should be 
 used. The inside portion between the two end bulkheads should 
 be made long enough to take 14 bags. With this arrangement, a 
 pile will contain four bags less than 1600 or two cars of 800 
 each. Each bulkhead should therefore have two extra bags 
 placed on top and each will then consist of 170 bags. Each in- 
 terior vertical row across the pile will consist of 90 bags. The 
 upper ten layers will contain 660 bags, and the lower section 
 940 bags. In the smaller pile, each tier parallel with the end of 
 the pile contains 50 bags and it is a very easy matter to tally piles 
 and keep track of shipments. With the higher piles the arith- 
 metic is more complicated. A pile 20 bags high will measure 
 very close to ten feet to the top. 
 
 It will be found best to maintain a gangway about six feet 
 wide wherever cement has to be handled, but only about two feet 
 
 59 
 
I 
 
 Figure 2. 
 
is enough to allow between piles, just sufficient for a tally man 
 to make his way through. , • i j 
 
 In storing barrels, the end one on the bottom layer is placed 
 against a " chock " firmly fastened to the floor. This chock 
 should be a block of wood about six inches thick beveled on one 
 side to fit against the bilge of the barrel. A barrel is about 20 
 inches in diameter so that a layer of any number of barrels will 
 require I 2-3 times as many feet in length. Conversely a length 
 of any number of feet will house 3-5 times as many barrels. 
 Each layer upward will contain one less barrel. The first layer 
 will be about 20 inches high, two tiers will be about 36 inches 
 high and each additional tier will add about 16 inches. Thus 
 any number of tiers will be i 1-3 times as many feet high plus 4 
 inches. Three tiers will be about 4 feet 4 inches. Six tiers will 
 be about 8 feet 4 inches, and eight tiers will be 1 1 feet. This is 
 about as high as it is well to carry such work. With long sheds 
 provided with doors along the sides, with a railroad track along 
 one side for instance, and a truck delivery platform along the 
 other side, it will be found most convenient to arrange the piles 
 of bags with their length parallel with the length of the shed, 
 while piles of barrels can best go across the shed. 
 
 On the basis of the arrangement of bags described above, each 
 pile will occupy a width of 1 1 feet. Consequently a shed should 
 be of an over all width which is some multiple of eleven, plus 
 about two feet. Thus it should be 24, 35 or 46 feet, etc., wide. 
 This arrangement has the added advantage that doors are needed 
 along the sides at intervals of 27 or 31 feet according as the piles 
 are ten or twenty bags high. Thirty feet is thus seen to be a 
 good unit length and the shed should be some multiple of this 
 figure in length less about four feet saved at the ends. Trucks 
 can be loaded so rapidly that a special loading platform is not 
 usually necessary, although one about six feet wide will often be 
 found convenient. Doors should be of the outside sliding va- 
 riety, six feet wide by seven feet high. The roof can best be 
 carried on girders or light trusses spanning the full width of the 
 shed with a clear height of twelve feet above the floor. They 
 can be supported on the walls, if of brick, or on posts, if the shed 
 is of skeleton construction. Probably the most available style of 
 structure is one consisting of a wooden frame covered on the 
 sides with corrugated galvanized iron and with a flatly sloping 
 roof covered with a high-grade tar, felt, and slag of gravel sur- 
 face. The floor, if elevated above the ground should be de- 
 signed for a total load of 900 lbs. per square foot. It should be 
 
 61 
 
A 
 
 Figure 3. 
 
built with a slight slope and a platform, if used, should slope at 
 least one-half inch per foot of width. Such a shed should be 
 erected for about 40 cents per square foot, or often somewhat 
 less. When the floor is not elevated above the ground the cost 
 will be materially reduced. 
 
 The sketches on pages 58, 60, 62 and 64 give suggestions for 
 a shed 35 feet wide and 80 feet long which will store 1800 
 barrels of cement in bags when piled ten high or twice that 
 quantity if piled twenty high. 
 
 63 
 
^^^^ 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 Figure 4, 
 
^i^^ j5pecification5 
 
 1 Cement IDithout 
 JLaboraf onj 
 
 Mliquipment, 
 
 The following specifications are suggested for the use of those 
 who are such small users of cement or who have such small jobs 
 ,^ as not to warrant the purchase of a special testing outfit, or the 
 time and expense of sending samples to some testing laboratory 
 for investigation. It must be understood that they are in large 
 degree crude so that in the hands of inexperienced manipulators 
 the results are to be interpreted only as a most general indication 
 of the condition of the cement. However, in the hands of ex- 
 perienced cement testers, results can be obtained which only in 
 rare instances need further checking. 
 
 The apparatus here described is purposely made of only the 
 very cheapest and most easily obtainable nature. Obviously 
 special testing apparatus is preferable in order to make possible 
 proper methods of testing. The Lawrence Portland Cement 
 Company holds itself ready to supply at actual cost any of the 
 standard apparatus required to make cement tests. 
 
 Inspection. Upon receipt of a shipment see that the pack- 
 ages (either barrels or bags), are fully intact without breaks or 
 tears. If a special brand has been specified see that all packages 
 are of this make and that the cement in the several packages is 
 the same in color, thus precluding the possibility of other brands 
 having been substituted in the cover specified. If the specifica- 
 tions call for special sealing of bags, note the condition of such 
 seals and whether or no they bear the inspector's mark. See 
 that each shipment is stored by itself and properly labeled and 
 that the storehouses are dry and are so maintained. Note 
 whether cement is lumpy and whether these lumps can easily be 
 crushed in the fingers. If not easily crushed the cement has 
 probably been aflected by dampness, but if easily crushed there 
 is simply an indication of a seasoned cement. 
 
 65 
 
Sampling. Take as much cement as can be grasped by one 
 hand from the open end of one bag out of each forty, or one bag 
 from each truck load, if delivered in small lots. Also half empty 
 the bag and take another sample from the center of the same bag. 
 If cement is delivered in barrels, similarly sample each tenth 
 package (unless a sampling iron is available or a three inch by 
 twenty inch strip of heavy sheet iron from which one can be im- 
 provised). Thoroughly mix all samples from each lot (running 
 them through a twenty mesh sieve if it is available). 
 
 Mixing. Secure a piece of glass about i8 inches square or 
 larger (or a piece of sheet metal of similar size) and fix it on a 
 bench or table. Secure a brick mason's trowel (8 inch), or de- 
 vise a similar tool from a piece of stiff metal. (If these are not 
 available a wooden spatula may be cut from a shingle or similar 
 piece of wood.) Take as much cement as is held when even 
 full in an ordinary drinking glass, spread on the glass in a ring 
 and pour in the center a little water from another glass which 
 has been previously graduated by scratching on the outside the 
 successive depths to which small, equal (not necessarily known) 
 quantities of water fill it. This rough graduation can be easily 
 accomplished and should be carried so far as to ascertain the 
 total number of the small quantities required to fill the glass 
 level full. Turn the dry cement into the center of the ring con- 
 taining the water until the water is all absorbed, after which 
 work the mixture with the trowel or spatula by crushing it in 
 small strips under the edge of the tool so held as to be nearly 
 parallel with the glass, until the whole is of a uniform consist- 
 ency. This operation should not take more than three minutes. 
 Add water little by little, constantly working the mixture until 
 the latter conforms to the conditions contained in the next para- 
 graph. Note the amount of water as a decimal fraction (by 
 volume) of the cement which is required to give the desired con- 
 sistency. Multiply this fraction by 323 to secure the percentage 
 of water by weight. The temperature of the mixing water and 
 of the cement should be as near 70° F. (usual house temperature 
 in winter) as possible. 
 
 If weighing scales are available use one-half pound cement 
 instead of the quantity held by a drinking glass. (One-half 
 pound is equivalent to 277 grams.) 
 
 Secure a piece of glass about 4" square and mold upon it a 
 cement pat of normal consistency about 3" in diameter and 
 thick. This should be kept in moist air, free from sudden 
 
 67 
 
Figure 6. 
 
 Pat of " Dragon " Cement in Perfect Condition After 
 Boiling Five Hours. 
 
changes in temperature and draughts of air, and tested from 
 time to time for setting or hardening. 
 
 If possible secure a cylindrical graduate marked in cu. cm. in- 
 stead of graduating a glass tumbler as above described. When 
 the graduate is used, note the number of cu. cm. of water re- 
 quired to secure the standard consistency. Since i cu. cm. of 
 water of normal temperature weighs i gram, the percentage of 
 water by weight required can be readily calculated. In any case 
 it should be between 19 and 22%. 
 
 Normal Consistency. That amount of water is to be used 
 in preparing test specimens which will produce a paste having 
 the following characteristics : 
 
 1. It shall be firm, well bonded, shining and plastic. 
 
 2. It shall not change in consistency when worked double or 
 
 triple periods of three minutes. 
 
 3. If dropped 20 inches from a metal trowel it shall leave 
 
 the trowel clean,, and a ball 2 inches in diameter shall 
 fall without losing its diameter more than ^ inch or 
 cracking. 
 
 4. Light pressure should bring water to the surface and the 
 
 paste should not stick to the hand. 
 
 Time of Setting. Secure a wire 1-12 inch in diameter (this 
 is very close to sixteenths of an inch and the head of a No. 
 2 pin has approximately this diameter. Or, the lead of a me- 
 dium soft lead pencil can be stripped for a half inch from one 
 end and made of the required size by the use of sand paper or 
 equivalent). This wire or its equivalent should be fitted with 
 proper weights so as to weigh 4 oz. adv. (A cylinder of neat 
 cement mortar mixed to the consistency described above, one and 
 one-eighth inch in diameter and 2}i inches long will be very 
 close to the required weight. Such a cylinder can be easily 
 moulded in a paper form rolled to the proper diameter, from a 
 strip of paper of proper width.) Seceure another wire or equiv- 
 lent, just one-half the diameter of the one above and weight it 
 with one pound. (A cement cylinder two inches in diameter 
 and three inches long will have this weight approximately.) 
 The initial set is considered as having taken place when the first 
 wire is just supported by the cement paste and the final set is 
 considered as having taken place when the second one is simi- 
 larly supported without appreciable indentation. 
 
 If possible a special set of Gillmore Needles should be secured 
 and employed in testing. 
 
 Boiling Test. Secure some pieces of sheet glass about 4 
 
 69 
 
inches square (glass is essential), a metal pail at least six inches 
 in inside diameter and some means of heating it so as to boil 
 specimens in it for several hours at a time. The pail should be 
 provided w^ith a loose cover (a board will do, unless the source 
 of heat is an open fire). Mould on the clean glass pieces three 
 pats of paste of the consistency described above and form into a 
 flat circular cone about 3 inches in diameter and one-half inch 
 high at the center, with thin tapered edges. The glass pieces 
 with their pats should be covered with a damp cloth (the latter 
 not allowed to touch the cement) for 24 hours, after which one 
 specimen should be placed in water as near 70° F. as possible 
 for 28 days, being observed at intervals. Another glass with its 
 pat should be left in the air at ordinary temperature for a similar 
 period and also examined at intervals. A third specimen should 
 be boiled for at least four hours, the water starting from its 
 usual cool temperature. The glass should be supported above 
 the bottom of the vessel on a wire support or on a few small 
 pebbles or pieces of brick. To pass these tests satisfactorily, the 
 pats should remain firm and hard, and show no signs of radical 
 cracking around the edges, distortion or disintegration. 
 
 Figure 6 shows a pat which has satisfactorily passed the test. 
 Figure 7 shows shrinkage cracks. These are usually caused 
 by the use of too wet a mixture or produced by too great 
 rapidity of drying. Dry air will usually produce this ef¥ect so 
 that such cracks indicate improper manipulation and not dan- 
 gerous properties in the cement. 
 
 Figure 8 shows cracks caused by the curling of the edges 
 of the cement away from the glass while the pat still adheres. 
 This condition is common in air pats and is not dangerous unless 
 extreme in character. It should not occur in water pats. If 
 such cracks are found in water pats they denote the existence of 
 qualities which should ordinarily condemn the sample.^ 
 
 If a pat is blotched, special investigation should be given to its 
 cause, which may be either adulteration or under-burning. 
 
 Figure 9 shows pats which have left the glass because of 
 deficient adhesion, contraction and expansion, respectively. The 
 mere lack of adhesion in either air or water pats is not danger- 
 ous. A curvature greater than a quarter of an inch caused by 
 expansion or contraction should be sufficient to condemn the 
 sample. 
 
 Occasionally the glass will be cracked while the cement pat 
 still adheres to it. This is not usually indicative of poor quality. 
 Figure 10 shows the radial cracks incident to incipient dis- 
 
 71 
 
Figure io. 
 
integration. Such cracks should always warrant rejection of 
 the sample. 
 
 Figure ii shows examples of complete disintegration which 
 started as indicated in Figure lO. 
 
 If pieces of glass are not available, balls of cement mixed to 
 the consistency specified above may be substituted for the pats 
 and similarly treated and observed. 
 
 If a sample fails in the boiling test it is safe to hold the ship- 
 ment for at least 28 days and then make a second determination 
 upon a fresh sample. If the second sample passes the test it in- 
 dictates that the first sample needed seasoning. If the second test 
 fails and the strength test is low the shipment should be con- 
 sidered as suspicious. 
 
 Novices should make at least a score of boiling tests before 
 they should consider themselves competent to pass upon a sample 
 of cement. It is also recommended that they secure some quick 
 lime, powder it very finely and mix it in varying proportions 
 with a sample of cement of tested high grade. These mixtures 
 will develop some of the troubles described above and will give 
 the beginner experience in recognizing cement of actual poor 
 quality. 
 
 Strength by Transverse Test. Prepare prisms i"xi"x 
 12", by molding them in a carefully prepared form which can 
 most readily be made by lightly tacking onto a fiat board some 
 narrow strips to separate the prisms, so arranged that the latter 
 can be removed without danger of breaking. Mix the cement 
 with the best sand available in proportions of 1 13, of the stand- 
 ard consistency and keep in moist air for 7 days or 28 days if 
 possible. At the expiration of the desired period break the 
 prisms by suspending a load from the center, first supporting the 
 prism with a span of 10" on semi-circular pieces of hardwood 
 about i" in diameter. The load can be applied by means of 
 water poured into a pail suspended so as to hang at the center of 
 the prism and carefully counterbalanced so that only the weight 
 of the water added comes upon the specimen, the dead weight of 
 the pail being counterbalanced by means of some device similar 
 to that shown in the diagram on page 68. The equivalent ten- 
 sile strength of the cement can be taken as approximately ten 
 times the center load required to break the prism on a 10" span. 
 The average of three prisms may be assumed as giving a value 
 accurate within about 25%. 
 
 By arranging the apparatus as shown in the diagram, it is not 
 necessary to weigh either the pail or the added weight since if 
 
 73 
 
Figure ii. 
 
water is employed for the latter purpose its volume can be ac- 
 curately determined and its weight computed at the rate of 62.3 
 pounds per cubic foot even more accurately than most small 
 scales will register. The measurements may either be made in 
 the pail itself or better by adding small quantities such as a part 
 of a tumblerful which can be accurately computed. 
 
 Transverse strength tests are only approximate in nature and 
 in no case should cement be condemned upon results obtained 
 from them. If there are indications of lack of strength a special 
 sample should be submitted to a regular testing laboratory for 
 examination. 
 
 Troubles with Cement and their 
 Usual Causes. 
 
 If a cement fails in a boiling test and is found to be very slow 
 in setting it is probable that an excess of lime has been used or 
 that the material has been imperfectly ground. 
 
 If a cement has a " flash set " or is extremely quick in this 
 particular but hardens only very slowly, there is a probability that 
 an excess of alumina is involved usually combined with over- 
 burning. 
 
 If a cement sets very quickly accompanied by heating during 
 the mixing process and is found of low tensile strength, it is 
 probable that an excess of clay has been used or that the cement 
 is low in sulphuric acid (So.,). 
 
 75 
 
Fire-Proof Qualities of Portland 
 Cement Concrete 
 
 " Nearly one million dollars during every business day in the 
 year, or an annual per capita tax of three dollars, represents the 
 loss sustained by fire by the inhabitants of this country." 
 
 The above quotation is from an editorial in the Cement Age 
 and the facts are susceptible of absolute proof. Nearly every 
 magazine or newspaper of the country discusses this subject of 
 fire prevention repeatedly, and the consensus of opinion is over- 
 whelmingly tending toward the use of concrete. Both practical 
 and laboratory tests have demonstrated beyond cavil its value as 
 a great heat resisting medium. While certain clay products, 
 like terra-cotta and brick, also resist heat to a high degree, still 
 they possess certain other disadvantages for use in fire-proof 
 floors, partitions, etc., which concrete when properly erected does' 
 not have. Well burned clay brick are fire retardents of the 
 highest quality, but brick for floors, partitions or column fire- 
 proofing is very heavy and therefore costly to use. Hollow 
 terra cotta blocks have another disadvantage in that terra cotta 
 possesses a relatively high co-efficient of expansion by heat so that 
 the different parts of a terra cotta block, one side of which is 
 exposed to heat, would expand differently, and fracture is apt to 
 take place. This condition is clearly shown by innumerable 
 photographs published with regard to the San Francisco fire, 
 and, even better, by an experiment performed for the United 
 States Structural Materials Laboratory at St. Louis. In each 
 case the face of the terra cotta block which was exposed to the 
 fire and water was almost entirely broken away. Concrete, 
 similarly exposed and treated, was practically unaffected, the 
 final result being simply a surface disintegration to a depth of 
 perhaps half an inch. These conditions are clearly indicated in 
 Figure 12, page 82. 
 
 The City of New York exacts a very rigid test from all con- 
 tractors who desire to install any special type of fire-proof floor 
 construction within its limits. The requirements are as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 77 
 
" In any .... construction anci as a prececfent condition to 
 the same being used, tests shall be made as herein provided by the 
 manufacturer thereof, under the direction and to the satisfaction 
 of the Board of Buildings, and evidence of the same shall be 
 kept on file in the Department of Buildings, showing the nature 
 of the test and the result of the test. Such tests shall be made 
 by constructing within inclosure walls a platform consisting of 
 four rolled steel beams, ten inches deep, weighing each twenty- 
 five pounds per lineal foot and placed four feet between the 
 centres, and connected by transverse tie-rods, and with a clear 
 span of fourteen feet for the two interior beams and with the 
 two outer beams supported on the side walls throughout their 
 length, and with both a filling between the said beams, and a 
 fire-proof protection of the exposed parts of the beams of the 
 system to be tested, constructed as in actual practice, with the 
 quality of material ordinarily used in that system, and the ceiling 
 plastered below, as in a finished job; such filling between the two 
 interior beams being loaded with a distributed load of one hun- 
 dred and fifty pounds per square foot of its area and all carried 
 by such filling; and subjecting the platform so constructed to the 
 continuous heat of a wood fire below, averaging not less than 
 seventeen hundred degrees Fahrenheit for not less than four 
 hours, during which time the platform shall have remained in 
 such condition that no flame will have passed through the plat- 
 form or any part of the same, and that no part of the load shall 
 have fallen through, and that the beams shall have been protected 
 from the heat to the extent that, after applying to the under side 
 of the platform at the end of the heat test a stream of water di- 
 rected against the bottom of the platform and discharged through 
 a one and one-eighth inch nozzle, under sixty pounds' pressure 
 for five minutes, and after flooding the top of the platform with 
 water under low pressure, and then again applying the stream of 
 water through the nozzle under the sixty pounds' pressure to the 
 bottom of the platform for five minutes, and after a total load of 
 six hundred pounds per square foot uniformly distributed over 
 the middle bay shall have been applied and removed, after the 
 platform shall have cooled, the maximum deflection of the in- 
 terior beams shall not exceed two and one-half inches. Any 
 system failing to meet the requirements of the test of heat, water 
 and weight, as herein prescribed, shall be prohibited from use in 
 any building hereafter erected. 
 
 " Concrete-steel construction will be approved only for build- 
 ings which are not required to be fire-proof by the Building 
 
 79 
 
Code, unless satisfactory fire and water tests shall have been 
 made under the supervision of this Bureau. Such tests shall be 
 made in accordance with the Regulations fixed by this Bureau, 
 and conducted as nearly as practicable in the same manner as 
 
 prescribed for fire-proof floor fillings 
 
 Each company offering a system of concrete-steel construction 
 for fire-proof buildings must submit such construction to a fire 
 and water test," 
 
 In at least one actual test, conducted under the direction of 
 Professor Woolson, of Columbia University, " DRAGON " 
 Portland Cement successfully passed these exacting requirements 
 of the New York Building Department. The result of thi;^ 
 test is contained in the following report and the effects produced 
 upon the concrete by its long exposure to heat, practically that of 
 the melting point of brass, together with the sudden cooling by a 
 forceful stream of water, prove conclusively the intrinsic value 
 of " DRAGON " Portland Cement as a fire resisting material 
 when properly combined with good concrete aggregates. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF A FIRE, LOAD AND 
 WATER TEST MADE UPON REINFORCED CON- 
 CRETE FLOORS, BEAMS, GIRDERS AND COL- 
 UMNS. 
 
 Test conducted on Westchester Avenue, between Brooke and St. 
 Annes Avenues, Borough of Bronx, New York City, Sept. 
 20th, 1906. 
 
 WEATHER OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Day cloudy, with light rain — Practically no wind. 
 
 Temperature — 75-80° F. 
 
 Age of floor when tested — 30 days. 
 
 Test started — East Building, 1 1 :oo a. m. 
 
 West Building, 1 1 :20 a. m. 
 Water applied — East Building, 3 :o6 p. m. 
 
 West Building, 3 •.24. p. m. 
 
 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The test house was double, having two chambers, one I4'xi3' 
 on the inside, and the other 14'xii' 4", with a 12" concrete par- 
 tition between them. The walls were 8" thick and constructed 
 of reinforced concrete throughout. The building had eight 
 chimneys and suitable draft openings for each chamber at the 
 
 81 
 
bottom. The grate was 2' 6" above the ground level. The 
 ceiling was 9' 6" above the grate. 
 
 The floor systems tested constituted the roof of the building. 
 
 FLOOR OF EAST CHAMBER. 
 
 The floor of the larger (East) chamber consisted of a 4" re- 
 inforced stone concrete floor slab carried upon two 14' rein- 
 forced concrete girders. These girders were 17^^" deep, in- 
 cluding the floor slab of which they formed a part, and 10" in 
 width. They were spaced 6' 8" on centers, giving an actual 
 clear span of the floor slab between girders of 5' 10". The re- 
 inforcing metal of the floors, beams and girders was of the form 
 
 of (a unit frame), and consisted of round rods. At the 
 
 wall, these rods were threaded and had washers screwed on 
 them. The ends of all slab reinforcement, together with beams 
 and girders that were continuous and did not enter the outside 
 walls, were hooked, that is, the rods were turned at a right angle 
 3" from the end. These reinforcing rods, arranged as shown in 
 attached detail drawing were in diameter and spaced on 
 
 2>^" centers in the beams; and j^" in diameter, spaced 4^" on 
 centers in the floor slabs. The single column tested was placed 
 under the west girder in this chamber, 3' 8" from the north wall. 
 
 The colurhn reinforcement consisted of four vertical rods 
 which were held together by I/4" square iron ties spaced 10" 
 apart. 
 
 FLOOR IN WEST CHAMBER. 
 
 The floor system in the smaller (West) chamber was similar 
 to the larger with respect to the method of construction, but the 
 floor was made 3^" thick and carried on girders 5' on centers 
 giving a clear floor span of 4' 2". The reinforcing rods were 
 spaced 2>4" on centers in the girders, and 5^" on centers in the 
 floor slab. 
 
 The concrete for the entire construction was a 1-2-4 mixture 
 of (DRAGON) Portland cement, clean sand and }i" broken 
 trap rock. 
 
 The ceilings were not plastered. 
 
 PURPOSE OF THE TEST. 
 
 The purpose of the test was to determine the effect of a con- 
 tinuous fire below the floor for four hours at an average temper- 
 ature of 1700° F., the floor carrying at the same time a distrib- 
 uted load of 1 50 lbs. per sq. ft. ; at the end of the four hours the 
 
 83 
 
under side of the floor (or ceiling) while still red hot to be sub- 
 jected to a i%" stream of cold water at short range, through 
 lOo' of hose under 6o lbs. pressure at the nozzle for five minutes, 
 then the upper side of the floor (which forms the roof of the test 
 building) to be flooded at low pressure; afterwards the stream 
 to be again applied at full pressure on the underside for five min- 
 utes longer. 
 
 Deflection of beams and floor to be measured continuously 
 during the test. The load then to be removed and when cold 
 reloaded to 600 lbs. per sq. ft. and deflection noted. 
 
 TEMPERATURES. 
 
 The temperatures of the fire were obtained by electric pyrom- 
 eter couples suspended through the floors from above and hang- 
 ing about 6" below the ceiling. 
 
 Readings were made upon each couple every three minutes. 
 The fuel used was dry cord wood, the frequency of firing being 
 determined by the temperature of the test chambers. The . . 
 
 plotted curve for one couple in each test chamber is 
 
 herewith attached. 
 
 DEFLECTIONS. 
 
 The deflections which occurred during the test were measured 
 by a Y level reading upon rods located upon the ends and middle 
 
 of each girder, also upon the middle of the floor slab 
 
 " Deflection Diagram " shows the relative position of the three 
 members graphically at different times. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 The water was applied by firemen with an engine from the 
 Bronx Fire Department. The pressure gauge was carefully 
 watched and full 60 lbs. maintained. 
 
 In applying the water the stream was thrown back and forth 
 over the whole ceiling as much as possible and not allowed to 
 strike continuously on one spot. In the east chamber the water 
 was applied continuously for ten minutes at full pressure. In 
 the west chamber full pressure was maintained for five minutes, 
 then dropped to 30 lbs. and applied to the roof for 2 minutes, 
 then applied to the ceiling again at full pressure for five minutes 
 longer. 
 
 85 
 
EFFECTS OF THE TEST. 
 
 EAST CHAMBER — 4 INCH FLOOR. 
 
 Twenty minutes after starting the fire several explosions were 
 heard and it was noted that a patch of concrete about I2"xi8" 
 had fallen from the middle of the floor span and exposed two of 
 
 the reinforcing rods for about 9 inches of their length .. . 
 
 The girders and column were apparently intact up to the time 
 of application of water. 
 
 The effect of the water was to knock ofi the concrete from the 
 bottom of the girders and from the exposed side of the column. 
 
 The floor slab was pitted to a depth of J4 to ^ of an inch 
 where subjected to the direct action of the stream of water but 
 very little metal was exposed 
 
 The final load of 600 tbs. per sq. ft. produced a deflection in 
 the slab of only 29-32 of an inch. 
 
 WEST CHAMBER INCH FLOOR. 
 
 A crack appeared in the floor slab on the 
 
 roof i>4 hours after starting the test. It ran through the mid- 
 dle of the slab and opened about i -16 of an inch. Half an hour 
 later a piece of concrete about two feet square and varying in 
 thickness from a thin edge to two inches, was lifted from the top 
 surface of the floor slab on the north end and about a foot from 
 the east girder. This was a very unusual occurrence, and 
 whether it was due to an explosion of steam in the concrete or to 
 some other cause was not apparent. It was probably due to 
 superheated steam held in by the blanket of sand bags which 
 were used for loading 
 
 The floor slab was slightly pitted but otherwise in excellent 
 condition. (See photo for details of condition of floor after 
 test.) 
 
 By way of experiment a small hole was made in the concrete 
 on the roof running down to the top of the metal rods in the 
 east girder about a foot from the north pilaster column. In this 
 hole a mercury thermometer was placed. During the first half 
 of the test the hole was filled with boiling water but later dried 
 out and the temperature began to rise until at the end of the test 
 it had reached 520° F. This temperature was not as high as 
 
 was expected It indicates that the concrete retards 
 
 the transfer of heat even in the steel rods imbedded in it. 
 
 87 
 
Figure 15, 
 
The final load of 6oo lbs. per sq. ft. was carried with a center 
 deflection of the floor span of 11-16 of an inch. 
 
 The tests were conducted in co-operation with the Bureau of 
 
 Buildings of the city 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 (Signed) Ira H. Woolson. 
 
 TABLE OF CORRECTED TOTAL DEFLECTIONS. 
 
 Test House No. i. 
 
 (East Chamber, 4" Floor.) 
 
 For middle of beams, taking into account the rise of ends of 
 beams. 
 
 Sept. 20, 3 :00 P. M. East Beam Middle Floor Slab West Beam 
 
 150 lbs. per sq. ft 16-16" l" 4-16" 
 
 Sept. 21, 9:00 A. M. — 
 
 150 lbs. per sq. ft. . . . 29-32" 7-32" 11-32" 
 
 I :20 P. M. — - 
 
 600 lbs. per sq. ft. . . . i 11-32" * 22-32" 23-32" * 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 Note — The results above are obtained as follows: For all 
 beam deflections when the ends rise and the middle falls, add the 
 middle deflections to the mean of the two end rises. When the 
 ends and middle fall, subtract. (Table of observed elevations 
 not given.) 
 
 CORRECTED TOTAL DEFLECTIONS. 
 Test House No. 2. 
 (3/2" Floor.) 
 
 For middle of beam, taking into account the rise of ends of 
 beams. 
 
 Sept. 20, 3 :20 p. M. — 
 
 East Beam 
 
 Middle Floor Slab 
 
 West Beam 
 
 150 lbs. per sq. ft. . . . 
 
 7-16" 
 
 7-32" 
 
 12-16" 
 
 Sept. 21, 9:00 A. M. — 
 
 
 
 
 150 lbs. per sq. ft ... . 
 
 10-16" 
 
 6-16" 
 
 12-16" 
 
 4:25 p. M. — 
 
 
 
 
 600 lbs. per sq. ft ... . 
 
 I 6-16" 
 
 II-I6" 
 
 I 13-32" * 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 
 
 
 See Note on previous 
 
 table. 
 
 
 
 89 
 
1007 
 
 Lawrence Cement Co., 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 The writer has just made a careful 
 inspection of the concrete building in v/hich 
 an explosion of acetylene gas yesterday 
 killed or injured everyone in it. This was 
 a concrete structure erected entirely of Dragon 
 Cement, and had numerous large windov/s and door 
 ways. The concrete frame work on this building 
 is absolutely intact, as there is not a single 
 crack or blemish on the entire concrete work on 
 the structure, while the windows and doors and 
 woodwork have been blown to atoms. The owner 
 of the building is fortunate in losing nothing 
 but the wood and glass work on the building. 
 Had it been of brick, stone or frame, it would 
 have been an entire ruin. As it is, there is 
 nothing to replace excepting glass and wood and 
 tHe entire concrete structure is as sound todav 
 as when it was first uncovered. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 WESTEEU LIME & CElffiHT CO. 
 
 90 
 
Similar practical tests were experienced in the Baltimore fire, 
 as observed by Professor Charles L. Norton, and reported by 
 him to the Insurance Engineering Experiment Station of Boston. 
 Professor Norton writes as follows : 
 
 " In the International Trust Company Building a small paper 
 room, having a (reinforced concrete) floor and ceiling, was so 
 intensely heated that at the end of three days the lumps of cast- 
 iron which had earlier been a copying press and an embossing 
 stamp were still red hot and yet neither floor nor ceiling showed 
 signs of distress. This is the more remarkable in that the walls 
 of the adjoining building fell through the skylights upon this 
 floor." 
 
 Professor Norton says further: 
 
 " Where concrete floor arches and concrete-steel construction 
 received the full force of the fire it appears to have stood well, 
 distinctly better than the terra cotta. 
 
 " The general condition of the fire-proof building is such as to 
 indicate to my mind the unfitness of terra cotta for beam and 
 post covering and floor constructions as were used when com- 
 pared with concrete or brick-work." 
 
 Professor Norton explains the heat resisting property of con- 
 crete as follows : 
 
 " Little difference in the action of the fire on stone concrete 
 and cinder concrete could be noted, and as I have earlier pointed 
 out, the burning of the bits of coal in poor cinder concrete is 
 often balanced by the splitting of the stones in the stone concrete. 
 I have never been able to see that in the long run either stood 
 fire better or worse than the other. However, owing to its 
 density, the stone concrete takes longer to heat through. When 
 brick or terra cotta are heated no chemical action occurs, but 
 when concrete is carried up to about looo degrees Fahrenheit its 
 surface becomes decomposed, dehydration occurs, and water is 
 driven off. This process takes a relatively great amount of heat. 
 It would take about as much heat to drive the water out of this 
 outer quarter-inch of the concrete partition as it would to raise 
 that quarter-inch to lOOO degrees Fahrenheit. Now a second 
 action begins. After dehydration the concrete is much improved 
 as a non-conductor, and yet, through this layer of non-conduct- 
 ing material must pass all the heat to dehydrate and raise the 
 temperature of the layers below, a process which cannot proceed 
 with great speed." 
 
 Time and again concrete buildings have shown their superior- 
 ity over those erected of brick with ordinary floor construction 
 
 91 
 
THE 
 
 HAMILTON PARKER 
 
 f FUEL S SUPPLY Ca 
 UFACTURtRS oiF H 
 
 } % The Haniilton-ParkerFuel(*k Supply Co. 
 
 MASTIC 
 
 WDDD F IBER 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 COLUMBUS, OHIO. 
 
 HOCKING, WEST VIRGINIA, BLOSSBURG COAL AND COKE 
 ALL KINDS OF BUILDERS' MATI KIAL 
 
 Office, Mill and Warehouse: 491-501 Kilbounic Street 
 
 CITIZEN PHONE 2977 
 
 1 Coliimlnis, Ohio, liovejnbar_llt±L, 190^8^ 
 
 Colonnial Coal & Supply Co., 
 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 We wish, to advise you that the Dragon 
 Portland Cement, for which you are the County agents, 
 is giving us entire satisfaction. Our Contractors 
 using this cenent, are surprised at its color, 
 strength, and working qualities. Por sidewalk 
 work it finishes in an extremely light color, 
 something different from other cements, and we 
 are advised by the cement block manufacturers that 
 they can make. one more block out of Dragon Portland 
 Cement than they can out of the same quantity of 
 other Portlands. 
 
 We believe our sales for the next season 
 will increase as the cement has not been used very 
 much in this market before this year. Wa are 
 perfectly satisfied with the results obtained from 
 this cement, and expect to increase our sales con- 
 siderably next year, the cement having been introduced 
 thoroughly in the past season. 
 
 92 
 
by the confining of the fire in the concrete building to a single 
 floor, while a brick building adjoining was practically wrecked 
 by the conflagration. Such a case occurred in Dayton, Ohio, 
 and the technical magazines described the conditions in detail. 
 
 This fire was also made the subject of a special examination 
 by the chairman of the committee on concrete and reinforced 
 concrete of the National Fire Protection Association, who writes 
 as follows: 
 
 " It must be conceded that the concrete itself stood the test 
 very well indeed, especially in view of the fact that the ordi- 
 narily constructed building adjoining was much more seriously 
 damaged by the same fire and under the same fire department 
 protection." 
 
 The same report also describes another fire as follows: 
 " On May 27th, 1907, a fire occurred in Merritt Brothers' 
 Factory at Camden, N. J., which in a building of ordinary con- 
 struction would doubtless have resulted disastrously, proved, 
 under the circumstances, to be chiefly a demonstration of the fire 
 resistive quality of the building. 
 
 " The building in which this fire occurred is a five-story struc- 
 ture, occupied for the manufacture of metal clothes closets for 
 factories. The columns, beams, floors and roof are of heavy 
 type reinforced concrete, the mixture being i :2^ :5 small size, 
 crushed trap rock. The walls, brick carried on a concrete 
 frame. The fifth story was occupied for painting and drying. 
 In the corner of the room were two wooden, gas heated drying 
 ovens, approximately 7x10x8 ft., and along the side of the room 
 next to this were a number of smaller ovens, all of metal con- 
 struction. 
 
 " The fire lasted from ^ to ^ of an hour, practically burned 
 up the wooden ovens and some other light inflammable materials 
 close by, The flames did not extend very far into the room, 
 however, though there was enough heat to melt out the soldered 
 metal frames of the wire glass monitors on the roof a little to 
 one side of the ovens, to melt the links on two fire doors 40 to 
 50 feet away. The concrete columns and ceiling in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of the fire showed some cracks, but no material 
 injury, and absolutely no repairs of any sort were made to the 
 concrete after the fire, the only repairs being those made to the 
 above-mentioned wire glass window frames." 
 
 In the Chelsea fire, few examples of concrete construction 
 were tested, but the Chelsea Armory happened to have been 
 built with concrete foundations and with concrete sills and lin- 
 
 93 
 
tels. In general, the concrete work stood the heat well, al- 
 though a few of the sills which appeared to have been mixed of 
 mortar with too small a proportion of water, showed cracks. 
 On the principal doorway to the armory, the ornamental surface 
 of the concrete was somewhat chipped but the interior was sound, 
 while the adjacent brick wall was badly chipped on the face, 
 although the wall was built of hard burned, cherry brick. 
 
 Such examples might be cited indefinitely, but invariably the 
 same comment is made by disinterested investigators, that prop- 
 erly made concrete is the most effective fire resisting material 
 known to mankind. Consequently, " DRAGON " Portland 
 Cement, when properly mixed with good sand and stone, can be 
 depended upon to save insurance, reduce liability of loss, and 
 prevent the disastrous conflagrations which annually sweep 
 through our great cities. 
 
 94 
 
Concrete Blocks. 
 
 Hollow concrete building blocks, properly made and used, 
 form an ideal material for the exterior walls of buildings, re- 
 placing that part which if built of wood rapidly deteriorates 
 from exposure to the weather. Buildings constructed of blocks 
 are as reasonable in first cost as if built of frame, and are much 
 less expensive for maintenance. They have all the advantages 
 of brick and stone in point of comfort, namely, coolness in sum- 
 mer and warmth in winter. 
 
 In selecting materials for concrete blocks, those should be 
 chosen which will produce a mixture of the greatest possible 
 density. This fact should be determined by experiment, by 
 mixing available samples of sand and gravel, and the results thus 
 obtained should be carefully followed in proportioning mixtures 
 for all work. A considerable proportion of coarse material is 
 just as necessary as in other kinds of concrete work, and gravel 
 or stone screenings should be employed with this point in view. 
 
 There are four important points which must be kept in view 
 in adjusting the proportions of materials for block concrete, — 
 endurance, strength, permeability and cost. The endurance de- 
 pends primarily upon the cement employed, although certain 
 qualities of sand and certain deleterious materials in the water 
 employed sometimes cause trouble. As to strength, it is doubt- 
 ful whether blocks of satisfactory quality can be made under 
 ordinary factory conditions, wherein mixing and tamping are 
 done by hand, from a poorer mixture than i to 5. 
 
 The proportion of water to be used is a matter of the utmost 
 consequence, and has more effect on the quality and strength of 
 the work than is generally supposed. Blocks made from too 
 dry concrete will always remain soft and weak, no matter how 
 thoroughly sprinkled afterward. Careful steam curing is the 
 only remedy and the effect of this treatment is not approved with- 
 out qualification by many block makers. On the other hand, if 
 blocks are to be removed from the machines as soon as made, too 
 much water will cause them to stick to the plates and sag out of 
 shape. It is practically possible, however, to so proportion the 
 
 95 
 
water as to secure density and good hardening properties and 
 still be able to remove the blocks at once from the molds. A 
 high proportion of coarse material allows the mixture to be made 
 proportionately wetter without sticking or sagging. The gen- 
 eral rule to be followed is: 
 
 " Use as much water as possible without causing the blocks to 
 stick to the plates or change shape on being removed from the 
 machine." 
 
 This amount of water varies with the materials but is gen- 
 erally slightly less than io% of the weight of the dry material, 
 and an experienced manufacturer can judge accurately when the 
 right amount of water has been employed by squeezing some of 
 the mixture in his hand. 
 
 Slight variations in the proportion of water make a marked 
 difference in the quality and color of the blocks, so that when 
 the proper quantity has been determined for any set of materials 
 that quantity should always be accurately measured out for each 
 batch. Materials should be mixed in the dry state until the 
 combination is uniform in color and the parts are perfectly com- 
 bined. Then the water is to be added and the mixing continued 
 until all parts are of equal humidity and every particle coated 
 with cement paste. 
 
 Hand mixing is always imperfect and slow. A machine 
 seldom gets tired and the output is usually limited only by the 
 facility with which material can be taken away. In the naanu- 
 facture of concrete blocks, batch mixers are far superior to con- 
 tinuous ones, because it is absolutely essential that only measured 
 quantities of each kind of material are found in combination at 
 every stage, else variations in color and quality will be inevitable. 
 Hand tamping must be conscientious and thorough. It is best 
 that the mold be filled layer by layer, carefully" tamping each 
 addition but not so as to produce lines of stratification. At least 
 four such fillings and tampings should be given each block. 
 
 Blocks should not be used in buildings before at least four 
 weeks from the day on which they were made. During this 
 period of seasoning, blocks will be found to shrink about 1-16" 
 in length. This shrinkage would cause cracks in any finished 
 structure erected with green blocks. Seasoning of blocks should 
 be done under cover where they are not subject to draughts or 
 other effects of direct sun or wind. Watering should be done 
 regularly and in proper amount. Efflorescence or the appear- 
 ance of a white coating on a block sometimes takes place when it 
 is periodically saturated and then dried out. Blocks placed di- 
 
 97 
 
National builders Supply Company 
 
 WHOLESALE BUILDERS SUPPIJES AND CONCUEITS BLOCItS 
 
 OFFICE AMI) FACTORY. 410 CEORGE STREET 
 
 PARKEItSBURO. W. VA. • 
 
 Nov 12tli, 1908 
 
 Cumberland Hyd Cement 8c Mfg Co., 
 
 Cumberland, Md. 
 Grentlemen: - 
 
 In our five years experience v/ith 
 Dragon v/e have yet to see it fail to meet 
 any demand put upon it "by Engineer or 
 Meclianic. In our Concrete Block work we 
 consider it the peer of any Portland Cement 
 manufactured . 
 
 Veiy truly yours, 
 
 . NmONAL BUILDERS SUPPLY CO, 
 
rectly on the ground are most liable to show this defect. This 
 efflorescence is due to the diffusion of soluble sulphate and alkali 
 to the surface and will always disappear in time. 
 
 The chief fault of ordinary concrete building blocks is their 
 tendency to absorb water. They are, however, generally no 
 worse than common brick and some kinds of stone. Brick and 
 stone walls (unless specially treated) are too permeable to allow 
 of plastering directly on the interior surface, thus making fur- 
 ring and lathing necessary. The same practice should generally 
 be followed with concrete block buildings. The popularity and 
 usefulness of this class of construction would be greatly increased 
 if blocks could be made sufficiently water-proof to allow plaster- 
 ing directly on the interior surface. An absolutely water-proof 
 block, however, is not wise because it has a tendency to sweat 
 from condensation of moisture from the air. Walls should be 
 slightly porous so that any moisture formed on them may be 
 gradually absorbed, and later evaporated. With this point i i 
 view blocks should be so made that their absorption of water will 
 be slow. For this purpose, a good mixture of sand and gravel, 
 which would contain about 25% voids, will give a fairly im- 
 permeable concrete in mixtures up to i to 4; but when larger 
 proportions are used the blocks will be found quite absorbent. 
 In order to make a block as impermeable as possible the voids 
 must be filled with some material. This work is sometimes 
 done with cement, which, however, is an expensive method and 
 gives stronger concretes than are needed. The same result can 
 be somewhat more cheaply accomplished by substituting a small 
 percentage of slaked lime for a part of the cement. Hydrate of 
 lime is the most convenient material, but its cost is practically as 
 high as that of cement and carefully slaked lumped lime is more 
 often employed. Sometimes, an impervious layer is placed near 
 the face or through the center of a block, and with so-called 
 " two-piece " systems the penetration of moisture through a wall 
 is prevented by leaving an air space between the two faces of the 
 block. Special water-proofing compounds are also employed and 
 occasionally surface coatings have been emploj^ed with more or 
 less success. ^ Such coatings, however, should be composed of 
 materials which are not affected by the free alkali in the cement 
 which will saponify most oils. The primary condition for se- 
 curing high impermeability is the use of a sufficiently wet con- 
 crete. 
 
 The selection of a proper cement for use in concrete block 
 manufacture is of the utmost importance. Only a so-called 
 
 99 
 
" sound " cement can be used in the manufacture of concrete 
 blocks which are made to resist the action of time, water and 
 atmospheric gases. An excess of " freelime " will in time be- 
 come hydrated, and swell, exerting such great force as to disin- 
 tegrate what may have been blocks which have proved hard for 
 a long period. Certain brands of cement are much more liable 
 to this tendency than others. Some mills are provided with in- 
 sufficient grinding machinery and the resulting poor grinding is 
 apt to make a cement which is unsound while it is still fresh. 
 Such producers rely upon seasoning during transit, etc., to make 
 their product sound, and when pushed for their product some- 
 times ship freshly made cement which consequently is unsound. 
 It usually costs less to make an unsound cement than a sound 
 one because less care is needed in proportioning the raw mate- 
 rials. Less grinding of the raw mix is necessary and less coal 
 may be employed in burning it. Portland cement which has 
 stood a tensile strain of 350 pounds to the square inch at the end 
 of thirty days when mixed with three parts of sand has been 
 known to entirely disintegrate by the end of a year. Sometimes 
 unsoundness is produced by the addition of an extra amount of 
 gypsum. This can only be detected either by long time tests or 
 a chemical analysis. Occasionally, chemicals which may be 
 added to the cement in an endeavor to secure a particular color 
 will af¥ect its soundness deleteriously. Those chemicals which 
 produce a quick setting cement are causes of unsoundness to a 
 marked degree and should never be used except on the advice of 
 an experienced chemist. They also cause efflorescence on the 
 block. 
 
 The strength of cement is not to be gauged by the results of 
 neat tests but should invariably be made to depend upon long 
 time experiments on sand mixtures. The finer the cement the 
 stronger the resulting product. By a fine cement is not neces- 
 sarily meant a cement so ground as to show a good sieve test, but 
 rather a cement that contains a large percentage of flour. The 
 same cement may also happen to contain a large percentage of 
 coarse materials. The setting time of a cement has also been 
 found to bear an important relation to its strength. Slow set- 
 ting cements are apt to be stronger than those which set more 
 quickly. Quick setting cements, that is those that set inside of 
 four hours, are apt to be over clayed and are apt to contain less 
 of the active materials to which cement owes its strength. Oc- 
 casionally a cement is encountered with a " flash " set, that is, 
 one which will set up under the trowel. The quick set of such 
 
 100 
 
cements is broken by working, and consequently blocks made 
 with it are apt to be very weak. In distinction from a " slow 
 setting cement," one of the greatest requisites for block manu- 
 facture is, the cement shall be a " quick hardener," that is, it 
 must not secure its permanent set inside of six hours but at the 
 end of seven days should be practically as hard as at the end of 
 six months. Quick setting cements are not necessarily prompt 
 hardeners ; they are usually the reverse. A high seven day sand 
 test is an indication of prompt hardening. 
 
 A concrete block manufacturer will probably be more inter- 
 ested in the color of his blocks and their uniformity in this re- 
 spect than in any other one of their properties. Uniformity can 
 only be secured by the use of a cement of uniform color mixed 
 with sand which also is uniform in color, quantity and quality, 
 and combined with a uniform amount of pure water. A ce- 
 ment which was absolutely free from iron and manganese would 
 be white in color, and cement becomes darker as the percentage 
 of these ingredients increases. Most cements are practically free 
 from manganese. Sulphate of iron is sometimes encountered in 
 certain cements; this causes dirty brown spots to appear in the 
 work from the oxidation of t^e iron. Under-burned cements 
 also often show the same dirty brown color throughout the 
 whole mass. 
 
 For these reasons cement block manufacturers should purchase 
 only "DRA GON " Portland Cement which has been proved by 
 long time tests as particularly uniform with regard to its sound- 
 ness, fineness, setting time, hardening quality, tensile strength 
 and color. (See pages io6 and 114.) 
 
 101 
 
standard Speeification^^^ 
 
 FOR CEMENT HOLLOW BUILDING BLOCKS. 
 
 As adopted January, 1908, by National Association of Cement 
 Users, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Regulations Governing Use and Manufacture. 
 
 Hollow cement blocks made in accordance with the following 
 specifications, and meeting the requirements thereof, may be used 
 in building construction, subject to the usual form of approval, 
 required of other materials of construction, by the bureau of 
 building inspection. 
 
 The cement used in making blocks shall be Portland cement, 
 capable of passing the requirements as set forth in the " Standard 
 Specifications for Cement," of the American Society for Testing 
 Materials, and adopted by this Association (Specification No. i) 
 January, 1906. 
 
 The sand used shall be suitable siliceous material, passing the 
 one-fourth inch mesh sieve, clean, gritty and free from impurities. 
 
 The stone aggregate shall be clean broken stone, free from 
 dust, or clean screened gravel passing the three-quarter ( % ) 
 inch, and refused by the one-quarter (^) inch mesh sieve. 
 
 The barrel of Portland cement shall weigh 380 pounds net, 
 either in barrels or sub-divisions thereof, made up of cloth or 
 paper bags, and a cubic foot of cement shall be called not to ex- 
 ceed 100 pounds or the equivalent of 3.8 cubic feet per barrel. 
 Cement shall be gauged or measured either in the original pack- 
 age as received from the manufacturer, or may be weighed and 
 so proportioned ; but under no circumstances shall it be meas- 
 ured loose in bulk. 
 
 For exposed exterior or bearing walls. 
 
 103 
 
(a) Hollow cement blocks, machine made, using semi-wet 
 concrete or mortar, shall contain one (i) part cement, not to 
 exceed three (3) parts sand, and not to exceed four (4) parts 
 stone of the character and size before stipulated. When the 
 stone shall be omitted the proportions of sand shall not be in- 
 creased, unless it can be demonstrated that the percentage of 
 voids and tests of absorption and strength allow in each case of 
 greater proportions with equally good results. 
 
 (b) When said blocks are made of slush concrete, in individ- 
 ual molds and allowed to harden undisturbed in same before re- 
 moval, the proportions may be one ( i ) part cement to not exceed 
 three (3) parts sand and five (5) parts stone, but in this case 
 also, if the stone be omitted the proportion of sand shall not be 
 increased. 
 
 Thorough and vigorous mixing is of the utmost importance. 
 
 (a) Hand mixing. The cement and sand in correct propor- 
 tions shall first be perfectly mixed dry, the water shall then be 
 added carefully and slowly in proper proportions and thoroughly 
 worked into and throughout the resultant mortar ; the moistened 
 gravel or broken stone shall then be added, either by spreading 
 the same uniformly over the mortar, or spreading the mortar 
 uniformly over the stones, and then the whole mass shall be vig- 
 orously mixed together until the coarse aggregate is thoroughfy 
 incorporated with and distributed throughout the mortar. 
 
 (b) Machine mixing. Preference shall be given to machine 
 mixers of suitable design and adapted to the particular work re- 
 quired of them; the sand and cement, or sand and cement and 
 moistened stone shall, however, be first thoroughly mixed before 
 the addition of water, and then continued until the water is uni- 
 formly distributed or incorporated with the mortar or concrete; 
 provided, however, that when making slush or wet concrete 
 (such as will quake or flow) this procedure may be varied with 
 the consent of the bureau of building inspection, architect or 
 engineer in charge. 
 
 Due care shall be used to secure density and uniformity in 
 the blocks by tamping or other suitable means of compression. 
 Tamped blocks shall not be finished by simply striking off with 
 a straight edge, but, after striking off, the top surface shall be 
 trowelled or otherwise finished to secure density and a sharp and 
 true arris. 
 
 Every precaution shall be taken to prevent the drying out of 
 the blocks during their initial set and first hardening. A suffi- 
 ciency of water shall first be used in the mixing to perfect the 
 
 105 
 
WOBKS-EAST nCTH ST. OFFICE-108 MARKET ST 
 
 8El_L PHONE 244 
 
 WARREN. PA.. 
 
 December 4, 1908. 
 
 The Cumberland Hyd. Cement & Mfg Co., 
 Cumberland, Md. 
 
 Dear Sirs:- 
 
 In all the work in which we have 
 used your "Dragon" Portland cement in this 
 vicinity we have yet to find one instance 
 where it has not stood every test we have 
 given it perfectly and we cannot recommend 
 it too highly. 
 
 We especially prize "Dragon" on 
 accoiint of the lightness in color of the 
 finished concrete product, in our manu- 
 facture of building blocks uniformity of 
 color and maximum strength count for much 
 and the results obtained from the use of 
 your cement are highly satisfactory to us. 
 
 We are pleased to be numbered 
 among your customers. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 Warren Concrete Stone Co., Ltd., 
 
 Per. 
 
crystallization of the cement, and, after molding, the blocks shall 
 be carefully protected from wind-currents, sunlight, dry heat or 
 freezing for at least five (5) days, during which time additional 
 moisture shall be supplied by approved methods, and occasionally 
 thereafter until ready for use. 
 
 Hollow cement blocks in which the ratio of cement to sand 
 be one-third _ (i^ ) (one part cement to three parts sand) shall 
 not be used in the construction of any building until they have 
 attained the age of not less than three (3) weeks. 
 
 Hollow cement blocks in which the ratio of cement to sand is 
 one-half (one part cement to two parts sand) may be used 
 
 in construction at the age of two (2) weeks, with, the special 
 consent of the bureau of building inspection and the architect or 
 engineer in charge. 
 
 Special blocks of rich composition, required for closures, may 
 be used at the age of seven (7) days with the special consent of 
 the same authorities. 
 
 The time herein named is conditional, however, upon main- 
 taining proper conditions of exposure during the curing period. 
 _ All cement blocks shall be marked, for purposes of identifica- 
 tion, showing name of manufacturer or brand, date (day, month 
 and year) made, and composition or proportions used, as, for 
 example, 1-3-5, meaning one cement, three sand and five stone. 
 
 The thickness of bearing walls for any building where hollow 
 cement blocks are used may be ten (10) per cent, less than is 
 required by law for brick walls. For curtain walls or partition 
 walls, the requirements shall be the same as in the use of hollow 
 tile, terra cotta or plaster blocks. 
 
 Hollow cement blocks shall not be permitted in the construc- 
 tion of party walls, except when filled solid. 
 
 Where the face only is of hollow cement block, and the back- 
 ing is of brick, the facing of hollow block must be strongly 
 bonded to the brick, either with headers projecting four (4) 
 inches into the brick work, every fourth course being a header 
 course, or with approved ties, no brick backing to be less than 
 eight (8) inches. Where the walls are made entirely of con- 
 crete blocks, but where said blocks have not the same width as 
 the wall, every fifth course shall extend through the wall, form- 
 ing a secure bond, when not otherwise sufficiently bonded. All 
 walls, where blocks are used, shall be laid up with Portland 
 cement mortar. 
 
 Wherever girders or joists rest upon walls so that there is a 
 concentrated load on the block of over two (2) tons, the blocks 
 
 1Q7 
 
supporting the girder or joists must be made solid for at least 
 eight (8) inches from the inside face. Where such concentrated 
 load shall exceed five (5) tons, the blocks for at least three 
 courses below, and for a distance extending at least eighteen 
 (18) inches each side of said girder, shall be made solid for at 
 least eight (8) inches from the inside face. Wherever walls are 
 decreased in thickness, the top course of the thicker wall shall 
 afford a full solid bearing for the webs or walls of the course of 
 blocks above. 
 
 No wall, nor any part thereof, composed of hollow cement 
 blocks, shall be loaded to an excess of eight (8) tons per super- 
 ficial foot of the area of such blocks, including the weight of the 
 wall, and no blocks shall be used in bearing walls that have an 
 average crushing at less than 1,000 pounds per square inch of 
 area at the age of twenty-eight (28) days; no deduction to be 
 made in figuring the area for the hollow spaces. 
 
 Concrete sills and lintels shall be reinforced by iron or steel 
 rods in a manner satisfactory to the bureau of building inspec- 
 tion and the architect or engineer in charge, and any lintels 
 spanning over 4 feet 6 inches shall rest on block solid for at least 
 8 inches from the face next the opening and for at least three 
 courses below the bottom of the lintel. 
 
 The hollow space in building blocks used in bearing walls 
 shall not exceed the percentage given in the following table for 
 different height walls, and in no case shall the walls or webs of 
 the block be less in thickness than one-fourth their height. The 
 figures given in the table represent the percentage of such hollow 
 space for different height walls: 
 
 Stories 
 
 1st 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 6th 
 
 I and 2 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 and 4 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 5 and 6 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 Before any such material be used in buildings, an application 
 for its use and for a test of the same must be filed with the 
 bureau of building inspection. In the absence of such a bureau, 
 the application shall be filed with the chief of any department 
 having such matters in charge. A description of the material 
 and a brief outline of its manufacture and proportions used 
 must be embodied in the application. The name of the firm or 
 corporation, and the responsible officers thereof, shall also be 
 given, and changes in same thereafter promptly reported. 
 
 No hollow cement blocks shall be used in the construction of 
 
 109 
 
any building unless the maker of said blocks has submitted his 
 product to the full tests required herein, and placed on file with 
 the bureau of building inspection, or other duly authorized 
 official, a certificate, from a reliable testing laboratory, showing 
 that representative samples have been tested and successfully 
 passed all the requirements hereof, and giving in detail the re- 
 sults of the tests made. 
 
 No cement blocks shall be used in the construction of any 
 building until they have been inspected and approved, or, if re- 
 quired, until representative samples be tested and found satis- 
 factory. The results of all tests made, whether satisfactory or 
 not, shall be placed on file in the bureau of building inspection. 
 These records shall be open to inspection upon application, but 
 need not necessarily be published. 
 _ The manufacturer and user of such hollow cement blocks, or 
 either of them, shall, at any and all times, have made such tests 
 of the cements used in making such blocks, or such further tests 
 of the completed blocks, or of each of these, at their own expense 
 and under the supervision of the bureau of building inspection, 
 as the chief of said bureau shall require. 
 
 In case the result of tests made under this condition should 
 show that the standard of these regulations is not maintained, 
 the certificate of approval issued to the manufacturer of said 
 blocks will at once be suspended or revoked. 
 
 Following the application called for in clause No. i8 and 
 upon the satisfactory conclusion of the tests called for, a certifi- 
 cate of approval shall be issued to the maker of the blocks by the 
 bureau of building inspection. This certificate of approval will 
 not remain in force for more than four months, unless there be 
 filed with the bureau of building inspection, at least once every 
 four months following, a certificate from some reliable physical 
 testing laboratory showing that the average of at least three (3) 
 specimens tested for compression and at least three (3) speci- 
 mens tested for transverse strength comply with the require- 
 ments herein set forth, the said samples to be selected by a build- 
 ing inspector or by the laboratory from blocks actually going 
 into construction work. 
 
 Hollow cement blocks must be subjected to the following 
 tests: Transverse, compression and absorption, and may be 
 subjected to the freezing and fire tests, but the expense of con- 
 ducting the freezing and fire tests will not be imposed upon the 
 manufacturer of said blocks. 
 
 The test samples must represent the ordinary commercial 
 
 110 
 
product, of the regular size and shape used in construction. The 
 samples may be tested as soon as desired by the applicant, but in 
 no case later than sixty days after manufacture. 
 
 Transverse Test. The modulus of rupture for concrete blocks 
 at twenty-eight days must average 150, and must not fall below 
 100 in any case. 
 
 Cojnpression Test. The ultimate compressive strength at 
 twenty-eight days must average one thousand (1,000) pounds 
 per square inch, and must not fall below 700 in any case.^ 
 
 Absorption Test. The percentage of absorption (being the 
 weight of water absorbed divided by the weight of the dry sam- 
 ple) must not average higher than 15 per cent., and must not 
 exceed 22 per cent, in any case. 
 
 Any and all blocks, samples of which, on being tested under 
 the direction of the bureau of building inspection, fail to stand 
 at twenty-eight (28) days the tests required by this regulation, 
 shall be marked " condemned " by the manufacturer or user and 
 shall be, destroyed. 
 
 Cement brick may be used as a substitute for clay brick. They 
 shall be made of one part cement to not exceeding four parts 
 clean sharp sand, or one part cement to not exceeding three parts 
 clean sharp sand and three parts broken stone or gravel passing 
 the ^-inch and refused by the >^-inch mesh sieve. In all other 
 respects, cement brick must conform to the requirements of the 
 foregoing specifications. 
 
 Standard Method of Testing. 
 
 1. All tests required for approval shall be made in some 
 laboratory of recognized standing, under the supervision of the 
 engineer of the bureau of building inspection or the architect or 
 engineer in charge, or all of these. The manufacturer may be 
 present or represented during said tests, if he so desires. Ap- 
 proval tests are made at the expense of the applicant. 
 
 2. For the purposes of the tests, at least twelve (12) samples 
 or test pieces must be provided. Such samples must represent 
 the ordinary commercial product and may be selected from stock 
 by the bureau of building inspection, or in the absence of such a 
 bureau, by the architect or engineer in charge. 
 
 In cases where the material is made and used in special shapes 
 or forms, too large for testing in the ordinary machines, smaller 
 sized specimens shall be used as may be directed. 
 
 3. In addition to the tests required for approval, the weight 
 per cubic foot of the material must also be obtained and recorded. 
 
 Ill 
 
4. Tests shall be made in series of at least three (3), except 
 that in the fire tests a series of two (four samples) are sufficient. 
 
 Transverse tests shall be made on full-sized samples. Half 
 samples may be used for the crushing, freezing and fire tests. 
 The remaining samples are kept in reserve, in case duplicate or 
 confirmatory tests be required. All samples must be marked 
 for identification and comparison. 
 
 5. The transverse test shall be made as follows: The samples 
 shall be placed flatwise on two rounded knife edge bearings set 
 parallel 7 inches apart. A load is then applied on top, midway 
 between the supports, and transmitted through a similar rounded 
 knife edge, until the sample is ruptured. The modulus of rup- 
 ture shall then be determined by multiplying the total breaking 
 load in pounds by 21 (three times the distance between supports 
 in inches) and then dividing the result thus obtained by twice 
 the product of the width in inches by the square of the depth in 
 mches. ^ ^ No allowance should be made in figuring 
 the modulus of the rupture for the hollow spaces. 
 
 6. The compression test shall be made as follows: Samples 
 must be cut from blocks, so as to contain a full web section. 
 The sample must be carefully measured, then bedded flatwise in 
 plaster of paris, to secure a uniform bearing in the testing ma- 
 chine, and crushed. The total breaking load is then divided 
 by the area in compression in square inches, no deduction to be 
 made for hollow spaces; the area will be considered as the 
 product of the width by the length. 
 
 7. The absorption test shall be made as follows: The sample 
 is first thoroughly dried to a constant weight, at not to exceed 
 212° F. The weight must be carefully recorded. It is then 
 placed in a pan or tray of water, face downward, immersing it 
 to a depth of not less than 2 inches. It is again carefully 
 weighed at the following periods : Thirty minutes, four hours, 
 and forty-eight hours, respectively, from the time of immersion, 
 bemg replaced in the water in each case as soon as the weight is 
 taken. Its compressive strength, while still wet, is then deter- 
 mined at the end of the forty-eight hours period, in the manner 
 specified in Section 6. 
 
 8. The freezing test shall be made as follows: The sample 
 is immersed, as described in Section 7, for at least four hours, 
 and then weighed. It is then placed in a freezing mixture or a 
 refrigerator, or otherwise subjected to a temperature of less than 
 1 5 ° F. for at least twelve hours. It is then removed and placed 
 
 112 
 
in water, where it must remain for at least one hour, the temper- 
 ature of which is at least 150° F. This operation is repeated 
 ten (10) times, after which the sample is again weighed while 
 still wet from the last thawing. Its crushing strength should 
 then be determined, as called for in Section 6. 
 
 9. The fire test is made as follows : Two samples are placed 
 in a cold furnace in. which the temperature is gradually raised 
 to 1700° F. The test piece must be subjected to this tempera- 
 ture for at least thirty minutes. One of the samples is then 
 plunged in cold water (about 50° to 60° F.) and the results 
 noted. The second sample is permitted to cool gradually in air, 
 and the results noted. 
 
 10. The following requirements must be met to secure an 
 acceptance of the materials: The modulus of rupture for con- 
 crete blocks at twenty-eight days must average 1 50, and must not 
 fall below 100 in any case. The ultimate compressive strength 
 at twenty-eight days must average 1,000 pounds per square inch, 
 and must not fall below 700 in any case. The percentage of ab- 
 sorption (being the weight of water absorbed divided by the 
 weight of the dry sample) must not average higher than 15 per 
 cent., and must not exceed 22 per cent, in any case. The re- 
 duction of compressive strength must not be more than 33 per 
 cent., except that when the lower figure is still above 1,000 
 pounds per square inch, the loss in strength may be neglected. 
 The freezing and thawing process must n5t cause a loss in weight 
 greater than 10 per cent., nor a loss in strength of more than 
 33/6 per cent., except that when the lower figure is still above 
 1,000 pounds per square inch, the loss in strength may be neg- 
 lected. The fire test must not cause the material to disintegrate. 
 
 113 
 
Mar letli, 1907 
 
 The Prank E. Morse Co., 
 
 17 State St, N. Y. 
 Dear Sirs:- 
 
 As you are aware, we have sold many 
 thousand barrels of your DRAGON hrand PORTI..AND 
 cement, all of which has given entire satis- 
 faction. 
 
 We find our concrete workers, block 
 makers and contractors give us the preference 
 over other brands, claiming the DRAGON 
 brand gives the best results. 
 
 Our City being a manufacturing town, 
 we find for engine beds your DRAGON never 
 fails to make the best foundations. 
 
 Yours truly. 
 
 114 
 
Concrete in Connection U)ith 
 
 The uses of cement in combination with gravel and sand are 
 so numerous and the facility with which cement can be obtained 
 and the large number of sand and gravel banks which occur, 
 make its use particularly economical and advantageous. Almost 
 every part of every construction on the farm can be and has been 
 made of concrete either in mass or reinforced. Foundations are 
 usually constructed by mixing cement, sand and gravel in the 
 following proportions and depositing the mass after thoroughly 
 mixing with the proper proportion of water, between wooden 
 forms carefully laid out and staked to prevent their bulging 
 during the process of depositing of concrete. 
 
 Materials for One Cubic Yard of Concrete. 
 
 Bbls. Cement Bbls. Sand Bbls. Gravel or 
 
 *Proportions in in Sand in 
 
 1 cubic yard I cubic yard 1 cubic yard 
 
 1:2:4 1.57 3.14 6.28 
 
 i:2>^:5 1.29 3.23 6.45 
 
 1:3:6 1. 10 3.30 6.60 
 
 1:4:8 0.85 3.40 6.80 
 
 For ordinary foundation work, mixtures in the proportions of 
 1 :2^ :5 or i :3 :6 are amply rich, but for pavements, floors, and 
 building superstructures, mixtures in the proportion of i :2 '.4. 
 should be employed. Only very small quantities of gravel stones 
 larger in diameter than 2^2 to 3 inches should ever be employed 
 even for mass concrete work and they should be mixed with 
 smaller sizes down to grains of the size of peas. For super- 
 
 * In all of our proportions formulae, the first figure represents the 
 quantity of cement ; second figure, quantity of sand ; and third figure, 
 quantity of broken stone or gravel, all measurements to be by volume. 
 
 115 
 
w 
 
 El 
 
 >| o 
 
 o 
 o 
 < 
 a; 
 
 < 
 pq 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 Q 
 H 
 H D 
 »! H 
 
 ^ 
 
 o o 
 
 Q 
 W 
 O 
 05 
 O 
 
 Pi 
 
structural work in which steel is to be incorporated in the form 
 of reinforcement, no pebbles larger than ^" should be used. 
 
 For the mixing of concrete materials by hand it is usually 
 easiest to make batches which will contain only two or three bags 
 of cement. Concrete is easiest mixed on a special platform. One 
 of the cheapest of which can be made by nailing together %"xio' 
 boards of any desired width with 2x4 cleats placed about 2' 
 apart. For a two-bag batch mixing platform should be 9'xio', 
 while for a four bag batch it should be io'xi2'. The aggre- 
 gates are most easily measured by means of boxes built without 
 tops or bottom and provided with four handles at the several 
 corners, made by simply extending two sides and cutting them so 
 that the hand can be easily placed beneath the extension of the 
 sides and the mixing platform. For a 1:2:4. which two 
 
 bags of cement are to be employed, the sand box should be 2'x2'x 
 11^" inside measurement, while the gravel or stone box should 
 be 2'x4'xii>^". 
 
 For a 1 :3:6 mix the sand box should be I'x^'xiiy/' and the 
 stone gravel box 3'x4'xi I 
 
 For other combinations the necessary size of box is obvious 
 from these measurements. The amount of water to be used 
 varies slightly with the kind of cement and the qualities of sand 
 and gravel. It may be roughly assumed that 10 gallons of 
 water are necessary for a two bag batch mixed in proportions 
 1 :2 :4, while 13^^ gallons will be necessary for a batch of similar 
 size mixed i :3 :6. The methods of mixing concrete by hand, as 
 to order of procedure, are almost as numerous as are the in- 
 dividuals who do the work ; but the following method has been 
 found easy and effective: Place the sand box on the mixing 
 board and fill it with sand from wheelbarrows or by other con- 
 venient methods. When the box is filled level full lift it off and 
 spread the sand on the board in a layer about 4" thick. Empty 
 the required number of bags of cement over the sand as evenly 
 as possible; mix the sand and cement by turning it over with 
 shovels into a new pile of the same general shape and thickness as 
 the old one, giving the shovel a smart twist just before the mate- 
 rial leaves it, so as to mix the sand and cement thoroughly. Two 
 or three operations of this nature may be required, the material 
 being shoveled from one side of the board to the other with each 
 turn^ After a sufficient number of operations and spreadings of 
 this nature have been carried out it should produce a perfect 
 mixture, place the gravel or stone box on top of the pile of sand 
 and cement, and fill it from wheelbarrows or other receptacles as 
 
 117 
 
before. Remove the box and pour over the top of the gravel and 
 stone about three-fourths of the required amount of w^ater, dash- 
 ing it over the top of the pile as evenly as possible. Do not lose 
 any of the water by letting it run ofE the edges of the board. 
 Again turn the whole material over in the same manner as with 
 the sand and cement, adding water little by little to the dry spots 
 as the mixing continues. Repeat this operation until the whole 
 mass is uniform in color and moisture. 
 
 A concrete which quakes like jelly when being handled and is 
 just too stiff to flow is right for most purposes, like foundations, 
 sidewalks, etc. For building work, ornamental and other com- 
 plicated pieces, a very wet concrete is usually employed, while 
 occasionally a relatively dry mixture, which must afterward be 
 sprinkled several times a day for several weeks is preferable. 
 
 The concrete is then ready to be placed. It can be conveyed 
 to the desired point of deposit most easily by wheelbarrows, un- 
 less it is found necessary to place the mixing board more than 
 lOo' from this pont, in which case an ordinary one-horse dump 
 cart will be found convenient. If wheelbarrows are employed, 
 runways of 2" plank about 12" wide should be laid down and 
 carefully maintained so that wheelbarrows do not run off the 
 edges and upset so as to lose their contents. The runway should 
 be laid out in the form of a circuit so that men do not meet each 
 other on the return and thus interfere with one another. 
 
 Foundations for barns, silos, green houses, cellars, ice houses, 
 chicken houses, etc., are easily constructed and where the earth 
 will stand without special bracing, the concrete may be deposited 
 in open trenches at a very small cost. 
 
 An ordinary carpenter can build the necessary forms for water 
 tanks, cisterns, watering troughs, partitions in root cellars and 
 other similar structures, and concrete mixed as above described, 
 can be readily deposited in them. Mass concrete can also be 
 used for' culverts under roadways for carrying the water from 
 small streams. 
 
 It is also an easy matter to make open boxes either straight or 
 tapered in which concrete can be deposited together with the 
 necessary wire for reinforcing the same so as to form fence posts, 
 clothes posts, blocks of artificial stone for horse blocks, for win- 
 dow sills, steps, hog troughs, retaining walls, curbs, steps, etc. 
 Tests of fence posts made in this way, designed to extend four 
 feet above the ground, showed that it would require a pull of 
 about 500 pounds applied at the top of the post to break it if it 
 is made 6"x6" at the bottom and 6"x3" at the top, and if four 
 
 119 
 
ordinary twisted fence wires were placed near the corners in the 
 wet concrete. By pushing loops of wire into the wet concrete 
 at proper intervals along the post, very convenient fastenings are 
 provided for the attachment of the common wire fencing. More 
 elaborate structures like chicken houses, piggeries, ice houses, 
 mushroon cellars, green houses, silos, duck houses, manure sheds, 
 and even the most elaborate farm buildings like stables, can be 
 built of reinforced concrete in as elaborate detail as is desired. 
 Such complicated things as chimneys have been built of rein- 
 forced concrete on the farm, while at the other extreme the 
 simple laying of sidewalks and floors in stables and cow barns, 
 feeding floors, etc., can be easily constructed in concrete. To do 
 the latter work, the ground should be excavated at least 12" 
 below grade and refilled with porous material like coal cinders 
 or gravel, to a depth of 8". This material should be thoroughly 
 compacted after careful wetting, so that the final thickness is 
 about 7". This excavation and refill should be so arranged that 
 water which may collect in it will be drained naturally away 
 from the structure. This drainage can be effected by actual 
 drain tile, either of terra cotta or cement pipe, or by the use of a 
 blind drain made of broken brick or large gravel. Upon this 
 sub-base is to be deposited a mass of concrete which when finally 
 compacted will have a thickness of 4". This concrete should be 
 mixed in the proportions of i :2^ :5 and before it is set, a top 
 coat of cement mortar mixed in proportions of i cement to 2 
 coarse sand should be spread upon this concrete base and thor- 
 oughly worked into contact with it by much trowelling. This 
 wearing surface should have a thickness of at least i" and its top 
 surface be carefully leveled and smoothed and finally marked in 
 blocks either 4' square or of smaller size as is deemed necessary 
 for the particular object in view. For sidewalks or cellar floors 
 blocks not more than about 4' square are wisest, while in stables 
 and at other similar points, where much traffic is to be encoun- 
 tered, squares as small as 6"x6" are best. The larger blocks 
 should be cut clear through the 4" concrete base, and surfaces 
 which are marked in small blocks should be similarly cut through 
 at about the same intervals. 
 
 Concrete is indispensable in dairy farming since Boards of 
 Health in cities throughout the United States and Europe are 
 demanding high sanitary conditions in dairies which can be se- 
 cured most economically only where concrete is used for the con- 
 struction of cow stables, feeding floors, etc. Dairy farmers also 
 find other economies obtainable with the use of concrete, aside 
 
 121 
 
from the advantages secured with regard to sanitation when 
 proper gutters and drains are provided, the stables can be com- 
 pletely flushed out with water and a disinfectant if necessary al- 
 though the very nature of the concrete materials makes them 
 practically germ proof when made in a dense workmanlike man- 
 ner. 
 
 Similarly, poultry houses and yards can be maintained in a 
 high sanitary condition where concrete is employed, and the lat- 
 est developments along this line even provide cement hens' nests 
 and runways. The feeding and scratching floors can advantag- 
 eously be constructed with concrete covered with 6" or more of 
 clean gravel, sand crushed shells, etc., which can be replaced from 
 time to time as deemed necessary. 
 
 Garbage receptacles, either in the form of permanent boxes or 
 in the shape of light cans are being manufactured of concrete 
 which are fire and vermin proof, and when properly water- 
 proofed are not subject to attack by rust or other disintegrating 
 influences. 
 
 Non-destructible and explosion proof gasoline, wood alcohol 
 and kerosene tanks can be constructed with great advantage. 
 
 The ornamental possibilities of concrete are very great, espe- 
 cially when reinforced. Molded fountains of cement concrete 
 can be erected of the most complicated and beautiful sort. The 
 basin can be made of any shape and lined with a mixture of i ce- 
 ment to 2 sand applied as described above for top surfacing of 
 sidewalks and floors, but this surface, however, should not be cut 
 into blocks as there described. The mass concrete of the basin 
 should have provided in it some reinforcement to prevent cracks 
 due to freezing and thawing, from winter to summer. This re- 
 inforcement, however, need not be very great in quantity, but 
 should be well distributed throughout the whole body. 
 
 Settees or benches of reinforced concrete can be readily con- 
 structed as complicated and artistic as desired, while some crude 
 products, which would be equally as serviceable, can be made of 
 mass concrete at much less expense. 
 
 Besides the posts for fences, the running members can be made 
 of concrete, molded separately and placed in position in the forms 
 before the concrete for the posts is deposited in the final positions 
 they are to occupy. If deemed preferable even these posts can 
 be molded on the side in special forms with recesses formed in the 
 concrete work by placing blocks at the necessary points on the 
 sides of the formr. These recesses will serve to receive the ends 
 of the running members of the fence and it is necessary only to 
 
 123 
 
tamp a post in position, set in place the strings between it and the 
 next one, propping them so that the next post can be put in place, 
 and then tamping it firmly on the ground. It is often preferable 
 under those circumstances to place a small amount of concrete in 
 the post hole instead of refilling it solely with earth. A fence 
 made of this description is absolutely indestructible, needs no 
 painting, will not be affected by attacks of burrowing insects, and 
 stock and small animals will not gnaw it or otherwise destroy it. 
 
 Cement bath tubs have been manufactured and placed in 
 houses and are cheap and effective. 
 
 124 
 
Tree Dentistry. 
 
 (Cuts furnished through courtesy of The Davey Tree Expert Company) 
 
 Conservation of natural resources is claiming public attention 
 from the Chief Executive to the smallest landowner. Trees are 
 almost a necessity of modern life, but their neglect has been a 
 crying shame in this country for many years. With the advent 
 of Portland Cement a new art in connection with the science of 
 forestry has developed, namely that of " tree dentistry," so- 
 called. 
 
 Nature uses every effort to correct the destruction to her trees 
 wrought by winds, heavy snows, boring insects and animals and 
 the insidious effects of decay. Limbs are split by the wind and 
 snow, water enters the crevices and decay almost immediately fol- 
 lows, enlarging the cavity until finally another storm produces 
 the ultimate destruction of the one time giant of thfe forest. By 
 the practical attention of a skilled forester, cases in which de- 
 struction is imminent can be completely saved and given a length 
 of life which is practically unending. Nature assists, but cement 
 and surgery are necessary preliminaries. 
 
 It is necessary first to correct the tendency to split (if such has 
 been the cause of the trouble), and by the proper installation of 
 chains any further trouble can be obviated. It is next essential 
 that every particle of decayed material be removed from the in- 
 terior of a rotting limb or trunk ; next, a steel brace may be re- 
 quired to strengthen the tree and re-establish the stability of 
 which the decay had robbed the tree. The interior of the cavity 
 should then be studded with nails or similar devices to afford a 
 close bond between the filling and the firm wood, and further re- 
 inforcement in the form of bars, wires or wire mesh should be 
 carefully installed to reinforce the concrete to be used for filling. 
 Even after the cavity has been packed with concrete, unless this 
 work is carefully done, the swaying of the tree by the wind will 
 be apt to separate the cement from the wood so that a narrow 
 crevice is formed, into which moisture will percolate and the 
 decay continue even worse than before. Expert workmen, there- 
 fore, prepare special " water sheds," or deep grooves, installed 
 around and just within the opening, so as to let out to the ground 
 all incoming moisture. The cement is installed in a very moist 
 condition and carefully built out into the original outline of the 
 
 125 
 
BEf^ORE TPEATMENT METHOD 0^ TREATMFKIT 
 
 SAVING THE TREES 
 
 SEVEPAL YEARS AFTE2 TREATMENT LARGE CAVITY FIIiLED 
 
tree. This work must be made particularly dense so as to ex- 
 clude all water, since otherwise the filling is worse than useless. 
 No porous or undrained spot should be allowed. 
 
 The bark has to be carefully cut back for an inch or so in 
 order to prevent bruising it while the work is m progress, but it 
 can be replaced and will eventually cover the wound in the side 
 of the tree through natural agencies. If properly replaced, the 
 tree will thus regain its normal appearance, the outside com- 
 pletely surrounding the concrete filling of a one time deadly 
 cavity. 
 
 Where cavities are of an exceptional size, a form consisting of 
 strips of metal is first installed, and the concrete is forced down 
 into every crevice and allowed to set. The forms are afterwards 
 removed and a coat of surface finish installed. By this method, 
 the forester is enabled to build out trees in which fully one-half 
 the wood may have been destroyed by lightning or other cause. 
 The concrete is usually finally painted the same color as the bark 
 of the tree so that the original defect is entirely unnoticeable. 
 
 Through the evolution of this form of treatment, 
 " DRAGON " Portland Cement is thus seen to be essential for 
 the preservation of the beauty and life of much of the vegetation 
 of this continent. 
 
 127 
 
End of Diversion Tunnel, Filtration Plant, 
 
 Altoona, Pa. 
 Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
The reproductions on pages 122, 128, 129, 130 and 132 
 show some of the details of the work done on the Filtration 
 Plant at Altoona on which Dragon Portland Cement was used 
 exclusively to the extent of over 22,000 barrels. The picture 
 on page 122 shows an end view of the diversion tunnel. This 
 tunnel is 1 200 feet long and 9 feet in diameter and is used to 
 carry off the surplus water. Note the warped surfaces in the 
 concrete walls just outside of the tunnel. 
 
 The picture on page 129 shows the lower end of this tunnel. 
 It looks somewhat small in the picture but this is due to the fact 
 that the photographer had to stand his camera some distance 
 from the exit because water was six or eight feet deep where he 
 should have been located. 
 
 The picture on page 130 shows the reinforced concrete arch 
 bridge which carries the road-way over the by-pass. The picture 
 on page 132 shows this by-pass as it makes a bend in the hill. 
 This structure is 15 feet wide on the inside and 5 feet deep, the 
 concrete walls being 23^2 feet thick. 
 
 The illustration on page 134 shows the reservoir under con- 
 struction for the Oil City Waterworks in Pennsylvania. The 
 small size of the mixing plant is to be noted and the methods of 
 handling concrete in wheelbarrows and down chutes. The ag- 
 gregates are wheeled up the inclines and dumped from the wheel- 
 barrows into the portable mixers. 
 
 Note the reinforcement for the bottom and sides of the reser- 
 voir and how the inner surface is finished in blocks. Rein- 
 forcing rods are seen projecting above the surfaces where the 
 columns to support the roof are to be erected. 
 
 This illustration is typical of the best class of work of reser- 
 voir construction. In large numbers of such structures Dragon 
 Cement has been successfully employed. 
 
 131 
 
By Pass, Filtration Plant, Altoona, Pa. 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
The Torresdale Preliminary Filters of 
 the Philadelphia Water Works. 
 
 Abstract from Engineering Record, Nov. 14, 1908. 
 
 The City of Philadelphia has now under construction along- 
 side its slow-sand filtration plant at Torresdale, a system of me- 
 chanical filters, which will be used as roughing filters, without 
 the use of a coagulant, to take out the larger suspended particles 
 from the water before applying it to the slow-sand beds. At 
 present, the latter plant, at a rate of 3,000,000 gallons per acre 
 per day, has a total capacity of 120,000,000 gallons. With the 
 operation of the preliminary filters it is expected that this rate 
 will be doubled, and therefore the preliminary plant is designed 
 for a total capacity of 240,000,000 gallons per day at a rate of 
 80,000,000 gallons per acre. The new plant has the distinction 
 of being the first in the United States for the double filtration of 
 the supply of a large city and at the same time of being the largest 
 of mechanical filter plants. 
 
 The preliminary filters in general are of the usual mechanical 
 type, using both water and air in washing, but omitting the co- 
 agulant. They are placed high enough so that their effluents 
 will pass through the sand-beds by gravity. 
 
 The area covered by the preliminary filters themselves, ex- 
 clusive of the driveways and embankments, measures 328 ft. 
 9 in. by 607 ft., and contains 120 beds, arranged in eight rows 
 or batteries, with 15 beds to a battery. There are four filter 
 houses, each running across the width of the entire plant and 
 controlling two batteries or 30 beds. Each bed measures 20 ft. 
 3 in. by 60 ft. in the clear and is controlled by its individual 
 operating table. The influent is admitted over a reinforced 
 concrete wash-water trough or gullet in the wall at the rear of 
 the bed, and drains to an effluent gullet or to a wash-water drain 
 in the filter house. 
 
 The floors, walls and roofs are in general constructed of con- 
 crete, reinforced where necessary and supported in places by 
 structural steel shapes. The walls of the filter houses are of 
 brick faced both inside and outside, and trimmed with gray 
 
 133 
 
Reservoir of Oil City Water Works, Oil City, Pa 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
granite. The walls of the filter beds vary in thickness from 15 
 to 21 inches and are reinforced for carrying a water load on 
 either side, while the other side is empty. The roof over the 
 filter beds is a 6 in. reinforced concrete slab carried by 18 in. 
 60 lb. I-beams on 7 ft. centers, completely incased in concrete 
 and spanning the width of the beds, a distance of 22 ft. center 
 to center of the transverse walls. Seven 3 ft. manholes have 
 been placed in the roof over each bed, six of them being placed 
 in two rows of three each, and the seventh directly over the valve 
 which admits the raw water from the influent gullet. The con- 
 crete roof slab has a covering 16 in. deep, composed of 2 in. of 
 broken stone or clean gravel, 10 in. of sandy material and 4 
 in. of top soil. Roof drains of 4 in. terra cotta pipe are placed 
 at convenient intervals and are covered with a 9 in. mound of 
 broken stone. The manholes rise 6 in. above the top of the 
 covering and have, in addition to the covers, screens allowing 
 the ventilation of the beds. Electric lights are placed in all of 
 the beds and are hung from insulators on rods cast into the 
 concrete of the roof. 
 
 The raw water is pumped to the preliminary filter plant from 
 the pumping station on the river bank through an 1 1 ft. riveted 
 steel conduit covered with a minimum thickness of 6 in. of con- 
 crete. This conduit runs almost the full length of the filter 
 plant and is tapped at three points by 7 ft. riveted steel conduits 
 and at two points by 5 ft. 6 in. steel conduits leading to the 
 five influent gullets. These influent gullets each run the full 
 width of the plant, or 328 ft. 9 in., and serve one or two bat- 
 teries of beds. They are formed by the longitudinal walls at 
 the backs of the beds of adjacent batteries, except the gullets at 
 the ends of the plant, which have one wall forming the extreme 
 edge of the plant. They are roofed with a 6 in. reinforced con- 
 crete slab carried by concrete brackets extending out 8 in. from 
 the vertical walls of the gullet. 
 
 The raw water finds admittance to the filter beds from the 
 influent gullet through a cast iron pipe controlled by a 16 in. 
 hydraulically operated valve, located in an enlargement at the 
 end of the wash-water gullet. 
 
 The filtering material consists of 1 5 in. of gravel varying in 
 size from 2 to 3 in., 4 in. of gravel varying from to in., 
 3 in. of gravel varying from }i to in., 8 in. of gravel varying 
 from to }i in., and 12 in. of sand varying from 0.8 to I mm. 
 The water surface will be 4 ft. above the top of the sand. The 
 filtered water will be carried off by two collectors, extending 
 
 135 
 
Water Tower at Pie Filter, Torresdale Filtration 
 Plant, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
the length of the bed. These collectors are built of reinforced 
 concrete moulded in 2 ft. slabs at convenient points and placed 
 in the beds when the concrete has fully set. The collectors are 
 of rectangular section, 30 in. wide inside and 8 in. deep, form- 
 ing an inverted longitudinal box resting on the floor of the 
 filter bed. The sides and top are 4 in. thick, making an overall 
 width of 3 ft. 2 in. Openings are cast in the collector slabs by 
 cutting away part of the walls just at floor level. The two col- 
 lectors in each bed connect together at the end near the filter 
 house, where a 16 in. pipe draws off the water. After passing 
 through ^ a hydraulically operated valve and the eflBuent con- 
 troller, it passes into the effluent gullet, which is a reinforced 
 concrete rectangular box built the full length, and on the floor, 
 of the filter house. It is 6 ft. wide and 6 ft. high, with 12 in. 
 walls and 6 in. top. The 30 in. cast-iron wash-water supply 
 main is laid directly upon the effluent gullet. 
 
 The presssure for the water-wash system will be secured from 
 an elevated reinforced concrete tank located east of the plant. 
 The tank contains two separate compartments, one for wash- 
 water, and one for filtered water for drinking and sanitary pur- 
 poses. The tanks themselves occupy the upper part of the tower, 
 the floors being at an elevation of 27 ft. above the filled em- 
 bankment surrounding the filter plant. The tank walls are of 
 reinforced concrete and the floor of concrete slabs, supported by 
 15 in. 42 tb. I-beams, The filtered water tank occupies the 
 central part of the tower and is 12 ft. in diameter in the clear. 
 The wash-water tank is an annular ring surrounding the filtered 
 water tank. The walls of both the filtered and wash-water 
 tanks are carried down vertically through plain concrete walls to 
 6 ft. concrete footings going down below the original surface 
 of the ground. A 48 in. wash-water and a 6 in. filtered water 
 pipe lead from the tank to the filter plant. The extreme inside 
 diameter of the tank is 40 ft., the height above the rolled em- 
 bankment 70 ft., and the height above the bottom of the footings 
 91 ft. 
 
 Wherever possible in the work the conveying of materials 
 and the handling of heavy loads were done by derricks or by an 
 850 ft. span Lidgerwood cableway. This cableway spanned the 
 entire work from north to south and was fitted with an engine 
 on the tail tower to facilitate moving the entire apparatus east 
 and west, so that the cableway carriage could cover any part of 
 the plant. The cableway was used for placing concrete, for 
 moving forms, placing I-beams, and for any work where it could 
 
 137 
 
be used to advantaj^e without interfering with the operations for 
 which it was expressly intended. 
 
 The aggregate used in the concrete consisted half of gravel 
 and half of broken stone, the latter of a maximum size of I >4 
 in., except where thinness of walls and close spacing of rein- 
 forcement necessitated smaller stone. " Dragon " Portland 
 cement was used throughout. The reinforcement used in the 
 work consisted of plain square bars. 
 
 In addition to the main mixing plant at the southwest corner 
 of the work, a >^ yd. portably mounted McKelvey mixer was 
 used to place some of the concrete along the east side of the plant, 
 and a ^ yd. Ransome mixer was used on the elevated water 
 tank by the sub-contractors for that work. 
 
 The largest forms for the concrete work were 12 ft. wide and 
 loyi ft. high. All forms were stoutly made and held together 
 by studs and 6x8 in. walls placed 4 ft. apart. The bolts pass- 
 ing through the walls to hold the forms against bulging were 
 placed 4 ft. each way and run through these walls. This stout 
 construction was adopted because the concrete was deposited 
 continuously in the walls, lengths as short as 60 ft. being put in 
 in one continuous operation, starting at one end and filling up to 
 a certain level clear across to the other end and then starting 
 back immediately toward the point of beginning. 
 
 The handling of the forms wherever possible was done by the 
 cableway and by a stif?-leg derrick mounted on a traveling plat- 
 form. The forms for the influent gullet were gathered together 
 in groups of three, hoisted out by the cableway and moved to 
 their new positions. The wall forms were moved by the stiff- 
 leg derrick, and the roof forms were moved by hand. 
 
 The II ft. riveted steel pipe lines for the influent and eflluent 
 were laid with a derrick traveling on the floor of the trench in 
 which the conduits were placed. This trench was excavated 
 with an orange peel bucket hung from a locomotive crane. The 
 pipe was riveted up in place by compressed air. 
 
 The general contractor for the work is the Millard Con- 
 struction Co., of Philadelphia. 
 
 139 
 
CUmb. Hydraulic Cement & Mfg. Co., 
 Cumberland, Maryland 
 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 We have your inquiry of Nov 10, 1908, 
 asking for our experience vath Dragon Portleuid 
 Cement in Bridge Construction. 
 
 We used Dragon cement exclusively In 
 theVirginia Street Bridge over EUc River, 
 Charleston, W, Va. in the concrete piers and 
 abutments as well as in the reinforced concrete 
 walks. 
 
 Ho cement ever gave us "better 
 satisfaction. It has good sand carrying 
 capacity, sets up slowly and very hard, and 
 LhovfB even color at the finish. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 PENN BRIDGE C0MPA13Y. 
 
 By 
 
 141 
 
Lawrence Cement Co., 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Gentlemen :- 
 
 In reply to your recent favor 
 in regard to the use of "Dragon" Portland 
 Cement on our work, we wish to say that we 
 have used a large quantity of this cement 
 in the construction of various reservoirs 
 and dams, and have had thoroughly satis- 
 factory results in each case. We consider 
 the "Dragon" Cement one of the best cements 
 on the market for use in our hydraulic 
 work. 
 
 Yours very truly. 
 
 143 
 
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 D 
 
Cement in Railroad Construction 
 
 The following descriptions will serve as examples of the vari- 
 ous ways in which " DRAGON " cement has been employed 
 by the forty-five railroads which have used it. 
 
 The illustration on page 144 shows some of the work involved 
 by the new line of the Pennsylvania Railroad across the Hack- 
 ensack Meadows to connect the present main line with their 
 tunnels under the North and East Rivers and their new station 
 in Manhattan, New York City. " DRAGON " cement was 
 used throughout for bridge piers, abutments, etc., on this work. 
 
 Note the traveling frames against which forms were erected 
 for the construction of this bridge pier. These forms were 
 moved along from section to section of the wall and were so 
 designed as to occupy only the small space between the finished 
 wall and the railroad tracks over which traffc was constantly 
 maintained. 
 
 Note also the concrete handling plant consisting of stifl[-leg 
 derricks handling automatic dump buckets for the concrete and 
 the grab bucket employed to hoist concrete aggregates from 
 scows and deposit the same in the hoppers over the concrete 
 mixer. 
 
 Note also the hanging scaffold employed in connection with 
 the finishing of the concrete work on the face of the abutment. 
 
 The reproduction shown on page 146 is a small section of the 
 track elevation work being done in Philadelphia along the line 
 of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad. The total length of 
 track elevation covers a distance of six miles and it is estimated 
 that about 250,000 barrels of Dragon cement will be used. At 
 its highest point the retaining wall is 35 feet from the founda- 
 tion masonry to the top of the coping. The width at the bottom 
 is 7 feet and at the top is 3 feet. 
 
 Note the method of bonding old and new work by depositing 
 
 145 
 
THE LITTLE KANAWHA RAILROAD COMPANY. 
 
 MARIETTA, COLUMBUS & CLEVELAND R. R. CO. 
 
 BUCKHANNOISI AND NORTHERN RAILROAD COMPANY. 
 ZANESVILLE, MARIETTA & PARKERSBURG RAILROAD CO. 
 PARKERSBURG BRIDGE i TERMINAL- RAILROAD CO. 
 BURNSVIULE AND EASTERN R. R. CO. 
 
 CHIEF ENGINEER'S OFFICE. 
 
 PARKERSBURG, W, VA,. 
 
 July 7, 1906. 
 
 The Cumberland Hydraulic 
 Cement and Mnfg Co., 
 Cumberland, Md. 
 
 Gentlemen :- 
 
 We have used your "Dragon" Portland 
 
 cement for the last five years on our lines, 
 
 and it has given perfect satisfaction. We 
 
 have used it in extreme cold weather and 
 
 was surprised at the good results. I remain 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 147 
 
large stones irregularly in the fresh concrete where they are 
 allowed to become firmly imbedded, projecting irregularly above 
 the upper surface of the mass concrete. 
 
 Note the method of mixing concrete wherein overhead bins 
 feed the mixer, the product of which was handled either by stiff - 
 leg derricks or traveling cranes running on the tracks parallel 
 with the line of the wall. 
 
 Note the derrick equipped with a grab bucket employed to 
 remove material from cars and hoist the concrete aggregate into 
 the hoppers over the mixer. 
 
 Page 148 shows another view of the same work. Of par- 
 ticular interest in this picture are the deep grooves cast in the end 
 of the wall into which will fit a corresponding projection in the 
 next section so that unequal settlement will not throw the wall 
 out of line, the loose stone piled against the back of the wall to 
 provide ample drainage, and the narrow grooves cast in the face 
 of the wall to resemble courses of masonry. A scaffold was 
 erected in front of the wall on which the men could work to 
 grout, rub and otherwise finish the surface. 
 
 149 
 
The Connecticut Avenue Concrete Arch 
 Bridge at Washington, D. C. 
 
 Abstracted from Engineering News, June i, 1905. 
 
 The Connecticut Avenue Bridge at Washington, D. C, is 
 notable in two particulars ; it is one of the largest masonry arch 
 bridges ever constructed, and it is built of a combination of 
 molded concrete block and monolithic concrete masonry which 
 is exceedingly rare. 
 
 The site of the. bridge being conspicuous topographically, great 
 effort was warranted to have it comport in proportions, type and 
 style, with the dignity of the thoroughfare of which it was a 
 part. 
 
 The structure consists of seven full centered arches carried by 
 two abutments and six piers. Piers 37 feet thick separate the 
 end arches from the wider intermediate arches, and the inter- 
 mediate arches are separated from each other by piers 20 feet 
 thick. The total length of the bridge, including abutments is 
 1,341 feet. Its width between faces of arch rings is 52 feet. 
 The 150 foot arches support open transverse spandrel arches. 
 The end arches support transverse spandrel arches which are 
 closed by face walls, so that they appear as having solid spandrel 
 walls. The abutments are hollow U-shaped with walls having 
 vertical faces and stepped backs. The backs of the walls are 
 water-proofed with two coats of coal-tar pitch of the grade 
 known as paving cement. Aside from the water-proofing the 
 only structural detail at all unusual was the expansion joint con- 
 struction adopted for the side walls. 
 
 These walls are about 135 feet long and each has two vertical 
 expansion joints reaching from the foundation to the floor level 
 of the bridge. The key groove does not extend to the top of the 
 wall, which, being but 4 feet thick, was considered too thin to 
 permit safely of its use. Instead of a mortise and tenon joint, 
 this top wall section has a plain butt joint with steel rods ex- 
 tending across it to hold the abutting walls together. The 
 puddle groove or mortise reaches, however, from top to bottom 
 of the wall. The object of the clay puddle is to prevent seepage 
 of water through the expansion joint. These expansion joints 
 
 151 
 
DRAGON 
 VULCANITE 
 GIANT PORTLAND 
 ROSENDALE 
 LAFARGE 
 
 KINO'S Windsor Orubnt 
 Diamond Pi.abt£]r 
 
 Wau. e^labxibh Boaad 
 "LIMOrD" 
 
 HoTAl. Mortar OOI.OBS 
 
 Natttitml MaxtsLt ©nmpattg 
 
 Building Material. 
 
 Owtosi Room l 
 
 r Bdildimo, eia P" St. N. W. 
 
 9aalrin0tiin. 9. (0., 
 
 Bmi^DIMO OSBMlOAr. 
 
 LIMB 
 
 LIMB STONE 
 
 TRAI> ROOK 
 Turk A Ootxa 
 PEPB ANI> FLUES 
 
 FlR> PRICTT and OIaAX 
 
 HaJR. P£.ABTaR. Wr.ATTB 
 
 MxTAL XuiTB, Wall Tus 
 SAND AND GRAVEL 
 
 L ORTXB 
 
 Mi 
 
 Juno 15th, 190V, 
 
 The Lawrence Cement Co . , 
 Hew York City 
 
 Gentlemen 
 
 Within the past four or five yearn, we have hought 
 from you and sold to our customers, nearly OHB laLLION haxrels 
 of "Dragon" Portland cement, and it is a pleasure for us to 
 be ahle to truthfully state that notwithstanding the fact that 
 we have placed it on work of all kinds aiid character, it has 
 given entire satisfaction in each and every instance. A large 
 portion of the "Dragon" we have botight from you has been used 
 on the General and Washington City Government works, where the 
 requirements and tests have been unusually rigid, but "Dragon" 
 has always met them satisfactorily. We sold to the Contractors 
 for use in the construction of the Connecticut Avenue Bridge 
 (which is probably the largest all-concrete bridge in the world) 
 over eighty thousand barrels flf "Dragon". We also furnished 
 *v "f??" i° Contractors for lajring the cement sidewalks for 
 tne City Government during the years 1905 and 1906. 
 
 Space will not permit us to enumerate all of the 
 iniportant government and private works upon which we have fur- 
 ?r;°^°5^i?''*^2i5*" having had such satisfactory experience 
 
 in handling "Dragon" during such a long period, there can be 
 no wonder that we do not hesitate to tell our customers that 
 
 .f^''^^^ ^ first-class Portland cement on their work, they 
 "can't hitch Dragon up wrong." 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 NATIONAL MORTAR CO.. 
 
 152 
 
worked perfectly. In the coldest days of winter they open about 
 3-16 inch, and in the summer close to 1-16 inch. 
 
 The piers are solid concrete structures to the springing line 
 levels of the arches and of cellular construction from there to 
 the top, which is covered by an arch. 
 
 There are seven arch spans, two of 82 feet span and five of 
 150 feet span. The rings of these arches are monolithic con- 
 crete with faces of voussoir shaped molded concrete blocks. For 
 the 82 foot arches the crown thickness of the ring is 3 feet 3 
 inches and for the 150 foot arches it is 5 feet. There is no re- 
 inforcement. 
 
 The spandrels of the main arches were composed of relieving 
 or spandrel arches the tops of which carry the roadway. Over 
 the 82 foot spans, a solid spandrel curtain wall incloses the 
 arches and gives the aspect of solid spandrel construction. The 
 arches over the piers were also similarly inclosed, but those over 
 the haunches were designed with a vertical expansion joint at 
 the crown of each. Since these crown expansion joints will, if 
 they open much, convert the opposite valves of the arches into 
 cantilevers, the rings are reinforced. The roadway was pro- 
 vided by a solid fill over the spandrel arches. 
 
 About 50,000 cubic yards of concrete were required for the 
 construction of the bridge. The stone for this concrete was a 
 diorite obtained from a quarry opened in the side of the bluff 
 about 500 feet from the south end of the bridge. The stone 
 from the quarry was hoisted about 50 feet vertically by derricks 
 and dumped into cars which traveled on an incline about 250 
 feet to a No. 4 Gates gyratory stone crusher into which they 
 dumped automatically. From the crusher the stone dropped 
 into a 600 cubic yard bin under the bottom of which and be- 
 neath the ground was a tunnel large enough for a dump car. 
 This car was handled by cable to the storage bins of a Haines 
 gravity concrete mixer. The sand was brought to the work in 
 wagons and dumped in a pile on a platform about 50 feet above 
 the bottom level of the broken stone bin. A tunnel similar to 
 that for the stone bin and about 40 feet from the stone car tunnel 
 was provided for the sand car which was hauled to the mixer by 
 the same cable that hauled the stone car, the cable being shifted 
 by hand as desired. Cement was delivered to the mixer by 
 means of a bag chute from the top of the gorge adjacent to the 
 mixer. 
 
 After passing the mixer the concrete dropped into a skip or 
 bucket mounted on a car which ran on a trestle erected the full 
 
 153 
 
Figure i6. 
 
length of the bridge and parallel to it. Derricks mounted on 
 the centering and on the east block molding platform lifted the 
 buckets from the cars and emptied them at the points where 
 work was in progress. Each car had room for three 2 cubic 
 yard buckets but carried only two so that the derricks could 
 deposit an empty bucket in the vacant space and take a filled 
 bucket with the least waste motion. The concrete was utilized 
 both for concrete block manufacture and for concrete deposited 
 in place. 
 
 AH of the trimmings on the bridge below the bottom of the 
 coping, that is, the belt courses, quoin stones, chain stones, ring 
 stones, brackets and dentils, are concrete blocks separately 
 molded and set in place like cut stone. The molding or casting 
 of these blocks was done on the ground and was one of the most 
 important items of the concrete work. The blocks were made 
 of concrete faced on the exposed sides with mortar composed of 
 one part " Dragon " Portland Cement and three parts bluestone 
 screenings from ^ inch size to dust. 
 
 In cases where the facing mortar was laid in cold weather it 
 was protected from freezing by tacking tar paper to the forms 
 so as to leave an air space between it and the face lagging. Test 
 showed a difference in temperature of 15° F. between the air in 
 the air space and the outside atmosphere. 
 
 The method of making these blocks was as follows: Forms 
 of % inch tongued and grooved North Carolina pine, held to- 
 gether by iron tie rods, were used. These boxes or molds had 
 collapsible sides and from 6 to 8 bottoms so that the block could 
 be left standing on the bottom for two or three weeks while the 
 sides could be removed in as many days and raised with another 
 bottom. The molding was done on a level floor of tongued and 
 grooved boards laid on mud sills. It was noted by the engineers 
 that the molding platform had to be perfectly level to insure a 
 uniform casting. 
 
 All blocks were molded with the principal showing face down, 
 and if the block had more than one showing face the others were 
 made against the vertical sides. No block was ever cast face up 
 on account of the tendency of the cement to flush to the surface, 
 making an unnecessarily rich mixture which was found invari- 
 ably to cause hair cracks. The mode of procedure in detail was 
 to place first the mortar facing and then deposit and tamp the 
 backing of concrete. Great care had to be exercised in this work 
 to keep the edges full and to force the concrete stones in the 
 backing well out into the facing mortar so as to give as much 
 
 155 
 
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strength as possible to the edges. Before a block was cast, the 
 inside of the form was carefully cleaned and smeared with lin- 
 seed oil. The blocks immediately after casting were covered 
 with bags or old carpet and kept thoroughly wet by sprinkling. 
 After hardening about three weeks the blocks were removed 
 from the bottoms of the molds and placed in the storage yard to 
 season. 
 
 The backs of the blocks had holes gouged out while the con- 
 crete was yet soft to give the stone a good bond with the con- 
 crete backing. After the blocks had hardened from 30 to 60 
 days, they were bush hammered on the showing faces; the orna- 
 mental stone were bush hammered by hand and the square blocks 
 by pneumatic hammers. After the concrete deposited in place 
 had hardened it was bush-hammered like the blocks. It was 
 found that the " baby surfacer " was the most satisfactory tool 
 for the work. There is practically no difference in the appear- 
 ance of the block by hand and by machines, but the machine 
 work is considerably more economical. 
 
 The making of dog holes in the blocks was performed by 
 picks when the blocks were three or four weeks old. When it 
 was not practicable to use dogs, two-pin lewises were used. 
 The lewises had to be somewhat larger than for granite and care 
 had to be taken to decrease the pressure on the interior edge of 
 the concrete at the top of the hole. 
 
 All parts of the bridge, except the cast block trimmings were 
 made of concrete deposited in place in suitable forms. The con- 
 crete blocks were placed first and the concrete deposited in place 
 was formed around and back of them. The forms for this work 
 consisted of tongued and grooved lagging held by 2x8 inch stud- 
 ding on 18 inch centers; this studding being supported in turn 
 by waling timbers spaced 8 feet on centers and held in place by 
 rods going through the walls. These rods were in two pieces 
 connected by a treaded-shoe set about 3 inches in from the show- 
 ing face of the work. This arrangement enabled the front sec- 
 tion of the tie rod to be screwed out of the concrete and the hole 
 to be filled with mortar. The lower parts of the arch rings 
 were built up with piers, they being shaped by curved forms held 
 back to the piers by wall ties. Sheet iron pieces were used in 
 placing the facing mortar on the arch soffits. Similar plates 
 were used for the facing of the vertical exposed walls. The 
 arch rings were built, of course, on arch centers. 
 
 These centers were founded on piles, excepting for the small 
 inches, where timber grillages were used, and for those portions 
 
 157 
 
Figure 17. 
 
ill the line of the creek and under the iron bridge that crosses be- 
 neath the arch bridge, where concrete footings were used, 
 founded on hard rotten rock. The centers were composed of 
 Georgia pine, except a few struts which were Virginia pine, and 
 the sills, caps and wedges which were of white oak. Before 
 framing, the centers were laid out to full size on the floor of the 
 Washington Convention Hall, and a pattern was made for each 
 piece. The arch stones were outlined on this same lay-out and 
 templates made for them. 
 
 5U 
 
New York Stock Exchange, Broad St., New York City. 
 Over 25,000 Barrels " Dragon " Portland Cement Used 
 IN ITS Construction. 
 
An Engineering Feat 
 
 Extracts from article published in the New York Tribune, 
 July 7, 1 901. 
 
 New Stock Exchange Building, New York. 
 
 The building that for years held the pulse of finance in the 
 United States — the New York Stock Exchange in Broad and 
 New Streets — has been torn down and in the ruins an army of 
 busy workmen is engaged on the foundations of a new exchange. 
 
 The general public has always had more than ordinary in- 
 terest in the Stock Exchange, with its " bulls and bears," won- 
 derful fortunes made in a day and its occasional failures. The 
 interest extended to the building in which the Wall Street 
 brokers transacted their business. Crowds watched the work of 
 destruction and still larger crowds take frequent looks at the 
 foundation laying, now under way. * * * The contractors 
 for the new Stock Exchange building are having a great deal of 
 trouble in following the advice given in the Scriptures to found 
 all worthy structures on rock. The rock at this particular point 
 on Manhattan Island is covered with many feet of sand, and 
 quick-sand at that. At a depth of twelve feet water begins to 
 rush into excavations which may be made. Rock bottom is not 
 found until a depth of fifty feet has been reached. The men 
 who planned the new building knew this, and decided that four 
 floors below the street level could be used to advantage for the 
 machinery of the building, the vaults and rooms for employees. 
 Having decided upon this arrangement the architects left the 
 problem of carrying it out in the hands of John F. O'Rourke, 
 an expert engineer and foundation contractor. He found that it 
 would be necessary to depart from ordinary methods of con- 
 structing foundations and decided to build a continuous con- 
 crete dam around the entire site. It is said that such a founda- 
 tion dam has never been built before. The dam will be fifty 
 feet deep, eight feet wide, and will rest on the solid bed rock, 
 making a reservoir that will be proof against water and sand. 
 
 For the building of this continuous dam, caissons are now be- 
 ing sunk on the boundaries of the site. These caissons are ob- 
 
 161 
 
Frank E. Uorse Co., 
 
 17 State St, New York. 
 
 Gentlemen :- 
 
 Your favor of the 17th inat, at hand. I 
 heg to Bay that we have already used a large 
 quantity of your cement at the New York Stock 
 Exchange in the construction of the water-tight dam 
 which is to enclose a cellar about 54' below curb, 
 and that bo far all the cement has been strictly 
 first-class, and the concrete made with your 
 cement has been of a quality that I have never 
 seen surpassed. In ray opinion, your cement is 
 better than the usual first class Portland cements, 
 and fully the equal of the very beat. It gives 
 me great pleasure to say that, if I had to select 
 a cement again for this work, keeping in view the 
 necessity for obtaining a concrete that would be both 
 hard and water-tight, I would select your cement 
 without any consideration of the cost. 
 
 It may interest you to know that we have yet 
 to find one bag which was not in first class condition. 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 162 
 
long in shape and measure thirty feet long, eight feet wide and 
 fifty feet deep. They are built of wood and iron weighted with 
 from fifty to one hundred tons of cement or pig iron. Fifteen 
 men work in a chamber at the bottom of each caisson. Com- 
 pressed air is supplied from machines on the surface in sufficient 
 quantities to keep back the sand and water which would other- 
 wise fill the chambers. As the laborers dig away the earth it is 
 taken to the surface in buckets. The weight of the iron and 
 concrete on top of the caissons keeps pushing them down. When 
 they finally rest upon the rock bottom the work of building the 
 dam can begin. 
 
 A number of circular caissons are being driven in various 
 parts of the site. They are from six to nine feet in diameter, 
 and in them will rest the steel columns which will help support 
 the building. As soon as these are in place and the outer foun- 
 dation dam is built, the cross-beams of steel will be put in place. 
 Then excavating will begin. If these cross-beams were not 
 placed first, the outer wall or dam would be pushed in by the 
 weight of the surrounding buildings. The excavation will be 
 carried on one floor at a time, and cross-beams will be placed 
 every twelve or fifteen feet. By the time the excavating is 
 ended the foundation will be practically completed. 
 
 "DRAGON " Portland Cement was used by the contractors 
 for this important work. 
 
 (See Mr. O'Rourke's opinion of " DRAGON.") 
 
 163 
 
Figure i8. 
 
 New York Stock Exchange, Longitudinal Section. 
 
 Heavy Line Indicates Work Done With " Dragon 
 Portland Cement. 
 
Extract from The Engineering Record, April 4, 
 1908, with regard to Foundations of New 
 York Stock Exchange. 
 
 In a number of important buildings the excavations have been 
 made deep enough to permit of the construction of three or four 
 stories below the surface of the ground and thus involve re- 
 taining w^alls of enormous strength and require special w^ater- 
 proofing to resist the tremendous exterior pressure of the quick- 
 sand and water, under a hydrostatic head of sometimes more than 
 50 feet. 
 
 The Stock Exchange building has a cellar floor 54 feet below 
 curb and 42. feet below ground water level, and it was decided 
 to build .the exterior caissons first, and to connect them so as to 
 form a Con;tinuous concrete wall around the lot excluding the 
 ground water and enabling the interior to be drained by pumps 
 so that the foundations there could be carried down in open 
 cofferdams. The exterior caissons had a uniform thickness of 
 8 feet, an average height of about 50 feet, including the perma- 
 nent wooden coffer dams continuous with their walls, and were 
 from 24 to 30 feet long. They were of special construction, 
 with removable domed steel roof plates and vertical wall planks 
 and were delivered at the site in complete sections weighing 
 about 30,000 lbs. each. 
 
 They were sunk to rock at an average depth of about 50 feet 
 and the cutting edges were puddled with clay and a 6 inch layer 
 of concrete was rammed over the bottom and allowed to set 
 under pneumatic pressure, balancing the ■ outward hydrostatic 
 pressure due to the 40 feet head of exterior ground water. The 
 caissons were sunk very close together with great accuracy, and 
 when they were concreted, semi-circular vertical shafts 4 feet in 
 diameter, were formed at the ends of the cofferdams and smaller 
 ones on the same line in the working chambers. Afterwards 
 men entered the shaft and removed the center planks, thus 
 throwing the two adjacent shafts into one of elliptical cross 
 section, which was filled with rammed concrete, making a mas- 
 sive water-tight key which effectively bonded the two caissons 
 together. 
 
 In cross sections, the keys were about 4 feet wide and 5 feet 
 long, with semi-circular ends connected by the neck formed by 
 
 165 
 
Cofferdam, Caisson and Air-Lock, Stock Exchange 
 Building. 
 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
the end walls of the caissons, thus having art outline which 
 closely resembled the section through the longitudinal axis of a 
 rivet with two button heads. Before these shafts were con- 
 nected, horizontal holes were bored through the adjacent walls 
 of the cofferdams and caissons, and bolts were inserted and 
 drawn up as tight as possible, making the openings between the 
 planks so small that they were later easily caulked with oakum 
 when necessary. 
 
 The interior caissons were sunk long before the mam excava- 
 tion was completed and temporary cofferdams were carried up 
 to the surface of the ground to exclude the earth and enable the 
 steel columns to be erected before the excavation of the earth 
 caused too great an unbalanced pressure on the opposite faces of 
 the wall caissons. After a large weight of steel had been as- 
 sembled and considerable stress developed in the lower sections 
 of the columns, the excavation was continued and great care was 
 taken to brace the wall caissons to them and across the full width 
 of the building with special distributing girders and adjustable 
 connections to secure positive bearings on the faces of the cais- 
 sons. 
 
 Wall Caisson Connection, Stock Exchange. 
 
 Figure 19. 
 
 167 
 
McGraw Building, West 39TH St., New York City. 
 (Home of The Engineering Record.) 
 Reinforced Concrete Construction Throughout. 
 " Dragon " Portland Cement Used Exclusively. 
 
The Construction of the Thirty-Ninth 
 Street Building, New York 
 
 Abstract from an article in Engineering Record April 4, 1908, by E. P. Goodrich, Codsulting 
 Engineer, New York. 
 
 What is probably the best example of the highest evolution of 
 the art of erecting high buildings of reinforced concrete exists 
 in the heart of the metropolis of this continent and houses a 
 great publishing company, the home of the McGraw Publishing 
 Company. Besides being somewhat unique in its environment 
 and occupancy, it is especially so from a structural point of view^. 
 The building was designed to be mainly occupied as a printing 
 establishment. That fact dictated a structure as fire proof as 
 possible. The building had, at the same time, to be so designed 
 as to be available for office purposes. Heavy loads would have 
 to be carried on the lower floors and printing presses might be 
 located on any of the other floors. 
 
 Besides being designed to accommodate such conditions as those 
 above described, a building was designed and erected which is 
 as nearly proof against the forces of nature — even those of con- 
 flagration and earthquake — as it is within human possibility to 
 devise. 
 
 AH columns, beams, girders and floor slabs were designed as 
 continuous, restrained members, and the reinforcement arranged 
 with this point in view. All girders were constructed with 
 haunches or brackets at the columns, and on the lower floors the 
 beams which joined columns were similarly built. This was 
 done to reduce the unit shearing stresses at those points and to 
 diminish in a similar manner the compression stresses on the 
 lower sides of the members, due to the negative bending moments 
 near points of support. In almost all cases the floor slab was 
 considered as affording sufficient top compression area for the 
 members, except in one or two cases, where compression rein- 
 forcement was introduced. 
 
 The main floor beams had spans of about 21 feet 9 inches be- 
 tween centers of girders, while the main girders, each of which 
 supported two beams, had spans of about 14 feet 8 inches, less 
 the thickness of the columns. Wall beams were carried above 
 the floor slabs up to the windove sills, thus allowing window 
 openings to reach entirely to the ceilings, and thereby afFord a 
 maximum of light. All sharp edges of interior floor beams and 
 girders were beveled so as to prevent chipping during construc- 
 tion and in case of fire, and to prevent trouble from shrinkage. 
 
 169 
 
The reinforcing rods for beams and girders varied in size 
 from ^ inch to i}i inch. They were of usual smooth, round 
 variety, the only method employed of increasing adhesion or 
 anchorage being the hooking of all ends with right-angled bends 
 about 3 or 4 inches in length. In general, floor slabs were re- 
 inforced with y2 inch rods in as long random lengths as possible, 
 splices being made by means of long interlocking hooks on ad- 
 jacent rods, each hook being bent a full i8o° turn. Over sup- 
 ports, alternate rods were supplied with a yoke-shaped short 
 piece, held at a proper distance above the bottom rods by a block 
 of concrete similar to those placed in the bottom of beams. The 
 ends of these rods were bent downward at the theoretical points 
 of inflection of the slabs and were hooked under the bottom 
 rods. The concrete blocks extended over the space between 
 three rods and were so spread and staggered that when the yoke- 
 shaped top rods were sprung into place the whole system was 
 held together with considerable rigidity so that it required much 
 rough treatment to displace any rods. The latter were also 
 supported from the forms by long concrete blocks. This whole 
 scheme was found cheaper than wiring the rods to preserve 
 proper spacing, especially when alternate rods are bent up over 
 supports, as is often done. 
 
 The floor slabs were 4 inches thick on the lower floors and 
 33/2 inches thick on those carrying the lightest live load. They 
 had clear spans of 4 feet 4 inches. The concrete mixture em- 
 ployed was 1 :2 :4, using " Dragon " Portland cement. Cow bay 
 sand and ^ inch crushed trap or washed gravel. The outside 
 walls were of concrete, without reinforcement, except in the 
 columns and at floor levels. The 4 inch concrete walls around 
 the smoke flue under the basement floor and around the chimney 
 were reinforced in two directions, as is usual. A two inch air 
 space was provided on sides and top of smoke flue under the 
 floor, and a similar insulating air space was obtained in the case 
 of the chimney, through the difference in form of the square 
 shaft section and the elliptical one of the flue itself. Cement 
 was purchased under the standard specifications of the American 
 Society for Testing Materials and was all tested at the mill be- 
 fore shipment. The column foundations rested on the ledge of 
 gneiss which runs so close to the surface in the upper part of 
 Manhattan. 
 
 In connection with the design of the columns a modification 
 of the Building Code, as it existed at that time, was requested 
 and granted. Prof. W. H. Burr, who had charge of the struc- 
 
 171 
 
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tural design of the building, proposed to the Building Depart- 
 ment that a self-supporting steel frame be employed for the re- 
 inforcement of the columns, and that it be of such size and de- 
 sign as to be capable of supporting the whole dead load of the 
 structure at a proper stress. With this variety and amount of 
 column reinforcement, which was to consist of angles battened 
 or latticed together in a skeleton box form, it was considered 
 that the concrete w'as so closely confined that its stress might 
 safely be allowed to run higher than could otherwise be done. 
 A value of 750 lbs. per square inch was finally selected, and the 
 design of the building was prepared on that basis. A further 
 condition was imposed nn the; design of the column reinforce- 
 ment, that at each floor level the steel work in the columns must 
 be sufficient, while acting alone and at a stress of 16,000 lbs. per 
 square inch, to support the total dead load above that point. 
 The structural work forming this reinforcement was often 
 erected three stories ahead of the floor work. 
 
 The location of a sub-basement boiler room in one corner of 
 the building produced one very long, heavy section. This one 
 weighed 14.7 tons, and the total length of this column to the 
 roof was approximately 170 feet. Bridge steel in accordance 
 with Cooper's Bridge Specifications was employed for all col- 
 umns. 
 
 An especially rigid connection between the column steel and 
 the beam and girder ^reinforcing rods was desired. This was 
 secured by providing t)n the columns shelFiangles riveted to filler 
 plates. The upper edges of the latter were gouged to proper 
 depths and at proper spacings so as to fit the size and spacing of 
 the reinforcing rods. These filler plates were placed with the 
 bottoms of these semi-circular gouges just flush with the tops of 
 the shelf angles, the horizontal flanges of which were punched to 
 receive Yi inch bolts between each two reinforcing rods. These 
 bolts passed through, and held down tight upon the rods, small 
 flat iron strips, thus binding the rods firmly to the shelf angles 
 and preventing lateral displacement because of the gouges in the 
 filler plates. The column forms were first erected. Next, 
 shallow troughs were put in place to form the girder bottoms 
 and so much of the girder sides as were below the beams. 
 Finally, boxes were set in position, which formed the slab bot- 
 toms, beam sides and girder sides combined. These boxes were 
 provided with ledges on which to rest the 2 inch plank forming 
 the beam bottoms, which were the last parts of the forms in- 
 
 173 
 
Colgate Building, Jersey City, N. J. 
 Reinforced Concrete Construction Throughout. 
 (See interior view on page 178.) 
 Constructed of " Dragon " Portland Cement. 
 
stalled, except the triangular strips which made the bevels on the 
 edges of the beams. The sides and ends of the beam boxes were 
 made collapsible. 
 
 The underlying motive throughout the whole work was to 
 handle all materials in large units and masses, and to this end 
 was provided the central tower, with four derricks on the cor- 
 ners. 
 
 Two electrically-driven drum concrete mixers were located in 
 the basement so that they would discharge their contents into 
 the elevator pits. The elevator shafts were sheathed from bot- 
 tom to top, and each derrick could drop a bucket down to the 
 mixer, wait while a batch was dumped, hoist the bucket with 
 wide-open throttle, and when the bucket reached the proper 
 height it could be swung and dumped within a few inches of the 
 desired point. This method obviated the use of special concrete 
 hoists, special hoppers, wheelbarrows or carts trundled over the 
 forms on special runways. The booms were long enough to 
 reach all parts of the building, each within an arch of about 260 
 degrees, with its center at one corner of the tower. The two 
 front booms could reach the center of the street, and often a 
 whole truck load of lumber, of forms or of reinforcing rods was 
 lifted in one operation and placed practically at the required 
 point. 
 
 Column sections were not reduced at each floor, but usually at 
 alternate floors. In general, the forms were left in place 30 
 days, four complete floor sets having been provided, and an aver- 
 age rate of a story in twelve calendar days was maintained 
 throughout the months from November to April, in spite of ex- 
 treme weather conditions. 
 
 A scaffolding was erected across the front of the building to 
 provide a working platform for the workman who installed the 
 cast concrete ornamental work, the bronze faciae and the stucco 
 finish. It was also of assistance in the erection of the concrete 
 form work. The cast concrete ornament was set in slots and 
 depressions molded in the mass concrete, and galvanized iron ties 
 were employed for fastening. Moldings were run in place. 
 Special ^ inch anchoring and reinforcing bracket rods were cast 
 in the mass concrete to support heavy molded work, and dove- 
 tailed slots were formed in all surfaces where special anchors 
 could not be placed. The stucco was of Portland cement and 
 crushed marble and was applied in three coats to a thickness of i 
 inch. The interior of the building has been plastered directly 
 
 175 
 
Please address all communications to the company 
 
 The Concrete-Steel Company 
 
 Engineers and Contractors 
 For Reinforced Concrete Construction 
 
 29 Broadway 
 New York 
 
 May 17, 1907. 
 
 The Lawrence Cement Co., 
 
 1 Broadway, City 
 Gentlemen:- 
 
 It affords us great pleasure to state 
 that we used your "DRAGON" brand of cement in 
 many of the reinforced concrete buildings which 
 we erected in the vicinity of New York during 
 the past year. The teste on the cement have 
 been uniform and thus far we are very much 
 pleased with the results. 
 
 Among the buildings erected, we might 
 mention the new factory building for Messrs. 
 Colgate & Conqpany, Jersey City, N. J., vhich 
 has been pronounced by many experts as one of 
 the finest pieces of reinforced concrete work 
 in this vicinity. 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 THE CONCRETE- STEEL COMPANY. 
 
 176 
 
on concrete, except that a patent bonding compound was first 
 applied to the concrete surface. The main entrance is finished 
 in imitation caen stone. 
 
 During the winter months artificial heat was provided to pre- 
 vent the fresh concrete from freezing, and the latter was also 
 mixed with hot water and the materials heated. The concrete 
 would usually reach the point of deposit at a temperature of 
 about 70° Fahr. Numerous salamanders burning charcoal, 
 were provided and maintained night and day under the newest 
 work, and even in zero weather the temperature within the en- 
 closure made by the canvas stretched around the work never fell 
 below 50° and was often actually found to be 100° up inside 
 the floor boxes where the air-, could not circulate. The fresh 
 concrete was always protected on top by a canvas cover held 
 about 6 inches above the floor surface by special strips, and the 
 hot air from below was allowed to come up and circulate in this 
 space through the holes left in the floor for the electric outlet 
 boxes and steam pipes. Salt hay was also spread on top of the 
 canvas. 
 
 177 
 
J. 6, WAIIiES & SON 
 
 WHOT,lM*Ii« * aBTAII. 
 
 anthracite: a, BIT0MIMOnS PIMB ifc OAK 
 
 COAL, WOOD 
 
 Obain. Fkks. Hay akd Stbaw 
 
 LiMK. CbUKNT, PI.ASTBR. SBWBR PIPK. KTO- 
 
 Arunqton. Md. HOV. 19, 190S. 
 
 The Lawrence Cement Co., 
 Siegfried, Pa, 
 
 Gentlemen: - 
 
 Feeling tiiat it Is out duty to expresa 
 our views concerning your cecient, we take this 
 opportunity to do so. 
 
 When we started to handle DRAGON 
 Portland cement it was not known in our 
 territory. We thought this would make it hard 
 for us to get it started. with some Contractors 
 and Builders, because nearly all leading 
 American "brands of cement were represented and 
 thoroughly established here. 
 
 We have found it a cement of peiramount 
 quality in every particular, it has stood very 
 severe tests and has proven its merits hy 
 actual results and repeated orders. 
 
 To-day when asked what hrand of cexoent 
 we carry we are proud to say "DRAGON". 
 
 In our opinion DRAGON is just a little 
 better than the other best brands of American 
 Portland Cements. 
 
 Wishing your cement the success that 
 it Justly deserves, we are 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 179 
 
General Description of Plant of Westing- 
 house Lamp Company, Bloomfield, N. J. 
 
 V Weslinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co., Engineers & Contractors 
 
 The buildings are three in number, consisting of the main fac- 
 tory buildfing, storehouse, and power house. The main building 
 has its fong axis running north and south with the other two 
 building near its north end and parallel to it on the west, thus 
 giving ail buildings access from a central avenue which is carried 
 between, and all being arranged to allow for a curve siding of 
 large radius from the Erie Railroad which will ultimately be 
 connected to the D. L. & W. R. R. als6. The finished yard all 
 around the buildings, with the exception of the front on Clear- 
 field Avenue which is grass lawn, is filled with cinders to a 
 depth of about 12 inches, making a 'dry surface, uniform and 
 neat in appearance. : ' 
 
 The arrangement for distribution pf water for fire and gen- 
 eral use is very complete ; the plant being amply supplied by an 
 artesianmell 10 inches in diameter and 550 feet deep located on 
 the property. There is also a 6 inch connection with the street 
 main. ' i ; 
 
 There are two systems of sewers, one a sanitary line that con- 
 nects with the city system; the other to. take off storm and drain- 
 age water. 
 
 The main manufacturing building is constructed entirely of 
 reinforced concrete, is 521 feef by 99 feet 8 inches, three stories 
 high, with no |)asement, and has a floor^ to floor height of 17 feet 
 4 inches. Cojumns are spaced 20 feet center to center each way 
 and are connected by girders running across the building. Light 
 beams on 24 irich centers run from girder to girder and support 
 the floor slab. All flciors are designed to carry a live load of 150 
 lbs. to the square fogt." > 
 
 The main girders which have a span of 20 feet center to center 
 of columns are 29 inches deep below floor slab, the lower 19 
 inches, having a uniform width of:" 12 inches. Above this the 
 width is gradually increased to' 24 inches at the juncture with 
 the slab. The floor beams whith have a span of 20 feet center 
 to center of girders are 10 inches deep below floor slab, 4 inches 
 wide at the bottom and 5 inches at the top. The floor slab itself 
 it 3>4 inches thick. The columns, are in section irregular octa- 
 gons, four of whose faces are 9 inches wide, this dimension being 
 maintained on the several sizes <4 columns. Those carrying the 
 
 181 
 
second floor are 22 inches while those supporting third floor and 
 roof are i6}i inches between 9 inch faces. The upper end of 
 each column terminates in a column cap of the same depth as 
 the girder, the lower 19 inches being octagonal in section, 24 
 inches between 12 inch faces, the upper 10 inch being in section 
 a 24 inch square. The reinforcement used in the girders con- 
 sists of six y2 inch by i inch flat steel bars 20 feet long, ar- 
 ranged in two banks. The lower bars of each bank are carried 
 throughout the length of the girder and terminate in the column 
 caps. The intermediate and top bars of each bank are turned 
 up at suitable points to provide the proper reinforcement for 
 shearing stresses. The ends of all bars are turned up at a right 
 angle in order to insure a good grip on the concrete. It was 
 also found expedient to provide at each column cap and at each 
 junction of a girder with the outside wall, four short haunch 
 bars of the same section as the main reinforcement. Each floor 
 beam is reinforced with two ^xi^2 inch flat steel bars 20 feet 
 long, the lower one carried through, the upper one bent up to 
 provide shear reinforcement as in the girder. One straight 
 haunch bar is also provided at each point of intersection between 
 floor beams and girders or outer walls. Since the floor slab has 
 a clear span of only 19 inches between floor beams, no rein- 
 forcement was necessary. To provide, however, against pos- 
 sible cracks in the slab, four }i inch round rods 20 feet long 
 were placed in the same in each bay, these running at right 
 angles to the floor beams. 
 
 The columns supporting the second floor are reinforced with 
 four % inch round rods on 13 inch centers, those carrying the 
 third floor and roof with four }i and four >4 inch round rods 
 respectively on loj^ inch centers, these in all cases being 15 feet 
 long and tied together with l4 inch steel wire every 15 inches. 
 Each column is also tied to the column cap beneath it by four 
 }i inch round rods 4 feet long. In all cases where columns 
 bear on the ground, a footing has been provided 6 feet by 6 feet 
 • by 2 feet thick below floor slab, and reinforced with twelve Ji 
 inch round rods 5 feet 6 inches long, placed in two layers, six 
 each way. 
 
 The exterior walls are of concrete having a uniform thickness 
 of 12 inches except under the windows on the second and third 
 stories where it is reduced to 10 inches to form panels. The 
 wall columns spaced on twenty feet centers are of the same 
 thickness as the walls and are three feet in width, allowing a 
 
 183 
 
window in each bay 17 feet o inches wide by 12 feet 
 inches high. For structural reasons this construction is slightly 
 modified at the ends of the building >v:here two small inter- 
 mediate columns are inserted in each bay, dividing the windows 
 vertically into three sections 4 feet 4^ inches wide. Below 
 grade the thickness of the Walls is increased to 18 inches and 
 carried to a uniform depth of 4 feet. No further spreading of 
 the foundations was deemed necessary owing to the excellent 
 character of the soil and to the distribution of load accomplished 
 by making the wall columns and wall integral of equal thick- 
 ness below the first floor window sill line. 
 
 In order to insure a proper distribution of loading on the out- 
 side walls, three % inch round rods were carried entirely around 
 the building just below the first story window sills. These 
 were laid in 20 feet lengths breaking joints on center lines of 
 wall columns. In a similar manner two J^, inch round rods 
 were carried completely around the building above the windows 
 on each floor, the joints being broken in each case by one ^ inch 
 round rod 4 feet long. All -wall columns were reinforced with 
 four ^ inch round rods in feet lengths breaking joints at the 
 various floors. ^ 
 
 Near each end of the building and extending from the first 
 floor to the roof a stair wellsis provided 20 feet square with 12 
 inch solid concrete walls on t^ree sides, the building wall forming 
 the fourth. There are also, three elevator wells, the walls of 
 which are of 12 inch solid concrete, one near either end of the 
 building and a third approximately in the middle and on the 
 west side. Stair and elevator wells are provided with doors at 
 each floor, two ^ inch round rods being placed over each. The 
 building also contains near the north end three concrete vaults, 
 two on the first and one on the second floors. These are each 
 20 feet square with 12 inch solid concrete walls and extend 
 from floor to floor. No reinforcement is used in the walls of 
 either stair wells, elevator wells, or vaults, except over the floors 
 in the vault corners which take the load of columns directly 
 above, where four ^ inch round rods were used. 
 
 The main stairways in eacK- stair well extending from the first 
 to the third floor and one smaller oflfice stairway in the north end 
 extending from the first to the second floor are constructed of 
 reinforced concrete. The main stairs between each two floors 
 consist of three flights with . two intermediate landings. The 
 landings are slabs 9 inches in thickness, the flights being com- 
 posed of slabs of the same thickness with the steps superimposed 
 
 185 
 
lipon them. The reinforcement consists of ^ inch round rods 
 8 inch centers in the first and third flights and on 6 inch centers 
 in the intermediate flight. The reinforcing rods of each flight 
 are carried across the adjacent intermediate landings so as to 
 form a criss-cross reinforcement for these landings and at the 
 same time to firmly anchor the reinforcement of the stairs them- 
 selves. The smaller office stairs consist of four short flights 
 having two intermediate landings and terminating in a column 
 landing from which a single flight leads to the second floor, both 
 stairs and landings consisting of 9 inch slabs. The reinforce- 
 ment which consists of ^ inch round rods on 8 inch centers in 
 the first two flights and on 6 inch centers in the others is carried 
 across the intermediate landings in the same manner as in the 
 main factory stairs. 
 
 In the design of this plant special attention was given to uni- 
 formity, making the details of all parts of the structure the same, 
 where possible, in order that the forms, which are one of the large 
 items of cost in reinforced concrete construction, could be used 
 over and over again and at any point desired. The forms for 
 the lower or straight portions of the girders were made up in 
 three sections, of 2 inch dressed plank held in place by bolts top 
 and bottom and supported at the ends on the column forms.. 
 The beam and slab centering took the form of boxes, each box 
 forming one section of slab and one side each of two beams. 
 These boxes were constructed of % inch matched and dressed 
 lumber on suitable diaphragms being placed at an angle to form 
 the tapered upper portion of the girders. Each side of each 
 floor box was provided with a 2x4 stringer which served the 
 double purpose of forming the bottom of the beams and of pro- 
 viding a heavy member through which bolts could be inserted 
 for fastening the boxes together in position. The ends of the 
 boxes were carried on 2x4 members on the sides of the girders 
 forms. Since all the beams and girders are of the same size all 
 the centering described above was interchangeable. In design- 
 ing the column centering, however, it became necessary to pro- 
 vide some type of form which could be used on both sizes of 
 columns which occur in the building. This was accomplished 
 by using a sheet iron form properly stif¥ened with uprights and 
 cross bracing of wood, made up in four sections. Since the 9 
 inch faces remain the same on both sizes of columns the junctions 
 between the four sections were made in the center of the other 
 four faces, the forms being designed for the smaller columns and 
 wood fillers being inserted when it was desired to use them for 
 
 187 
 
the larger size. The forms for the column caps were made in 
 two sections of 2 inch dressed plank. 
 
 The forms for the outside walls, stair wells and vaults were 
 made of % inch matched and dressed lumber in panels of con- 
 venient size and stiffened with rough 2x4 and 4x4 bracing. All 
 centering was held in place by bolts of suitable length. " 
 
 In putting in the outside walls the window and door frames 
 were concreted in place by making them a part of the centering. 
 
 In building this plant the following mixtures of concrete were 
 adopted. Foundations 1:3:6; all reinforced concrete work ex- 
 cept columns on first and second floors i :254 :5 ; columns on 
 first and second floors i :2 14. The outside walls and interior 
 columns were cast by themselves, the girders, beams and floor 
 slab being cast as a whole. 
 
 All concrete was mixed in two concrete mixers and delivered 
 at the various floor levels by two concrete hoists. Stone and 
 sand were unloaded from cars and delivered to the mixers by two 
 stiff-leg derricks. 
 
 The construction of the roof slab is exactly similar to that of 
 the second and third floor ; it being level and of sufficient thickness 
 to be used for a fourth floor in case it was at some future time 
 desired to erect an additional story on the building. All col- 
 umns and walls are designed to carry the load of such addition, 
 should it ever be made. At present the necessary pitch to the 
 roof is obtained by placing a dry cinder fill directly on the slab, 
 the same being graded to a maximum depth of about 16 inches. 
 Over this cinder fill is placed a coating of cement mortar of suf- 
 ficient thickness to give a solid foundation for the four-ply tar 
 and gravel roof which is applied thereto. 
 
 One particularly noteworthy feature of this building is the 
 very large window area and the admirable lighting consequent 
 thereto. 
 
 The large windows which are 17 feet wide by 12 feet 7^ 
 inches high, are divided into four sections vertically and three 
 horizontally. 
 
 These windows are glazed with ribbed glass throughout ex- 
 cept the lower sash in the manufacturing portions of the building 
 where the State law requires clear glass to be used. The upper 
 and lower sections are designed to swing out, being hung at the 
 top and independently operated. The intermediate section is 
 stationary. In the office, the windows are double hung with 
 transom sash above, clear glass being used in the windows and 
 ribbed glass in the transoms. 
 
 189 
 
The entire interior except the office is finished in white cold 
 water paint with a 5 foot dado of dark slate color on all walls 
 and columns. In the office, the ceilings were made flush by the 
 use of metal lath applied to under sides of the floor beams, both 
 walls and ceilings being finished in white plaster. 
 
 The -storehouse is a building 141 feet x 79 feet 8 inches four 
 stories high, with no basement and has a floor to floor height of 
 12 feet at the first story and of 1 1 feet 4 inches at all other 
 stories. A bridge of steel and concrete joins the fourth floor of 
 this building with the third floor of the main building. 
 
 Owing to the similarity of construction the same forms were 
 -used in this as in the main building, only a few of those for the 
 outside walls having to be altered. 
 
 190 
 
lUiscelkneous 
 Cost Data 
 
 Cost data in general is of value only to show through com- 
 parisons with regard to localities and sizes of enterprises, how 
 much money is involved. Under such conditions the following 
 information has been collected from a large number of sources 
 (principally the technical magazines), and it is here given for 
 the benefit of young engineers and architects who desire general 
 information with regard to concrete construction. Like all pub • 
 
 lished cost data it must be USED WITH JUDGMENT, but 
 
 it is hoped that it will be of value to many because the results 
 were obtained from actual structures. 
 
 It is well known that the cost of materials and labor in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country varies somewhat. But having the 
 unit items all subdivided into their elementary parts, it is an 
 easy matter, after determining the cost of materials in any local- 
 ity, to make the exact correctness to the results obtained on a 
 previous job. Similarly, when a difference in the rate per hour 
 for wages is known, if the same efficiency is obtained from the 
 men, it is very easy to make a correction, or if the efficiency 
 varies, judgment must be applied to determine the correct rate 
 to use. It has been the experience of one large New England 
 company that, although the rate of wages and cost of materials 
 vary somewhat in different parts of the country, the variations 
 frequently offset one another so nearly that the sum total of the 
 unit cost obtained in one place may be used in another, very sel- 
 dom needing correction. For instance, within one month, after 
 careful investigation, a bid was made upon a structure at San 
 Juan, Porto Rico, using the same unit costs as for a, }i]^j|ding in 
 Boston. 
 
 191 
 
A laboratory equipment $250.00 to $350.00 
 
 A laboratory man per month 100.00 to 200.00 
 
 Cost of testing per sample 3.00 to 5. 00 
 
 Cost of testing per barrel .03 
 
 Cost of testing per cu. yd .03 to .05 
 
 Cost of washing sand per cu. yd .15 to .20 
 
 Cost of quarrying trap per cu. yd. . .58 to .75 
 
 Cost of quarrying limestone per cu. yd. . . . .76 
 Cost of quarrying cobblestone per cu. yd. . .33 to .37 
 Cost of quarrying conglomerate per cu. yd. .89 
 Cost of erecting stone bins and setting up 
 
 jaw crusher 75-00 
 
 Excavating, screening and washing gravel, 
 
 cu. yard .23 to .30 
 
 Plant for screening and washing gravel. . . $25,000.00 
 Unloading stone from scows with grab 
 
 bucket, per cubic yard .05 
 
 Loading stone into wheelbarrows per cubic 
 
 yard of concrete .05 
 
 Loading sand into wheelbarrows, per cubic 
 
 yard of concrete. . * .04 
 
 Loading cement into wheelbarrows, per 
 
 cubic yard of concrete .02 
 
 Loading concrete into wheelbarrows, per 
 
 cubic yard .12 
 
 Wheeling materials per cu. yd. concrete, 
 
 4c., plus ic. for each 25 ft. wheeled. 
 Carting materials per cu. yd. concrete, 
 
 5c., plus IC. for each 100 ft. haul. 
 Wheeling concrete, i6c. plus ic. for each 
 
 25 ft. wheeled. 
 Mixing concrete mortar by hand per cu. 
 
 yd. concrete per turn . .02 
 
 Mixing concrete by hand per cu. yd con- 
 crete per turn .05 
 
 (Example: 3 turns mortar plus 4 
 turns concrete equals 3x2 plus 5x4 
 equals 6 plus 20 equals 26c.) 
 Spreading concrete dumped from wheel- 
 barrows per cu. yd. . .05 to .10 
 
 Spreading concrete various other condi- 
 tion? per cu. yd up to .15 
 
 Superintendence per cu. yd. concrete various 
 
 192 
 
Example of estimate: 
 
 Wheeling lOO ft. (4 plus 4) . . • .08 
 
 Mixing stone and mortar 4 turns .20 
 Loading concrete into barrows. . .12 
 Wheeling concrete 75 ft. (16 
 
 Foreman (if 30 yds. placed per 
 
 $1.09) 
 
 Cost of trestle per ft $1.50 
 
 Cost of steel cars, each $200.00 
 
 Cost of turn tables, each $30.00 
 
 Cost of switches $20.00 
 
 Cost of cableway $4,000.00 to $5,000.00 
 
 Cost of cableway on traveling towers extra . $1,000.00 
 Rubble concrete in Hemet Dam, California 
 
 per cu. yd. some as low as 4-00 
 
 Asphalt concrete 4" thick for dam lining 
 
 per sq. ft '^5 
 
 Tar concrete sub. floor 45^2" thick, sq. ft. . . .loj^ 
 
 Removing efflorescence with acid, sq. ft. . . .07 
 Removing efflorescence with wire brushes, 
 
 sq. ft -27 
 
 Bush hammering by hand, sq. ft oi>4 to .02 
 
 Bush hammering by pneumatic hammers 
 
 sq. ft 003/2 to .01 
 
 Bush hammering for Connecticut Avenue 
 
 Bridge, sq. ft -26 
 
 Tooling concrete surfaces sq. ft -03 to .12 
 
 Cost of framing and erecting retaining 
 
 wall forms per m. ft. B. M 6.00 to 7.00 
 
 Removing same I-50 to 2.00 
 
 When removable panels are used this may 
 
 be as low as -SO 
 
 193 
 
profit. 
 
 Cost of 25 ft. Raymond concrete piles in 
 
 Cost of 25 ft. Raymond concrete piles 
 
 profit. 
 
 Cost of concrete filled caissons per Hn. ft. 
 
 6 ft. in diameter $12.00 to $16.00 
 
 Concrete piles at Atlantic City, forms per pile, material $3.90 
 
 Reinforcement 6.60 
 
 Pipe 2.65 
 
 Concrete material 4.42 . 
 
 Form labor 3.75 
 
 Concrete labor 3.38 
 
 Removing forms, etc 1.81 
 
 Jetter piles 3.00 
 
 Water, plant, superintendence 7.09 
 
 Total per pile $36.60 
 
 Total per foot 1.41 
 
 Rolled (Chenoweth) piles, materials $59-33 
 
 Labor making 1.20 
 
 Total per pile $60.53 
 
 Total per foot i.oo 
 
 Concrete at Staten Island 12" thick in gun implace- 
 
 ments per cu. yd 5.50 
 
 6" thick, per cu. yd 6.25 
 
 At Tampa per cu. yd 5,75 
 
 Cost of hand mixing (actual example) 
 
 (9,000 cu. yds., per cu. yd) .82 
 
 Cost of machine mixing (actual example) (4,000 cu. 
 
 yds., per cu. yd) ,47 
 
 Cascades Canal lock walls (per cubic yard) 
 
 Hand mixing at $1,088 
 
 Placing with derrick " .798 
 
 Machine mixing " .388 
 
 Placing by chute " ,459 
 
 Total average cost of concrete material 5.266 
 
 Plant and superintendence 1-673 
 
 Coosa River locks, with labor at $1.00 per day, con- 
 crete per cubic yard at 4.57 
 
 194 
 
Illinois & Mississippi Canal per cu. yd, lock labor. 
 
 Mixing and placing $1.47 
 
 Carpenter work i.io 
 
 Materials g_05 
 
 Superintendence and plant .62 
 
 $12.24 
 
 Another 8.48 
 
 Another 8.96 
 
 Another g,o6 
 
 Another 8.40 
 
 Breakwater at Marquette, Mich., under water with 
 buckets. 
 
 Labor 1.782 
 
 Material 4.567 
 
 Total per cubic yard $6,348 
 
 In bags, material 5.280 
 
 Labor 1.477 
 
 Total per cubic yard $6,757 
 
 Moulding footing blocks, material 5.23 
 
 Labor 2.478 
 
 Total per cubic yard $7,708 
 
 Mass concrete in place: materials 3.046 
 
 Labor mixing .6g^ 
 
 Labor placing .371 
 
 Total per cubic yard $4. 112 
 
 Subaqueous concrete block pier, Superior Entra, Wis. 
 
 Material 3.2166 
 
 Labor .5861 
 
 Plant 8400 
 
 Total per cubic yard $4.6427 
 
 Dam 6 feet high at Rock Island Arsenal 
 
 Total cost of concrete per cubic yard . $3,841 
 
 195 
 
A bridge pier in 5 ft. of water 
 
 Erecting and removing derrick $70.00 
 
 CofiEerdam 14x20 feet 284.00 
 
 Excavation 33-00 
 
 960 ft. foundation piles in place 176.00 
 
 100 cu. yds. concrete 466.00 
 
 Concrete forms • 106.00 
 
 Rental of plant 120.00 
 
 $1,252.00 
 
 Cost per yard of concrete 12.52 
 
 Concreting caisson of Williamsburg Bdg. above roof : 
 
 Materials per cu. yd 3-39 
 
 Labor and plant ^-^9 
 
 General expense -51 
 
 Total per cubic yard $5-59 
 
 Concreting shaft, materials 2.92 
 
 Labor, plant and general 2.55 
 
 Total per cubic yard $5-47 
 
 Williamsburg Bridge, in working chamber (some 
 mortar used) 
 
 Material 3-42 
 
 Labor 6.21 
 
 Plant and general 3- 10 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $12.73 
 
 Piers Calf Killer River Bridge: 
 
 Unloading material, per cu. yd., concrete .19 
 
 Building bins, forms, etc .• 1-98 
 
 Cofferdam excavation -25 
 
 Cofferdam concrete -38 
 
 Mixing and placing pier concrete 2.78 
 
 Removing forms -45 
 
 Engineering, etc -43 
 
 Total per cubic yard for 460 cu. yds $6.46 
 
 196 
 
21 concrete piers for Kansas City, Mexico & Orient 
 Ry., 1-3-5 mix: 
 
 Machinery and supplies .69 
 
 Cofferdams 1.60 
 
 Forms, etc .36 
 
 Concrete materials 3-47 
 
 Mixing and placing concrete 1.53 
 
 Excavating -49 
 
 Miscellaneous .67 
 
 Total per cubic yard $8.81 
 
 Cost of concrete structures along Kansas City Outer 
 Belt & Electric Ry. 
 
 Form building and removing $1.98 
 
 Mixing and placing concrete .74 
 
 Placing reinforcement .10 
 
 Wire, nails, water, etc .20 
 
 Cement 1.93 
 
 Sand .36 
 
 Stone 1.34 
 
 Lumber .49 
 
 Total per cubic yard $7- 14 
 
 On special structures of above work, costs varied 
 from $6.23 to $8.08. 
 Chicago Drainage Canal Retaining Wall: 
 
 Quarrying, crushing and handling stone, mixing 
 
 concrete .975 
 
 Sand .465 
 
 Cement 1.168 
 
 Plant .407 
 
 Total per cu. yd. for 23,568 cu. yds $3-Oi5 
 
 Total per cu. yd. for 44,811 cu. yds. on an- 
 other section 3.225 
 
 Track elevation at Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Hand mixing per cu. yd. .60 
 
 Machine mixing " .364 
 
 Placing by wheelbarrows above foundations " .525 
 
 Placing by cars and derricks above foundations " .399 
 
 Placing by hand in foundations " .175 
 
 Placing by machine in foundations " .210 
 
 197 
 
Cost of heavy retaining wall : 
 
 Materials $2.02 
 
 Laying 1.03 
 
 Lumber .48 
 
 Form .53 
 
 Handling materials .17 
 
 Machinery and superintendence .11 
 
 Total per cubic yard $4-34 
 
 Pavement base in New York City : 
 
 Hand mixing and placing. .51 
 
 Materials 2.76 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $3.27 
 
 Pavement in New Orleans: 
 
 Labor (hand mixing) per cubic yard .39 
 
 Toronto : 
 
 Materials $3.81 
 
 Labor (hand mixing) 1.03 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $4.84 
 
 Champagne, 111. 
 
 Material $2.04 
 
 Labor (hand mixing) .35 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $2.39 
 
 St. Louis (for street railroad tracks) : 
 
 Materials $2.92 
 
 Mixing (machine) and placing .26 
 
 Total per cubic yard $3-i8 
 
 Cement sidewalks: 
 
 Toronto, 6 ft. walk per sq. ft. .107 
 
 Toronto, 4 ft. walk " " .120 
 
 Quincy, Mass., 6 ft. walk " " .14 
 
 San Francisco, 3 ft. walk " " .10 
 
 San Francisco, 4 ft. walk " " .14 
 
 Average in Iowa " " .08 
 
 Average in vicinity of New York in suburbs " " .12 
 
 198 
 
Curb and gutter: 
 
 Ottawa 14 inch gutter (per lin. ft.) labor. .230 
 
 Material .277 
 
 Tools .030 
 
 Total per lin. ft .537 
 
 Champagne, 111., per lin. ft .45 
 
 Lining tunnel on railway near Peekskill, N. Y. : 
 
 Concrete materials per cu. yd $3-958 
 
 Lumber 7.69 
 
 Labor 4.121 
 
 Miscellaneous 1.864 
 
 Total $10,712 
 
 Per ft. tunnel (275 total) 79.60 
 
 Cascade tunnel Gt. Northern Ry. per lin. ft 44.00 
 
 Hodges Pass tunnel, Oregon Short Line 25.00 
 
 Gunnison tunnel: 
 
 Materials 4.1 16 
 
 Labor on forms .498 
 
 Labor on concrete 2.539 
 
 Total per cubic yard $7-i53 
 
 Per lin. ft 10.00 
 
 New York Subway (one special section) 
 
 Foundations per cubic yard 4.61 
 
 Roof and side walls per cubic yard 7.69 
 
 Concrete slab highway bridge, Green Co., Iowa: 
 
 Cement $2.26 
 
 Steel 1.22 
 
 Lumber .22 
 
 Gravel, etc .76 
 
 Labor 1.41 
 
 Coal .03 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $5 -90 
 
 Girder Highway Bridge: 
 
 Materials ' $5.12 
 
 Erecting forms 2.81 
 
 Taking down forms .20 
 
 Labor 1.50 
 
 General 2.00 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $11.64 
 
 199 
 
Another : 
 
 Materials $6.13 
 
 Erecting forms 4-73 
 
 Taking down forms .61 
 
 Labor 1.86 
 
 General 1.60 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $14.93 
 
 Elkhart, L. S. M. S. Ry., 3 arches at 30 ft. span : 
 
 Temporary buildings .15 
 
 Machinery, pipe, etc .08 
 
 Sheet piling .21 
 
 Excavating and pumping .33 
 
 Arch centers -73 
 
 Cement 1.84 
 
 Stone .36 
 
 Sand .05 
 
 Drain tile .02 
 
 Labor 1.68 
 
 Steel Rods .63 
 
 Engineering, etc .11 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $6.19 
 
 Grand Rapids, 7 highway arch spans at 75 feet: 
 
 Engineering, per cubic yard concrete 515 
 
 Pumping, per day 9.00 
 
 Excavating not given 
 
 Filling, per cubic yard 27 
 
 Removing old work not given 
 
 Hand removal, per lin. ft 2.04 
 
 Wood block pavement, per sq. yd 2.54 
 
 Steel, per lb 0324 
 
 Centering, per cubic yard concrete 2.09 
 
 Forms, per cubic yard 3.75 
 
 Concrete, per cubic yard 6.25 
 
 Arch Culverts on N. C. & St. L. R. R. 
 
 Span 5' , cost per cubic yard $6.64 
 
 7.66'," " " " 5.54 
 
 10.' " " " " 5.89 
 
 12: " " " " 4.97 
 
 12.' " " " " 5.19 
 
 16.' " " " " 4.97 
 
 200 
 
Pennsylvania span: 
 
 Span 3', cost per cubic yard $6.38 
 
 Cost 26', cost per cubic yard 4.54 
 
 Concrete Arch Bridges: 
 
 ^^^ce Plainwell, Mich Connecticut Ave., Washington 
 
 Over Kalamazoo River Rock Creek 
 
 Total length 1,341.0 
 
 Arch spans 45.0 2 at 82, 5 at 150 
 
 W^dth 45.0 52.0 
 
 Rise of Arch 41,0 
 
 Total cost $10,500.00 $850,000.00 
 
 Cost per sq. ft 5,20 I2.20 
 
 Cost per cu. yd 2.90 10.63 
 
 Date erected 1902 1905 
 
 ESTIMATED COST OF CONCRETE BRIDGES FOR 
 
 ELECTRIC ROADS. 
 
 Span, 50 ft. ; width, 28 ft. 
 
 Steel 27,700 lbs. at 2^2 cents $692.50 
 
 Steel, placing 27,700 lbs. at i cent 277.00 
 
 Formwork at $1 per cubic yard 3 70.00 
 
 Cement, 481 bbls. at $2.00 962.00 
 
 Sand, 185 cubic yards at $1.00 185.00 
 
 Stone, 370 cubic yards at $2.00 740.00 
 
 Mixing and placing 370 cubic yards at $1.50 555-00 
 
 $3,781.50 
 
 Incidentals add 15 per cent 557.22 
 
 $4,348.72 
 
 Profit add 10 per cent 434.87 
 
 $4,783.59 
 
 Span, 75 ft. ; width, 28 ft. 
 
 Steel, 38,800 lbs. at 2>2 cents $970.00 
 
 Placing steel, 38,800 lbs. at i cent 388.00 
 
 Formwork at $1 per cubic yard 740.00 
 
 Cement, 962 bbls. at $2.00 1,924.00 
 
 Sand, 370 cubic yards at $1.00 370.00 
 
 201 
 
Stone, 740 cubic yards at $2.00 1,480.00 
 
 Mixing and placing 740 cubic yards at $1.50 1,110.00 
 
 $6,982.00 
 
 Incidentals add 15 per cent 1,047.30 
 
 $8,029.30 
 
 Profit add 10 per cent 802.93 
 
 $8,832.23 
 
 Span, 100 ft.; width, 28 ft. 
 
 Steel, 55,650 lbs. at 2>4 cents $1,391.25 
 
 Placing steel, 55,650 lbs. at i cent 55^.50 
 
 Formwork at $1 per cubic yard 1,008.00 
 
 Cement, 1,310 bbls. at $2.00 2,620.00 
 
 Sand, 504 cubic yards at $1.00 504.00 
 
 Stone, 1,008 cubic yards at $2.00 2,016.00 
 
 Mixing and placing 1,008 cubic yards at $1.50 1,512.00 
 
 $9,607.75 
 
 Incidentals add 15 per cent 1,441.16 
 
 Profit add 10 per cent 1,104.89 
 
 Total $12,153.80 
 
 202 
 
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 203 
 
Yearly cost of inspection of steel bridges and concrete bridges 
 should be about equal for the two classes of structures. 
 
 Depreciation and consequent sinking fund requirement for 
 steel at least 5 per cent., for concrete not to exceed 2 per cent. 
 Cost of maintenance of timber if used : 
 
 For steel highway structure about 4 per cent. 
 For steel railway structure about i per cent. 
 Cost of maintenance of regular pavement or earth road : 
 Surface for concrete structure less than i per cent. 
 Of regular ballasted railway track less than i per cent. 
 
 Cost of painting: 
 
 Steel railway structure less than i per cent. 
 Steel highway structure less than 2 per cent. 
 Total maintenance costs aside from interest on first cost : 
 For steel structure from 7 to 11 per cent., depending on 
 
 character of bridge and kind of flooring. 
 For concrete structure not to exceed 3 per cent. 
 Excess of steel over concrete from 4 to 8 per cent. 
 This is a rough average percentage figure therefore, which a 
 company or community should allow in the first cost figure of a 
 concrete bridge structure over the total cost of a steel structure 
 for foundations and superstructure combined, in a true competi- 
 tion between the two classes of bridges. Of course the mterest 
 charge is to be added in each case. In other words, 3 per cent 
 of the cost of the concrete structure should be compared with 7 
 to 1 1 per cent of the cost of a competing steel structure, and that 
 type should be selected which will give the lower result. 
 
 Or, as a special example, if the lowest responsible bid for a 
 concrete arch is $12,000, the yearly cost to the community will 
 probably be 4 per cent (assumed interest charge) plus 3 per cent 
 for depreciation and maintenance. Since the yearly costs for a 
 steel structure will amount to from 11 to 15 per cent total (4 
 per cent assumed as above for interest) for the steel super- 
 structure and slightly less for the abutments, then unless the steel 
 bridge complete can be erected for from $6,000 to $8,000, its 
 maintenance and interest charges will be greater than those of a 
 concrete structure. That is, finally, it may under certain cir- 
 cumstances, be more economical to pay from one and a half to 
 two times as much in first cost for a concrete structure as for one 
 of steel. 
 
 204 
 
In a particular reinforced concrete building, the percentage of 
 the items entering into the cost of the reinforced concrete part of 
 an eight-story office building was as follows: Labor, 38 per 
 cent; cement, 15 ; stone and sand, gyi ; lumber, 10; power, ; 
 unclassified, 15. Roughly the same percentage of costs might 
 hold through the construction of a factory. 
 
 Cost of Reinforced Concrete Completed Contract, 
 
 ^Unit Cost.—. 
 
 Volume Floor area per per 
 
 Kind of Building. Job cost. in cu. ft. in sq. ft. cu. ft. sq. ft. 
 
 Offices and stores. $18 1, 194 1,365,830 90,474 $.133 $2.oo 
 
 Offices and stores. 61,646 496,780 39,840 .124 1-545 
 
 Factory 12,774 112,440 7,519 .114 1.70 
 
 Factory 44,652 746,674 49,546 .060 .902 
 
 Factory 39,830 312,000 24,960 .127 1.60 
 
 Garage 10,436 156,198 10,806 .085 1.25 
 
 Filter I9,993 149,250 19,208 .134 1.04 
 
 Fire station 6,757 44,265 2,982 .153 2.26 
 
 Observatory 3,625 9,734 657 .373 5.45 
 
 Filter 20,076 59,991 5,243 -333 3-82 
 
 Highest 333 3.82 
 
 Lowest 06 .90 
 
 Average 138 1.72 
 
 Cost of Reinforced Concrete Complete Buildings. 
 
 /—Unit Cost.^ 
 
 Volume Floor area per per 
 
 Kind of Building Job cost. in cu. ft. in. sq. ft. cu. ft. sq. ft. 
 
 Storehouse ....$141,755 1,714,448 168,696 $.0827 $.84 
 
 Hospital 60,800 703,692 57,654 .0865 1.05 
 
 Office building. 61,646 496,780 39,840 .124 1-545 
 
 Cold storage... 200,051 1,535,000 154,000 .13 1.30 
 
 Factory 19,292 212,400 15,000 .091 1.28 
 
 Factory 141,529 1,327,868 106,022 .107 1-335 
 
 Storehouse .... 76,796 1,140,000 146,000 .0685 .575 
 
 Manfg. bldg. . . 9i,377 1,380,500 99,840 .067 i.oi 
 
 Office 136,880 693,840 56,552 .197 2.42 
 
 Factory 13,064 105,600 8,800 .124 I-485 
 
 Factory 75,604 1,211,364 74,604 .0625 i.oi 
 
 Factory 23,332 180,000 16,394 -129 I.42 
 
 Highest 197 2,42 
 
 Lowest 0625 .575 
 
 Average 1088 1.27 
 
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Floors and columns for six-story building 91x112: 
 
 Steel at 2>^c. lb $3-55 
 
 Cement 2*50 
 
 Gravel • i-io 
 
 Sand -55 
 
 Lumber ready to erect (used 3 times) 1.70 
 
 Lumber erecting i '20 
 
 Lumber removing 35 
 
 Mixing and placing concrete i-OO 
 
 Shaping and placing steel -45 
 
 Supervision, etc - -25 
 
 Total per cubic yard $12.65 
 
 Walls and roof one-story barn: 
 
 Concrete materials $2.76 
 
 Labor on materials i-Oi 
 
 Forms 3.64 
 
 Reinforcement 1-42 
 
 Fuel, foreman, etc -23 
 
 Total per cubic yard $9.06 
 
 Concrete wall columns for a brick building: 
 
 Concrete in place, per cubic yard $8.07 
 
 Steel in place 2.49 
 
 Cutting old brick -70 
 
 Shoring -78 
 
 Cost per cubic yard $12.04 
 
 Sewer at Medford, Mass. {about 3 //.) ; 
 
 Excavation i>4 yds. per lin. ft. (per cu. yd.) 59-3c. 
 
 Brick arch i cu. ft. per lin. ft. (per cu. yd.) 12.07 
 
 Concrete invert 4 cu. ft. per lin. ft. : 
 
 Cement per cu. yd. concrete $2,292 
 
 Labor mixing and placing 3-Oi7 
 
 Forms -^^1 
 
 Labor on gravel -471 
 
 Carting -592 
 
 Miscellaneous -146 
 
 Total per cubic yard $6,705 
 
 Conduits, Torresdale Filters, Philadelphia (9 feet diameter): 
 Total cost per cubic yard exclusive of -excavation 
 
 and profit $10.50 
 
 213 
 
W ater Conduit, Newark (6o inches) : 
 
 Total cost concrete, forms and reinforcement, per 
 
 cubic yard ^6.14 
 
 Sewer, South Bend (66 inches): 
 
 -774 
 
 band ^6 
 
 Cement 
 
 Steel [ ] [ '34 
 
 Labor, mixing and placing 1.094 
 
 Moving forms 
 
 Forms '/] [^gg 
 
 Plastering, etc 
 
 Tools and general 841 
 
 Total per cubic yard $7,394 
 
 Sewer, St. Louis (29 feet) : 
 
 Cement, sand and stone $3 67 
 
 Steel ;;;;; i.'io 
 
 Forms j 25 
 
 Labor on concrete ^4 
 
 Labor on steel 
 
 Moving forms 25 
 
 Total per cubic yard $7-15 
 
 Brick invert (per cu. yd. brickwork) additional 9.21 
 
 Cost of plant not here included. 
 
 Sewer, Wilmington (6 to 9 ft.) : 
 
 Cement 
 
 ^tone T 
 
 Stone dust 
 
 r , 508 
 
 J^abor on concrete ^87 
 
 Labor on forms 045 
 
 Forms 
 
 Reinforcement j 
 
 Plastering [^y^ 
 
 Total per cubic yard $6.1 11 
 
 214 
 
Concrete work of a 75,000 gallon buried tank: 
 
 Cement $1-49 
 
 Stone 1.86 
 
 Sand .60 
 
 Steel 4,76 
 
 Forms 1.85 
 
 Forms labor 2.41 
 
 • Concrete and steel labor 2.65 
 
 Total per cubic yard $15.62 
 
 Waterproofing this structure cost only $1,500. 
 
 Covered 500,000 gallon reservoir. Fort Meade, S. D.: 
 
 Stone $3,168 
 
 Sand .842 
 
 Cement 3-859 
 
 Reinforcement 4-959 
 
 Labor on concrete 1.721 
 
 Forms 2.960 
 
 Total per cubic yard $17,509 
 
 Stand-pipe at Attleboro, Mass.: 
 
 About per cubic yard concrete $14.00 
 
 Lining Reservoir, Quincy, Mass.: 
 
 Floor under layer $4,487 
 
 Sides under layer 5-063 
 
 Top layers 5.93 
 
 Cement mortar layer between 14.42 
 
 Total per cubic yard $29.90 
 
 Lining Reservoir, Chelsea, Mass.: 
 
 Lower layer (including lost time, plant, etc.), per 
 
 cubic yard $7-59 
 
 Upper layer (including lost time, plant, etc.), per 
 
 cubic yard 8.36 
 
 Plastering and asphalt, per cubic yard 1.09 
 
 Excavation (per cubic yard earth) 3.77 
 
 Bochfilling (per cubic yard earth) 1.66 
 
 Total per cubic yard $22.47 
 
 215 
 
Cost of concrete in a silo: 
 
 Cement, per cubic yard $2.62 
 
 Gravel and sand, per cubic yard .92 
 
 Lumber .48 
 
 Labor 4.60 
 
 Plastering .64 
 
 Total per cubic yard $9.26 
 
 CONCRETE PIPE. 
 
 In Indiana: 5" apiece (actual cost).. ■. . . .01131 
 
 6" " " " 01323 
 
 In Iowa: 4" " " " OICXK) 
 
 24" " " " 57500 
 
 Another: 8" " " " 02953 
 
 10" " " " 02307 
 
 Another: 4" " " " 00950 
 
 5" " " " 01 100 
 
 6" " " " 015600 
 
 8" " " " 02060 
 
 10" " " " 03975 
 
 12" " " " 05025 
 
 Another: 4" " " " 09120 
 
 5" " " " 01250 
 
 6" " " " 01385 
 
 8" " " " 02600 
 
 10" " " " 03480 
 
 12" " " " 05080 
 
 Another: 6" " " " 02060 
 
 216 
 
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 219 
 
TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE THICKNESSES, 
 WEIGHTS, AND COST OF " STANDARD " CAST- 
 
 IRON PIPE AND CONCRETE PIPE. 
 
 Thickness Weight lbs. Cost per 
 
 Size and Kind of Pipe in inches. per lin. ft. lin. ft. 
 
 12 inches diameter, cast-iron . .o 33/64 75 $2.44 
 
 12 inches diameter, concrete.. 2 88 0.16 
 
 18 inches diameter, cast-iron. .0 47/64 167 5-43 
 
 18 inches diameter, concrete. .3 220 0.36 
 
 24 inches diameter, cast-iron. .1 250 8.13 
 
 24 inches diameter, concrete.. 4^ 420 0.68 
 
 30 inches diameter, cast-iron. .1 1/16 334 10.86 
 
 30 inches diameter, concrete. .4>4 602 0.88 
 
 36 inches diameter, cast-iron .. I >^ 450 14-63 
 
 36 inches diameter, concrete . .4^ 676 i.io 
 
 42 inches diameter, cast-iron .. i ^ 600 I9-50 
 
 42 inches diameter, concrete . .5^ 960 1.55 
 
 4iS.M*nches diameter, cast-iron.. I 7/16 725 23.56 
 
 48*lfi*ches diameter, concrete. .6 1131 1.83 
 
 CGST OF FACTORY FOR MANUFACTURE OF 
 .: CEMENT PIPE. 
 
 BuiWing $6,000 
 
 Giililhds 500 
 
 TV*?l!: system, with Chase cars 8'x4o", three decks to 
 
 ^cari 2,500 
 
 Lake City tile machine i)500 
 
 TivAj^ake City continuous mixers 500 
 
 6»6; Chicago pneumatic air compressor, with Keller 
 
 'jammer, pipe and hose 325 
 
 U*ri^versal Stone Crusher No. 2 . 500 
 
 Anchor block machine with pallets. 350 
 
 Lake City and Miracle molds • • • 300 
 
 Electric lights (dynamo, etc.) 235 
 
 Sand elevator 
 
 Screen 50 
 
 Belt conveyor for sand 100 
 
 Engine and boiler (30-horse power Erie) 600 
 
 Piping 200 
 
 Sundry equipment 200 
 
 $13,970 
 
 Note — For an exclusive pipe factory there could, of course, 
 be deducted from this the $350 for block machine and pallets. 
 
 220 
 
Partial List of Uses of Portland Cement 
 
 A. 
 
 Abattoirs 
 
 Abutments 
 
 Air Tanks 
 
 Amphitheatres 
 
 Anchorages 
 
 Aquariums 
 
 Aqueducts 
 
 Arches 
 
 Armor for Battleships 
 Art Figures 
 Ash Pits 
 
 Assay Furnace Lining 
 B. 
 
 Ballast Tanks in Warships 
 
 Balustrades 
 
 Band Stands 
 
 Barrels 
 
 Base Boards 
 
 Bath Tubs 
 
 Beams 
 
 Bedding Tile Ducts 
 Benches 
 
 Bicycle Race Tracks 
 Bicycle Paths 
 Bins 
 
 Blacksmith Forges 
 Boats 
 
 Boiler Covering 
 
 Boiling Tanks 
 
 Breakwaters 
 
 Bridges 
 
 Brine Tanks 
 
 Building Blocks 
 
 Burial Vaults 
 
 Butts for Telegraph Poles 
 
 Bumpers (car) 
 
 Bungalo 
 
 Burglar Proof Vaults 
 
 C. 
 
 Caissons 
 
 Canal Locks 
 
 Capitals 
 
 Cast Stone 
 
 Cement Brick 
 
 Cement Coal 
 
 Cementine Curtains 
 
 Cement Storage Bins 
 
 Chimneys 
 
 Chimney Caps 
 
 Churches 
 
 Cisterns 
 
 Clothes Posts 
 
 Coal Handling Plants 
 
 Coal Mines 
 
 • • • • • 
 
 Coal Pockets I 
 Coal Trestles '''i- 
 Coffin Boxes 
 Columns 
 
 Copmg ; • ; 
 
 Cornices I"" 
 
 Corner Stones 
 
 Crossings ...V. 
 
 Culverts 
 
 Curbing *;.., 
 D. 
 
 Dams 
 
 Dog Kennels 
 Domes 
 Drain Pipe 
 Driveways 
 
 Drip and Splash Boards for 
 
 Tanks 
 Dry Docks 
 Dwellings 
 
 E. 
 
 Election Booths 
 Electric Conduits 
 
 221 
 
F. 
 
 Factories 
 
 Fences 
 
 Fence Posts 
 
 Filter Plants 
 
 Finials 
 
 Fireplaces 
 
 Fireproofing 
 
 Floating a Sunken Ship 
 
 Floors, arched 
 
 Floors, plain 
 
 Floors, reinforced 
 
 Floors, suspended 
 
 Flour Mills 
 
 Flower Boxes 
 
 Footings 
 
 ^g^tlTications 
 
 FlWfi'dations 
 
 FowHtains 
 
 Fr'ei^t Platforms 
 
 Fj-pit* Closets 
 
 •::*• G. 
 
 Quizes 
 G^gpyles 
 .Purifiers 
 
 Gfttlb-ways 
 Gir^rs 
 G'fsdix Bins 
 Grain Elevators 
 Green Houses 
 Grout 
 Gutters 
 
 H. 
 
 Henneries 
 Hitching Posts 
 Hot Wells 
 Houses 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice Houses 
 Ice Boxes 
 
 Ink Well 
 Insulators 
 
 J. 
 
 Jetties 
 Joints 
 
 K. 
 
 Keystones 
 Kiln Linings 
 
 L. 
 
 Lighthouses 
 Lintels 
 
 O. 
 
 Observation Towers 
 Office Buildings 
 Ore Trestles 
 Ornamental Work 
 
 P. 
 
 Panels 
 Partitions 
 Pavilions 
 Pebble Dash 
 
 Petroleum Wells (cement 
 
 ing) 
 Piers 
 Pilasters 
 Piles 
 
 M. 
 
 Mangers 
 
 Masonry 
 
 Mile Posts 
 
 Mill-Race 
 
 Mine Supports 
 
 Moist-Closet 
 
 Monuments 
 
 Mortars 
 
 Mosaics 
 
 Mouldings 
 
 Mounting Blocks 
 
Pillars 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe Covering 
 
 Pits, Ash 
 
 Pits, Elevator 
 
 Pits, Waterproof 
 
 Plugs for Unused Ducts 
 
 Plumbobs 
 
 Pointing Masonry 
 
 Poles, Flag 
 
 Poles, Telegraph 
 
 Poles, Trolley 
 
 Porch Slocks 
 
 Porch Columns 
 
 Porticos 
 
 Posts 
 
 Power Houses 
 Prison Cells 
 Prisons 
 Puddling 
 
 R. 
 
 Railbeds 
 
 Railroad Ties 
 
 Railway Stations 
 
 Reinforced Concrete ( all 
 kinds) 
 
 Repairing Boilers 
 
 Repairing Cracked Steam 
 Head in Dinky Locomo- 
 tives 
 
 Repairing Leaky Auto Radi- 
 ators 
 
 Repairing Leaking Refriger- 
 ators 
 
 Repairing Masonry 
 Repairing Trees 
 Reservoirs 
 Retaining Walls 
 Rifle Pits 
 Rifle Targets 
 Round Houses 
 Roofs (reinforced) 
 Roofing Slabs 
 
 Roofing Tile 
 
 S. 
 
 Safes 
 
 Salt Mines 
 Sand Bins 
 Schools 
 
 Scouring, . in Place of S; 
 
 Soap » 
 Sea Walls 
 
 Sewage Disposal Plants 
 
 Sewers 
 
 Sewer Pipe 
 
 Shelves 
 
 Shingles 
 
 Ships 
 
 Sidewalks 
 
 Signal Towers 
 
 Sills 
 
 Silos 
 
 Slaughter Houses 
 
 Sockets Between Joints 
 
 Spandrels 
 
 Stables 
 
 Stacks 
 
 Stack Linings 
 
 Stadium 
 
 Stairways 
 
 Stations (R. R., etc.) 
 Statuary 
 Stepping Blocks 
 Steps 
 
 Stock Yards 
 Stoves (concrete) 
 Street Paving 
 Stringers 
 
 Stringers for Steel Rails 
 
 Stucco 
 
 Subways 
 
 Surfacing Roads 
 
 Sun Dials 
 
 Survey Stakes 
 
 Swimming Pools 
 
 Switch Boards 
 
T. 
 
 Table Tops 
 Tanks 
 Tanks, Air 
 Tanks, Boiling 
 Tanks,' Brine 
 Tanks, Gas 
 Tanks, Oil 
 Tanks, Water 
 Tannery Vats 
 Tennis Courts 
 Timbering Mines 
 Tombs 
 Towers 
 
 Toy Building Blocks 
 
 Transfer-Pits 
 
 Trestles 
 
 Tunnels 
 
 Turntables 
 
 Tree Cavities 
 
 U. 
 
 Urns 
 
 Vats 
 Viaducts 
 Vine Props 
 
 W. 
 
 Wall Plaster 
 Warehouses 
 Warship Lining 
 Wash Tubs 
 Waterproof Pits 
 Water Towers 
 Water Troughs 
 Wharves 
 Window Sills 
 
 ■^/72 3 7 
 
 224